International Journal of Noni Research - Noni Family

International 

Journal of 

Noni Research 

Volume 2 Numbers 1-2 January - July 2007 

Editor-In-Chief 

Dr. Kirti Singh 

Technical Editor 

P. Rethinam 

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CONTENTS 

1 

35 

42 

59 

72 

Volume 2 Numbers 1-2 January - July 2007 

Noni (Morinda citrifolia L) the Miracle Fruit - 

A Holistic Review 

P. Rethinam and K. Sivaraman 

Micropropagation of Morinda citrifolia L. 

J. Subramani, S. Antony Selvaraj, D. Vijay and M. Sakthivel 

Morinda citrifolia L. – An evergreen plant 

for diversification in commercial horticulture 

D.R. Singh, R.C. Srivastava , Subhash Chand and Abhay Kumar 

Chemical and biological properties of Morinda spp. 

N. Mathivanan and G. Surendiran 

Peptide and Mineral profile of 

Morinda citrifolia L. fruits and leaves 

D.R.Singh, Jai Sunder and R.C.Srivastava 

Guidelines to Contributors

P. Rethinam 

K. Sivaraman 

Authors’ affiliation : 

P. Rethinam 

Former Executive Director 

Asian and Pacific Coconut 

Community (Jakarta) 

Coimbatore - 641 007. 

K. Sivaraman 

Principal Scientist Agronomy 

SugarCane Breeding Institute 


Correspondence to : 

P. Rethinam 

Former Executive Director 

Asian and Pacific Coconut 

Community (Jakarta) 

18, Lakshmi Nagar, 

S.N. Palayam, 


palms002@yahoo.com 

palms02@hotmail.com 

Noni (Morinda citrifolia L.) - 

the Miracle Fruit - A Holistic Review 

Keywords : Morinda citrifolia, L. - distribution-Taxonomy-Genetic diversitynutraceuticals-medicinal 

uses-propagation -physical chemical and biological 

properties. 

Abstract : Noni, botanically known as Morinda citrfolia L, an under 

utilised, miracle plant with more than 150 nutraceuticals were found 

growing naturally in all types of lands right from sea coast to interior with 

out proper care and management are now being cultivated as crop by the 

farmers of India. While the cultivation is gaining popular ,it is necessary 

to know the research and development work carried out in India and else 

where ,and so an attempt is being made to review the available literature 

and presented here. 

Introduction 

Morinda citrifolia, L. popularly known as Indian Noni or Indian mulberry 

is an ever green small tree bearing flowers and fruits throughout the year. 

It belongs to family Rubiaceae. It is grown in tropical regions of the world. 

Morton (1999) reported that the fruits of this tree have a history of use in 

the pharmacopoeias of Pacific Islands and South East Asia. It is nature's 

abundance bundled in one fruit. It is the biggest pharmaceutical unit in the 

universe because it has more than 150 nutraceuticals, several vitamins, 

minerals, micro and macro nutrients that help the body in various ways from 

cellular level to organ level. Noni is one of the important traditional folk 

medicinal plants that has been used for over 2000 years in Polynesia. It has 

been reported to have a broad range of therapeutic and nutritional value. 

The ancestors of Polynesians are believed to have brought many plants with 

them, as they migrated from Southeast Asia about 2000 years ago (Tabrah 

and Eveleth, 1966; Gerlach, 1996). Of the 12 most common plants they 

brought, Noni was the second most popular plant used in herbal remedies 

to treat various common diseases and to maintain overall good health 

(Krauss, 1993; Gerlach, 1996). 

Tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India, Polynesians and Tahitians 

in Pacific have used the ripe and unripe fruit as food and medicine. All the 

Intl. J. Noni Res. 2007, 2(1-2) 4

5 Intl. J. Noni Res. 2007, 2(1-2) 

P. Rethinam et al. Noni (Morinda citrifolia L.) - the Miracle Fruit - a holistic review 

plant parts are used in the treatment of various diseases and disorders. The 

fruit is important because of its wide range of therapeutic potentials such as 

anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-tumor, anti-helminthes, analgesic, hypertensive, 

anti-inflammatory and immune enhancing effects. Use of Noni fruit juice from 

unripe or ripe fruit 

is a more recent innovation and is recently accepted in the European Union 

as a novel food. The roots are being used to synthesize red dye while the 

leaves, bark, and fruits are used to produce facial creams, soaps, toothpaste, 

lotions, tea powder and various other products. Abbott (1992) reported that 

Noni has been used as drink, food, medicine and dye. In the past decade 

the global popularity of Noni has increased dramatically (Dixon et. al.,1999 

and Clatchey, 2002). There are many Noni based products like health 

products, home care products, ,food products, health support products, fruit 

drinks, cosmetics like body care, oral line, face line, hand line, feet line etc., 

(Vigneshwari and Peter, 2007). 

Common Names In India 

Tamil - Nuna, Manjanathi, Manjanuna, Telugu-Bandamaddi, Maddicettu, Mogali, 

Molugu ,Malayalam-Kakai palam, Kattapitalavam,Mannanatti, Kanada- 

Haladipavete, Tagatemara, Hindi- Ach, Awl, Sanskrit-Ach, Paphanah, Achchhuka, 

Marathi- Aseti, Nagkura, Mundari, Salidaru. 

Local names for Morinda citrifolia L 

It is known in different names locally as Cheese Fruit, Forbidden Fruit, 

Headache Tree, Hog Apple, Mona, Mora de la India, Nino, Nona, Nono, 

Nonu, Nuna, Pain Bush, Pain Killer Tree, Pinuela, Wild Pine, etc. in various 

parts of the world. It is also called as Indian Mulberry (Mathivanan et. al., 

2005). 

Distribution of Morinda 

The species is generally found from sea level to 400 m above MSL, although 

it adapts better to coastal regions (Lu¨ berck and Hannes, 2001). Noni is an 

evergreen tree and is often found growing along lava flows. Bulk of the crop 

is wild and adapts to hardy environment and soil conditions. It can be found 

naturally in disturbed forests, alien grass lands, open areas near the shore 

lines, pastures, coconut plantations, littoral forests, fallow areas and in waste 

lands (Cambie and Ash, 1994). The genus Morinda is distributed worldwide 

with 80 species reported so far, predominantly in tropical countries. It occurs 

in Africa, Australia, Barbados, Cambodia, Caribbean, Cayman Islands, Cuba,


Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Fiji, Florida, French West Indies, Guadeloupe, 

Guam, Haiti, Hawaii, India, Jamaica, Java, Laos, Malaysia, Marquesas Islands, 

Philippines, Polynesia, Puerto Rico, Raratonga, Samoa, Seychelles, Solomon 

Islands, Southeast Asia, St. Croix, Surinam, Tahiti, Thailand, Tonga, Trinidad 

and Tobago and Vietnam. 

In India it is widely grown under natural conditions in Andaman and Nicobar 

Islands. It is seen throughout the coastal region along fences and road sides 

due to its wider adaptability to hardy environment. In the main land of India 

it is found along the coastal areas of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and many 

other places. Survey of Morinda in south India indicated that 12 different 

species or varieties of Morinda are distributed throughout Tamil Nadu and 

Kerala. However, the species M. tinctoria is present abundantly in most parts 

of Tamil Nadu and in some parts of Kerala. M. citrifolia L. is not recorded 

in the study area of Tamil Nadu whereas it is profusely distributed in most 

parts of the Kerala especially coastal region and also in the Mangalore area 

of Karnataka. Recently an unidentified Morinda species with large and leathery 

leaves was reported in the Dhandakaranya forest area of Malkanagiri district 

in Orissa (Singh et. al., 2007). 

Plant Description 

Morinda citrifolia is a bush or small tree, 3-10 m tall, with abundant wide 

elliptical leaves (5-17 cm length, 10-40 cm width). The small tubular white 

flowers are grouped together and inserted on the peduncle. The petioles 

leave ring-like marks on the stalks and the corolla is greenish white (Morton, 

1992; Elkins, 1998; Dixon et. al., 1999; Ross, 2001; Cardon, 2003). The 

Noni fruit (3-10 cm length, 3-6 cm width) is oval and fleshy with an 

embossed appearance. It is slightly wrinkly, semi-translucent, and ranges in 

colour from green to yellow, to almost white at the time of picking. It is 

covered with small reddish-brown buds containing the seeds. The ripe fruit 

exhales a strong butyric acid-like rancid smell (Morton, 1992; Dixon et. al., 

1999). The pulp is juicy and bitter, light dull yellow or whitish, gelatinous 

when the fruit is ripe; numerous hard triangular reddish-brown pits are 

found, each containing four seeds (3-5 mm) (Dittmar, 1993). The fruit can 

grow in size up to 12 cm or more and has a lumpy surface covered by 

polygonal-shaped section. The seeds, which are triangular shaped and reddish 

brown, have an air sac attached at one end, which makes the seeds buoyant. 

The mature Noni fruit has a foul taste and odour. Noni is identifiable by its 

straight trunk, large, bright green and elliptical leaves, white tubular flowers 

and its distinctive, ovoid, "grenade-like" yellow fruit. 




Taxonomy of Morinda 

Mathivanan et. al., 2005 in their review article made a detailed taxonomy of 

Morinda. Morinda Citrifolia L. belonging to the family of Rubiaceae has a 

derivation of the name Morinda: from Latin Morus, Mulberry and indicus, 

Indian referring to the similarity of the fruit to the Mulberry, Morus indica. 

The genus Morinda consists more than 80 species, (Johanssen, 1994, 

McClatchy, 2002). 

Vernacular Names of Morinda citrifolia 

Vernacular Names Country References Year 

Morinda citrifolia - Linnaeus 1762 

Awl tree India Simmonds 1854 

Indian Mulberry India Drury 1873 

Togari wood India Watt 1908 

Ach India Benthall 1946 

Mona, monii Tahiti Smith 1882 

Nuna Southern India Safford 1905 

Head ache tree St.Croix Millspaugh 1902 

Nonu Samoa Safford 1905 

Noni Hawaii Degener 1945 

Nino Philippines Safford 1905 

Morinda Australia Webb 1948 

Source: Singh (2007) 

Genetic Diversity of Morinda citrifolia L. 

Important species 

Morinda citrifolia Morinda tomentosa 

Morinda tinctoria Morinda trimera 

Morinda elliptica Morinda lucida 

Morinda billarderel Morinda bucidifolia 

Morinda cendollbei Morinda neocaledonica 

Morinda deplanchei Morinda multiflora 

Morinda angustifolia Morinda officinalis 

Morinda phyllireoides Morinda truncata


Morinda glaucescens Morinda reticulata 

Morinda rigida Morinda decipiens 

Morinda montana Morinda kanalensis 

Morinda myrtifolia Morinda glomerata 

Morinda grayi Morinda collina 

Morinda umbellata Morinda tenuifolia 

General description of the genus Morinda 

Plant : Woody vines, lianas, shrubs, medium-sized trees or tall canopy trees; 

raphides present; auxiliary thorns absent. Morinda citrifolia is a small 

evergreen shrub or tree, usually less than 10 feet height and occasionally 

rising to 20 feet (Nelson, 2002). 

Stipules : Interpetiolar, free at base or interpetiolar, connate at base or 

sheathing (not splitting on one side), oblong or ligulate, spatulate or bifid, 

sheathing at base, with two small (non-foliose) lobes each side, persistent. 

Leaves : Opposite or whorled, rarely ternate, 3 per node, long or shortpetiolate; 

blades ovate, broadly elliptic, oblong or oblanceolate, chartaceous 

or stiffly chartaceous; foliar pellucid glands absent; domatia sparse or dense 

tufts of hairs or absent. 

Inflorescence : Axillary or terminal, simple panicle or umbellate heads, not 

frondose, globose, not subtended by bracts. 

Flowers : Bisexual, protandrous. The flower heads grow to become mature 

fruit, 3 to 4 inches in diameter . The surface is divided into somewhat warty 

polygonal pitted cells (Camble and Ash, 1994). 

Calyx: Tubular, urceolate or hemispheric, extremely reduced, with small lobes 

or short tubular, caducous; lobes absent (calyx truncate or undulate) or 4 

to 7, broadly triangular, minute. Calycophylls absent. 

Corolla : Tube, more or less funnel shaped, hypocrateriform or narrowly 

infundibuliform, actinomorphic, white to cream-white; tube externally glabrous, 

internally glabrous or pubescent; without a pubescent ring inside; orifice 

annular thickening absent; lobes 4 to 7, valvate in bud, lanceolate or oblong, 

margin entire, obtuse or acute at apex. 

Stamens : Alternate to the corolla lobes, included, partially exerted (only tips 

exerted) or exerted just beyond the corolla; anthers narrowly oblong or 

elongate, round at base, with acuminate extensions at apex, dehiscing by 

longitudinal slits, dorsifixed near the middle; filaments attached at the middle 

of the corolla tube, free at base, slender, long, shorter than corolla tube, 

equal, glabrous. 




Style : Exerted just beyond the corolla, terete throughout, not fleshy, capitate, 

glabrous; lobes absent or 2, ovate, oblong or linear, stigmatic surface located 

at style apex. Exert. 

Ovary : Inferior, 2- or 4- locular, narrowly obovoid; placenta reduced, ovules 

basally inserted, 1 per locule. 

Fruit : Densely clustered globose syncarp, fleshy. The Noni fruit is initially 

green in colour, turns yellow and the ripened fruit has unpleasant, insipid, 

foul or fetid odour (Francis, 2003). 

Seeds : Vertical, medium-sized, ovoid to obovoid or reniform; wings absent. 

Planting Material Production 

Noni is relatively easy to propagate from seeds, stem, or rooted cuttings and 

air layering . The preferred methods of propagation are by seeds and cuttings 

made from stem verticles (Nelson, 2001). Micro propagation using tissue 

culture is the other possibility of multiplication of planting material. 

Seeds : Seeds are extracted from the fruits and sowing can be done 

immediately after extraction. Hot and wet conditions are required for maximum 

germination. Under green house condition or raising seedling in the 

warmest part of land provide better environment for better seed germination 

(Singh et. al ., 2007). Seeds after drying in shade for 3 or 4 days can be 

stored in air-tight containers at room temperature. However, the storage 

studies are yet to be taken up (Singh et. al., 2007).The treatment with hot 

water at 40 oC for a period of 24 hours and a treatment with sulphuric acid 

at 50 % concentration for 5 minutes was able to overcome the seed 

dormancy (Ponnaiyan and Vezhavendan, 2005). The highest germination of 

seeds were obtained where the seeds were nicked and then treated Gibberllic 

acid (GA) at 1000ppm for a period of 24 hours (Ponnaiyan and Vezhavendan, 

2005). Seeds treatment with hot water at 40 oC combined into sea weed, 

(Ascophyllum riodosum) Biozyme and the treatment with sulphuric acid 50% 

for 5 minute combined with Biozyme were able to break seek dormancy as 

well as better health and vigour to the germinated seedlings (Muthu and 

Mathan 2006). Seed germination studies of soaking seeds for 24 hours with 

Gibberlic Acid (GA) at 800 ppm increased the germination percentage to 

91.06% as against mere water treatment (51.4 %). The inter action of seed 

soaking and treatment by GA 800 ppm increased high percentage of seedlings 

and number of leaves (Singh and Rai (2005) and Singh et. al., 2007). Pre 

treatment of seeds with Na HClO3 (5% available chlorine for 30 minutes) 

increased the germination up to 84%. However, the growth parameters were 

good in KNO3 (150 ppm)(Sudha and Singh, 2007).


Vegetative Propagation : The importance of vegetative propagation is to get 

best planting materials with highest genetic quality (Nanda, 1970; Wright, 

1975; Hatman and Kester, 1983). Singh and Rai (2005) and Singh et. al., 

(2007) have suggested the use of growth regulators like Naphthalene Acetic 

Acid (NAA), Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) for quick and better rooting in 

vegetative propagation. Vertical and lateral stem cuttings with sap flow at the 

time of cutting with vigorous growing points are the best suited for vegetative 

propagation. Vezhavedan and Ponnaiyan (2005) compared different types of 

cutting viz., tip, semi hard, and hard wood cuttings with different number of 

nodes (2,3,and 4) and reported that hard wood cuttings with 4 nodes 

performed better and gives more success percentage and healthy planting 

materials. It is better to avoid the cuttings without sap flow for vegetative 

propagation. It is also better to avoid hallow stem cuttings since the percentage 

of recoverable seedlings are low and take 5 days more than non hallow 

cutting which took only 15 days and survival was 79.4% (Singh et. al., 2007). 

In an another study Sudha et. al., (2007) had found that both in hollow and 

non hollow cuttings, IBA 6000 ppm showed significantly higher rooting 

values than IBA 2000 ppm. Root initiation and percentage of sprouting were 

maximum in non-hollow cuttings compared to hollow cuttings. 

Root hormones may help to promote the vegetative growth of cutting. Soaking 

of the cuttings with 4000 ppm Indole Acetic Acid ((IAA) and Naphthalene 

Acetic Acid (NAA) separately and in combination promoted root and shoot 

growth and establishment besides increasing percentage of rooting, length 

and number of roots, length of longest primary root when cutting is dipped 

in 4000 ppm of Indole Butyric Acid (IBA)( Singh et. al., 2007). The 

sprouting of cuttings under closed poly house was earlier (15 days) and 

survival of cuttings was 83.3 % while in covered poly house it was 20 days 

with 60 % sprouting at 33.5 oC and 80 % RH. Under open conditions with 

optimum light intensity of 44382 lux and maximum temperature of 31.9 oC, 

minimum 27.03 oC and RH 77.1%. The growth of vegetative propagated 

plants under open grew faster and put up 4 branches in 32 days and 

reached reproductive stage (Singh et. al., 2007). 

Micropropagation / Tissue Culture 

The varying effect of cytokinin and auxin combinations were studied on 

Morinda Citrifolia for effective in-vitro induction of shoots from nodal explant 

and it clearly indicated that irrespective of basal media used (either MS or 

WP), it is the hormonal combinations which are very vital for the in-vitro 

response, BAP alone for shoot initiation, kinetin along with BAP for multiple 

shoot formation. Calli with roots produce shoot(s) in BAP with IBA 




medium.(Antony Selvaraj et .al., 2006). Further studies showed that the 

rooted plants have established well with 95-98.5% survival at green house 

conditions while hardening. Further better growth with zero per cent mortality 

was observed at nursery stage (Subramani et. al., 2006). Now micro 

propagated plants have gone for field test. Presently cell culture study is 

being carried out (Subramani et. al., 2007). 

