Final Comprehensive Conservation Plan - U.S. Fish and Wildlife ...
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U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> & <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service<br />
Hakalau Forest<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>
A Vision of <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (Ka Pu‘uhonua Waonahele Aupuni ‘o Hakalau)<br />
Aia nō i uka i ke kua ko‘olau o Mauna Kea ka pu‘uhonua waonahele aupuni ‘o<br />
Hakalau. He wahi kēia e hui ai kānaka e laulima ma o ke ka‘analike aku, ka‘analike<br />
mai i ka ‘ike, ka no‘eau, a me ka mana i mea e ho‘opalekana, ho‘oikaika, a ho‘ōla hou<br />
ai i ke ola maoli e noho ana ma ka waonahele. Ua kapa ‘ia ka inoa ‘o Hakalau no ka<br />
nui o nā haka e noho ‘ia e nā manu ‘ōiwi. I kēia lā ‘o Hakalau kekahi o nā home nunui<br />
no ka hui manu Hawai‘i ‘ane make loa. Kīkaha a‘ela nā manu, nā pua laha ‘ole ho‘i, i<br />
ka ‘ohu‘ohu o Hakalau a ma lalo iki e mūkīkī i ka wai pua ‘ōhi‘a. Ua nani nō ka ‘ikena<br />
a ‘upu a‘ela nō ke aloha no kēia ‘āina nei no nā kau a kau.<br />
On the windward slope of majestic Mauna Kea, midway between summit <strong>and</strong> sea,<br />
lies Hakalau Forest NWR, a place where people come together to laulima, “many<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s working together,” to share their knowledge, to share their skills, <strong>and</strong> to<br />
share their energy to protect, to enhance, to restore, <strong>and</strong> to respect Hawaiian<br />
wildlife. Known to Hawaiians as “place of many perches,” verdant rainforest<br />
supports the largest populations of endangered Hawaiian forest birds. Crimson,<br />
orange, yellow <strong>and</strong> green hued birds, the jewels of Hakalau, flit through the mist,<br />
pausing to sip nectar from ‘ōhi‘a lehua, inspire joy <strong>and</strong> wonder for present <strong>and</strong><br />
future generations.<br />
Kona Forest Unit (Ka Waonahele o Kona)<br />
Mai Mauna Kea nō a ka‘a i lalo, a hiki aku i Mauna Loa, ma laila nō ka waonahele o<br />
Kona, kahi e noho lewalewa ana nā ao ‘ōpua i ka ‘uhiwai e hō‘olu‘olu ana i ka ulu lā‘au.<br />
‘Ike ‘ia ka ‘io e kīkaha ana ma luna loa o ka papa kaupoku i ho‘owehiwehi ‘ia me ka<br />
limu. Ma lalo o ke kaupoku koa me ‘ōhi‘a, e ‘imi ana ka ‘alalā me kona hoa manu i ka<br />
hua‘ai, wai pua, a me nā mea kolokolo i mea ‘ai na lākou. Aia nō ma ka malumalu o nā<br />
ana kahe pele kahiko nā mea kanu kāka‘ikahi o ka ‘āina, a me nā iwi o nā manu make<br />
loa ma Hawai‘i. Kuahui maila nō nā hoa mālama ‘āina i ola hou ka nohona o nā mea<br />
‘ane make loa ma kēia ‘āina nui ākea.<br />
On leeward Mauna Loa, where the clouds kiss the slopes with cool gray fog, lies the<br />
Kona Forest. ‘Alalā <strong>and</strong> other Hawaiian forest birds forage for fruit, nectar, <strong>and</strong><br />
insects amongst the lichen-draped branches <strong>and</strong> canopy of the old-growth koa/‘ōhi‘a<br />
forest, while the ‘io soars overhead. In their damp darkness, ancient lava tubes <strong>and</strong><br />
cave systems shelter rare plants, archaeological resources, <strong>and</strong> the bones of extinct<br />
birds. <strong>Conservation</strong> partners collaborate to restore habitat for the native <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered species across the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>s provide long-term guidance for management decisions <strong>and</strong> set<br />
forth goals, objectives, <strong>and</strong> strategies needed to accomplish refuge purposes <strong>and</strong> identify the Service’s<br />
best estimate of future needs. These plans detail program planning levels that are sometimes<br />
substantially above current budget allocations <strong>and</strong>, as such, are primarily for Service strategic<br />
planning <strong>and</strong> program prioritization purposes. The plans do not constitute a commitment for<br />
staffing increases, operational <strong>and</strong> maintenance increases, or funding for future l<strong>and</strong> acquisition.<br />
‘Ōhi‘a tree<br />
©Lesa Moore
Executive Summary<br />
Executive Summary<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Hakalau Forest NWR Background:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR) consists of the Hakalau Forest Unit <strong>and</strong> the Kona<br />
Forest Unit, collectively managed as the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Complex. The Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit was established in 1985 to protect <strong>and</strong> manage endangered forest birds <strong>and</strong> their<br />
rainforest habitat. Located on the windward slope of Mauna Kea, Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i, this 32,733-acre<br />
unit supports a diversity of native birds <strong>and</strong> plants (27 of which are listed under the Endangered<br />
Species Act). The Kona Forest Unit was set aside in 1997 to protect native forest birds, the<br />
endangered ‘alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis, Hawaiian crow), <strong>and</strong> several listed plants. Located on the<br />
leeward slope of Mauna Loa, this 5,300-acre unit supports diverse native bird <strong>and</strong> plant species, as<br />
well as rare lava tube <strong>and</strong> lava tube skylight habitats.<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning Process Summary:<br />
Initial preplanning activities began in 2007. This period included team development <strong>and</strong><br />
identification of management issues, vision, goals, <strong>and</strong> objectives. Public involvement began in 2009<br />
with the scoping process <strong>and</strong> publication of our notice of intent to prepare a CCP. This period<br />
involved mailings of the planning update, a news release <strong>and</strong> website posting, two public open<br />
houses, an interagency scoping meeting, <strong>and</strong> briefings of public officials. In 2010, the draft CCP/EA<br />
was developed <strong>and</strong> circulated for public comment. Notification of this document as well as<br />
solicitation of public comment during the 30 day comment period was accomplished through a<br />
planning update, a notice of availability in the Federal Register, a news release <strong>and</strong> website posting,<br />
holding of a public open house meeting, <strong>and</strong> circulating announcements via email <strong>and</strong> list serves.<br />
Refuge responses to public comments received were incorporated as part of Appendix K.<br />
Alternative Selected (Summary of Management):<br />
Three alternatives were analyzed during the CCP process <strong>and</strong> public comment review period.<br />
Alternative B (the Refuge’s preferred alternative) was chosen for implementation. This alternative<br />
focuses on protecting additional habitat; increasing management activities related to restoration <strong>and</strong><br />
reforestation as well as controlling threats such as feral ungulates, invasive weed species, predator<br />
mammals, <strong>and</strong> other pests; better focusing <strong>and</strong> prioritizing of data collection <strong>and</strong> research for<br />
adaptive management; <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong>ing public use activities <strong>and</strong> collaborative partnering.<br />
The vision (with Hawaiian translation) for Hakalau Forest NWR:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (Ka Pu‘uhonua Waonahele Aupuni ‘o Hakalau)<br />
Aia nō i uka i ke kua ko‘olau o Mauna Kea ka pu‘uhonua waonahele aupuni ‘o Hakalau. He wahi<br />
kēia e hui ai kānaka e laulima ma o ke ka‘analike aku, ka‘analike mai i ka ‘ike, ka no‘eau, a me ka<br />
mana i mea e ho‘opalekana, ho‘oikaika, a ho‘ōla hou ai i ke ola maoli e noho ana ma ka waonahele.<br />
Ua kapa ‘ia ka inoa ‘o Hakalau no ka nui o nā haka e noho ‘ia e nā manu ‘ōiwi. I kēia lā ‘o<br />
Hakalau kekahi o nā home nunui no ka hui manu Hawai‘i ‘ane make loa. Kīkaha a‘ela nā manu, nā<br />
pua laha ‘ole ho‘i, i ka ‘ohu‘ohu o Hakalau a ma lalo iki e mūkīkī i ka wai pua ‘ōhi‘a. Ua nani nō<br />
ka ‘ikena a ‘upu a‘ela nō ke aloha no kēia ‘āina nei no nā kau a kau.
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
On the windward slope of majestic Mauna Kea, midway between summit <strong>and</strong> sea, lies Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR, a place where people come together to laulima, “many h<strong>and</strong>s working together,” to<br />
share their knowledge, to share their skills, <strong>and</strong> to share their energy to protect, to enhance, to restore,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to respect Hawaiian wildlife. Known to Hawaiians as “place of many perches,” verdant<br />
rainforest supports the largest populations of endangered Hawaiian forest birds. Crimson, orange,<br />
yellow, <strong>and</strong> green hued birds, the jewels of Hakalau, flit through the mist, pausing to sip nectar from<br />
‘ōhi‘a lehua, inspire joy <strong>and</strong> wonder for present <strong>and</strong> future generations.<br />
Kona Forest Unit (Ka Waonahele o Kona)<br />
Mai Mauna Kea nō a ka‘a i lalo, a hiki aku i Mauna Loa, ma laila nō ka waonahele o Kona, kahi e<br />
noho lewalewa ana nā ao ‘ōpua i ka ‘uhiwai e hō‘olu‘olu ana i ka ulu lā‘au. ‘Ike ‘ia ka ‘io e kīkaha<br />
ana ma luna loa o ka papa kaupoku i ho‘owehiwehi ‘ia me ka limu. Ma lalo o ke kaupoku koa me<br />
‘ōhi‘a, e ‘imi ana ka ‘alalā me kona hoa manu i ka hua‘ai, wai pua, a me nā mea kolokolo i mea ‘ai<br />
na lākou. Aia nō ma ka malumalu o nā ana kahe pele kahiko nā mea kanu kāka‘ikahi o ka ‘āina, a<br />
me nā iwi o nā manu make loa ma Hawai‘i. Kuahui maila nō nā hoa mālama ‘āina i ola hou ka<br />
nohona o nā mea ‘ane make loa ma kēia ‘āina nui ākea.<br />
On leeward Mauna Loa, where the clouds kiss the slopes with cool gray fog, lies the Kona Forest.<br />
‘Alalā <strong>and</strong> other Hawaiian forest birds forage for fruit, nectar, <strong>and</strong> insects amongst the lichen-draped<br />
branches <strong>and</strong> canopy of the old-growth koa/‘ōhi‘a forest while the ‘io soars overhead. In their damp<br />
darkness, ancient lava tubes <strong>and</strong> cave systems shelter rare plants, archaeological resources, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
bones of extinct birds. <strong>Conservation</strong> partners collaborate to restore habitat for the native <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered species across the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
The six goals (with Hawaiian translation) for Hakalau Forest NWR:<br />
Pahuhopu 1: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a ho‘ōla hou i ka waonahele ma Mauna Loa ma ke ‘ano he<br />
wahi noho no nā mea a pau i mea e kū‘ono‘ono hou ai ka nohona o nā mea ‘ane make loa ‘o ia nō ‘o<br />
‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina.<br />
Goal 1: Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore subtropical rainforest community on the leeward slope of<br />
Mauna Loa as habitat for all life-history needs to promote the recovery of endangered species (e.g.,<br />
forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, <strong>and</strong> invertebrates).<br />
Pahuhopu 2: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i nā ana kahe pele a me ke ola i ka puka mālamalama o nā<br />
ana kahe pele ma ka waonahele o Kona, e kālele ana ho‘i i ke ola o nā lā‘au ‘ōiwi.<br />
Goal 2: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain lava tube <strong>and</strong> lava tube skylight habitat throughout the Kona Forest<br />
Unit, with special emphasis on their unique <strong>and</strong> endemic flora <strong>and</strong> fauna.<br />
Pahuhopu 3: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a hō‘ola hou i ka waonahele ma ka ‘ao‘ao ko‘olau o Mauna<br />
Kea ma ke ‘ano he wahi noho no nā mea a pau a me ko lākou pono ‘oia nō ‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā<br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina.<br />
Executive Summary
Executive Summary<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Goal 3: Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore subtropical rainforest community, on the windward slope of<br />
Mauna Kea as habitat for all life-history needs of endangered species (e.g., forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a,<br />
plants, <strong>and</strong> invertebrates).<br />
Pahuhopu 4: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i ka ‘āina nenelu ma Hakalau.<br />
Goal 4: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain wetl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> aquatic habitats (e.g., streams <strong>and</strong> their associated riparian<br />
corridors, ponds, <strong>and</strong> bogs) on the Hakalau Forest Unit.<br />
Pahuhopu 5: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i ka ‘āina mau‘u i mea e kāko‘o ai i ka ho‘ōla hou ‘ana i ka<br />
hui manu nēnē.<br />
Goal 5: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain grassl<strong>and</strong> habitat to support nēnē population recovery.<br />
Pahuhopu 6: E ‘ohi‘ohi i ka ‘ikepili ‘epekema (waihona ‘ike, nānā pono, ‘imi noi‘i, ana ‘ike) e pono<br />
ai ka ho‘oholo ‘ana i ke ‘ano o ka ho‘okele ‘ana iā Hakalau ma Mauna Kea a me Mauna Loa.<br />
Goal 6: Collect scientific information (inventories, monitoring, research, assessments) necessary to<br />
support adaptive management decisions on both units of the Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Pahuhopu 7: E kipa mai ka po‘e malihini a me ka po‘e maka‘āinana no ka hana manawale‘a ‘ana i<br />
mea e kama‘āina ai lākou i ka nohona o ka waonahele a me ka ‘oihana mālama ma Hakalau.<br />
Goal 7: Visitors, with a special emphasis on experience gained through volunteer work groups <strong>and</strong><br />
local residents, underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or value the native forest environment <strong>and</strong> management practices at<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Pahuhopu 8: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i nā kumu waiwai a me nā wahi pana Hawai‘i no ka<br />
ho‘ona‘auao ‘ana i nā hanauna o kēia wā a me ka wā e hiki mai ana.<br />
Goal 8: Protect <strong>and</strong> manage cultural resources <strong>and</strong> historic sites for their educational <strong>and</strong> cultural<br />
values for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Refuge users <strong>and</strong> communities.
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The objectives <strong>and</strong> major management strategies:<br />
Objectives CCP Action<br />
1.1: Restore <strong>and</strong> Protect Native<br />
Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a Forest<br />
(2,000-4,500 ft elevation) at KFU<br />
1.2: Restore, Protect, <strong>and</strong> Maintain<br />
Native Montane Mesic Koa/‘Ōhi‘a<br />
Forest<br />
(4,500-5,800 ft elevation) at KFU<br />
1.3: Protect, Maintain, <strong>and</strong> Restore<br />
Native Dry Koa/‘Ōhi‘a/Māmane Forest<br />
(5,800-6,100 ft elevation) at KFU<br />
1.4: Develop <strong>and</strong> Implement<br />
Propagation <strong>and</strong> Outplanting Program<br />
at KFU<br />
1.5, 5.3: Investigate <strong>and</strong> Initiate<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape-level Habitat <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
Measures<br />
2.1: Protect & Maintain<br />
Lava Tube <strong>and</strong> Skylight Communities<br />
at KFU<br />
3.1: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Native<br />
Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a/Uluhe<br />
(Dicranopteris sp.) Forest (2,500-4,000<br />
ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3,000 acres. Remove ranch debris. Build <strong>and</strong> maintain<br />
17 mile ungulate-proof fence. Remove pest animals.<br />
Eradicate/control invasive plants. Conduct annual invasive<br />
plant survey; conduct survey for pest animals (based on<br />
surveys control threats). Outplant threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered<br />
(T&E) plants in units 2 <strong>and</strong> 3 <strong>and</strong> build site specific fencing<br />
for these plants.<br />
1,800 acres. Remove ranch debris. Build <strong>and</strong> maintain<br />
fence, eradicate/control invasive plants, <strong>and</strong> remove pest<br />
animals. Conduct annual invasive plant survey; conduct<br />
survey for pest animals (based on surveys control threats).<br />
Outplant native plants. Address wildfire through hazardous<br />
fuels treatment, maintaining fuelbreaks, developing fire<br />
prevention program.<br />
500 acres. Remove ranch debris. Build <strong>and</strong> maintain fence,<br />
eradicate/control invasive plants, <strong>and</strong> remove pest animals.<br />
Conduct annual invasive plant survey; conduct survey for<br />
pest animals (based on surveys control threats). Outplant<br />
T&E plants <strong>and</strong> build site specific fencing for these plants.<br />
500 T&E plants <strong>and</strong> 2,000 native plants provided annually<br />
for restoration. Develop native plant nursery at Mauna Loa<br />
field camp site, collect seeds <strong>and</strong> cuttings, develop (in<br />
7 years) staff, volunteer, <strong>and</strong> partnering programs.<br />
LPP completed within one year. Identify habitats to support<br />
focal species; develop protection strategies; work proactively<br />
with partners, neighbors, <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>owners where<br />
appropriate to meet conservation goals <strong>and</strong> develop specific<br />
project proposals for l<strong>and</strong> acquisition, cooperative<br />
agreements, <strong>and</strong>/or conservation easements as key<br />
conservation opportunities arise <strong>and</strong> willing parties are<br />
identified.<br />
Remove ranch debris. Build <strong>and</strong> maintain fence <strong>and</strong> develop<br />
site specific access protocols to limit human disturbance to<br />
habitat. Eradicate/control invasive plants, <strong>and</strong> remove pest<br />
animals. Conduct survey for pest animals (based on surveys<br />
control threats). Inventory <strong>and</strong> map communities <strong>and</strong><br />
support additional investigations <strong>and</strong> research.<br />
7,000 acres. Remove pest animals, eradicate/control invasive<br />
plants, build site-specific fencing to protect T&E plant<br />
populations <strong>and</strong> Carex sp. bogs. Conduct annual invasive<br />
plant survey; conduct survey for pest animals (based on<br />
surveys control threats). Inventory vegetation, complete<br />
Wilderness Study.<br />
Executive Summary
Executive Summary<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Objectives CCP Action<br />
3.2: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Native<br />
Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a Forest<br />
(4,000-5,000 ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3.3: Restore, Protect, <strong>and</strong> Maintain<br />
Native Montane Wet Koa/‘Ōhi‘a<br />
Forest<br />
(5,000-6,000 ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3.4: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Native<br />
Montane Mesic Koa Forest (6,000-<br />
6,600 ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3.5: Restore/Reforest Native Montane<br />
Mesic Koa Forest<br />
(6,000-6,600 ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3.6: Maintain <strong>and</strong> Enhance<br />
Propagation <strong>and</strong> Outplanting Program<br />
at HFU<br />
4.1: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Streams <strong>and</strong><br />
Stream Corridors at HFU<br />
4.2: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain<br />
Semipermanent Natural Ponds at HFU<br />
4.3: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Carex Bogs<br />
within the Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a/Uluhe<br />
Forest at HFU<br />
8,200 acres. Maintain existing fence (units 1-8), build <strong>and</strong><br />
maintain fence. Eradicate/control invasive plants <strong>and</strong> remove<br />
pest animals. Conduct annual invasive plant survey; conduct<br />
survey for pest animals (based on surveys control threats).<br />
Outplant native overstory koa <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a, T&E plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
common understory plants. Build site specific fencing for<br />
T&E plants. Complete Wilderness Study.<br />
5,000 acres. Maintain existing fence, build <strong>and</strong> maintain<br />
fence along Middle Maulua tract boundary (unit 9).<br />
Eradicate/control invasive plants <strong>and</strong> remove pest animals.<br />
Conduct annual invasive plant survey; conduct survey for<br />
pest animals (based on surveys control threats, particularly<br />
Vespula sp. ). Outplant T&E plants <strong>and</strong> build site-specific<br />
fencing to protect T&E plant populations.<br />
3,500 acres. Maintain existing fence. Eradicate/control<br />
invasive plants <strong>and</strong> remove pest animals. Conduct annual<br />
invasive plant survey; conduct survey for pest animals (based<br />
on surveys control threats, particularly Vespula sp. ).<br />
Outplant T&E plants <strong>and</strong> build site-specific fencing to<br />
protect T&E plant populations. Address wildfire through<br />
hazardous fuels treatment, maintaining fuelbreaks,<br />
developing fire prevention program.<br />
2,500 acres. Maintain fence. Eradicate/control invasive<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> remove pest animals. Conduct annual invasive<br />
plant survey; conduct survey for pest animals (based on<br />
surveys control threats). Outplant 300 koa per acre, use<br />
excluder devices to deter turkeys on koa seedlings, outplant<br />
native understory species <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a at 150 per acres,<br />
outplant 100-300 T&E plants <strong>and</strong> build site-specific fencing<br />
to protect these plants. Address wildfire through hazardous<br />
fuels treatment, maintaining fuelbreaks, developing fire<br />
prevention program.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t 10,000 koa per year for 5 years: 5,000 per year for the<br />
next 10 years, 8-10,000 natives <strong>and</strong> 300-1,200 T&E<br />
plantings per year. Exp<strong>and</strong> native plant nursery at Mauna<br />
Kea administration site, collect seeds <strong>and</strong> cuttings, outplant,<br />
<strong>and</strong> develop partnerships to assist with propagation program.<br />
Maintain fencing. Eradicate/control invasive plants. Conduct<br />
annual invasive plant survey; conduct survey for pest<br />
animals (based on surveys control threats). Inventory streams<br />
<strong>and</strong> stream corridors.<br />
Maintain fencing, conduct survey for pest animals (based on<br />
surveys control threats).<br />
Install fencing to protect bogs, conduct survey for pest<br />
animals (based on surveys control threats), survey extent <strong>and</strong><br />
number of bogs.
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Objectives CCP Action<br />
5.1: Maintain Managed Grassl<strong>and</strong> for<br />
Foraging Nēnē at HFU<br />
5.2: Maintain Grassl<strong>and</strong> Habitats for<br />
Nēnē Nesting at HFU<br />
6.1: Conduct High-Priority Inventory<br />
<strong>and</strong> Monitoring (Survey) Activities that<br />
Evaluate Resource Management <strong>and</strong><br />
Public-Use Activities to Facilitate<br />
Adaptive Management<br />
6.2: Conduct High-Priority Research<br />
Projects that Provide the Best Science<br />
for Habitat <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Management<br />
On <strong>and</strong> Off the Refuge<br />
6.3: Conduct Scientific Assessments to<br />
Provide Baseline Information to<br />
Exp<strong>and</strong> Knowledge Regarding the<br />
Status of Refuge Resources to Better<br />
Inform Resource Management<br />
Decisions<br />
7.1: Establish Compatible <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
Observation <strong>and</strong> Photography<br />
Opportunities<br />
7.2: Promote <strong>and</strong> Enhance Volunteer<br />
Program<br />
7.3: Support Existing Outside<br />
Programs for On <strong>and</strong> Off Site<br />
Environmental Education <strong>and</strong> Develop<br />
Interpretive Opportunities<br />
7.4: Enhance Outreach Targeting<br />
Local Communities to Promote<br />
Appreciation of <strong>and</strong> Generate Support<br />
for the KFU<br />
65 acres. Maintain fuel breaks <strong>and</strong> fence corridors, build <strong>and</strong><br />
maintain fence. Eradicate/control invasive plants. Conduct<br />
survey for pest animals (based on surveys control threats).<br />
15 acres. Maintain fence <strong>and</strong> build predator proof fence on<br />
15-acre grassl<strong>and</strong> breeding site away from administrative site<br />
at Pua ‘Ākala tract. Eradicate/control invasive plants <strong>and</strong><br />
remove pest animals. Conduct survey for pest animals (based<br />
on surveys control threats).<br />
An initial list of survey <strong>and</strong> monitoring activities have been<br />
identified <strong>and</strong> include examples such as monitoring nesting<br />
density <strong>and</strong> success of nēnē, inventorying all endemic<br />
species, instituting early detection <strong>and</strong> rapid response<br />
monitoring for threat management, monitoring plant <strong>and</strong><br />
animal diseases, <strong>and</strong> others.<br />
An initial list of research projects have been identified <strong>and</strong><br />
include examples such as investigating <strong>and</strong> monitoring<br />
endangered plant propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting, research on<br />
arthropod abundance, researching demography, life-history,<br />
carrying capacity, <strong>and</strong> competition for native forest birds,<br />
<strong>and</strong> others.<br />
An initial list of scientific assessments have been identified<br />
<strong>and</strong> include examples such as determining ecological<br />
parameters for ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, determining the role of predators<br />
in native flora <strong>and</strong> fauna abundance, assessing global climate<br />
change impacts on the Refuge, <strong>and</strong> others.<br />
Develop Upper Maulua Tract interpretive trail (0.3-0.5 mile)<br />
<strong>and</strong> parking area. Work with Friends of Hakalau Forest to<br />
develop brochure.<br />
Maintain volunteer program <strong>and</strong> current 35-40 service<br />
weekends at HFU, develop seasonal volunteer program to<br />
supplement staffing <strong>and</strong> weekend programs, develop KFU<br />
volunteer program similar to HFU.<br />
Increase environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretive programs<br />
(via coordinating more with County, State, <strong>and</strong> nongovernmental<br />
organizations <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong>ing interpretive<br />
programs relative to cultural resources/historic sites) to<br />
include 168 participants annually. Continue interpretive<br />
walks offered during annual Refuge open house.<br />
Work with existing partners to promote awareness <strong>and</strong><br />
appreciation. Develop <strong>and</strong> cultivate new partners <strong>and</strong><br />
outreach efforts.<br />
Executive Summary
Executive Summary<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Objectives CCP Action<br />
8.1: Increase Identification,<br />
Monitoring, Protection, <strong>and</strong><br />
Restoration of all Cultural Resources<br />
<strong>and</strong> Historic Sites, while Increasing<br />
Staff <strong>and</strong> Public Support <strong>and</strong><br />
Appreciation<br />
Evaluate known/potential Refuge cultural resources <strong>and</strong><br />
historic sites, develop guidelines for cultural activities,<br />
identify cultural practitioners to develop underst<strong>and</strong>ing of<br />
cultural/historic sites at the Refuge, develop interpretive<br />
programming <strong>and</strong> products relative to cultural <strong>and</strong> historic<br />
sites in partnership with Native Hawaiian groups; conduct<br />
comprehensive cultural resources investigation of both units.<br />
Implementation of the <strong>Plan</strong>:<br />
Over the next 15 years, Refuge staff will be implementing these various strategies as funding <strong>and</strong><br />
staffing allow. We look forward to continue working with our partners <strong>and</strong> the public as we<br />
strive to attain our goals <strong>and</strong> vision for these unique Hawaiian rainforests <strong>and</strong> the numerous<br />
native plants <strong>and</strong> animals that depend upon them for their survival.
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table of Contents<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background ..................................................................................... 1-1<br />
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1-1<br />
1.2 Purpose <strong>and</strong> Need for the CCP ........................................................................................... 1-1<br />
1.3 Content <strong>and</strong> Scope of the CCP ........................................................................................... 1-2<br />
1.4 <strong>Plan</strong>ning <strong>and</strong> Management Guidance ................................................................................ 1-2<br />
1.4.1 U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service Mission ....................................................................... 1-2<br />
1.4.2 National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System ................................................................................. 1-9<br />
1.4.3 National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Administration Act ............................................... 1-10<br />
1.5 Relationship to Previous <strong>and</strong> Future Refuge <strong>Plan</strong>s ........................................................ 1-11<br />
1.5.1 Previous <strong>Plan</strong>s ............................................................................................................ 1-11<br />
1.5.2 Future <strong>Plan</strong>ning .......................................................................................................... 1-12<br />
1.6 Refuge Establishment <strong>and</strong> Purposes ................................................................................ 1-12<br />
1.6.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Purposes .................................................................................. 1-13<br />
1.6.2 Kona Forest Unit Purposes ...................................................................................... 1-13<br />
1.7 Relationship to Ecosystem Management Goals or <strong>Plan</strong>s ............................................... 1-13<br />
1.7.1 L<strong>and</strong>scape Level Initiatives ..................................................................................... 1-13<br />
1.7.2 Statewide <strong>Plan</strong>s (including Threatened <strong>and</strong> Endangered Species<br />
Recovery <strong>Plan</strong>s) ...................................................................................................... 1-18<br />
1.8 <strong>Plan</strong>ning <strong>and</strong> Issue Identification ..................................................................................... 1-27<br />
1.8.1 Public Scoping Sessions ............................................................................................. 1-27<br />
1.8.2 Interagency Scoping ................................................................................................... 1-29<br />
1.8.3 Forest Bird Workshop ................................................................................................ 1-30<br />
1.9 Refuge Vision ..................................................................................................................... 1-32<br />
1.10 Refuge Goals ...................................................................................................................... 1-33<br />
1.11 References .......................................................................................................................... 1-34<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction .................................................................................... 2-1<br />
2.1 Considerations in the Design of the CCP........................................................................... 2-1<br />
2.2 General Guidelines .............................................................................................................. 2-1<br />
2.3 Goals, Objectives, <strong>and</strong> Strategies ..................................................................................... 2-12<br />
2.3.1 Kona Forest Unit ........................................................................................................ 2-13<br />
2.3.1.1 Goal 1: Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore subtropical rainforest community<br />
on the leeward slope of Mauna Loa as habitat for all life-history needs<br />
to promote the recovery of endangered species (e.g., forest birds,<br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, <strong>and</strong> invertebrates). ............................................................... 2-13<br />
2.3.1.2 Goal 2: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain lava tube <strong>and</strong> lava tube skylight habitat<br />
throughout the Kona Forest Unit, with special emphasis on their unique<br />
<strong>and</strong> endemic flora <strong>and</strong> fauna. ............................................................................. 2-19<br />
2.3.2 Hakalau Forest Unit .................................................................................................... 2-20<br />
2.3.2.1 Goal 3: Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore subtropical rainforest community<br />
on the windward slope of Mauna Kea as habitat for all life-history needs<br />
of endangered species (e.g., forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
invertebrates) ..................................................................................................... 2-20<br />
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Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
2.3.2.2 Goal 4: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain wetl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> aquatic habitats (e.g., streams<br />
<strong>and</strong> their associated riparian corridors, ponds, <strong>and</strong> bogs) on the Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit. ........................................................................................................ 2-28<br />
2.3.2.3 Goal 5: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain grassl<strong>and</strong> habitat to support nēnē population<br />
recovery ............................................................................................................. 2-30<br />
2.3.3 Both Hakalau Forest <strong>and</strong> Kona Forest Units .............................................................. 2-33<br />
2.3.3.1 Goal 6: Collect scientific information (inventories, monitoring, research,<br />
assessments) necessary to support adaptive management decisions on<br />
both units of Hakalau Forest NWR. .................................................................. 2-33<br />
2.3.3.2 Goal 7: Visitors, with a special emphasis on experience gained through<br />
volunteer work groups <strong>and</strong> local residents, underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or value<br />
the native forest environment <strong>and</strong> management practices at Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR. ...................................................................................................... 2-37<br />
2.3.3.3 Goal 8: Protect <strong>and</strong> manage cultural resources <strong>and</strong> historic sites for their<br />
educational <strong>and</strong> cultural values for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future<br />
generations of Refuge users <strong>and</strong> communities. ................................................. 2-40<br />
2.4 References ........................................................................................................................... 2-42<br />
Chapter 3. Physical Environment .................................................................................................. 3-1<br />
3.1 Climate .................................................................................................................................. 3-1<br />
3.1.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Climate ........................................................................................ 3-2<br />
3.1.2 Kona Forest Unit Climate ............................................................................................. 3-3<br />
3.2 Geology <strong>and</strong> Soils ................................................................................................................. 3-4<br />
3.2.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Geology <strong>and</strong> Soils ....................................................................... 3-4<br />
3.2.2 Kona Forest Unit Geology <strong>and</strong> Soils ............................................................................ 3-6<br />
3.3 Hydrology ............................................................................................................................. 3-8<br />
3.3.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Hydrology ................................................................................. 3-10<br />
3.3.2 Kona Forest Unit Hydrology ...................................................................................... 3-11<br />
3.4 Topography ........................................................................................................................ 3-11<br />
3.4.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Topography ............................................................................... 3-12<br />
3.4.2 Kona Forest Unit Topography .................................................................................... 3-12<br />
3.5 Environmental Contaminants .......................................................................................... 3-12<br />
3.5.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Contaminants ............................................................................ 3-12<br />
3.5.2 Kona Forest Unit Contaminants ................................................................................. 3-13<br />
3.6 L<strong>and</strong> Use ............................................................................................................................. 3-13<br />
3.6.1 Local L<strong>and</strong> Use Designations: Hakalau Forest Unit ................................................. 3-13<br />
3.6.2 Local L<strong>and</strong> Use Designations: Kona Forest Unit ...................................................... 3-15<br />
3.7 Global Climate Change ...................................................................................................... 3-17<br />
3.8 References ........................................................................................................................... 3-20<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats ...................................................................................... 4-1<br />
4.1 Biological Integrity Analysis ............................................................................................... 4-1<br />
4.2 <strong>Conservation</strong> Target Selection <strong>and</strong> Analysis ..................................................................... 4-2<br />
4.3 Habitats ................................................................................................................................. 4-5<br />
4.3.1 Hakalau Forest Unit ...................................................................................................... 4-5<br />
4.3.2 Kona Forest Unit ........................................................................................................ 4-10<br />
4.4 Endangered Hawaiian Forest Birds ................................................................................. 4-14<br />
4.4.1 ‘Akiapōlā‘au ............................................................................................................... 4-16<br />
ii Table of Contents
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
4.4.2 Hawai‘i ‘Ākepa .......................................................................................................... 4-21<br />
4.4.3 Hawai‘i Creeper .......................................................................................................... 4-24<br />
4.4.4 ‘Ō‘ū ............................................................................................................................ 4-25<br />
4.4.5 ‘Ālalā .......................................................................................................................... 4-27<br />
4.4.6 ‘Io ............................................................................................................................... 4-29<br />
4.5 Other Native Hawaiian Forest Birds ............................................................................... 4-31<br />
4.5.1 ‘I‘iwi ........................................................................................................................... 4-32<br />
4.5.2 Common ‘Amakihi ..................................................................................................... 4-33<br />
4.5.3 ‘Apanane..................................................................................................................... 4-35<br />
4.5.4 Hawai‘i ‘Elepaio ......................................................................................................... 4-36<br />
4.5.5 ‘Ōma‘o ........................................................................................................................ 4-38<br />
4.5.6 Pueo ............................................................................................................................ 4-39<br />
4.6 Endangered Hawaiian Waterbirds .................................................................................. 4-40<br />
4.6.1 Nēnē ............................................................................................................................ 4-41<br />
4.6.2 Koloa Maoli ................................................................................................................ 4-42<br />
4.6.3 ‘Alae ke‘oke‘o ............................................................................................................ 4-43<br />
4.7 Endangered Mammal ........................................................................................................ 4-44<br />
4.7.1 ‘Ōpe‘ape‘a .................................................................................................................. 4-44<br />
4.8 Native Hawaiian Invertebrates ......................................................................................... 4-45<br />
4.8.1 Picture-wing Flies ....................................................................................................... 4-46<br />
4.8.2 Koa Bug ...................................................................................................................... 4-47<br />
4.8.3 Cave Invertebrates ...................................................................................................... 4-48<br />
4.8.4 Arthropods .................................................................................................................. 4-49<br />
4.8.5 Mollusks ..................................................................................................................... 4-56<br />
4.9 Endangered <strong>and</strong> Threatened <strong>Plan</strong>ts ................................................................................. 4-57<br />
4.9.1 Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare .......................................................................... 4-58<br />
4.9.2 Clermontia lindseyana ................................................................................................ 4-59<br />
4.9.3 Clermontia peleana .................................................................................................... 4-60<br />
4.9.4 Clermontia pyrularia .................................................................................................. 4-61<br />
4.9.5 Hāhā ............................................................................................................................ 4-62<br />
4.9.6 ‘Aku‘aku ..................................................................................................................... 4-62<br />
4.9.7 Cyanea shipmanii ....................................................................................................... 4-63<br />
4.9.8 Cyanea stictophylla .................................................................................................... 4-64<br />
4.9.9 Ha‘iwale ..................................................................................................................... 4-65<br />
4.9.10 ‘Aiea ......................................................................................................................... 4-65<br />
4.9.11 Phyllostegia floribunda ............................................................................................ 4-66<br />
4.9.12 Kīponapona ............................................................................................................... 4-67<br />
4.9.13 Phyllostegia velutina ................................................................................................ 4-68<br />
4.9.14 Po‘e ........................................................................................................................... 4-68<br />
4.9.15 ‘Ānunu ...................................................................................................................... 4-69<br />
4.9.16 Silene hawaiiensis .................................................................................................... 4-70<br />
4.10 Other Native <strong>Plan</strong>ts ......................................................................................................... 4-70<br />
4.10.1 Koa ........................................................................................................................... 4-76<br />
4.10.2‘Ōhi‘a .......................................................................................................................... 4-78<br />
4.10.3 Māmane ..................................................................................................................... 4-80<br />
4.11 Cave Resources ................................................................................................................ 4-80<br />
4.12 Threats .............................................................................................................................. 4-82<br />
4.12.1 Introduced Forest Birds ............................................................................................ 4-83<br />
Table of Contents iii
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
4.12.2 Introduced Game Birds ............................................................................................. 4-85<br />
4.12.3 Introduced Mammals ................................................................................................ 4-85<br />
4.12.4 Introduced Reptiles <strong>and</strong> Amphibians ....................................................................... 4-93<br />
4.12.5 Introduced Arthropods .............................................................................................. 4-94<br />
4.12.6 Introduced <strong>Plan</strong>ts ...................................................................................................... 4-96<br />
4.12.7 Introduced Mollusks ............................................................................................... 4-109<br />
4.13 Special Designation Areas ............................................................................................ 4-109<br />
4.14 References ....................................................................................................................... 4-109<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment ............................................................................. 5-1<br />
5.1 Refuge Infrastructure <strong>and</strong> Administrative Facilities ....................................................... 5-1<br />
5.1.1 Hakalau Forest Unit ...................................................................................................... 5-1<br />
5.1.2 Kona Forest Unit .......................................................................................................... 5-2<br />
5.1.3 Hilo Administrative Office ........................................................................................... 5-2<br />
5.2 Public Use Overview ............................................................................................................ 5-2<br />
5.2.1 Federal, State, <strong>and</strong> County Recreational Parks ............................................................ 5-2<br />
5.2.2 <strong>Wildlife</strong> Observation <strong>and</strong> Environmental Education .................................................. 5-11<br />
5.2.3 Camping ..................................................................................................................... 5-13<br />
5.2.4 Hiking ......................................................................................................................... 5-13<br />
5.2.5 Hunting ....................................................................................................................... 5-13<br />
5.2.6 Refuge Public Use Opportunities ............................................................................... 5-14<br />
5.2.7 Recreational Trends <strong>and</strong> Dem<strong>and</strong>s ............................................................................. 5-17<br />
5.2.8 Impact of Illegal Uses ................................................................................................ 5-17<br />
5.2.9 Historic/Cultural Sites ................................................................................................ 5-17<br />
5.2.10 Special Designation Areas ......................................................................................... 5-20<br />
5.3 Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Conditions ...................................................................................... 5-20<br />
5.3.1 Population ................................................................................................................... 5-20<br />
5.3.2 Housing ...................................................................................................................... 5-21<br />
5.3.3 Education .................................................................................................................... 5-21<br />
5.3.4 Employment <strong>and</strong> Income ............................................................................................ 5-22<br />
5.3.5 Economy ..................................................................................................................... 5-23<br />
5.3.6 Refuge Contribution ................................................................................................... 5-25<br />
5.4 References ........................................................................................................................... 5-25<br />
Tables<br />
Table 2-1 Summary of CCP Actions. ............................................................................................... 2-9<br />
Table 3-1 Average Monthly Rainfall (inches) at the Kona Forest Unit, April 1995-<br />
November 1998. .............................................................................................................. 3-3<br />
Table 3-2 Soil types Found Within the Hakalau Forest Unit <strong>and</strong> Key Characteristics. .................... 3-6<br />
Table 3-3 Soil Types Found Within the Kona Forest Unit <strong>and</strong> Key Characteristics. ....................... 3-8<br />
Table 3-4 Streams <strong>and</strong> Tributaries on the Hakalau Forest Unit. ..................................................... 3-10<br />
Table 4-1 Refuge <strong>Conservation</strong> Targets. .......................................................................................... 4-3<br />
Table 4-2 Endangered <strong>and</strong> Rare Native Invertebrate Species Occurring or Potentially<br />
Occurring on Hakalau Forest NWR. ............................................................................. 4-46<br />
Table 4-3 Endemic Arthropods in Three Cave Systems at the KFU. ............................................. 4-49<br />
Table 4-4 Arthropods Occurring at the HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU. ................................................................. 4-53<br />
Table 4-5 Endangered <strong>and</strong> Threatened <strong>Plan</strong>t Species that Occur (or Potentially Occur)<br />
at Hakalau Forest NWR. ............................................................................................... 4-58<br />
iv Table of Contents
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table 4-6 Native Hawaiian <strong>Plan</strong>ts Found on the Units of Hakalau Forest NWR. .......................... 4-71<br />
Table 4-7 Total Native Seedlings Outplanted at the HFU 1987-2007. ........................................... 4-76<br />
Table 4-8 Introduced Forest Birds Present at HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU. ........................................................ 4-84<br />
Table 4-9 Introduced Game birds Present at HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU. ......................................................... 4-85<br />
Table 4-10 List of Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>t Species Known to Currently Occur at Hakalau Forest NWR. ... 4-98<br />
Table 5-1 Legend ID <strong>and</strong> Facility Name for the Vicinity Recreation Map. ..................................... 5-9<br />
Table 5-2 FY 2010 Visitation at the Hakalau Forest Unit. ............................................................. 5-16<br />
Table 5-3 Population Figures for Selected Areas. .......................................................................... 5-21<br />
Table 5-4 Hawai‘i County Industry Job Counts <strong>and</strong> Average Annual Wages. .............................. 5-23<br />
Figures<br />
Figure 1-1 Refuge Vicinity ................................................................................................................ 1-3<br />
Figure 1-2 HFU Location ................................................................................................................... 1-5<br />
Figure 1-3 KFU Location ................................................................................................................... 1-7<br />
Figure 2-1 HFU CCP Management ................................................................................................... 2-5<br />
Figure 2-2 KFU CCP Management ................................................................................................... 2-7<br />
Figure 3-1 Soil Map of the Hakalau Forest Unit ............................................................................... 3-5<br />
Figure 3-2 Soil Map of the Kona Forest Unit .................................................................................... 3-7<br />
Figure 3-3 L<strong>and</strong> Use District Boundaries – Hakalau Forest Unit .................................................... 3-15<br />
Figure 3-4 L<strong>and</strong> Use District Boundaries – Kona Forest Unit ........................................................ 3-16<br />
Figure 4-1 Native Forest Bird Trends on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> .................................................................. 4-2<br />
Figure 4-2 HFU Vegetation Type ...................................................................................................... 4-7<br />
Figure 4-3 KFU Vegetation Type .................................................................................................... 4-11<br />
Figure 4-4 North Hāmākua Study Area ........................................................................................... 4-15<br />
Figure 4-5 Annual Forest Bird Survey Transects ............................................................................ 4-17<br />
Figure 4-6 Central Windward Study Area ....................................................................................... 4-20<br />
Figure 4-7 Hakalau Forest Unit 2007 Weed Survey Map ............................................................. 4-101<br />
Figure 5-1 Hakalau Forest Volunteer Cabin ...................................................................................... 5-1<br />
Figure 5-2 HFU Administrative Facilities <strong>and</strong> Infrastructure ............................................................ 5-3<br />
Figure 5-3 KFU Administrative Facilities <strong>and</strong> Infrastructure ............................................................ 5-5<br />
Figure 5-4 Recreation Opportunities on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> .................................................................... 5-7<br />
Appendices<br />
Appendix A. Species Lists for Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge ....................................... A-1<br />
Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations ................................................ B-1<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation ................................................................................................... C-1<br />
Appendix D. Wilderness Review for Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge ............................ D-1<br />
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report .................................................................................... E-1<br />
Appendix F. Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health<br />
<strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern ..................................................................................... F-1<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management Program ........................................................................ G-1<br />
Appendix H. Statement of Compliance ........................................................................................... H-1<br />
Appendix I. Acronyms <strong>and</strong> Abbreviations ...................................................................................... I-1<br />
Appendix J. CCP Team Members ................................................................................................... J-1<br />
Appendix K. Summary of Public Involvement ................................................................................ K-1<br />
Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management ............................................................... L-1<br />
Table of Contents v
vi<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Note to Reviewers: Throughout the CCP document, all attempts have been made<br />
to use appropriate diacriticals related to the Native Hawaiian language<br />
(i.e., ‘okina <strong>and</strong> kahakō). However, places where diacriticals may not appear are<br />
in the maps, appendices, <strong>and</strong> references. Due to limitations of the Geospatial<br />
Information System (GIS) software used for the maps developed in the plan,<br />
diacriticals were unable to be used where place names or legend text appear. For<br />
items in the appendices, if documents were minutes or summaries of meetings or<br />
documents not created for the CCP that did not use diacriticals originally, the<br />
document was left as is. For references identified, if the title of the publication or<br />
original citation does not use diacriticals, references were left as is.
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background<br />
Above: ‘Io/Robert Shallenberger<br />
Right: ‘Amakihi/Jack Jeffrey Photography<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit rainforest/Dick Wass
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background<br />
1.1 Introduction<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge consists of the Hakalau Forest Unit <strong>and</strong> the Kona Forest<br />
Unit (Figure 1-1) collectively managed as the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Complex<br />
(Complex). The Hakalau Forest Unit (HFU) (Figure 1-2) was established in 1985 to protect <strong>and</strong><br />
manage endangered forest birds <strong>and</strong> their rainforest habitat. Located on the windward slope of<br />
Mauna Kea, Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i, the 32,733 acre unit supports a diversity of native birds <strong>and</strong> plants.<br />
The Kona Forest Unit (KFU) (Figure 1-3) was set aside in 1997 to protect native forest birds <strong>and</strong> the<br />
‘alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis, Hawaiian crow). Located on the leeward slope of Mauna Loa, the<br />
5,300 acre KFU supports diverse native bird <strong>and</strong> plant species as well as the rare lava tube <strong>and</strong> lava<br />
tube skylight habitats.<br />
1.2 Purpose <strong>and</strong> Need for the CCP<br />
The purpose of the CCP is to provide the Complex, the National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System, the<br />
Service, partners, <strong>and</strong> citizens with a management plan for improving fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife habitat<br />
conditions <strong>and</strong> infrastructure for wildlife, staff, <strong>and</strong> public use on the Refuge over the next 15 years.<br />
An approved CCP will ensure that the Complex staff manages Hakalau Forest NWR to achieve<br />
Refuge purposes, vision, goals, <strong>and</strong> objectives to help fulfill the Refuge System mission.<br />
The CCP will provide reasonable, scientifically grounded guidance for managing <strong>and</strong> improving the<br />
Refuge’s forest, subterranean, riparian, aquatic, <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong> habitats for the long-term conservation<br />
of native plants <strong>and</strong> animals. Appropriate actions for protecting <strong>and</strong> sustaining the biological <strong>and</strong><br />
cultural features of forest communities; endangered species populations <strong>and</strong> habitats; <strong>and</strong> threatened<br />
or rare species have been identified. The CCP also promotes priority public use activities on the<br />
Refuge including wildlife observation, photography, environmental education, <strong>and</strong> interpretation.<br />
The CCP is needed for a variety of reasons. Primary among these is the need to conserve the<br />
Refuge’s forest, subterranean, riparian, aquatic, <strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong> habitats that are in various stages of<br />
(1) degradation by pest plants <strong>and</strong> animals (most notably ungulates <strong>and</strong> invasive plants), (2) recovery<br />
from cattle grazing activities by past owners, <strong>and</strong> (3) restoration by Refuge staff. The CCP is needed<br />
to address the Refuge’s contributions to aid in the recovery of listed species, <strong>and</strong> assess <strong>and</strong> possibly<br />
mitigate potential impacts of global climate change. The staff also needs to effectively work with<br />
current partners such as the Hawai‘i Division of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> (DOFAW), the U.S.<br />
Geological Survey-Biological Resources Discipline (USGS-BRD), the U.S. Forest Service (USFS),<br />
the Department of Hawaiian Home L<strong>and</strong>s (DHHL), <strong>and</strong> the National Park Service (NPS). The<br />
Refuge also needs to seek new partnerships to restore habitats, improve the volunteer program, <strong>and</strong><br />
identify to what extent improvements or alterations should be made to existing visitor programs. In<br />
addition, the Refuge will continue to work with the Friends of Hakalau Forest on various Refuge<br />
programs, community outreach, <strong>and</strong> Refuge management needs. These activities will allow the<br />
Refuge staff to ensure the biological integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health of the units are<br />
restored or maintained.<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background 1-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
1.3 Content <strong>and</strong> Scope of the CCP<br />
This CCP provides guidance for management of Refuge habitats <strong>and</strong> wildlife <strong>and</strong> administration of<br />
public uses on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. The Hakalau Forest NWR CCP is also intended to comply with the<br />
requirements set forth in the National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Administration Act of 1966<br />
(Administration Act), as amended by the National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Improvement Act of 1997<br />
(16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee) <strong>and</strong> the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), as amended<br />
(42 U.S.C. 4321-4347). Information in the CCP includes:<br />
� An overall vision for the Refuge, each unit’s establishment history <strong>and</strong> purposes, <strong>and</strong> their role in<br />
the local ecosystem (Chapter 1);<br />
� Goals <strong>and</strong> objectives for specific conservation targets <strong>and</strong> public use programs, as well as<br />
strategies for achieving the objectives (Chapter 2);<br />
� A description of the physical environment of the Refuge (Chapter 3);<br />
� A description of the conservation targets, their condition <strong>and</strong> trends on the Refuge <strong>and</strong> within the<br />
local ecosystem, a presentation of the key desired ecological conditions for sustaining the targets,<br />
<strong>and</strong> a short analysis of the threats to each conservation target (Chapter 4);<br />
� An overview of the Refuge’s public use programs <strong>and</strong> facilities, a list of desired future conditions<br />
for each program, <strong>and</strong> other management considerations (Chapter 5);<br />
� A list of resident species (both native <strong>and</strong> nonnative) known from the Refuge (Appendix A);<br />
� Evaluations of existing <strong>and</strong> proposed appropriate public <strong>and</strong> economic uses for compatibility<br />
with the Refuge’s purposes (Appendix B);<br />
� An outline of the projects, staff, <strong>and</strong> facilities needed to support the CCP (Appendix C);<br />
� A review for wilderness designation (Appendix D);<br />
� Summary of a workshop held for implementing recovery for endangered forest birds<br />
(Appendix E);<br />
� A Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health Table (Appendix F);<br />
� Integrated Pest Management Program (Appendix G);<br />
� Statement of Compliance for CCP (Appendix H);<br />
� List of acronyms (Appendix I);<br />
� A list of CCP Team Members (Appendix J);<br />
� A summary of public involvement (Appendix K); <strong>and</strong><br />
� A summary of past <strong>and</strong> current management (Appendix L).<br />
1.4 <strong>Plan</strong>ning <strong>and</strong> Management Guidance<br />
1.4.1 U. S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service Mission<br />
The mission of the Service is “working with others, to conserve, protect <strong>and</strong> enhance fish <strong>and</strong><br />
wildlife <strong>and</strong> their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people.” National natural<br />
resources entrusted to the Service for conservation <strong>and</strong> protection include migratory birds,<br />
endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened species, interjurisdictional fish, wetl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> certain marine mammals.<br />
1-2 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Figure 1-1.<br />
Refuge vicinity.<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> a Backgroun nd<br />
Hakalau H Forest National Wilddlife<br />
Refuge<br />
Comprehens sive Conservatiion<br />
<strong>Plan</strong><br />
1-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
1-4 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Figure 1-2.<br />
HFU location.<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> a Backgroun nd<br />
Hakalau H Forest National Wilddlife<br />
Refuge<br />
Comprehens sive Conservatiion<br />
<strong>Plan</strong><br />
1-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
1-6 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Figure 1-3.<br />
KFU location.<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> a Backgroun nd<br />
Hakalau H Forest National Wilddlife<br />
Refuge<br />
Comprehens sive Conservatiion<br />
<strong>Plan</strong><br />
1-7
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
1-8 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The Service also manages national fish hatcheries, enforces Federal wildlife laws <strong>and</strong> international<br />
treaties on importing <strong>and</strong> exporting wildlife, assists with State/Territorial fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife programs,<br />
<strong>and</strong> helps other countries develop wildlife conservation programs. The Service is an agency within<br />
the Department of the Interior (DOI), <strong>and</strong> is the principal Federal agency responsible for conserving,<br />
protecting, <strong>and</strong> enhancing fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plants <strong>and</strong> their habitats for the continuing benefit of the<br />
American people.<br />
1.4.2 National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System<br />
The Refuge System is the world’s largest network of public l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters set aside specifically<br />
for conserving wildlife <strong>and</strong> protecting ecosystems. From its inception in 1903, the Refuge System<br />
has grown to encompass 553 national wildlife refuges in all 50 States, 4 U.S. territories, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
number of unincorporated U.S. possessions, <strong>and</strong> waterfowl production areas in 10 States, covering<br />
more than 150 million acres of public l<strong>and</strong>s. It also manages four marine national monuments in the<br />
Pacific in coordination with the National Oceanic <strong>and</strong> Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) <strong>and</strong><br />
affected States/Territories. More than 40 million visitors annually fish, hunt, observe <strong>and</strong> photograph<br />
wildlife, or participate in environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretive activities on these refuges.<br />
Refuges are guided by various Federal laws <strong>and</strong> Executive orders, Service policies, <strong>and</strong> international<br />
treaties. Fundamental are the mission <strong>and</strong> goals of the Refuge System <strong>and</strong> the designated purposes of<br />
the Refuge unit as described in establishing legislation, Executive orders, or other documents<br />
establishing, authorizing, or exp<strong>and</strong>ing a refuge.<br />
Key concepts <strong>and</strong> guidance for the Refuge System derive from the Administration Act, the Refuge<br />
Recreation Act of 1962 (16 U.S.C. 460k-460k-4), as amended, Title 50 of the Code of Federal<br />
Regulations, <strong>and</strong> the <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service Manual. The Administration Act is implemented<br />
through regulations covering the Refuge System, published in Title 50, subchapter C of the Code of<br />
Federal Regulations. These regulations govern general administration of units of the Refuge System.<br />
This CCP complies with the Refuge Administration Act.<br />
1.4.2.1 National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Mission <strong>and</strong> Goals<br />
The mission of the Refuge System is:<br />
“to administer a national network of l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters for the conservation, management,<br />
<strong>and</strong> where appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plant resources <strong>and</strong> their<br />
habitats within the United States for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of<br />
Americans” (National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, as<br />
amended)(16 U.S.C. 668dd).<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> conservation is the fundamental mission of the Refuge System. The goals of the Refuge<br />
System, as articulated in the Mission, Goals, <strong>and</strong> Refuge Purposes Policy (601 FW1) are:<br />
� Conserve a diversity of fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plants <strong>and</strong> their habitats, including species that are<br />
endangered or threatened with becoming endangered;<br />
� Develop <strong>and</strong> maintain a network of habitats for migratory birds, anadromous <strong>and</strong><br />
interjurisdictional fish, <strong>and</strong> marine mammal populations that is strategically distributed <strong>and</strong><br />
carefully managed to meet important life-history needs of these species across their ranges;<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background 1-9
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
� Conserve those ecosystems, plant communities, wetl<strong>and</strong>s of national or international significance<br />
<strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scapes <strong>and</strong> seascapes that are unique, rare, declining, or underrepresented in existing<br />
protection efforts;<br />
� Provide <strong>and</strong> enhance opportunities to participate in compatible wildlife-dependent recreation<br />
(hunting, fishing, wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography, <strong>and</strong> environmental education <strong>and</strong><br />
interpretation); <strong>and</strong><br />
� Foster underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> instill appreciation of the diversity <strong>and</strong> interconnectedness of fish,<br />
wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plants <strong>and</strong> their habitats.<br />
1.4.3 National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Administration Act<br />
Of all the laws governing activities on refuges, the Administration Act exerts the greatest influence.<br />
The National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 (Improvement Act) amended the<br />
Administration Act by including a unifying mission for all refuges as a system, a new process for<br />
determining compatible uses on refuges, <strong>and</strong> a requirement that each refuge will be managed under a<br />
CCP developed in an open public process.<br />
The Administration Act states the Secretary of the Interior shall provide for the conservation of fish,<br />
wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plants, <strong>and</strong> their habitats within the Refuge System as well as ensure that the biological<br />
integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health of the Refuge System are maintained. House<br />
Report 105–106 accompanying the Improvement Act states ‘‘… the fundamental mission of our<br />
System is wildlife conservation: wildlife <strong>and</strong> wildlife conservation must come first.’’ Biological<br />
integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health (BIDEH) are critical components of wildlife<br />
conservation. As later made clear in the BIDEH Policy, “the highest measure of biological integrity,<br />
diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health is viewed as those intact <strong>and</strong> self-sustaining habitats <strong>and</strong> wildlife<br />
populations that existed during historic conditions.”<br />
Under the Administration Act, each refuge must be managed to fulfill the Refuge System mission as<br />
well as the specific purposes for which it was established. The Administration Act requires the<br />
Service to monitor the status <strong>and</strong> trends of fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plants in each refuge.<br />
Additionally, the Administration Act identifies six wildlife-dependent recreational uses for priority<br />
consideration. These uses are hunting, fishing, wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography, <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation. Under the Administration Act, the Refuge is to grant<br />
these six wildlife-dependent public uses special consideration in the planning for, management of,<br />
<strong>and</strong> establishment <strong>and</strong> expansion of units of the Refuge System. The overarching goal is to enhance<br />
wildlife-dependent recreation opportunities <strong>and</strong> access to quality visitor experiences on refuges while<br />
managing refuges to conserve fish, wildlife, plants, <strong>and</strong> their habitats. New <strong>and</strong> ongoing recreational<br />
uses should help visitors focus on wildlife <strong>and</strong> other natural resources. These uses should provide an<br />
opportunity to make visitors aware of resource issues, management plans, <strong>and</strong> how the refuge<br />
contributes to the Refuge System <strong>and</strong> the Service mission. When determined compatible on a refugespecific<br />
basis, these six uses assume priority status among all uses of the refuge in question. The<br />
refuge is then directed to make extra effort to facilitate priority wildlife-dependent public use<br />
opportunities.<br />
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Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
When preparing a CCP, refuge managers must reevaluate all general public, recreational, <strong>and</strong><br />
economic uses (even those occurring to further refuge habitat management goals) proposed or<br />
occurring on a refuge for appropriateness <strong>and</strong> compatibility. No refuge use may be allowed or<br />
continued unless it is determined to be appropriate <strong>and</strong> compatible. Generally, an appropriate use is<br />
one that contributes to fulfilling the refuge purpose(s), the Refuge System mission, or goals or<br />
objectives described in a refuge management plan, such as this CCP. A compatible use is a use that,<br />
in the sound professional judgment of the refuge manager, will not materially interfere with or<br />
detract from the fulfillment of the mission of the Refuge System or the purposes of the refuge.<br />
Updated Appropriateness Findings <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations for existing <strong>and</strong> proposed uses<br />
for Hakalau Forest NWR are in Appendix B.<br />
The Administration Act also requires that, in addition to formally established guidance, the CCP<br />
must be developed with the participation of the public. Issues <strong>and</strong> concerns articulated by the public<br />
played a role in guiding the development of the CCP, <strong>and</strong> together with the formal guidance, played a<br />
role in development of the final CCP. It is the Service’s policy to invite public participation in CCP<br />
development, to carry out an open public CCP process, <strong>and</strong> secure public input throughout the<br />
process.<br />
1.5 Relationship to Previous <strong>and</strong> Future Refuge <strong>Plan</strong>s<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ning has been a part of refuge operations since establishing refuges began. However, not all<br />
plans were completed in a comprehensive fashion, or with public participation considered adequate<br />
today. For Hakalau Forest NWR, a considerable number of plans were completed over the years to<br />
guide managers.<br />
1.5.1 Previous <strong>Plan</strong>s<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>s <strong>and</strong>/or management agreements (plans addressing one program or resource) have been<br />
developed for Hakalau Forest NWR (Hakalau Forest Unit <strong>and</strong> Kona Forest Unit). Existing plans<br />
include:<br />
� Refuge Management <strong>Plan</strong> (1989);<br />
� Feral Ungulate Management <strong>Plan</strong> (1996);<br />
� Draft Reforestation Management <strong>Plan</strong> (May 1996);<br />
� Wildl<strong>and</strong> Fire Management <strong>Plan</strong>-Hakalau (2002);<br />
� Wildl<strong>and</strong> Fire Management <strong>Plan</strong>-Kona (2002);<br />
� Occupant Emergency <strong>Plan</strong> (2003);<br />
� Annual Habitat Work <strong>Plan</strong> (2004);<br />
� Visitor Services Evaluation Report (2004);<br />
� Safety <strong>Plan</strong>, Hakalau Forest Unit (April 2004);<br />
� Aviation Mishap Response <strong>Plan</strong> (2005);<br />
� Continuity of Operations <strong>Plan</strong> (2009);<br />
� Fleet Management <strong>Plan</strong> (2009);<br />
� USFWS P<strong>and</strong>emic Influenza <strong>Plan</strong> (2009); <strong>and</strong><br />
� Medical Emergency Dispatch <strong>Plan</strong> (2009).<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background 1-11
1.5.2 Future <strong>Plan</strong>ning<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The CCP will be revised every 15 years or sooner if monitoring <strong>and</strong> evaluation determine that<br />
changes are needed to achieve the Refuge’s purposes, vision, goals, or objectives. The CCP provides<br />
guidance in the form of goals, objectives, <strong>and</strong> strategies for Refuge program areas but may lack some<br />
of the specifics needed for implementation. Stepdown management plans may be developed for<br />
individual program areas, as needed, following completion <strong>and</strong> approval of the CCP. Stepdown plans<br />
may require additional NEPA <strong>and</strong> other compliance. Several stepdown plans (e.g., Habitat<br />
Management <strong>Plan</strong>, Inventory <strong>and</strong> Monitoring <strong>Plan</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Integrated Pest Management <strong>Plan</strong>) are<br />
appropriate to develop <strong>and</strong>/or update following the CCP completion; all of these will be founded on<br />
the management goals, objectives, <strong>and</strong> strategies outlined in the CCP. The Integrated Pest<br />
Management <strong>Plan</strong> (IPM) should address coordination with all other Federal, State, <strong>and</strong> regional<br />
agencies as well as neighboring private l<strong>and</strong>owners in order to effectively combat the spread of<br />
invasive species.<br />
In addition, national wildlife refuges may serve as important strategic anchor points for area<br />
conservation efforts. With the completion of the CCP, the Refuge staff has initiated <strong>and</strong> will<br />
complete a L<strong>and</strong> Protection <strong>Plan</strong>ning effort in cooperation with other agencies <strong>and</strong> interested parties<br />
to assess <strong>and</strong> identify l<strong>and</strong> conservation priorities <strong>and</strong> opportunities in the vicinity of Refuge units.<br />
The Refuge staff will exp<strong>and</strong> coordination efforts with existing partners on both the windward<br />
Mauna Kea (Hakalau Forest Unit) <strong>and</strong> the South Kona (Kona Forest Unit) sides of Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> to<br />
seek input on potential Refuge involvement in area conservation efforts <strong>and</strong> needs beyond our<br />
current boundaries in order to determine a desired goal <strong>and</strong> appropriate role for the Refuge. Potential<br />
additions or expansion of Hakalau Forest NWR <strong>and</strong> examination of various l<strong>and</strong> protection tools will<br />
be explored. L<strong>and</strong> protection as part of the Refuge System may include fee title acquisition,<br />
conservation easements, <strong>and</strong>/or cooperative agreements.<br />
Currently, the Refuge identifies parcels on a case-by-case basis for protection as they become<br />
available from willing sellers. A l<strong>and</strong>scape approach on the slopes of Mauna Kea <strong>and</strong> Mauna Loa<br />
will allow staff to focus efforts <strong>and</strong> work with partners to ensure that habitat needs are met over a<br />
larger area. In addition, corridors between patches of protected habitat are critical for species<br />
migration in response to climate change. Species distribution <strong>and</strong> abundance is likely to change based<br />
upon precipitation patterns, temperature variations, <strong>and</strong> shifts in mosquito zones. The Refuge will<br />
take a l<strong>and</strong>scape level view of opportunities to augment the habitat protection currently provided by<br />
the existing Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
1.6 Refuge Establishment <strong>and</strong> Purposes<br />
The Administration Act directs the Service to manage each refuge to fulfill the mission of the Refuge<br />
System, as well as the specific purposes for which that refuge was established. Refuge purposes are<br />
the driving force in developing refuge vision statements, goals, objectives, <strong>and</strong> strategies in the CCP.<br />
Refuge purposes are also critical to determining the appropriateness <strong>and</strong> compatibility of all existing<br />
<strong>and</strong> proposed refuge uses.<br />
L<strong>and</strong>s within the Refuge System are acquired <strong>and</strong> managed under a variety of legislative acts,<br />
administrative orders, <strong>and</strong> legal authorities. The official purpose or purposes for a refuge are<br />
1-12 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
specified in or derived from the law, proclamation, Executive order, agreement, public l<strong>and</strong> order,<br />
donation document, or administrative memor<strong>and</strong>um establishing, authorizing, or exp<strong>and</strong>ing a refuge,<br />
refuge unit, or refuge subunit. The Service defines the purpose of a refuge when it is established or<br />
when new l<strong>and</strong> is added to an existing refuge. When an addition to a refuge is acquired under an<br />
authority different from the authority used to establish the original refuge, the addition takes on the<br />
purposes of the original refuge, but the original refuge does not take on the purposes of the addition.<br />
Refuge managers must consider all of these purposes. Additionally, refuge boundaries may<br />
encompass l<strong>and</strong>s that the refuge itself does not own. Therefore, note in Figures 1-2 <strong>and</strong> 1-3 the<br />
distinction between Refuge ownership <strong>and</strong> authorized boundaries.<br />
1.6.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Purposes<br />
Established on October 29, 1985, the purposes of Hakalau Forest Unit are:<br />
� “… to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as endangered species or threatened species.<br />
. . or (B) plants . . . (C) the ecosystems upon which endangered species <strong>and</strong> threatened species<br />
depend . . .” (Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, 16 U.S.C. 1534);<br />
� “To assure the perpetuation of native forest habitats of the Upper Hakalau Forest for the<br />
protection of a number of endangered animals <strong>and</strong> plants endemic to the area. . . .” (FONSI for<br />
the Environmental Assessment: Proposal to Establish an Upper Hakalau National <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
Refuge, Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i, May 1985).<br />
1.6.2 Kona Forest Unit Purposes<br />
The Kona Forest Unit, acquired on December 12, 1997, has the following purposes:<br />
� The purposes listed for the Hakalau Forest Unit also apply to the Kona Forest Unit;<br />
� In addition, “. . .to protect, conserve, <strong>and</strong> manage a portion of the native forest in south Kona,<br />
primarily for the benefit of the ‘alalā <strong>and</strong> other endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened species” (1997 <strong>Final</strong><br />
Environmental Assessment for the Proposed Kona Forest Unit of the Hakalau Forest NWR).<br />
1.7 Relationship to Ecosystem Management Goals or <strong>Plan</strong>s<br />
1.7.1 L<strong>and</strong>scape Level Initiatives<br />
Strategic Habitat <strong>Conservation</strong> (SHC): Through a cooperative effort culminating in the 2006<br />
National Ecological Assessment Team Report, the Service <strong>and</strong> USGS outlined a unifying adaptive<br />
resource management approach for conservation at “l<strong>and</strong>scape” scales, the entire range of a priority<br />
species or suite of species. Known as “strategic habitat conservation” or SHC, it is a way of thinking<br />
<strong>and</strong> of doing business that requires us to set biological goals for priority species populations, allows<br />
us to make strategic decisions about our work, <strong>and</strong> encourages us to constantly reassess <strong>and</strong> improve<br />
our actions – all critical steps in dealing with large-scale conservation challenges <strong>and</strong> the uncertainty<br />
of accelerated climate change.<br />
In April 2009, Service leadership set up a national geographic framework for implementing<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape conservation. This framework has led to the creation of L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background 1-13
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Cooperatives (LCCs). The LCCs are conservation-science partnerships between the Service, Federal<br />
agencies, States, Territories, tribes, NGOs, universities, <strong>and</strong> other entities. They are fundamental<br />
units of planning <strong>and</strong> science capacity to help us carry out the functional elements of SHC, biological<br />
planning, conservation design, conservation delivery, monitoring, <strong>and</strong> research, <strong>and</strong> inform our<br />
strategic response to accelerated climate change.<br />
The Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Climate Change Cooperative (PICCC) is the LCC focused on Hawai‘i, the<br />
Mariana Isl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> American Samoa. Established in late 2009, it will create the technical capacity,<br />
decision support tools, <strong>and</strong> organizational structure to address l<strong>and</strong>scape-scale conservation issues<br />
using SHC. These tools will help managers reach explicit conservation objectives for native species<br />
<strong>and</strong> habitats in the face of climate change <strong>and</strong> ongoing threats such as fire, l<strong>and</strong> conversion, <strong>and</strong><br />
invasive species. Under the direction of a steering committee that includes Service representatives,<br />
the PICCC will develop models that predict how natural resources <strong>and</strong> processes may respond to<br />
climate change, assess management options using models <strong>and</strong> historical data, <strong>and</strong> collectively<br />
determine priority conservation strategies. To make the link between modeling <strong>and</strong> management, the<br />
PICCC will assess the vulnerability of targeted species <strong>and</strong> ecosystems, <strong>and</strong> assist partners in<br />
choosing among potential management strategies based on their likelihood for success. Monitoring of<br />
response variables <strong>and</strong> ecosystem change will be coordinated across agencies <strong>and</strong> jurisdictions, <strong>and</strong><br />
will include the structures provided by the Refuge System’s Inventory <strong>and</strong> Monitoring program.<br />
The Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRs anticipate using climate change information provided by<br />
the PICCC as foundational products from which to do more detailed site-specific <strong>and</strong> species-specific<br />
analyses critical to the preparation of planning documents <strong>and</strong> to prioritize on-the-ground<br />
conservation actions. Although the information developed by PICCC will be focused on priority<br />
species <strong>and</strong> habitats determined by the partnership <strong>and</strong> may not be specifically targeting all of the<br />
Service climate science needs, it is hoped that it will provide much of the basic scientific information<br />
needed to design <strong>and</strong> deliver climate-informed conservation actions.<br />
Watershed Partnerships: The Hawai‘i Association of Watershed Partnerships (HAWP) was<br />
established in 2003. HAWP includes 9 isl<strong>and</strong>-based Watershed Partnerships, including more than 60<br />
public <strong>and</strong> private partners on 6 isl<strong>and</strong>s. Over 1.2 million acres of forest l<strong>and</strong>s are covered by existing<br />
plans. The Watershed Partnerships consist of public <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>owners <strong>and</strong> other partners<br />
working in voluntary collaboration to protect forested watersheds <strong>and</strong> preserve ecosystem services.<br />
The HAWP works to facilitate sharing of watershed management knowledge, build public support<br />
<strong>and</strong> awareness of watershed values, <strong>and</strong> develop sustainable funding sources for the Watershed<br />
Partnerships.<br />
Forested watersheds are vital recharge regions for Hawai‘i’s underground aquifers <strong>and</strong> a dependable<br />
source of clean water for its streams <strong>and</strong> people. They are also home to the last remaining native<br />
ecosystems in Hawai‘i <strong>and</strong> house thous<strong>and</strong>s of native species of animals <strong>and</strong> plants found nowhere<br />
else on Earth. Most management actions are habitat based <strong>and</strong> revolve around combating the main<br />
threats of ungulates (hoofed animals such as goats, deer, sheep, pigs, etc.) <strong>and</strong> invasive species.<br />
Partnership activities include fencing <strong>and</strong> ungulate removal, invasive species control, rare plant<br />
outplanting <strong>and</strong> native habitat restoration, <strong>and</strong> outreach <strong>and</strong> education. These management actions<br />
make a critical difference by benefitting native forests, watersheds, coastal, <strong>and</strong> coral reef areas by<br />
reducing erosion <strong>and</strong> sedimentation runoff into streams.<br />
1-14 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
On the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i, there are presently two Watershed Partnerships in the vicinity of the<br />
Refuge: Three Mountain Alliance <strong>and</strong> the Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance. The Big Isl<strong>and</strong> National<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Complex participates in both of these groups.<br />
The largest Watershed Partnership in the isl<strong>and</strong>s, the Three Mountain Alliance (originally known as<br />
the ‘Ōla‘a-Kīlauea Partnership), was formed in 2007 <strong>and</strong> covers 1,116,300 ac. With nine partners, the<br />
overall goal of the Three Mountain Alliance (TMA) is to sustain the multiple ecosystem benefits of<br />
the three mountains of Kīlauea, Mauna Loa, <strong>and</strong> Hualālai by responsibly managing its watershed<br />
areas, native habitats <strong>and</strong> species, <strong>and</strong> historic, cultural, <strong>and</strong> socioeconomic resources for all who<br />
benefit from the continued health of these three mountains.<br />
The TMA was formed when members of the ‘Ōla‘a-Kīlauea Partnership (OKP), based on their<br />
10-year success of partnering, decided to enlarge watershed protection <strong>and</strong> management to more than<br />
1 million acres across Mauna Loa, Kīlauea, <strong>and</strong> Hualālai as part of an exp<strong>and</strong>ed Partnership.<br />
Members have agreed there is a compelling need to collaborate on a wide variety of l<strong>and</strong><br />
management issues in forested watersheds across this TMA l<strong>and</strong>scape. Coordinated management<br />
across this l<strong>and</strong>scape is critical to sustain adequate quality <strong>and</strong> quantity of water <strong>and</strong> to provide<br />
important habitat for a wide diversity of native plants <strong>and</strong> animals, including endangered species. In<br />
addition, the health of these l<strong>and</strong>s is strongly connected with the quality of life for people <strong>and</strong> local<br />
communities. Even in the absence of a formal partnership, private <strong>and</strong> public l<strong>and</strong>owners in this<br />
region have recognized the value of collaboration to address shared management challenges such as<br />
invasive weeds, fire, <strong>and</strong> feral cattle.<br />
The OKP has been highly successful in addressing conservation challenges within a 30,000 ac area,<br />
centered on the ‘Ōla‘a Tract of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park (HAVO). The OKP includes the<br />
State (DLNR, Department of Public Safety), National Park Service, <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service, U.S.<br />
Geological Survey Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong> Ecosystems Research Center, Kamehameha Schools, U.S.<br />
Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service, <strong>and</strong> The Nature Conservancy.<br />
Cooperating in the areas of staff expertise <strong>and</strong> funding to conserve native ecosystems for over a<br />
decade has significantly reduced the threats of invasive ungulates <strong>and</strong> weeds on Federal, State, <strong>and</strong><br />
private l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
The TMA includes the original Federal, State, <strong>and</strong> private partners of the OKP, as well as the U.S.<br />
Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources <strong>Conservation</strong> Service. Other agencies <strong>and</strong> key<br />
private l<strong>and</strong>owners with a management interest in the l<strong>and</strong>scape issues will be invited to join the<br />
TMA to participate in collaborative efforts addressing specific management challenges.<br />
A Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Underst<strong>and</strong>ing (MOU) outlines the following overall principles that serve as the<br />
foundation of the TMA:<br />
� The three mountains of Kīlauea, Mauna Loa, <strong>and</strong> Hualālai are ancient, sacred to Hawaiians, <strong>and</strong><br />
critically important to the life, health, <strong>and</strong> well being of the native ecosystems <strong>and</strong> human<br />
communities that inhabit them;<br />
� TMA members have a responsibility (kuleana) to care for these mountains, including native<br />
ecosystems <strong>and</strong> human communities that share this l<strong>and</strong>scape;<br />
� Management is needed to maintain healthy forested watersheds on the slopes of Kīlauea, Mauna<br />
Loa, <strong>and</strong> Hualālai to sustain the future quality <strong>and</strong> quantity of fresh water;<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background 1-15
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
� Other l<strong>and</strong>s (e.g., younger lava flows, grassl<strong>and</strong>s, crop l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> coastal l<strong>and</strong>s) within the TMA<br />
area also contribute to water quality <strong>and</strong> quantity;<br />
� The health of the nearshore ocean resources are intimately connected to the health of the upl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
in the traditional ahupua‘a;<br />
� Management of these l<strong>and</strong>s would benefit Hawai‘i’s native flora <strong>and</strong> fauna;<br />
� Many of the threats to the watershed, such as ungulates, fire, insects, diseases, <strong>and</strong> invasive<br />
nonnative plants, occur across common l<strong>and</strong> ownership boundaries; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Effective management is best achieved through the coordinated actions of all major l<strong>and</strong>owners<br />
in the TMA area irrespective of property lines.<br />
Approximately 85 percent of the total TMA l<strong>and</strong> area is comprised of native ecosystems. The TMA<br />
contains some of the largest expanses of intact native forest remaining in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
(approximately 50 percent of the State’s remaining native habitat). Due to the variations in elevation,<br />
climate, <strong>and</strong> vegetation, the TMA is home to thous<strong>and</strong>s of native species, as well as rare <strong>and</strong><br />
threatened or endangered species (many of which are endemic to the isl<strong>and</strong>).<br />
Management programs address habitat protection <strong>and</strong> restoration, watershed protection, compatible<br />
economic use, compatible recreation <strong>and</strong> ecotourism, education, awareness <strong>and</strong> public outreach,<br />
cultural resource protection <strong>and</strong> research, <strong>and</strong> monitoring <strong>and</strong> management program indicators.<br />
The Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance (MKWA) encompasses over 525,000 ac or over 820 mi 2 above<br />
the 2,000 ft elevation on the windward slopes of Mauna Kea, Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>’s tallest mountain.<br />
Members of this newly formed collaboration include the Hawai‘i DLNR, by <strong>and</strong> through its Division<br />
of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>and</strong> its L<strong>and</strong> Management Division, Kamehameha Schools, Parker Ranch,<br />
U.S. Army (Pōhakuloa Training Area), the Service, DHHL, University of Hawai‘i (Office of Mauna<br />
Kea Management), <strong>and</strong> Kūka‘iau Ranch. A draft management plan for the watershed was completed<br />
in 2010.<br />
The vision of the MKWA is to protect <strong>and</strong> enhance watershed ecosystems, biodiversity, <strong>and</strong><br />
resources through responsible management, while promoting economic sustainability <strong>and</strong> providing<br />
recreational, subsistence, educational, <strong>and</strong> research opportunities. The MKWA will identify<br />
Watershed Areas of importance on Mauna Kea that include l<strong>and</strong>s owned or controlled by one or<br />
more of the members for which coordinated care <strong>and</strong> management would be suitable; <strong>and</strong> where<br />
appropriate, with the consent of the members owning or controlling l<strong>and</strong>s within the Watershed Area,<br />
cooperate in the development <strong>and</strong> implementation of watershed management plans that will<br />
document resource values <strong>and</strong> identify priority watershed management objectives <strong>and</strong> strategies.<br />
Department of Hawaiian Home L<strong>and</strong>s ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program: L<strong>and</strong> use is subject to the<br />
Hawaiian Homes Commission. The DHHL owns <strong>and</strong> manages the Humu‘ula/Pi‘ihonua area<br />
adjacent to the HFU. This area, at 56,000 acres, represents 48 percent of the entire l<strong>and</strong> acreage<br />
owned by DHHL on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>. Two plans guide the management of these l<strong>and</strong>s, the Hawai‘i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>and</strong> the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy <strong>Plan</strong> (2009). The mission of the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy<br />
Program (the Legacy Program) <strong>and</strong> its implementation is to protect approximately 56,000 ac of<br />
native Hawaiian forest that is ecologically, culturally, <strong>and</strong> economically self‐sustaining for the<br />
Hawaiian Home L<strong>and</strong>s Trust, its beneficiaries <strong>and</strong> the community. Initial goals for the ‘Āina Mauna<br />
Legacy Program include:<br />
1-16 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Goal 1: Develop an economically self‐sustaining improvement <strong>and</strong> preservation program for the<br />
natural <strong>and</strong> cultural resources (invasive species eradication <strong>and</strong> native ecosystem restoration) <strong>and</strong><br />
implementation strategy.<br />
The focus of the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program shall be on:<br />
� Restoration <strong>and</strong> enhancement of DHHL trust resources;<br />
� Identification of immediate <strong>and</strong> future opportunities for DHHL beneficiaries;<br />
� Removal of invasive species – gorse, etc.;<br />
� Conserve natural <strong>and</strong> cultural resources <strong>and</strong> endangered species;<br />
� Address reforestation <strong>and</strong> restoration of the ecosystem;<br />
� Develop revenue generation, reinvestment in l<strong>and</strong> to sustain activities;<br />
� Provide educational <strong>and</strong> cultural opportunities;<br />
� Identify <strong>and</strong> secure partners to sustain activities;<br />
� Identify opportunities for alternative/renewable energy projects; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Be a lead <strong>and</strong>/or model for others to engage in ecosystem restoration in a culturally sensitive<br />
manner based on partnerships to develop a self‐sustaining model.<br />
Goal 2: Develop an outreach program to gain interest, participation, <strong>and</strong> support from the Hawaiian<br />
Homes Commission, DHHL staff, beneficiaries groups, cultural practitioners, natural resource<br />
scientists, <strong>and</strong> the broader community for the Legacy Program <strong>and</strong> its implementation.<br />
The goals <strong>and</strong> actions of the Legacy Program mesh very well with the vision, goals, <strong>and</strong> objectives of<br />
the Hakalau Forest NWR CCP. Specifically, the removal of invasive species, conservation of natural<br />
<strong>and</strong> cultural resources <strong>and</strong> endangered species, habitat restoration, reforestation, fencing, <strong>and</strong> climate<br />
change, along with partnership opportunities, are all key components where we can work together.<br />
We look forward to the exchange of ideas, resources, <strong>and</strong> technical assistance that coordination with<br />
this important adjacent l<strong>and</strong>owner can provide.<br />
Hawai‘i Experimental Tropical Forest: Established in 2007, the mission of the Hawai‘i<br />
Experimental Tropical Forest (HETF) is to provide l<strong>and</strong>scapes, facilities, <strong>and</strong> data/information for<br />
those wishing to conduct research <strong>and</strong> education activities contributing to a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of<br />
the biological diversity <strong>and</strong> functioning of tropical forest <strong>and</strong> stream ecosystems <strong>and</strong> their<br />
management. The HETF represents a significant contribution in the global effort that is necessary to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> protect some of the most threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered ecosystems in the world. This<br />
can best be accomplished by facilitating tropical natural areas/species research, fostering an<br />
environment for interaction <strong>and</strong> exchange of information among scientists <strong>and</strong> to those outside the<br />
scientific community, <strong>and</strong> providing education <strong>and</strong> demonstration opportunities for those interested<br />
in tropical forest studies <strong>and</strong> management. Major research topics of the HETF are:<br />
1. Structure <strong>and</strong> function of tropical wet forest <strong>and</strong> dry forest watersheds <strong>and</strong> their<br />
component parts.<br />
This emphasis area will focus on how tropical forest ecosystems work. Research will strive to<br />
gain a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the physical, chemical, <strong>and</strong> biological processes at all relevant<br />
geographic <strong>and</strong> time scales.<br />
2. Structure <strong>and</strong> function of freshwater <strong>and</strong> nearshore marine ecosystems in tropical<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scapes.<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background 1-17
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
3. Invasive Alien Species.<br />
One of the greatest threats Hawaiian forests currently face are invasive alien species. It is<br />
impossible to determine what new challenges resource managers will be faced with in the<br />
future. But this underscores the need for long-term databases in Hawai‘i.<br />
4. Methods/tools for restoration of tropical forest ecosystems.<br />
Hawaiian forests have been subject to a number of natural <strong>and</strong> human-induced perturbations<br />
over the last 250 years. A key information need for l<strong>and</strong> managers involves learning the most<br />
effective <strong>and</strong> cost-efficient methods for restoring disturbed habitats <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scapes. There are<br />
ample opportunities for investigating different restoration methods in different kinds of plant<br />
communities that are found on the HETF.<br />
5. Impact of global climate change on tropical ecosystems.<br />
6. Native Hawaiian/traditional resource management techniques.<br />
There is a need to provide opportunities for investigation of traditional l<strong>and</strong> management<br />
practices originally used by Native Hawaiians (Polynesians). The HETF has the capacity to<br />
accommodate some experimentation of customary traditional uses <strong>and</strong> learn how the forest<br />
ecosystem responds to these methods of management.<br />
7. Specialty wildl<strong>and</strong> management topics.<br />
Some special or unique l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> resource management activities require additional research<br />
or demonstration to hone management techniques <strong>and</strong> inform future decisionmaking. Some<br />
examples that could be accommodated in the HETF include:<br />
� Impacts of fire/fire ecology;<br />
� Reintroduction of threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Introduction of biocontrol agents for invasive species.<br />
The geographic study areas of the HETF are located adjacent to the Refuge. The HETF investigators<br />
<strong>and</strong> their associates have study plots on the Refuge for a number of collaborative research efforts. It<br />
is anticipated that many of the research findings from this initiative will assist the Refuge with<br />
management of similar habitats <strong>and</strong> species, especially given the long relationship that the Refuge<br />
has had with the USFS in testing applied research to improve management at the Refuge.<br />
1.7.2 Statewide <strong>Plan</strong>s (including Threatened <strong>and</strong> Endangered Species<br />
Recovery <strong>Plan</strong>s)<br />
Hawai‘i’s <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> Strategy (Mitchell, C. et al., 2005): Hawai‘i’s<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> Strategy (CWCS) (now known as Hawai‘i’s <strong>Wildlife</strong> Action<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>) presents strategies for long-term conservation of the full range of the State’s native terrestrial<br />
<strong>and</strong> aquatic species, over 10,000 of which are found nowhere else on earth, <strong>and</strong> their habitats. The<br />
reason for developing a CWCS is to continue participation in the State <strong>Wildlife</strong> Grant (SWG)<br />
program administered by the Service. The Hawai‘i Department of L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources took<br />
the lead in preparing the CWCS <strong>and</strong> went beyond simply meeting m<strong>and</strong>ated requirements by making<br />
the CWCS a useful document to guide conservation efforts across the State. The CWCS builds on<br />
<strong>and</strong> synthesizes information gathered from existing conservation partnerships <strong>and</strong> cooperative<br />
efforts, such that the development of this Strategy is based on collaboration with other local, State,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Federal agencies, nongovernmental organizations, private l<strong>and</strong>owners, <strong>and</strong> interested citizens.<br />
Recognizing the effectiveness of taking conservation actions at a habitat level in addition to a<br />
species-specific level, the CWCS emphasizes threats to species <strong>and</strong> their habitats <strong>and</strong> conservation<br />
1-18 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
needs at three levels: Statewide, isl<strong>and</strong>wide, <strong>and</strong> taxa-specific. The CWCS presents an overview of<br />
Hawai‘i’s unique species <strong>and</strong> their habitats, identifies the major threats to the long-term conservation<br />
of these species <strong>and</strong> habitats, <strong>and</strong> presents seven conservation objectives to address these threats.<br />
Under each objective, strategies of highest priority are labeled; however, because conservation needs<br />
in Hawai‘i far exceed the resources available, implementation of any of the identified strategies will<br />
benefit native wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitats.<br />
Hawai‘i’s Species of Greatest <strong>Conservation</strong> Need (SGCN) include the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, the only native<br />
terrestrial mammal in the State, all endemic aquatic animals, additional indigenous aquatic animals<br />
identified as in need of conservation attention, a range of native plants identified as in need of<br />
conservation attention, <strong>and</strong> all identified endemic algae. The SGCN includes: terrestrial mammal<br />
(1), birds (77), terrestrial invertebrates (approximately 5,000), freshwater fishes (5), freshwater<br />
invertebrates (12), anchialine pond-associated fauna (20), marine mammals (26), marine reptiles (6),<br />
marine fishes (154), marine invertebrates (197), <strong>and</strong> flora (over 600).<br />
The major threats facing Hawai‘i’s native wildlife are common to most species groups <strong>and</strong> habitats<br />
<strong>and</strong> include:<br />
� Loss <strong>and</strong> degradation of habitat resulting from human development, alteration of hydrology,<br />
wildfire, invasive species, recreational overuse, natural disaster, <strong>and</strong> climate change;<br />
� Introduced invasive species (e.g., habitat modifiers, including weeds, ungulates, algae <strong>and</strong> corals,<br />
predators, competitors, disease carriers, <strong>and</strong> disease);<br />
� Limited information <strong>and</strong> insufficient information management;<br />
� Uneven compliance with existing conservation laws, rules, <strong>and</strong> regulations;<br />
� Overharvesting <strong>and</strong> excessive extractive use;<br />
� Management constraints; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Inadequate funding to implement needed conservation actions.<br />
To address these threats, the CWCS identifies multiple strategies to implement the following seven<br />
priority conservation objectives for the State:<br />
1. Maintain, protect, manage, <strong>and</strong> restore native species <strong>and</strong> habitats in sufficient quantity <strong>and</strong><br />
quality to allow native species to thrive;<br />
2. Combat invasive species through a three-tiered approach combining prevention <strong>and</strong> interdiction,<br />
early detection <strong>and</strong> rapid response, <strong>and</strong> ongoing control or eradication;<br />
3. Develop <strong>and</strong> implement programs to obtain, manage, <strong>and</strong> disseminate information needed to<br />
guide conservation management <strong>and</strong> recovery programs;<br />
4. Strengthen existing <strong>and</strong> create new partnerships <strong>and</strong> cooperative efforts;<br />
5. Exp<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> strengthen outreach <strong>and</strong> education to improve underst<strong>and</strong>ing of our native wildlife<br />
resources among the people of Hawai‘i;<br />
6. Support policy changes aimed at improving <strong>and</strong> protecting native species <strong>and</strong> habitats; <strong>and</strong><br />
7. Enhance funding opportunities to implement needed conservation actions.<br />
The Hakalau Forest NWR CCP includes strategies that address these priority conservation objectives.<br />
In particular, objectives 1, 2, 4, <strong>and</strong> 5 are key components of Refuge management programs.<br />
Revised Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for Hawaiian Forest Birds (USFWS 2006): The Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for<br />
Hawaiian Forest Birds applies to 21 species. It identifies four species that are found on Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR (Hakalau Forest <strong>and</strong> Kona Forest Units). The overall recovery plan efforts are outlined<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background 1-19
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
here followed by specific recommendations for the individual species. The individual species<br />
sections focus only on Recovery Strategies, as life-history <strong>and</strong> habitat requirements are covered in<br />
Chapter 4.<br />
Threats: The primary threats to Hawaiian forest birds are habitat loss <strong>and</strong> degradation due to<br />
agriculture, urbanization, cattle grazing, browsing by ungulate species, timber harvesting, <strong>and</strong><br />
invasion of nonnative plant species into native-dominated plant communities; predation by alien<br />
mammals; <strong>and</strong> diseases carried by alien mosquitoes. The periodic dieback of native plant species due<br />
to natural or alien-species-induced processes is a threat in some areas. The majority of recovery<br />
actions therefore address threats to habitat, disease, <strong>and</strong> predation. The direct overutilization of<br />
Hawaiian forest birds for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; <strong>and</strong> the<br />
inadequacies of existing regulatory mechanisms are not considered significant current threats.<br />
Several Hawaiian forest birds now occur in such low numbers <strong>and</strong> in such restricted ranges that they<br />
are threatened by natural processes, such as inbreeding depression <strong>and</strong> demographic stochasticity,<br />
<strong>and</strong> by natural <strong>and</strong> manmade factors such as hurricanes, wildfires, <strong>and</strong> periodic vegetation dieback.<br />
Impacts of alien birds are not well understood, but include aggressive behavior toward native bird<br />
species; possible competition for food, nest sites, <strong>and</strong> roosting sites; <strong>and</strong> possibly supporting elevated<br />
predator population levels.<br />
Recovery Objectives: The primary recovery objectives for each species (taxon) are to:<br />
1. Restore populations to levels that allow the taxon to persist despite demographic <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental stochasticity <strong>and</strong> that are large enough to allow natural demographic <strong>and</strong><br />
evolutionary processes to occur;<br />
2. Protect enough habitat to support these population levels; <strong>and</strong><br />
3. Identify <strong>and</strong> remove the threats responsible for its decline.<br />
Recovery Criteria: Recovery criteria were developed for each taxon to guide recovery efforts <strong>and</strong><br />
ensure that all their recovery needs are addressed. The criteria are similar for all species because they<br />
face similar threats <strong>and</strong> many of them occur in the same geographic areas, but the first criterion in<br />
particular was adapted for each species <strong>and</strong> reflects the unique characteristics of the ecology,<br />
conservation needs, <strong>and</strong> current <strong>and</strong> historical distribution of each species.<br />
A taxon may be downlisted from endangered to threatened when all four of the following criteria<br />
have been met, as well as any species-specific criteria listed in Table 6 (Section III, Recovery<br />
Criteria):<br />
(1) The species occurs in two or more viable populations or a viable metapopulation that represent<br />
the ecological, morphological, behavioral, <strong>and</strong> genetic diversity of the species;<br />
(2) Viability of the populations is demonstrated through either (a) quantitative surveys show that the<br />
number of individuals in each isolated population or in the metapopulation has been stable or<br />
increasing for 15 consecutive years, or (b) demographic monitoring shows that each population<br />
or the metapopulation exhibits an average growth rate (lambda, λ) not less than 1.0 over a period<br />
of at least 15 consecutive years; <strong>and</strong> total population size is not expected to decline by more than<br />
20 percent within the next 15 consecutive years for any reason;<br />
(3) Sufficient habitat in recovery areas is protected <strong>and</strong> managed to achieve criteria 1 <strong>and</strong> 2 above;<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
(4) The threats that were responsible for the decline of the species have been identified <strong>and</strong><br />
controlled.<br />
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A taxon may be delisted when all four of the criteria above have been met for a 30-year period.<br />
‘Ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea): The ‘ō‘ū is currently one of the rarest birds in Hawa‘i, <strong>and</strong> may<br />
possibly be extinct, although past survey efforts have been insufficient to determine its status<br />
(Reynolds <strong>and</strong> Snetsinger 2001). The most recent observations indicate any remaining populations<br />
are extremely localized in occurrence <strong>and</strong> are restricted to only a fraction of their former range in the<br />
midelevation ‘ōhi‘a forest on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Kaua‘i <strong>and</strong> Hawai‘i only.<br />
No conservation efforts have been initiated specifically targeting ‘ō‘ū, but several research projects<br />
<strong>and</strong> Federal <strong>and</strong> State l<strong>and</strong> management programs aimed at removing limiting factors for endangered<br />
birds <strong>and</strong> plants have been undertaken since 1985, <strong>and</strong> these provide some benefits to ‘ō‘ū. On<br />
Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>, large tracts of State <strong>and</strong> federally owned l<strong>and</strong> are being intensively managed for<br />
habitat restoration. Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, Hakalau Forest NWR, Pu‘u Maka‘ala Natural<br />
Area Reserve, <strong>and</strong> the ‘Ōla‘a-Kīlauea Partnership (now TMA) area have been known to harbor ‘ō‘ū<br />
in the past 25 years, <strong>and</strong> each area currently has management programs aimed at removing ungulates<br />
to restore native forest habitat <strong>and</strong> ongoing research into eliminating other threats.<br />
‘Akiapōlā‘au (Hemignathus munroi): Four categories of recovery strategies have been identified;<br />
research, recovery areas, predator control, <strong>and</strong> captive propagation/reintroduction. For research,<br />
studies are identified as necessary in four main areas: (1) testing of survey methodology, followed by<br />
surveying <strong>and</strong> mapping of all populations <strong>and</strong> long-term monitoring; (2) demographic studies to<br />
measure life-history parameters such as population structure, dispersion, dispersal, adult<br />
survivorship, clutch size, nesting success, social system, <strong>and</strong> phenology of nesting <strong>and</strong> molting;<br />
(3) habitat selection <strong>and</strong> foraging ecology, including diet <strong>and</strong> food availability, particularly in<br />
regenerating forest, as well as the role that koa silviculture practices play in the creation of suitable<br />
habitat; <strong>and</strong> (4) response of ‘akiapōlā‘au populations to control of mammalian predators, particularly<br />
in low-stature dry forests where the species has difficulty maintaining itself.<br />
For recovery areas, the most important component of the recovery strategy for the ‘akiapōlā‘au is<br />
protection, management, <strong>and</strong> restoration of koa/‘ōhi‘a forests above 4,400 ft elevation. Fencing<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or removal of ungulates from the remaining high elevation forests will protect these areas <strong>and</strong><br />
allow natural regeneration. Predator control is identified as an effective method of increasing<br />
reproduction <strong>and</strong> survival in other Hawaiian forest birds (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf <strong>and</strong> Smith 2002). However,<br />
the degree of threat from alien rodents may vary among species <strong>and</strong> locations, <strong>and</strong> rodent control<br />
programs initially should be conducted in an experimental way to document their effect on<br />
‘akiapōlā‘au populations.<br />
<strong>Final</strong>ly, captive propagation <strong>and</strong> reintroduction can augment natural recovery of ‘akiapōlā‘au <strong>and</strong><br />
reestablishment of wild populations in portions of the former range. Captive propagation techniques<br />
such as collection of eggs from the wild, artificial incubation <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong> rearing, captive breeding, <strong>and</strong><br />
reintroduction may be required to speed recovery. Feasibility should be determined for reintroducing<br />
‘akiapōlā‘au into now protected areas of its former range, particularly at the Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a Forest<br />
Bird Sanctuary, the KFU of the Hakalau Forest NWR, Mauna Loa Strip of Hawai‘i Volcanoes<br />
National Park, <strong>and</strong>, if it is managed as planned, the upper forests of Kīpāhoehoe Natural Area<br />
Reserve.<br />
Hawai‘i creeper (Oreomystis mana): The primary strategy for the recovery of the Hawai‘i creeper is<br />
the protection <strong>and</strong> management of remaining koa/‘ōhi‘a forests above 4,900 ft elevation, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
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restoration of degraded forests. Because the population is relatively large <strong>and</strong> the threat of extinction<br />
is not imminent, recovery may be achieved more cost effectively through habitat management,<br />
therefore captive propagation currently is of lower priority for this species.<br />
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus): The following four strategies have been identified for<br />
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa; (1) habitat protection <strong>and</strong> nest site management, (2) disease resistance, (3) predator<br />
control, <strong>and</strong> (4) captive propagation. The recovery plan identifies the most important component of<br />
the recovery strategy for the Hawai‘i ‘ākepa as habitat protection <strong>and</strong> nest site management. This<br />
includes protection of old-growth forest ecosystems, the use of artificial cavities to enable existing<br />
populations to hold their own despite loss of nest-site trees, <strong>and</strong> research to address factors that affect<br />
the growth form of regenerating ‘ōhi‘a.<br />
Next, management of disease is identified as a major recovery strategy. Since eradication of<br />
mosquitoes is not practical with methods currently available, the birds themselves may be the best<br />
way of addressing the threat from disease. If individuals are discovered that tolerate disease, then<br />
genetic techniques can determine if those genotypes are present outside the range of disease. If those<br />
genotypes are not present outside the range, then an appropriate management strategy would be to<br />
move birds with pertinent genotypes into populations of birds that are not tolerant.<br />
Third, predator control, especially rats, has been shown to be an effective method of increasing<br />
reproduction <strong>and</strong> survival in other Hawaiian forest birds (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf <strong>and</strong> Smith 2002). However,<br />
the degree of threat from alien rodents may vary among species <strong>and</strong> locations, <strong>and</strong> rodent control<br />
programs initially should be conducted in an experimental way to document their effect on ‘ākepa<br />
populations.<br />
<strong>Final</strong>ly captive propagation is not considered essential for recovery at this time. However, it is<br />
anticipated that the Hawai‘i ‘ākepa will breed in captivity when they reach reproductive age. Progeny<br />
from such captive propagation efforts would provide birds for reintroduction in order to establish <strong>and</strong><br />
enhance wild populations.<br />
Since native forest birds are a Refuge purpose species, many of the CCP goals, objectives, <strong>and</strong><br />
strategies tie directly to forest bird recovery. Native forest restoration, including plant <strong>and</strong> animal<br />
species that are components of the forest, is the key component of this CCP <strong>and</strong> future management<br />
at Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for the ‘Ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus, Hawaiian Hoary Bat) (USFWS<br />
1998): The ‘ōpe‘ape‘a is the only native l<strong>and</strong> mammal in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Research is the key<br />
to reaching the ultimate goal of delisting the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, because currently available information is so<br />
limited that even the most basic management actions cannot be undertaken with the certainty that<br />
such actions will benefit the subspecies. The initial focus for developing st<strong>and</strong>ardized survey <strong>and</strong><br />
monitoring techniques <strong>and</strong> collecting basic life-history information will be on ‘ōpe‘ape‘a populations<br />
on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i, which apparently has the largest population of ‘ōpe‘ape‘a. Completion of<br />
research tasks will not only establish the distribution <strong>and</strong> abundance of ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, but will also<br />
provide information on specific roosting habitat associations <strong>and</strong> food habits.<br />
With basic information on the location of ‘ōpe‘ape‘a <strong>and</strong> their resource needs, threats can then be<br />
identified <strong>and</strong> managed. Management actions that may be needed to address threats include<br />
protection of key roosting <strong>and</strong> foraging areas, particularly if ‘ōpe‘ape‘a or their food resources<br />
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depend on native vegetation. Predation, the potential impacts of pesticides to bats or their food<br />
resources, <strong>and</strong> other threats may also need to be addressed.<br />
Refuge staff are interested in helping to learn more about the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a to assist in developing<br />
conservation strategies that could be incorporated into management actions at Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster (I & II) (USFWS 1996, 1998): The recovery plan<br />
<strong>and</strong> addendum for plants that are found on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> include 13 species that are or have been<br />
found on one or both of the units of Hakalau Forest NWR. For the purposes of this review, we have<br />
grouped the endangered plants according to recovery actions. This allows Refuge staff to review<br />
recovery actions to determine the greatest conservation benefit that Refuge habitat management<br />
actions can have on various species.<br />
Species: Clermontia lindseyana, Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii, Portulaca sclerocarpa<br />
Recovery Action: Current populations of these species should be protected from ungulates wherever<br />
possible, <strong>and</strong> their habitat managed for deterrence of nonnative plant invasions. Propagation <strong>and</strong><br />
outplanting efforts should be encouraged <strong>and</strong> continued.<br />
Species: Clermontia peleana, Clermontia pyrularia, Cyanea shipmanii<br />
Recovery Action: In order to prevent possible extinction of these taxa, maintenance of ex situ genetic<br />
stock is necessary. The known plants should be protected from ungulates, particularly pigs, via<br />
fencing or other means. Propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting of ex situ stock will likely be needed in order to<br />
establish a sufficient number of plants for recovery within each location <strong>and</strong> an additional location<br />
will need to be established.<br />
Species: Cyanea stictophylla<br />
Recovery Action: In order to prevent possible extinction of this taxon, maintenance of ex situ genetic<br />
stock is necessary. The known plants should be protected from ungulates, particularly pigs, via<br />
fencing or other means. Propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting of ex situ stock will likely be needed in order to<br />
establish a sufficient number of plants for recovery within each location <strong>and</strong> an additional two<br />
locations will need to be established.<br />
Species: Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra tintinnabula<br />
Recovery Action: In order to prevent possible extinction of this taxon, maintenance of ex situ genetic<br />
stock is necessary. The known plants should be protected from ungulates, particularly pigs, via<br />
fencing or other means. Propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting of ex situ stock will likely be needed in order to<br />
establish a sufficient number of plants for recovery within each location <strong>and</strong> an additional location<br />
will need to be established. Research into pollination vectors is needed.<br />
Species: Nothocestrum breviflorum<br />
Recovery Action: Propagation <strong>and</strong> maintenance of ex situ genetic stock is necessary. Populations<br />
should be protected from cattle via fencing or other means, <strong>and</strong> competing alien plant taxa,<br />
specifically Schinus terebinthifolius, lantana, <strong>and</strong> fountain grass, should be controlled. Habitat of this<br />
species should be protected from residential <strong>and</strong> recreational development in sufficient area to allow<br />
for full recovery of the species.<br />
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Species: Silene hawaiiensis<br />
Recovery Action: Recent discoveries of several large populations indicate that this plant is not as rare<br />
as once thought. Populations should be monitored to ensure that numbers are being maintained. After<br />
habitat on which at least five of the larger populations occur is managed to control threats from feral<br />
animals, alien taxa, <strong>and</strong> military training, delisting of this species can be considered.<br />
Species: Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia velutina, Sicyos macrophyllus<br />
Recovery Actions: Construct fenced exclosures around the known populations, <strong>and</strong> initiate removal<br />
of ungulates <strong>and</strong> alien plant taxa. Once they are fenced, ungulates <strong>and</strong> alien plants should be<br />
removed. Outplant new populations in areas of reduced threat. Prior to <strong>and</strong> following outplanting, the<br />
sites’ alien plants should be removed.<br />
Since endangered plants are a Refuge Purpose species, many of the CCP goals, objectives, <strong>and</strong><br />
strategies tie directly to plant recovery. Native forest restoration, including plant <strong>and</strong> animal species<br />
that are components of the forest, is the key element of this CCP <strong>and</strong> future management at Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR.<br />
Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for Four Species of Hawaiian Ferns (USFWS 1998): The most important recovery<br />
action for these taxa is to protect high elevation lava tubes, including removal of feral animals.<br />
Asplenium fragile var. insulare (now named Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare) has a very<br />
scattered distribution <strong>and</strong> surveys will help determine the best areas for habitat protection. Optimal<br />
survey areas can be determined by considering the age of the substrate <strong>and</strong> the vegetation type.<br />
Protection of high elevation lava tubes is included as Goal 2. The key elements of fencing <strong>and</strong><br />
ungulate removal will provide a direct benefit to this species.<br />
Revised Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for the ‘Alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis) (USFWS 2009): The ‘alalā is listed<br />
as endangered without critical habitat. No individuals are known to exist in the wild. As of 2010,<br />
77 ‘alalā, representing the entire population of the species, are in captivity; including 1 bird at the<br />
San Diego Wild Animal Park <strong>and</strong> the remaining 76 at the Keauhou <strong>and</strong> Maui Bird <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
Centers on Hawai‘i <strong>and</strong> Maui isl<strong>and</strong>s, respectively.<br />
Recovery Objective: The ‘alalā currently exists only as a small population in captivity, <strong>and</strong> so the<br />
exact needs of the recovery program cannot be specified beyond a relatively short time horizon.<br />
Recovery of this species will require both sustained, long-term conservation actions <strong>and</strong> repeated<br />
experimentation to determine the optimal means to reestablish wild populations. This recovery plan’s<br />
structure reflects these needs by articulating both long-term strategies (the Strategic <strong>Plan</strong>) <strong>and</strong> shortterm<br />
actions (Implementation <strong>Plan</strong>s) which will be revised regularly. The elements of the recovery<br />
strategy are to (1) exp<strong>and</strong> captive propagation to minimize the loss of genetic diversity, (2) identify,<br />
protect, <strong>and</strong> manage suitable habitat, <strong>and</strong> reduce threats at the selected release sites, (3) introduce<br />
birds into the wild in suitably managed habitat once the captive population is stabilized, (4) garner<br />
public support <strong>and</strong> funding, <strong>and</strong> (5) conduct research <strong>and</strong> adaptively manage the ‘alalā recovery<br />
program.<br />
Recovery Actions:<br />
1. Manage the population of ‘alalā by increasing the number of captive ‘alalā to at least 75<br />
individuals to retain all possible genetic diversity <strong>and</strong> provide individuals for release into the<br />
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wild. This will require construction <strong>and</strong> appropriate staffing of the captive propagation<br />
infrastructure necessary to accommodate the increasing size of the captive population.<br />
2. Identify suitable habitat <strong>and</strong> manage threats by selecting <strong>and</strong> managing at least one site within<br />
historical habitat so that threats, including disease <strong>and</strong> predator numbers, are minimized to the<br />
extent the site is suitable for the release of captive reared ‘alalā.<br />
3. Establish new populations in suitable habitat by selecting <strong>and</strong> preparing captive-reared ‘alalā for<br />
release, <strong>and</strong> planning release protocols to maximize survival <strong>and</strong> obtain crucial information for<br />
improvement of subsequent releases.<br />
4. Garner public support using professionally designed strategies to develop nongovernmental<br />
funding sources to support exp<strong>and</strong>ed captive propagation, habitat management <strong>and</strong> ‘alalā<br />
reintroduction. Also, achieve stakeholder support for predator <strong>and</strong> ungulate management <strong>and</strong><br />
post-release ‘alalā monitoring.<br />
5. Conduct research <strong>and</strong> adaptively manage the recovery program by establishing a recovery<br />
implementation working group involving key stakeholders <strong>and</strong> by assigning overall recovery<br />
coordination to a single individual with performance milestones to be reviewed annually by the<br />
recovery team.<br />
The KFU was originally acquired <strong>and</strong> set aside specifically for protection of the ‘alalā. Native forest<br />
restoration at KFU is a key component of recovery actions 2 <strong>and</strong> 3.<br />
The Hawaiian Hawk Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> (USFWS 1984): The ‘io (Buteo solitarius, Hawaiian hawk)<br />
was listed as endangered on March 11, 1967, based on its restricted range (found only on the Isl<strong>and</strong><br />
of Hawai‘i), its small population size, <strong>and</strong> the loss of native forest habitat from agriculture, logging,<br />
<strong>and</strong> commercial development.<br />
However, at the time of listing there had been no systematic surveys or ecological studies of the<br />
species, <strong>and</strong> the only information available was from anecdotal accounts that gave differing reports<br />
on its abundance <strong>and</strong> population trend in various parts of the isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Due to implementation of recovery actions <strong>and</strong> other conservation efforts, the species is now found<br />
throughout the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i <strong>and</strong> has had a stable population for at least 20 years. It is nesting<br />
<strong>and</strong> foraging successfully in both native <strong>and</strong> altered habitats <strong>and</strong> has large areas of protected habitat.<br />
The ‘io is not currently believed to be threatened by overutilization, disease, predation, contaminants,<br />
lack of adequate regulatory mechanisms, or other factors.<br />
On August 6, 2008, the Service proposed to remove the ‘io from its current listing as endangered<br />
under the Endangered Species Act. On February 11, 2009, the Service formally announced the<br />
availability of the draft Post-Delisting Monitoring <strong>Plan</strong> for the ‘io <strong>and</strong> reopened a 60-day public<br />
comment period that closed on April 13, 2009 (74 FR 6853). The Service is considering public<br />
comments received during the public review periods <strong>and</strong> has not yet published a final rule.<br />
The recovery plan for ‘io has not been updated since 1984. The recovery objectives listed here are<br />
relevant; however, review <strong>and</strong> update will help to obtain current data <strong>and</strong> refine or adjust recovery<br />
objectives <strong>and</strong>/or actions.<br />
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Recovery Criteria: The prime objective is to ensure a self-sustaining ‘io population in the range of<br />
1,500-2,500 adult birds in the wild, as distributed in 1983, <strong>and</strong> maintained in stable, secure habitat.<br />
For purposes of tracking the progress, 2,000 will be used as a target to reclassify to threatened status.<br />
Both units of Hakalau Forest NWR provide habitat for the ‘io. Management strategies that improve<br />
native habitat conditions will benefit ‘io populations.<br />
Draft Revised Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for the Nēnē or Hawaiian Goose (Branta s<strong>and</strong>vicensis) (USFWS<br />
2004): Of the five or so endemic goose species described from the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s, only the nēnē<br />
has survived to the present day (Olson <strong>and</strong> James 1984; Olson <strong>and</strong> James 1991). Fossil remains of<br />
nēnē have been discovered on most of the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s, including Hawai‘i, Maui,<br />
Kaho‘olawe, Lāna‘i, Moloka‘i, <strong>and</strong> Kaua‘i (Olson <strong>and</strong> James 1991). Historically (after 1778), nēnē<br />
are known with certainty only from the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i. The nēnē was declared a federally<br />
endangered species in 1967. It is considered one of the most endangered geese in the world <strong>and</strong> is the<br />
second most endangered waterfowl in the United States.<br />
Recovery Criteria: Restore <strong>and</strong> maintain multiple self-sustaining nēnē populations on Hawai‘i, Maui<br />
Nui (Maui, Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, Kaho‘olawe), <strong>and</strong> Kaua‘i. Additionally, the threats to the species must<br />
be reduced to allow for the long-term viability of these populations, <strong>and</strong> sufficient suitable habitat<br />
must be identified, protected, <strong>and</strong> managed in perpetuity on each of these isl<strong>and</strong>s such that the<br />
species no longer meets the definition of endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species<br />
Act.<br />
Recovery Actions:<br />
1. Identify <strong>and</strong> protect nēnē habitat, focusing on the identification <strong>and</strong> protection of sufficient<br />
habitat to sustain target population levels;<br />
2. Manage habitat <strong>and</strong> existing populations for sustainable productivity <strong>and</strong> survival complemented<br />
by monitoring changes in distribution <strong>and</strong> abundance;<br />
3. Control alien predators, which addresses control of introduced mammals to enhance nēnē<br />
populations;<br />
4. Continue captive propagation program, which describes techniques <strong>and</strong> priorities for the captive<br />
propagation <strong>and</strong> release of nēnē into the wild;<br />
5. Establish additional nēnē populations, which focuses on partnerships with private l<strong>and</strong>owners;<br />
6. Address conflicts between nēnē <strong>and</strong> human activities, which includes potential management <strong>and</strong><br />
relocation of nēnē in unsuitable areas;<br />
7. Identify new research needs <strong>and</strong> continue research, which describes general categories of<br />
research needed to better evaluate threats to nēnē <strong>and</strong> develop <strong>and</strong> evaluate management<br />
strategies to address these threats;<br />
8. Provide a public education <strong>and</strong> information program, which describes important outreach <strong>and</strong><br />
education activities; <strong>and</strong><br />
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9. Validate recovery actions, which calls for formalizing the Nēnē Recovery Action Group <strong>and</strong><br />
evaluating management <strong>and</strong> research projects to determine if recovery objectives have been met.<br />
The CCP identifies specific management actions that will benefit the nēnē population on the Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit. Strategies include nonnative predator control <strong>and</strong> maintenance of firebreaks <strong>and</strong> access<br />
roads for nēnē foraging.<br />
1.8 <strong>Plan</strong>ning <strong>and</strong> Issue Identification<br />
In February 2009, we mailed approximately 150 copies of <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 1 to interested<br />
individuals, local conservation <strong>and</strong> interest groups, research organizations, Native Hawaiian<br />
organizations, <strong>and</strong> local, State, <strong>and</strong> Federal government agencies.. <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 1 was available<br />
at two public open house meetings we held in Hilo <strong>and</strong> Captain Cook, Hawai‘i, in March 2009. It<br />
was also posted on the Refuge’s website (http://www.fws.gov/hakalauforest/planning.html) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Service’s Pacific Region refuge planning website<br />
(http://www.fws.gov/pacific/planning/main/docs/HI-PI/docshakalau.htm).<br />
In <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 1, we described the CCP planning process; Refuge purposes; draft wildlife,<br />
habitat, <strong>and</strong> public use goals; <strong>and</strong> preliminary issues to be considered in the CCP. In <strong>Plan</strong>ning<br />
Update 2 (made available in October 2009 <strong>and</strong> similarly circulated as the first update), we<br />
summarized the comments we received <strong>and</strong> listed primary management issues we used to draft<br />
alternatives <strong>and</strong> refine draft goals <strong>and</strong> objectives. We also included draft vision statements for both<br />
units. A full summary of public involvement is in Appendix K.<br />
1.8.1 Public Scoping Sessions<br />
The public scoping period for this CCP opened February 25, 2009, <strong>and</strong> ended March 27, 2009. Two<br />
public meetings were held, in Hilo <strong>and</strong> Captain Cook, Hawai‘i, on March 3, 2009, <strong>and</strong> March 4,<br />
2009, respectively. At the meetings, Refuge staff explained the CCP planning process; the Refuge<br />
purposes, vision, <strong>and</strong> management; <strong>and</strong> preliminary management issues, concerns, <strong>and</strong> opportunities.<br />
Refuge staff also answered questions from attendees <strong>and</strong> received written comments. Twelve private<br />
citizens <strong>and</strong> representatives from various organizations attended the meetings <strong>and</strong> commented on the<br />
issues <strong>and</strong> opportunities we presented. Six written responses were received from individuals or<br />
organizations during scoping. The comments we received addressed broad or long-range issues <strong>and</strong><br />
very specific or detailed strategies that could be used to achieve biological or public use objectives.<br />
Summaries of the issues identified <strong>and</strong> Service responses are provided follow.<br />
How can we best protect endangered forest birds <strong>and</strong> the nēnē?<br />
The primary purpose of the Refuge is protection of endangered species. We manage Refuge<br />
resources to ensure high-quality habitat is available for endangered species, especially forest birds.<br />
Drawing on 20 years of Refuge management experience at the HFU, we have included objectives<br />
<strong>and</strong> strategies in this Draft CCP/EA for maintaining <strong>and</strong> enhancing native habitat communities to<br />
provide the life-history needs of Hakalau Forest NWR’s endangered species.<br />
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How can we best protect montane wet koa/‘ōhi‘a forest, montane dry koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane<br />
forest, lava tubes, <strong>and</strong> lavatube skylights?<br />
These habitat types are key to the survival of endangered species. Refuge management objectives <strong>and</strong><br />
strategies will be designed to protect these habitat types, <strong>and</strong> where appropriate, restore areas to highquality<br />
habitat. We describe alternatives for managing these important resources in Chapter 2.<br />
What opportunities exist for exp<strong>and</strong>ing environmental education through outreach <strong>and</strong> onsite<br />
programs?<br />
Refuge staff have worked with ‘Imi Pono no ka ‘Āina on environmental education opportunities<br />
onsite <strong>and</strong> offsite in local schools. Through the CCP planning process, we have identified additional<br />
partnerships or opportunities to exp<strong>and</strong> upon the work that is already in place (e.g., through the<br />
Friends of Hakalau Forest Refuge).<br />
How can we best prepare for, manage, <strong>and</strong> prevent the spread of wildfires?<br />
There is concern, especially from adjacent l<strong>and</strong>owners, that a wildfire could be ignited on the Refuge<br />
then spread onto private l<strong>and</strong>. The Refuge currently coordinates with the County of Hawai‘i to<br />
provide wildl<strong>and</strong> fire fighting capabilities. We are also concerned about the potential for wildfire as<br />
habitat restoration efforts are implemented. Within the past year, a fire adjacent to the HFU came<br />
close to spreading onto Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Close coordination with the County, other agencies, <strong>and</strong><br />
adjacent l<strong>and</strong>owners is essential to ensure an efficient response to fire threats. As part of the Draft<br />
CCP/EA, Refuge staff will review options for creating firebreaks <strong>and</strong> obtaining the equipment <strong>and</strong><br />
personnel required to meet firefighting needs at both units.<br />
How can we keep refuge visitors <strong>and</strong> others (e.g., contractors, Service staff) from trespassing<br />
on adjacent l<strong>and</strong>s?<br />
The KFU is currently closed to the public. At both units, a number of contractors <strong>and</strong> Refuge staff<br />
use the easements for accessing the Refuge. We continue to impress upon all individuals who access<br />
the areas the importance of using only the authorized <strong>and</strong> in some cases court-ordered easements.<br />
Where appropriate, trespass incidents will be referred to Service law enforcement.<br />
Is acquiring additional easements for accessing the Kona Forest Unit feasible?<br />
The existing easement includes difficult access from the Mamalahoa Highway, steep slopes, <strong>and</strong><br />
multiple gates. At this point, no additional access or easement opportunities have been identified.<br />
We will continue to explore options if they arise.<br />
What Native Hawaiian gathering activities occur on the Refuge?<br />
To date, there have been very few access requests for gathering activities. As part of the CCP,<br />
Refuge staff plan to review the process for granting Special Use Permits for gathering activities.<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Can we maintain public access to the historic Kaunene Trail?<br />
We have reviewed options for access to the trail. At this time access, safety, <strong>and</strong> resource<br />
management needs preclude maintenance <strong>and</strong> public access to the trail. Over time, we could revisit<br />
opportunities to reopen the Kaunene Trail.<br />
Do the Refuge units meet the minimum requirements for a wilderness designation nomination?<br />
A wilderness review, as required by Service policy, has been conducted as part of the CCP planning<br />
process <strong>and</strong> is included as Appendix D.<br />
Is there the potential to protect habitat for endangered forest birds through additional l<strong>and</strong><br />
acquisition or conservation easements?<br />
At each unit we will consider opportunities for Refuge boundary expansion on a case-by-case basis,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in accordance with Service policy. The Refuge is working with nongovernment conservation<br />
organizations (NGOs) that are familiar with private l<strong>and</strong>s in the vicinity of existing Refuge units in<br />
evaluating any feasible acquisition opportunities that may arise. Currently, two tracts of l<strong>and</strong> with<br />
high-quality habitat within the HFU’s approved acquisition boundary have not been acquired <strong>and</strong> are<br />
being managed by an agency partner. All of the l<strong>and</strong> within the acquisition boundary for the KFU has<br />
been acquired. We encourage l<strong>and</strong>owners with high-quality habitat for forest birds to manage their<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s for conservation. In addition, Refuge staff will work with Regional staff to develop a l<strong>and</strong><br />
conservation plan as outlined in objectives 1e <strong>and</strong> 3e in Chapter 2.<br />
How can we better manage the Kona Forest Unit’s ungulate populations?<br />
Refuge staff are in the process of administering a contract to build a perimeter fence around the unit<br />
<strong>and</strong> two interior fences that would create three management areas within the unit. Options <strong>and</strong><br />
opportunities for ungulate management, including removal, are included as part of the management<br />
of the KFU in the preferred alternative.<br />
How will climate change impact the Refuge?<br />
The Refuge’s two units are unique in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s because of the range of elevations that<br />
occur on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Through the CCP planning process we will evaluate the effectiveness,<br />
impacts, <strong>and</strong> benefits of providing wildlife habitats at a variety of elevations, temperatures, <strong>and</strong><br />
rainfall regimes, so that wildlife can move between as conditions are altered through climate change<br />
processes.<br />
1.8.2 Interagency Scoping<br />
On July 1, 2009, Refuge <strong>and</strong> Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s staff members met with some of our<br />
agency partners to discuss planning for Hakalau Forest NWR. Individuals from the DLNR, DHHL,<br />
USGS-BRD, <strong>and</strong> USFS attended the meeting. Refuge staff provided an overview of the planning<br />
process <strong>and</strong> current management of the Refuge. The following list of issues was developed based<br />
upon feedback received from these individuals.<br />
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� Desire by partners to see staff <strong>and</strong> a satellite office in the vicinity of the KFU;<br />
� Potential for some joint planning with NPS at Kahuku;<br />
� Interest in developing some sort of “Partnership Boundary” that could include Three Mountain<br />
Alliance, Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance, Wai‘ea;<br />
� Need for strong management partnerships at KFU;<br />
� Climate Change<br />
o Issues that will likely become larger in the context of climate change include avian malaria,<br />
the need for corridors to connect habitat fragments;<br />
o Quote - “This is one of Hawai‘i’s great opportunities to deal with climate change”;<br />
o The <strong>Plan</strong> should look for opportunities to connect the subalpine habitat with wet-lower<br />
elevation habitats;<br />
� On adjacent l<strong>and</strong>s, DHHL is considering māmane restoration, bird corridors, koa restoration, <strong>and</strong><br />
gorse control. [Since this meeting DHHL’s ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program more completely<br />
outlines specific plans for adjacent areas.];<br />
� Endangered plants are an important piece of the habitats that are being restored. We should<br />
specify actions <strong>and</strong> species;<br />
� There should be more exploration into carbon sequestration. Previous efforts did not get off the<br />
ground, but there is an emerging market for “boutique” carbon that could serve Hakalau well;<br />
� Research<br />
o There is a need for research into habitat <strong>and</strong> species responses to adaptive management to<br />
help make adjustments over time;<br />
o There is a greater need for monitoring than for pure research;<br />
o Consider developing a Research Management <strong>Plan</strong> with a formal subcommittee;<br />
o Need a way to filter research requests;<br />
� Additional enforcement should be present at both units;<br />
� Education/Outreach<br />
o Consider exp<strong>and</strong>ing the open house to twice per year;<br />
o Develop an airport kiosk;<br />
o Host an annual “low-budget” research symposium: potential ideas include poster sessions,<br />
keynote speakers, in conjunction with other events that may be occurring on isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
� Hakalau nēnē appear to be a migratory subpopulation that could provide an additional avenue for<br />
education about management at Hakalau;<br />
� Develop a bibliography of Hakalau research; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Review <strong>and</strong> use the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park ungulate control Environmental Impact<br />
Statement (EIS).<br />
1.8.3 Forest Bird Workshop<br />
The Service held a workshop with partner agencies, renowned forest bird researchers, <strong>and</strong><br />
statisticians in Hilo October 8-10, 2008, to exp<strong>and</strong> a review of the current status of the Hawai‘i<br />
‘ākepa <strong>and</strong> other endangered Hawaiian forest birds at the Refuge for development of options for<br />
management alternatives for the CCP.<br />
The Service has received contradictory information over the population status of the endangered<br />
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa in a portion of the Refuge, a major stronghold of the species, over the last several<br />
years. The Regional Director obtained the assistance of the USGS’ Dr. J. Michael Scott in<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
conducting a review of available information on the Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, <strong>and</strong> this workshop was an<br />
extension of the review.<br />
The agenda was focused on the endangered Hawaiian forest birds found at the Refuge. It was<br />
anticipated that although the workshop focused specifically on the Refuge, much of the information<br />
shared would be applicable to these species throughout their ranges <strong>and</strong> to the broader Mauna Kea<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems or forest bird survey methodology in general.<br />
The workshop purposes <strong>and</strong> objectives were:<br />
1. Identify <strong>and</strong> prioritize management needs <strong>and</strong> activities, including research, at Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR to recover endangered Hawaiian forest birds;<br />
2. Incorporate identified needs <strong>and</strong> activities in the Hakalau Forest 15-year CCP; <strong>and</strong><br />
3. Extrapolate Hakalau-specific information to the broader Mauna Kea area <strong>and</strong> other geographic<br />
areas <strong>and</strong> bird species <strong>and</strong> suites of birds as appropriate.<br />
A number of suggestions came out of the workshop, as listed below. The rankings for each of the<br />
lists are based upon voting by workshop participants. The complete forest bird workshop summary is<br />
included as Appendix E.<br />
Immediate Threats to Hawaiian Forest Birds at Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
1. Ungulates;<br />
2. Lack of Habitat;<br />
3. Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts;<br />
4. Predation;<br />
5. Data Insufficient to Meet Management Needs;<br />
6. Parasites; <strong>and</strong><br />
7. Interspecific Competition.<br />
Management Actions (Priority Ranking by Workshop Participants)<br />
1. *Grazers/browsers (Habitat destruction/relative to mosquito production) (High)<br />
� Fence construction, maintenance, <strong>and</strong> removal of animals;<br />
� See Research Priorities;<br />
2. Habitat Restoration (High)<br />
� Revegetation of pasture l<strong>and</strong>;<br />
� Improve ‘ōhi‘a densities;<br />
3. Invasive plants (High)<br />
� Continue invasive species control (e.g., blackberry, banana poka, gorse);<br />
� Prevent <strong>and</strong> eliminate incipient weeds;<br />
� See Research Priorities;<br />
4. Monitoring <strong>and</strong> Data Needs (High)<br />
� See Research priorities;<br />
� Delivery of technical information;<br />
5. Predation (Medium)<br />
� See Research priorities;<br />
6. Parasites (Low)<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
� Incipient invasive parasites, true population counts, delouse birds;<br />
7. Interspecific competition (Low)<br />
� See Research priorities;<br />
� Identify ectoparasites/mites.<br />
Research Priorities (Priority Ranked by Workshop Participants)<br />
1. Monitoring <strong>and</strong> Data: Exp<strong>and</strong> point counts/b<strong>and</strong>ing data (combined primary counter training,<br />
consider use of a B-Bird (Breeding Biology Research <strong>and</strong> Monitoring Database) system<br />
(http://www.umt.edu/bbird/info.htm), <strong>and</strong> threat surveillance);<br />
2. Predation: Investigate effects of rats on forest birds; rodent population index;<br />
3. Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts: Develop effective biocontrols;<br />
4. *Grazers/Browsers: Predator proof fencing;<br />
5. Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts: Develop more efficient control methods <strong>and</strong> registration of herbicides;<br />
5. Determine the effects of global climate change at the Refuge;<br />
6. Develop more effective cat control techniques;<br />
6. Determine effects of ectoparasites on non-endangered bird populations; <strong>and</strong><br />
7. Experimental control of Japanese white-eyes.<br />
*Caveat: Activities to construct an ungulate-proof fence <strong>and</strong> a predator-proof fence caused some<br />
confusion. Dr. Scott obtained consensus that these activities could be combined with a third separate<br />
but related activity of removing ungulates.<br />
1.9 Refuge Vision<br />