Plant protection 

Noni growing in natural ecosystem did not have much pest problems, but 

became susceptible to a wide spectrum of insect pests, pathogens and 

nematodes when domesticated in a monoculture as experienced in Hawaii 

and other Pacific Island. Further, Noni is likely to become more and more 

susceptible when the cultivation is intensified to a larger extent. Literature 

revealed that Morinda citrifolia is infected by a wide range of fungal pathogens 

such as Phytopthora sp. and Sclerotium rolfisii (black flag and stem, leaf and 

fruit blights), Guignardia morindae, (leaf spot), Phellinus noxius (brown root 

rot) and Collectrotrichum sp. (anthraconose). A pathogenic alga, Cephaleuros 

minimus has been reported to cause leaf spot in Noni. Further, occurrence 

of mold infection caused by Rhizopus sp. in the post harvested fruits were 

recorded. Noni is susceptible to several species of root-knot nematodes, like 

Meloidogyne spp. and is also vulnerable to parasitic plants namely Cuscuta 

spp. and Cassytha filiformis. Noni is attacked by several insects, such as 

aphids (Aphis gossipii), scales (Coccus viridis), weevils, leaf miners, whiteflies 

(Dialuerdes kirkaldyi), caterpillars (Achaea janata), thrips (Heliothrips 

haemorroidalis) and unidentified eriophid mites. Excess use of nitrogenous 

fertilizers in Noni cultivation can induce susceptibitily to sap-feeding insects 

such as aphids, whiteflies and scales (Mathivanan, 2007). He also had 

suggested that systematic bio control studies should be initiated in the angle 

utilizing the knowledge on the use of natural enemies, microbial agents, and 

botanicals for control of various pests on Noni. How ever, there is scope for 

enhancing the impact potential of bio pesticides through improved formulations 

and application methods (Sithanantham, 2007). 

Marimuthu and Nakkeeran (2007) have suggested the use of plant growth 

promoting rhizobactera (PGPR) viz., Pseudomonos, Azospirillum, Rhizobium, 

Bacillus and Serratia spp. in the management of pests and diseases of noni. 

Nutrient deficiencies and disorders 

Noni is reported to display abnormal foliar symptoms for nitrogen, iron, and 

phosphorous deficiencies. Inter veinal chlorosis, scorching of leaf margins,


leaf curling, purpling and marginal necrosis are some of the distinct deficiency 

symptoms. 

Harvest and Post Harvest Processing 

Harvesting Stage 

Depending on the post-harvest technology programme adopted, the fruits may 

be harvested at different stages of development. After harvesting Noni ,the 

fruit ripens within a week at ambient temperature and also because of its 

short storage life the fruits cannot be transported to the distant places even 

with in the country. To over come the problem harvesting fruits with pedicel 

helped to maintain better quality and market acceptability and highest spoilage 

of fruits was observed in fruits harvested without pedicel (Fruits with pedicel 

performed well in terms of keeping quality, ascorbic acid and TSS. Among the 

accessions, SPG-2 recorded minimum loss of weight (2.90%) followed by 

Pbay-7 (3.74 %) in 9 days during storage (Singh et al.2007). The evolution 

of the colour and firmness of fruits left to ripen naturally on the tree is 

reported in Table 1. Nonetheless, most processors buy Noni harvested at the 

''hard white'' stage for juice production, as the fruits become soft too quickly 

once this stage P. Rethinam et al. Noni (Morinda citrifolia L.) - the Miracle Fruit 

- a holistic review 8 Intl. J. Noni Res. 2007, 2(1-2) is reached (Nelson, 2001, 

2003). The change from stage 4 to stage 5 occurs very quickly (few hours) and 

the pulp practically liquefies and turns from green to white, as well as develops 

the characteristic butyric smell. The fruits are individually selected on the tree and 

harvested by hand. At the ''hard white'' stage, they are well able to withstand being 

transported in baskets or containers, and exposure of the fruits to light or high 

temperatures immediately after harvest does not affect their overall quality. Before 

processing, fruits are ripened at room temperature for a day or more, depending 

on the end product (tea, juice, pulp, dietetic products, etc. (Nelson, 2003). 

Table 1. Evolution of fruit skin colour and firmness in the course 

of ripening. 

Maturity stage Colour Firmness 

1. Dark green Very hard 

2. Green-yellow Very hard 

3. Pale yellow Very hard 

4. Pale yellow Fairly hard 

5. Translucent-grayish Soft 



Table 2. Noni Fruit physical character and recovery 

Yield 


Fruit weight 147.9 g 

Length of fruit 9.8 cm 

Girth of fruit 5.26 cm 

Specific Gravity 1.13g ( wt./ vol. ) 

Recovery of juice 38.95 - 48.50% ( range ) 

Pulp Percentage 44.76 - 46.72 

Seed Percentage 3.24 - 4.31 

Morinda citrifolia is a perennial bush and it is possible to find fruits at 

different stages of maturity on the same plant at the same time. Under 

favorable conditions, the plant bears fruit about nine months to one year 

after planting. At this stage, the fruits can be harvested, but they are generally 

small and the yield per tree is low. Some producers choose not to harvest 

in the first year, and they prune in order to let the bush grow stronger. In 

Hawaii, Noni fruits are harvested throughout the year, although there are 

seasonal patterns in flowering and fruit bearing (meteorological factors, 

fumigation, and irrigation) (Nelson, 2001, 2003). In India the plants are 

allowed to grow for two years without any side growth by periodical pruning 

so as to make the plant sturdy. It is reported that noni plant is capable of 

giving yield up to 250-300 kg under better cultivation conditions. after 7-8 

years of planting. However in the initial stages yield may range from 30-40 

kg per plant and the well grown tree will produce an average of 90 - 100 

kg per tree. It is also reported that the productivity of the trees will be up 

to 40-50 years and the harvest can be done more than 6 - 7 times in a year. 

In Hawaii, noni plots are usually harvested two or three times per month, 

although fruit production is lower during winter. With a density of 638 plants 

per hectare with good soil fertility, drainage, and irrigation and appropriate 

pest, disease and weed control, along with an appropriate fertilization plan, 

it is possible to obtain yields of between 7 tonnes/ha/year in the second year 

after planting to approximately 70 tonnes/ha/year after the fifth year (Nelson, 

2001, 2003). With a juice extraction rate of approximately 50% (w/w), one 

hectare can thus yield around 35 tons of juice. However, many factors may affect 

these yields, and most producers do not obtain such good results because of 

diseases or poor agricultural practices (grown wild plants). In Hawaii, an average 

annual yield of 50 tonnes/ha is generally attained (Nelson, 2001, 2003).


The cost of cultivation per acre under Andaman conditions has been worked 

out to Rs. 42,425 per ha (Singh et al, 2007). It was observed that five years 

plantations in Bay Islands gave a gross income of Rs.468,750 /- with a net 

income of Rs. 200,731/- (Subhash Chand and Singh, 2007). 

Chemical Composition of Noni 

About 160 phytochemical compounds have been already identified in the 

noni plant, and the major micronutrients are phenolic compounds, organic 

acids and alkaloids (Wang and Su, 2001). Of the phenolic compounds, the 

most important reported are anthraquinones (damnacanthal, morindone, 

morindin, etc.), and also aucubin, asperuloside, and scopoletin (Wang and 

Su, 2001). The main organic acids are caproic and caprylic acids (Dittmar, 

1993), while the principal reported alkaloid is xeronine (Heinicke, 1985). 

However, chemical composition differs largely according to the part of the 

plant. The complete physico-chemical composition of the fruit has not yet 

been reported and only partial information is available on noni juice (Table 

2). The fruit contains 90% of water and the main components of the dry 

matter appear to be soluble solids, dietary fibers and proteins Table 2. The 

fruit protein content is surprisingly high, representing 11.3% of the juice dry 

matter, and the main amino acids are aspartic acid, glutamic acid and 

isoleucine. Minerals account for 8.4% of the dry matter, and are mainly 

potassium, sulfur, calcium and phosphorus; traces of selenium have been 

reported in the juice (Chunhieng, 2003). 

Vitamins have been reported in the fruit, mainly ascorbic acid (24-158 mg/ 

100 g dry matter) (Morton, 1992; Shovic and Whistler, 2001), and provitamin 

A (Dixon et al., 1999). Phenolic compounds have been found to be the 

major group of functional micronutrients in noni juice: damnacanthal, 

scopoletin, morindone, alizarin, aucubin, nordamnacanthal, rubiadin, rubiadin- 

1-methyl ether and other anthraquinone glycosides have been identified in 

Noni (Morton, 1992; Dittmar, 1993; Dixon et al., 1999; Wang and Su, 2001). 

Damnacanthal is an anthraquinone that has been characterized recently and 

has some important functional properties (mainly anti-carcinogenic) 

(Solomon, 1999). Scopoletin is a coumarin that was isolated in 1993 at the 

University of Hawaii and has been found to have analgesic properties as well 

as a significant ability to control serotonin levels in the body (Levand and 

Larson, 1979). Other researchers have shown that scopoletin may also have 

anti-microbial (Duncan et al., 1998) and anti-hypertensive effects (Solomon, 

1999). Different Hawaiian teams (Heinicke, 1985; Solomon, 1999) reported 

the presence of a novel component, proxeronine, in the noni, it would be 

the precursor of xeronine, an alkaloid that is claimed to combine with 




human proteins, improving their functionality. These authors attribute most of 

all the beneficial effects of noni to xeronine. Nonetheless, neither the chemical 

characterization of this alkaloid has been published nor the method used to 

assess its content. About 51 volatile compounds have been identified in the 

ripe fruit (Sang et al., 2001), including organic acids (mainly octanoic and 

hexanoic acids), alcohols (3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol), esters (methyl octanoate, 

methyl decanoate), ketones (2-heptanone), and lactones [(E)-6-dodecenoglactone] 

(Farine et al., 1996). 

Table 3. Physico-chemical composition of Noni Juice 

Chunhieng Shovic and European 

Characteristics (2003)a Whisler (2001)a Commission 

(2002)b 

pH value 3.72 - 3.4-3.6 

Dry matter 

Total soluble 

9.8±0.4% - 10-11% 

solids (Brix) 8 - - 

Protein content 2.5% 0.4 g/100g 0.2-0.5% 

Lipid0.15% 0.30g/100g 0.1-0.2% 

Glucose 11.9±0.2g/l - 3.0-4.0% 

Fructose 8.2±0.2g/l - 3.0-4.0% 

Potassium 3900 mg/l 188 mg/100g 30-150 mg/100g 

Sodium 214 mg/l 21 mg/100g 15-40 mg/100g 

Magnesium 14 mg/l 14.5 mg/100g 3-12 mg/100g 

Calcium 28 mg/l 41.7 mg/100g 20-25 mg/100g 

Vitamin C - 155 mg/100g 3-25 mg/100g 

a-Noni Fruit b-Tahitian Noni TM Juice (Commercial noni juice that contain 

89% noni juice and 11% common grape and blue berry juice concentrates). 

The location of the chemical compounds identified by the different 

authors are given in the Table 4. 

Table 4. Location of chemical compounds in the plant 

Location Chemical constituents Reference 

Flower 2-methyl-4-hydroxy-5,7- Sang et al.(2002) 

dimethoxyanthraquinone 

4-O-ß-D-glucopyranosyl


(1 4)-a-L-rhamnopyranoside 

Flower 5,8-dimethyl-apigenin Sang et al. (2002), 

4'0-O-ß-D-galactopyranoside Elkins (1998) 

Flower Aracetin 7-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside 

Fruit ß-D-glucopyranose pentaacetate Sang et al. (2002), 

Elkins (1998) 

Fruit 2,6-di-O-(ß-D- Dittmar (1993) 

glucopyranosyl-1-O-octanoylß-D-glucopyranose 

Fruit 6-O-(ß-D-glucopyranosyl-1-O- Wang et al. (1999) 

octanoyl-ß-D-glucopyranose 

Fruit Ascorbic acid Liu et al. (2001) 

Fruit Asperulosidic acid Morton (1992), 

Elkins (1998), 

Wang et al. (2002), 

McClatchey, 2002), 

Fruit Asperuloside tetraacetate Wang et al. (1999), 

Liu etal. (2001), 

Cardon, (2003) 

Fruit Caproic acid Dittmar, (1993) 

Fruit Caprylic acid Sang et al. (2002), 

Dittmar, (1993), 



Levand and Larson, 

(1979), 

Fruit Ethyl caprylate Cardon, (2003), 



Levand and Larson, 

(1979), 

Fruit Ethyl caproate Dittmar (1993) 

Fruit Hexanoic acid Dittmar (1993) 

Fruit cQuercetin 

3-O-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl- 

(1-6)-ß-D-glucopyranoside Farine et al (1996), 




Sang et al. (2002), 

Cardon, (2003), 

Wang and Su (2001). 

Heartwood Physcion 8-O-a-L-arabinopyranosyl- Wang and Su (2001) 

(1-3)-ß-Dgalactopyranosyl-(1-6)- Wang et al. (2002). 

ß -D-galactopyranoside 

Leaves Alanine Sang et al. (2002), 

Srivatava and Singh 

(1993), 

Cardon, (2003). 

Leaves Quercetin 3-O-a-L- Sang et al. (2002). 

rhamnopyranosyl-(1-6)-ß- 

D-glucopyranoside 

Leaves Serine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Threonine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Tryptophan Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Tyrosine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Ursolic acid Sang et al. (2002), 

Cardon, (2003), 

Wang et al. (1999). 

Leaves Valine Dittmar (1993), 



Plant 2-methyl-3,5,6- Cardon, (2003), 

trihydroxyanthraquinone Inoue et al. (1981). 

Plant b2-methyl-3,5,6- Cardon, (2003), 

trihydroxyanthraquinone Inoue et al. (1981). 

6-O-ß-D-xylopyranosyl-(1-6)ß-D-glucopyranoside 

Plant 3-hydroxymorindone Cardon, (2003), 

Inoue et al. (1981). 

Plant b3-hydroxymorindone Cardon, (2003), 

6-O-ß-D-xylopyranosyl- Inoue et al. (1981).


(1-6)-ß-Dglucopyranoside 

Plant b5,6-dihydorxylucidin Cardon, (2003), 

3-O-ß-D-xylopyranosyl-(1-6)- Inoue et al. (1981). 

ß-Dglucopyranoside 

Plant 5,6-dihydroxylucidin Wang et al. (2002) 

Plant Aucubin Elkins (1998), 

Wang et al. (2002) 

Plant Linoleic acid Wang et al. (2002) 

Plant Lucidin Cardon (2003), 

Inoue et al.(1981), 

Ross (2001) 

Plant bLucidin 3-O-ß-Dxylopyranosyl- Cardon (2003), 

(1-6)-ß-Dglucopyranoside Inoue et al.(1981), 

Plant Scopoletin Farine et al. (1996), 


Location Chemical constituents Reference 

Leaves Arginine Dittmar (1993) 

Leaves Aspartic acid Dittmar (1993) 

Leaves ß-sitosterol Sang et al. (2002), 

Chunhieng (2003), 



Leaves Citrifolinoside B Sang et al. (2002) 

Leaves Cysteine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Cystine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Glutamic acid Dittmar (1993) 

Leaves Glycine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Histidine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Isoleucine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 




Leaves cKaempferol 3-O-a Sang et al. (2002) 

L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-6)ß-D 

glucopyranoside 

Leaves Kaempferol Sang et al. (2002) 

3-O-ß-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-2)a-Lrhamnopyranosyl-(1-6)ß-D-galactopyranoside 

Leaves Leucine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Methionine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Phenylalanine Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Proline Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Leaves Quercetin 3-O-ß- Sang et al. (2002) 

D-glucopyranoside 

Root, Morindone Sang et al. (2002), 

heartwood, Inoue et al. (1981), 

root bark Dittmar (1993), 

Ross (2001), 

Cardon (2003), 

Wang etal. (2002) 

Root, Damnacanthal Sang et al. (2002), 

heartwood,seeds Cardon (2003) 

Leaves Quercetin Sang et al. (2002) 

3-O-ß-D-glucopyranosyl- 

(1-2)-a-Lrhamnopyranosyl- 

(1-6)-ß-D-galactopyranoside 

Root 8-hydroxy-8-methoxy-2- Cardon (2003), 

methyl-anthraquinone Solomon (1999) 

Root rubichloric acid Elkins (1998), 

Morton (1992) 

Root 1,3-dihydroxy-6- Morton (1992) 

methylAnthraquinone 

Root Morenone 1 Solomon (1999)


Root Morenone 2 Solomon (1999) 

Root bRuberythric acid Cardon (2003) 

Root Rubiadin Cardon (2003), 


Inoue et al. (1981), 

Ross (2001) 

Root bark Chlororubin Dittmar (1993), 

Elkins (1998) 

Root bark Hexose Dittmar (1993) 

Root bark Morindadiol Dittmar (1993) 

Root bark Morindanidrine Dittmar (1993) 

Root bark Morindine Cardon (2003), 

Dittmar (1993), 


Morton (1992) 

Root bark Pentose Dittmar (1993) 

Root bark Physcion Solomon (1999) 

Root bark Rubiadin monomethyl ether Dittmar (1993) 

Root bark Soranjidiol Dittmar (1993), 


Ross (2001) 

Root bark Trioxymethylanthra Dittmar (1993) 

quinonemonoethyl ether 

Root, Alizarin Cardon (2003), 

rootbark,fruit Dittmar (1993), 


Ross (2001), 

Wanget al. (2002) 

Seeds Ricinoleic acid Solomon (1999) 

Source: Blanco et. al., (2006) 

General Use of Morinda 

The roots, stems, bark, leaves, flowers, and fruits of the Noni, Morinda 

Citrifolia, L. are all involved in various combinations in almost 40 known and 

recorded herbal remedies (Bruggnecate, 1992). Additionally, the roots were 




used to produce a yellow or red dye for tapa (cloths) and fala (mats). While 

noni fruit is most famous for its role in Polynesian, Melanesian, and Southeast 

Asian material medica, there are also numerous ethnobotanical reports of its 

use as food (Rock, 1913; Wilder, 1934; Brown, 1935; Yuncker, 1943; 

Turbott, 1949; Stone, 1970; Degener, 1973; Uhe, 1974; Seemann, 1977; 

Whistler, 1992; Krauss, 1993; Terra, 1996). Some reports have indicated its 

use was limited to times of famine (Krauss, 1993). This, however, is not 

correct. The fruit was reported to have been eaten often by Rarotongans, was 

a favorite ingredient in curries prepared by Burmese, and the Australian 

Aborigines were known to be very fond of the fruit. Captain James Cook of 

the British Navy noted in the late 1700's that the fruit was eaten in Tahiti. In 

1769, Sydney Parkinson, one of Captain James Cook's crew on the Endeavour, 

recorded that Tahitians ate noni fruit. This was likely the 1st written description 

of its use as a food. More than 2 centuries later, in 1943, the U.S. 

government recognized the fruit as edible (Merrill, 1943). There has thus 

been ample human experience with eating noni fruit to validate its safety for 

human consumption), while the fruit was eaten for health and food (Aragones 

et al., 1997). 

Traditional Food Use 

Morinda citrifolia fruit has long history of use as a food in tropical regions 

throughout the world. Documentation of the consumption of the fruit as a 

food source precedes the twentieth century. An 1866 publication in London 

explained that M. citrifolia fruit was consumed as a food in the Fiji islands. 

Later publications described the use of this fruit throughout the Pacific 

Islands, Southeast Asia, Australia and India. In Samoa, Noni fruit was common 

fare and in Burma it was cooked in curries or eaten raw with salt. In 1943, 

Merrill described M. Citrifolia, L. as an edible plant in a technical manual of 

edible and poisonous plants of the Pacific Islands, in which the leaves and 

fruits were used as emergency food. In 1992, Abbott reported that Noni had 

been used as food, drink, medicine and dye. The tribes i.e., Nicobarese are 

known to have consumed this fruit raw with salt as well as cooked as 

vegetable (Singh et. al., 2005). 

Medicinal use of Morinda 

The Polynesians utilized the whole Noni plant for herbal remedies. The fruit 

juice is in high demand in alternative medicine for different kinds of illnesses 

such as arthritis, diabetes, high blood pressure, muscle aches and pains, 

menstrual difficulties, headaches, heart disease, AIDS, cancers, gastric ulcer, 

sprains, mental depression, senility, poor digestion, arteriosclerosis, blood


vessel problems, and drug addiction. Scientific evidence of the benefits of the 

Noni fruit juice is limited but there is some anecdotal evidence for successful 

treatment of colds and influenza (Solomon, 1999). Allen and London (1873) 

published one of the earliest articles on the medicinal benefits of Noni in which 

they reported the ethnobotanical properties of Noni and the use of fruit. Abbott 

(1985), a former botanical chemist at the University of Hawaii, stated the use of 

Noni for diabetes, high blood pressure, cancer, and many other illnesses (Abbott, 

1985; Dixon et al., 1999). Noni was a traditional remedy used to treat broken 

bones, deep cuts, bruises, sores and wounds (Bushnell et al., 1950). Morton 

(1992) gave numerous references for medicinal uses of Noni. In addition, 

Polynesians are reported to treat breast cancer and eye problems. 

The species of Morinda especially M. citrifolia has been reported to have a 

broad range of health benefits for cancer, infection, arthritis, asthma, 

hypertension, and pain (Whistler, 1992). The leaves, seeds, bark , fruits and 

roots of Noni have been used in various topical remedies in South Pacific 

Islands and South East Asia (Wang et. al., 2002, Fygh-Berman, 2003). 

It is reported to have antibacterial, anti fungal, analgesic, hypotensive, antiinflammatory 

and immune enhancing effects (Mc Clatchy, 2002; Wang et.al., 

2002; Mathivanan et .al., 2005). Murugesh (2007) reported that Noni has 

a broad range of therapeutic effects such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, 

antihypertensive, immune enhancing, anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral, 

antifungal, antituberculous, antiprotozoal, antioxidant, antistress and also 

sedative properties, Also Noni is effective in cough, nausea, colic, enlarged 

spleen, joint disorders such as gout and arthritis, senility, poor digestion, 

arthrosclerosis and drug addiction. These beneficial effects of Noni are 

strongly documented and well authenticated by valid scientific literature 

evidences. Also Noni has a strong cancer preventive effect. The various 

therapeutic benefits of Noni are due to the enriched phytoconstituents. The 

high therapeutic profile and safety potential of Noni has made it a popular 

health enhancer and food supplement world wide. 

Phyto chemical Properties of Morinda 

A plethora of phyto chemical constituents have been identified and reported 

different scientific Groups in the leaves, bark, stem, flowers and fruits of the 

plant. The fruit is a powerful detoxifier which removes toxins from the body, 

Researchers have discovered more than 150 nutrceuticals in the fruits of 

Morinda citrfolia, L. (Singh et al., 2007). Potassium content was more (1226 

ppm) followed by leaf (1219 ppm). 

A number of major compounds have been identified in the Noni plant such 

as scopoletin, octoanoic acid, potassium, vitamin C, terpenoids, alkaloids, 




anthraquinones (such as nordamnacanthal, morindone, rubiadin, andrubiadin- 

1- methyl ether, anthraquinone glycoside), b-sitosterol, carotene, vitamin A, 

flavones glycosides linoleic acid, alizarin, amino acids, acubin, L-asperuloside, 

caproic acid, caprylic acid, ursolic acid, rutin and a putative proxeronine. 

(Levand and Larson, 1979; Farine et al., 1996; Peerzada et al., 1990; 

Budhavari et al., 1989; Moorthy and Reddy, 1970; Daulatabad et al., 1989; 

Balakrishnan et al., 1961; Legal et al., 1994; Singh and Tiwari, 1976; 

Simonsen, 1920; Heinicke, 1985). The dominant substances in the fruit are 

fatty acids, while the roots and bark contain anthraquinone. The seed of M. 

citrifolia contains 16.1% Oil. The main fatty acid components of the oil were 

linoleic (55%), Oleic (20.5%), Palmitic (12.8%), Ricinoleic (6.8%) and 

Stearic (4.9%) (Dualatabad et al., 1989; Seidemann, 2002). 

A research group led by Chi-Tang Ho at Rutges University in the USA is 

searching for new novel compounds in the Noni plant. They have successfully 

identified several new flavonol glycosides, and iridoid glycoside from the Noni 

leaves, trisaccharide fatty acid ester, rutin and an asperolosidic acid from the 

fruit. Two novel glycosides and a new unusual iridoid named citrifoliniside 

have been shown to have inhibiting effect on AP-1 trans activation and cell 

transformation in the mouse epidermal JB6 cell lines (Wang et al., 1999; 

Sang et al., 2001a and b; Liu et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2000). Further, 23 

different phytochemicals were found in Noni besides, 5 vitamins and 3 

minerals (Duke, 1992). 

Biological Properties of Noni 

Antimicrobial activity 

The anti-microbial effect of noni may have been the first observed property: 

indeed, the fruit contains relatively large amounts of sugars that are not 

fermented when fruits are stored in closed containers at ambient temperature. 

This property is used to transport the fruit by boat from the scattered Pacific 

islands to processing plants without specific treatment. It has been reported 

that Noni inhibits the growth of certain bacteria, such as Staphylococcus 

aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus morgaii, Bacillus subtilis, 

Escherichia coli, Helicobacter pylori, Salmonella and Shigella (Atkinson, 

1956). The same author claims that the anti-microbial effect observed may 

be due to the presence of phenolic compounds such as acubin, Lasperuloside, 

alizarin, scopoletin and other anthraquinones. Another study 

showed that an acetonitrile extract of the dried fruit inhibited the growth of 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Streptococcus 

pyrogene (Locher et al., 1995). It has also been found that ethanol and 

hexane extracts of noni have an antitubercular effect since they inhibit by 89-


95% the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Saludes et al., 2002). The 

major components identified in the hexane extract were Ephytol, cycloartenol, 

stigmasterol, b-sitosterol, campesta-5,7,22-trien-3-b-ol, and the ketosteroids, 

stigmasta-4-en-3-one and stigmasta-4-22-dien-3-one. Furthermore, they showed 

that the anti-microbial effect is highly dependent on the stage of ripeness and 

on processing, being greater when the fruit is ripe, without drying. The anti 

microbial activity was more pronounced with M.citrfolia than M .pubescens 

(Mathivanan and Surendran 2006). 

Several anthraquinone compounds in Noni roots are all proven antibacterial 

agents. These compounds have been shown to fight against infectious bacterial 

strains such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus morgaii, Staphylococcus 

aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp. and Shigella sp. 

(Mohtar et al., 1998; Jayasinghe et al., 2002). These antibacterial elements 

within Noni are responsible for the treatment of skin infections, colds, fevers, 

and other bacterial- caused health problems (Atkinson, 1956, Ancolio et al., 

2000). Bushnell reported on the antibacterial properties of some plants 

found in Hawaii, including Noni. He further reported that Noni was traditionally 

used to treat broken bones, deep cuts, bruises, sores and wounds. Extracts 

from the ripe noni fruit exhibited antibacterial properties against P. aeruginosa, 

M. pyrogenes, E. coli, Salmonella typhosa, Salmonella montevideo, Salmonella 

schottmuelleri, Shigella paradys (Bushnel et al., 1950; Dittmar,1993). 

Leach et al. (1988) demonstrated that acetone extracts of M. citrifolia 

showed antibacterial activity. The wide spread medicinal use of these plants 

would suggest that they do contain pharmacologically active substance and 

alternative methods of extraction and screening should be carried out to find 

the major bioactive components in the plants for the purpose of new drug 

development. Locher et al. (1995) reported that selected plants including M. 

citrifolia have a history of use in Polynesian traditional medicine for the treatment 

of infectious disease. The scopoletin, a health promoter of Noni inhibit the activity 

of E. coli that is commonly associated with outbreaks resulting in hundreds of 

serious infection and even death. Noni also helps stomach ulcer through inhibition 

of the bacterium H. pylori (Umezawa, 1992). 

Another species of Morinda namely M. tinctoria have excellent antimicrobial 

activity against various human and plant pathogenic bacteria, and fungi. The 

chloroform fruit extract of M. tinctoria exhibited high antimicrobial activity 

against the human pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 

Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans. Further the 

same extract also significantly inhibited the spore germination and mycelial 

growth of plant pathogenic fungi viz., R. solani, B. oryzae, F. oxysporum and 

C. lunata (Surendiran, 2004). 




A compound isolated from Noni roots named 1-methoxy-2-formyl-3hydroxyanthraquinone 

suppressed the cytopathic effect of HIV infected MT-4 

cells, without inhibiting cell growth (Umezawa, 1992). 

Noni has been found to kill Mycobacterium tuberculosis. A concentration of 

extracts from Noni leaves killed 89 of the bacteria in a test tube, almost as 

effective as a leading anti-TB drug, Rifampicin, which has an inhibition rate 

of 97% at the same concentration. Although there had been anecdotal 

reports on the native use of Noni in Polynesia as a medicine against 

tuberculosis, this is the first report demonstrating the antimycobacterial 

potential of compounds obtained from the Noni leaf (American Chemical 

Society, 2000). 

Anti tumour and anticancer activities 

The anticancer activity from alcohol-precipitate of Noni fruit juice (Noni-ppt) 

on to lung cancer in c57 B1/6 mice has been presented in the 83 Annual 

Meeting of American Association for Cancer Research. The noni-ppt 

significantly increased the life of mice up to 75% with implanted Lewis lung 

carcinoma as compared with the control mice (Hirazumi et al., 1994). It was 

concluded that the Noni-ppt seems to suppress tumor growth directly by 

stimulating the immune system (Hirazumi et al., 1996). Improved survival 

time and curative effects occurred when Noni-ppt was combined with sub 

optimal doses of the standard chemotherapeutic agents such as adriamycin 

(Adria), cisplatin (CDDP), 5- flourouracil (5-FU) and vincristine (VCR), 

suggesting important clinical application of Noni-ppt as a supplemental agent 

in cancer treatment (Hirazumi and Furusawa, 1999). These results indicated 

that the Noni-ppt might enhance the therapeutic effect of anticancer drugs. 

Therefore, it may be a benefit to cancer patients by enabling them to use 

lower doses of anticancer drugs to achieve the same or even better results. 

Wang et al. (2002) demonstrated that the cytotoxic effect of Tahitian Noni 

Juice (TNJ) on cultured leukemia cell line at various concentrations. They 

also observed the synergistic effects of TNJ with known anticancer drugs. At 

a sub-optimal dose, both prednisolone and TNJ could induce apoptosis. 

When the dose of prednisolone was fixed, the dose of TNJ increased. 

Therefore TNJ is able to enhance the efficacy of anticancer drugs such as 

predinosolone. When a single dose of taxol induced a lower percentage of 

apoptosis in leukemia cells, TNJ enhanced the rate of apoptosis. 

Hiramatsu et al. (1993) reported the effects of over 500 extracts from 

tropical plants on the K-Ras-NRK cells. Damnacanthal, isolated from Noni 

roots is an inhibitor of RAS function. The Ras oncogene is believed to be 

associated with the signal transduction in several human cancers such as


lung, colon, pancreas, and leukemia. Two glycosides extracted from Noni-ppt 

were effective in inhibiting cell transformation induced by TPA or EGF in the 

mouse epidermal JB6 cell line. The inhibition was found to be associated with 

the inhibitory effects of these compounds on AP1 activity. The compounds 

also blocked the phosphorylation of c-Jun, a substrate of JNKs, suggesting 

that JNKs are the critical target for the compounds in mediating AP1 activity 

and cell information (Liu et al., 2001). 

Insecticidal Activity 

An ethanol extract of the tender Noni leaves induced paralysis and death of 

the human parasitic nematode worm, Ascaris lumbricoides within a day (Raj, 

1975). Noni has been used in the Philippines and Hawaii as an effective 

insecticide (Morton, 1992; Murdiatia et al., 2000). Noni has been used as an 

effective insecticide in the Philippines and Hawaii (Rangadhar Satapathy, 2007). 

Analgesic activity 

Younos et al. (1990) tested the analgesic and sedative effects of the Noni 

extract and observed a significant dose-related central analgesic activity in the 

treated mice. The analgesic efficacy of the Noni extract is 75% as strong as 

morphine with free of side effects. The TNJ was tested for its analgesic 

properties by the twisted method animal model using mice. Clearly the 

analgesic effect of TNJ in mice showed a dose-dependent manner. The 

analgesic effects of each TNJ group are statistically significant compared with 

that in the control group. Data from this experiment have clearly indicated 

that the TNJ was able to make the animals tolerate more pain. 

Immunological activity 

An alcohol extract of Noni fruit at various concentrations inhibited the 

production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNA-a), which is an endogenous 

tumor promoter. Therefore, the alcohol extract may inhibit the tumor promoting 

effect of TNF-a (Hokama, 1993). Hirazumi and Furusawa (1999) found that 

Noni-ppt contains a polysaccharide-rich substance that inhibited toxic effects 

in adapted cultures of lung cancer cells, but could activate peritoneal exudate 

cells to impart profound toxicity when co-cultured with the tumor cells. This 

suggested the possibility that Noni-ppt may suppress tumor growth throughout 

the activation of host immune system. Noni-ppt was also capable of stimulating 

the release of several mediator from murine effector cells, including TNF-a, 

interleukin-1 beta (IL-1b), IL-10, IL-12, interferon-gamma (IFN-g) and nitric 

oxide (NO) (Hirazumi and Furusawa, 1999). Hokama (1993) separated ripe 




noni fruit juice into 50% aqueous alcohol and precipitated fractions that 

stimulated the BALB/c thymus cells in the (³H) thymidine analysis. It is 

suggested that inhibition of Lewis lung tumors in mice, in part, may have 

been due to the stimulation of the T-cells immune response. Wang et al. 

(2002) observed that the thymus in animals treated with TNJ was enlarged. 

The wet weight of the thymus was 1.7 times that of control animals at the 

seventh day after drinking 10% TNJ in drinking water. The thymus is an 

important immune organ in the body, which generates T cells, involved in the 

ageing process and cellular immune functions. TNJ may enhance immune 

response by stimulating thymus growth, and thus affecting anti-ageing and 

anticancer activities, and protecting people from other degenerative diseases. 

Allergenicity and toxicity 

Studies sponsored TNJ Morinda Inc, marker of TNJ were focused to investigate 

the acute toxicology of TNJ. About 15000 mg/kg was administered via gavage 

and the animals were observed and no adverse clinical signs were noted. No 

signs of gross toxicity were seen in the organs after necropsy. Two studies 

using guinea pigs were performed to assess the allergenic risk of TNJ. Both 

study designs included an induction phase and a rest period, followed by a 

challenge with TNJ. Results of this study have revealed that there were no 

allergic reactions to TNJ (Kaabeer, 2000). 

Similarly a 13-week oral toxicity study in rats indicated that the No-Observable- 

Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) was above 20 ml of 4 times concentrated TNJ/ 

kg/day. This is equivalent to 80 ml TNJ kg/day. Perceptively, this amount is 

8% of the animal's body weight (Sang et al., 2001a and b). The major 

ingredients in TNJ, Noni fruit, have been safely consumed in other parts of 

the world for several hundred years (Whistler, 1992; Bruggnecate, 1992; 

Seemann and Flora, 1866; Dengener, 1973; Rock, 1913; Stone, 1970; 

Sturtevant, 1919; Terra, 1996; Turbott et al., 1949; he, 1974; Wilder, 1934; 

Yuncker, 1943). TNJ is demonstrated to be safe for human consumption 

through extensive chemical, microbiological, and toxicological analysis and 

evaluation. 

Antioxidant activity 

In general consuming fruits and vegetables reduces free radicals-induced 

oxidative damage and the consequent lipid peroxidation and therefore reduce 

the cancer risk (Wang and Leiher, 1995; Diplock et al., 1998). It is believed 

that fruits and vegetables are major sources for antioxidants (Weisburer et 

al., 1997; Nishikimi et al., 1972). Noni is a medicinal plant that helps the


human in different health conditions. It was believed that the Noni fruit juice 

contained significant level of antioxidants. This has been proved scientifically 

by the analysis of TNJ. The study was designed to measure how the TNJ 

scavenged super oxide anion radicals (SAR) and quenched lipid peroxides 

(LPO) by TNB assay and LMB assay, respectively (Auerbach et al., 1992; 

Wang and Su, 2001). SAR scavenging activity was examined in vitro by 

Tettrazolium nitroblue (TNB) assay. The SAR scavenging activity of TNJ was 

compared to that of three known antioxidants; vitamins C, grape seed 

powder, and pyncogenol at the daily dose per serving level recommended by 

US RDA's or manufacturer's recommendations. Under the experimental 

conditions the SAR scavenging activity of TNJ was shown to be 2.8 times that 

of vitamin C, 1.4 times that of pyncogenol and 1.1 times that of grape seed 

powder. Therefore TNJ has a great potential to scavenge reactive oxygen free 

radicals (Wang and Su, 2001). 