A CCP describes management actions that help bring a refuge closer to its vision. A vision broadly<br />
reflects the refuge purposes, the Refuge System mission <strong>and</strong> goals, other statutory requirements, <strong>and</strong><br />
larger-scale plans as appropriate. Public use <strong>and</strong> wildlife/habitat management goals then define<br />
general targets in support of the vision, followed by objectives that direct effort into incremental <strong>and</strong><br />
measurable steps toward achieving those goals. <strong>Final</strong>ly, strategies identify specific tools <strong>and</strong> actions<br />
to accomplish objectives.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (Ka Pu‘uhonua Waonahele Aupuni ‘o Hakalau)<br />
Aia nō i uka i ke kua ko‘olau o Mauna Kea ka pu‘uhonua waonahele aupuni ‘o Hakalau. He wahi<br />
kēia e hui ai kānaka e laulima ma o ke ka‘analike aku, ka‘analike mai i ka ‘ike, ka no‘eau, a me ka<br />
mana i mea e ho‘opalekana, ho‘oikaika, a ho‘ōla hou ai i ke ola maoli e noho ana ma ka waonahele.<br />
Ua kapa ‘ia ka inoa ‘o Hakalau no ka nui o nā haka e noho ‘ia e nā manu ‘ōiwi. I kēia lā ‘o<br />
Hakalau kekahi o nā home nunui no ka hui manu Hawai‘i ‘ane make loa. Kīkaha a‘ela nā manu, nā<br />
pua laha ‘ole ho‘i, i ka ‘ohu‘ohu o Hakalau a ma lalo iki e mūkīkī i ka wai pua ‘ōhi‘a. Ua nani nō<br />
ka ‘ikena a ‘upu a‘ela nō ke aloha no kēia ‘āina nei no nā kau a kau.<br />
On the windward slope of majestic Mauna Kea, midway between summit <strong>and</strong> sea, lies Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR, a place where people come together to laulima, “many h<strong>and</strong>s working together,” to<br />
share their knowledge, to share their skills, <strong>and</strong> to share their energy to protect, to enhance, to restore,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to respect Hawaiian wildlife. Known to Hawaiians as “place of many perches,” verdant<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
rainforest supports the largest populations of endangered Hawaiian forest birds. Crimson, orange,<br />
yellow, <strong>and</strong> green hued birds, the jewels of Hakalau, flit through the mist, pausing to sip nectar from<br />
‘ōhi‘a lehua, inspire joy <strong>and</strong> wonder for present <strong>and</strong> future generations.<br />
Kona Forest Unit (Ka Waonahele o Kona)<br />
Mai Mauna Kea nō a ka‘a i lalo, a hiki aku i Mauna Loa, ma laila nō ka waonahele o Kona, kahi e<br />
noho lewalewa ana nā ao ‘ōpua i ka ‘uhiwai e hō‘olu‘olu ana i ka ulu lā‘au. ‘Ike ‘ia ka ‘io e kīkaha<br />
ana ma luna loa o ka papa kaupoku i ho‘owehiwehi ‘ia me ka limu. Ma lalo o ke kaupoku koa me<br />
‘ōhi‘a, e ‘imi ana ka ‘alalā me kona hoa manu i ka hua‘ai, wai pua, a me nā mea kolokolo i mea ‘ai<br />
na lākou. Aia nō ma ka malumalu o nā ana kahe pele kahiko nā mea kanu kāka‘ikahi o ka ‘āina, a<br />
me nā iwi o nā manu make loa ma Hawai‘i. Kuahui maila nō nā hoa mālama ‘āina i ola hou ka<br />
nohona o nā mea ‘ane make loa ma kēia ‘āina nui ākea.<br />
On leeward Mauna Loa, where the clouds kiss the slopes with cool gray fog, lies the Kona Forest.<br />
‘Alalā <strong>and</strong> other Hawaiian forest birds forage for fruit, nectar, <strong>and</strong> insects amongst the lichen-draped<br />
branches <strong>and</strong> canopy of the old-growth koa/‘ōhi‘a forest while the ‘io soars overhead. In their damp<br />
darkness, ancient lava tubes <strong>and</strong> cave systems shelter rare plants, archaeological resources, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
bones of extinct birds. <strong>Conservation</strong> partners collaborate to restore habitat for the native <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered species across the l<strong>and</strong>scape.<br />
1.10 Refuge Goals<br />
Goals <strong>and</strong> objectives are the unifying elements of successful refuge management. They identify <strong>and</strong><br />
focus management priorities, resolve issues, <strong>and</strong> link to refuge purposes, Service policy, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Refuge System mission.<br />
The goal order does not imply any priority in this CCP.<br />
Pahuhopu 1: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a ho‘ōla hou i ka waonahele ma Mauna Loa ma ke ‘ano he<br />
wahi noho no nā mea a pau i mea e kū‘ono‘ono hou ai ka nohona o nā mea ‘ane make loa ‘o ia nō ‘o<br />
‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina.<br />
Goal 1: Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore subtropical rainforest community on the leeward slope of<br />
Mauna Loa as habitat for all life-history needs to promote the recovery of endangered species (e.g.,<br />
forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, <strong>and</strong> invertebrates).<br />
Pahuhopu 2: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i nā ana kahe pele a me ke ola i ka puka mālamalama o nā<br />
ana kahe pele ma ka waonahele o Kona, e kālele ana ho‘i i ke ola o nā lā‘au ‘ōiwi.<br />
Goal 2: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain lava tube <strong>and</strong> lava tube skylight habitat throughout the Kona Forest<br />
Unit, with special emphasis on their unique <strong>and</strong> endemic flora <strong>and</strong> fauna.<br />
Pahuhopu 3: E ho‘opalekana, mālama, a hō‘ola hou i ka waonahele ma ka ‘ao‘ao ko‘olau o Mauna<br />
Kea ma ke ‘ano he wahi noho no nā mea a pau a me ko lākou pono ‘oia nō ‘oe ‘o nā manu, nā<br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nā mea kanu, a me nā mea kolokolo ‘āina.<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background 1-33
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Goal 3: Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore subtropical rainforest community, on the windward slope of<br />
Mauna Kea as habitat for all life-history needs of endangered species (e.g., forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a,<br />
plants, <strong>and</strong> invertebrates).<br />
Pahuhopu 4: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i ka ‘āina nenelu ma Hakalau.<br />
Goal 4: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain wetl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> aquatic habitats (e.g., streams <strong>and</strong> their associated riparian<br />
corridors, ponds, <strong>and</strong> bogs) on the Hakalau Forest Unit.<br />
Pahuhopu 5: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i ka ‘āina mau‘u i mea e kāko‘o ai i ka ho‘ōla hou ‘ana i ka<br />
hui manu nēnē.<br />
Goal 5: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain grassl<strong>and</strong> habitat to support nēnē population recovery.<br />
Pahuhopu 6: E ‘ohi‘ohi i ka ‘ikepili ‘epekema (waihona ‘ike, nānā pono, ‘imi noi‘i, ana ‘ike) e pono<br />
ai ka ho‘oholo ‘ana i ke ‘ano o ka ho‘okele ‘ana iā Hakalau ma Mauna Kea a me Mauna Loa.<br />
Goal 6: Collect scientific information (inventories, monitoring, research, assessments) necessary to<br />
support adaptive management decisions on both units of the Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Pahuhopu 7: E kipa mai ka po‘e malihini a me ka po‘e maka‘āinana no ka hana manawale‘a ‘ana i<br />
mea e kama‘āina ai lākou i ka nohona o ka waonahele a me ka ‘oihana mālama ma Hakalau.<br />
Goal 7: Visitors, with a special emphasis on experience gained through volunteer work groups <strong>and</strong><br />
local residents, underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or value the native forest environment <strong>and</strong> management practices at<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Pahuhopu 8: E ho‘opalekana a mālama i nā kumu waiwai a me nā wahi pana Hawai‘i no ka<br />
ho‘ona‘auao ‘ana i nā hanauna o kēia wā a me ka wā e hiki mai ana.<br />
Goal 8: Protect <strong>and</strong> manage cultural resources <strong>and</strong> historic sites for their educational <strong>and</strong> cultural<br />
values for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Refuge users <strong>and</strong> communities.<br />
1.11 References<br />
Mitchell, C., C. Ogura, D.W. Meadows, A. Kane, L. Strommer, S. Fretz, D. Leonard, <strong>and</strong> A.<br />
McClung. October 2005. Hawaii’s <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> Strategy. Department of<br />
L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources. Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 722 pp.<br />
Olson, S.L. <strong>and</strong> H.F. James. 1984. The role of Polynesians in the extinction of the avifauna of the<br />
Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Pages 768-780 in P.S. Martin <strong>and</strong> R.G. Klein (eds.). Quaternary extinctions: a<br />
prehistoric revolution. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ.<br />
Olson, S.L. <strong>and</strong> H.F. James. 1991. Descriptions of thirty-two new species of birds from the Hawaiian<br />
isl<strong>and</strong>s: Part I. Non-passeriformes. Ornithological Monographs 45:1-88.<br />
1-34 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 2006. Revised Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for Hawaiian Forest Birds. Region 1,<br />
Portl<strong>and</strong>, OR. 622 pp.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1998. Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for the Hawaiian Hoary Bat. U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Service, Portl<strong>and</strong>, OR. 50 pp.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1996. Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster Recovery <strong>Plan</strong>. U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
Service, Portl<strong>and</strong>, OR. 202+ pp.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 2009. Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for the `Alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis). Portl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Oregon. xiv + 105 pp.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1998. Big Isl<strong>and</strong> II: Addendum to the Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for the Big<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster. U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service, Portl<strong>and</strong>, OR. 80 pages + appendices.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1998. Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for Four Species of Hawaiian Ferns. U.S. <strong>Fish</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service, Portl<strong>and</strong>, OR. 78 pp.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1984. The Hawaiian Hawk Recovery <strong>Plan</strong>. Under contract with<br />
Curtis R. Griffin, Missouri Cooperative <strong>Wildlife</strong> Research Unit. 48 pp.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 2004. Draft Revised Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for the Nēnē or Hawaiian Goose<br />
(Branta s<strong>and</strong>vicensis). U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service, Portl<strong>and</strong>, OR. 148 + xi pp.<br />
Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background 1-35
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
1-36 Chapter 1. Introduction <strong>and</strong> Background
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction<br />
‘Hawai‘i ‘Elepaio/Jack Jeffrey Photography<br />
Thous<strong>and</strong>s of koa trees planted in corridors are the first step toward restoring degraded habitat/USFWS
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction<br />
2.1 Considerations in the Design of the CCP<br />
The Refuge reviewed <strong>and</strong> considered a variety of resource, social, economic, <strong>and</strong> organizational<br />
aspects important for managing the Refuge. These background conditions are described more fully in<br />
Chapters 3, 4, <strong>and</strong> 5. In addition, past <strong>and</strong> current management actions were also considered (a<br />
summary of which can be found in Appendix L). As is appropriate for a national wildlife refuge,<br />
resource considerations were fundamental in designing alternatives. House Report 105-106<br />
accompanying the Improvement Act states “…the fundamental mission of our System is wildlife<br />
conservation: wildlife <strong>and</strong> wildlife conservation must come first.” The CCP team reviewed scientific<br />
reports <strong>and</strong> studies to better underst<strong>and</strong> ecosystem trends <strong>and</strong> the latest scientific recommendations<br />
for species <strong>and</strong> habitats. Refuge staff met with elected officials <strong>and</strong> staff from local, State, <strong>and</strong><br />
Federal agencies to ascertain priorities <strong>and</strong> problems as perceived by others. Refuge staff also met<br />
with Refuge users, nonprofit or nongovernmental groups (NGOs), university/academic members, <strong>and</strong><br />
community organizations to ensure that their comments <strong>and</strong> ideas were considered during CCP<br />
development.<br />
Refuge staff developed tables of focal species, conservation targets, <strong>and</strong> supporting habitats for<br />
Refuge management (Appendix F) based upon the Refuge purposes for Hakalau Forest NWR, a<br />
variety of national, regional, <strong>and</strong> State plans, <strong>and</strong> discussion with Service biologists, managers, <strong>and</strong><br />
outside researchers. These conservation targets provide the basis for our habitat management goals,<br />
objectives, <strong>and</strong> strategies.<br />
2.2 General Guidelines<br />
General guidelines for implementing the CCP follow, as do maps that summarize the CCP actions by<br />
the Refuge. To reduce the length <strong>and</strong> redundancy of the descriptions for each unit, common features<br />
are presented below.<br />
Ungulate-proof Boundary Fencing <strong>and</strong> Sequence of Management Actions (HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU):<br />
The perimeter (ownership) boundary of Hakalau Forest NWR will be enclosed by fencing, with<br />
internal fencing to divide into management units following. Establishing perimeter boundary fencing<br />
is a critical first step in habitat protection <strong>and</strong> restoration to deter major threats to the ecosystem <strong>and</strong><br />
their impacts to wildlife population <strong>and</strong> species recovery. Once fences are established, the st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
management strategy sequence would be to remove ungulates, then concentrate on invasive species<br />
control (e.g., invasive plants, predators such as rats, mongooses, cats, <strong>and</strong> dogs) while simultaneously<br />
restoring habitat through native plant outplantings. Surveys <strong>and</strong> monitoring for threats (e.g., invasive<br />
weeds, ungulates, predators, etc.) would be ongoing as well as species <strong>and</strong> habitat monitoring. If<br />
threats are found, they will be eradicated or controlled. Protection of special habitats (e.g., Carex sp.<br />
bogs) <strong>and</strong> endangered plant outplantings would occur once habitats are stabilized <strong>and</strong> threats<br />
managed <strong>and</strong> include actions such as site-specific fencing.<br />
Maintaining/Upgrading Existing Facilities <strong>and</strong> Fences: Periodic maintenance <strong>and</strong> upgrading of<br />
Refuge buildings, fences, <strong>and</strong> facilities will be necessary for safety <strong>and</strong> accessibility <strong>and</strong> to support<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
management <strong>and</strong> public use needs. Periodic maintenance <strong>and</strong> upgrading of fences is necessary to<br />
exclude ungulates from management units. The use of a helicopter is required in remote areas of the<br />
Refuge to deliver management materials.<br />
Invasive Species Control <strong>and</strong> Integrated Pest Management: In accordance with 517 DM 1 <strong>and</strong><br />
569 FW 1, an integrated pest management (IPM) approach would be utilized, where practicable, to<br />
eradicate, control, or contain pest <strong>and</strong> invasive species (herein collectively referred to as pests) on<br />
refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. The IPM would involve using methods based upon effectiveness, cost, <strong>and</strong> minimal<br />
ecological disruption, which considers minimum potential effects to nontarget species <strong>and</strong> the refuge<br />
environment. Pesticides may be used where physical, cultural, <strong>and</strong> biological methods or<br />
combinations thereof, are impractical or incapable of providing adequate control, eradication, or<br />
containment. If a pesticide would be needed on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s, the most specific (selective) chemical<br />
available for the target species would be used unless considerations of persistence or other<br />
environmental <strong>and</strong>/or biotic hazards would preclude it. In accordance with 517 DM 1, pesticide use<br />
would be further restricted because only pesticides registered with the U.S. Environmental Protection<br />
Agency (EPA) in full compliance with the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, <strong>and</strong> Rodenticide Act <strong>and</strong><br />
as provided in regulations, orders, or permits issued by EPA may be applied on l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters<br />
under refuge jurisdiction.<br />
Environmental harm by pest species would refer to a biologically substantial decrease in<br />
environmental quality as indicated by a variety of potential factors including declines in native<br />
species populations or communities, degraded habitat quality or long-term habitat loss, <strong>and</strong>/or altered<br />
ecological processes. Environmental harm may be a result of direct effects of pests on native species<br />
including preying <strong>and</strong> feeding on them; causing or vectoring diseases; preventing them from<br />
reproducing or killing their young; outcompeting them for food, nutrients, light, nest sites or other<br />
vital resources; or hybridizing with them so frequently that within a few generations, few if any truly<br />
native individuals remain. Environmental harm also can be the result of an indirect effect of pest<br />
species. For example, decreased waterfowl use may result from invasive plant infestations reducing<br />
the availability <strong>and</strong>/or abundance of native wetl<strong>and</strong> plants that provide forage during the winter.<br />
Environmental harm may involve detrimental changes in ecological processes. Environmental harm<br />
may also cause or be associated with economic losses <strong>and</strong> damage to human, plant, <strong>and</strong> animal<br />
health. For example, invasions by fire-promoting grasses that alter entire plant <strong>and</strong> animal<br />
communities, eliminating or sharply reducing populations of many native plant <strong>and</strong> animal species,<br />
can also greatly increase firefighting costs.<br />
The greatest threats to most habitat types on the Refuge are invasive plant <strong>and</strong> animal species.<br />
Therefore, control of invasive species that negatively impact Refuge wildlife populations or habitats<br />
will be a priority management strategy. The top priorities for invasive plant control are gorse, banana<br />
poka, <strong>and</strong> Florida blackberry. The top priorities for invasive animal control are ungulates (including<br />
pigs, sheep, cattle, donkeys, <strong>and</strong> horses) as described in the Refuge’s Feral Ungulate Management<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>. Control of introduced mammalian predators include pest animals such as rats, cats <strong>and</strong> dogs,<br />
<strong>and</strong> mongooses supports recovery of federally endangered species by reducing the loss of eggs <strong>and</strong><br />
nestlings. Vertebrate pests damaging/destroying Federal property <strong>and</strong>/or detrimental to the<br />
management program of a refuge may be controlled as described in 50 CFR 31.14 (Official Animal<br />
Control Operations). Based upon 50 CFR 28.43 (Destruction of Dogs <strong>and</strong> Cats), dogs <strong>and</strong> cats<br />
running at large on a national wildlife refuge <strong>and</strong> observed in the act of killing, injuring, harassing or<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-2
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
molesting humans or wildlife may be disposed of in the interest of public safety <strong>and</strong> protection of the<br />
wildlife.<br />
Invasive plants <strong>and</strong> animals will be treated with IPM techniques <strong>and</strong> tools. Refer to Appendix G for<br />
the Refuge’s IPM program documentation to manage pests for this CCP. Along with a more detailed<br />
discussion of IPM techniques, this document describes the selective use of pesticides for pest<br />
management on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s, where necessary.<br />
Quarantine Protocols: Staff currently employ strict quarantine protocols with all staff, Service<br />
authorized agents (e.g., researchers, USDA–APHIS/WS), <strong>and</strong> visitors to both units of the Refuge.<br />
These techniques, including cleaning of equipment <strong>and</strong> personal gear, will be used under all<br />
alternatives in all habitat types to prevent movement of invasive species from one area to another.<br />
L<strong>and</strong> Protection: The Refuge has begun a L<strong>and</strong> Protection <strong>Plan</strong>ning process that will be completed<br />
within 1 year of CCP completion. This effort is in cooperation with other agencies <strong>and</strong> interested<br />
parties to assess <strong>and</strong> identify l<strong>and</strong> conservation priorities in the vicinity of Refuge units. Potential<br />
additions or expansion of the Hakalau Forest NWR <strong>and</strong> examination of various l<strong>and</strong> protection tools<br />
will be explored. L<strong>and</strong> Protection as part of the Refuge System may include fee title acquisition,<br />
conservation easements, <strong>and</strong>/or cooperative agreements.<br />
Adaptive Management: Based upon 522 DM 1 (Adaptive Management Implementation policy),<br />
refuge staff shall utilize adaptive management for conserving, protecting, <strong>and</strong>, where appropriate,<br />
restoring l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> resources. Within 43 CFR 46.30, adaptive management is defined as a system of<br />
management practices based upon clearly identified outcomes, where monitoring evaluates whether<br />
management actions are achieving desired results (objectives). The recently published DOI Adaptive<br />
Management Technical Guide also defines adaptive management as a decision process that<br />
“promotes flexible decision making that can be adjusted in the face of uncertainties as outcomes from<br />
management actions <strong>and</strong> other events become better understood.” Adaptive management accounts<br />
for the fact that complete knowledge about fish, wildlife, plants, habitats, <strong>and</strong> the ecological<br />
processes supporting them may be lacking. The role of natural variability contributing to ecological<br />
resilience also is recognized as an important principle of adaptive management. It is not a “trial <strong>and</strong><br />
error” process, but rather emphasizes learning while doing based upon available scientific<br />
information <strong>and</strong> best professional judgment considering site-specific biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic factors on<br />
refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. This policy will be adopted by the Refuge throughout the lifespan of its CCP.<br />
Implementation Subject to Funding Availability: Actions (strategies) will be implemented over<br />
the 15 year life span of the CCP, contingent upon available funding. It is the intent of the Refuge that<br />
annual priorities will follow the final CCP guidelines, although funding initiatives, unforeseeable<br />
management challenges, <strong>and</strong> varying budgets may impact feasibility of actions from year to year.<br />
The CCP will be reviewed every 5 years <strong>and</strong> updated as necessary throughout its life.<br />
Permanent Full Time Staffing Additions: This CCP proposes adding 11 new permanent full time<br />
positions to the staff of the Hakalau Forest NWR (HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU) to achieve the goals <strong>and</strong> objectives<br />
outlined in the plan. All staffing additions are subject to Regional approval <strong>and</strong> allocation of<br />
additional base funding.<br />
Participation in <strong>Plan</strong>ning <strong>and</strong> Review of Regional Development Activities: The Refuge will<br />
actively participate in <strong>and</strong> contribute to planning <strong>and</strong> studies for ongoing <strong>and</strong> future industrial, urban,<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
housing <strong>and</strong> energy development, contamination, <strong>and</strong> other potential concerns that may adversely<br />
affect Refuge wildlife resources <strong>and</strong> habitats. Working with the Ecological Services program of the<br />
Service, the Refuge will cultivate working relationships with pertinent local, County, State, <strong>and</strong><br />
Federal agencies to stay abreast of current <strong>and</strong> potential developments <strong>and</strong> will utilize outreach,<br />
education <strong>and</strong> information as needed to raise awareness of Refuge resources <strong>and</strong> dependence on the<br />
local environment.<br />
State Coordination: The Refuge will continue to maintain regular discussions with the State of<br />
Hawai‘i Department of L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources (DLNR) Division of Forestry of <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
(DOFAW). Key topics for discussion with DOFAW will be wildlife monitoring, forest bird<br />
monitoring <strong>and</strong> management, threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species management, wildlife mortality <strong>and</strong><br />
disease monitoring, predator management, <strong>and</strong> response to climate change. Public use opportunities,<br />
as well as protection of Refuge wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat, will be the primary topics of discussion with<br />
DLNR <strong>and</strong> its other divisions.<br />
Volunteer Opportunities <strong>and</strong> Partnerships: Volunteer opportunities <strong>and</strong> partnerships are key<br />
components of the successful management of public l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> vital to implementation of Refuge<br />
programs, plans, <strong>and</strong> projects, especially in times of declining budgets.<br />
Requests for Public Uses on Refuge L<strong>and</strong>s: Nonwildlife-dependent recreational activities will be<br />
subject to the criteria of Appropriate Refuge Use Policy, <strong>and</strong> if found appropriate, will be analyzed<br />
through a Compatibility Determination (CD). Existing public uses (wildlife observation, wildlife<br />
photography, environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation, hunting, <strong>and</strong> fishing) were evaluated<br />
through CDs, as appropriate. Through the CCP development process, public hunting was determined<br />
as an incompatible use; therefore, public hunting is closed on both units. Appropriate use findings for<br />
nonwildlife-dependent public uses were made based on policy guidance in the Service’s Appropriate<br />
Refuge Uses Policy; 603 FW 1, <strong>and</strong> were documented on the Service’s Form 3-2319 (finding of<br />
appropriateness of a refuge use) in Appendix B. Compatibility determinations are also included in<br />
Appendix B.<br />
Refuge Revenue Sharing Payment: Annual payments to the County of Hawai‘i under the Refuge<br />
Revenue Sharing Program will continue according to the established formula, subject to payments<br />
authorized by Congress.<br />
Regulatory Compliance: All activities requiring review, permits, <strong>and</strong> clearances (e.g., Section 106<br />
of the National Historic Preservation Act, Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act) will undergo<br />
appropriate review <strong>and</strong> obtain necessary permits <strong>and</strong>/or clearances as needed.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-4
Figure 2-1. HFU CCP management.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-6
Figure 2-2. KFU CCP management.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-7
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-8
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table 2-1. Summary of CCP Actions.<br />
Objectives CCP Action<br />
1.1: Restore <strong>and</strong> Protect Native<br />
Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a Forest<br />
(2,000-4,500 ft elevation) at KFU<br />
1.2: Restore, Protect, <strong>and</strong> Maintain<br />
Native Montane Mesic Koa/‘Ōhi‘a<br />
Forest<br />
(4,500-5,800 ft elevation) at KFU<br />
1.3: Protect, Maintain, <strong>and</strong> Restore<br />
Native Dry Koa/‘Ōhi‘a/Māmane Forest<br />
(5,800-6,100 ft elevation) at KFU<br />
1.4: Develop <strong>and</strong> Implement<br />
Propagation <strong>and</strong> Outplanting Program<br />
at KFU<br />
1.5, 5.3: Investigate <strong>and</strong> Initiate<br />
L<strong>and</strong>scape-level Habitat <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
Measures<br />
2.1: Protect & Maintain<br />
Lava Tube <strong>and</strong> Skylight Communities<br />
at KFU<br />
3.1: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Native<br />
Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a/Uluhe<br />
(Dicranopteris sp.) Forest (2,500-4,000<br />
ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3,000 acres. Remove ranch debris. Build <strong>and</strong> maintain 17<br />
mile ungulate-proof fence. Remove pest animals.<br />
Eradicate/control invasive plants. Conduct annual invasive<br />
plant survey; conduct survey for pest animals (based on<br />
surveys control threats). Outplant threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered<br />
(T&E) plants in units 2 <strong>and</strong> 3 <strong>and</strong> build site specific fencing<br />
for these plants.<br />
1,800 acres. Remove ranch debris. Build <strong>and</strong> maintain<br />
fence, eradicate/control invasive plants, <strong>and</strong> remove pest<br />
animals. Conduct annual invasive plant survey; conduct<br />
survey for pest animals (based on surveys control threats).<br />
Outplant native plants. Address wildfire through hazardous<br />
fuels treatment, maintaining fuelbreaks, developing fire<br />
prevention program.<br />
500 acres. Remove ranch debris. Build <strong>and</strong> maintain fence,<br />
eradicate/control invasive plants, <strong>and</strong> remove pest animals.<br />
Conduct annual invasive plant survey; conduct survey for<br />
pest animals (based on surveys control threats). Outplant<br />
T&E plants <strong>and</strong> build site specific fencing for these plants<br />
500 T&E plants <strong>and</strong> 2,000 native plants provided annually<br />
for restoration. Develop native plant nursery at Mauna Loa<br />
field camp site, collect seeds <strong>and</strong> cuttings, develop (in 7<br />
years) staff, volunteer, <strong>and</strong> partnering programs.<br />
LPP completed within one year. Identify habitats to support<br />
focal species; develop protection strategies; work proactively<br />
with partners, neighbors, <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>owners where<br />
appropriate to meet conservation goals <strong>and</strong> develop specific<br />
project proposals for l<strong>and</strong> acquisition, cooperative<br />
agreements, <strong>and</strong>/or conservation easements as key<br />
conservation opportunities arise <strong>and</strong> willing parties are<br />
identified.<br />
Remove ranch debris. Build <strong>and</strong> maintain fence <strong>and</strong> develop<br />
site specific access protocols to limit human disturbance to<br />
habitat. Eradicate/control invasive plants, <strong>and</strong> remove pest<br />
animals. Conduct survey for pest animals (based on surveys<br />
control threats). Inventory <strong>and</strong> map communities <strong>and</strong><br />
support additional investigations <strong>and</strong> research.<br />
7,000 acres. Remove pest animals, eradicate/control invasive<br />
plants, build site-specific fencing to protect T&E plant<br />
populations <strong>and</strong> Carex sp. bogs. Conduct annual invasive<br />
plant survey; conduct survey for pest animals (based on<br />
surveys control threats). Inventory vegetation, complete<br />
Wilderness Study.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-9
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Objectives CCP Action<br />
3.2: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Native<br />
Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a Forest<br />
(4,000-5,000 ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3.3: Restore, Protect, <strong>and</strong> Maintain<br />
Native Montane Wet Koa/‘Ōhi‘a<br />
Forest<br />
(5,000-6,000 ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3.4: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Native<br />
Montane Mesic Koa Forest (6,000-<br />
6,600 ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3.5: Restore/Reforest Native Montane<br />
Mesic Koa Forest<br />
(6,000-6,600 ft elevation) at HFU<br />
3.6: Maintain <strong>and</strong> Enhance<br />
Propagation <strong>and</strong> Outplanting Program<br />
at HFU<br />
4.1: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Streams <strong>and</strong><br />
Stream Corridors at HFU<br />
4.2: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain<br />
Semipermanent Natural Ponds at HFU<br />
4.3: Protect <strong>and</strong> Maintain Carex Bogs<br />
within the Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a/Uluhe<br />
Forest at HFU<br />
8,200 acres. Maintain existing fence (units 1-8), build <strong>and</strong><br />
maintain fence. Eradicate/control invasive plants <strong>and</strong> remove<br />
pest animals. Conduct annual invasive plant survey; conduct<br />
survey for pest animals (based on surveys control threats).<br />
Outplant native overstory koa <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a, T&E plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
common understory plants. Build site specific fencing for<br />
T&E plants. Complete Wilderness Study.<br />
5,000 acres. Maintain existing fence, build <strong>and</strong> maintain<br />
fence along Middle Maulua tract boundary (unit 9).<br />
Eradicate/control invasive plants <strong>and</strong> remove pest animals.<br />
Conduct annual invasive plant survey; conduct survey for<br />
pest animals (based on surveys control threats, particularly<br />
Vespula sp. ). Outplant T&E plants <strong>and</strong> build site-specific<br />
fencing to protect T&E plant populations.<br />
3,500 acres. Maintain existing fence. Eradicate/control<br />
invasive plants <strong>and</strong> remove pest animals. Conduct annual<br />
invasive plant survey; conduct survey for pest animals (based<br />
on surveys control threats, particularly Vespula sp. ).<br />
Outplant T&E plants <strong>and</strong> build site-specific fencing to<br />
protect T&E plant populations. Address wildfire through<br />
hazardous fuels treatment, maintaining fuelbreaks,<br />
developing fire prevention program.<br />
2,500 acres. Maintain fence. Eradicate/control invasive<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> remove pest animals. Conduct annual invasive<br />
plant survey; conduct survey for pest animals (based on<br />
surveys control threats). Outplant 300 koa per acre, use<br />
excluder devices to deter turkeys on koa seedlings, outplant<br />
native understory species <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a at 150 per acres,<br />
outplant 100-300 T&E plants <strong>and</strong> build site-specific fencing<br />
to protect these plants. Address wildfire through hazardous<br />
fuels treatment, maintaining fuelbreaks, developing fire<br />
prevention program.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t 10,000 koa per year for 5 years: 5,000 per year for the<br />
next 10 years, 8-10,000 natives <strong>and</strong> 300-1,200 T&E<br />
plantings per year. Exp<strong>and</strong> native plant nursery at Mauna<br />
Kea administration site, collect seeds <strong>and</strong> cuttings, outplant,<br />
<strong>and</strong> develop partnerships to assist with propagation program.<br />
Maintain fencing. Eradicate/control invasive plants. Conduct<br />
annual invasive plant survey; conduct survey for pest<br />
animals (based on surveys control threats). Inventory streams<br />
<strong>and</strong> stream corridors.<br />
Maintain fencing, conduct survey for pest animals (based on<br />
surveys control threats).<br />
Install fencing to protect bogs, conduct survey for pest<br />
animals (based on surveys control threats), survey extent <strong>and</strong><br />
number of bogs.<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Objectives CCP Action<br />
5.1: Maintain Managed Grassl<strong>and</strong> for<br />
Foraging Nēnē at HFU<br />
5.2: Maintain Grassl<strong>and</strong> Habitats for<br />
Nēnē Nesting at HFU<br />
6.1: Conduct High-Priority Inventory<br />
<strong>and</strong> Monitoring (Survey) Activities that<br />
Evaluate Resource Management <strong>and</strong><br />
Public-Use Activities to Facilitate<br />
Adaptive Management<br />
6.2: Conduct High-Priority Research<br />
Projects that Provide the Best Science<br />
for Habitat <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Management<br />
On <strong>and</strong> Off the Refuge<br />
6.3: Conduct Scientific Assessments to<br />
Provide Baseline Information to<br />
Exp<strong>and</strong> Knowledge Regarding the<br />
Status of Refuge Resources to Better<br />
Inform Resource Management<br />
Decisions<br />
7.1: Establish Compatible <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
Observation <strong>and</strong> Photography<br />
Opportunities<br />
7.2: Promote <strong>and</strong> Enhance Volunteer<br />
Program<br />
7.3: Support Existing Outside<br />
Programs for On <strong>and</strong> Off Site<br />
Environmental Education <strong>and</strong> Develop<br />
Interpretive Opportunities<br />
7.4: Enhance Outreach Targeting<br />
Local Communities to Promote<br />
Appreciation of <strong>and</strong> Generate Support<br />
for the KFU<br />
65 acres. Maintain fuel breaks <strong>and</strong> fence corridors, build <strong>and</strong><br />
maintain fence. Eradicate/control invasive plants. Conduct<br />
survey for pest animals (based on surveys control threats).<br />
15 acres. Maintain fence <strong>and</strong> build predator proof fence on<br />
15-acre grassl<strong>and</strong> breeding site away from administrative site<br />
at Pua ‘Ākala tract. Eradicate/control invasive plants <strong>and</strong><br />
remove pest animals. Conduct survey for pest animals (based<br />
on surveys control threats).<br />
An initial list of survey <strong>and</strong> monitoring activities have been<br />
identified <strong>and</strong> include examples such as monitoring nesting<br />
density <strong>and</strong> success of nēnē, inventorying all endemic<br />
species, instituting early detection <strong>and</strong> rapid response<br />
monitoring for threat management, monitoring plant <strong>and</strong><br />
animal diseases, <strong>and</strong> others.<br />
An initial list of research projects have been identified <strong>and</strong><br />
include examples such as investigating <strong>and</strong> monitoring<br />
endangered plant propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting, research on<br />
arthropod abundance, researching demography, life-history,<br />
carrying capacity, <strong>and</strong> competition for native forest birds,<br />
<strong>and</strong> others.<br />
An initial list of scientific assessments have been identified<br />
<strong>and</strong> include examples such as determining ecological<br />
parameters for ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, determining the role of predators<br />
in native flora <strong>and</strong> fauna abundance, assessing global climate<br />
change impacts on the Refuge, <strong>and</strong> others.<br />
Develop Upper Maulua Tract interpretive trail (0.3-0.5 mile)<br />
<strong>and</strong> parking area. Work with Friends of Hakalau Forest to<br />
develop brochure.<br />
Maintain volunteer program <strong>and</strong> current 35-40 service<br />
weekends at HFU, develop seasonal volunteer program to<br />
supplement staffing <strong>and</strong> weekend programs, develop KFU<br />
volunteer program similar to HFU.<br />
Increase environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretive programs<br />
(via coordinating more with County, State, <strong>and</strong> nongovernmental<br />
organizations <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong>ing interpretive<br />
programs relative to cultural resources/historic sites) to<br />
include 168 participants annually. Continue interpretive<br />
walks offered during annual Refuge open house.<br />
Work with existing partners to promote awareness <strong>and</strong><br />
appreciation. Develop <strong>and</strong> cultivate new partners <strong>and</strong><br />
outreach efforts.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-11
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Objectives CCP Action<br />
8.1: Increase Identification,<br />
Monitoring, Protection, <strong>and</strong><br />
Restoration of all Cultural Resources<br />
<strong>and</strong> Historic Sites, while Increasing<br />
Staff <strong>and</strong> Public Support <strong>and</strong><br />
Appreciation<br />
2.3 Goals, Objectives, <strong>and</strong> Strategies<br />
Evaluate known/potential Refuge cultural resources <strong>and</strong><br />
historic sites, develop guidelines for cultural activities,<br />
identify cultural practitioners to develop underst<strong>and</strong>ing of<br />
cultural/historic sites at the Refuge, develop interpretive<br />
programming <strong>and</strong> products relative to cultural <strong>and</strong> historic<br />
sites in partnership with Native Hawaiian groups; conduct<br />
comprehensive cultural resources investigation of both units.<br />
Goals <strong>and</strong> objectives are the unifying elements of successful refuge management. They identify <strong>and</strong><br />
focus management priorities, resolve issues, <strong>and</strong> link to refuge purposes, Service policy, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Refuge System mission.<br />
A CCP describes management actions that help bring a refuge closer to its vision. A vision broadly<br />
reflects the refuge purposes, the Refuge System mission <strong>and</strong> goals, other statutory requirements, <strong>and</strong><br />
larger-scale plans as appropriate. Goals then define general targets in support of the vision, followed<br />
by objectives that direct effort into incremental <strong>and</strong> measurable steps toward achieving those goals.<br />
<strong>Final</strong>ly, strategies identify specific tools <strong>and</strong> actions to accomplish objectives.<br />
The goals for the Hakalau Forest NWR over the lifetime of the CCP (15 years) are presented on the<br />
following pages. Each goal is followed by the objective(s) that pertain to that goal. The goal order<br />
does not imply any priority in this CCP. Each objective will be implemented over the life of the plan<br />
subject to funding, unless otherwise stated. Below each objective are the management strategies that<br />
could be employed in order to accomplish it. Following the goals, objectives, <strong>and</strong> strategies is a brief<br />
rationale intended to provide further background information pertaining to the importance of an<br />
objective relative to legal m<strong>and</strong>ates for managing units of the Refuge System including refuge<br />
purpose, trust resource responsibilities (federally listed threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species <strong>and</strong><br />
migratory birds), <strong>and</strong> maintaining/restoring biological integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health.<br />
The rationale also describes how management strategies are used to achieve objectives.<br />
Habitat management goals <strong>and</strong> objectives have been developed separately for the two units of<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR. Although the habitats at each Refuge unit are similar, they are in different<br />
conditions. The Kona Forest Unit (KFU) contains unique lava tube <strong>and</strong> lava tube skylight habitats;<br />
whereas the Hakalau Forest Unit (HFU) contains stream habitats that are not present at the KFU.<br />
Restoration strategies for each unit will be somewhat different based upon these contrasting features.<br />
Description of the implementation <strong>and</strong> monitoring of the CCP can be found in Appendix C. Note that<br />
implementation timetables in this chapter as well as Appendix C are dependent upon available<br />
funding.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-12
2.3.1 Kona Forest Unit (KFU)<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
2.3.1.1 Goal 1: Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore subtropical rainforest community on the<br />
leeward slope of Mauna Loa as habitat for all life-history needs to promote the recovery of<br />
endangered species (e.g., forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, <strong>and</strong> invertebrates).<br />
Strategy definitions: Reforestation entails planting appropriate overstory species to bring habitat<br />
into a basic forested condition. Restoration is the planting of koa to restore forested condition,<br />
allowing time for development of a forest canopy, following up with later plantings of native<br />
understory shrub species.<br />
Objective 1.1: Restore <strong>and</strong> protect native montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest.<br />
Restore <strong>and</strong> then protect <strong>and</strong> maintain approximately 3,000 acres of native montane wet ‘ōhi‘a<br />
forest habitat on the KFU for endangered plant <strong>and</strong> animal species, with special emphasis for the<br />
repatriation of ‘alalā, with the following attributes:<br />
• 2,000 <strong>and</strong> 4,500 ft elevation;<br />
• Tree canopy is dominated by 60-80 ft mature closed canopy ‘ōhi‘a;<br />
• Midcanopy is dominated by a mix of native flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting tree species (e.g., ‘ōhi‘a,<br />
hame, kōlea, pilo, Clermontia sp., ‘ōlapa, kāwa‘u, kōlea, pūkiawe), tree ferns (up to 15 ft),<br />
‘ie‘ie, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes);<br />
• Ground cover is dominated by a mix of native ferns, herbs, <strong>and</strong> forbs;<br />
•
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Outplanting of endangered plants in units 2 & 3 (supported by propagation program identified under<br />
Objective 1.4) as well as mix of other native plants as identified in the attributes above.<br />
Conduct site-specific fencing to protect endangered plant populations.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Control of ungulates is needed to restore acres identified as they are a major habitat modifying<br />
threat. Pigs grub up the ground <strong>and</strong> create wallows where water can collect to become mosquito<br />
breeding habitats. Mosquitoes are vectors for deadly avian diseases harmful to native forest birds. In<br />
addition, ungulates eat <strong>and</strong> trample native plants. Therefore, reforestation (which would create more<br />
forest in an elevation where climate change could impact native forest elevational gradients) would<br />
not be possible without addressing this threat first. Aerial control has been proven to be the most<br />
effective management tool in terms of efficacy <strong>and</strong> minimizing impacts of ground-based shooting<br />
<strong>and</strong> other control efforts. Shooting options would not be considered until the fencing is completed to<br />
maximize benefits while minimizing potential effects.<br />
The primary differences between the upper <strong>and</strong> lower elevation gradients in this habitat type are the<br />
increased plant diversity in the midcanopy of the upper gradient, <strong>and</strong> the change from an herbaceous<br />
ground cover in the lower gradient to a grass-dominated ground cover in the upper gradient.<br />
A diverse native bird community first appears in the upper gradient of this habitat type, primarily<br />
above the mosquito zone <strong>and</strong> in the more diverse forest.<br />
Species of conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern covered in existing recovery plans include forest<br />
birds, ‘alalā, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants. The KFU was the location of the last known wild<br />
‘alalā in the wild <strong>and</strong> fits many of the criteria outlined in the ‘Alalā Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> as a potential<br />
repatriation site.<br />
Limiting factors include a lack of native pollinators <strong>and</strong> several pest species (e.g., ungulates, rats,<br />
mice, slugs, mosquitoes, invasive plants, <strong>and</strong> diseases). Native pollinators on the Refuge include<br />
native birds <strong>and</strong> native insects. The habitat improvements outlined in each of the objectives <strong>and</strong><br />
strategies are designed to provide suitable habitat that should help increase populations of native<br />
pollinators.<br />
Past human disturbances include traditional farming <strong>and</strong> ranching practices <strong>and</strong> fire. The effects of<br />
this past activity include increased grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> a loss of native plant species.<br />
This lowest elevation unit contains some intact native tree canopy but mostly highly disturbed,<br />
nonnative pest species habitat. It provides minimal life-history functions for canopy dwelling<br />
species <strong>and</strong> is the most invasive species degraded unit of the three KFU units. The amount of effort<br />
required to restore this habitat makes it best suited to serve as a buffer between lower elevation off<br />
Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> less disturbed upper elevation areas. This unit will be the lowest priority for<br />
restoration <strong>and</strong> will not likely receive active management during the life of this plan (unit1 Figure 2-<br />
2).<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-14
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Objective 1.2: Restore <strong>and</strong> then protect <strong>and</strong> maintain native montane mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a forest.<br />
Restore <strong>and</strong> then protect <strong>and</strong> maintain 1,800 acres of native montane mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a forest for all<br />
life-history needs of endangered plant <strong>and</strong> animal species, with special emphasis for Hawai‘i<br />
‘ākepa, Hawai‘i creeper, ‘akiapōlā‘au, <strong>and</strong> the repatriation of ‘alalā; with the following attributes:<br />
• 4,500-5,800 ft in elevation;<br />
• Koa <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a dominated canopy;<br />
• Midcanopy is dominated by a mix of native flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting trees (e.g., Clermontia<br />
sp., pilo, pūkiawe, ‘ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa‘u), tree ferns, mixed ferns, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes;<br />
• Ground cover is dominated by a mix of native ferns, herbs <strong>and</strong> forbs;<br />
• No ungulates (e.g., pigs, sheep);<br />
• No new invertebrate <strong>and</strong> plant pest species;<br />
•
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Rationale:<br />
Species of conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern covered in existing recovery plans include forest<br />
birds, ‘alalā, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants. The KFU is the location of the last known wild<br />
‘alalā <strong>and</strong> fits many of the criteria outlined in the ‘Alalā Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> as a potential repatriation<br />
site.<br />
Open areas occur in this zone, left over from logging <strong>and</strong> timber activities. Outplanting native plants<br />
will occur to restore forest habitat. Closed canopy <strong>and</strong> understory will help protect ‘alalā from ‘io<br />
predation.<br />
Objective 1.3: Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore native dry koa/‘ōhi‘a /māmane forest.<br />
Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore approximately 500 acres of native dry koa/‘ōhi‘a /māmane forest<br />
habitat for all life-history needs of endangered plant <strong>and</strong> animal species, with special emphasis for<br />
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, Hawai‘i creeper, ‘akiapōlā‘au, <strong>and</strong> the repatriation of ‘alalā; with the following<br />
attributes:<br />
• 5,800-6,100 ft elevation;<br />
• Koa, ‘ōhi‘a, <strong>and</strong> māmane codominate the canopy;<br />
• Midcanopy is dominated by a mix of flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting trees (e.g., ‘iliahi (s<strong>and</strong>alwood),<br />
pilo, naio, pūkiawe, ‘a‘ali‘i), <strong>and</strong> shrubs (e.g., ‘ōhelo);<br />
• Ground cover is composed of lichens, bryophytes, native grasses, herbs, <strong>and</strong> mixed ferns;<br />
• No ungulates;<br />
• No new invertebrate <strong>and</strong> plant pest species;<br />
•
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Outplanting of T&E plant species as well as mix of other native plants as identified in the attributes<br />
above.<br />
Conduct site-specific fencing to protect endangered plant populations.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Species of conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern covered in existing recovery plans include forest<br />
birds, ‘alalā, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants. The KFU is the location of the last known wild<br />
‘alalā <strong>and</strong> fits many of the criteria outlined in the ‘Alalā Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> as a potential repatriation<br />
site.<br />
Native pollinators on the Refuge include native birds <strong>and</strong> native insects. The habitat improvements<br />
outlined in each of the objectives <strong>and</strong> strategies are designed to provide suitable habitat that should<br />
help increase populations of native pollinators.<br />
Objective 1.4: Develop <strong>and</strong> implement propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting program.<br />
Within 7 years of CCP approval, develop <strong>and</strong> implement a propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting program<br />
that provides 500 endangered plants per year (e.g., Clermontia, Cyanea, Phyllostegia) <strong>and</strong> 2,000<br />
native species per year (e.g., pilo, koa, ‘ōhi‘a, pūkiawe) to support restoration activities.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Establish <strong>and</strong> maintain native plant nursery at field camp site on Mauna Loa to provide plant stock<br />
for outplanting activities.<br />
Collect adequate seeds <strong>and</strong> cuttings to supply plant nursery.<br />
Develop adequate staff (e.g., horticulturist, volunteer coordinator) to assist with administration of<br />
propagation program within 7 years.<br />
Develop partnerships to assist with administration of propagation program within 7 years.<br />
Administer volunteer program to support nursery <strong>and</strong> outplanting program within 7 years.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Endangered plant species have become extremely limited in their population <strong>and</strong> range due to more<br />
than 100 years of cattle grazing, pig rooting, loss of pollinators, <strong>and</strong> limited gene pool. The Refuge<br />
can play a vital role in the recovery of more than 10 federally listed threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered plant<br />
species by providing ungulate-free fenced areas. Many of these plants are important food sources<br />
for rare birds (e.g., ‘alalā) <strong>and</strong> invertebrates.<br />
The existing facility at the HFU is at a much higher elevation than the KFU. The plant species that<br />
are needed for outplanting are different from those of the HFU <strong>and</strong> the intent of the program will be<br />
endangered plant recovery as opposed to the forest restoration program at the HFU. To meet habitat<br />
objectives, Refuge staff will need to find or develop a source for the native endangered plants that<br />
will be used in management efforts at the KFU. These efforts support Objectives 1.1-1.3.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t stock may be available from the Volcano Rare <strong>Plan</strong>t Facility from seeds <strong>and</strong> propagules<br />
collected on or near Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. In addition, the Refuge partners with the <strong>Plan</strong>t Extinction <strong>Plan</strong>t<br />
Prevention Program. Through these collaborative partnerships, the Refuge also institutes best<br />
management practices, which include incorporating science based genetic information into its<br />
outplanting <strong>and</strong> propagation programs.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-17
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Objective 1.5: Investigate <strong>and</strong> initiate l<strong>and</strong>scape-level habitat conservation measures.<br />
Within 1 year of CCP approval, the Refuge will complete a L<strong>and</strong> Protection <strong>Plan</strong>ning effort in<br />
cooperation with other agencies <strong>and</strong> interested parties to assess <strong>and</strong> identify l<strong>and</strong> conservation<br />
priorities in the vicinity of Refuge units. Potential additions or expansion of Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
<strong>and</strong> examination of various l<strong>and</strong> protection tools will be explored. L<strong>and</strong> Protection as part of the<br />
Refuge System may include fee title acquisition, conservation easements, <strong>and</strong>/or cooperative<br />
agreements.<br />
The plan will provide for conservation of supporting habitats, partnership opportunities, <strong>and</strong><br />
opportunities to adapt Refuge management to impacts from global climate change.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Identify parcels of l<strong>and</strong> that could provide supporting habitat for focal species of the KFU.<br />
Develop strategies for protection <strong>and</strong> management of supporting habitat.<br />
Work proactively with partners, neighbors, <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>owners where appropriate to meet<br />
conservation goals <strong>and</strong> develop specific project proposals for l<strong>and</strong> acquisition, cooperative<br />
agreements, <strong>and</strong>/or conservation easements as key conservation opportunities arise <strong>and</strong> willing<br />
parties are identified.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Through a cooperative effort culminating in the 2006 National Ecological Assessment Team<br />
Report, the Service <strong>and</strong> the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) outlined a unifying adaptive resource<br />
management approach for conservation at “l<strong>and</strong>scape” scales, the entire range of a priority species<br />
or suite of species known as “strategic habitat conservation” or SHC. In April 2009, Service<br />
leadership established L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>Conservation</strong> Cooperatives (LCCs). The LCCs are conservationscience<br />
partnerships between the Service, other Federal agencies, States, Territories, tribes, NGOs,<br />
universities, <strong>and</strong> other entities. They are fundamental units of planning <strong>and</strong> science capacity to help<br />
carry out the functional elements of SHC, biological planning, conservation design, conservation<br />
delivery, monitoring, <strong>and</strong> research, <strong>and</strong> strategic response to climate change.<br />
The Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Climate Change Cooperative (PICCC) is the LCC focused on Hawai‘i, the<br />
Mariana Isl<strong>and</strong>s, American Samoa, <strong>and</strong> central Pacific isl<strong>and</strong>s under the U.S. flag. Established in<br />
late 2009, it will create the technical capacity, decision support tools, <strong>and</strong> organizational structure to<br />
address l<strong>and</strong>scape-scale conservation issues using SHC. These tools will help managers reach<br />
explicit conservation objectives for native species <strong>and</strong> habitats in the face of climate change <strong>and</strong><br />
ongoing threats such as fire, l<strong>and</strong> conversion, <strong>and</strong> invasive species. The Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRs anticipate using climate change information provided by the PICCC as foundational<br />
products from which to conduct more detailed site-specific <strong>and</strong> species-specific analyses critical to<br />
the preparation of planning documents <strong>and</strong> to prioritize on-the-ground conservation actions.<br />
Currently, the Refuge identifies parcels on a case-by-case basis for protection as they become<br />
available from willing sellers. A l<strong>and</strong>scape approach on the slopes of Mauna Loa will allow staff to<br />
focus efforts <strong>and</strong> work with partners to ensure that habitat needs are met over a larger area. In<br />
addition, corridors between patches of protected habitat are critical for species migration in response<br />
to climate change. Species distribution <strong>and</strong> abundance is likely to change based upon precipitation<br />
patterns, temperature variations, <strong>and</strong> shifts in mosquito zones. The Refuge will identify l<strong>and</strong>scapelevel<br />
opportunities to augment the protection currently provided by existing Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-18
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
2.3.1.2 Goal 2: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain lava tube <strong>and</strong> lava tube skylight habitat throughout the<br />
Kona Forest Unit, with special emphasis on their unique <strong>and</strong> endemic flora <strong>and</strong> fauna.<br />
Objective 2.1: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain lava tube <strong>and</strong> skylight communities.<br />
Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain lava tube <strong>and</strong> skylight communities for all life-history needs of cavedependent<br />
species with the following attributes:<br />
• Undisturbed, moist, humid environment;<br />
• Relatively constant moderate temperature;<br />
• Lack of light;<br />
• ‘Ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong> other native plant roots to provide food source <strong>and</strong> nutrients;<br />
• Limited human disturbance;<br />
• No ungulates;<br />
• No new invertebrate <strong>and</strong> plant pest species; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Free of ab<strong>and</strong>oned fence <strong>and</strong> ranch debris.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Establish protocols to protect lava tube <strong>and</strong> skylight communities.<br />
Remove existing ab<strong>and</strong>oned fence <strong>and</strong> other former ranch debris.<br />
Build <strong>and</strong> maintain ungulate-proof fence as referenced in Obj. 1.1.<br />
Remove all ungulates as well as dogs <strong>and</strong> cats using IPM techniques such as trapping, snares,<br />
ground shooting, <strong>and</strong> aerial shooting.<br />
Use IPM techniques including physical/mechanical, biological, <strong>and</strong> chemical to eradicate or control<br />
invasive plants (see Appendix G).<br />
Conduct surveys for pest animals such as ungulates, invertebrates, cats, <strong>and</strong> dogs.<br />
Control rats, ungulates, <strong>and</strong> pest invertebrates using appropriate IPM techniques including, but not<br />
limited to, trapping, snare, shooting (ground <strong>and</strong> aerial), <strong>and</strong> rodenticides (aerial applications <strong>and</strong><br />
bait stations).<br />
Inventory <strong>and</strong> map lava tube <strong>and</strong> skylight communities.<br />
Develop restrictive site-specific access protocols for SUPs to limit human disturbance.<br />
Support additional investigations <strong>and</strong> research.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Lava tubes <strong>and</strong> skylights are rare, unique habitats that contain an endemic subterranean, invertebrate<br />
faunal community. Moisture, moist air, relatively constant moderate temperature, <strong>and</strong> lack of light<br />
are required attributes of these cave systems. Subfossil bird remains found in the detrital soils inside<br />
the cave systems are a valuable resource that can be used to document premodern Hawaiian<br />
avifauna. Lava tube caves found throughout the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i supported use by Native<br />
Hawaiians. Insufficient study has occurred on the Refuge to document archaeological resources.<br />
However, there is the potential that cultural resources do exist in Refuge caves.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-19
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Invertebrates have evolved in this unique habitat. These mostly blind invertebrates feed on ‘ōhi‘a as<br />
well as other native plant roots that penetrate the lava tube roof.<br />
Trampling, the release of pest species (such as rats), or human disturbance could destroy the entire<br />
invertebrate community <strong>and</strong> destroy subfossil <strong>and</strong> archaeological resources.<br />
Installing fence <strong>and</strong> implementing the other strategies at the KFU will prevent disturbance <strong>and</strong><br />
damage from trampling of these fragile invertebrate communities <strong>and</strong> archaeological resources.<br />
2.3.2 Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
2.3.2.1 Goal 3: Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> restore subtropical rainforest community on the<br />
windward slope of Mauna Kea as habitat for all life-history needs of endangered species (e.g.,<br />
forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, <strong>and</strong> invertebrates).<br />
Strategy definitions: Reforestation focuses on planting koa specifically as appropriate overstory<br />
species (though other overstory species can be used as well) to bring habitat into a basic forested<br />
condition. Restoration is the planting of koa to restore forested condition, allowing time for<br />
development of a forest canopy, following up with later plantings of native understory shrub species.<br />
Objective 3.1: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain native montane wet ‘ōhi‘a/uluhe (Dicranopteris sp.)<br />
forest.<br />
Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain approximately 7,000 acres of native montane wet ‘ōhi‘a/uluhe forest habitat on<br />
the HFU for endangered plant <strong>and</strong> animal species, with special emphasis on endangered plant<br />
species, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> koloa maoli, with the following attributes:<br />
• Found from 2,500-4,000 ft;<br />
• Upper canopy is composed of scattered mature (100+ years), <strong>and</strong> medium-stature ‘ōhi‘a<br />
(30 ft);<br />
• Midcanopy zone (10-15 ft) is dominated by hapū‘u (tree fern);<br />
• Ground level, up to 6-10 ft is dominated by dense uluhe (matted ferns);<br />
• Many Carex sp. bogs found scattered throughout the lower elevations;<br />
• <strong>Plan</strong>t diversity is low <strong>and</strong> dominated by open ‘ōhi‘a canopy <strong>and</strong> uluhe understory <strong>and</strong><br />
ground cover;<br />
• No ungulates (e.g., pigs <strong>and</strong> sheep);<br />
• No new invertebrate <strong>and</strong> plant pest species;<br />
•
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Conduct site-specific fencing to protect endangered plant populations.<br />
Conduct annual invasive plant species presence/absence <strong>and</strong> percent cover monitoring using<br />
established survey transects.<br />
Based on results of annual invasive species transect monitoring, control invasive plant species with<br />
the goal of achieving
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
• Ground level contains downed timber <strong>and</strong> areas dominated by sphagnum moss;<br />
•
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
strategies are designed to provide suitable habitat that should help increase populations of native<br />
pollinators.<br />
Higher densities of pigs at this elevation have disturbed native Carex sp. bogs which have<br />
converted to nonnative Juncus sp. bogs.<br />
In the Wilderness Review conducted for the HFU (Appendix D), lower elevations of the Refuge<br />
below 5,000 ft (Inventory Unit B2) met the minimum criteria for a Wilderness Study Area (WSA)<br />
designation. Management activities in this unit will be conducted in a manner that maintains the<br />
wilderness character by using the minimal tools necessary to achieve Refuge purposes, as required<br />
under the Wilderness Act of 1964 <strong>and</strong> USFWS policy (610 FW 1-4,Wilderness Stewardship).<br />
Should the Wilderness Study, to be conducted subsequent to the CCP, indicate that Unit B2 can be<br />
managed under a Wilderness designation without affecting management for Refuge purposes, this<br />
unit may be recommended for wilderness designation. If the unit is recommended for wilderness<br />
designation through the findings of the Study, <strong>and</strong> subsequently designated as wilderness by<br />
Congress, the unit will continue to be managed in perpetuity using the minimal tools required for<br />
wilderness areas. This unit is depicted in Appendix D.<br />
Objective 3.3: Restore, <strong>and</strong> then protect <strong>and</strong> maintain, native montane wet koa/‘ōhi‘a forest.<br />
Restore <strong>and</strong> then protect <strong>and</strong> maintain approximately 5,000 acres of native montane wet koa/‘ōhi‘a<br />
forest for endangered plant <strong>and</strong> animal species, with the following attributes:<br />
• Occurs from 5,000-6,000 ft;<br />
• Mixed age class of koa <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a-dominated forest;<br />
• Midcanopy is dominated by a mix of flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting trees (e.g., ‘ōlapa, ‘ākala, pilo,<br />
pūkiawe, ‘ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa‘u), mixed ferns, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes;<br />
• Ground cover is dominated by native ferns, native shrubs (e.g., ‘ōhelo, pūkiawe) <strong>and</strong> herbs;<br />
• No ungulates (e.g., pigs, cattle);<br />
•
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Based on results of annual invasive species transect monitoring, control invasive plant species with<br />
the goal of achieving
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Control pest animals using appropriate IPM techniques including, but not limited to, trapping, snares,<br />
shooting (ground <strong>and</strong> aerial), <strong>and</strong> rodenticide (aerial <strong>and</strong> bait stations).<br />
Conduct hazardous fuels treatments (e.g., prescribed fire, mechanical removals, herbicides) to reduce<br />
the threat from wildl<strong>and</strong> fires, giving special attention to invasive species that increase fire risk (e.g.,<br />
gorse).<br />
Maintain a system of fuels breaks by mowing roadways <strong>and</strong> areas around buildings.<br />
Establish a fire prevention program that includes signage, education, <strong>and</strong> area fire closure criteria.<br />
Rationale:<br />
This habitat type contains a mixed-age class of koa-dominated forest <strong>and</strong> occurs from 6,000-6,600 ft.<br />
The midcanopy is dominated by a mix of flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting trees <strong>and</strong> shrubs (e.g., ‘ōlapa, ‘ākala,<br />
pilo, pūkiawe, ‘ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa‘u), mixed ferns, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes. Ground cover is dominated by<br />
mixed ferns, nonnative <strong>and</strong> native grasses, <strong>and</strong> herbs.<br />
A diverse native bird community occurs in this habitat type, primarily above the mosquito zone <strong>and</strong><br />
in a more diverse forest plant community. Other species of conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern<br />
include the koloa maoli, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants.<br />
The windward east-facing HFU receives northeasterly tradewind-dominated rainfall throughout the<br />
year. This habitat type receives approximately 23 ft of rainfall annually. More rainfall occurs<br />
between the months of October-March.<br />
Mountain slopes are moderate. Soils are aged, eroded, volcanic in origin, <strong>and</strong> typically poorly<br />
drained. The ground surface is bisected by numerous streams (surface flow). These streams create<br />
<strong>and</strong> maintain stream channels that are highly eroded <strong>and</strong> steep sided, providing protection to native<br />
<strong>and</strong> endangered plants from grazing ungulates.<br />
Limiting factors include a lack of native pollinators <strong>and</strong> several pest species (e.g., ungulates, rats,<br />
mice, slugs, mosquitoes, invasive plants, <strong>and</strong> diseases). Native pollinators on the Refuge include<br />
native birds <strong>and</strong> native insects. The habitat improvements outlined in each of the objectives <strong>and</strong><br />
strategies are designed to provide suitable habitat that should help increase populations of native<br />
pollinators.<br />
A total of 3,500 acres of high-value montane mesic koa forest habitat exists at this elevation. Refuge<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s at this elevation are former ranch l<strong>and</strong>s dominated by nonnative grasses, which have been<br />
partially reforested over the past 25 years. Varying amounts of the approximately 2,500 acres of<br />
nonnative grassl<strong>and</strong>-dominated habitat remaining are scheduled for reforestation <strong>and</strong>/or restoration<br />
in Objective 3.5.<br />
Objective 3.5: Restore/reforest native montane mesic koa forest.<br />
Restore/reforest, <strong>and</strong> then maintain <strong>and</strong> protect 2,500 acres of native montane mesic koa forest for<br />
endangered plant <strong>and</strong> animal species, with special emphasis on the endangered <strong>and</strong> native forest<br />
birds (e.g., ‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, Hawai‘i creeper), <strong>and</strong> endangered plants (e.g., Clermontia<br />
sp. Phyllostegia sp.), with the following attributes:<br />
• Occurs from 6,000-6,600 ft;<br />
• Mixed age koa canopy (1-30 years);<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
• Closed canopy on plantings over 6 years old;<br />
• Emergence of fern ground cover within 15 years;<br />
• Midcanopy composed of mixed native tree species (e.g., ‘ōhi‘a, pilo, kōlea, ‘ōlapa);<br />
• Koa density of 200-300 per acre;<br />
• Mixed tree density of 400-500 per acre;<br />
• No increase of the impact from wildl<strong>and</strong> fires;<br />
• No ungulates (e.g., pigs, cattle);<br />
•
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Starting in 1987, the Refuge has been actively reforesting the native koa/‘ōhi‘a forest at HFU. The<br />
first steps were to fence <strong>and</strong> remove the ungulates that were continuing to inhibit forest<br />
regeneration, <strong>and</strong> controlling pest plants. Using koa seeds from the area, volunteers planted<br />
approximately 20,000 seedlings per year. After experimenting with a variety of site preparation<br />
methods, such as fire, discing, <strong>and</strong> herbicide, Refuge personnel prepared the planting sites through<br />
soil scarification with bulldozer scrapes.<br />
Once the koa provides a closed canopy, ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong> understory species such as kōlea, ‘ōlapa, ‘ōhelo,<br />
<strong>and</strong> pūkiawe are planted under the protection of the canopy. The canopy cover provides protection<br />
from frost <strong>and</strong> excess sunlight. The koa serves as the “forest engineer” by ameliorating<br />
temperatures, adding moisture through fog condensation, <strong>and</strong> adding soil nutrients <strong>and</strong> organic<br />
matter. This koa forest restoration provides roosting, feeding, <strong>and</strong> nesting areas for native forest<br />
birds.<br />
The end result of the restoration efforts will be a healthy koa/‘ōhi‘a forest as described below. This<br />
habitat type contains a mixed-age class of koa-dominated forest <strong>and</strong> occurs from 6,000-6,600 ft. The<br />
midcanopy is dominated by a mix of flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting trees (e.g. ‘ōlapa, ‘ākala, pilo, pūkiawe,<br />
‘ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa‘u), mixed ferns, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes. Ground cover is dominated by mixed ferns,<br />
nonnative <strong>and</strong> native grasses, <strong>and</strong> herbs.<br />
A diverse native bird community occurs in this habitat type, primarily above the mosquito zone <strong>and</strong><br />
in a more diverse forest plant community. Other species of conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern<br />
include the koloa maoli, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants.<br />
The forest restoration program has outplanted approximately 382,000 native trees, including koa,<br />
‘ōhi‘a, pilo, kōlea, ‘ōlapa, māmane, naio, <strong>and</strong> other natives on approximately 1,700 acres.<br />
Native forest birds currently occur in this habitat at greatly reduced numbers <strong>and</strong> diversity when<br />
compared to nearby intact forest communities, though populations are increasing as forest<br />
restoration occurs. Nēnē are found throughout the current habitat. Species of conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
management concern include the native forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants.<br />
Objective 3.6: Maintain <strong>and</strong> enhance propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting program.<br />
Develop <strong>and</strong> implement a propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting program that provides native common <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered species to support restoration activities, with the following attributes:<br />
• Approximately 10,000 koa seedlings per year (or enough for approximately 70 acres per<br />
year) for the first 5 years, then 5,000 annually for the next 10 years;<br />
• 300-1,200 endangered plants per year (e.g., Clermontia lindseyana, Clermontia peleana,<br />
Clermontia pyrularia, Cyanea shipmanii, Phyllostegia racemosa);<br />
• 8,000-10,000 non-koa common native plants per year.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Exp<strong>and</strong> native plant nursery at administration site on Mauna Kea to adequately provide plant stock<br />
for outplanting program.<br />
Collect adequate seeds <strong>and</strong> cuttings to supply plant nursery.<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Outplant koa seedlings, understory plants, <strong>and</strong> T&E plants.<br />
Develop partnerships to assist with administration of propagation program.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Endangered plants have become extremely limited in their population <strong>and</strong> range because of more<br />
than 100 years of cattle grazing, pig rooting, loss of pollinators, <strong>and</strong> limited gene pool. The Refuge<br />
can play a vital role in the recovery of more than 10 federally listed threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered plant<br />
species by providing ungulate-free fenced areas. Many of these plants are important food resources<br />
for native forest birds <strong>and</strong> invertebrates.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t stock is available from the Refuge greenhouse facility at HFU from seeds <strong>and</strong> propagules<br />
collected on or near Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. The Refuge volunteer program helps to support plant rearing <strong>and</strong><br />
planting activities. These efforts support Objectives 3.1-3.5.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t stock may also be available from the Volcano Rare <strong>Plan</strong>t Facility from seeds <strong>and</strong> propagules<br />
collected on or near Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. In addition, the Refuge partners with the <strong>Plan</strong>t Extinction <strong>Plan</strong>t<br />
Prevention Program. Through these collaborative partnerships, the Refuge also institutes best<br />
management practices, which include incorporating science based genetic information into its<br />
outplanting <strong>and</strong> propagation programs.<br />
Number of outplantings is used as a measure of annual capability rather than “acres planted” due to<br />
terrain, soil, competition with invasive grasses, <strong>and</strong> habitat quality variables, as well as elevationrelated<br />
factors such as extreme differences in precipitation <strong>and</strong> frost mortality.<br />
2.3.2.2 Goal 4: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain wetl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> aquatic habitats (e.g., streams <strong>and</strong> their<br />
associated riparian corridors, ponds, <strong>and</strong> bogs) on the Hakalau Forest Unit.<br />
Objective 4.1: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain streams <strong>and</strong> stream corridors at HFU.<br />
Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain existing streams <strong>and</strong> stream corridors that support native plant communities,<br />
<strong>and</strong> endangered plant <strong>and</strong> animal species, with special emphasis on common <strong>and</strong> endangered native<br />
forest bird species, koloa maoli, <strong>and</strong> ‘ōpe‘ape‘a with the following attributes:<br />
• Stable banks with native fern <strong>and</strong> native sedge with less than 50 percent occurrence of<br />
nonnative grasses;<br />
• No ungulates;<br />
• Reduced invasive plant cover;<br />
• Water with reduced levels of disease, sediments, contaminants (e.g., fecal coliform);<br />
• No nonnative mammalian predators (e.g., mongooses, rats); <strong>and</strong><br />
• No dogs <strong>and</strong> cats.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Maintain ungulate-proof fence.<br />
Use IPM techniques including physical/mechanical, biological, <strong>and</strong> chemical to eradicate or control<br />
invasive plants (see Appendix G).<br />
Conduct annual invasive plant species presence/absence surveys <strong>and</strong> percent cover monitoring using<br />
established survey transects.<br />
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Based on results of annual invasive species transect monitoring, control invasive plant species with<br />
the goal of achieving reduced occurrence of invasive plants over 15-year plan period.<br />
Conduct surveys for pest animals such as ungulates, nonnative mammalian predators, <strong>and</strong> cats <strong>and</strong><br />
dogs.<br />
Control pest animals using appropriate IPM techniques including, but not limited to, trapping,<br />
snares, <strong>and</strong> shooting (ground <strong>and</strong> aerial).<br />
Inventory streams <strong>and</strong> stream corridors.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Streams cross through various habitat types, being intermittent at higher elevations, <strong>and</strong> perennial at<br />
lower elevations. Some streams with steep walls protect endangered <strong>and</strong> native plants from grazing<br />
by ungulates. Fauna within the streams <strong>and</strong> riparian areas at lower elevations are unstudied <strong>and</strong><br />
unknown. Although unstudied at higher elevations, the fauna is thought to be exclusively<br />
invertebrate. Other species of conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern include native forest birds,<br />
koloa maoli, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants.<br />
Glacial meltwater created ravines during the Pleistocene era. Rainfall <strong>and</strong> runoff currently maintain<br />
stream habitats.<br />
Invasive gorse can degrade ecological integrity of stream corridors by displacing native riparian<br />
vegetation communities <strong>and</strong> reducing surface water availability. Gorse seeds can wash downstream<br />
from highly infested l<strong>and</strong>s above the Refuge via stream corridors.<br />
Ungulates <strong>and</strong> rats degrade water quality through soil disturbance <strong>and</strong> feces deposition. Lack of<br />
groundwater retention due to upstream human disturbance (e.g., grazing, soil compaction) can lead<br />
to flash floods. Streams also transport <strong>and</strong> disperse pest plant seeds.<br />
Objective 4.2: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain semipermanent natural ponds.<br />
Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain semipermanent natural ponds for opportunistic breeding <strong>and</strong> loafing by koloa<br />
maoli <strong>and</strong> migratory shorebirds, with the following attributes:<br />
• Shallow, less than 4 ft, open water with shoreline emergent vegetation (e.g.; Carex);<br />
• Presence of endemic invertebrates (e.g., damselflies <strong>and</strong> dragonflies);<br />
• No nonnative mammalian predators (e.g., mongooses, rats); <strong>and</strong><br />
• No dogs <strong>and</strong> cats.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Maintain exterior management unit ungulate fencing (45 miles).<br />
Conduct surveys for pest animals such as nonnative mammalian predators <strong>and</strong> cats <strong>and</strong> dogs.<br />
Control pest animals using appropriate IPM techniques including, but not limited to, trapping,<br />
snares, shooting, <strong>and</strong> rodenticide (aerial <strong>and</strong> bait stations).<br />
Rationale:<br />
All of the natural <strong>and</strong> manmade ponds are above the mosquito elevation so there is no concern<br />
about these features providing potential mosquito breeding areas.<br />
Previous ranching operations built <strong>and</strong> maintained ponds as a source of water for cattle. These<br />
manmade ponds are used rarely by koloa maoli as nesting areas. Migratory birds occasionally use<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-29
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
the ponds for feeding <strong>and</strong> loafing. These ponds, which have already begun to be filled in by<br />
vegetation consisting of emergent Carex <strong>and</strong> nonnative Juncus species, will remain as is <strong>and</strong><br />
allowed to progress naturally. While the nonnative Juncus has outcompeted Carex at lower<br />
elevations, it is used by koloa <strong>and</strong> has limited impacts in this habitat type.<br />
In order to support waterbirds <strong>and</strong> migratory shorebirds, the semipermanent natural ponds will be<br />
maintained according to the attributes identified above. No water quality testing will be done for<br />
these aquatic habitats.<br />
Objective 4.3: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain Carex bogs within the montane wet ‘ōhi‘a/uluhe forest.<br />
Protect, maintain, <strong>and</strong> allow natural regeneration of existing Carex bogs within the montane wet<br />
‘ōhi‘a/uluhe habitat, with special emphasis on koloa maoli, with the following attributes:<br />
• Found from 2,500-4,000 ft;<br />
• Many Carex sp. bogs found scattered throughout the lower elevations;<br />
• Native plant diversity is low <strong>and</strong> dominated by Carex sp.;<br />
• Surrounded by open ‘ōhi‘a canopy, uluhe understory, <strong>and</strong> ground cover;<br />
• No nonnative mammalian predators (e.g., mongooses, rats); <strong>and</strong><br />
• No dogs <strong>and</strong> cats.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Build <strong>and</strong> maintain ungulate-proof fence to protect Carex sp. bog habitats where feasible.<br />
Conduct surveys for pest animals such as cats <strong>and</strong> dogs <strong>and</strong> nonnative mammalian predators.<br />
Control pest animals using appropriate IPM techniques including, but not limited to, trapping,<br />
snares, shooting, <strong>and</strong> rodenticide (aerial <strong>and</strong> bait stations).<br />
Survey extent <strong>and</strong> number of bogs.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Bogs naturally occur in flat areas <strong>and</strong> are dominated by sedges <strong>and</strong> rushes. Limited areas of open<br />
water also occur. Bogs are primarily located below 4,500 ft. While sphagnum exists in these bogs, it<br />
is unclear whether it is native. Faunal use of bogs is primarily by invertebrates; however, koloa<br />
maoli are known to use bogs. Other species of conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern include native<br />
forest birds, nēnē, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants.<br />
The conversion of Carex sp. to Juncus sp. has occurred due to the rooting activities of pigs.<br />
Enhanced soil erosion from ungulate activities also has increased the eutrophication of bogs.<br />
2.3.2.3 Goal 5: Protect <strong>and</strong> maintain grassl<strong>and</strong> habitat to support nēnē population recovery.<br />
Objective 5.1: Maintain managed grassl<strong>and</strong> for foraging nēnē.<br />
Maintain approximately 65 acres of managed grassl<strong>and</strong> for nēnē foraging with the following<br />
attributes:<br />
• Grass height < 6 inches;<br />
• Native (e.g., Deschampsia sp.) <strong>and</strong> nonnative grasses (e.g., Holcus sp.);<br />
•
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
• No dogs <strong>and</strong> cats.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Build <strong>and</strong> maintain ungulate-proof fence.<br />
Use mowing to maintain fuel breaks <strong>and</strong> fence corridors in short grass (< 6 inches).<br />
Use mowing except during peak nesting (October-April).<br />
Use IPM techniques including physical/mechanical, biological, <strong>and</strong> chemical to eradicate or control<br />
invasive plants (see Appendix G).<br />
Conduct surveys for pest animals such as nonnative mammalian predators <strong>and</strong> cats <strong>and</strong> dogs.<br />
Control pest animals using appropriate IPM techniques including, but not limited to, trapping,<br />
snares, shooting, <strong>and</strong> rodenticide (aerial <strong>and</strong> bait stations).<br />
Rationale:<br />
Fuel breaks have been constructed <strong>and</strong> will be maintained creating short grass habitat that is<br />
incidentally used by nēnē. Nēnē graze the grasses of the fuel breaks, helping to maintain them.<br />
In addition, the 15-acre administrative site (located near Hakalau Cabin) is kept mowed <strong>and</strong><br />
provides incidental nēnē habitat for foraging.<br />
Annually mowing 50 acres of fuel breaks <strong>and</strong> 15 acres around the administrative site would<br />
maintain the Refuge’s focus on maximizing forest bird habitat by reforesting <strong>and</strong> restoring the<br />
maximum amount of nonnative, high-elevation grassl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Objective 5.2: Maintain grassl<strong>and</strong> habitats for nēnē nesting.<br />
Maintain approximately 15 acres of managed grassl<strong>and</strong> habitat for nēnē nesting with the following<br />
attributes:<br />
• Composed of primarily native grasses with limited nonnative grasses <strong>and</strong> scattered native<br />
shrubs <strong>and</strong> trees;<br />
• Reduced nest predators to levels that do not impact breeding success during nesting season;<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
• No ungulates.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Maintain ungulate-proof fence.<br />
Establish a predator-proof fence on15-acre grassl<strong>and</strong> breeding site away from administrative sites<br />
on the Pua ‘Ākala Tract.<br />
Remove all ungulates, nonnative mammalian predators, <strong>and</strong> dogs <strong>and</strong> cats using IPM techniques<br />
such as trapping, snares, shooting (ground <strong>and</strong> aerial), <strong>and</strong> rodenticide (aerial <strong>and</strong> bait stations).<br />
Use IPM techniques including physical/mechanical, biological, <strong>and</strong> chemical to eradicate or control<br />
invasive plants (see Appendix G).<br />
Conduct surveys for pest animals such as ungulates, nonnative mammalian predators, <strong>and</strong> cats <strong>and</strong><br />
dogs.<br />
Control pest animals using appropriate IPM techniques including, but not limited to, trapping,<br />
snares, shooting (ground <strong>and</strong> aerial), <strong>and</strong> rodenticide (aerial <strong>and</strong> bait stations).<br />
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Rationale:<br />
Currently, nēnē nest throughout the existing grassl<strong>and</strong>s that are being restored to forest. These<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>s are located in the upper elevations (approximately 6,000-6,500 ft). As the forest develops<br />
<strong>and</strong> matures, nēnē nesting will occur primarily on l<strong>and</strong>s adjacent to the Refuge.<br />
In this area of Hawai‘i, nēnē typically use mid- to high-elevation native <strong>and</strong> nonnative shrubl<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> early successional grassl<strong>and</strong>s, native alpine grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> open native <strong>and</strong><br />
nonnative alpine shrubl<strong>and</strong>-woodl<strong>and</strong> community interfaces. The areas nēnē inhabit typically have<br />
less than 7.5 ft of annual rainfall.<br />
Nēnē nests, eggs, <strong>and</strong> young are vulnerable to predation. On the Refuge, they are susceptible to<br />
mongooses, rats, <strong>and</strong> cats. Exclosures <strong>and</strong> predator control (during nesting season) have helped to<br />
maintain the Refuge population.<br />
During the breeding season, nēnē feed mainly on berries <strong>and</strong> other plant items found on lava flows<br />
near their nest sites, although some birds supplement their berry diet by feeding in grassl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
depending on berry density. During the pre- <strong>and</strong> non-breeding season, their principal foods are<br />
cultivated grasses (Black et al. 1994). Nēnē select habitats with food plants high in protein. The<br />
presence of st<strong>and</strong>ing or flowing water is not necessary for successful breeding, although<br />
observations of nēnē in the lowl<strong>and</strong> coastal regions of Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Kaua‘i indicate that when<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ing water is present, it is readily utilized for drinking <strong>and</strong> bathing. Bodies of water may also be<br />
used to escape from predators when goslings have not yet fledged, <strong>and</strong> when adults molt their<br />
primary flight feathers. St<strong>and</strong>ing water is generally sparse in most nēnē habitats, <strong>and</strong> water is<br />
obtained primarily from their diet. Nēnē are more terrestrial than most other waterfowl species,<br />
having evolved in habitats with limited freshwater availability.<br />
During the nēnē nesting period (October-April), Service interns monitor nēnē nests <strong>and</strong> control<br />
predators (mongooses, cats, <strong>and</strong> rats) near nesting areas. Monitoring of nēnē nests <strong>and</strong> predator<br />
control would also be exp<strong>and</strong>ed to include the new 15-acre breeding site as needed.<br />
Objective 5.3: Investigate <strong>and</strong> initiate l<strong>and</strong>scape-level habitat conservation measures.<br />
Within 1 year of CCP approval, the Refuge will complete a L<strong>and</strong> Protection <strong>Plan</strong>ning effort in<br />
cooperation with other agencies <strong>and</strong> interested parties to assess <strong>and</strong> identify l<strong>and</strong> conservation<br />
priorities in the vicinity of Refuge units. Potential additions or expansion of the Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR <strong>and</strong> examination of various l<strong>and</strong> protection tools will be explored. L<strong>and</strong> Protection as part of<br />
the Refuge System may include fee title acquisition, conservation easements, <strong>and</strong>/or cooperative<br />
agreements.<br />
The plan will provide for conservation of supporting habitats, partnership opportunities, <strong>and</strong><br />
opportunities to adapt Refuge management to impacts from global climate change.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Identify parcels of l<strong>and</strong> that could provide supporting habitat for focal species of the HFU.<br />
Develop strategies for protection <strong>and</strong> management of supporting habitat.<br />
Work proactively with partners, neighbors, <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>owners where appropriate to meet<br />
conservation goals <strong>and</strong> develop specific project proposals for l<strong>and</strong> acquisition, cooperative<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-32
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
agreements, <strong>and</strong>/or conservation easements as key conservation opportunities arise <strong>and</strong> willing<br />
parties are identified.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Through a cooperative effort culminating in the 2006 National Ecological Assessment Team<br />
Report, the Service <strong>and</strong> USGS outlined a unifying adaptive resource management approach for<br />
conservation at “l<strong>and</strong>scape” scales, the entire range of a priority species or suite of species known as<br />
“strategic habitat conservation” or SHC. In April 2009, Service leadership established L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> Cooperatives (LCCs). The LCCs are conservation-science partnerships between the<br />
Service, other Federal agencies, States, Territories, tribes, NGOs, universities, <strong>and</strong> other entities.<br />
They are fundamental units of planning <strong>and</strong> science capacity to help carry out the functional<br />
elements of SHC, biological planning, conservation design, conservation delivery, monitoring, <strong>and</strong><br />
research, <strong>and</strong> strategic response to climate change.<br />
The Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Climate Change Cooperative (PICCC) is the LCC focused on Hawai‘i, the<br />
Mariana Isl<strong>and</strong>s, American Samoa, <strong>and</strong> central Pacific isl<strong>and</strong>s under the U.S. flag. Established in<br />
late 2009, it will create the technical capacity, decision support tools, <strong>and</strong> organizational structure to<br />
address l<strong>and</strong>scape-scale conservation issues using SHC. These tools will help managers reach<br />
explicit conservation objectives for native species <strong>and</strong> habitats in the face of climate change <strong>and</strong><br />
ongoing threats such as fire, l<strong>and</strong> conversion, <strong>and</strong> invasive species. The Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRs anticipate using climate change information provided by the PICCC as foundational<br />
products from which to conduct more detailed site-specific <strong>and</strong> species-specific analyses critical to<br />
the preparation of planning documents <strong>and</strong> to prioritize on-the-ground conservation actions.<br />
Currently, the Refuge identifies parcels on a case-by-case basis for protection as they become<br />
available from willing sellers. A l<strong>and</strong>scape approach on the slopes of Mauna Kea will allow staff to<br />
focus efforts <strong>and</strong> work with partners to ensure that habitat needs are met over a larger area. In<br />
addition, corridors between patches of protected habitat are critical for species migration in response<br />
to climate change. Species distribution <strong>and</strong> abundance is likely to change based upon precipitation<br />
patterns, temperature variations, <strong>and</strong> shifts in mosquito zones. The Refuge will identify l<strong>and</strong>scapelevel<br />
opportunities to augment the protection currently provided by existing Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
2.3.3 Both Hakalau Forest <strong>and</strong> Kona Forest Units<br />
2.3.3.1 Goal 6: Collect scientific information (inventories, monitoring, research, assessments)<br />
necessary to support adaptive management decisions on both units of Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Objective 6.1: Conduct high-priority inventory <strong>and</strong> monitoring (survey) activities that<br />
evaluate resource management <strong>and</strong> public use activities to facilitate adaptive management.<br />
These surveys contribute to the enhancement, protection, use, preservation, <strong>and</strong> management of<br />
wildlife populations <strong>and</strong> their habitats on <strong>and</strong> off Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Specifically, they can be used to<br />
evaluate achievement of resource management objectives identified under all goals. These surveys<br />
have the following attributes:<br />
• Data collection techniques would have minimal animal mortality or disturbance <strong>and</strong><br />
minimal habitat destruction;<br />
• Minimum number of samples (e.g., water, soils, vegetative litter, plants, macroinvertebrates,<br />
vertebrates) to meet statistical analysis requirements would be collected for identification<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-33
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong>/or experimentation in order to minimize long-term or cumulative impacts;<br />
• Proper cleaning of investigator equipment <strong>and</strong> clothing as well as quarantine methods,<br />
where necessary, would minimize the potential spread or introduction of invasive species;<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
• Projects will adhere to scientifically defensible protocols for data collection, where<br />
available <strong>and</strong> applicable.<br />
The following is an initial list of survey activities to support resource management decisions<br />
on the Refuge. Please note this list will continue to evolve during the 15 year life span of the<br />
CCP:<br />
Continue annual Hawai‘i Forest Bird Surveys.<br />
Monitor nesting density <strong>and</strong> success of nēnē.<br />
Monitor species <strong>and</strong> habitat response to management actions (Goals 1-5) by conducting annual<br />
transect surveys.<br />
Develop an updated vegetation cover map of HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU (for use in GIS <strong>and</strong> monitoring).<br />
Inventory endemic species in all forest habitats (Goals 1 <strong>and</strong> 3).<br />
Inventory plants, invertebrates, <strong>and</strong> vertebrates occurring at HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU.<br />
Institute early detection <strong>and</strong> rapid response monitoring to identify new or spreading invasive plant<br />
problems on the Refuge.<br />
Monitor plant <strong>and</strong> animal diseases (e.g., ‘ōhi‘a rust, koa wilt, avian malaria, avian pox).<br />
Inventory endemic species, subfossil remains, <strong>and</strong> cultural resources associated with lava tube <strong>and</strong><br />
skylight systems (Goal 2).<br />
Inventory endemic species in all aquatic habitat types (Goal 4).<br />
Monitor global climate change parameters (e.g., temp, CO2, etc.).<br />
Survey water quality for reduced levels of disease, sediments, contaminants (e.g., fecal coliform).<br />
Monitor public uses (e.g., disturbance).<br />
Rationale:<br />
The Administration Act requires each refuge to “… monitor the status <strong>and</strong> trends of fish, wildlife,<br />
<strong>and</strong> plants in each refuge.” Surveys would be used primarily to evaluate resource response to assess<br />
progress toward achieving refuge management objectives derived from the Refuge System mission,<br />
refuge purpose(s), <strong>and</strong> maintenance of biological integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health (601<br />
FW 3). Determining resource status <strong>and</strong> evaluating progress toward achieving objectives is essential<br />
to implementing adaptive management on Department of the Interior l<strong>and</strong>s as required by policy<br />
522 DM 1. Specifically, results of surveys would be used to refine management strategies, where<br />
necessary, over time in order to achieve resource objectives. Surveys would provide the best<br />
available scientific information to promote transparent decisionmaking processes for resource<br />
management on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-34
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Objective 6.2: Conduct high priority research projects that provide the best science for<br />
habitat <strong>and</strong> wildlife management on <strong>and</strong> off the Refuge.<br />
Scientific findings gained through these projects would exp<strong>and</strong> knowledge regarding life-history<br />
needs of species <strong>and</strong> species groups, as well as identify or refine habitat <strong>and</strong> wildlife management<br />
actions. Research also will reduce uncertainty regarding wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat responses to Refuge<br />
management actions in order to achieve desired outcomes reflected in resource management<br />
objectives <strong>and</strong> to facilitate adaptive management. These research projects have the following<br />
attributes:<br />
• Adhere to scientifically defensible protocols for data collection, where available <strong>and</strong><br />
applicable, in order to develop the best science for resource management;<br />
• Data collection techniques would have minimal animal mortality or disturbance <strong>and</strong><br />
minimal habitat destruction;<br />
• Collect the minimum number of samples (e.g., water, soils, vegetative litter, plants,<br />
macroinvertebrates, vertebrates) to meet statistical analysis requirements for identification<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or experimentation in order to minimize long-term or cumulative impacts;<br />
• Utilize proper cleaning of investigator equipment <strong>and</strong> clothing as well as quarantine<br />
methods, where necessary, to minimize the potential spread or introduction of invasive<br />
species; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Often result in quality, peer-reviewed articles in scientific journals <strong>and</strong> publications <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
symposiums.<br />
The following is an initial list of research projects to support resource management decisions<br />
on the Refuge. Please note this list will continue to evolve during the 15 year life span of the<br />
CCP:<br />
Investigate <strong>and</strong> monitor endangered plant propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting strategies.<br />
Identify methods for forest regeneration <strong>and</strong> reforestation techniques.<br />
Identify pest plant <strong>and</strong> animal species presence, distribution, abundance, <strong>and</strong> trends.<br />
Conduct research to determine arthropod abundance.<br />
Conduct research to determine species-specific thresholds for disturbances from Refuge uses such<br />
as outplanting <strong>and</strong> bird watching activities.<br />
Conduct an investigation to identify <strong>and</strong> quantify avian <strong>and</strong> plant disease issues.<br />
Research demography, life-history, carrying capacity, <strong>and</strong> competition for native forest birds.<br />
Research population dynamics <strong>and</strong> viability of ‘ākepa <strong>and</strong> other species: influences of management,<br />
environmental factors, <strong>and</strong> potential nonnative competitors.<br />
Investigate foraging ecology <strong>and</strong> competition among native <strong>and</strong> nonnative forest bird species.<br />
Identify avian disease distribution <strong>and</strong> climate change.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Research projects on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s would address a wide range of natural <strong>and</strong> cultural resource as<br />
well as public-use management issues. Examples of research projects can include habitat use <strong>and</strong><br />
life-history requirements for specific species/species groups, practical methods for habitat<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-35
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
management <strong>and</strong> restoration, extent <strong>and</strong> severity of environmental contaminants, techniques to<br />
control or eradicate pest species, effects of climate change on environmental conditions <strong>and</strong><br />
associated habitat/wildlife response, identification <strong>and</strong> analyses of paleontological specimens,<br />
wilderness character, modeling of wildlife populations, <strong>and</strong> assessing response of habitat/wildlife to<br />
disturbance from public uses. Projects may be species-specific, refuge-specific, or evaluate the<br />
relative contribution of the refuge to larger l<strong>and</strong>scape (e.g., ecoregion, region, flyway, national,<br />
international) issues <strong>and</strong> trends. Like monitoring, results of research projects would exp<strong>and</strong> the best<br />
available scientific information <strong>and</strong> potentially reduce uncertainties to promote transparent decisionmaking<br />
processes for resource management over time on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. In combination with results<br />
of surveys, research would promote adaptive management on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Quality, scientific<br />
publications resulting from research on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s will help increase the visibility of the Service<br />
as a leader in the development of the best science for resource conservation <strong>and</strong> management.<br />
A research facility of the University of Hawai‘i is located on the administrative site of the HFU.<br />
This site is used as a base of operations for researchers from a variety of institutions <strong>and</strong> agencies.<br />
Use of the site is governed by a Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Agreement between the Service <strong>and</strong> UH. A<br />
compatibility determination for this facility <strong>and</strong> the research associated with it is included in<br />
Appendix B.<br />
The scientific community from Hawai‘i <strong>and</strong> beyond has historically had a good deal of interest in<br />
conducting research on Hakalau Forest NWR. The native forest birds <strong>and</strong> the habitat restoration<br />
efforts that occur here lend themselves well to research questions. In addition, research can help to<br />
assess the effectiveness of management activities <strong>and</strong> help to adapt management over time.<br />
Scientific research requires staff <strong>and</strong> management time for review of proposed studies, oversight of<br />
access <strong>and</strong> facility issues, permitting, <strong>and</strong> use of supporting infrastructure, <strong>and</strong> thus places a strain<br />
on both the Refuge resources <strong>and</strong> the staff that are required to administer Refuge access <strong>and</strong><br />
research activities. It is not possible to permit all of the research requests that are received by<br />
Refuge staff. Research will be reviewed <strong>and</strong> permitted on a case-by-case basis, according to Refuge<br />
purpose <strong>and</strong> goals, best available information using an objective review process, <strong>and</strong> according to<br />
established research priorities.<br />
Forest Bird Workshop: The Service sponsored a workshop in October 2008 including most of the<br />
prominent researchers knowledgeable about Hawaiian forest bird biology, ecology, <strong>and</strong> population<br />
status. During this workshop, Refuge managers met with researchers to hear about some of the latest<br />
research <strong>and</strong> gain insight into researchers’ perspectives about forest bird research priorities. A<br />
summary of the workshop is included as Appendix E.<br />
Forest bird researchers at the 2008 workshop identified potential research priorities for Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR. The list (in priority order) is (1) monitoring <strong>and</strong> background data; (2) predation,<br />
especially from rats; (3) invasive plants <strong>and</strong> potential biocontrols; (4) impacts from<br />
grazers/browsers; (5) invasive plants, more efficient control methods <strong>and</strong> registration of herbicides;<br />
(5) determine the effects of global climate change at the Refuge; (6) develop more effective cat<br />
control techniques <strong>and</strong> determine effects of ectoparasites on non-endangered bird populations; <strong>and</strong><br />
(8) experimental control of Japanese white-eyes.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-36
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
We expect to refine these priorities as new information arises. The process used at the Hilo<br />
workshop was most inclusive <strong>and</strong> objective <strong>and</strong> may well serve us in the future as new management<br />
challenges develop.<br />
Additional research projects for consideration are also listed in Appendix C.<br />
Objective 6.3: Conduct scientific assessments to provide baseline information to exp<strong>and</strong><br />
knowledge regarding the status of Refuge resources to better inform resource management<br />
decisions.<br />
These scientific assessments will contribute to the development of Refuge resource objectives. They<br />
would also be used to facilitate habitat restoration through selection of appropriate habitat<br />
management strategies based upon site-specific conditions. The assessment attributes are:<br />
• Utilize accepted st<strong>and</strong>ards, where available, for completion of assessments; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Scale <strong>and</strong> accuracy of assessments would be appropriate for development <strong>and</strong><br />
implementation of Refuge habitat <strong>and</strong> wildlife management actions.<br />
The following is an initial list of scientific assessments to support resource management<br />
decisions. Please note this list will continue to evolve during the 15 year life span of the CCP:<br />
Conduct surveys to determine role of predators in native flora <strong>and</strong> fauna abundance.<br />
Support research to determine ecological parameters for ‘ōpe‘ape‘a.<br />
Complete global climate change impacts assessment for the Refuge.<br />
Develop a soil survey map.<br />
Rationale:<br />
In accordance with policy for implementing adaptive management on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s (522 DM 1),<br />
appropriate <strong>and</strong> applicable environmental assessments are necessary to determine resource status,<br />
promote learning, <strong>and</strong> evaluate progress toward achieving objectives whenever using adaptive<br />
management. These assessments would provide fundamental information about biotic (e.g.,<br />
vegetation data layer) as well as abiotic processes <strong>and</strong> conditions (e.g., soils, topography) that are<br />
necessary to ensure that implementation of on-the-ground resource management achieves resource<br />
management objectives identified under Goals 1-5.<br />
2.3.3.2 Goal 7: Visitors, with a special emphasis on experience gained through volunteer work<br />
groups <strong>and</strong> local residents, underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or value the native forest environment <strong>and</strong><br />
management practices at Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Objective 7.1: Establish compatible wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography opportunities.<br />
Maintain <strong>and</strong> enhance compatible wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography opportunities at Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR focusing on HFU, with the following attributes:<br />
• Highlights the Refuge’s purposes <strong>and</strong> management practices;<br />
• Provides opportunities to view <strong>and</strong> photograph native forests <strong>and</strong> endangered <strong>and</strong> native<br />
forest birds <strong>and</strong> plants;<br />
• Provide locations for prime viewing opportunities (e.g., wildlife observation trails); <strong>and</strong><br />
• Maintain or increase visitor use levels at the Refuge as appropriate.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-37
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Work with Friends of Hakalau Forest to develop interpretive brochures.<br />
Develop a 0.3- 0.5-mile wildlife trail with interpretive signs <strong>and</strong> associated parking area on the<br />
Upper Maulua Tract.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Compatible wildlife observation programs receive priority consideration in Refuge planning <strong>and</strong><br />
management, secondary to the needs of fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife. High quality wildlife viewing will<br />
continue to be provided on the Refuge. <strong>Wildlife</strong> viewing opportunities will be provided for an<br />
estimated 1,500 visitors per year. The HFU opportunities, to accommodate high visitor dem<strong>and</strong>,<br />
would require new trails to provide quality wildlife viewing opportunities <strong>and</strong> access to a variety of<br />
habitat types, while minimizing wildlife disturbance <strong>and</strong> providing sufficient wildlife sanctuary.<br />
Quality wildlife observation is defined by several elements including: (1) opportunities exist to view<br />
wildlife in their habitat <strong>and</strong> in a natural setting; (2) observation opportunities promote public<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of Hakalau Forest NWR resources <strong>and</strong> its role in managing <strong>and</strong> protecting those<br />
resources; (3) observations occur in places with the least amount of disturbance to wildlife; (4)<br />
facilities are safe, fully accessible, <strong>and</strong> available to a broad spectrum of the public; (5) viewing<br />
opportunities are tied to interpretive <strong>and</strong> educational opportunities; <strong>and</strong> (6) observers have minimal<br />
conflict with other visitors or Refuge operations. Compatible wildlife photography is also one of six<br />
priority wildlife-dependent recreational uses of the Refuge System. Photographic opportunities<br />
promote public underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> increase public appreciation for America’s natural resources <strong>and</strong><br />
incorporate a message of stewardship <strong>and</strong> conservation. The Refuge will provide a high-quality<br />
photography program where compatible with sound principles of fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife management,<br />
other objectives, <strong>and</strong> other compatible uses.<br />
Objective 7.2: Promote <strong>and</strong> enhance the volunteer program at Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Maintain the existing HFU volunteer program (35-40 weekends), develop seasonal volunteer<br />
program, <strong>and</strong> establish <strong>and</strong> promote a volunteer program at KFU within 7 years after the CCP is<br />
approved, with the following attributes:<br />
• Begins after fence construction <strong>and</strong> ungulate removal (KFU);<br />
• Over 7,500 hours contributed per year (HFU);<br />
• Appreciation <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing of Refuge management efforts gained;<br />
• Increase public involvement to cultivate feelings of ownership <strong>and</strong> empowerment through<br />
various activities, such as tree planting, habitat restoration, weed control, surveys, historic<br />
building restoration, construction, bird walk guiding, plant propagation;<br />
• Creates ambassadors of environmental stewardship practices <strong>and</strong> ethic;<br />
• Ecovolunteer program supports the Refuge habitat management program; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Provide a range of volunteer opportunities for individuals with a variety of skills <strong>and</strong><br />
abilities, <strong>and</strong> support the Service’s “Connecting People with Nature” priority.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Maintain volunteer program at HFU by providing 35-40 weekend-long service opportunities with<br />
partner organizations to visit the Refuge, assist with habitat restoration, <strong>and</strong> observe native forest<br />
birds.<br />
Develop a seasonal volunteer program to supplement staffing <strong>and</strong> weekend programs.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-38
Develop volunteer program at KFU.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Rationale:<br />
The existing volunteer program would continue, with emphasis on service weekends by groups<br />
interested in Refuge enhancement activities.<br />
Volunteer programs are vital to Refuge management by providing additional labor for management<br />
programs that could not be accomplished by Refuge staff alone. While volunteer programs require<br />
administration <strong>and</strong> coordination, the benefits far outweigh these costs.<br />
Objective 7.3: Support existing outside programs for on <strong>and</strong> off site environmental education<br />
<strong>and</strong> develop interpretive opportunities at Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Support existing outside programs for off site <strong>and</strong> compatible on site environmental education<br />
opportunities that are administered by NGOs <strong>and</strong> where appropriate develop interpretive<br />
opportunities with the following attributes:<br />
• Includes 168 participants annually;<br />
• Based on Refuge <strong>and</strong> endangered species recovery management programs;<br />
• Provides h<strong>and</strong>s-on stewardship opportunities for teachers <strong>and</strong> students;<br />
• Actively promote the Service’s “Connecting People with Nature” priority;<br />
• Accommodates six volunteer sessions that target students; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Provides information about <strong>and</strong> serves as a conduit to past uses <strong>and</strong> connections to the l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Interpretive wildlife walks available at the annual HFU open house. Rely on SUP process to allow<br />
commercial guides, teachers, <strong>and</strong> NGOs to continue compatible outreach activities.<br />
Coordinate with County, State, <strong>and</strong> NGO partners for off site environmental education<br />
opportunities, including Kīpuka 21.<br />
Develop <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong> interpretive programming relative to cultural resources <strong>and</strong> historic sites.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Compatible environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation are priority wildlife-dependent public uses<br />
of the Refuge. In addition, they provide opportunities to reach local community members who may<br />
not otherwise learn about Refuge resources <strong>and</strong> management programs.<br />
The Refuge is in a unique position to offer local education agencies, teachers, <strong>and</strong> students<br />
opportunities to study endangered species <strong>and</strong> engage in natural resource management <strong>and</strong><br />
conservation issues in an outdoor setting. Since its establishment, educators <strong>and</strong> youth professionals<br />
have been using the Refuge as an outdoor classroom to enhance course curricula. The existing<br />
program serves approximately 75 students per year.<br />
Groups using the Refuge for environmental education purposes would be required to obtain a SUP<br />
or work through the Refuge volunteer program.<br />
To meet student needs, the Refuge is committed to working with schools to teach students about<br />
Refuge resources, including wildlife, habitat conservation, <strong>and</strong> cultural resources. These could be<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-39
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
one-time activities such as planting, or long-term involvement including planning, design, <strong>and</strong><br />
actual on-the-ground implementation for a restoration site.<br />
Interpretation opportunities about the history of the area, ties to Native Hawaiian cultural practices,<br />
<strong>and</strong> historical use of Refuge resources should be offered.<br />
Objective 7.4: Enhance outreach targeting local communities to promote appreciation of <strong>and</strong><br />
generate support for the KFU.<br />
Enhance outreach targeting local communities to promote appreciation of <strong>and</strong> generate support for<br />
the KFU <strong>and</strong> its resources. The outreach efforts will focus on accomplishing the following:<br />
• Build awareness <strong>and</strong> support amongst local communities, with special emphasis on Native<br />
Hawaiians;<br />
• Build positive name recognition for both units of Hakalau Forest NWR specifically <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Refuge System in general; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Maintain <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong> partnerships with conservation organizations, adjacent l<strong>and</strong>owners,<br />
other Federal, State, <strong>and</strong> County agencies, Native Hawaiian groups, high schools (including<br />
Hawaiian charter schools), colleges, businesses, civic clubs, hunting organizations, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
interagency Navigating Change educational partnership.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Work with existing partners (Friends of Hakalau Forest NWR, Three Mountain Alliance, Imi Pono<br />
no ka ‘Āina) to promote awareness <strong>and</strong> appreciation.<br />
Develop <strong>and</strong> cultivate new partners <strong>and</strong> outreach efforts.<br />
Rationale:<br />
Outreach to local communities would allow the Refuge to reach populations that may not otherwise<br />
learn about Refuge resources <strong>and</strong> management programs.<br />
2.3.3.3 Goal 8: Protect <strong>and</strong> manage cultural resources <strong>and</strong> historic sites for their educational<br />
<strong>and</strong> cultural values for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Refuge users <strong>and</strong><br />
communities.<br />
Objective 8.1: Increase identification, monitoring, protection <strong>and</strong> restoration of all cultural<br />
resources <strong>and</strong> historic sites, while increasing staff <strong>and</strong> public support <strong>and</strong> appreciation.<br />
Increase identification, monitoring, protection <strong>and</strong> restoration of all cultural resources <strong>and</strong> historic<br />
sites, while increasing staff <strong>and</strong> public support <strong>and</strong> appreciation. These efforts will focus on<br />
accomplishing the following:<br />
• Build Refuge capacity <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing for cultural <strong>and</strong> historic sites to assist with<br />
management; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Exp<strong>and</strong> knowledge for the public related to Refuge cultural <strong>and</strong> historic resources.<br />
Strategies to achieve objective:<br />
Evaluate known/potential Refuge cultural resources <strong>and</strong> historic sites.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-40
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Obtain Section 106, Hawaiian cultural, <strong>and</strong> diversity training for Refuge staff to enhance protection<br />
<strong>and</strong> appreciation of cultural resources.<br />
Within 1 year develop guidelines for approval of <strong>and</strong> a compatibility determination for Native<br />
Hawaiian cultural activities on the Refuge.<br />
Identify Native Hawaiian groups or cultural practitioners within the Refuge ahupua‘a l<strong>and</strong>s to<br />
cultivate an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of important historic sites <strong>and</strong> cultural resources.<br />
Conduct a comprehensive cultural resources investigation of both units.<br />
Develop interpretive programming relative to cultural <strong>and</strong> historic sites; including developing<br />
interpretive products in partnership with Native Hawaiian groups.<br />
Rationale:<br />
The Refuge contains cultural/historic resource sites that have been inventoried in areas where<br />
management actions could have impacted cultural/historic sites. This inventory will continue to<br />
ensure protection of these important resources. The Refuge allows cultural/historic resource<br />
investigations of sites by universities, researchers, students, <strong>and</strong>/or cultural practitioners. This<br />
information adds to our underst<strong>and</strong>ing of sites on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Within 1 year, Refuge staff will<br />
develop guidelines for approval of <strong>and</strong> a compatibility determination for Native Hawaiian cultural<br />
activities on the Refuge, including collecting medicinal plants, visiting/utilizing caves with cultural<br />
<strong>and</strong> spiritual significance, <strong>and</strong> performing traditional ceremonies. Refuge staff will coordinate with<br />
Regional staff, the DOI solicitor’s office, Office of Hawaiian Affairs, <strong>and</strong> interested parties in<br />
development of these guidelines.<br />
Refuge volunteers gain appreciation <strong>and</strong> respect for Native Hawaiian culture by helping to preserve<br />
the culture <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> through restoration projects. In a traditional Native Hawaiian context, there is<br />
no division between nature <strong>and</strong> culture. The l<strong>and</strong>, water, <strong>and</strong> sky were the foundation of life <strong>and</strong> the<br />
source of the spiritual relationship between people <strong>and</strong> their world. Native Hawaiian traditions<br />
express the attachment felt between the Native Hawaiian people <strong>and</strong> the earth around them. “Native<br />
traditions describe the formation (literally the birth) of the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the presence of life<br />
on <strong>and</strong> around them in the context of genealogical accounts. All forms of the natural environment–<br />
from the skies <strong>and</strong> mountain peaks, to the watered valleys <strong>and</strong> plains, to the shoreline <strong>and</strong> ocean<br />
depths–are the embodiments of Hawaiian gods <strong>and</strong> deities” (Maly 2001).<br />
The l<strong>and</strong> divisions known as ahupua‘a were claimed by the king <strong>and</strong> chiefs in the Mahele of 1848.<br />
Seldom visited, except by travelers between ahupua‘a, bird feather collectors, hunters, <strong>and</strong> canoe<br />
makers, the ahupua‘a highl<strong>and</strong>s were generally undeveloped in architectural terms. The ahupua‘a<br />
for HFU are Maulua Nui, Honohina, Hakalau, Makahanaloa, Pāpa‘ikou, <strong>and</strong> Paukaa. For KFU, the<br />
ahupua‘a are Kalāhiki <strong>and</strong> Ho‘okena.<br />
The ‘ōhi‘a-koa zone was used by Native Hawaiians for specialized resources including bark for<br />
making fishing nets <strong>and</strong> māmaki to make kapa cloth. Native Hawaiians may have used the area for<br />
temporary camps while collecting natural resources or en route to a higher elevation adze quarry<br />
<strong>and</strong> associated surface work sites. Native Hawaiians had knowledge of shelter caves, overhangs,<br />
<strong>and</strong> water sources. In the dry māmane woodl<strong>and</strong>, pili grass may have been collected as a special<br />
resource for thatching structures, as well as māmane wood for making adze h<strong>and</strong>les, house posts,<br />
<strong>and</strong> hōlua sleds. Within or above the māmane zone, nēnē, ‘u‘au, <strong>and</strong> koloa maoli may have been<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-41
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used as a source of meat. Radio carbon dating of bird bones from caves located in the saddle region<br />
between Mauna Loa <strong>and</strong> Mauna Kea indicate that Native Hawaiians were obtaining juvenile ‘ua‘u<br />
<strong>and</strong> collecting bird feathers between 1000-1450 A.D. (Dougherty <strong>and</strong> Moniz-Nakamura 2006).<br />
By interpreting Native Hawaiian practices that occurred on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s, we will provide the public<br />
with a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of these sites <strong>and</strong> enhance the Refuge experience.<br />
2.5 References<br />
DeWalt, S.J. 2006. Population dynamics <strong>and</strong> potential for biological control of an exotic invasive<br />
shrub in Hawaiian rainforests. Biological Invasions 8(5):1145-1158.<br />
DeWalt, S.J., J.S. Denslow, <strong>and</strong> K. Ickes. 2004. Natural-enemy release facilitates habitat expansion<br />
of the invasive tropical shrub Clidemia hirta. Ecology 85(2):471-482.<br />
Dougherty, Dennis <strong>and</strong> Jadelyn Moniz-Nakamura. July 2006. A Cultural Resource Overview<br />
Report for the Proposed North Kona Fencing <strong>and</strong> Habitat Restoration Project, North Kona, Hawai‘i.<br />
National Park Service Publication in Anthropology #8. Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.<br />
Hight, S.D., I. Horiuchi, M.D. Vitorino, C. Wikler, <strong>and</strong> J.H. Pedrosa-Macedo. 2003. Biology, host<br />
specificity tests, <strong>and</strong> risk assessment of the sawfly Heteroperreyia hubrichi, a potential biological<br />
control agent of Schinus terebinthifolius in Hawaii. BioControl 48:461–476.<br />
Hill, R.L., G. Markin, G., A.H. Gourlay, S.V. Fowler, <strong>and</strong> E. Yoshioka. 2001. Host Range, Release,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Establishment of Sericothrips staphylinus Haliday (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) as a Biological<br />
Control Agent for Gorse, Ulex europaeus L. (Fabaceae), in New Zeal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Hawaii. Biological<br />
Control 21:63–74.<br />
Johnson, M.T., P.A. Follett, A.D. Taylor, V.P. Jones. 2005. Impacts of biological control <strong>and</strong><br />
invasive species on a non-target native Hawaiian insect. Oecologia (2005) 142: 529–540.<br />
Julien, M.H., J.K. Scott, W. Orapa, Q. Paynter. 2007. History, opportunities <strong>and</strong> challenges for<br />
biological control in Australia, New Zeal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific isl<strong>and</strong>s. Crop Protection 26:255–265.<br />
Maly, K <strong>and</strong> Onaona Maly. 2001 A Historical Overview of the L<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> Trails Traveled, Between<br />
Keauhou <strong>and</strong> Kealakekua, Kona, Hawai‘i. Prepared for the State Division of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong>.<br />
Kumu Pono Associates, Hilo, Hawaii.<br />
Trujillo, E.E. 2005. History <strong>and</strong> success of plant pathogens for biological control of introduced<br />
weeds in Hawaii. Biological Control 33:113-122.<br />
Tummons, P. 2008. Waiwai Bio control Controversy. Environment Hawaii 19(1). July 2008.<br />
Uowolo, A.L. <strong>and</strong> J.S. Denslow. 2008. Characteristics of the Psidium cattleianum (Myrtaceae) Seed<br />
Bank in Hawaiian Lowl<strong>and</strong> Wet Forests. Pacific Science 62(1): 129-135.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-42
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service. 2008. Field release of Tectococcus ovatus<br />
(Homoptera: Eriococcidae) for biological control of strawberry guava, Psidium cattleianum Sabine<br />
(Myrtaceae), in Hawaii, Draft Environmental Assessment.<br />
Van Driesche, J. <strong>and</strong> R. Van Driesche. 2004. Nature out of place, biological invasions in the global<br />
age. Isl<strong>and</strong> Press, Washington, DC.<br />
Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-43
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Chapter 2. Refuge Management Direction 2-44
Chapter 3. Physical Environment<br />
Above: ‘Ākepa/Jack Jeffrey Photography<br />
Right: The FWS Horticulturist <strong>and</strong> his volunteers raise thous<strong>and</strong>s<br />
of rare native plants in the Hakalau Forest NWR greenhouse<br />
/Roy Lowe<br />
Kona Forest Unit/USFWS
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Chapter 3. Physical Environment<br />
3.1 Climate<br />
Located approximately 2,400 miles (mi) southwest of the nearest continental l<strong>and</strong>mass, the Hawaiian<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s are the most isolated archipelago in the world. The climate of Hawai‘i is generally constant<br />
throughout the year, with only minor periods of diurnal <strong>and</strong> seasonal variability. In general,<br />
temperatures during the summer season (May-September) are warm, conditions are dry, <strong>and</strong> trade<br />
winds originate from the northeast direction. The winter season (October-April) is characterized by<br />
cooler temperatures, higher precipitation, <strong>and</strong> less equable winds (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998).<br />
The trade winds also produce differences within the two physiographic provinces, windward <strong>and</strong><br />
leeward zones, as a result of orographic rainfall. Moisture is carried from the ocean to the isl<strong>and</strong> by<br />
the northeasterly trade winds. Orographic rainfall is rain generated when moist air rises against steep<br />
slopes, cools, <strong>and</strong> forms rain producing clouds. As the air descends on the opposite side of the slope,<br />
it becomes warmer <strong>and</strong> less moist, resulting in less rain. Orographic rainfall patterns strongly<br />
influence the climate of the two zones. On the windward side, climatic conditions are relatively wet,<br />
while the leeward areas experience decreased winds, less rain, <strong>and</strong> are subject to southerly Kona<br />
(leeward) storms (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998).<br />
Episodic oceanic <strong>and</strong> atmospheric events also influence climate in the isl<strong>and</strong>s during specific<br />
intervals. The El Niño Southern Oscillation (El Niño) usually results in light trade winds in the<br />
western Pacific <strong>and</strong> drier conditions (Duffy 1993). During El Niño years in Hawai‘i, average rainfall<br />
has dropped below historical records (USFWS 2002a). Hurricanes result in intense rain <strong>and</strong> wind.<br />
The two major hurricanes that most affected Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>, Hurricanes Fico (July 18-20, 1978) <strong>and</strong><br />
Estelle (July 22, 1986), had peak gusts of 58 <strong>and</strong> 55 miles per hour (mph), respectively (HDBEDT<br />
2007). These climate differences determine vegetation patterns, which in turn can affect local<br />
hydrological movements of surface <strong>and</strong> especially ground water (Sack <strong>and</strong> Frole 2006).<br />
Climatic conditions on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i vary dramatically due to its large size <strong>and</strong> elevation<br />
range. Clouds form against the windward mountain slopes creating drier conditions around the high<br />
mountains of Mauna Kea <strong>and</strong> Mauna Loa. Annual rainfall fluctuates from 10 in on the leeward coast<br />
to 270 in in the windward forests (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Other moisture-producing mechanisms, besides the orographic effect, include convection, Kona<br />
storms, <strong>and</strong> fog drip. Kona storms are low pressure areas which bring southerly winds <strong>and</strong> rain.<br />
These storms typically occur during the winter months when trade winds are light (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik<br />
1998). Fog drip occurs when clouds gather along mountain slopes <strong>and</strong> condensation causes the<br />
moisture on vegetation to drip to the ground. Fog drip usually develops in late winter <strong>and</strong> early<br />
spring during the afternoon (USFWS 1996a, 2008a). In addition to rainfall, the summits of Mauna<br />
Kea <strong>and</strong> Mauna Loa on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> also receive snow in the winter months (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik<br />
1998).<br />
A particularly unique aspect of the climate in Hawai‘i is the trade wind temperature inversion. This<br />
layer occurs from 5,000 - 10,000 ft where rising air meets sinking air <strong>and</strong> warmer air exists above<br />
cooler air. The temperature inversion layer prevents warm, moist surface air from rising to form rain<br />
clouds. Because humid moist air cannot reach high altitudes, a cloud ceiling is formed, causing the<br />
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climate above the layer to be clearer, drier, <strong>and</strong> less humid than below the temperature inversion.<br />
Orographic rain does not occur above the layer because air flows around the high elevation<br />
mountains, rather than over the mountains. The temperature inversion is prevalent during the summer<br />
months (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998).<br />
Prevailing ocean currents surrounding the isl<strong>and</strong> also influence weather patterns by moderating the<br />
surrounding surface air temperatures as a result of differential heat absorption <strong>and</strong> advection of heat.<br />
Ocean currents in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s are moderated by the north Pacific anticyclone, a clockwise<br />
gyre that extends from the tropics to the North Pacific (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998, Lau <strong>and</strong> Mink 2006).<br />
The east-to-west-flowing North Equatorial Current splits at the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i, creating a northern<br />
branch current that is 65 mi wide called the North Hawaiian Ridge Current.<br />
3.1.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Climate<br />
Climatic conditions at the HFU are largely shaped by elevation. Microclimatic shifts have also<br />
occurred at <strong>and</strong> adjacent to the unit as a result of changing l<strong>and</strong> use patterns. Clearing <strong>and</strong> grazing of<br />
native vegetation allowed for the creation of large open grassl<strong>and</strong>s. These areas increase wind speed,<br />
reduce moisture, <strong>and</strong> result in more extreme temperature fluctuations (USFWS 1996b, USFWS<br />
2002a).<br />
Overall, the HFU is generally characterized by moderate temperatures <strong>and</strong> wet conditions. In lower<br />
elevation areas, daily atmospheric temperatures are higher, with a mean annual temperature of<br />
approximately 65°F. Higher elevation areas have lower temperatures around 53°F. At the upper<br />
portion of the Refuge around 6,440 ft, temperatures have reached a maximum of 75°F. Night<br />
temperatures during the winter can fall to 25°F, causing frost <strong>and</strong> soil ice (DHHL <strong>and</strong> USFWS 2003).<br />
Generally, winds at the HFU arrive from the south southeast direction. Wind speed is approximately<br />
5 mph (USFWS 2002a). Hawaiian Electric Company (2004) notes that mean annual wind speeds in<br />
the area are less than 12.3 miles per hour (mph).<br />
The windward HFU receives northeasterly tradewind-dominated rainfall. Rainfall varies along an<br />
elevation gradient, with areas above 5,000 ft receiving less rainfall than lower elevation portions of<br />
the Refuge. In the lower regions, annual rainfall is approximately 300 inches, compared to<br />
210 inches at the upper elevations. Rainfall averages also vary within the upper elevations. The area<br />
near the Hakalau Cabin at 6,100 ft receives about 20 percent less rain than at Pua ‘Ākala located at<br />
6,300 ft elevation. Between 1989-1994, the average total rainfall at Pua ‘Ākala was 124.19 inches,<br />
while Hakalau Cabin received 85.67 inches between 1990-2000 (USFWS 2002a). In general,<br />
increased precipitation occurs between October-March (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
In addition to elevation <strong>and</strong> wind patterns, episodic events <strong>and</strong> vegetation differences also influence<br />
rainfall variations. At HFU, El Niño years caused average rainfall to drop below historical records,<br />
with an average of 55.57 inches each year (USFWS 2002a). Six drought periods (1992-93, 1995,<br />
1998, 2000, <strong>and</strong> 2008-2010) have been recorded at HFU. Rainfall during these years ranged from<br />
40–68 inches (DHHL <strong>and</strong> USFWS 2003).<br />
Fog drip is estimated to account for approximately 35 percent of moisture amounts (USFWS 2002a).<br />
Fog <strong>and</strong> mist are consistently present in the afternoons due to the inversion layer (Scowcroft et al.<br />
2000). On the Hilo side of Hawai‘i, the average relative humidity remains fairly constant, ranging<br />
from 77-81 percent throughout the year (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998). At HFU, average daily relative<br />
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humidity during the winter months is about 70 percent. In the spring <strong>and</strong> summer months, daily<br />
humidity increases to about 85 percent. Daily differences in humidity are also present, with the<br />
strongest humidity in the late afternoon <strong>and</strong> early evening (USFWS 2002a).<br />
3.1.2 Kona Forest Unit Climate<br />
Compared to the HFU on windward Mauna Kea, the climate on the Kona side (leeward) of Hawai‘i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> is drier. In particular, South Kona is considered one of the most drought-prone regions in the<br />
Hawaiian archipelago (USFWS 2008a). The moisture patterns in the area are driven primarily by<br />
daytime surface heating <strong>and</strong> upslope winds that yield convective rainfall from roughly 2,000 -<br />
5,900 ft. Unlike most areas in the State, the rainy season in Kona occurs during the summer months,<br />
with peaks in June-September <strong>and</strong> low periods from November-February (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998).<br />
Rainfall clearly decreases with elevation at KFU. Areas above 5,000 ft <strong>and</strong> below 2,000 ft elevation<br />
are generally dry (Atkinson et al. 2005). Average annual rainfall at the lower <strong>and</strong> upper area of KFU<br />
can differ by 39 in (USFWS 2008a). Between April 1995-November 1998, the average annual<br />
rainfall varied from 5.63 inches at 2,000 ft to 2.05 inches at 6,000 ft. The climatic differences<br />
between the elevations affect the types of species present <strong>and</strong> species distributions. Seasonal<br />
fluctuations have also been observed at the Refuge. Annual <strong>and</strong> monthly rainfall averages are listed<br />
in Table 3-1.<br />
Table 3-1. Average Monthly Rainfall (inches) at the Kona Forest Unit, April 1995-<br />
November 1998.<br />
Month Elevation<br />
2,000 ft 3,000 ft 4,000 ft 5,000 ft 6,000 ft<br />
January 3.31 2.80 3.00 2.78 2.73<br />
February 1.61 2.07 2.25 1.71 0.82<br />
March 5.28 6.12 6.09 5.42 4.08<br />
April 3.89 4.40 3.26 2.57 1.64<br />
May 4.76 5.77 4.04 2.15 1.30<br />
June 8.45 8.19 7.06 4.74 3.17<br />
July 6.94 5.45 4.10 3.17 1.95<br />
August 6.99 6.48 4.02 2.29 1.73<br />
September 12.2 9.89 6.19 3.07 2.35<br />
October 6.16 4.79 2.19 2.03 1.25<br />
November 3.11 2.85 2.10 1.79 1.42<br />
December 2.37 4.25 4.15 4.01 2.71<br />
Annual Ave. 5.63 5.39 4.05 2.93 2.05<br />
Source: USFWS, unpubl.<br />
Rain is the primary moisture source at elevations from 2,000 - 2,700 ft, while areas above this<br />
elevation also receive moisture from fog drip. The maximum amount of fog drip occurs from 3,000-<br />
6,500 ft. Fog density peaks at about 5,000 ft (USFWS 2008a). “Vog”, volcanic gases <strong>and</strong> particulates<br />
emitted from Kīlauea volcano, is another aspect of the climate on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i. Vog forms a<br />
distinctive haze <strong>and</strong> has been implicated in causing decreased rainfall <strong>and</strong> plant damage in Kona<br />
forests (USFWS 2008a).<br />
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Prevailing trade winds are weak along the Kona coast because the winds are blocked by Mauna Loa<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hualālai (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998). Mean annual wind speeds in the area are less than 12.3 mph<br />
(HECO 2004).<br />
3.2 Geology <strong>and</strong> Soils<br />
The Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s were formed by a series of volcanic eruptions that occurred at various hotspots<br />
beneath the Earth’s crust. As the tectonic plate slowly drifted, magma welled up from fixed spots<br />
creating a linear chain of isl<strong>and</strong>s. Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> is the largest <strong>and</strong> youngest isl<strong>and</strong> in the Hawaiian<br />
chain <strong>and</strong> encompasses a total l<strong>and</strong> area of 4,028.2 mi 2 . The l<strong>and</strong>mass was formed when five<br />
volcanoes of varying ages (Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualālai, Mauna Loa, <strong>and</strong> Kīlauea) joined together<br />
(Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998).<br />
Dated at 430,000 years, the extinct Kohala volcano is the oldest on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>. Found on the<br />
northeastern portion of the isl<strong>and</strong>, this volcano is deeply eroded on the windward side. Mauna Kea is<br />
a dormant, postshield volcano with the oldest lavas estimated to be roughly 250,000 years old <strong>and</strong> the<br />
most recent approximately 4,500 years old (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998). The elevation of Mauna Kea is<br />
13,796 ft; however, when measured from the submarine base to its peak, Mauna Kea is considered<br />
the world’s tallest mountain, with a height of 33,480 ft (HDBEDT 2007). Hualālai is an active,<br />
postshield volcano on the western side of Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>. Although Hualālai last erupted in 1801,<br />
alkalic basalt eruptions generally occur every few hundred years so its core is still active (Juvik <strong>and</strong><br />
Juvik 1998). Mauna Loa is an active shield volcano with an elevation of 13,679 ft (HDBEDT 2007).<br />
Embedded in the eastern flanks of Mauna Loa is Kīlauea, the youngest <strong>and</strong> most active of the<br />
volcano on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i. Since January 1983, Kīlauea has continuously erupted, discharging<br />
lava <strong>and</strong> occasionally ash deposits (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998).<br />
As the basaltic lavas <strong>and</strong> volcanic ash from the volcanoes weathered <strong>and</strong> decomposed, various soil<br />
types developed throughout the isl<strong>and</strong> (Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998). Soils on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i were<br />
classified by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil <strong>Conservation</strong> Service (Foote et al.<br />
1972). Soil types are mapped in Figures 3-1 <strong>and</strong> 3-2. Key characteristic of the soils found within the<br />
units are listed in Tables 3-2 <strong>and</strong> 3-3.<br />
3.2.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Geology <strong>and</strong> Soils<br />
The majority of the unit is covered in Laupāhoehoe Volcanics from a Mauna Kea lava flow ranging<br />
between 11,000-64,000 years old. Laupāhoehoe Volcanics in the Maulua Tract of the Refuge are<br />
younger, primarily dated between 5,000-11,000 years old. Smaller areas of Hāmākua Volcanic from<br />
the Pleistocene epoch (dated between 64,000 <strong>and</strong> 300,000 years old) occur in the southwestern <strong>and</strong><br />
northwestern corners of HFU.<br />
All of the soil series present in the HFU were formed from volcanic ash. In the upper elevations of<br />
the unit above 5,000 ft, the soil is classified as well-drained silt loams, while lower portions of the<br />
Refuge are composed of silty clay loams. The USDA Soil <strong>Conservation</strong> Service has identified the<br />
following soil types:<br />
3-4 Chapter 3. Physical Environment
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Figure 3-1. Soil map of the Hakalau Forest Unit.<br />
Pu‘u ‘O‘o silt loam, 6-12 percent slopes (PUC):<br />
Located on upl<strong>and</strong>s of the windward side of Mauna Kea between 5,000 - 6,500 ft, soils in the Pu‘u<br />
‘O‘o series are gently sloping to moderately steep. The surface layer is dark reddish-brown <strong>and</strong> very<br />
dark gray silt loam. This layer is approximately 6 in thick <strong>and</strong> can be strongly acid (pH 5.1 - 5.5) to<br />
very strongly acid (pH 4.5 - 5.0). The subsoil, which is about 21 in thick, is very dark brown to dark<br />
reddish-brown silty clay loam. Material underlying the subsoil is dark yellowish-brown <strong>and</strong> darkbrown<br />
s<strong>and</strong>y clay loam. These layers range from strongly acid to extremely acid (pH below 4.5).<br />
Laumai‘a silt loam, 6-20 percent slopes (LAD):<br />
The Laumai‘a series are undulating soils located on high elevations above 5,500 ft of the windward<br />
side of Mauna Kea <strong>and</strong> are gently sloping to moderately steep. The surface of the Laumai‘a silt loam<br />
is a 12 in thick layer of very dark brown <strong>and</strong> dark-brown silt loam that is exceptionally stony in<br />
certain areas. The subsoil is roughly double in thickness <strong>and</strong> is very dark grayish-brown <strong>and</strong> dark<br />
brown silt loam. The degree of acidity ranges from medium acid (pH 5.6 - 6.0) at the surface layer to<br />
strongly acid at the subsoil.<br />
Hanipoe very stony loam, 12-20 percent slopes (HCD):<br />
The Hanipoe series is found from 5,000 - 6,500 ft in elevation. Hanipoe very stony loam is composed<br />
of a 20-30 in layer over fragmental ‘a‘ā lava.<br />
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Pi‘ihonua silty clay loam, 6-20 percent slopes (PND):<br />
The Pi‘ihonua series, located from 4,500 - 6,500 ft on the windward side of Mauna Kea, consists of<br />
well-drained silty clay loams that have a b<strong>and</strong>ed appearance. The surface layer is about 6 in thick <strong>and</strong><br />
comprised of very dark brown silty clay loam that is extremely stony in certain areas. The subsoil is<br />
dark-brown to dark-red silty clay loam about 44 in thick, while a weakly cemented layer of volcanic<br />
ash occurs at a depth of 17-25 in. Acidity varies between very strongly acid to extremely acid.<br />
Pi‘ihonua extremely stony silty clay loam, 6-20 percent slopes (POD):<br />
In addition to the characteristics of Pi‘ihonua silty clay loam, 6-20 percent slopes, stones cover<br />
3-15 percent of the surface in this soil.<br />
‘Akaka soils (rAK):<br />
The ‘Akaka series consists of moderately well-drained silty clay loams that formed from volcanic<br />
ash. These are gently sloping to steep soils on upl<strong>and</strong> rain forests ranging from 1,000 - 4,500 ft. On<br />
the HFU, these soils are found in the mid- to lower-portion of the Refuge <strong>and</strong> comprise the majority<br />
of the Refuge area. ‘Akaka soils typically have a slope between 3-20 percent, but are dissected by<br />
small steep drainages, with slopes between 40-50 percent. Small, swampy areas of shallow soils<br />
underlain by pāhoehoe bedrock also occur in the soil type.<br />
Table 3-2. Soil Types Found Within the Hakalau Forest Unit <strong>and</strong> Key Characteristics.<br />
Permeability Runoff Erosion<br />
Hazard<br />
PUC Moderately rapid Slow Slight<br />
LAD Moderately rapid Medium Moderate<br />
HCD -- Slow Slight<br />
PND Rapid Slow Slight<br />
POD Rapid Slow Slight<br />
The Natural Resources <strong>Conservation</strong> Service (NRCS) operates a soil moisture <strong>and</strong> temperature<br />
station at Pua ‘Ākala at 6,394 ft. This station, which has been operating since February 2005, records<br />
soil moisture <strong>and</strong> temperature to a depth of 27 inches.<br />
3.2.2 Kona Forest Unit Geology <strong>and</strong> Soils<br />
The surface of the KFU is covered in a sheath of Mauna Loa lava flows of the Ka‘ū Basalt series.<br />
Lava flows in the northern two-thirds of the unit are older ranging between 1,500 - 3,000 years old,<br />
while the younger southern portion is estimated between 750-1,500 years old. A small area in the<br />
central region of the Refuge is composed of Ka‘ū Basalt flows between 3,000 - 5,000 years old.<br />
South of the KFU, more recent twentieth century lava flows are present (USFWS 2008a).<br />
A thin layer of organic soil covers the highly permeable basalt that remains from the lava flows. The<br />
following eight soil types have been identified within the KFU:<br />
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Figure 3-2. Soil map of the Kona Forest Unit.<br />
Lava flows, ‘a‘ā (rLV):<br />
‘A‘ā lava flows are found along the northern boundary of the KFU. This lava is rough, clinkery, <strong>and</strong><br />
“piled in tumbled heaps.” Only a thin layer of soil covers the lava allowing minimal vegetation<br />
growth such as mosses, lichens, ferns, <strong>and</strong> scattered ‘ōhi‘a trees.<br />
Lava flows, pāhoehoe (rLW):<br />
Pāhoehoe lava generally has a smooth, glassy surface compared to ‘a‘ā lava. Pāhoehoe is hotter,<br />
contains more trapped gasses, <strong>and</strong> flows faster than ‘a‘ā. This lava is lacking any soil covering<br />
supports mainly mosses <strong>and</strong> lichens with scattered ‘ōhi‘a trees, ‘ōhelo, <strong>and</strong> ‘a‘ali‘i in cracks <strong>and</strong><br />
crevices.<br />
Kēkake extremely rocky muck, 6-20 percent slopes (rKHD):<br />
The Kēkake series are well-drained, thin organic soils underlain by pāhoehoe lava bedrock on<br />
upl<strong>and</strong>s between 3,500 - 7,000 ft. Approximately 25-50 percent of the surface area is rock outcrops.<br />
The soil surface layer is black muck about 4 inches thick <strong>and</strong> strongly acid.<br />
Māwae extremely stony muck, 6-20 percent slopes (rMWD):<br />
The Māwae series consists of well-drained, thin organic soils over fragmented ‘a‘ā lava. This muck is<br />
undulating on mountains between 3,500 - 7,000 ft. The surface layer is black extremely stony muck<br />
about 5 in thick with a medium acidity.<br />
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Kīloa extremely stony muck, 6-20 percent slopes (rKXD):<br />
The Kīloa series is located at intermediate elevations on Mauna Loa <strong>and</strong> Hualālai between 1,000 -<br />
4,000 ft. Kīloa extremely stony muck consists of a 10 in thick layer of well-drained, very dark brown,<br />
extremely stony organic muck over fragmental ‘a‘ā lava. Slightly weathered ash <strong>and</strong> cinders occur in<br />
the voids of the lava. The Kīloa series is strongly acid.<br />
Ke‘ei extremely rocky muck, 6-20 percent slopes (rKGD):<br />
Located between 1,000-3,500 ft on Mauna Loa <strong>and</strong> Mauna Kea, the Ke‘ei series consists of welldrained,<br />
thin organic soils overlying pāhoehoe lava bedrock. The strongly acid surface layer is very<br />
dark brown muck about 10 in thick. Between 25-50 percent of the surface is occupied by rock<br />
outcrops.<br />
Puna extremely stony muck, 3-25 percent slopes (rPXE):<br />
The Puna series is found between 1,000-3,500 ft in elevation on Mauna Loa <strong>and</strong> Hualālai. This soil is<br />
well-drained, very dark brown, extremely stony organic muck. The soil is about 5 in thick <strong>and</strong><br />
underlain by fragmental ‘a‘ā lava. This soil is gently sloping to moderately steep <strong>and</strong> neutral<br />
(pH 6.6-7.3).<br />
Kona extremely rocky muck, 6-20 percent slopes (rKYD):<br />
The Kona series also occurs between 1,000 - 3,500 ft on Mauna Loa <strong>and</strong> Hualālai. About 25-<br />
50 percent of the surface is covered by rock outcrop <strong>and</strong> the surface soil layer is well-drained, very<br />
dark brown muck. The slightly acid surface layer is approximately 5 in <strong>and</strong> underlain by pāhoehoe<br />
lava bedrock.<br />
Table 3-3. Soil Types Found Within the Kona Forest Unit <strong>and</strong> Key Characteristics.<br />
3.3 Hydrology<br />
Soil Type Permeability Runoff Erosion<br />
Hazard<br />
rLV Rapid Slow Slight<br />
rLW Rapid Slow Slight<br />
rKHD Rapid Medium Slight<br />
rMWD Rapid Slow Slight<br />
rKXD Rapid Slow Slight<br />
rKGD Rapid Medium Slight<br />
rPXE Rapid Slow Slight<br />
rKYD Rapid Medium Slight<br />
The hydrologic processes that occur in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s are unique compared to continental<br />
l<strong>and</strong>masses or temperate zones. Drainage basins are typically small <strong>and</strong> streams are characterized by<br />
steep longitudinal profiles <strong>and</strong> numerous waterfalls (Lau <strong>and</strong> Mink 2006). In addition, hydrology is<br />
largely influenced by geological features associated with lava flows. Many streams in Hawai‘i have<br />
lengthy dry reaches under natural conditions due to the nature of the underlying rock (Stearns <strong>and</strong><br />
Macdonald 1947, Macdonald <strong>and</strong> Abbot 1970).<br />
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Similar to other oceanic isl<strong>and</strong>s, rainfall is the greatest source of freshwater on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i.<br />
Rainfall contributes roughly 8,000 million gallons per day (mgd) to the water budget of Hawai‘i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> (Lau <strong>and</strong> Mink 2006, TMA 2007). This rainwater recharges two vital water resources:<br />
groundwater <strong>and</strong> surface water.<br />
Groundwater, which occurs beneath the surface, is the primary water resource in Hawai‘i.<br />
Groundwater can occur as thin basal lens, as well as high-level aquifers that do not float on seawater<br />
(Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik 1998). Unlike older isl<strong>and</strong>s in the archipelago, Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> does not have<br />
sedimentary coastal plain or caprock. Lack of a caprock allows fresh water to outflow <strong>and</strong> the<br />
seawater to intrude the freshwater lens. As a result, basal water levels throughout the isl<strong>and</strong> are low<br />
(Bauer 2003).<br />
Surface water is water flowing in stream channels. This water originates from surface runoff derived<br />
from rainfall, groundwater seepage, <strong>and</strong> channel water that seeps into the banks during high stream<br />
stages (Lau <strong>and</strong> Mink 2006). Streams are classified as intermittent or perennial based on flow<br />
conditions. Perennial streams are streams that normally have surface flow throughout the year, at<br />
least in some part of the course (Hawai‘i Cooperative National Park Studies Unit 1990). Perennial<br />
streams, which are generally sustained by groundwater in high level aquifers, are usually restricted to<br />
the windward sides of isl<strong>and</strong>s that receive more rain (Nishimoto <strong>and</strong> Kuamo‘o 1997, Juvik <strong>and</strong> Juvik<br />
1998). The largest perennial stream on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> (<strong>and</strong> in the State) is Wailuku River. This river<br />
is 22.7 mi long <strong>and</strong> discharges 180 mgd (HDBEDT 2007).<br />
Water on the isl<strong>and</strong> is primarily derived from groundwater rather than surface water (TMA 2007). In<br />
2000, the County of Hawai‘i used 44.55 mgd of groundwater <strong>and</strong> 8.86 mgd of surface water<br />
(HDBEDT 2007). Major water systems are located in the Kona, Ka‘ū, <strong>and</strong> Puna areas. Water is<br />