Anti-inflammatory activity 

Evidences are indicating that COX-2 inhibitors may be involved in breast, 

colon, and lung cancer development (Yau et al., 2002; Takahashi et al., 

2002; Langman et al., 2000). Research on anti-inflammatory has shown that 

the selectivity of COX- 2 inhibition of TNJ is comparable with that of Celebrex. 

The discovery of the selective COX-2 inhibition of TNJ is very significant since 

TNJ is a natural fruit juice without side effects this is the first scientific 

evidence for a strong anti- inflammatory activity in TNJ, which may also be 

one of the mechanisms of cancer prevention (Zhang et al., 1994). The antiinflammatory 

activity was observed in an acute liver injury model in female 

SD rats induced by CCl4. A decrease in inflammatory foci and lymphocyte 

surrounding central vein areas were observed at 6 h post CCl4 administration 

in animals pre treated with 10% TNJ for twelve days in drinking water 

compared with CCl4 without TNJ (Wang et al., 2001). 

Research from this clinical trials indicated that cigarette-smoke is not only 

involved in cancer but also involved in pulmonary, heart and other 

degenerative diseases. However, drinking TNJ was beneficial for the prevention 

of heart, lung, and brain diseases as well as delaying the ageing processing, 

and maintaining overall good health. 

Wound healing activity 

It is well established that the Morinda leaf and fruit extracts are effective in 

healing the wounds. Surendiran (2004) studied the wound healing property 

of M. tinctoria using the animal model. The application of chloroform fruit 

extract of M. tinctoria topically on the excision wound surface of two different 



doses accelerated the wound healing process by decreasing the surface area 

of the wound. The fruit extracts of M. tinctoria at 20 mg/ml significantly 

healed the wound in rats within 15 days where complete healing was 

observed against 60% in untreated control. On day 3, all the treated animals 

exhibited considerable increase in the percentage of wound contraction as 

compared to control. The wound contraction was significantly increased in 

the subsequent days due to treatment of fruit extract at 10 and 20 mg/ml as 

compared to control. 

Anti Lithiatic Effect 

Noni, Morinda citrifolia ,L has the anti Lithiatic effect on Ethylene Glycol 

induced Lithiasis in male albino rats.This observation provided the basis for 

considering Noni for inhibiting stone formation induced by ethylene glycol, 

(Murugesh and Christina2007). 

Anti fungal activity 

The observational study of the anti fungal activity of Morinda Citrifolia,L. fruit 

extract of Fusarium semitectrum had indicated the inhibitory activity for 

Morinda extract and it is equivalent to that of commercial available anti fungal 

agents,(Murugesh and Kannan, 2007). 

Epilogue 


The review presented here, is not a complete one, but by and large one 

could see that more to be done on germplasm assemblage, breeding, varietal 

/ hybrid development, developing manurial and water management need to 

develop technologies for water / mixed / multiple cropping and integrated 

farming system. The prevalence of pest and disease and developing suitable 

bio management need to be given a fillip. Harvesting and post harvesting 

technique, reducing the post. Harvest lossess need attention. Being a new 

crop taken up for cultivation by farmers many technological gaps need to be 

filled up. 

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J. Subramani 

S. Antony Selvaraj 

D. Vijay 

M. Sakthivel 


J. Subramani 


D. Vijay 

M. Sakthivel 

Crop Research division of 

WNRF, INRF, Chennai, 

Tamilnadu, India - 600 119. 


J. Subramani 


D. Vijay 

M. Sakthivel 

M. Umashanthi 

Crop Research division of 

WNRF, INRF, Chennai, 

Tamilnadu, India - 600 119. 

santony@nonifamily.net 

Micropropagation of 

Morinda citrifolia L. 

Keywords : Morinda sp, Nodal explant, multiple shoots, Rhizogenic calli 

Abstract : The varying effect of Cytokinin and Auxin combinations on Morinda 

citrifolia L. for effective in – vitro induction of shoots from nodal explants 

was studied by using both WP and MS basal media. BAP alone with 2 mg/ 

l concentration was found effective in both the basal media, to initiate 

auxillary shoot induction. Further BAP along with 1mg/l Kinetin combination 

gave 4-5 multiple shoots from a single node within a period of two weeks. 

Further by using leaf ex–plants, callus was induced. Actively growing yellowish 

callus was induced by using 2 mg /l-2,4-D. Further the initiated calli were subcultured 

in MS basal media containing 0.5 mg/l NAA to produce rhizogenic 

calli with lots of roots at periphery. These calli mass with roots in BAP and 

KN media combination, became organogenic and resulted in producing shoot (s). 

Introduction 

Morinda citrifolia L. commercially known as Noni, grows widely throughout 

Asia and Pacific, is one of the most significant sources of traditional medicines 

among Pacifiic Islands Societies. (Clatchey, 2002; Nelson, 2001). The botanical 

name for the genus was derived from two Latin word Morus, mulberry and 

indicus, Indian, in reference to the similarity of the fruit of Noni to that of true 

mulberry (Morus alba), belongs to the family Rubiaceae (Morton, 1992). 

Noni is relatively easy to propogate from seeds, stem or root cuttings and 

air layering. The preferred methods of propagation are by seeds and by 

cuttings made from stem verticals (Nelson, 2001). Till date, not much work 

on in vitro propagation by using tissue culture techniques were carried out 

in this plant. Preliminary studies on in vitro propagation of Morinda 

citrifolia L. was attempted at this center for the past one year. Both the nodal 

ex-plants and rhizogenic calli have given shoot(s) in both the WP and MS 

media with the combination of Cytokinin and Auxin. 

Materials and Methods 

Plant Material 

Seeds of Morinda citrifolia L. brought from the Western Ghats, India were 

sown in the gardens of Health India Laboratories, Sholinganallur. Two leaf 



stage plants were brought to Tissue Culture Laboratory and used for explant 

collection. Apical regions and nodal explants were used. Young leaves were 

used for callus initiation. 

Sterilization details 

a. Nodal explant 

The nodal explants were collected from 6-8 months old seedlings. Top 3 nodes 

were taken for tissue culture purpose by leaving the basal single node in the 

mother plant. Due to the removal of upper axillary buds, the axillary region 

sprouts very efficiently by producing two axillary sprouts in vivo within 8-10 days. 

b. Procedure 

Top 3 nodes were taken and then washed with sterile water and kept in 1: 

2 (Sodium hypochlorite : Sterile water) with constant stirring for 30 minutes. 

The ex-plants were washed 3-4 times with sterile water, then treated with 

0.1% mercuric chloride for 5 minutes and rinsed with sterile water before 

inoculation. 

c. Leaf ex–plant 

The above sterilization treatment was given for leaf ex plant also to initiate 

callus. 

Media details 

J. Subramani et al. Micropropagation of Morinda citrifolia L. 

Fig.1 

Fig.2 

Following basal media with various combinations of Cytokinin and Auxin 

were tried in our in-vitro studies. The results are shown in Table 1, 2 & 3. 

Table 1. Various combinations of media for in-vitro Multiplication 

Media BAP (mg/I) KN (mg/I) IBA (mg/I) 

2.0 - - 

4.0 - - 

MS 1.0 1.0 - 

2.0 0.75 2.0 

1.0 0.25 -


Media BAP (mg/I) KN (mg/I) IBA (mg/I) 

2.0 - - 

4.0 - - 

WP 2.0 1.0 - 

2.0 - 2.0 

2.0 0.5 - 

Table 2. : Various media combinations for callus initiation and 

regeneration from Leaf Explants 

Media 2,4-D (mg/I) NAA IAA IBA BAP KN 

2.0 - - - - - 

- 0.5 0.1 - - 0.5 

MS 4.0 - 0.5 4.0 1.0 - 

- - 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 

- - - 1.0 4.0 - 

Media 2,4-D (mg/I) NAA IAA IBA BAP KN 

2.0 - - - - 

- - 0.5 - - - 

- - - - 2..5 1.0 

WP - - 0.1 - 2.0 - 

- 1.0 1.0 - 3.0 - 

Table 3. : Various media combinations for in-vitro rooting 

Media IBA (mg/I) IAA (mg/I) NAA (mg/I) 

- 

- 

1.0 0.1 0.1 

MS 2.0 0.3 0.3 

4.0 0.5 0.5 

1.0 0.1 0.1 

WP 2.0 0.3 0.3 

4.0 0.5 0.5 



Result and discussion 

Shoot initiation 

Both Ms and WP media were used along with various combinations of 

Cytokinins and Auxin. Axillary bud sprouting were observed in both the 

basal media with 2.0 mg/l BAP alone. (Fig 3 & 4) 

Multiplication in-vitro 

After four weeks of axillary bud sprouting, initiated young shoots with the 

nodal region were transferred to multiplication media. BAP 4.0 mg/l, along 

with IAA 0.5 mg/l have produced 3-5 multiple shoots within 4-6 weeks after 

subculture (Fig 5). Both MS basal and WP were found equally good enough 

for culture multiplication. Culture were allowed to grow at 26+2 o 

C 

temperature and humidity at 55 + 10%, photoperiod 16 hrs light and 8 hrs 

dark and light intensity of 2000 lux. 

In-vitro rooting 


Fig.3 

Fig.5 

Fig.4 

Out of MS and WP basal media used, MS basal with 1.0 mg /l IBA and 

0.5 mg /l NAA have produced enough roots in vitro (Fig.6). 4 to 6 cm 

long shoots were removed separately from the multi culture and 

inoculated in the rooting media. MS media with 1.0 mg /l IBA and 0.5 mg 

/1 NAA were used in the rooting media. Individual plants with roots were 

transferred to green house for hardening.


Hardening at green house 

Well rooted plants were transferred to pro trays (98 cavities) containing 

coco-peat (Fig. 7). After hardening for 5-6 weeks, young plantlets were 

transferred to nursery stage (Fig.8). Green house temperature was maintained 

at 32 + 4 0 C and humidity 60 + 20%. 

Callus Initiation 

Amount of 2 mg/1 2, 4 –D in both MS and WP media were found to be ideal 

for callus initiation (Fig. 9). Calli were further maintained in media containing 

2 mg /1 2,4-D (Fig.10). 

Callus regeneration 

Fig.6 

Fig.7 Fig.8 

Fig.9 Fig.10 

a. Callus from MS/WP media were further sub-cultured on media (MS/WP) 

containing 4 mg BAP, 0.5 mg/l kinetin that resulted in formation of single 

shoot in 25 days (Fig. 11). 



b. Further the rhizogenic calli when subcultured on media with 2.0 mg/ 

l BAP, 1 mg/l kinetin and 0.1 mg /l IAA resulted in multiple shoot 

formation. (Fig 12). 

Conclusion 

The idea of this whole study is to standardize the viable commercial protocol 

for mass multiplication of elite clones of Morinda citrifolia L. in future for 

our corporate farming. 

The preliminary studies clearly indicate that irrespective of the basal media 

used (either MS or WP), it is the hormonal combination that are very vital 

for the in-vitro response. BAP alone for shoot initiation, BAP along with 

IAA for multiple shoot formation and IBA along with NAA have given good 

rooting in-vitro. Rooted plants have established well with 95-98 % survival 

at green house conditions while hardening. Further better growth with zero 

percent mortality was observed at nursery stage. Calli with roots produce 

shoot (s) in BAP and KN. Further studies are to be carried in commercial 

multiplication of micro propagation its cost of production and field 

performance for large scale cultivation. 

References 


Fig.11 

Fig.12 

Clatchey, M. W. 2002. From Polynesian Healers to Health Food Stores : 

Changing perspectives of Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae), Integrative Cancer 

Therapies 1 (2) : 110 –120.


Lloyd, G. and McKnown, B. 1981. Commercially feasible micro propagation 

of mountain laurel Kalmia latifolia by use of shoot tip cultures. Int. Plant. 

Soc. Proc. 30: 421 – 427. 

Nelson, S.C. 2001. Noni Cultivation in Hawaii, Univ. of Hawaii CTAHR – Cooperative 

Extension Service PD –19. 

Mc Cormick, G. 1998. Noni – A miracle Medicine ? Cook Islands Natural 

Heritage Project. 

Morton, J. 1992. The Ocean – going Noni, or Indian Mulberry (Morinda 

Citrifolia, Rubiaceae) and some of its “colorful” relatives. Economic Botany 

46: 241 – 256. 

Murashige and Skoog. 1962. – Exp. Cell. Res 50: 151. 


D.R. Singh 

R.C. Srivastava 

Subhash Chand 

Abhay Kumar 


D.R. Singh 

R.C. Srivastava 

Subhash Chand 

Abhay Kumar 

Central Agricultural Research Institute 

Indian council of Agricultural Research 

Port Blair 

Andaman and Nicobar Islands 

India - 744 101. 


D.R. Singh 



Port Blair, Andaman and 

Nicobar Islands 

India - 744 101. 

drsingh1966@yahoo.com 


Morinda citrifolia L. – An evergreen 

plant for diversification in commercial 

horticulture 

Keywords : Morinda citrifolia, CARI, Port blair, phendogical traits, propagation, 

Tsumani, Physico-chemical properties, economics. 

Abstract : Morinda citrifolia L. var. citrifolia, the commonly called 

Noni in India and also known as the Indian Mulberry is one of the 

important plants of Rubiaceae family. Noni’s broad proliferation gives 

testimony to its value to traditional cultures. In Andaman and Nicobar 

Islands, it is widely found throughout the coastal region and also along the 

fences and the roadsides due to its wide adaptability to hardy environmental 

and soil conditions. The whole plant ie. leaf, stem, root and fruits is 

known to be of commercial importance. The tribes of these islands are 

known to consume this fruit in raw form with common salt as well as 

cooked vegetables. After Tsunami disaster, it has been found that Morinda 

is the only plant of commercial value, which is surviving in affected lands 

turned wastelands due to sea water intrusion. Studies at CARI, Portblair, 

were initiated to evaluate the full potential of this plant. It has been found 

that this plant can be used for rehabilitating the livelihood of farmers 

affected by Tsunami. It survives in sea water inundated saline soils and in 

all kinds of soil in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This plant can also 

come up under 50 percent shade and therefore can be grown as 

intercrop. The canopy coverage provides very good cover to soil resulting 

in reduction in soil and runoff losses. The annual yield of Morinda fruits 

per tree initially is 10 kg /tree in the third year by harvesting 5-8 times 

in a year and it increases to 100 kg/ year after 6 years. 

With fruit juice being used for manufacturing health enhancer, its 

cultivation assumes source of regular income and employment security. 

In addition, Morinda juice can be used as poultry feed supplement for 

immunity enhancement. Its leaves can also be used as mulch material. 

This paper presents a summary of the initial results of this study. 

Introduction 

Indian Noni plant (Morinda citrifolia L.) belongs to the family Rubiaceae. 

It is commercially known as Noni, and also known as Indian Mulberry, 

Cheese fruit, Yellow fruit, Pain killer, Nono etc.. It is a large shrub or a dwarf

D.R. Singh et al. Morinda citrifolia L. – An evergreen plant for diversification in commercial horticulture 

tree and native to South East Asia but has extensively spread throughout India 

and the Pacific Islands extending up to the Hawaiian Islands. It is known that 

Polynesians first took it from its homeland in Southern Asia. In Andaman and 

Nicobar Islands, Morinda is widely found growing in the coastal belts, rocky 

shores along fences, roadsides as well as in the wastelands of the islands. 

Two main varieties ie. Morinda citrifolia L. var. citrifolia and Morinda 

citrifolia L. var. bracteata are available in plenty in A& N islands. They are 

locally known as Lorang, Burma phal, Pongee phal, Suraogi etc. by the 

tribals of Andaman and Nicobar Island. (Singh, et. al., 2005). Today, Noni 

grows in most regions of South Pacific, India, the Caribbeans, South America 

and the West Indies. Noni’s broad proliferation gives testimony to its value to 

traditional cultures. Historically, it was known as the “queen” of all canoe 

plants. In Malaysia, it is known as Mengkudu. In South East Asia, it is known 

as Nhau. In the islands of the South Pacific particularly in Samoa and Tonga, 

the plant is known as Nonu. It is called, Noni in Raratonga and Tahiti, and 

Noni in the Marquesas Islands and Hawaii. In Australia, it is known as 

fromager, murier indien (French), Indian mulberry (English), nonu (Tahiti), 

nen, nin (Marshall islands, Chuuk) etc.. (Morton, 1992, Francis, 2003). 

The tropical humid climate is very much suitable for cultivation of Morinda 

citrifolia L. (Singh, et. al., 2005). 

Though it has greater demand hitherto, so far no efforts have been made for 

its domestication which is possible by standardizing the propagation 

techniques. 

Importance and nature of plant 

It is a potential under utilized fruit, which is being currently identified and 

popularized after the devastating Tsunami that struck on 26, December 2005. 

The Morinda tree attains a height of about 3-10 m. Plant forms have 

variation in fruit size, its morphology, odour of ripe fruit and number of 

fruits. Flower is white in colour, leaves are dark green, and fruits are 

greenish yellow, fleshy, fetid and soft when ripe. Seeds are brown in color, 

conical to oblong in shape, has the ability to retain viability for a month if 

left in water. The wood is yellowish in color. The prime quality of the 

Morinda tree is its medicinal value and its nature to withstand any type of 

climatic conditions and environmental conditions and its competitiveness to 

grow on all types of soils like, loamy sand to very rocky soils. The species 

citrifolia is the best known to tolerate salty soils and salt spray. It is 

intermediate in shade tolerance and grows under the canopy of forests as 

well as in the open. Morinda grows naturally on the edges of mangroves, 

shorelines and on the landward side of beach and road sides as strand 




vegetation. The fruits may also be fed to pig livestock and poultry. Morinda 

is propagated either from seed or stem cuttings. The phenological traits of 

Morinda citrifolia L., is given in Table. 1. 

Table 1 : Phenological traits of Morinda citrifolia L. 

Phenological Traits Mean 

Plant height (cm) 44.50 

Number of side shoots 6-8 

Number of flowers per bunich 27-35 

Petal size (cm) 2.0 

Flower stalk length (cm) 0.8 

Anther size (cm) 0.9 

Main shoot length (cm) 42.50 

Side shoot length (cm) 24.38 

Days taken to bud formation 30-45 

Days taken to flower anthesis 15-20 

Flower duration (days) 5-7 days 

Maturity of fruits (days) 20 

Number of seeds per fruit 130 –160 

Seed weight (g) 0.03-0.034 

Methodology 

The present investigation was carried out in Bay islands by a team of 

scientists of Central Agriculture Research Institute (CARI), Port Blair to 

conduct the extensive survey in Bay Island to explore the extent and coverage 

of area by the Morinda. Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to locate 

the existence of plant locations. The plant specimens, seeds and fruits were 

collected by the team. Accordingly, different parts of Bay Island were surveyed. 

The methods of propagation and multiplication were tested at CARI, research 

farm. The fruits were collected from the mother trees and their physico 

chemical properties were evaluated. The different growth regulator and 

growth enhancer agents were tried to see their effect on the growth of the 

plants. The analysis of fruit nutrients was also carried out. The economics of 

Morinda cultivation was also worked out taking into consideration the buying 

price offered by processor.


Methods of propagation adopted 

Morinda citrifolia L. is naturalized in almost all parts of the islands, as 

it grows in dry to wet lands and in sea level of about 500m elevation. The 

production of large number of saplings from the limited elite pedigree tree 

could be possible within a short period and could meet growing demand by 

the farmers. The true pedigree plants thus produced in the country can be 

used for propagation either through seed or stem cuttings. 

Propagation through seed 

Ripened and soft Morinda fruits were chosen for seed collection and the 

seeds were separated from fibrous, clinging fruit flesh in running water. The 

fruit were split into pieces by hand and then the seeds were separated from 

the flesh using a strong spray of water or strainer. 

After cleaning, the seeds are spread in a clean newspaper and dried in shade 

or indoors for 3-4 days. The seeds should be stored in airtight container at 

room temperature. However, viability studies are to be carried out. 

Morinda seeds can be planted immediately after extraction from the fruit. 

Morinda seeds require hot, wet condition for maximum percentage of 

germination. For this, warmest spot in the nursery or greenhouse must be 

chosen for maximum germination. If germinated outside, partial sun is 

preferable to full sun to prevent drying of the medium. Morinda seeds can 

be germinated in seedling flats or trays or sown directly in light medium 

containers that can retain water and remains aerated. Artificial growth media 

are favored compared to field soil for germinating the Morinda seedlings 

generally as the field soil contains pathogens which can cause plant diseases. 

Deeper seedlings flats are favored to shallow flats, because seedlings with 

longer taproots are produced. Seedlings with deep, well established tap roots 

tend to withstand better transplanting shock and establish much quicker. 

Seeds germinated in flats, should be transplanted into growing containers 

within a few weeks of germination. The larger and deeper the pots, more 

vigorous and larger the seedlings growth will occur. Fortunately, Morinda 

seedlings are grown in pots in open sunlight for a minimum of 9-12 months 

before they are transplanted to the field. If Noni plants are transplanted too 

young then they can be susceptible to weed competition, mechanical damage 

and slug attack. Seedlings and young plants grown from cuttings can be given 

fertilizer once in a month. Young plants respond well to applications of dilute, 

liquid foliar fertilizers. Morinda is salt tolerant and fertilizer burn is uncommon 

under normal conditions. 




Table 2: Effect of seed soaking on percent seed germination in 

Morinda citrifolia L. in different concentrations of GA at different 

duration germination. 

Duration 

Seed Germination Percentage 

C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 Average 

D1 53.30 60.00 73.30 86.60 86.60 77.30 72.80 

D2 57.30 61.30 76.60 100.00 90.60 86.60 78.73 

D3 58.60 61.30 77.30 86.60 86.60 75.30 74.60 

Average 56.40 60.90 65.70 91.06 87.90 80.40 

CD (5%) C= 1.526 D = 2.158 C XD = 3.293 

D- Duration of soaking (12,24 & 36 hours) 

C- Concentration [ 400,600,800, 1000, 1200 ppm & Control (water)] 

It is evident from Table 2 that under different concentrations of GA, seed 

germination percentage varies and 24 hours soaking of seeds exhibited 

highest rate of germination (79%). 

Propagation through stem cuttings 

Cultivation of Morinda plants from vertical and lateral stem cuttings lessens 

the time taken to obtain plants that are ready for transplanting. Under proper 

conditions for Morinda cultivation, the cuttings from branches and stem will 

sprout more readily. It depends on the selection of stem cuttings from the 

vigorous growing plants. While cutting the plant for propagation, the fresh 

sap will flow from the cut ends, if the sap flows readily, cuttings can be made 

from the collected materials. But in some cases if the sap does not flow 

readily or there is no sap to ooze, then the cut materials must be discarded. 

Usually sap flow signifies that it is an actively growing plant with high energy. 

Root hormones if required must be applied for proper vegetative growth. The 

plant needs full sunlight and regular fertilizer applications. 

The goal of vegetative propagation is to get the best planting material with the 

highest genetic quality (Nanda,1970; Wright, 1975; Hatman and Kester, 1983). 

Since, auxins like Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) and Indole Butyric Acid, 

(IBA) are reported to show quick and better rooting in vegetative propagation 

of many fruit crops viz., guava, grapes, ber, custard apple, (Dhua, et. al., 

1982; Shanmugavelu, 1987; Singh and Singh, 1973 and 1989), it may be 

used for Morinda as growth regulator.


Agrotechniques 

As the Morinda plants are quite susceptible to root knot nematode, the site 

selection should be done carefully in order to avoid those places. It should 

contain proper aerated soil with adequate drainage facilities and adequate 

light. Although it grows in varied agro climatic and soil conditions it does not 

grow well where winds are strong. The proper spacing for Morinda plants 

is 4 x 4 m. Plants of less than three years of age should be pruned after their 

first production of fruit. Pruning usually reduces the outbreak of pests and 

diseases. Morinda plants require only limited application of fertilizers. A 

fertilizer application of 10-20-20 kg NPK/ ha will be sufficient. Morinda 

plants need moderate irrigation but once they are established fully, they can 

withstand drought. Over watering can result in root knot nematode and root 

rot (Nelson, 2005). Morinda fruits can be harvested when they change their 

colour infestation from green to yellowish green. Usually these stages of fruits 

are suitable for shipping. For self use or local purpose, fruits can be 

harvested when ripe so that the juice can be squeezed easily from it. Fruits 

should be harvested 3 years after planting at any stage of development 

depending on the proposed processing method. Mostly producers prefer 

green fruits, where as, the processors prefer mature yellowish green fruit for 

processing. Noni fruits do not bruise or damage easily and need not be 

refrigerated. 

Results and discussion 

The survey results revealed that due to its hardiness or versatile nature it 

is found growing near road side (Location – 11 o 37’03.08”; 92 o 42’ 

30.2”), near sewage drain (11 o 40’6.3”; 92 o 44’ 15.9”), under shaded 

conditions (11 o 40’13.5; 92 o 43’56.2”), in hill top (11 o 35’50.7’; 92 o 

43’56.2”), near sea shore (11 o 35’37.6”; 92 o 36’38.1”), in sea water 

inundated lands (11 o 36’42.6”; 92 o 40’47.3”), in jungle areas (11 o 40’ 

27.8”; 92 o 43’ 36”38”), and in various other locations like Ross Island, 

which was erstwhile capital of Port Blair during the reign of British, where 

Morinda tree was found to be growing even in tree trunks, in old damaged 

buildings, in symbiotic association with Ficus plants etc. 

Effect of gibberlic acid as growth regulator 

Various seed germination studies were undertaken by this institute and the 

results revealed that GA at 800 ppm followed by 1000 and 1200 ppm 

induced significantly higher percentage of germination (91.06, 87.9 and 

80.4% respectively) against water treatment (56.4%). Results further elucidated 




that soaking for 24 hours gave the best results on germination (78.75%). 

Interaction results revealed that overall maximum germination (100%) was 

recorded from the seeds soaked for 24 hours at 800 ppm. Seed treated by 

GA significantly increased the height of seedlings (19.23 cm) and number of 

leaves per seedlings (13.10). Every increase in concentrations of GA increased 

the height of seedlings and number of leaves, significantly. The interaction 

resulting in maximum number of leaves / seedlings (13.59 cm) was noted 

in 1200 ppm, GA for 36 hours (Table 3). These findings are in agreement 

with those reported by Babu and Lavania (1985) for lemon. 

Table 3 : Effect of different levels of growth regulators on root 

formation in the cuttings of Morinda citrifolia L. 

Treatments Rooting No. of primary Length of the Diameter of the 

(%) Roots primary roots thickest root 

(cm) (cm) 

IBA 

2000 ppm 66.87 13.27 11.58 0.09 

4000 ppm 93.12 18.25 17.55 0.50 

6000 ppm 75.00 13.88 14.14 0.06 

NAA 

2000 ppm 64.37 15.32 14.48 0.07 

4000 ppm 73.13 17.22 16.96 0.03 

6000 ppm 73.75 12.76 15.21 0.04 

IBA + NAA 

2000 ppm 65.62 13.34 13.41 0.03 

4000 ppm 76.62 14.94 15.57 0.03 

6000 ppm 69.37 14.14 15.02 0.03 

Control 33.12 10.08 11.44 0.02 

C.D. at 5% 3.68 1.15 1.41 NS 

Hulling of seed coat of Morinda or scarification of the tough seed coat 

reduced the time required for germination (15 days) with 56% germination. 

Seed germination studies of Morinda sp. after plastering of beds with cow 

dung had 80-85% germination within 20-25 days. Seed germination 

studies of Morinda sp. after covering of beds with polythene sheet showed


that within 17-18 days, 66.43% germination at maximum and minimum 

temperature of 30.29 & 25.84 0 C & 80.55 % RH, occurred. 

Viability studies in Morinda citrifolia L. revealed that germination percentage 

was higher (50%) during the month of May 2005 within 30 days of sowing 

(temp. 27.81 – 32.88 0 C; 70% RH) followed by higher germination (30%) 

during the month of June 2005 within 37 days of sowing (temp. 27.14, 31.68 

0 C; 75% RH). Only 10% germination was recorded during the month of 

December with maximum of 50 days taken for germination (temperature 25. 

81 – 29.79 0 C; 72.92% RH). Seeds were found not to be viable during the 

months of January, February, March and April with 0 percent germination. 

Gibberllic acid has been reported to improve seed germination and seedling 

growth in many crops (Abdalla, et. al., 1978, Singh, et. al., 1979 and 

Chakrawar, 1981. 

Effect of IBA on growth of Morinda citrifolia L. 

Various studies were undertaken and the results of the study revealed that the 

cuttings treated with growth regulators viz., 2000, 4000 and 6000 ppm of IBA 

and NAA separately and in combinations promoted root and shoot growth 

establishment. Percentage of rooting, number of primary roots, length of 

longest primary root and length of basal portion of cuttings showing roots 

were significantly higher than control, when the cuttings were dipped in 4000 

ppm IBA. This trend was confirmed with the work reported by Cameron and 

Rook, (1974), Nanda, (1970) and Banker, (1989). However, high level of 

auxins associated with comparatively reduced root growth would have retarded 

the carbohydrate metabolisation and caused nutritional imbalance as 

suggested by Spiegel, (1954) and Nanda, et. al., (1974). The performance 

of soft wood cuttings with respect to the percentage of rooting, number of 

primary roots, percentage of secondary rooting and callus production was 

significantly superior over semi hard wood cuttings. 

Growth performance under polyhouse 

The sprouting of cuttings under closed polyhouse and covered polyhouse 

revealed that under closed polyhouse the germination was noticed earlier 

(15 days) compared to covered polyhouse (20 days) with 60% (temp. 

33.5 0 C and 29.08 0 C and 76.53% RH) of sprouting and 83.33 % of cuttings 

survived in closed polyhouse whereas only 50% (30.29 0 C and 25.48 0 C and 

80.55 % RH) of sprouting and 80% of cuttings survived in top covered 

polyhouse with IBA (6000 ppm). The studies revealed that the plants were 

found to be luxuriantly growing under open condition with optimum light 




intensity of 44382 lux, maximum temperature (31.93 0 C), minimum 

temperature (27.03 0 C) and RH (77.1%) and also under shaded condition. 

The vegetative growth of plants were superior under open condition in terms 

of plant height (58.50 cm) with 4 branches and of reproductive growth with 

bud initiation on 32 days after planting and fruit production on 42 days after 

planting whereas the plants grown under shaded condition revealed to be 

having a height of 54.50 cm with 2 branches/plant. 

Effect of cow dung on sprouting of cuttings 

Within 13 days, 60% sprouting was observed after application of cow dung 

whereas in control the sprouting took about 15 days with 30% sprouting. 

Effect of hollow and non hollow cuttings on sprouting 

The findings of the study revealed that the sprouting initiated within15 days 

in case of non - hollow cuttings and 20 days in case of hollow cuttings. About 

50% sprouting was noticed in case of non - hollow cuttings and about 40% 

sprouting in case of hollow cuttings. Maximum (79.44%) plants were able to 

survive in case of non - hollow cuttings whereas in case of hollow cuttings 

the survival percentage was 62.78%. 

Phytochemical properties 

a) Nutrient composition 

The chemistry of Noni was investigated extensively by various scientific groups. 

A plethora of phytochemical constituents have been identified in the leaves, 

bark, stem, flowers and fruits of the plant. Noni fruit specifically is a rich 

source of phytochemical constituents, which demonstrate bioactivity. 

The fruit of Morinda citrifolia L. is a powerful detoxifier. It removes the 

toxins from cells of our body. It builds and strengthens every cell of our body 

to stay healthy. Researchers have discovered more than 150 neutraceuticals 

in the fruit of Morinda citrifolia L. Noni fruits appear to stimulate the 

production of T-cells, macrophages and thymocytes, thereby enhancing immune 

function. And in animal studies, Noni fruit extended the lives of mice with 

cancer. 

Various experimental studies were carried in the laboratory and the results 

revealed that in Morinda citrifolia L., Potassium, content was maximum in 

fruits (1226 ppm) followed by leaf (1219 ppm) while it was in very little in 

wood and bark. But in leaves, the calcium and magnesium contents were


found to be higher, 5462 and 570.60 ppm, respectively followed by 534.34 

ppm of calcium in bark and 58.89 ppm in fruits. Magnesium content was 

found to be next higher in case of fruits (196.64 ppm) and lower in wood 

(44.67ppm). While comparing the other micronutrients, Iron content was 

higher in wood (378.54 ppm), followed by 146.67 ppm in bark and was the 

lowest in leaf (4.47 ppm). Higher content of Copper was found in fruit 

(27.44 ppm) and the lowest in leaf (2.23ppm). 

In case of Morinda trimera, the Calcium content was higher (515.44 

ppm) in leaves followed by iron (88.88 ppm), magnesium (64.96 ppm) and 

lead was maximum (825 ppm) followed by calcium (504.33 ppm), magnesium 

(52.09ppm), Iron (44.91 ppm) and the least content of copper (14.44 

ppm) respectively (Table 4). 

Table 4 : Nutrient composition in leaves (ppm) 

Species K Ca Mg Fe Cu 

Morinda citrifolia 1226 58.89 196.64 42.44 27.44 

Morinda trimera 825 504.33 52.09 44.91 14.44 

Comparison of nutrients in leaves (Morinda citrifolia L.) irrigated with 

normal water and sea water revealed that the Calcium content was invariably 

higher (5462 ppm) in leaves of normal water irrigated plants than in leaves 

of sea water irrigated plants (539.17 ppm). Magnesium content was higher 

(570.60 ppm) in leaves of normal water than ppm in sea water leaves 

(50.23). Invariably higher content (185.09 ppm) of Iron was recorded in 

sea water leaves and the lowest content (4.47 ppm) in leaves of normal 

water. Copper was higher (4.62 ppm) in sea water leaves and only about 

2.23 ppm in normal water leaves. 

Comparison of nutrient content in leaves of Morinda citrifolia L. irrigated 

with sea water (100% , 75%, 50%, 25% and normal water (control) 

revealed that among the nutrients analyzed (Ca, Mg, Fe and Cu), calcium 

content was comparatively higher in all treatments than other nutrients. 

Higher content of calcium was recorded in 75% sea water (539.17 ppm), 

followed by 100% sea water (536.67 ppm) and lowest content in 50% sea 

water (484.47 ppm). Magnesium content was comparatively higher in 50% 

sea water (50.74 ppm) and similar trend was observed in 25% (50.72 ppm), 

75% (50.23 ppm) and 100% sea water (49.82 ppm). 

Iron content was higher in 50% sea water (271.14 ppm) followed by 75% 

(185. 09 ppm), 100% (182.44 ppm) and of the lowest in 25% sea water 

(83.58 ppm). Copper content was invariably lower among all the nutrients, 

with high content in 25% sea water (7.55 ppm), followed by similar trend 




of 4.62, 4.50 and 4.39 ppm in 75%, 50% and 100% sea water irrigation 

treatments, respectively. 

Table 5 : Nutrient content in different parts of Morinda citrifolia L. 

Parts of the Plant K Ca Mg Fe Cu 

(ppm) 

Leaf 1219 5462 570.60 4.47 2.23 

Wood Trace 270.02 44.67 378.54 6.22 

Bark Trace 534.34 47.93 146.67 5.46 

Fruit 1226 58.89 196.64 42.44 27.44 

Comparison of nutrients in leaves (Morinda citrifolia L.) irrigated with 

normal water and sea water revealed that the calcium content was invariably 

higher (5462 ppm) in leaves of normal water than in leaves of sea water 

(539.17ppm). Magnesium content was higher (570.60 ppm) in leaves of 

normal water than about 50.23 ppm in sea water leaves. Invariably higher 

content (185.09 ppm) of Iron was recorded in sea water leaves and the 

lowest content (4.47 ppm) in leaves of normal water. Low content of copper 

was found and it was higher (4.62 ppm) in sea water leaves and only about 

2.23 ppm in normal water leaves. (Table 5). 

Soil analysis 

Nutrient analysis in soils collected near mother tree of Morinda citrifolia 

L. (Table 6) showed that potassium content was invariably higher (151.10 

ppm) in Sippighat soil followed by Wandoor soil (112.30 ppm) and lowest 

in farmers field located at Memio. Similar trend was observed in sodium 

content which was invariably higher in Sippighat soil (113.10 ppm) and the 

lowest in Phoenix Bay and Co-operative Bank (26.0 ppm). 