supplied to these systems from wells, springs, <strong>and</strong> roof catchments (TMA 2007). Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong><br />
consumes a relatively small percentage of the State’s water. In 2006, the County of Hawai‘i<br />
consumed 11.9 percent of the total freshwater consumption of the State of Hawai‘i (HDBEDT 2007).<br />
Wetl<strong>and</strong>s are critical components of an area’s hydrology <strong>and</strong> provide a variety of ecological<br />
functions. The Service defines wetl<strong>and</strong>s as “l<strong>and</strong>s transitional between terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic system<br />
where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the l<strong>and</strong> is covered by shallow water”<br />
(Erickson <strong>and</strong> Puttock 2006). According to this definition, unvegetated areas including beaches,<br />
mudflats, <strong>and</strong> ponds are considered wetl<strong>and</strong>s. Hydrology, vegetation, <strong>and</strong> soil type are used as<br />
indicators to determine the presence of a wetl<strong>and</strong> (Erickson <strong>and</strong> Puttock 2006). Although small,<br />
isolated wetl<strong>and</strong>s occur on the Refuge, they would not be under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army<br />
Corps of Engineers as waters of the U.S. because they are not connected or adjacent to navigable<br />
waters (USFWS 2008a).<br />
Flooding is common in certain areas of the isl<strong>and</strong> due to ponding, surface runoff, high seas, storm<br />
surge, <strong>and</strong> tsunami inundation. Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> is particularly vulnerable to flooding because it is<br />
relatively young <strong>and</strong> water courses are generally not well-defined (County of Hawai‘i 2006). The<br />
Federal Emergency Management Agency’s National Flood Insurance Program has prepared Flood<br />
Insurance Rate Maps (FIRM) that depict flood hazard areas through the State. The maps classify l<strong>and</strong><br />
into four zones depending on the expectation of flood inundation. The entire Hakalau Forest NWR is<br />
within Zone X, defined as areas outside of the 100 <strong>and</strong> 500 year floodplains. In addition, the County<br />
General <strong>Plan</strong> (2005) lists flood prone areas. Statewide flood control is managed by the Department of<br />
L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources’ Engineering Branch, L<strong>and</strong> Division.<br />
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The use of water resources in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s is regulated by the State Water Code, Chapter<br />
174C <strong>and</strong> governed by the State Commission on Water Resource Management (CWRM). This<br />
agency issues permits to regulate the use of surface <strong>and</strong> ground water. Between 1988-1989, water<br />
users in Hawai‘i were required to register their water sources <strong>and</strong> declare their water uses to CWRM<br />
(CWRM 1992). A water right is a legal entitlement to use a certain amount of water from a particular<br />
source for a beneficial use. Outside designated water management areas l<strong>and</strong>owners have the right to<br />
“reasonable use” of underlying groundwater <strong>and</strong> riparian water, providing it does not harm the uses<br />
of other users (Miike 2004). Specific water rights for descendants of Native Hawaiians who inhabited<br />
the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s prior to 1778 are discussed in Section §174C-101 of the State Water Code.<br />
3.3.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Hydrology<br />
The presence of gulches <strong>and</strong> ravines allows for intermittent surface water flow following periods of<br />
heavy or continuous rain (USFWS 2002a). Some of the streams within the Refuge boundaries are<br />
considered perennial at lower elevations. Nonnative ungulates <strong>and</strong> other mammals (rats) degrade<br />
water quality of the intermittent streams through soil disturbance <strong>and</strong> feces deposition. In addition,<br />
disturbance in the upper reaches can result in lack of groundwater retention. Table 3-4 lists stream<br />
<strong>and</strong> tributaries identified within the boundaries of the Refuge.<br />
Table 3-4. Streams <strong>and</strong> Tributaries on the Hakalau Forest Unit.<br />
Stream Tributaries<br />
Hakalau<br />
Honoli‘i Pōhakupuka<br />
Kapue<br />
Kawainui<br />
Kolekole<br />
Maulua Makahiloa<br />
Nanue Painui<br />
Pāhoehoe Pāhoehoe<br />
Pōhakupuka<br />
Umauma Nauhi Gulch, Honohina Gulch<br />
Waikaumalo<br />
Wailuku ‘Āwehi, Nukupahu Gulch<br />
Source: Hawai‘i Office of <strong>Plan</strong>ning GIS Data.<br />
As required under the State Water Code, the Refuge filed Declaration of Water Use for 12 perennial<br />
streams in May 1989. These streams included: Kalohewahewa, ‘Āwehi, Honoli‘i, Kapue, Kawainui,<br />
Kolekole, Hakalau, Umauma, Painui, Waikaumalo, <strong>and</strong> Pōhakupuka (CWRM 1989, 1992). The<br />
Refuge continuously uses the water in these streams to maintain the riparian community <strong>and</strong> protect<br />
habitat for native aquatic insects <strong>and</strong> crustaceans. This type of use is considered a category two<br />
instream water use because the water remains in the stream channel, rather than being transported<br />
outside the channel (CWRM 1989).<br />
Natural <strong>and</strong> constructed ponds exist along the upper slopes of the HFU. The constructed water<br />
features were former stock ponds built for cattle, but several still hold water. Many of the naturally<br />
occurring pond <strong>and</strong> waterholes referenced in historical documents no longer exist. This is likely due<br />
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to drier conditions <strong>and</strong> changes in the microclimate. One natural pond, known as Frog Pond, occurs<br />
between the Honohina <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Tracts at about 5,600 ft (Tomonari-Tuggle 1996).<br />
A baseline water resource assessment <strong>and</strong> stream fauna assessment has not been conducted at the<br />
HFU (USFWS 2007). However, numerous surveys have been conducted at the lower elevations of<br />
streams that pass through the Refuge. The lower reaches of these streams support native fishes <strong>and</strong><br />
invertebrates (Tate 1996, Nishimoto <strong>and</strong> Kuamo‘o 1997). Although unstudied, stream fauna at higher<br />
elevations within the HFU are believed to be exclusively invertebrate.<br />
According to the Water Resources Protection <strong>Plan</strong> (USFWS 2005), the HFU is located in the<br />
Pa‘auilo, Hakalau, <strong>and</strong> Onomea hydrological units. These aquifers have a sustainable yield of 60,<br />
150, <strong>and</strong> 147 mgd, respectively. The size of these systems shows that a large amount of potable basal<br />
groundwater can be developed in the area (Yuen <strong>and</strong> Associates 1990).<br />
3.3.2 Kona Forest Unit Hydrology<br />
Due to the extremely permeable lava <strong>and</strong> well-drained soils, there are no perennial surface waters or<br />
drainages on the KFU. As a result, no st<strong>and</strong>ard water resource assessments have been performed<br />
(USFWS 2007). The closest permanent surface water is the Lumiawai waterhole, located about<br />
0.5 mi south of the southeast corner (Rayond <strong>and</strong> Valentine 2007). Ki‘ilae Stream, which is south of<br />
Hōnaunau, is the closest stream (Yuen <strong>and</strong> Associates 1990).<br />
The Water Resources Protection <strong>Plan</strong> (USFWS 2005) depicts the KFU within the Ka‘apuna<br />
hydrological unit. Groundwater in this region is primarily composed of a thin basal lens that is not<br />
protected by caprock. The aquifer in the Ka‘apuna hydrological unit has a sustainable yield of<br />
50 mgd (Yuen <strong>and</strong> Associates 1990). The Refuge area functions as an important groundwater<br />
recharge area for Kona as a result of the porous substrate <strong>and</strong> high moisture conditions (USFWS<br />
2008a).<br />
South Kona is vulnerable to flooding due to the combination of intense storms, lack of drainages,<br />
steep terrain, permeable soils, <strong>and</strong> urban l<strong>and</strong> uses (County of Hawai‘i 2006, TMA 2007). No records<br />
of flooding on the unit have been found.<br />
3.4 Topography<br />
The Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i is considered the highest oceanic isl<strong>and</strong> in the world. However, similar to<br />
other volcanic isl<strong>and</strong>s, summit heights are constantly changing due to erosion, lava deposition, <strong>and</strong><br />
isostatic compensation (Jordan et al. 2003). Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> is characterized by high elevation areas<br />
<strong>and</strong> gentle slopes. The majority of Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> (88 percent) is above 500 ft (HDBEDT 2007).<br />
Furthermore, almost 70 percent is above 2,000 ft (Mitchell et al. 2005, HDBEDT 2007). The highest<br />
point on the isl<strong>and</strong>, Mauna Kea, reaches 13,796 ft. Although Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> has some of the highest<br />
peaks in the State, the inclines are relatively mild. Approximately 70 percent of Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> has a<br />
slope of less than 10 percent (HDBEDT 2007).<br />
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3.4.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Topography<br />
The relatively young Mauna Kea volcano does not contain deep valleys <strong>and</strong> high cliffs that are<br />
distinctive on other volcanoes. As a result, the topography at the HFU is relatively gentle. The lower<br />
elevation areas have deeper gulches <strong>and</strong> steeper slopes than higher elevation portions. The prevailing<br />
aspect of the slopes is east. Cinder cones, built by lava fountains or erupting magma foam, are<br />
scattered throughout the area (Stearns 1966, USFWS 1996b).<br />
3.4.2 Kona Forest Unit Topography<br />
The rectangular-shaped KFU slopes toward the west-southwest. The entire area has an average slope<br />
of 20 percent, with slopes of less than 10 percent at the upper elevations (USFWS 2002b). The<br />
surface of the entire parcel is rocky, irregular, <strong>and</strong> undulating (USFWS 2008a). Lava tubes <strong>and</strong><br />
shallow gulches also dissect the overlapping ‘a‘ā <strong>and</strong> pāhoehoe lava flows, creating uneven<br />
topography (Rayond <strong>and</strong> Valentine 2007).<br />
3.5 Environmental Contaminants<br />
The Agency for Toxic Substances <strong>and</strong> Disease Registry, a Federal bureau of the U.S. Department of<br />
Health <strong>and</strong> Human Services, defines a contaminant as “a substance that is either present in an<br />
environment where it does not belong or is present at levels that might cause harmful (adverse)<br />
health effects” (ATSDR 2002). Contaminants commonly include pesticides <strong>and</strong> their residues,<br />
industrial chemicals, fertilizers, metals, <strong>and</strong> other toxic substances. By altering biological or physical<br />
processes, contaminants may produce adverse <strong>and</strong> even detrimental effects to an ecosystem (USFWS<br />
2005a).<br />
No contaminated sites have been identified on the Refuge units (USFWS 2007). However, Hawai‘i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> is exposed to high sulfur dioxide (SO2) levels from Kīlauea volcano emissions (vog), as well<br />
as traces of metals such as mercury. Sulfur dioxide is an irritant gas that may cause acute <strong>and</strong> chronic<br />
changes in human health, such as eye <strong>and</strong> respiratory system irritation (Michaud et al. 2005).<br />
The National Priorities List (NPL), compiled under authority of the <strong>Comprehensive</strong> Environmental<br />
Response, Compensation, <strong>and</strong> Liability Act of 1980 (United States Code, Title 42, Chapter 103),<br />
provides an inventory of the Nation’s most contaminated hazardous waste sites. No sites are<br />
identified on the isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
3.5.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Contaminants<br />
Level I Environmental Site Assessment was conducted on the property prior to acquisition<br />
(Woodward, pers. comm.). Potential on- <strong>and</strong> off-site contamination sources that have been identified<br />
on or adjacent to the HFU include accidents <strong>and</strong> spills, agricultural livestock, forestry silviculture,<br />
pesticide application, <strong>and</strong> recreation (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
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An updated Level I Environmental Site Assessment was conducted on the property in March 1997.<br />
The assessment was based on previous contaminants surveys that were conducted in November 1995<br />
<strong>and</strong> July 1994, as well as supplemental interviews <strong>and</strong> surveys conducted in 1996 <strong>and</strong> 1997.<br />
Contaminants surveys consisted of interviews with people familiar with area, site inspections by foot<br />
<strong>and</strong> vehicle, <strong>and</strong> a 24-minute aerial survey. No hazardous substances or other environmental<br />
problems were evident on the property during any of these surveys. Small amounts of debris (a single<br />
55-gallon drum <strong>and</strong> 5 water storage tanks) <strong>and</strong> localized oil staining associated with the 3 water<br />
pumps were noted; however, these were not determined to be significant contaminant problems<br />
(Harper 1997).<br />
3.6 L<strong>and</strong> Use<br />
This section presents an overview of l<strong>and</strong> uses within <strong>and</strong> adjacent to the units of the Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR that currently influence or have the potential to influence Refuge conditions. Relevant local<br />
<strong>and</strong> regional l<strong>and</strong> use designations <strong>and</strong> policies affecting l<strong>and</strong> use are also discussed.<br />
Both units of the Hakalau Forest NWR were acquired <strong>and</strong> are continuously managed under a variety<br />
of legislative acts, administrative orders, <strong>and</strong> legal authorities. The Endangered Species Act provides<br />
for the conservation of threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species of fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plants. The Service<br />
used the legislative authority of the ESA to establish both of the Refuge units <strong>and</strong> continues to use<br />
the ESA to guide management of the endangered species <strong>and</strong> their habitats. The general purpose of<br />
both units is “… to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as endangered species or threatened<br />
species…or (B) plants…” (16 U.S.C. §§ 1534 ESA).<br />
The primary l<strong>and</strong> use at the Refuge is maintenance to restore <strong>and</strong> benefit native species. Biological<br />
research <strong>and</strong> monitoring is also an important aspect of the units. Roughly 34 research studies were<br />
conducted throughout the Refuge in 2007 (USFWS 2007) <strong>and</strong> 17 studies in 2006 (USFWS 2006).<br />
In addition, limited public use is permitted. The Administration Act identifies six wildlife-dependent<br />
visitor uses on refuges: hunting <strong>and</strong> fishing, wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography, <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation. All recreational activities must be compatible with the<br />
primary purpose of the refuge.<br />
3.6.1 Local L<strong>and</strong> Use Designations: Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
The HFU, located on the windward side of Mauna Kea, is situated 13 mi northwest of Hilo<br />
(Figure 1-1). It spans portions of both the North Hilo District <strong>and</strong> the South Hilo Districts. The<br />
32,733 ac HFU is comprised of four tracts, including Maulua, Honohina, Hakalau, <strong>and</strong> Pua ‘Ākala.<br />
These tracts are further divided into subunits. The HFU is surrounded by various sections of the Hilo<br />
Forest Reserve to the north, east, <strong>and</strong> south. Along the northern boundary of the Refuge, north of the<br />
Maulua tract, the Refuge is bordered by the Laupāhoehoe Section of the Hilo Forest Reserve <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Laupāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve. The Hilo Watershed Forest Reserve abuts the property to the<br />
south, while the Pīhā (Game Management Area) Section of the Hilo Forest Reserve splits the<br />
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Honohina <strong>and</strong> Maulua tracts. The HFU is accessed by taking Mauna Kea Summit Road to Keanakolu<br />
Road, which is an unpaved road that follows the upper elevation boundary of the Refuge.<br />
The HFU was established on October 29, 1985. The current acreage was purchased over a series of<br />
years from various entities including W.H. Shipman LTD, The Nature Conservancy, Lili‘uokalani<br />
Trust, Robertson, <strong>and</strong> the World Union. In addition, a 1.65 ac easement was purchased from the<br />
Department of Hawaiian Homel<strong>and</strong>s (DHHL).<br />
The specific purpose of HFU is “to assure the perpetuation of native forest habitats of the Upper<br />
Hakalau Forest for the protection of a number of endangered animals <strong>and</strong> plants endemic to the<br />
area.” The environmental assessment for Refuge acquisition states that the purpose “is to sustain the<br />
naturally evolving mid-elevation rain forest of this area <strong>and</strong>, as necessary, allow for the management<br />
of this forest <strong>and</strong> its assemblage of native <strong>and</strong> non-native plants <strong>and</strong> animals” (Stine 1985).<br />
Furthermore, the 500 ac Pua ‘Ākala Ranch portion of the Refuge unit was added to the unit in 1995<br />
in order “to protect <strong>and</strong> rehabilitate significant native forest habitat, provide for recovery of<br />
endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened species, <strong>and</strong> to establish a Refuge boundary that would improve<br />
management capabilities.”<br />
Historically, the Refuge area above 6,000 ft was used as rangel<strong>and</strong>. This area encompasses 4,950 ac.<br />
Domestic grazing occurred in the Upper Honohina Tract (Lili‘uokalani Trust) until April 1996. This<br />
1,034-acre area was leased by Parker Ranch. A private l<strong>and</strong>owner leased 500 acres known as Pua<br />
‘Ākala Ranch until 1997.<br />
Currently, DHHL <strong>and</strong> the Hawai‘i Division of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> (DOFAW) are two adjacent<br />
l<strong>and</strong> owners of the HFU. DHHL owns the l<strong>and</strong> bordering the west boundary of the Refuge, including<br />
the 514 ac Kanakaleonui corridor. Domestic grazing no longer occurs on the l<strong>and</strong>. In a partnership<br />
between the Refuge <strong>and</strong> DHHL in the area immediately adjacent to <strong>and</strong> above the Refuge (195 ac),<br />
DHHL is pursuing a koa forest restoration project that was designed to plant koa to contain the<br />
spread of the gorse infestations. At the northwestern corner of the Upper Maulua tract, a 40 ac parcel<br />
<strong>and</strong> two 40 ac parcels are owned by two private l<strong>and</strong>owners.<br />
The DOFAW owns <strong>and</strong> manages the Forest Reserves <strong>and</strong> Natural Area Reserves adjacent to the<br />
Refuge. L<strong>and</strong> uses on the Laupāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve include hiking, wildlife observation,<br />
<strong>and</strong> hunting (HAR § 13-209-3). The adjacent sections of the Forest Reserve System are utilized by<br />
the public for camping, collecting, commercial harvesting, hunting, <strong>and</strong> other special uses (HAR §<br />
13-209-3). The Pīhā Section of the Hilo Forest Reserve, located between the Honohina <strong>and</strong> Maulua<br />
tracts, is primarily used by the public for hunting.<br />
More distant l<strong>and</strong> areas include the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve <strong>and</strong> Mauna Kea Ice Age Natural Area<br />
Reserve, located west of the property at the summit of Mauna Kea. In addition, Pu‘u O‘o Ranch is<br />
located south of the Pua ‘Ākala area <strong>and</strong> Parker Ranch is located west of the Refuge boundary.<br />
The Districts of North <strong>and</strong> South Hilo encompass 174,377 <strong>and</strong> 252,960 ac, respectively. Almost<br />
69 percent of the North Hilo District is defined as <strong>Conservation</strong> by the State of Hawai‘i L<strong>and</strong> Use<br />
District Boundaries Map, while 67 percent of the South Hilo District is considered <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
(County of Hawai‘i 2007). The majority of the upper portion of the HFU is designated as Agriculture<br />
by the State of Hawai‘i L<strong>and</strong> Use District Boundaries Map. The lower portions of the Refuge, as well<br />
as the southwestern corner of the Refuge, are classified as <strong>Conservation</strong>. Areas in the immediate<br />
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vicinity are also classified as <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>and</strong> Agriculture along a similar elevational gradient<br />
(Figure 3-3). <strong>Conservation</strong> District designations are under the jurisdiction of DLNR, while all other<br />
l<strong>and</strong> use designations (such as Agriculture, Urban, <strong>and</strong> Rural) come under the County of Hawai‘i.<br />
There is no Special Management Area for HFU according to State Coastal Zone Management.<br />
Figure 3-3. L<strong>and</strong> Use District Boundaries - Hakalau Forest Unit.<br />
3.6.2 Local L<strong>and</strong> Use Designations: Kona Forest Unit<br />
The KFU is situated in the District of South Kona on the leeward slope of Mauna Loa (Figure 1-1). It<br />
is located roughly 8 mi from the town of Captain Cook <strong>and</strong> 23 mi south of Kailua-Kona. Other<br />
communities in the vicinity of the Refuge are Kealakekua, Kainaliu, <strong>and</strong> Hōnaunau. The unit is<br />
accessed through a 17 ac permanent easement across private property. Keālia Ranch borders the<br />
property to the north <strong>and</strong> McC<strong>and</strong>less Ranch lies near the southern boundary.<br />
The KFU of the Hakalau Forest NWR was purchased in 1997. Approximately 5,300 ac were<br />
acquired from the Kai Malino Ranch section (Les Marks Trust) of the former McC<strong>and</strong>less Ranch, a<br />
private cattle ranch. Two easements were purchased from the Les Marks Trust in March 2005. As<br />
part of the Hakalau Forest NWR, the KFU is administered <strong>and</strong> managed by the Refuge according to<br />
the Administration Act. According to the <strong>Final</strong> EA for the Proposed KFU of the Hakalau Forest<br />
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NWR (1997), the KFU was established “. . . to protect, conserve, <strong>and</strong> manage a portion of the native<br />
forest in south Kona, primarily for the benefit of the ‘alalā <strong>and</strong> other endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened<br />
species.”<br />
Until 2003, the Refuge maintained dedicated staffing <strong>and</strong> a local office across Māmalahoa Highway<br />
near the KFU; however, due to prolonged access disputes <strong>and</strong> pending resolution of legal issues,<br />
staffing was discontinued on the unit. The KFU is currently unstaffed <strong>and</strong> is managed from the<br />
Refuge complex office in Hilo, 2.5 hours away. Adjacent l<strong>and</strong> uses in the vicinity include ranching,<br />
farming, residences, <strong>and</strong> ecotourism ventures. Keālia Ranch is located approximately 3 mi north of<br />
the KFU, <strong>and</strong> McC<strong>and</strong>less Ranch is found to the south of the Refuge. The KFU is 4 mi from the<br />
Waiea Transfer Station, managed by the County’s Department of Environmental Management, Soil<br />
Waste Division. This station was selected as one of six sites prioritized for coqui frog control on the<br />
isl<strong>and</strong> due to its potential to threaten high-value resource areas (ISCs, AIS Team & CGAPS 2005).<br />
Various kuleana l<strong>and</strong>s are present immediately outside the Refuge. Other l<strong>and</strong> uses adjacent to the<br />
Refuge include Kalāhiki cemetery <strong>and</strong> Ho‘okena School. The South Kona Forest Reserve <strong>and</strong><br />
Kīpāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve are to the south of the Refuge.<br />
Figure 3-4. L<strong>and</strong> Use District Boundaries- Kona Forest Unit.<br />
The South Kona District encompasses 146,685 ac. This district is primarily classified as Agricultural<br />
by the State of Hawai‘i <strong>and</strong> zoned as Agricultural by Hawai‘i County (County of Hawai‘i 2007). The<br />
KFU is designated as Agricultural by the State of Hawai‘i L<strong>and</strong> Use District Boundaries Map. Areas<br />
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in the immediate vicinity are also classified as Agricultural (Figure 3.4). According to the ordinances<br />
from the County of Hawai‘i, the unit is zoned as Agricultural. The General <strong>Plan</strong> L<strong>and</strong> Use Pattern<br />
Allocation Guide Map shows the unit as a “<strong>Conservation</strong> Area.” This l<strong>and</strong> use is defined as “forest<br />
<strong>and</strong> water reserves, natural <strong>and</strong> scientific preserves, areas in active management for conservation<br />
purposes, areas to be kept in a largely natural state, with minimal facilities consistent with open space<br />
uses, such as picnic pavilions <strong>and</strong> comfort stations, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>s within the State L<strong>and</strong> Use <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
District” (County of Hawai‘i 2006).<br />
3.7 Global Climate Change<br />
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recognizes that small isl<strong>and</strong> groups are<br />
particularly vulnerable to climate change. The following characteristics contribute to this<br />
vulnerability: small emergent l<strong>and</strong> area compared to the large expanses of surrounding ocean;<br />
limited natural resources; high susceptibility to natural disasters; <strong>and</strong> inadequate funds to mitigate<br />
impacts (IPCC 2001). Thus, Hawai‘i is considered to have a limited capacity to adapt to future<br />
climate changes. The Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Regional Integrated Science <strong>and</strong> Assessment program is<br />
working to develop tools dealing with climate risk management in the Pacific region. Furthermore,<br />
the Hawai‘i Climate Change Action <strong>Plan</strong> (1998) offered initial recommendations to reduce GHGs,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Climate Change Cooperative is developing a strategy to deal with climate<br />
change throughout the State.<br />
Similar to the rest of the world, temperatures in Hawai‘i are rising. The EPA has estimated that the<br />
average surface temperature in Honolulu, Hawai‘i, has increased by 4.4°F over the last century (EPA<br />
1998). In particular, nighttime temperatures are notably warmer, increasing by about 0.5°F per<br />
decade over the past 30 years (Arakawa 2008). Recent studies have shown that this rising average<br />
night temperature is greater at high elevation sites than lower areas (Giambelluca 2008). Sea surface<br />
temperature near the isl<strong>and</strong>s has been increasing recently, showing a 0.72°F rise between 1957 - 1987<br />
(Giambelluca et al. 1996). Sea level around the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s is rising by 6-14 in per century<br />
(EPA 1998). Over the last 90 years, precipitation has also decreased by approximately 20 percent<br />
(EPA 1998).<br />
As a result of these shifts, Hawai‘i is developing means to reduce its GHG emissions. In 1990, it is<br />
estimated that 15,985,225 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) were emitted in Hawai‘i. Other major GHGs<br />
released that year include 75,736 tons of methane (CH4) <strong>and</strong> 690 tons of nitrous oxide (N2O). These<br />
estimates do not include fuels that were exported, used on international aircraft or ship operations, or<br />
used by the military in the State. International, military, <strong>and</strong> overseas CO2 emissions were estimated<br />
to be 7,363,261 tons in 1990 (DBEDT <strong>and</strong> DOH 1998). In 2007, the State of Hawai‘i enacted<br />
Act 234, which set the goal to reduce GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020.<br />
Global <strong>and</strong> regional predictive climate simulations may not capture unique <strong>and</strong> important features of<br />
the Hawaiian climate. Existing large-scale models show large variability <strong>and</strong> uncertainty for the<br />
Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s; thus, applying these models to predict local conditions must be done with caution<br />
until more fine-scaled models are developed (Timm 2008). Models from the IPCC <strong>and</strong> the climate<br />
model of the United Kingdom’s Hadley Centre suggest that by 2100 annual temperatures in Hawai‘i<br />
could increase by 3°F, with a slightly higher increase in fall. Other estimates predict a 5 - 9°F rise by<br />
the end of the 21 st century (TenBruggencate 2007). Future changes in precipitation are uncertain,<br />
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Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
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dependent largely on shifts in El Niño/La Niña events. Some predictions forecast an additional rise of<br />
17-25 inches by 2100 (EPA 1998), while others suggest decreased precipitation.<br />
Climate Change Effects on Water Resources<br />
The impact of climate change on water resources is dependent on shifts in precipitation amounts,<br />
evaporation rates, storms, <strong>and</strong> events such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The ENSO is<br />
an ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in which the normal oceanic <strong>and</strong> atmospheric circulation patterns<br />
of the Pacific Ocean temporarily collapse. During normal years, strong tradewinds move<br />
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere <strong>and</strong> clockwise in the northern hemisphere, causing<br />
surface water to move westward. These winds also produce upwelling that brings high nutrient<br />
waters to the surface. During an ENSO event, tradewinds in the western Pacific stop <strong>and</strong> the warm<br />
mass of water in the west moves eastward, causing shifts in the location of evaporation. As a result,<br />
heavy rains occur in normally dry areas such as the central Pacific isl<strong>and</strong>s. In addition to more<br />
precipitation, these winds upwell warm water, which is devoid of nutrients. This causes productive<br />
communities to collapse <strong>and</strong> subsequent death of fish <strong>and</strong> birds (Duffy 1993).<br />
Although ENSO events have increased in intensity <strong>and</strong> frequency over the past decades, some<br />
longer-term records have not found a direct link to global warming (Cobb et al. 2003) <strong>and</strong> do not<br />
predict significant changes in ENSO; however, a majority of climate forecasts do suggest an<br />
evolution toward more “El Niño-like” patterns (Buddemeier et al. 2004). Most climate projections<br />
reveal that this trend is likely to increase rapidly in the next 50 years (Walther et al. 2002). However,<br />
other models predict more “La Niña-like” conditions in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s (Timm 2008).<br />
A trend toward ENSO patterns will impact sea levels, sea temperatures, rainfall amounts, evaporation<br />
rates, <strong>and</strong> the occurrence of hurricanes; however, the exact impact of climate change on water<br />
resources is difficult to predict due to spatial variability. On a global scale, mean precipitation is<br />
anticipated to increase. Current climate models project that tropical Pacific <strong>and</strong> high-latitude areas<br />
will experience increasing precipitation amounts, while precipitation is likely to decrease in most<br />
subtropical regions (Parry et al. 2007; Solomon et al. 2007). A current trend toward this increase is<br />
supported by lowered salinity levels in both the mid- <strong>and</strong> high-latitude oceanic waters (Solomon et<br />
al. 2007). If the opposite effect takes place, decreasing precipitation or increasing evaporation will<br />
further stress meager surface <strong>and</strong> groundwater resources. Lack of rain could lower the amount of<br />
freshwater lens recharge <strong>and</strong> decrease available water supplies. Reduced rainfall or increased<br />
evaporation will cause a corresponding increase in the dem<strong>and</strong> for residential, commercial, or<br />
agricultural water (Giambelluca et al. 1996).<br />
Most climate projections suggest that more intense wind speeds <strong>and</strong> precipitation amounts will<br />
accompany more frequent tropical typhoons/cyclones <strong>and</strong> increased tropical sea surface temperatures<br />
in the next 50 years (Solomon et al. 2007; Walther et al. 2002). The Third Assessment of the IPCC<br />
(2001) has concluded with “moderate confidence” that the intensity of tropical cyclones is likely to<br />
increase by 10-20 percent in the Pacific region when atmospheric levels of CO2 reach double<br />
preindustrial levels (McCarthy et al. 2001). One model projects a doubling of the frequency of 4 in<br />
per day rainfall events <strong>and</strong> a 15-18 percent increase in rainfall intensity over large areas of the Pacific<br />
(IPCC 2001). Solomon et al. (2007) states that it is “more likely than not” that the rise in intense<br />
tropical cyclones is due to anthropogenic activity.<br />
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An increase in heavy storms <strong>and</strong> surf will result in increased flood risks, sedimentation, <strong>and</strong> impeded<br />
drainage in Hawai‘i (DBEDT <strong>and</strong> DOH 1998). Change in rainfall patterns will affect the success of<br />
forest restoration as well as existing protected habitats <strong>and</strong> stream resources (e.g., may cause<br />
movement of or degradation of these resources). In particular, the low-elevation Refuge areas will be<br />
vulnerable to changes in storm frequency, intensity, <strong>and</strong> directionality. These events have the<br />
potential to denude vegetation <strong>and</strong> impact habitat for wildlife <strong>and</strong> plants.<br />
Ecological Responses to Climate Change<br />
Evidence suggests that recent climatic changes have affected a broad range of individual species <strong>and</strong><br />
populations in both the marine <strong>and</strong> terrestrial environment. Organisms have responded by changes in<br />
(1) phenology (timing of seasonal activities) <strong>and</strong> physiology; (2) range <strong>and</strong> distribution;<br />
(3) community composition <strong>and</strong> interaction; <strong>and</strong> (4) ecosystem structure <strong>and</strong> dynamics (Walther et<br />
al. 2002). The reproductive physiology <strong>and</strong> population dynamics of amphibians <strong>and</strong> reptiles are<br />
highly influenced by environmental conditions such as temperature <strong>and</strong> humidity. For example, sea<br />
turtle sex is determined by the temperature of the nest environment; thus, higher temperatures could<br />
result in a higher female to male ratio (Baker et al. 2006). In addition, increases in atmospheric<br />
temperatures during seabird nesting seasons will also have an effect on seabirds <strong>and</strong> water birds<br />
(Duffy 1993).<br />
Warming has also caused species to shift toward the poles or higher altitudes <strong>and</strong> changes in climatic<br />
conditions can alter community composition. For example, increases in nitrogen availability can<br />
favor those plant species that respond to nitrogen rises (Vitousek 1994). Similarly, increases in CO2<br />
levels can impact plant photosynthetic rates, decrease nutrient levels, <strong>and</strong> lower herbivore weights<br />
(Ehleringer et al. 2002). Although there is uncertainty regarding these trajectories, it is probable that<br />
there will be ecological consequences (Walther et al. 2002).<br />
Climate change has the potential to influence two important ecological issues in the State of Hawai‘i:<br />
endangered species <strong>and</strong> invasive species. An overwhelming majority of U.S. endangered species are<br />
found in the State of Hawai‘i. Species declines have resulted from habitat loss, introduced diseases,<br />
<strong>and</strong> impacts from invasive species. Changes in climate will add an additional threat to the survival of<br />
these species (DBEDT <strong>and</strong> DOH 1998). For example, warmer night temperatures can increase the<br />
rate of respiration for native vegetation, resulting in greater competition from nonnative plants<br />
(Giambelluca 2008). Of particular concern are native forest birds. Climate change may raise the<br />
elevational gradient in which mosquitoes can live. Consequently, current elevations free of<br />
mosquitoes (which protect native forest birds that do not have resistance to avian diseases carried by<br />
mosquitoes) may disappear, leaving forest birds with no mosquito safe habitats.<br />
Furthermore, climate change may enhance existing invasive species issues because alterations in the<br />
environment may increase the dispersal ability of flora or fauna. Species response to climate change<br />
will depend on the life cycle, distribution, dispersal ability, <strong>and</strong> reproduction requirements of the<br />
species (Middleton 2006). However, for invasive weed species on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>, climate change<br />
may increase their range <strong>and</strong> expansion into native habitats. In addition to degrading native habitat, a<br />
more concerning result of this effect may be increased wildfires as many of these invasive species<br />
have evolved with fire <strong>and</strong> require fire for their life-history. This issue is of particular concern for the<br />
drier Kona side where the KFU is located. Such an increase in fuel loads would be detrimental to<br />
forest habitats <strong>and</strong> the species dependent on them.<br />
Chapter 3. Physical Environment 3-19
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The Service is supporting the development of regional L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>Conservation</strong> Cooperatives that<br />
will integrate local climate models with models of climate change responses by species, habitats, <strong>and</strong><br />
ecosystems. Cooperatives will collectively plan <strong>and</strong> design appropriate conservation actions at a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape scale, monitor responses to climate change, <strong>and</strong> assess the effectiveness of management<br />
strategies. The regional version of these L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>Conservation</strong> Cooperatives is the Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Climate Change Cooperative (PICCC), headquartered in Honolulu, Hawai‘i, but working across the<br />
Pacific. By working with PICCC, the Refuge will identify additional mitigation measures for climate<br />
change.<br />
3.8 References<br />
Ahumada, J.A., D. LaPointe, <strong>and</strong> M.D. Samuel. 2004. Modeling the population dynamics of Culex<br />
quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae), along an elevational gradient in Hawaii. Journal of Medical<br />
Entomology 41(6):1157-1170.<br />
Arakawa, L. 2008. Isle temperatures are rising. Honolulu Advertiser. March 28, 2008.<br />
Atkinson, C.T., J. K. Lease, R. J. Dusek, <strong>and</strong> M.D. Samuel. 2005. Prevalence of Pox-Like Lesions<br />
<strong>and</strong> Malaria in Forest Bird Communities on Leeward Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii. The Condor<br />
107:537–546.<br />
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances <strong>and</strong> Disease Registry). 2002. Public health<br />
assessment. Division of Health Assessment <strong>and</strong> Consultation, Federal Facilities Assessment Branch.<br />
Andersen Air Force Base, Yigo, GU. Available at:<br />
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/pha/<strong>and</strong>erson/<strong>and</strong>_toc.html. Accessed November 10, 2007.<br />
Baker, J.D., C.L. Littnan, <strong>and</strong> D.W. Johnston, D.W. 2006. Potential effects of sea level rise on the<br />
terrestrial habitats of endangered <strong>and</strong> endemic megafauna in the Northwestern Hawaiian<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Endangered Species Research article 4:1-10.<br />
Bauer, G.R. 2003. A Study of the Ground-Water Conditions in North <strong>and</strong> South Kona <strong>and</strong> South<br />
Kohala Districts, Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawaii, 1991-2002. Prepared for CWRM.<br />
Benning T.L., D. LaPointe, C.T. Atkinson, <strong>and</strong> P.M. Vitousek. 2002. Interactions of climate change<br />
with biological invasions <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> use in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s: Modeling the fate of endemic birds<br />
using a geographic information system. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. 99 (22):14246–14249.<br />
Bonaccorso, F. <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist, USGS BRD. Personal Communication. August 2008.<br />
Bonaccorso, F. 2008. Annual Summary Report: Hawaiian Hoary Bat Occupancy in Hakalau Forest<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge. Special Use Permit: 12516-07008.<br />
Buddemeier, R.W., J.A. Kleypas, <strong>and</strong> R.B. Aronson. 2004. Coral Reefs <strong>and</strong> Global Climate<br />
Change: Potential Contributions of Climate Change to Stresses on Coral Reef Ecosystems. Pew<br />
Centre for Global Climate Change: Arlington, VA. 42 pp.<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Caccamise, D. J., II, M. A. Merrifield, M. Bevis, J. Foster, Y. L. Firing, M. S. Schenewerk, F. W.<br />
Taylor, <strong>and</strong> D. A. Thomas. 2005. Sea level rise at Honolulu <strong>and</strong> Hilo, Hawaii: GPS estimates of<br />
differential l<strong>and</strong> motion, Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L03607.<br />
Carter, L.M., E.Shea, M.Hamnett, C.Anderson, G. Dolcemascolo, C.Guard, M. Taylor,T.<br />
Barnston,Y. He, M. Larsen, L. Loope, L. Malone, G. Meehl. 2001. Potential Consequences of<br />
Climate Variability <strong>and</strong> Change for the U.S.-Affiliated Isl<strong>and</strong>s of the Pacific <strong>and</strong> Caribbean. Pp. 315-<br />
349. in Climate Change Impacts on the United States: The Potential Consequences of Climate<br />
Variability <strong>and</strong> Change. National Assessment Synthesis Team, US Global Change Research<br />
Program. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.<br />
Cobb, K.M., C.D. Charles, H. Cheng, <strong>and</strong> L. Edwards. 2003. El Nino/Southern Oscillation <strong>and</strong><br />
tropical Pacific climate during the last millennium. Nature 424(6946). 5 pp.<br />
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3-26 Chapter 3. Physical Environment
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats<br />
‘Akiapōlā‘au/Jack Jeffrey Photography<br />
Above: ‘Alalā/USFWS<br />
Left: Cyanea shipmanii/Barry Stieglitz
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats<br />
This chapter addresses the biological resources <strong>and</strong> habitats found on Hakalau Forest National<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge. The chapter begins with a discussion of biological integrity <strong>and</strong> moves on to focus<br />
on the presentation of pertinent background information for each of the conservation targets<br />
designated under the CCP. Background information includes a description, location, condition, <strong>and</strong><br />
trends associated with wildlife or habitats, key ecological attributes, <strong>and</strong> stresses <strong>and</strong> sources of stress<br />
(collectively, “threats”) to the target. The information presented was used as the CCP team developed<br />
goals <strong>and</strong> objectives for each of the conservation targets.<br />
4.1 Biological Integrity Analysis<br />
The National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 (amendment to the Administration<br />
Act) directs the Service to ensure that the biological integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health<br />
(BIDEH) of the Refuge System are maintained for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of<br />
Americans. Elements of BIDEH are represented by native fish, wildlife, plants, <strong>and</strong> their habitats as<br />
well as those ecological processes that support them. The Service‟s policy 601 FW 3 also provides<br />
guidance on consideration <strong>and</strong> protection of the broad spectrum of fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
resources found on refuges, <strong>and</strong> associated ecosystems that represent BIDEH on each refuge.<br />
The Refuge is adjacent to the Hilo Forest Reserve <strong>and</strong> Laupāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve (both<br />
State-owned <strong>and</strong> managed areas by the Division of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong>), as well as State-owned<br />
<strong>and</strong> managed l<strong>and</strong>s by the Department of Hawaiian Home L<strong>and</strong>s above the upper elevation<br />
(Figure 1-1). The Refuge‟s lower elevation boundary lines are adjacent to private properties. The<br />
majority of DOFAW l<strong>and</strong>s are forested <strong>and</strong> range from intact native forest to more degraded<br />
(nonnative) forest. Both DHHL l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> some private l<strong>and</strong>s are grazed completely with little to no<br />
forest, while other private l<strong>and</strong>s (particularly the lower boundary in the southeastern corner) are<br />
heavily forested with native species. Of particular note is the section of the Hilo Forest Reserve that<br />
bisects the HFU. This State parcel is also a game management area. Differing l<strong>and</strong> uses by these<br />
adjacent l<strong>and</strong>owners can impact Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s via invasive species, feral ungulates, <strong>and</strong> mammalian<br />
predator encroachment.<br />
The Refuge includes various native forest habitat types as well as subterranean habitats such as lava<br />
tubes <strong>and</strong> skylights. The HFU has intermittent streams as well. However, due to former l<strong>and</strong> use<br />
practices (e.g., cattle ranching, logging, <strong>and</strong> sheep grazing), areas of the Refuge in both units have<br />
nonnative habitats that are composed of grasses <strong>and</strong> invasive weeds. Such areas at HFU are actively<br />
being restored through outplantings of native plants in order to regenerate the native forest habitats.<br />
The HFU in particular is a shining example of an area that gives hope to the perpetuation of native<br />
forest bird species. A study by the USGS-BRD (Figure 4-1) indicates many of the native forest bird<br />
species are stable or increasing at Hakalau Forest NWR, which is a stark contrast to the other areas<br />
included in the survey. This finding supports continuing the forest restoration activities undertaken<br />
by Refuge staff during the past 25 years.<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Figure 4-1. Native forest bird trends on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
S=Stable; triangles indicate upward or downward trends. Source: Camp et al. 2010.<br />
The biological integrity of the area is high relative to much of the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. The<br />
conservation targets <strong>and</strong> focal habitats were chosen specifically as an attempt to return this portion of<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>scape to its natural state. The greatest challenges are threats from nonnative species: plants,<br />
ungulates, <strong>and</strong> mammalian predators as well as diseases such as avian malaria.<br />
4.2 <strong>Conservation</strong> Target Selection <strong>and</strong> Analysis<br />
Early in the planning process, the CCP team cooperatively identified priority species, groups, <strong>and</strong><br />
communities for this Refuge, as recommended under the Refuge System‟s Habitat Management<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ning policy (620 FW1). These priorities, called conservation targets, frame the CCP actions for<br />
4-2 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat. The conservation targets are species, species groups, or communities that the<br />
Refuge will actively manage to conserve <strong>and</strong> restore over the life of the CCP. Potential management<br />
actions will be evaluated on their effectiveness in achieving Refuge goals <strong>and</strong> objectives for the<br />
conservation targets. Additionally, management of these species <strong>and</strong> habitats will also benefit <strong>and</strong><br />
support many other native species that are present on the Refuge. Negative features of the l<strong>and</strong>scape,<br />
such as invasive plants, may dem<strong>and</strong> a large part of the Refuge management effort, but are not<br />
designated as conservation targets. Through the consideration of the BIDEH, the Refuge will provide<br />
for or maintain all appropriate native habitats <strong>and</strong> species. These species <strong>and</strong> habitats can be found in<br />
Appendix F.<br />
Table 4-1. Refuge <strong>Conservation</strong> Targets.<br />
Species, Species<br />
Group, or Habitat<br />
Birds*<br />
Hawaiian Name,<br />
Common Name<br />
Anas wyvilliana Koloa maoli,<br />
Hawaiian duck<br />
Branta s<strong>and</strong>vicensis Nēnē, Hawaiian<br />
goose<br />
Fulica alai „Alae ke„oke„o,<br />
Hawaiian coot<br />
Buteo solitarius „Io, Hawaiian<br />
hawk<br />
Corvus hawaiiensis „Alalā, Hawaiian<br />
crow<br />
Supporting Habitat Type(s) <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
Specie(s)<br />
Life-History<br />
Requirement(s)<br />
Riparian corridors, ponds Foraging, nesting, loafing,<br />
feeding, roosting, all lifehistory<br />
requirements<br />
Grassl<strong>and</strong>s, ponds Foraging, nesting, loafing,<br />
feeding, all life-history<br />
requirements except<br />
roosting<br />
Ponds Foraging, loafing<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a, <strong>and</strong> mesic <strong>and</strong><br />
dry koa/„ōhi„a forest, Montane wet<br />
„ōhi„a/ Dicranopteris sp. forest<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest, Montane mesic koa<br />
forest, Montane dry<br />
koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest<br />
Psittirostra psittacea „Ō„ū Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest<br />
Hemignathus munroi „Akiapōlā„au Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic koa/<br />
„ōhi„a forest, Montane dry<br />
koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest<br />
Oreomystis mana Hawai„i creeper Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest, Montane dry<br />
koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest<br />
Loxops c. coccineus Hawai„i „ākepa Montane wet „ōhi„a forest <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest, Montane dry<br />
koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest<br />
Mammal<br />
Lasiurus cinereus<br />
semotus<br />
„Ōpe„ape„a,<br />
Hawaiian hoary<br />
bat<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest, grassl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
Montane dry koa/„ōhi„a/māmane<br />
forest<br />
Foraging, nesting, roosting,<br />
feeding, all life-history<br />
requirements<br />
Feeding, nesting, breeding,<br />
roosting. All life-history<br />
requirements<br />
Feeding, nesting, breeding,<br />
roosting. All life-history<br />
requirements<br />
Feeding, nesting, breeding,<br />
roosting. All life-history<br />
requirements<br />
Feeding, nesting, breeding,<br />
roosting. All life-history<br />
requirements<br />
Feeding, nesting, breeding,<br />
roosting. All life-history<br />
requirements<br />
Foraging, birthing,<br />
breeding, all life-history<br />
requirements<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-3
Species, Species<br />
Group, or Habitat<br />
Invertebrate<br />
Drosophila<br />
heteroneura<br />
Habitats**<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a/<br />
Dicranopteris sp.<br />
forest<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a<br />
forest<br />
Montane wet<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest<br />
Montane mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest<br />
Montane mesic koa<br />
forest<br />
Dry koa/„ōhi„a<br />
/māmane forest<br />
Lava tubes <strong>and</strong><br />
skylights<br />
Aquatic habitats (e.g.,<br />
intermittent streams<br />
<strong>and</strong> ponds)<br />
Hawaiian Name,<br />
Common Name<br />
Picture-wing fly<br />
N/A<br />
N/A<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Supporting Habitat Type(s) <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
Specie(s)<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest 4<br />
Life-History Requirement(s)<br />
All life-history requirements<br />
Native forest birds All life-history requirements<br />
Native forest birds All life-history requirements<br />
N/A Native forest birds All life-history requirements<br />
N/A Native forest birds All life-history requirements<br />
N/A Native forest birds All life-history requirements<br />
N/A Native forest birds All life-history requirements<br />
N/A Invertebrates All life-history requirements<br />
N/A Invertebrates <strong>and</strong> waterbirds All life-history requirements<br />
Carex bogs N/A Invertebrates, koloa maoli All life-history requirements<br />
Grassl<strong>and</strong>s N/A Nēnē All life-history requirements<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ts***<br />
Asplenium<br />
peruvianum var.<br />
No common Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic n/a<br />
name<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest<br />
insulare<br />
Clermontia<br />
Wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic koa/„ōhi„a<br />
lindseyana „Oha wai forest 5<br />
n/a<br />
Clermontia peleana „Oha wai Montane wet „ōhi„a forest 5 n/a<br />
Clermontia pyrularia „Oha wai<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest 5<br />
n/a<br />
Cyanea hamatiflora 2 Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
Hāhā<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest 4<br />
n/a<br />
Cyanea platyphylla 2 „Aku„aku Montane wet „ōhi„a forest 5 n/a<br />
Cyanea shipmannii Hāhā<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest 5<br />
n/a<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic n/a<br />
Cyanea stictophylla Hāhā<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra tintinabula Ha„iwale<br />
Wet koa/„ōhi„a forest 5 n/a<br />
Nothocestrum<br />
breviflorum 3 Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic n/a<br />
„Aiea<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest<br />
Phyllostegia<br />
floribunda 1<br />
No common<br />
n/a<br />
name Wet koa/„ōhi„a forest<br />
4-4 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Species, Species<br />
Group, or Habitat<br />
Phyllostegia<br />
racemosa<br />
Hawaiian Name,<br />
Common Name<br />
No common<br />
name<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Supporting Habitat Type(s) <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
Specie(s)<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest 5<br />
Phyllostegia velutina No common Montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
name<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest 5<br />
n/a<br />
Portulaca<br />
sclerocarpa 3 n/a<br />
Po„e Dry koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a forest, mesic n/a<br />
Sicyos macrophyllus „Anunu<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest<br />
Silene hawaiiensis 1<br />
No common<br />
n/a<br />
Notes:<br />
name Dry koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest<br />
* Species appear in taxonomic order.<br />
** Habitat types follow Jacobi et al. (1989).<br />
*** Species appear in alphabetical order.<br />
1<br />
Specimen found on Refuge currently pending verification.<br />
2<br />
No individuals are known from the Refuge.<br />
3<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ts known from adjacent area but not currently known from Kona Forest Unit.<br />
4<br />
Critical habitat has been designated for these species at Kona Forest Unit.<br />
5<br />
Critical habitat has been designated for these species at Hakalau Forest Unit.<br />
4.3 Habitats<br />
Life-History<br />
Requirement(s)<br />
Both the HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU are montane communities located between 1,640-8,900 ft. This community<br />
type is further divided based on annual rainfall; montane dry communities receive less than 48 in per<br />
year, montane mesic communities receive between 48-100 inches of rainfall per year, <strong>and</strong> montane<br />
wet communities are defined as areas receiving more than 100 inches annually (Wagner et al. 1999).<br />
These plant communities are then defined based on the vegetation cover. For example, a community<br />
that has greater than 25 percent of the upper vegetation layer covered by trees is defined as a forest<br />
(Wagner et al. 1999).<br />
On the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, montane forests have been severely altered by a variety of factors,<br />
including l<strong>and</strong> use changes <strong>and</strong> invasive species introductions. In particular, introduced mosquitoes<br />
transmit avian diseases that have resulted in declines in native bird populations <strong>and</strong> ungulates have<br />
removed native plant species. <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>and</strong> restoration efforts are needed to improve habitat<br />
conditions at both units of the Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
4.3.1 Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
The habitats at the HFU are defined according to gradients of elevation, temperature, <strong>and</strong> rainfall. In<br />
addition topography, soils, <strong>and</strong> geological substrate play a role in influencing these zones. The<br />
montane habitats at HFU have been transformed by years of cattle ranching <strong>and</strong> logging, creating<br />
isolated areas of relatively undisturbed forest <strong>and</strong> highly modified open woodl<strong>and</strong> (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf<br />
1993). The native species dominated habitats within the HFU are described below, from lowest to<br />
highest elevation as well as several nonnative species dominated communities, including st<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
eucalyptus <strong>and</strong> sugi pines, as well as former pasture l<strong>and</strong>s that are still dominated by nonnative grass<br />
species. Figure 4-2 shows the main vegetation types found on the HFU.<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-5<br />
n/a
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a/uluhe forest, including Carex bogs<br />
This habitat type is found between 2,500-4,000 ft in elevation. The topography of the montane wet<br />
„ōhi„a/uluhe forest is gently sloping; however, numerous steep-sided streams bisect the surface. The<br />
volcanic soils are aged, eroded, <strong>and</strong> typically poorly drained (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
The upper canopy of this habitat type is composed of scattered mature „ōhi„a (over 100 years old), as<br />
well as medium stature „ōhi„a approximately 30 ft in height. The midcanopy zone, between 10-15 ft,<br />
is dominated by hāpu„u. The ground cover is composed mostly of dense mats of uluhe that make<br />
access difficult. Numerous native Carex bogs can be found scattered throughout the lower elevations<br />
of this habitat. These bogs occur naturally in flat areas where a limited amount of open water is<br />
retained in a clay-layered depression. Sphagnum moss also exists in these bogs. The bogs at the HFU<br />
range from 8-12 ft deep (Tomonari-Tuggle 1996).<br />
The steep topography of the montane wet „ōhi„a/uluhe forest provides protection for native <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered plants from grazing ungulates. For example, the bogs are used by rare invertebrates <strong>and</strong><br />
possibly the koloa maoli (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
Although endangered flora <strong>and</strong> fauna do occur in this habitat type, the montane wet „ōhi„a/ uluhe<br />
forest in the HFU is the most exposed to invasive species from lower elevations. Limiting factors in<br />
the montane wet „ōhi„a/uluhe forest include invasive species such as ungulates, rats, mice, slugs,<br />
mosquitoes, <strong>and</strong> nonnative plants. In particular, native bird densities are curbed by avian diseases,<br />
which are transmitted by mosquitoes that are able to breed up to 4,500 ft in elevation. Native plant<br />
<strong>and</strong> invertebrate diversity is also assumed to be low <strong>and</strong> native pollinators are lacking. Eutrophication<br />
<strong>and</strong> elimination of Carex bogs is occurring due to pig activity. As a result, the bogs are primarily<br />
invaded by nonnative rushes. Limited historical <strong>and</strong> current anthropogenic disturbance occurs within<br />
the montane wet „ōhi„a/uluhe forest (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest<br />
This habitat type is found upslope of the montane wet „ōhi„a/uluhe forest, between 4,000-5,000 ft.<br />
The montane wet „ōhi„a forest within the HFU maintains a more diverse plant <strong>and</strong> native bird<br />
community than the lower elevation habitat due to the location above the mosquito zone (USFWS,<br />
unpubl.).<br />
The upper canopy of the wet „ōhi„a forest is dominated by a mature closed canopy of „ōhi„a that<br />
reach 60-90 ft. Midcanopy species include „ōhi„a, „ōlapa, pilo, kōlea, epiphytes, <strong>and</strong> tree ferns<br />
reaching up to 15 ft. The ground cover is dominated by mixed ferns, Astelia lilies, „ōhelo, kanawao,<br />
pūkiawe, <strong>and</strong> kāwa„u. Downed timber <strong>and</strong> sphagnum moss are also dominant in this habitat at the<br />
ground level. Slopes are moderate (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
Rare native forest birds, such as the „akiapōlā„au, Hawai„i creeper, <strong>and</strong> Hawai„i „ākepa, are found in<br />
montane wet „ōhi„a forest at the HFU. The area also provides potential habitat for Clermontia<br />
peleana subsp. peleana <strong>and</strong> other rare native plants.<br />
Similar to the montane wet „ōhi„a/uluhe forest, invasive species <strong>and</strong> lack of native pollinators are<br />
also a problem within the montane wet „ōhi„a forest (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
4-6 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Figure 4-2. HFU vegetation type.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-7
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
4-8 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Montane wet koa/ ‘ōhi‘a forest<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Located between 5,000-6,000 ft, the montane wet koa/„ōhi„a forest habitat type is comprised of<br />
mixed age class koa <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a. Various flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting trees can be found at the midcanopy<br />
level including: „ākala, „ōlapa, pilo, pūkiawe, „ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa„u. Mixed ferns <strong>and</strong> epiphytes can<br />
also occur in the midcanopy. The ground cover in the montane wet koa/„ōhi„a forest is dominated by<br />
fern species such as Dryopterus sp. (Tomonari-Tuggle 1996). Slopes in this habitat are moderate.<br />
A diverse assemblage of native <strong>and</strong> endangered plants <strong>and</strong> animals occurs in this habitat type. This<br />
includes the koloa maoli <strong>and</strong> the „ōpe„ape„a (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
In addition to habitat threats present in other areas of the HFU, the montane wet koa/„ōhi„a forest has<br />
been exposed to greater human disturbance, especially cattle grazing. Areas previously forested in<br />
koa <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a that have been exposed to browsing have largely been converted to grassl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
suggesting that the habitat type cannot tolerate this l<strong>and</strong> use (Stine 1985, Tomonari-Tuggle 1996).<br />
Montane mesic koa forest<br />
The montane mesic koa forest habitat type can be found at the highest elevation of the unit between<br />
6,000 - 6,600 ft. Koa is the dominant vegetation cover in this area <strong>and</strong> the trees are mixed ages.<br />
Characteristic midcanopy species within this forest include „ōlapa, „ākala, pilo, pūkiawe, „ōhelo,<br />
kōlea, kāwa„u, ferns, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes.<br />
A low concentration of native forest birds currently occurs in this habitat. Nēnē are found throughout<br />
the habitat. This habitat preference is likely biased since captive-bred birds are released in this area.<br />
„Ōpe„ape„a <strong>and</strong> the „io have been recorded in the montane mesic koa forest. Various native <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered plants <strong>and</strong> a single native grass, Deschampsia nubigena, are also present here.<br />
This forest shares similar threats as other habitats within the HFU. The historical area of mesic koa<br />
forest was reduced to nonnative grassl<strong>and</strong> by grazing, timber harvest, <strong>and</strong> fires; however, the Refuge<br />
is working to restore this habitat by outplanting native species. Nonnative grasses include various<br />
species of Anthoxanthum, Holcus, Pennisetum, <strong>and</strong> Ehrharta.<br />
Aquatic habitats (streams, ponds, Carex bogs)<br />
Several streams are located within the HFU. Streams start as intermittent in higher elevations <strong>and</strong> for<br />
some become perennial at lower elevations of the Refuge (Figure 4-2). Some streams are found in<br />
gulches or with steep walls, thereby providing better protection for endangered <strong>and</strong> native plants<br />
from grazing by ungulates. Fauna within the streams are unknown <strong>and</strong> unstudied, but invertebrates<br />
are believed to be the main users of this habitat. Threats to these habitats include gorse, which can<br />
displace native riparian vegetation, <strong>and</strong> ungulates <strong>and</strong> rats, which can affect water quality through<br />
soil disturbance <strong>and</strong> feces deposition.<br />
The Refuge also has manmade <strong>and</strong> semipermanent natural ponds. These habitats are seasonal <strong>and</strong> the<br />
manmade ponds will not be maintained by Refuge staff as they have transitioned to Carex <strong>and</strong><br />
Juncus vegetation, which can be used by koloa maoli.<br />
Carex bog habitat is discussed previously under montane wet „ōhi„a/uluhe forest.<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-9
Grassl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Grassl<strong>and</strong>s for nēnē foraging are created as part of the maintenance of fuel breaks (50 acres) as well<br />
as an existing 15-acre site (for nesting) maintained near the administrative site at Hakalau cabin.<br />
Currently these grassl<strong>and</strong>s are a combination of native <strong>and</strong> nonnative grasses. Nēnē typically use<br />
mid- to high-elevation native <strong>and</strong> nonnative shrubl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> early successional grassl<strong>and</strong>s, native<br />
alpine grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> open native <strong>and</strong> nonnative alpine shrubl<strong>and</strong>-woodl<strong>and</strong><br />
community interfaces. Threats to this habitat type are wildfire.<br />
4.3.2 Kona Forest Unit<br />
The habitat types within the KFU are influenced by rainfall, elevation, <strong>and</strong> historical volcanism. In<br />
addition, human activities such as logging <strong>and</strong> cattle ranching have impacted the wet, mesic, <strong>and</strong> dry<br />
habitat types throughout the KFU (Figure 4-3). As in the HFU, former pasture l<strong>and</strong>, dominated by<br />
nonnative grasses, as well as a large section of lowl<strong>and</strong> wet/mesic forest dominated by nonnative tree<br />
<strong>and</strong> shrub species (e.g., Christmas berry <strong>and</strong> strawberry guava species) are found within the KFU.<br />
Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest<br />
The montane wet „ōhi„a forest occurs in two elevational b<strong>and</strong>s: a lower gradient between 2,000-<br />
3,000 ft <strong>and</strong> an upper gradient between 3,500-4,500 ft. Both the lower <strong>and</strong> upper gradients have an<br />
upper tree canopy that is dominated by a closed canopy of mature „ōhi„a. The canopy is between 60-<br />
80 ft high.<br />
In the lower gradient, midcanopy species include a mix of introduced species such as Christmas<br />
berry <strong>and</strong> strawberry guava, as well as the native hame, „ie„ie, kōlea, hāpu„u, „ōhi„a, <strong>and</strong> various<br />
epiphytes. The groundcover in the lower gradient is dominated by introduced Koster‟s curse <strong>and</strong><br />
thimbleberry, as well as a mix of introduced <strong>and</strong> native ferns. In the upper gradient, the midcanopy<br />
contains „ōhi„a, pilo, Clermontia sp., „ōlapa, kāwa„u, kōlea, pūkiawe, hāpu„u, „ie„ie, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes.<br />
Ferns (both introduced <strong>and</strong> native species) <strong>and</strong> introduced grasses are the primary groundcover.<br />
There are three primary differences between the upper <strong>and</strong> lower elevation gradients in montane wet<br />
„ōhi„a forest habitat type at the KFU. Compared to the lower gradient, the upper gradient has higher<br />
plant diversity in the midcanopy. The ground cover in the upper canopy is dominated by grasses,<br />
while the ground cover in the lower gradient is mostly herbaceous. In addition, the lower elevation<br />
gradient of this habitat type receives more rainfall annually than the upper gradient.<br />
As a result of the lack of mosquitoes <strong>and</strong> increased plant diversity, the upper gradient of this habitat<br />
type supports a diverse native bird community. The „ōpe„ape„a <strong>and</strong> various endangered plants also<br />
occur in these areas.<br />
Invasive species, such as ungulates, rats, mice, slugs, mosquitoes, <strong>and</strong> plants, threaten the montane<br />
wet „ōhi„a forest at the KFU. In addition, plants are limited due to a lack of native pollinators.<br />
Farming, ranching, <strong>and</strong> fires have also affected the native l<strong>and</strong>scape, transforming native forests into<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
4-10 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Figure 4-3. KFU vegetation type.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-11
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
4-12 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Montane mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a forest<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The habitat between 4,500-5,800 ft is defined as a montane mesic koa/„ōhi„a forest. It is primarily<br />
composed of mixed age trees of both species. The midcanopy is dominated by a mix of flowering<br />
<strong>and</strong> fruiting trees such as Clermontia sp., pilo, pūkiawe, „ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa„u. Tree ferns, mixed<br />
ferns, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes also occur in the understory.<br />
The mesic koa/„ōhi„a forest is potential habitat for several endangered species, such as the „alalā,<br />
„ōpe„ape„a, picture-wing flies, <strong>and</strong> various plants. It also provides foraging <strong>and</strong> nesting areas for<br />
native forest birds.<br />
Wildfires are a serious threat to the mesic forests above 5,000 ft in elevation due to nonnative grass<br />
fuel. The montane mesic koa/„ōhi„a forest is threatened by ungulates. Sheep, which do not exist in<br />
the wet „ōhi„a forest, exist in the montane mesic koa/„ōhi„a forest above 5,000 ft. A lack of native<br />
pollinators also threatens this habitat.<br />
Native dry koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane forest<br />
This native dry koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest is located at the upper elevation of the KFU between<br />
5,800-6,100 ft. Ab<strong>and</strong>oned pastures, skid trails, <strong>and</strong> mill sites are present in this zone.<br />
The upper canopy of this forest is composed of koa, „ōhi„a, <strong>and</strong> māmane, while the understory<br />
consists of iliahi, kukainene, naio, pilo, pūkiawe, „ōhelo, <strong>and</strong> mixed ferns.<br />
The dry koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest is potential habitat for the „alalā, „ōpe„ape„a, endangered plants,<br />
<strong>and</strong> endangered invertebrates. Native forest birds (such as „akiapōlā„au, Hawai„i „ākepa, <strong>and</strong> Hawai„i<br />
creeper) are also found in this habitat.<br />
This forest shares similar threats as other habitats within the Refuge, such as invasive species <strong>and</strong><br />
lack of native pollinators.<br />
Lava tube <strong>and</strong> lave tube skylight<br />
Lava tubes are subterranean channels that were created by flowing molten lava, particularly<br />
pahoehoe lava. This type of basaltic lava is warmer, faster moving <strong>and</strong> less viscous than „a„ā lava<br />
(Howarth 1973). Because pahoehoe lava does not fuse with the existing surface, extensive horizontal<br />
spaces <strong>and</strong> vesicle-like channels develop. When the surface crust of a lava flow cools, the underlying<br />
flow is insulated, allowing it to travel for many miles without losing its heat energy. As the volcanic<br />
eruption ceases, the molten lava drains from the channel, leaving an empty passage or lava tube. In<br />
Hawai„i, tubes formed in pahoehoe lava can reach up to 40.7 ft in length (Howarth 1983, Kauahikaua<br />
et al. 2004).<br />
Sections of lava tube roofs often collapse naturally creating skylights, which are vertical-walled<br />
openings. Typically, skylights form on sloped terrain shortly after lava tube formation (Kauahikaua<br />
et al. 2004). Skylights are exposed to the surface environment of rainfall, sunlight, <strong>and</strong> temperature<br />
fluctuations. Due to the steep walls, skylights also serve as natural refugia where endangered or rare<br />
plants can persist without being damaged by herbivores (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
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Moist air, relatively constant moderate temperature, <strong>and</strong> lack of light are attributes of these cave<br />
systems. In general, lave tubes can be divided into four zones – entrance, twilight, transition, <strong>and</strong> true<br />
dark. The entrance zone is the opening of the lava tube <strong>and</strong> is generally rich in resources. Green<br />
vegetation lessens in the twilight zone where light is reduced. In the transition zone, no light is<br />
present, but surface environmental conditions are not absent. <strong>Final</strong>ly, the true dark zone is<br />
characterized by constant darkness <strong>and</strong> has steady environmental conditions (Howarth 1973).<br />
4.4 Endangered Hawaiian Forest Birds<br />
Over two-thirds of the remaining native forest birds in Hawai„i are federally listed under the ESA.<br />
The isolation of the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s has contributed both to the endemism of the forest birds <strong>and</strong> to<br />
their potential for endangerment. Isolation has made them particularly vulnerable to diseases such as<br />
avian malaria <strong>and</strong> pox, one of the most critical threats to native forest birds. The endangered species<br />
present in Hakalau Forest NWR include three families of birds: Fringillidae (honeycreepers),<br />
Corvidae (crows) <strong>and</strong> Accipitridae (hawks). The majority are Hawaiian honeycreepers (Fringillidae:<br />
Drepanidinae) <strong>and</strong> include the „akiapōlā„au, Hawai„i „ākepa, Hawai„i creeper, <strong>and</strong> „ō„ū. The „alalā<br />
<strong>and</strong> „io are the two other species of concern. All species are endemic to the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, with<br />
the exception of the „ō„ū, which formerly occurred on all the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s but may now be<br />
extinct.<br />
Statewide surveys of the distribution, abundance, <strong>and</strong> habitat occurrences of native forest birds began<br />
in 1976 (Scott et al. 1986). These efforts were followed up by annual surveys that allow for<br />
monitoring <strong>and</strong> the examination of trends in forest bird densities over time, particularly of the<br />
endangered Hawaiian forest birds. Long-term data are available for two areas on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of<br />
Hawai„i in particular: the North Hāmākua study area <strong>and</strong> the central windward region of Hawai„i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>. These two areas are described in detail below.<br />
The North Hāmākua area (160,230 ac) is located on the eastern flank of Mauna Kea, from 1,000-<br />
8,000 ft elevation (Figure 4-4). This area includes the HFU <strong>and</strong> surrounding public <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
The study area is steeply dissected by ridges <strong>and</strong> erosion gullies, with frequent major tree falls (Camp<br />
et al. 2003).<br />
Most surveys within the North Hāmākua study area were conducted in the montane forest, which has<br />
a canopy dominated by old growth „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa. „Ōlapa, pūkiawe, „ōhelo, „ākala, <strong>and</strong> hāpu„u are<br />
the most common subcanopy trees <strong>and</strong> shrubs. Vegetation at low elevations (0-1,970 ft) consists of<br />
nonnative trees, shrubs, <strong>and</strong> grasses in agriculture <strong>and</strong> urban/exurban settings. Vegetation at middle<br />
elevations (1,970–6,230 ft) is dominated by native „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa/„ōhi„a forest, whereas the highest<br />
elevations (more than 6,230 ft) are comprised of pasture, subalpine native shrubl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> māmane<br />
<strong>and</strong> koa woodl<strong>and</strong>. Nonnative plant species may be found throughout parts of the native forest at all<br />
elevations (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
The central windward region of Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> includes approximately 166,300 ac of mid- to highelevation<br />
rainforest on the windward slopes of Mauna Loa Volcano, between 2,300-6,890 ft. It was<br />
divided into four study areas: Kūlani-Keauhou, „Ōla„a, Mauna Loa Strip, <strong>and</strong> East Rift (Gorresen et<br />
al. 2005).<br />
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Figure 4-4. North Hāmākua study area.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The Kūlani-Keauhou study area (elevation 3,280-4,920 ft) <strong>and</strong> surrounding region is comprised of<br />
wet ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong> koa dominated forests. The clearing of forest <strong>and</strong> ranching largely ceased in the<br />
1990s, <strong>and</strong> the region is now managed mainly as native forest. Recent management has included<br />
removal of livestock, tree planting, <strong>and</strong> in some areas removal of ungulates <strong>and</strong> weed control. The<br />
‘Ōla‘a study area (elevation 3,280-4,920 ft) is comprised of wet ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong> hāpu‘u forests.<br />
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Management actions include the eradication of pigs <strong>and</strong> control of nonnative plants (Gorresen et al.<br />
2005).<br />
Management of the Mauna Loa Strip study area (elevation approximately 3,280-4,920 ft) by the<br />
Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park includes the exclusion of ungulates (cows, goats, pigs, <strong>and</strong> sheep)<br />
<strong>and</strong> the control of nonnative plants. The East Rift study area (1,640-3,280 ft) is comprised of wet<br />
„ōhi„a-dominated forests. The portion of the study area that lies within the Hawai„i Volcanoes<br />
National Park has received ungulate control. The adjacent area (i.e., Kahauale„a Natural Area<br />
Reserve) has received no nonnative plant or ungulate control. The forest surrounding <strong>and</strong> including<br />
parts of the study area have been extensively disturbed by lava flows, fire, <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a dieback<br />
(Gorresen et al. 2005).<br />
Figure 4-5 shows the configuration of Forest Bird Survey Transect lines established at the Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit (HFU) for annual bird surveys.<br />
4.4.1 ‘Akiapōlā‘au (Hemignathus munroi)<br />
The „akiapōlā„au is a medium-sized, stocky, short-tailed Hawaiian honeycreeper. Its bill has a long,<br />
sickle-shaped upper m<strong>and</strong>ible <strong>and</strong> a short, straight lower m<strong>and</strong>ible that is only half as long as the<br />
upper. Males are larger <strong>and</strong> heavier than females <strong>and</strong> have a slightly longer bill. Adult males have a<br />
bright yellow head <strong>and</strong> underparts, a greenish back <strong>and</strong> wings, <strong>and</strong> black lores. Adult females differ<br />
in color, with a yellowish-white chin, throat, <strong>and</strong> upper breast that contrasts with a pale yellowishgray<br />
lower breast <strong>and</strong> belly. Fledglings have a mottled yellowish-gray or green plumage with pale<br />
underparts.<br />
The „akiapōlā„au is endemic to the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. Historically, the „akiapōlā„au was much more<br />
common <strong>and</strong> widespread than it is today, being found virtually isl<strong>and</strong>wide in native forest. In the<br />
early 1900s, these forest birds were reportedly abundant, occurring in forests as low as 1,650 ft near<br />
Hilo. In the 1940s, they were still present above 5,500 ft in Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park, but by<br />
1970 they had disappeared from the Park <strong>and</strong> were less common elsewhere (Pratt et al. 2001a).<br />
In the 1970s, „akiapōlā„au were found in five disjunct populations with a total estimated population<br />
size of 1,500 ± 400 birds (confidence interval (CI) =95 percent) (Scott et al. 1986). Four of these<br />
populations inhabited koa-dominated montane forests in Hāmākua south to the upper Waiākea<br />
kīpuka, Kūlani, <strong>and</strong> Keauhou, in Ka„ū <strong>and</strong> Kapāpala, in southern Kona, <strong>and</strong> in central Kona. A fifth<br />
population occupied subalpine dry forest on Mauna Kea. Originally these populations were all<br />
connected, but they have since been isolated by clearing of forest, mainly due to grazing.<br />
The most recent population estimate, based on isl<strong>and</strong>wide surveys from 1990-1995, is 1,163 birds,<br />
with a 90 percent CI of 1,109-1,217 birds (Fancy et al. 1995). However, more recent surveys indicate<br />
that the population size might be greater.<br />
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Figure 4-5. Annual forest bird survey transects.<br />
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To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
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The largest population has long been thought to occur in the Hāmākua region. As of 2000,<br />
approximately 1,600 ( 44 st<strong>and</strong>ard error (SE)) „akiapōlā„au were estimated to occur in the North<br />
Hāmākua area. The HFU currently protects 50 percent of the „akiapōlā„au population in the study<br />
area (approximately 800 „akiapōlā„au). In this Unit, a positive trend in „akiapōlā„au density was<br />
observed for the 24-year study period (1977-2000); no trends in „akiapōlā„au densities were detected<br />
for the 14-year study period (1987-2000). The density of birds for the 14-year study period in the<br />
HFU was estimated to be 0.44 birds per acre (st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation (SD) = 0.39) (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
In the Ka„ū/Kapāpala area, the population had reportedly decreased from an estimated 533-<br />
544 individuals since the 1970s (Fancy et al. 1995), but a more recent <strong>and</strong> intensive survey revealed a<br />
population in this region of more than 1,000 birds (USGS, unpubl.).<br />
In the central windward region of Hawai„i (Figure 4-6), a 1972-1975 survey of Keauhou Ranch <strong>and</strong><br />
the Kīlauea Forest Reserve recorded an overall „akiapōlā„au density of 0.2 birds per acre. Subsequent<br />
surveys in 1977, the 1990s, <strong>and</strong> 2000s detected densities of only 0.04 birds per acre. A 2002 survey<br />
of the Upper Waiākea Forest Reserve directly north of the Kūlani-Keauhou study area did not record<br />
„akiapōlā„au in areas in which they had been detected during the 1977 survey (Gorresen et al. 2005,<br />
USFWS 2006b). The range of the „akiapōlā„au also no longer includes the „Ōla„a Tract <strong>and</strong> „Ōla„a<br />
Forest Reserve from which the species were recorded as late as the 1960s. These results may indicate<br />
the species‟ range has contracted upslope. Despite the apparent decline in „akiapōlā„au density, the<br />
assessment of trend remains inconclusive. However, regenerating koa in degraded or deforested areas<br />
on Kamehameha Schools‟ Keauhou Ranch <strong>and</strong> the Kapāpala Forest Reserve recently has been<br />
observed to support relatively high densities of „akiapōlā„au (Pratt et al. 2001a, Pejchar 2004).<br />
Three „akiapōlā„au remained in the māmane forest on Mauna Kea in 2000, but all three of these birds<br />
are now gone. In the late 1970s, a relict population of 20 birds remained in the koa/„ōhi„a forests of<br />
central Kona. „Akiapōlā„au were last detected in central Kona in the mid-1990s (USFWS 2006b) <strong>and</strong><br />
recent field surveys did not detect „akiapōlā„au in the area (USFWS 2008). The current status of the<br />
birds in southern Kona is unknown (USFWS 2006b).<br />
At the HFU, „akiapōlā„au are found in montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic koa/„ōhi„a forest <strong>and</strong> montane<br />
dry koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest. „Akiapōlā„au attained highest densities in the upper elevation in areas<br />
with a koa component <strong>and</strong> heterogeneous habitats along the forest margins (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
„Akiapōlā„au are positively associated with koa <strong>and</strong> closed canopy, <strong>and</strong> „akiapōlā„au density is<br />
significantly <strong>and</strong> positively associated with „ōhi„a, high-stature forest <strong>and</strong> negatively associated with<br />
grass <strong>and</strong> presence of banana poka. Recent observations of „akiapōlā„au have been in montane mesic<br />
<strong>and</strong> wet forest dominated by koa <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a or in subalpine dry forest dominated by māmane <strong>and</strong><br />
naio.<br />
Males <strong>and</strong> females remain together in pairs most of the time. From the limited data available,<br />
breeding occurs year-round (Pratt et al. 2001a). The home range size of both sexes varies from<br />
approximately 12-100 ac. Territories are defended, <strong>and</strong> there is little evidence of daily or seasonal<br />
movements. Habitat types influence the size of home ranges, with larger ranges occurring in open<br />
forest <strong>and</strong> smaller ranges in koa plantation; home ranges vary from 56.8 ± 17.8 ac in open forest to<br />
30.4 ± 17.8 ac in closed forests, <strong>and</strong> 28.9 ± 10.6 ac in young koa plantations. Furthermore, home<br />
ranges overlapped more in koa plantations (41.2 percent), than in closed forest (22.6 percent) or open<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-19
Figure 4-6. Central windward study area.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
forest (9.2 percent). This results in even higher population densities in koa plantations (13 pairs per<br />
247 acres), than in closed forest (10 pairs per 247 acres) or open forest (5 pairs per 247 acres)<br />
(Pejchar 2005).<br />
Moth larvae are the most common food item in ‘akiapōlā‘au fecal samples, followed by spiders <strong>and</strong><br />
longhorned beetle larvae (Ralph <strong>and</strong> Fancy 1996). Koa, kōlea, māmane, <strong>and</strong> naio are the moths’<br />
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preferred forage plant species, while „ōhi„a is not favored. The foraging behavior of „akiapōlā„au is<br />
very specialized compared with that of other forest birds, <strong>and</strong> foraging sites <strong>and</strong> food may be<br />
limiting. This species rarely takes nectar from flowers, but it recently has been discovered to drink<br />
sap from small wells it drills in the bark of „ōhi„a trees.<br />
Only a few trees in a bird‟s territory are used for this purpose, <strong>and</strong> they are defended against other<br />
„akiapōlā‟au. On average, sap trees are larger, have thinner bark, greater sap flow, <strong>and</strong> tend to occur<br />
on convex slopes with more light (Pejchar <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey 2004).<br />
„Akiapōlā„au often join mixed-species foraging flocks, perhaps to enhance detection of predators. In<br />
montane mesic forests, they most frequently associate with Hawai„i creeper <strong>and</strong> „ākepa, whereas in<br />
subalpine dry forest they are found with Hawai„i „amakihi <strong>and</strong> palila. The importance of these flocks<br />
to „akiapōlā„au has not been studied but may prove relevant to the conservation of this species <strong>and</strong><br />
the need to maintain intact, functioning ecosystems (USFWS 2006b).<br />
„Akiapōlā„au are limited by habitat loss <strong>and</strong> degradation, predation, <strong>and</strong> introduced diseases. Due to<br />
its low reproductive rate, this species may be particularly vulnerable to these threats <strong>and</strong> slow to<br />
recover. Other factors, such as competition from introduced avian <strong>and</strong> arthropod insectivores may<br />
also limit the range of the species (USFWS 2006b).<br />
The impact of habitat loss <strong>and</strong> degradation, particularly in mesic <strong>and</strong> dry forest, also threaten<br />
„akiapōlā„au. Dry high elevation māmane-naio forest habitat on the slopes of Mauna Kea has been<br />
severely degraded by decades of browsing by goats <strong>and</strong> sheep. The dispersal behavior of<br />
„akiapōlā„au is poorly known, but habitat fragmentation may isolate the remaining populations,<br />
decrease the effective population size, <strong>and</strong> hinder recolonization of areas that were formerly<br />
inhabited (USFWS 2006b).<br />
Predation of nests <strong>and</strong> adults by rats, cats, mongooses, <strong>and</strong> owls is suspected to have a significant<br />
impact on many native Hawaiian bird species (Atkinson 1977, Smucker et al. 2000, V<strong>and</strong>erWerf <strong>and</strong><br />
Smith 2002). Recent surveys indicate rat densities are high at the HFU, which contains a significant<br />
portion of the largest remaining „akiapōlā„au population (USGS, unpubl.). Juvenile „akiapōlā„au may<br />
be especially vulnerable to predators during the post-fledging period because their loud, persistent<br />
begging call makes them easy to locate (USFWS 2006b).<br />
Most Hawaiian forest birds are susceptible to introduced mosquito-borne diseases, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
„akiapōlā„au may be limited to its current high-elevation distribution by these diseases (Scott et al.<br />
1986; van Riper et al. 1986; Atkinson et al. 1995, 2005). Despite the availability of apparently<br />
suitable habitat, „akiapōlā„au are absent from most areas below 4,500 ft, where mosquitoes are<br />
common (USFWS 2006b).<br />
4.4.2 Hawai‘i ‘Ākepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus)<br />
The Hawai„i „ākepa is a small sexually dichromatic Hawaiian honeycreeper. Males obtain their<br />
bright orange adult plumage 3 years after hatching (Lepson <strong>and</strong> Freed 1995). The subadult plumage<br />
is dull brownish-orange, although individual variation is high. Females are grayish green with a<br />
yellow breast b<strong>and</strong>. The lower m<strong>and</strong>ible of the „ākepa is slightly bent to one side which results in the<br />
m<strong>and</strong>ible tips being offset; a characteristic shared with the „akeke„e. The bend can be to the left or<br />
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right, <strong>and</strong> depending on the direction of the bend, individuals also possess an accompanying leg<br />
asymmetry; the leg opposite the curve in the m<strong>and</strong>ible is slightly longer than the other leg (Mitchell<br />
et al. 2005).<br />
Hawai„i „ākepa are endemic to the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> are currently found in five disjunct<br />
populations in „ōhi„a/koa forests in Hāmākua, Kūlani/Keauhou, Ka„ū, southern Kona, <strong>and</strong> Hualālai,<br />
totaling approximately 14,000 ± 2,500 birds (95 percent CI) in 1980 (Scott et al. 1986). The highest<br />
densities occurred in the southwestern portion of the Ka„ū Forest Reserve <strong>and</strong> in the Pua „Ākala<br />
Tract of HFU (Scott et al. 1986), <strong>and</strong> these supported the largest populations, comprising 5,300 ±<br />
1,500 (95 percent CI) birds <strong>and</strong> 7,900 ± 1,800 (95 percent CI) birds, respectively. The populations in<br />
southern Kona <strong>and</strong> Hualālai were much smaller; approximately 660 ± 250 (95 percent CI) birds<br />
combined (Scott et al. 1986), <strong>and</strong> apparently have declined since those surveys (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
More recent surveys of the North Hāmākua area (1977-2000) estimate that approximately 8,300 (<br />
144 SE) Hawai„i „ākepa occur in the study area (Camp et al. 2003). The HFU protects 72 percent of<br />
the Hawai„i „ākepa population in the study area (approximately 6,000 „ākepa). A positive trend in<br />
Hawai„i „ākepa density was observed for the 24-year study period (1977-2000); no changes in<br />
densities were detected for the 14-year study period (1987-2000). The densities of Hawai„i „ākepa at<br />
the HFU was 0.05 birds per acre (0.12 birds per ac, SD = 0.58) in the 1977 survey <strong>and</strong> 0.39 birds per<br />
acre (0.97 birds per ac, SD = 2.03) for the 14-year study period. However, recent analysis of surveys<br />
from 1987-2005 indicate that Hawai„i „ākepa densities are now stable or increasing at a mean rate of<br />
2.3 percent per year (Hawai„i Forest Bird Database 2005).<br />
In the central windward region of Hawai„i, Hawai„i „ākepa have historically demonstrated<br />
contractions in distribution. Populations in the region are presently limited to a narrow b<strong>and</strong> of high<br />
elevation forest habitat in Kūlani-Keauhou <strong>and</strong> may be isolated from those in the Ka„ū <strong>and</strong> north<br />
windward regions (Gorresen et al. 2005). At Kūlani-Keauhou, although the trend was not significant,<br />
densities appear to have declined between the 1995-1998 <strong>and</strong> 2001-2003 survey periods (0.12 -<br />
0.09 birds per acre). Hawai„i „ākepa densities averaged 0.19 birds per acre in the 1972-1975 survey<br />
<strong>and</strong> 0.15 birds per acre in 1977. The declines in Hawai„i „ākepa may be related to loss of old growth<br />
habitat at Keauhou Ranch, particularly in the early 1980s (Gorresen et al. 2005).<br />
Hawai‟i „ākepa were not recorded in the Mauna Loa Strip <strong>and</strong> are no longer found in the „Ōla„a Tract<br />
<strong>and</strong> „Ōla„a Forest Reserve. A regional population decline is also evident in the species‟ extirpation<br />
from adjacent areas within the Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park (Gorresen et al. 2005).<br />
At the HFU, Hawai„i „ākepa are locally common, <strong>and</strong> found in the montane wet „ōhi„a forest, mesic<br />
koa/„ōhi„a forest, <strong>and</strong> montane dry koa/„ōhi„a māmane forest. Densities of Hawai„i „ākepa are highest<br />
in upper elevation koa/„ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a forests of high stature <strong>and</strong> closed canopy (Camp et al. 2003)<br />
<strong>and</strong> occur in a gradient of population density, with a small core area of highest density in the Pua<br />
„Ākala area <strong>and</strong> rapid decreases in density away from the core (Scott et al. 1986, Hart 2001). The<br />
species was absent or occurred at low densities in heterogeneous habitats along the grass-forest<br />
interface <strong>and</strong> in mid-elevation forest (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
Several Hawai„i „ākepa have been regularly detected during bird surveys in the KFU since 1999<br />
(USFWS 2008).<br />
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Hawai„i „ākepa occur in „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa/„ōhi„a forests above 4,300 ft (USFWS 2006b). The species<br />
feeds mainly on „ōhi„a leaf clusters, but also on koa leaves <strong>and</strong> seed pods, where it uses its bill to pry<br />
open leaf <strong>and</strong> flower buds in search of small arthropods. Birds also have been seen foraging<br />
occasionally in the leaves of naio, „a„ali„i, pūkiawe, pilo, „ōhelo, <strong>and</strong> „ākala. The Hawai„i „ākepa<br />
feeds primarily on small insects, spiders, <strong>and</strong> caterpillars throughout the year. It rarely feeds on<br />
nectar (Fretz 2000). Both adults <strong>and</strong> juveniles frequently join interspecific foraging flocks with other<br />
Hawaiian honeycreepers, particularly Hawai„i creepers, <strong>and</strong> also „akiapōlā„au, Hawai„i „amakihi,<br />
„i„iwi, <strong>and</strong> „apapane.<br />
Hawai„i „ākepa breed from early March-May (Lepson et al. 1997). This species is an obligate cavity<br />
nester, with most nests placed in natural cavities found in old-growth „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa trees.<br />
Consequently, their density depends in part on the density of large trees, because only large trees<br />
provide the cavities required for nesting (Hart 2000, 2001; Freed 2001). The average size of trees<br />
used for nesting is 3.3 ft in diameter at breast height (Freed 2001). „Ōhi„a appear to be more<br />
important to „ākepa than koa. Large „ōhi„a trees provide both cavities for nest-sites <strong>and</strong> the preferred<br />
foraging substrate, whereas large koa trees provide mainly cavities (Freed 2001). The greater<br />
importance of „ōhi„a is also supported by „ākepa densities because the highest density of Hawai„i<br />
„ākepa on Mauna Loa, in the Ka‟ū Forest Reserve, is in an area without koa (Scott et al. 1986).<br />
Breeding densities at HFU appear to be limited by the availability of nest sites (Hart 2000), <strong>and</strong> the<br />
population may be at or near carrying capacity with respect to food availability (Fretz 2000).<br />
Hawai„i „ākepa are likely susceptible to the same factors that threaten other native Hawaiian forest<br />
birds, including: loss <strong>and</strong> degradation of habitat, predation by mammals, <strong>and</strong> disease (Mitchell et al.<br />
2005, USFWS 2006b). Hawai„i „ākepa are especially sensitive to the loss of old growth forest due to<br />
their dependence on large trees with cavities for nesting (Freed 2001). The clearing of forest by<br />
logging <strong>and</strong> ranching has greatly reduced the amount of suitable habitat for Hawai„i „ākepa <strong>and</strong> other<br />
forest birds. Logging <strong>and</strong> ranching has also resulted in the fragmentation of the remaining forest<br />
habitat. It was previously thought that areas of highest „ākepa density with trees large enough to<br />
provide nest sites were falling at a rate of 13 trees per mi 2 per year at HFU <strong>and</strong> that reduction of nest<br />
sites in high-density areas was a major threat. New data by Hart et al. shows that the forest is<br />
recovering, that large tree loss may not be a limiting factor currently, <strong>and</strong> that the forest will provide<br />
nest sites in the future.<br />
It is possible that the increased light under which „ōhi„a seedlings are germinating is producing trees<br />
with an almost exclusively sympodial (multi-trunked) growth form, which typically do not produce<br />
cavities suitable for Hawai„i „ākepa nests, although not enough data is available to say this<br />
definitively. The „ōhi„a trees used as nest sites by the birds are almost exclusively monopodial<br />
(straight <strong>and</strong> single-trunked) in form (Freed 2001).<br />
Hawai„i „ākepa are also threatened by avian diseases. The species is not found below 4,300 ft,<br />
presumably because of the distribution of the introduced mosquito that transmits avian malaria <strong>and</strong><br />
avian pox (van Riper et al. 1986, 2002). Furthermore, the cavity nests of the Hawai„i „ākepa may be<br />
vulnerable to rat predation. However, nest success is high at Pua „Ākala in the HFU, where rat<br />
densities are high (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Forest bird issues including potential competition between the invasive Japanese white- eye <strong>and</strong> the<br />
„ākepa, as well as „ākepa status <strong>and</strong> a debate over survey methodology <strong>and</strong> data analysis in the<br />
scientific community have been addressed in recent years through the Service‟s peer review<br />
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process/the Forest Bird Workshop (USFWS 2008) <strong>and</strong> continues in published literature (Camp et. al<br />
2010, Freed 2010, etc.). The Service expects to support appropriate studies in the future as needed to<br />
address these issues (see Appendix C).<br />
4.4.3 Hawai‘i Creeper (Oreomystis mana)<br />
The Hawai„i creeper is a small, inconspicuous Hawaiian honeycreeper. Adult males <strong>and</strong> females are<br />
predominately olive-green above, dull buff below, <strong>and</strong> have a dark gray mask extending around the<br />
eyes; males are brighter. Their similarity to Hawai„i „amakihi, Hawai„i „ākepa, <strong>and</strong> introduced<br />
Japanese white-eyes complicates field identification.<br />
Hawai„i creeper are endemic to the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. In the 1890s, Hawai„i creepers were found in<br />
„ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a/koa forests throughout the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, usually above 3,600 ft elevation.<br />
Hawai„i creepers were recorded in the Kona <strong>and</strong> Ka„ū districts as well as the forests above Hilo.<br />
They were noted to be very abundant <strong>and</strong> generally distributed but had some unexplainable gaps in<br />
their distribution, especially at lower elevations. In general, the Hawai„i creeper‟s decline was not<br />
well documented, perhaps in part due to difficulties of field identification. However, a drastic decline<br />
in numbers in Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park during the 1930s <strong>and</strong> 1940s was noted, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
species had virtually disappeared from the Park by about 1960 (USFWS 2006b).<br />
As of 1979, the Hawai„i creeper was confined to four disjunct populations in wet <strong>and</strong> mesic forests,<br />
primarily above 5,000 ft. Two populations near Kona totaled only about 300 birds with the number<br />
of birds in central Kona estimated at 75 birds. A third subpopulation near Ka„ū consisted of about<br />
2,100 birds. The largest subpopulation is found on the Hāmākua coast on the windward side of<br />
Mauna Kea, where 10,000 ± 1,200 (95 percent CI) birds reside (Scott et al. 1986). Recent surveys<br />
suggest that the population estimate may be higher. A population recorded on Kohala Mountain in<br />
1972 could not be relocated during the Hawai„i Forest Bird Survey in the early 1980s (Scott et al.<br />
1986).<br />
It is estimated that slightly more than 17,800 ( 221 SE) Hawai„i creepers occur in the North<br />
Hāmākua study area (Camp et al. 2003). The HFU currently protects 49 percent of the Hawai„i<br />
creeper population in the study area (approximately 8,700). Positive trends in Hawai„i creeper<br />
density were observed for the 24-year (1977-2000) <strong>and</strong> 14-year (1987-2000) study periods. The<br />
mean density of creepers was 0.11 birds per acre (SD = 0.97) in 1977, <strong>and</strong> 0.51 birds per acre (SD =<br />
2.44) from 1987-2000.<br />
The Hawai„i creeper is found in the montane wet „ōhi„a, mesic koa/„ōhi„a forest <strong>and</strong> montane dry<br />
koa/„ōhi„a/māmane forest at the HFU. Densities of Hawai„i creeper are highest in upper elevation,<br />
high-stature „ōhi„a forest. The species is absent or occurred at low densities in grassl<strong>and</strong>s, in<br />
heterogeneous habitats along the grass-forest interface, <strong>and</strong> in mid-elevation wet forest.<br />
Surveys as recent as 2006 detected the Hawai„i creeper in the KFU (USFWS 2008). However,<br />
population or density estimates have not been documented.<br />
Hawai„i creeper occur most commonly in mesic <strong>and</strong> wet forests dominated by „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa with a<br />
subcanopy of „ōlapa, pūkiawe, „ōhelo, „ākala, kōlea, kāwa„u, <strong>and</strong> hāpu„u (USFWS 2006b). Outside<br />
the breeding season, the species frequently joins mixed-species foraging flocks (Hart <strong>and</strong> Freed<br />
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2003) <strong>and</strong> forages over home ranges that average 17.3 ac (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf 1998, Ralph <strong>and</strong> Fancy<br />
1994). The Hawai„i creeper most frequently gleans insects, spiders, <strong>and</strong> other invertebrates from the<br />
branches, trunks, <strong>and</strong> foliage of live „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa trees. Beetle larvae make up a large part of its<br />
diet, but no detailed information on prey taken is available (USFWS 2006b).<br />
During the breeding season (typically January-early May) the species‟ home range averages 10-17 ac<br />
<strong>and</strong> a 33-66 ft elevation. Home range around the nest is defended territory (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf 1998, Ralph<br />
<strong>and</strong> Fancy 1994, Lepson et al. 2002). Most nests are open cup structures, but about 15 percent are<br />
placed in cavities or in bark crevices. Hawai„i creepers renest after nest failures, <strong>and</strong> pairs have been<br />
documented raising two broods in a season. Although nest success of Hawai„i creepers is very low<br />
(11-50 percent), adults have high annual survival (Woodworth et al. 2001).<br />
Hawai„i creepers are susceptible to the same factors that threaten other native Hawaiian forest birds,<br />
including loss <strong>and</strong> degradation of habitat, predation by mammals, <strong>and</strong> disease. Hawai„i creeper<br />
population numbers are also limited by their low reproductive potential, high nesting failure, <strong>and</strong><br />
possible competition with nonnative bird species.<br />
Logging <strong>and</strong> grazing has reduced, degraded, <strong>and</strong> fragmented suitable forest habitats for the Hawai„i<br />
creeper. Habitat fragmentation may be a dispersal barrier preventing or restricting natural<br />
recolonization of the species‟ former range. The Hawai„i creeper‟s absence from habitats below<br />
4,500 ft elevation also suggests that it may be particularly susceptible to mosquito-borne avian<br />
disease (Atkinson et al. 2005).<br />
The productivity of the Hawai„i creeper is also limited by its low reproductive potential <strong>and</strong> high<br />
rates of nesting failure. The Hawai„i creeper has small clutch sizes, relatively long developmental<br />
periods, <strong>and</strong> a limited breeding season. Productivity is further reduced by the high rate of nesting<br />
failures, possibly due to the introduction of mammalian nest predators. Hawai„i creepers place their<br />
nests near the main trunks of trees which may facilitate predation by rats (Woodworth et al. 2001). It<br />
has also been suggested that competition with Japanese white-eyes may negatively affect Hawai„i<br />
creepers (Mountainspring <strong>and</strong> Scott 1985). All these factors contribute to a slow recovery of<br />
populations.<br />
4.4.4 ‘Ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea)<br />
The „ō„ū is a heavy-bodied Hawaiian honeycreeper approximately 7 in in total length. The upper<br />
parts are dark olive-green, <strong>and</strong> the underparts are a lighter olive-green grading to whitish on the<br />
undertail coverts. The wings <strong>and</strong> tail are a darker brownish olive. „Ō„ū are sexually dichromatic,<br />
males having a bright yellow head that contrasts sharply with the back <strong>and</strong> breast, <strong>and</strong> females<br />
having an olive-green head similar in color to the back. Juveniles are similar to the female in color,<br />
but somewhat darker. In both sexes the bill is pale pink to straw-colored, with a hooked, parrot-like<br />
upper m<strong>and</strong>ible. The males are slightly larger than females.<br />
„Ō„ū were found historically on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Hawai„i, Maui, Moloka„i, Lāna„i, O„ahu, <strong>and</strong> Kaua„i,<br />
<strong>and</strong> were common throughout their range. Currently, the „ō„ū is one of the rarest birds in Hawai„i <strong>and</strong><br />
may possibly be extinct, although past survey efforts have been insufficient to determine its status<br />
(USFWS 2006b). The most recent observations indicate any remaining populations are extremely<br />
localized in occurrence <strong>and</strong> are restricted to only a fraction of their former range in the mid-elevation<br />
„ōhi„a forest on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Kaua„i <strong>and</strong> Hawai„i only. During the Hawai„i Forest Bird Surveys from<br />
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1976-1981, „ō„ū were detected on the eastern slopes of Mauna Kea <strong>and</strong> Mauna Loa on Hawai„i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> in the Alaka„i Wilderness Preserve on Kaua„i. Population estimates during the Hawai„i<br />
Forest Bird Survey in the late 1970s indicated 400 ± 300 (95 percent CI) birds on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of<br />
Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> 3 ± 6 (95 percent CI) birds on Kaua„i (Scott et al. 1986). More recent surveys have<br />
failed to detect any „ō„ū on either isl<strong>and</strong>, although occasional unconfirmed sightings are reported.<br />
Reexamination of past survey data indicates the level of survey effort has to date been insufficient to<br />
confirm the status of the species (USFWS 2006b).<br />
At the HFU, a few „ō„ū were detected during the 1977 bird survey in the lower reaches of the Refuge<br />
in montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic koa/„ōhi„a forest habitat. Two unconfirmed detections have been<br />
reported since that time, along with a possible sighting in the mid-1990s at Nauhi in the lower<br />
Honohina Tract <strong>and</strong> a possible audio detection 4-5 years ago in the same area. However, a<br />
subsequent search of the area did not detect the species. „Ō„ū are not present at the KFU.<br />
Historically, „ō„ū were known from a wide range of forests extending from sea level to alpine areas,<br />
but dense „ōhi„a forest with „ie„ie was considered to be preferred habitat (USFWS 2006b, Snetsinger<br />
et al.1998). Although wide elevational movements from the upl<strong>and</strong> māmane forests to lowl<strong>and</strong><br />
forests to feed on guava <strong>and</strong> kukui were observed seasonally in the past, recent sightings on Kaua„i<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> (USFWS, unpubl.) show „ō„ū to be confined to mid-elevation (3,000-5,000 ft<br />
mesic <strong>and</strong> wet „ōhi„a forests with 47-98 in annual rainfall. In this area, the canopy is dominated by<br />
„ōhi„a 33-82 ft high, with a subcanopy of „ie„ie, hāpu„u, „ōlapa, kāwa„u, kōlea, <strong>and</strong> pilo. These<br />
elevations are well within the mosquito zone where most native forest birds have been extirpated by<br />
mosquito-borne avian malaria <strong>and</strong> avian pox (Scott et al. 1986).<br />
Collectors in the late 1800s noted that „ō„ū fed mainly on the large inflorescences of „ie„ie, were fond<br />
of the yellow fruits of arboreal Clermontia species, <strong>and</strong> took fruits from many other native trees<br />
including „ōlapa, māmaki, kāwa„u, alani, <strong>and</strong> probably „ohe„ohe <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a ha. „Ō„ū were also<br />
recorded to feed on young koa leaves, nectar, <strong>and</strong> on nonnative fruits such as guava, mountain apple,<br />
banana, peach, <strong>and</strong> mulberry. They have also been observed to forage extensively in kukui; however,<br />
it is unclear if they seek nectar, insects, or husks of the oily nuts (Scott et al. 1986, Snetsinger et al.<br />
1998, USFWS 2006b). „Ō„ū were also noted to feed on caterpillars (Geometridae), <strong>and</strong> feed them to<br />
young during the summer months in the Ka„ū/Kīlauea area. Nesting of the „ō„ū has never been<br />
described <strong>and</strong> little is known of its breeding habits.<br />
„Ō„ū are threatened by the loss <strong>and</strong> degradation of habitat, the loss of food resources, disease <strong>and</strong><br />
predation by mammals as well as natural disasters. Modification <strong>and</strong> loss of habitat have played a<br />
significant role in the decline of the „ō„ū. Forest degradation by ungulates has reduced or eliminated<br />
forest habitat <strong>and</strong> food resources by converting vast areas of koa <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a forest to pasturel<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Pigs have caused degradation of the understory in wet forests, destroyed food plants such as „ie„ie<br />
<strong>and</strong> Clermontia species, <strong>and</strong> have created mosquito breeding sites (USFWS 2006b).<br />
Predation by rats on eggs <strong>and</strong> cats <strong>and</strong> rats on young <strong>and</strong> adults has contributed to the decline of<br />
many forest birds, probably including the „ō„ū. Herbivory by introduced black rats on the fruits <strong>and</strong><br />
flowers of „ie„ie <strong>and</strong> other native fruiting plants also may have reduced food resources for native<br />
birds in forests throughout Hawai„i (USFWS 2006b).<br />
In addition, recent natural disasters may have affected some of the last remaining „ō„ū populations.<br />
On the isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, a large portion of the Upper Waiākea Forest Reserve (a location of some of<br />
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the last observations of „ō„ū <strong>and</strong> considered prime habitat for the species), was inundated by the 1984<br />
Mauna Loa lava flow, destroying thous<strong>and</strong>s of acres of forest <strong>and</strong> creating a treeless corridor over<br />
0.62 mi wide. On Kaua„i, two strong hurricanes, Iwa in 1982 <strong>and</strong> Iniki in 1992, had devastating<br />
effects on native forest habitat <strong>and</strong> native bird species. Three native bird species, „ō„ū, „ō„ō, <strong>and</strong><br />
kāma„o have not been seen since Hurricane Iniki (USFWS 2006b).<br />
4.4.5 ‘Alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis)<br />
The „alalā is a member of the family Corvidae, the family of birds that includes ravens, crows, jays,<br />
<strong>and</strong> magpies. Members of the crow family are recognized for having a high degree of intelligence<br />
<strong>and</strong> excellent memory. They are generally relatively raucous <strong>and</strong> gregarious birds, <strong>and</strong> are known for<br />
their complex “language-like” vocalizations. The „alalā is a typical medium-sized crow, from dark<br />
brown to black in color.<br />
The „alalā is endemic to the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. Historically, the species was restricted to a belt of<br />
native dry woodl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> mesic „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a/koa forests found at mid-elevation 984-8,202 ft in<br />
the western <strong>and</strong> southern portions of the isl<strong>and</strong>, from Pu„uanahulu in the North Kona District to the<br />
vicinity of Kīlauea Crater in the Ka„ū District. „Alalā occupied their entire documented historical<br />
range during the 1890s <strong>and</strong> were observed in large numbers in both closed <strong>and</strong> disturbed forests<br />
(USFWS 2003).<br />
In the early 1900s, the population density of „alalā was noticeably reduced <strong>and</strong> their range was<br />
becoming fragmented. The species was extirpated from lower elevations by the 1940s, <strong>and</strong> occupied<br />
only small areas of its historical range by the 1950s. Further substantial declines occurred through the<br />
1960s <strong>and</strong> early 1970s. In 1976, an estimated population of 76 ±18 (95 percent CI) birds was<br />
restricted to elevations of from 2,950 -6,230 ft in three areas in the Kona District (Hualālai,<br />
Hōnaunau Forest Reserve/McC<strong>and</strong>less Ranch, <strong>and</strong> Honomalino), <strong>and</strong> one area in the Ka„ū District<br />
(Scott et al. 1986). „Alalā have not been encountered in the Ka„ū District since 1977, when a single<br />
bird was observed in HAVO in the eastern most part of its known historical range (USFWS 2003).<br />
„Alalā were extirpated from Honomalino <strong>and</strong> Hōnaunau by 1986. By 1987, the wild population had<br />
been reduced to a single 12-year-old female on Hualālai <strong>and</strong> an undetermined number on the<br />
McC<strong>and</strong>less Ranch near Hōnaunau. The Hualālai female was last observed in late 1991. A thorough<br />
survey of the McC<strong>and</strong>less Ranch in 1992 indicated a wild population of 12 birds, including a single<br />
juvenile. No additional „alalā were found during a subsequent survey of extensive forest tracts around<br />
the isl<strong>and</strong>. After 1993, the wild population of „alalā was observed intensively, as the number of birds<br />
gradually declined to a single pair in 2002 (USFWS 2003). This species is now believed to be extinct<br />
in the wild, as the last free-living pair has not been sighted since June 2002 (USFWS 2003).<br />
In 1976, the State of Hawai„i formally established a captive breeding program for the restoration of<br />
the „alalā. Through the efforts of several partners, including the State, FWS, The Peregrine Fund,<br />
Zoological Society of San Diego, <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>owners, the captive population was established<br />
over successive years by obtaining birds from the wild, raising chicks from artificially incubated wild<br />
eggs, <strong>and</strong> successfully breeding captive birds. In 1993, captive-reared „alalā were reintroduced into<br />
the wild at sites along the southern boundary of the KFU at an elevation of 4,920 ft. Of the<br />
27 fledglings released, 21 died or disappeared by 1999. Of the birds recovered, seven died from<br />
lethal interactions with „io, three died from toxoplasmosis (Work et al. 2000), two died from other<br />
infections (Work et al. 1999), <strong>and</strong> one died from mammal predation (USFWS 2003). All birds also<br />
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acquired malaria soon after being released, but survived; some required active veterinary support.<br />
The remaining six surviving individuals were subsequently recaptured <strong>and</strong> reintegrated back into the<br />
captive flock (USFWS 2003).<br />
Currently, all „alalā are under captive propagation by the San Diego Zoological Society located at the<br />
Keauhou Bird <strong>Conservation</strong> Center on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> the Maui Bird <strong>Conservation</strong> Center<br />
on Maui. This captive propagation <strong>and</strong> research program is a 20-year agreement to help the „alalā, as<br />
well as 18 other Hawaiian forest bird species (USWFS 2008). Currently about 77 „alalā are in<br />
captivity (ZSSD, unpubl.). Areas under consideration for repatriation of this species are listed below<br />
in order of preference: (1) Southwest Ka„ū, (2) Keauhou-Kūlani, (3) Central Ka„ū, (4) Kapāpala,<br />
(5) KFU, <strong>and</strong> (6) Kona Hema (Price <strong>and</strong> Jacobi 2007).<br />
Historically, the „alalā was common in lower <strong>and</strong> middle-elevation mesic forests between 3,610-<br />
4,920 ft on the western <strong>and</strong> southern side of the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i (Giffin et al. 1987, Winter 2003).<br />
When the species was relatively abundant, flocks of „alalā were observed to make extensive seasonal<br />
movements in response to weather <strong>and</strong> the availability of the „ie„ie vine <strong>and</strong> other native fruit-bearing<br />
plants (USFWS 2003).<br />
The habitat with the highest breeding densities of „alalā during 1970-1982 was relatively undisturbed<br />
„ōhi„a/koa forest; „alalā avoided disturbed forest where possible (Giffin et al. 1987). In addition, a<br />
significant amount of protective understory cover appeared to be important to „alalā in avoiding<br />
predation by „io (USFWS, unpubl.). The „alalā used the upper half of the canopy of mature trees for<br />
their daily activities (Sakai et al. 1986) <strong>and</strong> fed on native <strong>and</strong> introduced fruits, invertebrates gleaned<br />
from tree bark <strong>and</strong> other sites, <strong>and</strong> eggs <strong>and</strong> nestlings of other forest birds. Nestlings preyed upon<br />
included the red-billed leiothrix <strong>and</strong> Japanese white-eye as well as four native species (Hawai„i<br />
„amakihi, „i„iwi, „elepaio, <strong>and</strong> „apapane) (Sakai et al. 1986). Mice have also been noted in crow<br />
droppings (Sakai et al. 1986). Nectar, flowers, <strong>and</strong> carrion are minor diet components. A strong<br />
association was noted with „ie„ie, which formerly blanketed extensive tracts of mid-elevation mesic<br />
<strong>and</strong> wet forest; however, „alalā were not observed in wet forests where „ie„ie is abundant (USFWS<br />
2003).<br />
The median home range recorded for the „alalā was 1,186 ac with a range of 146 - 3,598 ac. Nest<br />
construction usually began in March <strong>and</strong> first clutches were laid in April. Recorded nests have been<br />
predominantly in „ōhi„a, although other trees <strong>and</strong> „ie„ie vines may be used. All recorded nests have<br />
been at elevations 3,280-5,905 ft. Known nest sites have been in areas with 24-98 in of annual<br />
rainfall (USFWS 2003).<br />
Because the population is small <strong>and</strong> confined to captivity, the „alalā is highly susceptible to<br />
stochastic environmental, demographic, <strong>and</strong> genetic events. Inbreeding depression may also be<br />
reducing the reproductive success of the captive population. Before the remaining „alalā were taken<br />
into captivity, „alalā were threatened by predation from mammals, „io, avian diseases, <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
loss <strong>and</strong> fragmentation.<br />
Rats <strong>and</strong> mongooses are known predators on „alalā eggs <strong>and</strong> nestlings. Cats are also suspected<br />
predators on fledglings <strong>and</strong> adults (USFWS, unpubl.). Recent observations show that juvenile <strong>and</strong><br />
adult „alalā raised in captivity can be killed <strong>and</strong> eaten by „io in the wild (USFWS 2003).<br />
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Avian pox has been implicated in the deaths of wild „alalā nestlings (Jenkins at al 1989). Avian<br />
malaria has also been detected in „alalā blood smears (Giffin et al 1987), but the lethality of avian<br />
malaria for „alalā in the wild is unknown (Jenkins et al. 1989). Juvenile captive-reared „alalā are able<br />
to survive malaria <strong>and</strong> pox infection with supportive care. Recent studies have shown that „alalā are<br />
highly susceptible to toxoplasmosis, a disease caused by a parasite that is spread by cats, which now<br />
exist throughout historical „alalā habitat (Work et al. 2000). Whether this pathogen played any role in<br />
the decline of the wild population is unknown, but it has caused mortality of young „alalā released<br />
into the wild (USFWS 2003).<br />
Habitat changes that may have impacted „alalā populations include complete <strong>and</strong> partial<br />
deforestation, selective species loss, <strong>and</strong> invasion or replacement of habitat by nonnative plants.<br />
Because of the l<strong>and</strong>scape-scale movements that allowed historical populations of „alalā to exploit<br />
patchy food resources <strong>and</strong> escape harsh weather, alteration of small but crucial parts of their range<br />
<strong>and</strong> reduction in some food plants (e.g., clearing low-elevation forest for agriculture <strong>and</strong> vegetation<br />
changes throughout the species‟ range) may have reduced the ability of the „alalā to persist over large<br />
areas. In addition, opening of the forest structure through grazing <strong>and</strong> tree cutting may have made<br />
„alalā more vulnerable to predation by „io (USFWS 2003).<br />
Inbreeding may also be occurring among the captive population, due to the small number of<br />
individuals. Lethal abnormalities are occurring at a higher rate in the captive flock, suggesting<br />
inbreeding depression (Zoological Society of San Diego, unpubl.). The mean number of clutches<br />
produced per pair has also decreased from 2.50 ± 0.65 (SE) in 1996 to 0.87 ± 0.99 (SE) in 1999<br />
(Harvey et al. 2002) indicating that inbreeding may also be starting to affect fertility <strong>and</strong> reproductive<br />
outcomes of the „alalā.<br />
4.4.6 ‘Io (Buteo solitarius)<br />
The „io has two color morphs; dark phase birds are dark brown above <strong>and</strong> below, light phase birds<br />
are dark above <strong>and</strong> pale below with dark streaking. Intermediates occur between the two extremes.<br />
Females are larger than males, <strong>and</strong> often weigh approximately 25 percent more than males. The head<br />
is dark in adults <strong>and</strong> light in immatures (Mitchell et al. 2005, HAS 2005).<br />
The „io is endemic to the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s, although historically it is known only from the Isl<strong>and</strong> of<br />
Hawai„i. The first quantitative survey of „io abundance was carried out from 1980-1982 <strong>and</strong> yielded<br />
a population estimate of about 2,700 birds (Griffin 1989). To update <strong>and</strong> address questions about the<br />
validity of the population estimates, the Service initiated an isl<strong>and</strong>wide survey that estimated the<br />
population in 1993 at approximately 1,600 hawks (95 percent CI = 1,200 to 2,400) (Hall et al. 1997).<br />
A subsequent study in 1998 generated a population estimate of 1,457 individuals (95 percent CI =<br />
1,149-1,847) <strong>and</strong> a growth rate of 1.03 ± 0.04 SE, indicating a stable population (Klavitter et al.<br />
2003).<br />
As part of a reevaluation of the species‟ endangered status, a study conducted in 2007 estimated that<br />
3,239 hawks (95 percent CI = 2,610 - 3,868) were present in 1998 <strong>and</strong> 3,085 hawks (95 percent CI =<br />
2,496 to 3,680) were present in 2007. Similar to the 1998 study, no significant difference in densities<br />
was found among years at either regional or isl<strong>and</strong>wide scales, indicating a stable population. The<br />
twofold increase in population estimates was attributed to differences among studies in (1) the<br />
accuracy of distance estimation of „io sightings at count locations, (2) accounting for unobserved<br />
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hawk movement, <strong>and</strong> (3) the extent of area used for the extrapolation of mean densities (Gorresen et<br />
al. 2008).<br />
Gorresen et al. (2008) reports that habitat <strong>and</strong> region were significantly associated with „io density.<br />
Native-nonnative forest, mature native forest, mature native forest with grass understory, <strong>and</strong><br />
orchards generally support greater densities of „io than shrubl<strong>and</strong>, pioneer native forest, or urban<br />
habitats. However, densities in certain habitats showed considerable difference among regions. For<br />
example, native-exotic forest in Hāmākua had more than four times the „io density than similar<br />
habitats in Puna, <strong>and</strong> mature native forest in Kona also harbored markedly greater densities than<br />
those found in Puna. Data showed that Puna generally harbored lower „io numbers compared to other<br />
regions on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i (Gorresen et al. 2008).<br />
„Io occur only on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i from sea level to 8000 ft elevation. „Io occur in lowl<strong>and</strong><br />
nonnative forests, urban areas, agricultural l<strong>and</strong>s, pasturel<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> high-elevation native forests with<br />
both intact <strong>and</strong> degraded understory (Mitchell et al. 2005, Klavitter et al. 2003). During the winter,<br />
„io have been reported in subalpine māmane-naio forest, suggesting some seasonal movements<br />
(Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
„Io were found at the higher elevations of the HFU between 3,300-6,600 ft in montane wet „ōhi„a<br />
forest, mesic <strong>and</strong> dry koa/„ōhi„a forest, <strong>and</strong> montane wet „ōhi„a/Dicranopteris sp. forest <strong>and</strong><br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>s. As of 2007, densities of „io were 0.34 birds/mi 2 in mature forests with grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
0.3 birds/mi 2 in mature native forest. The average density for the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i is 0.21 + 0.02<br />
birds/mi 2 (Gorresen et al. 2008). „Io have been recorded nesting in the HFU (Klavitter et al. 2003).<br />
At the KFU, „io densities are 0.77 birds/mi 2 in mature forests with grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> at densities of<br />
0.42 birds/mi 2 in mature native forest (Gorresen, pers. comm.). „Io have been recorded nesting at all<br />
elevations of the KFU (Klavitter <strong>and</strong> Marzluff 2007).<br />
Of 51 observed nests, 86 percent occurred in native trees, with 80 percent of nests in „ōhi„a.<br />
Nonnative trees used for nesting include eucalyptus, ironwood, mango, coconut palm, <strong>and</strong><br />
macadamia (Klavitter 2000). Nests can be used for several years with nesting material added each<br />
breeding season (Griffin et al. 1998). Adult home ranges were estimated to be 1,000 ac <strong>and</strong> may<br />
overlap with adjacent home ranges (Gorresen, pers. comm.).<br />
Nestlings were fed birds (45 percent) <strong>and</strong> mammals (55 percent), consisting mainly of introduced<br />
species. The most commonly caught mammals were rats <strong>and</strong> house mice, while Japanese white-eye<br />
<strong>and</strong> common myna were the most common species of bird prey. Native or migratory birds recorded<br />
as prey for nestlings were „apapane, Hawai„i „amakihi, <strong>and</strong> kōlea (or Pacific golden plover) (Griffin<br />
et al. 1998).<br />
Nesting <strong>and</strong> foraging habitat loss is a significant threat to the species. The causes of this loss include<br />
urbanization, degradation of habitat due to grazing by ungulates, conversion of foraging habitat (e.g.,<br />
conversion of pasture to forestry plantations), invasive understory plants, <strong>and</strong> increasing fire<br />
frequency (Gorresen et al. 2008).<br />
Forest degradation by invasive plants, such as strawberry guava, can impact large areas of „io nesting<br />
<strong>and</strong> foraging habitat (Gorresen et al. 2008). In addition to concealing prey <strong>and</strong> making the understory<br />
unavailable to foraging hawks, dense st<strong>and</strong>s of introduced plants can suppress the establishment <strong>and</strong><br />
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growth of native species such as „ōhi„a, a preferred nesting tree (Griffin et al. 1998). Moreover, pigs<br />
can facilitate the dispersal of nonnative plants <strong>and</strong> can significantly damage „ōhi„a seedlings by their<br />
foraging activity. Strawberry guava in particular has the potential to invade <strong>and</strong> degrade up to<br />
36 percent of the „io breeding range (Gorresen et al. 2008).<br />
Introduced grasses have also altered natural fire regimes <strong>and</strong> ecosystem properties throughout much<br />
of Hawai„i. Invasive fire-adapted species have increased the frequency, intensity, <strong>and</strong> extent of<br />
wildfire, <strong>and</strong> contributed to declines in native tree cover <strong>and</strong> the expansion of grassl<strong>and</strong>s in many<br />
areas (Gorresen et al. 2008). Other possible limiting factors for the „io population include harassment<br />
of nesting birds <strong>and</strong> shooting of adults. However, the level of harassment <strong>and</strong> shooting is difficult to<br />
assess (USFWS 1984).<br />
Little supporting evidence that environmental contaminants, avian pox, avian malaria, or Toxoplasma<br />
gondii are limiting factors for the „io population currently exists (Griffin et al. 1998, Klavitter et al.<br />
2003). There is also little evidence that „io fledglings are preyed upon by introduced mammals such<br />
as rats, cats, <strong>and</strong> Indian mongooses (Griffin et al. 1998).<br />
The „io was listed as endangered on March 11, 1967, <strong>and</strong> a final recovery plan was released in 1984<br />
(Federal Register 2008a). The plan did not include specific delisting criteria; however, the primary<br />
objective in the plan was to „„ensure a self-sustaining „io population in the range of 1,500-2,500 adult<br />
birds in the wild, as distributed in 1983, <strong>and</strong> maintained in stable, secure habitat” (Federal Register<br />
2008a). Because these targets were met, the Service proposed reclassification of the „io from<br />
endangered to threatened status in August 1993, but this rule was not finalized. In August 2008, the<br />
Service proposed to remove the „io from the Federal list of endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened wildlife. This<br />
proposal is based on evidence that the species is broadly distributed throughout the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i,<br />
has been stable for at least 20 years, has large areas of habitat in protected status, <strong>and</strong> is able to nest<br />
<strong>and</strong> forage in altered habitats (Federal Register 2008a). A post-delisting monitoring plan has been<br />
drafted <strong>and</strong> public comments have been received. Delisting is currently under review.<br />
4.5 Other Native Hawaiian Forest Birds<br />
Native Hawaiian forest birds (nonlisted) found within the Hakalau Forest NWR are comprised of<br />
four families: Fringillidae (honeycreepers), Monarchidae (monarch flycatchers), Turdidae<br />
(thrushes), <strong>and</strong> Strigidae (true owls). The honeycreepers include the „i„iwi, common „amakihi, <strong>and</strong><br />
„apapane. The monarch flycatcher family is represented by the Hawai„i „elepaio, the thrush by the<br />
„ōma„o, <strong>and</strong> the true owl by the pueo. Most of these bird species are most abundant in native<br />
montane forests; however, the common „amakihi, Hawai„i „elepaio, <strong>and</strong> pueo are also found in<br />
nonnative forests <strong>and</strong> can be common at lower elevations (Camp et al. 2003, Spiegel et al. 2006,<br />
Woodworth et al. 2005, Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Native bird populations have been closely monitored <strong>and</strong> information on changes in native forest bird<br />
densities are available, particularly for North Hāmākua <strong>and</strong> the central windward region of Hawai„i.<br />
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Male <strong>and</strong> female „i„iwi are primarily vermillion red, with a black tail <strong>and</strong> wings, <strong>and</strong> a long, decurved<br />
pink bill. The juvenile is green with black spots <strong>and</strong> a shorter dusky bill, which becomes yellow then<br />
pink with age.<br />
The following isl<strong>and</strong> population estimates are based on Hawaiian Forest Bird Surveys (1976-1981):<br />
340,000 ± 12,000 (95 percent CI) individuals on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i (88 percent in Hāmākua),<br />
19,000 ± 2,000 (95 percent CI) individuals on east Maui, 180 ± 150 (95 percent CI) on west Maui,<br />
80 ± 65 (95 percent CI) individuals on Moloka„i, <strong>and</strong> 5,400 ± 500 (95 percent CI) in the Alaka„i<br />
Swamp on Kaua„i. Recent surveys (1996) suggest that O„ahu supports less than 50 birds. In 1988,<br />
two birds were detected on Moloka„i. On Kaua„i, populations declined after the 1992 hurricane, but<br />
changed little from 1994-2000. The overall population may be declining, but the species‟ wideranging<br />
foraging complicates population estimates <strong>and</strong> the determination of long-term trends<br />
(Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
From 1987-2000, a population of 285,422 + 1,267 (SE) „i„iwi was estimated to occur in the North<br />
Hāmākua study area. Of this total, 100,347 birds (35 percent) were predicted to occur within the<br />
HFU. „I„iwi mean density for the 14-year study period of surveys (1987-2000) within the HFU was<br />
8.5 birds per acre (SD = 9.27). „I„iwi populations did not show a positive or negative trend in density<br />
over the 14-year study period. However, a moderate increase in density did occur over the 24-year<br />
study period (1977-2000) (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
In the central windward region of Hawai„i, i„iwi were extirpated from the mid-elevation study areas<br />
<strong>and</strong> are possibly in decline in Kūlani-Keauhou. Declines of „i„iwi have been observed elsewhere<br />
within mid-elevation habitat suggesting that their ranges are contracting westward <strong>and</strong> upslope in the<br />
central windward region (Gorresen et al. 2005).<br />
„I„iwi density decreased at the high elevation site Kūlani-Keauhou between 1995-2003 (4.0-3.4 birds<br />
per acre). However, inter-annual densities were fairly variable <strong>and</strong> differences may reflect local<br />
movement in response to nectar availability instead (Ralph <strong>and</strong> Fancy 1995). At the Mauna Loa<br />
Strip, „i„iwi were present at 0.04 birds per acre <strong>and</strong> did not exhibit increasing or decreasing trends. At<br />
lower elevations, „i„iwi densities declined more than tenfold from 1977-1994 from 1.2-0.09 birds per<br />
acre in the „Ōla„a study area <strong>and</strong> were not present at the East Rift (Gorresen et al. 2005).<br />
At the HFU, densities of „i„iwi were highest in upper elevation (greater than 4,900 ft) in mesic <strong>and</strong><br />
wet koa/„ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a forests of high stature <strong>and</strong> closed canopy. „I„iwi abundances were<br />
positively associated with koa, presence of banana poka <strong>and</strong> elevation, <strong>and</strong> negatively associated<br />
with grass, nonnative vegetation, <strong>and</strong> presence of tree fern. The positive association with P.<br />
mollissima may be due to the use of its copious nectar by „i„iwi (Fancy <strong>and</strong> Ralph 1998). „I„iwi<br />
occurred at low densities in heterogeneous habitats along the grass-forest interface <strong>and</strong> in midelevation<br />
forest.<br />
At the KFU, „i„iwi are found above 4,900 ft (Atkinson et al. 2005). Density estimates <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
preferences in this area have not been studied.<br />
The „i„iwi is a common forest bird in mesic <strong>and</strong> wet koa-„ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a forest above 4,900 ft. The<br />
habitat on the windward slopes of Hawai„i receive 27.6-39.4 in of rainfall annually. „I„iwi are highly<br />
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dependent on „ōhi„a for food <strong>and</strong> nesting. „I„iwi spend up to 80-90 percent of their time foraging on<br />
„ōhi„a for nectar <strong>and</strong> insects. As they are primarily nectarivorous; the nectar of „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> māmane<br />
make up a major portion of their diet. The species also feeds on foliage insects <strong>and</strong> spiders (Ralph<br />
<strong>and</strong> Fancy 1995). Other plant species used for foraging on nectar <strong>and</strong> insects include koa, naio, kōlea,<br />
„ākala, alani, kanawao, koki„o ke„oke„o, <strong>and</strong> native lobelioids. Banana poka nectar is a major food<br />
source in some areas (Fancy <strong>and</strong> Ralph 1998).<br />
Breeding season on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> begins October-November, with peak breeding between<br />
February-June. Breeding coincides with seasonal availability of „ōhi„a nectar. Both sexes defend<br />
small nesting territories <strong>and</strong> may sometimes defend individual „ōhi„a trees as nectar resources. While<br />
„i„iwi are dependent on „ōhi„a for feeding <strong>and</strong> nesting, „i„iwi also serve as important pollinators of<br />
„ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> native lobeliods.<br />
„I‟iwi distribution range is restricted mostly to elevations greater than 4,100 ft because of loss <strong>and</strong><br />
destruction of native forests <strong>and</strong> presence of cold-intolerant Culex mosquitoes that transmit avian<br />
diseases at lower elevations (Scott et al. 1986, van Riper et al. 1986, Atkinson et al. 1995). However,<br />
„i„iwi are known to migrate to lower elevations during the summer. „I„iwi are very susceptible to<br />
avian malaria <strong>and</strong> avian pox. Mortality of experimentally infected „i„iwi is high, with estimates at<br />
90 percent (Atkinson et al. 1995). Individuals infected with pox also are more likely to be infected<br />
with malaria. The KFU has a high prevalence of malaria <strong>and</strong> avian pox, <strong>and</strong> data shows that few<br />
„i„iwi survive the exposure (Atkinson et al. 2005). The presence of pigs in the KFU <strong>and</strong> limited areas<br />
of the HFU may also spread malaria as the compaction of soils <strong>and</strong> felling <strong>and</strong> hollowing of tree<br />
ferns by pigs create favored breeding sites for Culex mosquitoes.„I„iwi fledglings may also be<br />
susceptible to predation by rats <strong>and</strong> cats found in the units (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
4.5.2 Common ‘Amakihi (Hemignathus virens)<br />
Male common „amakihi are bright yellow-green with black lores. Females are generally similar, but<br />
duller. All „amakihi have decurved bills. The immatures are drab gray <strong>and</strong> may lack dark lores <strong>and</strong><br />
some have faint wingbars.<br />
The Hawaiian Forest Bird Survey (1976-1983) estimated the Hawai„i „amakihi population at<br />
870,000 ± 5,612 (95 percent CI) individuals on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, 44,000 ± 1,786 (95 percent CI)<br />
birds on east Maui, 3,000 ± 408 (95 percent CI) on west Maui, <strong>and</strong> 1,800 ± 357 (95 percent CI)<br />
individuals on Moloka„i. Populations on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> Maui are probably stable; the<br />
Moloka„i population is probably declining (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
A population of 200,760 + 990 (SE) common „amakihi was estimated to occur within the north<br />
Hāmākua study area, of which 51,600 birds (26 percent) were predicted to occur within the HFU<br />
(Camp et al. 2003). The mean density of common „amakihi for the 14-year study period of surveys<br />
within the HFU (1987-2000) was 5.2 birds per acre (SD = 7.63). Common „amakihi populations<br />
within <strong>and</strong> near the HFU did not show a significantly positive or negative trend in density from 1987-<br />
2000. However, „amakihi density increased over the 24-year study period (1977-2000). From 1999-<br />
2007, the population of common „amakihi at the HFU was also stable or increasing. The population<br />
was estimated to potentially have increased at a mean rate of 2.5 percent per year (95 percent CI -7.9-<br />
12.9 percent) (Hawai„i Forest Database 2005). Common „amakihi demonstrated low within-year but<br />
moderately high between-year variability in density.<br />
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In the central windward region of Hawai„i, common „amakihi trends are stable or increasing at the<br />
upper elevation study areas such as Kūlani-Keauhou <strong>and</strong> the Mauna Loa Strip; however, they are<br />
trending downward at lower elevation sites such as „Ōla„a <strong>and</strong> East Rift. Between 1995-2003,<br />
common „amakihi density increased at Kūlani-Keauhou from 1.3-1.6 birds per acre. From 1977-<br />
1994, common „amakihi showed a stable trend at the Mauna Loa Strip (1.8 birds per acre). Common<br />
„amakihi were absent at „Ōla„a throughout the survey period (1977-1994) <strong>and</strong> nearly absent at East<br />
Rift (0.008 birds per acre from 1979-1994) (Gorresen et al. 2005).<br />
Elevational changes in distribution in the common „amakihi have also been documented. While<br />
„amakihi are uncommon lower than 1,640 ft (Scott et al. 1986), range expansion of the „amakihi to<br />
lower elevations has been documented in the Puna district located on the southeastern corner of<br />
Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>. Common „amakihi are the most common native birds in these areas of active malaria<br />
transmission (Spiegel et al. 2006, Woodworth et al. 2005).<br />
At the HFU, common „amakihi attained highest densities in the higher elevation portion of the unit<br />
above 4,900 ft. These densities occurred in a range of habitats including grassl<strong>and</strong>, closed canopy<br />
forest with a koa component, banana poka-infested st<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> heterogeneous habitats along the<br />
forest margins. The species were absent or occurred at low densities in the wet forest with tree fern<br />
<strong>and</strong> matted fern. Common „amakihi densities were positively associated with koa <strong>and</strong> species<br />
richness, <strong>and</strong> negatively associated with nonnative vegetation <strong>and</strong> rainfall (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
Common „amakihi are found at the KFU <strong>and</strong> are present at all elevations (Atkinson et al. 2005).<br />
The common „amakihi is a year-round inhabitant of a wide range of native dry shrubl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> dry,<br />
mesic, <strong>and</strong> wet forests in montane <strong>and</strong> subalpine communities (Scott et al. 1986). The species is also<br />
a characteristic bird of „ōhi„a forests (Lindsey et al. 1998).<br />
Common „amakihi are generalized foragers that most often glean arthropods from the leaves,<br />
blossoms, twigs, branches, <strong>and</strong> less frequently from tree trunks of a variety of trees, ferns, <strong>and</strong><br />
shrubs. They feed on nectar predominately from the flowers of „ōhi„a, māmane, <strong>and</strong> native lobelias<br />
(Campanulaceae), but also forage on flowers of a number of other native <strong>and</strong> nonnative plants.<br />
Common „amakihi also eat fruit from native <strong>and</strong> nonnative plants, but predominately from pilo<br />
(Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Common „amakihi breed from December-July on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i (Lindsey et al.1998, van<br />
Riper 1987). In dryl<strong>and</strong> māmane-naio forest, māmane trees are the preferred nesting substrate; of<br />
174 nests, 88 percent were found in māmane trees <strong>and</strong> 12 percent were detected in naio (van Riper<br />
1987). In mesic <strong>and</strong> wet forests, „amakihi use „ōhi„a trees almost exclusively for nesting (Kern <strong>and</strong><br />
van Riper 1984).<br />
Common „amakihi are range limited because of loss <strong>and</strong> destruction of native forests, the presence of<br />
malaria at lower elevations, <strong>and</strong> predation by mammals. Mortality of „amakihi experimentally<br />
infected with the malaria parasite was 65 percent. While „amakihi are uncommon under 1,640 ft,<br />
range expansion of the species to lower elevations has been documented at Puna, where they are the<br />
most common native birds in these areas of active malaria transmission (Spiegel et al. 2006,<br />
Woodworth et al. 2005). Common „amakihi are also found at lower elevations in the KFU (Atkinson<br />
et al. 2005). Common „amakihi in these low-elevation areas show malaria prevalence levels of up to<br />
80 percent <strong>and</strong> were also more likely to be infected with pox (Atkinson et al. 2005, Woodworth et al.<br />
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2005). However, individuals that have chronic malaria infections have had similar or higher<br />
reproductive success than noninfected individuals (Kilpatrick et al. 2006).<br />
Common „amakihi adults <strong>and</strong> nestlings are also susceptible to predation by mammal predators<br />
(Lindsey et al. 1998). It has been suggested that predator control in mid-elevations may increase the<br />
survivorship of malaria-resistant individuals, resulting in the persistence of native bird populations in<br />
areas of active malaria transmission (Kilpatrick 2006, V<strong>and</strong>erWerf <strong>and</strong> Smith 2002).<br />
4.5.3 ‘Apapane (Himatione sanguinea)<br />
The „apapane is a small, crimson bird with black wings <strong>and</strong> tail. The immatures are like the adults,<br />
except the crimson is replaced by a dull dark brown. The black bill of the „apapane is slightly curved.<br />
„Apapane were formerly found on all forested isl<strong>and</strong>s in the Hawaiian Archipelago to sea level, but<br />
are now restricted to higher elevations. Isl<strong>and</strong> population estimates based on Hawaiian Forest Bird<br />
Surveys (1976-1981) are 1,080,000 ± 25,000 (95 percent CI) individuals on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i,<br />
110,000 ± 9,000 individuals on Maui on Haleakalā (86 percent), 39,000 ± 5,000 individuals on<br />
Moloka„i, 540 ± 213 individuals on Lāna„i, <strong>and</strong> 30,000 ± 1,500 individuals on Kaua„i. On Kaua„i,<br />
populations declined after the 1992 hurricane, but have significantly increased since. The 2000<br />
Kaua„i Forest Bird Survey estimated the population at 64,972 ± 2,014 (SE) individuals. „Apapane are<br />
now rare or absent on Moloka„i <strong>and</strong> Lāna„i (Fancy <strong>and</strong> Ralph 1997, Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Recent surveys estimate that approximately 255,900 ( 1,037 SE) „apapane occur in the north<br />
Hāmākua study area. The HFU currently protects 29 percent of the „apapane population in the study<br />
area (approximately 75,200 „apapane). An increase in „apapane density was observed for the 24-year<br />
study period (1977-2000); no trends in „apapane densities were detected for the 14-year study period<br />
(1987-2000). Mean density of „apapane in 1977 was 1.6 birds per acre <strong>and</strong> increased to 4.0 birds per<br />
acre (SD = 5.61) for the 14-year study period within the HFU (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
In the central windward region of Hawai„i, „apapane were ubiquitous <strong>and</strong> showed increasing or stable<br />
trends at the higher elevations. At the Kūlani-Keauhou study area, „apapane were observed at an<br />
average density of 6.7 birds per acre in 1972-1975, <strong>and</strong> 7.8 birds per acre in 1977. Densities<br />
significantly increased from the 1990s to 2000s (9.9-11.5 birds per acre). At the Mauna Loa Strip,<br />
„apapane occurred at stable densities of 0.1 birds per acre throughout the study period (Gorresen et<br />
al. 2005).<br />
At the lower elevation sites, „apapane numbers have declined. In the „Ōla„a study area, „apapane<br />
densities declined from 7.8 birds per acre in 1977 <strong>and</strong> 2.8 birds per acre in 1994. The East Rift area<br />
also exhibited significant declines from 4.1 to 2.6 birds per acre between the 1979-1993/1994 survey<br />
periods (Gorresen et al. 2005).<br />
„Apapane are found throughout HFU. Densities of „apapane are highest in upper-elevation koa-„ōhi„a<br />
<strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a forests of high stature <strong>and</strong> closed canopy, <strong>and</strong> occur at low densities in grassl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
heterogeneous habitats along the grass-forest interface, <strong>and</strong> in mid- to low-elevation forest (Camp et<br />
al. 2003). „Apapane are found at all elevations in the KFU (Atkinson et al. 2005), although densities<br />
have not been estimated.<br />
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Occurring primarily at elevations greater than 4,100 ft, „apapane occur in mesic <strong>and</strong> wet forests<br />
dominated by „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa. However, they are also known to migrate to lower elevations during<br />
the summer. Occupied habitats also support kōlea, naio, <strong>and</strong> hāpu„u. Māmane is common in highelevation<br />
foraging habitat (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
„Apapane are primarily nectarivorous <strong>and</strong> the species is an important „ōhi„a polinator. Their<br />
widespread seasonal movements, particularly from June-August, occur in response to „ōhi„a flower<br />
availability (Macmillen <strong>and</strong> Carpenter 1980, Ralph <strong>and</strong> Fancy 1995). „Apapane also eat insects,<br />
which they glean from outer foliage <strong>and</strong> twigs in the upper- <strong>and</strong> mid-canopy. Juvenile „apapane favor<br />
arthropod prey more than adults possibly due to their higher protein/calorie requirements (Carothers<br />
2001). „Apapane often forage in conspecific flocks, which can overwhelm „i„iwi <strong>and</strong> „ākohekohe,<br />
which often defend flower-rich trees (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Birds in breeding condition may be found in any month of the year, but peak breeding occurs<br />
February - June. The nest is usually a cup on a high terminal branch of „ōhi„a, but nests have also<br />
been found in tree cavities <strong>and</strong> lava tubes, <strong>and</strong> on upper branches of koa, ilex, <strong>and</strong> Cibotium tree<br />
ferns (Fancy <strong>and</strong> Ralph 1997).<br />
„Apapane are susceptible to the same factors that threaten other native Hawaiian forest birds<br />
including loss <strong>and</strong> degradation of habitat, disease, <strong>and</strong> predation by mammals. Disease is of<br />
particular concern as „apapane have the highest prevalence of avian malaria of all native forest birds<br />
(Samuel et al 2007, Atkinson et al. 2005, USFWS 2005). Because „apapane typically undergo<br />
altitudinal migrations to follow „ōhi„a bloom, the species might be expected to receive higher<br />
exposure to this disease than other more resident species such as „amakihi <strong>and</strong> Hawai„i „elepaio. Five<br />
of eight (63 percent) juvenile „apapane experimentally infected with malaria suffered mortality<br />
(Yorinks <strong>and</strong> Atkinson 2000). Individuals infected with avian pox also are more likely to be infected<br />
with malaria. At low elevations of the KFU, malaria infection prevalence was recorded as high as<br />
100 percent for „apapane. However, „apapane do breed in mid-elevation forests <strong>and</strong> have nesting<br />
success similar to nests at higher elevation, suggesting that some individuals may be developing<br />
disease resistance (Atkinson et al. 2005, Mitchell et al. 2005). The high mobility of „apapane coupled<br />
with their high susceptibility to the parasite also make them exceptional reservoir hosts for the<br />
parasite.<br />
4.5.4 Hawai‘i ‘Elepaio (Chasiempis s<strong>and</strong>wichensis)<br />
The Hawai„i „elepaio is a monarch flycatcher endemic to the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. The species has<br />
highly variable plumage. The Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> subspecies is morphologically variable <strong>and</strong> shows the<br />
most dramatic differences between sexes compared to other subspecies. In general, adults are<br />
primarily brown, with white <strong>and</strong> chestnut streaks below. Immature Hawai„i „elepaio are dull gray<br />
brown, with gray below, <strong>and</strong> have buffy wingbars. Male <strong>and</strong> female „elepaio have a 2 year delay in<br />
plumage maturation, meaning they do not acquire their adults plumage until they are 3 years old. As<br />
the age of the bird increases, the amount of white increases at the throat, wing covert, rump, <strong>and</strong> tail.<br />
Due to variations in plumage color, authorities have described additional subspecies on Hawai„i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> (C. s. ridgwayi <strong>and</strong> C. s. bryani), but these are not widely accepted (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf 1999).<br />
Currently, two additional subspecies (C. s. sclateri <strong>and</strong> C. s. ibidis) are recognized on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
Kaua„i <strong>and</strong> O„ahu, respectively. Chasiempis s<strong>and</strong>wichensis originally colonized the State between<br />
1.5-1.9 million years ago. Interisl<strong>and</strong> song playbacks by V<strong>and</strong>erWerf (2007) suggest that the<br />
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passerine first arrived to Kaua„i <strong>and</strong> was subsequently blown to Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> then O„ahu after<br />
different storms. The entire species is absent from other isl<strong>and</strong>s in the State. It is likely that these<br />
subspecies may eventually be separated into three species due to genetic evidence <strong>and</strong> plumage<br />
differences (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf 2007).<br />
The „elepaio is a nonmigratory, highly curious bird. Pairs are monogamous <strong>and</strong> territorial throughout<br />
the year. The young remain with their parents for 9 months, during which time they are taught<br />
foraging behaviors. After leaving the nest, the young remain within 0.6 mi of their parents.<br />
The „elepaio was given its name due to the sound of its song. Males sing to defend their territory <strong>and</strong><br />
attract mates. This song is generally answered by the female‟s two-note call. Although „elepaio are<br />
territorial during the entire year, this behavior is more prevalent immediately before <strong>and</strong> during nest<br />
construction. As a result, they do not generally call during the nonbreeding season. Compared to<br />
subspecies on the other isl<strong>and</strong>s, the Hawai„i „elepaio has the most phases <strong>and</strong> frequencies in their<br />
calls (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf 2007).<br />
Currently, Hawai„i „elepaio can be found in forested areas above 2,000 ft. Known populations occur<br />
in Kohala <strong>and</strong> on the western slope of Mauna Kea. The estimated isl<strong>and</strong>wide population is about<br />
150,000 individuals (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Approximately 138,900 ( 605 SE) Hawai„i „elepaio occur in the North Hāmākua study area. Of this<br />
total, roughly 27 percent of the population (or 38,000 birds) occur in the HFU. The primary<br />
concentration within the study area occurs in the southerly portion of the upper elevation forest, just<br />
south of the Refuge. Surveys conducted during a 24-year study period (1977- 2000) between the<br />
months of February-July resulted in 5,537 „elepaio observations. During a 14-year study period<br />
(1987-2000), the mean density of „elepaio specifically within the HFU was 2.57 birds per 2.47 acre.<br />
No trends in density were observed during either of these study periods (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
Higher densities of „elepaio occur in upper-elevation, closed-canopy, high-stature forests compared<br />
to the lower degraded, open forests. More specifically, „elepaio densities were positively influenced<br />
by „ōhi„a, high-stature forests, <strong>and</strong> elevation. In contrast, variables negatively associated with density<br />
include grass, open or sparse canopy, midstature forest, presence of matted ferns, banana poka,<br />
Psidium, slope, temperature, <strong>and</strong> rainfall (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
Except for the O„ahu „elepaio, this species appears to be less affected by human disturbance than<br />
most native Hawaiian birds due to their high adaptability. „Elepaio are able to utilize a variety of<br />
habitats, employ various behaviors to search for <strong>and</strong> capture prey, <strong>and</strong> consume a wide range of<br />
invertebrates. Foraging techniques range from gleaning to hanging <strong>and</strong> aerial hawking. „Elepaio are<br />
also able to survive in both native <strong>and</strong> nonnative forests from dense rainforests to dry, open<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong>s in a wide range of elevations (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf 1998, 2007). Though avian disease is a<br />
concern for Hawai„i „elepaio as well, they have also shown to have a greater immunity to avian<br />
diseases compared to other native Hawaiian forest birds. Hawai„i „elepaio showed recovery 4-years<br />
after an outbreak of the pox virus at the HFU in 1992 (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf 1998). However, recent evidence<br />
indicates that the species‟ low -elevation range may be decreasing on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> (Camp et al.<br />
2003).<br />
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Loss <strong>and</strong> degradation of habitat is an important factor in the population status of the „elepaio<br />
(V<strong>and</strong>erWerf 1993). In addition, disease <strong>and</strong> predation by mammals (especially rats) also threaten<br />
populations. The results of ungulate <strong>and</strong> small mammal control, habitat restoration, habitat<br />
monitoring, <strong>and</strong> disease studies could help to sustain existing populations (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
4.5.5 ‘Ōma‘o (Myadestes obscurus)<br />
The „ōma„o is one of five species of Hawaiian thrushes (Turdidae). Like all adult Hawaiian thrushes,<br />
„ōma„o have drab olive-brown <strong>and</strong> gray plumage. Immature birds are heavily scalloped with buff on<br />
the wings <strong>and</strong> breast. „Ōma„o often perch silently for long periods <strong>and</strong> are more often detected by<br />
their song. Males perform a flight-song display known as “skylarking”.<br />
The „ōma„o is endemic to the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. „Ōma„o primarily occur in two populations on the<br />
eastern <strong>and</strong> southern slopes of the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i at elevations greater than 3,300 ft. A third,<br />