The soils of Sippighat are also rich in Calcium (8409.36 ppm) and the lowest 

(818.11 ppm) in farmer’s field. Magnesium content was higher (953.10 

ppm) in soil series of Wandoor and lowest in farmers field (818.11 ppm). 

Among the other micronutrients, iron content was invariably higher (89.06 

ppm) in Wandoor series of soil and lower (10.81 ppm) in Phoenix Bay 

series of soil. Manganese seems to be higher followed by iron content, and 

it was higher (82.88 ppm) in Sippighat series of soil and lower in Memio 

series (3.12 ppm). Higher content (2.21 ppm) of Copper was found in 

Garacharma series of soil and least (0.08 ppm) in Phoenix Bay series of soil.


Zinc content was higher (17.82 ppm) in Wandoor series of soil and least 

(0.15 ppm) in Memio series of soil. 

Table 6 : Nutrient content in soils collected near mother tree of 

Morinda citrifolia L. from different locations 

Accessions K Na Ca Mg Fe Cu Mn Zn 

(ppm) 

GHC -1 98.00 55.30 6198.05 924.54 42.99 2.21 43.04 0.24 

SPGH -2 151.10 113.10 8409.36 899.82 18.48 0.30 82.88 0.59 

MEM - 3 52.20 24.80 5238.10 835.54 19.47 0.19 3.12 0.15 

WAND -4 112.30 102.10 5158.25 953.10 89.06 0.79 77.04 17.82 

PBAY -5 50.80 26.00 5288.93 858.94 10.81 0.08 15.95 0.17 

CPB -6 56.30 26.00 4483.25 830.25 17.73 2.06 27.28 1.03 

FMF 7 15.70 28.00 1924.59 818.11 63.55 1.48 34.88 1.04 

Physicochemical properties of fruits 

The physico chemical characteristics revealed that the average weight of 

Morinda citrifolia L. fruits was 147.9 g with 9.8 cm length and 5.26 cm girth 

and 1.13 g specific gravity (wt. volume). The recovery of the juice ranged 

from 38.95 to 48.50%, with pulp percentage and seed ranging between 

44.76 to 46.72% and 3.24 – 4.31 %. The TSS of 8.40 brix and acidity of 

0.14% was recorded. The ascorbic acid (mg /100 g) content of the fruit was 

139.09 mg /100 g at ripe stage. 

Physico chemical analysis of ripe fruits of Morinda trimera revealed that 

the average fruit weight was approximately 24.60 gm with Juice recovery of 

41.60 % and TSS content of fruits was about 5.0 brix, 0.08% Acidity and 

Vitamin C content varies from 87.13 – 125.00 mg /100 g. (Table 7) 

Table 7 : Comparison of physiochemical characters of Morinda sp. 

Species Fruit wt. Juice TSS Acidity Vit.C 

(g) % (Brix) (%) (mg/100 g) 

Morinda 

citrifolia 150-250 38.95-60.25 8.40 0.14 125.00 –139.09 

Morinda 

trimera 15-24 30-41.60 5.00 0.08 87.13-125.00 




Salinity tolerance 

Noni is a highly salt tolerant tree that thrives in wet and dry conditions. There 

is a membrane enclosing a gel like substance around each seed enabling 

flotation, and the seed coating, being very hard and watertight, can delay 

sprouting for many months. The flower is self pollinating; so only one seed needs 

to sprout for a successful population to possibly emerge, these are positive traits 

for sea or air dispersion and colonization in any harsh conditions, from salt flats 

to lava flows. Influence of seawater inundation on vegetative growth of Morinda 

sp. after one year of planting indicates that the plants reached maximum height 

of 88.80 cm with 6-8 branches with first bud initiation 62 days after planting and 

fruit setting on 75 days after planting. An average yield of 1.10 kg fruits per plant 

was obtained. The soil pH was recorded to be varying from 6.18 to 8.28, EC from 

0.18 to 14.25 and the pH of water was recorded to be varying from 6.98 to 8.32 

and that of EC from 0.26 to 21.28. 

Irrigation with 75% sea water revealed luxuriant growth of Morinda citrifolia 

L. in respect of plant height (72.0 cm), stem girth (0.7 cm), number of leaves 

(52), in which EC was 13.26 dsm –1 and pH of 7.31 followed by 100 percent 

sea water which recorded plant height (70.0 cm), stem girth (0.7 cm), no. of 

leaves (49) and the EC was 17.79 dsm –1 and pH of 7.63 whereas in control 

(normal water irrigation) the plants reached a height of 51.5 cm, stem girth of 

0.5 cm and number of leaves was 51.5 in which the EC was 2.5 dsm – 1 and 

pH of 7.67. First bud initiation was recorded in 100% sea water within 361 days 

from the date of planting followed by 366 days in 75% sea water and in control 

was observed on 410 th days after planting. 

Gas exchange parameters 

Measurement of gas exchange parameters revealed that photosynthetic active 

radiation (1459 µmol/sq m /s), photosynthesis rate (27.8 µmol/sq m/s), stomatal 

conductance (75.54 µmol/mol), transpiration rate (2.48 million mol/sq m/s) and 

internal Co2 (654.04 k Pa) were recorded from plants growing under 

wasteland and plants growing under sea inundated and recorded photosynthetic 

active radiation (731.6 µmol/sq m/s), photosynthesis rate (26.70 µmol/sq m/s), 

transpiration rate (0.70 µmol/sq m/s), and internal CO2 (769.80 kPa). 

In sodium chloride (Nacl) irrigation experiment, the results revealed that 

rate of photosynthesis was maximum (7.90 µmol/sq m/s) in plants irrigated 

with 19.25 g Nacl/4 litre water whereas PAR was high (115.90 µmol/sq 

m/s) in plants irrigated with 26.25 Nacl / 4 litre water, rate of transpiration, 

stomatal conductance and internal CO 2 were recorded to be high (1.30 

µmol/sq m /s, 79.80 µmol/mol and 771.80 kPa ) in plants irrigated with 

normal water (control).


In sea water irrigation treatment, the plants irrigated with 50% sea water 

recorded maximum rate of photosynthesis (87.30 µmol/sq m/s), PAR (6.00 

µmol/sq m/s), rate of transpiration (0.60 µmol /sq m/s) and stomatal 

conductance (32.90 µmol/mol) whereas the internal CO 2 content was recorded 

to be high (757.90 kPa) in plants irrigated with 100% sea water. 

Storage behavior of fruits 

The storage behavior and the physiological loss in weight of fruits exhibited 

significant variation with respect to number of days stored. With the 

advancement of days in storage, the percentage reduction of fruits gradually 

increased over number of days stored. It was observed that shelf life of fruits 

lasted up to 5-7 days in open conditions at room temperature of 25 – 30 

0 C and Relative humidity of 70-75%. The mature fruits tend to change its 

color from greenish yellow to creamy yellow from third day onwards whereas 

ripe fruits of yellowish green color turn to white on fifth day. Regarding 

weight of mature fruits, 12 –15 g of loss in weight was found and about 

16-18 g of loss in weight of ripe fruits was observed. 

Economics of Morinda cultivation 

Noni plants start flowering 8-10 months after planting. But it is suggested to 

remove all the flowers up to 1.5 to 2 years. This operation ensures better 

growth and bushy plant. Flowering and fruiting continues throughout the 

year. Commercial harvest starts from 20 to 24 months onwards. It yields 10 

kg/plant after 24 months. It is reported that Noni plant is capable of giving 

yield up to 250 - 300 kg/tree under better cultivation condition after 7-8 

years. Yield range may be 30 - 40 kg/plant in the initial stage. A well grown 

tree will produce an average of 90-100 kg / tree. It is reported that the 

productivity of the trees is up to 40-50 years. The harvesting can be done 

more than 6 to 7 times in a year. 

Table 8 : Economics of Morinda cultivation 

S.No. Particulars Cost of Cultivation / 

acre (Rs.) 

1. Land Preparation (Cutting of grasses) 500.00 

2. Digging of pits (340 pits x Rs. 10/-) 3400.00 

3. Plant cost (340 x Rs. 10/-) 3400.00 

4. Gap filling 170.00 

5. Filling of pits and planting 

(6 man days x Rs. 100/-) 600.00 




6. Manuring and Bio-fertilizers 5400.00 

7. Weeding and Hoeing 

(2x 5 man days x Rs.100/-) 1000.00 

8. Irrigation 1000.00 

9. Plant Protection 500.00 

10. Training and Pruning 500.00 

11. Miscellaneous 500.00 

Total Expenditure Rs. 16,970/- 

The BCR was worked out to be 14.5% without considering the opportunity 

cost. Whereas it was 9.7% with consideration of opportunity cost. This 

indicates Morinda cultivation is highly economical. 

This fruit tree is highly economical, if farmer cultivates it at the large scale. The 

assured marketing also required. Based on CARI studies above results were 

obtained, which suggests the suitability and economic viability of this tree in A & 

N Islands. The economics of Morinda cultivation is given in Table. 8. 

Registration of germplasm 

Morinda citrifolia L. has been registered for its salinity resistance and 

nutrient rich indigenous species with national identity no. – I.C. 524021 and 

INGR No. – 05028 by the NBPGR, New Delhi. 

Conclusion 

Initial studies have revealed that Noni can be grown in all types of challenged 

resource conditions. The package of practices are simple and do not involve 

any intensive labor and monetary expenditure. The plantation of this crop has 

potential of restoring livelihood of the farmers affected by tsunami. However, 

lot of work needs to be done on phyto chemical properties of this fruit, 

detailed package of practices for its cultivation as intercrop and alley crop, 

and its other uses. 

References 

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acid on seed germination of some citrus root stocks. Research Bull. A.S. 

Univ. Faculty of Agric. No. 944, pp.25.


AGIS Phytochemical Database. 1998. US National Agricultural Library 

Phytochemical database, Website. 

Babu, G.H.V.R. and Lavania, M.Z. 1985. Vegetative growth and nutritional 

status as influenced by auxins and gibberllic acid and their effect on fruit 

yield in lemon. Scientia Horticulture 26 (1) : 25-33 

Banker, G.J. 1989. Vegetative propagation of Annona (Annona squamosa). 

Haryana. J. Hort. Sci. 18:10-13 

Cameron, R.J. and Rook, D.A. 1974. Rooting stem cuttings of Ratiata pine. 

Environmental and physiological aspect,N.Z.J. Sci., 4:291-298 

Chaudhari, B.K. and Chakrawar, V.R. 1981. Effect of seed treatment with 

certain growth regulators on the shoot and root development of Kazilime C. 

aurantifolia. J. Maha. Agric. Univ. 6(1) : 19-21 

Dagar, J.C. and Singh N.T. 1999. Plant resources of the Andaman and 

Nicobar Islands. Vol II. Published by BSMPS, New Delhi. 

Dhua, R.S. Mitra S.K. and Sen, S.K. 1982. Proc. Nat. Seminar on Plant 

propagation. BCKV, Kalyani, pp –36 Francis, J.K., (2003), Noni, Morinda 

citrifolia L. Rubiaceae U.S. URL: Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

International Institute of Tropical forestry, Rio Piedras Puerto Rico. 

Hartman, H.T. and Kester, D.E. 1983. Plant propagation-Principles and 

practices. Prentice Hall. Englewood chiffs. New Jersey. 

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tropical Botanical garden Bulletin,15:10-14. 

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citrifolia L., Rubiaceae) and some of its“colorful” relatives. Economic Botany 

46: 241-256 

Nanda, K.K. 1970. Investigations on the use of auxins, antiauxins in vegetative 

propagation of forest plants. Final report of PL 480 Research Project. A7 – 

FS –11:1-215 

Nanda, K.K. Kumar P. and Kocher, V.K. 1974. Role of auxins, antiauxins and 

phenol in the production and differentiationof callus on stem cuttings of 

popular robusta, N.Z.J. Sci. 4(2) : 338-346 

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Island Agroforestry Version 1.2., (link active May 23, 2005) 




Singh, H.K. S. Sharkar and M. Makhija. 1979. A study of citrus seed 

germination as affected by some chemicals. Haryana J. Hort. Sci 8 (3/4): 

194-95 

Singh D.R. Rai, R.B. and Singh, B. 2005. The Great Morinda – A potential 

under utilized fruits in Bay Islands. The Daily Telegrams, Port Blair, April 24, 

pp-2 

Singh, D.R. Rai, R.B. and Singh, B. 2005. The Great Morinda – A Potential 

underutilized fruit for tsunami affected areas in Bay Islands. UTS Voice, Port 

Blair, April 16-30, pp –21 

Singh, R. and P. Singh, 1973. Effect of callusing and IBA treatments on the 

performance of hard wood cuttings of Thompson seedless and Him rod 

grapes. Punjab Hort. J .13: 127-128 

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Publishers, Calcutta, pp : 330 

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Israel.

N. Mathivanan 

G. Surendiran 


N. Mathivanan 

G. Surendiran 

Centre for Advanced Studies in 

Botany, University of Madras, 

Guindy Campus, Chennai - 600 032. 

India. 


N. Mathivanan 

Centre for Advanced Studies in 

Botany, University of Madras, 

Guindy Campus, Chennai, India. 

E-mail : prabhamathi@yahoo.com 

Chemical and biological properties 

of Morinda spp. 

Keywords : Hepatoprotective, M. citrifolia, M. pubscens 

Abstract : The present study was aimed to investigate various chemical and 

biological properties of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens. Chemical analyses 

of the fruit have revealed that most of the essential elements were present in 

higher amount in the fruits of M. citrifolia compared to M. pubescens. 

Manganese was present in high quantity in M. pubescens, whereas Calcium, 

Potassium, Phosphorus and Magnesium were found almost at par in both the 

fruits. The reducing sugars and lipids were present in high levels in the fruits 

of M. citrifolia whereas, the total soluble sugars, starch and crude fibers 

were high in M. pubescens. The natural antioxidant content was high in the 

fruit extracts of M. pubescens compared to M. citrifolia. The fruit extracts 

of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens effectively inhibited wide range of human 

and plant pathogens. The antimicrobial activity was more pronounced with 

M. citrifolia than M. pubescens. Further, the fruit extracts significantly 

inhibited the respiration rate in human and fungal pathogens. Both the fruit 

extracts showed excellent hepatoprotective effect against D-galactosamine 

intoxicated experimental rats. The fruit extracts of M. citrifolia and M. 

pubescens have also shown effective antidiabetic activity in alloxan induced 

experimental rats. This activity was more pronounced with M. pubescens 

than M. citrifolia. 

Introduction 

The genus Morinda is distributed worldwide (Wang et al., 2002) and the 

presence of as many as 80 different species has already been reported (Smith, 

1988). Morinda citrifolia, a small tree, grows predominantly along the tropical 

coasts and is extensively being used in folk medicine. Its antibacterial, antiviral, 

antifungal, antitumor, antidiabetes, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, immune 

enhancing activities have already been reported (Wang et al., 2002; Mathivanan 

et. al., 2005; 2006; Surendiran et al., 2006). Another related species, Morinda 

pubescens grows predominantly in vacant agricultural land and some of its 

medicinal properties were documented in the ancient literature. However, no 

scientific research has been carried out in our country on these two Morinda 

species and hence, the present study is focused to explore the potentials of M. 



citrifolia and M. pubesens. The chemical and biological properties of both the 

Morinda species were investigated and reported in this article. 

Materials and Methods 

Chemical properties 

Preparation of plant extracts of Morinda. 

The fruits of M. citrifolia were collected from the trees located in the coastal 

area of Seruthala in Kerala and M. pubescens fruits were obtained from the tree 

in the Botany Field Research Laboratory, University of Madras, Madhuravoyal, 

Chennai, Tamil Nadu. They were washed with tap water and rinsed with distilled 

water and air dried for 1 h. The fruits were ground to powder using pestle and 

mortar and stored at -20°C until use. For preparation of plant extracts, five 

different solvents viz., petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, chloroform, ethanol and 

water were mixed separately with the fruit powder at 2:1 ratio (w/v) and kept 

over night in shaken condition. These extracts were filtered through Whatman 

No.1 filter paper and dried in vacuuo and used for further studies. 

Protein estimation 

The protein content in the fruit extracts of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens was 

estimated by the standard dye binding method of Bradford (1976) using the 

following two different extraction procedures. 

1. Standard aqueous extraction 

2. Extraction using antioxidant 

The sugar, starch, lipid and crude fiber content in the fruits of M. citrifolia and 

M. pubescens was analyzed using standard methods. 

Elements 

The essential elements viz., Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Nitrogen, 

Phosphorus, Copper, Manganese, Zinc and Iron were estimated using Flame 

photometer, UV-Vis Spectrophotometer and Atomic Absorption 

Spectrophotometer (AAS). 

Antioxidative activity 

N. Mathivanan et al. Chemical and biological properties of Morinda spp. 

The lipid peroxidation levels in the fruit extracts of M. citrifolia and M. 

pubescens were estimated by FTC (and Namiki,1981) and TBA (, 1959; Kikuzaki 

and Nakatani, 1993) methods. 

Ferric thiocyanate (FTC) method 

The fruit samples of 4mg in 99.5% ethanol were mixed with 2.51% Linoleic acid 

in 99.5% ethanol (4.1 ml), 0.05 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.0 (8 ml) and


distilled water (3.9 ml), and kept in screw cap containers under dark conditions 

at 40 o . To 0.1 ml of this solution, 9.7 ml of 75% ethanol and 0.1 ml of 30% 

ammonium thiocyanate were added. After 3 min, 0.1 ml of ferrous chloride in 

3.5% HCl was added to the reaction mixture and the absorbance of the red 

color was measured at 500 nm every 24 h, until one day after absorbance of 

the control reached maximum. The control and standard were subjected to the 

same procedure as the sample except for the control, where there was no 

addition of sample, and for the standard 4 mg of sample were replaced with 

4 mg of a-tocopherol or BHT. 

Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) test 

The same samples as prepared for the FTC method were used in TBA test. To 

1 ml of sample solution, 2 ml each of 20% aqueous trichloroacetic acid and 

aqueous thiobarbituric acid were added. This mixture was then incubated in 

a boiling water bath for 10 min. After cooling, it was centrifuged at 3000 rpm 

for 20 min and the absorbance of supernatant was measured at 532 nm. 

Antioxidative activity was recorded based on absorbance on the final day. 


The antimicrobial activity of Morinda spp. was studied using disc diffusion 

method for bacterial pathogens. In the case of phytopathogenic fungi, the fresh 

and dry weights were estimated. 

Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) 

Among different solvent extracts, the chloroform fruit extract was used to 

determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against different human 

and plant pathogens by broth dilution assay of Hammer et al. (1996) with some 

modifications. The nutrient broth (NB) and potato dextrose broth (PDB) were 

used instead of heart infusion agar and Mueller Hinton Broth (MHB) with 

chloroform fruit extract at the concentrations of 10–1000 mg/ml. The pathogens 

were inoculated separately and the flasks were incubated at 28 ± 2°C under 

shaken condition. The growth of human pathogens and mycelial weight of the 

plant pathogens were measured after 24 h and 5 days, respectively. Based on 

the growth, the MIC for each pathogen was determined. 

Effect of fruit extracts of Morinda spp. on respiration 

The effect of fruit extract of Morinda spp. on respiration in different test 

organisms was determined using dark type polarographic oxygen probe. About 

5 ml of distilled water was placed in the sample chamber and temperature 

controlled water circulator was used in the sample chamber to maintain 30°C. 

The oxygen probe was inserted into the chamber without any air bubble 

between the probe tip and the water surface. Magnetic stirrer was turned on 



and analog/digital meter reading was set to 100% and then the stability of the 

meter reading was observed. Later the stirring was stopped and the distilled 

water and the probe were removed from the sample chamber. Then 5 ml of 

sample solution with the test organism was placed in the sample camber and 

the probe was inserted into the chamber. The meter reading was set to 100% 

and the sample was stirred. The fall in the meter reading was observed. The 

difference in the initial and final reading was calculated which denote the 

consumption of oxygen by the test organism. 

Hepatoprotective effect of Morinda spp. 

The fruit extract at the dose of 50-300 mg/kg/day was given up to 21 days 

before induction with D-gal by oral route. The acute hepatotoxicity was induced 

in rats by oral administration of D-gal at a dose of 200 mg/kg body weight. After 

18-24 h, the serum enzymes, lipid peroxidation and protein concentration in 

the liver were estimated. 

Antidiabetic activity of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens 

The hypoglycemic effect of alcoholic extracts of M. citrifolia M. pubescens 

and also their effects on tissue, lipid peroxidation and antioxidants were 

investigated in both normal and alloxan induced diabetic rats. 

Results and Discussion 

Chemical properties of Morinda spp. 

Protein 


The protein content was high in M. citrifolia fruit extracts obtained by two 

different extraction methods than the fruit extracts of M. pubescens. It ranged 

from 8.0 mg/g fresh weight (gfw) to 9.3 mg/gfw in M. citrifolia as against 5.3 

mg/gfw to 7.0 mg/gfw in M. pubescens (Table 1). 

Table 1. Protein content in the fruit extracts of Morinda spp. 

Extraction method 

Protein content (mg/gfw) 

M. citrifolia M. pubescens 

Standard aqueous extraction 8.0 5.3 

Extraction using antioxidant 9.3 7.0 

Sugar, starch, lipid and crude fiber 

The reducing sugars and lipids were present in high quantity in the fruits of 

M. citrifolia whereas, high amount of total soluble sugars, starch and crude 

fiber was estimated in the fruits of M. pubescens(Table 2).


Table 2. Sugar, lipid and crude fiber content in the fruits of 


Content M. citrifolia M. pubescens 

Reducing Sugar (mg/g) 0.6 0.2 

Total soluble sugar (mg/g) 1.4 2.0 

Starch (mg/g) 1.1 2.2 

Lipid or Oil (%) 3.3 2.0 

Crude Fiber (%) 40.0 62.0 

Table 3. Content of elements in the fruits of Morinda spp. 

Element M. citrifolia M. pubescens 

Nitrogen (%) 5.0 3.6 

Phosphorus (%) 0.25 0.18 

Potassium (%) 2.5 2.3 

Magnesium (%) 0.3 0.2 

Zinc (ppm) 125 99 

Iron (ppm) 1722 744 

Copper (ppm) 3317 2376 

Manganese (ppm) 46 87 

Calcium (ppm) 3.0 2.9 

Elements 

Most of the elements are present in high amount in the fruits of M. citrifolia 

than in M. pubescens. However, Mn was present in high quantity in M. pubescens 

and Ca, K, P and Mg content was almost on par in both the fruits (Table 3). 

Antioxidative activity 

The chloroform fruit extracts of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens showed an 

excellent antioxidant activity compared to ethyl acetate and methanol fruit 

extracts (Figs. 1-6). The antioxidative activity was more pronounced in the fruit 

extracts of M. pubescens (Mp) compared to M. citrifolia (Mc). 



Table 4. MIC of fruit extracts of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens on 

human and plant pathogens 

Pathogen 


MIC (mg/ml) 

Escherichia coli 50 200 

Candida albicans 150 200 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa 200 400 

Staphyllococcus aureus 200 150 

Bipolaris oryzae 200 300 

Curvularia lunata 300 350 

Rhizoctonia solani 250 600 

Macrophomina phaseolina 300 600 

Phytophthora infestans 200 650 

Fusarium oxysporum 300 700 

Biological properties 



The MIC of the chroloform fruit extract of M. citrifolia was estimated between 

50 and 300 mg/ml against different pathogens. However, it was determined as 

150 to 700 mg/ml for M. pubescens (Table 4). 

Effect of fruit extracts of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens on respiration in fungal 

pathogens 

The rate of respiration in fungal pathogens was greatly reduced due to treatment 

of fruit extracts of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens as compared to untreated 

control. The respiration rate ranged from 61.3 to 94.5 Mol./h/min and 58.2 

– 127.3 Mol./h/min, respectively due to treatment of M. citrifolia and M. 

pubescens as against 97.8 – 250.2 in control (Table 5). 

Hepatoprotective effect of Morinda spp. 

The rats supplemented with fruit extract showed considerable improvement in 

the fucose content, ample prevention in the depletion of uric acid, ceruloplasmin 

and glutathione (GSH). They also showed considerable alteration in iron and 

elevation of lipid peroxides as compared to D-gal intoxicated animals (Table 

6 & 7). The histopathological studies have revealed that the Morinda spp. fruit


extract provided considerable protection to the liver cell membrane against 

toxic metabolites formed due to D-gal administration. The protective effect was 

more pronounced in M. citrifolia than M. pubescens. 

Antidiabetic activity of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens 

i) Body weight of the animal 

Significant weight loss was observed in diabetic rats as compared to non-diabetic 

control animals. The treatment of Morinda alcoholic extracts significantly improved 

the animal weight as compared to diabetic animals (Table 8). 

ii) Hepatic markers 

The blood glucose level was significantly increased in alloxan administered 

diabetic rats as compared to the non-diabetic control rats (Table 9). 

Administration of alcoholic extracts of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens 

significantly decreased the blood glucose level as compared to diabetic control 

animals. There was considerable increase in the blood bilirubin level in the 

diabetic rats administrated with alcoholic extracts of both the species compared 

to diabetic control rats. Also there was a considerable alteration in SGPT, SGOT 

and ALP levels of liver tissue in diabetic rats compared to control and diabetic 

rats administrated with alcoholic extracts of M. citrifoliaand M. pubescens. The 

total protein, albumin and globulin in blood serum were considerably altered 

in diabetic rats compared to drug control and diabetic rats administrated with 

alcoholic extract of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens(Table 9). 

Table 5. Rate of respiration in fungal pathogens 

Pathogen 

Rate of respiration (Mol./h/min) 

Control M. citrifolia M. pubescens 

Bipolaris oryzae 97.8 61.3 58.2 

Fusarium udum 134.4 72.3 89.2 

Curvularia lunata 200.2 82.4 127.3 

Phytophthora infestans 250.2 94.5 92.1 

Macrophomina phaseolina 124.3 71.2 82.2 




Table 6. Hepatoprotective activity of M. citrifolia 

Parameter Group I Group II Group III Group IV 

(Control) (D-gal) (M. citrifolia) (D-gal+M. citrifolia) 

Protein 7.19 4.21 9.92 8.48 

Fucose 35.29 21.21 32.12 29.12 

Ceruloplasmin 32.39 21.19 38.25 29.96 

Iron 95.92 117.21 121.32 102.12 

Uric acid 4.95 3.12 4.01 4.11 

GSH 8.39 2.95 8.03 9.12 

LPO 2.15 3.86 1.95 2.39 

Vitamin E 3.12 1.39 3.03 3.54 

CAT 49.27 21.01 42.10 39.21 

SOD 5.12 3.17 6.01 4.92 

Units: g/dl for serum and mg/g for tissue protein; Units/mg protein for 

ceruloplasmin; mg/g wet liver for iron; mg/dl for uric acid lipid peroxides; n mol 

of thiobarbituric acid reactants/mg of tissue. 

Table 7. Hepatoprotective effect of M. pubescens 

Parameter Group I Group II Group III Group IV 

(Control) (D-gal) (M. pubescens) (D-gal+M. pubescens) 

Protein 9.81 3.18 12.4 8.49 

Fucose 31.2 25.2 30.2 28. 2 

Ceruloplasmin 28.25 16.16 30.60 23.96 

Iron 115.10 177.17 119.13 129.12 

Uric acid 3.65 2.63 3.06 3.25 

GSH 7.45 3.45 6.95 6.15 

LPO 1.28 2.56 1.25 1.45 

Units: g/dl for serum and mg/g for tissue protein; Units/mg protein for 

ceruloplasmin; ug/g wet liver for iron; mg/dl for uric acid lipid peroxides; n mol 

of thiobarbituric acid reactants/mg of tissue.


Table 8. Effect of alcoholic extracts of M. citrifolia and M. pubescenson 

body weight in rats. 

Days Group I Group II 

Body weight (g) 

Group III Group IV 

(Control) (Alloxan) (Fruit extracts) (Alloxan + Fruit extracts) 

Mc Mp Mc Mp 

0 120 110 140 120 110 120 

5 130 90 135 145 120 120 

10 130 110 130 135 115 120 

15 140 85 150 160 135 130 

20 135 80 145 460 130 130 

25 140 85 150 155 135 125 

30 145 85 155 170 130 125 

35 140 85 160 165 135 120 

Mc: M. citrifolia; Mp: M. pubescens 

Table 9. Effect of alcoholic extracts of M. citrifolia and M. pubescenson 

hepatic markers. 

Parameter 

Group I Group II Group III Group IV 

(Control) (Alloxan) (Fruit extracts) (Alloxan+Fruit extracts) 

Mc Mp Mc Mp 

Sugar 93 256 118 109 168 151 

Bilirubin 1.43 0.5 1.58 1.59 2.26 1.31 

SGPT 43 94 34 53 42 43 

SGOT 134 192 176 158 182 181 

ALP 212 825 515 182 279 629 

Total protein 7.2 5.7 6.7 7.8 8.4 7.4 

Albumin 4.1 1.9 4.4 4.8 4.8 3.9 

Globulin 3.1 4.8 3.9 3.4 5.2 4.4 

Mc: M. citrifolia; Mp: M. pubescens 

Units: mg/dl for sugar and bilirubin; IU/L for SGPT, SGOT and ALP; g/dl for total 

protein, albumin and globulin. 



Table 10. Effect of alcoholic extracts of M. citrifolia M. pubescens 

on antioxidants activity in rats 

Parameter 


Group I Group II Group III Group IV 

(Control) (Alloxan) (Fruit extracts) (Alloxan + Fruit extracts) 

Mc Mp Mc Mp 

LPO 3.21 5.94 3.41 2.98 4.12 3.82 

GST 28.12 12.22 25.2 27.12 24.12 22.31 

GSH 25.56 15.21 28.1 24.21 17.1 19.2 

SOD 7.44 3.21 6.81 7.21 6.12 5.97 

CAT 74.12 38.23 68.12 63.41 61.21 64.41 

Units: n mol MDA formed/mg protein for LPO; n mol/g wet tissue for GST and GSH 

Fig. 1. Antioxidative activity of methanol fruit extracts 

of Morinda spp. (FTC) 

Fig. 2. Antioxidative activity of ethyl acetate fruit extracts 

of Morinda spp. (FTC)


Fig. 3. Antioxidative activity of chloroform fruit extracts 

of Morinda spp. (FTC) 

Fig. 4. Antioxidative activity of methanol fruit extracts 

of Morinda spp. (TBA) 

Fig. 2. Antioxidative activity of ethyl acetate fruit extracts 




Fig. 3. Antioxidative activity of chloroform fruit extracts 


iii) Antioxidant activity 

There was significant elevation of lipid peroxidation and significant reduction 

of reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), superoxide 

dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) in the liver and kidney of diabetic rats as 

compared with non-diabetic control rats. Administration of alcoholic extracts 

of M. citrifolia and M. pubescens decreased the levels of lipid peroxidation 

and elevated the levels of GSH, GST, SOD and CAT in liver and kidney of diabetic 

rats as compared with the non-diabetic control rats (Table 10). 

The findings of the present investigation clearly showed the nutritive value, 

antimicrobial activity and therapeutic potential of the Morinda spp. These 

results assume significance as there was no work carried out in India on 

Morinda spp. and it is the first report on M. pubescens although its wound 

healing activity has already been reported from our lab (Mathivanan et al., 

2006). It is worthwhile to take up further research on different aspects of 

Morinda spp. because it will shed more light on the nutritive and therapeutic 

values of these species. 

References 


Bradford, M.M. 1976. A rapid and sensitive method for quantitation of 

microgram quantities of proteins utilizing protein-dye binding. Anal. Biochem. 

70: 248 – 254. 

Hammer, K. A. C. F. Carson, and T. V. Riley. 1996. Susceptibility of transient and 

commensal skin flora to the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil). 

Am. J. Infect. Control. 24:186-189


Kikuzaki, H and Nakatani, N. 1993. Antioxidant effects of some Ginger 

constituents. J. food science 58: 1407 – 1410. 

Mathivanan, N. Surendiran, G. Srinivasan, K. and Malarvizhi, K. 2006. Morinda 

pubescens J. E. Smith (Morinda tinctoria Roxb.) fruit extract accelerate wound 

healing in Rats. J. Med. food 9:591 – 593. 

Mathivanan, N. Surendiran, G. Srinivasan, K., Sagadevan, E. and Malarvizhi, K. 

2005. Review on the current scenario of Noni research: Taxonomy, distribution, 

chemistry, medicinal and therapeutic values of Morinda citrifolia. Int. J. Noni 

Res. 1: 1-16. 

Osawa, T and Namiki, M. 1981. A novel type of antioxidant isolated from leaf 

was of Eucalyptus leaves. Agric. Biol. Chem. 45: 735 – 739. 

Ottolenghi, A. 1959. Interaction of ascorbic acid and mitochodrial lipids. Arch. 

Biochem. Biophy. 79: 355 – 358. 

Smith, A.C. 1988. Morinda Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i, 

Flora Vitiensis Nova, 4: 332-341 

Surendiran, G. Sagadevan, E and Mathivanan, N. 2006. Antifungal activity of 

Morinda citrifolia and Morinda pubescens. Int. J. Noni Res. 1(2): 4 – 9. 

Wang, M.Y. West, B. Jensen, C.J. Norwicki, D., Su, C. Palu, A.K. and Anderson, 

G. 2002. Morinda citrifolia (Noni): A literature review and recent advances 

in Noni research. Acta. Pharmacologica Sinica 23:1127 – 1141. 


D.R.Singh 

Jai Sunder 

R.C.Srivastava 


D.R.Singh 

Jai Sunder 

R.C.Srivastava 



Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands 

India - 744 101. 



D.R.Singh 



Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands 

India - 744 101. 



Peptide and Mineral profile of 

Morinda citrifolia fruits and leaves 

Keywords : Peptide profile, leaves, fruits M.citrifolia 

Abstract : Morinda citrifolia (noni) has a long history related to medical 

uses in Southeast Asian countries. Today, noni grows in the majority of the 

southern Pacific areas, in India, the Caribbean, South America and the 

West Indies. In order to obtain better understanding of the medicinal 

characteristics of the noni fruits and leaves, the peptide profile and the 

mineral compositions of the raw juice extracted from M. citrifolia fruits 

and leaves were determined. Morinda citrifolia fruit and leaves were 

subjected to dry ashing for the preparation of acid-mineral extract for 

micronutrients and macronutrients analysis by atomic absorption 

spectrophotometer. For analysis of peptide profile the water extraction of 

the M.citrifloia fruits and leaves were done and the extract was used for 

HPLC analysis. The peptide profile of the Morinda citrifoilia fruits and 

leaves were studied by using high performance liquid chromatography 

(HPLC). The concentration of micro and macro mineral of M.citrifolia 

leaves was found to be more than fruits. The HPLC analysis of the peptide 

profile of the M.citrifolia revealed the following peptide in various 

concentration such as Gly-Tyr, val-Tyr-Val, Meth-Enkaphalin and Leu- 

Enkaphalin. Overall, the peptide concentration of the leaf extract was 

found to be more than the fruit extract. High level of peptide Val-Tyr-Val 

was found in leaf extract (15.856 ppm) while in fruit the peptide Leuenkephalin 

was maximum (3.697 ppm). The peptide analysis of the 

M.citrifolia may be useful in studying various alkaloids present in the 

fruits and leaves and will be of use in studying the effect of Morinda 

extract in immune system regulation. 

Introduction 

Andaman & Nicobar Islands have a vast variety and diversity in tropical 

underutilized fruits. Their plant parts have a close association with local beliefs 

and rituals and are used in health care needs in rich ethnic life of people. The 

interesting fact is that the tribes i.e., Nicobari tribes of these islands have very 

long association with noni plant, as they have been using different parts as 

medicine for different purposes. They consume its fruits raw with salt as well 

as cooked vegetables (Singh et al., 2005).

D.R.Singh et al. Peptide and Mineral profile of Morinda citrifolia fruits and leaves 

Morinda citrifolia, commonly known as noni, is a shrub or small tree belongs 

to a family Rubiaceae, is a native to Southeast Asia and Australia but has been 

extensively spread by man throughout India and into the Pacific islands. In 

Andaman & Nicoabri islands, it is commonly known as Lovany, Burmaphal, 

Pongee phal and Surangi by the tribals ( Singh et. el., 2005). 