smaller population occurs in alpine scrub habitat between 6,500-9,750 ft elevation. Currently, „ōma„o<br />
occupy an estimated 30 percent of their former range, which historically included habitats from<br />
1,000-9,750 ft elevation. Bird surveys from 1976-1983 estimated the population at<br />
170,000 individuals. Based on more recent surveys, the populations appear stable <strong>and</strong> may be<br />
increasing in habitats below 3,450 ft (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Approximately 57,500 ( 191 SE) „ōma„o occur in the North Hāmākua study area. The HFU<br />
currently protects 29 percent of the „ōma„o population in the study area (approximately<br />
16,900 „ōma„o) <strong>and</strong> no trends in „ōma„o densities were detected for either the 24-year (1977-2000) or<br />
14-year (1987-2000) study periods. „Ōma„o occurred at a density of 0.7 birds per acre (SD = 1.22) at<br />
the HFU over the 14-year study period (Camp et al. 2003).<br />
„Ōma„o may be declining throughout the central windward region of Hawai„i. „Ōma„o at the Kūlani-<br />
Keauhou study area significantly declined from the 1990s-2000s (1.1-0.8 birds per acre). Moreover,<br />
higher densities of 1.1-1.4 birds per acre were previously observed during the 1972-1975 <strong>and</strong> 1977<br />
surveys, respectively (Gorresen et al. 2005).<br />
„Ōma„o appear to have recolonized the Mauna Loa Strip study area in the late 1970s as the species<br />
was recorded as absent or rare in prior surveys conducted in the 1940s <strong>and</strong> early 1970s. However, the<br />
density of „ōma„o appears to have significantly decreased shortly after 1977, after which it<br />
maintained fairly stable, if low, densities (0.07-0.004 birds per acre).<br />
In the East Rift study area, „ōma„o densities decreased from 0.6 birds per acre in 1979 to 0.4 birds<br />
per acre during the 1993/1994 survey periods. At the „Ōla„a study area, „ōma„o densities during the<br />
1977 <strong>and</strong> 1994 surveys were not significantly different (1.64 birds/2.47 ac in 1977, 0.77 birds/2.47 ac<br />
from 1992-1994). However, the highly variable densities of „ōma„o observed over the 4 years of<br />
survey in the „Ōla„a study area may act to conceal trends.<br />
„Ōma„o are found at their highest densities in the wet forests at high elevations within the HFU.<br />
However, „ōma„o also occur at lower densities at mid-elevations <strong>and</strong> in open <strong>and</strong> drier habitats of the<br />
Refuge (Camp et at. 2003). „Ōma„o disappeared from the Kona district during the early part of the<br />
20 th century (Ralph <strong>and</strong> Fancy 1994b) <strong>and</strong> are not present at the KFU. „Ōma„o occur in mesic <strong>and</strong><br />
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wet montane „ōhi„a or mixed „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa forests in the Hāmākua, Ka„ū, <strong>and</strong> Kīlauea districts<br />
(Mitchell et al. 20005).<br />
„Ōma„o have a diet of primarily native <strong>and</strong> introduced fruits, supplemented by invertebrates. Food<br />
plants include „ōlapa, kōlea, kāwa„u, naio, pilo, pūkiawe, „ōhelo, <strong>and</strong> „ākala. In the small alpine scrub<br />
population on Mauna Loa, pūkiawe, „ōhelo, kūkaenēnē, <strong>and</strong> „a„ali„i are consumed (USFWS 2005).<br />
The birds also forage opportunistically for seasonally available food items. Invertebrate prey items<br />
include caterpillars (Lepidoptera), spiders (Araneida), beetles (Coleoptera), <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> snails<br />
(Gastropoda) (Wakelee et al. 1999).<br />
Breeding activity of the „ōma„o extends from January-November, with nesting peaking from April-<br />
July. Nest sites are highly variable <strong>and</strong> include tree ferns; natural true cavities, cavity-like spaces<br />
(open cavities), ledges, niches, <strong>and</strong> natural scars in „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa trees; <strong>and</strong> trunk <strong>and</strong> trunk or<br />
branch forks in „ōhi„a, koa, <strong>and</strong> naio trees. Live, dead, <strong>and</strong> partially dead trees are all used as nest<br />
sites. Birds in the high-elevation Mauna Loa population apparently nest on the ground in lava<br />
formations or in lava tubes (Wakelee et al. 1999). Both sexes defend small nesting territories <strong>and</strong><br />
have a mean home range size of 0.9 0.1 ac (Ralph <strong>and</strong> Fancy 1994b). Fledglings remain in their<br />
natal territories for 4-6 months after fledging. A male-biased sex-ratio exists, but its significance to<br />
populations is unknown (Fancy et al. 2001).<br />
„Ōma„o are susceptible to the same factors that threaten other native Hawaiian forest birds, including<br />
loss <strong>and</strong> degradation of habitat, predation by mammals, <strong>and</strong> disease. „Ōma„o occur at lower densities<br />
in degraded habitat likely because pigs <strong>and</strong> other ungulates destroy important food plants <strong>and</strong><br />
degrade habitat. „Ōma„o nests are very accessible <strong>and</strong> are therefore vulnerable to predation by rats<br />
<strong>and</strong> native raptors. The prevalence of disease (malaria <strong>and</strong> avian pox) in tested areas is low, <strong>and</strong><br />
„ōma„o from low elevations exposed to malaria recovered quickly (Atkinson et al. 2001), suggesting<br />
a greater resistance to disease compared to other native forest birds. However, the disappearance of<br />
populations from lower elevations has been the pattern of decline noted in other Hawaiian birds<br />
susceptible to mosquito-borne diseases (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
4.5.6 Pueo (Asio flammeus s<strong>and</strong>wichensis)<br />
The pueo is an endemic subspecies of the nearly p<strong>and</strong>emic short-eared owl. The adult is brown <strong>and</strong><br />
buffy white <strong>and</strong> ventrally streaked with darker brown. The eyes are yellow <strong>and</strong> the bill is black.<br />
Unlike most owls, pueo are diurnal, though nocturnal or crepuscular activity has also been<br />
documented. Pueo are commonly seen hovering or soaring over open areas.<br />
The pueo is found on all the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s from sea level-8,000 ft. There have been no<br />
surveys to estimate the population of the Hawaiian short-eared owl. The species was widespread at<br />
the end of the 19 th century but is thought to be declining (Mostello 1996, Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Pueo occupy a variety of habitats, including wet <strong>and</strong> dry forests, but are most common in open<br />
habitats such as grassl<strong>and</strong>s, shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> montane parkl<strong>and</strong>s, including urban areas <strong>and</strong> those<br />
actively managed for conservation (Mitchell et al. 2005). Their relatively recent establishment on<br />
Hawai„i may have been tied to the rats that Polynesians brought to the isl<strong>and</strong>s. In Hawai„i, pellet<br />
analyses indicate that rodents, birds, <strong>and</strong> insects respectively are their most common prey. Birds<br />
depredated by pueo have included passerines, seabirds, <strong>and</strong> shorebirds.<br />
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Little information is available on the impact of pueo predation on populations of native birds. The<br />
pueo has been implicated as a predator of nestlings of various endangered bird species in Hawai„i<br />
such as the „ākohekohe (VanGelder et al. 2001) <strong>and</strong> Maui parrotbill on Maui (Mounce 2008), palila<br />
on Hawai„i (Pratt et al. 1998), <strong>and</strong> puaiohi on Kaua„i (Snetsinger 2005). Pueo are also known to prey<br />
upon „apapane, common „amakihi, „i„iwi, <strong>and</strong> kōlea (Snetsinger et al. 1994).<br />
Little is known about the breeding biology of the ground nesting pueo, but nests have been found<br />
throughout the year. Nests are constructed by females <strong>and</strong> are comprised of simple scrapes in the<br />
ground lined with grasses <strong>and</strong> feather down. Females also perform all incubating <strong>and</strong> brooding, while<br />
males feed females <strong>and</strong> defend nests. The young may fledge from nest on foot before they are able to<br />
fly <strong>and</strong> depend on their parents for approximately 2 months (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
At the HFU, pueo are found only in the open areas <strong>and</strong> pastures of the reserve (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
The pueo is rare in the KFU of the Hakalau Forest NWR (Ball, pers. comm.).<br />
Similar to other native Hawaiian birds, loss <strong>and</strong> degradation of habitat, predation by mammals, <strong>and</strong><br />
disease threaten pueo. Pueo appear particularly sensitive to habitat loss <strong>and</strong> fragmentation, as they<br />
require relatively large tracts of grassl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> are ground nesters. Ground nesters are more<br />
susceptible to the increased predation pressure that is typical within fragmented habitats <strong>and</strong> near<br />
rural developments (Wiggins et al. 2006). These nesting habits make them increasingly vulnerable to<br />
predation by rats, cats, <strong>and</strong> Indian mongooses (Mostello 1996, Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Mortality of the pueo on Kaua„i has been attributed to the “sick owl syndrome,” which may be<br />
related to pesticide poisoning or food shortages. They may be vulnerable to the ingestion of poisoned<br />
rodents. However, in the one study conducted, there was no evidence that organochlorine,<br />
organophosphorus, or carbamate pesticides caused mortality in the Hawaiian short-eared owl. Other<br />
causes of death on Maui, O„ahu, <strong>and</strong> Kaua„i have been attributed to trauma (apparently vehicular<br />
collisions), emaciation, <strong>and</strong> infectious disease (pasteurellosis) (Work <strong>and</strong> Hale 1996). However, their<br />
persistence in lowl<strong>and</strong>, nonnative <strong>and</strong> rangel<strong>and</strong> habitats suggests that they may be less vulnerable to<br />
extinction than other native birds, especially because they may be resistant to avian malaria <strong>and</strong> avian<br />
pox (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
4.6 Endangered Hawaiian Waterbirds<br />
The Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong> archipelago supports six species of endangered waterbirds: the koloa maoli,<br />
„alae ke„oke„o, „alae „ula, ae„o, nēnē, <strong>and</strong> Laysan duck. All of these species, except for the nēnē,<br />
require wetl<strong>and</strong>s for their survival. As a result, the loss <strong>and</strong> degradation of Hawai„i‟s coastal wetl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
have been a significant factor in the decline of four endemic waterbirds in the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
From 1780-1980, the area of coastal wetl<strong>and</strong> habitat in the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s declined by<br />
31 percent. Coastal wetl<strong>and</strong>s were filled for commercial, residential, <strong>and</strong> resort developments <strong>and</strong><br />
drained for agriculture. These developments have also degraded the water quality of the wetl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
(Evans et al. 1994, USFWS 2005a). Predation by introduced animals, disease, <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />
contaminants have also contributed to the population decline of Hawai„i‟s endangered waterbirds.<br />
Furthermore, nonnative plants, such as mangroves <strong>and</strong> grasses, have encroached on wetl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
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altered natural processes. Key threats to the nēnē (including habitat loss, behavioral problems, <strong>and</strong><br />
inbreeding depression) are discussed in detail below (USFWS 2004).<br />
No critical habitat has been designated for any of Hawai„i‟s endangered waterbirds (USFWS 2005a).<br />
The general recovery objectives for the endangered waterbirds (except the Laysan duck), as<br />
described in the Second Draft Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for Hawaiian Waterbirds (2005a), are the following:<br />
stabilize or increase species populations to greater than 2,000 individuals; establish multiple selfsustaining<br />
breeding populations throughout their historical ranges; protect <strong>and</strong> manage core <strong>and</strong><br />
supporting wetl<strong>and</strong>s Statewide; eliminate or control the threat of introduced predators, diseases, <strong>and</strong><br />
contaminants; <strong>and</strong> remove the isl<strong>and</strong>wide threat of the koloa maoli hybridizing with mallards.<br />
Specific recovery objectives for the nēnē are outlined in the Draft Revised Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for the<br />
Nēnē (2004) <strong>and</strong> are discussed below.<br />
4.6.1 Nēnē (Branta s<strong>and</strong>vicensis)<br />
The nēnē is a medium-sized goose endemic to the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Adult males <strong>and</strong> females are<br />
mostly dark brown or sepia with a black face <strong>and</strong> crown, cream-colored cheeks, <strong>and</strong> a buff neck with<br />
black streaks. Females are smaller than males. Compared to other geese, nēnē are more terrestrial <strong>and</strong><br />
have longer legs <strong>and</strong> less webbing between their toes; these differences likely facilitate nēnē walking<br />
on lava flows. The nēnē was listed as endangered in March 1967 <strong>and</strong> is the State bird of Hawai„i.<br />
In 1951, the wild nēnē population was estimated at 30 individuals. All populations since then have<br />
been or are currently being supplemented by captive-bred birds. As of 2009, the population was<br />
estimated at between 1,877-1,927 individuals, with 446 birds on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, 416 birds on<br />
Maui, 850-900 birds on Kaua„i, <strong>and</strong> 165 birds on Moloka„i (USFWS unpubl).<br />
At the HFU, a total of 10 adults <strong>and</strong> 25 goslings were introduced in 1996, 1997, 2002, <strong>and</strong> 2003. The<br />
population of nēnē has increased from 10 in 1996-1997 to approximately 200 in 2007. The number of<br />
known nests has increased from 1 to 38, <strong>and</strong> 40 mated pairs of nēnē were observed in 2007. Nēnē are<br />
found at the higher elevations of the HFU around the cattle ponds <strong>and</strong> are frequently seen at the<br />
administrative site (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). Adult nēnē disperse from the HFU typically by the end of<br />
May <strong>and</strong> have been regularly sighted at Kahuku (HAVO), Kūlani, Pōhakuloa Training Area (PTA),<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pu„u Anahulu. Several Hakalau individuals are also known to seasonally use Kapāpala Ranch<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Kīlauea region of HAVO. Nēnē can commonly be found in the pastures at the junction of<br />
Keanakolu Road, the Mauna Kea Summit Road, <strong>and</strong> Saddle Road (USFWS, unpubl.). Nēnē do not<br />
occur on the KFU (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
Nēnē historically occurred in lowl<strong>and</strong> dry forests, shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, grassl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> montane dry forests<br />
<strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong>s. Habitat preferences of contemporary populations are likely biased as preferences<br />
may be influenced by the location of release sites of captive-bred birds. Birds currently use a wide<br />
variety of habitats including coastal dune vegetation <strong>and</strong> nonnative grassl<strong>and</strong>s (e.g., golf courses,<br />
pastures, rural areas), sparsely vegetated low- <strong>and</strong> high-elevation lava flows, mid-elevation native<br />
<strong>and</strong> nonnative shrubl<strong>and</strong>, early successional cinderfall, cinder deserts, native alpine grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
shrubl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> open native <strong>and</strong> nonnative alpine shrubl<strong>and</strong>-woodl<strong>and</strong> community interfaces. Nēnē<br />
can be found from sea level to 7,900 ft (Mitchell et al. 2005, USFWS 2004). Seasonally, nēnē have<br />
been known to use areas up to 8,900 ft at HAVO/Kapāpala.<br />
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Nēnē graze <strong>and</strong> browse on the leaves, seeds, flowers, <strong>and</strong> fruits of at least 90 native <strong>and</strong> nonnative<br />
grasses, sedges, composites, <strong>and</strong> shrubs. Composition of diet varies with location <strong>and</strong> habitat, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
species may require a diverse suite of food plants. Nēnē disperse seeds <strong>and</strong> therefore play an<br />
important ecological role, especially in influencing the species composition of early successional<br />
plant communities. Historically, flocks moved between high-elevation feeding habitats to lowl<strong>and</strong><br />
nesting areas (Mitchell et al. 2005, USFWS 2004).<br />
Pairs mate for life, <strong>and</strong> nēnē have an extended breeding season. Eggs can be found in all months<br />
except May-July, although the majority of birds nest between October-March. Nēnē nests consist of a<br />
shallow scrape, moderately lined with plant materials <strong>and</strong> down. Pairs typically return to previous<br />
years‟ nests sites, which are usually in dense vegetation (though this is highly variable); when<br />
available, kīpuka (isl<strong>and</strong>s surrounded by lava flows) may be preferred. Breeding areas encompass a<br />
variety of habitats including beach str<strong>and</strong>, shrubl<strong>and</strong>, grassl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> lava rock, <strong>and</strong> occur at a range<br />
of elevations. On the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> Maui, most nests are built under native vegetation such<br />
as pūkiawe, „a„ali„i, <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a. On Kaua„i, however, most nesting areas are dominated by nonnative<br />
species, <strong>and</strong> nēnē often nest under Christmas berry, shrub verbena, <strong>and</strong> ironwood. The young remain<br />
with their parents for up to 1 year (Mitchell et al. 2005, USFWS 2004).<br />
Current threats to the nēnē include predation by mammals, exposure in high-elevation habitats,<br />
insufficient nutritional resources for both breeding females <strong>and</strong> goslings, a lack of lowl<strong>and</strong> habitat,<br />
human-caused disturbance <strong>and</strong> mortality (e.g., road mortality, disturbance by human foot traffic),<br />
behavioral problems related to captive propagation as well as habituation to humans in general, <strong>and</strong><br />
inbreeding depression (USFWS, unpubl., USFWS 2004). Predators of nēnē eggs <strong>and</strong> goslings<br />
include dogs, cats, rats, pigs, <strong>and</strong> mongooses. Dogs, cats, <strong>and</strong> mongooses are responsible for most of<br />
the known cases of adult predation (USFWS 2004). Nēnē have also been negatively impacted by<br />
human disturbance by hikers, hunters, <strong>and</strong> outdoor recreationists. In recent years, nēnē have been<br />
struck <strong>and</strong> killed by golf balls <strong>and</strong> vehicles (USFWS 2004).<br />
Starvation <strong>and</strong> dehydration can also be major factors in gosling mortality. Approximately<br />
81.5 percent of gosling mortality in Haleakalā National Park during the 1994-1995 breeding season<br />
was due to starvation <strong>and</strong> dehydration (USFWS 2004). In 2005-2007, between 30-50 percent of the<br />
goslings died due to dehydration <strong>and</strong> exposure at the HFU (USFWS, unpubl.). A lack of adequate<br />
food <strong>and</strong> water also seems to be a limiting factor in Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park (USFWS<br />
2004). A similar study (gosling telemetry) at HAVO in 1995 <strong>and</strong> 1996 identified dehydration <strong>and</strong><br />
starvation as the cause of death in the majority of gosling carcasses removed.<br />
4.6.2 Koloa Maoli (Anas wyvilliana)<br />
The koloa maoli is an endangered waterfowl endemic to the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Federally listed as<br />
endangered in 1967, the koloa maoli is a small, mottled brown duck with emerald green to blue<br />
patches on their wings (speculums). Males are typically larger, have distinctive dark brown chevrons<br />
on the breast <strong>and</strong> feathers, olive-colored bill, <strong>and</strong> brighter orange feet. Females are slightly smaller<br />
<strong>and</strong> lighter in color. Compared to mallard ducks, koloa maoli are more secretive <strong>and</strong> about 20-<br />
30 percent smaller.<br />
The former range of the koloa maoli includes all the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s, except for the isl<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
Lāna„i <strong>and</strong> Kaho„olawe. They are capable of spreading between isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> may be found up to<br />
10,000 ft in elevation (Uyehara et al. 2007). Currently, the only naturally occurring population of<br />
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koloa maoli exists on Kaua„i, with repatriated populations on O„ahu, Hawai„i, <strong>and</strong> Maui (Pratt et al.<br />
1987, Engilis et al. 2002, Hawaii Audubon Society 2005). The current Statewide population of pure<br />
koloa maoli is estimated at 2,200 birds; approximately 200 individuals occur on the isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i<br />
<strong>and</strong> the remainder reside on Kaua„i. The populations on O„ahu <strong>and</strong> Maui are suspected to largely<br />
consist of hybrids – a crossbreed between the koloa maoli <strong>and</strong> mallard ducks. Estimated koloa maoli<br />
counts on these isl<strong>and</strong>s are 300 <strong>and</strong> 50 birds, respectively (Engilis et al. 2002, USFWS 2005a).<br />
Genetic studies of the species have suggested that a pure, intact population of koloa maoli may not<br />
exist on O„ahu (Browne et al. 1993). Although hybridization has been documented to occur on<br />
Hawai„i‟s lowl<strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> remains a threat on Kaua„i, the koloa maoli population on these two<br />
isl<strong>and</strong>s appear to be stable (Engilis et al. 2002).<br />
The Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> population was reestablished between 1976-1982, when captive-bred birds were<br />
released in the Kohala Mountain (Engilis et al. 2002). Populations currently occur in the stock ponds<br />
in the Kohala Mountains; stream habitats of Pololū, Waimanu, <strong>and</strong> Waipio Valleys; <strong>and</strong> in the stock<br />
ponds <strong>and</strong> larger montane streams on Mauna Kea. On the HFU, this species inhabits <strong>and</strong> breeds in<br />
streams <strong>and</strong> ponds (USFWS 2002a, USFWS 2005a, Jeffrey, pers. comm.). Due to the lack of surface<br />
water at the KFU, this species is not expected to occur within the unit boundaries.<br />
The koloa maoli uses a wide array of habitat types such as natural <strong>and</strong> manmade lowl<strong>and</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
flooded grassl<strong>and</strong>s, river valleys, mountain streams, montane pools, forest swampl<strong>and</strong>s, aquaculture<br />
ponds, <strong>and</strong> agricultural areas. The diet of koloa maoli consists of aquatic invertebrates, aquatic<br />
plants, seeds, grains, green algae, aquatic mollusks, crustaceans, <strong>and</strong> tadpoles (Engilis et al. 2002,<br />
Hawaii Audubon Society 2005, USFWS 2005a). The majority of nesting occurs from March-June<br />
with broods observed year-round. Nests are placed in dense shoreline vegetation of small ponds,<br />
streams, ditches, <strong>and</strong> reservoirs. Bunch-type grasses, rhizominous ferns, <strong>and</strong> shrubs are typically used<br />
at nesting sites (Engilis et al. 2002). On the isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, successful breeding in the wild has<br />
been documented in the Kohala Mountains <strong>and</strong> at HFU (USFWS 2005a).<br />
Although the USFWS Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for Hawaiian Waterbirds lists the koloa maoli as having a high<br />
potential for recovery, the species has a high degree of threat due to hybridization with mallard ducks<br />
(USFWS 2005a). Hybridization with mallards is currently the greatest threat to this species‟<br />
continued existence (Engilis et al. 2002, Uyehara et al. 2007). In addition to hybridization concerns,<br />
other hazards exist for koloa maoli. Known predators of eggs <strong>and</strong> chicks include mongooses, cats,<br />
dogs, <strong>and</strong> possibly rats. „Auku„u, largemouth bass, <strong>and</strong> American bullfrogs have been observed to<br />
take ducklings. Avian diseases are another threat to koloa maoli with outbreaks of avian botulism<br />
occurring annually throughout the State (Engilis et al. 2002).<br />
4.6.3 ‘Alae ke‘oke‘o (Fulica alai)<br />
The „alae ke„oke„o, or Hawaiian coot, is a small waterbird endemic to Hawai„i that is federally listed<br />
as endangered. Adult males <strong>and</strong> females have a black head, a slate gray body with white undertail<br />
feathers, <strong>and</strong> a prominent white frontal shield <strong>and</strong> bill; feet are lobed rather than webbed <strong>and</strong> are<br />
greenish-gray. Life-history <strong>and</strong> breeding biology are poorly known. „Alae ke„oke„o use freshwater<br />
<strong>and</strong> brackish wetl<strong>and</strong>s, which can include agricultural wetl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> aquaculture ponds. They are<br />
generalists <strong>and</strong> feed on l<strong>and</strong>, from the surface of the water, or will dive. They will also graze on grass<br />
adjacent to wetl<strong>and</strong>s. They will travel long distances if local food sources (e.g., seeds, leaves, snails,<br />
crustaceans, insects, small fish, etc.) are not available. Appropriate water levels are critical to nesting<br />
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success. They create either open water nests or nests in emergent vegetation. Nesting occurs yearround,<br />
but most activity occurs March-September. Eighty percent of the population occurs on Kaua„i,<br />
but they are found on all the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s (with the exception of Kaho„olawe). The<br />
population is stable <strong>and</strong> estimated to be 2,000-4,000. Similar to the rest of the Hawaiian waterbirds,<br />
threats to „alae ke„oke„o are habitat loss, nonnative mammalian predators such as mongooses, rats,<br />
cats, barn owls, etc., altered hydrology (modified wetl<strong>and</strong>s), nonnative invasive plants, <strong>and</strong> avian<br />
diseases (e.g., botulism). Though rare, „alae ke„oke„o are known to be present at the ponds at HFU<br />
(Mitchell et. al, 2005).<br />
4.7 Endangered Mammal<br />
4.7.1 ‘Ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus)<br />
The endangered „ōpe„ape„a is the only extant native l<strong>and</strong> mammal in the archipelago. Both males <strong>and</strong><br />
females have a wingspan of approximately 1 ft, <strong>and</strong> females are typically larger bodied than males.<br />
Both sexes have a coat of brown <strong>and</strong> gray fur. Individual hairs are tipped or frosted with white.<br />
Population estimates for all isl<strong>and</strong>s have ranged from hundreds to a few thous<strong>and</strong>. Since no accurate<br />
population estimates exist for this subspecies <strong>and</strong> because historical information regarding its past<br />
distribution is scant, the decline of the bat has been largely inferred. „Ōpe„ape„a have been regularly<br />
sighted in Kaua„i, Hawai„i, <strong>and</strong> Maui (Menard 2001).<br />
Changes in seasonal abundance of „ōpe„ape„a at locations of different elevations indicate that<br />
altitudinal migrations occur on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. During the breeding period (which begins as<br />
early as April), „ōpe„ape„a occurrences increase in the lowl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> decrease at high elevation<br />
habitats, such as the HFU. „Ōpe„ape„a occurrences are especially low from June-August in high<br />
elevation areas. In October, during the post-lactation period, bat occurrences increase at the HFU <strong>and</strong><br />
in the central highl<strong>and</strong>s. In January, bat occurrences at HFU also increase, possibly receiving<br />
„ōpe„ape„a from both the lowl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> central highl<strong>and</strong>s (Menard 2001).<br />
Echolocation studies in the Pua „Ākala tract at the HFU confirm these observations. The area has<br />
moderate use (less than 40 bat call pulses per week sampled) by „ōpe„ape„a between May-June.<br />
However, bat activity at Pua „Ākala dramatically increases during fall <strong>and</strong> winter (August-March)<br />
such that this area may be considered an important „ōpe„ape„a wintering ground for „ōpe„ape„a from<br />
many parts of the isl<strong>and</strong> (Bonaccorso 2008).<br />
„Ōpe„ape„a roost in native <strong>and</strong> nonnative vegetation from 3-29 ft above ground level. They occur in<br />
both wet <strong>and</strong> dry areas of the isl<strong>and</strong> but are believed to be more abundant on the drier leeward side<br />
(Jacobs 1994). „Ōpe„ape„a have been found roosting in „ōhi„a, hala, coconut palms, kukui, kiawe,<br />
avocado, shower trees, pūkiawe, <strong>and</strong> fern clumps; they are suspected to roost in eucalyptus <strong>and</strong> Sugi<br />
pine st<strong>and</strong>s. The species is rarely observed using lava tubes, cracks in rocks, or manmade structures<br />
for roosting. While roosting during the day, „ōpe„ape„a are solitary, although mothers <strong>and</strong> pups roost<br />
together (USFWS 1998c, Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
„Ōpe„ape„a feed on a variety of native <strong>and</strong> nonnative night-flying insects, including moths, beetles,<br />
crickets, mosquitoes, <strong>and</strong> termites (Whitaker <strong>and</strong> Tomich 1983) but may have a preference for moths<br />
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of size range 0.6-0.89 in (Belwood <strong>and</strong> Fullard 1984, Fullard 2001). Prey is located using<br />
echolocation. Water courses <strong>and</strong> edges (e.g., coastlines <strong>and</strong> forest/pasture boundaries) appear to be<br />
important foraging areas. In addition, the species is attracted to insects that congregate near lights.<br />
They begin foraging either just before or after sunset depending on the time of year; altitude also may<br />
affect these patterns (USFWS 1998c, Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
It is suspected that breeding primarily occurs between September-December. Typically, two young<br />
are birthed in May or June. Breeding has only been documented on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> Kaua„i<br />
(Baldwin 1950, Kepler <strong>and</strong> Scott 1990, Menard 2001).<br />
Within the HFU, „ōpe„ape„a are found at Pua „Ākala, Maulua, <strong>and</strong> Upper Maulua Pond. Bats have<br />
been observed <strong>and</strong>/or heard year-round along roads, forest clearings, <strong>and</strong> within koa/„ōhi„a mixed<br />
montane mesic forests. Detections have occurred at elevations between 5,250-6,230 ft. Echolocation<br />
data show that the HFU is an important foraging site for the „ōpe„ape„a (Menard 2001, Bonaccorso<br />
2008). „Ōpe„ape„a have been seen within the KFU, though little is known about their foraging or<br />
roosting habits there (USFWS 2008).<br />
The availability of roosting sites is believed to be a major limitation in many bat species, but other<br />
possible threats to the „ōpe„ape„a include pesticides (either directly or by impacting prey species),<br />
predation, alteration of prey availability due to the introduction of nonnative insects, <strong>and</strong> roost<br />
disturbance. Management of the „ōpe„ape„a is also limited by a lack of information on key roosting<br />
<strong>and</strong> foraging areas, food habits, seasonal movements <strong>and</strong> reliable population estimates (USFWS<br />
1998bc).<br />
4.8 Native Hawaiian Invertebrates<br />
Invertebrates are composed of a variety of groups including snails (Gastropoda) <strong>and</strong> various insects<br />
such as beetles (Coleoptera), true bugs (Heteroptera), <strong>and</strong> moths/butterflies (Lepidoptera). Over<br />
5,000 endemic insect species occur in Hawai„i (Howarth et al. 2003), of which beetles <strong>and</strong> flies are<br />
the most specious (Goldsmith 2007).<br />
Hawaiian invertebrates play an important role in native ecosystems. Invertebrate populations serve as<br />
critical food resources for „ōpe„ape„a <strong>and</strong> native Hawaiian birds <strong>and</strong> therefore limit the populations<br />
<strong>and</strong> distributions of these species (Howarth et al. 2003). Invertebrates are also essential pollinators<br />
<strong>and</strong> detritivores (Gambino <strong>and</strong> Loope 1992).<br />
Native Hawaiian invertebrates found during surveys of the Refuge units are listed in Tables 4-2, 3,<br />
<strong>and</strong> 4. Due to the diversity of invertebrate species, expansive area of the Refuge units, <strong>and</strong> limitations<br />
of baiting techniques, numerous additional invertebrates species may be present on the units.<br />
Several federally listed endangered invertebrate species, including three endangered picture-wing<br />
flies, occur on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> within the Refuge units (Howarth et al. 2003, Haines <strong>and</strong><br />
Foote 2005). The Blackburn‟s sphinx moth (M<strong>and</strong>uca blackburni), an endangered arthropod that<br />
occurs on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, is not expected to occur at the HFU (Howarth et al. 2003) <strong>and</strong> has not been<br />
observed on the KFU.<br />
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In addition, Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> is home to c<strong>and</strong>idate endangered species, as well as species of concern<br />
(SOC). Species of concern do not receive legal protection, but might be in need of concentrated<br />
conservation actions. Eight c<strong>and</strong>idate endangered arthropod species occur, <strong>and</strong> more than 100 species<br />
of concern are listed (Howarth et al. 2003). Some of these are expected to occur in the Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR. The HFU shelters a number of c<strong>and</strong>idate endangered damselfly species in the endemic<br />
genus Megalagrion (Howarth et al. 2003).<br />
Table 4-2. Endangered <strong>and</strong> Rare Native Invertebrate Species Occurring or<br />
Potentially Occurring on the Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Family Genus Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong><br />
Listed<br />
Species<br />
C<strong>and</strong>idate<br />
Species<br />
COLEOPTERA (Beetles)<br />
Aglycyderidae Proterhinus 23 0 0 0<br />
Cerambycidae Plagithmysus 39 0 0 12<br />
Curculionidae Rhyncogonus 2 0 0 1<br />
Elateridae Eopenthes 3 0 0 2<br />
DIPTERA (True Flies)<br />
Drosophilidae Drosophila 141 3 1 0<br />
HYMENOPTERA (Wasps, Bees & Ants)<br />
Colletidae Hylaeus 28 0 0 17<br />
LEPIDOPTERA (Moths & Butterflies)<br />
Crambidae Omiodes 19 0 0 10<br />
Geometridae Scotorythra 20 0 0 0<br />
ODONATA (Dragonflies & Damselflies)<br />
Coenagrionidae Megalagrion 9 0 2 2<br />
Source: Howarth et al. (2003), Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote (2005).<br />
4.8.1 Picture-wing Flies (Drosophila)<br />
In Hawai„i, the genus Drosophila contains over 600 endemic species of picture-wing flies. The<br />
Hawaiian drosophilids have been thoroughly studied throughout the State, beginning with genetic<br />
<strong>and</strong> evolution studies in the 1963 Hawaiian Drosophila Project (Howarth <strong>and</strong> Mull 1992). Within this<br />
genus, 11 species are listed as federally <strong>and</strong> State endangered species, a single species is listed as<br />
threatened, <strong>and</strong> 2 species are listed as c<strong>and</strong>idate endangered species. Of the endangered species, two<br />
can be found on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i: Drosophila heteroneura <strong>and</strong> Drosophila ochrobasis (Federal<br />
Register 2008b). A third species found on the isl<strong>and</strong>, Drosophila mulli, is listed as threatened <strong>and</strong> a<br />
c<strong>and</strong>idate endangered species, Drosophila digressa, is restricted to Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Drosophila surveys at the KFU were conducted in November 1999 <strong>and</strong> February 2000 using sponges<br />
baited with fermented mushrooms <strong>and</strong> bananas. Six species of endemic picture-wing flies were<br />
observed on the KFU including D. basisetae, D. conspicua, D. heteroneura, D. silvestris, D. sproati,<br />
<strong>and</strong> D. tanythrix. Nearly all of the drosophilids were found on the 4,500 ft transect (Foote 1999).<br />
Only one species found on the KFU is listed as endangered: Drosophila heteroneura. Of the<br />
314 picture-wing flies collected on the Refuge, 37 percent were identified as D. heteroneura, making<br />
it the most abundant picture-wing fly on the Refuge unit. In addition, D. heteroneura observed<br />
during the KFU survey were the first observations of this species in the wild in approximately<br />
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10 years; the last specimen was seen in 1993 at Hualālai (Foote 1999). Thus, the population of D.<br />
heteroneura at the KFU is the only known extant population of this species (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
Drosophila heteroneura is endemic to the isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> restricted to montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong><br />
mesic koa „ōhi„a forests on the west side of the isl<strong>and</strong>. Historically, D. heteroneura was relatively<br />
widely distributed between 3,400-6,000 ft above sea level. The picture-wing fly has historically been<br />
observed at Hualālai, Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, <strong>and</strong> Kīlauea in five different montane environments<br />
(Federal Register 2006a).<br />
The life-history of D. heteroneura requires breeding on the bark <strong>and</strong> stems of Clermontia (especially<br />
C. clermontioides) <strong>and</strong> Delissea spp. The larvae primarily inhabit the decomposing bark <strong>and</strong> stems of<br />
these two plants, but it is also known to feed within decomposing portions of Cheirodendron sp. in<br />
open mesic <strong>and</strong> wet forest habitat (Foote 1999, Federal Register 2008b).<br />
According to the Designation of Critical Habitat for 12 species of picture-wing flies from the<br />
Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s (Federal Register 2008b), D. heteroneura has two Primary Constituent Elements or<br />
habitat features that are essential to the conservation of the species. These features include: (1) mesic<br />
to wet, montane, „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa forest; <strong>and</strong> (2) the larval host plants Cheirodendron trigynum subsp.<br />
trigynum, C. clermontioides, C. hawaiiensis, C. kohalae, C. lindseyana, C. montis- loa, C. paviflora,<br />
C. peleana, C. pyrularia, <strong>and</strong> Delissea parviflora.<br />
Five critical habitat units are designated for D. heteroneura within the Designation of Critical Habitat<br />
(Federal Register 2008b). Three of the units: Ka„ū Forest Reserve, Pit Crater, <strong>and</strong> Waihaka Gulch –<br />
occur on State or private l<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> total 291 ac. An additional 687 ac in Lower Kahuku owned <strong>and</strong><br />
managed by Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park comprise another critical habitat unit. <strong>Final</strong>ly,<br />
3,604 ac within the KFU are occupied habitat <strong>and</strong> have the necessary features that are essential for<br />
the conservation of D. heteroneura; thus they are designated as the fifth critical habitat unit (Federal<br />
Register 2008b).<br />
Threats to the picture-wing flies include habitat degradation by ungulates, loss of host plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
impacts of nonnative insect predators <strong>and</strong> parasites such as ants <strong>and</strong> wasps. The species is also eaten<br />
by native species such as the caterpillar Eupithecia staurophragma (Howarth <strong>and</strong> Mull 1992). The<br />
construction of an ungulate exclosure <strong>and</strong> rat control will remove the primary threats to D.<br />
heteroneura within the KFU (USFWS 2008).<br />
4.8.2 Koa Bug (Coleotichus blackburniae)<br />
The koa bug (Heteroptera: Scutellaridae) is a rare iridescent, blue, green, maroon, <strong>and</strong> yellow stink<br />
bug. Measuring almost an inch in length, Coleotichus blackburniae is the largest native true bug<br />
(Howarth et al. 2003). Historically, this species was common on koa <strong>and</strong> a„ali„i (Dodonaea viscosa)<br />
on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Hawai„i, Maui, O„ahu, Kaua„i, <strong>and</strong> Moloka„i. Currently, the koa bug is rarely found<br />
in the State. The koa bug does occur at the HFU (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
Information on the koa bug is scarce. Adults <strong>and</strong> nymphs feed on the fruits of native koa <strong>and</strong> a„ali„i,<br />
as well as the nonnative formosa koa. Adult females lay their eggs (about 32 per egg mass) on the<br />
leaves <strong>and</strong> fruits of these species, where the larvae develop (Johnson et al. 2005). The red <strong>and</strong> black<br />
larvae develop in five stages for an estimated 38 days. Female koa bugs are estimated to live for<br />
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80 days <strong>and</strong> begin mating 30 days after hatching. Both larvae <strong>and</strong> adult koa bugs emit odorous<br />
defense compounds when disturbed (Johnson et al. 2005).<br />
The koa bug has no known natural predators; however, nonnative spiders <strong>and</strong> ants are known to<br />
parasitize C. blackburniae eggs, nymphs, <strong>and</strong> adults. The big-headed ant chews koa bug eggs <strong>and</strong><br />
Western yellowjacket wasps are predators of young (Johnson et al. 2005). Other species known to<br />
kill koa bugs include Anastatus sp., Acroclisoides sp., <strong>and</strong> birds. In addition, two biocontrol agents<br />
(Trissolcus basalis <strong>and</strong> Trichopoda pilipes) that were introduced to control the southern green stink<br />
bug are able to locate <strong>and</strong> develop on C. blackburniae. Although these species have a relatively<br />
minor impact on C. blackburniae overall, substantial impacts may occur at individual sites (Johnson<br />
et al. 2005).<br />
The koa bug has also been impacted by the reduced abundance <strong>and</strong> distribution of its host species as<br />
a result of agricultural activities <strong>and</strong> urban development. Because these plants typically fruit at the<br />
same time, locating host plants suitable to lay eggs may require C. blackburniae to disperse over long<br />
distances. Studies have shown that koa bug mortality due to dispersal accounted for about 50 percent<br />
mortality in all individuals studied (Johnson et al. 2005).<br />
4.8.3 Cave Invertebrates<br />
Until the 1970s, it was assumed that the young <strong>and</strong> geologically unique Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s did not<br />
support an abundance of cave-adapted fauna. However, Hawaiian caves have been found to support a<br />
diverse array of rare <strong>and</strong> highly specialized invertebrates (Howarth 1972, 1983, 1991). These<br />
cavernicoles can be classified into three categories: (1) troglobites, which are obligate cave species;<br />
(2) troglophyles, which can live in caves or other cave-like (moist cool dark) habitats; <strong>and</strong> (3)<br />
trogloxenes, which can be found in caves, but do not live their entire life in caves (Howarth 1973,<br />
1983).<br />
The Service recognizes one species of cave invertebrate on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, the troglobitic<br />
cixid leafhopper Oliarus polyphemus, as a species of concern. Troglobites are only able to survive in<br />
cave ecosystems. These species are characterized by a number of anatomical <strong>and</strong> physiological<br />
adaptations to cave life (Barr 1968, Christiansen 1982, Holsinger 1994, Culver et al. 1995).<br />
Troglobites tend to lose their pigmentation, eyes, <strong>and</strong> hard exoskeletons. Additionally, troglobites<br />
have elongated appendages <strong>and</strong> sensory structures with long hairs, lengthened life span, <strong>and</strong> modified<br />
life-history patterns. As a result of their nutrient-poor environments, the life cycle of many<br />
troglobites is characterized by delayed reproduction, increased longevity, lower total egg production,<br />
<strong>and</strong> production of larger eggs (Culver 1982).<br />
Obligate cave species have narrow <strong>and</strong> specific ecological requirements. Such requirements include<br />
high relative humidity, stable temperatures, <strong>and</strong> a preference for high CO2 levels (Howarth <strong>and</strong> Stone<br />
1990). They do not acclimate well to rapid changes in their physical, biological, or chemical<br />
environment (Barr 1968, Culver 1982). Troglobites also rely on energy <strong>and</strong> nutrient input from the<br />
surface. These invertebrates primarily feed on „ōhi„a roots or other plant roots that penetrate the lava<br />
tube roof (Howarth 1973; 1983, Howarth et al. 2007). Additional nutrient sources into caves include<br />
plant detritus washed in by surface waters, organisms that enter caves under their own power, <strong>and</strong><br />
guano from bats, rats, <strong>and</strong> mice. Thus, cave systems can be strongly influenced by the surface<br />
ecosystem (Barr 1968, Culver 1982).<br />
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Obligate species known to occur on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i include endemic moths <strong>and</strong> spiders (Sinella<br />
yoshiia, Schrankia sp., Littorophiloscia sp.). None of the obligate cave fauna known from Hawai„i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> are currently listed as c<strong>and</strong>idate, threatened, or endangered species, although two endangered<br />
species occur on Kaua„i.<br />
Cave invertebrate studies were conducted at KFU by Dr. Howarth <strong>and</strong> Stone of the B. P. Bishop<br />
Museum (1998). Endemic arthropods found during this survey are listed in Table 4-3. These species<br />
included the cave carabid ground beetle, root moths, <strong>and</strong> a fruit moth. Linyphiid spider webs were<br />
also seen, which are likely a native species, <strong>and</strong> trails of the native Limonia crane flies (Tipulidae)<br />
were common in cave slime. In addition, several dead moths, probably native agrotine noctuids, were<br />
found. These moths are known to roost in caves (Howarth <strong>and</strong> Stone 1998).<br />
4.8.4 Arthropods<br />
Arthropods include insects, spiders, <strong>and</strong> crustaceans. There are 5,732 endemic <strong>and</strong> 101 indigenous<br />
terrestrial arthropod species identified in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. The majority of the native arthropod<br />
fauna are insects (Howarth et al. 2003). Population declines of native arthropods throughout the State<br />
have been attributed to habitat destruction <strong>and</strong> loss of host species (Howarth et al. 2003). Nonnative<br />
ungulates, plants, <strong>and</strong> other arthropods also compete with native species <strong>and</strong> disturb their habitat<br />
(Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
An arthropod survey was conducted at the HFU by Howarth et al. (2003). Sampling was conducted<br />
along a transect in the Pua „Ākala Tract, a transect in the Maulua Tract, <strong>and</strong> in the vicinity of the<br />
University of Hawai„i Biological Field Station in the Hakalau Tract. Of the 2,500 specimens<br />
Table 4-3. Endemic Arthropods in Three Cave Systems at the KFU.<br />
Taxon<br />
ARACHNID: Subclass: Acari (Mites)<br />
Caves Surveyed<br />
Cave 1 Cave 3 Cave 4<br />
Unidentified<br />
ARANEAE (Spiders)<br />
Linyphiidae<br />
Live<br />
Unidentified<br />
COLEOPTERA (Beetles)<br />
Carabidae<br />
Webs only<br />
Mecyclothorax sp.<br />
LEPIDOPTERA (Moths & Butterflies)<br />
Carposinidae<br />
Dead<br />
Carposina cf. gracillima (Walsingham)<br />
Noctuidae<br />
Live<br />
Unidentified Dead<br />
Schrankia sp. A (Twilight morph)<br />
Live Live<br />
Schrankia sp. B (Cave morph)<br />
DIPTERA (Flies)<br />
Tipulidae<br />
Live<br />
Limonia sp.<br />
Larval trails Larval trails<br />
Source: Howarth <strong>and</strong> Stone (1998).<br />
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collected during the survey, only about 50 species have been identified. Although generalizations are<br />
difficult based on the low number of species identified, arthropod diversity was lower than expected.<br />
Arthropod surveys in other areas of the isl<strong>and</strong> found that the optimal range of native arthropods is<br />
between 3,500-4,000 ft; thus, the majority of the Hakalau Unit is above the upper limit. During the<br />
survey, increased diversity was observed at lower elevation sites (Howarth et al. 2003). Ongoing<br />
arthropods surveys are being conducted by Goldsmith (2007), <strong>and</strong> by USGS-BRD (Banko <strong>and</strong> Peck)<br />
at the HFU.<br />
Arthropod surveys were conducted by Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote (2005) throughout the KFU. This study<br />
occurred along four transects at elevations of roughly 2,500, 3,500, 4,500, <strong>and</strong> 5,500 ft. Several<br />
trends were observed during the study. First of all, diversity among native target genera was highest<br />
in the middle elevations of the KFU. In addition, native insect diversity generally decreases as<br />
disturbance increased (occupied by ungulates) <strong>and</strong> as invasive insect populations increased (Haines<br />
<strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
Megalagrion (Odonata: Coenagrionidae)<br />
Approximately nine species of native Hawaiian damselflies of the Megalagrion genus (Odonata:<br />
Coenagrionidae) occur on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. Megalagrion damselflies inhabit a wide range of<br />
habitats including perennial stream, intermittent stream, rheocrenes (flowing seeps <strong>and</strong> springs), <strong>and</strong><br />
st<strong>and</strong>ing water ecosystems (Polhemus 1993, Polhemus <strong>and</strong> Asquith 1996). Immature damselflies (or<br />
larvae) are typically aquatic, while some live in <strong>and</strong> under native plants. The adults feed on various<br />
small insects captured using their spiny legs. Immature damselflies prey on small animals using their<br />
extendable lower mouthpart (Polhemus <strong>and</strong> Asquith 1996).<br />
Competition <strong>and</strong> predation from nonnative fish, frogs, <strong>and</strong> invertebrates is a primary threat to this<br />
genus (Polhemus 1993). <strong>Fish</strong> predators include Poeciliids (Gambusia affinis, Poecilia reticulata, P.<br />
latipinna, Xiphophorus helleri, <strong>and</strong> X. maculatus), as well as catfish, cichllids, <strong>and</strong> gobies. Alteration<br />
<strong>and</strong> degradation of freshwater habitat has also contributed to species declines. Human modifications<br />
that occurred during ancient Hawaiian times (taro lo„i <strong>and</strong> fishponds) <strong>and</strong> in the more modern times<br />
(diversion systems, urban development, ground water pumping) have impacted Megalagrion habitat<br />
(Polhemus <strong>and</strong> Asquith 1996).<br />
Four damselflies species have been reported at the HFU <strong>and</strong> several additional species may also<br />
occur. One of these, M. amaurodytum peles, is a species of concern that was found throughout the<br />
Refuge in damp litter in axils of pa„iniu lilies (Astelia menziesiana) <strong>and</strong> „ie„ie (Freycinetia arborea)<br />
(Howarth et al. 2003). The Pacific Hawaiian damselfly (M. pacificum), an endangered species, may<br />
occur at the lowest elevations in the HFU. This damselfly species breeds in pools <strong>and</strong> streams. An<br />
additional species of concern that breeds in streams, M. nigrohamatum, may also occur in the lower<br />
elevations of the Refuge unit (Howarth et al. 2003).<br />
Only a single Megalagrion species, the Beautiful Hawaiian damselfly (M. calliphya), is known at the<br />
KFU. Two males were seen in a pool at the unit (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005). On Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, this<br />
species is usually limited to areas above 985 ft. Male M. calliphya are mostly red with black strips,<br />
while females have a green thorax (Polhemus <strong>and</strong> Asquith 1996). Adults can breed in st<strong>and</strong>ing water,<br />
but prefer slow moving streams (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
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A large diversity of beetles are found at the HFU of the Hakalau Forest NWR. Twenty-three species<br />
of weevils in the genus Proterhinus (Coleoptera: Aglycyderidae) are endemic to Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
These tiny, slow-moving beetles bore into leafs, twigs, stems, <strong>and</strong> wood <strong>and</strong> are known to have a<br />
very narrow host range (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005). This species exhibits a wide array of morphological<br />
diversity, making species level identification difficult. Proterhinus spp. were determined to be scarce<br />
throughout the HFU (Howarth et al. 2003).<br />
A total of 71 Proterhinus specimens within five species (P. affinis, P. ferrugineus, P. hawaiiensis,<br />
P. similis, <strong>and</strong> P. subangularis) were collected from the KFU. Of the five species encountered,<br />
P. similes was the most abundant <strong>and</strong> was collected from eight different plant species (Haines <strong>and</strong><br />
Foote 2005).<br />
Plagithmysus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)<br />
There are about 140 species of endemic longhorned beetles in the genus Plagithmysus (Coleoptera:<br />
Cerambycidae) in the State <strong>and</strong> 12 are considered species of concern on the isl<strong>and</strong> (Howarth et al.<br />
2003). These wood-boring beetles are more showy <strong>and</strong> active than Proterhinus beetles (Haines <strong>and</strong><br />
Foote 2005). Larvae pupate in the wood <strong>and</strong> adults emerge by chewing out, leaving visible exit holes.<br />
Typically adults lay eggs on recently fallen tree branches, but live trees are also used. Plagithmysus<br />
help with forest decomposition <strong>and</strong> serve as food for birds <strong>and</strong> other species.<br />
Three species of longhorned beetles have been recorded as widespread throughout the HFU – P.<br />
varians, P. clavigeris, <strong>and</strong> P. vicinus (Howarth et al. 2003, Goldsmith 2007). Both P. varians <strong>and</strong> P.<br />
clavigeris are host-specific to dead koa (Howarth et al. 2003). At HFU, the density of longhorned<br />
beetles at low-elevation sites was double the density found at high-elevation sites. There are also<br />
seasonal differences in population size <strong>and</strong> characteristics. Because of their importance in forest<br />
ecology, longhorned beetles have been used as indicator species to assess recent reforestation efforts<br />
at the HFU (Goldsmith 2007).<br />
At the KFU, three different species of longhorn beetles were collected: P. bilineatus, P.debilis, <strong>and</strong><br />
P. nodifer. The host plant for P. bilineatus is „ōhi„a, while P.debilis <strong>and</strong> P. nodifer were both reared<br />
from koa. A new Plagithmysus species was also found on the unit. This new species was found on<br />
dead or dying branches of „a„awa (Pittosporum hosmeri) (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
Omiodes (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)<br />
Several moths <strong>and</strong> butterflies (Lepidoptera) have been recorded on the HFU. Ten species of endemic<br />
leaf roller moths in the genus Omiodes (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) are listed as species of concern.<br />
This group gets its name because the larvae roll or fold leaves, or bind them together with silk, to<br />
create a retreat (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005). Most species utilize monocots as host plants.<br />
Omiodes pritchardii, which is restricted to Pritchardia palms, was found at the lower elevation site<br />
in Pua „Ākala at the HFU (Howarth et al. 2003). Omiodes accepta, O. asaphombra, O. localis <strong>and</strong><br />
O. scotaea have been collected from the KFU. Omiodes accepta, the sugarcane leafroller, was found<br />
to be the most abundant (27 of 49 total specimens) <strong>and</strong> is common on grasses <strong>and</strong> sedges. Omiodes<br />
asaphombra only breeds on rare „ohe (Joinvillea ascendens), which is not known to occur on the<br />
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west side of Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>. In addition, the species was previously determined to be extinct (Haines<br />
<strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
Scotorythra (Lepidoptera: Geometridae)<br />
The endemic inchworm genus Scotorythra (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) contains 20 species on<br />
Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>. Members of this genus use a wide variety of host plants from koa to Hedyotis spp.<br />
The larvae are nocturnal foliage feeders that serve as important food items of nestling <strong>and</strong> fledgling<br />
native forest birds. During the daytime, the larvae hide in moss or under bark (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote<br />
2005).<br />
Eight Scotorythra species were collected on the HFU during a survey by Howarth et al. (2003). Two<br />
of these were considered new species. During a study by Goldsmith (2007), five species of endemic<br />
Scotorythra were collected at the HFU. These specimens made up 83 percent of the Lepidoptera in<br />
winter <strong>and</strong> 87 percent in summer. The KFU provides habitat for eight species of Scotorythra moths.<br />
Scotorythra arboricolans <strong>and</strong> S. artemidora were the most abundant species, with 33 <strong>and</strong> 32<br />
individuals collected from light field traps, respectively. Scotorythr arboricolans is found on all the<br />
main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s, while S. artemidora is restricted to Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
Eopenthes (Coleoptera: Elateridae)<br />
Three endemic Eopenthes click beetles (Coleoptera: Elateridae) are recorded on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>. This<br />
genus is active almost exclusively during the summer months <strong>and</strong> is only found within mountainous<br />
regions. Eopenthes larvae, which are typically found in decaying wood, presumably feed on other<br />
invertebrates. Adults, on the other h<strong>and</strong>, feed solely on nectar.<br />
Although this genus was not reported during surveys at the HFU, it is expected to occur within the<br />
unit (Howarth et al. 2003). One specimen of Eopenthes was collected from blossoms of Hawaiian<br />
holly (Ilex anomala) along the southern boundary of the KFU. This individual is most likely<br />
E. cognatus, which is a SOC <strong>and</strong> former “Category 2” species. Additional Eopenthes individuals<br />
were seen around Hawaiian holly blossoms (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
Dyscritomyia (Diptera: Calliphoridae)<br />
In addition to the Drosophila genus, other Diptera species occur throughout the isl<strong>and</strong>. Twelve<br />
species of Dyscritomyia flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) occur on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, generally confined to<br />
high-elevation wet habitats. The immature Dyscritomyia feeds on carrion (l<strong>and</strong> snails), while the<br />
adults feed on snail slime trails <strong>and</strong> other liquid proteins. Only one Dyscritomyia species was found<br />
during the survey at Hakalau. Four orders of flies were found in the HFU (Howarth et al. 2003).<br />
Hylaeus (Hymenoptera: Colletidae)<br />
Of the 28 species of yellow-faced Hylaeus bees (Hymenoptera: Colletidae) on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
currently 17 are considered species of concern. Male Hylaeus bees tend to have distinct yellow<br />
markings on the fronts of their heads. The adults eat the nectar of native plant species <strong>and</strong><br />
subsequently assist with pollination.<br />
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No yellow-faced bees were reported during the HFU survey by Howarth et al. (2003), although this<br />
taxa should occur onsite. Ten yellow-faced bee species were collected on the KFU. Three of these,<br />
H. crabronoides, H. filicum, <strong>and</strong> H. specularis are extremely rare <strong>and</strong> local (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
Certain ant species compete with this genus for nesting sites (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Table 4-4. Arthropods Occurring at the HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU.<br />
SPECIES<br />
Hakalau<br />
Unit-<br />
Abundance<br />
Kona Unit-<br />
Number<br />
Observed<br />
ARANEAE (Spiders)<br />
Tetragnathidae<br />
Tetragnatha quasimodo C<br />
Tetragnatha sp. 1 S<br />
Tetragnatha sp. 2 R<br />
Theridiidae<br />
Theridion grallator 2<br />
ODONATA (Dragonflies & Damselflies)<br />
Aeshnidae<br />
Anax strenuous S<br />
Coenagrionidae<br />
Megalagrion calliphya calliphya R 2<br />
Megalagrion hawaiiense R<br />
Megalagrion amaurodytum peles S<br />
Megalagrion blackburni R<br />
ORTHOPTERA (Grasshoppers & Crickets)<br />
Gryllidae<br />
Laupala sp. 1 C<br />
Leptogryllus sp. 1 S<br />
Trigonidium spp. C<br />
DIPTERA (True Flies)<br />
Calliphoridae<br />
Dyscritomyia sp. 1 R<br />
Drosophilidae<br />
Drosophila basisetae 8<br />
Drosophila conspicua 4<br />
Drosophila heteroneura (CE) 116<br />
Drosophila silvestris 13<br />
Drosophila sproati 80<br />
Drosophila tanythrix 93<br />
Muscidae<br />
Lispocephala sp. 1 R<br />
Pipunculidae<br />
Cephalops sp. R<br />
Tipulidae<br />
Gonomyia hawaiiensis R<br />
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SPECIES<br />
Hakalau<br />
Unit-<br />
Abundance<br />
Kona Unit-<br />
Number<br />
Observed<br />
HETEROPTERA (True bugs)<br />
Colletidae<br />
Hylaeus coniceps* 27<br />
Hylaeus connectens* 2<br />
Hylaeus crabronoides* 10<br />
Hylaeus difficilis* 69<br />
Hylaeus dumetorum 12<br />
Hylaeus filicum* 1<br />
Hylaeus pubescens* 1<br />
Hylaeus specularis 22<br />
Hylaeus sphecodoides* 11<br />
Hylaeus volcanicus 2<br />
Miridae (Leaf bugs)<br />
Kamehameha lunalilo R<br />
Koanoa hawaiiensis<br />
Orthotylus sp. 1 S<br />
Nabidae (damselbugs)<br />
Nabis lusciosus C<br />
Nabis oscillans S<br />
Reduviidae (Assassin bugs)<br />
Nesidiolestes selium R<br />
Saicella mulli R<br />
LEPIDOPTERA (Moths & Butterflies)<br />
Crambidae<br />
Omiodes accepta 27<br />
Omiodes asaphombra 4<br />
Omiodes localis 11<br />
Omiodes (=Hedylepta) prichardii R<br />
Omiodes scotaea 8<br />
Geometridae<br />
Eupithecia craterias 5<br />
Eupithecia monticolans 3<br />
Eupithecia staurophragma 2<br />
Prognostola cremnopsis S<br />
Scotorythra apicalis 1<br />
Scotorythra arboricolens C 33<br />
Scotorythra artemidora C 32<br />
Scotorythra epixantha R<br />
Scotorythra euryphaea 40<br />
Scotorythra goniastis R<br />
Scotorythra paludicola R 6<br />
Scotorythra rara C 53<br />
Scotorythra new sp. 5 6<br />
Scotorythra new sp. 7 R<br />
Scotorythra new sp. 13 R 4<br />
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SPECIES<br />
Hakalau<br />
Unit-<br />
Abundance<br />
Kona Unit-<br />
Number<br />
Observed<br />
Noctuidae<br />
Agrotis epicremna R<br />
Haliophyle euclidias C<br />
Haliophyle flavistigma R<br />
Haliophyle ignita R<br />
Pseudaletia macrosaris R<br />
Pseudaletia sp. A R<br />
Oecophoridae<br />
Thyrocopa sp. C<br />
Sphingidae<br />
Hyles wilsoni 11<br />
COLEOPTERA (Beetles)<br />
Aglycyderidae<br />
Proterhinus spp. S<br />
Proterhinus affinis 11<br />
Proterhinus ferrugineus 6<br />
Proterhinus hawaiiensis 5<br />
Proterhinus similes 43<br />
Proterhinus subangularis 6<br />
Anobiidae<br />
Xyletobius sp. 1 S<br />
Carabidae<br />
Bembidion spp. S<br />
Blackburnia sp. 1 S<br />
Blackburnia sp. 2 S<br />
Blackburnia sp. 3 S<br />
Mecyclothorax sp. 1 R<br />
Cerambycidae<br />
Plagithmysus bilineatus 3<br />
Plagithmysus clavigeris X<br />
Plagithmysus debilis X<br />
Plagithmysus nodifer X<br />
Plagithmysus vicinus vicinus C<br />
Plagithmysus varians<br />
Plagithmysus sp. 4<br />
Curculionidae<br />
Achalles sp. 1 S<br />
Oodemas sp. 1<br />
Elateridae<br />
Anchastus swezeyi 62<br />
Eopenthes cognatus? 1<br />
HYMENOPTERA (Wasps, Bees & Ants)<br />
Ichneumonidae<br />
Enicospilus sp. A S<br />
Enicospilus sp. B S<br />
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4.8.5 Mollusks<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
SPECIES<br />
Hakalau<br />
Unit-<br />
Abundance<br />
Kona Unit-<br />
Number<br />
Observed<br />
Enicospilus sp. C S<br />
Sphecidae<br />
Ectemnius atripennis 6<br />
Ectemnius sp. A R 1<br />
NEUROPTERA (Lacewings)<br />
Chrysopidae<br />
Anomalochrysa sp. A R<br />
Hemerobiidae<br />
Micromus spp. S<br />
SPIROSTREPIDA (Millipedes)<br />
Cambalidae<br />
Nannolene sp. 1 S<br />
R = Rare, S = Scarce, C = Common; * = Species of concern, CE = C<strong>and</strong>idate<br />
endangered. Source: Howarth et al. (2003), Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote (2005).<br />
Native l<strong>and</strong> snails in Hawai„i are comprised of 767 currently identified endemic species within<br />
51 genera (Mitchell et al. 2005). Most of these are endangered due to habitat destruction, shell<br />
collecting, <strong>and</strong> predation by nonnative species (Howarth et al. 2003). Of the extant groups,<br />
Tornatellides (Achatinellidae) <strong>and</strong> Succinea (Succineidae) are the most abundant (Mitchell et al.<br />
2005). No endangered l<strong>and</strong> snails occur on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i.<br />
Mollusk surveys were conducted by Howarth et al. (2003) along two elevational transects in the<br />
HFU: Pua „Ākala in the south <strong>and</strong> the Maulua tract in the north. Additional sampling was conducted<br />
in the Hakalau tract, along the dry gulch, <strong>and</strong> in the vicinity of the University of Hawai„i Biological<br />
Field Station. A total of 231 live specimens <strong>and</strong> 111 empty shells were collected during this survey;<br />
however, additional species are believed to occur in areas that were not sampled (Howarth et al.<br />
2003).<br />
Succinea cf. cepulla (Succineidae) <strong>and</strong> Tornatellides sp. (Achatinellidae) were the only two native<br />
mollusk species found. In the Pua „Ākala Tract, two specimens of Succinea cf. cepulla were found<br />
around 4,200 ft elevation. The two specimens of Tornatellides sp. found at the Refuge were collected<br />
in „ōhi„a leaf litter at the Maulua Tract <strong>and</strong> the Pua „Ākala Tract. This species has a translucent,<br />
conical shell measuring 0.12 inches long (Howarth et al. 2003).<br />
Aquatic mollusks in Hawai„i favor brackish habitats <strong>and</strong> therefore are usually restricted to lower<br />
elevation areas near the ocean. The endemic freshwater snail, hīhīwai, can live in higher elevation<br />
freshwater areas; however, it would most likely not be able to reach the lower elevations of the HFU<br />
(Kinzie, pers. comm.).<br />
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4.9 Endangered <strong>and</strong> Threatened <strong>Plan</strong>ts<br />
Forty-four percent of all the endangered plants in the United States occur in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
(Messing et al. 2007). Currently, 343 plants are listed as Federal <strong>and</strong> State endangered species in the<br />
State of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> 11 additional species are listed as threatened. Of these totals, 68 endangered<br />
species <strong>and</strong> 1 threatened species occur on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>. Additional species are deemed c<strong>and</strong>idates<br />
for listing throughout the State.<br />
Both units of the Hakalau Forest NWR contain endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened plants <strong>and</strong>/or contain<br />
habitat that could support endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened individuals. Endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened species<br />
that occur (or potentially occur) at the Hakalau Forest NWR are listed in Table 4-2.<br />
It is estimated that roughly 97 plant species that previously existed throughout the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
are now extinct (USFWS 2008). In an effort to avoid further extinctions, the Refuge outplants rare<br />
species. Since 1987, close to 4,000 endangered plants have been outplanted on the HFU (USFWS,<br />
unpubl.). Approximately 1,029 endangered plant species were propagated or outplanted on the HFU<br />
in 2007 alone (USFWS 2007a). To date, no endangered or threatened species have been outplanted at<br />
the KFU due to the presence of ungulates.<br />
Endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened plants occurring on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> are specifically threatened by<br />
nonnative species such as ungulates, invertebrates, <strong>and</strong> invasive plants. Other factors that have the<br />
potential to decrease plant populations include fire, recreational activities, military actions, disease,<br />
genetic limitations, <strong>and</strong> r<strong>and</strong>om events such as volcanic eruptions <strong>and</strong> hurricanes (USFWS 2008).<br />
The Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> (USFWS1996a) covers 22 endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened<br />
plant species. According to this plan, the following objectives need to be obtained to delist an<br />
endangered plant species:<br />
Total of 8 - 10 populations documented on the isl<strong>and</strong>;<br />
Each population must be naturally reproducing, stable, or increasing in number;<br />
Each population must be secure from threats;<br />
For long-lived <strong>and</strong> short-lived perennials, each population must have a minimum of 100 <strong>and</strong><br />
300 mature individuals, respectively;<br />
For annuals, each population must have a minimum of 500 mature individuals; <strong>and</strong><br />
Each population should persist at this level for a minimum of 5 consecutive years.<br />
The Addendum to the Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> to the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> (1998a)<br />
addresses 13 plant species on the isl<strong>and</strong>, including three that occur or potentially occur on the<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR (Cyanea platyphylla, Phyllostegia racemosa, <strong>and</strong> P. velutina). Asplenium<br />
peruvianum var. insulare is covered in the Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for Four Species of Hawaiian Ferns<br />
(1998b). Specific delisting <strong>and</strong> downlisting criteria for these species are discussed below.<br />
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Table 4-5. Endangered <strong>and</strong> Threatened <strong>Plan</strong>t Species that Occur (or Potentially<br />
Occur) at Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Scientific Name<br />
Common &<br />
Hawaiian Name(s)<br />
Status Hakalau<br />
Unit<br />
Kona<br />
Unit<br />
Aspleniaceae Spleenwort family<br />
Asplenium peruvianum<br />
var. insulare<br />
--<br />
E X<br />
Campanulaceae Bellflowers family<br />
Clermontia lindseyana „oha wai E X (CH) X<br />
Clermontia peleana „oha wai E P (CH)<br />
Clermontia pyrularia „oha wai E X (CH)<br />
Cyanea hamatiflora<br />
subsp. carlsonii<br />
hāhā<br />
E P (CH)<br />
Cyanea platyphylla „aku„aku E P<br />
Cyanea shipmannii hāhā E X (CH)<br />
Cyanea stictophylla hāhā E X<br />
Caryophyllaceae Pink family<br />
Silene hawaiiensis -- T P<br />
Curcurbitaceae Gourd family<br />
Sicyos macrophyllus „anunu C X<br />
Gesneriaceae African violet family<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra tintinnabula ha„iwale E X (CH)<br />
Lamiaceae Mint family<br />
Phyllostegia floribunda -- C P<br />
Phyllostegia racemosa kiponapona E X (CH)<br />
Phyllostegia velutina -- E X (CH) P<br />
Portulacaceae Purslane family<br />
Portulaca sclerocarpa po„e E P<br />
Solanaceae Nightshade family<br />
Nothocestrum breviflorum „aiea<br />
Status: E = Endangered; T = Threatened; C = C<strong>and</strong>idate.<br />
E P<br />
Occurrence: X = Individuals known to occur on the unit; P = Potentially occurs on<br />
the unit; CH = Critical habitat designated on the unit.<br />
4.9.1 Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare<br />
Asplenium peruvianum is a fern native to the Andes in South America. The Hawaiian variety, var.<br />
insulare, is a federally listed endangered species. It was originally listed as Asplenium fragile var.<br />
insulare in 1994. This delicate fern has glabrous fronds measuring between 6 - 18 in long <strong>and</strong> 0.4-<br />
1.2 in wide. The upper surfaces of the fronds have dull gray or brown stripes with two greenish<br />
ridges. The long, narrow blades on the fronds are 1-pinnate <strong>and</strong> pale green to dark green. The sori, or<br />
spore-producing bodies, are close to the main vein, with one to two on the lower side <strong>and</strong> two to four<br />
on the upper side. Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare has creeping rhizomes measuring between<br />
0.12-0.5 in in diameter. Compared to the variety in South America, the coarser Hawaiian variety is<br />
larger in size <strong>and</strong> the midribs of the fern blades (rachises) are thicker. In addition, almost all of the<br />
pinnae (primary division of the compound blade) have a superior basal lobe (Palmer 2003).<br />
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Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare is present on East Maui <strong>and</strong> Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> between 5,413-<br />
7,218 ft (Palmer 2003). The species historically occurred on the upper slopes of Mauna Loa above<br />
Kipuka Ahiu, Pu„u Wa„awa„a on Hualālai, near Hilo, as well as at Kalaieha, Laumai„a, Keanakolu,<br />
<strong>and</strong> „Umikoa on Mauna Kea (USFWS 1998b). Currently, it is known at Pu„u Huluhulu, Pōhakuloa<br />
Training Area (PTA), Kūlani Correctional Facility, Keauhou, the Mauna Loa Strip Road in Hawai„i<br />
Volcanoes National Park, Kapāpala Forest Reserve, Ka„ū Forest Reserve, <strong>and</strong> the summit area of<br />
Hualālai. The largest population occurs at PTA. It is comprised of approximately 200 individuals<br />
within 9 subpopulations (USFWS 1998b). The population at the Kapāpala Forest Reserve was<br />
comprised of 300 mature individuals in 2003 (Federal Register 2003b). It is also found on the KFU.<br />
On Maui, A. peruvianum var. insulare was recently reported in the Hanawī Natural Area Reserve<br />
(NAR) <strong>and</strong> has been previously sited on the north slope of Haleakalā <strong>and</strong> Kanahau Hill (USFWS<br />
1998b).<br />
The species grows almost exclusively in dark, moist environments such as rock crevices or in lava<br />
tube openings (Palmer 2002) within montane wet, mesic, or dry forests, as well as subalpine dry<br />
forest <strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong>s (USFWS 1998b). The fern prefers areas receiving between 48-100 in per year.<br />
It is often associated with mosses <strong>and</strong> liverworts (USFWS 1998b).<br />
Palmer (2002, 2003) proposes that morphological <strong>and</strong> habitat differences within the species suggest<br />
Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare may be divided into two taxa. One form is delicate,<br />
nonproliferous, longer, narrower, <strong>and</strong> light green in color. This form is often found in lava tubes<br />
openings. In contrast, a coarser, proliferous, shorter, wider, darker green form is usually found in<br />
more open areas (Palmer 2002, 2003).<br />
Critical habitat is designated on both isl<strong>and</strong>s where Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare is present.<br />
On Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, the critical habitat area encompasses 2,241 ac in the Pāhala watershed, which is<br />
the southernmost critical habitat within the species‟ historical range. In addition, two populations<br />
were given critical habitat designation on Maui (Federal Register 2003b).<br />
Habitat degradation <strong>and</strong> browsing by sheep <strong>and</strong> goats are identified as the main threat to this species<br />
existence. Cattle may also negatively impact A. peruvianum var. insulare. Nonnative fountain grass<br />
is known to invade A. peruvianum var. insulare habitat. Some populations are also threatened by<br />
military operations <strong>and</strong> fires that result from these operations, as well as construction activities<br />
(USFWS 1998b).<br />
The downlisting criteria established in the Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for Four Species of Hawaiian Ferns<br />
(1998b) requires 5-7 populations on both isl<strong>and</strong>s that are naturally reproducing, stable or increasing<br />
in number, <strong>and</strong> secure. Each population must have a minimum of 300 mature individuals for<br />
5 consecutive years. In order to delist the species, a total of 8-10 naturally reproducing, stable<br />
populations must be documented on both Maui <strong>and</strong> Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>. Each population must contain at<br />
least 300 mature individuals per population for 5 consecutive years.<br />
4.9.2 Clermontia lindseyana<br />
Clermontia lindseyana is an endemic, small tree that was listed as endangered in April 1994. Species<br />
within this genus are often referred to by the Hawaiian name „oha wai. The species grows between<br />
8.2-20 ft in height <strong>and</strong> can occur as an epiphyte or terrestrial dweller. The oblance shaped leaves are<br />
dark green on the upper surface <strong>and</strong> pale green to purple on the underside. Clermontia lindseyana can<br />
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
be distinguished from other species in the genus by its larger leaves <strong>and</strong> hairy undersurface. It has<br />
round, orange berries measuring between 1-1.6 in in diameter. Fruiting occurs from June-October.<br />
Clermontia lindseyana occurs in wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic koa/„ōhi„a forests on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Maui <strong>and</strong><br />
Hawai„i. On Maui, a single population of approximately 300 individuals is known to occur on the<br />
eastern part of the isl<strong>and</strong> around 4,500 ft. Historically, it also occurred on the southern slope of<br />
Haleakalā. On Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, an estimated 11 populations occur between 4,680-6,200 ft. Currently,<br />
these populations are comprised of a total of 86 individuals. The populations occur on or near the<br />
following locations: Pīhā, Laupāhoehoe, Makahanaloa, Kukuiopa„e, Pu„u O„o, Kūlani Correctional<br />
Facility, Kahikinui, Kūlani Boys Home, Ka„ū Forest Reserve, <strong>and</strong> both units of the Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR. The largest population on the isl<strong>and</strong> (19 individuals) is found on the Ka„ū Forest Reserve.<br />
Historical records show C. lindseyana occurring on the eastern slope of Mauna Kea <strong>and</strong> throughout<br />
the slopes of Mauna Loa (USFWS 1996a).<br />
At the HFU, wild individuals occur in the Upper Maulua (2), Lower Honohina Tract (4) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Hakalau Tract (4). Between 1999 <strong>and</strong> 2008, an estimated 988 C. lindseyana were outplanted in the<br />
Upper Honohina, Maulua, Pua „Ākala, <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Tracts. The majority of these (286 plants) were<br />
outplanted in 2001 (USFWS, unpubl., Jeffrey et al. 2001).<br />
In 2003, three critical habitat units encompassing roughly 10,459 ac were designated for<br />
C. lindseyana on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. Critical habitat was also previously designated for two<br />
populations on Maui. Of the total critical habitat area, 2,202 ac occur within the HFU (Federal<br />
Register 2003b).<br />
Invasive species, such as cattle, goats, pigs, rats, nonnative invertebrates <strong>and</strong> invasive plants, are the<br />
primary threats to C. lindseyana. Animal species can trample <strong>and</strong> graze plants, or facilitate the spread<br />
of nonnative plants. Both kikuyu grass <strong>and</strong> banana poka are known to directly compete with<br />
C. lindseyana (USFWS 1996a). Rats are known to have eaten all of the fruit <strong>and</strong> seeds from the wild<br />
individuals of C. lindseyana (USFWS 1996b).<br />
4.9.3 Clermontia peleana<br />
Listed as federally endangered in April 1994, Clermontia peleana is endemic to Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>. It<br />
can grow on the ground or as an epiphyte on „ōhi„a, koa, „ōlapa, <strong>and</strong> „ama„u. The leaves are oblong<br />
to elliptic <strong>and</strong> alternately arranged. The petals <strong>and</strong> flower parts are fused into a tube <strong>and</strong> curved<br />
down. Flowers can be two colors depending on subspecies – peleana is black to purple <strong>and</strong><br />
singuliflora is green to white. Flowering has been observed between June-November. The orange<br />
fruits are berries measuring 1.2 in wide.<br />
Clermontia peleana is historically known from the northeastern <strong>and</strong> southeastern slopes of Mauna<br />
Kea, as well as the eastern slopes of Mauna Loa. The subspecies singuliflora was previously found<br />
on the northern slope of Mauna Kea <strong>and</strong> at Haleakalā on the isl<strong>and</strong> of Maui; however, it is now<br />
presumed extirpated (USFWS 1996a). Approximately four populations of peleana currently occur in<br />
montane wet „ōhi„a forests at Keanakolu, Pāpa„aloa, <strong>and</strong> Pi„ihonua on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. These<br />
populations are estimated to contain roughly eight individuals (USFWS 1996a).<br />
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The taxon grows in wet forests dominated by koa, „ōhi„a, <strong>and</strong> tree ferns at elevations between 1,800-<br />
3,800 ft. The native plants kolokolo mokihana <strong>and</strong> naupaka kuahiwi are known to occur with this<br />
species (USFWS 1996a).<br />
According to the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> (1996a), ungulates, rats, <strong>and</strong> humans were<br />
identified as the main threats to C. peleana. Habitat has been disturbed by ungulates <strong>and</strong> humans<br />
planting marijuana. Reproductive ability of C. peleana may be reduced due to a lack of pollinators.<br />
In addition, r<strong>and</strong>om natural events could eliminate the small population size.<br />
A total of 38,664 ac of critical habitat were designated for Clermontia peleana on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Only four individuals existed within the three critical habitat units at the time of designation.<br />
Although one unit lies mostly within Hakalau Forest NWR (as well as a small section of the Hilo<br />
Forest Reserve), C. peleana is not currently known to occur there. No critical habitat has been<br />
designated on Maui (Federal Register 2003b). In December 2008, in coordination with the <strong>Plan</strong>t<br />
Extinction Prevention Program, over 800 C. peleana were outplanted in six gulch areas at<br />
approximately 5,000 ft elevation at the HFU.<br />
4.9.4 Clermontia pyrularia<br />
Clermontia pyrularia is an endangered lobeliad that reaches a height of 9.8-13 ft. The toothed leaf<br />
blades are narrow <strong>and</strong> elliptical. The blades are attached to winged petioles, or stalks. Each flower is<br />
suspended by a flower stalk <strong>and</strong> attached to a cluster of 2-5 flowers. The species name is derived<br />
from pyrus (pear) because of its orange, pear-shaped berries.<br />
Currently, C. pyrularia is found between 5,900-6,240 ft on the Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, although it is able to<br />
survive at elevations as low as 3,000 ft <strong>and</strong> as high as 7,000 ft. It occurs in montane wet <strong>and</strong> mesic<br />
„ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa forests in North Hilo at Laupāhoehoe <strong>and</strong> Pīhā, the State l<strong>and</strong> adjacent to the HFU.<br />
Subalpine dry forests dominated by „ōhi„a can also provide suitable habitat (Federal Register 2003b).<br />
The previously found population in the Laupāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve no longer exists (USFWS<br />
1996a, 1996b). One individual from the population at Pīhā died from unknown causes in 1995;<br />
however, an additional 14 individuals were found in the area by 2001 (Jeffrey et al. 2001). Using<br />
seeds from these plants, the Refuge experimentally outplanted 30 C. pyrularia seedlings in two<br />
exclosures at HFU in 1990 <strong>and</strong> 1992 (USFWS 1996a, 1996b). By 2001, 12 individuals at 7 sites were<br />
still living. To date a total of 846 C. pyrularia have been outplanted within the Refuge (USFWS,<br />
unpubl.). Subalpine dry forests dominated by „ōhi„a can also provide suitable habitat (Federal<br />
Register 2003b).<br />
It was found that although C. pyrularia seeds will grow slowly at 3,800 ft, this species grows best<br />
between 6,000-6,400 ft. Seeds of this species will not germinate below 2,000 ft (USFWS 1996b).<br />
Nonnative vegetation has contributed to population declines of C. pyrularia in suitable habitat. For<br />
example, banana poka, which forms a dense curtain that shades out seedlings, is negatively impacting<br />
C. pyrularia in some areas. Pigs have been observed dispersing the fruits of banana poka <strong>and</strong> can<br />
also trample native flora. Ongoing other threats include rats, invertebrates, humans, <strong>and</strong> small<br />
disjunct populations with limited opportunities for pollination (USFWS 1996a).<br />
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In 2003, 6,823 ac of critical habitat were designated for C. pyrularia. Critical habitat has been<br />
designated at the HFU. The critical habitat unit located completely within the HFU provides habitat<br />
for three populations of 300 individuals; however, no individuals occurred on the unit at the time of<br />
designation. The south <strong>and</strong> north-central portion of the second critical habitat unit is also located<br />
within the Refuge unit (Federal Register 2003b). Ex situ, or offsite, planting is needed to increase<br />
population numbers at these areas (USFWS, publ.).<br />
4.9.5 Hāhā (Cyanea hamatiflora)<br />
Several species within the Cyanea genus are referred to by the Hawaiian name hāhā. The genus is<br />
endemic to the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s, with 11 species <strong>and</strong> 5 subspecies on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>. Cyanea<br />
hamatiflora subsp. carlsonii is an endangered species typically found in montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong><br />
mesic koa/„ōhi„a forests of the west side of the isl<strong>and</strong>. This palm-like tree can grow between 9.8-26 ft<br />
in height. The sessile leaves average between 20-31 in long <strong>and</strong> the flowers cluster in groups of 5-10<br />
(USFWS 1996a). The sepals <strong>and</strong> magenta petals of C. hamatiflora subsp. carlsonii are fused into an<br />
oval tube. The berries are oval <strong>and</strong> purplish red in color. The other subspecies – hamatiflora – is<br />
common throughout East Maui. The Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> subspecies can be distinguished by its stalkless<br />
leaves, larger flower stalks, <strong>and</strong> longer calyx lobes (USFWS 1996a, Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
The current distribution of the species ranges from 5,220-5,700 ft on the western slopes of Hualālai<br />
(Mitchell et al. 2005). In 2003, 14 individuals existed in the Honua„ula Forest Reserve within the<br />
Wai„aha watershed <strong>and</strong> a single individual was known from the Kīpāhoehoe NAR within the Ki„ilae<br />
watershed (Federal Register 2003b). Currently, populations occur at the Honua„ula Forest Reserve<br />
<strong>and</strong> at privately owned l<strong>and</strong> at Kēōkea in South Kona. In 2005, about 16 plants were recorded at<br />
„Ōlelomoana. Fifty-one individuals were outplanted within the native range at the Honua„ula Forest<br />
Reserve <strong>and</strong> Pu„u Wa„awa„a. These outplantings have not been successful <strong>and</strong> the population has<br />
declined to roughly 3-4 individuals (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Although no C. hamatiflora carlsonii are currently known from the KFU, the area is considered a<br />
key potential habitat for the species (Federal Register 2003b). No individuals have been found in the<br />
areas since the 1960s (USFWS, unpubl.). Approximately 2,583 ac of l<strong>and</strong> in South Kona were<br />
designated as critical habitat for this species in 2003. Of this total, approximately 1,475 ac lie within<br />
KFU (USFWS 2008). Three additional critical habitat units were designated in the Honua„ula Forest<br />
Reserve, South Kona Forest Reserve, <strong>and</strong> Kīpāhoehoe NAR (Federal Register 2003b).<br />
Potential risks to C. hamatiflora include cattle, rats, nonnative plants, <strong>and</strong> small, disjunct populations<br />
(USFWS 1996a). Ungulate disturbance provides an opportunity for invasive plants, such as banana<br />
poka, to take over an area <strong>and</strong> directly compete with C. hamatiflora carlsonii. In addition,<br />
reproductive success is reduced by a limited gene pool <strong>and</strong> further depleted by birds <strong>and</strong> rats that eat<br />
the seeds. Caterpillar seed damage has also been observed on this species (USFWS 1996a).<br />
4.9.6 ‘Aku‘aku (Cyanea platyphylla)<br />
Cyanea platyphylla, or „aku„aku, is a small unbranched shrub endemic to the isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. The<br />
palm-like shrub reaches between 3-10 ft tall <strong>and</strong> is covered by short spines on the upper portion of<br />
the stems. The leaves of juvenile plants have prickles on the leaves <strong>and</strong> stalks <strong>and</strong> measure between<br />
4.1-10 in long <strong>and</strong> 1.6 -3 in wide. Adult plants have only sparsely prickled leaves. Adult leaves are<br />
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larger, measuring 13-34 in long <strong>and</strong> 2.8-8.7 in wide. The inflorescence is a cluster of 6-25 flowers.<br />
Compared to other species within the genus, the flowers of C. platyphylla are small. The bases of the<br />
flower parts (sepals, petals, <strong>and</strong> stamens) are fused together in a structure known as a hypanthium.<br />
The petals are white or yellowish with magenta strips <strong>and</strong> there are five triangular sepals. The pale<br />
orange berries measure 0.3-0.4 in long <strong>and</strong> 0.2-0.3 in wide (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Historically, C. platyphylla was known to occur in the following areas: Waipio Valley, Kohala<br />
Mountains, Laupāhoehoe; in the mountains above Hilo, Pahoa, Glenwood, <strong>and</strong> Honaunau; <strong>and</strong> at the<br />
unknown location named “Kalanilehua.” According to the Addendum to the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster<br />
Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> (1998a), two naturally occurring C. platyphylla populations consisting of nine<br />
individuals existed in the late 20 th century. These occurred in the Laupāhoehoe NAR <strong>and</strong> along<br />
Saddle Road. In 2003, six occurrences of C. platyphylla were known (Federal Register 2003b). More<br />
recent estimates suggest that there are 4-6 populations consisting of 50-100 plants. In 2004,<br />
2 individuals were found at a population near Kilau Stream <strong>and</strong> 11 plants were found in the<br />
Laupāhoehoe NAR. No individuals are known from Hakalau Forest NWR. Additional surveys in the<br />
historical range <strong>and</strong> likely habitat areas are needed to determine the exact distribution of the species<br />
(Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
Montane wet „ōhi„a forests are the preferred habitat of C. platyphylla, although it can be found in<br />
lowl<strong>and</strong> areas. It has been reported to occur between 390-3,000 ft in association with hāpu„u, ho„i„o,<br />
hame, „oha wai, pilo, <strong>and</strong> ha„iwale (USFWS 1998a).<br />
Two critical habitat units were designated in 2003, encompassing 7,234 ac. The first unit is located<br />
primarily within the Laupāhoehoe NAR, with a small portion in the northwest in the Hilo Forest<br />
Reserve. The second unit is within the Wailuku watershed in the Hilo Forest Reserve (Federal<br />
Register 2003b).<br />
Competition with introduced plants has resulted in C. platyphylla population declines. Nonnative<br />
mammals, such as rats <strong>and</strong> pigs, also threaten existing populations by modifying habitat <strong>and</strong> eating<br />
the fruit (USFWS 1998a). Hawai„i‟s <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> Strategy (2005) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Addendum to the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> (1998a) also identify volcanic activity,<br />
stochastic events, <strong>and</strong> reduced reproduction vigor as threats.<br />
The downlisting criterion established in the Addendum to the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster Recovery <strong>Plan</strong><br />
(1998a) requires 5-7 populations of at least 100 mature plants each that are sustained for a 5-year<br />
period. The delisting criterion requires 8-10 populations of C. platyphylla with at least 200 mature<br />
plants each. These populations must be sustained for 5 consecutive years.<br />
4.9.7 Cyanea shipmanii<br />
Cyanea shipmanii is a small, palm-like understory species. The shrub can be unbranched or have few<br />
branches <strong>and</strong> reaches a maximum height of 13 ft. Cyanea shipmannii is characterized by its slender<br />
stems <strong>and</strong> pinnately lobed leaves. The stalked leaves are deeply cut into 20-30 lobes per leaf<br />
(Mitchell et al. 2005). Young plants have sharp projections on their stems <strong>and</strong> leaves, typically only<br />
up to about 3.5 ft. This may be an evolved defense against flightless geese or ducks that once existed<br />
on the isl<strong>and</strong> (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). The flowers of C. shipmanii have fine hairs <strong>and</strong> are grouped in<br />
clusters of 10-15. The flower petals are whitish green <strong>and</strong> fused into a curved, five-lobed tube. The<br />
orange berry is ellipsoid in shape (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
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This species occurs on the eastern slope of Mauna Kea <strong>and</strong> south across the Waiākea Forest Reserve<br />
<strong>and</strong> into the l<strong>and</strong>s of the Kūlani Correctional Facility on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa, in<br />
montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic koa/„ōhi„a forest habitat. The elevational range is 5,400-6,200 ft.<br />
Additional native species that have been observed with C. shipmanii are kōlea <strong>and</strong> kāwa„u. In 1840,<br />
approximately 50 individuals were found <strong>and</strong> only one was mature. In the late 1990s a single plant<br />
was found in a ravine in the Upper Waiākea Forest Reserve. A small fence was constructed to protect<br />
the plant from pigs (USFWS 1996a, Mitchell et al. 2005). Another single individual was known in<br />
the Mauna Loa Forest Reserve (Federal Register 2003b). Five C. shipmanii were found in the Pua<br />
„Ākala <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Tracts of the HFU in 1993 (USFWS 1996a, Van Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche<br />
2000, Jeffrey et al. 2001, Mitchell et al. 2005). All but one individual had died by 2000 <strong>and</strong> the<br />
remaining plant was too young to reproduce. Using seed from Waiākea, 109 C. shipmanii were<br />
outplanted at the Refuge (HFU) from 1999-2001 (Jeffrey et al. 2001). From 2002-2008, an additional<br />
602 C. shipmanii were outplanted (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
Of the 6,088 ac of critical habitat designated for C. shipmanii, over 64 percent occurs within the<br />
HFU. This area encompasses Pua „Ākala <strong>and</strong> portions of „Āwehi, Honoli„i, <strong>and</strong> Kapue streams. Two<br />
additional units were designated on l<strong>and</strong> within the „Ōla„a-Kīlauea Partnership (now the Three<br />
Mountain Alliance) <strong>and</strong> in the Mauna Loa Forest Reserve (Federal Register 2003b).<br />
Pigs are known to impact the reproduction of this species <strong>and</strong> destroy the natural seed bank (Van<br />
Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2000). Existing populations are also threatened by invasive plants <strong>and</strong><br />
rats. In the early 1990s rats were known to have eaten all of the fruit <strong>and</strong> seeds from the known<br />
individuals of the endangered C. shipmanii at the HFU (USFWS 1996b). Although sporadic rodent<br />
control has been employed, these remote areas are difficult to access (Jeffrey et al. 2001). Due to the<br />
small population size, the species is also in danger of extinction from r<strong>and</strong>om events, loss of<br />
reproduction vigor, or reduced pollination (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
4.9.8 Cyanea stictophylla<br />
The endangered Cyanea stictophylla is a small tree or shrub with a height from 2-20 ft. The stems<br />
often possess sharp projections <strong>and</strong> have few branches. The long <strong>and</strong> narrow leaves have lobed or<br />
toothed blades that are 7.8-15 in long. Five or six large, deeply lobed flowers cluster at the tip of the<br />
main flower stalk. The hypanthium is oval <strong>and</strong> slightly hairy. The petals are yellowish white or<br />
purple, while the berries are orange (USFWS 1996a).<br />
Historical records show that C. stictophylla occurred on the western, southern, <strong>and</strong> eastern slopes of<br />
Mauna Loa. Three existing populations occur in montane wet „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> mesic koa/„ōhi„a forests<br />
between 2,500-6,400 ft. These population contain about 15 individuals <strong>and</strong> are located at Keauhou in<br />
Ka„ū, Kohae in South Kona, <strong>and</strong> Pu„u Wa„awa„a in North Kona. Six plants occur at Kukui o Pa„e<br />
<strong>and</strong> 10 at Olelomoana (USFWS 1996a). An additional 46 have been planted in enclosures at the Ka„ū<br />
Forest Reserve <strong>and</strong> Pu„u Wa„awa„a (Mitchell et al. 2005). Alani <strong>and</strong> opuhe occur in association with<br />
this species (USFWS 1996a).<br />
Two C. stictophylla were known from lava tube skylights at the KFU. Both were thought to have<br />
died from rat damage in 2007 (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
Four critical habitat units have been allocated for the C. stictophylla, of which two are occupied.<br />
These areas include the South Kona Forest Reserve, Kīpāhoehoe NAR, Ka„ū Forest Reserve, <strong>and</strong><br />
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l<strong>and</strong>s within the „Ōla„a-Kīlauea Partnership. The total critical habitat area is 95,484 ac (Federal<br />
Register 2003b).<br />
Cyanea stictophylla is threatened by a limited population, which makes it vulnerable to r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
events <strong>and</strong> decreased reproduction vigor. Cattle, pigs, <strong>and</strong> rats are the primary invasive mammals that<br />
adversely impact this species (USFWS 1996a).<br />
4.9.9 Ha‘iwale (Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra tintinnabula)<br />
The small Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra tintinnabula shrub, or ha„iwale, grows to 3.3-6.6 ft in height. The papery leaf<br />
blades are oval shaped <strong>and</strong> have yellow brown hairs, especially on the lower surface. The blades are<br />
toothed <strong>and</strong> range from 2-4.9 in wide <strong>and</strong> 5-10 in long. Three to six flowers group together at the<br />
main stalk. The bracts (modified leaves) are oval or heart-shaped, while the five white petals are<br />
fused into a soft, hairy, tube. The bell-shaped calyx (sepals) distinguishes C. tintinnabula from other<br />
species in the genus. The calyx is densely hairy <strong>and</strong> pale green (USFWS 1996a).<br />
Ha„iwale survives in wet forest dominated by koa, „ōhi„a, <strong>and</strong> hāpu„u. It has been reported to occur<br />
with pili <strong>and</strong> other species in the Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra genus at elevations of 2,100-3,400 ft (USFWS 1996a).<br />
Since the early 1900s, ha„iwale has been reported at three locations on the northeastern slopes of<br />
Mauna Kea. Currently, there are approximately 25 known individuals at the HFU within the Middle<br />
Maulua Unit at elevations above 4,600 ft (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). A single plant was found at<br />
Honohina in the HFU in 1976 (USFWS 1996a). Off the Refuge, a population is found at Kilau<br />
Stream in the Laupāhoehoe area. Roughly 16 individuals were found at 2,400 ft on the stream <strong>and</strong> an<br />
additional individual was found at 2,940 ft. Attempts to germinate the seeds <strong>and</strong> propagate this<br />
species at the Refuge greenhouse have not been successful (Jeffrey et al. 2001).<br />
Two critical habitat units were created for the species in 2003. This included areas in the<br />
Laupāhoehoe NAR <strong>and</strong> the Hilo Forest Reserve. The total critical habitat area encompasses 6,672 ac<br />
(Federal Register 2003b).<br />
Anthropogenic activities, as well as impacts from goats <strong>and</strong> pigs are listed as the key threats to the<br />
taxa. Pigs <strong>and</strong> goats directly damage the plant by browsing <strong>and</strong> indirectly impact the habitat by<br />
facilitating the spread of invasive plant species. R<strong>and</strong>om events also threaten the existence of<br />
ha„iwale (USFWS 1996a).<br />
4.9.10 ‘Aiea (Nothocestrum breviflorum)<br />
Nothocestrum breviflorum, also referred by the Hawaiian name of „aiea, is a long-lived perennial<br />
endemic to the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. The tree was listed as endangered in March 1994. Reaching<br />
between 33-39 ft in height, „aiea has a soft, dark brown trunk. The thick, stalked leaves are oblong to<br />
elliptic in shape <strong>and</strong> are shed seasonally. The lower surface is densely pubescent, while the upper<br />
surface is glabrous to lightly pubescent. More than three flowers are clustered on spur-like branches.<br />
The greenish-yellow petals have four lobes <strong>and</strong> are hairy on the outside. The round berries, which are<br />
enclosed by the calyx, are orange to red <strong>and</strong> measure 0.2-0.3 in in diameter. These fruits have been<br />
observed December - January.<br />
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„Aiea has been documented at the western, southern, <strong>and</strong> eastern slopes of Mauna Loa, at the<br />
southern Kohala mountains, <strong>and</strong> the northern slopes of Hualālai. The elevational range is between<br />
260-6,000 ft. Current „aiea populations are restricted to the western side of the isl<strong>and</strong> from South<br />
Kohala to Kamā„oa-Pu„u„eo. An estimated six populations currently exist, with few individuals<br />
(1-4 plants) in each population (USFWS 1996a). In 2003, roughly 6 individuals were known within<br />
the Kohala Forest Reserve <strong>and</strong> 165 individuals were identified near Po„ohoho„o summit (Federal<br />
Register 2003b). Although no „aiea is known to currently occur on the KFU, plants do exist in<br />
adjacent areas (McC<strong>and</strong>less Ranch).<br />
The primary habitats for „aiea are lowl<strong>and</strong> dry forest, montane dry forest, <strong>and</strong> montane mesic forests<br />
dominated by „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa, as well as uluhe. Several other endangered plants are known to occur<br />
with this species (USFWS 1996a).<br />
Three critical habitat units were established for „aiea in 2003, covering 12,708 ac. The largest unit is<br />
within the Kīholo watershed, which is the southwestern most portion of the historical range.<br />
Additional l<strong>and</strong> is designated in the Kohala Forest Reserve <strong>and</strong> between the Kohala Forest Reserve<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Waimanu Estuarine Research Reserve (Federal Register 2003b).<br />
The following threats are identified in the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> (1996a): cattle,<br />
sheep, nonnative plants, fire, <strong>and</strong> human impact. Christmas berry, fountain grass, lantana, <strong>and</strong> koa<br />
haole have been noted as contributing to the decline of this species by increasing the risk of fire<br />
(USFWS 1996a).<br />
4.9.11 Phyllostegia floribunda<br />
The erect subshrub Phyllostegia floribunda is a c<strong>and</strong>idate species for listing as threatened or<br />
endangered. As a c<strong>and</strong>idate species, P. floribunda is not protected by the ESA or covered by the Big<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> (USFWS 1996a) or Addendum (USFWS 1998a). However, the<br />
populations within the HAVO are provided some protection under the National Park Service Act<br />
(16 U.S.C. §§1-18f-1) <strong>and</strong> the enabling legislation for the Park (16 U.S.C. § 396) (Pub. Law 95-635,<br />
16 U.S.C. § 1132).<br />
The ovate to elliptic leaves of P. floribunda are moderately hairy <strong>and</strong> pale on the lower surface. They<br />
measure 4.7-9.4 in long <strong>and</strong> 1.8-3.3 in wide. The flowers are maroon to red <strong>and</strong> white at the base of<br />
the floral tube. The flowers are clustered in pairs to form unbranched inflorescences. Similar to other<br />
species in the genus Phyllostegia, the flowers are fragrant <strong>and</strong> predominantly insect pollinated. The<br />
dry <strong>and</strong> hard fruit is a nut measuring 0.12-0.14 in long.<br />
This species was previously found in a wide variety of locations, including the Kohala Mountains,<br />
Ka„ū, North <strong>and</strong> South Kona, the windward sides of Mauna Loa <strong>and</strong> Kīlauea, <strong>and</strong> the windward side<br />
of Mauna Kea (including the Laupāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve, Waiākea Forest Reserve, <strong>and</strong><br />
private l<strong>and</strong> at Pa„auilo) (NatureServe 2007). It occurs between 1,410-3,700 ft in elevation in moist<br />
to wet forests (Wagner et al. 1999). The current total population is believed to consist of less than<br />
100 naturally occurring individuals <strong>and</strong> 170 outplanted individuals in 10 locations (Federal Register<br />
2007). Most of the populations occur within the Laupāhoehoe NAR <strong>and</strong> Hawai„i Volcanoes National<br />
Park, with additional populations in the „Ōla„a Forest Reserve, Waiākea Forest Reserves, Pu„u<br />
Maka„ala NAR, <strong>and</strong> Kīpāhoehoe NAR. Only the populations at the Laupāhoehoe <strong>and</strong> Pu„u Maka„ala<br />
NAR are naturally occurring. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) also outplanted 20 individuals at<br />
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Honomalino in South Kona. Most of the populations are comprised of fewer than 10 individuals <strong>and</strong><br />
7 populations are protected by fences (USFWS 2007b). Specimens found on the KFU are currently<br />
pending verification, based on cuttings being grown at the Volcano Rare <strong>Plan</strong>t Facility (Jeffrey, pers.<br />
comm.).<br />
Pigs have been identified as the primary threat to the survival of this species. In addition, various<br />
nonnative plants directly compete with naturally <strong>and</strong> outplanted populations of P. floribunda. Human<br />
threats include ranching, logging, agriculture, urban development, <strong>and</strong> homesteading. Natural threats<br />
include volcanic activity <strong>and</strong> fires ignited by volcanic activity (Federal Register 2007b, USFWS<br />
2007).<br />
4.9.12 Kīponapona (Phyllostegia racemosa)<br />
Phyllostegia racemosa, or kīponapona, is an endangered climbing vine with square stems. The<br />
opposite leaves are oblong shaped <strong>and</strong> covered with short, soft hairs. The leaves have rounded teeth<br />
<strong>and</strong> measure 1.3-2.4 in long <strong>and</strong> 0.6-1.7 in wide. The white flowers are clustered in groups of 6-12 at<br />
the base of the leaves <strong>and</strong> the stems <strong>and</strong> densely covered with short hairs. The hard, dry fruit is<br />
typically 0.06-0.08 in in length. This plant is also characterized by the spicy odor of its foliage.<br />
Located from 4,650-6,070 ft, kīponapona primarily occurs in montane wet or mesic forest dominated<br />
by „ōhi„a <strong>and</strong> koa, as well as hāpu„u. Other associated taxa include „ōhelo, „ākala, <strong>and</strong> lau kahi<br />
(USFWS 1998a).<br />
It was historically found near Mauna Kea in the Hakalau <strong>and</strong> Saddle Road areas, as well as near<br />
Mauna Loa in Kūlani/Keauhou <strong>and</strong> Kīpuka„āhiu areas. Four populations are known to presently<br />
occur in the Kūlani/Keauhou area, at the HFU, <strong>and</strong> at Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park. These<br />
populations are comprised of 25-45 individuals (Mitchell et al. 2005). Seven individuals were present<br />
on the HFU in 2001 within the Upper Maulua <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Units (Jeffrey et al. 2001). To date,<br />
roughly 1,043 kīponapona have been outplanted at the HFU. Of this total, nearly 775 were outplanted<br />
in 2007 (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
Over 2,317 ac of critical habitat has been designated at the HFU, including Pua „Ākala <strong>and</strong> portions<br />
of „Āwehi, Honoli„i, <strong>and</strong> Kapu„e streams. Areas within the Hilo Forest Reserve <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> managed by<br />
the „Ōla„a–Kīlauea Partnership have also been designated. Although no individuals exist within the<br />
„Ōla„a–Kīlauea Partnership l<strong>and</strong>s, these areas were deemed critical habitat because 12 individuals<br />
occur on the adjacent Kamehameha Schools l<strong>and</strong> (Federal Register 2003b).<br />
Ungulates, such as pigs <strong>and</strong> cattle, are a key threat to the species. Ungulates have destroyed at least<br />
four plants in the HFU since 1994 (Jeffrey et al. 2001). Nonnative plant competition, logging, <strong>and</strong><br />
volcanic activity are also suspected as reasons for population decline (USFWS 1998a).<br />
The downlisting objectives listed in the Addendum to the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Cluster Recovery <strong>Plan</strong><br />
(1998a) state a total of 5-7 populations need to be documented, with a minimum of 300 mature<br />
individuals per population. For delisting, 8-10 populations are required, with at least 300 mature<br />
plants each. These populations need to persist for 5 consecutive years (USFWS 1998a).<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-67
4.9.13 Phyllostegia velutina<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Phyllostegia velutina is an endangered climbing vine. The thick leaves are slightly egg shaped with<br />
serrate margins. The leaves measure 3.6-6.9 in long <strong>and</strong> 1-2 in wide. The leaves have dense, straight<br />
hairs, while the square stems have downward pointing hairs. The white flowers are compactly<br />
clustered in groups of 6-10 in the axils of the leaves. The dry fruit is divided into four nutlets. The<br />
fruit is larger than the previous Phyllostegia described, with a length of 0.1-0.2 in.<br />
Historically, P. velutina was reported on the southern slopes of Hualālai <strong>and</strong> various slopes of Mauna<br />
Loa. In 2003, there were 5 populations consisting of 63-116 plants. These populations were located<br />
at the Honua„ula Forest Reserve, near the Waiea tract in South Kona, in Pu„u Wa„awa„a, <strong>and</strong> near<br />
<strong>and</strong> at the Kūlani Correctional Facility (USFWS 1998a). Current estimates published in the Federal<br />
Register (2003b) list eight occurrences, with an unknown number of individuals in the Ka„ū Forest<br />
Reserve <strong>and</strong> seven individuals within the Ka„ahakini watershed near the Kūlani summit <strong>and</strong> on<br />
adjacent Kamehameha Schools l<strong>and</strong>. Only a single P. velutina is known to occur in a gulch within<br />
the HFU. One hundred <strong>and</strong> twelve P. velutina have been outplanted at the HFU from 1999-2007<br />
(USFWS, unpubl.). P. velutina potentially occurs in the KFU (USFWS, unpubl.).<br />
The preferred habitat for P. velutina is montane mesic <strong>and</strong> wet forests dominated by koa <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a.<br />
It occurs between 4,900-6,000 ft. The following species have been recorded with P. velutina: hāpu„u,<br />
„ōhelo, „akala, lau-kahi, „ōlapa, māmaki, kōlea, <strong>and</strong> kāwa„u (USFWS 1998a).<br />
Phyllostegis velutina is threatened by ungulates, such as cattle, pigs, <strong>and</strong> sheep. Logging, road<br />
clearing, prison expansion, <strong>and</strong> other human activities have also caused population declines. Growth<br />
of nonnative plant species (Pennisetum setaceum, Rubus ellipticus, Paspalum urvillei, <strong>and</strong><br />
Pennisetum cl<strong>and</strong>estinum) has impacted the species. In addition, fire <strong>and</strong> volcanic activity has<br />
contributed to the decline (USFWS 1998a).<br />
The 9,009 ac critical habitat area for P. velutina has the potential to support 10 populations, each<br />
with 300 mature, reproducing individuals. These units include l<strong>and</strong> in the Ka„ū Forest Reserve within<br />
the Pahala watershed <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> managed by the „Ōla„a–Kīlauea Partnership within the Ka„ahakini<br />
watershed (Federal Register 2003b). No critical habitat has been designated at the HFU.<br />
4.9.14 Po‘e (Portulaca sclerocarpa)<br />
Portulaca sclerocarpa, or po„e, is a perennial herb that was listed as federally endangered in 1994.<br />
The prostrate stems reach up to 8 in tall. The sessile leaves are gray to pale green <strong>and</strong> linear shaped.<br />
There is a tuft of yellowish brown hairs in the axil. The flowers are arranged in cyme inflorescences<br />
composed of 3-6 white or pink blossoms. The taproot is fleshy <strong>and</strong> tuberous, but becomes woody.<br />
Approximately 0.16-0.18 in long, the fruit is a capsule (dry <strong>and</strong> dehiscent) containing dark reddish<br />
brown seeds. This species closely resembles P. villosa but can be distinguished by its thicker fruit.<br />
Po„e occurs on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> at one location on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Lāna„i. On Lāna„i, it occurs in<br />
coastal habitat on Po„opo„o Islet. The population is located on private l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> contains about<br />
10 plants (Federal Register 2003a). On Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, po„e is found between 3,087-5,360 ft where it<br />
grows in weathered Mauna Kea soils, cinder cones, or geologically young lavas. It is known to occur<br />
4-68 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
near stream vents <strong>and</strong> in montane dry forest <strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong> dominated by koa, „ōhi„a, <strong>and</strong> māmane.<br />
The species is known to occur with „a„ali„i <strong>and</strong> nehe.<br />
On Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, po„e historically occurs in the Kohala Mountains, the northern slopes of Hualālai,<br />
the northwestern slopes of Mauna Loa, <strong>and</strong> near Kīlauea Crater (USFWS 1996a). There are<br />
estimated to be 24 occurrences of po„e on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> currently. The population in Hawai„i<br />
Volcanoes National Park consisted of 900 individuals in 2003 (Federal Register 2003b). Populations<br />
also occur at the PTA <strong>and</strong> Parker Ranch. Although no po„e have been found the KFU, plants are<br />
known from the adjacent area.<br />
The critical habitat unit for po„e covers 10,848 ac of Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park. It contains<br />
the Keanakāko„i, Koko„olau, <strong>and</strong> Puhimau craters, as well as Lele o Kalihipa„a Pali <strong>and</strong> a portion of<br />
the 1921 lava flow. Roughly 19 ac of critical habitat were also designated for the population on<br />
Lāna„i (Federal Register 2003a, 2003b).<br />
Invasive mammals (goats, pigs, sheep) <strong>and</strong> invasive plants threaten populations of this species.<br />
Fountain grass <strong>and</strong> broomsedge are particular threats to po„e as a result of competition. Furthermore,<br />
existing populations occur in fire-prone areas that are susceptible to human impacts (USFWS 1996a).<br />
The coastal Lāna„i population is threatened by invasive plants, fire, <strong>and</strong> larval herbivory by a<br />
nonnative sphinx moth (Federal Register 2003a).<br />
4.9.15 ‘Ānunu (Sicyos macrophyllus)<br />
Sicyos macrophyllus, also known as „ānunu, is a c<strong>and</strong>idate for the list of threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered<br />
species. It does not receive protection under the ESA or Hawai„i's endangered species law nor is it<br />
covered in a recovery plan. This perennial vine has long stems reaching almost 50 ft. These stems are<br />
sparsely hairy <strong>and</strong> have black spots. The leaves are heart-shaped with a notch at the base <strong>and</strong><br />
attached to coiling tendrils. Each leaf has 3-5 lobes <strong>and</strong> the central lobe is sharply pointed. The<br />
flowers occur in hairy, branched inflorescences. The green fruit is rounded <strong>and</strong> ribbed.<br />
This species is found in montane wet „ōhi„a forests, mesic koa/„ōhi„a forests, <strong>and</strong> subalpine<br />
māmane/naio forests. It occurs between 4,000 -6,600 ft elevation on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i (USFWS<br />
2007c).<br />
The historical distribution of „ānunu includes Pu„u Wa„awa„a, Laupāhoehoe, Puna, <strong>and</strong> South Kona.<br />
The current distribution of the species encompasses six populations of several hundred individuals in<br />
the Kohala <strong>and</strong> Mauna Kea areas. One population occurs at Kīpuka Kī in Hawai„i Volcanoes<br />
National Park. The remainder are located in State-owned game management areas in Pu„u Huluhulu,<br />
South Kona, Pu„u Wa„awa„a, Pu„u Mali, <strong>and</strong> Waika (Federal Register 2007, USFWS 2007c). One<br />
„ānunu is known to occur within the KFU.<br />
The species is susceptible to pigs, cattle, <strong>and</strong> sheep that degrade <strong>and</strong> destroy habitat. Nonnative<br />
plants also compete for space, nutrients, water, air, <strong>and</strong> light. Although pigs are excluded in some<br />
areas by fencing, the fences are not sheep-proof <strong>and</strong> must be continually maintained (Federal<br />
Register 2007, USFWS 2007c).<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-69
4.9.16 Silene hawaiiensis<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Silene hawaiiensis is a sprawling shrub federally listed as threatened. The climbing stems are<br />
typically 6-16 in long <strong>and</strong> slightly hairy. The leaves are slender, with hairs concentrated along the<br />
margins <strong>and</strong> toward the base. The flowers, which are arranged in branched inflorescences, are<br />
greenish white <strong>and</strong> maroon below. These clusters are extremely sticky. Pale brown seeds are<br />
enclosed in a capsule (dry fruit) that is 0.26-0.31 in in length. The enlarged root is spindle-shaped.<br />
Silene hawaiiensis is endemic to the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i from 3,352-7,915 ft. It occurs within montane<br />
<strong>and</strong> subalpine dry shrubl<strong>and</strong> on weathered lava, on various aged lava flows, <strong>and</strong> cinder substrates<br />
(Federal Register 2003b). Historically, S. hawaiiensis could be found on the western slope of Mauna<br />
Kea, the Humu„ula Saddle, near Kīlauea Crater, <strong>and</strong> along the slopes of Mauna Loa. Current<br />
populations exist in the Hāmākua District, on Humu„ula Saddle, at PTA, north of Pu„u Keanui, <strong>and</strong><br />
in Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park (Federal Register 2003, Mitchell et al. 2005). In 2003, there are<br />
156 occurrences of S. hawaiiensis. From 5,651-5,751 individuals were found at Hawai„i Volcanoes<br />
National Park. The specimen identified on the KFU is currently pending verification. The shrub is<br />
found in association with the following native flora: „ōhi„a, māmane, „a„ali„i, pūkiawe, pāwale, <strong>and</strong><br />
„ōhelo (Federal Register 2003b).<br />
Two critical habitat units covering 6,908 ac were designated for the species within Hawai„i<br />
Volcanoes National Park. These areas contain portions of Kīlauea Crater, Kīpukakulalio, Uwēkahuna<br />
Bluff, Halema„uma„u Crater, <strong>and</strong> segments of the lava flows of 1919, 1921, <strong>and</strong> 1961 (Federal<br />
Register 2003b).<br />
Significant threats to S. hawaiiensis include grazing <strong>and</strong> trampling by goats, pigs, <strong>and</strong> sheep.<br />
Ungulates easily break the branches <strong>and</strong> stems of this species. Competition with nonnative plants,<br />
especially fountain grass, is another issue. The populations are also susceptible to human impacts<br />
such as fire <strong>and</strong> disturbance due to military exercise (USFWS 1996a, Mitchell et al. 2005). No S.<br />
hawaiiensis are known from Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s, however it is known to be above the HFU at<br />
approximately 7,000 ft.-10,000 ft in elevation<br />
4.10 Other Native <strong>Plan</strong>ts<br />
The plants now considered native to Hawai„i arrived to the archipelago via natural means such as<br />
wind, water, or birds. According to Wagner et al. (1999), the native Hawaiian flora is comprised of<br />
roughly 956 species within 87 families. Approximately 89 percent of these species are endemic<br />
(found only in Hawai„i), while the remainder are indigenous (naturally found in Hawai„i <strong>and</strong><br />
elsewhere). Table 4-6 lists the native plant species found on either Refuge unit.<br />
4-70 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table 4-6. Native Hawaiian <strong>Plan</strong>ts Found on the Units of the Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Scientific Name<br />
Common &<br />
Hawaiian Name(s)<br />
Status Hakalau<br />
Unit<br />
Amaranthaceae Amaranth family<br />
Charpentiera obovata pāpala E X<br />
Apiaceae Parsley family<br />
Sanicula s<strong>and</strong>wicensis -- E* X<br />
Apocynaceae Dogbane family<br />
Alyxia oliviformis maile E X<br />
Aquifoliaceae Holly family<br />
Ilex anomala kāwa„u, „aiea I X X<br />
Araliaceae Panax family<br />
Cheirodendron trigynum „ōlapa E X X<br />
Tetraplas<strong>and</strong>ra oahuensis „ohe mauka E X<br />
Arecaceae Palm family<br />
Pritchardia beccariana loulu E X<br />
Aspleniaceae Spleenwort family<br />
Asplenium aethiopicum „iwa„iwa a kāne I X<br />
Asplenium contiguum -- E X<br />
Asplenium lobulatum pi„ipi„i lau manamana I X X<br />
Asplenium macraei „iwa„iwa lau li„i E X<br />
Asplenium normale -- I X<br />
Asplenium schizophyllum -- E* X<br />
Asplenium unilaterale pāmoho I X<br />
Athyriaceae Lady fern family<br />
Athyrium microphyllum „akolea E X<br />
Diplazium s<strong>and</strong>wichianum ho„i„o E X<br />
Blechnaceae Blechnum fern family<br />
Sadleria cyatheoides „ama„u E X X<br />
Sadleria pallida „ama„u E X X<br />
Sadleria souleyetiana „ama„u E X<br />
Sadleria squarrosa „ama„u E X<br />
Campanulaceae Lobelia family<br />
Clermontia spp. „oha kepau, „oha wai X<br />
Cyanea marksii hāhā E* X<br />
Cyperaceae Sedge family<br />
Carex alligata -- E X<br />
Carex macloviana -- I X<br />
Carex wahuensis var. rubiginosa -- E X<br />
Eleocharis obtusa -- I X<br />
Machaerina angustifolia „uki I X<br />
Uncinia uncinata -- I X<br />
Kona<br />
Unit<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-71
Scientific Name<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Common &<br />
Hawaiian Name(s)<br />
Status Hakalau<br />
Unit<br />
Dennstaedtiaceae Hay-scented fern family<br />
Hypolepis hawaiiensis olua E X<br />
Microlepia strigosa palapalai I X<br />
Pteridium aquilinum<br />
kīlau, kīlau pueo,<br />
E X<br />
var. decompositum<br />
bracken fern<br />
Dicksoniacaeae Tree fern family<br />
Cibotium chamissoi hāpu„u E X<br />
Cibotium glaucum hāpu„u, hāpu„u pulu E X<br />
Dryopteridaceae Wood fern family<br />
Arachniodes insularis -- E X<br />
Cyrtomium caryotideum kā„ape„ape I X X<br />
Dryopteris fusco-atra „i„i E X<br />
Dryopteris glabra kīlau, hohiu E X<br />
Dryopteris hawaiiensis -- E X<br />
Dryopteris wallichiana laukahi, „i„o nui I X<br />
Dryopteris unidentata „akole E X<br />
Nothoperanema rubiginosa -- E X<br />
Polystichum hillebr<strong>and</strong>ii ka„upu, papa„oi E X X<br />
Ebenaceae Persimmon family<br />
Diospyros spp. lama<br />
Elaphoglossaceae Stag's tongue fern family<br />
Elaphoglossum alatum „ēkaha E X<br />
Elaphoglossum crassifolium „ēkaha E<br />
Elaphoglossum hirtum „ēkaha E<br />
Elaphoglossum wawrae „ēkaha, laukahi E<br />
Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia family<br />
Xylosma hawaiiense maua E X<br />
Geraniaceae Geranium family<br />
Geranium cuneatum nohoanu E X<br />
Gesneriaceae African violet family<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra lysiosepala ha„iwale E X<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra menziesii ha„iwale E* X<br />
Gleicheniaceae False staghorn fern family<br />
Dicranopteris linearis uluhe I X<br />
Diplopterygium pinnatum uluhe lau nui E X<br />
Sticherus owhyensis uluhe, unuhe E X<br />
Grammitidaceae Finger fern family<br />
Adenophorus hymenophylloides pai, palai huna E X<br />
Adenophorus pinnatifidus kihi, kihe E X<br />
Adenophorus tamariscinus wahine noho mauna E X<br />
Adenophorus tripinnatifidus -- E X<br />
Grammitis hookeri māku„e lau li„i I X<br />
Grammitis tenella kolokolo, mahinalua E X<br />
Kona<br />
Unit<br />
4-72 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Scientific Name<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Common &<br />
Hawaiian Name(s)<br />
Status Hakalau<br />
Unit<br />
Lellingeria saffordii kihe E X<br />
Lepisorus thunbergianus pākahakaha, „ēkaha, „ākōlea I X<br />
Hymenophyllaceae Filmy fern family<br />
Mecodium recurvum „ōhi„a kū E X<br />
Sphaerocionium lanceolatum palai hinahina E X<br />
Sphaerocionium obtusum palai lau li„i E X<br />
V<strong>and</strong>enboschia davallioides palai hihi, kīlau E X<br />
Iridaceae Iris family<br />
Sisyrinchium acre<br />
Joinvilleaceae<br />
ma„u ho„ula „ili E* X<br />
Joinvillea ascendens<br />
„ohe<br />
E X<br />
subsp. ascendens<br />
Juncaceae Rush family<br />
Luzula hawaiiensis -- E X<br />
Lamiaceae Mint family<br />
Phyllostegia ambigua -- E X<br />
Phyllostegia brevidens -- E* X<br />
Phyllostegia vestita -- E* X<br />
Stenogyne calaminthoides -- E X<br />
Stenogyne macrantha -- E* X<br />
Stenogyne sessilis -- E X<br />
Liliaceae Lily family<br />
Astelia menziesiana pa„iniu E X<br />
Lindsaeaceae Lace fern family<br />
Sphenomeris chinensis pala„ā, palapala„ā I X<br />
Loganiaceae Strychnine family<br />
Labordia hedyosmifolia kāmakahala E X<br />
Lycopodiaceae Club moss family<br />
Huperzia erubescens -- I X<br />
Huperzia serrata -- I X<br />
Lycopodiella cernua wawae„iole I X<br />
Marattiaceae Marattia family<br />
Marattia douglasii pala, kapua„ilio E X X<br />
Nephrolepidaceae Sword fern family<br />
Nephrolepis cordifolia -- I X<br />
Orchidaceae Orchid family<br />
Liparis hawaiensis „awapuhiakanaloa E X<br />
P<strong>and</strong>anaceae Screw pine family<br />
Freycinetia arborea „ie„ie E X X<br />
Phytolaccaceae Pokeweed family<br />
Phytolacca s<strong>and</strong>wicensis pōpolo ku mai E* X X<br />
Pittosporaceae Pittosporum family<br />
Pittosporum hosmeri hō „awa E X<br />
Kona<br />
Unit<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-73
Scientific Name<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Common &<br />
Hawaiian Name(s)<br />
Status Hakalau<br />
Unit<br />
Poaceae Grass family<br />
Deschampsia nubigena -- E X<br />
Isachne distichophylla „ohe E X<br />
Polygonaceae Buckwheat family<br />
Rumex giganteus pāwale, uhauhakō E X<br />
Polypodiaceae Polypody fern family<br />
Polypodium pellucidum „ae, „ae lau nui E X<br />
Psilotaceae Whisk fern family<br />
Psilotum complanatum moa I X<br />
Psilotum nudum moa, pipi I X<br />
Pteridaceae Pteris fern family<br />
Adiantum capillus-veneris „iwa„iwa I X<br />
Coniogramme pilosa lo„ulu E X<br />
Pteris cretica „ōali I X<br />
Pteris excelsa waimakanui, „iwa I X<br />
Pteris irregularis mānā, ā„hewa E X<br />
Ranunculaceae Buttercup family<br />
Ranunculus hawaiensis makou E* X<br />
Rosaceae Rose family<br />
Fragaria chiloensis „ōhelo papa I* X<br />
Rubus hawaiiensis „ākala, kala E<br />
Rubus macraei „ākala, kala E* X<br />
Rubiaceae Coffee family<br />
Coprosma spp. pilo E X<br />
Hedyotis terminalis manono E X<br />
Rutaceae Rue family<br />
Platydesma remyi pilo kea E X<br />
Santalaceae<br />
Santalum paniculatum „iliahi, s<strong>and</strong>alwood E X<br />
Selaginellaceae Spikemoss family<br />
Selaginella arbuscula lepelepe a moa E X<br />
Smilacaceae Catbriar family<br />
Smilax melastomifolia hoi kuahiwi E X<br />
Solanaceae Tomato, potato family<br />
Nothocestrum longifolium „aiea E X<br />
Theaceae Camellia family<br />
Eurya s<strong>and</strong>wicensis ānini E* X<br />
Thelypteridaceae Maiden fern family<br />
Amauropelta globulifera palapalai a kamapua„a E X<br />
Christella cyatheoides kikawaiō, kikawaioa E X<br />
Pseudophegopteris keraudreniana waimakanui, „ākōlea E X<br />
Pneumatopteris s<strong>and</strong>wicensis hō„i„o kula E X<br />
Urticaceae Nettle family<br />
Kona<br />
Unit<br />
4-74 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Scientific Name<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Common &<br />
Hawaiian Name(s)<br />
Status Hakalau<br />
Unit<br />
Pipturus albidus māmaki, waimea E X<br />
Urera glabra ōpuhe, hōpue E X<br />
Woodsiaceae<br />
Cystopteris douglasii -- E* X<br />
Status: E = Endemic; I = Indigenous; * = Species of Concern (former c<strong>and</strong>idate endangered<br />
species, or species otherwise considered rare by refuge officials).<br />
Sources: Stone et al. 1991, USFWS 2002b, USFWS 2008.<br />
Kona<br />
Unit<br />
Since humans came to the isl<strong>and</strong>s, populations of Hawai„i‟s native vegetation have greatly declined.<br />
Native plant taxa in Hawai„i evolved on the isl<strong>and</strong>s without common plant defenses such as<br />
poisonous compounds, prickles, <strong>and</strong> spines (Lindqvist et al. 2003). The absence of these defenses<br />
leaves native plants especially vulnerable to ungulates <strong>and</strong> other nonnative herbivores. In addition,<br />
introduced species are better adapted to fire than native plants. Although some native species appear<br />
to be tolerant (koa, māmane, naio, „a„ali„i, „ōhelo), no native Hawaiian plants require fire in order to<br />
regenerate (Smith <strong>and</strong> Tunison 1992, USFWS 1996, USFWS 2002a). More recently, competition<br />
from nonnative vegetation has suppressed regrowth or success of native plants. Native plant species<br />
richness <strong>and</strong> cover decreased with elevation (Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson 2008).<br />
In the pasture areas of the HFU, native plant populations were historically altered by grazing,<br />
logging, <strong>and</strong> possibly fire, eliminating the native seed bank. At lower elevations the native seed bank<br />
was reduced because of continued cattle grazing <strong>and</strong> pig disturbance for well over 100 years (Jeffrey,<br />
pers. comm.). Similarly, the KFU has been exposed to grazing, browsing, <strong>and</strong> pig disturbance;<br />
however, because the forest canopy is intact <strong>and</strong> some rare native plants located in skylights on the<br />
unit have been protected from ungulates, a seed bank for most species still exists.<br />
Since 1987, the Refuge has been conducting extensive reforestation research, ungulate control,<br />
nonnative plant control, <strong>and</strong> native plant <strong>and</strong> tree planting activities to help facilitate natural<br />
regeneration of native plant communities <strong>and</strong> natural processes of succession at the Refuge. Over<br />
400,000 native trees are planted in mauka to makai corridors to provide foraging cover, <strong>and</strong> nesting<br />
sites for native forest birds on Mauna Kea. The planting restoration effort is largely concentrated in<br />
the upper portions of the Refuge 5,500 - 6,600 ft as these areas have been the most heavily disturbed<br />
by ranching <strong>and</strong> other human activities (USFWS 1996b).<br />
Between 2006-2007, roughly 122 ac of upl<strong>and</strong> habitat was restored on the HFU (USFWS 2006,<br />
2007). Supplemental funding <strong>and</strong> supplies for restoration have come from Natural Resources<br />
Defense Council (NRDC), Hilo Rotary Club, American Forestry Association, Waimea State Tree<br />
Nursery, <strong>and</strong> DOFAW. Volunteers are an integral part of the effort, donating over 7,000 personhours<br />
annually. These volunteers collect seeds; plant <strong>and</strong> fertilize native species; assist with<br />
monitoring <strong>and</strong> surveys of flora <strong>and</strong> fauna, the annual open house, <strong>and</strong> nonnative weed control<br />
(USFWS unpub.). Exclosure studies have shown that rapid regeneration of native species, especially<br />
koa <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a, does occur in the absence of ungulates where a seed bank exists (USFWS, unpub.<br />
data).<br />
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Table 4-7. Total Native Seedlings Outplanted at the HFU 1987 - 2007.<br />
4.10.1 Koa (Acacia koa)<br />
Native Species<br />
Total Seedlings<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ted (1987-2007)<br />
Acacia koa 328,827<br />
Metrosideros polymorpha 30,232<br />
Myrsine sp. 3,150<br />
Cheirodendron trigynum 2,268<br />
Sophora chrysophylla 1,997<br />
Coprosma ochracea 1,911<br />
Coprosma montana 1,856<br />
Coprosma rhynchocarpa 1,699<br />
Myoporum s<strong>and</strong>wicense 1,687<br />
Rubus sp. 1,304<br />
Ilex anomala 920<br />
Leptecophylla tameiameiae 698<br />
Vaccinium calycinum 665<br />
Chenopodium oahuensis 397<br />
Ranunculus hawaiiensis 395<br />
Phyllostegia brevidens 304<br />
Coprosma sp. 280<br />
Vaccinium reticulatum 278<br />
Vaccinium sp. 188<br />
Stenogyne calaminthoides<br />
Source: USFWS, unpubl.<br />
84<br />
Koa (Acacia koa) is endemic to the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Hawai„i, Moloka„i, Maui, Lāna„i, O„ahu, <strong>and</strong> Kaua„i.<br />
Although it can be found between 200-6,760 ft, its current distribution is mainly restricted to areas<br />
above 2,000 ft due to introduced pests <strong>and</strong> diseases (Wagner et al. 1999, Elevitch et al. 2006). It<br />
tolerates a wide array of rainfall regimes <strong>and</strong> can withst<strong>and</strong> drought periods up to 5 months. The<br />
optimal temperature range of koa is between 48-70°F (Elevitch et al. 2006). Seedlings cannot endure<br />
frost, although protective techniques enhance survival (Scowcroft et al. 2000).<br />
Koa is the largest native tree in the archipelago, reaching 50-80 ft in height (Elevitch et al. 2006).<br />
Mature trees, which can live for over 100 years, have a diameter at breast height (dbh) often<br />
measuring more than 3.27 ft (Leary et al. 2004). While koa seedlings have true leaves, mature koa<br />
trees have only phyllodes, or exp<strong>and</strong>ed petioles. The flattened seed pods contain 6-12 seeds. The<br />
seeds are typically gravity-dispersed <strong>and</strong> require scarification in order to germinate (USFWS 1996b).<br />
Koa seeds appear to remain viable for about 15 years (USFWS 1996b). At Hakalau, koa trees flower<br />
December - February <strong>and</strong> seeds ripen November-January (USFWS 1996b). Koa flowers are<br />
primarily insect-pollinated, but birds <strong>and</strong> wind are also possible pollinators.<br />
Acacia koa is an important species for several reasons, providing habitat as well as food for native<br />
birds, insects, <strong>and</strong> plants. Banko <strong>and</strong> Peck (2008) collected over 78,000 arthropods from the branch<br />
tips of 160 koa trees. Pysllids (Homoptera) comprised over 90 percent of all individuals collected.<br />
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The koa specific longhorn beetle (Cerambicidae) has wood-boring larvae that require dying <strong>and</strong> dead<br />
koa as part of their life-history (Goldsmith 2007). These larvae are the primary food source for the<br />
„akiapōlā„au, an endangered Hawaiian honeycreeper that has evolved into a woodpecker-like niche<br />
(Pejchar <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey 2006). Downed trees function as nurse logs, which are important for forest<br />
regrowth. As these logs decay they provide microhabitat for forest seedling establishment (Leary et<br />
al. 2004). Economically, koa is highly valuable <strong>and</strong> sold commercially for furniture <strong>and</strong> other crafts;<br />
however, revenue can only be sustained when harvested selectively (Pejchar et al. 2005, TMA 2007).<br />
Historically, the wood was used by ancient Hawaiians for canoes (Elevitch et al. 2006).<br />
Koa is also considered a pioneer species during secondary succession due to its ability to quickly<br />
regenerate on a disturbed site. Ecosystem disturbances, such as fire <strong>and</strong> soil removal, can stimulate<br />
koa seeds to germinate. Koa is also able to regenerate from buried seed, root sprouts, or root<br />
suckering. It can spread outward from parent trees at a rate of 1.5-8 ft per year (USFWS 1996b).<br />
Similar to other pioneer species, koa is unable to tolerate shady environments. As a result, it usually<br />
establishes in canopy gaps, replacing previously occurring koa trees (USFWS 1996b). An additional<br />
characteristic typical of pioneer species is fast growth. During the first 5 years, koa can grow at rates<br />
of 5 ft per year; however, growth is slower in less favorable environments (Elevitch et al. 2006). At<br />
the HFU, growth varies depending on elevation (USFWS 1996b); however, studies by Goldsmith<br />
(2007) suggest that koa grows equally well at the upper middle <strong>and</strong> highest elevation areas present on<br />
the Refuge.<br />
Koa has also been referred to as a “forest engineer” due to its ability to create favorable understory<br />
conditions. Typical in legume species, koa develops nitrogen-fixing root nodules that enhance<br />
nitrogen availability in the soil. The rate of nitrogen fixation declines as the trees age (Goldsmith<br />
2007). The Draft Reforestation Management <strong>Plan</strong> for Hakalau (1996b) suggests that the nitrogenfixing<br />
capacity of koa may prevent „ōhi„a dieback. Koa also adds organic matter to the soil <strong>and</strong><br />
acidifies the soil. By providing canopy, the tree moderates light, temperature, <strong>and</strong> moisture for<br />
understory species (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey 1999). Additionally, koa generates leaf litter that<br />
suppresses weedy grasses <strong>and</strong> also traps moisture that collects as fog drip (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
Threats to koa seedlings at Hakalau Forest NWR include grass competition, frost, drought, pig<br />
rooting, <strong>and</strong> cattle browsing. Various seed predators (weevils <strong>and</strong> seed worms), fungi (Fusarium<br />
spp.), moths (Scotorythra paludicola), <strong>and</strong> twig borers (Xylos<strong>and</strong>rus compactus <strong>and</strong> Xyloborus spp.)<br />
also threaten koa populations. Koa wilt is a disease that causes rapid loss of canopy <strong>and</strong> death within<br />
a few months. This disease is more prevalent in young trees below 2,500 ft (TMA 2007). In addition,<br />
rats (Rattus spp.) have been implicated in stripping the bark off koa st<strong>and</strong>s less than 6 years old. This<br />
causes deformation <strong>and</strong> greater probability of infection (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Sakai 1984). Wild turkeys are<br />
also known to forage on seedling leaves, <strong>and</strong> pull recently planted seedlings out of the ground<br />
(USFWS unpub data).<br />
Hundreds of thous<strong>and</strong>s of native koa seedlings have been planted at the HFU to restore native forest<br />
<strong>and</strong> habitat for endangered bird species. The first planting occurred in 1988 on Magnetic Hill at<br />
6,500 ft <strong>and</strong> ongoing plantings are concentrated in the pasture areas of the Refuge (USFWS 1996b,<br />
2002a). The Refuge, with the help of volunteers, germinates seeds picked from trees growing on or<br />
adjacent to the Refuge, <strong>and</strong> plant koa seedlings in mauka to makai (uphill to downhill corridors). Koa<br />
growth at HFU is slower <strong>and</strong> varies depending on elevation. After 10 years of growth, native forest<br />
birds have been observed foraging within some planted st<strong>and</strong>s. Pejchar et al. (2007) found that of<br />
three habitat types studied, the koa plantation supported the highest density of the endangered<br />
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„akiapōlā„au. In addition, natural regeneration of koa through root sprouting <strong>and</strong> seed is also<br />
occurring in planting areas (USFWS 1996b).<br />
The survival rates of these koa reforestation efforts <strong>and</strong> studies have produced varying results, with<br />
differences mainly attributed to microsite conditions such as soil depth, moisture content, rockiness,<br />
<strong>and</strong> exposure to weather <strong>and</strong> sunlight. Survival rates are also affected by elevation, drought, spacing,<br />
topography, <strong>and</strong> other annual climatic differences (USFWS 1996b). In general, poorer survival rates<br />
occur at higher elevations than lower elevations as a result of frost. Frost protection devices have<br />
been designed to enhance seedling survival <strong>and</strong> growth. Set up on the east side of the seedling, these<br />
devices are the most cost-effective <strong>and</strong> least labor intensive technique (USFWS 1996b, Jeffrey, pers.<br />
comm.). Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey (1999) found that use of this device increased survival from 15-<br />
100 percent. By blocking the night sky, the frost protection devices reduce radiative cooling <strong>and</strong><br />
moderate leaf temperatures (Scowcroft et al. 2000). They also increase moisture by catching fog or<br />
mist. Spacing may have a minor affect on survival rates, with 84 percent survival for seedlings<br />
spaced 6.6 ft apart <strong>and</strong> 74 percent survival for seedlings spaced 8.2 ft apart (USFWS 1996b). The<br />
average spacing for corridor plantings at the Refuge is a grid of 12 ft.<br />
Seedling survival is also dependent on site preparation methods. In an experiment where discing,<br />
burning, herbicide treatment, h<strong>and</strong> scarifying, <strong>and</strong> no treatment were used, discing a continuous 6.6 ft<br />
strip proved to be the most effective method for preparing a site for planting, but erosion proved to be<br />
a problem (USFWS 1996b). When an existing seed bank is present, mechanical soil scarification can<br />
also enhance koa regeneration (USFWS 1996b, Jeffrey, pers. comm.). Since 1996, the Refuge has<br />
used a modified bulldozer blade attachment to scarify the ground for koa outplanting. A 3-ft wide<br />
“mini blade” is attached to the bulldozer blade. As the dozer moves forward, the blade is dropped,<br />
scraping the grass off a 3 ft wide by 3 ft long area, exposing the top soil. Koa seedlings grown in<br />
dibble tubes are then planted in the sites by volunteers. The planters follow the bulldozer tracks<br />
through the grassl<strong>and</strong>s, poking holes in the ground within the scarified sites with a dibble stick. Three<br />
holes, 8 in deep <strong>and</strong> a 1 ft apart are made at each site. The koa seedling is planted into the center hole<br />
<strong>and</strong> fertilizer is placed in the other two.<br />
4.10.2 ‘Ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha)<br />
„Ōhi„a (Metrosideros polymorpha) is the dominant species on lava flows <strong>and</strong> in mature native rain<br />
forests in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Occurring from sea level-9,515 ft, „ōhi„a has a wide ecological<br />
distribution colonizing habitats of various elevations, substrate ages, soil moistures, <strong>and</strong> temperatures<br />
(Cordell et al. 1997, Mueller-Dombois <strong>and</strong> Fosberg 1998, Friday <strong>and</strong> Herbst 2006, Crawford et al.<br />
2008). „Ōhi„a is reported in dry areas with less than 16 in of annual precipitation, as well as wet<br />
forests with more than 400 in per year. Furthermore, „ōhi„a can thrive in various soil types, including<br />
nutrient-poor sites, <strong>and</strong> are shade tolerant (Friday <strong>and</strong> Herbst 2006, Crawford et al. 2008). This<br />
endemic tree is considered a pioneer species because it is one of the first species to establish on<br />
recent volcanic lava flows. As a result, „ōhi„a forests tend to be comprised of relatively even-aged<br />
trees (USFWS 1996b, Mueller- Dombois <strong>and</strong> Fosberg 1998).<br />
„Ōhi„a is a slow growing species. On average, „ōhi„a are estimated to grow 12 - 24 in in height<br />
annually <strong>and</strong> by 0.04 - 0.12 in in diameter each year (Hatfield et al.1996, Friday <strong>and</strong> Herbst 2006).<br />
Seedlings grow between 2 - 4 in each year (USFWS 1996b). In spite of the slow growth rates, „ōhi„a<br />
can grow up to 100 ft tall <strong>and</strong> reach a peak diameter of 85 in (Wagner et al. 1999, Friday <strong>and</strong> Herbst<br />
2006). Thus, the species has a relatively long lifespan. Some trees have been dated to approximately<br />
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600 years or older <strong>and</strong> are considered the oldest angiosperm in the Northern hemisphere (P.J. Hart,<br />
UH Hilo in press). Growth rates <strong>and</strong> height increase in areas with organic seedbeds, such as fallen<br />
logs <strong>and</strong> stumps (USFWS 1996b).<br />
An abundant amount of seeds are produced by „ōhi„a. These seeds are small, lightweight, <strong>and</strong> easily<br />
dispersed by wind (Burton 1982, Stemmerman 1983, USFWS 1996b). „Ōhi„a seeds are able to<br />
germinate quickly in diverse environmental conditions, even under low light levels. In general,<br />
germination is exceptionally high when seeds were sown on the surface rather than under a layer of<br />
soil. The optimal germination temperature for „ōhi„a is between 61-72°F. Different varieties exhibit<br />
different germination characteristics. Seeds from pubescent plants are more successful at germinating<br />
rapidly <strong>and</strong> in high temperatures; thus, pubescent „ōhi„a are considered more successful pioneers.<br />
Due to the thin seed coat, seeds lose viability after several months, suggesting that there is not a<br />
persistent soil seed bank (Drake 1993). Due to the abundant <strong>and</strong> continuous seed supply, „ōhi„a have<br />
a competitive advantage over koa (USFWS 1996b).<br />
„Ōhi„a is a polymorphic species, meaning it has distinct morphological varieties. Flowers can range<br />
in color from red to yellow <strong>and</strong> leaf shape is highly inconsistent. Eight „ōhi„a varieties are<br />
recognized – dieteri, glaberrima, incana, macrophylla, newellii, polymorpha, pseudorugosa, <strong>and</strong><br />
pumila (Wagner et al. 1999). These varieties occur in distinct or overlapping habitats, elevations, <strong>and</strong><br />
soil moisture regimes (Crawford et al. 2008). Pubescent varieties (var. polymorpha) occur in drier,<br />
higher elevation sites with younger substrates compared to glabrous varieties (var. glaberrima)<br />
(Stemmerman 1983, Drake 1993, Cordell et al. 1997, Wagner et al. 1999, Hoof et al. 2008). Leaf<br />
pubescence may assist plants in stressful environments by reducing transpiration, freezing, <strong>and</strong><br />
herbivory rates (Hoof et al. 2008). Varieties with smaller leaf size, petiole length, <strong>and</strong> internode<br />
length are generally observed in higher elevation areas. Thus, these measurements are inversely<br />
related to elevation (Cordell et al. 1998). Stomata are larger <strong>and</strong> more dense on glabrous than<br />
pubescent trees (Hoof et al. 2008). The fixed morphological attributes of „ōhi„a are likely the result<br />
of consistent <strong>and</strong> strong selective pressures. Although the morphological variation of „ōhi„a is<br />
partially based on environmental conditions (Burton 1982, Stemmerman 1986), these distinct<br />
characteristics also appear to be genetically determined (Cordell et al. 1997).<br />
At Hakalau Forest NWR, „ōhi„a trees play a vital role in ecosystem function. „Ōhi„a help sustain<br />
forest bird populations <strong>and</strong> insect populations by providing nesting sites <strong>and</strong> cavities, harboring<br />
insects, <strong>and</strong> producing nectar (USFWS 1996b). Flowers are present year-round at the HFU, with<br />
peaks during the winter <strong>and</strong> spring (USFWS 1996b). The endangered „akiapōlā„au takes sap of<br />
particular „ōhi„a trees by drilling holes in the trunks <strong>and</strong> branches of specific trees. These trees,<br />
termed “aki trees,” have higher sap flow than other „ōhi„a. Functioning as an alternative food source<br />
to nectar <strong>and</strong> insects, “aki trees” may play an important role in the diet of „akiapōlā„au during low<br />
food periods (Pejchar <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey 2004).<br />
During the mid 1960s, „ōhi„a forests experienced a dieback of the tree canopy, referred to as „ōhi„a<br />
dieback. This loss of crown foliage across the entire l<strong>and</strong>scape occurred in the montane areas of<br />
Mauna Kea in both poorly drained <strong>and</strong> well-drained areas. Extensive research was conducted into the<br />
cause of dieback (Jacobi et al. 1983, Mueller-Dombois 1983, Mueller-Dombois <strong>and</strong> Fosberg 1998)<br />
<strong>and</strong> was determined to be a common, natural phenomenon resulting from aging <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />
stress (USFWS 1996b). Regeneration of the canopy was found to occur following initial canopy loss<br />
(Jacobi et al. 1983, Stemmerman 1983). Dieback has occurred in the wet „ōhi„a forest at the HFU <strong>and</strong><br />
a small portion of the wet koa/ „ōhi„a forest (USFWS 1996b).<br />
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Outplanting of „ōhi„a throughout Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> has not been as extensive as koa, due to failed<br />
restoration efforts (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey 1999). Since 1997 over 30,000 „ōhi„a trees were planted on<br />
the HFU (USFWS, unpubl.). These trees were planted in the understory of the previously planted koa<br />
corridors, which increases survival. Experimental plantings in open pastures resulted in nearly<br />
100 percent mortality, possibly due to grass competition. <strong>Plan</strong>ting on downed logs in open areas <strong>and</strong><br />
under canopy also increased survival but is not efficient because of the lack of substrate logs.<br />
4.10.3 Māmane (Sophora chrysophylla)<br />
The ecological characteristics of māmane have not been as extensively studied as koa or „ōhi„a.<br />
Māmane is an important component of certain native forests <strong>and</strong> a valuable food source for native<br />
birds, particularly the listed palila. Māmane is a polymorphic species <strong>and</strong> can be found throughout<br />
Hawai„i as a shrub or tree in both dry <strong>and</strong> wet conditions. On the eastern slope of Mauna Kea at the<br />
drier, upper portions of the Refuge (above 6,000 ft), māmane is codominant with koa. As the<br />
elevation continues to increase, koa drops out <strong>and</strong> māmane becomes more abundant. Koa-māmane<br />
forest type is transitional between the taller, mesic koa-„ōhi„a st<strong>and</strong> type <strong>and</strong> the drier, lower stature<br />
subalpine māmane forest. Understory species for this forest type include naio, pūkiawe, „a„ali„i,<br />
„ōhelo, <strong>and</strong> native ferns <strong>and</strong> grasses. Ecologically, māmane has much in common with koa. It is<br />
pollinated by insects <strong>and</strong> birds <strong>and</strong> is also a leguminous, nitrogen-fixing species whose seeds are<br />
primarily gravity dispersed. It is also able to spread through root sprouting <strong>and</strong> by seed. Growth rates<br />
are likely to be faster at the lower elevation koa-māmane communities at the Refuge.<br />
4.11 Cave Resources<br />
According to the Federal Cave Resources Protection <strong>and</strong> Management Act of 1988, as amended, a<br />
cave is a naturally occurring void, cavity, recess, or system of interconnected passages that occurs<br />
beneath the Earth‟s surface or within a cliff or ledge. Cave resources are any material or substance<br />
occurring naturally in caves, including animals, plants, paleontological deposits, sediments, minerals,<br />
<strong>and</strong> relief features (16 U.S.C. §§ 4301-4310). In Hawai„i, caves can occur in limestone or basaltic<br />
lava (Howarth 1983) <strong>and</strong> are generally more extensive in pahoehoe lava flows (Howarth et al. 2007).<br />
These dark ecosystems are typically wet, with high levels of CO2 <strong>and</strong> low levels of O2. The<br />
temperature inside the cave typically reflects the annual temperature at the surface of the cave;<br />
however, caves that extend downslope from the entrance often have cooler temperatures (Howarth<br />
1983).<br />
Caves, including lava tubes, have historically been considered inhospitable habitats not favorable to<br />
fauna (Howarth 1979, 1983). In reality, these habitats provide refuge for rare <strong>and</strong> highly specialized<br />
invertebrates, such as insects, spiders, <strong>and</strong> other arthropods. Cave animals can be divided into four<br />
categories. Obligate cave species, or troglobites, are unable to survive outside of cave ecosystems<br />
<strong>and</strong> typically exist within deep, damp cave areas that are protected from surface air. Obligate cave<br />
species known to occur on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i include the endemic moths <strong>and</strong> spiders (Sinella<br />
yoshiia, Schrankia sp., Littorophiloscia sp.). Facultative species, or troglophiles, have the ability to<br />
live <strong>and</strong> reproduce in caves but are also capable of surviving in other similar environments. The third<br />
cave type of cave species are the trogloxenes. These species regularly inhabit caves, but return to the<br />
surface to feed. <strong>Final</strong>ly, accidental visitors are fauna that inadvertently enter caves <strong>and</strong> are unable to<br />
survive in the habitat (Howarth 1973, 1983, Howarth et al. 2007). In general, cave species can occur<br />
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in deep, extensive interconnect passages or small voids. Species diversity tends to increase with the<br />
age of the cave; however, individuals can disperse to younger, more recent caves (Howarth et al.<br />
2007).<br />
Obligate <strong>and</strong> facultative cave animals often have unique characteristics because they have adapted to<br />
subterranean habitats. Morphological adaptations include a loss or reduction of eyes, pale coloring,<br />
wings, <strong>and</strong> longer appendages. Behavioral traits have also evolved as efficiency tactics in these<br />
energy-poor environments. These include slow movements, a lower metabolism, a circadian rhythm,<br />
<strong>and</strong> consuming large amounts in a single feeding. It is difficult to find cave animals because of their<br />
cryptic behavior. Many of the cave species are rare; however, the only two endangered cave species<br />
occur on the isl<strong>and</strong> on Kaua„i (Howarth 1983, Howarth et al. 2007).<br />
Species within these caves receive their energy from several different sources: deep-rooted plants;<br />
surface animals that accidentally fall or are washed into the caves; oozes deposited by percolating<br />
ground water <strong>and</strong> reworked by microorganisms; <strong>and</strong> other organic material such as flood debris.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t roots are the primary energy source for cave species. In particular, the pioneer „ōhi„a tree is a<br />
key food species, because it is the first to colonize young lava. <strong>Plan</strong>t roots also provide shelter <strong>and</strong><br />
building materials for cave animals (Howarth et al. 2007).<br />
In addition to invertebrates, rare <strong>and</strong> unusual plants can occur in lava tube skylights. These plants<br />
may thrive in moist microclimates <strong>and</strong> survive due to protection provided by the steep rock walls of<br />
the tubes making these sites unavailable to grazing ungulates. Cave ecosystems can also contain<br />
minerals, as well as cultural <strong>and</strong> paleontological remains (USFWS 1997). The twilight zone was<br />
often used by early Hawaiians for specialized uses, such as for water catchment or shelter (Howarth<br />
<strong>and</strong> Stone 1998). Archaeologists have found artifacts <strong>and</strong> prehistoric features within caves<br />
throughout the isl<strong>and</strong>s (Ziegler 2002). To date no cultural sites have been found in lava tube systems<br />
at the KFU. There are no known lava tube systems at the HFU.<br />
Cave habitats on the KFU are extensive. A reconnaissance survey of these caves was conducted by<br />
Dr. Howarth <strong>and</strong> Stone in 1998. Four distinct cave systems consisting of 22 cave entrances were<br />
found at the unit, although only three systems were surveyed. The caves are of intermediate age (less<br />
than 4,000 years old) <strong>and</strong> have a thick overburden of rock <strong>and</strong> soil. Most entrances occur as vertical<br />
pits. The cave passages explored by Howarth <strong>and</strong> Stone were primarily in twilight <strong>and</strong> transition<br />
zones, which are characteristic of caves that have multiple entrances. However, a few other areas<br />
likely enter deep zone habitats, where the specialized cave-adapted animals thrive (Howarth <strong>and</strong><br />
Stone 1998).<br />
It is estimated that only about 20 percent of the caves have been mapped (Ball, pers. comm.).<br />
Although caves throughout the site have only been partially surveyed, they are known to support rare<br />
<strong>and</strong> unusual species adapted for life in subterranean ecosystems. Some resident species have<br />
persisted because the caves are generally inaccessible to ungulates (USFWS 2002b). Additional cave<br />
features likely occur that have surface openings not large enough for humans to enter. The cave<br />
locations at the KFU are kept confidential under U.S. cave law (Howarth, pers. comm.).<br />
Due to the cryptic nature of the species, relatively few arthropods were seen during the 1998 KFU<br />
survey. Endemic cave fauna <strong>and</strong> evidence observed by Howarth <strong>and</strong> Stone included the following:<br />
cave carabid ground beetle (Mecyclothorax? sp.), Schrankia root moths, a Carposina fruit moth<br />
(probably gracillima), Linyphiid spider webs, <strong>and</strong> trails of the native Limonia crane flies. In addition,<br />
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several dead moths, probably native agrotine noctuids, were found. Nonnative species recorded<br />
during the survey included the millipede Oxidus gracilis, Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon aphids,<br />
Porcellio isopods, <strong>and</strong> shells of the garlic snail Oxychilus alliarius. Furthermore, dung of the black<br />
rat (Rattus rattus) was found in the entrances; these animals can navigate through dark cave<br />
passages.<br />
The cave system skylights in the KFU support a variety of diverse native flora including „ākala,<br />
Pipturus, Phyllostegia, Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra, Ilex, Cyanea, Metrosideros roots, <strong>and</strong> a variety of ferns (Howarth<br />
<strong>and</strong> Stone 1998). The endangered Cyanea stictophylla previously occurred in a cave at the KFU;<br />
however, it was destroyed by rat predation. The native plant „ōlapa is also known to occur in <strong>and</strong><br />
around the caves at the unit. Cattle often eat „ōlapa growing from the caves (Ball, pers. comm.).<br />
Paleo-ornithological surveys by the Smithsonian Institute have found hundreds of subfossil bird<br />
bones (geese <strong>and</strong> rails) in the KFU caves. Most of these species are extinct, while some are<br />
considered new to science (USFWS 2008). Howarth <strong>and</strong> Stone (1998) found roughly 15 flightless<br />
goose skeletons, as well as additional bird skeletons during their reconnaissance survey. None of the<br />
caves surveyed by Raymond <strong>and</strong> Valentine (2007) in the KFU contain artifacts or other cultural<br />
material.<br />
Cave resources can be drastically altered by physical <strong>and</strong> biological changes or disturbance over the<br />
surface. Toxins or pollutants on the surface can affect the subterranean ecosystem (Howarth <strong>and</strong><br />
Stone 1998). The input of soil <strong>and</strong> debris restrict water <strong>and</strong> nutrients from reaching deeper voids.<br />
Herbivore grazing, mining, <strong>and</strong> chemical pollution are also threats to the subterranean ecosystems<br />
(Howarth et al. 2007).<br />
Nonnative species can alter the native ecosystem <strong>and</strong> adversely impact native species (e.g., through<br />
predation). Nonnative taxa especially impact host specific animals, such as cixiid planthoppers, that<br />
only utilize a single native species. People can directly impact cave resources by trampling<br />
vegetation during exploration <strong>and</strong> management activities or through deliberate v<strong>and</strong>alism. Human<br />
activity can also indirectly impact the ecosystem by inadvertently creating pathways for nonnative<br />
species to invade the habitat (Howarth <strong>and</strong> Stone 1998).<br />
At the KFU, staff minimize research <strong>and</strong> trespassing in the caves because heavy foot traffic increases<br />
routes for pigs <strong>and</strong> other ungulates (Ball, pers. comm.). Any future surveys of the caves at the KFU<br />
should be done with care to ensure as little damage as possible to the cave walls <strong>and</strong> floor (Howarth<br />
<strong>and</strong> Stone 1998). Above ground management techniques to help protect these resources include<br />
creating protected reserves around significant caves, controlling invasive plant species, <strong>and</strong><br />
encouraging the recovery of deep-rooted native species (Howarth et al. 2007).<br />
4.12 Threats<br />
Most of the habitats of the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s have been drastically altered by humans, with less than<br />
40 percent of native habitats remaining in the State (most of which are on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i). The<br />
first Polynesians to arrive are believed to have brought coconut, taro, <strong>and</strong> Polynesian pigs. Europeans<br />
arrived later <strong>and</strong> brought sheep, cattle, goats, <strong>and</strong> game birds. Before human arrival, the estimated<br />
rate of successful new colonizations was 1 species every 25,000 years. Over the last 2 centuries<br />
alone, the rate of plant introductions alone has been more than 40 species per year. It is estimated that<br />
over 6,000 introduced terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic species are now established, <strong>and</strong> that of all the species<br />
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currently in Hawai„i, approximately 26 - 30 percent are nonnative. While many introductions do not<br />
pose a threat to native habitats, approximately 10 percent of the established nonnative species are<br />
highly invasive or pose significant threats to Hawaiian ecosystems (Mitchell et al 2005). In addition<br />
to the already established introduced species, numerous species currently not found on the isl<strong>and</strong>s are<br />
poised to invade isl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems. Over a 9-month period, a Pest Risk Assessment conducted at<br />
Kahului Airport by the State Department of Agriculture discovered over 100 nonnative species<br />
entering via air cargo (Mitchell et al 2005). In addition to invasive species, wildlife <strong>and</strong> plant<br />
diseases <strong>and</strong> parasites are also on the rise <strong>and</strong> include mosquito borne avian diseases such as avian<br />
malaria <strong>and</strong> pox <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a rust, which if the right strain reaches the isl<strong>and</strong>s could decimate our<br />
native „ōhi„a forests. Rust fungi endemic to koa has already been found at the Refuge.<br />
An invasive species is defined as a species whose migration <strong>and</strong> growth within a new range is<br />
causing detrimental effects to the native biota in that range (Pattison et al. 1998). Mammals,<br />
amphibians, invertebrates, <strong>and</strong> plants can all be considered invasive. These species become invasive<br />
because their population <strong>and</strong> growth are no longer balanced by natural predators or biological<br />
processes that kept them in balance in their native ecosystems. In the absence of restraints, invasive<br />
species have the potential to compete with native species for limited resources, alter or destroy<br />
habitats, shift ecological relationships, <strong>and</strong> transmit diseases (Ikuma et al. 2002). Isl<strong>and</strong>s tend to be<br />
more exposed to invasive species due to an abundance of trade, tourism, <strong>and</strong> agriculture (Van<br />
Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2004). Hawai„i, which existed in isolation for millions of years, is an<br />
exceptionally ideal environment for invasive species. Most native species throughout the Hawaiian<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s lost their natural defense mechanisms <strong>and</strong> are more vulnerable to introduced species (Ikuma<br />
et al. 2002). Numerous invasive animal populations <strong>and</strong> a variety of invasive plants occur at the<br />
Refuge.<br />
4.12.1 Introduced Forest Birds<br />
Since 1850, more than 130 species of birds have been introduced to Hawai„i. Of these, 15 game<br />
species <strong>and</strong> 30 nongame birds have established populations. Most of the introduced species were<br />
from three orders: Galliformes (game birds), Columbiformes (doves <strong>and</strong> pigeons), <strong>and</strong><br />
Passeriformes (passerines or perching birds) (Moulton et al. 2001). All three orders of introduced<br />
avian species are present both at the HFU <strong>and</strong> the KFU. Tables 4-8 <strong>and</strong> 4-9 list introduced birds<br />
present in each area. Game birds are discussed in Section 4.12.2 <strong>and</strong> listed in Table 4-9.<br />
At the central windward region of Hawai„i, the trends of the nonnative species densities were<br />
generally decreasing in Kūlani-Keauhou, mixed in „Ōla„a <strong>and</strong> East Rift, <strong>and</strong> increasing in Mauna Loa<br />
Strip. Japanese white-eyes appeared to be undergoing a decline in occurrence <strong>and</strong> density in the<br />
Kūlani-Keauhou study area. This was the only area where this species demonstrated downward<br />
trends. Elsewhere, Japanese white-eyes have shown markedly increasing occurrence <strong>and</strong> density.<br />
Red-billed leiothrix numbers appeared to be declining in the Kūlani-Keauhou <strong>and</strong> „Ōla„a study areas,<br />
<strong>and</strong> highly variable with nonsignificant trends in Mauna Loa Strip. Northern cardinals appeared to be<br />
in decline in Kūlani-Keauhou <strong>and</strong> East Rift, but possibly increasing in the „Ōla„a <strong>and</strong> Mauna Loa<br />
Strip study areas. The house finch was uncommon to rare <strong>and</strong> highly variable in all study areas, <strong>and</strong><br />
analyses of its trends were inconclusive. The Japanese bush-warbler, which became established on<br />
Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> in recent years <strong>and</strong> is present at Waiākea not far to the north, has not yet been<br />
detected in the central windward region of Hawai„i (Gorresen et al. 2005). Several Japanese bushwarblers<br />
have been detected on or near the Refuge since 2002 (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
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At the HFU, hwamei are uncommon but found at highest densities in lower elevation, open-canopy,<br />
midstature forests. The red-billed leiothrix is common, widespread, <strong>and</strong> occurs at highest densities in<br />
upper-elevation, closed-canopy, high-stature forests. The widespread Japanese white-eye occurs at<br />
highest densities in lower-elevation, open-canopy, mid-stature forests, <strong>and</strong> heterogeneous vegetation<br />
types. The northern cardinal is uncommon, but fairly widespread, occurring at highest densities in the<br />
lower <strong>and</strong> uppermost elevation, open-canopy, high-stature forests, <strong>and</strong> heterogeneous vegetation<br />
types. The house finch is common <strong>and</strong> occurs at highest densities in grassl<strong>and</strong>s, drier koa-dominated<br />
woodl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> forests, <strong>and</strong> heterogeneous vegetation types. Between 1977-2000, the northern<br />
cardinal <strong>and</strong> Japanese white-eye were found to have increased in density, while the hwamei, redbilled<br />
leiothrix, <strong>and</strong> house finch showed no changes in density over the 24-year study period (Camp<br />
et al. 2003, Hawai„i Forest Bird Database 2005).<br />
Table 4-8. Introduced Forest Birds Present at HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU.<br />
Common name Scientific name<br />
Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit<br />
Kona<br />
Forest Unit<br />
Doves <strong>and</strong> pigeons Columbiformes<br />
Rock dove Columba livia X<br />
Spotted dove Geopelia striata X X<br />
Zebra dove Streptopelia chinensis X<br />
Owls Strigiformes<br />
Barn owl Tyto alba X X<br />
Passerines Passeriformes<br />
Sky lark Alauda arvensis X X<br />
Japanese bush-warbler Cettia diphone X X<br />
Hwamei Garrulax canorus X X<br />
Red-billed leiothrix Leiothrix lutea X X<br />
Japanese white-eye Zosterops japonicus X X<br />
Northern mockingbird Mimus polyglottos X<br />
Common myna Acridotheres tristis X X<br />
Saffron finch Sicalis flaveola X<br />
Northern cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis X X<br />
House finch Carpodacus mexicanus X X<br />
Yellow-fronted canary Serinus mozambicus X X<br />
House sparrow Passer domesticus X X<br />
African silverbill Lonchura cantans X X<br />
Nutmeg mannikin Lonchura punctulata X X<br />
Java sparrow Padda oryzivora X<br />
Of the introduced bird species, the barn owl, Japanese white-eye, red-billed leiothrix, <strong>and</strong> various<br />
gallinaceous birds are the species of most concern. Barn owls probably compete with the native pueo<br />
for introduced rats <strong>and</strong> mice. The Japanese white-eye likely competes for food with native forest<br />
birds such as the common „amakihi (van Riper 1984), Hawai„i „elepaio, <strong>and</strong> „i„iwi. Introduced forest<br />
birds, especially the Japanese white-eye <strong>and</strong> red-billed leiothrix, distribute seeds of nonnative plants<br />
such as blackberry, Photenia <strong>and</strong> English holly at the Refuge <strong>and</strong> fire tree <strong>and</strong> banana poka in<br />
Hawai„i‟s natural areas (Mountainspring <strong>and</strong> Scott 1985). Nonnative birds are also reservoirs for<br />
avian diseases such as malaria <strong>and</strong> avian pox, though the prevalence of disease in native birds is<br />
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often higher since these diseases are new to Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> the native birds have not developed<br />
resistance (Samuel et al. 2007, Atkinson et al. 2005).<br />
4.12.2 Introduced Game Birds<br />
Approximately 15 species of nonnative game birds (Galliformes) have established populations in the<br />
Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s (Moulton et al. 2001). These birds have negative impacts on native ecosystems.<br />
Ring-necked pheasants, Kalij pheasants, <strong>and</strong> other gallinaceous birds are known to disperse the seeds<br />
of invasive plants such as fire tree <strong>and</strong> banana poka in Hawai„i's natural areas (Mountainspring <strong>and</strong><br />
Scott 1985). Turkey also eat koa seedlings. They also consume native plant species used by nēnē<br />
(Cole et al. 1995).<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, introduced game birds, such as chukar <strong>and</strong> pheasants, may occupy a niche<br />
previously filled by extinct Hawaiian birds by helping with the dispersal <strong>and</strong> germination of native<br />
seeds (Cole et al. 1995).<br />
Table 4-9. Introduced Game Birds Present at HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU.<br />
Common name Scientific name<br />
Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit<br />
Kona<br />
Forest Unit<br />
Game birds Galliformes<br />
California quail Callipepla californica X<br />
Chukar Alectoris chukar X<br />
Erckel‟s francolin Francolinus erckelii X X<br />
Japanese quail Coturnix japonica X<br />
Kalij pheasant Lophura leucomelanos X X<br />
Ring-necked pheasant Phasianus colchicus X X<br />
Wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo X X<br />
4.12.3 Introduced Mammals<br />
Mammals adversely impact the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s as herbivores, predators, <strong>and</strong> omnivores. As<br />
herbivores, mammals can consume large amounts of native vegetation (Courchamp et al. 2002) <strong>and</strong><br />
serve as an agent in the spread of invasive nonnative weed species. Because native Hawaiian flora<br />
did not evolve with mammals, these species are not adapted to grazing by herbivores (Stone 1985,<br />
Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Conrad 1992, Stone et al. 1992). Predatory mammals, such as cats, prey on a variety<br />
of species throughout the isl<strong>and</strong>s. Furthermore, omnivorous mammals (rats), can severely impact<br />
isl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems by consuming both flora <strong>and</strong> fauna (Courchamp et al. 2000).<br />
Both units of the Hakalau Forest NWR are threatened by introduced mammals to varying degrees.<br />
Currently, the HFU has 45 miles of pig- <strong>and</strong> cattle-proof fence. The HFU is divided into eight<br />
ungulate management units to facilitate easier control. Additional units, located in the lower<br />
elevations of the Refuge, are planned to be fenced in the future as funding <strong>and</strong> staffing allow. As new<br />
l<strong>and</strong> was added to the Refuge, commercial cattle grazing was phased out (as in the Upper Honohina<br />
Tract, domestic grazing occurred within 1,034 ac of this Tract until April 1996). Ungulate grazing is<br />
no longer allowed on the Refuge.<br />
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Within KFU, the Refuge estimates that currently there are more than 300 wild cattle <strong>and</strong> an unknown<br />
number of pigs, sheep, mouflon, donkeys, <strong>and</strong> horses. These ungulates are primarily concentrated in<br />
the mesic belt (Ball, pers. comm.), which receives between 50-75 in of annual rainfall. Physical,<br />
chemical, <strong>and</strong> biological population control methods are used on invasive mammals <strong>and</strong> their<br />
removal, while frequently justified biologically, is not without controversy. The elimination of<br />
grazers in altered habitats can also release other species from browsing pressure <strong>and</strong> result in an<br />
increase in nonnative <strong>and</strong> invasive plant species (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Conrad 1992, Cabin et al. 2000, Van<br />
Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2000). At the KFU, the removal of ungulates may be controversial<br />
because eliminating grazers will increase the potential for fire. This could both eliminate native<br />
habitat <strong>and</strong> impact adjacent l<strong>and</strong>owners. Wildfire Management <strong>Plan</strong>s (2002a, 2002b) have been<br />
developed for both units. Additionally, a strategy in this CCP identifies developing a fire prevention<br />
program for both units.<br />
Cattle (Bos taurus)<br />
Cattle were released on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i in 1793 by Captain Vancouver (USFWS 1996b).<br />
Currently, cattle exist on the all of the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s except for Kaho„olawe. These feral<br />
animals have a wide distribution, ranging from lowl<strong>and</strong> dry forests to montane grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
subalpine scrub (Tomich 1986, Atkinson <strong>and</strong> Atkinson 2005).<br />
Cattle ranching was the primary historical l<strong>and</strong> use on the HFU for over 100 years, although other<br />
forms of ranching may have occurred. Reports of cattle at Hakalau first occurred in the early to mid-<br />
1800s. Intensive grazing occurred primarily above 5,400 ft (USFWS 1996b). Cattle grazing has been<br />
eliminated on the HFU; however, cattle remain throughout adjacent properties.<br />
At the KFU, cattle are the most widespread ungulates. Recent estimates suggest roughly 300 wild<br />
cattle inhabit the KFU boundaries at all elevations. Historically, cattle grazing was the primary l<strong>and</strong><br />
use of the former 60,000 acre McC<strong>and</strong>less Ranch. The Three Mountain Alliance Management <strong>Plan</strong><br />
(2007), a l<strong>and</strong>scape level effort that spans large areas <strong>and</strong> multiple ownerships of Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
considers the KFU as a high priority area for feral cattle control.<br />
Due to their large size, cattle can have a large impact on native ecosystems (USFWS 2008). Cattle<br />
have been regarded as the “single most destructive agent to Hawaiian ecosystems, particularly to koa<br />
forests” (Atkinson <strong>and</strong> Atkinson 2005). These ungulates can degrade native forest by eating or<br />
trampling native vegetation, accelerating erosion, <strong>and</strong> promoting the invasion of nonnative plants<br />
(USFWS 2008). In particular, cattle suppress regeneration of koa <strong>and</strong> the growth of māmane forests<br />
(Atkinson <strong>and</strong> Atkinson 2005). Soil properties are also altered due to the presence of cattle. The<br />
animals can change soil structure <strong>and</strong> pH, as well as its ability to retain water <strong>and</strong> nutrients (USFWS<br />
1996b).<br />
The impact of cattle is apparent on both units of Hakalau Forest NWR. Nearly all the trees have been<br />
eliminated on the HFU areas above 6,000 ft as a result of over 100 years of grazing. Certain areas<br />
covered by old a„a lava flows have more forest, suggesting that cattle were less able to transverse this<br />
substrate <strong>and</strong> degrade the forest (USFWS 1996b). On the other h<strong>and</strong>, removing cattle on the HFU has<br />
increased the nonnative grass fuel load considerably (USFWS 2002a).<br />
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Pigs that occur in Hawai„i are likely to be a blend descended from two ancestral types introduced on<br />
separate occasions. Polynesians first brought pigs to the isl<strong>and</strong>s as a food source around 1,500 years<br />
ago. Captain Cook subsequently brought European pigs to the isl<strong>and</strong>s in 1778 (Tomich 1986). Pigs<br />
descended from European strains were generally larger, more fecund, <strong>and</strong> more nomadic than their<br />
Polynesian counterparts (Van Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2000). Although pigs have been eradicated<br />
from numerous isl<strong>and</strong>s worldwide, these animals remain highly abundant in Hawaiian isl<strong>and</strong><br />
ecosystems (Courchamp et al. 2003, Crux et al. 2005). They occupy every main isl<strong>and</strong> in the<br />
Hawaiian archipelago. The pig population is largest on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> (Tomich 1986, USFWS<br />
2007a).<br />
Pigs are long <strong>and</strong> narrow in shape <strong>and</strong> predominately black in color <strong>and</strong> are generally hairy. They<br />
measure 3.5 - 4.5 ft in length <strong>and</strong> average 2 ft in height. Pigs are elusive animals. They have been<br />
reported to be highly active in the early morning <strong>and</strong> late afternoon in tropical climates (Diong 1982).<br />
In the HFU, the maximum age of male pigs (boars) is 60 months, while females (sows) live a<br />
maximum of 48 months (Hess et al. 2006).<br />
The reproductive potential of pigs contributes to their invasive potential. These animals are<br />
polyestrous, meaning that adult females have more than one estrus cycle (21 days) in a breeding<br />
season (McGaw <strong>and</strong> Mitchell 1998). Pregnancy can occur year-round with peaks January - March<br />
(Hess et al. 2006). The average sow in Hawai„i has 1.1 litters per year (Caley 1997). Reproductive<br />
rates peak between 2- 4 years, but breeding has occurred by 10 month-old sows (Hess et al. 2006).<br />
Although all ungulates have a negative impact in Hawaiian forests, it is generally agreed that pigs<br />
pose the greatest threat to the survival of Hawai„i‟s forest birds <strong>and</strong> their habitats (Scott et al. 1986,<br />
Van Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2000, USFWS 2008). Pigs are an omnivorous species that consume<br />
fruits, seeds, plant material, as well as some invertebrates. In Hawai„i, pigs consume <strong>and</strong> damage<br />
plant material in both wet <strong>and</strong> dry habitats <strong>and</strong> in agricultural <strong>and</strong> natural area settings. They root <strong>and</strong><br />
trample native vegetation, digging up the soil for earthworms, as well as underground plant parts<br />
such as rhizomes <strong>and</strong> tubers (Stone et al. 1992). At Hakalau Forest NWR, pigs also eat native<br />
Hawaiian plants such as bracken fern roots <strong>and</strong> hāpu„u (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). Pigs degrade habitat<br />
for native invertebrate species such as the endangered picture-wing fly (Mitchell et al. 2005).<br />
These animals facilitate the spread of seeds of nonnative species. Pigs act as vectors for invasive<br />
plant species dispersing nonnative plants such as strawberry guava <strong>and</strong> banana poka (LaRosa 1992,<br />
Stone et al. 1992, Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson 2008). On the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, areas without grazing<br />
ungulates show a more diverse plant community with greater coverage of native overstory <strong>and</strong><br />
understory species (Cabin et al. 2000). However, the removal of pigs from Hawaiian forests does not<br />
ensure reductions of nonnative plants (Anderson et al. 1992).<br />
Pigs contribute to the prevalence of avian diseases by increasing breeding sites for mosquitoes. Both<br />
on <strong>and</strong> adjacent to the HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU, pigs create abundant habitats for mosquito larvae by knocking<br />
down <strong>and</strong> hollowing tree ferns to eat the starchy cores, leaving behind troughs that catch water <strong>and</strong><br />
provide mosquito breeding sites. By increasing the availability of st<strong>and</strong>ing water, pigs increase<br />
mosquito populations <strong>and</strong> potentially increase infection rates of avian malaria <strong>and</strong> pox in native<br />
forest birds. Most native forest birds have little resistance to these diseases (Van Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van<br />
Driesche 2000, Atkinson et al. 2005). Some scientists believe that pig management should be<br />
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emphasized in the lower portions of the HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU to minimize <strong>and</strong> halt the spread of<br />
mosquitoes into higher elevation forested areas (Van Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2000).<br />
Other ecosystem effects can be attributed to pig activity. Rooting <strong>and</strong> compaction can deplete the soil<br />
of needed oxygen (Van Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2000). The behavior of pigs causes erosion of<br />
cliff <strong>and</strong> stream banks. As a result, the quality of both fresh <strong>and</strong> brackish water system can be<br />
degraded (USFWS 2008).<br />
Most of the fenced portions of the HFU are pig free. Pig removal began at the HFU in 1988;<br />
however, the 5,001.4 ac enclosure was not completed until 1992. The estimated density of this area<br />
in 1992 was 4.7 pigs/mi 2 . The unmanaged area of Middle Maulua <strong>and</strong> Unit 3 had predicted densities<br />
2.5 times greater. The population of Unit 3 was 118 ± 36 in 2004, while Unit 6 contained 24 ± 20<br />
pigs (Hess et al. 2006). The lowl<strong>and</strong> area of the HFU (which is not fenced) most likely supports a<br />
high-density pig population (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). Within this area, the highest pig densities occur in<br />
the closed canopy forest (USFWS 1996b). In addition, the adjacent State-owned Pīhā Game<br />
Management Area contains a high pig population.<br />
The efficacy of the pig removal program at HFU from 1987-2004 is described by Hess et al. (2006).<br />
During this study it was determined that greater than 41-43 percent of the population at HFU must be<br />
removed annually in order to effect a decline in pigs. To reduce the population by 50 percent in<br />
following years, roughly 70 percent of the population must be removed annually; otherwise there is a<br />
sustained population. Eradication at the HFU with dogs was estimated to require 11.8 worker-hours<br />
per pig; this number is similar to estimates generated for the Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park,<br />
which required 20 worker-hours per pig. Hunting with dogs is expensive because of intensive labor<br />
costs <strong>and</strong> high maintenance <strong>and</strong> veterinarian costs. In addition, hunting dogs were killing nēnē on the<br />
Refuge (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). In contrast, the eradication rate at HFU using snares was estimated at<br />
4.9 worker-hours per pig. After the first 9 years of staff pig hunting in HFU, pig activity remained<br />
between 25-30 percent. Within 18 months of first setting pig snares, no pig activity was observed by<br />
Refuge staff through ungulate surveys. Pig snares were first tested at HFU in 1999 (Van Driesche<br />
<strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2000) <strong>and</strong> are now permanently deployed throughout the units. Snares have been<br />
determined to be cost efficient. The snares are usually set in groups of 10, <strong>and</strong> average about 1 snare<br />
per acre with a unit <strong>and</strong> cost roughly $17 each. Snares are anchored to trees <strong>and</strong> placed in areas of<br />
high pig activity. Subsequently, the snare sets are inspected every 6 months, <strong>and</strong> replaced <strong>and</strong> reset as<br />
needed. Pig carcasses are not removed, but are left in the forest as the cost of removal is high <strong>and</strong> the<br />
carcasses often act as bait (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
Pigs are abundant on the KFU, with recent estimates suggesting up to 1,000 pigs freely roaming the<br />
property. They are found at all elevations of the unit (USFWS 2007A, 2008). The Refuge plans to<br />
remove these animals once an ungulate proof fence is completed.<br />
Rats (Rattus)<br />
Three rat species are found throughout the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) arrived<br />
from the central Pacific approximately 1,500 years ago as stowaways on canoes of the Polynesians<br />
colonizing Hawai„i. Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) reached the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s after the arrival<br />
of Captain Cook in the 1770s; <strong>and</strong> black or roof rats (Rattus rattus) most likely arrived in the 1870s.<br />
It is estimated that these three species have populated nearly 82 percent of the major isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
isl<strong>and</strong> chains throughout the globe (Tomich 1986, Tobin <strong>and</strong> Sugihara 1992). Black <strong>and</strong> Polynesian<br />
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rats have a large distributional range <strong>and</strong> can be found from sea level to nearly 10,000 ft. Norway rats<br />
are restricted to areas below 6,000 ft (Tomich 1986). Polynesian rats <strong>and</strong> Norway rats nest<br />
exclusively in terrestrial habitats, while black rats are arboreal nesters. This nesting difference may<br />
contribute to a larger population of black rats in Hawai„i due to the presence of nonarboreal<br />
mongoose predators (Hays <strong>and</strong> Conant 2007).<br />
Globally, introduced rats have caused the decline, extirpation, or extinction of insular bird species<br />
(Moors <strong>and</strong> Atkinson 1984, Atkinson 1985). In the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Atkinson (1977)<br />
suggested that black rats caused the accelerated decline or extinction of many native forest birds<br />
between 1870-1930. Polynesian rats are speculated to have been a contributing factor in the largescale<br />
extinction of Hawaiian bird species during prehistoric Polynesian occupation (Olson <strong>and</strong> James<br />
1982). Rats continue to be a major threat to waterbirds, seabirds, <strong>and</strong> forest birds in the Hawaiian<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s (Mitchell et al. 2005). All three species in Hawai„i are known predators of eggs, nestlings,<br />
young, <strong>and</strong> occasionally adults of endangered waterbirds (ae„o, „alae ke„oke„o, „alae ula, koloa<br />
maoli), seabirds („a„o or Newell‟s shearwater, „ua„u kani or wedge-tailed shearwaters, moli or<br />
Laysan albatross), migratory shorebirds, <strong>and</strong> forest birds (Harrison et al. 1984, Brisbin et al. 2002,<br />
Engilis et al. 2002, Mitchell et al. 2005, USFWS 2005a, USFWS 2005b). Ground <strong>and</strong> burrow-nesting<br />
seabirds are particularly vulnerable to rat predation, even by the arboreal black rat (Smith et al.<br />
2006).<br />
Rats also consume plants, insects, mollusks, herpetofauna, <strong>and</strong> other invertebrates. As herbivores,<br />
rats consume seeds <strong>and</strong> fruits <strong>and</strong> prevent the regeneration of rare <strong>and</strong> endangered plants. These<br />
mammals have also been observed causing indirect damage to young koa by stripping the bark off<br />
seedlings (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Sakai 1984). Because invertebrate <strong>and</strong> plant species are also eaten by birds,<br />
a reduction in these populations may indirectly affect avian populations (Nelson et al. 2002).<br />
In the early 1990s rats were known to consume leaves <strong>and</strong> fruit of the few known endangered<br />
Cyanea shipanii at HFU. Rats were thought to have killed at least two of the four remaining plants.<br />
At KFU, some of the last remaining Cyanea sticophylla were known to be girdled by rats (USFWS,<br />
unpubl.). The USGS-BRD conducted a study at Hakalau Forest NWR in the mid-1990s eradicating<br />
rats from a 0.02 m 2 area <strong>and</strong> compared it with an adjacent area where no rats were removed. During<br />
the first year of the study, a 25-75 percent increase in nesting success, depending on bird species, was<br />
seen in the rat-free area (Fancy, pers. comm.)<br />
The use of diphacinone rodenticide has been shown to have a positive effect in native bird survival in<br />
the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s (V<strong>and</strong>erWerf <strong>and</strong> Smith 2002, Nelson et al. 2002) but is not currently<br />
being used on the HFU.<br />
Cats (Felis catus)<br />
Cats are found on all the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s from sea level to nearly 10,000 ft (Tomich 1986).<br />
They occur in montane wet forest, subalpine dry forests, <strong>and</strong> lowl<strong>and</strong> dry forests (Smucker et al.<br />
2000). Cats can breed year-round in Hawai„i due to the climate, producing between 2-3 litters<br />
annually <strong>and</strong> 4-6 kittens per litter (Winter 2003, Winter <strong>and</strong> Wallace 2006).<br />
Food habits of cats in Hawai„i include grasses, plant seeds, insects, centipedes, marine crustaceans,<br />
lizards, mice, rats, <strong>and</strong> „ōpe„ape„a. They are also known to consume young <strong>and</strong> adult birds <strong>and</strong> their<br />
eggs. Bird prey consists of four endangered Hawaiian waterbirds, migratory shorebirds, nesting<br />
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seabirds, <strong>and</strong> Hawaiian forest birds (Tomich 1986, Snetsinger et al. 1994, Mostello 1996, Smucker et<br />
al. 2000, Brisbin et al. 2002, Engilis et al. 2002, Mitchell et al. 2005, USFWS 2005a, USFWS<br />
2005b). At the HFU, rats were found to be the dominant food item for cats, occurring in 75 percent<br />
of sampled scats (Smucker et al. 2000). Cats are one of the main predators feeding on nēnē eggs <strong>and</strong><br />
goslings at the HFU.<br />
Cats have a universally damaging effect on insular forest birds <strong>and</strong> nesting seabirds (Moors <strong>and</strong><br />
Atkinson 1984, Statterfield et al. 1998, USFWS 2005a). Species with low reproductive rates <strong>and</strong> high<br />
parental investment are particularly susceptible. In addition, cats are known to carry the protozoan<br />
that causes toxoplasmosis. This disease is caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii that has been<br />
known to kill the endangered „alala <strong>and</strong> nēnē (TMA 2007). Several captive released „alala in the<br />
early 1990s that died were diagnosed with toxoplasmosis (Ball, pers. comm). It is recommended that<br />
all cats be removed prior to additional „alala releases at the KFU (Winter <strong>and</strong> Wallace 2006).<br />
At HFU, live-trapping <strong>and</strong> removal is used for control of cats during the nēnē breeding season<br />
October-April. Traps baited with sardines are deployed around primary nēnē nesting areas. These<br />
traps are equipped with “gosling guards” which are placed in front of the opening to inhibit young<br />
nēnē from entering the traps, <strong>and</strong> yet allow predators to enter. Traps are checked once a day <strong>and</strong><br />
predators that are caught are humanely euthanized using CO2 (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). Three cats were<br />
trapped in 2007 (USFWS 2007a). No cat control method is currently used at the KFU.<br />
Goats (Capra hircus)<br />
Goats were introduced to Hawai„i around 1778 by European explorers. Large herds were present by<br />
the 1850s. Tomich (1986) identifies goats in Hawai„i as the subspecies Capra hircus hircus. Wild<br />
goats are established on Hawai„i, Maui, Kaua„i, Moloka„i, <strong>and</strong> Kaho„olawe (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Hobdy<br />
1987). The first known major goat control began at Hawai„i Volcanoes National Park in the 1960s<br />
(Spatz <strong>and</strong> Mueller-Dombois 1973). Goats are not known from the HFU but a few dozen goats are<br />
currently present on KFU (USFWS 2008). Goats prefer open habitat, such as grassl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> scrub<br />
but will take cover in open forests. They typically move in groups, with males more nomadic than<br />
females. The home ranges of goats vary from 328 ft to 12 mi wide (Atkinson <strong>and</strong> Atkinson 2005).<br />
Similar to other ungulates in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s, goats are considered to be habitat modifiers.<br />
Goats have been implicated in causing declines of native woody legume species, such as the<br />
nutritious māmane (Tomich 1986) <strong>and</strong> koa. They have been observed consuming the shoots <strong>and</strong> root<br />
suckers of koa <strong>and</strong> therefore inhibiting reproduction (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Hobdy 1987). By removing<br />
native species, goats also help facilitate the invasion of noxious plant species, reducing native habitat,<br />
cover, <strong>and</strong> food resources for native species that depend upon these plants (USFWS 2008).<br />
Sheep (Ovis aries)<br />
Sheep were brought to the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s by Captain Cook in 1778. Populations became<br />
established on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> formerly Kaho„olawe (Atkinson <strong>and</strong> Atkinson 2005). Sheep<br />
populations that had established in Mauna Kea‟s subalpine woodl<strong>and</strong> in 1825 reached about<br />
40,000 animals by the early 1930s. Public hunting in the area decreased the population to about<br />
5,000 sheep in 1955, <strong>and</strong> by 1970 the sheep population had dropped to 1,500 (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Conrad<br />
1992). Because sheep populations were having an impact on the endangered palila, the State of<br />
Hawai„i was charged with violating the ESA, <strong>and</strong> all sheep were court ordered to be removed from<br />
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the māmane forest portions of Mauna Kea. The removal was never completed <strong>and</strong> today sheep are<br />
still present in the area (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Conrad 1992).<br />
The Refuge estimates that more than 50 sheep are present on the KFU. These animals exist only<br />
above 5,000 ft (USFWS 2008). The impacts of these animals are similar to other ungulates present in<br />
the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. They consume the bark, leaves, <strong>and</strong> seedlings of native plant species, allow the<br />
invasion of noxious weeds, <strong>and</strong> increase erosion by exposing soil. In particular, sheep have a<br />
preference for legumes such as koa <strong>and</strong> māmane trees (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Conrad 1992).<br />
Mouflon (Ovis musimon)<br />
Native to the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Sardina <strong>and</strong> Corsica, mouflon are considered to be a wild species of sheep.<br />
These animals have become established on Lāna„i <strong>and</strong> Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, although the origin of these<br />
populations is unknown (Tomich 1986). In 1962, mouflon were released in the Mauna Kea Forest<br />
Reserve. By 1986, the entire population was estimated to be around 500, with the largest<br />
concentrations occurring on the southeastern <strong>and</strong> northwestern flanks (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Conrad 1992).<br />
Unlike sheep <strong>and</strong> goats, mouflon were not included in the court ruling to remove these species from<br />
Mauna Kea during the late 1970s <strong>and</strong> early 1980s, but were added to the ruling later. Currently, the<br />
highest concentrations of mouflon occur on the eastern slope of Mauna Kea (Tomich 1986) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
western <strong>and</strong> southern slope of Mauna Loa. These animals are also present on the KFU (USFWS<br />
2008).<br />
The food habits, grazing <strong>and</strong> browsing behavior, <strong>and</strong> ecological impacts of mouflon are similar to<br />
sheep (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Conrad 1992). They generally travel in small groups <strong>and</strong> have become adapted<br />
to rugged ridges <strong>and</strong> gully habitats (Tomich 1986).<br />
Donkeys (Equus asinus)<br />
Donkeys are native to northeast Africa <strong>and</strong> were first recorded in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s in 1825. In<br />
1965, two populations of donkeys existed on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i. Approximately 50-60 donkeys<br />
were recorded on McC<strong>and</strong>less Ranch, part of which is now the KFU. An additional 19 donkeys<br />
occurred in the Ka„ūpūlehu-Kīholo lava fields in North Kona (Tomich 1986). Roughly 7-10 donkeys<br />
were later recorded on the KFU (Ball, pers.comm.).<br />
Physically, a donkey resembles a horse with a larger head <strong>and</strong> longer ears. They thrive in warm, dry<br />
climates. The diet of donkeys primarily consists of grass, but other plants are also eaten. Adult<br />
donkeys have been documented to eat approximately 6,000 pounds of forage annually. Females<br />
produce only 1 young each year <strong>and</strong> they have been documented to live 25 years on average.<br />
Although donkeys do contribute to ecosystem change <strong>and</strong> degradation, primary literature on the<br />
impacts of donkeys is sparse. In the Galapagos, donkeys have been reported to cause declines in<br />
plant populations (Carrion et al. 2007). Donkeys have been removed from several isl<strong>and</strong>s worldwide,<br />
including San Miguel Isl<strong>and</strong> in California <strong>and</strong> several others in Mexico. Aerial hunting has proven to<br />
be effective in areas with an open canopy, but ground hunting <strong>and</strong> contraceptive vaccines have also<br />
been used (Carrion et al. 2007).<br />
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Horses (Equus caballus caballus)<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Though impacts from horses to the KFU ecosystem are unknown, horses have been recorded<br />
w<strong>and</strong>ering from neighboring ranch l<strong>and</strong>s into this Unit. Horses do crop <strong>and</strong> trample vegetation as<br />
well as deplete soils. Horses were first brought to the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> Maui in 1803. Though<br />
horses were found in abundance after their introduction to the isl<strong>and</strong>s, the first report of feral horses<br />
was by C.S. Judd when he talked about feral horses being driven out of the Mauna Kea forest reserve<br />
in 1932. Horses were less prolific <strong>and</strong> unlike feral cattle, were unable to survive in the forest or high<br />
in the mountains. Consequently, there is little historical evidence of feral horses in large numbers as<br />
have been recorded for feral pigs, goats, sheep, <strong>and</strong> cattle. Horses are hooved mammals which<br />
humans began to domesticate around 4,000 BC. They are capable of reproduction at 18 months with<br />
gestation lasting for 11 months, with 1 foal given birth to at a time.<br />
Small Indian Mongooses (Herpestees auropuntatus)<br />
The small Indian mongoose was intentionally introduced to numerous isl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems during the<br />
1800s <strong>and</strong> 1900s <strong>and</strong> has since exp<strong>and</strong>ed to large portions of Asia, Africa, Europe, Oceania, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Americas (Hays <strong>and</strong> Conant 2007). In 1883, the species was introduced to the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
as a biocontrol agent against rats in sugarcane fields. Mongooses inhabit all habitat types from sea<br />
level to nearly 10,000 ft on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Hawai„i, Maui, O„ahu, <strong>and</strong> Moloka„i (Tomich 1986,<br />
Staples <strong>and</strong> Cowie 2001). In other areas of the world, mongooses appear to avoid wet areas;<br />
however, in Hawai„i, dense populations of mongooses are concentrated in wet habitats.<br />
The small Indian mongoose is an agile light brownish-gray animal. It has short legs, small rounded<br />
ears, <strong>and</strong> a bushy tail. The mean home range of a female mongoose in Hawai„i is approximately<br />
3.5 ac <strong>and</strong> the main reproductive period occurs between February-August. Males can travel long<br />
distances. The high density of mongooses in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s is due to the lack of natural<br />
predators <strong>and</strong> diseases (Hays <strong>and</strong> Conant 2007).<br />
The mongoose is a voracious omnivore, consuming insects, reptiles, mammals, amphibians, crabs,<br />
plants, <strong>and</strong> birds. In Hawai„i, mongooses are diurnal predators that primarily prey on invertebrates<br />
<strong>and</strong> secondly on small mammals (Hays <strong>and</strong> Conant 2007). They are a major threat to any grounddwelling<br />
<strong>and</strong> nesting species in Hawai„i. These mammals are known to prey on eggs, young, <strong>and</strong><br />
adults of four endangered Hawaiian waterbirds, nēnē, various seabirds, <strong>and</strong> migratory shorebirds<br />
(Harrison et al. 1984, Moor <strong>and</strong> Atkinson 1984, Tomich 1986, Staples <strong>and</strong> Cowie 2001, Brisbin et al.<br />
2002, Engilis et al. 2002, Mitchell et al. 2005). Mongoose populations are managed using traps <strong>and</strong><br />
diphacinone rodenticide. Hays <strong>and</strong> Conant (2007) warn that the use of traps may be ineffective<br />
because they can lure mongooses into unoccupied habitat areas.<br />
Trapping efforts on HFU during nēnē breeding season, October-April, yield primarily mongooses.<br />
Approximately 23 mongooses were caught by traps at the HFU in 2007 (USFWS 2007a). Mongooses<br />
are the main predator on nēnē eggs <strong>and</strong> goslings at the HFU.<br />
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4.12.4 Introduced Reptiles <strong>and</strong> Amphibians<br />
About 27 species of reptiles <strong>and</strong> amphibians have become established on the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. In<br />
spite of this number, the impacts of these nonnative species in isl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems are generally<br />
understudied (Sin et al. 2008). Several species of nonnative reptiles <strong>and</strong> amphibians exist in<br />
substantial numbers on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> may have the potential to threaten native<br />
ecosystems such as the Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Coqui Frogs (Eleutherodactylus coqui)<br />
The coqui frog, endemic to Puerto Rico, was unintentionally introduced to Hawai„i in the late 1980s<br />
through the nursery industry. This frog measures about 1 inch long. The back of the coqui ranges in<br />
color from light to dark brown, while its belly is white to yellow. The frog can survive between sea<br />
level-4,000 ft <strong>and</strong> is primarily spread by humans translocating infested vegetation. The current<br />
distribution of the coqui frog encompasses 250 populations on all four main isl<strong>and</strong>s; however, the<br />
largest concentration occurs on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i, where the frog has infested about 10 mi 2 based<br />
on 2007 estimates (HISC 2007). In certain areas of Hawai„i, the coqui frog has reached densities of<br />
50,000 frogs per acre (Sin et al. 2008).<br />
In contrast to other nonnative reptiles, the coqui frog has received an ample amount of attention<br />
because its loud mating call has adversely impacted the economy of Hawai„i (Kraus <strong>and</strong> Campbell<br />
2002). This loud “Ko-KEE” call is produced only by the males <strong>and</strong> is most vocal after sunset <strong>and</strong><br />
during rainfall. Research has found that they consume a large amount of small invertebrates,<br />
especially insects. They have been observed eating invertebrates on vegetation at night <strong>and</strong> in the<br />
litter during the day. This generalist predator species has been found to eat about<br />
350,000 invertebrates per 2.47 acres each night (Staples <strong>and</strong> Cowie 2001, Sin et al. 2008). Although<br />
the coqui primarily consumes nonnative insects, they could also reduce endemic invertebrate<br />
populations in Hawai„i.<br />
Indirect impacts are also observed. The presence of coqui frogs lowers herbivory rates by decreasing<br />
the amount of herbivorous insects. Coqui have also been shown to increase nutrient cycling rates by<br />
increasing concentrations of several nutrients, increased leaf litter decomposition rates, <strong>and</strong><br />
increasing the number of new leaves on an invasive plant species. This acceleration of the nutrient<br />
cycle could negatively affect slow-growing native plant species while giving nonnative species a<br />
competitive advantage (Sin et al. 2008).<br />
Although coqui studies have not been conducted at the KFU, frogs may potentially be on the Refuge.<br />
Coqui frogs are known to occur at high numbers at the nearby Waiea Transfer Station (Ball, pers.<br />
comm.).<br />
The Coqui Frog Working Group is a partnership of various agencies <strong>and</strong> organizations that conduct<br />
ongoing coqui frog research <strong>and</strong> control. This group includes the University of Hawai„i, Big Isl<strong>and</strong><br />
Invasive Species Committee (BIISC), Hawai„i DLNR, Hawai„i Department of Agriculture, County<br />
of Hawai„i, Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> Economic Development Board, USDA, <strong>and</strong> the Service. Extensive<br />
research has been done on a wide variety of surfactants, registered insecticides, pharmaceutical<br />
products, <strong>and</strong> food additives that could be used to control frogs. Originally, coqui frog control was<br />
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limited to h<strong>and</strong>-capture until the EPA granted certified pest-control operators an emergency<br />
registration to h<strong>and</strong>-spray caffeine for control in limited situations (Kraus <strong>and</strong> Campbell 2002).<br />
Currently, both chemical (citric acid) <strong>and</strong> nonchemical (h<strong>and</strong>-capture <strong>and</strong> hot shower) control<br />
methods are available to the general public. Hydrated lime was previously used against the frogs;<br />
however, as of April 2008, it is illegal to use hydrated lime to control coqui frogs in Hawai„i until the<br />
EPA permit is renewed (http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/coqui/control.asp). Community interest in<br />
coqui control remains high although public funding for local programs has been cut <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
eliminated in recent years. The current tools <strong>and</strong> resources for controlling the coqui frog are not<br />
sufficient to eradicate populations. New technology, such as thermal heat treatment units <strong>and</strong> new hot<br />
water showers for nursery plants being shipped to the mainl<strong>and</strong> are being developed (HISC 2007).<br />
Jackson’s Chameleons (Chamaeleo jacksonii)<br />
Jackson‟s chameleon was introduced to Hawai„i from East Africa in 1972. The current distribution is<br />
from sea level- 2,000 ft on the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. They prefer shrub or arboreal habitats with a<br />
daytime temperature between 70-90°F <strong>and</strong> a nighttime temperature between 50-68°F. The initial law<br />
that prohibited individuals from possessing Jackson‟s chameleons in Hawai„i was overturned in<br />
1994. Jackson‟s chameleon is characterized by its ability to rapidly change color <strong>and</strong> pattern <strong>and</strong> its<br />
long tongue that helps to capture prey. The sticky tip of the tongue can reach small invertebrates<br />
(e.g., insects, spiders, <strong>and</strong> small snails) in 0.06 seconds (Waring 1997). Prey capture is facilitated by<br />
independently rotating eyes. They average 10 in in total body length (Staples <strong>and</strong> Cowie 2001). The<br />
reproductive capabilities of Jackson‟s chameleon contribute to its invasive potential. The average<br />
clutch is 28.7 eggs <strong>and</strong> each female has a maximum of 5 clutches (Masurat <strong>and</strong> Masurat 1996).<br />
Although the elevational range of this species is generally below the Refuge units, Jackson‟s<br />
chameleons are known to occur at lower elevations below the KFU <strong>and</strong> could impact the forested<br />
areas of both units as a result of global climate change. The Jackson‟s chameleon consumes both<br />
native insects <strong>and</strong> bird eggs (Staples <strong>and</strong> Cowie 2002).<br />
4.12.5 Introduced Arthropods<br />
Invasive arthropods in Hawai„i include insects, spiders, mites, centipedes, <strong>and</strong> millipedes. An<br />
estimated 20 arthropod species invade <strong>and</strong> establish themselves in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s each year<br />
(Messing et al. 2007). Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote (2005) found that the abundance of invasive insects<br />
decreased with increasing native insect diversity at the KFU.<br />
Southern House Mosquitoes (Culex quinquefasciatus)<br />
The southern house mosquito was introduced to the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s around the 1820s <strong>and</strong> occurs<br />
from sea level-4,921 ft on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i (Ahumada et al. 2004). Elevation plays a large role<br />
in the population dynamics of mosquitos. At lower elevations, the southern house mosquito has been<br />
found to occur in high numbers <strong>and</strong> populations consistent throughout the year. In contrast, mosquito<br />
populations in middle <strong>and</strong> high elevation areas are relatively low <strong>and</strong> show biannual extremes; high<br />
numbers occur from August-September <strong>and</strong> lower numbers occur between February-May (LaPointe<br />
2000).<br />
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Mosquito distributions are also affected by ambient temperature, with population growth rates<br />
increasing with temperature. Ahumada et al. (2004) estimated that mosquito populations on Hawai„i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> can survive in areas with an annual temperature of 58.3°F <strong>and</strong> a summer temperature of<br />
55.8°F. LaPointe (2000) found that the southern house mosquito can complete larval development at<br />
53.6°F. As a result of these temperature restrictions, mosquitoes on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai„i can survive<br />
up to approximately 4,839 ft. This range could extend to 5,625 ft during the summer. Rainfall also<br />
influences mosquito prevalence <strong>and</strong> survival because adults require water filled cavities to breed <strong>and</strong><br />
larval stages are highly susceptible to drought (Ahumada et al. 2004). Additional factors, such as<br />
size, can contribute to survival rate. Larger individuals have a higher feeding success, survivorship,<br />
<strong>and</strong> infection potential (LaPointe 2000).<br />
The southern house mosquito is a primary vector for several diseases that impact native Hawaiian<br />
birds. Mosquito-borne avian diseases, principally avian malaria <strong>and</strong> the avian pox, have been<br />
implicated as the main reason for mortality of the native Hawaiian forest birds (Van Riper et al.<br />
2002, LaPointe et al. 2005, Reiter <strong>and</strong> LaPoint 2007). As a result, some bird species are only able to<br />
survive at higher elevations, above the mosquito zone. Other mosquito species have been shown to<br />
carry both diseases to a lesser degree (LaPointe et al. 2005).<br />
Although mosquitoes are able to persist <strong>and</strong> complete their life cycle at higher elevations, avian<br />
malaria oocysts may not be able to develop in cooler temperatures. Benning et al. (2002) estimated<br />
that the threshold temperature for transmission of avian malaria is 55.4°F. Avian malaria prevalence<br />
is highest in mid-elevation forests with annual temperatures of 63°F. Thus, mosquitoes living at<br />
higher elevations may not be able to transmit avian malaria (Ahumada et al. 2004).<br />
Western Yellowjacket Wasps (Vespula pensylvanica)<br />
Western yellowjacket wasps were first recorded in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s in 1919, although they did<br />
not become established on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> until the 1970s. The annual cycle of the western<br />
yellowjacket wasps is regulated by climate (Gambino <strong>and</strong> Loope 1992). The queen, which hibernates<br />
during the winter months, establishes a colony in spring, <strong>and</strong> populations subsequently peak in the<br />
summer. However, because of Hawai„i‟s warmer climate, overwintering colonies occur irregularly in<br />
the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s (Gambino <strong>and</strong> Loope 1992, Nishida <strong>and</strong> Evenhuis 2000, Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote<br />
2005).<br />
This wasp species threatens native insect communities by preying on native species, especially larvae<br />
<strong>and</strong> pupae. This includes rare <strong>and</strong> endangered species such as Drosophila flies (Mitchell et al. 2005)<br />
<strong>and</strong> the koa bug (Johnson et al. 2005). In addition, the wasps compete with native predators <strong>and</strong><br />
pollinators for various food resources. This may in turn have a larger ecosystem impact by removing<br />
prey for native species (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005). It has been suggested, but there is no evidence, that<br />
the wasps may feed on native birds or their eggs <strong>and</strong> nestlings (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
Preliminary work on the distribution of western yellowjacket wasps at the HFU has been conducted<br />
(Foote 2002, Howarth et al. 2003). The prevalence of these wasps on the HFU is cyclic (USFWS<br />
unpubl.). Trapping during the early 1990s shows that during wet years, few western yellowjacket<br />
wasps are observed, <strong>and</strong> populations increase during dry years (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
At the KFU, populations of western yellowjacket wasps have been monitored using plastic<br />
yellowjacket traps hung from branches <strong>and</strong> baited with heptyl butyrate (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005). The<br />
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wasps are widely established throughout the unit, except between 3,500-5,453 ft. The relative<br />
abundances of western yellowjacket wasps varied over time, with peaks during autumn (September-<br />
December) at the lower elevations <strong>and</strong> peaks during winter (August- February) at the upper reaches.<br />
These seasonal fluctuations are typical of western yellowjacket wasp populations observed in other<br />
mesic forests (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
Western yellowjacket wasp populations can be reduced by directly applying a pesticide to an active<br />
nest or by using a combination of bait (e.g., canned tuna cat food) <strong>and</strong> chemical toxicant (0.5 percent<br />
microencapsulated diazinon). This was found to be particularly effective in controlling populations<br />
(Nishida <strong>and</strong> Evenhuis 2000).<br />
Two-spotted Leafhoppers (Sophonia rufofascia)<br />
The two-spotted leafhopper has been implicated in the dieback of uluhe <strong>and</strong> „ōhi„a (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote<br />
2005). The leafhopper is present on the KFU, especially between elevations of 1,900-4,500 ft. Within<br />
the lower reaches, additional concentrations occur specifically at about 2,297-3,117 ft.<br />
Rainfall, temperature, <strong>and</strong> vegetation differences may play a role in these distributional trends<br />
(Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005). Currently, a management strategy has not been developed to control the<br />
two-spotted leafhopper.<br />
Ants<br />
More than 40 nonnative ant species have colonized Hawai„i (Hawaii Ant Group 2007). Ants have<br />
been labeled as the “the greatest arthropod threat to conservation in the Pacific” (Nishida <strong>and</strong><br />
Evenhuis 2000) due to their impact to native flora <strong>and</strong> fauna. Ants are plant predators that harvest<br />
seeds, prune foliage, <strong>and</strong> directly compete with native invertebrates <strong>and</strong> vertebrate species, creating<br />
favorable conditions for other invasive biota (Nishida <strong>and</strong> Evenhuis 2000).<br />
Four ant species were collected from the KFU: Cardiocondyla wroughtoni, Paratrechina<br />
bourbonica, Solenopsis papuana, <strong>and</strong> Tetramorium bicarinatum. Ant abundances were measured at<br />
the KFU using protein bait (canned cat food) <strong>and</strong> carbohydrate bait (guava jam). Two of these<br />
species (P. bourbonica <strong>and</strong> S. papuana) were found in high numbers at KFU (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote<br />
2005). Occurring between 1,900-3,050 ft, these species were observed only in the lower reaches of<br />
KFU. Only a few specimens of the two additional ant species (C. wroughtoni <strong>and</strong> T. bicarinatum)<br />
were noted (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
Ant control is difficult in dense forests, <strong>and</strong> current control methods have proved ineffective. The use<br />
of baits with pesticides helps to control population, but entail aerial application of a bait product.<br />
This technique is not permitted in Hawai„i (Haines <strong>and</strong> Foote 2005).<br />
4.12.6 Introduced <strong>Plan</strong>ts<br />
Invasive species are recognized as a major threat to native ecosystems <strong>and</strong> to the survival of<br />
threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species (Pimental 2005). At the ecosystem level, invasive plants have<br />
been shown to be capable of changing fire regimes (D‟Antonio <strong>and</strong> Vitosek 1992), altering nutrient<br />
cycling patterns (Vitousek 1990), <strong>and</strong> modifying the surface runoff of water (Vitousek 1992).<br />
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Invasive plants can physically displace native species, <strong>and</strong>/or supersede them by competition for<br />
water, nutrients, or other limited resources. Nonnative plants can also be vectors <strong>and</strong> hosts for<br />
introduced pests <strong>and</strong> diseases to which the native species lack natural defenses (Jui et al. 2007).<br />
Some invasive plants have allelopathic properties. Furthermore, compared to native plants,<br />
introduced plants lack their natural enemies in the introduced range, which again gives them a<br />
competitive edge over native species. Some invasive plants are faster growing <strong>and</strong> can therefore<br />
easily <strong>and</strong> quickly colonize, establish, <strong>and</strong> displace native species (Blossey <strong>and</strong> Notzold 1995).<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to biological invasions (Loope <strong>and</strong> Muller-Dombois<br />
1989, Denslow 2003). In spite of a multitude of plant species that have been introduced to Hawai„i,<br />
only about 1 percent (130 of 13,000 species) of them are considered invasive <strong>and</strong> have a negative<br />
impact on the native habitats; however, the Hawai„i DLNR anticipates that an additional 200 -<br />
300 species already present in the State may become problems in the future<br />
(http://www.state.hi.us/dlnr/dofaw/hortweeds/). In general, detrimental invasive plant species exhibit<br />
a lag phase in which the species will exist at low concentrations for a period of time before spreading<br />
across the l<strong>and</strong>scape (Hobbs <strong>and</strong> Humphries 1995).<br />
Invasive plants are successful in isl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems due to a multitude of traits. According to Staples<br />
et al. (2000), invasive plants in Hawai„i share the following biological <strong>and</strong> reproductive<br />
characteristics:<br />
Adaptable to <strong>and</strong> capable of thriving in different habitats;<br />
Tolerant of variable conditions (such as light, temperature, moisture);<br />
Fast growing;<br />
Tolerant of disturbance;<br />
Easily dispersible to new localities by seeds, fruits, spores, or vegetative parts;<br />
Produce small seeds/spores early in life;<br />
Long reproductive periods;<br />
Dispersed by animals; <strong>and</strong><br />
Need no special germination requirements.<br />
As a result of these traits, control <strong>and</strong> eradication of introduced weeds has been a top priority of<br />
natural resource managers in Hawai„i (Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price 2007). For this reason, several databases<br />
have been developed to assist in invasive plant species control. The Hawai„i-Pacific Weed Risk<br />
Assessment (HPWRA) is a research project conducted by the University of Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> the USDA<br />
Forest Service to identify plants that pose a high risk in Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> other Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s. This<br />
database provides detailed species information <strong>and</strong> scores species based on the risk of invasion.<br />
HPWRA score for species on the Hakalau Forest NWR are provided in Table 4-10.<br />
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Table 4-10. List of Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>t Species Known to Currently Occur at Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR.<br />
Species Common Name(s)<br />
Hakalau<br />
Forest<br />
Kona<br />
Forest<br />
HPWRA<br />
Score<br />
Anacardiaceae Mango family<br />
Schinus terebinthefolius Christmas berry X 19<br />
Aquifoliaceae Holly family<br />
Ilex aquafolia English holly X<br />
Asteraceae Sunflower family<br />
Hypochaeris radicata hairy cat‟s ear X X<br />
Senecio madagascariensis fireweed X 23<br />
Senecio mikanioides German ivy X X<br />
Caprifoliaceae Honeysuckle family<br />
Lonicera japonica Japanese honeysuckle X 12<br />
Cucurbitaceae Gourd family<br />
Coccinia gr<strong>and</strong>is ivy gourd X<br />
Cupressaceae Cypress family<br />
Cryptomeria japonica Sugi pine X -3<br />
Euphorbiaceae Spurge family<br />
Ricinus communis castor bean X<br />
Fabaceae Bean, pea family<br />
Ulex europaeus gorse X 20<br />
Juncaceae Rush family<br />
Juncus effuses Japanese mat rush,<br />
common rush<br />
Melastomataceae Melastoma family<br />
Clidemia hirta Koster‟s curse X<br />
Tibouchina herbacea glorybush, cane tibouchina X 24<br />
Tibouchina urvilleana -- X 10<br />
Myricaceae Bayberry family<br />
Morella faya firetree<br />
Myrtaceae Myrtle family<br />
Eucalyptus spp. eucalyptus X<br />
Psidium cattleianum strawberry guava X X 18<br />
Onagraceae Evening primrose family<br />
Fuchsia spp. fuchsia X<br />
Passifloraceae Passion flower family<br />
Passiflora mollissima banana poka X X<br />
Pinaceae Pine family<br />
Pinus spp. pine X<br />
Poaceae Grass family<br />
Andropogon virginicus broomsedge X<br />
Anthoxanthum odoratum sweet vernalgrass X<br />
Agrostis alba redtop X<br />
Axonopus fissifolius narrow-leaved carpetgrass X 16<br />
Ehrharta stipoides weeping grass,<br />
meadow ricegrass<br />
X X<br />
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Species Common Name(s)<br />
Hakalau<br />
Forest<br />
Kona<br />
Forest<br />
HPWRA<br />
Score<br />
Holcus lanatus velvetgrass X<br />
Paspalum dilatatum dallis grass X 12<br />
Pennisetum cl<strong>and</strong>estinum Kikuyu grass X 18<br />
Polygonaceae Buckwheat family<br />
Rumex acetosella common sheep sorrel X<br />
Proteaceae Protea family<br />
Grevillea robusta silky oak X 5<br />
Ranunculaceae Buttercup family<br />
Anemone hupehensis<br />
Roseaceae<br />
Japanese anemone X<br />
Photinia davidiana photinia X -2<br />
Rubus argutus Florida blackberry X X 21.5<br />
Rubus rosifolius Thimbleberry X X<br />
Zingiberaceae Ginger family<br />
Hedychium gardnerianum Kahili ginger X X 16<br />
Source: Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price (2007), Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson (2008).<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
Numerous invasive plant surveys have been conducted at HFU (Stone et al. 1991, Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price<br />
2007, Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson 2008), where approximately 45 nonnative plant species have been<br />
recorded. Although similar nonnative species occur at all elevations, the highest concentration of<br />
nonnatives are found at the higher elevations from 5,000-5,500 ft compared to the lower elevation<br />
forest (Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson 2008). This trend has also been observed in other Hawaiian forests<br />
(D‟Antonio et al. 2000); in comparison to high-elevation sites, middle elevations have steeper<br />
topography <strong>and</strong> greater precipitation, resulting in denser forests that are less accessible to humans,<br />
ungulates, <strong>and</strong> nonnative plant species (Pejchar <strong>and</strong> Press 2006).<br />
At the HFU, historical anthropogenic impacts that occurred at higher elevations, such as cattle<br />
ranching, logging, <strong>and</strong> fire, removed the native forest <strong>and</strong> allowed for the invasion of nonnative plant<br />
species (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey 1999, Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson 2008). Adjacent l<strong>and</strong> uses also increase<br />
the continued problem of invasive species. Invasive plants are abundant at the adjacent Pīhā Game<br />
Management Area due to the presence of pigs that act as vectors (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price (2007) focused on 25 invasive plant species that pose a serious threat by displacing<br />
native plants <strong>and</strong> disrupting native ecosystems. Three species (Ehrharta stipoides, Juncus effuses,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rubus argutus) showed an increase in frequency from 1987-2007. Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson (2008)<br />
found a negative relationship between nonnative species cover <strong>and</strong> native canopy cover suggesting<br />
that disturbances that reduce canopy cover increase the ability of invasion. Pattison et al. (1998)<br />
found a similar trend <strong>and</strong> suggested that invasive species have a higher ability to capture <strong>and</strong> utilize<br />
light resources, particularly in high-light, disturbed areas.<br />
Invasive plants such as gorse, Florida blackberry, English holly, Photinea, <strong>and</strong> banana poka are being<br />
controlled at the HFU using a combination of mechanical <strong>and</strong> chemical removal. Additional invasive<br />
plant control techniques include removal of ungulates <strong>and</strong> reforestation with native species.<br />
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Figure 4-7 demonstrates an example of the survey <strong>and</strong> monitoring scheme for invasive weeds at the<br />
HFU utilizing existing transect lines also utilized for forest bird <strong>and</strong> ungulate surveys.<br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
The results of the invasive plant surveys conducted on the KFU have not been compiled. The <strong>Final</strong><br />
Environmental Assessment for Fencing of the Kona Forest Unit of the Hakalau Forest National<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (2008) identifies the following nonnative plants as management concerns:<br />
strawberry guava, Christmas berry, banana poka, Koster‟s curse, Florida blackberry, German ivy,<br />
<strong>and</strong> nonnative pasture grasses.<br />
Invasive plant control has not been conducted at the KFU, but will commence following the<br />
construction of an ungulate-proof fence <strong>and</strong> with staffing/funding. After fencing, the Refuge will<br />
work with available staffing <strong>and</strong> partners (e.g., Three Mountain Alliance) to survey <strong>and</strong> conduct<br />
control efforts as needed. Weed management will be mostly above 3,600 ft because understory below<br />
this elevation is mostly invasive plants <strong>and</strong> is too degraded. This work will be conducted from higher<br />
elevation to lower elevations to reduce further spread of invasives.<br />
Banana Poka (Passiflora mollissima)<br />
Banana poka, a vine native to South America, was introduced to the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s in the early<br />
20 th century. The plant tolerates a wide range of environmental conditions <strong>and</strong> has a rapid growth rate<br />
(LaRosa 1992). In Hawai„i, banana poka invades disturbed forest gaps <strong>and</strong> forms curtains that<br />
exclude available light for native forest trees (USFWS 1996b). Banana poka is dispersed by pigs,<br />
cattle, <strong>and</strong> game birds, which eat the fleshy fruit <strong>and</strong> disperse seeds (NRCS 2005).<br />
A combination of herbicide, manual removal, <strong>and</strong> biocontrol has been used to control this species.<br />
Applying herbicide to cut stems has shown to control some infestations (LaRosa 1992). Banana poka<br />
infestations on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> have also been controlled by the introduced fungus Septoria<br />
passiflorae; however, this biocontrol agent is not effective on the Kona side of the isl<strong>and</strong> where acid<br />
rain inhibits the germination of S. passiflorae spores (Trujillo 2005). The passion vine butterfly was<br />
also introduced, but control was not successful (LaRosa 1992).<br />
The species is largely concentrated in the Upper Maulua Tract of the HFU, initially infesting about<br />
3,000 ac, but the area has been reduced by manual removal. A total of 210 ac were controlled from<br />
2006-2007. The eradication of pigs has also contributed to its control (NRCS 2005). Grazing by<br />
cattle presently helps to control the spread of this species on the KFU; thus, banana poka control<br />
measures will be needed following the removal of cattle.<br />
Investigations at the HFU found that banana poka nectar is three times more concentrated than „ōhi„a<br />
nectar. It provides the three main sugars (glucose, fructose, <strong>and</strong> sucrose). However, passerines do not<br />
express the digestive enzyme for the disaccharide sucrose <strong>and</strong> therefore can only obtain 5 percent<br />
“digestible” sugars from the banana poka nectar (Kapono, pers. comm).<br />
Christmas Berry (Schinus terebinthefolius)<br />
Christmas berry is an aggressive, rapidly spreading plant native to Argentina, Brazil, <strong>and</strong> Paraguay. It<br />
can grow as a tree or shrub up to 23 ft in height. Christmas berry has become naturalized in mesic,<br />
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Figure 4-7. Hakalau Forest Unit 2007 weed survey.<br />
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disturbed areas throughout the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. It can form dense thickets on steep slopes (Wagner<br />
et al. 1999).<br />
Christmas berry is considered a pioneer species because it quickly colonizes disturbed areas. The<br />
invasive attributes of Christmas berry include a large number of fruits, bird dispersal, <strong>and</strong> a tolerance<br />
to shade, fire, <strong>and</strong> drought. Furthermore, Christmas berry is believed to have allelopathic properties,<br />
which increases its competitive ability with neighboring plants (Hight et al. 2003). Due to these<br />
characteristics, this species is recognized as a noxious weed by the Hawai„i Department of<br />
Agriculture.<br />
Three biocontrol insects have been released in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s to control this species. This<br />
includes a seed-feeding beetle in 1960, a leaf-rolling moth in 1954-1956, <strong>and</strong> a stem-galling moth in<br />
1961-1962 (Hight et al. 2003). An accidentally introduced seed-feeding wasp has also been found<br />
attacking seeds of Christmas berry. A foliage feeding sawfly was tested as a potential biological<br />
control agent for Christmas berry; however, this species was not introduced due to its risk to the<br />
native „ohe kukuluae„o (Hight et al. 2003).<br />
English Holly (Ilex aquafolia)<br />
English holly grows as a tree or shrub reaching over 16 ft in height. Growing in mesic to wet forests<br />
<strong>and</strong> open bogs, English holly shades out native groundcover species (Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price 2007).<br />
Although this species is relatively slow growing, it is easily dispersed by birds due to the presence of<br />
red fleshy fruits (USFWS 1996b).<br />
English holly was planted at the HFU by the previous l<strong>and</strong>owners. Control activities began at the<br />
HFU when the holly infestation was estimated at 500 ac. Between 2006-2007, 102 ac were treated.<br />
This species can be controlled using EZJect®, which injects glyphosate-filled capsules into the tree<br />
cambium layer (Van Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2000, NRCS 2005). Treatment of germinating seeds<br />
must be continued to maintain control. Even if English holly is eliminated from HFU, birds will<br />
continue to bring seeds into the forest from nearby infected areas.<br />
Florida Blackberry (Rubus argutus)<br />
The Service considers Florida blackberry to be a primary invasive plant species of concern. Native to<br />
the central <strong>and</strong> eastern United States, Florida blackberry has been naturalized in the mesic <strong>and</strong> wet<br />
forests <strong>and</strong> subalpine grassl<strong>and</strong>s in Hawai„i. It primarily occurs from 656-7,546 ft (Wagner et al.<br />
1999). This shade-intolerant species grows into dense thickets in forested <strong>and</strong> disturbed areas lacking<br />
extensive understory. The stems of Florida blackberry are covered with straight or hooked thorns,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the fruit is bird-dispersed (USFWS 1996b). Once established, it spreads by underground<br />
rhizomes (Loope et al. 1992).<br />
Blackberry is mainly treated at the HFU June-October using 0.5 percent Garlon 3A®, a foliar-applied<br />
spray that does not kill native plants (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). Estimates by the Natural Resources<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> Service (2005) suggest that this species infests approximately 10,300 ac of open <strong>and</strong><br />
closed canopy forest. In 2006, 774 ac were treated <strong>and</strong> an additional 350 ac were treated in 2007.<br />
Although intense control efforts have been in place for this species, a slight increase in the blackberry<br />
population (8.6 percent) occurred between 1987-2007 (Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price 2007). This increase may be<br />
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due to the removal of browsers (Van Driesche <strong>and</strong> Van Driesche 2000). Continued control efforts<br />
<strong>and</strong> monitoring are ongoing at the HFU.<br />
German Ivy (Senecio mikanioides)<br />
This fleshy perennial vine occurs in dry forests, moist forests, <strong>and</strong> coastal areas in the Hawaiian<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s. In particular, it climbs tall trees in the forest on Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, <strong>and</strong> Hualālai<br />
(Motooka et al. 2003). German ivy prefers high light areas, where it can smother native vegetation<br />
(Wagner et al. 1999).<br />
Various herbicides, such as triclopyr <strong>and</strong> foliar glyphosate, can be used to control German ivy.<br />
Effectiveness may be enhanced by cutting <strong>and</strong> drying the stems, while spraying the remaining parts<br />
with glyphosate (Motooka et al. 2003). No control work has been conducted for this species at either<br />
the HFU or KFU.<br />
Gorse (Ulex europaeus)<br />
Native to Western Europe <strong>and</strong> coastal areas of the Mediterranean, gorse was first recorded in Hawai„i<br />
in 1920. It has also spread to several other regions such as New Zeal<strong>and</strong>, Australia, Chile, <strong>and</strong><br />
California. This woody legume is spiny <strong>and</strong> can grow up to 10 ft in height (Davies et al. 2008). It is<br />
highly adapted to disturbed l<strong>and</strong>scapes with low fertility <strong>and</strong> nutrient depleted soils, such as<br />
pasturel<strong>and</strong>. It prefers more acidic soils, with a pH 4.5-5.0, <strong>and</strong> can acidify surrounding soils (Leary<br />
et al. 2006). In Hawai„i, flowering can occur for a 9-month period (Tarayre et al. 2007).<br />
Subsequently, a large number of seeds are produced in small pods (Davies et al. 2008).<br />
Dense, impenetrable thickets of even-aged, mature plants grow on Maui <strong>and</strong> Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> (Leary et<br />
al. 2006). However, unlike other invasives present on the Refuge, gorse infests high-elevation pasture<br />
areas rather than forest. The original gorse infestation on the HFU was estimated at 3,200 ac but was<br />
reduced to 75 ac by 1999. The infestation is largely concentrated in the southern portion of the<br />
Refuge near Pua „Ākala Ranch (Tomonari-Tuggle 1996). The current frequency of gorse on the<br />
Refuge is approximately 0.1 percent (Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price 2007). Although the infestation of gorse on the<br />
HFU is minor, the adjacent Department of Hawaiian Home L<strong>and</strong>s (DHHL) ranch l<strong>and</strong>s are heavily<br />
infested. The gorse infestation in this area increased from 4,942 ac in 1992 to over 9,884 ac in 2006<br />
(Leary et al. 2006).<br />
Thick gorse growth completely inhibits regeneration of native species. Perennial growth of this<br />
species can occur up to 30 years. Other characteristics that contribute to the invasive ability of gorse<br />
are its nitrogen fixing ability <strong>and</strong> large persistent soil seed bank. The seeds can remain in the seed<br />
bank for 30-60 years (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). Similar to the nonnative grass species, gorse serves as a<br />
fuel for fires by posing a risk of ignition <strong>and</strong> sustaining the spread of fires; a 12 in patch can produce<br />
60 ft flame length (USFWS 2002a). As a result of these characteristics, it has been designated as a<br />
noxious weed species in the State of Hawai„i (Leary et al. 2006).<br />
Spraying with an herbicide <strong>and</strong> then burning once the gorse is dead was originally used to control<br />
this invasive; however, the gorse sprouted vigorously from the trunk <strong>and</strong> seedlings were found to be<br />
stimulated using this technique. Currently, the Refuge controls gorse year-round (primarily<br />
September-May) by using a bulldozer with a rake to pull out large rooted plants <strong>and</strong> then spraying<br />
small plants with Garlon 3A at 3 percent foliar spray with Silwet (Jeffrey, pers. comm.). During<br />
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2006-2007, the Service controlled approximately 2,400 ac of gorse. Ongoing monitoring <strong>and</strong><br />
treatment for seedlings <strong>and</strong> regrowth occurs in all treated areas. Gorse is not shade tolerant;<br />
reforestation efforts are expected to increase the dense canopy of native forest <strong>and</strong> prevent gorse<br />
from reestablishing. A partnership between the Refuge <strong>and</strong> DHHL has resulted in an attempt to<br />
contain the spread of gorse by planting native koa trees <strong>and</strong> thereby shading out the species in a<br />
195-acre area immediately above <strong>and</strong> adjacent to the HFU.<br />
The State Department of Agriculture has, over the past 20 years, released a host of biocontrol insects<br />
to control gorse. On Maui, an introduced caterpillar (that eats the flowers) reduced the reproductive<br />
potential of the species by 73 percent. In 1989, the moth Agonopterix ulicitella was introduced to<br />
control gorse by feeding on new shoots (Loope et al. 1992). The thrip Sericothrips staphylinus<br />
browses on gorse plants, but it is not yet clear how much this species will contribute to control in<br />
Hawai„i (Hill et al. 2001). The gorse seed weevil Exapion ulicis, which feeds on gorse foliage <strong>and</strong><br />
flowers for most of the year, has also been introduced to Hawai„i (Davies et al. 2008).<br />
Japanese Mat Rush (Juncus effuses)<br />
Japanese mat rush is known to occur in shallow marshes <strong>and</strong> disturbed, moist areas around the globe.<br />
It is able to establish monospecific st<strong>and</strong>s in former agricultural areas <strong>and</strong> in disturbed forest areas<br />
due to vigorous clonal growth <strong>and</strong> high seed production (Smolders et al. 2008). The light seeds allow<br />
for easy dispersal <strong>and</strong> the dense tussocks <strong>and</strong> culms of the rush exp<strong>and</strong> underground by lateral<br />
rhizomes. In nutrient-poor areas, mowing has proven to be an effective removal technique (Smolders<br />
et al. 2008).<br />
This species is common on the HFU. This perennial herb is naturalized along streams, ponds, <strong>and</strong><br />
bogs in Hawai„i. It is known to occur between 3,280-6,562 ft (Wagner et al. 1999). From 1987-2007,<br />
the frequency of this species on the HFU rose by 13.7 percent (Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price 2007). Japanese mat<br />
rush has also invaded native Carex bogs. Pigs eat the native sedge, removing the native plants <strong>and</strong><br />
facilitating the increase <strong>and</strong> spread of Japanese mat rush (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
Kikuyu Grass (Pennisetum cl<strong>and</strong>estinum)<br />
Kikuyu grass is a fast growing grass species that forms mats <strong>and</strong> spreads by rhizomes <strong>and</strong> stolons.<br />
Kikuyu grass is native to eastern Africa, but has spread throughout the tropics <strong>and</strong> subtropics (Holm<br />
et al. 1977). It occurs primarily in cool fertile areas (Scowcroft <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey 1999) between sea level-<br />
6,600 ft (2,000 m) elevation. It propagates vegetatively because the small, inflorescences rarely<br />
produce seeds (Holm et al. 1977). It is shade-tolerant, <strong>and</strong> the root morphology may also be altered in<br />
shaded areas (USFWS 1996b).<br />
Kikuyu grass is a particular management concern because the species forms dense mats, preventing<br />
the establishment of native seedlings. It competes with native seedlings for nutrients, light, <strong>and</strong> water<br />
(Scowcroft 1992), <strong>and</strong> increases the frequency <strong>and</strong> intensity of fire (Smith <strong>and</strong> Tunison 1992).<br />
Kikuyu grass, in combination with gorse, was determined to be the primary fuel for wildl<strong>and</strong> fires at<br />
the HFU in 2000. In addition, the plant can withst<strong>and</strong> defoliation by natural processes, such as frost,<br />
drought, hurricanes <strong>and</strong> treefalls, as well as grazing (Holm et al. 1977, USFWS 1996b). Furthermore,<br />
Kikuyu grass has been reported to possess allelopathic substances (Smith 1985). For these reasons, it<br />
is a federally listed noxious weed <strong>and</strong> according to the USFS <strong>and</strong> DOFAW it is considered a highrisk<br />
weed species for creating ecological <strong>and</strong> economic harm in Hawai„i.<br />
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Kikuyu grass occupies much of the upper portion of the HFU <strong>and</strong> is particularly dense in the Upper<br />
Maulua Unit. Kikuyu grass occurred with the highest frequency in sampled plots during a study by<br />
Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson (2008). Between 1987-2007, the frequency of Kikuyu grass at HFU decreased<br />
by 27.8 percent (Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price 2007). Applications of the herbicide glyphosate have been tested to<br />
control Kikuyu grass in endangered plant outplanting sites <strong>and</strong> koa outplanting sites. In addition, the<br />
grass-selective herbicide Fluazifop-p-butyl (Fusilade) was tested as a post-plant application (Leary,<br />
pers. comm.).<br />
Koster’s Curse (Clidemia hirta)<br />
Koster‟s curse is native to Central <strong>and</strong> South America <strong>and</strong> the Caribbean Isl<strong>and</strong>s. It has become<br />
naturalized in several Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Malaysia, India, <strong>and</strong> eastern Africa. It was first found on O„ahu<br />
in 1941 <strong>and</strong> subsequently spread to the other main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s (DeWalt et al. 2004). On<br />
Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, infestations occur at the Waiākea Forest Reserve, Puna, Kohala Mountains, <strong>and</strong><br />
above Laupāhoehoe (Smith 1992). The Koster‟s curse population at the KFU has increased rapidly<br />
over the last 10 years along the lower road (Ball, pers. comm.).<br />
This woody shrub grows to an average height of 6.6 ft. The stems are covered with red bristles <strong>and</strong><br />
the leaf surfaces are pleated (Whistler 1995). Koster‟s curse can be found in open pastures, riparian<br />
areas, <strong>and</strong> roadsides, as well as in forest gaps <strong>and</strong> understory up to 4,921 ft elevation (DeWalt et al.<br />
2004).<br />
Several characteristics of Koster‟s curse contribute to its invasive potential in Hawaiian forests. It is<br />
relatively shade tolerant <strong>and</strong> has no natural enemies in Hawai‟i. It is dispersed by a variety of<br />
organisms including humans, birds, pigs, <strong>and</strong> mongooses (Smith 1992). Each plant produces over<br />
500 small berry fruits, each containing over 100 very tiny seeds. These seeds can remain dormant for<br />
up to 4 years. Furthermore, Koster‟s curse grows well in disturbed areas <strong>and</strong> can easily displace<br />
native understory species (Smith 1992). This species is considered a noxious weed by the Hawai„i<br />
Department of Agriculture.<br />
Several biological control agents have been introduced against Koster‟s curse in the Pacific. On<br />
Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>, this includes Liothrips urichi, a thrip that attacks the terminal leaves <strong>and</strong> internodes<br />
of Koster‟s curse (Hill et al. 2001, DeWalt et al. 2004). Because L. urichi prefers to lay eggs in open<br />
areas, the thrip has reduced populations in open areas, but not forested habitats. A leaf-mining beetle<br />
(Lius poseidon) <strong>and</strong> a fungus (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) were also released throughout the<br />
isl<strong>and</strong> to control Koster‟s curse (DeWalt et al. 2004). Collectotrichum gloeosporioides has caused<br />
declines in Koster‟s curse on O„ahu; however, it requires repeated applications (Trujillo 2005). In<br />
addition, Carposina bullata (Carposinidae) feeds on flower buds <strong>and</strong> Mompha trithalama<br />
(Momphidae) feeds on flowers <strong>and</strong> berries (DeWalt 2006). None of these biocontrol agents have<br />
caused declines in Koster‟s curse abundance in Hawaiian forest understory (DeWalt 2006). Koster‟s<br />
curse is also susceptible to a number of herbicides (e.g., 2,4,5-T, 2,4-D, Trichlopyr) (Smith 1992).<br />
Photinia (Photinia davidiana)<br />
Photinia is listed as one of Hawai„i‟s worst invasive horticultural plants by DOFAW. The shrub<br />
threatens mesic forests on Hawai„i <strong>and</strong> O„ahu from 4,500-6,000 ft<br />
(http://www.state.hi.us/dlnr/dofaw/hortweeds/species/phodav.htm).<br />
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At the HFU, photinia has been shown to be spreading from its past distribution in 1987, in the upper<br />
elevation forests in the Nauhi Cabin area (Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price 2007). Currently, it occurs in the forests<br />
both above <strong>and</strong> below Nauhi cabin, on both sides of Nauhi Stream, <strong>and</strong> at elevations 5,200-5,500 ft.<br />
Photinia produces a large number of red fleshy fruits that are dispersed by birds (Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price<br />
2007).<br />
Strawberry Guava (Psidium cattleianum)<br />
Strawberry guava is considered one of Hawai„i‟s worst invasive plant species (Wagner et al. 1999,<br />
Motooka et al. 2003, Uowolo <strong>and</strong> Denslow 2008). Introduced to Hawai„i in 1825, strawberry guava<br />
is widely distributed in the mesic <strong>and</strong> wet areas throughout the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. It tolerates a variety<br />
of habitats up to 4,265 ft elevation. Strawberry guava can form dense, monotypic st<strong>and</strong>s consisting of<br />
trees 20 ft high. These st<strong>and</strong>s suppress <strong>and</strong> exclude native species (Wagner et al. 1999, Motooka et<br />
al. 2003). Furthermore, strawberry guava has a rapid growth rate <strong>and</strong> is shade-tolerant. The red fruits<br />
of strawberry guava are eaten by rodents, pigs, <strong>and</strong> birds. These animals help to disperse <strong>and</strong><br />
germinate the prolific seeds. In addition, strawberry guava fruits host crop-damaging fruit flies that<br />
economically impact the State‟s agriculture industry (Motooka et al. 2003, Tummons 2008, Uowolo<br />
<strong>and</strong> Denslow 2008, USFS 2008).<br />
It has been estimated that strawberry guava has the potential to invade 47 percent of the l<strong>and</strong> area of<br />
Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong>. At least 10 endangered species are restricted to habitats within this range (USFS<br />
2008). As a result of these factors, strawberry guava is considered an important management concern<br />
at the KFU <strong>and</strong> the lower elevations of HFU. In 2003, one strawberry guava plant was found along<br />
the Alleyway fence line, in the Middle Honohina Unit, possibly introduced by the fence construction<br />
crew in 1986.<br />
Current control methods are expensive, only temporarily effective, <strong>and</strong> cause harm to surrounding<br />
nontarget plants. Manually, strawberry guava can be removed by grubbing or using a weed wrench<br />
(USFS 2008). Strawberry guava can also be controlled using herbicides applied to foliage (triclopyr,<br />
dicamba, <strong>and</strong> 2,4-D), basal bark (triclopyr, 2,4-D, picloram), or cut stumps (triclopyr amine)<br />
(Motooka et al. 2003). Chemical <strong>and</strong> mechanical control efforts are likely most effective 3 months<br />
after the fruiting season because strawberry guava seeds will not survive beyond this time period<br />
(Uowolo <strong>and</strong> Denslow 2008). Controlling strawberry guava in natural areas on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> using<br />
only these techniques would cost roughly $18 million (Tummons 2008).<br />
Tectococcus ovatus, a scale insect which reduces fruit <strong>and</strong> seed production in Brazil, is currently<br />
being studied as a biological control agent for strawberry guava (Uowolo <strong>and</strong> Denslow 2008). This<br />
insect produces leaf galls, limiting growth, fruiting, <strong>and</strong> seed production. The initial release site<br />
proposed is the „Ōla„a Forest Reserve on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‟i (USFS 2008); however, the State draft<br />
environmental assessment is currently pending.<br />
Sugi Pine (Cryptomeria japonica)<br />
Sugi pine is an aromatic evergreen tree found at 2,500-6,000 ft on Kaua„i, Maui, <strong>and</strong> the Isl<strong>and</strong> of<br />
Hawai„i. Large st<strong>and</strong>s exist along the old Volcano Road <strong>and</strong> in South Kona. This species is grown as<br />
an ornamental <strong>and</strong> windbreak <strong>and</strong> the wood is used for fence posts (Elbert <strong>and</strong> Skolmen 1989).<br />
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There are nine Sugi groves throughout the HFU (Jeffrey, pers. comm.), mostly in pasture areas, but a<br />
few occur in forest. The species has been shown to grow well in the upper reaches of HFU,<br />
especially under koa. This species was previously planted on the adjacent DHHL as buffer. Sugi pine<br />
is not currently recognized as invasive in Hawai„i; however, Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price (2007) note that the<br />
ring of smaller individuals around the original planted sites suggests this species is spreading. Jacobi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Price have recommended the development of control methods for these groves. In addition, the<br />
Refuge Draft Restoration Management <strong>Plan</strong> (1996) aims to “to prevent the spread of exotic tree<br />
plantations,” such as Sugi pine, in order to restore native forests. Roughly 42.8 ac, mostly in the<br />
Hakalau Tract, are planned to be removed <strong>and</strong> replaced with native trees over the next 5-10 years<br />
(NRCS 2005). Sugi pine groves are also potential roosting sites for the endangered „ōpe„ape„a<br />
(Menard, pers. comm.). Because of this unusual circumstance, care needs to be taken with whatever<br />
methods are used to remove the groves. Because Sugi pines are not highly invasive, they are a lower<br />
priority.<br />
Sweet Vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum)<br />
Sweet vernalgrass was ubiquitous during surveys by Stone et al. (1991) <strong>and</strong> Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson<br />
(2008). It was less often found in closed-canopy areas. Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price (2007) stated that this<br />
species is “relatively ubiquitous <strong>and</strong> probably not a major concern for Refuge management.” It is<br />
easily shaded out by native vegetation (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
Weeping Grass or Meadow Ricegrass (Ehrharta stipoides)<br />
Weeping grass or meadow ricegrass is found below 4,650 ft in the openings of wet forests <strong>and</strong> other<br />
moist areas (Wagner et al. 1999). At the HFU, this perennial grass is widespread below 5,000 ft in<br />
the shaded understory (Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price 2007, Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson 2008). Weeping grass has<br />
increased in frequency at the Refuge rising from 69.9 percent in 1987 <strong>and</strong> to 80.3 percent in 2007<br />
(Jacobi <strong>and</strong> Price 2007). This species spreads by seed <strong>and</strong> likely arrived at HFU by a shoelace<br />
(Barnett <strong>and</strong> Simonson 2008).<br />
Australian Tree Fern (Cyathea cooperi)<br />
The Australian tree fern was introduced to Hawai„i as an ornamental. It is a large tree fern up to 40 ft<br />
tall with large triangular leaves, <strong>and</strong> scaly brown stems that fall off when dead, leaving oval scars.<br />
The leaf stalks have white hairs unlike native hāpu„u, which have red hairs. The trunk does not have<br />
the thick, soft fiber wrapping like the native hāpu„u. The fronds form a thick overstory preventing<br />
germination <strong>and</strong> growth of native plants. The spores are wind-dispersed <strong>and</strong> can travel over 7 miles<br />
from the parent plant. It is fast growing <strong>and</strong> aggressively outcompetes native plants in the forest<br />
understory. It displaces native ferns, including the slower growing hāpu„u. The Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) Assessment rates this plant as (8) “high risk.” It is known on almost all of<br />
the main Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> on Hawai„i Isl<strong>and</strong> it is spreading from urban areas in Volcano,<br />
Laupāhoehoe, <strong>and</strong> other areas into native forests. Although this species is not currently found in<br />
either unit of the Hakalau Forest NWR, it is a species to watch for <strong>and</strong> remove immediately if<br />
detected.<br />
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Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Over 70 nonnative snail species (Staples <strong>and</strong> Cowie 2001) <strong>and</strong> 12 nonnative slug species (Joe <strong>and</strong><br />
Daehler 2008) have been introduced to the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Herbivorous mollusks can impact<br />
native plants <strong>and</strong> agricultural crops. These mollusks can have a large impact on plant communities by<br />
affecting seedling survival, shifting species abundances, <strong>and</strong> influencing succession. Invasive slug<br />
herbivory can harm native plant outplantings <strong>and</strong> restoration efforts, thus requiring local control at<br />
these sites (Joe <strong>and</strong> Daehler 2008). In addition, some nonnative mollusks prey on native l<strong>and</strong> snails,<br />
as well as compete with native species for limited resources (Staples <strong>and</strong> Cowie 2001). Slugs have<br />
been seen girdling endangered plant seedlings <strong>and</strong> saplings <strong>and</strong> feeding on endangered plant flowers<br />
<strong>and</strong> fruit (Jeffrey, pers. comm.).<br />
One nonnative l<strong>and</strong> snail <strong>and</strong> three nonnative slugs were found at the HFU during invertebrate<br />
surveys. The garlic snail was abundant, especially in the Hakalau Tract, <strong>and</strong> may be a competitor for<br />
native birds <strong>and</strong> a predator to other native snails. Arion intermedius (glade slug) was also very<br />
common. These species were more abundant in areas disturbed by pigs (Howarth et al. 2003).<br />
4.13 Special Designation Areas<br />
The staff conducted a wilderness review (Appendix D), the results of which indicate that the HFU<br />
contains resources <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>s that meet the basic criteria for inclusion in the National Wilderness<br />
Preservation System. The lower elevations of Hakalau Forest NWR will be designated as a<br />
Wilderness Study Area <strong>and</strong> additional information will be gathered <strong>and</strong> evaluated before a final<br />
determination is made (see Appendix D). The Service will make final wilderness recommendations<br />
for all Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong> NWRs after the CCPs for all refuges have been completed.<br />
4.14 References<br />
Ahumada, J.A., D. LaPointe, <strong>and</strong> M.D. Samuel. 2004. Modeling the population dynamics of Culex<br />
quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae), along an elevational gradient in Hawaii. Journal of Medical<br />
Entomology 41(6):1157-1170.<br />
American Bird Conservancy. 2004. "Managed" cat colonies: the wrong solution to a tragic problem.<br />
Available at: http://www.abcbirds.org/abcprograms/policy/cats/materials/colonies.pdf. Accessed<br />
April 21, 2008.<br />
Anderson, S., J., C. P. Stone, <strong>and</strong> P. Higashino, K. 1992. Distribution <strong>and</strong> spread of nonnative plants<br />
in Kipahulu Valley, Haleakala National Park, above 2,300 feet elevation. In: C.P. Stone, C.W. Smith,<br />
<strong>and</strong> J.T. Tunison (eds.), Alien <strong>Plan</strong>t Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawaii: Management <strong>and</strong><br />
Research. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. 887<br />
pages.<br />
Atkinson, I.A.E. 1977. A reassessment of factors, particularly Rattus rattus L., that influenced the<br />
decline of endemic forest birds in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Pacific Science 31:109-133.<br />
Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-109
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Atkinson, I.A.E. 1985. The spread of commensal species of Rattus to Oceanic isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> their<br />
effects on isl<strong>and</strong> avifaunas. Pp. 3581-526 in Moors, P. J. (editor). <strong>Conservation</strong> of isl<strong>and</strong> birds.<br />
International Council for Bird Preservation Technical Publication No. 3. Cambridge, UK.<br />
Atkinson, I.A.E. <strong>and</strong> T.J. Atkinson. 2000. L<strong>and</strong> vertebrates as invasive species on isl<strong>and</strong>s served by<br />
the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme. In: Invasive Species in the Pacific: A Technical<br />
Review <strong>and</strong> Draft Regional Strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa.<br />
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Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats 4-129
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
4-130 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology <strong>and</strong> Habitats
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment<br />
Above: Volunteers pick koa seeds/USFWS<br />
Right: Visitors enjoy the 100-year-old koa cabin at Pua ‘Ākala/<br />
Ann Bell<br />
Birders at Hakalau Forest NWR/Barry Stieglitz
Chapter<br />
5. Social S an nd Economic<br />
Ennvironmment<br />
5.1 Refuge R In nfrastruc cture <strong>and</strong> d Adminiistrative<br />
FFacilitiess<br />
5.1.1 Hakalau H Forest<br />
Unit t<br />
Facilities consolidated d at the HFU U administrati ive site includde<br />
a bunkhouuse<br />
for overnnight<br />
staff woork,<br />
volunteer r (Figure 5-1) ) <strong>and</strong> research<br />
guest cabin ns, a power ssupply<br />
buildinng,<br />
a garage, , greenhouse,<br />
various st torage sheds, , a weather st tation, <strong>and</strong> an n equipment storage buildding.<br />
Power is generated from<br />
a combined<br />
photovolt taic battery an nd generator r system <strong>and</strong> distributed bby<br />
undergrouund<br />
power linnes<br />
to<br />
the variou us cabins <strong>and</strong> d structures. Water W is prov vided by catcchment<br />
systeems<br />
that feed rainwater froom<br />
building roofs r into holding<br />
tanks. It I is pumped to various sttructures<br />
afteer<br />
being treatted<br />
by ultraviiolet<br />
<strong>and</strong> sedim ment filters. The T catchmen nt system hol lds up to 80,0000<br />
gallons oof<br />
water for ddrinking,<br />
othher<br />
residentia al <strong>and</strong> greenh house use, as well as fire suppression. s The Universsity<br />
of Hawaii‘i<br />
(UH)<br />
maintains s <strong>and</strong> operate es a field stati ion on Refug ge l<strong>and</strong> at thee<br />
administratiion<br />
site to suupport<br />
researcch<br />
on<br />
the Refug ge under a Memor<strong>and</strong>um<br />
M<br />
of Agreemen nt. The UH ffacility<br />
consissts<br />
of a largee<br />
building witth<br />
quarters, laboratory, <strong>and</strong> a classroom m space.<br />
At the Pu ua ‘Ākala area<br />
of HFU, fa acilities inclu ude the Pua ‘ĀĀkala<br />
Cabin, , which has bbeen<br />
nominatted<br />
for inclus sion on the National N Register<br />
of Histor ric Places, a tack shed neear<br />
the cabin, <strong>and</strong> Pua ‘Ākkala<br />
Barn. U.S S. Geological l Survey operates<br />
a weath her station unnder<br />
as SUP. In addition, UH maintainns<br />
a<br />
rain shelt ter at 6,200 ft t elevation fo or field worke ers. Facilitiess<br />
located in oother<br />
areas off<br />
the HFU innclude<br />
the Nauhi i Cabin <strong>and</strong> storage s build ding <strong>and</strong> the Maulua M Cabinn.<br />
The U.S. Forest Serviice<br />
(USFS) hhas<br />
a<br />
weather station s in Mid ddle Honohin na under an SUP. S<br />
There are e 40 miles (m mi) of dirt <strong>and</strong> d gravel road ds <strong>and</strong> 0.67 mmi<br />
of access eeasements<br />
wiithin<br />
the HFUU.<br />
Several access a gates are a located on n the perimet ter fence as wwell<br />
as internnal<br />
fences forr<br />
managemennt<br />
purposes. . The HFU ha as 45 mi of ungulate-proo<br />
u of fence <strong>and</strong> 14 mi of firee<br />
(fuel) breakk<br />
on the west <strong>and</strong><br />
part of the<br />
north/south h boundary (F Figure 5-2).<br />
Figure 5-1. 5 Hakalau<br />
Forest volunteer<br />
cabin.<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Ec conomic Enviro onment<br />
Hakalau H Forest National Wilddlife<br />
Refuge<br />
Comprehens sive Conservatiion<br />
<strong>Plan</strong><br />
5-1
5.1.2 Kona Forest Unit<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The KFU facilities consist of a field camp (Kona field camp) with two all-weather tents on platforms<br />
<strong>and</strong> a kitchen tent with limited space for equipment <strong>and</strong> material storage (Figure 5-3). Also included<br />
are 20 mi of dirt <strong>and</strong> gravel roads <strong>and</strong> 5 mi of access easements (gravel roads). Seventeen miles of<br />
fence are planned for construction as described in the Kona Forest Unit Fence <strong>Plan</strong>. As a part of the<br />
fence project, 14 miles of fence corridor will also serve as a firebreak.<br />
5.1.3 Hilo Administrative Office<br />
The Hakalau Forest NWR leases administrative office space in Hilo (Figure 1-1). The office is colocated<br />
with the USFS’s Institute of Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Forestry. The office functions first <strong>and</strong> foremost<br />
as an administrative site. Ten individual offices, a small conference room for staff meetings, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
small lobby area are leased annually. A large meeting room in the complex may be reserved for<br />
larger meetings (up to 50 people). Walk-in visitors are very few as the function of the office is not<br />
designed or set up to orient <strong>and</strong> welcome guests or provide interpretive displays. An occasional<br />
visitor from the mainl<strong>and</strong> is guided to the office by calling ahead of time for directions or to verify<br />
the location of the Maulua tract <strong>and</strong> to get more information. No signs or other infrastructure are in<br />
place to attract visitors to the Refuge office or management areas.<br />
5.2 Public Use Overview<br />
The climate <strong>and</strong> geography of Hawai‘i makes the isl<strong>and</strong>s a perfect location for various outdoor<br />
recreation activities. In addition, recreation is an important component of the lifestyle <strong>and</strong> economy<br />
of Hawai‘i County (DLNR 2003). The State <strong>Comprehensive</strong> Outdoor Recreation <strong>Plan</strong> (2009) was<br />
developed to guide planning, development, <strong>and</strong> management of these outdoor recreation resources.<br />
The recreation section of the County of Hawai‘i General <strong>Plan</strong> (2006) provides further recreational<br />
goals for the isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> each district.<br />
This section describes public use opportunities in the areas surrounding the HFU <strong>and</strong> KFU, as well as<br />
recreational activities currently occurring at the Refuge units. Isl<strong>and</strong>wide recreational dem<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
potential recreational opportunities are also discussed.<br />
5.2.1 Federal, State, <strong>and</strong> County Recreational Parks<br />
Federal parks are administered by the National Park Service (NPS). The Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i features<br />
three national parks, including Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park (HAVO), Kaloko-Honokōhau<br />
National Historical Park, <strong>and</strong> Pu‘uhonua O Hōnaunau National Historical Park. The HAVO is<br />
approximately 3 hours away from the HFU <strong>and</strong> 3 hours from the KFU. This park encompasses<br />
207,634 ac <strong>and</strong> is the largest national park in the State. In addition, it is the single most popular<br />
visitor attraction on the isl<strong>and</strong>. The State <strong>Comprehensive</strong> Outdoor Recreation <strong>Plan</strong> (2009) identifies<br />
HAVO as a “significant recreation resource.” Pu‘u Honua O Hōnaunau National Historical Park,<br />
comprising 182 ac, is located south of KFU.<br />
State parks are administered by the DLNR’s Division of State Parks. The State park system on<br />
Hawai‘i encompasses 15 parks covering approximately 2,687.3 ac (DLNR 2003). Use permits are<br />
5-2 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment
Figure 5-2. 5 HFU ad dministrativ ve facilities <strong>and</strong> infrastrructure.<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Ec conomic Enviro onment<br />
Hakalau H Forest National Wilddlife<br />
Refuge<br />
Comprehens sive Conservatiion<br />
<strong>Plan</strong><br />
5-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
5-4 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment
Figure 5-3. 5 KFU ad dministrativ ve facilities <strong>and</strong> infrastrructure.<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Ec conomic Enviro onment<br />
Hakalau H Forest National Wilddlife<br />
Refuge<br />
Comprehens sive Conservatiion<br />
<strong>Plan</strong><br />
5-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
5-6 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Figure 5-4. Recreation opportunities on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment 5-7
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of this figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
5-8 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table 5-1. Legend ID <strong>and</strong> Facility Name for the Vicinity Recreation Map.<br />
Map<br />
ID<br />
Name Manager Definition<br />
1 Mokupuku Isl<strong>and</strong> Sea Bird Sanctuary DOFAW Bird Sanctuary<br />
2 Paoakalani Isl<strong>and</strong> Sea Bird Sanctuary DOFAW Bird Sanctuary<br />
3 Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
4 Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park USNPS National Historical Park<br />
5 Kohala Historic Sites State Monument DOSP State Monument<br />
6 Kohala Forest Reserve (Pololū Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
7 Lapakahi State Historic Park DOSP State Historic Park<br />
8 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Keaa Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
9 Malama Kī Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
10 Kahauale‘a Natural Area Reserve DOFAW Natural Area Reserve<br />
11 Mackenzie State Recreation Area DOSP State Recreation Area<br />
12 Keauohana Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
13<br />
Pu‘u Honau O Hōnaunau National<br />
Historical Park<br />
USNPS National Historical Park<br />
14<br />
South Kona Forest Reserve (Olelomoana<br />
‘Opihihali Sec.)<br />
DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
15<br />
South Kona Forest Reserve (Kapua-Manukā<br />
Sec.)<br />
DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
16 Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park USNPS National Park<br />
17 Kapāpala Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
18 Ka‘ū Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
19 South Kona Forest Reserve (Ka‘ohe Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
20<br />
South Kona Forest Reserve (Kukuiopa‘e<br />
Sec.)<br />
DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
21 Kīpāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve DOFAW Natural Area Reserve<br />
22 Kona Hema Preserve TNC TNC Preserve<br />
23 Manukā Natural Area Reserve DOFAW Natural Area Reserve<br />
24 Kohala Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
25 Pu‘u O ‘Umi Natural Area Reserve DOFAW Natural Area Reserve<br />
26 Kohala Forest Reserve (Waimanu Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
27 Kohala Watershed Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
28 Ka‘ū Preserve TNC TNC Preserve<br />
29 Ka‘ū Preserve TNC TNC Preserve<br />
30 Ka‘ū Preserve TNC TNC Preserve<br />
31 Ka‘ū Preserve TNC TNC Preserve<br />
32 Ka‘ū Preserve TNC TNC Preserve<br />
33 Kamehame Preserve TNC TNC Preserve<br />
34 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Hanapai Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
35 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Kapulena Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
36 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Honokaia Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
37 Hauola Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
38 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Āhualoa Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
39 Kalōpā State Recreation Area DOSP State Recreation Area<br />
40 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Nienie Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment 5-9
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Map<br />
ID<br />
Name Manager Definition<br />
41 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Kalōpā Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
42 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Pa‘auilo Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
43 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Kainehe Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
44 Hāmākua Forest Reserve (Hō‘ea Kaao Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
45 Hāpuna Beach State Recreation Area DOSP State Recreation Area<br />
46/47 Manowaialee Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
48 Hilo Forest Reserve (Humu‘ula Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
49 Hilo Forest Reserve (Laupāhoehoe Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
50 Laupāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve DOFAW Natural Area Reserve<br />
51 Hilo Forest Reserve (Pīhā Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
52 Mauna Kea Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
53 Hilo Forest Reserve (Opea Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
54 Hilo Forest Reserve (Kamaee Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
55 Hilo Forest Reserve (Kaiwiki Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
56 ‘Akaka Falls State Park DOSP State Park<br />
57 Hilo Forest Reserve (Ka‘uku Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
58/59 Mauna Kea Ice Age Natural Area Reserve DOFAW Natural Area Reserve<br />
60/61 Kekaha Kai State Park DOSP State Park<br />
62 Hilo Watershed Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
63 Mauna Kea State Recreation Area DOSP State Recreation Area<br />
64 Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a Forest Bird Sanctuary DOFAW Bird Sanctuary<br />
65 Wailoa River State Recreation Area DOSP State Recreation Area<br />
66 Wailuku River State Park DOSP State Park<br />
67 Honua‘ula Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
68 Mauna Loa Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
69 Waiakea Forest Reserve (Kukua Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
70 Kipuka Ainahou Nēnē Sanctuary DOFAW Bird Sanctuary<br />
71 Upper Waiākea Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
72 Honua‘ula Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
73 Waiākea Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
74 Panaewa Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
75<br />
Waiākea 1942 Lava Flow Natural Area<br />
Reserve<br />
DOFAW Natural Area Reserve<br />
76 Wai‘aha Springs Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
77 Old Kona Airport State Recreation Area DOSP State Recreation Area<br />
78 ‘Ōla‘a Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
79 Keolonoahiki State Historic Park DOSP State Historic Park<br />
80 Pu‘u Maka‘ala Natural Area Reserve DOFAW Natural Area Reserve<br />
81 Nānāwale Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
82 Nānāwale Forest Reserve (Halepuaa Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
83 Nānāwale Forest Reserve DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
84 Lava Tree State Monument DOSP State Monument<br />
85 ‘Ōla‘a Forest Reserve (Mt. View Sec.) DOFAW Forest Reserve<br />
86 Kealakekua Bay State Historic Park DOSP State Historic Park<br />
87 Keaoi Isl<strong>and</strong> Sea Bird Sanctuary DOFAW Bird Sanctuary<br />
5-10 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Map<br />
ID<br />
Name Manager Definition<br />
88 Wao Kele ‘O Puna Forest Reserve<br />
DOFAW/<br />
OHA<br />
Forest Reserve<br />
89 Manukā State Wayside DOSP State Wayside<br />
90 Pa‘alaea Isl<strong>and</strong> Sea Bird Sanctuary DOFAW Bird Sanctuary<br />
required for certain activities including group activities, pavilion usage, meetings, weddings, shows,<br />
community events, scientific research, <strong>and</strong> gathering of forest products (Division of State Parks<br />
2008).<br />
Several State parks are located near the HFU. The Mauna Kea State Recreation Area, consisting of<br />
20.5 ac, offers wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> lodging opportunities at 6,500 ft on Mauna Kea. ‘Akaka Falls<br />
State Park has views of a 442 ft waterfall. This park also offers the ‘Akaka Falls Loop Trail, a path<br />
that goes through tropical areas. The 100 ac Kalōpā State Recreation Area provides hiking through<br />
the Kalōpā Nature Trail, as well as camping <strong>and</strong> lodging.<br />
On the Kona side, two State parks are located near the KFU. Kealakekua Bay State Historical Park<br />
offers views of archaeological sites <strong>and</strong> the Captain Cook monument. The Manukā State Wayside is<br />
located south of the KFU in the Ka‘ū District. This State wayside provides access to the 2 mi<br />
Manukā Nature Trail, which is located in the Manukā Natural Area Reserve. Camping is also<br />
permitted at this reserve through the State Division of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> (DOFAW).<br />
County parks are managed by the County of Hawai‘i, Department of Parks <strong>and</strong> Recreation. On<br />
Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>, 137 county parks cover 1,471 ac. The following county parks are located in South<br />
Hilo: Bakers Beach, Carlsmith Beach Park, Coconut Isl<strong>and</strong> (Moku Ola), Hilo Bayfront Beach, Hilo<br />
Bayfront Park, Honoli‘i Beach Park, Ho‘okena Beach Park, James Kealoha Beach Park, Kalākaua<br />
Park, Kanakea Pond (Ice Pond), Kaūmana Caves, Kolekole Beach Park, Kuhio Kalaniana‘ole Park,<br />
Lehia Beach Park, Leleiwi Beach Park, Lili‘uokalani Gardens, Mo‘oheau Park, Onekahakaha Beach<br />
Park, Reeds Bay Beach Park, <strong>and</strong> Richardson Ocean Park. Only two county parks – Laupāhoehoe<br />
Point Beach Park <strong>and</strong> Waikaumalo Park – are located in the North Hilo District. County parks in the<br />
District of South Kona include: Hōnaunau Boat Ramp, Ho‘okena Beach Park, Manini Point<br />
(Napo‘opo‘o), Miloli‘i Beach Park, <strong>and</strong> Napo‘opo‘o Beach Park (County of Hawai‘i 2007).<br />
5.2.2 <strong>Wildlife</strong> Observation <strong>and</strong> Environmental Education<br />
Opportunities for wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> environmental education are plentiful on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of<br />
Hawai‘i. During 2006, it is estimated that 262,000 individuals (both residents <strong>and</strong> visitors)<br />
participated in wildlife watching in the State. Approximately 16 percent of the resident population in<br />
Hawai‘i participated in wildlife watching activities during the time period (HDBEDT 2007). Tourists<br />
also enjoy natural resources on the isl<strong>and</strong>. Each year, roughly 50,000 visitors to Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong><br />
purchase tours where they are exposed to native species (TMA 2007).<br />
The State of Hawai‘i Forest Reserve System, managed by DOFAW, consists of 22 Forest Reserves<br />
encompassing 448,000 ac. This system is guided by the Hawai‘i State Constitution, Hawai‘i Revised<br />
Statutes Chapter 183, <strong>and</strong> Hawai‘i Administrative Rules, Chapter 104. Forest Reserves on the isl<strong>and</strong><br />
are depicted in Figure 5.2. Camping, gathering activities, commercial harvest, hunting, <strong>and</strong> other uses<br />
are permitted on the forest reserves by permit (HAR § 13-104).<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment 5-11
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The Hilo Forest Reserve includes seven sections: Pīhā, Laupāhoehoe, Opea, Humu‘ula, Kamae‘e,<br />
Ka‘uku, <strong>and</strong> Kaiwiki. The Laupāhoehoe Section borders the upper tract of the Hakalau Forest Unit,<br />
while the Pīhā Section splits the Honohina <strong>and</strong> Maulua tracts. The Pīhā Section is primarily used by<br />
the public for hunting. The South Kona Forest Reserve is located south of the Kona Forest Unit. This<br />
reserve consists of four sections: ‘Ōlelomoana ‘Opihihali, Ka‘ohe, Kukuiopa‘e, <strong>and</strong> Kapua-Manukā.<br />
The DOFAW is also responsible for the Natural Area Reserve System (NARS). Hiking <strong>and</strong> nature<br />
study (in groups of 10 or less) are permitted within these areas. All reserves are open to the public for<br />
recreational hunting, based on DLNR rules (HAR § 13-209-3). Environmental education programs<br />
occur on several of these reserves (DLNR 2003). The Laupāhoehoe NAR is located above the<br />
Maulua tract of the HFU adjacent to the Laupāhoehoe Section of the Hilo Forest Reserve. The<br />
Mauna Kea Ice Age NAR is located near the summit, west of the HFU. The Kīpāhoehoe NAR is<br />
directly south of the KFU <strong>and</strong> the Manukā NAR is further south on the southwest slope of<br />
Mauna Loa.<br />
Several wildlife sanctuaries were established throughout the isl<strong>and</strong> to protect indigenous wildlife<br />
(HRS, Sections 13-125). These sanctuaries are managed by DOFAW. Within these sanctuaries, it is<br />
prohibited to remove, disturb, kill, or possess any form of plant or wildlife <strong>and</strong> to introduce any form<br />
of plant or animal life. Also, human activity is strictly limited. The Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a Forest Bird<br />
Sanctuary is found within the Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a Forest Reserve. The Kīpuka ‘Āinahou Nēnē Sanctuary<br />
is open to the public, except November-February. Birds <strong>and</strong> game mammals may be hunted within<br />
the Kīpuka ‘Āinahou Nēnē Sanctuary (HAR § 13-125).<br />
Three islets off the coast of Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> are designated as State Seabird Sanctuaries. The offshore<br />
isl<strong>and</strong>s include Mokupuku Isl<strong>and</strong> Sea Bird Sanctuary, Paoakalani Isl<strong>and</strong> Sea Bird Sanctuary, <strong>and</strong><br />
Keaoi Isl<strong>and</strong> Sea Bird Sanctuary. Pa‘alaea Isl<strong>and</strong> Sea Bird Sanctuary, formerly found off the Kohala<br />
coast, largely disappeared after an earthquake in 1975. The public can engage in wildlife observation<br />
<strong>and</strong> education at the islets (http://www.hawaiioirc.org/OIRC-ISLETS.htm).<br />
Public wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> environmental interpretation opportunities are limited in the units of<br />
the Hakalau Forest NWR. Due to the presence of endangered species <strong>and</strong> suitable habitat, public<br />
access is regulated. In FY 2010, the Refuge had 1,692 visitors, of which most were nonresidents. At<br />
HFU, the Upper Maulua Tract was opened to public wildlife observation, birding, <strong>and</strong> photography<br />
in 1992. Use of this area is restricted to weekends <strong>and</strong> holidays, <strong>and</strong> reservations are required.<br />
Between 450-500 visitors use the Refuge for wildlife observation annually. <strong>Wildlife</strong> photography<br />
participants range between 10-22 each year. No visitor facilities or restrooms are available at these<br />
locations.<br />
Additional visitor opportunities at the HFU are available during the annual open house. This event<br />
receives between 330-490 participants. In addition, volunteers at the HFU participate in natural<br />
history hikes. Table 5-2 provides additional information on FY 2010 Refuge wildlife observation <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental education figures.<br />
Currently the entire KFU, which remains unfenced <strong>and</strong> unmanaged in terms of ungulate control,<br />
remains closed to the public due to difficult access <strong>and</strong> the presence of highly sensitive species. The<br />
Three Mountain Alliance hopes to provide opportunities for the public to enjoy nature observation<br />
<strong>and</strong> education at the Unit after management efforts have begun (TMA 2007).<br />
5-12 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment
5.2.3 Camping<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Camping is permitted within three State parks: Hāpuna State Recreation Area, Kalōpā State<br />
Recreation Area, <strong>and</strong> Manukā State Wayside. Permits may be obtained from the State Parks office<br />
<strong>and</strong> the maximum length of stay is limited to 5 consecutive nights. Hāpuna State Recreation Area has<br />
four-person A-frame shelters available for $20 per night. At the Kalōpā State Recreation Area, the<br />
State rents eight-person cabins for $55 per night. Facilities include beds, bedding, linen, restrooms,<br />
hot showers, <strong>and</strong> a fully equipped recreational dining hall. The Manukā State Wayside offers<br />
six-person cabins for $5 per night (Division of State Parks 2008).<br />
Ten County of Hawai‘i facilities permit overnight camping. County of Hawai‘i camping permits are<br />
required in order to camp at all County parks. These permits can be obtained from the Department of<br />
Parks <strong>and</strong> Recreation main office or online. The maximum camping period is 1 week during the<br />
summer (June-August) <strong>and</strong> 2 weeks during the remainder of the year (County of Hawai‘i 2008).<br />
County camping sites in the vicinity of HFU are the Laupāhoehoe Beach Park in North Hilo <strong>and</strong><br />
Kolekole Beach Park in South Hilo. Amenities at these sites include pavilions, electrical outlets,<br />
restrooms, outdoor showers, <strong>and</strong> picnic areas. <strong>Fish</strong>ing is also permitted at both of the campsites<br />
(County of Hawai‘i 2008).<br />
Ho‘okena Beach Park, near the KFU, offers pavilions, restrooms, outdoor showers, picnic areas, <strong>and</strong><br />
drinking water. Swimming <strong>and</strong> snorkeling, as well as fishing, are allowed under favorable conditions.<br />
Miloli‘i County Beach Park is located in South Kona at an ancient Hawaiian fishing village. This<br />
park allows fishing <strong>and</strong> has restrooms <strong>and</strong> picnic areas for visitors (County of Hawai‘i 2008).<br />
5.2.4 Hiking<br />
DOFAW’s Na Ala Hele Program maintains <strong>and</strong> provides access to hiking trails. Established in 1988,<br />
Na Ala Hele offers approximately 97 trails throughout the State (DLNR 2003). The purpose of the<br />
program is to “preserve <strong>and</strong> perpetuate the integrity, condition, naturalness <strong>and</strong> beauty of State trails<br />
<strong>and</strong> surrounding areas <strong>and</strong> to protect … environmental resources” (HRS Chapter 198D; HAR, Title<br />
13, Chapter 130).<br />
On the isl<strong>and</strong>, the system maintains 16 trails. Trails in the immediate vicinity of the HFU include<br />
Kaluakauka Trail (0.4 mi); Humu‘ula Trail (10.5 mi); Mauna Kea Access Road/Hunters Road<br />
(32 mi); Kaūmana Trail (3 mi); <strong>and</strong> Onomea Trail (0.5 mi). The only Na Ala Hele trail in South<br />
Kona, Keauhou Napo‘opo‘o Trail, is currently closed<br />
(http://www.hawaiitrails.org/isl<strong>and</strong>.php?isl<strong>and</strong>=Hawaii).<br />
5.2.5 Hunting<br />
Hunting is regulated by Hawai‘i Administrative Rules, Title 13, Chapter 122 <strong>and</strong> 123. Individuals<br />
engaging in hunting must possess a valid State of Hawai‘i hunting license. This license allows<br />
individuals to legally hunt only in designated public hunting areas. Private l<strong>and</strong>owners also have their<br />
own hunting programs directed at the tourism market or at local hunters. Approximately<br />
18,000 individuals hunted in the State of Hawai‘i in 2006, for a total of 420,000 days. Roughly<br />
98 percent of the individuals were residents of the State. A total of 8,345 hunting licenses were<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment 5-13
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
issued throughout the State in 2006 (HDBEDT 2007). Four large game mammals <strong>and</strong> 14 species of<br />
game birds can be legally hunted on the isl<strong>and</strong> (http://www.State.hi.us/dlnr/dcre/know.htm).<br />
5.2.6 Refuge Public Use Opportunities<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
In FY 2010, the total number of visitors to the Refuge was 1,692. Visitors to HFU are allowed access<br />
to the Maulua Tract through a call-in permit system. The Maulua Tract is approximately 2 hours<br />
from Hilo <strong>and</strong> requires a four-wheel drive vehicle. Visitors have access to a single track road that<br />
extends downslope from the gate for 2 mi with limited opportunities to turn vehicles around. Maulua<br />
Tract is accessible by reservation only on weekends <strong>and</strong> State holidays through an otherwise locked<br />
entrance called Maulua Gate. The area is available for wildlife-dependent activities such as birdwatching,<br />
nature photography, environmental education, <strong>and</strong> hiking. Reservations are made by<br />
calling the Hakalau Forest NWR office between 8:00 a.m. <strong>and</strong> 4:00 p.m. at least 1 week before the<br />
scheduled visit. Periodic closures do occur on the basis of fire danger from extreme dry conditions on<br />
the Refuge <strong>and</strong> surrounding l<strong>and</strong>s. The Friends of Hakalau Forest are developing interpretive signs to<br />
complement certain site areas in Maulua Tract. Most visitors registering for permission to enter<br />
Maulua Tract are from the mainl<strong>and</strong> U.S. Visitation over the years has gradually increased from a<br />
weekend average of four to currently an average of 10 people. No sanitation facilities are provided.<br />
The remainder of the Refuge is not open to the public except through organized Refuge sponsored or<br />
permitted activities. The volunteer program provides wildlife photography <strong>and</strong> observation <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental interpretation <strong>and</strong> education opportunities through a unique h<strong>and</strong>s-on stewardship<br />
program. The volunteer program offers overnight experiences involving a full day of h<strong>and</strong>s-on<br />
stewardship activity assisting with a combination of some of the following activities: koa<br />
outplanting, seed collection, plant nursery work, reseeding, <strong>and</strong> facility support maintenance. After<br />
spending the night in a Refuge cabin, the staff on the second day host groups on a forest bird<br />
interpretive walk, which requires someone skilled in how to locate, interpret, <strong>and</strong> observe the birds,<br />
<strong>and</strong> highlighting native forest ecosystem management <strong>and</strong> wildlife observation.<br />
During 2007, 30 of the 52 possible weekends were scheduled <strong>and</strong> there is a 1-2 year waiting list for<br />
additional groups to participate. Currently these weekends are attended by groups such as the Sierra<br />
Club, Audubon Society, Boy <strong>and</strong> Girl Scouts, high school hiking clubs, teacher workshops, middle<br />
<strong>and</strong> high school-age participants in Youth <strong>Conservation</strong> Corps, <strong>and</strong> the Imi Pono no ka ‘Aina<br />
partnership environmental education program. The program has reached capacity, as the staff cannot<br />
fulfill the needed tasks for additional groups (e.g., scheduling, maintaining the overnight cabin,<br />
providing transportation, <strong>and</strong> other administrative <strong>and</strong> safety related responsibilities <strong>and</strong> logistics).<br />
The Refuge is opened to the general public annually for the Refuge Week Open House, providing a<br />
1-day opportunity for visitor programs tailored to the general public. The annual event, offered<br />
during National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Week in early October, has been growing in popularity over the<br />
years from 50 participants at the first open house day in 1992 to over 500 in 2007. The Open House<br />
is primarily attended by Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> residents. Reservations are required. Publicity is generally<br />
accomplished via articles in the Hawai‘i Tribune Herald, West Hawai‘i Today, the Big Isl<strong>and</strong><br />
Weekly, <strong>and</strong> local radio stations.<br />
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The Open House is a labor-intensive event that requires participation by all of the staff for planning,<br />
preparation, <strong>and</strong> execution. Throughout the morning of the event attendees arrive at the Refuge <strong>and</strong><br />
are guided to several open grass parking areas near the barn area in the Pua ‘Ākala Tract. Visitors are<br />
then provided the opportunity to visit the Pua ‘Ākala Cabin, the greenhouse, <strong>and</strong>/or participate in a<br />
guided hike. The Service, partner organizations, <strong>and</strong> agencies provide tour guides for the visiting<br />
public. Refuge, Friends of Hakalau Forest, <strong>and</strong> partners’ exhibits are traditionally displayed at the<br />
Pua ‘Ākala barn site.<br />
Due to its remote location (1.5 hours from Hilo) <strong>and</strong> 1-hour drive time on a bumpy road in a fourwheel<br />
drive vehicle, the number of visitors is limited. Public interest in the Refuge is substantial <strong>and</strong><br />
a family-friendly approach with greater support from a growing Friends Group <strong>and</strong> other partners has<br />
improved attendance. This is consistent with the Refuge Connecting People with Nature priorities<br />
<strong>and</strong> the need to exp<strong>and</strong> access to all visitors.<br />
The Youth <strong>Conservation</strong> Corps <strong>and</strong> AmeriCorps are youth employment programs offering a strong<br />
environmental stewardship component that have been supported at Hakalau Forest NWR in the past<br />
<strong>and</strong> remain valuable program options for the Refuge pending available staff <strong>and</strong> funding.<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR is associated with a comprehensive environmental education program called<br />
Imi Pono no ka ‘Aina (seeking good for the l<strong>and</strong>) currently administered by NPS, Hawai‘i State<br />
Department of Education, <strong>and</strong> the U.S. Army Garrison of Hawai‘i. The Service, along with these<br />
partners, developed <strong>and</strong> established this program in 1999. The program has been very successful <strong>and</strong><br />
helps to instill a conservation ethic in local intermediate <strong>and</strong> high school students, who participate in<br />
educational service trips to the Refuge <strong>and</strong> other areas. The Service hopes to continue to host <strong>and</strong><br />
provide support for Imi Pono no ka ‘Aina as a model for other isl<strong>and</strong>s to conduct h<strong>and</strong>s-on<br />
environmental education camps.<br />
The Refuge issues a limited number of SUPs for tour groups to access the Refuge. The following<br />
stipulations apply to all of the permits: each permittee is limited to 100 visitor days, eight SUPs are<br />
issued per year, <strong>and</strong> all permittees are required to attend an all day orientation hosted by the Refuge<br />
staff. During 2007, 309 individuals visited the Refuge through these SUPs.<br />
Commercial photography occurs through an SUP process allowing access into Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
under stringent conditions with a staff biologist escort for access to any closed areas. Only two<br />
permits were issued in 2007; on average no more than five permits are issued per year. Refuge staff<br />
generally conduct a 1-day orientation for new special use permit holders.<br />
Off-Refuge outreach, environmental education, <strong>and</strong> interpretive activities are occasionally offered to<br />
community groups. The staff also participates as an exhibitor in the annual Earth Day festival in Hilo<br />
that attracts hundreds of students.<br />
Kīpuka 21, an interpretive wayside exhibit <strong>and</strong> trail site on Saddle Road a few miles east of the<br />
access road to the Refuge, is managed by DOFAW. The State is still working on developing the site<br />
to provide easy access to Hawai‘i’s native forest birds. Once trail repairs are complete, individuals<br />
will be able to commonly see midstory <strong>and</strong> forest canopy viewing of ‘apapane, ‘i‘iwi, <strong>and</strong> ‘amakihi.<br />
The Refuge hopes to contribute to future interpretive efforts at the Kīpuka 21 site to provide basic<br />
information about resources common to both sites (the Saddle road area <strong>and</strong> HFU).<br />
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Table 5-2. FY 2010 Visitation at the Hakalau Forest Unit.<br />
Activity Number of individuals<br />
Visitors On-Refuge<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Observation 591<br />
Environmental Education 153<br />
Interpretation 578<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Photography 10<br />
Volunteer Program 488<br />
Maulua Tract Visitation 208<br />
Commercial Ecotourism 309<br />
Independent Visitors 22<br />
Visitors Off-Refuge<br />
Refuge Office for Orientation 60<br />
Interpretative Talks <strong>and</strong> Other Programs 578<br />
Viewing Exhibits at Local Festivals, Fairs, <strong>and</strong> Events 2,000<br />
In 2007, the Friends of Hakalau Forest NWR was formed from a small cadre of vested <strong>and</strong> interested<br />
volunteers. The group is now 140 members strong <strong>and</strong> is implementing small interpretive projects on<br />
<strong>and</strong> off the Refuge. The group also provides staff for a booth at the annual Open House where they<br />
encourage members to join. Throughout the year they help organize volunteers to assist in the<br />
greenhouse.<br />
In 1992, HFU’s Upper Maulua Tract was opened to the public for public hunting (no dogs) to assist<br />
with management of ungulates. Reservations were required <strong>and</strong> a maximum number of reservations<br />
established. Middle <strong>and</strong> Lower Maulua Tract became open for public hunting (dogs allowed) in<br />
1993. No reservations were required <strong>and</strong> a bag limit for each hunter set at two pigs. With the<br />
successful fencing of the Upper Maulua Tract as well as the start of endangered species work, this<br />
area was closed to public hunting in 2000 due to the reduction of the number of pigs. For this tract,<br />
the levels of hunting use, based on 6 consecutive years of public hunting averaged 80 hunter days per<br />
year. No requests for public hunting at HFU have occurred since 2000. Through the CCP it was<br />
determined that public hunting was not a compatible use.<br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
The KFU has never been opened to the public. The KFU is very difficult to access because of<br />
extreme road conditions into a 5,300 ac parcel of native forest in South Kona <strong>and</strong> until very recently,<br />
legal issues with access easements. Refuge staff may now access the area only after ascending an<br />
easement road running parallel to the Refuge boundary from the Māmalahoa Highway at roughly<br />
900 ft in elevation to the 5,300 ft level.<br />
From 1997-2005 <strong>and</strong> despite the difficult road conditions, organized community groups received<br />
occasional escorted access to the KFU. Of particular interest on the KFU are the lava tube skylights.<br />
Unstable ground <strong>and</strong> holes adjacent to the skylights make viewing them hazardous <strong>and</strong> would require<br />
viewing platforms to provide safe access.<br />
Outreach/environmental education/interpretation activities offsite are performed on behalf of the<br />
Refuge as described under HFU <strong>and</strong> cover both units of Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
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5.2.7 Recreational Trends <strong>and</strong> Dem<strong>and</strong>s<br />
The State <strong>Comprehensive</strong> Outdoor Recreation <strong>Plan</strong> Update (SCORP 2009) built upon the SCORP<br />
(2003), which concluded that a general decrease in leisure time has influenced the dem<strong>and</strong> for more<br />
recreational opportunities close to home. This decrease is due to a rise in single adults <strong>and</strong> working<br />
women, as well as an increase in the national median work week (DLNR 2003).<br />
The top five priority issues for the 2009 update as determined from the agency <strong>and</strong> public meeting<br />
discussions <strong>and</strong> survey results are:<br />
� Protection of natural <strong>and</strong> cultural resources;<br />
� Management of recreation resources <strong>and</strong> facilities;<br />
� Meeting the needs of recreation users;<br />
� Access to recreation resources; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Funding.<br />
In comparison to many other public l<strong>and</strong> areas on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>, Hakalau Forest NWR is not likely<br />
to provide significant recreational opportunities for the life of the CCP. Given the remote nature of<br />
the site <strong>and</strong> presence of endangered species, the Refuge will have a small role to play. However, the<br />
protection of the natural resources present here will help to address the number one priority issue<br />
from the SCORP Update. The Refuge will continue to offer limited recreational opportunities for<br />
very specialized recreation participants such as birdwatchers.<br />
As a component of the National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System, Hakalau Forest NWR has a m<strong>and</strong>ate to<br />
consider public uses such as hunting, fishing, wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography, <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation. Those activities may be approved on a case-by-case<br />
basis <strong>and</strong> found compatible with the purposes <strong>and</strong> goals of the Refuge. Other public uses may be<br />
considered but must first be determined both appropriate <strong>and</strong> compatible (Appendix B identifies<br />
appropriate uses <strong>and</strong> compatible use determinations).<br />
5.2.8 Impact of Illegal Uses<br />
Incidence of theft, v<strong>and</strong>alism, <strong>and</strong> trespass on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s are factors that, owing to the remoteness<br />
of the Refuge, remain a concern in terms of staff <strong>and</strong> visitor safety, security, property damage or loss<br />
of government or partner assets, potential for impacts to threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species, <strong>and</strong><br />
potential contribution to accidental or deliberate wildfire. Service law enforcement coordinates with<br />
Refuge staff <strong>and</strong> other law enforcement agencies to monitor <strong>and</strong> investigate illegal activity. However,<br />
currently, there is only one law enforcement zone position for all 22 refuges in the Pacific <strong>and</strong><br />
Hawaiian isl<strong>and</strong>s. Only Midway Atoll NWR, Guam NWR, <strong>and</strong> the Kaua‘i NWR Complex have their<br />
own law enforcement officer. It is anticipated that an increase in law enforcement presence would<br />
reduce the incidence of illegal activity.<br />
5.2.9 Historic/Cultural Sites<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
National <strong>and</strong> State historic sites have the potential to be recreational areas for both local residents <strong>and</strong><br />
tourists. There are 128 National <strong>and</strong> State historic sites within the County. Within the Hilo region, the<br />
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County General <strong>Plan</strong> (2006) identifies 19 sites that are listed on the Hawai‘i Register of Historic<br />
Places <strong>and</strong> 10 sites listed on the National Register of Historic Places. These include burial areas,<br />
Kamehameha Hall, a courthouse, churches, theaters, residences, <strong>and</strong> other historic buildings (County<br />
of Hawai‘i 2007). Keolonahihi State Historic Park <strong>and</strong> portions of the Kohala Historic Sites State<br />
Monument are not open to the public (DNLR 2003).<br />
Compared to coastal, lower elevation regions, there is a low density <strong>and</strong> number of historic <strong>and</strong><br />
cultural sites in upl<strong>and</strong> areas (such as the Hakalau Forest NWR). As a result, most formal cultural or<br />
historic studies are restricted to these areas. In addition, a large number of historic sites have been<br />
either destroyed by agriculture, urban growth, <strong>and</strong> natural changes in l<strong>and</strong>forms. (DNLR 2003).<br />
In a traditional Native Hawaiian context, there is no division between nature <strong>and</strong> culture. The l<strong>and</strong>,<br />
water, <strong>and</strong> sky were the foundation of life <strong>and</strong> the source of the spiritual relationship between people<br />
<strong>and</strong> their world. Native Hawaiian traditions express the attachment felt between the Native Hawaiian<br />
people <strong>and</strong> the Earth around them. “Native traditions describe the formation (literally the birth) of the<br />
Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the presence of life on <strong>and</strong> around them in the context of genealogical<br />
accounts. All forms of the natural environment – from the skies <strong>and</strong> mountain peaks, to the watered<br />
valleys <strong>and</strong> plains, to the shoreline <strong>and</strong> ocean depths – are the embodiments of Hawaiian gods <strong>and</strong><br />
deities” (Maly 2001).<br />
The ‘ōhi‘a-koa zone was used by Native Hawaiians for specialized resources including bark for<br />
making fishing nets <strong>and</strong> māmaki to make kapa cloth. Native Hawaiians may have used the area for<br />
temporary camps while collecting natural resources or en route to a higher elevation adze quarry <strong>and</strong><br />
associated surface work sites. Native Hawaiians had knowledge of shelter caves, overhangs, <strong>and</strong><br />
water sources. In the dry māmane woodl<strong>and</strong>, pili grass may have been collected as a special resource<br />
for thatching structures, as well as māmane wood for making adze h<strong>and</strong>les, house posts, <strong>and</strong> hōlua<br />
sleds. Within or above the māmane zone, nēnē, ‘u‘au, <strong>and</strong> koloa maoli may have been used as a<br />
source of meat. Radiocarbon dating of bird bones from caves located in the saddle region between<br />
Mauna Loa <strong>and</strong> Mauna Kea indicate that Native Hawaiians were obtaining juvenile ‘ua‘u <strong>and</strong><br />
collecting bird feathers between 1000-1450 A.D. (Dougherty <strong>and</strong> Moniz-Nakamura 2006).<br />
The Refuge contains cultural/historic resource sites that have been inventoried in areas where<br />
management actions could have impacted these sites. This inventory will continue to ensure<br />
protection of these important resources. The Refuge allows cultural/historic resource investigations<br />
of sites by universities, researchers, students, <strong>and</strong>/or cultural practitioners.<br />
Several cultural <strong>and</strong> archaeological sites do exist on the HFU. The Douglas Historic Monument,<br />
located north of the Refuge administrative site, is a monument to the famous naturalist David<br />
Douglas who traveled through the Hilo forest in 1834 (Stine 1985, Tomonari-Tuggle 1996) <strong>and</strong> died<br />
on the slopes of Mauna Kea. Two historical buildings also occur on the HFU. The Pua ‘Ākala Ranch<br />
is a complex of ranch structures built in the late 1800s; the Pua ‘Ākala cabin (or koa cabin) on the<br />
ranch has been nominated for the National Register of Historic Places. Nauhi Cabin was built at<br />
roughly 5,100 ft in the 1920s by the Hawai‘i Sugar <strong>Plan</strong>ters Association. This cabin was part of the<br />
Nauhi Gulch Experiment Station (Tomonari-Tuggle 1996, Schuster et al. 2002).<br />
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Based on the historical documentation <strong>and</strong> archaeological investigations at similar elevations nearby,<br />
it can be expected that the most likely cultural resources within the KFU would be associated with<br />
the upper zone, ‘ama‘u, of the Kona Field System, a unique system of patterned networks of<br />
elongated rectangles bounded by earth <strong>and</strong> rock ridges used by Native Hawaiians for farming that<br />
extended from Kailua to the south of Honaunau. According to the idealized model of the Kona Field<br />
System, approximately the lower third of the KFU is within the ‘ama‘u. Today, this region is covered<br />
with forest, suggesting that it was not used for agriculture as intensively as were lower elevation<br />
areas. However, the presence of invasive species might be an indication that portions of the zone<br />
were cleared in earlier times.<br />
It is worth noting that the idealized gradations for the zone of the Kona Field System are based on the<br />
full 32 mi expression of the system along the Kona region. In the southern portion of that region,<br />
where the KFU is located, the slopes of Mauna Loa are steeper, <strong>and</strong> consequently, the zones can be<br />
expected to be compressed into narrower b<strong>and</strong>s. Indeed, detailed studies involving the field system in<br />
Ka‘ohe ahupua‘a demonstrate that the zones change more rapidly in this southern area, <strong>and</strong> that the<br />
upper reaches of the field system are at lower elevations than the normalized model suggests.<br />
Nevertheless, numerous agricultural features with associated temporary <strong>and</strong> even permanent<br />
habitation sites are present at elevations as high as 1,850 ft above sea level in nearby ahupua‘a. Those<br />
studies did not investigate elevations higher than that, so it is not known whether evidence of<br />
traditional Hawaiian agriculture extends to higher elevations. Based on the density <strong>and</strong> distribution of<br />
the agricultural features, it seems likely that the upper boundary of the system was not found <strong>and</strong> that<br />
the features do continue to some unknown higher elevation.<br />
Caves have been identified in the KFU <strong>and</strong> more can be expected to be present. The inspection of<br />
four caves was focused on biological resources, so although no traditional cultural resources were<br />
reported other than observations of charcoal, it cannot be assumed that cultural resources do not<br />
exist. On the contrary, Boundary Commission testimony <strong>and</strong> archaeological investigations at similar<br />
elevations in the region indicate that caves were used for traditional activities.<br />
People moved through the higher elevations to procure bird feathers <strong>and</strong> canoe wood. Camps for<br />
these kinds of activities may be present within the KFU. The known <strong>and</strong> named water holes in these<br />
higher elevations were likely valuable resources exploited for many centuries.<br />
Although habitation was traditionally concentrated along the shoreline, historical references <strong>and</strong><br />
archaeological work indicates that temporary shelters associated with agricultural pursuits were<br />
present throughout the Kona Field System. Temporary habitations of this kind may be present in the<br />
lower elevations of the KFU. Although rare, <strong>and</strong> not fully understood archaeologically or<br />
historically, a kind of habitation used by ali‘i to sequester royal youth could also be present in the<br />
lower portions of the KFU.<br />
The village along the shoreline of Kalāhiki was an important place during traditional times <strong>and</strong> into<br />
the 1800s. Legends pertaining to this area emphasize the royal associations, <strong>and</strong> heiau in the upl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
reflect the vitality of the sociopolitical activity throughout the l<strong>and</strong>s here.<br />
Based on the few cultural studies of the KFU, the most likely traditional Hawaiian cultural activities<br />
near the Unit were hunting birds for feathers, tree felling for canoes, <strong>and</strong> gathering of edible <strong>and</strong><br />
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medicinal plants. The most likely cultural resources on the Unit include roads, watering facilities,<br />
fences, paddocks, <strong>and</strong> logging sites (Raymond <strong>and</strong> Valentine 2007, USFWS 2008).<br />
5.2.10 Special Designation Areas<br />
The Pua ‘Ākala Cabin has been nominated for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places.<br />
If the nomination is accepted, the cabin will continue to be maintained <strong>and</strong> managed by Refuge staff<br />
in accordance with guidelines provided by the National Register of Historic Places <strong>and</strong> the Secretary<br />
of the Interior’s St<strong>and</strong>ards for Historic Preservation.<br />
5.3 Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Conditions<br />
The purpose of this section is to address the local economy <strong>and</strong> social environment surrounding the<br />
two units of the Hakalau Forest NWR, including population estimates <strong>and</strong> economic indicators. Both<br />
of the Refuge units are located on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i within the County of Hawai‘i. The Isl<strong>and</strong> of<br />
Hawai‘i is divided into nine districts. The HFU is located in both the North Hilo District <strong>and</strong> the<br />
South Hilo District. The KFU is located in the South Kona District of Hawai‘i County.<br />
5.3.1 Population<br />
The total resident population of the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s in 2008 was 1,288,198. The Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i<br />
is home to 13.6 percent of this total, or 175,784 individuals (HDBEDT 2009). Within its<br />
4,028.02 mi 2 , the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i has an average resident population density of 36.9 persons per<br />
mi 2 . If tourists <strong>and</strong> visitors are included in the total isl<strong>and</strong> population, the average density increases to<br />
41.5 persons per mi 2 (County of Hawai‘i 2007). In comparison, the average density of the State<br />
during the same year was 189 persons per mi 2 . The median age of the Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> population in<br />
2006 was 37.7 years (County of Hawai‘i 2007).<br />
The majority of the resident population on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> lives in the District of South Hilo. In 2000,<br />
approximately 47,386 residents lived in the 394.38 mi 2 district. The density of South Hilo is<br />
estimated to be 120.2 persons per mi 2 . The North Hilo District had a much smaller population with<br />
1,720 residents in 2000. The density of this area is about 4.6 persons per mi 2 . The Hilo Community<br />
Development <strong>Plan</strong> (CDP) area is the most populated area on the isl<strong>and</strong>, with an estimated population<br />
of 40,759 individuals in 2000 (County of Hawai‘i 2007).<br />
Approximately 8,589 individuals resided in South Kona in 2000, a 12.2 percent increase from 1990.<br />
This district houses 25.6 persons per mi 2 . Adjacent districts have also witnessed a dramatic increase<br />
in population. The resident population of Puna has increased noticeably, jumping from<br />
11,751 individuals in 1980 to 31,335 in 2000. Kailua-Kona, located approximately 23 mi north of the<br />
Kona Forest Unit, is the largest town on the west side of the isl<strong>and</strong>. The CDPs located nearest the<br />
KFU are Captain Cook, Hōnaunau-Napo‘opo‘o, <strong>and</strong> Kealakekua. The average densities (persons per<br />
mi 2 ) of these areas in 2000 were 263.7, 63.5, <strong>and</strong> 218.2, respectively (County of Hawai‘i 2007).<br />
Population figures for selected districts <strong>and</strong> CDPs are listed in Table 5-3.<br />
The ethnic composition of the County of Hawai‘i is diverse. In 2006, the County was comprised of<br />
37 percent Caucasian, 24.3 percent Asian, 10.8 percent Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>er,<br />
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0.7 percent Black or African American, <strong>and</strong> 0.7 percent American Indian <strong>and</strong> Alaska Native.<br />
Approximately 26.5 percent of the population identified themselves as having a mixed ethnic<br />
background of two or more races. Both the North <strong>and</strong> South Hilo Districts are largely comprised of<br />
people identifying themselves as Asian. The majority of the population within the South Kona<br />
District is Caucasian (County of Hawai‘i 2007).<br />
The State of Hawai‘i also has a notable military population due to the presence of various military<br />
facilities. However, the military population has been decreasing throughout the isl<strong>and</strong>s since 1989<br />
(DPP 2003). Less than 3.8 percent of the State population in 2008 was military personnel (HDBEDT<br />
2009). Only 54 military personnel <strong>and</strong> their dependents lived on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i in 2008<br />
(HDBEDT 2009). The majority of the military personnel <strong>and</strong> dependents within the State reside on<br />
O‘ahu.<br />
5.3.2 Housing<br />
There were a total of 77,577 housing units on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i in 2006. This number increased<br />
from 63,023 housing units in 2000 (HDBEDT 2007). On average, 2.75 persons inhabit each<br />
household on the isl<strong>and</strong>. The majority of the housing is in the South Hilo District, with<br />
14,577 households in the Hilo CDP alone. The North Hilo District contains 597 households, with an<br />
average of 2.88 persons per household. In the South Kona District, there are 3,113 households. The<br />
majority of the houses in this district are located in the Captain Cook CDP (1,152 households), with<br />
an average of 2.76 persons per household in this area (County of Hawai‘i 2007).<br />
5.3.3 Education<br />
Forty-two public schools, 21 private schools, <strong>and</strong> 12 charter schools are within the County of<br />
Hawai‘i. Approximately 30,539 students were enrolled in these schools <strong>and</strong> the majority (almost<br />
79.4 percent) were registered within the public school system. During the 2005-2006 school year, the<br />
average cost per student was $10,185 (County of Hawai‘i 2007).<br />
Educational attainment on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i is comparable to the State average. In 2000,<br />
approximately 84.6 percent of the Hawai‘i County population 25 years <strong>and</strong> over had received a high<br />
school diploma. Furthermore, approximately 22.1 percent have a Bachelor’s degree or higher. The<br />
State averages during the same year were 84.6 <strong>and</strong> 26.2 percent, respectively (HDBEDT 2007).<br />
Table 5-3. Population Figures for Selected Areas.<br />
Area 1980<br />
%<br />
change<br />
1990<br />
%<br />
change<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment 5-21<br />
2000<br />
%<br />
change<br />
2008<br />
State of Hawai‘i 964,691 14.9 1,108,229 9.3 1,211,537 6.3 1,288,198<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i 92,053 30.7 120,317 23.6 148,677 18.2 175,784<br />
North Hilo District 1,679 -8.2 1,541 11.6 1,720 -- --<br />
South Hilo District 42,278 5.6 44,639 6.2 47,386 -- --<br />
South Kona District 5,914 29.5 7,658 12.2 8,589 -- --
Area 1980<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
%<br />
change<br />
1990<br />
%<br />
change<br />
5-22 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment<br />
2000<br />
%<br />
change<br />
Laupāhoehoe CDP -- -- 508 -6.9 473 -- --<br />
Honomū CDP -- -- 532 1.7 541 -- --<br />
Pāpa‘ikou CDP -- -- 1,634 -13.5 1,414 -- --<br />
Paukaa CDP -- -- 495 0 495 -- --<br />
Pepe‘ekeo CDP -- -- 1,813 -6.4 1,697 -- --<br />
Wainaku CDP -- -- 1,243 -1.3 1,227 -- --<br />
Hilo CDP -- -- 37,808 7.8 40,759 -- --<br />
Captain Cook CDP -- -- 2,595 23.5 3,206 -- --<br />
Hōnaunau-Napo‘opo‘o<br />
CDP<br />
2008<br />
-- -- 2,373 1.7 2,414 -- --<br />
Kealakekua CDP -- -- 1,453 13.2 1,645 -- --<br />
Source: County of Hawai‘i 2007, HDBEDT 2009.<br />
The University of Hawai‘i system includes one community college <strong>and</strong> one university on the Isl<strong>and</strong><br />
of Hawai‘i. During the 2008 school year, enrollment at the University of Hawai‘i at Hilo was 3,773;<br />
522 students received Bachelor degrees <strong>and</strong> 28 received Master degrees during that year. During the<br />
2008 school year, 2,884 students were enrolled at the Hawai‘i Community College (County of<br />
Hawai‘i 2007, HDBEDT 2009).<br />
5.3.4 Employment <strong>and</strong> Income<br />
In 2007, an estimated 68,944 people were employed in the County of Hawai‘i (HDBEDT 2009). The<br />
county unemployment rate is slightly higher than the State average. The leisure <strong>and</strong> hospitality<br />
industry employed the largest number of residents in 2006. The top five employers in the County of<br />
Hawai‘i in 2007 were (1) the State of Hawai‘i (7,696 employees); (2) the County of Hawai‘i<br />
(2,335 employees); (3) the U.S. Government (1,231 employees); (4) Hilton Waikoloa Village Resort<br />
(1,128 employees); <strong>and</strong> (5) KTA Superstores (885 employees) (County of Hawai‘i 2007).<br />
The average per capita income for the State of Hawai‘i in 2009 was $42,009. This income is slightly<br />
higher than the U.S. average of $39,138. During the late 20th century, the per capita income of the<br />
State of Hawai‘i was higher than the national average, reaching a peak of 115.5 percent of the U.S.<br />
average in 1992. The median four person family income for the State in 2008 was $91,483, which is<br />
sixth highest in the Nation (HDBEDT 2009).<br />
On the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i, the per capita income was lower at $26,591 (County of Hawai‘i 2007,<br />
HDBEDT 2007). The median household <strong>and</strong> family incomes for the County in 2000 were $39,805<br />
<strong>and</strong> $46,480, respectively. The highest household incomes are in the South Kohala area, especially<br />
Kamuela (County of Hawai‘i 2007).