Over the last decade, a growing number of people have become interested in 

the medicinal uses of noni juice, made from the fruit of the Indian mulberry 

(Morinda citrifolia) of the South Pacific Islands of Tahiti, and more recently 

from Hawaii. Morinda citrifolia has been used in folk remedies by Polynesians 

for over 2000 years, and is reported to have a broad range of therapeutic 

effects, including antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antitumor, antihelminthic, 

analgesic, hypotensive, anti-inflammatory, and immune enhancing effects (Singh 

et.al., 1984, Whistler, 1985). It has attained significant economic importance 

worldwide in recent years through a variety of health and cosmetic products 

made from leaves and fruits. These include fruit juice as well as powders made 

from the fruit or leaves. However, scientific evidence or the research findings 

are limited.The history of published medical research on noni phytochemicals 

numbers only around a total of 120 reports which began appearing in the 

1950s. Just since 2000, about 105 publications on noni have been published 

in medical literature, defining a relatively young research field. Nearly all noni 

research is at a preliminary stage, still in the laboratory as in vitro or basic 

animal experiments. Despite the large market for juice products and research 

developments, the nutrient and phytochemical profiles of noni have not been 

extensively studied. 

Morinda citrifolia has been documented to contain a mixture of 

anthraquinones, organic acids, xeronine, several vitamins (such as beta-carotene, 

niacin, riboflavin, thiamine), some minerals, iron and calcium (Duke, 1992, 

Levand & Larson , 1979, Moorthy & Reddy, 1970).The potassium content is 

similar to that in tomato juice and orange juice. Some of the beneficial 

constituents of Noni include various terpene compounds, caproic and caprylic 

acids, vitamin C and alkaloids. However, Noni is most famous for the presence 

of an alkaloid proxeronine, which is believed to be a precursor to xeronine 

(Heinicke, 1985). 

In order to obtain better understanding of the medicinal characteristics of the 

noni fruits and leaves, the biochemical profile and the mineral compositions 

of the fruits and leaves of the M.citrifolia is very important. The present study 

was conducted to study the biochemical profile and the mineral profile of the 

fruit and leaf of M. citrifolia plants present in different locality of these islands. 

The extent and pattern of mineral deficiencies/imbalances in plants vary in 

different agro-climatic condition as available mineral content in the green 




vegetation depend on physical and chemical property of soil, soil erosion, 

cropping pattern, fertilizer/chemical application, species and genetic difference 

of plant, stage of maturity, presence of other mineral, etc. (McDowell et al., 

1993). Studies on soil-plant relationship in respect of minerals are important 

and to understand the mineral uptake and the contents of the fruits and leaves 

the soil from the respective areas were also collected for micro and macro 

mineral analysis. 

Materials & Methods 

An extensive survey was made in South Andaman and as per the location of the 

tree various accessions were given and soil samples were collected by using 

maun cover (7 cm & 60 cm length) auger. The soil samples were air dried, 

powdered with wooden mallet and sieved through a 2 mm sieve. The sieved 

samples ( < 2 mm) were analyzed for potassium ( K), sodium ( Na), calcium 

( Ca), magnesium ( Mg), iron ( Fe), copper ( Cu), manganese (Mn) and zinc 

( Zn) content as suggested by Page et al., ( 1982). 

The fruit qualitative parameters were determined by the method as described 

by Ranganna (1986). The TSS of the samples was estimated by hand 

refractometer. The fruit size and general appearance were estimated by 

metroglyph method and mature fruits of different accessions were washed and 

pulp was taken out with the help of knife and dried in an air circulatory tray 

drier at 60 0 C for 48 h. Dried pieces were cooled and powdered in a heavy duty 

grinder. For analysis, the powder was sieved using a 60 mesh sieve and packed 

in 200 gauge high density polythene bags (Chavan et al., 1995). The quantitative 

estimation of minerals in fruits and leaves were carried out by using an atomic 

absorption spectrophotometer. The dry ashing method was followed for 

estimation of micro and macro minerals immature dried leaves (Jones et al., 

1969). 

Peptide profile by HPLC : Raw juice extracted from M. citrifolia fruits and leaves 

were prepared for estimation of the peptide profile. The peptide profile of the 

Morinda citrifoilia fruits and leaves water extract were studied by using high 

performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The water extract of M.citrifolia 

fruits and leaves were prepared and filtered through 0.45 u membrane filter. 

The extract was run through HPLC column C-18 with mobile phase water and 

acetonitrinle in 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in gradient condition. The flow 

rate of the column was adjusted at 1 ml/min. The standard peptide mixtures 

were run through the column. The eluent A of mobile phase was a 0.1% by 

weight aqueous solution of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and eluent B was 

acetonitrile containing 0.1% by weight TFA. A fifty minute linear gradient from 

0 to 30% B was run at a flow rate of 1 ml/min.


Mobile phase : 

A – Water with 0.1 % TFA 

B – Acetonitrile with 0.1 %TFA 

Detector : UV- 210 nm 

Column : Luna 5 u C-18 (2) (4.6X 250 mm) 

Gradient : 

Results & Discussion 

Physico-chemical properties of fruits 

Time (min) B % 

0.01 2 

30 30 

30.1 2 

50 2 

The total soluble solids (TSS) of the fruit were higher in JGH-5 followed by HD- 

6 while minimum was in accession SPG-2. Maximum ascorbic acid content was 

recorded in HD-6, followed by PBAY-7 (Table 1). The ascorbic acid ranged 

among all the accessions from 92.30 to 139.87 mg/100g. The fruit weight and 

juice was recorded maximum in HD-6 followed by PBAY-7 while minimum fruit 

weight was recorded in SPG-2. The minimum juice % was recorded in JGH-5. 

In overall quality of the fruit HD-6 was found to be the best among the various 

accessions. In the present study the various qualitative parameters are different 

from each other; this might be attributed to tropical humid and unique climatic 

conditions of Andaman & Nicobar Islands. 

Minerals in fruits and leaves 

As indicated in table 2 leaf and fruit powder of all the accessions was found 

quite rich in minerals like K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu and Mn. Maximum K was found 

in MEM-3 as 1182 ppm and minimum in SPG-2 (101 ppm) while on an 

average the potassium content was higher in leaf as 1390 ppm where as 935.9 

ppm was recorded in fruit. Calcium, magnesium and iron content were recorded 

highest in HD-6 accession, and minimum calcium and iron was recorded in 

accession FF-8 while magnesium was lowest found in WAND-4. The copper and 

manganese content ranged from 2.13 to 28.5 ppm and 3.98-4.75 ppm 

respectively. However, the maximum copper content was recorded in WAND-4 

as 28.58 ppm while minimum in SPG-2 as 2.13 ppm. In all accession the 

copper was at higher side in fruits (18.65 ppm) whereas in leaf it was recorded 

minimum as 6.7 ppm. However, manganese was higher in leaf as 23.4 ppm 

while in fruits it was just recorded as 4.21 ppm. 




Peptide profile of leaf and fruits 

The water extract of fruit and leaves were run in HPLC; C-18 column to study 

the peptide profile. The following di-peptide, tri-peptdie and pentapeptide profile 

were obtained such as Ly-Tyr, val-Tyr-Val, Meth-Enkaphalin, Leu- Enkaphalin 

and Angiotensin. The concentration of each peptide is presented in table 3. 

High level of tri-peptide Val-Tyr-Val was found in leaf extract (15.856 ppm). In 

the fruit the level of pentapeptide Leu-Enkepahlin (3.697 ppm) was found to 

be more. An enkephalin is a pentapeptide ending with either leucine (“leu”) 

(Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu) or methionine (“met”) (Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met). Both are 

a product of the proenkephalin gene.Meth-Enkaphalin is an endogenous opiod 

neurotransmitter, neuromodulator, also enhances antibody response and 

immune system function and also function as growth factor (Beck et.al., 2001). 

Enkephalins play many roles in regulating pain.The peptide analysis of the 

M.citrifolia may be useful in studying various alkaloids present in the fruits and 

leaves and will be of use in studying the effect of Morinda extract in immune 

system regulation. Overall, the peptide concentration of the leaf extract was 

found to be more than the fruit extract except the Ly-Tyr which is more in fruit 

than in leaf. 

Physico-chemical properties of soil 

The physico-chemical properties of the soils revealed that the soils are of acidic 

in nature with pH varied from 4.6-6.1. The average organic carbon content of 

all the soils was recorded to be greater than 0.75 while the soil moisture varied 

from 18-23%. The mineral profile of the soil in general is reported to be more 

than the normal level in almost all the soil. Except the concentration of sodium 

and zinc the level of all other mineral were found to be in normal range (Table 

4). The level of Zn was very low in all the soils except the soil of accession 

WAND-4(17.82 ppm) which was recorded to be very high. Very high level of 

mineral such as Ca, Mg and Fe was detected in almost all the soil. The maximum 

level of K was detected in soil of accession SPG-2 (151.1 ppm) while the 

lowest level was detected in soil of accession PBAY-7 (29.50 ppm). Overall, the 

level of all the micro and macro mineral profile of the soil was normal except 

for few minerals such as Na and Zn. 

Nutrient analyses for a major brand of noni juice (Tahitian Noni Juice, TNJ) 

were published in 2002 by the Scientific Committee on Food of the European 

Commission on Health and Consumer Protection (ECHCP). The report suggest 

that the whole fruit powder has excellent level of carbohydrates and dietary 

fiber, protein (12% DRI), low in fat (4% DRI).The macro nutrients is present 

in sparse amount. The pulp of the fruit is reported to contain high level of Vit.C, 

niacin (Vit. B3), Fe while K, Vit.A, Ca and Na present in moderate amount. In


the present study, the similar trend of micro and macro nutrients was obtained. 

The high level of ascorbic acid was obtained in almost all the accession. The 

average value was recorded as 113 mg /100g. Varieties in nutrient composition 

in leaf and fruit from one accession to another might be attributed to tropical 

hot and humid climatic condition prevailing in Andaman & Nicobar islands. 

Table1: Comparison of Ascorbic acid content, TSS and Juice 

percentage of Morinda citrifolia fruits collected from different 

accessions (in ppm) 

Accession Fruit wt. (g) Ascorbic acid TSS Juice % 

(mg/100g) ( o brix) 

GAH-1 78.44 111.80 8.0 38.66 

SPG-2 70.35 92.30 6.0 32.46 

MEM-3 115.70 106.60 8.6 33.11 

WAND-4 97.93 7.0 38.14 

JGH-5 127.55 107.47 9.0 29.92 

HD-6 163.99 139.87 8.7 60.25 

PBAY-7 134.50 132.60 7.0 38.29 

Table 2: Nutrient analysis in Morinda citrifolia fruits collected from 

different accessions (in ppm) 

Accession K Ca Mg Fe Cu Mn 

GAH-1 1174 52.14 167.53 29.13 27.13 4.15 

SPG-2 101 45.73 162.54 20.98 2.13 4.08 

MEM-3 1182 50.75 168.58 30.51 22.45 4.05 

WAND-4 968 45.51 162.04 25.51 28.58 4.18 

JGH-5 1175 46.25 165.00 25.19 25.20 4.06 

HD-6 1226 58.89 196.64 42.44 2.44 4.75 

PBAY-7 1158 48.51 185.13 35.41 25.42 4.09 

FF-8 1048 42.25 171.54 29.53 22.41 3.98 

Fruit Avg. 935.9 49.12 173.77 30.21 18.65 4.21 

Leaf Avg. 1390 60.08 533 44 6.7 23.4 



Table 3 : Peptide profile of the Morinda citrifolia fruit and leaf (in 

ppm) 

Extract Ly-Tyr Val-Tyr-Val Meth-Enkepahlin Leu-enkephalin 

Morinda fruit 1.04 0.114 0.865 3.697 

Morinda leaf 0.705 15.856 4.135 1.307 

Table 4: Major and micronutrient analysis in soil samples collected 

from different accessions of Morinda citrifolia growing areas (in 

ppm) 

Accession K Na Ca Mg Fe Cu Mn Zn 

GAH-1 98.00 55.30 6198.05 924.54 42.99 2.21 43.04 0.24 

SPG-2 151.10 113.10 8409.36 899.82 18.48 0.30 82.88 0.59 

MEM-3 52.20 24.80 5238.10 835.54 19.47 0.19 3.12 0.15 

WAND-4 112.30 102.10 5158.25 953.10 89.06 2.61 77.04 17.82 

JGH-5 72.00 48.10 3388.11 922.15 24.84 3.86 56.13 1.28 

HD-6 66.30 49.30 6238.30 913.04 40.98 2.13 62.30 0.98 

PBAY-7 29.50 23.50 9096.99 830.35 10.54 2.87 54.85 2.36 

FF-8 55.70 28.00 1924.59 818.11 63.55 1.48 34.88 1.04 

Avg. 81.77 58.08 5667.333 886.78 40.951 1.97 50.024 4.24 

Range 


29.5- 23.5- 1924.59- 818.11- 10.54- 0.19- 3.12- 0.15- 

151.1 113.1 9096.99 953.1 89.06 3.86 82.88 17.82


With the mission of educating the people, the World Noni Research Foundation, a nonprofit 

organisation dedicates itself to love and care for Morinda citrifolia., through 

research and development. Learning from the wisdom of the simple people, WNRF aims 

at working with everyone to conserve and improve Noni towards sustainable human and 

ecological health. It will share the Noni’s past glory, ethnobotany, history, science, benefits 

and its multiple uses with all. The INRF also serves as a facilitatory body for all Noni 

farmers, industries and consumers to establish a sustainable Noni economy network. The 

WNRF collectively represents the interests of all people in the Noni research and industry. 

It is an independent body and committed to exclusive Noni research and development. The 

WNRF website, journals and news letters are established to provide a non-biased forum 

for the researchers, consumers and industries to publicise their research findings and 

experiences with Morinda species. 

WNRF believes that this synergistic effort of scientists and people of ‘Noni Solidarity’ would 

empower millions of ordinary masses to find their dignity and economic freedom, more 

naturally. This will lead to the realization of our vision “Healthy people, Healthy nation” 

in India and rest of the world. 

Our Programmes Focus on 

� Conserving the Morinda species in India and rest of the world from its degradation. 

� Organising “Noni Biodiversity Action Network” (NBAN) to save endangered (Red 

listed) Morinda species in the above regions. 

� Developing Bioinformatics database on Morinda species existing in India and rest 

of the world and record all Indigenous Technical Knowledge about it. 

� Supporting the research and development programmes on discovering the multiple 

potential of Morinda species in fields like pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, 

cosmetology, dye, agriculture, etc. 

� Sharing the cutting edge action-programmes and research findings with researchers, 

farmers, consumers, food industry leaders, health - drug industry leaders, students 

and masses. 

� Connecting the Morinda species researchers in India and rest of the world. 

� Promoting the Indian Noni for health regenerative systems and processes through 

clinical studies & biotechnological research. 

� Developing “Noni Villages” for Noni based socio-economic development of people 

at the grass-root level. 

� Monitoring and encouraging quality Morinda products in the Market. 

� Regenerating the glory of Indian Noni 

Owned and Published by P.I. Peter from 85, First Main Road, Gandhi Nagar, Adyar, Chennai - 600 020. and 

printed by him at Reliance Printers No. 9, Sardar Patel Road, Adyar, Chennai - 600 020. Editor : P.I. Peter 

RNI TC No. TNENG 04409 / 19.01.05 R Dis No. : 2381/04

AIMS AND SCOPE 

International Journal of Noni Research 

(IJNR) publishes original research and 

review articles on all aspects on Noni 

(Morinda citrifolia L.) and other species 

of Morinda. All submissions will be 

reviewed by the editorial board or by external 

references. The journal covers: diversity, 

cultivation, phytochemistry and clinical 

research, etc. related to Noni. 

Three categories of paper will be considered 

for publication in IJNR. 

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Authors are advised to submit their 

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Chennai – 600 020. 

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Authors are encouraged to submit their 

manuscripts via e-mail as attachment file to 

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photograph. 

REFERENCES 

References in the text should be cited as 

follows 

Single author: Surendiran (2004) or 

(Surendiran, 2004) 

Two authors: Surendiran and Mathivanan 

(2005) or (Surendiran and Mathivanan, 

2005) 

Three or more authors: Mathivanan et 

al. (2006) or (Mathivanan et al., 2006) 

Where two or more than two references are 

quoted consecutively in the text, 

chronological order should be followed. If 

the references are within a year, alphabetical 

must be followed. Where references are 

made to papers by the same author(s) in 

the same year, it should be followed by a, b, 

c, etc. 

References must be listed alphabetically by 

the name of the authors at the end of the 

manuscript. The following style must be 

followed to cite the references 

Journal articles 

Abbott, I.A. 1985. The geographic origin 

of the plants most commonly used for 

medicine by Hawaiians. Journal of 

Ethnopharmacology 14: 213–22. 

Surendiran, G. and Mathivanan, N. 2006. 

Antifungal activity of Morinda citrifolia and 

Morinda pubescens. International Journal 

of Noni Research 2: 18-23. 

Mathivanan, N., Surendiran, G., Srinivasan, 

K., Sagadevan, E. and Malarvizhi, K. 2005. 

Review on the current scenario of Noni 

research: Taxonomy, distribution, chemistry, 

and medicinal and therapeutic values of 

Morinda citrifolia L.. International Journal 

of Noni Research 1: 1 – 9. 

Books or monographs 

Lalithakumari, D. 2000. Fungal Protoplast: 

A Biotechnological Tool. Oxford & IBH 

Publishing Co., Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi. 184p. 

Single author volumes 

Mathivanan, N. 2004. Current scenario of 

the biocontrol potential of Trichoderma 

for the management of plant diseases. In: 

Emerging Trends in Mycology, Plant 

Pathology and Microbial Biotechnology 

(Eds. Bagyanarayana, G., Bhadraiah, B. and 

Kunwar, I.K.), BS Publications, Hyderabad, 

India. pp. 364-382. 

Multi-authors volumes 

Mathivanan, N., Bharati N. Bhat, Prabavathy, 

V.R., Srinivasan, K. and Chelliah, S. (2003). 

Trichiderma viride: Lab to land for the 

management of root diseases in different 

crops. In: Innovative Methods and 

Techniques for Integrated Pest and 

Disease Management (Eds. Mathivanan, 

N., Prabavathy, V.R. and Gomathinayagam, 

S.), Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, 

University of Madras, Chennai, India. pp. 

52-58. 

Thesis / Dissertation 

Surendiran, G. 2004. Antimicrobial 

and Wound Healing Activity of 

Morinda tinctoria. M. Sc. Thesis, 

University of Madras, Chennai, India. 

PROOFS 

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corrections. At this stage, no extensive 

general revision or alteration will be 

allowed. Proof should be corrected and 

returned to the editor within 5 days of 

receipt. 

OFFPRINTS 

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COPYRIGHT 

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the copyright of all the papers that are 

published in the International Journal of 

Noni Research. Authors may use the material 

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