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table 5-4. Hawai‘i County Industry Job Counts <strong>and</strong> Average Annual Wages.<br />
5.3.5 Economy<br />
Industry<br />
Hawai‘i County<br />
Job Counts<br />
(2009)<br />
Average Annual<br />
Wage (2008)<br />
Nat. resources, mining, construction 3,850<br />
Mining $82,014<br />
Construction $62,056<br />
Manufacturing 1,350 $38,800<br />
Trade, transportation & utilities 13,100<br />
Wholesale trade 1,600 $48,001<br />
Retail trade 8,850 $27,038<br />
Information 650 $54,979<br />
Financial activities 2,750<br />
Finance & insurance 1,150 $56,485<br />
Real estate, rental, leasing n/a $40,562<br />
Professional & business services 4,450 $61,909<br />
Education & health services 7,600<br />
Education services 1,250 $34,047<br />
Health care & social assistance 6,400 $43,753<br />
Leisure & hospitality 12,550<br />
Government 12,850 $49,682<br />
Agriculture 2,300 $30,538<br />
Source: State of Hawai‘i Data Book 2009, HDBEDT.<br />
The economy of the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i, <strong>and</strong> the State as a whole, is primarily driven by the<br />
visitor/tourist industry. The Hawai‘i DBEDT (2009) estimates 6,713,436 visitors traveled to the<br />
Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s in 2008. Of this total, 73 percent came from the continental United States <strong>and</strong><br />
27 percent from other countries. The largest percentage of domestic visitors (50.6 percent) came<br />
from the Pacific United States including Alaska, California, Oregon, <strong>and</strong> Washington. Of the<br />
passengers arriving from outside the United States, the largest number of visitors came from Japan<br />
(1,175,199), Canada (359,580), <strong>and</strong> Australia (137,812). Visitor related expenditures contributed<br />
$10.7 billion to the State in 2008 <strong>and</strong> 141,500 jobs (HDBEDT 2009).<br />
The tourism industry became the primary economic generator for Hawai‘i County during the 1980s<br />
(County of Hawai‘i 2006). Although visitor arrivals have fluctuated over the years, it remains the key<br />
industry for the isl<strong>and</strong>. During 2008, 1,321,277 individuals visited the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i, of which<br />
1,026,048 were domestic <strong>and</strong> 295,229 were international. In 2006, the average length of stay was<br />
6.68 days (County of Hawai‘i 2007). The largest proportion of the Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> visitors were from<br />
the continental western U.S. (513,078), eastern U.S. (406,490), <strong>and</strong> Japan (214,066).<br />
In the first half of 2007, total visitor spending was highest on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i compared to other<br />
isl<strong>and</strong>s in the State. Estimated expenditures of total visitors in 2004 was $5,478.2 million (County of<br />
Hawai‘i 2007). Hotels on the isl<strong>and</strong> generate employment for 6,000 residents <strong>and</strong> have an annual<br />
payroll of over $163 million (Research Solutions, LLC <strong>and</strong> Gopalakrishnan 2002).<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment 5-23
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The success of the tourism industry on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> has been attributed to the diversity the isl<strong>and</strong><br />
offers (First Hawaiian Bank 2007). Recreational opportunities include the following: SCUBA<br />
diving, fishing, snorkeling, swimming, sunbathing, shopping, wildlife observation, <strong>and</strong> viewing<br />
historical/cultural sites. More modern tourism opportunities such as ecotourism, health <strong>and</strong> wellness<br />
tourism, <strong>and</strong> educational tourism are also growing. The most popular tourist attraction is Hawai‘i<br />
Volcanoes National Park; however, the principal visitor destination area on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i is<br />
the South Kohala-North Kona region in West Hawai‘i (County of Hawai‘i 2006).<br />
Secondary components of the Hawai‘i County economy are agriculture <strong>and</strong> research. Historically,<br />
agriculture has played a large role in the economy of the isl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the State as a whole. During the<br />
19 th <strong>and</strong> 20 th centuries, the main industries were sugar cultivation <strong>and</strong> cattle ranching. The sugar<br />
industry gradually declined <strong>and</strong> finally ceased with the closure of the last sugar operation in Ka‘ū in<br />
1997 (County of Hawai‘i 2007). Although this industry has declined in importance in other parts of<br />
the State, it remains a strong part of the Hawai‘i County economy (First Hawaiian Bank 2007).<br />
Current diversified agricultural activities include flowers <strong>and</strong> nursery products, coffee, macadamia<br />
nuts, tropical fruits, vegetable crops, orchards, aquaculture, <strong>and</strong> forestry (Research Solutions, LLC<br />
<strong>and</strong> Gopalakrishnan 2002, County of Hawai‘i 2007). In 2008, the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i had 4,650 farms<br />
employing approximately 2,350 people. Agricultural sales during 2007 totaled approximately<br />
$202 million. The State’s livestock <strong>and</strong> aquaculture operations are centered on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Seventy percent of Hawai‘i’s livestock are raised on the isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> nearly half of the aquaculture<br />
facilities are on Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong>. Sales of these two industries in 2000 were $14 million <strong>and</strong><br />
$16 million, respectively (Research Solutions, LLC <strong>and</strong> Gopalakrishnan 2002).<br />
The University of Hawai‘i at Hilo is also a major component of the isl<strong>and</strong>’s economy. It is estimated<br />
that the direct contribution of the University is $136 million per year. This is generated from<br />
research, construction, <strong>and</strong> foreign students. In addition, the University of Hawai‘i at Hilo is the<br />
primary employer for the east side of the isl<strong>and</strong> (Research Solutions, LLC <strong>and</strong> Gopalakrishnan 2002,<br />
First Hawaiian Bank 2007).<br />
The construction industry peaked in early 2006 on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i due to building within Puna<br />
<strong>and</strong> luxury condos on the west side; however, the construction <strong>and</strong> real estate sectors have recently<br />
slowed. This trend is evident in the decline in private construction permits (First Hawaiian Bank<br />
2007).<br />
The largest employers, after the government, were private entities (1) Hilton Waikoloa Village<br />
(employing 984 people), (2) Wal-Mart (employing 852 people), <strong>and</strong> (3) KTA Superstores<br />
(employing 800 people). (County of Hawai‘i 2008).<br />
Statewide, the U.S. Department of Defense plays an important part in the economy as the second<br />
major source of revenue behind tourism. Statewide defense expenditures were $5.6 billion in 2005.<br />
An estimated $742 million is being appropriated for military construction <strong>and</strong> defense related<br />
projects in Fiscal Year 2008. Annual per capita federal defense expenditures are $3,939. These<br />
expenditures are the highest on O‘ahu (Chamber of Commerce of Hawai‘i 2008).<br />
5-24 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment
5.3.6 Refuge Contribution<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Recreational spending near national wildlife refuges generates economic activity for local<br />
economies. These expenditures can include food, lodging, transportation, <strong>and</strong> other purchases from<br />
local businesses while engaging in refuge uses. Books, magazines, membership dues <strong>and</strong><br />
contributions, l<strong>and</strong> leasing or ownership, hunting <strong>and</strong> fishing licenses, <strong>and</strong> plantings, all for the<br />
purpose of wildlife-related recreation are also considered expenditures. In 2006, approximately<br />
34.8 million people visited refuges around the contiguous United States, generating an estimated<br />
$1.7 billion in regional economies. Refuge employment contributed $542.8 million in income <strong>and</strong><br />
recreational spending generated about $185.3 million in tax revenue at the local, State, <strong>and</strong> Federal<br />
level. Additional revenue is also derived from local taxes <strong>and</strong> employment income from the refuges.<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong>-related recreation in Hawai‘i generated approximately $373,778,000 in 2006, with roughly<br />
$210,414,000 attributed to wildlife watching (USFWS 2007a). Although the units of the Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR are generally not available to the public, the Refuge does contribute to the local<br />
economy through recreational expenditures. Carver <strong>and</strong> Caudill (2007) found that the Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR had total annual recreational expenditure of $56,400 from 1,323 visitors. Roughly<br />
90 percent of these total expenditures were from nonresidents. Birding <strong>and</strong> other wildlife observation<br />
were the main activities occurring at the HFU. In comparison, recreational expenditures at Kīlauea<br />
Point on Kaua‘i generated $10.7 million from 986,088 visitors.<br />
In addition to recreational expenditures, the Refuge contributes money to the local economy through<br />
the Refuge Revenue Sharing Act of 1978 (16 U.S.C. 715s). This Act authorizes Federal payments to<br />
be transferred to the County of Hawai‘i annually in lieu of discontinued taxation of private property.<br />
The amount compensated is approximately 0.75 percent of the fair market value of fee l<strong>and</strong>s. In<br />
2009, $66,557 was paid to Hawai‘i County for Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
5.4 References<br />
Carver, E. <strong>and</strong> J. Caudill. 2007. Banking on Nature 2006: The Economic Benefits to Local<br />
Communities of National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Visitation. Division of Economics, U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
Service. Washington, DC. 382 pp.<br />
Caudill, J. <strong>and</strong> E. Henderson. 2005. Banking on Nature 2004: The Economic Benefits to Local<br />
Communities of National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Visitation. Division of Economics, U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong>.<br />
Washington, DC. 435 pp.<br />
Chamber of Commerce of Hawaii, Military Affairs Council. 2008. Hawaii-Based Armed Forces<br />
Benefit All of US. Available at http://cochawaii.com/_library/documents/newpdfs/imp%20mil%202008.pdf.<br />
Accessed February 1, 2008.<br />
Clark, Hannah. Forbes Magazine "The Best Cities to Get a Job" (February16, 2007). Available at:<br />
http://www.forbes.com/careers/2007/02/15/best-cities-jobs-leadershipcareers_cx_hc_0216cityjobs.html.<br />
Accessed January 7, 2008.<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment 5-25
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
County of Hawaii. 2007. 2006 County of Hawaii Data Book. Available at:<br />
http://co.hawaii.hi.us/databook_current/dbooktoc.htm. Accessed on June 3, 2008.<br />
County of Hawaii, Department of Parks <strong>and</strong> Recreation. 2008. A Guide to Public Parks. Available at:<br />
http://www.co.hawaii.hi.us/parks/pdf/CampingInformation.pdf. Accessed June 5, 2008.<br />
County of Hawaii, Department of <strong>Plan</strong>ning. 2006. County of Hawaii General <strong>Plan</strong>.<br />
Department of <strong>Plan</strong>ning <strong>and</strong> Permitting (DPP), City <strong>and</strong> County of Honolulu. 2003. Community<br />
Profiles 2000 by Development <strong>Plan</strong> Area. Available at<br />
http://www.honoluludpp.org/planning/ResearchStats.asp. Accessed January 25, 2008.<br />
DHHL <strong>and</strong> USFWS. 2003. Draft Environmental Assessment Department of Hawaiian Home L<strong>and</strong>s /<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Fuel Break Construction Project Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i.<br />
Division of State Parks, DLNR. Hawaii State Parks website. Available at:<br />
http://www.hawaiiStateparks.org/parks/hawaii/. Accessed June 4, 2008.<br />
Dougherty, Dennis <strong>and</strong> Jadelyn Moniz-Nakamura. July 2006. A Cultural Resource Overview<br />
Report for the Proposed North Kona Fencing <strong>and</strong> Habitat Restoration Project, North Kona, Hawai‘i.<br />
National Park Service Publication in Anthropology #8. Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.<br />
First Hawaiian Bank. 2007. Economic Forecast 2007-2008 Edition.<br />
Hawaii Department of Business, Economic Development, <strong>and</strong> Tourism (HDBEDT). State of Hawaii<br />
Data Book 2007. 2008. Available at: http://www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/economic/databook/db2008/.<br />
Accessed August 5, 2010.<br />
Hawaii Department of L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources (DLNR), Division of Boating <strong>and</strong> Ocean<br />
Recreation (DBOR). DOBOR Facilities. Available at:<br />
http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/dbor/borfacilities.htm. Accessed January 9, 2008.<br />
Hawaii Department of L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources (DLNR). Hunting In Hawaii: What You Should<br />
Know. Available at: http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/dcre/know.htm#Game_Animals_in_Hawaii.<br />
Accessed January 9, 2008.<br />
Hawaii Department of L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources (DLNR). 2003. State <strong>Comprehensive</strong> Outdoor<br />
Recreation <strong>Plan</strong>.<br />
Juvik, S.P. <strong>and</strong> J.O. Juvik. 1998. Atlas of Hawai‘i, Third edition. University of Hawai‘i Press:<br />
Honolulu. 333 pp.<br />
Maly, K <strong>and</strong> Onaona Maly. 2001 A Historical Overview of the L<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> Trails Traveled, Between<br />
Keauhou <strong>and</strong> Kealakekua, Kona, Hawai‘i. Prepared for the State Division of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong>.<br />
Kumu Pono Associates, Hilo, Hawaii.<br />
Raymond, A. <strong>and</strong> N. Valentine. Cultural Resource Investigations for Boundary <strong>and</strong> Cross Fences at<br />
the KFU of the Big Isl<strong>and</strong> National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Complex, Hawaii Isl<strong>and</strong>. 2007.<br />
5-26 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Research Solutions, LLC <strong>and</strong> S. Gopalakrishnan. 2002. Draft Economic Impact Analysis for<br />
Proposed Critical Habitat for Threatened <strong>and</strong> Endangered <strong>Plan</strong>ts on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawaii. Prepared<br />
for U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service.<br />
Schuster,L.C., M. Durst, P.W. Chattey, <strong>and</strong> L. Tamimi. 2002. Cultural Resources Report for the<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge <strong>Wildlife</strong> Urban Interface Project. 42 pp.<br />
Stine, P. 1985. Environmental Assessment, Proposal to Establish an Upper Hakalau National<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge, Hawaii County, Hawaii. Prepared by the U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service,<br />
Honolulu HI.<br />
Three Mountain Alliance (TMA). 2007. Three Mountain Alliance Management <strong>Plan</strong>.<br />
Tomonari-Tuggle. 1996. Bird catchers <strong>and</strong> bullock hunters in the upl<strong>and</strong> Mauna Kea Forest: a<br />
cultural resource overview of the Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge, isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawaii.<br />
International Archaeological Research Institute.<br />
U.S. Bureau of the Census (U.S. Census). 2001. Profiles of General Demographic Characteristics,<br />
2000. Census of Population <strong>and</strong> Housing, Hawai‘i.<br />
USFWS. 2002a. Wildl<strong>and</strong> Fire Management <strong>Plan</strong>, Hakalau National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge, Hakalau Unit.<br />
USFWS. 2002b. Fire Management <strong>Plan</strong>, Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge, Kona Forest Unit.<br />
USFWS. 2004. Visitor Services Evaluation Report, Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge.<br />
Region 1.<br />
USFWS. 2006. Refuge Annual Performance <strong>Plan</strong>ning (RAPP) Workbook 2006, Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR.<br />
USFWS. 2007a. 2006 National Survey of <strong>Fish</strong>ing, Hunting, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong>-Associated Recreation.<br />
Available at: http://wsfrprograms.fws.gov/Subpages/NationalSurvey/2006_Survey.htm. Accessed<br />
December 12, 2007.<br />
USFWS. 2007b. Refuge Annual Performance <strong>Plan</strong>ning (RAPP) Workbook 2007, Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR.<br />
USFWS. 2008. <strong>Final</strong> Environmental Assessment for Fencing of the KFU of the Hakalau Forest<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i.<br />
Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment 5-27
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
5-28 Chapter 5. Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Environment
Appendices<br />
Above: Nēnē/John De Mello<br />
Right: ‘I‘iwi/Jack Jeffrey Photography<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit understory/Jack Jeffrey Photography
Appendix A. Species Lists for Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
Table A-1. <strong>Plan</strong>t List (Both Native <strong>and</strong> Nonnative) for Hakalau Forest Unit.<br />
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Adiantaceae Adiantum capillus-veneris ‘iwa‘iwa I f<br />
Adiantum cuneatum maidenhair fern A f<br />
Amarantaceae Charpentiera obovata pāpala E s,t<br />
Apocynaceae Alyxia olivaeformis maile E l 1987<br />
Aquifoliaceae Ilex anomala kāwa‘u E t 1987<br />
Ilex aquifolium English holly A s,t 1987<br />
Araceae Zantedeschia aethiopica calla lily A h 1987<br />
Araliaceae Cheirodendron trigynum ‘ōlapa E t 1987<br />
Tetraplas<strong>and</strong>ra mel<strong>and</strong>ra ‘ohe E t<br />
Aspidiaceae Arachniodes carvifolia I f 1987<br />
Ctenitis rubiginosa E f 1987<br />
Dryopteris fusco-atra E f 1987<br />
Dryopteris glabra kīlau E f 1987<br />
Dryopteris hawaiiensis E f 1987<br />
Dryopteris wallichiana lau-kahi I f 1987<br />
Dryopteris unidentata ‘akole E f 1987<br />
Polystichum hillebr<strong>and</strong>ii papa‘oi E f<br />
Aspleniaceae Asplenium contiguum E f 1987<br />
Asplenium lobulatum pi‘ipi‘i-lau I f 1987<br />
Asplenium macraei E f 1987<br />
Asplenium normale I f 1987<br />
Asplenium polyodon ? f 1987<br />
Asplenium rhipidoneuron iwa‘iwa-a-Kāne I f<br />
Asplenium schizophyllum SOC f 1987<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-1
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Asplenium unilaterale pāmoho I f<br />
Asteraceae Cirsium vulgare bull thistle A s,t 1987<br />
Athyriaceae Athyrium microphyllum ‘ākōlea E f 1987<br />
Diplazium s<strong>and</strong>wichianum hō‘i‘o E f 1987<br />
Blechnaceae Sadleria cyatheoides ‘ama‘u, ‘ama‘uma‘u E f 1987<br />
Sadleria pallida ‘ama‘u, ‘ama'uma‘u E f 1987<br />
Sadleria souleyetiana ‘ama‘u, ama‘uma‘u E f 1987<br />
Sadleria squarrosa ‘ama‘u E f<br />
Caprifoliaceae Lonicera japonica honeysuckle A l 1987<br />
Caryophyllaceae Cerastium vulgatum larger mouse ear,<br />
A h 1987<br />
chickweed<br />
Drymaria cordata drymaria A h 1987<br />
Polycarpon tetraphyllum allseed A h 1987<br />
Stellaria media common chickweed A h 1987<br />
Casuarinaceae Casuarina common ironwood A t 1987<br />
Celastraceae Perrottetia s<strong>and</strong>wicensis olomea E t 1987<br />
Commelinaceae Commelina diffusa day flower A h<br />
Compositae Ageratum conyzoides ageratum A h 1987<br />
Ageratina riparia spreading mist flower A h 1987<br />
Bidens pilosa Spanish needle A h 1987<br />
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum white daisy A h 1987<br />
Crassocephalum crepidioides A h 1987<br />
Dubautia scabra na‘ena‘e E s,t 1987<br />
Erechtites valerianaefolia valerian-leaved fireweed A h 1987<br />
Erigeron bonariensis hairy horseweed A h 1987<br />
Erigeron canadensis Canada fleabane A h 1987<br />
Gnaphalium japonicum cudweed A h 1987<br />
A-2 Appendix A: Species Lists
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Hypochoeris radicata hairy cat’s-ear, gosmore A h 1987<br />
Senecio sylvaticus wood groundsel A h 1987<br />
Senecio madagascariensis fire weed A h 2004<br />
Senecio mikanioides German ivy A l Pua<br />
‘Ākala1990<br />
Solanum tuberosum A h 1987<br />
sonchus oleraceus sow thistle A h 1987<br />
Taraxacum officinale d<strong>and</strong>elion A h 1987<br />
Youngia japonica oriental hawksbeard A h 1987<br />
Corynocarpaceae Corynocarpus laevigata karaka tree A t 1987<br />
Cruciferae Cardamine flexuosa A h 1987<br />
Nasturtium microphyllum watercress A h 1987<br />
Cucurbitaceae Sicyos sp. kūpala E l<br />
Cupressaceae Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Port Orford cedar A t 1987<br />
Cyperaceae Carex alligata E g 1987<br />
Carex macloviana St. Malo’s sedge I g 1987<br />
Carex wahuensis var. rubiginosa E g 1987<br />
Cyperus brevifolius kyllinga A g<br />
Cyperus haspan A g 1987<br />
Eleocharis obtusa pīpī wai, kohekohe I g 1987<br />
Eleocharis radicans A g 1987<br />
Machaerina angustifolia ‘uki I g 1987<br />
Uncinia uncinata I g 1987<br />
Dennstaedtiaceae Microlepia strigosa palapalai, palai I f 1987<br />
Dicksoniaceae Cibotium chamissoi hāpu‘u ‘i‘i, ‘i‘i E f 1987<br />
Cibotium glaucum hāpu‘u pulu E f 1987<br />
Cibotium hawaiense meu E f<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-3
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Elaphoglossaceae Elaphoglossum alatum ‘ēkaha E f 1987<br />
Elaphoglossum crassifolium ‘ēkaha E f 1987<br />
Elaphoglossum hirtum var. micans ‘ēkaha E f 1987<br />
Elaphoglossum wawrae ‘ēkaha E f 1987<br />
Epacridaceae Styphelia tameiameiae pūkiawe I s 1987<br />
Ericaceae Rhododendrum x hybridium rhododendron A s 1987<br />
Vaccinium calycinum ‘ōhelo-kau-lā‘au E s,t 1987<br />
Vaccinium pahalae ‘ōhelo E s 1987<br />
Vaccinium reticulatum ‘ōhelo E s 1987<br />
Fagaceae Castanea dentata American chestnut A t 1987<br />
Geraniaceae Erodium cicutarium Filaree A h 1987<br />
Geranium carolinianum Carolina crane’s A h 1987<br />
Gesneriaceae Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra lysiosepala kanawao-ke‘oke‘o E s 1987<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra paludosa kanawao-ke‘oke‘o E s 1987<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra platyphylla kanawao-ke‘oke‘o E s 1987<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra tintinnabula* ha‘iwale Endang Maulua 1994<br />
Hypericum mutilum St. Johnswort A h 1987<br />
Gleicheniaceae Dicranopteris linearis uluhe I f 1987<br />
Diplopterygium pinnata uluhe-lau-nui I f 1987<br />
Sticherus owhyhensis uluhe E f 1987<br />
Gramineae Agrostis alba red top grass A g 1987<br />
Agrostis avenacea A g 1987<br />
Andropogon virginicus broomsedge A g<br />
Anthoxanthum odoratum sweet vernal grass A g 1987<br />
Avena fatua wild oat A g 1987<br />
Axonopus affinis narrow-leaved carpet A g 1987<br />
grass<br />
A-4 Appendix A: Species Lists
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Dactylis glomerata orchard grass A g 1987<br />
Deschampsia australis E g 1987<br />
Eragrostis brownei Brown’s lovegrass A g 1987<br />
Festuca arundinacea A g Hakalau<br />
Cabin 2005<br />
Holcus lanatus velvet grass A g 1987<br />
Isachne distichophylla ‘ohe E g ‘Āwehi<br />
stream 4100ft<br />
2002<br />
Microlaena stipoides meadow ricegrass A g 1987<br />
Paspalum dilatatum dallis grass A g 1987<br />
Paspalum urvillei vasey grass A g 1987<br />
Pennisetum cl<strong>and</strong>estinum kikuyu grass A g 1987<br />
Poa annua annual bluegrass A g 1987<br />
Poa pratensis Kentucky bluegrass A g 1987<br />
Sacciolepis indica Glenwood grass A g 1987<br />
Setaria geniculata perennial foxtail A g 1987<br />
Sporobolus africanus African dropseed A g 1987<br />
Grammitidaceae Adenophorus hymenophylloides pai, palai-lā‘au E f 1987<br />
Adenophorus pinnatifidus kihi, kihe E f 1987<br />
Adenophorus tamariscinus wahine-noho-mauna E f 1987<br />
Adenophorus tripinnatifidus wahine-noho-mauna E f 1987<br />
Grammitis hookeri māku‘e-lau-li‘i E f 1987<br />
Grammitis tenella kolokolo E f 1987<br />
Xiphopteris saffordii mahine-lua E f 1987<br />
Guttiferae Hypericum degeneri A h 1987<br />
Hemionitidaceae Coniogramme pilosa lo‘ulu E f 1987<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First Critical<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed Habitat<br />
Hymenophyllaceae Mecodium recurvum ‘ōhi‘a kū E f 1987<br />
Sphaerocionium lanceolatum palaihinahina E f 1987<br />
Sphaerocionium obtusum palai-lau-li‘i E f<br />
V<strong>and</strong>enboschia davallioides kīlau, kālau, palahihi E f 1987<br />
Hypolepidaceae Hypolepis punctata ‘olua I f 1987<br />
Pteridium aquilinum var.<br />
kīlau-a-pueo,<br />
E f 1987<br />
decompositum<br />
brackenfern<br />
Joinvilleaceae Joinvillea ascendens ‘ohe C g<br />
Juncaceae Juncus effusus bog rush A g 1987<br />
Juncus planifolius A g 1987<br />
Juncus tenuis slender rush A g 1987<br />
Luzula hawaiiensis E g 1987<br />
Labiatae Mentha spicata spearmint A h Nauhi cabin<br />
1990<br />
Phyllostegia floribunda E s<br />
Phyllostegia brevidens* SOC 1991<br />
Phyllostegia racemosa* kīponapona Endang h 1987 Portions of<br />
unit 1-2<br />
Phyllostegia velutina* Endang 1991<br />
Phyllostegia vestita SOC l<br />
Phyllostegia warshaueri Endang<br />
Prunella vulgaris self-heal A h 1987<br />
Stenogyne calaminthoides E l 1987<br />
Stenogyne macrantha E l 1987<br />
Stenogyne scrophularioides Benth. mōhihi E l Maulua 1998<br />
var. biflora<br />
Stenogyne scrophularioides var. mōhihi E l<br />
remvi<br />
Leguminosae Acacia koa koa E t 1987<br />
Lotus angustissimus A h 1987<br />
A-6 Appendix A: Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First Critical<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed Habitat<br />
Lotus corniculatus bird’s foot trefoil A h 1987<br />
Lotus uliginosus A h 1987<br />
Medicago polymorpha burr clover A h 1987<br />
Sophora chrysophylla māmane E t 1987<br />
Trifolium repens white clover A h 1987<br />
Ulex europaeus gorse A s 1987<br />
Liliaceae Astelia menziesiana pa‘iniu E h 1987<br />
Smilax s<strong>and</strong>wicensis hoi-kuahiwi E l 1987<br />
Lindsaeceae Sphenomeris chinensis pala‘ā I f 1987<br />
Lobeliaceae Clermontia lindseyana* Endang s 1987 Portions of<br />
unit 1-2<br />
Clermontia parviflor ‘ōhāwai E s,t Maulua 1992<br />
Clermontia peleana peleana ‘ōhāwai Endang s,t Portions of<br />
unit 1, 3<br />
Clermontia pyrularia* ‘ōhāwai Endang s Outplanted Portions of<br />
1992 unit 1-2<br />
Clermontia sp. E s 1987<br />
Cyanea fernaldii E s<br />
Cyanea longipedunculata E s<br />
Cyanea pilosa E s 1987<br />
Cyanea platypylla ‘aku‘aku Endang s<br />
Cyanea shipmannii* hāhā Endang s 1992 Portions of<br />
unit 1<br />
Cyanea tritomantha ‘akū E s<br />
Trematolobelia gr<strong>and</strong>ifolia koli‘i E s Honohina<br />
1992<br />
Loganiaceae Labordia hedyosmifolia var. gravana kamakahala E s 1987<br />
Loranthaceae Korthalsella complanata hulumoa E h 1987<br />
Korthalsella cylindrica E h<br />
Lycopodiaceae Lycopodium cernum wāwae‘iole I f 1987<br />
Lycopodium erubescens E f<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-7
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Lycopodium serratum E f<br />
Lythraceae Cuphea carthagenensis tarweed A h 1987<br />
Lythrum maritimum A h,s 1987<br />
Magnoliaceae Magnolia gr<strong>and</strong>iflora southern magnolia A t 1987<br />
Malvaceae Modiola caroliniana modiola A h 1987<br />
Marattiaceae Marattia douglasii pala I f 1987<br />
Myoporaceae Myoporum s<strong>and</strong>wicense naio E t 1987<br />
Myrsinaceae Embelia pacifica kilioe E l<br />
Myrsine lessertiana kōlea-lau-nui E t 1987<br />
Myrsine s<strong>and</strong>wicensis. kōlea-lau-li‘i E s,t 1987<br />
Myrtaceae Eucalyptus sp. A t 1987<br />
Eucalyptus robusta swamp mahogany A t 1987<br />
Metrosideros polymorpha ‘ōhi‘a lehua E s,t 1987<br />
Psidium cattleianum strawberry guava A t 2004<br />
Nephrolepidaceae Nephrolepis cordifolia ni‘ani‘au I f 1987<br />
Orchidaceae Arundina bambusaefolia bamboo orchid A h 1987<br />
Liparis hawaiensis ‘awapuhi-a-kanaloa E h<br />
Oleaceae Fraxinus uhdei tropical ash A t 1987<br />
Onagraceae Epilobium cinereum willow herb A h 1987<br />
Fuchsia magellanica fucshia A s 1987<br />
Ludwigia palustris water purslane A h 1987<br />
Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata var. corniculata lady’s sorrel A h 1987<br />
Palmae Pritchardia lanigera lo‘ulu E t<br />
P<strong>and</strong>anaceae Freycinetia arborea ‘ie‘ie E l 1987<br />
Passifloraceae Passiflora mollissima banana poka A l 1987<br />
Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca s<strong>and</strong>wicensis pōpolo-kū-mai SOC s 1987<br />
Piperaceae Peperomia cookiana ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui E h 1987<br />
Peperomia expallescens ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui E h 1987<br />
A-8 Appendix A: Species Lists
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Peperomia hawaiensis ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui E h 1987<br />
Peperomia hypoleuca ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui E h 1987<br />
Peperomia leptostachya ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui I h 1987<br />
Peperomia ligustrina ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui E h<br />
Peperomia lilifolia ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui E h 1987<br />
Peperomia macreana ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui E h<br />
Peperomia tetraphylla ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui I h 1987<br />
Pittosporaceae Pittosporum undulatum victorian laurel A Ander- 1999<br />
son &<br />
Crosby<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>taginaceae <strong>Plan</strong>tago australis plantain A h 1987<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>tago lanceolata narrow-leaved plantain A h 1987<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>tago major common plantain A h 1987<br />
Platanaceae Platanus sp. plane tree A t 1987<br />
Polygonaceae Polygonum punctatum water smartweed A h 1987<br />
Rumex acetosella sheep sorrel A h 1987<br />
Rumex crispus yellow dock A h 1987<br />
Rumex giganteus pāwale E s,l 1987<br />
Primulaceae Anagallis arvensis var. arvensis scarlet pimpernel A h 1987<br />
Polypodiaceae Pleopeltis thunbergiana ‘ekaha-‘ākōle,<br />
I f 1987<br />
pākahakaha<br />
Polypodium pellucidum var.<br />
‘ae E f 1987<br />
pellucidum<br />
Psilotaceae Psilotum complanatum moa I f 1987<br />
Psilotum nudum moa I f 1987<br />
Pteridaceae Pteris cretica ‘owāli‘i I f 1987<br />
Pteris excelsa waimaka-nui, iwa E f 1987<br />
Pteris irregularis mana E f<br />
Ranunculaceae Ranunculus hawaiensis makou SOC<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-9
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Ranunculus plebeius common Australian A h 1987<br />
buttercup<br />
Ranunculus repens creeping buttercup A h 1987<br />
Ranunculus mauiensis Aug 1991<br />
Rosaceae Fragaria vesca f. alba European strawberry A h 1987<br />
Prunus cerasus sour cherry A t 1987<br />
Prunus persica peach A s,t 1987<br />
Pyrus malus apple A t<br />
Rosa sp. rose A s 1987<br />
Photenia Davidiana photenia - Nauhi area A s<br />
Rubus hawaiiensis ‘ākala E s 1987<br />
Rubus argutus prickly Florida<br />
A s 1987<br />
blackberry<br />
Rubus rosaefolius thimbleberry A s 1987<br />
Unknown Rubus A s 1987<br />
Rubiaceae Coprosma ochracea pilo E t 1987<br />
Coprosma rhynchocarpa pilo E s,t<br />
Gouldia hillebr<strong>and</strong>ii manono E t 1987<br />
Gouldia terminalis manono E t 1987<br />
Gouldia terminalis var.<br />
manono E t<br />
quadrangularis<br />
Nertera granadensis var. insularis mākole I h 1987<br />
Skottsb.<br />
Psychotria hawaiiensis var.<br />
kōpiko E s,t 1987<br />
hawaiienis<br />
Photenia Davidiana A s,t 1987<br />
Rutaceae Pelea clusiaefolia ‘alani E s,t 1987<br />
Pelea gr<strong>and</strong>ifolia ‘alani E t 1987<br />
Pelea pseudoanisata ‘alani E s,t 1987<br />
A-10 Appendix A: Species Lists
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Platydesma remyi Remy’s pilo-kea C1R t<br />
Platydesma spathulata pilo-kea E s,t<br />
Salaginellaceae Selaginella arbuscula lepelepe-a-moa E f 1987<br />
Sapindaceae Dodonaea viscosa ‘a‘ali‘i E s 1987<br />
Saxifragaceae Broussaisia arguta Gaud.var. arguta pū‘aha-nui, kanawao E s 1987<br />
forma ternata Forbes<br />
Hydrangea macrophylla hydrangea A s 1987<br />
Scrophulariaceae Castilleja arvensis Indian paintbrush A h 1987<br />
Veronica arvensis corn speedwell A h 1987<br />
Veronica plebeia common speedwell A h 1987<br />
Veronica serpyllifolia thyme-leaved speedwell A h 1987<br />
Solanaceae Physalis peruviana cape gooseberry A h 1987<br />
Solanum nigrum pōpolo, black nightshade I ? s 1987<br />
Solanum tuberosum potato A h 1987<br />
Nothocestrum longifolium Aira E t Maulua<br />
12/90<br />
Taxodiaceae Cryptomeria japonica Tsugi or sugi pine A t 1987<br />
Cunninghamia lanceolata China fir A t 1987<br />
Sequoia sempervirens coast redwood A t 1987<br />
Theaceae Eurya s<strong>and</strong>wicensis* ānini SOC t Tr 2 Bottom<br />
3/2007<br />
Thelypteridaceae Amauropelta globulifera palapalai-a-kama-pua‘a E f 1987<br />
Christella cyatheoides kikawaiō, pakikawaiō E f<br />
kupukupu-makali‘i<br />
Pseudophegopteris keraudreniana waimaka-nui E f 1987<br />
Pneumatopteris s<strong>and</strong>wicensis hō‘i‘o-kula E f 1987<br />
Macrothelypteris torresiana A f 2001<br />
Thymelaeaceae Wikstroemia sp. ‘ākia E s<br />
Umbelliferae Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides marsh pennywort A h 1987<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-11
Critical<br />
Habitat<br />
Life Year First<br />
Family Species (Scientific Name) Common Name Status<br />
Form Observed<br />
Hydrocotyle verticillata whorled marsh<br />
A h 1987<br />
pennywort<br />
Urticaceae Pilea peploides I h 1987<br />
Pipturus albidus māmaki E s,t 1987<br />
Touchardia latifolia olonā E s<br />
Urera s<strong>and</strong>vicensis ōpūhe E t<br />
Verbenaceae Verbena litoralis weed verbena A h 1987<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Status Life Form<br />
E = Endemic f = fern<br />
I = Indigenous h = herb<br />
P = Polynesian introduction g = grass or grass like (sedges, rushes<br />
<strong>and</strong> grasses)<br />
A = alien (nonnative) s = shrub<br />
SOC = species of concern, old C2 t = tree<br />
C1R = recommended for c<strong>and</strong>idate1 l = liana, vine<br />
C1P = c<strong>and</strong>idate1 proposed for listing<br />
Endang = endangered<br />
? = Recorded during the Hawai‘i Forest Bird Survey, not seen since<br />
* = Species in propagation at Hakalau Forest greenhouse<br />
A-12 Appendix A: Species Lists
Table A-2. <strong>Plan</strong>t List (Both Native <strong>and</strong> Nonnative) for Kona Forest Unit.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Endemic<br />
Acacia koa koa AcaKoa<br />
Agrostis avenacea he‘u-pueo AgrAve<br />
Agrostis s<strong>and</strong>wicensis pili hale AgrSan<br />
Alyxia oliviformis maile AlyOli<br />
Antidesma platyphyllum hame AntPlaPla<br />
Astelia menziesiana pa‘iniu, kaluaha AstMen<br />
Broussaisia arguta pū‘aha-nui, kanawao BroArg<br />
Canavalia hawaiiensis ‘āwikiwiki CanHaw<br />
Carex alligata no common name CarAll<br />
Carex macloviana no common name CarMacSub<br />
Carex wahuensis no common name CarWah<br />
Charpentiera obovata pāpala ChaObo<br />
Cheirodendron trigynum ‘ōlapa CheTri<br />
Clermontia clermontioides ssp. clermontioides ‘ōhāwai CleCleCle<br />
Clermontia clermontioides ssp. rockiana ‘ōhāwai CleCleRoc<br />
E - Clermontia lindseyana ‘ōhāwai CleLin<br />
Cocculus orbiculatus huehue CocOrb<br />
Coprosma ernodeoides kūkae-nēnē CopErn<br />
Coprosma montana pilo CopMon<br />
Coprosma rhynchocarpa pilo CopRhy<br />
C - Cyanea floribunda hāhā CyaFlo<br />
E (CH) - Cyanea hamatiflora hāhā CyaHamCar<br />
SOC - Cyanea marksii hāhā CyaMar<br />
Cyanea pilosa hāhā CyaPilPil<br />
E - Cyanea stictophylla hāhā CyaSti<br />
Cyperus polystachyos no common name CypPol<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra hawaiensis ha‘iwale CyrHaw<br />
Rare - Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra lysiosepala ha‘iwale CyrLys<br />
SOC - Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra menziesii ha‘iwale CyrMen<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra platyphylla ‘ilihia CyrPla<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-13
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Deschampsia nubigena hairgrass DesNub<br />
Dianella s<strong>and</strong>wicensis ‘uki ‘uki DiaSan<br />
Dodonaea viscosa ‘a‘ali‘i DodVis<br />
Dubautia scabra na‘en‘ae DubSca<br />
Embelia pacifica kilioe EmbPac<br />
Exocarpos menziesii heau ExoMen<br />
Fimbristylis dichotoma tall fringe rush FimDic<br />
SOC - Fragaria Chiloensis ssp. s<strong>and</strong>wicensis ‘ōhelo papa FraChiSan<br />
Freycinetia arborea ‘ie‘ie FreArb<br />
Geranium cuneatum nohoanu GerCun<br />
Hedyotis centranthoides no common name HedCen<br />
Hedyotis hillebr<strong>and</strong>ii manono HedHil<br />
Hedyotis terminalis manono HedTer<br />
Ilex anomala kāwa‘u IleAno<br />
Ipomoea indica morning glory, koali‘awa IpoInd<br />
Korthalsella latissima Hawaiian mistletoe, hulumoa, kaumahana KorLat<br />
Labordia hedyosmifolia kāmakahala LabHed<br />
Luzula hawaiiensis wood rush LuzHaw<br />
Machaerina angustifolia ‘uki MacAng<br />
Melicope clusiifolia kolokolo mokihana, kūkaemoa MelClu<br />
Melicope radiata alani MelRad<br />
Melicope volcanica alani MelVol<br />
Metrosideros polymorpha ‘ōhi‘a, ‘ōhi‘a lehua, lehua MetPol<br />
Metrosideros polymorpha ‘ōhi‘a, ‘ōhi‘a lehua, lehua MetPolGla<br />
Metrosideros polymorpha ‘ōhi‘a, ‘ōhi‘a lehua, lehua MetPolInc<br />
Metrosideros polymorpha ‘ōhi‘a, ‘ōhi‘a lehua, lehua MetPolMac<br />
Metrosideros polymorpha ‘ōhi‘a, ‘ōhi‘a lehua, lehua MetPolPol<br />
Morelotia gahniiformis no common name MorGah<br />
Myoporum s<strong>and</strong>wicense naio, bastard s<strong>and</strong>alwood MyoSan<br />
Myrsine lanaiensis kōlea MyrLan<br />
Myrsine lessertiana kōlea lau nui MyrLes<br />
Myrsine s<strong>and</strong>wicensis kōlea lau li‘i MyrSan<br />
E - Nothocestrum breviflorum ‘aiea NotBre<br />
A-14 Appendix A: Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Nothocestrum longifolium ‘aiea NotLon<br />
Panicum tenuifolium mountain pili, konakona PanTen<br />
Paspalum scrobiculatum ricegrass PasScr<br />
Peperomia cookiana ‘ala‘ala wai nui PepCoo<br />
Peperomia hypoleuca ‘ala‘ala wai nui PepHyp<br />
Peperomia macraeana ‘ala‘ala-wai-nui PepMac<br />
Perrottetia s<strong>and</strong>wicensis olomea PerSan<br />
Phyllostegia ambigua no common name PhyAmb<br />
C - Phyllostegia floribunda no common name PhyFlo<br />
SOC - Phyllostegia stachyoides no common name PhySta<br />
E - Phyllostegia velutina no common name PhyVel<br />
SOC - Phyllostegia vestita no common name PhyVes<br />
Rare - Phytolacca s<strong>and</strong>wicensis pōpolo kū mai PhySan<br />
Pilea peploides no common name PilPep<br />
Pipturus albidus māmaki PipAlb<br />
Pisonia s<strong>and</strong>wicensis āulu, kaulu PisSan<br />
Pittosporum hosmeri hō‘awa PitHos<br />
Pittosporum terminalioides hō‘awa PitTer<br />
Platydesma spathulata pilo kea PlaSpa<br />
E - Portulaca sclerocarpa po‘e PorScl<br />
Pseudognaphalium s<strong>and</strong>wicensium ‘ena‘ena PseSanSan<br />
Psychotria hawaiiensis kōpiko ‘ula, ‘ōpiko PsyHaw<br />
Rubus hawaiensis ‘ākala RubHaw<br />
SOC - Rubus macraei ‘ākala RubMac<br />
Rumex giganteus pāwale, uhauhakō RumGig<br />
Rumex skottsbergii pāwale RumSko<br />
SOC - Sanicula s<strong>and</strong>wicensis no common name SanSan<br />
Santalum paniculatum ‘iliahi, s<strong>and</strong>alwood SanPanPan<br />
Schoenoplectus juncoides kaluhā SchJun<br />
Sicyos lasiocephalus ‘ānunu SicLas<br />
C - Sicyos macrophyllus ‘ānunu SicMac<br />
T - Silene hawaiiensis no common name SilHaw<br />
SOC - Sisyrinchium acre mau‘u hō‘ula ‘ili SisAcr<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-15
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Smilax melastomifolia hoi-kuahiwi, ‘aka‘awa SmiMel<br />
Sophora chrysophylla māmane SopChr<br />
Stenogyne calycosa no common name SteCal<br />
SOC - Stenogyne macrantha no common name SteMac<br />
Stenogyne rugosa ma‘ohi‘ohi SteRug<br />
SOC - Stenogyne scrophularioides mōhihi SteScr<br />
Stenogyne sessilis no common name SteSes<br />
Styphelia tameiameiae pūkiawe StyTam<br />
Tetramolopium humile no common name TetHum<br />
Tetraplas<strong>and</strong>ra hawaiensis ‘ohe TetHaw<br />
Tetraplas<strong>and</strong>ra oahuensis ‘ohe mauka TetOah<br />
Touchardia latifolia olonā TouLat<br />
Trisetum glomeratum He‘u-pueo, mountain pili TriGlo<br />
Uncinia uncinata no common name UncUnc<br />
Urera glabra ōpūhe UreGla<br />
Vaccinium calycinum ‘ōhelo kau lā‘au VacCal<br />
Vaccinium reticulatum ‘ōhelo VacRet<br />
Wikstroemia phillyreifolia ‘ākia WikPhi<br />
Wollastonia subcordata nehe WolSub<br />
Xylosma hawaiiense maua XylHaw<br />
Ferns<br />
Adenophorus hymenophylloides pai AdeHym<br />
Adenophorus tamariscinus wahine noho mauna AdeTam<br />
Adenophorus tripinnatifidus wahine noho mauna AdeTri<br />
Adiantum hispidulum no Hawaiian name AdiHis<br />
Adiantum raddianum no Hawaiian name AdiRad<br />
Amauropelta globulifera palapalai a Kamapua‘a AmaGlo<br />
Asplenium acuminatum lola AspAcu<br />
Asplenium adiantum-nigrum ‘iwa‘iwa, manawahua AspAdi<br />
Asplenium contiguum no Hawaiian name AspCon<br />
Asplenium insiticium ‘āpali‘i AspIns<br />
Asplenium lobulatum pi‘i pi‘i lau manamana, ‘anali‘i AspLob<br />
Asplenium macraei ‘iwa‘iwa lau li‘i, ‘iwa lau li‘i AspMac<br />
A-16 Appendix A: Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Asplenium monanthes no Hawaiian name AspMon<br />
Asplenium nidus ‘ēkaha,‘ekaha kuahiwi, ‘ākaha, ‘ekahakaha AspNid<br />
E - Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare no Hawaiian name AspPerIns<br />
Asplenium polyodon ‘iwa, ‘alae AspPol<br />
Asplenium sphenotomum no Hawaiian name AspSph<br />
Asplenium trichomanes ‘owāli‘i AspTriDen<br />
Asplenium unilaterale pāmoho AspUni<br />
Athyrium microphyllum ‘ākōlea AthMic<br />
Blechnum appendiculatum no Hawaiian name BleApp<br />
Callistopteris baueriana no Hawaiian name CalBau<br />
Christella parasitica no Hawaiian name ChrPar<br />
Cibotium chamissoi hāpu‘u, hāpu‘u ‘i‘i CibCha<br />
Cibotium glaucum hāpu‘u CibGla<br />
Cibotium menziesii hāpu‘u CibMen<br />
Coniogramme pilosa lo‘ulu ConPil<br />
Cyrtomium falcatum no Hawaiian name CyrFal<br />
SOC - Cystopteris douglasii no Hawaiian name CysDou<br />
Deparia petersenii no Hawaiian name DepPet<br />
Dicranopteris linearis uluhe DicLin<br />
Diplazium arnottii hō‘i‘o, pohole DipArn<br />
Diplazium s<strong>and</strong>wichianum hō‘i‘o DipSan<br />
Dryopteris fusco-atra ‘olua, ‘opeha DryFus<br />
Dryopteris glabra hohiu, kīlau DryGla<br />
Dryopteris hawaiiensis no Hawaiian name DryHaw<br />
Dryopteris unidentata ‘akole DryUni<br />
Dryopteris wallichiana lau kahi, ‘i‘o nui DryWal<br />
Elaphoglossum alatum ‘‘opeha ElaAla<br />
Elaphoglossum crassifolium laukahi ElaCra<br />
Elaphoglossum paleaceum ‘ēkaha ElaPal<br />
Elaphoglossum parvisquameum ‘ēkaha ElaPar<br />
Elaphoglossum wawrae māku‘e ElaWaw<br />
Grammitis hookeri māku‘e lau li‘i GraHoo<br />
Grammitis tenella kolokolo GraTen<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-17
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Huperzia erosa wawae‘iole HupEro<br />
Huperzia serrata wawae‘iole HupSer<br />
Hypolepis hawaiiensis ‘olua HypHaw<br />
Lellingeria saffordii kihi LelSaf<br />
Lepisorus thunbergianus ‘ēkaha ‘ākōlea LepThu<br />
Lycopodium venustulum wawae‘iole LycVen<br />
Macrothelypteris torresiana no Hawaiian name MacTor<br />
Rare - Marattia douglasii pala, kapua‘i lio MarDou<br />
Mecodium recurvum ‘ōhi‘a kū MecRec<br />
Microlepia strigosa palapalai MicStr<br />
Nephrolepis cordifolia ‘akupukupu NepCor<br />
Nephrolepis exaltata ‘ōkupukupu NepExaHaw<br />
Nephrolepis multiflora no Hawaiian name NepMul<br />
Nothoperanema rubiginosa māku‘e, pauoa NotRub<br />
Odontosoria chinensis pala‘ā OdoChi<br />
Oligadenus pinnatifidus kihi OliPin<br />
Oligadenus pinnatifidus kihi OliPin<br />
Ophioderma pendula lau kahi OphPen<br />
Palhinhaea cernua wawae‘iole PalCer<br />
Pellaea ternifolia kalamoho, kalamoho lau li‘i PelTer<br />
Phlebodium aureum laua‘e haole PhlAur<br />
Phlegmariurus filiformis wawae‘iole PhlFil<br />
Phlegmariurus phyllanthus wawae‘iole PhlPhy<br />
Pityrogramma austroamericana no Hawaiian name PitAus<br />
Pneumatopteris s<strong>and</strong>wicensis hō‘i‘o kula PneSan<br />
Polypodium pellucidum ‘ae PolPel<br />
Polystichum haleakalense kā‘ape‘ape PolHal<br />
Polystichum hillebr<strong>and</strong>ii papa‘oi, ka‘upu PolHil<br />
Pseudophegopteris keraudreniana ‘iikolea, waimakanui, ala‘alai PseKer<br />
Psilotum complanatum moa, moa nahele, pipi PsiCom<br />
Psilotum nudum moa PsiNud<br />
Pteridium aquilinum kīlau, pai‘ā PteAquDec<br />
Pteris cretica ‘owali PteCre<br />
A-18 Appendix A: Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Pteris excelsa waimaka nui PteExc<br />
Pteris hillebr<strong>and</strong>ii no Hawaiian name PteHil<br />
Pteris irregularis ‘iwa puakea (Maui), mana, ‘āhewa (O‘ahu) PteIrr<br />
Sadleria cyatheoides ‘ama‘u, ama‘uma‘u SadCya<br />
Sadleria pallida ‘ama‘u ‘i‘i SadPal<br />
Sadleria souleyetiana ‘ama‘uma‘u SadSou<br />
Selaginella arbuscula lepelepe a moa SelArb<br />
Sphaerocionium lanceolatum palai hinahina SphLan<br />
Sphenonmeris chinensis pala‘ā SphChi<br />
V<strong>and</strong>enboschia davallioides kīlau VanDav<br />
Nonnative (weeds)<br />
Adiantum hispidulum Australian maidenhair AdiHis<br />
Adiantum raddianum maiden hair fern AdiRad<br />
Ageratina riparia spreading mist flower; hamakua pāmakani AgeRip<br />
Ageratum conyzoides maile-hohono AgeCon<br />
Agrostis stolonifera redtop, creeping bentgrass AgrSto<br />
Aleurites moluccana kukui, c<strong>and</strong>lenut AleMol<br />
Andropogon virginicus broomsedge AndVir<br />
Anthoxanthum odoratum sweet vernalgrass AntOdo<br />
Asplenium nidus ‘ēkaha, bird’s-nest fern AspNid<br />
Arthrostema ciliatum no common name ArtCil<br />
Axonopus fissifolius narrow-leaved carpetgrass AxoFis<br />
Begonia hirtella begonia BegHir<br />
Begonia reniformis grape-leaf begonia BegRen<br />
Blechnum occidentale occidental blechnum BleOcc<br />
Briza minor little quaking grass BriMin<br />
Buddleia asiatica butterfly bush, dog tail BudAsi<br />
Cardamine flexuosa bittercress CarFle<br />
Carex longii no common name CarLon<br />
Carica papaya papaya CarPap<br />
Castilleja arvensis field Indian paintbrush CasArv<br />
Centaurium erythraea bitter herb, European centaury CenEryEry<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-19
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Centella asiatica Asiatic pennywort, pohe kula CenAsi<br />
Cerastium fontanum chickweed, hehine-hauli CerFonTri<br />
Cirsium vulgare bull-thistle CirVul<br />
Genus Species Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Clidemia hirta Koster’s curse CliHirHir<br />
Conyza bonariensis hairy horseweed ConBon<br />
Conyza canadensis Canada fleabane, lani wela ConCanPus<br />
Crassocephalum crepidioides no common name CraCre<br />
Cunninghamia lanceolata China fir, Chinese fir CunLan<br />
Cuphea carthagenensis tarweed CupCar<br />
Cupressus lanceolata cypress CupLan<br />
Cyclosorus parasiticus no common name CycPar<br />
Cyperus difformis sedge CypDif<br />
Cyperus haspan sedge CypHas<br />
Cyperus sanguinolentus no common name CypSan<br />
Cyrtomium falcatum holly fern CyrFal<br />
Delairea odorata German ivy DelOdo<br />
Desmodium incanum Spanish clover DesInc<br />
Desmodium s<strong>and</strong>wicense Spanish or chili clover DesSan<br />
Digitaria ciliaris Henry’s crabgrass DigCil<br />
Digitaria eriantha pangola grass DigEri<br />
Dissotis rotundifolia no common name DisRot<br />
Drymaria cordata pipili DryCorPac<br />
Ehrharta stipoides meadow ricegrass EhrSti<br />
Epidendrum x obrienianum butterfly orchid EpiXob<br />
Epilobium billardierianum no common name EpiBilCin<br />
Eragrostis brownii sheepgrass EraBro<br />
Erechtites valerianifolia fireweed EreVal<br />
Euchiton sphaericus Japanese cudweed EucSph<br />
Euphorbia peplus petty spurge EupPep<br />
Falcataria moluccana no common name FalMol<br />
Flindersia brayleyana Queensl<strong>and</strong> maple, silkwood FliBra<br />
A-20 Appendix A: Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Fragaria vesca European, woodl<strong>and</strong>, or sowteat strawberry FraVes<br />
Gamochaeta purpurea purple cudweed GamPur<br />
Geranium homeanum crane’s bill GerHom<br />
Grevillea robusta silky oak GreRob<br />
Hedychium coronarium white ginger HedCor<br />
Hippobroma longiflora Star-of-Bethlehem HipLon<br />
Holcus lanatus velvetgrass, yorkshire fog HolLan<br />
Hydrocotyle bowlesioides marsh pennywort HydBow<br />
Hypericum mutilum St. John’s wort HypMutMut<br />
Hypericum parvulum St. John’s wort HypPar<br />
Hypnum plumiformis moss HypPlu<br />
Hypochoeris radicata gosmore, hairy cat’s ear HypRad<br />
Hyptis pectinata comb hyptis HypPec<br />
Juncus effusus Japanese mat rush JunEff<br />
Juncus ensifolius rush JunEns<br />
Juncus planifolius rush JunPla<br />
Juncus tenuis path rush JunTen<br />
Kalanchoe pinnata air plant KalPin<br />
Kyllinga brevifolia kili‘o‘opu KylBre<br />
Kyllinga nemoralis kyllinga, kili‘o‘opu KylNem<br />
Lantana camara lantana, lākana LanCam<br />
Lepidium virginicum wild peppergrass LepVir<br />
Lotus subbiflorus no common name LotSub<br />
Lotus uliginosus no common name LotUli<br />
Ludwigia octovalvis primrose willow LudOct<br />
Ludwigia palustris marsh purslane LudPal<br />
Macroptilium atropurpureum no common name MacAtr<br />
Macrothelypteris torresiana no common name MacTor<br />
Malvastrum corom<strong>and</strong>elianum false mallow MalCorCor<br />
Mentha spicata spearmint MenSpi<br />
Mimosa pudica sensitive plant, sleeping grass MimPudUni<br />
Momordica charantia balsam pear MomCha<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-21
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Nephrolepis multiflora scaly swordfern NepMul<br />
Oplismenus hirtellus basketgrass, honohono OplHir<br />
Oxalis corniculata yellow wood sorrel OxaCor<br />
Oxalis debilis pink wood sorrel OxaDeb<br />
Panicum maximum Guinea grass PanMax<br />
Paspalum conjugatum Hilo grass, mau‘u-hilo PasCon<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Paspalum dilatatum dallis grass PasDil<br />
Paspalum fimbriatum Panama or fimbriate paspalum, Columbia PasFim<br />
grass<br />
Paspalum urvillei Vasey grass PasUrv<br />
Passiflora edulis liliko‘i, passion fruit PasEdu<br />
Passiflora foetida love-in-a-mist, pohāpohā PasFoe<br />
Passiflora ligularis sweet granadilla PasLig<br />
Passiflora mollissima banana poka PasMol<br />
Pennisetum cl<strong>and</strong>estinum kikuyu grass PenCla<br />
Persicaria capitata knotweed, smartweed PerCap<br />
Persicaria punctata water smartweed PerPun<br />
Phaius tankarvilleae Chinese ground orchid PhaTan<br />
Phlebodium aureum laua‘e haole PhlAur<br />
Physalis peruviana pohā, cape gooseberry PhyPer<br />
Pinus radiata monterey pine PinRad<br />
Pinus taeda loblolly pine PinTae<br />
Pityrogramma austroamericana gold fern PitAus<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>tago australis dwarf plantain PlaAusHir<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>tago major broad-leaved plantain PlaMaj<br />
Pluchea carolinensis sour bush PluCar<br />
Poa annua annual bluegrass PoaAnn<br />
Poa pratensis Kentucky bluegrass PoaPra<br />
Polygala paniculata milkwort PolPan<br />
Prunella vulgaris selfheal, heal-all PruVul<br />
Psidium cattleianum strawberry guava, waiwai PsiCat<br />
Psidium guajava guava, common guava, kuawa PsiGua<br />
A-22 Appendix A: Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Ranunculus parviflorus buttercup RanPar<br />
Ranunculus plebeius common Australian buttercup RanPle<br />
Ranunculus repens creeping buttercup, butter daisy RanRep<br />
Ricinus communis castor bean RicCom<br />
Rubus argutus blackberry RubArg<br />
Rubus rosifolius thimbleberry RubRos<br />
Rumex acetosella sheep sorrel RumAce<br />
Rumex brownei slender dock RumBro<br />
Sacciolepis indica Glenwood grass SacInd<br />
Schinus terebinthifolius Christmas berry SchTer<br />
Schizachyrium condensatum beardgrass SchCon<br />
Senecio sylvaticus wood groundsel SenSyl<br />
Senna occidentalis coffee senna SenOcc<br />
Senna pendula kolomona, kalamona SenPenAdv<br />
Senna surattensis kolomona, kalamona SenSur<br />
Setaria palmifolia palmgrass SetPal<br />
Setaria parviflora perennial foxtail SetPar<br />
Sherardia arvensis spurwort SheArv<br />
Sida rhombifolia cuba jute SidRho<br />
Sisymbrium irio London rocket SisIri<br />
Sisyrinchium exile blue-eyed grass SisExi<br />
Solanum americanum glossy nightshade SolAme<br />
Sonchus oleraceus sow thistle SonOle<br />
Spathodea campanulata African tulip tree SpaCam<br />
Spermacoce assurgens buttonweed SpeAss<br />
Sporobolus africanus African dropseed SpoAfr<br />
Sporobolus indicus West Indian dropseed SpoInd<br />
Stachytarpheta australis oī, ōwī StaAus<br />
Stenotaphrum secundatum St. Augustine grass, buffalo grass SteSec<br />
Syzygium jambos rose apple SyzJam<br />
Tibouchina herbacea glorybush TibHer<br />
Toona ciliata Australian red cedar TooCil<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-23
Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name 3X3 CODE<br />
Trifolium repens white clover TriRepRep<br />
Verbascum thapsus common mullein VerTha<br />
Veronica arvensis corn speedwell VerArv<br />
Veronica plebeia trailing or common speedwell VerPle<br />
Veronica serpyllifolia thyme-leaved speedwell VerSer<br />
Vulpia bromoides brome fescue VulBro<br />
Wahlenbergia gracilis no common name WahGra<br />
Youngia japonica oriental hawksbeard YouJap<br />
Zingiber zerumbet shampoo ginger, ‘awapuhi-kua hiwi ZinZer<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
C = C<strong>and</strong>idate<br />
E = Endangered<br />
CH = Critical Habitat (at KFU)<br />
SOC = Species of Concern<br />
T = Threatened<br />
A-24 Appendix A: Species Lists
Table A-3. Native Species for Repatriation at Kona Forest Unit.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
3x3 Code Genus Species Syn Status Intro Repatriation Augment Not<br />
Recorded<br />
AspFraIns Asplenium fragile E x<br />
BidCam Bidens campylotheca MIXD<br />
CarWah Carex wahuensis MIXD<br />
ChaOlo Chamaesyce olowaluana SOC x<br />
CleLin Clermontia lindseyana E<br />
ClePyr Clermontia pyrularia E<br />
CyaHamCar Cyanea hamatiflora E<br />
CyaMar Cyanea marksii SOC x?<br />
CyaPla Cyanea platyphylla E<br />
CyaSti Cyanea stictophylla E x?<br />
CyrMen Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra menziesii SOC x<br />
CysDou Cystopteris douglasii SOC x<br />
DieEre Diellia erecta E o?<br />
FluNeo Flueggea neowawraea E x, o?<br />
FraChiSan Fragaria chiloensis SOC x?<br />
HupMan Huperzia mannii Phlegmarius mannii E o<br />
MelHaw Melicope hawaiensis NS x, o<br />
NerOva Neraudia ovata E x, o<br />
NotBre Nothocestrum breviflorum E x, o<br />
PhyFlo Phyllostegia floribunda C o?<br />
PhySta Phyllostegia stachyoides SOC o<br />
PhyVel Phyllostegia velutina E o, x<br />
PhyVes Phyllostegia vestita R o<br />
PhySan Phytolacca s<strong>and</strong>wicensis R o x<br />
PleHaw Pleomele hawaiiensis NS x o<br />
PorScl Portulaca sclerocarpa E x<br />
PriAff Pritchardia affinis E o<br />
PriSch Pritchardia schattaueri E x, o<br />
RanHaw Ranunculus hawaiensis C o<br />
Appendix A: Species Lists A-25
3x3 Code Genus Species Syn Status Intro Repatriation Augment Not<br />
Recorded<br />
RanMau Ranunculus mauiensis C o<br />
RubMac Rubus macraei SOC x, o<br />
SanSan Sanicula s<strong>and</strong>wicensis SOC x o?<br />
SicCuc Sicyos cucumerinus NS o?, x<br />
SicMac Sicyos macrophyllus C x, o<br />
SilHaw Silene hawaiiensis T x<br />
SisAcr Sisyrinchium acre SOC x<br />
SteMac Stenogyne macrantha SOC x, o?<br />
SteScr Stenogyne scrophularioides SOC o?<br />
StrPen Streblus pendulinus R o<br />
TreGra Trematolobelia gr<strong>and</strong>ifolia SOC o<br />
ZanDipDip Zanthoxylum dipetalum SOC x<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Legend<br />
X = Keali‘i Bio, PEP Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> C= C<strong>and</strong>idate E = Endangered T = Threatened<br />
O=Linda Pratt, USGS SOC = Species of Concern R = Rare NS = No Status<br />
Y = Jim Jacobi, USGS<br />
A-26 Appendix A: Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table A-4. Hakalau <strong>and</strong> Kona Forest Unit NWR Priority Alien (Nonnative) <strong>Plan</strong>ts/Weeds.<br />
The priority target species were selected on the basis of invasiveness at Hakalau Forest NWR <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
similar habitats in other parts of the State. Additional species are likely to be added to this list in the<br />
future.<br />
Highest Priority<br />
Rubus argutus (prickly Florida blackberry)*<br />
Tibouchina herbacea (cane tibouchina)* +<br />
Passiflora mollissima (banana poka)* +<br />
Ulex europaeus (gorse)*<br />
Ilex aquifolium (English holly)*<br />
Photenia davidiana*<br />
Pennisetum cl<strong>and</strong>estinum (kikuyu grass)* +<br />
Miconia calvescens (velvet tree, bush currant)<br />
Rubus ellipticus (Himalayan raspberry)<br />
Myrica faya (firetree)<br />
Pennisetum setaceum (fountain grass)<br />
Intermediate Priority<br />
Ehrharta stipoides (meadow ricegrass)* +<br />
Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava)* +<br />
Psidium guajava (guava)+<br />
Delairea odorata (German ivy)+ *<br />
Clidemia hirta (Koster’s curse)+<br />
Juncus effuses (soft rush)*<br />
Tibouchina urvilleana (glory-bush)<br />
Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas berry)+<br />
Setaria palmifolia (palm grass)<br />
Heychium gardenerianum (kahili ginger)<br />
Spathodea campanulata (African tulip)<br />
Cryptomeria japonica (sugi pine)*<br />
Lower Priority<br />
Verbascum thapsus (mullein)* +<br />
Cirsium vulgare (bull thistle)*<br />
Passiflora ligularis (sweet granadilla, grenadia)+<br />
Andropogon virginicus (broom sedge)*<br />
Appendix A. Species Lists A-27
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Below 2,000 ft abutting Kona Forest Unit - Invasive Species of concern<br />
Albizia spp.<br />
Syzygium jambos (rose apple)<br />
Grevilla robusta (silky oak)<br />
Legend<br />
+ species known to occur on Kona Forest Unit<br />
* species known to occur on Hakalau Forest Unit or within Piha State GMA<br />
A-28 Appendix A. Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table A-5. Animals (Both Native <strong>and</strong> Nonnative) Found at Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Species Common Name Category Found at<br />
Hakalau<br />
Forest<br />
Unit<br />
BIRDS<br />
Hemignathus munroi ‘akiapōlā‘au E Y Y<br />
Loxops c. coccineus Hawai‘i ‘ākepa E Y Y<br />
Oreomystis mana Hawai‘i creeper E Y Y<br />
Psittirostra psittacea ‘ō‘ū E ? N<br />
Hemignathus v. virens Hawai‘i ‘amakihi En Y Y<br />
Himatione sanguinea ‘apapane En Y Y<br />
Vestiaria coccinea ‘i‘iwi En Y Y<br />
Chasiempis s<strong>and</strong>wichensis Hawai‘i ‘elepaio En Y Y<br />
Myadestes obscurus ‘ōma‘o En Y N<br />
Corvus hawaiiensis ‘alalā E N Y<br />
Asio flammeus s<strong>and</strong>wichensis pueo En Y Y<br />
Buteo solitarius Hawaiian hawk, ‘io E Y Y<br />
Anas wyvilliana Hawaiian duck, koloa maoli E Y N<br />
Branta s<strong>and</strong>vicensis Hawaiian goose, nēnē<br />
Hawaiian coot, ‘alae<br />
E Y N<br />
Fulica alai<br />
ke‘oke‘o E Y N<br />
Carpodacus mexicanus house finch X Y Y<br />
Lonchura punctulata nutmeg mannikin X Y Y<br />
Passer domesticus house sparrow X Y Y<br />
Padda oryzivora Java sparrow<br />
Y<br />
Leiothrix lutea red-billed leiothrix X Y Y<br />
Garrulax canorus melodius laughing thrush X Y Y<br />
Acridotheres tristis common myna X Y Y<br />
Zosterops japonicus Japanese white-eye X Y Y<br />
Cettia diphone Japanese bush-warbler X Y Y<br />
Cardinalis cardinalis northern cardinal X Y Y<br />
Mimus polyglottos northern mocking bird X<br />
Y<br />
Lonchura malabarica African silverbill X Y ?<br />
Sicalis flabeola saffron finch X<br />
Y<br />
Alauda arvensis skylark X Y ?<br />
Meleagris gallopavo turkey X Y Y<br />
Francolinus erckelii Erckel’s francolin X Y Y<br />
Callipepla californica California quail X Y ?<br />
Phasianus colchicus ring-necked pheasant X Y ?<br />
Found<br />
at Kona<br />
Forest<br />
Unit<br />
Appendix A. Species Lists A-29
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Species Common Name Category Found at<br />
Hakalau<br />
Forest<br />
Unit<br />
Found<br />
at Kona<br />
Forest<br />
Unit<br />
Lophura leucomelana kalij pheasant X Y Y<br />
Alectoris chukar Chukar X Y<br />
Columba livia rock dove X Y<br />
Geopelia striata spotted dove X Y Y<br />
Strepteopelia chinensis zebra dove X<br />
Y<br />
Pluvialis squatarola black-bellied plover I<br />
Coturnix japonica Japanese quail X Y ?<br />
Serinus mozambicus yellow fronted canary X Y ?<br />
Pluvialis fulva Pacific golden plover, kōlea I Y ?<br />
Arenaria interpres ruddy turnstone, ‘akekeke I Y N<br />
Calidris alba s<strong>and</strong>erling, huna kai I<br />
Gallinago stenura pin-tailed snipe I<br />
Tyto alba<br />
MAMMALS<br />
barn owl<br />
Hawaiian hoary bat,<br />
X Y Y<br />
Lasiurus cinereus semotus ‘ōpe‘ape‘a E Y Y<br />
Herpestes auropuntatus Indian mongoose X Y Y<br />
Sus scrofa pig X Y Y<br />
Bos taurus cattle X Y Y<br />
Canis familiaris dog X Y Y<br />
Felis catus cat X Y Y<br />
Mus domesticus house mouse X Y Y<br />
Rattus rattus black rat X Y Y<br />
Rattus norvegicus Norwegian rat X Y Y<br />
Rattus exulans Polynesian rat X Y Y<br />
Ovis aries sheep X N Y<br />
Ovis musimon mouflon X N Y<br />
Capra hircus goat X N ?<br />
Equus caballus horse X N Y<br />
Equus asinus<br />
INVERTEBRATES<br />
donkey X N Y<br />
Table 4-5 in Chapter 4 also has a table listing additional arthropods occurring at both units<br />
Drosophila picture-wing flies E<br />
Y (CH)<br />
Coleotichus blackburniae koa bug En Y<br />
Succinea cf. cepulla mollusk En Y<br />
Tornatellides sp. mollusk En Y<br />
Culex quinquefasciatus southern house mosquito X Y Y<br />
A-30 Appendix A. Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Species Common Name Category Found at<br />
Hakalau<br />
Forest<br />
Unit<br />
Vespula pensylvanica western yellowjacket wasp X Y Y<br />
Sophonia rufofascia two-spotted leafhopper X<br />
Y<br />
Cardiocondyla wroughtoni ant X<br />
Y<br />
Paratrechina bourbonica ant X<br />
Y<br />
Solenopsis papuana ant X<br />
Y<br />
Tetramorium bicarinathum ant X<br />
Y<br />
Legend<br />
En = Endemic CH = Critical Habitat<br />
E = Endangered<br />
X = Exotic (nonnative)<br />
I = Indigenous<br />
Found<br />
at Kona<br />
Forest<br />
Unit<br />
Appendix A. Species Lists A-31
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
A-32 Appendix A. Species Lists
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations<br />
Appropriate Use Findings<br />
Under the Appropriate Refuge Uses Policy, 603 FW 1 (2006), refuge managers are directed to<br />
determine if a new or existing public use is an appropriate refuge use. If an existing use is not<br />
appropriate, the refuge manager is directed to modify the use to make it appropriate or terminate it, as<br />
expeditiously as practicable. If a new use is not appropriate, the refuge manager will deny the use<br />
without determining compatibility. If a use is determined to be appropriate, then a compatibility<br />
determination should be developed to determine whether the use can be allowed. For purposes of this<br />
CCP an “appropriate use” must meet at least one of the following three conditions:<br />
� The use is one of six wildlife-dependent recreational uses identified in the Improvement Act;<br />
� The use involves the take of fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife under State/Territorial regulations; <strong>and</strong><br />
� The use has been found to be appropriate as specified in section 1.11 of the policy <strong>and</strong><br />
documented on Service Form 3-2319.<br />
During the CCP process the Refuge manager evaluated all existing <strong>and</strong> proposed nonpriority<br />
wildlife-dependent refuge uses at Hakalau Forest NWR using the following guidelines <strong>and</strong> criteria as<br />
outlined in the policy:<br />
� Do we have jurisdiction over the use?<br />
� Does the use comply with applicable laws <strong>and</strong> regulations (Federal, State, <strong>and</strong> local)?<br />
� Is the use consistent with applicable Executive orders <strong>and</strong> Department <strong>and</strong> Service policies?<br />
� Is the use consistent with public safety?<br />
� Is the use consistent with goals <strong>and</strong> objectives in an approved management plan or other<br />
document?<br />
� Has an earlier documented analysis not denied the use, or is this the first time the use has been<br />
proposed?<br />
� Is the use manageable within available budget <strong>and</strong> staff?<br />
� Will this be manageable in the future within existing resources?<br />
� Does the use contribute to the public’s underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> appreciation of the Refuge’s natural<br />
or cultural resources, or is the use beneficial to the Refuge’s natural or cultural resources?<br />
� Can the use be accommodated without impairing existing wildlife-dependent recreational uses<br />
or reducing the potential to provide quality, compatible, wildlife-dependent recreation into the<br />
future?<br />
Using this process <strong>and</strong> these criteria, <strong>and</strong> as documented on the following pages, the Refuge manager<br />
determined the following refuge uses were appropriate, <strong>and</strong> directed that compatibility<br />
determinations be completed for each use.<br />
Refuge Use – Hakalau Forest NWR Appropriate<br />
Commercial Photography, Video, Filming or Audio Recording yes<br />
Commercial Tour Operation/<strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>and</strong> Education Group<br />
Visits<br />
yes<br />
Research, Scientific Collecting, <strong>and</strong> Surveys yes<br />
University of Hawai‘i Field Station yes<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
B-2 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appropriate Uses Justification, Attachment 1<br />
Date: September 21, 2010<br />
Refuge: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
Project: Commercial Photography, Videography, Filming, or Audio Recording<br />
Summary: The Refuge allows a small number of commercial photographers <strong>and</strong> videographers, on<br />
a case-by-case basis, access to Hakalau Forest NWR to obtain still images <strong>and</strong> video or film to<br />
support environmental education for the general public. Commercial photographers <strong>and</strong><br />
videographers are regulated through Special Use Permitting <strong>and</strong> permit conditions that are strict <strong>and</strong><br />
protective of resident wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitats. The benefit to the Refuge comes with the increased<br />
exposure to the public of images <strong>and</strong> film that may result in an increased appreciation for the rare<br />
species found on the Refuge. Credit must be given to the Service as the source for access to Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR as a permit condition, <strong>and</strong> further requirements for sharing images <strong>and</strong> digital film<br />
media obtained for Service educational purposes are included as permit conditions.<br />
The State of Hawai‘i DLNR was invited on two occasions to participate on core planning teams, but<br />
declined due to insufficient staffing. However, as this Appropriate Use Justification does not propose<br />
a significant deviation from the status quo, <strong>and</strong> no comments on this topic were received from the<br />
State during the comment period, we believe additional coordination was not necessary.<br />
For each of the findings listed on FWS Form 3-2319, a justification has been provided below:<br />
a. Do we have jurisdiction over the use?<br />
The permitted activities take place within Refuge boundaries in clearly specified limited areas. The<br />
Refuge has jurisdiction over those visits that are sited within Refuge boundaries.<br />
b. Does the use comply with applicable laws <strong>and</strong> regulations (Federal, State, tribal, <strong>and</strong> local)?<br />
All permitted activities comply with applicable laws <strong>and</strong> regulations <strong>and</strong> any restrictions or<br />
qualifications that are required to comply with law <strong>and</strong> regulations are specified in the SUP.<br />
c. Is the use consistent with applicable Executive orders <strong>and</strong> Department <strong>and</strong> Service policies?<br />
Through Refuge staff review <strong>and</strong> monitoring of the proposed activity, review of permittee proposals<br />
<strong>and</strong> letters of request on corporate letterheads, <strong>and</strong> a case-by-case review process, a limited capacity<br />
for commercial usage is maintained. The Refuge ensures that all visits are consistent with applicable<br />
policies through SUP conditions. No fees beyond permit application fees are presently charged.<br />
d. Is the use consistent with public safety?<br />
Through individual permit review, the Refuge will ensure that each permittee’s activities are<br />
consistent with public safety. If necessary, additional stipulations to ensure public safety will be<br />
included in the permittee’s SUP. Permittees will be provided clear information on Refuge<br />
boundaries to further ensure their safety <strong>and</strong> protect the property rights of neighboring l<strong>and</strong>owners.<br />
B-4 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
e. Is the use consistent with goals <strong>and</strong> objectives in an approved management plan or other<br />
document?<br />
Requests to film or photograph in the Refuge are approved in instances where the expected products<br />
may contribute to public appreciation <strong>and</strong> support for Refuge resources <strong>and</strong> appreciation of natural<br />
resources in support of the Refuge System mission. Special Use Permit special conditions have been<br />
crafted to assure minimal to no impacts to Refuge resources.<br />
f. Has an earlier documented analysis not denied the use or is this the first time the use has<br />
been proposed?<br />
This use has been requested <strong>and</strong> approved in the past <strong>and</strong> a documented analysis was conducted<br />
during the Compatibility Determination process.<br />
g. Is the use manageable within available budget <strong>and</strong> staff?<br />
The Refuge permits only a few visits per year for this activity <strong>and</strong> it is currently manageable with<br />
available budget <strong>and</strong> staff.<br />
h. Will this be manageable in the future within existing resources?<br />
The proposed activity at current threshold levels for use would be manageable in the future with<br />
existing staff resources (see above).<br />
i. Does the use contribute to the public’s underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> appreciation of the refuge’s<br />
natural or cultural resources, or is the use beneficial to the refuge’s natural or cultural<br />
resources?<br />
The proposed use is beneficial to the Refuge’s natural <strong>and</strong> cultural resources because exposure of the<br />
general public to professionally produced images <strong>and</strong> film footage depicting resident wildlife <strong>and</strong><br />
plant life in their natural protected environment should result in greater appreciation for Refuge<br />
purposes <strong>and</strong> our agency mission. Because most of the Refuge has not been opened to the public,<br />
dissemination of information by professional photographers <strong>and</strong> videographers is a positive outcome<br />
for the Refuge, <strong>and</strong> an acceptable trade off for limited access to a small number of commercial<br />
entities.<br />
j. Can the use be accommodated without impairing existing wildlife-dependent recreational<br />
uses or reducing the potential to provide quality, compatible, wildlife-dependent recreation into<br />
the future?<br />
The Refuge will ensure that the commercial filming <strong>and</strong> photography activities will not impair<br />
existing or future wildlife-dependent recreational use of the Refuge through proper monitoring <strong>and</strong><br />
oversight of permittees <strong>and</strong> review of their products.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
B-6 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appropriate Uses Justification, Attachment 1<br />
Date: September 21, 2010<br />
Refuge: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
Project: Commercial Tour Operation/<strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>and</strong> Education Group Visits<br />
Summary: The Refuge operates in partnership with a small number of commercial tour operators to<br />
provide limited access <strong>and</strong> environmental education to the general public through guided tours on<br />
Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Tour operators are regulated through Special Use Permitting <strong>and</strong> permit conditions<br />
protective of resident wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitats. The benefit to the Refuge comes with the access <strong>and</strong><br />
educational experience made possible through collaboration with these operators. Refuge staffing<br />
levels are not sufficient to provide ongoing public education experiences with rare exceptions.<br />
Currently no fees are charged for this access.<br />
The State of Hawai‘i DLNR was invited on two occasions to participate on core planning teams, but<br />
declined due to insufficient staffing. However, as this Appropriate Use Justification does not propose<br />
a significant deviation from the status quo, <strong>and</strong> no comments on this topic were received from the<br />
State during the comment period, we believe additional coordination was not necessary.<br />
For each of the findings listed on FWS Form 3-2319, a justification has been provided below:<br />
a. Do we have jurisdiction over the use?<br />
The proposed activities would take place within Refuge boundaries in clearly specified limited areas.<br />
The Refuge has jurisdiction over those visits that are sited within Refuge boundaries.<br />
b. Does the use comply with applicable laws <strong>and</strong> regulations (Federal, State, tribal, <strong>and</strong> local)?<br />
All permitted activities comply with applicable laws <strong>and</strong> regulations <strong>and</strong> any restrictions or<br />
qualifications that are required to comply with law <strong>and</strong> regulations are specified in the SUP.<br />
c. Is the use consistent with applicable Executive orders <strong>and</strong> Department <strong>and</strong> Service policies?<br />
Through staff monitoring of the proposed program, review of permittee reports, <strong>and</strong> a predetermined<br />
annual carrying capacity for visitors, the Refuge would ensure that they are consistent with<br />
applicable policies.<br />
d. Is the use consistent with public safety?<br />
Through individual permit review, the Refuge will ensure that each guide’s activities are consistent<br />
with public safety. If necessary, additional stipulations to ensure public safety will be included in the<br />
permitte’s SUP. Permittees will be provided clear information on Refuge boundaries to further<br />
ensure their safety <strong>and</strong> protect the property rights of neighboring l<strong>and</strong>owners.<br />
B-8 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
e. Is the use consistent with goals <strong>and</strong> objectives in an approved management plan or other<br />
document?<br />
Public use activities are approved in instances where they can provide meaningful experiences that<br />
contribute to public support for Refuge management <strong>and</strong> public appreciation of natural resources.<br />
This activity will help the Refuge meet its objectives in goal seven. Special Use Permit special<br />
conditions have been crafted to assure minimal to no impacts to Refuge resources.<br />
f. Has an earlier documented analysis not denied the use or is this the first time the use has<br />
been proposed?<br />
This use has been requested <strong>and</strong> approved in the past <strong>and</strong> a documented analysis was conducted<br />
during the Compatibility Determination process.<br />
g. Is the use manageable within available budget <strong>and</strong> staff?<br />
The Refuge permits a maximum of 12 SUPs at 100 visitors per year for this activity <strong>and</strong> it is<br />
currently manageable with available budget <strong>and</strong> staff.<br />
h. Will this be manageable in the future within existing resources?<br />
The proposed activity at current threshold levels for use would be manageable in the future with<br />
existing staff resources (see above).<br />
i. Does the use contribute to the public’s underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> appreciation of the refuge’s<br />
natural or cultural resources, or is the use beneficial to the refuge’s natural or cultural<br />
resources?<br />
The proposed use is beneficial to the Refuge’s natural <strong>and</strong> cultural resources because enhanced<br />
exposure with trained, experienced guides results in greater appreciation for Refuge purposes <strong>and</strong> our<br />
agency mission by contributing to public underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> appreciation of natural <strong>and</strong>/or cultural<br />
resources.<br />
j. Can the use be accommodated without impairing existing wildlife-dependent recreational<br />
uses or reducing the potential to provide quality (see section 1.6D, 603 FW 1, for description),<br />
compatible, wildlife-dependent recreation into the future?<br />
The Refuge will ensure that the guided commercial activities will not impair existing or future<br />
wildlife-dependent recreational use of the Refuge during ongoing annual permit reviews, prior to<br />
issuing a SUP for subsequent years.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-9
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
B-10 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appropriate Uses Justification, Attachment 1<br />
Date: September 21, 2010<br />
Refuge: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
Project: Research, Scientific Collecting, <strong>and</strong> Surveys 1<br />
Summary: The Service defines these uses as:<br />
� Research: <strong>Plan</strong>ned, organized, <strong>and</strong> systematic investigation of a scientific nature;<br />
� Scientific collecting: Gathering of refuge natural resources or cultural artifacts for scientific<br />
purposes; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Surveys: Scientific inventory or monitoring.<br />
The types of research vary greatly but could revolve around birds, bats, plants, insects/pollinators,<br />
invasive species, habitat classification, restoration techniques, <strong>and</strong> cultural <strong>and</strong> historic resources.<br />
The State of Hawai‘i DLNR was invited on two occasions to participate on core planning teams, but<br />
declined due to insufficient staffing. However, as this Appropriate Use Justification does not propose<br />
a significant deviation from the status quo, <strong>and</strong> no comments on this topic were received from the<br />
State during the comment period, we believe additional coordination was not necessary.<br />
For each of the findings listed on FWS Form 3-2319, a justification has been provided below:<br />
a. Do we have jurisdiction over the use?<br />
The proposed activities would take place within Refuge boundaries in clearly specified limited areas.<br />
The Refuge has jurisdiction over those visits that are sited within Refuge boundaries.<br />
b. Does the use comply with applicable laws <strong>and</strong> regulations (Federal, State, tribal, <strong>and</strong> local)?<br />
All permitted activities comply with applicable laws <strong>and</strong> regulations <strong>and</strong> any restrictions or<br />
qualifications that are required to comply with law <strong>and</strong> regulations are specified in the SUP.<br />
c. Is the use consistent with applicable Executive orders <strong>and</strong> Department <strong>and</strong> Service policies?<br />
Through staff monitoring of the proposed program <strong>and</strong> review of permittee reports, the Refuge would<br />
ensure that they are consistent with applicable policies.<br />
d. Is the use consistent with public safety?<br />
Through individual permit review, the Refuge will ensure that each researcher’s activities are<br />
consistent with public safety. If necessary, additional stipulations to ensure public safety will be<br />
included in the permitte’s SUP. Permittees will be provided clear information on Refuge boundaries<br />
to further ensure their safety <strong>and</strong> protect the property rights of neighboring l<strong>and</strong>owners.<br />
1<br />
This does not apply to Refuge management activities conducted by the Refuge System, including the surveys<br />
identified in this CCP’s strategies.<br />
B-12 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
e. Is the use consistent with goals <strong>and</strong> objectives in an approved management plan or other<br />
document?<br />
The primary goals of the Refuge are to (a) support recovery <strong>and</strong> perpetuation of federally listed<br />
endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened plants <strong>and</strong> animals <strong>and</strong> prevent the listing of additional species, (b) restore<br />
<strong>and</strong> protect high-quality habitat for native plants <strong>and</strong> animals occurring on the slopes of Mauna Kea<br />
<strong>and</strong> Mauna Loa, (c) control nonnative pests <strong>and</strong> predators including ungulates <strong>and</strong> noxious weeds,<br />
(d) provide wildlife-dependent cultural, educational <strong>and</strong> recreational opportunities for the public, <strong>and</strong><br />
(e) in partnership with public <strong>and</strong> private organizations, increase awareness of <strong>and</strong> appreciation for<br />
the Refuge <strong>and</strong> the Hawaiian ecosystem. The Refuge believes that appropriate, compatible research<br />
activities will contribute to, <strong>and</strong> are essential to accomplishing, the enhancement, protection,<br />
conservation, <strong>and</strong> management of native wildlife populations <strong>and</strong> their habitats on the Refuge.<br />
f. Has an earlier documented analysis not denied the use or is this the first time the use has<br />
been proposed?<br />
This use has been requested <strong>and</strong> approved in the past <strong>and</strong> a documented analysis was conducted<br />
during the Compatibility Determination process.<br />
g. Is the use manageable within available budget <strong>and</strong> staff?<br />
The Refuge permits an average of 10 SUPs for this activity (research) each year <strong>and</strong> this level is<br />
currently manageable with available budget <strong>and</strong> staff.<br />
h. Will this be manageable in the future within existing resources?<br />
The proposed activity at current threshold levels for use would be manageable in the future with<br />
existing staff resources (see above).<br />
i. Does the use contribute to the public’s underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> appreciation of the Refuge’s<br />
natural or cultural resources, or is the use beneficial to the Refuge’s natural or cultural<br />
resources?<br />
The Service believes that wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat conservation <strong>and</strong> management on the Refuge should be<br />
based upon statistically viable scientific research combined with long-term monitoring. The<br />
information gained through appropriate, compatible research on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s will be beneficial to<br />
the Refuge’s natural resources through application of this information into adaptive management<br />
strategies. The Refuge will also distribute any information gained to the public, which will allow<br />
them to better underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> appreciate the Refuge resources <strong>and</strong> the need for protecting them.<br />
j. Can the use be accommodated without impairing existing wildlife-dependent recreational<br />
uses or reducing the potential to provide quality (see section 1.6D, 603 FW 1, for description),<br />
compatible, wildlife-dependent recreation into the future?<br />
The Refuge will ensure that the research activities will not impair existing or future wildlifedependent<br />
recreational use of the Refuge during ongoing annual permit reviews, prior to issuing a<br />
SUP for subsequent years.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-13
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
B-14 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appropriate Uses Justification, Attachment 1<br />
Date: September 21, 2010<br />
Refuge: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
Project: University of Hawai‘i Field Station<br />
Summary: The UH operates a biological field station located on the Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Administrative Site. Operation of the field station is described in a Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Agreement<br />
(MOA), dated October 29, 1985 (Contract No. 14-48-0001-95500) between the Service <strong>and</strong> UH. The<br />
field station is used to house <strong>and</strong> support UH faculty, students, <strong>and</strong> visiting scientists conducting<br />
research supporting the conservation <strong>and</strong> restoration of native species <strong>and</strong> habitats at Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR.<br />
The State of Hawai‘i DLNR was invited on two occasions to participate on core planning teams, but<br />
declined due to insufficient staffing. However, as this Appropriate Use Justification does not propose<br />
a significant deviation from the status quo, <strong>and</strong> no comments on this topic were received from the<br />
State during the comment period, we believe additional coordination was not necessary.<br />
For each of the findings listed on FWS Form 3-2319, a justification has been provided below:<br />
a. Do we have jurisdiction over the use?<br />
The proposed activities would take place within Refuge boundaries in clearly specified limited areas.<br />
The Refuge has jurisdiction over those visits that are sited within Refuge boundaries.<br />
b. Does the use comply with applicable laws <strong>and</strong> regulations (Federal, State, tribal, <strong>and</strong> local)?<br />
All permitted activities comply with applicable laws <strong>and</strong> regulations <strong>and</strong> any restrictions or<br />
qualifications that are required to comply with law <strong>and</strong> regulations are specified in the SUP.<br />
c. Is the use consistent with applicable Executive orders <strong>and</strong> Department <strong>and</strong> Service policies?<br />
Through staff monitoring of the proposed program <strong>and</strong> review of permittee reports, the Refuge would<br />
ensure that they are consistent with applicable policies.<br />
d. Is the use consistent with public safety?<br />
Through individual permit review, the Refuge will ensure that activities are consistent with public<br />
safety. If necessary, additional stipulations to ensure public safety will be included in the permittee’s<br />
SUP. Permittees will be provided clear information on Refuge boundaries to further ensure their<br />
safety <strong>and</strong> protect the property rights of neighboring l<strong>and</strong>owners.<br />
B-16 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
e. Is the use consistent with goals <strong>and</strong> objectives in an approved management plan or other<br />
document?<br />
The primary goals of the Refuge are to (a) support recovery <strong>and</strong> perpetuation of federally listed<br />
endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened plants <strong>and</strong> animals; <strong>and</strong> prevent the listing of additional species,<br />
(b) restore <strong>and</strong> protect high quality habitat for native plants <strong>and</strong> animals occurring on the slopes of<br />
Mauna Kea <strong>and</strong> Mauna Loa, (c) control nonnative pests <strong>and</strong> predators including ungulates <strong>and</strong><br />
noxious weeds, (d) provide wildlife-dependent cultural, educational, <strong>and</strong> recreational opportunities<br />
for the public, <strong>and</strong> (e) in partnership with public <strong>and</strong> private organizations, increase awareness of <strong>and</strong><br />
appreciation for the Refuge <strong>and</strong> the Hawaiian ecosystem. The Refuge believes that the University of<br />
Hawai‘i Field Station is appropriate <strong>and</strong> compatible with the Refuge goals. The research activities<br />
will contribute to <strong>and</strong> are essential to accomplishing the enhancement, protection, conservation, <strong>and</strong><br />
management of native wildlife populations <strong>and</strong> their habitats on the Refuge.<br />
f. Has an earlier documented analysis not denied the use or is this the first time the use has<br />
been proposed?<br />
This use has been requested <strong>and</strong> approved in the past <strong>and</strong> a documented analysis was conducted<br />
during the Compatibility Determination process.<br />
g. Is the use manageable within available budget <strong>and</strong> staff?<br />
The use is currently manageable with available budget <strong>and</strong> staff.<br />
h. Will this be manageable in the future within existing resources?<br />
The proposed activity at current threshold levels for use would be manageable in the future with<br />
existing staff resources.<br />
i. Does the use contribute to the public’s underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> appreciation of the Refuge’s<br />
natural or cultural resources, or is the use beneficial to the Refuge’s natural or cultural<br />
resources?<br />
The Service believes that wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat conservation <strong>and</strong> management on the Refuge should be<br />
based upon statistically viable scientific research combined with long-term monitoring. The<br />
information gained through appropriate, compatible research on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s will be beneficial to<br />
the Refuge’s natural resources through application of this information into adaptive management<br />
strategies. The University of Hawai‘i Field Station provides a suitable base to conduct research that<br />
will contribute to the public’s underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> appreciation of the Refuge’s natural or cultural<br />
resources. The Refuge will also distribute any information gained to the public, which will allow<br />
them to better underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> appreciate the Refuge resources <strong>and</strong> the need for protecting them.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-17
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
j. Can the use be accommodated without impairing existing wildlife-dependent recreational<br />
uses or reducing the potential to provide quality (see section 1.6D, 603 FW 1, for description),<br />
compatible, wildlife-dependent recreation into the future?<br />
The Refuge will ensure that the research activities conducted from the Research Station will not<br />
impair existing or future wildlife-dependent recreational use of the Refuge during ongoing annual<br />
Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Agreement (MOA) reviews, prior to issuing a SUP for research activities.<br />
B-18 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Compatibility Determinations<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The Compatibility Determinations (CDs) developed during the CCP planning process evaluate uses<br />
as projected to occur under the CCP for Hakalau Forest NWR. The evaluation of funds needed for<br />
management <strong>and</strong> implementation of each use also assumes implementation as described in the CCP.<br />
A. Uses Evaluated at this Time<br />
The following section includes full CDs for all Refuge uses that are required to be evaluated at this<br />
time. According to Service policy, CDs will be completed for all uses proposed under a CCP.<br />
Existing wildlife-dependent recreational uses must also be re-evaluated <strong>and</strong> new CDs prepared<br />
during development of a CCP. According to the Service’s compatibility policy, uses other than<br />
wildlife-dependent recreational uses are not explicitly required to be re-evaluated in concert with<br />
preparation of a CCP, unless conditions of the use have changed or unless significant new<br />
information relative to the use <strong>and</strong> its effects have become available or the existing CDs are more<br />
than 10 years old. However, the Service planning policy recommends preparing CDs for all<br />
individual uses, specific use programs, or groups of related uses associated with the proposed action.<br />
Accordingly, the following CDs are included in this document:<br />
Refuge Use Compatible Year Due for<br />
Re-evaluation<br />
Public Recreational Hunting no N/A<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Observation <strong>and</strong> Photography yes 2025<br />
Commercial Photography, Videography, Filming<br />
or Audio Recording<br />
yes 2020<br />
Commercial Tour Operation/<strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Education Group Visits<br />
yes 2020<br />
Research, Scientific Collecting, <strong>and</strong> Surveys yes 2020<br />
University of Hawai‘i Field Station yes 2020<br />
B. Compatibility - Legal <strong>and</strong> Historical Context<br />
Compatibility is a tool refuge managers use to ensure that recreational <strong>and</strong> other uses do not interfere<br />
with wildlife conservation, the primary focus of refuges. Compatibility is not new to the Refuge<br />
System <strong>and</strong> dates back to 1918 as a concept. As policy, it has been used since 1962. The Refuge<br />
Recreation Act of 1962 directed the Secretary of the Interior to allow only those public uses of refuge<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s that were “compatible with the primary purposes for which the area was established.”<br />
Legally, refuges are closed to all public uses until officially opened through a CD. Regulations<br />
require that adequate funds be available for administration <strong>and</strong> protection of refuges before opening<br />
them to any public uses. However, wildlife-dependent recreational uses (hunting, fishing, wildlife<br />
observation <strong>and</strong> photography, <strong>and</strong> environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation) are to receive<br />
enhanced consideration <strong>and</strong> cannot be rejected simply for lack of funding resources unless the refuge<br />
has made a concerted effort to seek out funds from all potential partners. Once found compatible,<br />
wildlife-dependent recreational uses are deemed the priority public uses at the refuge. If a proposed<br />
Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-19
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
use is found not compatible, the refuge manager is legally precluded from approving it. Economic<br />
uses that are conducted by or authorized by the refuge also require CDs.<br />
Under compatibility policy, uses are defined as recreational, economic/commercial, or management<br />
use of a refuge by the public or a non-Refuge System entity. Uses generally providing an economic<br />
return (even if conducted for the purposes of habitat management) are also subject to CDs. The<br />
Service does not prepare CDs for uses when the Service does not have jurisdiction. For example, the<br />
Service may have limited jurisdiction over refuge areas where property rights are vested by others,<br />
where legally binding agreements exist, or where there are treaty rights held by tribes. In addition,<br />
aircraft overflights, emergency actions, some activities on navigable waters, <strong>and</strong> activities by other<br />
Federal agencies on “overlay refuges” are exempt from the compatibility review process.<br />
New compatibility regulations, required by the Improvement Act, were adopted by the Service in<br />
October 2000 (http://Refuges.fws.gov/policymakers/nwrpolicies.html). The regulations require that a<br />
use must be compatible with both the Refuge System mission <strong>and</strong> the purpose(s) of the individual<br />
refuge. This st<strong>and</strong>ard helps to ensure consistency in application across the Refuge System. The Act<br />
also requires that CDs be in writing <strong>and</strong> that the public have an opportunity to comment on most use<br />
evaluations.<br />
The Refuge System mission emphasizes that the needs of fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plants must be of<br />
primary consideration. The Improvement Act defined a compatible use as one that “. . .in the sound<br />
professional judgment of the Director, will not materially interfere with or detract from the<br />
fulfillment of the mission of the System or the purposes of the Refuge.” Sound professional judgment<br />
is defined under the Improvement Act as “. . .a finding, determination, or decision, that is consistent<br />
with principles of sound fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife management <strong>and</strong> administration, available science <strong>and</strong><br />
resources. . .” Compatibility for priority wildlife-dependent uses may depend on the level or extent of<br />
a use.<br />
Court interpretations of the compatibility st<strong>and</strong>ard have found that compatibility is a biological<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard <strong>and</strong> cannot be used to balance or weigh economic, political, or recreational interests against<br />
the primary purpose(s) of the refuge.<br />
The Service recognizes that CDs are complex. For this reason, refuge managers are required to<br />
consider “principles of sound fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife management” <strong>and</strong> “best available science” in making<br />
these determinations. Evaluations of the existing uses at Hakalau Forest NWR are based on the<br />
professional judgment of refuge <strong>and</strong> planning personnel including observations of refuge uses <strong>and</strong><br />
reviews of appropriate scientific literature.<br />
B-20 Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Use: Public Recreational Hunting<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Refuge Name: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
City/County <strong>and</strong> State: Hawai‘i County, State of Hawai‘i<br />
Establishing <strong>and</strong> Acquisition Authority:<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR was established on October 29, 1985, under the authority of the Endangered<br />
Species Act of 1973, 16 U.S.C. 1534.<br />
Refuge Purpose(s):<br />
The Administration Act directs the U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service (the Service) to manage each<br />
refuge to fulfill the Refuge System mission, to maintain <strong>and</strong>, where appropriate, restore the refuge’s<br />
ecological integrity, <strong>and</strong> achieve the specific purpose(s) for which the refuge was established.<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Hakalau Forest NWR is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA).<br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Kona Forest Unit is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA). More<br />
specifically, the unit was established to provide habitat for the ‘alalā <strong>and</strong> to assist the ‘Alalā<br />
Recovery Program’s repatriation efforts.<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Mission:<br />
To administer a national network of l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters for the conservation, management, <strong>and</strong> where<br />
appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plant resources <strong>and</strong> their habitats within the United<br />
States for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Americans (the Administration Act of<br />
1966).<br />
Description of Use(s):<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR reviewed <strong>and</strong> evaluated the compatibility of the public recreational hunting<br />
program. The Maulua tract of Hakalau Forest NWR was opened to the public for pig hunting under a<br />
Sport Hunting <strong>Plan</strong> approved February 14, 1991. The 2,000 acre Maulua Tract of Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR was opened to the public on February 1, 1992. Hunters were allowed to take pigs on State<br />
holidays <strong>and</strong> during the first three weekends of each month. For safety reasons, the maximum<br />
number of reservations accepted for any hunt day was 12. State game mammal hunting regulations<br />
applied, with the exception that there was no limit on the number of pigs that could be taken. Dogs<br />
Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-21
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
were not permitted in Maulua Tract. Access for hunting was provided by reservation only through<br />
gates along Keanokolu Road.<br />
On July 1, 1993, the Sport Hunting <strong>Plan</strong>, was modified to allow pig hunters to access the lower<br />
portion of the Lower Maulua Tract. Hunters could access the lower Maulua Tract through either the<br />
Pīhā State Game Management Area (Hilo Forest Reserve) or the Laupāhoehoe State Natural Area<br />
Reserve. Dogs could be used <strong>and</strong> the bag limit for each hunter was two pigs. No reservations were<br />
required.<br />
On November 18, 1995, with the completion of a fence around the 2,000 acre Upper Maulua Tract of<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR, the Service allowed pig hunters to use dogs.<br />
The Upper Maulua Tract was closed to public hunting in 2000 as the pig population was reduced to<br />
low numbers that did not provide an acceptable public hunting experience.<br />
Hunting was previously considered useful as an initial means to begin reduction of ungulate<br />
numbers. This was seen as a step toward the ultimate goal of ungulate eradication <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
restoration. The levels of hunting use, based on 6 consecutive years of public hunting in the upper<br />
Maulua Unit, averaged 80 hunter days per year. Access to Middle <strong>and</strong> Lower Maulua units for public<br />
hunting was permitted through State l<strong>and</strong>s (east boundary) on June 17, 1993, with no administrative<br />
controls (reservations, law enforcement patrols, etc.) required; therefore, no data is available.<br />
Over time, the desired management effect was achieved on eight ungulate management units.<br />
Portions of the Refuge, including areas where populations of rare birds <strong>and</strong> plants are highest, are<br />
closed to the public. No requests for approval to hunt on Hakalau Forest NWR have occurred since<br />
2000.<br />
Public recreational hunting for games birds was never allowed at the Refuge since the flight path of<br />
the endangered nēnē <strong>and</strong> wild turkey (game bird) overlap.<br />
The Kona Forest Unit has never been opened to the public.<br />
Availability of Resources:<br />
Current staffing levels do not allow for administration <strong>and</strong> oversight of a public hunting program at<br />
the Refuge. Management of a quality public recreation hunt program at Hakalau Forest NWR would<br />
require full-time law enforcement staff oversight, with regular law enforcement presence on the<br />
Refuge to ensure a safe, quality program that does not adversely impact sensitive plant <strong>and</strong> animal<br />
species <strong>and</strong> to prevent user conflicts. In addition, the purpose of the Refuge is in direct conflict with<br />
keeping ungulate numbers at a level that would provide a quality public recreation hunt program.<br />
Anticipated Impacts of the Use(s):<br />
Recreational public pig hunting would likely have significant adverse effects on endangered,<br />
threatened, <strong>and</strong> rare species <strong>and</strong> their habitats. Hakalau Forest NWR contains habitat for 25 plant<br />
species that are either federally endangered, species of concern, or rare. Endangered plants were first<br />
outplanted in the Upper Maulua Tract of Hakalau Forest NWR in 2005, <strong>and</strong> the effort continues. To<br />
date, totals of each species planted are:<br />
B-22 Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
• Endangered lobeliads:<br />
o Cyanea shipmanii – 543;<br />
o Clermontia pyrularia – 1,931;<br />
o Clermontia lindseyana – 350;<br />
• Endangered mints:<br />
o Phyllostegia racemosa – 878;<br />
o Phyllostegia velutina – 60; <strong>and</strong><br />
o Phyllostegia brevidens – 74.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The gr<strong>and</strong> total of all endangered plants outplanted in the Upper Maulua Tract is 3,836.<br />
Subsequent use of the Upper Maulua Tract for outplanting of endangered plants <strong>and</strong> nonconsumptive<br />
public uses such as wildlife photography <strong>and</strong> observation have increased over time. The Refuge is<br />
home to eight federally endangered bird species, one endangered mammal species, <strong>and</strong> 16 threatened<br />
<strong>and</strong> endangered plant species. Due to the removal of cattle <strong>and</strong> pigs from the Upper Maulua Tract,<br />
the forest bird habitat has recovered with the reestablishment of the forest understory. Recent forest<br />
bird surveys have indicated a population increase of common <strong>and</strong> endangered forest birds. The<br />
Refuge <strong>and</strong> the State also reintroduced nēnē to Hakalau Forest NWR in January 1995 with the<br />
construction of a predator-proof enclosure fence <strong>and</strong> the release of five breeding pairs. The nēnē have<br />
exp<strong>and</strong>ed to approximately 60 adults <strong>and</strong> juvenile birds that utilize the upper areas of the Refuge<br />
including the Upper Maulua Tract.<br />
Unlike other public use opportunities, such as wildlife photography <strong>and</strong> bird watching which occur<br />
on identified roads <strong>and</strong> on a path to keep people from negatively impacting Refuge resources,<br />
hunting is not an activity that has similar infrastructure in place to protect resources <strong>and</strong> guide the<br />
user. Hunting is a pursuit of a wild animal that can go anywhere <strong>and</strong> the hunter follows. This<br />
unguided pathway through Refuge habitats could inadvertently impact native vegetation <strong>and</strong><br />
restoration efforts as well as disturb habitat for native species.<br />
Additional concerns about impact to Refuge resources are the inadvertent spread of nonnative weed<br />
species through Refuge habitats. Given the many other hunting opportunities on the rest of the<br />
isl<strong>and</strong>, it is unknown what invasive plant species seeds or other reproductive plant mediums may be<br />
attached to clothing or equipment. Since the Refuge is adjacent to a state game management area,<br />
hunters <strong>and</strong> their dogs pass through low elevation forest areas that contain high density nonnative<br />
plant populations. The potential for dispersal of invasive weeds <strong>and</strong> their subsequent spread <strong>and</strong><br />
establishment within remote sites is a concern. The cost of controlling invasive weeds in remote<br />
areas is high. It is easier to prevent the establishment of nonnative plants than control them after the<br />
fact. Enforcement of endangered plant protection, hunting regulations, <strong>and</strong> Refuge integrated pest<br />
management (IPM) weed prevention programs is not possible without Refuge law enforcement<br />
personnel.<br />
In addition to the impacts identified, recreational public hunting will not meet the needs of the<br />
Refuge’s ungulate control program in reducing <strong>and</strong> eradicating ungulates as ungulate numbers<br />
decrease. Pigs are one of the major threats to listed species as well as native habitats. The Refuge<br />
goal is total eradication of pigs in fenced units where pigs are controlled. This goal does not support<br />
pig populations at levels that would provide recreational public hunting.<br />
Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-23
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The Refuge determined that criteria used in previous compatibility statements <strong>and</strong> in the 1991 Sport<br />
Hunting Decision Document were not enforceable, <strong>and</strong> circumstances on the ground have changed.<br />
Public Review <strong>and</strong> Comment:<br />
This determination was issued for public review <strong>and</strong> comment as part of the Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Draft <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>and</strong> Environmental Assessment between August 16, 2010-<br />
September 15, 2010. An open house was held <strong>and</strong> written comments were solicited from the public<br />
during this period for the CCP via news release, website posting, extensive mailing as well as e-mail<br />
list, <strong>and</strong> circulation of <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 3. Comments were received related to public hunting <strong>and</strong><br />
were addressed in Appendix K.<br />
Determination:<br />
__X_ Use is Not Compatible<br />
_____ Use is Compatible<br />
Stipulations Necessary to Ensure Compatibility: Not applicable.<br />
Justification:<br />
The Service proposes to re-close the Refuge to public recreational hunting because it is not<br />
compatible with the purposes <strong>and</strong> goals of the Refuge. Public recreational hunting will not meet the<br />
goals of the Refuge’s ungulate control program. Reduction <strong>and</strong> ultimately eradication of ungulates is<br />
necessary to achieve the required level of protection <strong>and</strong> eliminate disturbance to native species. The<br />
highest priority Refuge goal of protecting endangered species <strong>and</strong> their habitats is being realized as<br />
habitat improvements are made <strong>and</strong> native species diversity is gradually restored. Recreational<br />
hunting is unlikely to achieve the desired goal of reducing pig populations in managed units by >70%<br />
annually, in order to assure control objectives are achieved where more efficient methods are<br />
available (Hess et al.2006). Failure to maintain the highest level of pressure on pig populations <strong>and</strong><br />
selective removal of larger pigs could result in population increases through ingress by additional<br />
pigs that use smaller territories <strong>and</strong> reproductive response in the pig population.<br />
The Middle <strong>and</strong> Lower Maulua Tracts are remote <strong>and</strong> have no established routes of access from offrefuge<br />
areas. The boundaries remain unmarked <strong>and</strong> unfenced. Levels of use by hunters, proper<br />
access, invasive plant introduction <strong>and</strong> dispersal, <strong>and</strong> the impacts of recreational public hunting<br />
within the remote areas of the Refuge would be difficult to monitor or regulate. Enforcement of<br />
endangered plant protection, hunting regulations, <strong>and</strong> Refuge IPM weed prevention programs would<br />
not occur within remote areas of the Refuge.<br />
M<strong>and</strong>atory 10- or 15-year Reevaluation Date:<br />
___________ M<strong>and</strong>atory 15-year reevaluation date (for wildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
___________ M<strong>and</strong>atory 10-year reevaluation date (for non wildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
B-24 Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
NEPA Compliance for Refuge Use Decision (check one below)<br />
___Categorical Exclusion without Environmental Action Statement<br />
___Categorical Exclusion <strong>and</strong> Environmental Action Statement<br />
X _Environmental Assessment <strong>and</strong> Finding of No Significant Impact<br />
___Environmental Impact Statement <strong>and</strong> Record of Decision<br />
References Cited:<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR, Sport Hunting <strong>Plan</strong> approved February 14, 1991.<br />
Hess, Steven C, John J. Jeffrey, Donna L. Ball, <strong>and</strong> Lev Babich. Hawaii Cooperative Studies Unit,<br />
University of Hawaii at Hilo. 2006. Efficacy of Feral Pig Removals at Hakalau Forest National<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge.<br />
State of Hawaii Department of L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources Division of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong>. 2007.<br />
Technical Report Number 07-01: Review of Methods <strong>and</strong> Approaches for Control of Non-native<br />
Ungulates in Hawaii.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1985. Refuge Manual. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing<br />
Office.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service, 1996, Hakalau Forest NWR, Feral Ungulate Management <strong>Plan</strong>.<br />
Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-25
Use: <strong>Wildlife</strong> Observation <strong>and</strong> Photography<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Refuge Name: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
City/County <strong>and</strong> State: Hawai‘i County, State of Hawai‘i<br />
Establishing <strong>and</strong> Acquisition Authority:<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR was established on October 29, 1985, under the authority of the Endangered<br />
Species Act of 1973, 16 U.S.C. 1534.<br />
Refuge Purpose(s):<br />
The Administration Act directs the U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service (Service) to manage each refuge to<br />
fulfill the Refuge System mission, to maintain <strong>and</strong>, where appropriate, restore the refuge’s ecological<br />
integrity, <strong>and</strong> achieve the specific purpose(s) for which the refuge was established.<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Hakalau Forest NWR is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA).<br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Kona Forest Unit is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA). More<br />
specifically, the unit was established to provide habitat for the ‘alalā <strong>and</strong> to assist the ‘Alalā<br />
Recovery Program’s repatriation efforts.<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Mission:<br />
To administer a national network of l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters for the conservation, management, <strong>and</strong> where<br />
appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plant resources <strong>and</strong> their habitats within the United<br />
States for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Americans (the Administration Act of<br />
1966).<br />
Description of Use(s):<br />
The Improvement Act defined wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography as wildlife-dependent public<br />
uses. In that Act, Congress directed that such uses shall be given special consideration in planning for<br />
<strong>and</strong> management of the Refuge System when compatible. When determined compatible on a refugespecific<br />
basis, these uses are priority general public uses of that national wildlife refuge.<br />
Self-guided wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography activities by the general public take place only in<br />
the Upper Maulua Unit of the Refuge. The forested habitat in this area consists of an open <strong>and</strong> closed<br />
koa/‘ōhi‘a tree canopy with native subcanopy <strong>and</strong> a ground cover of scattered native shrubs, ferns,<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-27
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> nonnative grasses. Limited numbers of endangered birds <strong>and</strong> plants inhabit this tract compared to<br />
other Refuge tracts, although outplantings of several hundred endangered plants in the past several<br />
years provide unique opportunities to view these plants. Impacts to rare plants will be minimal in<br />
comparison to the disturbance caused to the understory <strong>and</strong> ground cover by more than 150 years of<br />
cattle grazing <strong>and</strong> pig rooting. The relatively small number of endangered birds found in this area<br />
have likely become somewhat acclimated to the presence of humans since the Upper Maulua Unit<br />
has been open to public use for 23 years.<br />
Reservations are required for public wildlife observation/photography on the Upper Maulua Unit in<br />
order to coordinate such visits with Refuge management activities. A brochure describing the Refuge<br />
<strong>and</strong> listing permitted <strong>and</strong> prohibited activities, along with a map of the Upper Maulua Unit, is<br />
distributed via e-mail or mail to reservation holders prior to their visit. This brochure is also available<br />
at the Refuge Office in Hilo. Access to the Upper Maulua Unit is permitted on Saturdays, Sundays,<br />
<strong>and</strong> holidays between sunrise <strong>and</strong> sunset. The main gate must be closed <strong>and</strong> locked after entry <strong>and</strong><br />
exit. Visitors are required to provide their telephone number, the number of people in their group,<br />
license plate number, <strong>and</strong> vehicle description.<br />
Visitation to the Upper Maulua Unit varies from year to year with total visitors ranging from<br />
200-500 people. Drought conditions periodically require closure of the area, <strong>and</strong> depending on the<br />
severity <strong>and</strong> duration of dry weather, may greatly influence cumulative visitation numbers.<br />
Visitors to other Refuge tracts such as Pua ‘Ākala will continue to be guided <strong>and</strong> managed through<br />
the SUP process in order to minimize disturbance to sensitive wildlife <strong>and</strong> their habitats. A limit of<br />
1,200 visitors per year, visiting for a few hours of bird watching under SUPs for guided tours, has<br />
long been established for this area <strong>and</strong> has not been reached to date.<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> viewing <strong>and</strong> observation is the primary visitor activity at Hakalau Forest NWR. This use, if<br />
compatible, becomes a priority general public use, <strong>and</strong>, therefore, receives consideration in Refuge<br />
planning <strong>and</strong> management.<br />
Quality wildlife observation is defined by the following elements: (1) opportunities exist to view<br />
wildlife in their habitat <strong>and</strong> in a natural setting; (2) observation opportunities promote public<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of Hakalau Forest NWR resources <strong>and</strong> its role in managing <strong>and</strong> protecting those<br />
resources; (3) observations occur in places with the least amount of disturbance to wildlife;<br />
(4) facilities are safe, fully accessible, <strong>and</strong> available to a broad spectrum of the public; (5) viewing<br />
opportunities are tied to interpretive <strong>and</strong> educational opportunities; <strong>and</strong> (6) observers have minimal<br />
conflict with other visitors or Refuge operations (http://www.fws.gov/policy/605fw4.html).<br />
Information about conservation of natural resources <strong>and</strong> habitat restoration will be shared with the<br />
visitors to educate <strong>and</strong> reduce the impact visitors have on the Refuge. The assistance of the Friends<br />
of Hakalau Forest NWR, a nonprofit support organization for the Refuge, is expected to increase<br />
over time with special emphasis on public use <strong>and</strong> environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation issues.<br />
Opportunities for enhanced wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography are limited at the Upper Maulua<br />
Unit, but will increase through the development <strong>and</strong> maintenance of trails <strong>and</strong> parking area. <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
viewing opportunities may be provided for more members of the general public in the future. The 1.2<br />
million tourists who visit Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> annually generally visit far more easily accessible places.<br />
The Kona Forest Unit has never been opened to the public.<br />
B-28 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Availability of Resources:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The Refuge has sufficient staff time <strong>and</strong> other resources to allow this use at the current levels.<br />
Currently the Refuge has a Deputy Refuge Manager to administer <strong>and</strong> monitor the activities, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
Maintenance Supervisor <strong>and</strong> crew of two maintenance workers to maintain public facilities <strong>and</strong><br />
access points.<br />
Category <strong>and</strong> Itemization One-time ($) Annual ($/yr)<br />
Administration <strong>and</strong> Management No fees charged $7,600<br />
The above annual cost reflects the cost to manage the program <strong>and</strong> prevent impacts to natural<br />
resources. Estimated costs were calculated using 2 percent of the base cost of a GS-12 Deputy<br />
Refuge Manager, 1 percent of the GS-13 Refuge Manager, 2 percent of the GS-12 <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist,<br />
2 percent of the GS-9 Administrative, <strong>and</strong> 2 percent of the WS-4 Maintenance Supervisor’s staff<br />
time, the “portion of the year” each position would use to administer <strong>and</strong> coordinate wildlife<br />
observation <strong>and</strong> photography activities on the Refuge.<br />
Anticipated Impacts of the Use(s):<br />
The Refuge wildlife-dependent uses being evaluated (wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography) will<br />
impose minimal negative impacts on specific physical resources such as trails <strong>and</strong> on natural<br />
resources such as wildlife <strong>and</strong> vegetation.<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Observation:<br />
Physical <strong>and</strong> habitat alteration: The impact of these activities depends upon the size of the group<br />
(typically a single car or SUV at one time in Upper Maulua), the season of use, the location within<br />
the Upper Maulua Unit <strong>and</strong> the duration of the activity. The construction <strong>and</strong> maintenance of visitor<br />
use facilities (i.e., trail, parking lot) would have some effect on soils, vegetation, <strong>and</strong> possibly<br />
hydrology in specific areas. This could potentially increase erosion <strong>and</strong> cause localized soil<br />
compaction (Liddle 1975), reduced seed emergence (Cole <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong>res1995), alteration of vegetative<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> composition, <strong>and</strong> sediment loading (Cole <strong>and</strong> Marion 1988).<br />
Human disturbance - general: The presence of people observing or photographing wildlife will also<br />
cause some impact to wildlife. Numerous studies have confirmed that people on foot can cause a<br />
variety of disturbance reactions in wildlife, including flushing or displacement (Erwin 1989; Fraser et<br />
al. 1985; Freddy 1986), heart rate increases (MacArthur et al. 1982), altered foraging patterns<br />
(Burger <strong>and</strong> Gochfeld, 1991), <strong>and</strong> even, in some cases, diminished reproductive success (Boyle <strong>and</strong><br />
Samson 1985). These studies <strong>and</strong> others have shown that the severity of the effects depends upon the<br />
distance to the disturbance <strong>and</strong> its duration, frequency, predictability, <strong>and</strong> visibility to wildlife<br />
(Knight <strong>and</strong> Cole 1991). The variables found to have the greatest influence on wildlife behavior are<br />
(a) the distance from the animal to the disturbance <strong>and</strong> (b) the duration of the disturbance. Animals<br />
show greater flight response to humans moving unpredictably than to humans following a distinct<br />
path (Gabrielsen <strong>and</strong> Smith 1995). Short-term <strong>and</strong> immediate responses to disturbance are fairly<br />
simple to document. A question that has received less research attention is whether these short-term<br />
responses, which generally require increased energetic expenditures on the part of the individual,<br />
ultimately diminish an individual or population’s capacity to survive <strong>and</strong> breed successfully (fitness).<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-29
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Energetic dem<strong>and</strong>s of responding to disturbance events were measured by Belanger <strong>and</strong> Bedard. In<br />
Quebec, they found that if disturbance was severe enough to cause geese to fly <strong>and</strong> not resume<br />
feeding upon alighting, hourly energy expenditure increased by 3.4 percent; <strong>and</strong> hourly metabolized<br />
energy intake decreased by 2.9 - 19.4 percent. A 32 percent increase in nighttime feeding was<br />
required to restore the energy losses incurred.<br />
Effect of disturbance intensity: Some researchers have attempted to correlate disturbance events in<br />
wildlife to the intensity, proximity, or loudness of human disturbance. Burger, studying shorebirds on<br />
an eastern coastal refuge, found that the level of disturbance in the shorebirds increased (fewer<br />
remained, more flew) as the total number of disturbances <strong>and</strong> the number of children, joggers, people<br />
walking, dogs, aircraft, <strong>and</strong> boats increased, <strong>and</strong> the duration of the disturbance <strong>and</strong> distance from the<br />
disturbance decreased.<br />
Effect of human proximity: Other researchers have looked at the question of proximity. At what<br />
distance do humans on foot elicit a disturbance response? From an examination of the available<br />
studies, it appears that the distance varies dramatically from species to species. Burger <strong>and</strong> Gochfeld<br />
(1991) found that s<strong>and</strong>erlings foraged less during the day <strong>and</strong> more during the night as the number of<br />
people within 109 yards increased. Elk in Yellowstone National Park were disturbed when people<br />
were at average distances of 626 yards (Cassirer, 1990). These elk temporarily left the drainage <strong>and</strong><br />
their home range core areas <strong>and</strong> moved to higher elevations, steeper slopes, <strong>and</strong> closer to forested<br />
areas. Average return time to the drainage was 2 days. Erwin studied colonial wading <strong>and</strong> seabirds in<br />
Virginia <strong>and</strong> North Carolina. Mixed colonies of common terns-black skimmers responded at the<br />
greatest distances, with respective means of 155 <strong>and</strong> 142 yards; mixed wading bird species were<br />
more reluctant to flush (33-55 yards average). There were few statistically significant relationships<br />
between flushing distance <strong>and</strong> colony size. Similarly, there were few differences between responses<br />
during incubation compared to post-hatching periods.<br />
An analysis of over 4,000 human activity events near bald eagle nests in Central Arizona (Grubb <strong>and</strong><br />
King 1991) found distance to disturbance to be the most important classifier of bald eagle response,<br />
followed in decreasing order of discriminatory value by duration of disturbance, visibility, number of<br />
units per event, position relative to affected eagle, <strong>and</strong> sound.<br />
Breeding bald eagles in north-central Minnesota (Fraser et al. 1985) flushed at an average distance of<br />
520 yards at the approach of a pedestrian. A multiple regression model including number of previous<br />
disturbances <strong>and</strong> date <strong>and</strong> time of day explained 82 percent of the variability in flush distance <strong>and</strong><br />
predicted a maximum flush distance at the first disturbance of 550 yards (SE=131). Skagen (1980),<br />
also studying bald eagles in northwest Washington, found a statistically significant decrease in the<br />
proportion of eagles feeding when human activity was present within 200 yards of the feeding area in<br />
the previous 30 minutes. A statistically significant between-season variation occurred in the use of<br />
feeding areas relative to human presence, which correlated with food availability. Eagles appeared<br />
more tolerant of human activity in the season of low food availability.<br />
In a review of several studies of the reaction of waterfowl <strong>and</strong> other wetl<strong>and</strong> birds to people on foot,<br />
distances greater than 109 yards in general did not result in a behavioral response (DeLong 2002).<br />
B-30 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Photography:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> photography is likely more disturbing, per instance, than wildlife observation. Klein (1993)<br />
observed at Ding Darling NWR, that of all the nonconsumptive uses, photographers were the most<br />
likely to attempt close contact with birds, <strong>and</strong> that even slow approach by photographers disrupted<br />
waterbirds.<br />
Dwyer <strong>and</strong> Tanner (1992) noted that wildlife habituate best to disturbance that is somewhat<br />
predictable or “background.” Investigating 111 nests of s<strong>and</strong>hill cranes in Florida, Dwyer <strong>and</strong> Tanner<br />
found that nesting cranes seemed to habituate to certain forms of human disturbance <strong>and</strong> nested<br />
within 436 yards of highways, railroads, <strong>and</strong> mines; cranes also were tolerant of helicopter flyovers.<br />
Even so, investigator visits to nests <strong>and</strong> development-induced alterations of surface water drainage<br />
were implicated in 24 percent of the nest failures.<br />
Minor impacts to wildlife, plants, <strong>and</strong> habitat would occur on the Refuge in the form of disturbance.<br />
Movement <strong>and</strong> behavior patterns could be altered by the presence of visitors. Some trampling of<br />
vegetation could occur as visitors stray to the edges of trails <strong>and</strong> access roads.<br />
Use of the Hakalau Forest NWR increases the potential for introductions of nonnative species <strong>and</strong><br />
interactions (some negative) by visitors with sensitive endangered bird <strong>and</strong>/or plant habitats.<br />
Accidental introduction of a nonnative plant species could be detrimental to the rainforest<br />
environment.<br />
A number of nonnative plant <strong>and</strong> wildlife species occur on Hakalau Forest NWR in general, <strong>and</strong><br />
many of those (e.g., pigs, mongooses, rats, numerous invasive plants <strong>and</strong> insects) have become<br />
established on the Refuge. Refuge personnel strive to eliminate or reduce pest species. It is possible<br />
that invasive plants <strong>and</strong> animals could be transported onto the Refuge in vehicles or from seeds that<br />
are trapped in clothing or vehicle wheels. Protocols for prevention of introducing invasive weeds are<br />
supplied to all SUP holders <strong>and</strong> to visitors requesting access to Maulua.<br />
Public Review <strong>and</strong> Comment:<br />
This determination was issued for public review <strong>and</strong> comment as part of the Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Draft <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>and</strong> Environmental Assessment between August 16, 2010-<br />
September 15, 2010. An open house was held <strong>and</strong> written comments were solicited from the public<br />
during this period for the CCP via news release, website posting, extensive mailing as well as e-mail<br />
list, <strong>and</strong> circulation of <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 3. Comments were received related to opportunities for<br />
wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography <strong>and</strong> addressed in Appendix K.<br />
Determination:<br />
___ Use is Not Compatible<br />
X Use is Compatible with Following Stipulations<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-31
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Stipulations Necessary to Ensure Compatibility:<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> observation <strong>and</strong> photography may only occur in the Upper Maulua Unit area that has been<br />
opened to the public. The two Refuge Managers, the Refuge <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist, <strong>and</strong> the Refuge<br />
Maintenance Crew Leader <strong>and</strong> maintenance staff administer <strong>and</strong> monitor the activities of visiting<br />
public.<br />
User stipulations:<br />
� Visitors will be required to access Upper Maulua Unit only at designated access points/areas,<br />
thus reducing potential for wildlife disturbance <strong>and</strong> establishment of illegal trails;<br />
� Visitors will be required to stay on legally established trails thus limiting the amount of area<br />
on the Refuge where impacts may take place;<br />
� Use is restricted to daylight hours; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Visitors will be required to follow protocols in order to avoid introductions of nonnative<br />
species (e.g., cleaning mud <strong>and</strong> seeds from boots, gear, <strong>and</strong> vehicles before entering the<br />
Upper Maulua Unit).<br />
Administrative stipulations:<br />
� Directional, informational, <strong>and</strong> interpretive signs will be posted <strong>and</strong> maintained to help keep<br />
visitors on trails <strong>and</strong> help educate the public on minimizing wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat disturbance;<br />
� Monitoring by Refuge staff, volunteers, <strong>and</strong> partners. Refuge staff will monitor impacts to<br />
wildlife, vegetation, <strong>and</strong> soil <strong>and</strong> employ adaptive management when needed. Management<br />
responses may include such actions as developing additional instructional guidance in<br />
brochures or signs, designating parking areas, passing lanes on roads, limiting vehicle access<br />
to the upper road by gating, etc.;<br />
� Promote the “Leave No Trace” philosophy. At least 95 percent of the Refuge will be<br />
managed as wildlife sanctuary, free from routine disturbance.<br />
Additionally, the following activities are prohibited:<br />
� Hunting;<br />
� Use or possession of domestic animals;<br />
� Use or possession of alcoholic beverages or illegal drugs;<br />
� Operation of all terrain vehicles, dirt bikes, <strong>and</strong> mountain bikes, etc.;<br />
� Removal or damage to any plant or plant material;<br />
� Harassment of forest birds or other wildlife;<br />
� Littering or dumping trash;<br />
� Removal or damage to numbered tags, colored flagging tape, mist nets, <strong>and</strong> other equipment<br />
or materials used for biological research;<br />
� Disposal of lighted smoking materials;<br />
� Open fires;<br />
� Overnight parking <strong>and</strong> camping; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Damage to fences, signs, or other structures.<br />
Justification:<br />
Individuals <strong>and</strong> groups are able to spend time outdoors <strong>and</strong> provide the Service an opportunity to<br />
expose the general population to the Refuge System, habitat management, <strong>and</strong> the impacts of<br />
invasive species on the native ecosystem. Hakalau Forest NWR provides a unique opportunity in this<br />
B-32 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
regard because of the limited amount of high-elevation native forest <strong>and</strong> endangered bird habitats<br />
remaining in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. Public support for the Refuge could be improved through<br />
grassroots outreach to the public. Offering opportunities for wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography<br />
presents a wildlife conservation message to members of the public who are not likely to be reached<br />
by other means. In addition, allowing these activities supports the “connecting people with nature”<br />
initiative within the Service. When determined compatible on a refuge-specific basis, wildlife<br />
observation <strong>and</strong> photography are priority public uses of that national wildlife refuge. As endangered<br />
species recovery activities increase, it may be necessary to limit this activity <strong>and</strong>/or reevaluate for<br />
compatibility.<br />
The combination of limiting visiting days/hours, properly maintaining visitor access points, allowing<br />
visitors to access only certain areas of the Refuge, <strong>and</strong> monitoring visitor use <strong>and</strong> behavior allows the<br />
Refuge to minimize any adverse effects associated with Refuge visitation. Given the scale of the<br />
activity, the stipulations outlined above, as well as the best management practices identified above,<br />
potential impacts relative to wildlife/human interactions are expected to be minimal.<br />
By applying the stipulations described above, it is anticipated that wildlife populations will find<br />
sufficient food resources, nesting, <strong>and</strong> resting refugia such that their abundance <strong>and</strong> use of the Refuge<br />
will not be measurably decreased by wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography activities. The relatively<br />
limited number of individuals expected to be adversely affected due to wildlife observation <strong>and</strong><br />
photography will not cause wildlife populations to materially decline; the physiological condition<br />
<strong>and</strong> production of native bird, plant, <strong>and</strong> bat species will not be impaired; their behavior <strong>and</strong> normal<br />
activity patterns will not be altered dramatically; <strong>and</strong> their overall welfare will not be negatively<br />
impacted. The opportunity to engage in several priority public uses provided would outweigh any<br />
anticipated negative impacts associated with implementation of the program. Thus, allowing wildlife<br />
observation <strong>and</strong> photography to occur with stipulations will not materially detract or interfere with<br />
the purposes for which the Refuge was established or the Refuge System mission. The stipulations<br />
included herein would allow such uses to occur in a compatible manner.<br />
M<strong>and</strong>atory 10- or 15-year Reevaluation Date:<br />
_____X_____ M<strong>and</strong>atory 15-year reevaluation date (for wildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
____________ M<strong>and</strong>atory 10-year reevaluation date (for non-wildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
NEPA Compliance for Refuge Use Decision (check one below)<br />
___Categorical Exclusion without Environmental Action Statement<br />
___Categorical Exclusion <strong>and</strong> Environmental Action Statement<br />
_X Environmental Assessment <strong>and</strong> Finding of No Significant Impact<br />
___Environmental Impact Statement <strong>and</strong> Record of Decision<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-33
References Cited:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Belanger, L. <strong>and</strong> Bedard, J. 1989. Energetic cost of man-induced disturbance to staging<br />
snow geese. J. Wildl. Management. 54: 36-41.<br />
Boyle, S.A. <strong>and</strong> Samson, F.B. 1985. Effects of nonconsumptive recreation on wildlife: a review.<br />
Wildl. Soc. Bull. 13: 110-116.<br />
Burger, J. 1986. The effect of human activity on shorebirds in two coastal bays in<br />
northeastern United States. Environ. Conserv. 13:123-130.<br />
Burger, J. <strong>and</strong> Gochfeld, M. 1991. Human activity influence <strong>and</strong> diurnal <strong>and</strong> nocturnal<br />
foraging of s<strong>and</strong>erlings (Calidris alba). Condor 93: 259-265.<br />
Cassirer, E. F. 1990. Responses of elk to disturbance by cross-country skiers in northern<br />
Yellowstone National Park. M.S. Thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow.<br />
Cole, D.N. <strong>and</strong> J. L Marion. 1988. Recreation impacts in some riparian forests of the<br />
eastern United States. Env. Manage. 12:99-107.<br />
Cole, D. N. <strong>and</strong> P. B. L<strong>and</strong>res. 1995. Indirect effects of recreation on wildlife. Pages 183-<br />
201 in R.L. Knight <strong>and</strong> K. J. Gutzwiller, ed. <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>and</strong> Recreationists: coexistence through<br />
management <strong>and</strong> research Isl<strong>and</strong> Press, Washington, D.C. 372pp.<br />
DeLong, A. K. 2002. Managing visitor use <strong>and</strong> disturbance of waterbirds, a literature review of<br />
impacts <strong>and</strong> mitigation measures prepared for Stillwater National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge. Appendix L<br />
(114pp.) in Stillwater National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Complex final environmental impact statement for<br />
the comprehensive conservation plan <strong>and</strong> boundary revision (Vol. II). Dept. of the Interior, U.S. <strong>Fish</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service, Region 1, Portl<strong>and</strong>, OR.<br />
Dwyer, N.C. <strong>and</strong> G.W Tanner. 1992. Nesting success in Florida s<strong>and</strong>hill cranes. Wilson<br />
Bulletin 104: 22-31.<br />
Erwin, R. M. 1989. Responses to human intruders by birds nesting in colonies:<br />
Experimental results <strong>and</strong> management guidelines. Colon. Waterbirds 12:104-108.<br />
Fraser, James D., L. D. Frenzel, <strong>and</strong> John E. Mathisen. 1985. The impact of human<br />
activities on breeding bald eagles in north-central Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:585-592.<br />
Freddy, D. J. 1986. Responses of adult mule deer to human harassment during winter. Pages 286 in<br />
Comer, R. D., Baumann, T. G., Davis, P., Monarch, J. W., Todd, J., VanGytenbeek, S., Wills, D.,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Woodling, J., eds. Proceedings II. Issues <strong>and</strong> technology in the management of impacted western<br />
wildlife: proceedings of a national symposium. Thorne Ecol. Inst., Boulder, Colorado.<br />
Gabrielson, G. W. <strong>and</strong> E. N. Smith. 1995. Physiological responses of wildlife to disturbance.<br />
Pages 95-107 in R. L. Knight <strong>and</strong> K. J. Gutzwiller, ed. <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>and</strong> Recreationists: coexistence<br />
through management <strong>and</strong> research. Isl<strong>and</strong> Press, Washington, D. C. 372pp.<br />
B-34 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Grubb, T. G. <strong>and</strong> King, R. M. 1991. Assessing human disturbance of breeding bald eagles with<br />
classification tree models. J. Wildl. Manage. 55:500-511.<br />
Klein, M. L. 1989. Effects of high levels of human visitation on foraging waterbirds at J. N. "Ding"<br />
Darling National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge. <strong>Final</strong> research report. Cooperative <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Research<br />
Unit, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.<br />
Knight, R. L. <strong>and</strong> D. N. Cole. 1991. Effects of recreational activity on wildlife in wildl<strong>and</strong>s, In<br />
Transactions of the North American <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources Conference. 56:238-247.<br />
Liddle, M.J. 1975. A selective review of the ecological effects on human trampling on natural<br />
ecosystems. Biol. Conserv. 7:17-36.<br />
MacArthur, R. A., Geist, V., <strong>and</strong> Johnston, R. H. 1982. Cardiac <strong>and</strong> behavioral responses of<br />
mountain sheep to human disturbance. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:351-358.<br />
Skagen, S.S. 1980. Behavioral responses of wintering bald eagles to human activity on<br />
the Skagit River, Washington. Pages 231-241 in Knight, R.L., Allen, G.T., Stalmaster, M.V., <strong>and</strong><br />
Servheen, C.W., eds.1980. Proceedings of the Washington bald eagle symposium; Seattle,<br />
Washington.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-35
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Use: Commercial Photography, Videography, Filming, or Audio Recording<br />
Refuge Name: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
City/County <strong>and</strong> State: Hawai‘i County, State of Hawai‘i<br />
Establishing <strong>and</strong> Acquisition Authority:<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR was established on October 29, 1985, under the authority of the Endangered<br />
Species Act of 1973, 16 U.S.C. 1534.<br />
Refuge Purpose(s):<br />
The Administration Act directs the U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service (Service) to manage each refuge to<br />
fulfill the Refuge System mission, to maintain <strong>and</strong>, where appropriate, restore the refuge’s ecological<br />
integrity, <strong>and</strong> achieve the specific purpose(s) for which the refuge was established.<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Hakalau Forest NWR is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA).<br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Kona Forest Unit is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA). More<br />
specifically, the unit was established to provide habitat for the ‘alalā <strong>and</strong> to assist the ‘Alalā<br />
Recovery Program’s repatriation efforts.<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Mission:<br />
To administer a national network of l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters for the conservation, management, <strong>and</strong> where<br />
appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plant resources <strong>and</strong> their habitats within the United<br />
States for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Americans (the Administration Act of<br />
1966).<br />
Description of Use(s):<br />
Commercial photography, video, filming, <strong>and</strong> audio recording (“recording”) are considered in this<br />
compatibility determination. This use has occurred at Hakalau Forest NWR for almost 20 years, <strong>and</strong><br />
future requests are expected to increase. Commercial recording activities not related to natural,<br />
historic, or cultural subjects are not covered under this compatibility determination. The Refuge has<br />
averaged 2-4 permits for this use annually during the last 5 years. The use typically involves creating<br />
a documentary film, taking still photographs, or recording wildlife sounds for commercial purposes.<br />
For example, the permittee may wish to take photographs of endangered forest birds or rare plants<br />
most easily seen at the Refuge. Afterwards, the permittee would attempt to sell the photos to a<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-37
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
publication. Commercial photographers, journalists, <strong>and</strong> film crews may wish to visit Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR to take stills or movies for use in a wide variety of publications, documentaries, newscasts,<br />
exhibitions, or other presentations. Some of the products will be available to the Refuge for use in<br />
brochures, PowerPoint presentations, orientation movies, <strong>and</strong> other interpretive <strong>and</strong> educational<br />
purposes. Special use permits will be issued to cover these types of activities.<br />
Much of the Refuge, including areas with the highest populations of rare birds <strong>and</strong> plants, is not open<br />
to the public. The photos, films, artwork, narratives, <strong>and</strong> recordings resulting from permitted<br />
activities will enable the general public to vicariously view <strong>and</strong> experience Hakalau Forest NWR’s<br />
rare <strong>and</strong> imperiled wildlife <strong>and</strong> plant resources <strong>and</strong> learn about research <strong>and</strong> management activities.<br />
These products will also serve as tools for environmental education <strong>and</strong> cultivate support for Refuge<br />
programs <strong>and</strong> conservation actions.<br />
Photography, video, filming, or audio recording of a noncommercial nature are addressed under a<br />
separate compatibility determination (wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography). This compatibility<br />
determination does not apply to bona fide news media activities.<br />
Commercial photography, video, filming, or audio recording may be conducted only on l<strong>and</strong>s within<br />
our jurisdiction. Although applications for this activity may be for any time of year, time restrictions<br />
may be required to limit disturbance. This may include such specifications as time of day <strong>and</strong><br />
seasonal restrictions. Specific conditions have been developed by the Refuge to minimize or avoid<br />
impacts to Refuge resources <strong>and</strong> are listed in “Stipulations Necessary to Ensure Compatibility” in<br />
this document.<br />
In order to ensure there are no negative impacts to Refuge resources, the applicant will be required to<br />
obtain a Special Use Permit from the Refuge, which is reviewed <strong>and</strong> signed by the Refuge Manager.<br />
Additionally, when conducting actual onsite operations, the applicant could be accompanied or<br />
contacted by Refuge personnel to ensure compliance with the permit conditions <strong>and</strong> prevent any<br />
unforeseen negative impacts to Refuge resources.<br />
Availability of Resources:<br />
At present, Hakalau Forest NWR can only accommodate one or two commercial video, filming, or<br />
audio recording operations per month. If the number of applicants begins to increase, additional<br />
staffing would be required. The Refuge requires the permittee to offset any cost incurred by the<br />
Refuge by payment of a one-time permit fee of $150.00.<br />
Category <strong>and</strong> Itemization One-time ($) Annual ($/yr)<br />
Administration <strong>and</strong> Management $150/permittee $4,000<br />
The above annual cost reflects the cost to manage the program <strong>and</strong> prevent impacts to natural<br />
resources. Estimated costs were calculated using 1 percent of the base cost of a GS-12 Deputy<br />
Refuge Manager, 1 percent of the GS-13 Refuge Manager, 1 percent of the GS-12 <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist,<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1 percent of the GS-9 Administrative staff, the estimated portion of the year that this activity<br />
would require to administer this use. The one-time administration <strong>and</strong> monitoring cost reflects the<br />
approximate cost per commercial photography, video, filming, or audio recording operation incurred<br />
by the Refuge, <strong>and</strong> the offsetting cost reflects the reimbursement provided by the permittee. The user<br />
B-38 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
fees are designed to be equal to the Refuge-incurred cost (costs to administer the use, including any<br />
costs associated with facilities, equipment, supplies) <strong>and</strong> would come to the Refuge in the form of<br />
monies paid by the commercial photographers.<br />
Anticipated Impacts of the Use(s):<br />
The area in which most photojournalistic <strong>and</strong>/or filming activities will occur at Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
is forested <strong>and</strong> characterized by moderately closed canopy st<strong>and</strong>s of ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong> koa trees with a<br />
subcanopy of native trees <strong>and</strong> bushes. Ground cover consists of nonnative grasses <strong>and</strong> some native<br />
shrubs <strong>and</strong> ferns. Much of the understory <strong>and</strong> ground cover has been disturbed by more than<br />
100 years of cattle grazing <strong>and</strong> pig rooting.<br />
To the extent possible, permittees will confine their activities to existing roads, natural clearings, <strong>and</strong><br />
trails. Foot traffic will compact or crush a small amount of native vegetation, but the impact will be<br />
minimal when compared to the damage done by pigs or cattle. Birds being photographed are unlikely<br />
to be negatively impacted if the conditions of the permit are followed; however, even with the proper<br />
management <strong>and</strong> execution of a well-planned project, certain behavioral responses in avifauna may<br />
occur that are not easily recognized by the casual observer. Stress reactions (elevated heart rate,<br />
elevated corticosterone levels, <strong>and</strong> behavioral responses) have been documented in several species of<br />
birds as a result of human activities in nesting areas. However, studies have not been conducted to<br />
document long-term cumulative effects of human-caused disturbances. Limited duration disturbance,<br />
however, has only minor, short-term effects. It is important to note that even wildlife photography by<br />
professionals can cause disturbance, depending upon the manner in which it is pursued.<br />
Although a single commercial filming, photography, video, or audio recording visit for 1 day may<br />
cause few, if any, negative resource impacts, it may in fact cause cumulative impacts over a longer<br />
span of time when considered additively with all activity on the Refuge. Therefore, it is critical for<br />
the Refuge Manager to examine all permit proposals with a multiyear timeframe in mind <strong>and</strong><br />
consider all activities that are planned concurrently on the Refuge before approval is granted. It may<br />
be appropriate to set a limit to the number of commercial photography, filming, video, or recording<br />
visits occurring in a particular habitat or relative to a single species or species group, even if<br />
personnel are available to coordinate the projects. Some proposed activities will require further<br />
analysis <strong>and</strong> compliance by the Refuge as more detailed information becomes available. These<br />
requirements may include additional analysis in accordance with NEPA <strong>and</strong> consultation under ESA.<br />
A number of nonnative plant <strong>and</strong> wildlife species occur on Hakalau Forest NWR in general, <strong>and</strong><br />
many of those (e.g., pigs, mongooses, rats, numerous invasive plants <strong>and</strong> insects) have become<br />
established on the Refuge. Refuge personnel strive to eliminate or reduce pest species. It is possible<br />
that invasive plants <strong>and</strong> animals could be transported onto the Refuge in vehicles or from seeds that<br />
are trapped in clothing or vehicle wheels. Adhering to appropriate protocols should reduce the risk of<br />
introducing nonnative species.<br />
Overall, however, allowing well-designed <strong>and</strong> properly reviewed commercial filming, photography,<br />
video, or audio recording visits is likely to have very little impact on Refuge wildlife populations. If<br />
the visit is conducted with professionalism <strong>and</strong> integrity, potential adverse impacts are likely to be<br />
outweighed by the knowledge gained about an entire species, habitat, or public use.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-39
Public Review <strong>and</strong> Comment:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
This determination was issued for public review <strong>and</strong> comment as part of the Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Draft <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>and</strong> Environmental Assessment between August 16, 2010-<br />
September 15, 2010. An open house was held <strong>and</strong> written comments were solicited from the public<br />
during this period for the CCP via news release, website posting, extensive mailing as well as e-mail<br />
list, <strong>and</strong> circulation of <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 3. No public comment was received on this compatibility<br />
determination.<br />
Determination:<br />
___ Use is Not Compatible<br />
X Use is Compatible with Following Stipulations<br />
Stipulations Necessary to Ensure Compatibility:<br />
Special Use Permits (SUP) will be issued for all photography, filming, video, or audio recording<br />
activities conducted by non-Service personnel. The SUP will list the conditions that the Refuge<br />
Manager determines to be necessary to ensure compatibility. Any permit may be terminated at any<br />
time for noncompliance with the SUP conditions, or modified, redesigned, relocated or terminated,<br />
upon a determination by the Refuge Manager that the activity is causing unanticipated adverse<br />
impacts to wildlife, wildlife habitat, approved priority public uses, or other Refuge management<br />
activities. Care will be taken to minimize the impacts of permitted photography, filming, video, or<br />
audio recording activities on native birds, plants, <strong>and</strong> habitat to ensure compatibility. One of the<br />
special conditions attached to each permit will state that activities may not be conducted in a manner<br />
that modifies the natural behavior of the birds being filmed or photographed. Activities will cease<br />
immediately if the subject shows signs of disturbance <strong>and</strong>/or stress, <strong>and</strong> the permittee must vacate the<br />
vicinity. Special conditions to protect the habitat will also be incorporated. These include taking<br />
precautions to prevent the introduction of nonnative plants <strong>and</strong> insects to the Refuge. Vehicles, boots,<br />
clothing, <strong>and</strong> equipment must be cleaned <strong>and</strong> inspected for seeds, eggs, <strong>and</strong> larvae prior to entry to<br />
the Refuge. Cutting or clearing vegetation is not permitted. Temporary blinds must be approved by<br />
the Refuge Manager <strong>and</strong> removed after use. Refuge gates must be secured at all times to prevent<br />
ungulate entry. Other conditions prohibit fires, require the removal of all trash, <strong>and</strong> restrict activities<br />
to existing roads, trails, <strong>and</strong> natural clearings to minimize adverse impacts to native vegetation.<br />
Permittees will be required to provide the Refuge with at least one free copy of all commercial<br />
products generated on the Refuge for noncommercial use promoting the Hakalau Forest NWR <strong>and</strong><br />
the Refuge System.<br />
All commercial films, books, <strong>and</strong> other recordings of images <strong>and</strong> sounds collected on the Refuge are<br />
required to reference the fact they were collected at Hakalau Forest NWR under the administration of<br />
the U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service.<br />
Justification:<br />
Allowing commercial photography, video, filming, or audio recording as an economic use would<br />
contribute to the achievement of the Refuge purpose <strong>and</strong> the Refuge System mission. The products<br />
B-40 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
may reach groups of people who would not normally know about the Refuge. The services provided<br />
by commercial filmmakers <strong>and</strong> photographers are beneficial to exp<strong>and</strong> public appreciation for <strong>and</strong><br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of unique wildlife, diverse native habitats, management programs, <strong>and</strong> the mission of<br />
the Refuge System.<br />
Because each SUP will contain specific conditions for minimizing adverse effects to Refuge<br />
resources while the commercial activity is being conducted, it is anticipated that wildlife populations<br />
will find sufficient food resources <strong>and</strong> resting places such that their abundance <strong>and</strong> use of the Refuge<br />
will not be measurably lessened from these activities. The relatively limited number of individuals<br />
expected to be adversely affected from these activities will not cause wildlife populations to<br />
materially decline, the physiological condition <strong>and</strong> production of native wildlife species will not be<br />
impaired, their behavior <strong>and</strong> normal activity patterns will not be altered dramatically, <strong>and</strong> their<br />
overall welfare will not be negatively impacted. In light of the benefits these uses are expected to<br />
have in exp<strong>and</strong>ing public appreciation for <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing of Hakalau Forest NWR’s unique<br />
wildlife, diverse native habitats, management programs, <strong>and</strong> the mission of the Refuge System,<br />
allowing commercial photography, filming, video, or audio recording activities to occur with<br />
stipulations will contribute to the purposes for which the Refuge was established <strong>and</strong> the Refuge<br />
System mission.<br />
M<strong>and</strong>atory 10- or 15-year Reevaluation Date:<br />
____________M<strong>and</strong>atory 15-year reevaluation date (for wildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
____X______ M<strong>and</strong>atory 10-year reevaluation date (for nonwildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
NEPA Compliance for Refuge Use Decision (check one below)<br />
___Categorical Exclusion without Environmental Action Statement<br />
___Categorical Exclusion <strong>and</strong> Environmental Action Statement<br />
_X Environmental Assessment <strong>and</strong> Finding of No Significant Impact<br />
___Environmental Impact Statement <strong>and</strong> Record of Decision<br />
References Cited:<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1985. Refuge Manual. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing<br />
Office.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 2009. Compatibility determination for commercial photography,<br />
videography, filming, or audio recording, Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-41
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Use: Commercial Tour Operation/<strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>and</strong> Education Group Visits<br />
Refuge Name: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
City/County <strong>and</strong> State: Hawai‘i County, State of Hawai‘i<br />
Establishing <strong>and</strong> Acquisition Authority:<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR was established on October 29, 1985, under the authority of the Endangered<br />
Species Act of 1973, 16 U.S.C. 1534.<br />
Refuge Purpose(s):<br />
The Administration Act directs the U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service (Service) to manage each refuge to<br />
fulfill the Refuge System mission, to maintain <strong>and</strong> where appropriate, restore the refuge’s ecological<br />
integrity; <strong>and</strong> achieve the specific purpose(s) for which the refuge was established.<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Hakalau Forest NWR is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA).<br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Kona Forest Unit is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA). More<br />
specifically, the unit was established to provide habitat for the ‘alalā <strong>and</strong> to assist the ‘Alalā<br />
Recovery Program’s repatriation efforts.<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Mission:<br />
To administer a national network of l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters for the conservation, management, <strong>and</strong> where<br />
appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plant resources <strong>and</strong> their habitats within the United<br />
States for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Americans (the Administration Act of<br />
1966).<br />
Description of Use(s):<br />
Entry requests from the general public are increasing as more people learn about the Refuge <strong>and</strong> the<br />
resources it protects. Due to staffing <strong>and</strong> funding limitations, the risk of adverse impacts to<br />
endangered species <strong>and</strong> their habitats prevents the Refuge from offering unlimited access to<br />
everyone. Visitor safety <strong>and</strong> the potential for visitor interference with management programs <strong>and</strong><br />
research projects must also be considered. The entry of a limited number of small groups, led by<br />
competent <strong>and</strong> conscientious people familiar with Refuge objectives <strong>and</strong> programs, will minimize the<br />
risk of adverse impacts. Guided visits will provide significant environmental education for<br />
participants as well as further knowledge of <strong>and</strong> appreciation for the Refuge System.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-43
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
A maximum of 12 SUPs allowing 100 individual person visits will be issued during a calendar year<br />
to commercial tour operators <strong>and</strong> conservation <strong>and</strong> education groups to permit entry to the upper Pua<br />
‘Ākala <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Forest Unit tracts to observe common <strong>and</strong> endangered native forest birds, plants,<br />
<strong>and</strong> rainforest habitats. A maximum of six visits may occur under any one permit. The maximum<br />
group size will be 25 individuals. Specific conditions would be developed by the Refuge to minimize<br />
or avoid impacts to Refuge resources <strong>and</strong> are listed in “Stipulations Necessary to Ensure<br />
Compatibility” in this document.<br />
The permittee is required to provide a list of the number of visits <strong>and</strong> individuals when requesting<br />
permission to access the Refuge. The permittee will submit a monthly written report with the total<br />
number of visits <strong>and</strong> individuals.<br />
Visitors associated with volunteer activities, the annual Open House, Refuge inspections, <strong>and</strong> other<br />
official visits will continue to enter the Refuge without requiring issuance of a SUP. The Refuge<br />
Manager will limit these visits to minimize the risk of adverse impacts on wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat.<br />
The proposed action will provide limited access to portions of the Refuge (Pua ‘Ākala <strong>and</strong> HFU<br />
tracts) which are not open to the general public <strong>and</strong> have relatively high populations of endangered<br />
birds, specifically ‘akiapōlā‘au, Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, <strong>and</strong> Hawai‘i creeper. These endangered birds are<br />
seldom seen within the Upper Maulua Tract, which is open to the public every weekend.<br />
The Kona Forest Unit has never been opened to the public.<br />
Availability of Resources:<br />
At present, Hakalau Forest NWR can only accommodate 12 tour group permits per year. If the<br />
number of applicants begins to increase, additional staffing would be required. The Refuge requires<br />
the permittee to offset any cost incurred by the Refuge by payment of a one-time permit fee of<br />
$150.00.<br />
Category <strong>and</strong> Itemization One-time ($) Annual ($/yr)<br />
Administration <strong>and</strong> Management $150/permit issued $9,200<br />
The above annual cost reflects the cost to manage the program <strong>and</strong> prevent impacts to natural<br />
resources. Estimated costs were calculated using 3 percent of the base cost of a GS-12 Deputy<br />
Refuge Manager, 2 percent of the GS-13 Refuge Manager, 2 percent of the GS-12 <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist,<br />
3 percent of the GS-9 Administrative, <strong>and</strong> 1 percent of the Maintenance Supervisor’s staff time,<br />
based on the assumption that this activity would use that portion of their year to administer <strong>and</strong><br />
coordinate commercial tour, conservation, <strong>and</strong> education group tours.<br />
The one-time administration <strong>and</strong> monitoring cost reflects the approximate cost per tour group<br />
operation incurred by the Refuge <strong>and</strong> the offsetting cost reflects the reimbursement provided by the<br />
permittee. The user fees are designed to be equal to the Refuge-incurred cost (costs to administer the<br />
use, including any costs associated with facilities, equipment, supplies) <strong>and</strong> would come to the<br />
Refuge in the form of monies paid by the commercial photographers.<br />
B-44 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Anticipated Impacts of the Use(s):<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The area in which most commercial guided tours <strong>and</strong> noncommercial education group activities will<br />
occur at Hakalau Forest NWR is forested, <strong>and</strong> characterized by moderately closed to closed-canopy<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s of ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong> koa trees, with a subcanopy of native trees <strong>and</strong> bushes. Ground cover consists of<br />
nonnative grasses <strong>and</strong> some native shrubs <strong>and</strong> ferns. Much of the understory <strong>and</strong> ground cover has<br />
been disturbed by more than 100 years of cattle grazing <strong>and</strong> pig rooting.<br />
To the extent possible, permittees will confine their activities to existing roads, natural clearings, <strong>and</strong><br />
trails. Foot traffic will compact or crush a small amount of native vegetation, but the impact will be<br />
minimal when compared to the damage done by pigs or cattle. Birds being observed by tour groups<br />
are unlikely to be negatively impacted if the conditions of the permit are followed; however, even<br />
with the proper management <strong>and</strong> execution of a well-planned project, certain behavioral responses in<br />
avifauna may occur that are not easily recognized by the casual observer. Stress reactions (elevated<br />
heart rate, elevated corticosterone levels, <strong>and</strong> behavioral responses) have been documented in several<br />
species of birds as a result of human activities in nesting areas. However, studies have not been<br />
conducted to document long-term cumulative effects of human-caused disturbances. Limited<br />
duration disturbance, however, has only minor, short-term effects. It is important to note that even<br />
wildlife observation conducted by professionals can cause disturbance, depending upon the manner<br />
in which it is pursued.<br />
Although a single commercial or noncommercial conservation group visit for 1 day may cause few,<br />
if any, negative resource impacts, it may cause cumulative impacts over a longer span of time when<br />
considered additively with all activity on the Refuge. Therefore, it is critical for the Refuge Manager<br />
to examine all permit proposals with a multiyear timeframe in mind <strong>and</strong> consider all activities that<br />
are planned concurrently on the Refuge before approval is granted. It may be appropriate to<br />
periodically reevaluate the number of visits occurring in a particular habitat or relative to a single<br />
species or species group, even if personnel are available to coordinate <strong>and</strong> monitor the tours.<br />
Specialized proposed activities will require further analysis <strong>and</strong> compliance by the Refuge as more<br />
detailed information becomes available. These requirements may include additional analysis in<br />
accordance with NEPA <strong>and</strong> consultation under ESA.<br />
A number of nonnative plant <strong>and</strong> wildlife species occur on Hakalau Forest NWR in general, <strong>and</strong><br />
many of those (e.g., pigs, mongooses, rats, numerous invasive plants <strong>and</strong> insects) have become<br />
established on the Refuge. Refuge personnel strive to eliminate or reduce pest species. It is possible<br />
that invasive plants <strong>and</strong> animals could be transported onto the Refuge in vehicles or from seeds that<br />
are trapped in clothing or vehicle wheels. Adhering to appropriate protocols should reduce the risk of<br />
introducing nonnative species.<br />
Overall, however, allowing well-designed <strong>and</strong> properly reviewed commercial tours <strong>and</strong><br />
noncommercial conservation/education group visits is unlikely to have significant impacts on Refuge<br />
wildlife populations. If visits are conducted with professionalism <strong>and</strong> integrity, potential adverse<br />
impacts are likely to be outweighed by the knowledge gained about the Refuge’s programs, protected<br />
species, <strong>and</strong> habitats.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-45
Public Review <strong>and</strong> Comment:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
This determination was issued for public review <strong>and</strong> comment as part of the Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Draft <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>and</strong> Environmental Assessment between August 16, 2010-<br />
September 15, 2010. An open house was held <strong>and</strong> written comments were solicited from the public<br />
during this period for the CCP via news release, website posting, extensive mailing as well as e-mail<br />
list, <strong>and</strong> circulation of <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 3. Comments were received related to commercial tour<br />
operations, <strong>and</strong> conservation <strong>and</strong> education group visits, <strong>and</strong> are addressed in Appendix K.<br />
Determination:<br />
___ Use is Not Compatible<br />
X Use is Compatible with Following Stipulations<br />
Stipulations Necessary to Ensure Compatibility:<br />
Special Use Permits (SUP) will be issued for all commercial <strong>and</strong> noncommercial conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
education group tour activities conducted by non-Service personnel. The SUP will list the conditions<br />
that the Refuge Manager determines to be necessary to ensure compatibility. Any permit may be<br />
terminated at any time for noncompliance with the SUP conditions, or modified, redesigned,<br />
relocated or terminated upon a determination by the Refuge Manager that the activity is causing<br />
unanticipated adverse impacts to wildlife, wildlife habitat, approved priority public uses, or other<br />
Refuge management activities.<br />
Care will be taken to minimize the impacts of permitted commercial <strong>and</strong> noncommercial tour<br />
activities on native birds, plants, <strong>and</strong> habitat to ensure compatibility. Tour group leaders will provide<br />
a 5-10 minute environmental education talk to each tour group. The talk will include information<br />
relative to establishment <strong>and</strong> management of the Refuge, endangered forest birds, <strong>and</strong> protection <strong>and</strong><br />
management of the native plants <strong>and</strong> animals. One of the special conditions attached to each permit<br />
states that activities may not be conducted in a manner that modifies the natural behavior of the birds<br />
being viewed. Activities will cease immediately if the subject shows signs of disturbance <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
stress, <strong>and</strong> the permittee must vacate the vicinity. The h<strong>and</strong>ling or harassment of birds or their nests<br />
is strictly prohibited. Special conditions to protect the habitat are incorporated. These include taking<br />
precautions to prevent the introduction of nonnative plants <strong>and</strong> insects to the refuge. Vehicles, boots,<br />
clothing, <strong>and</strong> equipment must be cleaned <strong>and</strong> inspected for seeds, eggs, <strong>and</strong> larvae prior to entry to<br />
the Refuge. Cutting or clearing vegetation is not permitted. Other conditions prohibit fires <strong>and</strong><br />
require the removal of all trash <strong>and</strong> refuse resulting from his/her activities.<br />
Justification:<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR provides unique educational opportunities to highlight the conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
management of Hawaiian forest birds <strong>and</strong> their habitats unmatched elsewhere. Compatible tours<br />
promote environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation, which are priority public uses of the Refuge<br />
System as identified in the Improvement Act.<br />
Allowing limited numbers of closely monitored guided tours for educational purposes should have<br />
indirect positive impacts on Refuge resources. Supporting environmental education services <strong>and</strong><br />
B-46 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
programs that strive to convey an underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> appreciation of wildlife resources, the issues<br />
affecting them, <strong>and</strong> the techniques <strong>and</strong> programs pursued to restore them supports the goals of<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR. The services provided by commercial tour guides are beneficial to exp<strong>and</strong><br />
public appreciation for <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing of unique wildlife, diverse native habitats, management<br />
programs, <strong>and</strong> the mission of the Refuge System.<br />
Because each SUP will contain specific permit conditions for minimizing adverse effects to Refuge<br />
resources while the commercial activity is being conducted, it is anticipated that wildlife populations<br />
will find sufficient food resources <strong>and</strong> resting places such that their abundance <strong>and</strong> use of the Refuge<br />
will not be measurably lessened from these activities. The relatively limited number of individuals<br />
expected to be adversely affected from these activities will not cause wildlife populations to<br />
materially decline, the physiological condition <strong>and</strong> production of native wildlife species will not be<br />
impaired, their behavior <strong>and</strong> normal activity patterns will not be altered dramatically, <strong>and</strong> their<br />
overall welfare will not be negatively impacted. In light of the benefits the use is expected to having<br />
in exp<strong>and</strong>ing public appreciation for <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing of Hakalau Forest NWR’s unique wildlife,<br />
diverse native habitats, management programs, <strong>and</strong> the mission of the Refuge System, allowing<br />
commercial tours <strong>and</strong> noncommercial conservation <strong>and</strong> education group visits to occur with<br />
stipulations will contribute to the purpose(s) for which the Refuge was established or the Refuge<br />
System mission.<br />
M<strong>and</strong>atory 10- or 15-year Reevaluation Date:<br />
___________ M<strong>and</strong>atory 15-year reevaluation date (for wildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
_____X_____ M<strong>and</strong>atory 10-year reevaluation date (for nonwildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
NEPA Compliance for Refuge Use Decision (check one below)<br />
___Categorical Exclusion without Environmental Action Statement<br />
___Categorical Exclusion <strong>and</strong> Environmental Action Statement<br />
_ X Environmental Assessment <strong>and</strong> Finding of No Significant Impact<br />
___Environmental Impact Statement <strong>and</strong> Record of Decision<br />
References Cited:<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1985. Refuge Manual. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing<br />
Office.<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 2009. Compatibility determination for commercial photography,<br />
videography, filming, or audio recording, Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-47
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 2003. Addendum No. 1, Compatibility Determination No:<br />
COMPAT-03-94, Special Use Permit, Commercial Tour Operations, <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>and</strong> Education<br />
Groups.<br />
Boyle, S.A. <strong>and</strong> Samson, F.B. 1985. Effects of nonconsumptive recreation on wildlife: a review.<br />
Wildl. Soc. Bull. 13: 110-116.<br />
Cole, D. N. <strong>and</strong> P. B. L<strong>and</strong>res. 1995. Indirect effects of recreation on wildlife. Pages 183-201 in R.L.<br />
Knight <strong>and</strong> K. J. Gutzwiller, ed. <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>and</strong> Recreationists: coexistence through management <strong>and</strong><br />
research Isl<strong>and</strong> Press, Washington, D.C. 372pp.<br />
Knight, R. L. <strong>and</strong> D. N. Cole. 1991. Effects of recreational activity on wildlife in wildl<strong>and</strong>s, In<br />
Transactions of the North American <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources Conference. 56:238-247.<br />
Liddle, M.J. 1975. A selective review of the ecological effects on human trampling on natural<br />
ecosystems. Biol. Conserv. 7:17-36.<br />
B-48 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
B-50 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Use: Research, Scientific Collecting, <strong>and</strong> Surveys<br />
Refuge Name: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
City/County <strong>and</strong> State: Hawai‘i County, State of Hawai‘i<br />
Establishing <strong>and</strong> Acquisition Authority:<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR was established on October 29, 1985, under the authority of the Endangered<br />
Species Act of 1973, 16 U.S.C. 1534.<br />
Refuge Purpose(s):<br />
The Administration Act directs the U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service (Service) to manage each refuge to<br />
fulfill the Refuge System mission, to maintain <strong>and</strong> where appropriate, restore the refuge’s ecological<br />
integrity; <strong>and</strong> achieve the specific purpose(s) for which the refuge was established.<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Hakalau Forest NWR is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA).<br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Kona Forest Unit is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA). More<br />
specifically, the unit was established to provide habitat for the ‘alalā <strong>and</strong> to assist the ‘Alalā<br />
Recovery Program’s repatriation efforts.<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Mission:<br />
To administer a national network of l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters for the conservation, management, <strong>and</strong> where<br />
appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plant resources <strong>and</strong> their habitats within the United<br />
States for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Americans (the Administration Act of<br />
1966).<br />
Description of Use(s):<br />
When determined appropriate <strong>and</strong> compatible on a refuge-specific basis, research, scientific<br />
collecting, <strong>and</strong> surveys (research) are allowable uses <strong>and</strong> are conducted on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters<br />
by independent researchers, partnering agencies, <strong>and</strong> educational groups.<br />
The Service defines these uses as:<br />
� Research: <strong>Plan</strong>ned, organized, <strong>and</strong> systematic investigation of a scientific nature;<br />
� Scientific collecting: Gathering of refuge natural resources or cultural artifacts for scientific<br />
purposes; <strong>and</strong><br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-51
� Surveys: Scientific inventory or monitoring.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The types of research vary greatly but could revolve around birds, bats, plants, insects/pollinators,<br />
invasive species, habitat classification, restoration techniques, <strong>and</strong> cultural <strong>and</strong> historic resources.<br />
Research proposals may be for any time of the year <strong>and</strong> on any of the habitat types within Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR. However, the Refuge may limit the time <strong>and</strong> location of research projects to ensure that<br />
negative impacts to Refuge resources are avoided or limited. Additionally, the Refuge may impose<br />
limits on the duration <strong>and</strong>/or number of animals trapped for research purposes, specifically, mistnetting<br />
capture of birds <strong>and</strong>/or bats <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ling techniques.<br />
Each research, scientific collection, or survey project on the Hakalau or Kona Forest Units would<br />
undoubtedly have different protocols <strong>and</strong> methodologies; therefore, each study necessitates its own<br />
scientific review. Each research project would be carefully reviewed to prevent any significant shortterm,<br />
long-term or cumulative impacts. New research requests would be evaluated by Refuge staff by<br />
comparing them to ongoing or recently completed research on the Refuge to determine if the species<br />
studied, methodologies used, or habitat type <strong>and</strong> locations used may lead to undesirable cumulative<br />
impacts. All projects would be subject to the Refuge permitting process. This review would help<br />
ensure all levels <strong>and</strong> types of impacts are carefully considered before any permit for research is<br />
issued. Within the Hakalau <strong>and</strong> Kona Forest Unit’s SUP, conditions will be clearly defined so as to<br />
protect <strong>and</strong> conserve the existing natural, cultural, <strong>and</strong> historic resources found on the Refuge.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard <strong>and</strong> specific conditions are included in this Compatibility Determination under<br />
“Stipulations Necessary to Ensure Compatibility.”<br />
Research is a specialized use (603 FW1) <strong>and</strong>, therefore, it is not considered a priority public use by<br />
Refuge System policy. Refuge plans <strong>and</strong> actions based on research <strong>and</strong> monitoring provide an<br />
informed approach to habitat, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> public use management programs. Forest bird<br />
conservation <strong>and</strong> management at the Refuge are based upon best available scientific information<br />
from research combined with long-term monitoring. Some research is used to address specific<br />
wildlife conservation questions, such as underst<strong>and</strong>ing the causes of reduced or declining forest bird<br />
populations <strong>and</strong> development of tools <strong>and</strong> techniques to aid recovery of threatened or endangered<br />
species. Other research has broader applicability, such as using a suite of forest birds as indicators of<br />
native forest health conditions, <strong>and</strong> to document change in the larger isl<strong>and</strong> environment <strong>and</strong><br />
associated impacts related to climate change <strong>and</strong> global warming.<br />
The Service will encourage <strong>and</strong> support research <strong>and</strong> management studies on Hakalau <strong>and</strong> Kona<br />
Forest Units that improve <strong>and</strong> strengthen natural resource management decisions. The Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR Refuge manager will encourage <strong>and</strong> seek research relative to approved Refuge<br />
objectives that clearly improve l<strong>and</strong> management approaches <strong>and</strong> promote adaptive management.<br />
Information that enables better management of the Nation’s biological resources <strong>and</strong> is generally<br />
considered important to agencies of the Department of the Interior, including the Service, the Refuge<br />
System, conservation <strong>and</strong> State agencies, <strong>and</strong>/or that addresses important management issues or<br />
demonstrate techniques for management of species <strong>and</strong>/or habitats, will be the priority.<br />
The Service’s Appropriate Refuge Uses policies (603 FW1.10D (4)) indicate priority research that<br />
contributes to the enhancement, protection, use, preservation, <strong>and</strong> management of native wildlife<br />
populations <strong>and</strong> their habitat as well as their natural diversity. Projects that contribute to refuge-<br />
B-52 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
specific <strong>and</strong>/or wilderness management, where applicable, would be given a higher priority over<br />
other requests. Research applicants must submit a detailed proposal that would outline:<br />
1) Objectives of the study;<br />
2) Justification for the study;<br />
3) Detailed methodology <strong>and</strong> schedule;<br />
4) Potential impacts on Refuge wildlife or habitat, including disturbance (short <strong>and</strong> long term),<br />
injury <strong>and</strong>/or mortality. This includes a description of measures the researcher will take to<br />
reduce disturbance or impacts;<br />
5) Personnel required;<br />
6) Costs to the Refuge, if any, including staff time <strong>and</strong> equipment;<br />
7) Expected outcomes or results; <strong>and</strong><br />
8) A time line for submitting progress reports <strong>and</strong> final products (e.g., reports, theses,<br />
dissertations, publications).<br />
Research proposed to be conducted on the Refuge would be reviewed by Refuge staff <strong>and</strong> others as<br />
appropriate, to weigh the anticipated impacts versus the benefits of the research activity to refuge<br />
management <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing of natural systems. This would form the basis for allowing the<br />
project to proceed or be denied. If the proposal is approved, the Refuge Manager would issue a<br />
SUP(s) that would set the terms <strong>and</strong> conditions of the study to avoid <strong>and</strong>/or minimize the impacts on<br />
Refuge resources, public use activities, <strong>and</strong> Refuge field operations. All research projects would be<br />
assessed during implementation to ensure that impacts remain within acceptable levels.<br />
Research would not be allowed on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s if one or more of the following criteria apply to a<br />
project proposal:<br />
� Research that conflicts with other ongoing research, monitoring, or management programs will<br />
not be granted;<br />
� Highly intrusive or manipulative research is generally not permitted in order to protect native<br />
birds <strong>and</strong> other wildlife populations <strong>and</strong> wilderness values;<br />
� Research projects that can be accomplished off the Refuge are less likely to be approved;<br />
� Research that causes undue disturbance or is more than minimally intrusive is not likely to be<br />
granted;<br />
� The level <strong>and</strong> type of disturbance will be carefully evaluated when considering a request.<br />
Strategies to minimize disturbance through study design, including location, timing, scope,<br />
number of permittees, study methods, number of study sites, etc., will be required;<br />
� If staffing or logistics make it impossible for Refuge staff to monitor the researcher, the permit is<br />
likely to be denied; <strong>and</strong><br />
� If the activity is in a sensitive area, the research request may be denied, depending on the specific<br />
circumstances.<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR may also consider research for purposes not directly associated to Refugespecific<br />
objectives; such research could potentially contribute to the broader enhancement,<br />
protection, use, preservation, <strong>and</strong> management of wildlife <strong>and</strong> plant populations <strong>and</strong> their natural<br />
diversity within the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s. These proposals must comply with the Service’s compatibility<br />
policy.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-53
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Hakalau Forest NWR has developed a preliminary list of research needs that will be provided to<br />
prospective researchers or organizations at the Refuge Manager’s discretion. Refuge support of<br />
research directly related to Refuge objectives may take the form of funding, in-kind services such as<br />
housing or use of other facilities, direct staff assistance with the project in the form of data collection,<br />
provision of historical records, conducting of management treatments, or other assistance as<br />
appropriate.<br />
Availability of Resources:<br />
The bulk of the cost for research is incurred in staff time to review research proposals, coordinate<br />
with researchers, write SUPs, attend meetings, <strong>and</strong> review the research results. The amount of<br />
resource required is highly variable depending on the nature of the work involved. In some cases, a<br />
research project may only require 1 day of staff time to write a SUP. In other cases, a research project<br />
may require a week or more of staff time.<br />
The Refuge requires the permittee to offset any cost incurred by the Refuge by payment of a onetime<br />
permit fee of $150.00.<br />
Category <strong>and</strong> Itemization One-time ($) Annual ($/yr)<br />
Administration <strong>and</strong> Management $150/permittee $13,500<br />
The above annual cost reflects the cost to manage the program <strong>and</strong> prevent impacts to natural<br />
resources. Estimated costs were calculated using 3 percent of the base cost of a GS-12 Deputy<br />
Refuge Manager, 3 percent of the GS-13 Refuge Manager, 7 percent of the GS-12 <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist,<br />
1 percent of the GS-9 Administrative, <strong>and</strong> 2 percent of the Maintenance Supervisor’s staff time,<br />
based on the assumption that this activity would use that portion of the year to administer <strong>and</strong><br />
coordinate outside research.<br />
Anticipated Impacts of the Use(s):<br />
Use of Hakalau Forest NWR to conduct research, scientific collection, <strong>and</strong> surveys will generally<br />
benefit plant populations, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> habitats. The impacts of research activities would be project-<br />
<strong>and</strong> site-specific, <strong>and</strong> would vary depending on the scope <strong>and</strong> type of research conducted. Scientific<br />
findings gained through these projects provide important information regarding life-history needs of<br />
species <strong>and</strong> species groups as well as identify or refine management actions to achieve resource<br />
management objectives in refuge management plans (especially CCPs). Reducing uncertainty<br />
regarding wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat responses to refuge management actions in order to achieve desired<br />
outcomes reflected in resource management objectives is essential for adaptive management in<br />
accordance with 522 DM 1.<br />
If a project’s methods impact or conflict with Refuge resources, other public-uses, other high-priority<br />
research, <strong>and</strong> Refuge management programs, then it must be clearly demonstrated that its scientific<br />
findings will be essential to resource management <strong>and</strong> that the project cannot be conducted offrefuge<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s for the project to be compatible. The investigator(s) must identify methods/strategies in<br />
advance required to minimize or eliminate the potential impact(s) <strong>and</strong> conflict(s). If unacceptable<br />
impacts cannot be avoided, then the project will not be compatible <strong>and</strong> will not be approved. Projects<br />
that represent public or private economic use of the natural resources of any national wildlife refuge<br />
B-54 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
(e.g., bioprospecting), in accordance with 16 U.S.C. 715s, must contribute to the achievement of the<br />
national wildlife refuge purposes or the Refuge System mission to be compatible (50 C.F.R. 29.1).<br />
Impacts would be project- <strong>and</strong> site-specific, where they will vary depending upon nature <strong>and</strong> scope<br />
of the field work. Data collection techniques will generally have negligible animal mortality or<br />
disturbance, habitat destruction, no introduction of contaminants, <strong>and</strong> no introduction of<br />
nonindigenous species. In contrast, projects involving the collection of biotic samples (plants or<br />
animals) or requiring intensive ground-based data or sample collection will have short-term impacts.<br />
To reduce impacts, the minimum number of samples (e.g., water, soils, vegetative litter, plants,<br />
macroinvertebrates, vertebrates) will be collected for identification <strong>and</strong>/or experimentation <strong>and</strong><br />
statistical analysis. Where possible, researchers would coordinate <strong>and</strong> share collections to reduce<br />
sampling needed for multiple projects.<br />
Although a single research project for a single year may cause few, if any, negative resource impacts,<br />
it may in fact cause cumulative impacts over multiple years or when considered additively with all<br />
activity on the Refuge. Therefore, it is critical that the Refuge <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist <strong>and</strong> Refuge<br />
Manager examine all projects with a multi-year timeframe in mind <strong>and</strong> consider all activities that are<br />
planned concurrently on the Refuge before approval is granted. It may be appropriate to set a limit to<br />
the number of research projects occurring in a particular habitat or relative to a single species or<br />
species group, even if personnel are available to coordinate the projects.<br />
Disturbance to wildlife <strong>and</strong> vegetation by researchers could occur through observation, a variety of<br />
wildlife capture techniques, b<strong>and</strong>ing, <strong>and</strong> accessing the area by foot or vehicle. It is possible that<br />
direct or indirect mortality could result as a byproduct of research activities. Mist-netting or other<br />
wildlife capture techniques, for example, can cause mortality directly through the capture method or<br />
in trap predation, <strong>and</strong> indirectly through capture injury or stress caused to the organism. Some level<br />
of disturbance is expected with all research activities, since most researchers will be entering areas<br />
that are normally closed to the public <strong>and</strong>, depending on specific research activities, may also be<br />
collecting samples or h<strong>and</strong>ling wildlife. However, minimal impact to Refuge wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitats<br />
will be expected with research studies because SUPs will include conditions to ensure that impacts to<br />
wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitats are kept to a minimum (see discussion above).<br />
Direct damage or alteration to the habitat from researchers would be minor due to the research<br />
proposal evaluation process <strong>and</strong> stipulations imposed through the SUP. However, some increase in<br />
invasive plants is possible from ground disturbance <strong>and</strong>/or transportation of source seed on research<br />
equipment <strong>and</strong> personnel, <strong>and</strong> rodents <strong>and</strong> disease organisms could potentially be transferred from<br />
boats <strong>and</strong> trapping equipment. Likewise, localized <strong>and</strong> temporary effects could result from direct<br />
impacts of vegetation trampling, collecting soil <strong>and</strong> plant samples, or trapping <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ling wildlife.<br />
Other potential, but localized <strong>and</strong> temporary, effects would include wildlife disturbance, which is<br />
expected with some research activities. Researcher disturbance could result in altering wildlife<br />
behavior. However, only research with reasonably certain short-term effects from disturbance would<br />
be permitted. Only the minimum of samples (e.g., water, soils, vegetative litter, plants,<br />
macroinvertebrates, tissue etc.) required for identification <strong>and</strong>/or experimentation <strong>and</strong> statistical<br />
analysis would be permitted.<br />
State <strong>and</strong> Federal collecting permits will also ensure minimal impacts to fish, wildlife, plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
their habitats. A Section 7 consultation under the ESA will be required for activities that may affect a<br />
federally listed species <strong>and</strong>/or critical habitat.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-55
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
At least 6 months before initiation of field work (unless an exception is made by prior approval of the<br />
Refuge Manager), project investigator(s) must submit a detailed proposal using the format provided<br />
in Attachment 1. Project proposals will be reviewed by Refuge staff <strong>and</strong> others, as needed, to assess<br />
the potential impacts (short-term, long-term, <strong>and</strong> cumulative) relative to benefits of the investigation<br />
to Refuge management issues <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing of natural systems. This assessment will form the<br />
primary basis for allowing or denying a specific project. Projects which result in unacceptable<br />
Refuge impacts will not be found compatible <strong>and</strong> will not be approved.<br />
If the proposal is approved, then the Refuge Manager will issue a SUP(s) with required stipulations<br />
(terms <strong>and</strong> conditions) of the project to avoid <strong>and</strong>/or minimize potential impacts to Refuge resources<br />
as well as conflicts with other public-use activities <strong>and</strong> Refuge field management operations.<br />
The combination of stipulations identified above <strong>and</strong> conditions included in any SUP(s) will ensure<br />
that proposed projects contribute to the enhancement, protection, conservation, <strong>and</strong> management of<br />
native wildlife populations <strong>and</strong> their habitats on the Refuge. As a result, these projects will help<br />
fulfill Refuge purposes; contribute to the Refuge System mission; <strong>and</strong> maintain the biological<br />
integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health of the Refuge.<br />
Spread of invasive plants <strong>and</strong>/or pathogens is possible from ground disturbance <strong>and</strong>/or transportation<br />
of project equipment <strong>and</strong> personnel, but it will be minimized or eliminated by requiring proper<br />
cleaning of investigator equipment <strong>and</strong> clothing as well as quarantine methods, where necessary. If<br />
after all practical measures are taken, an unacceptable spread of invasive species is anticipated to<br />
occur, the project will be found not compatible without a restoration or mitigation plan.<br />
Localized <strong>and</strong> temporary effects may occur from vegetation trampling, collecting soil <strong>and</strong> plant<br />
samples, or trapping <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ling wildlife. Impacts may also occur from infrastructure necessary to<br />
support projects (e.g., permanent transects or plot markers, exclosure devices, monitoring equipment,<br />
solar panels to power unattended monitoring equipment). Some level of disturbance is expected with<br />
these projects, especially if investigator(s) enter areas closed to the public <strong>and</strong> collect samples or<br />
h<strong>and</strong>le wildlife. However, wildlife disturbance (including altered behavior) will be localized <strong>and</strong><br />
temporary in nature. Where long-term or cumulative unacceptable effects cannot be avoidable, the<br />
project will not be found compatible. Project proposals will be reviewed by Refuge staff <strong>and</strong> others,<br />
as needed, to assess the potential impacts (short-term, long-term, <strong>and</strong> cumulative) relative to benefits<br />
of the investigation to Refuge management issues <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing of natural systems. This<br />
assessment will form the primary basis for allowing or denying a specific project.<br />
Overall, however, allowing well designed <strong>and</strong> properly reviewed research to be conducted by non-<br />
Service personnel is likely to have very little impact on Refuge wildlife populations. If the research<br />
project is conducted with professionalism <strong>and</strong> integrity, potential adverse impacts are likely to be<br />
outweighed by the knowledge gained about an entire species, habitat or public use.<br />
Public Review <strong>and</strong> Comment:<br />
This determination was issued for public review <strong>and</strong> comment as part of the Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Draft <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>and</strong> Environmental Assessment between August 16, 2010-<br />
September 15, 2010. An open house was held <strong>and</strong> written comments were solicited from the public<br />
during this period for the CCP via news release, website posting, extensive mailing as well as e-mail<br />
B-56 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
list, <strong>and</strong> circulation of <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 3. Comments were received related to research activities on<br />
the refuge <strong>and</strong> addressed in Appendix K.<br />
Determination:<br />
___ Use is Not Compatible<br />
X Use is Compatible with Following Stipulations<br />
Stipulations Necessary to Ensure Compatibility:<br />
The SUP will be issued for all research conducted by non-Service personnel. The SUP will list the<br />
conditions that the Refuge Manager determines to be necessary to ensure compatibility. The SUPs<br />
will also identify a schedule for progress reports <strong>and</strong> the submittal of a final report or scientific paper.<br />
Regional Refuge biologists, U.S. Geological Survey Biological Resources Discipline staff scientists,<br />
other Service programs, State agencies, or nongovernmental organizations <strong>and</strong> biologists may be<br />
asked to provide additional review <strong>and</strong> comment on any research proposal at the discretion of the<br />
Refuge <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist <strong>and</strong>/or Refuge Manager.<br />
All researchers are required to obtain appropriate State <strong>and</strong> Federal permits.<br />
If the proposed research methods would impact or potentially impact Refuge resources (habitat or<br />
wildlife), it must be demonstrated that the research is essential (i.e., critical to the survival of a<br />
species; Refuge provides only or critical habitat for a species; contributes significantly to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of impacts from climate change; or assessment <strong>and</strong>/or restoration after cataclysmic<br />
events), <strong>and</strong> the researcher must identify the issues in advance of the impact. Highly intrusive or<br />
manipulative research is generally not permitted in order to protect native bird populations.<br />
All SUPs will have a definite termination date. Renewals will be subject to Refuge Manager review<br />
<strong>and</strong> approval based on timely submission of <strong>and</strong> content in progress reports, compliance with SUP<br />
stipulations, <strong>and</strong> required permits. Other stipulations <strong>and</strong> provisions would include the following:<br />
� Potential researchers must submit a written, detailed research proposal to the Refuge Manager at<br />
least 6 months prior to start of field work. The required proposal format would be provided to<br />
researchers (see Attachment 1);<br />
� Researchers are responsible for acquiring <strong>and</strong>/or renewing any necessary State <strong>and</strong> Federal<br />
permits prior to beginning or continuing their project;<br />
� A Section 7 consultation under the ESA would be required for research activities that may affect<br />
a federally threatened, endangered, or proposed species;<br />
� Research that does not involve birds generally will only be allowed outside of the breeding<br />
season of avian species, unless it can be demonstrated that there likely will be no impact to those<br />
breeding species. If a research project can only be conducted during the breeding season, such<br />
studies will only be permitted where there are specific protocols to minimize disturbance;<br />
� Research will adhere to scientifically defensible protocols for data collection, where available<br />
<strong>and</strong> feasible;<br />
� Approved research projects will be conducted under a Refuge-issued SUP that will have<br />
additional project-specific stipulations;<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-57
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
� Annual or other short-term SUPs are preferred; however, some permits will be for a longer<br />
period, if needed, to facilitate the research. All SUPs will have a definite termination date.<br />
Renewals will be subject to Refuge Manager review of research data, status reports, compliance<br />
with compatibility determination <strong>and</strong> permit stipulations, <strong>and</strong> other permits;<br />
� If unacceptable impacts or issues arise or be noted by the Refuge staff, then the Refuge Manager<br />
can suspend/modify conditions/terminate on Refuge research that is already permitted <strong>and</strong> in<br />
progress;<br />
� Research progress reports are required at least annually, <strong>and</strong> final reports are due within 1 year of<br />
the completion of the project, unless negotiated otherwise. The minimum required elements for a<br />
progress report will be provided to investigator(s);<br />
� The Refuge staff will be given the opportunity to review draft manuscript(s) from the project<br />
before being submitted to a scientific journal(s) for consideration of publication;<br />
� The Refuge staff will be provided with copies of raw data (preferably electronic database format)<br />
at the conclusion of the project;<br />
� The Refuge staff will be provided with copies of all publications developed from Refuge research<br />
projects;<br />
� The Service <strong>and</strong> the Refuge will be appropriately cited <strong>and</strong> acknowledged in all written <strong>and</strong> oral<br />
presentations resulting from the research on the Refuge;<br />
� Where appropriate, the Refuge staff reserves the right to be coauthor(s) on any reports or<br />
publications resulting from the study conducted on the Refuge. Authorship is appropriate where<br />
justifiably based upon participation in the project over the course of implementation occurs (e.g.,<br />
field work, data analyses, summary of findings);<br />
� Upon completion of the project or annually, research sites must be cleaned up to the Refuge<br />
Manager’s satisfaction <strong>and</strong> all physical markers removed. For long-term projects, conditions for<br />
clean up <strong>and</strong> removal of equipment <strong>and</strong> physical markers would be stipulated in the SUP;<br />
� All samples collected on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s are the property of the Service even while in the<br />
possession of the investigator(s). Any future work with previously collected samples not clearly<br />
identified in the project proposal will require submission of a subsequent proposal for review <strong>and</strong><br />
approval. In addition, a new SUP will be required for additional project work;<br />
� Investigator(s) <strong>and</strong> support staff will follow all Refuge-specific regulations that specify access<br />
<strong>and</strong> travel on the Refuge;<br />
� At any time, Refuge staff may accompany the researchers;<br />
� Only projects that have no effect or will result in not likely to adversely affect determinations<br />
will be considered compatible;<br />
� After approval, all projects also will be assessed during implementation to ensure impacts <strong>and</strong><br />
conflicts remain within acceptable levels; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Projects that are not covered by the CCP or subsequent step-down plans may require additional<br />
NEPA documentation.<br />
All research related SUPs contain a statement regarding the Service’s policy regarding disposition of<br />
biotic specimen. The current Service policy language in this regard is:<br />
“You may use specimens collected under this permit, any components of any specimens<br />
(including natural organisms, enzymes, genetic material or seeds), <strong>and</strong> research results<br />
derived from collected specimens for scientific or educational purposes only, <strong>and</strong> not for<br />
commercial purposes unless you have entered into a Cooperative Research <strong>and</strong> Development<br />
Agreement (CRADA) with us. We prohibit the sale of collected research specimens or other<br />
B-58 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
transfers to third parties. Breach of any of the terms of this permit will be grounds for<br />
revocation of this permit <strong>and</strong> denial of future permits. Furthermore, if you sell or otherwise<br />
transfer collected specimens, any components thereof, or any products or any research<br />
results developed from such specimens or their components without a CRADA, you will pay<br />
us a royalty rate of 20 percent of gross revenue from such sales. In addition to such royalty,<br />
we may seek other damages <strong>and</strong> injunctive relief against you.”<br />
Any research project may be terminated at any time for noncompliance with the SUP conditions, or<br />
modified, redesigned, relocated or terminated, upon a determination by the Refuge manager that the<br />
project is causing unanticipated adverse impacts to wildlife, wildlife habitat, approved priority public<br />
uses, or other Refuge management activities.<br />
Justification:<br />
Research on the Hakalau Forest NWR is inherently valuable to the Service, since it is intended to<br />
exp<strong>and</strong> the knowledge base of those who are given the responsibility of managing the resources<br />
found within the Refuge. This is particularly true for Hakalau Forest NWR, where many of the<br />
resources remain in pristine condition <strong>and</strong> detailed information is lacking for a portion of these<br />
species. In many cases, if it were not for the Refuge providing access to the l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters along<br />
with some support, the research would never take place <strong>and</strong> less scientific information would be<br />
available to the Service to aid in managing <strong>and</strong> conserving the Refuge resources.<br />
Because each SUP will contain specific conditions for minimizing adverse effects to Refuge<br />
resources while the research project is being conducted, it is anticipated that wildlife populations will<br />
find sufficient food resources <strong>and</strong> resting places such that their abundance <strong>and</strong> use of the Refuge will<br />
not be measurably lessened from research activities. The relatively limited number of individuals<br />
expected to be adversely affected due to research will not cause wildlife populations to materially<br />
decline, the physiological condition <strong>and</strong> production of native wildlife <strong>and</strong> plant species will not be<br />
impaired, their behavior <strong>and</strong> normal activity patterns will not be altered dramatically, <strong>and</strong> their<br />
overall welfare will not be negatively impacted. Thus, allowing research to occur with the<br />
stipulations described above will not materially detract or interfere with the purposes for which<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR was established or the Refuge System mission.<br />
M<strong>and</strong>atory 10- or 15-year Reevaluation Date:<br />
____________ M<strong>and</strong>atory 15-year reevaluation date (for wildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
_____X______ M<strong>and</strong>atory 10-year reevaluation date (for nonwildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
NEPA Compliance for Refuge Use Decision (check one below)<br />
___Categorical Exclusion without Environmental Action Statement<br />
___Categorical Exclusion <strong>and</strong> Environmental Action Statement<br />
_X Environmental Assessment <strong>and</strong> Finding of No Significant Impact<br />
___Environmental Impact Statement <strong>and</strong> Record of Decision<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-59
References Cited:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1999. Director’s Order No. 109: Use of Specimens Collected on <strong>Fish</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> L<strong>and</strong>s. March 30, 1999.<br />
B-60 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Attachment 1<br />
Title<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
FORMAT FOR PROPOSALS TO CONDUCT RESEARCH OR LONG-TERM<br />
ECOLOGICAL STUDY<br />
Principal Investigator(s) <strong>and</strong> background<br />
Provide the name(s) <strong>and</strong> affiliation(s) of all principal investigator(s) that will be responsible for<br />
implementation of the research <strong>and</strong>/or long-term monitoring described in the proposal. In addition,<br />
provide a brief description of expertise for principal investigator(s) germane to work described in the<br />
proposal.<br />
Background <strong>and</strong> justification<br />
In a narrative format, describe the following as applicable:<br />
� The conservation issue (e.g., decline in Pisonia rainforest) <strong>and</strong>/or knowledge gap regarding<br />
ecological function that currently exists with any available background information;<br />
� Benefit of research/study findings (e.g., management implications) to resources associated with<br />
refuge purpose(s); <strong>and</strong><br />
� Potential consequences if the conservation issue <strong>and</strong>/or knowledge gap regarding ecological<br />
function is not addressed.<br />
Objectives<br />
Provide detailed objective(s) to be evaluated by the proposed research or study.<br />
Methods <strong>and</strong> Material<br />
Provide a detailed description of the methods <strong>and</strong> materials associated with field work to be<br />
conducted for the research <strong>and</strong>/or ecological study. Methods should include the following:<br />
� Study area(s);<br />
� Number of samples;<br />
� Sampling dates <strong>and</strong> locations;<br />
� Sampling techniques; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Data analyses including statistical tests <strong>and</strong> significance levels.<br />
Previously published methods should be cited without explanation; whereas, new or modified<br />
techniques should be described in detail. Include number of personnel as well as all facilities <strong>and</strong><br />
equipment (e.g., vehicles, structures, markers) required to collect samples/data. Provide a clear<br />
description of the relationships among study objectives, field methods, <strong>and</strong> statistical analyses.<br />
B-62 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Permits<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Identify all State <strong>and</strong> Federal permits required if applicable. If appropriate, assess the impact on the<br />
species population if animals or eggs are to be sacrificed or collected. Note any official status of the<br />
species involved (e.g., threatened or endangered).<br />
Compatibility <strong>and</strong> Section 7 assessments<br />
In order for a research <strong>and</strong>/or long-term ecological monitoring project to be compatible, it must not<br />
materially interfere with or detract from refuge purpose(s) or the Refuge System mission. Describe<br />
potential impacts to threatened or endangered species as well as other refuge plants, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> fish<br />
species that could result from the implementation of project activities on the refuge if applicable.<br />
Consider the cumulative impacts associated with this project in relationship to other on-going or<br />
proposed research <strong>and</strong>/or long-term monitoring.<br />
Animal welfare <strong>Plan</strong><br />
If appropriate, attach a copy of animal welfare plans that are required by the supporting research<br />
affiliate.<br />
Partnerships <strong>and</strong> funding sources<br />
List other participating institutions, agencies, organizations, or individuals as well as the nature <strong>and</strong><br />
magnitude of their cooperative involvement (e.g., funding, equipment, personnel).<br />
Project schedule<br />
Provide estimated initiation <strong>and</strong> completion dates for field sampling, laboratory work, data analyses,<br />
<strong>and</strong> report/manuscript preparation. If the study is divided into phases to be accomplished separately,<br />
provide initiation <strong>and</strong> completion dates for each phase.<br />
Reports <strong>and</strong> raw data<br />
Establish a schedule for annual progress <strong>and</strong> final reports; include adequate time for peer review for<br />
the final report/manuscript. Copies of annual progress reports must be submitted to the Refuge<br />
manager by January 1 during each year that the study is in progress. Draft reports/manuscripts must<br />
be submitted to the Refuge manager for review prior to submission for consideration of publication.<br />
At the conclusion of a research study (manuscripts accepted for publication), an electronic copy of<br />
the data (e.g., GIS vegetation layers, animal species composition <strong>and</strong> numbers, genetics) should be<br />
provided to the Refuge manager. For long-term monitoring projects, the Service may request raw<br />
data for management <strong>and</strong> planning purposes for the refuges.<br />
Publications<br />
Describe the ultimate disposition of study results as publications in scientific journals, presentation at<br />
professional symposiums, or final reports. Publications must also credit the Service <strong>and</strong> staff.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-63
Disposition of samples<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
If the project entails the collection of biotic <strong>and</strong>/or abiotic (e.g., sediment) samples, then describe<br />
their storage. Although the samples may be in the possession of scientists for the purposes of<br />
conducting research in accordance with the special use permit, the USFWS retains ownership of all<br />
samples collected on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. If the samples will be used for subsequent research activities that<br />
are not described within the original proposal, an addendum to the original proposal must be<br />
submitted to the Refuge manager to obtain a new special use permit before initiation of the follow-up<br />
project. After conclusion of the research activities, consult with the Refuge manager regarding the<br />
final disposition of the samples.<br />
B-64 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Attachment 2<br />
Study title:<br />
Fiscal year:<br />
Progress:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORTS FOR REFUGE RESEARCH<br />
AND LONG-TERM MONITORING PROJECTS<br />
In a narrative format, summarize the work that was completed on the study including<br />
the number <strong>and</strong> types of samples collected <strong>and</strong>/or data analyses.<br />
Important findings:<br />
In narrative format, generally describe any conclusions <strong>and</strong>/or management<br />
recommendations that may be drawn from the work completed to date.<br />
Describe problems encountered:<br />
In narrative format, describe any problems that were encountered during the year<br />
<strong>and</strong> their effects upon the study.<br />
Proposed resolution to problems:<br />
For each problem encountered, describe the actions that have been taken to<br />
remediate it.<br />
Preparer:<br />
Date prepared:<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-65
Attachment 3<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING<br />
FOR CURATORIAL SERVICES<br />
BETWEEN THE<br />
(Name of the Federal agency)<br />
AND THE<br />
(Name of the Repository)<br />
This Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Underst<strong>and</strong>ing is entered into this (day) day of (month <strong>and</strong> year), between<br />
the United States of America, acting by <strong>and</strong> through the (name of the Federal agency), hereinafter<br />
called the Depositor, <strong>and</strong> the (name of the Repository), hereinafter called the Repository, in the<br />
State/Territory of (name of the State/Territory).<br />
The Parties do witness that<br />
WHEREAS, the Depositor has the responsibility under Federal law to preserve for future use certain<br />
collections of paleontological specimens <strong>and</strong>/or biological samples as well as associated records,<br />
herein called the Collection, listed in Attachment A which is attached hereto <strong>and</strong> made a part hereof,<br />
<strong>and</strong> is desirous of obtaining curatorial services; <strong>and</strong><br />
WHEREAS, the Repository is desirous of obtaining, housing <strong>and</strong> maintaining the Collection, <strong>and</strong><br />
recognizes the benefits which will accrue to it, the public <strong>and</strong> scientific interests by housing <strong>and</strong><br />
maintaining the Collection for study <strong>and</strong> other educational purposes; <strong>and</strong><br />
WHEREAS, the Parties hereto recognize the Federal Government's continued ownership <strong>and</strong> control<br />
over the Collection <strong>and</strong> any other U.S. Government-owned personal property, listed in Attachment B<br />
which is attached hereto <strong>and</strong> made a part hereof, provided to the Repository, <strong>and</strong> the Federal<br />
Government's responsibility to ensure that the Collection is suitably managed <strong>and</strong> preserved for the<br />
public good; <strong>and</strong><br />
WHEREAS, the Parties hereto recognize the mutual benefits to be derived by having the Collection<br />
suitably housed <strong>and</strong> maintained by the Repository;<br />
NOW THEREFORE, the Parties do mutually agree as follows:<br />
1. The Repository shall:<br />
a. Provide for the professional care <strong>and</strong> management of the Collection from the (names of the<br />
resources) sites, assigned (list site numbers) site numbers. The collections were recovered in<br />
connection with the (name of the Federal or federally authorized project) project, located in<br />
(name of the nearest city or town), (name of the county, if applicable) county, in the<br />
State/Territory of (name of the State/Territory)-<br />
B-66 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
b. Assign as the Curator, the Collections Manager <strong>and</strong> the Conservator having responsibility for<br />
the work under this Memor<strong>and</strong>um, persons who are qualified museum professionals <strong>and</strong> whose<br />
expertise is appropriate to the nature <strong>and</strong> content of the Collection.<br />
c. Begin all work on or about (month, date <strong>and</strong> year) <strong>and</strong> continue for a period of (number of<br />
years) years or until sooner terminated or revoked in accordance with the terms set forth herein.<br />
d. Provide <strong>and</strong> maintain a repository facility having requisite equipment, space <strong>and</strong> adequate<br />
safeguards for the physical security <strong>and</strong> controlled environment for the Collection <strong>and</strong> any other U.S.<br />
Government-owned personal property in the possession of the Repository.<br />
e. Not in any way adversely alter or deface any of the Collection except as may be absolutely<br />
necessary in the course of stabilization, conservation, scientific study, analysis <strong>and</strong> research. Any<br />
activity that will involve the intentional destruction of any of the Collection must be approved in<br />
advance <strong>and</strong> in writing by the Depositor.<br />
f. Annually inspect the facilities, the Collection <strong>and</strong> any other U.S. Government-owned<br />
personal property. Every (number of years) years inventory the Collection <strong>and</strong> any other U.S.<br />
Government-owned personal property. Perform only those conservation treatments as are absolutely<br />
necessary to ensure the physical stability <strong>and</strong> integrity of the Collection, <strong>and</strong> report the results of all<br />
inventories, inspections <strong>and</strong> treatments to the Depositor.<br />
g. Within five (5) days of discovery, report all instances of <strong>and</strong> circumstances surrounding loss<br />
of, deterioration <strong>and</strong> damage to, or destruction of the Collection <strong>and</strong> any other U.S. Governmentowned<br />
personal property to the Depositor, <strong>and</strong> those actions taken to stabilize the Collection <strong>and</strong> to<br />
correct any deficiencies in the physical plant or operating procedures that may have contributed to<br />
the loss, deterioration, damage or destruction. Any actions that will involve the repair <strong>and</strong> restoration<br />
of any of the Collection <strong>and</strong> any other U.S. Government-owned personal property must be approved<br />
in advance <strong>and</strong> in writing by the Depositor.<br />
h. Review <strong>and</strong> approve or deny requests for access to or short-term loan of the Collection (or a<br />
part thereof) for scientific <strong>and</strong> educational uses. In addition, refer requests for consumptive uses of<br />
the Collection (or a part thereof) to the Depositor for approval or denial.<br />
i. Not mortgage, pledge, assign, repatriate, transfer, exchange, give, sublet, discard or part with<br />
possession of any of the Collection or any other U.S. Government-owned personal property in any<br />
manner to any third party either directly or indirectly without the prior written permission of the<br />
Depositor, <strong>and</strong> redirect any such request to the Depositor for response. In addition, not take any<br />
action whereby any of the Collection or any other U.S. Government-owned personal property shall or<br />
may be encumbered, seized, taken in execution, sold, attached, lost, stolen, destroyed or damaged.<br />
2. The Depositor shall:<br />
a. On or about (month, date <strong>and</strong> year), deliver or cause to be delivered to the Repository the<br />
Collection, as described in Attachment A, <strong>and</strong> any other U.S. Government-owned personal property,<br />
as described in Attachment B.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-67
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
b. Assign as the Depositor's Representative having full authority with regard to this<br />
Memor<strong>and</strong>um, a person who meets pertinent professional qualifications.<br />
c. Every (number of years) years, jointly with the Repository's designated representative, have<br />
the Depositor's Representative inspect <strong>and</strong> inventory the Collection <strong>and</strong> any other U.S. Governmentowned<br />
personal property, <strong>and</strong> inspect the repository facility.<br />
d. Review <strong>and</strong> approve or deny requests for consumptively using the Collection (or a part<br />
thereof).<br />
3. Removal of all or any portion of the Collection from the premises of the Repository for scientific<br />
or educational purposes; any conditions for h<strong>and</strong>ling, packaging <strong>and</strong> transporting the Collection;<br />
<strong>and</strong> other conditions that may be specified by the Repository to prevent breakage, deterioration<br />
<strong>and</strong> contamination.<br />
4. The Collection or portions thereof may be exhibited, photographed or otherwise reproduced <strong>and</strong><br />
studied in accordance with the terms <strong>and</strong> conditions stipulated in Attachment C to this Memor<strong>and</strong>um.<br />
All exhibits, reproductions <strong>and</strong> studies shall credit the Depositor, <strong>and</strong> read as follows:<br />
"Courtesy of the (name of the Federal agency)."The Repository agrees to provide the Depositor<br />
with copies of any resulting publications.<br />
5. The Repository shall maintain complete <strong>and</strong> accurate records of the Collection <strong>and</strong> any other U.S.<br />
Government-owned personal property, including information on the study, use, loan <strong>and</strong> location<br />
of said Collection which has been removed from the premises of the Repository.<br />
6. Upon execution by both parties, this Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Underst<strong>and</strong>ing shall be effective on this<br />
(day) day of (month <strong>and</strong> year), <strong>and</strong> shall remain in effect for (number of years) years, at which<br />
time it will be reviewed, revised, as necessary, <strong>and</strong> reaffirmed or terminated. This Memor<strong>and</strong>um<br />
may be revised or extended by mutual consent of both parties, or by issuance of a written<br />
amendment signed <strong>and</strong> dated by both parties. Either party may terminate this Memor<strong>and</strong>um by<br />
providing 90 days written notice. Upon termination, the Repository shall return such Collection<br />
<strong>and</strong> any other U.S. Government-owned personal property to the destination directed by the<br />
Depositor <strong>and</strong> in such manner to preclude breakage, loss, deterioration <strong>and</strong> contamination during<br />
h<strong>and</strong>ling, packaging <strong>and</strong> shipping, <strong>and</strong> in accordance with other conditions specified in writing by<br />
the Depositor. If the Repository terminates, or is in default of, this Memor<strong>and</strong>um, the Repository<br />
shall fund the packaging <strong>and</strong> transportation costs. If the Depositor terminates this Memor<strong>and</strong>um,<br />
the Depositor shall fund the packaging <strong>and</strong> transportation costs.<br />
7. Title to the Collection being cared for <strong>and</strong> maintained under this Memor<strong>and</strong>um lies with the<br />
Federal Government.<br />
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the Parties hereto have executed this Memor<strong>and</strong>um.<br />
B-68 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Signed: (signature of the Federal Agency Official) Date:<br />
(date)<br />
Signed: (signature of the Repository Official) Date:<br />
(date)<br />
Attachment 3A: Inventory of the Collection<br />
Attachment 3B: Inventory of any other U.S. Government-owned Personal Property<br />
Attachment 3C: Terms <strong>and</strong> Conditions Required by the Depositor<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-69
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
B-70 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Use: University of Hawai‘i Field Station<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Refuge Name: Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR)<br />
City/County <strong>and</strong> State: Hawai‘i County, State of Hawai‘i<br />
Establishing <strong>and</strong> Acquisition Authority:<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR was established on October 29, 1985, under the authority of the Endangered<br />
Species Act of 1973, 16 U.S.C. 1534.<br />
Refuge Purpose(s):<br />
The Administration Act directs the U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service (Service) to manage each refuge to<br />
fulfill the Refuge System mission, to maintain <strong>and</strong> where appropriate, restore the refuge’s ecological<br />
integrity; <strong>and</strong> achieve the specific purpose(s) for which the refuge was established.<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Hakalau Forest NWR is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA).<br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
The purpose of Kona Forest Unit is “... to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as<br />
endangered species or threatened species ....or (B) plants ...” 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1534 (ESA). More<br />
specifically, the unit was established to provide habitat for the ‘alalā <strong>and</strong> to assist the ‘Alalā<br />
Recovery Program’s repatriation efforts.<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Mission:<br />
To administer a national network of l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters for the conservation, management, <strong>and</strong> where<br />
appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plant resources <strong>and</strong> their habitats within the United<br />
States for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Americans (the Administration Act of<br />
1966).<br />
Description of Use(s):<br />
The University of Hawai‘i (UH) operates a biological field station located on the Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR Administrative Site. Operation of the field station is described in a Memor<strong>and</strong>um of<br />
Agreement (MOA), dated October 29, 1985 (Contract No. 14-48-0001-95500) between the Service<br />
<strong>and</strong> UH. That agreement expired on October 24, 2009. The field station is used to house <strong>and</strong> support<br />
UH faculty, students, <strong>and</strong> visiting scientists conducting research supporting the conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
restoration of native species <strong>and</strong> habitats at Hakalau Forest NWR. Maintaining a collaborative<br />
research environment on the Refuge with various partners is strongly encouraged. Studies conducted<br />
on the Refuge require a Special Use Permit <strong>and</strong> Refuge Manager’s approval. This compatibility<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-71
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
determination is confined to the field station; individual research projects taking place at the Refuge<br />
are covered under a separate compatibility determination titled “Research, Scientific Collecting, <strong>and</strong><br />
Surveys.” A separate CD is required because some research activity at Hakalau Forest NWR is<br />
independent of <strong>and</strong> accommodated without the use of the UH facility. All operations at the field<br />
station, including expected dates of overnight stays <strong>and</strong> the purpose for each visit must be<br />
coordinated with the Refuge Manager in advance. UH bears all operational <strong>and</strong> maintenance costs<br />
related to the station <strong>and</strong> thus does not require routine involvement by Refuge staff working at the<br />
Administration Site. Access to the Refuge requires guests to be given secure combination lock<br />
numbers that are strictly confidential. UH activities not directly pertaining to activities conducted on<br />
the Refuge are not covered in this determination <strong>and</strong> are thus subject to separate review <strong>and</strong><br />
appropriate use considerations if the station is used for offsite projects.<br />
Research is a specialized use (603 FW1) <strong>and</strong>, therefore, it is not considered a priority public use by<br />
Refuge System policy. Refuge plans <strong>and</strong> actions based on research <strong>and</strong> monitoring provide an<br />
informed approach to habitat, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> public use management programs. Forest bird<br />
conservation <strong>and</strong> management at the Refuge are based upon best available scientific information<br />
from research combined with long-term monitoring. Some research is used to address specific<br />
wildlife conservation questions, such as underst<strong>and</strong>ing the causes of reduced or declining forest bird<br />
populations <strong>and</strong> development of tools <strong>and</strong> techniques to aid recovery of threatened or endangered<br />
species. Other research has broader applicability, such as using a suite of forest birds as indicators of<br />
native forest health conditions, <strong>and</strong> to document change in the larger isl<strong>and</strong> environment <strong>and</strong><br />
associated impacts related to climate change <strong>and</strong> global warming.<br />
The Service’s Appropriate Refuge Uses policies (603 FW1.10D (4)) indicate priority for research<br />
that contributes to the enhancement, protection, use, preservation, <strong>and</strong> management of native wildlife<br />
populations <strong>and</strong> their habitat as well as their natural diversity. Projects that contribute to refugespecific<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or wilderness management, where applicable, would be given a higher priority over<br />
other requests. Research applicants must submit a detailed proposal that would outline:<br />
1) Objectives of the study;<br />
2) Justification for the study;<br />
3) Detailed methodology <strong>and</strong> schedule;<br />
4) Potential impacts on Refuge wildlife or habitat, including disturbance (short <strong>and</strong> long term),<br />
injury <strong>and</strong>/or mortality. This includes a description of measures the researcher will take to<br />
reduce disturbance or impacts;<br />
5) Personnel required;<br />
6) Costs to the Refuge, if any, including staff time <strong>and</strong> equipment;<br />
7) Expected outcomes or results; <strong>and</strong><br />
8) A time line for submitting progress reports <strong>and</strong> final products (e.g., reports, theses,<br />
dissertations, publications).<br />
UH research proposed to be conducted on the Refuge would be reviewed by Refuge staff <strong>and</strong> others<br />
as appropriate, to weigh the anticipated impacts versus the benefits of the research activity to Refuge<br />
management <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing of natural systems. This would form the basis for allowing the<br />
project to proceed or be denied. If the proposal is approved, the Refuge Manager would issue a<br />
SUP(s) which would set the terms <strong>and</strong> conditions of the study to avoid <strong>and</strong>/or minimize the impacts<br />
on Refuge resources, public use activities, <strong>and</strong> Refuge field operations. All research projects would<br />
be assessed during implementation to ensure that impacts remain within acceptable levels.<br />
B-72 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Research would not be allowed on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s if one or more of the following criteria apply to a<br />
project proposal:<br />
� Research that conflicts with other ongoing research, monitoring, or management programs will<br />
not be granted;<br />
� Highly intrusive or manipulative research is generally not permitted in order to protect native<br />
birds <strong>and</strong> other wildlife populations <strong>and</strong> wilderness values;<br />
� Research projects that can be accomplished off the Refuge are less likely to be approved;<br />
� Research which causes undue disturbance or is more than minimally intrusive is not likely to be<br />
granted;<br />
� The level <strong>and</strong> type of disturbance will be carefully evaluated when considering a request.<br />
Strategies to minimize disturbance through study design, including location, timing, scope,<br />
number of permittees, study methods, number of study sites, etc., will be required;<br />
� If staffing or logistics make it impossible for Refuge staff to monitor the researcher, the permit is<br />
likely to be denied; <strong>and</strong><br />
� If the activity is in a sensitive area, the research request may be denied, depending on the specific<br />
circumstances.<br />
Availability of Resources:<br />
Normally, minimal Refuge staff resources are required to provide coordination <strong>and</strong> oversight for<br />
activities conducted on the Refuge <strong>and</strong> supported by the operation of the field station:<br />
Category <strong>and</strong> Itemization One-time ($) Annual ($/yr)<br />
Administration <strong>and</strong> Management No fees charged $9,300<br />
The above annual cost reflects the cost to provide oversight for the UH field station facility <strong>and</strong><br />
prevent impacts to natural resources. The cost was conservatively estimated as requiring 2 percent of<br />
the base cost of a GS-12 Deputy Refuge Manager, 3 percent of the GS-13 Refuge Manager, 2 percent<br />
of the GS-12 <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist, 1 percent of the GS-9 Administrative, <strong>and</strong> 1 percent of the<br />
Maintenance Supervisor’s staff time, based on the assumption that this activity would use that<br />
portion of the year to administer <strong>and</strong> coordinate activities conducted on the Refuge <strong>and</strong> supported by<br />
the operation of the field station.<br />
The estimated administration <strong>and</strong> management cost reflects the portion of each year necessary to<br />
work with UH faculty to assure appropriate, compatible use of the field station in accordance with<br />
the MOA. Depending upon the amount of activity planned for the field station in a given year, the<br />
actual amount of time <strong>and</strong> funding required to administer the operation could vary significantly.<br />
Anticipated Impacts of the Use(s):<br />
The field station is situated within the 15-acre Hakalau Forest NWR Administrative Site situated at<br />
the upper (western) boundary of the Refuge. Much of the vicinity understory <strong>and</strong> ground cover has<br />
been disturbed by more than 100 years of cattle grazing <strong>and</strong> pig rooting, primarily preceding the<br />
establishment of the Refuge. This resulted in conversion of native forest habitats to open rangel<strong>and</strong><br />
carpeted with nonnative grasses. Since construction of the field station, the immediate vicinity<br />
surrounding the Administrative Site has been restored with planted koa. The area surrounding the<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-73
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
field station is not high quality habitat for imperiled Refuge species, with the exception of the nēnē.<br />
Because it is necessary to maintain an open area to store <strong>and</strong> maintain equipment <strong>and</strong> facilities, <strong>and</strong><br />
because of resident nēnē nesting in the area, there are no plans to restore forest within the boundaries<br />
of the 15-acre Administrative Site.<br />
Operation <strong>and</strong> maintenance of the station has little if any impact on forest birds <strong>and</strong> the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a.<br />
Impacts to nēnē are minimal <strong>and</strong> limited to temporary displacement of individuals by vehicles <strong>and</strong><br />
pedestrian traffic in <strong>and</strong> around the building structures <strong>and</strong> area roads. During the nēnē breeding<br />
season of 2009-10, two pairs of geese nested beneath the field station building <strong>and</strong> entranceway<br />
decking.<br />
Operation of the field station is intended to provide benefits to the management of the Refuge by<br />
facilitating research contributing to conservation of resident Refuge species <strong>and</strong> restoration of Refuge<br />
habitats. Numerous studies that have taken place at the Refuge over the last 16 years would likely<br />
have been infeasible without use of the field station on site at the Refuge.<br />
Use of Hakalau Forest NWR to conduct research, scientific collection, <strong>and</strong> surveys will generally<br />
benefit plant populations, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> habitats. The impacts of research activities would be project<strong>and</strong><br />
site-specific, <strong>and</strong> would vary depending on the scope <strong>and</strong> type of research conducted. Scientific<br />
findings gained through these projects provide important information regarding life-history needs of<br />
species <strong>and</strong> species groups, as well as identify or refine management actions to achieve resource<br />
management objectives in refuge management plans (especially CCPs). Reducing uncertainty<br />
regarding wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat responses to refuge management actions in order to achieve desired<br />
outcomes reflected in resource management objectives is essential for adaptive management in<br />
accordance with 522 DM 1.<br />
If project methods impact or conflict with Refuge resources, other public-uses, other high-priority<br />
research, <strong>and</strong> Refuge management programs, then it must be clearly demonstrated that scientific<br />
findings will be essential to resource management <strong>and</strong> that the project cannot be conducted off<br />
Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s for the project to be compatible. The investigator(s) must identify methods/strategies in<br />
advance required to minimize or eliminate the potential impact(s) <strong>and</strong> conflict(s). If unacceptable<br />
impacts cannot be avoided, then the project will not be compatible <strong>and</strong> not be approved. Projects that<br />
represent public or private economic use of the natural resources of any national wildlife refuge (e.g.,<br />
bioprospecting), in accordance with 16 U.S.C. 715s, must contribute to the achievement of the<br />
national wildlife refuge purposes or the Refuge System mission to be compatible (50 C.F.R. 29.1).<br />
Impacts would be project- <strong>and</strong> site-specific, where they will vary depending upon nature <strong>and</strong> scope<br />
of the field work. Data collection techniques will generally have negligible animal mortality or<br />
disturbance, habitat destruction, no introduction of contaminants, <strong>and</strong> no introduction of<br />
nonindigenous species. In contrast, projects involving the collection of biotic samples (plants or<br />
animals) or requiring intensive ground-based data or sample collection will have short-term impacts.<br />
To reduce impacts, the minimum number of samples (e.g., water, soils, vegetative litter, plants,<br />
invertebrates, vertebrates) will be collected for identification <strong>and</strong>/or experimentation <strong>and</strong> statistical<br />
analysis. Where possible, researchers would coordinate <strong>and</strong> share collections to reduce sampling<br />
needed for multiple projects.<br />
Some level of disturbance is expected with all research activities since most researchers will be<br />
entering areas that are normally closed to the public <strong>and</strong>, depending on specific research activities,<br />
B-74 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
may also be collecting samples or h<strong>and</strong>ling wildlife. However, minimal impact to Refuge wildlife<br />
<strong>and</strong> habitats will be expected with research studies because SUPs will include conditions to ensure<br />
that impacts to wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitats are kept to a minimum (see discussion above).<br />
Direct damage or alteration to the habitat from researchers would be minor due to the research<br />
proposal evaluation process <strong>and</strong> stipulations imposed through the SUP. However, some increase in<br />
invasive plants is possible from ground disturbance <strong>and</strong>/or transportation of source seed on research<br />
equipment <strong>and</strong> personnel, <strong>and</strong> rodents <strong>and</strong> disease organisms could potentially be transferred from<br />
boots <strong>and</strong> trapping equipment. Likewise, there could be localized <strong>and</strong> temporary effects resulting in<br />
direct impacts of vegetation trampling, collecting soil <strong>and</strong> plant samples, or trapping <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ling<br />
wildlife. Other potential, but localized <strong>and</strong> temporary, effects would include wildlife disturbance,<br />
which is expected with some research activities. Researcher disturbance could result in altering<br />
wildlife behavior. However, only research with reasonably certain short-term effects from<br />
disturbance would be permitted. Only the minimum of samples (e.g., water, soils, vegetative litter,<br />
plants, invertebrates, tissue, etc.) required for identification <strong>and</strong>/or experimentation <strong>and</strong> statistical<br />
analysis would be permitted.<br />
State <strong>and</strong> Federal collecting permits will also ensure minimal impacts to fish, wildlife, plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
their habitats. A Section 7 consultation under the ESA will be required for activities that may affect a<br />
federally listed species <strong>and</strong>/or critical habitat.<br />
At least 6 months before initiation of field work (unless an exception is made by prior approval of the<br />
Refuge Manager), project investigator(s) must submit a detailed proposal using the format provided<br />
in Attachment 1 to the Research CD. Project proposals will be reviewed by Refuge staff <strong>and</strong> others,<br />
as needed, to assess the potential impacts (short-, long-term, <strong>and</strong> cumulative) relative to benefits of<br />
the investigation to Refuge management issues <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing of natural systems. This<br />
assessment will form the primary basis for allowing or denying a specific project. Projects which<br />
result in unacceptable Refuge impacts will not be found compatible <strong>and</strong> will not be approved.<br />
If the proposal is approved, then the Refuge Manager will issue a SUP(s) with required stipulations<br />
(terms <strong>and</strong> conditions) of the project to avoid <strong>and</strong>/or minimize potential impacts to Refuge resources<br />
as well as conflicts with other public-use activities <strong>and</strong> Refuge field management operations.<br />
The combination of stipulations identified above <strong>and</strong> conditions included in any SUP(s) will ensure<br />
that proposed projects contribute to the enhancement, protection, conservation, <strong>and</strong> management of<br />
native wildlife populations <strong>and</strong> their habitats on the Refuge. As a result, these projects will help<br />
fulfill Refuge purposes; contribute to the Refuge System mission; <strong>and</strong> maintain the biological<br />
integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health of the Refuge.<br />
Spread of invasive plants <strong>and</strong>/or pathogens is possible from ground disturbance <strong>and</strong>/or transportation<br />
of project equipment <strong>and</strong> personnel, but it will be minimized or eliminated by requiring proper<br />
cleaning of investigator equipment <strong>and</strong> clothing as well as quarantine methods, where necessary. If<br />
after all practical measures are taken an unacceptable spread of invasive species is anticipated to<br />
occur, the project will be found not compatible without a restoration or mitigation plan.<br />
There also could be localized <strong>and</strong> temporary effects from vegetation trampling, collecting of soil <strong>and</strong><br />
plant samples, or trapping <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ling of wildlife. Impacts may also occur from infrastructure<br />
necessary to support projects (e.g., permanent transects or plot markers, exclosure devices,<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-75
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
monitoring equipment, solar panels to power unattended monitoring equipment). Some level of<br />
disturbance is expected with these projects, especially if investigator(s) enter areas closed to the<br />
public <strong>and</strong> collect samples or h<strong>and</strong>le wildlife. However, wildlife disturbance (including altered<br />
behavior) will be localized <strong>and</strong> temporary in nature. Where long-term or cumulative unacceptable<br />
effects cannot be avoidable, the project will not be found compatible. Project proposals will be<br />
reviewed by Refuge staff <strong>and</strong> others, as needed, to assess the potential impacts (short, long-term, <strong>and</strong><br />
cumulative) relative to benefits of the investigation to Refuge management issues <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
of natural systems. This assessment will form the primary basis for allowing or denying a specific<br />
project.<br />
Public Review <strong>and</strong> Comment:<br />
This determination was issued for public review <strong>and</strong> comment as part of the Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Draft <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>and</strong> Environmental Assessment between August 16, 2010-<br />
September 15, 2010. An open house was held <strong>and</strong> written comments were solicited from the public<br />
during this period for the CCP via news release, website posting, extensive mailing as well as e-mail<br />
list, <strong>and</strong> circulation of <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 3. No public comment was received on this compatibility<br />
determination.<br />
Determination:<br />
___ Use is Not Compatible<br />
X Use is Compatible with Following Stipulations<br />
Stipulations Necessary to Ensure Compatibility:<br />
Conditions have changed since the original MOA was established. This compatibility determination<br />
establishes a basis for the operation of a field station on the grounds of the Refuge. The uses<br />
described here are conditional upon the development of a new Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Agreement or<br />
Cooperative Agreement that is acceptable under current Refuge System st<strong>and</strong>ards. The previous<br />
MOA expired on October 24, 2009. A current, fully executed MOA must be in place at all times for<br />
this use to be permitted by the Refuge Manager. Any new MOA needs to be revised to include, but<br />
not limited to, the following conditions:<br />
The field station will be operated solely for the purpose of conducting environmental, conservation,<br />
biotic, climatic, <strong>and</strong> management studies that will assist the Service in accomplishing the objectives<br />
for which the Refuge was established.<br />
1. Most of the Refuge is not open to the public, therefore access to the Field Station is restricted<br />
<strong>and</strong> subject to Service approval. Access codes for entry to the Refuge may change from time<br />
to time <strong>and</strong> will be provided by the Refuge as needed. St<strong>and</strong>ard notification for visits<br />
scheduled by permit holders to the Refuge is 7 days from the time of anticipated use. The UH<br />
will maintain a log of visitors to the facility stating name, affiliation, contact information,<br />
vehicle identification information, <strong>and</strong> purpose for the visit, citing relevant SUPs, project or<br />
coordination needs. The Refuge Manager or his /her agent will be provided with this<br />
B-76 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
information upon request or, at a minimum, within 30 days of the end of each calendar year<br />
(January 30).<br />
2. The UH shall have the use of a site approved by the Service for operation <strong>and</strong> maintenance of<br />
a biological field station at no cost to the Service. The site consists of an existing facility used<br />
under prior (expired) agreement as a research station located on Refuge l<strong>and</strong> within the<br />
Administration Site for the Refuge as identified on the approved site plan.<br />
3. It is expressly agreed by the parties that the UH is solely responsible for the cost of the<br />
maintenance of the field station, pursuant to the terms of this permit. Continued maintenance<br />
of <strong>and</strong> related operating expenses for the facility subsequent to occupation is to be borne by<br />
the designated unit of the UH. The Service will not be responsible for capital costs for future<br />
construction or additional maintenance expenses that may occur as a result of this SUP.<br />
4. Use of the field station <strong>and</strong> all use of premises outside such buildings located on the Refuge<br />
will be coordinated with <strong>and</strong> subject to the approval of the Refuge Manager <strong>and</strong> will be<br />
compatible with Refuge objectives <strong>and</strong> operation. Individual research projects will require<br />
approval <strong>and</strong> issuance of SUPs by the Refuge Manager.<br />
5. Use of the field station will be limited to scientists, professors, students, volunteers, <strong>and</strong> UH<br />
officials <strong>and</strong> others designated to conduct authorized research <strong>and</strong> educational programs on<br />
the Refuge or official purposes related to facility operations <strong>and</strong> coordination with the<br />
Refuge. No unapproved guests are authorized on the Refuge at any time.<br />
6. The UH shall develop a policy for assigning residency at the field station by mutual<br />
agreement with the Refuge, <strong>and</strong> priority shall be given to those individuals <strong>and</strong> projects<br />
conducted on the Refuge. This policy shall include acceptable provisions for accommodating<br />
visiting scientists <strong>and</strong> other authorized professionals who are not associated with the<br />
University (e.g., visiting scientists <strong>and</strong> students) on a space available basis. Access to the<br />
Refuge <strong>and</strong> use of the facility for offsite researchers, contractors, interns, etc., is not<br />
authorized by this permit.<br />
7. The Service shall at all times have the right of access to the l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> facilities covered by this<br />
permit. The Service, owing to site <strong>and</strong> space limitations, may by prior arrangement with UH,<br />
occasionally reserve the field station for meeting space for official business (e.g., internal or<br />
partnership meetings) <strong>and</strong> may arrange use of the dorm/kitchen when Service cabins are full<br />
<strong>and</strong> space is available.<br />
8. At the discretion of the Refuge, the field station may not be available to any person who is<br />
not in good st<strong>and</strong>ing with the Refuge due to noncompliance with the Refuge SUP conditions.<br />
9. Permittee agrees that all users of the facility agree to comply with all Federal, State, <strong>and</strong><br />
County laws <strong>and</strong> Refuge regulations applicable to the Refuge <strong>and</strong> the UH’s occupancy <strong>and</strong><br />
use of the l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> facilities.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-77
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
10. All research <strong>and</strong> study projects undertaken by UH that involve the use of the Refuge must be<br />
approved in advance by the Refuge manager. Applications for a SUP require a completed<br />
research/management study proposal.<br />
11. Permittee agrees to take such soil <strong>and</strong> resource conservation <strong>and</strong> protection measures<br />
including weed control, on the l<strong>and</strong> covered by this Agreement as the Refuge Manager may<br />
request.<br />
12. Permittee agrees to pay the United States the full value for damages to the l<strong>and</strong>s or other<br />
property of the United States caused by UH, its officers, employees, students, interns <strong>and</strong><br />
agents, <strong>and</strong> to hold the United States harmless against any liability not caused by negligence<br />
or intentional acts of Service employees for damages to life, person, or property arising from<br />
UH that it is legally empowered to do so under the laws of the State of Hawai‘i, including but<br />
not limited to Chapters 661 <strong>and</strong> 662, Hawaii Revised Statutes, <strong>and</strong> subject legislative<br />
appropriation.<br />
13. Permittee agrees to provide the use of the Station’s catchment tank water supply to the<br />
County of Hawai‘i, State of Hawai‘i, <strong>and</strong> Service firefighters for emergencies involving<br />
wildl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> structural fire suppression efforts.<br />
The MOA between the Service <strong>and</strong> UH requires Refuge Manager approval of individual research<br />
projects based out of the field station. Residential use of the field station is limited to scientists,<br />
professors, students, volunteers, <strong>and</strong> UH officials conducting activities determined by the Refuge<br />
Manager to benefit the Refuge. The Refuge Manager will ensure all operations of the field station<br />
remain compatible with the purpose for which the Refuge was established.<br />
Permits will be issued for all research activities conducted from the field station <strong>and</strong> will list the<br />
conditions the Refuge manager determines necessary to ensure compatibility. The MOA between the<br />
Refuge <strong>and</strong> UH for operation of the field station may be terminated at any time for noncompliance<br />
with MOA conditions. The MOA may be modified, redesigned, or terminated upon determination by<br />
the Refuge Manager that field station activities exceed MOA parameters or are causing unanticipated<br />
adverse impacts to wildlife, wildlife habitat, approved priority public uses, noncompliance with<br />
Special Use Permit conditions, or other Refuge management activities.<br />
Special conditions to protect fragile Refuge habitats will be incorporated. These include taking<br />
precautions to prevent the introduction of nonnative plants <strong>and</strong> insects to the Refuge. Vehicles, boots,<br />
clothing, <strong>and</strong> equipment must be cleaned <strong>and</strong> inspected for seeds, eggs, <strong>and</strong> larvae prior to entry to<br />
the Refuge. Cutting or clearing vegetation is not permitted. Other conditions prohibit fires <strong>and</strong><br />
require the removal of all trash.<br />
If the proposed research methods would impact or potentially impact Refuge resources (habitat or<br />
wildlife), it must be demonstrated that the research is essential (i.e., critical to the survival of a<br />
species; Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s provide the only or critical habitat for a species; contributes significantly to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of impacts from climate change; or assessment <strong>and</strong>/or restoration after cataclysmic<br />
events), <strong>and</strong> the researcher must identify the issues in advance of the impact. Highly intrusive or<br />
manipulative research is generally not permitted in order to protect native bird populations.<br />
B-78 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
All SUPs will have a definite termination date. Renewals will be subject to Refuge Manager review<br />
<strong>and</strong> approval based on timely submission of <strong>and</strong> content in progress reports, compliance with SUP<br />
stipulations, <strong>and</strong> required permits. Other stipulations <strong>and</strong> provisions would include the following:<br />
� Potential researchers must submit a written, detailed research proposal to the Refuge Manager at<br />
least 6 months prior to start of field work. The required proposal format would be provided to<br />
researchers (see Attachment 1 to the Research CD);<br />
� Researchers are responsible for acquiring <strong>and</strong>/or renewing any necessary State <strong>and</strong> Federal<br />
permits prior to beginning or continuing their project;<br />
� A Section 7 consultation under the ESA would be required for research activities that may affect<br />
a federally threatened, endangered, or proposed species;<br />
� Research that does not involve birds generally will only be allowed outside of the breeding<br />
season of avian species, unless it can be demonstrated that there likely will be no impact to those<br />
breeding species. If a research project can only be conducted during the breeding season, such<br />
studies will only be permitted where there are specific protocols to minimize disturbance;<br />
� Research will adhere to scientifically defensible protocols for data collection, where available<br />
<strong>and</strong> feasible;<br />
� Approved research projects will be conducted under a Refuge-issued Special Use Permit which<br />
will have additional project-specific stipulations;<br />
� Annual or other short-term Special Use Permits are preferred; however, some permits will be a<br />
longer period, if needed, to facilitate the research. All Special Use Permits will have a definite<br />
termination date. Renewals will be subject to Refuge Manager review of research data, status<br />
reports, compliance with compatibility determination <strong>and</strong> permit stipulations, <strong>and</strong> other permits;<br />
� If unacceptable impacts or issues arise or be noted by the Refuge staff, then the Refuge Manager<br />
can suspend/modify conditions/terminate on Refuge research that is already permitted <strong>and</strong> in<br />
progress;<br />
� Research progress reports are required at least annually, <strong>and</strong> final reports are due within 1 year of<br />
the completion of the project, unless negotiated otherwise. The minimum required elements for a<br />
progress report will be provided to investigator(s);<br />
� The Refuge staff will be given the opportunity to review draft manuscript(s) from the project<br />
before being submitted to a scientific journal(s) for consideration of publication;<br />
� The Refuge staff will be provided with copies of raw data (preferably electronic database format)<br />
at the conclusion of the project;<br />
� The Refuge staff will be provided with copies of all publications developed from Refuge research<br />
projects;<br />
� The Service <strong>and</strong> the Refuge will be appropriately cited <strong>and</strong> acknowledged in all written <strong>and</strong> oral<br />
presentations resulting from the research on the Refuge;<br />
� Where appropriate, the Refuge staff reserves the right to be coauthor(s) on any reports or<br />
publications resulting from the study conducted on the Refuge. Authorship is appropriate where<br />
justifiably based upon participation in the project over the course of implementation occurs (e.g.,<br />
field work, data analyses, summary of findings);<br />
� Upon completion of the project or annually, research sites must be cleaned up to the Refuge<br />
Manager’s satisfaction <strong>and</strong> all physical markers removed. For long-term projects, conditions for<br />
clean up <strong>and</strong> removal of equipment <strong>and</strong> physical markers would be stipulated in the Special Use<br />
Permit;<br />
� All samples collected on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s are the property of the Service even while in the<br />
possession of the investigator(s). Any future work with previously collected samples not clearly<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-79
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
identified in the project proposal will require submission of a subsequent proposal for review <strong>and</strong><br />
approval. In addition, a new SUP will be required for additional project work;<br />
� Investigator(s) <strong>and</strong> support staff will follow all Refuge-specific regulations that specify access<br />
<strong>and</strong> travel on the Refuge;<br />
� At any time, Refuge staff may accompany the researchers;<br />
� Only projects which have no effect or will result in not likely to adversely affect determinations<br />
will be considered compatible;<br />
� After approval, all projects also will be assessed during implementation to ensure impacts <strong>and</strong><br />
conflicts remain within acceptable levels; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Projects which are not covered by the CCP or subsequent stepdown plans may require additional<br />
NEPA documentation.<br />
Justification:<br />
Operation of the UH field station at the Refuge can contribute to the achievement of the Refuge<br />
purpose <strong>and</strong> the mission of the Service. Research performed by UH faculty <strong>and</strong> students <strong>and</strong> other<br />
research partners exp<strong>and</strong>s underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the unique wildlife, diverse native habitats, management<br />
programs, <strong>and</strong> mission of Hakalau Forest NWR <strong>and</strong> the Refuge System.<br />
Because the aforementioned MOA contains specific conditions for minimizing adverse effects to<br />
Refuge resources associated with operation of the field station, it is anticipated that wildlife<br />
populations will find sufficient food resources <strong>and</strong> resting places such that their abundance <strong>and</strong> use of<br />
the Refuge will not be measurably lessened from these activities. The relatively limited number of<br />
individuals expected to be adversely affected from these activities will not cause wildlife populations<br />
to materially decline, the physiological condition <strong>and</strong> production of native wildlife species will not be<br />
impaired, their behavior <strong>and</strong> normal activity patterns will not be altered dramatically, <strong>and</strong> their<br />
overall welfare will not be negatively impacted. Allowing field station operations to occur with<br />
stipulations will not materially detract or interfere with the purposes for which the Refuge was<br />
established or the Refuge System mission.<br />
M<strong>and</strong>atory 10- or 15-year Reevaluation Date:<br />
____________ M<strong>and</strong>atory 15-year reevaluation date (for wildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
_____X______ M<strong>and</strong>atory 10-year reevaluation date (for nonwildlife-dependent public uses)<br />
NEPA Compliance for Refuge Use Decision (check one below)<br />
___Categorical Exclusion without Environmental Action Statement<br />
___Categorical Exclusion <strong>and</strong> Environmental Action Statement<br />
_X Environmental Assessment <strong>and</strong> Finding of No Significant Impact<br />
___Environmental Impact Statement <strong>and</strong> Record of Decision<br />
B-80 Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations
References Cited:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service. 1994. Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Agreement between the University of<br />
Hawaii <strong>and</strong> the U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service for the Construction <strong>and</strong> Maintenance of a Biological<br />
Field Station at the Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge, Hawaii County, Hawaii.<br />
Appendix B: Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations B-81
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation<br />
Overview<br />
The <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> proposes numerous projects to be implemented over the next<br />
15 years. Implementation of the CCP will require increased funding, which will be sought from a<br />
variety of sources. This plan will depend on additional congressional allocations, partnerships, <strong>and</strong><br />
grants. There are no guarantees that additional Federal funds will be made available to implement<br />
any of these projects. Other sources of funds (both public <strong>and</strong> private) will need to be obtained.<br />
Activities <strong>and</strong> projects identified will be implemented as funds become available. The 5-year<br />
intervals column indicates the Service anticipating implementation during the first, second, <strong>and</strong> third<br />
5-year period of the 15-year life of the CCP (e.g., 2015, 2020, 2025).<br />
Many of these projects are included in either the Refuge Operational Needs System (RONS) or<br />
Service Asset Maintenance <strong>and</strong> Management System (SAMMS), both of which are used to document<br />
funding needs <strong>and</strong> request funding from Congress. The RONS database tracks proposed new projects<br />
to implement the CCP to meet refuge goals <strong>and</strong> objectives <strong>and</strong> legal m<strong>and</strong>ates. The SAMMS<br />
database documents <strong>and</strong> tracks repairs, replacements, <strong>and</strong> maintenance of facilities <strong>and</strong> equipment.<br />
Smaller proposed projects will be implemented as funding allows, <strong>and</strong> funding will be sought for<br />
these projects through a variety of resources <strong>and</strong> partnerships.<br />
Monitoring<br />
Monitoring activities will be conducted on a percentage of all new <strong>and</strong> existing projects <strong>and</strong> activities<br />
to document wildlife populations <strong>and</strong> changes across time, habitat conditions, <strong>and</strong> response to<br />
management practices. General monitoring activities are discussed in Chapter 2 under Goal 6, as well<br />
as existing monitoring activities summarized in Appendix L. Additionally, under each objective in<br />
Chapter 2, attributes have been identified that serve as monitoring indicators.<br />
Monitoring of CCP implementation is addressed in the last section of this appendix.<br />
Costs to Implement CCP<br />
A. One-time <strong>and</strong> recurring costs<br />
The following sections detail both one-time <strong>and</strong> recurring costs for various projects. One-time costs<br />
reflect the initial costs associated with a project, such as the purchase of equipment, contracting<br />
services, construction, etc. Recurring costs reflect the future operational <strong>and</strong> maintenance costs<br />
associated with the project. The following tables primarily document projects with a physically<br />
visible, trackable “on-the-ground” component, such as public use <strong>and</strong> management facilities <strong>and</strong><br />
structures, habitat restoration, research, <strong>and</strong> monitoring <strong>and</strong> surveys. The scope <strong>and</strong> costs for<br />
“administrative” activities such as MOAs, reporting, <strong>and</strong> establishment of partnerships are difficult to<br />
estimate in advance <strong>and</strong> thus are not accounted for in the tables below. Cost estimates are in 2010<br />
dollars <strong>and</strong> do not account for future inflation <strong>and</strong> other anticipated rising costs.<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
One-time costs are project costs that have a start-up cost associated with them, such as purchasing a<br />
new vehicle for wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat monitoring, or designing <strong>and</strong> installing an interpretive sign.<br />
Some are full project costs for those projects that can be completed in 3 years or less. One-time costs<br />
can include the cost of temporary or term salary associated with a short-term project. Salary for<br />
existing <strong>and</strong> new positions, <strong>and</strong> operational costs, are reflected in operational (or recurring) costs.<br />
Funds for one-time costs will be sought through increases in Refuge base funding, special project<br />
funds, <strong>and</strong> grants. Projects listed below show one-time costs, such as those associated with building<br />
<strong>and</strong> facility needs including offices, road improvements, or new signs. One-time costs are also<br />
associated with projects such as habitat restoration, invasive plant <strong>and</strong> animal control, <strong>and</strong> research.<br />
Operational costs reflect Refuge spending of base funds allocated each year. These are also known as<br />
recurring costs <strong>and</strong> are usually associated with day-to-day operations <strong>and</strong> projects that last longer<br />
than 3 years. The CCP will require increased funding for new or exp<strong>and</strong>ed public uses <strong>and</strong> facilities,<br />
habitat restoration <strong>and</strong> conservation activities, <strong>and</strong> new monitoring needs. The table below includes<br />
operational expenditures such as supplies, utilities, <strong>and</strong> maintenance costs. Project costs include<br />
seasonal staff needed year after year to accomplish each project; these staffing costs are not isolated<br />
in this table but are included as part of the entire project cost. Staffing costs are addressed in table C-<br />
4 later in this appendix.<br />
Note that for the implementation timeline, priority is not indicated by the 5-year interval identified. If<br />
a strategy is identified for implementation in the first 5-year interval, this does not indicate priority,<br />
but rather fiscal <strong>and</strong> logistical realities that allow for that activity to occur the first 5 years.<br />
Additionally, some strategies are sequential <strong>and</strong> depend on other strategies or may require additional<br />
planning (e.g., step-down plans) before they can be implemented, thereby moving them into the<br />
second or third 5-year interval segments. Also note that additional explanatory text for activities<br />
identified in tables C-1 <strong>and</strong> C-2 can be found under sections outlining maintenance costs <strong>and</strong><br />
partnering projects.<br />
Funding for the Refuge in FY2010 was $1,168,098.<br />
Table C-1. One-time Costs Related to CCP Implementation.<br />
Activity 5-year<br />
intervals:<br />
2015,<br />
2020, 2025<br />
CCP<br />
Goals<br />
Cost Estimate Potential fund<br />
source<br />
One-time Cost<br />
Fence construction:<br />
KFU fenced (15 mile fencing<br />
including 15 ft wide fuel breaks)<br />
2015 1-2 $1,246,097 In-h<strong>and</strong> (R1/ENG)<br />
HFU units 9 <strong>and</strong> A-F 2020 3-5 • Unit 9:<br />
$334,000;<br />
DM, 1113(ES)<br />
• Units A-F, TBD<br />
Site-specific fencing to protect<br />
endangered plant populations at<br />
both units<br />
2020 1,3 KFU: $25,000 DM, 1113 (ES)<br />
C-2 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Activity 5-year<br />
intervals:<br />
2015,<br />
2020, 2025<br />
Construct fence to protect Carex<br />
bog habitats where feasible at<br />
HFU<br />
Construct fence for 15-acre<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong> breeding for nēnē at Pua<br />
‘Ākala<br />
Species <strong>and</strong> Habitat restoration <strong>and</strong> protection:<br />
Removal of existing ab<strong>and</strong>oned<br />
fence <strong>and</strong> other former ranch<br />
debris at both units<br />
L<strong>and</strong> acquisitions at both units to<br />
enhance Refuge purposes<br />
Site preparation for outplanting to<br />
restore montane mesic koa forest<br />
Install excluder device to control<br />
the impact of turkeys on koa<br />
seedlings <strong>and</strong> improve planting<br />
survival<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
CCP<br />
Goals<br />
Cost Estimate Potential fund<br />
source<br />
2020 3 TBD 1113(ES)<br />
2015 5 $45,000 1113(ES)<br />
2015 1, 3 12.12 mi barbed<br />
fence at HFU:<br />
$230,500<br />
DM, 1113(ES)<br />
2025 1, 3, 4 $12-20 million LWCF<br />
2015 3 TBD TBD<br />
2015 3 $75,000 1113(ES)<br />
Surveys, inventories, <strong>and</strong> monitoring:<br />
Inventory <strong>and</strong> map lava tube <strong>and</strong><br />
skylight communities at KFU<br />
2015 2 TBD 1113(ES)<br />
Inventory vegetation communities<br />
at HFU<br />
2020 3 TBD 1113(ES)<br />
Develop an updated vegetation<br />
cover map for both units<br />
2020 6 TBD USGS, IPIF<br />
Inventory streams <strong>and</strong> stream 2020 4 TBD USGS, Watershed<br />
corridors at HFU<br />
Partners<br />
Inventory endemic species in all 2020 6 TBD USGS, Watershed<br />
aquatic habitats<br />
Partners<br />
Survey extent <strong>and</strong> number of bogs 2020 4 TBD USGS<br />
Inventory endemic species in all 2020 6 <strong>Plan</strong>ts: $260,000 USGS<br />
forest habitats<br />
Animals: TBD<br />
Inventory plants, invertebrates,<br />
vertebrates at both units<br />
2020 6 TBD USGS<br />
Develop early detection <strong>and</strong> rapid<br />
response monitoring to identify<br />
new or spread invasive plant<br />
problems<br />
2015 6 TBD ISST<br />
Inventory endemic species,<br />
subfossil remains, <strong>and</strong> cultural<br />
2015 6 TBD RONS, USGS<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-3
Activity 5-year<br />
intervals:<br />
2015,<br />
2020, 2025<br />
resources associated with lava<br />
tube <strong>and</strong> skylight ecosystems at<br />
KFU<br />
Identify pest plant <strong>and</strong> animal<br />
species presence, distribution,<br />
abundance, <strong>and</strong> trends<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
CCP<br />
Goals<br />
Cost Estimate Potential fund<br />
source<br />
2015 6 TBD 1113(ES)<br />
Develop a soil survey map 2020 6 n/a NRCS (in process)<br />
Evaluate known/potential Refuge<br />
cultural resources <strong>and</strong> historic<br />
sites<br />
2020 8 TBD 1263<br />
Conduct a comprehensive cultural<br />
resources investigation of both<br />
units<br />
Threat mitigation:<br />
2020 8 TBD 1263<br />
Remove all ungulates, nonnative<br />
mammalian predators, <strong>and</strong> dogs<br />
<strong>and</strong> cats at both units<br />
2015 1-5 TBD 1113(ES)<br />
Establish a fire prevention<br />
program (includes signage,<br />
education, fire closure criteria) at<br />
both units<br />
2020 1, 3 TBD 1263<br />
Control or eradicate invasive 2025 1, 2, 3 build 600 sq ft ISST, USFS, 1262<br />
plants at both units<br />
storage building for<br />
materials $100,000<br />
Research (note additional projects in partnering projects section):<br />
Investigate methods for forest<br />
regeneration <strong>and</strong> reforestation<br />
techniques<br />
2020 6 TBD USFS<br />
Conduct research to determine<br />
arthropod abundance<br />
2020 6 TBD USGS<br />
Conduct research to determine<br />
species-specific thresholds for<br />
disturbances from Refuge uses<br />
such as outplanting <strong>and</strong> bird<br />
watching activities<br />
2020 6 TBD 1113(ES), USGS<br />
Conduct an investigation to<br />
identify <strong>and</strong> quantify avian <strong>and</strong><br />
plant disease issues<br />
2020 6 TBD 1113(ES), USGS<br />
Research demography, lifehistory,<br />
carrying capacity, <strong>and</strong><br />
competition for native forest birds<br />
2015 6 $340,000 1113(ES), USGS<br />
C-4 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Activity 5-year<br />
intervals:<br />
2015,<br />
2020, 2025<br />
Support research to determine<br />
ecological parameters for<br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a<br />
Complete global climate change<br />
impacts assessment for the Refuge<br />
Facilities development:<br />
Establish native plant nursery at<br />
field camp site at KFU<br />
Exp<strong>and</strong> native plant nursery at<br />
administration site at HFU<br />
Develop 0.3-0.5 mile wildlife trail<br />
with interpretive signs <strong>and</strong><br />
associated parking area on the<br />
Upper Maulua Tract<br />
Public Use:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
CCP<br />
Goals<br />
Cost Estimate Potential fund<br />
source<br />
2020 6 TBD 1113(ES), USGS<br />
2020 6 TBD PICCC<br />
2020 1 $35,000 1113(ES), PEPP<br />
2015 3 $14,000 1113(ES), PEPP<br />
2020 7 $77,757 (signs <strong>and</strong><br />
kiosk)<br />
1263, Friends of<br />
Hakalau Forest<br />
(NFWF),VFE<br />
Develop interpretive brochures 2015 7 TBD 1263, Friends of<br />
Hakalau Forest<br />
(NFWF), 8081,VFE<br />
Develop <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong> interpretive<br />
programming relative to cultural<br />
resources <strong>and</strong> historic sites<br />
2020 7 TBD 1263, 8081, VFE<br />
Coordinate with County, State,<br />
<strong>and</strong> NGO partners for offsite<br />
environmental education<br />
opportunities, including Kīpuka<br />
21<br />
2020 7 $30,000 CCS, NFWF,<br />
1113(ES)<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table C-2. Recurring Costs Related to CCP Implementation.<br />
Activity 5-year<br />
intervals:<br />
2015,<br />
2020, 2025<br />
CCP<br />
Goals<br />
Cost Estimate Potential fund<br />
source<br />
Operational (Recurring) Costs<br />
Note that cost estimate = annual costs <strong>and</strong> Year 2025 indicates ongoing for 15 years<br />
Threat mitigation:<br />
Control or eradicate invasive<br />
plants at both units<br />
Control or eradicate pest animals<br />
(e.g., ungulates, invertebrates,<br />
cats/dogs, rats, mongooses, etc.)<br />
at both units<br />
Conduct hazardous fuels<br />
treatment to reduce threats from<br />
wildl<strong>and</strong> fires at both units<br />
Maintain fire prevention program<br />
(includes fuel breaks <strong>and</strong><br />
education) at both units<br />
Conduct annual surveys for<br />
invasive species<br />
(absence/presence <strong>and</strong> percent<br />
cover) at both units<br />
Conduct surveys for pest animals<br />
such as ungulates, nonnative<br />
mammalian predators,<br />
invertebrates, cats <strong>and</strong> dogs at<br />
both units<br />
Species <strong>and</strong> Habitat restoration <strong>and</strong> protection:<br />
Outplanting endangered plants at<br />
both units<br />
Outplant common native plants<br />
for reforestation <strong>and</strong> restoration at<br />
both units<br />
2025 1-5 $150,000 annual;<br />
$200,00 every 5 th<br />
year;<br />
USFS Forest Health,<br />
USFWS/ISST, 1113<br />
(ES), 1261,1262<br />
2025 1-5 $250,000/year USFS Forest Health,<br />
USFWS/ISST,1261,<br />
1113(ES)<br />
2025 1, 3 TBD 9264, 1262<br />
2025 1, 3 $ 40,000/year 1262, USFS Forest<br />
Health, 9264<br />
2025 1-5 $35,000/year USFS Forest Health,<br />
USFWS/ISST<br />
2025 1-5 TBD USFS Forest Health,<br />
USFWS/ISST,1261,<br />
1113(ES)<br />
2025 1, 3 $15,000/year USFS Forest Health,<br />
USFWS/ISST, 1261,<br />
1113(ES)<br />
2025 1, 3 $10,000/year USFS Forest Health,<br />
USFWS/ISST, 1261,<br />
1113(ES)<br />
Research: note additional projects in partnering projects section<br />
Surveys, inventories, <strong>and</strong> monitoring:<br />
Continue annual Hawai‘i Forest<br />
Bird Surveys<br />
2025 1-6 TBD USGS <strong>and</strong> partners<br />
Survey for endemic invertebrates<br />
at HFU ponds<br />
2025 4 TBD 1261,1113(ES)<br />
C-6 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Activity 5-year<br />
intervals:<br />
2015,<br />
2020, 2025<br />
Test water quality for reduced<br />
levels of disease, sediments,<br />
contaminants (e.g., fecal coliform)<br />
Annual transect surveys to<br />
monitor species <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
response to management actions<br />
Monitor nesting density <strong>and</strong><br />
success of nēnē<br />
Monitor plant <strong>and</strong> animal disease<br />
(e.g., ‘ōhi‘a rust, koa wilt, avian<br />
malaria <strong>and</strong> pox)<br />
Monitor global climate change<br />
parameters (e.g., temperature,<br />
CO2, etc.)<br />
Monitor public uses (e.g.,<br />
disturbances)<br />
Investigate <strong>and</strong> monitor<br />
endangered plant propagation <strong>and</strong><br />
outplanting strategies<br />
Conduct surveys to determine role<br />
of predators in native flora <strong>and</strong><br />
fauna abundance<br />
Public Use:<br />
Administer volunteer program <strong>and</strong><br />
develop partnerships to support<br />
nursery <strong>and</strong> outplanting program<br />
within 7 years at KFU<br />
Maintain volunteer program at<br />
HFU<br />
Provide 35-40 weekend-long<br />
service opportunities with partner<br />
organizations<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
CCP<br />
Goals<br />
Cost Estimate Potential fund<br />
source<br />
2025 4 TBD 1261,1113(ES)<br />
2025 1-6 TBD<br />
1261,1113(ES)<br />
2025 6 $35,000/year 1261,1113(ES)<br />
2025 6 TBD 1261,1113(ES)<br />
2025 6 TBD 1261,1113(ES),<br />
PICCC<br />
2025 6 TBD 1261,1113(ES)<br />
2025 6 TBD 1261,1113(ES)<br />
2025 6 TBD 1261,1113(ES)<br />
2017 1 $15,000/year 1263,8081, VFE<br />
2025 7 $150,000/year 1263, 8081, VFE<br />
2025 7 See above 1263, 8081, VFE<br />
Maintain annual open house 2025 7 $3,500/year 1263, 8081, VFE,<br />
Grants<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-7
Activity 5-year<br />
intervals:<br />
2015,<br />
2020, 2025<br />
Facilities maintenance:<br />
Maintain (include both repair <strong>and</strong><br />
replacement costs) existing fences<br />
(45 miles in units 1-8), new fences<br />
(KFU <strong>and</strong> units A-F at HFU),<br />
endangered plant exclosures,<br />
Carex bog fencing; 15 acre nēnē<br />
breeding site<br />
Maintain existing structures<br />
(roads, parking area, trail,<br />
signage, cabins, nurseries,<br />
bunkhouse, power supply<br />
building, garage, storage sheds,<br />
equipment storage building,<br />
utilities, vehicles<br />
Maintain administrative office<br />
(rent, computer equipment,<br />
utilities, etc.)<br />
B. Maintenance costs<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
CCP<br />
Goals<br />
Cost Estimate<br />
(numbering =<br />
priority level)<br />
2025 1-5 See deferred<br />
maintenance table<br />
below for some cost,<br />
others TBD<br />
2025 All<br />
goals<br />
2025 All<br />
goals<br />
See deferred<br />
maintenance table<br />
below for some cost,<br />
others TBD<br />
Potential fund<br />
source<br />
C-8 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation<br />
DM<br />
DM<br />
$90,000/year 1261,1262,1263<br />
The maintenance need over the next 15 years is defined as funds needed to repair or replace building,<br />
equipment, signs, facilities <strong>and</strong> other structures. Maintenance includes preventative maintenance,<br />
cyclical maintenance, repairs, replacement of parts, components, or items of equipment, adjustments,<br />
lubrication, cleaning of equipment, painting, resurfacing, rehabilitation, special safety inspections,<br />
<strong>and</strong> other actions to assure continuing service <strong>and</strong> to prevent breakdown. Maintenance costs include<br />
the maintenance “backlog” – maintenance needs that have come due but are yet unfunded, as well as<br />
the increased maintenance need associated with facilities <strong>and</strong> infrastructure.<br />
The facilities <strong>and</strong> maintenance currently associated with Hakalau Forest NWR include management<br />
of (unpaved) roads, parking area, cabins, nursery, bunkhouse, power supply building, garage, storage<br />
sheds, equipment storage building, <strong>and</strong> utilities. Proposed new facilities <strong>and</strong> infrastructure include an<br />
interpretive walking trail, parking area, signage (for interpretive, Refuge welcome <strong>and</strong> identification, <strong>and</strong><br />
fire purposes), <strong>and</strong> an additional nursery at KFU as well as exp<strong>and</strong>ed nursery at HFU.<br />
Maintenance costs comprised approximately 28 percent of the total FY2010 Refuge budget.
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table C-3. Deferred Maintenance <strong>and</strong> Construction Projects.<br />
Rank Project<br />
Capital Improvement<br />
Estimated<br />
Cost<br />
1 Construct a fence to exclude cattle <strong>and</strong> pigs from the 1,800-acre Middle<br />
Maulua Feral Ungulate Management Unit (Unit 9). Approximately 32,000 ft<br />
of fence is required. Cattle <strong>and</strong> pigs will be removed from the exclosure to<br />
enable recovery of native vegetation as habitat for six species of endangered<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> provide optimal habitat for eight species of endangered birds <strong>and</strong><br />
$ 334,000<br />
the endangered ‘ōpe‘ape‘a.<br />
2 Construct clear directional <strong>and</strong> entrance signs <strong>and</strong> a kiosk with welcoming<br />
<strong>and</strong> orienting information to meet public use st<strong>and</strong>ards for visitors. The kiosk<br />
will provide a map <strong>and</strong> visitor orientation information on the Service’s<br />
mission, Refuge goals, Refuge wildlife, <strong>and</strong> habitat management. This<br />
Refuge receives between 1,500-3,500 visitors per year but currently has no<br />
visitor facilities.<br />
3 A contractor will be hired to fence 1,800-acre North Lower Maulua Unit to<br />
exclude ungulates. Approximately 42,000 ft of fence is required. Ungulates<br />
will be removed from the exclosures to enable recovery of native vegetation<br />
as habitat for six species of endangered plants <strong>and</strong> provide optimal habitat for<br />
eight species of endangered birds <strong>and</strong> the endangered ‘ōpe‘ape‘a.<br />
4 A contractor will be hired to fence 1,800-acre South Lower Maulua Unit to<br />
exclude ungulates (Figure 2-1). Approximately 23,000 ft of fence is required.<br />
Ungulates will be removed from the exclosures to enable recovery of native<br />
vegetation as habitat for six species of endangered plants <strong>and</strong> provide optimal<br />
habitat for eight species of endangered birds <strong>and</strong> the endangered ‘ōpe‘ape‘a.<br />
5 Construct a 600 square ft hazardous materials <strong>and</strong> fuel storage building for<br />
safe storage of materials such as paint, pesticide, <strong>and</strong> petroleum projects. The<br />
structure will reduce fire hazards <strong>and</strong> increase safety.<br />
6 A contractor will be hired to fence seven new management units (Figure 2-1)<br />
totaling 13,200 acres to exclude ungulates. Approximately 199,000 ft of<br />
fence is required. Ungulates will be removed from the exclosures to enable<br />
recovery of native vegetation as habitat for six species of endangered plants<br />
<strong>and</strong> provide optimal habitat for eight species of endangered birds <strong>and</strong> the<br />
endangered ‘ōpe‘ape‘a.<br />
Deferred Maintenance<br />
1 Rehabilitate 6.45 miles of fence surrounding the Shipman Feral Ungulate<br />
Management Unit. The fences exclude ungulates from native rain forest that<br />
provides habitat for eight endangered bird species, the endangered<br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nine species of endangered plants, <strong>and</strong> a wide diversity of other<br />
Hawaiian plants <strong>and</strong> animals.<br />
2 Rehabilitate 2.38-mile Frog Pond Road, which provides access to portions of<br />
the Shipman <strong>and</strong> Upper Honohina Management Units. The project will<br />
provide all-weather access to facilitate wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management<br />
efforts such as fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population<br />
monitoring, biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting that will benefit<br />
15 endangered species.<br />
$ 77,757<br />
$ 482,000<br />
$ 264,000<br />
$ 100,000<br />
$ 697,000<br />
$ 140,000<br />
$ 321,900<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-9
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Rank Project Estimated<br />
Cost<br />
3 Rehabilitate 2.5-mile Alleyway Road, which provides access to the Upper,<br />
Middle, <strong>and</strong> Lower Honohina Units <strong>and</strong> the northern portion of the Middle<br />
Hakalau Unit. Repairs will provide all-weather access to maintain upl<strong>and</strong><br />
habitat in desired condition by facilitating critical wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
management efforts such as fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal,<br />
population monitoring, biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting that will benefit<br />
15 endangered species.<br />
$ 319,300<br />
4 Rehabilitate 4 miles of eroded dirt road that provides access to the upper<br />
portions of the Pua ‘Ākala, Hakalau, <strong>and</strong> Honohina Tracts. Repairs will<br />
provide all-weather access to maintain upl<strong>and</strong> habitat in desired condition by<br />
facilitating wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts such as fence<br />
maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population monitoring, biological<br />
research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting that will benefit 15 endangered species.<br />
$ 511,700<br />
5 Rehabilitate the 2.1-mile fence surrounding the Pua ‘Ākala Feral Ungulate<br />
Management Unit. The fence will exclude ungulates from 500 acres of<br />
upl<strong>and</strong> native rain forest habitat used to maintain populations of eight<br />
endangered bird species, the endangered ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> nine species of<br />
endangered plants.<br />
$ 120,100<br />
6 Rehabilitate 0.6 miles of road on a private l<strong>and</strong>s easement to allow access to<br />
the KFU. Repairs will provide all-weather access to maintain upl<strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
in desired condition by facilitating fence maintenance, ungulate control, weed<br />
removal, <strong>and</strong> wildlife population monitoring, which will help lead to the<br />
recovery of 17 endangered species.<br />
$ 56,500<br />
7 Remove 12.12 miles of ab<strong>and</strong>oned barbed wire fences on the HFU. These<br />
fences were erected during the ranching operations of previous l<strong>and</strong>owners.<br />
They are all in poor condition <strong>and</strong> no longer functional. The fences impede<br />
access by staff engaged in weed <strong>and</strong> ungulate control, interfere with tree<br />
planting <strong>and</strong> wildlife viewing by visitors, <strong>and</strong> are a safety hazard when the<br />
wire becomes hidden by grass or tangled in vegetation.<br />
$ 230,500<br />
8 Rehabilitate dilapidated 115-year-old Pua ‘Ākala Cabin <strong>and</strong> outbuilding to<br />
preserve the historic structures. A November 2002 Architectural Survey by<br />
the National Park Service contractors concluded that Pua ‘Ākala Cabin <strong>and</strong><br />
outbuilding are eligible for the National Register of Historic Places <strong>and</strong> that<br />
immediate steps should be taken to prevent further deterioration.<br />
$ 583,400<br />
9 Rehabilitate 1.87-mile Hakalau Stream Road, which provides access to the<br />
midsection of the Shipman Management Unit. Repairs will provide allweather<br />
access to maintain upl<strong>and</strong> habitat in desired condition by facilitating<br />
fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population monitoring,<br />
biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting to benefit 15 endangered species.<br />
$ 341,000<br />
10 Rehabilitate 2.87 mile Nauhi Road, an eroded dirt road that provides access<br />
to Nauhi Cabin <strong>and</strong> 3 management units. Repairs will provide all-weather<br />
access to facilitate critical wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts such as<br />
fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population monitoring,<br />
biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting to benefit 15 endangered species.<br />
$ 378,000<br />
C-10 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Rank Project Estimated<br />
Cost<br />
11 Replace the photovoltaic system located in the Battery Building, which is<br />
used to generate electric power for eight Refuge-owned structures. The<br />
building itself is in good condition, but the photovoltaic subsystem is<br />
deteriorating <strong>and</strong> becoming increasingly unreliable. The photovoltaic<br />
subsystem directly supports activities that benefit endangered species.<br />
$ 68,800<br />
12 Rehabilitate 1.69-mile Pua ‘Ākala Road, which provides access to the<br />
midsection of the Pua ‘Ākala Management Unit. Project will provide allweather<br />
access to facilitate critical wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts<br />
such as fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population<br />
monitoring, biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting that will benefit 15<br />
endangered species.<br />
$ 210,163<br />
13 Rehabilitate 0.36-mile Honohina Cut-off Road, which provides access to the<br />
midsection of the Upper Honohina Management Unit. The project will<br />
provide all-weather access to facilitate critical wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
management efforts such as fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal,<br />
population monitoring, biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting, which will<br />
benefit 15 endangered species.<br />
$ 65,700<br />
14 Repair 1 mile of Kona Forest’s 4,800 ft road to provide daily <strong>and</strong> emergency<br />
access for staff. This project will provide all-weather access to facilitate<br />
critical wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts such as endangered species<br />
recovery, fence maintenance, ungulate control, weed removal <strong>and</strong> population<br />
monitoring.<br />
$ 437,144<br />
15 Rehabilitate 2.7-miles of Pedro Road, which provides access to the<br />
midsection of the Shipman Management Unit. The project will provide allweather<br />
access to facilitate critical wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts<br />
such as fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population<br />
monitoring, biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting which will benefit<br />
15 endangered species.<br />
$ 239,832<br />
16 Repair Hakalau staff residence at the Administrative Site by repainting. The<br />
structure is a single-story, wood-frame building. The project will repaint the<br />
exterior walls, window frames, doors, decks, railings, <strong>and</strong> steps to protect<br />
them from the harsh weather. The staff residence provides housing <strong>and</strong><br />
operation support for staff involved in habitat recovery work for native <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered species.<br />
$ 27,000<br />
17 Rehabilitate Biological Resources Discipline Cabin. The cabin needs to be<br />
painted <strong>and</strong> plumbing fixtures (i.e., sink, shower <strong>and</strong> toilet) need to be<br />
replaced. The cabin is occupied by researchers, contractors, <strong>and</strong> volunteers<br />
who control nonnative species, repair fences <strong>and</strong> facilities, plant trees, <strong>and</strong><br />
conduct biological surveys to recover 15 endangered species <strong>and</strong> conserve<br />
native plants <strong>and</strong> animals.<br />
$ 27,099<br />
18 Rehabilitate 1.9-mile Nobriga Road, which provides access to the midsection<br />
of the Upper Maulua Management Unit. Project will provide all-weather<br />
access to facilitate wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts such as fence<br />
maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population monitoring, biological<br />
research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting that will benefit 15 endangered species.<br />
$ 270,033<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-11
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Rank Project Estimated<br />
Cost<br />
19 Rehabilitate 1.16-mile Halfway Road, which provides access to the<br />
midsection of the Upper Maulua Management Unit. The project will provide<br />
all-weather access to facilitate wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts such<br />
as fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population monitoring,<br />
biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting that benefit 15 endangered species.<br />
$ 206,077<br />
20 Rehabilitate 0.3-mile Freddy’s Pond Road, which provides access to the<br />
midsection of the Upper Maulua Management Unit. The project will provide<br />
all-weather access to conduct critical wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts<br />
such as fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population<br />
monitoring, biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting that benefit 15 endangered<br />
species.<br />
$ 54,900<br />
21 Rehabilitate 1.45-mile Bottom Road, which provides access to the midsection<br />
of the Upper Maulua Management Unit. The project will provide all-weather<br />
access to facilitate critical wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts such as<br />
fence maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population monitoring,<br />
biological research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting that benefit 15 endangered species.<br />
$ 180,318<br />
22 Rehabilitate 1.01-mile Maulua/Piha Road, which provides access to the<br />
Upper Maulua Management Unit. The project will provide all-weather access<br />
to facilitate critical wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management efforts such as fence<br />
maintenance, pig control, weed removal, population monitoring, biological<br />
research, <strong>and</strong> tree planting that benefit 15 endangered species.<br />
Road Improvement Projects<br />
$ 179,430<br />
Condition assessment for Maulua Road (Rte. 100) based upon inventory of<br />
4/21/2004 found the road to be in poor condition. Cost estimate to correct<br />
deficiencies in the 0.41 miles of road.<br />
$ 494,628<br />
Assessment was performed on Asset #10042056 (Pua ‘Ākala Road).<br />
Assessment Documents are located at Regional Office. Material cost was<br />
$524,385. Labor cost was $0. Total item cost was $524,385. Repair total was<br />
$524,385. Assessor notes said FHA condition rating poor.<br />
$ 524,385<br />
FHWA condition assessment for Administrative Access Road (Rte. 102)<br />
based upon inventory of 4/7/2004 found the parking area to be in poor<br />
condition. Cost estimate to correct deficiencies in the 0.34 miles of road.<br />
$ 434,856<br />
Conduct CCA on Asset #10042145 (Hakalau greenhouse loop road).<br />
Assessment was performed on 4/21/2004 <strong>and</strong> Assessment Documents are<br />
located at Regional Office. Material cost was $179,870. Labor cost was $0.<br />
Total item cost was $179,870. Repair total was $179,870. Assessor notes said<br />
FHA condition rating poor.<br />
$ 179,870<br />
Conduct CCA on Asset #10042102 (Pua ‘Ākala cabin road). Assessment was<br />
performed on 4/21/2004 <strong>and</strong> Assessment Documents are located at Regional<br />
Office. Material cost was $243,008. Labor cost was $0. Total item cost was<br />
$24,3008. Repair total was $243,008. Assessor notes said FHA condition<br />
rating poor.<br />
$ 243,008<br />
FHWA condition assessment for Pua ‘Ākala Parking (Rte. 900) based upon<br />
inventory of 4/14/2004 found the parking area to be in fair condition. Cost<br />
estimate to correct deficiencies in the 7,564 sq. ft of parking area.<br />
$ 8,849<br />
C-12 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Rank Project Estimated<br />
Cost<br />
FHWA condition assessment for New Housing Parking (Rte. 902) based<br />
upon inventory of 4/7/2004 found the parking area to be in fair condition.<br />
Cost estimate to correct deficiencies in the 4,396 sq. ft of parking area.<br />
$ 5,144<br />
FHWA condition assessment for Housing Parking (Rte. 903) based upon<br />
inventory of 4/7/2004 found the parking area to be in fair condition. Cost<br />
estimate to correct deficiencies in the 9,002 sq. ft of parking area.<br />
$ 10,531<br />
FHWA condition assessment for Greenhouse Parking (Rte. 904) based upon<br />
inventory of 4/7/2004 found the parking area to be in fair condition. Cost<br />
estimate to correct deficiencies in the 4,134 square feet of parking area.<br />
$ 4,134<br />
D. Staffing<br />
Necessary staffing as projected by the Service’s National Staffing Model generated 15 positions for<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR (Big Isl<strong>and</strong> NWR Complex). The existing, core-funded staff is only 7;<br />
therefore the Refuge is 8 additional positions under necessary conditions to effectively fulfill current<br />
obligations <strong>and</strong> agreements based on anticipated workload with the existing l<strong>and</strong> base of<br />
38,030 acres. Dedicated staffing for the KFU was initially established after acquisition <strong>and</strong> later<br />
eliminated years ago due to legal disputes over access to Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Some previously established<br />
positions were temporarily reassigned <strong>and</strong> not returned. Access issues have since been resolved <strong>and</strong><br />
work on the KFU, starting with boundary clearing, has resumed using staff stationed at Hilo.<br />
However, given the long distance to KFU (it takes 2.5 hours one-way from Hilo), this further<br />
stretches available Refuge staff resources as KFU activities come on line, compromising the success<br />
of efforts to date such as greenhouse operation, ungulate control, <strong>and</strong> invasive species control efforts,<br />
with less time spent at HFU. Restoring staffing levels to a “critical mass” to also manage the KFU is<br />
a key aspect of our planning effort. The additional staffing would provide increased coordination<br />
with other Federal, State, <strong>and</strong> local agencies, neighboring l<strong>and</strong>owners, <strong>and</strong> local communities;<br />
additional capacity to conduct biological inventory, monitoring, <strong>and</strong> research; improved maintenance<br />
capability for visitor facilities <strong>and</strong> Refuge buildings; visitor safety <strong>and</strong> law enforcement to reduce<br />
wildlife disturbance; environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation of Refuge resources; <strong>and</strong> invasive<br />
species control.<br />
The table below outlines permanent staffing needs considered core to implementing the CCP<br />
(numbering does not indicate priority). The table outlines salary/benefits for each position. These<br />
costs are considered recurring (annual) costs. For 2010, projected staffing costs for full-time <strong>and</strong> term<br />
employees were expected to comprise 86 percent of the base budget although significant staff<br />
turnover <strong>and</strong> resulting salary savings resulted in only 67 percent of the base being used for staffing<br />
during the fiscal year.<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-13
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Table C-4. Current <strong>and</strong> Proposed Staffing to Implement CCP*.<br />
Staff position GS & grade Annual cost<br />
(salary &<br />
benefits)<br />
Funding source<br />
1. Refuge Manager GS-13 $127,922 1261,1263<br />
2. Deputy Refuge Manager GS-12 $110,557 1261,1263<br />
3. <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist GS-12 $107,570 1261<br />
4. Horticulturist GS-11 $ 87, 254 1261<br />
5. Maintenance Supervisor WS-4 $ 84,737 1262<br />
6. Maintenance Worker Leader WG-8 $ 73,917 1262<br />
7. Administrative Officer GS-9 $ 76,241 1261,1263<br />
8. Park Ranger/Volunteer<br />
Coordinator (HFU)<br />
GS-5/7/9 $117,598 FY10-1992<br />
9. Maintenance/Pest Control<br />
Worker (HFU)<br />
WG-5/6 $84,583 FY08-5988<br />
10. Maintenance/Pest Control<br />
Worker (HFU)<br />
WG-5/6 $84,583 FY08-5971<br />
11. Maintenance/Pest Control<br />
Worker (HFU)<br />
WG-5/6 $84,583 FY08-5989<br />
12. Maintenance Worker WG-5/6 $84,583 FY08-5989<br />
(HFU)<br />
13. <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist/GIS GS-9/11 $142,274 FY08-6703<br />
14. Budget Technician GS-5/6 $77,165 FY08-6702<br />
15. <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Specialist GS-9/11 $142,000 FY08 5965<br />
16. Maintenance/Pest Control<br />
Worker (KFU)<br />
WG 5/6 $84,583 FY08-6709<br />
17. Maintenance/Pest Control<br />
Worker (KFU)<br />
WG 5/6 $84,583 FY08-5990<br />
18. Maintenance/Pest Control<br />
Worker (KFU)<br />
WG 5/6 $84,583 RONS<br />
19. Park Ranger/Volunteer<br />
Coordinator (KFU)<br />
GS-5/7/9 $120,000 RONS<br />
20. Visitor Services Specialist GS-5/7 $90,000 RONS<br />
21. <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist (KFU) GS-5/7/9 $120,000 FY08-5965<br />
22. Park Ranger/Law<br />
Enforcement (HFU)<br />
GS-5/7/9 $120,000 FY10-1292<br />
23. Park Ranger/Law<br />
GS-5/7/9 $120,000 FY10-1293<br />
Enforcement (KFU)<br />
24. Office Assistant GS-4/5 $65,000 RONS<br />
25. Fuels Specialist (Fire) GS-9/11 $142,000 RONS<br />
26. Horticulturist GS-11 $142,000 RONS<br />
* Shaded cells indicate positions that are currently approved <strong>and</strong> filled. Highlighted<br />
cells indicate permanent full time positions needed under current management<br />
(based on the National Staffing Model). Italicized positions indicate additional<br />
staff required to implement the CCP.<br />
C-14 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Partnering Projects<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Current funding at Hakalau Forest NWR cannot meet all management needs. As a result, we rely on<br />
working with various partners to assist with implementation. The projects identified below are<br />
potential research <strong>and</strong> resource management actions <strong>and</strong> opportunities proposed by partner<br />
organizations <strong>and</strong> academic investigators as well as include Service database projects currently used<br />
for budget purposes. If pursued, these projects will be opportunistically pursued through internal <strong>and</strong><br />
external funding sources. Following is a brief list of unranked projects which could assist the Refuge<br />
with implementing portions of its CCP. Adaptive approaches to meeting our funding needs will be<br />
applied throughout the plan period to achieve Refuge objectives.<br />
A) Forest bird survey training workshop<br />
To support goal six <strong>and</strong> objective “annual transect surveys to monitor species <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
response to management actions,” funding is needed to host <strong>and</strong> coordinate a forest bird<br />
survey/training workshop to increase the number of qualified forest bird surveyors available to<br />
monitor population trends of these endangered species. With projected climate change impacts<br />
expected to severely affect Hakalau Forest NWR birds <strong>and</strong> habitats, it is essential to improve our<br />
collective capacity to document <strong>and</strong> detect gradual changes <strong>and</strong> trends in populations. The high<br />
elevation old growth koa/‘ōhi‘a forests at Hakalau are largely considered one of the best remaining<br />
refugia for these species.<br />
Based on results of a forest bird workshop held in October 2008, the need for replacing older, more<br />
experienced observers who have retired or are soon to retire from the field with a younger or<br />
exp<strong>and</strong>ed cadre of capable field biologists to carry on decades of specialized survey efforts is an<br />
acute crisis that needs to be addressed. Hakalau Forest NWR is uniquely situated to host such an<br />
exercise due to its complement of endangered birds, available facilities on site to train <strong>and</strong> house<br />
participants, long-history of established bird transects <strong>and</strong> readings, <strong>and</strong> ease of transportation to <strong>and</strong><br />
from airport facilities. This would be an interagency initiative with invitations to USGS-BRD, the<br />
Service, DOFAW, UH, USFS, nongovernmental organizations, <strong>and</strong> private sector specialists in<br />
Hawaiian bird conservation, as well as nominated/sponsored trainees with basic field proficiencies all<br />
participating. Appropriate species experts would conduct the training. Funding would be available to<br />
support travel needs of participants, training equipment, materials, <strong>and</strong> supplies in the field. The<br />
desired outcome would be to increase the number of available forest bird monitors/surveyors in<br />
partner agencies <strong>and</strong> organizations <strong>and</strong> spur the potential for the next generation of forest bird experts<br />
to take over this essential function.<br />
Cost estimate: $57,000<br />
B) Population dynamics <strong>and</strong> viability of ‘ākepa <strong>and</strong> other species in Hakalau Forest NWR:<br />
Influences of management, environmental factors, <strong>and</strong> potential nonnative competitors<br />
Identify changes in trends of Hakalau birds with best available models. Evaluate the best models to<br />
estimate trend <strong>and</strong> viability of monitored Hakalau birds using stochastic models. Evaluate uncertainty<br />
in estimates of trend <strong>and</strong> viability metrics <strong>and</strong> partition this variation into its sources, including<br />
model form, estimation method, parameter estimation, etc., to assist managers in reducing<br />
uncertainty in viability predictions. Set up viable population monitoring (VPM) for managers to<br />
monitor changes in short-term viability of Hakalau birds. Evaluate methods for improving<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-15
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
predictions of models, including habitat characteristics, oceanic condition indices, weather,<br />
predator/parasite indices, global climate change forecasts, etc. Cluster spatial locations surveyed<br />
across each of the reforested pasturel<strong>and</strong>, open forest, <strong>and</strong> closed forest regions for reanalysis as<br />
spatial replicates to estimate dynamics of Hakalau birds using the best models identified.<br />
Estimate the magnitude of the effect of increasing abundance of Japanese white eyes on ‘ākepa over<br />
the past 20 years by applying the best available models to annual population estimates for both<br />
species in closed forest <strong>and</strong> open forest regions of the Refuge. Evaluate effects of habitat restoration<br />
using best models above applied to spatial replicates identified above.<br />
Organize, train, supervise, <strong>and</strong> provide logistical support for observers. Conduct <strong>and</strong> analyze paired<br />
observer variable circular plot survey to obtain unbiased abundance estimates for endangered, native<br />
<strong>and</strong> nonnative bird species occupying upper elevation newly reforested ab<strong>and</strong>oned pasture l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
mid-elevation open forest <strong>and</strong> closed forests of Hakalau NWR.<br />
Cost Estimate: $140,000<br />
C) Foraging ecology <strong>and</strong> competition among native <strong>and</strong> nonnative forest bird species at<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
A detailed knowledge of feeding ecology is important to the conservation of Hawaiian forest bird<br />
populations <strong>and</strong> their habitats. Recent studies have indicated that populations of many feeding<br />
specialists have declined historically, in part because food webs have been disrupted by nonnative<br />
species. A wide range of nonnative species have been identified as potential competitors for<br />
important foods of Hawaiian forest birds; nevertheless, much attention has focused on the role of<br />
nonnative bird species, particularly the introduced Japanese white-eye, which is a widespread <strong>and</strong><br />
generalist forager.<br />
Studies have inferred the existence of competition between native forest birds <strong>and</strong> Japanese whiteeyes<br />
through analyses of population distributions, demographic changes, or reductions in juvenile<br />
sizes <strong>and</strong> weights of native species. Claims that the foraging behavior of Japanese white-eyes <strong>and</strong><br />
native bird species overlap sufficiently to be causing food limitation, leading to a severe decline in<br />
numbers of ‘ākepa at Hakalau Forest NWR need to be further evaluated. A quantitative evaluation of<br />
the degree of overlap between forest bird species in foraging behavior or the use of resources will be<br />
useful in this evaluation.<br />
Preliminary analyses of fecal samples from Hakalau Forest NWR indicate relatively little overlap<br />
between native <strong>and</strong> nonnative bird species in the use of arthropod prey (U.S. Geological Survey<br />
unpublished data). Additional research is needed on the foraging behavior of bird species. In<br />
particular, it is important to determine the degree of overlap in the use of habitat types, plant species,<br />
<strong>and</strong> foraging substrates (e.g., foliage, small branches, large branches, etc.). Results from these studies<br />
will help managers evaluate threats from nonnative species <strong>and</strong> assess their options for protecting<br />
populations of endangered bird species.<br />
Research will identify the means by which forest bird species at Hakalau Forest NWR obtain food<br />
over time <strong>and</strong> space, determine how bird species partition resources, <strong>and</strong> directly assess the extent to<br />
which species may compete for food due to overlapping niche requirements. This research will<br />
evaluate overlap among species in the use of:<br />
1. habitat types (e.g., old-growth forest, planted koa st<strong>and</strong>s, other plantings);<br />
C-16 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
2. plant species (e.g., canopy tree species, understory species, rare species);<br />
3. foraging substrates (e.g., foliage, branches);<br />
4. foraging maneuvers (e.g., gleaning, probing); <strong>and</strong><br />
5. food types (e.g., nectar, fruit, arthropods).<br />
To investigate forest bird foraging behavior, we will first identify the most effective methods for<br />
observing birds <strong>and</strong> scoring their behavior. Bird behavior will be recorded while narrating behavioral<br />
events. Recorded sessions will be transferred to computers <strong>and</strong> behaviors will be scored later for<br />
analysis. Both methods require close tracking of individual birds under conditions that frequently<br />
make bird behavior difficult to interpret; nevertheless, videography offers at least the promise of<br />
being able to review questionable behaviors multiple times, whereas without it, the observer’s initial<br />
interpretation is the final interpretation.<br />
Appropriate criteria for distinguishing habitat types across Hakalau will be established. Old-growth<br />
forest (both ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong> mixed ‘ōhi‘a-koa), planted st<strong>and</strong>s of koa, <strong>and</strong> patches of other planted species<br />
(e.g., Clermontia pyrularia, Cyanea shipmanii) will be determined. Each observation will be<br />
georeferenced using GPS, <strong>and</strong> forest community structure <strong>and</strong> composition will be characterized.<br />
Foraging data will be collected near established bird survey stations to relate the foraging behavior of<br />
particular species to the historical values of the frequency of occurrence <strong>and</strong> abundance of the same<br />
or other species.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ts species on which birds are foraging will be recorded. The foraging height of birds in the forest<br />
(e.g., canopy, subcanopy, <strong>and</strong> understory) would also be noted along with the species of tree, shrub,<br />
or epiphyte in which the bird is feeding. Substrates on which birds are foraging would be designated<br />
by various categories, including foliage, terminal branches (i.e., twigs), medium branches (< 3 cm<br />
diameter), large branches, <strong>and</strong> trunks. <strong>Final</strong>ly, a characterization of the types of foods being<br />
exploited, including nectar, fruit, <strong>and</strong> arthropods is required.<br />
Cost Estimate: $50,000/year, $200,000 total<br />
D) Avian disease distribution <strong>and</strong> climate change<br />
To support Goal 6 <strong>and</strong> objective “monitor plant <strong>and</strong> animal disease (e.g., ‘ōhi‘a rust, koa wilt,<br />
avian malaria <strong>and</strong> pox)”, a related subset of this strategy is research into climate change <strong>and</strong> avian<br />
disease distribution at Hakalau Forest NWR. Avian disease <strong>and</strong> their mosquito vectors have not been<br />
sampled at the Refuge since 1999. More than 300 native <strong>and</strong> nonnative birds were sampled at high<br />
elevation Nauhi Camp, <strong>and</strong> mid-elevation Maulua <strong>and</strong> Pua ‘Ākala in 1998 <strong>and</strong> 1999 for avian<br />
malaria, <strong>and</strong> detailed mosquito surveys were conducted at mid-elevation sites. This baseline data on<br />
disease prevalence provides a reference point for measuring changes in malaria prevalence under<br />
changing climatic conditions. Since that time a temperate mosquito, Aedes japonicus, has become<br />
established on the isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> malaria prevalence has increased elsewhere in the isl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Cost Estimate: TBD<br />
E) Climate change assessment <strong>and</strong> development of management options for endangered<br />
species on NPS <strong>and</strong> Service l<strong>and</strong>s in Hawai‘i<br />
In supporting the development of L<strong>and</strong> Protection <strong>Plan</strong>ning <strong>and</strong> related species/habitat research<br />
under goals 1, 5, <strong>and</strong> 6, working with the Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Climate Change Cooperative will be key.<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-17
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The effects of climate change on Hawaiian ecosystems <strong>and</strong> species is considered a significant<br />
priority by l<strong>and</strong> management agencies in Hawai‘i. This project seeks to provide l<strong>and</strong> managers with<br />
the information they need to manage their biological resources. USGS recently completed a climate<br />
model for the Hawai‘i region to:<br />
• Map the predicted 2100 AD distributions of important management species from Haleakalā<br />
National Park <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Forest NWR (e.g., endangered species, forest dominants, <strong>and</strong> key<br />
invasive species);<br />
• Assess the impacts of climate change on these species; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Develop options for l<strong>and</strong> managers to mitigate the effects of climate change on endangered<br />
species <strong>and</strong> their habitats.<br />
Recent USGS funded regional climate models provide the basic physical inputs that will be used to<br />
modify existing species distribution models <strong>and</strong> then predict future potential distributions for<br />
endangered Hawaiian plants <strong>and</strong> birds. Future <strong>and</strong> current distributions of each species will be<br />
compared. Each species will be independently assessed to determine the relative risk that a changing<br />
climate poses to it. Options to mitigate or minimize these risks will be developed <strong>and</strong> assessed for<br />
their likelihood of succeeding. L<strong>and</strong> management scientists will be integral members of the research<br />
team. The resulting maps of species distributions, risk assessments, <strong>and</strong> potential management<br />
options will be directly applicable to the management of these two areas <strong>and</strong> those responsible for<br />
management of the target species. L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> species managers of adjacent state <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>s will<br />
also benefit from these results. This study is directly relevant to the National Climate Change <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Science Center charge, USGS Science Strategy, the DOI climate change strategy, Service<br />
needs, <strong>and</strong> National Park Service needs.<br />
This project will assess the impacts of climate change to Federally threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species<br />
in two, highly-significant biodiversity reserves: Haleakalā National Park on Maui <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR on the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Hawai‘i. Following the assessment, the project will focus on developing<br />
mitigation options <strong>and</strong> then evaluating their likelihood of success. L<strong>and</strong> managers from these two<br />
areas have identified a number of key information needs.<br />
The primary issues of concern for Hakalau Forest NWR deal with how endangered <strong>and</strong> native<br />
species are affected by changing temperature <strong>and</strong> rainfall patterns <strong>and</strong> how avian disease<br />
distributions <strong>and</strong> prevalence change as climate changes. Additional issues of concern include how<br />
climate change will impact the spread of invasive weeds as well as change fire cycle regimes.<br />
To address key management <strong>and</strong> information needs the project will focus on three major areas:<br />
1. Use a recently completed statistical downscaled climate change projections for the Hawai‘i<br />
region to predict the 2100 AD potential distributions of species of management concern;<br />
specifically:<br />
a. All Federally endangered plants <strong>and</strong> birds known from Haleakalā National Park (24 species)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hakalau Forest NWR (12 species);<br />
b. Additional Federally endangered plants known from areas adjacent to Haleakalā National<br />
Park (11 species) that are likely to have new habitat created in the Park;<br />
c. Key forest dominants for Haleakalā National Park (4 species) <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
(4 species);<br />
d. Key invasive species that pose threats to Haleakalā National Park <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
(6 species); <strong>and</strong><br />
C-18 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
e. ‘I‘iwi, a nonendangered but recently declining endemic forest bird, shared by Haleakalā<br />
National Park <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
2. Assess how predicted climate changes are likely to affect the habitat <strong>and</strong> population viability of<br />
Haleakalā <strong>and</strong> Hakalau’s endangered species <strong>and</strong> other management species.<br />
3. Work with Haleakalā <strong>and</strong> Hakalau to develop management options for l<strong>and</strong> managers to mitigate<br />
the effects of climate change on their species <strong>and</strong> habitats.<br />
Expected Products:<br />
• Updated moisture availability base layer for the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Maui <strong>and</strong> Hawai‘i;<br />
• Species distribution maps for all threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species, forest dominants, a<br />
common flagship bird species, ‘i‘iwi, <strong>and</strong> key invasive species threats for Haleakalā National<br />
Park <strong>and</strong> Hakalau Forest NWR;<br />
• Maps will show three spatially explicit types of habitat:<br />
o Currently unsuitable habitat that becomes suitable by 2100AD;<br />
o Current habitat that remains suitable in 2100 AD; <strong>and</strong><br />
o Current habitat that becomes unsuitable by 2100 AD;<br />
• Assessment of each species <strong>and</strong> its habitat with respect to physical or l<strong>and</strong> use barriers to<br />
migration/colonization;<br />
• Assessment of the potential for endangered species from adjacent properties to move on to<br />
Park <strong>and</strong> Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Comparison of potential management options with respect to their ability to provide for the<br />
recovery of listed species.<br />
Cost Estimate: 3 years @ $273,000 (average cost/yr). Total funding needed: $818,000<br />
F) Conduct endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened plant survey, HFU<br />
Some of the rarest plants in the world are known from the eastern slopes of Mauna Kea including<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR. Very little of the Refuge has been adequately surveyed for rare plants.<br />
Currently, 18 rare plant species, including endangered, threatened, <strong>and</strong> species of concern, are known<br />
from the Refuge’s 33,000 acres. Botanists will conduct rare plant surveys in unsurveyed areas of the<br />
Refuge. Rare plant locations will be gleaned from existing data <strong>and</strong> maps from the Hawai‘i Forest<br />
Bird Surveys. <strong>Plan</strong>ts will be plotted using a h<strong>and</strong> held GPS unit, inputted into ArcView data base <strong>and</strong><br />
mapped. Due to the higher plant diversity <strong>and</strong> greater numbers of rare plant species, the survey will<br />
begin in the Middle <strong>and</strong> Lower Maulua <strong>and</strong> the Lower Honohina Units of the Refuge to determine<br />
locations of rare plants on the Refuge <strong>and</strong> recommend means to protect them from the destructive<br />
forces of feral ungulates <strong>and</strong> rats. Once found, the plants can be propagated <strong>and</strong> outplanted to assist<br />
in the recovery of the species. Conduct/contract for a rare plant search/survey, especially for midelevation<br />
portions of the Refuge, focusing initially on the Middle Maulua Unit.<br />
Cost Estimate: $260,000<br />
G) Invasive weed control <strong>and</strong> monitoring efforts at Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
This proposal requests $150,000 annually for 5 years to continue control efforts for Florida<br />
blackberry <strong>and</strong> other invasive weed species at Hakalau Forest NWR. A 5-year management plan is<br />
currently in preparation to facilitate multiyear funding for this program. The funds will be used to<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-19
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
contract for labor <strong>and</strong> equipment <strong>and</strong> to purchase herbicide to spray blackberry <strong>and</strong> other invasive<br />
species. Backpack sprayers will be used to spray patches of blackberry scattered throughout the<br />
forest. The contractor will also be asked to provide a tractor-mounted spray rig (with two spray<br />
w<strong>and</strong>s) for use on larger patches located in more accessible areas within the grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> upper<br />
edge of the forest. The Refuge will direct the contractor where to spray, provide herbicide, provide<br />
water at minimal distance to the operational area, <strong>and</strong> do everything possible to maximize efficiency.<br />
Concurrently, Refuge staff will continue their blackberry control efforts (spray application of<br />
herbicide, pig control <strong>and</strong> reforestation) at similar levels to those of the past few years. Outlying<br />
blackberry colonies will receive highest priority for eradication. As the periphery is controlled, the<br />
effort will constrict inward toward the core infestation, where blackberry patches reach their greatest<br />
size <strong>and</strong> density.<br />
Monitoring will consist of continuing annual weed <strong>and</strong> ungulate surveys on established transect lines.<br />
Every fifth year a more intensive survey methodology will be applied to assess control efforts <strong>and</strong><br />
make adaptive adjustments to the control approach. Progress of the blackberry eradication effort will<br />
be monitored though annual weed <strong>and</strong> ungulate surveys using established transect methods. Gross<br />
changes in distribution <strong>and</strong> abundance will be monitored through collection of presence/absence <strong>and</strong><br />
density data within a contiguous series of 5 x 10 meter plots along the 17 transects. This will<br />
maintain the continuous series of data collected annually since 1995 <strong>and</strong> sporadically before that<br />
date. Continued funding for weed <strong>and</strong> ungulate surveys will be essential through the planning period,<br />
beginning in FY2010 <strong>and</strong> beyond.<br />
Six endangered bird species (‘akiapōlā’au, Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, Hawai‘i creeper, ‘io, nēnē, <strong>and</strong> koloa<br />
maoli) the endangered ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, six endangered plant species, <strong>and</strong> the diverse assemblage of other<br />
native plants <strong>and</strong> animals that inhabit the Refuge will all benefit from blackberry <strong>and</strong> other invasive<br />
weed species control efforts. Endangered <strong>and</strong> native plants will experience reduced competition for<br />
space, light <strong>and</strong> nutrients. Areas currently occupied by blackberry <strong>and</strong> other invasives will be<br />
recolonized by native plants that provide food <strong>and</strong> habitat for the native animals <strong>and</strong> plants the<br />
Refuge is m<strong>and</strong>ated to protect. The absence of thorny blackberry thickets will facilitate fence<br />
maintenance, tree planting efforts, <strong>and</strong> the ability of staff <strong>and</strong> visitors to walk <strong>and</strong> work in the forest.<br />
The biodiversity <strong>and</strong> health of the native forest community will increase.<br />
A weed control program will be established on the Kona Forest Unit to promote restoration of the<br />
forest understory to benefit native wildlife species. Intensive weed monitoring <strong>and</strong> control efforts at<br />
the Kona Forest Unit will require resources that are not currently available. It is hoped that during the<br />
plan period resources can be obtained that will make the program viable on the Kona Unit modeled<br />
loosely on what has been done at the Hakalau Unit (i.e., use of staff, partner <strong>and</strong> contractor resources<br />
as available).<br />
Cost Estimate: $150K annually, $200,000 every 5th year<br />
H) Predator exclusionary fence for nēnē nesting at Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Nēnē at Hakalau Forest NWR thrive well, except during breeding when predation on nēnē goslings<br />
by cats, mongooses, <strong>and</strong> possibly ‘io has been a problem. The current fences in the area are not<br />
working well. The fences are outdated, too small, <strong>and</strong> do not prevent predation. A 15-acre fenced<br />
exclosure will be built using predator proof fencing materials to reduce predation by terrestrial<br />
predators. Reproductive success is measured each year at Hakalau Forest NWR, <strong>and</strong> comparisons<br />
C-20 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
between years will show changes in reproductive success once an exclusionary fence is installed. The<br />
objective of this project is to minimize predation of nēnē goslings at the Refuge.<br />
Cost Estimate: $75,000<br />
I) Fence Middle Maulua Unit at Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Construct a fence to exclude cattle <strong>and</strong> pigs from the 1,800 acre Middle Maulua Feral Ungulate<br />
Management Unit (Unit 9). Approximately 32,000 ft of fence is required. The Middle Maulua Unit is<br />
considered by Refuge staff to be the highest priority for additional fencing on the Refuge <strong>and</strong> is<br />
consistent with trying to remove ungulates from the next lowest elevation gradient on the Refuge as a<br />
priority for limiting forest bird exposure to mosquitos <strong>and</strong> thus avian malaria. Cattle <strong>and</strong> pigs will be<br />
removed from the exclosure to enable recovery of native vegetation as habitat for six species of<br />
endangered plants <strong>and</strong> provide optimal habitat for eight species of endangered birds <strong>and</strong> the<br />
endangered ‘ōpe‘ape‘a.<br />
Cost Estimate: $334,000<br />
J) Exp<strong>and</strong> greenhouse capacity at Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Additional greenhouse space is needed to provide room for propagation <strong>and</strong> outplanting of rare<br />
plants. A simple expansion of the existing greenhouse space is possible on an area already graded<br />
<strong>and</strong> previously used for equipment <strong>and</strong> vehicle storage but now available for use due to completion<br />
of a maintenance storage building project in 2010. Exp<strong>and</strong>ing the greenhouse program will increase<br />
carrying capacity for rare plants prior to outplanting on the Refuge.<br />
Cost Estimate: $14,000<br />
K) Install rare plant exclosures on the Kona Forest Unit<br />
The Kona Forest Unit is expected to be fenced in the immediate future with funding previously<br />
obtained for the purpose. On the ground management in this area has thus far been minimal, but with<br />
access issues resolved <strong>and</strong> an approved fencing plan, immediate conservation gains may be realized.<br />
Within the three management units that will have permanent fencing, smaller temporary exclosures<br />
(1-5 acre) specifically set up for outplanting appropriate rare plant species indigenous to the area can<br />
be achieved by Refuge <strong>and</strong> partner organizations staff. As ungulate control efforts succeed in the<br />
area, the need for these subexclosures will diminish over time <strong>and</strong> plantings can extend to the rest of<br />
the Refuge unit.<br />
Outplanting of propagules of geographically isolated individual(s) <strong>and</strong>/or population(s) found on<br />
similar habitats, <strong>and</strong> consolidating these relics at protected sites, preserves genetic diversity<br />
(maximize founder representation) within the species <strong>and</strong> ensures demographic persistence <strong>and</strong><br />
stability for each species. The mixing of as many relic founders as possible can potentially<br />
reintroduce genetic vigor (viability) back into a population that suffers from the effects of genetic<br />
bottleneck (genetic drift).<br />
The construction of several exclosure fences to exclude destructive nonnative animals is the<br />
necessary first step in the protection <strong>and</strong> recovery of the proposed federally listed as well as the rare<br />
to uncommon native Hawaiian plant species outplantings. The goal of these exclosure fences is to<br />
preclude nonnative animal ingress, thereby allowing the establishment of these outplantings enabling<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-21
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
them to thrive within the protected units, ultimately providing a safe haven for these critically<br />
imperiled native plant species.<br />
The <strong>Plan</strong>t Extinction Prevention program (PEP) (formerly the Genetic Safety Net) operates under<br />
several directives of which the chief directive is to secure seeds <strong>and</strong>/or cuttings (propagules) of the<br />
rarest <strong>and</strong> most critically endangered native plant species regardless of their Federal status listing.<br />
The most critically imperiled native plant species are ones that are currently known to have less than<br />
50 individuals in the wild <strong>and</strong> are on-the-brink of extinction. Surveying, monitoring, <strong>and</strong> collecting<br />
material for propagation from the remaining wild individual(s)/population(s) of PEP species are the<br />
primary activities m<strong>and</strong>ated by this program. The preservation of these species through collection,<br />
storage <strong>and</strong> propagation ensures genetic representation for the future.<br />
Another goal of this program is to ensure that these on the brink of extinction plant species are<br />
protected from major threats in a manner consistent with Federal <strong>and</strong> State laws <strong>and</strong> regulations.<br />
Working cooperatively <strong>and</strong> developing long term partnerships with the Hawai‘i Department of L<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> Natural Resources, National Park Service, U.S. Army, The Nature Conservancy, Three Mountain<br />
Alliance, Kohala Watershed Partnership, <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>owners will help to identify potential<br />
refugia <strong>and</strong> recommend (<strong>and</strong> provide) the implementation of conservation management actions<br />
(fencing, nonnative animal <strong>and</strong> plant removal, restoration, outplanting, <strong>and</strong> monitoring). These newly<br />
identified protected sites can serve as the repatriation point sources that will ensure the long term<br />
potential survival of these species.<br />
Cost Estimate: $25,000<br />
L) Investigate the impact of rats on forest birds <strong>and</strong> habitat <strong>and</strong> develop indices for<br />
rat population monitoring <strong>and</strong> control methodology for the Refuge<br />
Studies to investigate the impact of rat predation on forest birds at Hakalau Forest <strong>and</strong> development<br />
of appropriate site specific rat population indices <strong>and</strong> control measures for Hakalau are needed to<br />
assist refuge management in addressing this threat. Previous efforts have not been conclusive <strong>and</strong><br />
require follow up. In addition, no exclosure design has been applied at Hakalau to assess the efficacy<br />
of rat control <strong>and</strong> exclusion as a means of enhancing nesting success for forest bird species.<br />
Cost Estimate: $ 100K/year for 3 years<br />
M) Remove invasive rats from an 1,000 acre area in Unit 2<br />
Rats are known to be predators of native forest birds as well as waterbirds. They are also known to<br />
consume native seeds. Removal of this threat will aid in recovery of these listed species as well as<br />
inform on project L above.<br />
Cost Estimate: $ 195,000 (FY08-6055)<br />
Monitoring CCP Implementation<br />
Successful implementation of this CCP relies on our ability to secure funding, personnel,<br />
infrastructure, <strong>and</strong> other resources to accomplish the strategies identified. Monitoring of CCP<br />
implementation has been described in part of the costs analysis above as well as part of the strategies<br />
where a time element is identified. Additional ways in which the CCP implementation will be<br />
integrated with existing Service processes include budget requests tied into CCP goals, objectives,<br />
C-22 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> strategies (e.g., RONS, SAMM, etc.), workplans, staff performance evaluations, <strong>and</strong> continued<br />
engagement with partners <strong>and</strong> the larger public who have helped to develop this CCP. Where<br />
feasible, 5-year updates (possibly on the Refuge website or continuation of planning updates) can be<br />
considered. CCP implementation will also follow adaptive management per policy 602 FW 1 <strong>and</strong><br />
522 DM 1.<br />
As part of implementing the CCP, step-down management plans have been identified. These plans<br />
are the formulation of detailed plans for meeting goals <strong>and</strong> objectives identified in the CCP. All stepdown<br />
plans require appropriate NEPA compliance <strong>and</strong> implementation may require additional<br />
permits. Project-specific plans, with appropriate NEPA compliance, may be prepared outside of these<br />
step-down plans. Step-down plans for the Refuge are as follows:<br />
Step-Down <strong>Plan</strong>s Identified in CCP Strategies:<br />
L<strong>and</strong> Protection <strong>Plan</strong> 2011<br />
Inventory <strong>and</strong> Monitoring <strong>Plan</strong> 2013<br />
Cultural Resources Management <strong>Plan</strong> 2014<br />
Proposed Wilderness Study 2015<br />
Visitor Services <strong>Plan</strong> 2020<br />
Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation C-23
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
C-24 Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix D. Wilderness Review for Hakalau Forest National<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
General Information on Wilderness Reviews<br />
Wilderness review is the process used to determine whether or not to recommend l<strong>and</strong>s or waters in<br />
the Refuge System to the Congress for designation as wilderness. <strong>Plan</strong>ning policy for the Refuge<br />
System (602 FW 3) m<strong>and</strong>ates conducting wilderness reviews every 15 years through the<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning (CCP) process.<br />
The wilderness review has three phases: inventory, study, <strong>and</strong> recommendation. After first<br />
identifying l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters that meet the minimum criteria for wilderness, the resulting wilderness<br />
study areas (WSA) are further evaluated to determine if they merit recommendation from the Service<br />
to the Secretary of the Interior for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System<br />
(NWPS). Areas recommended for designation are managed to maintain wilderness character in<br />
accordance with management goals, objectives, <strong>and</strong> strategies outlined in the final CCP until<br />
Congress makes a decision or the CCP is amended to modify or remove the wilderness proposal. A<br />
brief discussion of wilderness inventory, study, <strong>and</strong> recommendation follows.<br />
Wilderness Inventory<br />
The wilderness inventory consists of identifying areas that minimally meet the requirements for<br />
wilderness as defined in the Wilderness Act of 1964 (Wilderness Act). Wilderness is defined as an<br />
area which:<br />
• Has at least 5,000 acres of l<strong>and</strong> or is of sufficient size as to make practicable its<br />
preservation <strong>and</strong> use in an unimpaired condition, or be capable of restoration to wilderness<br />
character through appropriate management at the time of review, or be a roadless isl<strong>and</strong>;<br />
• Generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint<br />
of man’s work substantially unnoticeable;<br />
• Has outst<strong>and</strong>ing opportunities for solitude or a primitive <strong>and</strong> unconfined type of recreation;<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
• May also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic,<br />
or historic value. These features <strong>and</strong> values, though desirable, are not necessary for an area<br />
to qualify as a wilderness.<br />
Wilderness Study<br />
During the study phase, l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters qualifying for wilderness as a result of the inventory are<br />
studied to analyze values (ecological, recreational, cultural, spiritual, economic), resources (e.g.,<br />
wildlife, water, vegetation, minerals, soils), <strong>and</strong> uses (habitat management, public use) within the<br />
area. These values, resources, <strong>and</strong> uses are analyzed to determine whether the refuge can be managed<br />
effectively to achieve its purposes while also preserving wilderness character. The findings of the<br />
study determine whether to recommend the area for designation as wilderness.<br />
Wilderness Recommendation<br />
Once a wilderness study determines that a WSA meets the requirements for inclusion in the NWPS, a<br />
wilderness study report that presents the results of the wilderness review, accompanied by a<br />
Legislative Environmental Impact Statement (LEIS), is prepared. The wilderness study report <strong>and</strong><br />
Appendix D. Wilderness Review D-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
LEIS that support wilderness designation are then transmitted through the Secretary of the Interior to<br />
the President of the United States, <strong>and</strong> ultimately to the Congress for approval.<br />
The following section summarizes the inventory phase of the wilderness review for the Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR.<br />
Wilderness Inventory<br />
The wilderness inventory is a broad look at the planning area to identify WSAs. These WSAs are<br />
roadless areas within refuge boundaries, including submerged l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> their associated water<br />
column, that meet the minimum criteria for wilderness identified in Sect. 2(c) of the Wilderness Act.<br />
A WSA must meet the minimum size criteria (or be a roadless isl<strong>and</strong>), appear natural, <strong>and</strong> provide<br />
outst<strong>and</strong>ing opportunities for solitude or primitive recreation. Other supplemental values are<br />
evaluated, but not required. Three inventory units were identified in order to evaluate whether the<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters of Hakalau Forest NWR meet the minimum criteria for a WSA. These inventory<br />
units are identified in Figures D-1 <strong>and</strong> D-2 as Inventory Unit A on the Kona Forest Unit (KFU) <strong>and</strong><br />
Inventory Units B1 <strong>and</strong> B2 on the Hakalau Forest Unit (HFU).<br />
Note that management activities for wilderness areas can be conducted in a manner that maintains the<br />
wilderness character by using the minimal tools necessary to achieve Refuge purposes, as required<br />
under the Wilderness Act <strong>and</strong> Service policy (610 FW 1-4, Wilderness Stewardship). For Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR, this would include ongoing management activities such as fence construction,<br />
inspection, <strong>and</strong> repairs, a variety of surveys, threat mitigation (e.g., ungulate removal, predator<br />
control, invasive weed management, etc.), <strong>and</strong> outplantings. These activities currently occur in<br />
inventory unit B1 <strong>and</strong> are planned for inventory units A <strong>and</strong> B2.<br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
Inventory Unit A consists of the entire KFU, which is located on the leeward slope of Mauna Loa.<br />
The 5,300 acre Refuge supports diverse native bird <strong>and</strong> plant species as well as the rare habitats<br />
found in lava tubes <strong>and</strong> lava tube skylights.<br />
Hakalau Forest Units<br />
1. Inventory Unit B1 includes the management Units that are located in the upper elevation <strong>and</strong><br />
contain the existing access roads <strong>and</strong> facilities. This unit contains approximately 9,000 acres <strong>and</strong><br />
includes all Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s above approximately 5,000 feet elevation.<br />
2. Inventory Unit B2 contains approximately 23,000 acres <strong>and</strong> includes all Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s below<br />
approximately 5,000 feet elevation.<br />
Evaluation of Size Criteria for Roadless Areas, Roadless Isl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> Submerged L<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
Associated Water Column<br />
Identification of roadless areas, roadless isl<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> submerged l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> associated water column<br />
required gathering l<strong>and</strong> status maps, l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> road inventory data, satellite imagery, aerial<br />
photographs, <strong>and</strong> personal observations of areas within Refuge boundaries. “Roadless” refers to the<br />
absence of improved roads suitable <strong>and</strong> maintained for public travel by means of motorized vehicles<br />
primarily intended for highway use.<br />
D-2 Appendix D. Wilderness Review
Figure D-1. HFU wilderness inventory units.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix D. Wilderness Review D-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of our figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
D-4 Appendix D. Wilderness Review
Figure D-2. KFU wilderness inventory unit.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix D. Wilderness Review D-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To preserve the quality of our figure, this side was left blank intentionally.<br />
D-6 Appendix D. Wilderness Review
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Inventory units meet the size criteria for a WSA if any one of the following st<strong>and</strong>ards applies:<br />
• An area with over 5,000 contiguous acres. State <strong>and</strong> private l<strong>and</strong>s are not included in making<br />
this acreage determination;<br />
• A roadless isl<strong>and</strong> of any size. A roadless isl<strong>and</strong> is defined as an area surrounded by<br />
permanent waters or that is markedly distinguished from the surrounding l<strong>and</strong>s by<br />
topographical or ecological features;<br />
• An area of less than 5,000 contiguous Federal acres that is of sufficient size as to make<br />
practicable its preservation <strong>and</strong> use in an unimpaired condition, <strong>and</strong> of a size suitable for<br />
wilderness management; or<br />
• An area of less than 5,000 contiguous Federal acres that is contiguous with a designated<br />
wilderness, recommended wilderness, or area under wilderness review by another Federal<br />
wilderness managing agency such as the Forest Service, National Park Service, or Bureau of<br />
L<strong>and</strong> Management.<br />
Inventory Unit A is approximately 5,300 acres, which is just above the minimum threshold for<br />
wilderness consideration. Large numbers of access road trails are used for Refuge management.<br />
Although not suitable for public access, the road trails will be maintained <strong>and</strong> used to access the<br />
difficult terrain that exists at the KFU. Inventory Unit A meets the minimum size criteria <strong>and</strong><br />
roadless as defined in the Wilderness Act does not apply. Therefore this unit meets this criteria for<br />
Wilderness Study Area designation.<br />
Inventory Unit B1 is approximately 9,000 acres. Large numbers of access road trails are used for<br />
Refuge management. Although not suitable for access with st<strong>and</strong>ard vehicles, they are available to<br />
four-wheel drive vehicles. The road trails will be maintained <strong>and</strong> used to access the HFU <strong>and</strong><br />
administrative site. Inventory Unit B1 meets the minimum size criteria <strong>and</strong> roadless as defined in the<br />
Wilderness Act does not apply. Therefore this unit meets this criteria for Wilderness Study Area<br />
designation.<br />
Inventory Unit B2 is approximately 23,000 acres of roadless l<strong>and</strong>. This unit meets the minimum size<br />
<strong>and</strong> roadless criteria for Wilderness Study Area designation. Inventory Unit B2 meets the minimum<br />
size criteria <strong>and</strong> roadless as defined in the Wilderness Act does not apply. Therefore this unit meets<br />
this criteria for Wilderness Study Area designation.<br />
Evaluation of the Naturalness Criteria<br />
A WSA must meet the naturalness criteria. Section 2(c) of the Wilderness Act defines wilderness as<br />
an area that “…generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature with the<br />
imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable.” The presence of ecologically accurate, historical<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape conditions is not required. An area may include some manmade features <strong>and</strong> human<br />
impacts provided they are substantially unnoticeable in the unit as a whole. Human-caused hazards,<br />
such as the presence of unexploded ordnance from military activity, <strong>and</strong> the physical impacts of<br />
refuge management facilities <strong>and</strong> activities are also considered in the evaluation of the naturalness<br />
criteria. An area may not be considered unnatural in appearance solely on the basis of “sights <strong>and</strong><br />
sounds” of human impacts <strong>and</strong> activities outside the boundary of the unit. The cumulative effects of<br />
these factors were considered in the evaluation of naturalness for each wilderness inventory unit.<br />
Appendix D. Wilderness Review D-7
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
In the wilderness inventory, specific manmade features <strong>and</strong> other human impacts need to be<br />
identified that affect the overall apparent naturalness of the tract. The following factors were primary<br />
considerations in evaluating the naturalness of the inventory units:<br />
Inventory Unit A:<br />
• Field Camp;<br />
• Remnant ranch fences, galvanized pipes, corrals, <strong>and</strong> agricultural equipment;<br />
• High percentage of nonnative groundcover species;<br />
• Ungulates <strong>and</strong> other animal pest species; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Gates, fences, <strong>and</strong> access road trails.<br />
Inventory Unit B1:<br />
• Administrative site including, maintenance building, housing cabins, greenhouse with<br />
outbuildings, powerplant building, weather ports, UH field station;<br />
• Remnant ranch fences, galvanized pipes, corrals, <strong>and</strong> agricultural equipment;<br />
• High percentage of nonnative groundcover species;<br />
• Ungulates <strong>and</strong> other animal pest species; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Gates, fences, parking areas, <strong>and</strong> access road trails.<br />
Inventory Unit B2:<br />
• Nonnative groundcover species, particularly at lowest elevations;<br />
• Ungulates <strong>and</strong> other nonnative animal pest species present; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Remnant fences <strong>and</strong> gates left by previous owner.<br />
Though in the CCP, removal of ranch debris has been identified as a strategy (which will improve the<br />
naturalness of the area), inventory Unit A still contains numerous roadways, fences, gates, <strong>and</strong><br />
administrative field camp structures. This inventory unit does not meet the naturalness criteria.<br />
Inventory Unit B1 is also a highly modified former ranchl<strong>and</strong> area, containing stock ponds, corrals,<br />
fences, nonnative tree plantings, administrative site buildings, <strong>and</strong> roadways. Water quality in<br />
streams <strong>and</strong> rivers has been degraded through the introduction of sediment, animal waste, <strong>and</strong><br />
diseases. This inventory unit does not meet the naturalness criteria.<br />
Inventory Unit B2 contains remnant ab<strong>and</strong>oned fences <strong>and</strong> gates that only slightly detract from the<br />
naturalness of the Unit <strong>and</strong> are a minor component of the l<strong>and</strong>scape. Vegetative growth has muted<br />
any visual impact <strong>and</strong> these manmade structures are substantially unnoticeable in the area as a whole.<br />
Removal of these features would promote restoration of the natural character of this Unit. Overall,<br />
the forces of nature sculpt the forest resources of this Unit. The naturalness of the forest in the upper<br />
elevations of unit B2 has been modified somewhat with regard to species composition by invasion of<br />
cattle <strong>and</strong> pigs from adjoining areas. The understory <strong>and</strong> groundcover have been altered through<br />
eating <strong>and</strong> rooting by ungulates <strong>and</strong> has a groundcover that consists of mainly nonnative species.<br />
There are areas of high rainfall that have been turned into mud wallows by pig rooting <strong>and</strong> soil<br />
compaction from movement of cows <strong>and</strong> pigs. Water quality in streams <strong>and</strong> rivers may be degraded<br />
through the introduction of sediment, animal waste, <strong>and</strong> diseases (e.g., leptospirosis) caused by<br />
ungulates damaging understory <strong>and</strong> groundcover plants. Nonnative mosquitoes breed in the st<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
water in wallows created by pigs <strong>and</strong> spread avian malaria <strong>and</strong> pox to native bird populations that<br />
have completely eliminated native forest bird populations below 4,500 ft. However, native forest<br />
D-8 Appendix D. Wilderness Review
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
birds in some areas are showing apparent signs of resistance to avian malaria <strong>and</strong> cases of<br />
reoccupation of former habitat by native birds have been documented on the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Hawai‘i <strong>and</strong><br />
Moloka‘i. Using IPM strategies identified in this CCP, native forest ecosystem restoration can occur<br />
over time. Therefore, while these invasive species attributes of inventory unit B2 currently detract<br />
somewhat from the naturalness criteria, over time wilderness values associated with the natural<br />
character of this Unit can be improved through implementation of this CCP. This unit is considered<br />
to meet the naturalness criteria.<br />
Evaluation of Outst<strong>and</strong>ing Opportunities for Solitude or Primitive <strong>and</strong> Unconfined Recreation<br />
In addition to meeting the size <strong>and</strong> naturalness criteria, a WSA must provide outst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
opportunities for solitude or primitive recreation. The area does not have to possess outst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
opportunities for both solitude <strong>and</strong> primitive <strong>and</strong> unconfined recreation, <strong>and</strong> does not need to have<br />
outst<strong>and</strong>ing opportunities on every acre. Further, an area does not have to be open to public use <strong>and</strong><br />
access to qualify under these criteria. Congress has designated a number of wilderness areas in the<br />
NWPS that are closed to public access to protect ecological resource values.<br />
Opportunities for solitude refer to the ability of a visitor to be alone <strong>and</strong> secluded from other visitors<br />
in the area. Primitive <strong>and</strong> unconfined recreation means nonmotorized, dispersed outdoor recreation<br />
activities that do not require developed facilities or mechanical transport. These primitive recreation<br />
activities may provide opportunities to experience challenge <strong>and</strong> risk, self reliance, <strong>and</strong> adventure.<br />
These two opportunity “elements” are not well defined by the Wilderness Act but in most cases can<br />
be expected to occur together. However, an outst<strong>and</strong>ing opportunity for solitude may be present in an<br />
area offering only limited primitive recreation potential. Conversely, an area may be so attractive for<br />
recreation use that experiencing solitude is not an option.<br />
Inventory Unit A has not been opened to the public <strong>and</strong> is unstaffed. The dangers associated with the<br />
lava tubes <strong>and</strong> lava tube skylights would focus use in road corridors <strong>and</strong> could considerably limit<br />
opportunities for solitude, yet meet the recreation criteria of providing an opportunity to experience<br />
challenge <strong>and</strong> risk. Current construction of perimeter as well as internal fencing could impact<br />
opportunities for solitude. Additionally, this unit is surrounded by working private ranches as well as<br />
a major highway which can impact opportunities for solitude (Unit A is about a mile wide at the<br />
narrow configuration). Though not considered in this analysis, it should be noted future management<br />
plans (when funding becomes available) could impact solitude as they include adding volunteer work<br />
weekends, where groups of volunteers would help with management needs such as outplanting <strong>and</strong><br />
invasive weed work <strong>and</strong> ongoing management of the unit, which would require human presence to<br />
conduct fencing inspections <strong>and</strong> repairs, a variety of surveys for monitoring, <strong>and</strong> permitted research.<br />
Therefore this unit does not meet the solitude criteria, but does meet the recreation criteria.<br />
Inventory Unit B1 is currently open to the public under SUP or by reservation in Upper Maulua. The<br />
reservation area is generally open to motor vehicles on the roads <strong>and</strong> hiking from pull-off areas.<br />
Additionally this unit houses much of the Refuge management facilities such as a maintenance<br />
building, housing cabins, greenhouse with outbuildings, powerplant building, weather ports, <strong>and</strong> UH<br />
field station. As such, the recreational opportunities are neither primitive nor offer outst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
opportunities for solitude.<br />
Inventory Unit B2 has not been opened to the public. Public access is not a requirement for<br />
wilderness designation. Due to the naturalness of this unit <strong>and</strong> its isolation <strong>and</strong> difficult access, it<br />
Appendix D. Wilderness Review D-9
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
would provide for both primitive <strong>and</strong> unconfined recreation. Similar to unit A, planned management<br />
actions for this unit would require human presence to conduct fencing inspections <strong>and</strong> repairs, a<br />
variety of surveys for monitoring, <strong>and</strong> permitted research. As such solitude could be impacted if<br />
these management actions were implemented. However, given the vast acreage of this unit, such<br />
activity would likely go unnoticed. Therefore, this unit is considered to meet both the recreation <strong>and</strong><br />
the outst<strong>and</strong>ing opportunities for solitude criteria.<br />
Evaluation of Supplemental Values<br />
Supplemental values are defined by the Wilderness Act as “ecological, geological, or other features<br />
of scientific, educational, scenic, or historic value.” Unit A contains unique lava tube <strong>and</strong> lava tube<br />
skylight formations. In addition, it contains rare forest bird <strong>and</strong> native plant species. Units B1 <strong>and</strong> B2<br />
contain rare species of forest bird <strong>and</strong> native plants. The ecological values of these units enhance the<br />
potential wilderness characteristics.<br />
Inventory Findings<br />
Inventory units A <strong>and</strong> B1 do not meet the minimum criteria for consideration as a WSA (Table D-1).<br />
Unit B2 meets the minimum criteria for wilderness <strong>and</strong> will be considered as a WSA. The study is<br />
expected to take some time to complete. If unresolved before such time, the HFU WSA Inventory<br />
Unit B2 will be included in the wilderness study conducted for all of the Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRs at the completion of the CCP process for all refuges. The WSA will be considered<br />
with regard to this status as management actions are undertaken to improve the naturalness of the<br />
area through control <strong>and</strong>/or removal of nonnative species <strong>and</strong> subsequent fencing projects. A<br />
minimum requirements analysis will be used as part of the management planning for this area. As<br />
explained above, the naturalness criteria are somewhat compromised at present due primarily to<br />
nonnative species of plants <strong>and</strong> animals in the area. Expected management actions will improve these<br />
qualities with regard to the habitat needs of native species <strong>and</strong> potential future wilderness<br />
designation. Conversely, additional study may result in ultimately withdrawing the area from<br />
consideration.<br />
Table D-1. Wilderness Inventory Summary.<br />
Inventory Unit<br />
A: Kona Forest<br />
NWR (5,300<br />
acres)<br />
(1) Has at least 5,000 acres of<br />
roadless l<strong>and</strong> or is of sufficient size<br />
to make practicable its preservation<br />
<strong>and</strong> use in an unconfined condition,<br />
or is a roadless isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
(2) Generally appears to have been<br />
affected primarily by the forces of<br />
nature, with the imprint of man’s<br />
work substantially unnoticeable.<br />
(3a) Has outst<strong>and</strong>ing opportunities<br />
for solitude.<br />
Inventory Unit<br />
B1:<br />
Hakalau Forest<br />
Unit (9,000<br />
acres)<br />
Inventory Unit<br />
B2:<br />
Hakalau Forest<br />
Unit (23,000<br />
acres)<br />
Yes Yes Yes<br />
No No Yes<br />
No No Yes<br />
D-10 Appendix D. Wilderness Review
(3b) Has outst<strong>and</strong>ing opportunities<br />
for a primitive <strong>and</strong> unconfined type<br />
of recreation.<br />
(4) Contains ecological, geological<br />
or other features of scientific,<br />
educational, scenic, or historic<br />
value.<br />
Parcel qualifies as a wilderness<br />
study area (meets criteria 1, 2 & 3a<br />
or 3b).<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Inventory Unit<br />
A: Kona Forest<br />
NWR (5,300<br />
acres)<br />
Inventory Unit<br />
B1:<br />
Hakalau Forest<br />
Unit (9,000<br />
acres)<br />
Inventory Unit<br />
B2:<br />
Hakalau Forest<br />
Unit (23,000<br />
acres)<br />
Yes No Yes<br />
Yes Yes Yes<br />
No No Yes<br />
Appendix D. Wilderness Review D-11
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
D-12 Appendix D. Wilderness Review
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report<br />
Report on U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service’s<br />
Implementing Recovery for Endangered Forest Bird Species in Hawai‘i Workshop<br />
Hilo, Hawai‘i<br />
October 8-10, 2008<br />
Background:<br />
The U. S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> Service (Service) has received contradictory information over the population<br />
status of the Hawai‘i ‘akepa in a portion of the Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (Refuge) – a<br />
major stronghold of the endangered Hawai‘i ‘akepa – over the last several years. It was deemed<br />
necessary to clarify the current status of the Hawai‘i ‘akepa <strong>and</strong> other endangered Hawaiian forest<br />
birds at the Refuge for development of efficacious management alternatives in the 3-year<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (CCP) The Regional Director obtained the assistance of the U.S.<br />
Geological Survey’s (USGS) Dr. J. Michael Scott in conducting a review of available information on<br />
the Hawai‘i ‘akepa, <strong>and</strong> decided to hold a workshop with partner agencies, renowned forest bird<br />
researchers, <strong>and</strong> statisticians to further exp<strong>and</strong> this review.<br />
Process:<br />
Working with Dr. Scott, the eventual moderator of the workshop, employees in both the National<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System <strong>and</strong> Ecological Services programs of the Service prepared a draft agenda for<br />
the workshop that included purposes <strong>and</strong> objectives, major discussion topics, potential speakers, etc.<br />
From a group of invitees developed by the Service <strong>and</strong> USGS, volunteers to serve on a workshop<br />
steering committee were selected. These individuals <strong>and</strong> their affiliations were:<br />
1. Dr. Sheila Conant (Steering Committee Chair) University of Hawai‘i- Mānoa;<br />
2. Dr. Leonard Freed, University of Hawai‘i- Mānoa;<br />
3. Dr. David Leonard, Hawai‘i State Division of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong>;<br />
4. Dr. Loyal Mehrhoff, USGS-BRD;<br />
5. Dr. J. Michael Scott, USGS-BRD; <strong>and</strong><br />
6. Gina Shultz, Deputy Field Supervisor, FWS-Ecological Services Honolulu Office.<br />
The steering committee pared down the agenda from a broader scope in terms of both geographic<br />
area <strong>and</strong> species to focusing on the endangered Hawaiian forest birds found at the Refuge. It was<br />
hoped that although focusing on the Refuge, much of the information shared at the workshop would<br />
be applicable to these species throughout their ranges <strong>and</strong> to the broader Mauna Kea <strong>and</strong> Hawai‘i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems or forest bird survey methodology in general. Originally development of a stepdown<br />
work plan for the Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> for Endangered Hawaiian Forest Birds was an objective, but<br />
with the narrowing of the workshop focus it was decided that the Refuge CCP would capture most of<br />
those actions for these species in that geographic area.<br />
The final workshop purposes <strong>and</strong> objectives were:<br />
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report E-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
1) Identify <strong>and</strong> prioritize management needs <strong>and</strong> activities, including research, at Hakalau<br />
Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge to recover endangered Hawaiian forest birds;<br />
2) Incorporate identified needs <strong>and</strong> activities in the Hakalau Forest 15-year <strong>Comprehensive</strong><br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>; <strong>and</strong><br />
3) Extrapolate Hakalau-specific information to the broader Mauna Kea area <strong>and</strong> other<br />
geographic areas <strong>and</strong> bird species <strong>and</strong> suites of birds as appropriate.<br />
The final workshop agenda is included at the end of this report for reference. This report was shared<br />
with all meeting participants on October 24, 2008, for 2 work weeks for their concurrence for<br />
accurate representation of their contributions <strong>and</strong> overall outcomes.<br />
The major points or conclusions of each presenter are as follows:<br />
Day 1 – October 8<br />
Stieglitz: Meeting outcome will provide products that will assist in setting management alternative<br />
priorities for the Refuge CCP. The products from the workshop will include a ‘white paper report’<br />
from the workshop, an action plan, <strong>and</strong> a summary evaluation from the participants. The products<br />
will be sent to the participants for review <strong>and</strong> evaluation.<br />
Bohan: Protection, reforestation, <strong>and</strong> restoration are vitally important for endangered plants <strong>and</strong><br />
animals found on refuges. Adaptive management, research, <strong>and</strong> partnerships will provide the refuge<br />
with input <strong>and</strong> information needed to protect endangered species. The CCP will provide a plan for<br />
the future direction of management of endangered species at the refuge <strong>and</strong> provide avenues for<br />
staffing <strong>and</strong> funding to accomplish the management actions. The refuge is interested in <strong>and</strong><br />
committed to obtaining input from other agencies <strong>and</strong> the public in the development <strong>and</strong><br />
implementation of the CCP.<br />
Pratt: “Population status of threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered forest birds in Hawai‘i” Hawai‘i’s native<br />
forest birds have suffered great losses over the last 200 years with almost 50 species lost to extinction<br />
due to habitat loss, predation, competition, <strong>and</strong> avian disease. Mosquito-borne avian diseases have<br />
almost completely eliminated native forest birds below 1500 meters on all isl<strong>and</strong>s, making high<br />
elevation habitat essential to protecting forest birds. The Refuge contains critically important high<br />
elevation habitat. The Hawai‘i Interagency Data Base Program team (USGS-BRD) has analyzed<br />
forest bird survey data collected on all of the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s since 1976. These data show that<br />
throughout the State there is one consistent theme: forest bird populations in managed areas are<br />
stable or increasing; forest bird populations in nonmanaged areas are stable or decreasing.<br />
Scott: <strong>Conservation</strong> in Hawai‘i has been building on a foundation of research <strong>and</strong> management over<br />
the last 30 years to protect endangered species <strong>and</strong> prevent extinctions. Because of its isolation <strong>and</strong><br />
progress in the field of conservation, Hawai‘i is the “window to the future” for endangered species.<br />
Important tools are needed to move forward (research, habitat restoration). It is of utmost importance<br />
to get the research information to the people that make funding decisions. Policy changes will allow<br />
for funding for research that is needed to make management decisions on a temporal <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
scale.<br />
E-2 Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Camp: “Densities <strong>and</strong> trends in Hakalau Forest Birds” The Refuge was established in 1985 to protect<br />
native forest birds <strong>and</strong> their habitat. Refuge forest bird surveys were conducted between 1987 <strong>and</strong><br />
2007. The USGS-BRD Interagency Database Program team analyzed all Refuge forest bird survey<br />
data using a Bayesian approach to log linear regression. They tested for changes in bird densities in 3<br />
study areas: previously heavily grazed middle elevation forest, upper elevation pasture that was<br />
reforested <strong>and</strong> lower elevation relatively intact forest. They found that densities of the ‘elepaio <strong>and</strong><br />
the endangered ‘akiapola‘au <strong>and</strong> creeper increased in the middle area forests. All other forest bird<br />
species showed stable trends in the middle area with no evidence of decline as seen elsewhere in<br />
Hawai‘i. Trends for alien birds were also stable except for the house finch, which is declining.<br />
However, short term trajectories for some native species (‘elepaio, ‘amakihi, ‘akepa, ‘i‘iwi, <strong>and</strong><br />
‘apapane) at middle elevations from 1999-2007 showed a decline, whereas the Japanese white-eye<br />
showed a stable to increasing trajectory. At lower elevations creeper <strong>and</strong> ‘akepa showed increasing<br />
trajectories, <strong>and</strong> densities have declined for the other native species. In the upper pastures densities<br />
increased for three common native species--‘amakihi, ‘i‘iwi, <strong>and</strong> ‘apapane--<strong>and</strong> two alien species—<br />
Japanese white-eye <strong>and</strong> house finch. We advise caution on relying on short-term trajectories to<br />
assess population status. These trends show some of the first results of habitat improvement for<br />
forest birds in Hawai‘i. Also, 1) There was no change in detectability for ‘akepa or ‘amakihi over<br />
that time span, 2) long term population trends for all native species in forested areas showed no<br />
decreasing trends, <strong>and</strong> 3) Hawai‘i ‘akepa showed stable to increasing densities over the study time<br />
period. Additional analytical techniques, such as species habitat models <strong>and</strong> spatial pattern analysis<br />
should also be used in the future.<br />
Freed (I): “Chewing lice <strong>and</strong> competition from Japanese White eye are synergistically starving every<br />
native species at Hakalau Forest NWR” Food competition from an increasing population of<br />
introduced Japanese white-eyes in the Pua ‘Ākala area, <strong>and</strong> the resultant increase in chewing lice,<br />
have synergistically increased food requirements <strong>and</strong> reduced food levels for all native birds at the<br />
Refuge. All life history parameters of ‘akepa (fledgling mass, bill length, fat levels, feather<br />
degradation, call rates, breeding success, sex ratio of young, juvenile survival, <strong>and</strong> adult survival )<br />
have become significantly lower, making the population non-viable as reflected in a shift in lambda<br />
to significantly less than one. The ‘akepa at the 1650 m site, with lowest number of white-eye, still<br />
appears to be viable based on fledgling mass. Mist-netting data show that the white-eye is replacing<br />
the ‘akepa at elevations between 1900 <strong>and</strong> 1770 m. The decline became more severe between 2006-<br />
2008 at these elevations, which represent the former site of highest density of the ‘akepa on the<br />
Refuge. There are also changes in numbers <strong>and</strong> begging behavior of the endangered Hawai‘i<br />
Creeper. Control of white-eye numbers is essential to reverse the decline of the ‘akepa <strong>and</strong> other<br />
forest birds.<br />
Freed (II): “When Methodologies collide: Issues of scale, assumptions of models <strong>and</strong> appropriate<br />
analysis” Two study sites on the Refuge appear to be at different stages of effects by Japanese whiteeyes.<br />
No decline in ‘akepa has been detected at the Pedro study site as occurred at the Pua ‘Ākala<br />
study site after 2005. Pedro previously had a much lower density of ‘akepa associated with lower<br />
number of big trees with cavities for nesting. Based on mist-netting in the 1990’s, ‘akepa <strong>and</strong> whiteeye<br />
appeared to be at comparable density. Survey of birds during March 2008 revealed more whiteeye<br />
than ‘akepa. More Japanese white-eyes, or longer exposure to the same increase in white-eyes,<br />
might be necessary to generate the same competitive effect observed in higher density areas such as<br />
Pua ‘Ākala. The early stages at Pedro may be revealed by the absence of calling by ‘akepa <strong>and</strong> mate<br />
feeding observed in silence. The Pedro site might be especially important for determining if there is<br />
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report E-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
a delayed response to white-eye increase in lower density ‘akepa populations that may be previously<br />
limited by cavities more than food.<br />
VCP methodology is based on numerous assumptions. Some of these assumptions may be being<br />
violated, which may lead to misleading conclusions. Fixed plot surveys may be more accurate than<br />
VCP. With any statistical analysis, violation of assumptions of a model can lead to erroneous results.<br />
One problem involves scale. A decline in one section of the refuge, analyzed separately, may not be<br />
apparent when the refuge is analyzed as a whole. Analyses should be performed for separate<br />
portions of the Refuge, especially where endangered birds used to be common.<br />
Gorreson: “Time series analysis of spatial patterns in species abundance at Hakalau Forest NWR”<br />
Two questions need to be answered: 1) are Hawai‘i ‘akepa populations in decline at Hakalau?, <strong>and</strong> 2)<br />
are Hawai‘i ‘akepa in competition with Japanese white-eyes? Forest bird survey data collected 1977-<br />
2007 were analyzed using Spatial Analysis by Distance Indices (SADIE). The data show that<br />
Hawai‘i ‘akepa have strong cluster-gap patterns. They are centered in the south of the Refuge (Pua<br />
‘Ākala area). Japanese white-eyes are highly variable with moderately weak patterns <strong>and</strong> are mostly<br />
centered in the north of the Refuge but eruptive patterns do occur in some years, which weakened<br />
between 1987 <strong>and</strong> 1998 but have stabilized since 1999. Japanese white-eye distribution does not<br />
show consistent association with ‘akepa distribution. There is no evidence that ‘akepa are declining<br />
or that Japanese white-eyes are displacing ‘akepa.<br />
Garton (I): “Interspecific competition between ‘akepa <strong>and</strong> Japanese white-eye in Hakalau NWR”<br />
Four different models were used to analyze the refuge forest bird survey data: 1.) the Null model (No<br />
density dependence); 2.) The Ricker model (density dependence on Nt,, 3.) the Gompertz model<br />
(density dependence on lnNt), <strong>and</strong> 4.) the Theta model (density dependence on N t θ ). Each of the<br />
models shows different levels of competition between ‘akepa <strong>and</strong> Japanese white-eyes, but none of<br />
these models show any significant effect. Because these effects are minor, it is difficult to tease out<br />
the other environmental factors that may have other negative effects. Through modeling it appears<br />
that environmental parameters that benefit ‘akepa also benefit Japanese white-eyes.<br />
Day 2 – October 9<br />
Horne: “Distance estimation of abundance: Assumptions <strong>and</strong> possible sources of bias” Distance<br />
sampling is a good way for estimating forest bird abundance because it can provide unbiased<br />
estimates <strong>and</strong> is relatively easy <strong>and</strong> inexpensive to implement. Distance sampling assumes that: 1)<br />
the density of animals (forest birds) is homogenous in the area surveyed, 2) the probability of an<br />
individual being detected is related to the distance from the observer, <strong>and</strong> 3) that all individuals at<br />
close distances are observed. Increased detectability of individuals in a population, due to possible<br />
changes in behavior of stressed individuals, affects abundance estimates based on distance sampling.<br />
While increased detectability results in more individuals being counted, estimates of abundance are<br />
unaffected by the change as long as the probability of detection at close distances is one (or does not<br />
change). However, if greater detectability also results in a greater proportion of detections at very<br />
close distances, then estimates will be affected by changes in detectability. Even if detectability<br />
changes over time, trend analyses based on these abundance estimates remain valid if the changes are<br />
r<strong>and</strong>om about some constant mean. In this case, the abundance estimates become an index <strong>and</strong> the<br />
changes in detectability are subsumed in observation error. If there are systematic changes in<br />
detectability over time, abundance estimates can be corrected using recently developed paired<br />
observer methods.<br />
E-4 Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Garton (II): “Adaptive Management of the ‘akepa <strong>and</strong> Japanese white-eye” Adaptive management is<br />
a systematic process for continually improving management policies <strong>and</strong> practices by learning from<br />
the outcomes of operational programs. Garton compared two different adaptive management<br />
definitions from Walters’ (1986) Four Fundamentals of Adaptive Management of Natural Resources,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Williams, Szaro, & Shapiro(2007) 9 Step Program used by USDI. By using several<br />
predictive mathematical models (with different sensitivities, <strong>and</strong> changing the parameters of the<br />
model, i.e., habitat improvement (reforestation, removal of grazers etc.) removing predators),<br />
predictions can be made on the potential consequences of each management action. With a Time<br />
Series Model, predictions show that both ‘akepa <strong>and</strong> Japanese white-eye densities increase with<br />
positive habitat changes, removal of Japanese white-eyes will actually reduce ‘akepa densities, <strong>and</strong><br />
that, if the current management continues, it is unlikely that ‘akepa will go extinct with in the next<br />
30 years.<br />
Dennis: “Analysis of population trend: Getting the details right” Regression of log-abundance of a<br />
population versus time is often used to estimate the population's trend. It is not widely realized that<br />
such regression carries implicit assumptions about how the trend <strong>and</strong> the variability in the population<br />
abundances arise. If the statistical model does not adequately describe the process by which the data<br />
are produced, the trend estimate can be seriously in error. Three different models for estimating<br />
population trend are described <strong>and</strong> are different stochastic versions of the exponential growth model:<br />
1) observation error only, 2) environmental process noise only, <strong>and</strong> 3) a state space model which<br />
combines both observation error <strong>and</strong> process noise. Each model leads to a different statistical<br />
calculation for obtaining estimates of model parameters, including trend, for time series abundance<br />
data. Log-abundance regression turns out to correspond to deterministic exponential growth with<br />
observation error only that is, model 1. In computer simulations, model 3 provides confidence<br />
intervals for trend that remain valid when data are generated under models 1 <strong>and</strong> 2. Confidence<br />
intervals calculated with models 1 or 2; however, fail miserably when data are generated under each<br />
other or under model 3. The hugely volatile Hawai‘i ‘akepa data (conforest time series) analyzed<br />
with model 3 yield a wide 95% confidence interval for trend that contains zero. The analysis<br />
suggests that the time series abundances contain substantial amounts of both environmental process<br />
noise <strong>and</strong> observation error. Building a density dependent model for this data set with environmental<br />
driving variables included might produce results more useful to management.<br />
Duffy: “Rightsizing the Ark: Exclosures for Hawaiian Forest Birds” To protect native species, we<br />
need to fence at a scale appropriate to protect l<strong>and</strong>scapes that will conserve bird populations large<br />
enough to survive at the scale of centuries, or we are wasting our time <strong>and</strong> money, <strong>and</strong> should spend<br />
it on other organisms. We have to operate at the appropriate scale, <strong>and</strong> this information needs to be<br />
presented to funding agencies <strong>and</strong> policy makers. With global warming, highl<strong>and</strong> forests won’t be<br />
safe from avian malaria. Fencing <strong>and</strong> removing feral ungulates at the upper <strong>and</strong> mid elevations will<br />
create buffers where mosquitoes cannot breed, helping to keep mosquitoes at lower elevations <strong>and</strong><br />
outside of the refuge.<br />
In the late afternoons of October 8 <strong>and</strong> 9, Dr. Scott led discussions of the days’ presentations.<br />
The focus on October 8 was identifying major threats to the forest birds at the Refuge. Dr. Scott used<br />
a multi-voting technique for workshop participants to describe <strong>and</strong> rank the immediate threats to<br />
forest birds at the refuge. Each attendee was given the opportunity to vote for any of the “Threats to<br />
Hawaiian forest birds” decided upon earlier in the workshop. The threats identified, <strong>and</strong> their<br />
ranking of importance by participants was:<br />
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report E-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Immediate Threats to Hawaiian Forest Birds at Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
Feral Ungulates (24 votes)<br />
Lack of Habitat (21)<br />
Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts (12 votes)<br />
Predation (7 votes)<br />
Data Insufficient to meet Management Needs (8 votes)<br />
Parasites (2 votes)<br />
Interspecific Competition (1 vote)<br />
Avian Disease (no votes were received, so removed from list)<br />
The focus on October 9 was identifying <strong>and</strong> prioritizing major management actions <strong>and</strong> research<br />
necessary to recover the forest birds found at the Refuge. These management actions <strong>and</strong> research<br />
(collectively, activities) were also ranked using a multi-voting technique as follows:<br />
Management Actions (Priority Ranked by Voting)<br />
1) *Grazers/browsers (Habitat destruction/mosquito production) – High (overall 24 votes)<br />
• Fence construction, maintenance, <strong>and</strong> removal of animals (combined total = 30 votes)<br />
• See Research Priorities<br />
2) Habitat Restoration – High (21 votes)<br />
• Revegetation of pasture l<strong>and</strong> (15 votes)<br />
• Improve ‘ohi‘a densities (7 votes)<br />
3) Invasive plants – High (overall 12 votes)<br />
• Continue invasive species control (blackberry, banana poka, gorse) (11 votes)<br />
• Prevent <strong>and</strong> eliminate incipient weeds (2 votes)<br />
• See Research Priorities<br />
4) Monitoring <strong>and</strong> Data Needs – High (overall 8 votes)<br />
• See Research priorities<br />
• Delivery of technical information (2 votes)<br />
5) Predation – Medium (overall 7 votes)<br />
• See Research priorities<br />
6) Parasites – Low (overall 2 votes)<br />
• Incipient invasive parasites, true population counts, de-louse birds (2 votes)<br />
7) Interspecific competition – Low (overall 1 vote)<br />
• See Research priorities<br />
• Identify ectoparasites/mites<br />
E-6 Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Research Priorities (Priority Ranked by Voting)<br />
1) Monitoring <strong>and</strong> Data: Exp<strong>and</strong> point counts/b<strong>and</strong>ing data – 15 votes<br />
(combined primary counter training (8 votes), consider use of a B-Bird (Breeding Biology Research<br />
<strong>and</strong> Monitoring Database) system (http://www.umt.edu/bbird/info.htm) (7 votes), <strong>and</strong> threat<br />
surveillance (1 vote))<br />
2) Predation: Investigate effects of rats on forest birds (9 votes); rodent population index (2 votes) –<br />
11 votes<br />
3) Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts: Develop effective biocontrols – 8 votes<br />
4)*Grazers/Browsers: Predator proof fencing – 7 votes<br />
5) Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts: Develop more efficient control methods <strong>and</strong> registration of herbicides – 4 votes<br />
5) Determine the effects of global climate change at the Refuge – 4 votes<br />
6) Develop more effective cat control techniques – 2 votes<br />
6) Determine effects of ectoparasites on non-endangered bird populations – 2 votes<br />
7) Experimental control of Japanese white-eyes – 1 vote<br />
*Caveat: Activities to construct an ungulate proof fence <strong>and</strong> a predator-proof fence caused some<br />
confusion amongst the participants. Dr. Scott obtained consensus that these activities could be<br />
combined with a third separate but related activity of removing feral ungulates.<br />
Conclusion:<br />
A workshop evaluation was distributed to all participants on October 24, 2008. Of the<br />
37 participants, 11 provided evaluations (= respondents). A number of Service employees, as<br />
organizers of the workshop <strong>and</strong> authors of this summary, did not provide written evaluations, so the<br />
response rate is actually higher than it initially appears. A summary of the evaluations is attached as<br />
Appendix A. In short, however, findings of the evaluations were:<br />
Overall the perception of the workshop organization <strong>and</strong> format was entirely positive. However,<br />
some respondents felt the workshop purpose <strong>and</strong> objectives fluctuated too much in advance of the<br />
workshop, were unclear, or were known but unstated. While this was in part a result of ‘adaptive<br />
management’ of the agenda <strong>and</strong> a deliberative process by the steering committee, more, earlier input<br />
from potential participants would help address this criticism for future workshops.<br />
The presentations themselves were largely felt to be very informative <strong>and</strong> address the workshop<br />
purpose <strong>and</strong> objectives, given the previously mentioned concerns about those objectives. The<br />
amount of time allotted to presentations was generally thought adequate, <strong>and</strong> the facilitation by Dr. J.<br />
Michael Scott very good.<br />
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report E-7
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Regarding present <strong>and</strong> future management <strong>and</strong> research management actions at Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR, respondents were generally positive. Some thought, however, that we had merely validated<br />
current management actions – a positive in the eyes of the refuge staff <strong>and</strong> this author – but others<br />
saw this as “reinventing the wheel” <strong>and</strong> unnecessary.<br />
The field trip on Day 3 was very positively received.<br />
In summary, the workshop was very useful in clarifying the status of the endangered Hawai‘i ‘akepa,<br />
with most respondents supporting the interpretation of survey data indicating stable or increasing<br />
population trends. In turn, this finding validates the substantial investment of resources <strong>and</strong> energy at<br />
the Hakalau Forest NWR over the last 20 years, specifically the fencing/ungulate removal,<br />
reforestation, <strong>and</strong> invasive species removal programs. <strong>Final</strong>ly, the priority activities (management<br />
actions <strong>and</strong> research) identified at the workshop will be used during the development of the Hakalau<br />
Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge CCP <strong>and</strong> provide a road map to guide Service staff in the<br />
management <strong>and</strong> recovery of Hawaiian forest birds at Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Future workshops should be designed with special attention to purpose <strong>and</strong> objectives, leaving<br />
additional time to address the “what is not known” question <strong>and</strong> develop priority research to answer<br />
that question, <strong>and</strong> ensure early input from all potential participants <strong>and</strong> stakeholders (especially on<br />
workshop purpose <strong>and</strong> objectives).<br />
E-8 Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report
Attachment 1<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Summary of Evaluation of Hawaiian<br />
Forest Birds Workshop<br />
October 8-10, 2008<br />
Hilo, Hawai‘i<br />
Total number of participants: 37<br />
Total number of participants who completed evaluation forms: 11<br />
Total number of participants who provided comments on workshop notes: 2<br />
1. The organization/format of the workshop was (please check one):<br />
Day One<br />
Excellent 5<br />
Good 6<br />
Comments or Suggestions:<br />
Day Two<br />
Excellent 4<br />
Good 5<br />
Adequate 2<br />
Day Three<br />
Excellent 7<br />
• It is too bad that more empirical studies were not included.<br />
• The field trip was a terrific idea as it gave participants from outside Hawaii <strong>and</strong> those within<br />
the state but less familiar with Hakalau, a great on-the-ground view of the refuge's success<br />
with restoration <strong>and</strong> the richness of the bird community. We saw perhaps a dozen akepa!<br />
• This was pretty close to the most informative 3 days I’ve ever spent in the Service –perhaps<br />
in my entire 15 year Fed. Career. Well done to have the room filled with those who know<br />
these species <strong>and</strong> conservation issues the best.<br />
2. The time allotted for presentations <strong>and</strong> discussions was (please check one):<br />
Sufficient 11 Insufficient Excessive<br />
Comments or Suggestions:<br />
• There were some presentations where discussion was cut off early, but not sure that could be<br />
helped without eliminating a presentation or going significantly over time.<br />
• I appreciated that there was plenty of time for questions <strong>and</strong> discussion in addition to<br />
presentations. Michael Scott did an excellent job guiding the discussion.<br />
• I think the time allotted was just right.<br />
3. The presentations <strong>and</strong> discussions adequately addressed the workshop purpose <strong>and</strong><br />
objectives. (please check one)<br />
Strongly Agree 3 Agree 6 Disagree 1 Strongly Disagree<br />
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report E-9
Comments or suggestions:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
• Some excellent presentations on point count methodology – I learned quite a bit. The<br />
weakest parts of the workshop were the presentations on competition from white-eyes <strong>and</strong><br />
ectoparasites – most likely because the data were unverified, highly controversial, <strong>and</strong> not<br />
supported by excessive census data from the refuge.<br />
• Did a good job of not allowing discussion to focus solely on the controversy between Lenny<br />
<strong>and</strong> others, which likely would not have been productive. I was not fully aware of the<br />
underlying impetus for the workshop prior to Day 1, <strong>and</strong> it might have helped to have<br />
presented in advance the information that now appears at the beginning of the notes<br />
(although I underst<strong>and</strong> there was some evolution of the focus of the meeting in the weeks<br />
leading up to it, so perhaps there was not time).<br />
• This is a loaded statement! In all honesty the stated purpose <strong>and</strong> objectives kept changing<br />
<strong>and</strong> were never very clear, <strong>and</strong> from the get-go were counfounded by other well known but<br />
unstated objectives, so I'll refrain from checking a box here. For a workshop ostensibly<br />
about management priorities as well as research, the presentations mostly treated data<br />
analysis <strong>and</strong> population <strong>and</strong> trend modeling -- <strong>and</strong> in fact addressed the unstated objectives<br />
better than the stated ones. Is seems that what we had, especially from the University of<br />
Idaho participants, was primarily a live performance of contributions to the most recent<br />
external review of the survey data from Hakalau to address the Japanese white-eye-Hawai’i<br />
‘akepa questions. This was interesting, but I'm not certain it was what best served the<br />
participants of this workshop.<br />
• Too much time was spent on addressing the competition issue.<br />
• There were conflicting data sets <strong>and</strong> more time should have been used to resolve the<br />
conflicts.<br />
• This is a difficult question to answer because the workshop purpose was not entirely clear.<br />
On the one h<strong>and</strong>, the workshop seemed focused on whether or not the interspecific<br />
competition between Akepa <strong>and</strong> White-eyes is something to be concerned about, <strong>and</strong> on the<br />
other h<strong>and</strong> the workshop was also trying to address all management <strong>and</strong> research priorities<br />
for Hakalau. I think we accomplished the former but were less successful on the latter.<br />
• Because so much discussion focused on Lenny Freed’s concerns about ‘akepa, I think he<br />
should have spoken more about his data <strong>and</strong> spent less time critiquing census methods.<br />
Plenty of other people did the latter. Lenny changed topics at the last minute, so this was<br />
hard to control, but I think we needed to see <strong>and</strong> hear more of the actual data.<br />
4. Management needs <strong>and</strong> activities, including research, at the Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
Refuge were properly identified <strong>and</strong> prioritized to recover endangered Hawaiian forest birds.<br />
(please check one):<br />
Strongly Agree 3 Agree 7 Disagree Strongly Disagree 1<br />
Comments or suggestions:<br />
• A little too much emphasis on reinventing the wheel. Most of the management needs <strong>and</strong><br />
activities were identified <strong>and</strong> prioritized in the Forest Bird Recovery <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>and</strong> it was<br />
reassuring that these have not changed since the plan was finalized. As someone from the<br />
E-10 Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
workshop pointed out – the most important management needs can be summarized as “Build<br />
fence, kill pigs, plant trees, count birds”. The refuge has been doing this well the past 20<br />
years <strong>and</strong> FWS support for the activities should continue.<br />
• I agree only in that the “process”, such as it was, on the second day clearly demonstrated<br />
that a room full of Hawaiian forest bird experts with years or decades of experience do not<br />
believe that investigating (or acting on) potential interspecific competition as a threat to<br />
endangered birds is a priority. I don’t think the results of this workshop lead to a big shift in<br />
activities or emphasis at Hakalau, but maybe the view from the Refuge is different…<br />
• I think the priorities were properly identified. Funding to implement is still the question to be<br />
resolved.<br />
• How could the audience ignore the fact that lambda for the akepa was significantly less than<br />
one?<br />
• I do not think we properly identified management needs for the refuge in the sense that we<br />
reaffirmed collectively that the Refuge is very much on the right track. I think we could have<br />
done a much better job at identifying research priorities. With much of the refuge staff<br />
present, it would have been very useful to ask then to come to the meeting with a list of what<br />
they see as research priorities. What data would be helpful in underst<strong>and</strong>ing whether their<br />
management actions are achieving success? What projects would be useful underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
whether addiditional management actions are necessary? It would have been great to<br />
outline <strong>and</strong> prioritize specific projects <strong>and</strong> then collectively think about where the funding<br />
could come from to support them.<br />
• I think we did a pretty comprehensive job, certainly enough to provide pretty specific<br />
guidelines for the development of the CCP.<br />
• I believe it would be worthwhile to identify additional lines of field investigation to validate<br />
Dr. Freed’s claims regarding competition from white-eyes <strong>and</strong> parasitism from<br />
ectoparasites. If biologist from the mainl<strong>and</strong> could be encouraged to conduct relevant field<br />
studies here, that would bring independence to the findings <strong>and</strong> generate interest in the wider<br />
scientific <strong>and</strong> conservation communities.<br />
5. Do the results of this workshop clearly define future research <strong>and</strong> management actions at<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR? (please check one):<br />
Strongly Agree 2 Agree 7 Disagree 1 Strongly Disagree 1<br />
Comments or suggestions:<br />
• Seems to me the results just validated what the Refuge is already doing, ES is already<br />
helping to fund, <strong>and</strong> what the wider forest bird conservation community already has<br />
identified has priorities – in about the same order.<br />
• Yes, for forest birds. Need to have similar discussions relative to plant species management.<br />
This was an excellent group of people to address the forest bird issues. I wish we also could<br />
have used this group to look at forest bird research <strong>and</strong> management needs statewide.<br />
• They identified management but not address research. There should have been a session on<br />
what we need to know that we don't know at present.<br />
• There is still a lot of work to be done to “clearly define” research management in the<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, but this workshop gave us a very good start.<br />
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report E-11
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
• To me the management actions were more clearly defined than the research actions. I felt<br />
that the discussion of research actions did not go far enough beyond what is already being<br />
done or considered, <strong>and</strong> there was no blueprint drafted for follow-through on the few<br />
resulting recommendations. Lack of funding, more specifically lack of adequate funding<br />
sources, may be discouraging initiative for research.<br />
Additional Comments:<br />
• This was an effective venue to try to settle conflicting interpretations of current population<br />
trends for Hawaii Akepa <strong>and</strong> other endangered birds at Hakalau. I hope the majority<br />
opinions were clearly heard by USFWS officials.<br />
• Overall, a good job of staying on schedule <strong>and</strong> not letting talks go over. The initial talks<br />
occurred ahead of schedule. If possible, this also should be avoided, particularly if people<br />
might need to come & go during the workshop.<br />
• Refuge staff <strong>and</strong> officials from Honolulu <strong>and</strong> region need to direct the workshop to focus<br />
discussion on their most significant needs.<br />
• I think the discussion should have had very specific questions <strong>and</strong> objectives spelled out<br />
before it started. That would have helped focus our identification of needs <strong>and</strong> priorities <strong>and</strong><br />
given us a bit more time to talk about them. Still, between Mike’s moderating <strong>and</strong> Ken’s note<br />
taking, we did a very good job.<br />
• Seemed to me to be a well-organized workshop. The field trip also went extremely well---it<br />
was great to see all those birds!<br />
• Make explicit any implicit objectives or drivers, <strong>and</strong> make sure all the key stakeholders are<br />
present.<br />
• It’s a good thing the scope of this workshop was changed, very near the last minute, to<br />
Hakalau only (rather than the whole Big Isl<strong>and</strong>, or Big Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Kauai etc.), because the<br />
State was represented at the workshop by a total of one person (from DOFAW administrative<br />
office).<br />
• Ensure that all participants have a 100% clear underst<strong>and</strong>ing of the purpose/objectives, the<br />
contributions expected of them, <strong>and</strong> the specific methods that will be used to meet objectives,<br />
make decisions etc. To achieve “buy in” or wide agreement, it isn’t enough to have a good<br />
moderator for individual presentations <strong>and</strong> discussions (which we did have); the facilitator<br />
has to move the whole group toward achieving a small number of very clear objectives,<br />
present – up front – a well-defined process or processes for doing that, <strong>and</strong> resolve<br />
procedural concerns or differences of opinion along the way. In this case, the ad hoc<br />
“process” we undertook on the second day was reasonably effective, but I think that was<br />
largely because the task was a no-brainer for this group, <strong>and</strong> wide agreement about<br />
priorities for forest bird research <strong>and</strong> conservation already existed. That process was<br />
conducted in an extemporaneous manner <strong>and</strong> without clear explanation of how the results<br />
would be used, <strong>and</strong> would have backfired in a group that was divided over the topics under<br />
discussion.<br />
E-12 Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report
Appendix F. Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of<br />
Concern<br />
Table F-1. Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health (BIDEH).<br />
Natural Processes<br />
(biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic processes<br />
responsible for habitat conditions) Limiting Factors<br />
Population/Habitat Attributes<br />
(age class, structure, serial stage, species<br />
composition)<br />
Habitats (plant<br />
communities that represent<br />
existing BIDEH)<br />
The upper canopy is composed of scattered<br />
mature (100+ years), <strong>and</strong> medium stature<br />
‘ōhi‘a (30 ft). The mid-canopy zone (10-<br />
15 ft) is dominated by hāpu‘u (tree fern). The<br />
vegetation at ground level, up to 6-10 ft, is<br />
dominated by dense Dicranopteris sp. (matted<br />
ferns), making access difficult. This habitat<br />
type is found between 2,500 ft - 4,000 ft<br />
elevation with many Carex sp. bogs found<br />
scattered throughout the lower elevations.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t diversity is low <strong>and</strong> dominated by ‘ōhi‘a<br />
<strong>and</strong> Dicranopteris sp. Although unstudied, it<br />
is assumed that invertebrate diversity is also<br />
low.<br />
Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
Montane wet<br />
‘ōhi‘a/Dicranopteris<br />
sp. forest<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Limiting factors<br />
include a lack of native<br />
pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
pest species (e.g.,<br />
ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
diseases).<br />
The windward east-facing Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit receives northeasterly<br />
tradewind-dominated rainfall<br />
throughout the year with up to 250<br />
inches annually. Heavier rainfall<br />
occurs October-March.<br />
Mosquitoes, the vector<br />
for avian diseases,<br />
breed up to 4,500 feet<br />
in elevation.<br />
There is limited current<br />
<strong>and</strong> historical human<br />
disturbance. The threat<br />
of wildfire is slight.<br />
Mountain slopes are mild. Soils are<br />
aged, eroded, <strong>and</strong> volcanic in origin.<br />
Soils are typically poorly drained. The<br />
ground surface is bisected by numerous<br />
streams (surface flow). These streams<br />
create <strong>and</strong> maintain stream channels<br />
that are highly eroded <strong>and</strong> steep-sided,<br />
providing protection to native <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered plants from grazing<br />
ungulates.<br />
Native bird densities are low due to disease<br />
such as avian malaria. Consequently,<br />
nonnative bird species dominate the avifauna.<br />
Potential conservation species in this habitat<br />
include endangered plant species, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a,<br />
<strong>and</strong> koloa maoli. However, this habitat type<br />
may best be described as a buffer zone for<br />
invasive plants encroaching from lower<br />
elevations.<br />
Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern F-1
Natural Processes<br />
(biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic processes<br />
responsible for habitat conditions) Limiting Factors<br />
The windward east-facing Hakalau Limiting factors<br />
Forest Unit receives northeasterly include a lack of native<br />
tradewind-dominated rainfall<br />
pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
throughout the year with up to 250 pest species (e.g.,<br />
inches annually. Heavier rainfall ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
occurs October-March.<br />
slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
diseases).<br />
Population/Habitat Attributes<br />
(age class, structure, serial stage, species<br />
Habitats (plant<br />
communities that represent<br />
Mountain slopes are moderate. Soils<br />
are aged, eroded, <strong>and</strong> volcanic in origin.<br />
Soils are typically poorly drained. The<br />
ground surface is bisected by numerous<br />
streams (surface flow). These streams<br />
create <strong>and</strong> maintain stream channels<br />
that are highly eroded <strong>and</strong> steep-sided,<br />
providing protection for native <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered plants from grazing<br />
ungulates.<br />
existing BIDEH)<br />
composition)<br />
Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest The upper canopy of this habitat type is<br />
dominated by somewhat taller (60-90 ft)<br />
mature closed canopy ‘ōhi‘a. Mid-canopy is<br />
dominated by a mix of flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting<br />
tree species (e.g., ‘ōhi‘a, ‘ōlapa, pilo, kōlea),<br />
tree ferns (up to 15 ft), <strong>and</strong> epiphytes.<br />
Ground cover is dominated by mixed ferns,<br />
Astelia (lilly), ‘ōhelo, kanawao, pūkiawe, <strong>and</strong><br />
kāwa‘u. This habitat type is found between<br />
4,000-5,000 ft elevation. Compared to lower<br />
elevation habitat, the ground level contains<br />
downed timber <strong>and</strong> areas dominated by<br />
sphagnum moss.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Higher densities of pigs<br />
at this elevation have<br />
disturbed native Carex<br />
sp. bogs which have<br />
converted to nonnative<br />
Juncus sp. bogs.<br />
A diverse native bird community first appears<br />
in this habitat type, primarily due to<br />
elevations above the mosquito zone <strong>and</strong> a<br />
more diverse forest plant community.<br />
Limiting factors<br />
include a lack of native<br />
pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
pest species (e.g.,<br />
ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
diseases).<br />
The windward east-facing Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit receives northeasterly<br />
tradewind-dominated rainfall<br />
throughout the year with up to 275<br />
inches annually. Heavier rainfall<br />
occurs October-March.<br />
This habitat type contains a mixed age class<br />
of koa <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a-dominated forest <strong>and</strong> occurs<br />
5,000-6,000 ft in elevation. The mid-canopy<br />
is dominated by a mix of flowering <strong>and</strong><br />
fruiting trees (e.g., ‘ōlapa, ‘ākala, pilo,<br />
pūkiawe, ‘ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa‘u), mixed ferns,<br />
<strong>and</strong> epiphytes.<br />
Montane wet koa/‘ōhi‘a<br />
forest<br />
Past human<br />
disturbances include<br />
cattle grazing. The<br />
effects of this past<br />
activity include<br />
increased grassl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Mountain slopes are moderate. Soils<br />
are aged, eroded, <strong>and</strong> volcanic in origin.<br />
Soils are typically poorly drained. The<br />
ground surface is bisected by numerous<br />
streams (surface flow). These streams<br />
create <strong>and</strong> maintain stream channels<br />
that are highly eroded <strong>and</strong> steep-sided,<br />
providing protection to native <strong>and</strong><br />
A diverse native bird community occurs in<br />
this habitat type, primarily due to elevations<br />
above mosquito zone <strong>and</strong> more diverse forest<br />
plant community. Other species of<br />
conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern<br />
include koloa maoli, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered plants.<br />
F-2 Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern
Natural Processes<br />
(biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic processes<br />
responsible for habitat conditions) Limiting Factors<br />
endangered plants from grazing <strong>and</strong> loss of native plant<br />
ungulates.<br />
species.<br />
Population/Habitat Attributes<br />
(age class, structure, serial stage, species<br />
composition)<br />
Habitats (plant<br />
communities that represent<br />
existing BIDEH)<br />
Limiting factors<br />
include a lack of native<br />
pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
pest species (e.g.,<br />
ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
diseases).<br />
The windward east-facing Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit receives northeasterly<br />
tradewind-dominated rainfall<br />
throughout the year. This habitat type<br />
receives approximately 275 inches of<br />
rainfall annually. Heavier rainfall<br />
occurs October-March.<br />
Montane mesic koa forest This habitat type contains a mixed age class<br />
of koa-dominated forest <strong>and</strong> occurs 6,000 ft -<br />
6,600 ft in elevation. The mid-canopy is<br />
dominated by a mix of flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting<br />
trees (e.g. ‘ōlapa, ‘ākala, pilo, pūkiawe,<br />
‘ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa‘u), mixed ferns, <strong>and</strong><br />
epiphytes.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Mountain slopes are moderate. Soils<br />
are aged, eroded, <strong>and</strong> volcanic in origin.<br />
Soils are typically poorly drained. The<br />
ground surface is bisected by numerous<br />
streams (surface flow). These streams<br />
create <strong>and</strong> maintain stream channels<br />
that are highly eroded <strong>and</strong> steep-sided,<br />
providing protection to native <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered plants from grazing<br />
A diverse native bird community occurs in<br />
this habitat type, primarily due to elevations<br />
above mosquito zone <strong>and</strong> more diverse forest<br />
plant community. Other species of<br />
conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern<br />
include the koloa maoli, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered plants.<br />
ungulates.<br />
Former mesic koa<br />
forest was historically<br />
reduced to grassl<strong>and</strong> by<br />
grazing, timber harvest,<br />
<strong>and</strong> fires. Mesic koa<br />
habitat is currently<br />
being restored.<br />
The windward east-facing Hakalau<br />
Forest Unit receives northeasterly<br />
tradewind-dominated rainfall<br />
throughout the year with up to 275<br />
inches annually. Heavier rainfall<br />
occurs October-March.<br />
This park-like habitat contains mixed<br />
nonnative grasses <strong>and</strong> a native grass <strong>and</strong> is<br />
found between 5,600 - 6,500 ft elevation.<br />
Scattered mature koa <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a trees also<br />
occur. Nonnative grasses include<br />
Anthoxanthum sp., Holcus sp., Pennisetum<br />
sp., <strong>and</strong> Ehrharta sp. Native species include<br />
the native grass Deschampsia sp., the native<br />
shrub Vaccinium sp. (‘ōhelo), <strong>and</strong> a native<br />
bracken fern. Mid-canopy vegetation is<br />
primarily absent from this habitat.<br />
Grassl<strong>and</strong>s/forest<br />
restoration area<br />
Limiting factors<br />
include a lack of native<br />
pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
Mountain slopes are moderate. Soils<br />
are aged, eroded, <strong>and</strong> volcanic in origin.<br />
Soils are typically poorly drained. The<br />
ground surface is bisected by numerous<br />
Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern F-3
Natural Processes<br />
(biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic processes<br />
responsible for habitat conditions) Limiting Factors<br />
streams (surface flow). These streams pest species (e.g.,<br />
create <strong>and</strong> maintain stream channels ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
that are highly eroded <strong>and</strong> steep-sided, slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
providing protection to native <strong>and</strong> invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered plants from grazing diseases).<br />
ungulates.<br />
The use of this habitat<br />
by ‘io, nēnē, <strong>and</strong> other<br />
endangered species will<br />
need to be considered<br />
during planning <strong>and</strong><br />
reforestation activities.<br />
Population/Habitat Attributes<br />
(age class, structure, serial stage, species<br />
composition)<br />
Habitats (plant<br />
communities that represent<br />
existing BIDEH)<br />
The forest restoration program has outplanted<br />
approximately 382,000 native trees,<br />
including koa, ‘ōhi‘a, pilo, kōlea, ‘ōlapa,<br />
māmane, naio, <strong>and</strong> other natives on<br />
approximately 1,700 acres. Approximately<br />
4,000 acres of additional grassl<strong>and</strong> is<br />
scheduled to be restored to montane mesic<br />
koa forest community.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Native forest birds currently occur in this<br />
habitat at greatly reduced numbers <strong>and</strong><br />
diversity when compared to nearby intact<br />
forest communities though populations are<br />
increasing as forest restoration occurs. Nēnē<br />
are found throughout the current habitat.<br />
Species of conservation <strong>and</strong> management<br />
concern include the native forest birds,<br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants.<br />
Ungulates <strong>and</strong> rats<br />
degrade water quality<br />
through soil<br />
disturbance <strong>and</strong> feces<br />
deposition. Lack of<br />
groundwater retention<br />
due to upstream human<br />
disturbance (e.g.,<br />
grazing, soil<br />
compaction) can lead to<br />
flash floods. Streams<br />
also transport <strong>and</strong><br />
disperse pest plant<br />
seeds.<br />
Glacial meltwater created ravines<br />
during the Pleistocene era. Rainfall <strong>and</strong><br />
runoff currently maintains stream<br />
habitat.<br />
Streams Streams cross through various habitat types,<br />
being intermittent at higher elevations, <strong>and</strong><br />
perennial at lower elevations. Some streams<br />
with steep walls protect endangered <strong>and</strong><br />
native plants from grazing by ungulates.<br />
Fauna within the streams <strong>and</strong> riparian areas at<br />
lower elevations are unstudied <strong>and</strong> unknown.<br />
Although unstudied at higher elevations, the<br />
fauna is suspected to be exclusively<br />
invertebrate. Other species of conservation<br />
<strong>and</strong> management concern include native<br />
forest birds, koloa maoli, <strong>and</strong> endangered<br />
plants.<br />
F-4 Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern
Natural Processes<br />
(biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic processes<br />
responsible for habitat conditions) Limiting Factors<br />
Rainfall current maintains pond Seasonality of rainfall<br />
habitats.<br />
<strong>and</strong> encroachment of<br />
ponds by nonnative<br />
Juncus sp.<br />
Population/Habitat Attributes<br />
(age class, structure, serial stage, species<br />
Habitats (plant<br />
communities that represent<br />
existing BIDEH)<br />
composition)<br />
Ponds Semipermanent natural ponds are scattered<br />
throughout the upper elevations of the<br />
Refuge, all above the mosquito line. Koloa<br />
maoli <strong>and</strong> ‘alae ke‘oke‘o are known to<br />
frequent these ponds along with migratory<br />
shorebirds <strong>and</strong> invertebrates.<br />
Carex Bogs Bogs naturally occur in flat areas <strong>and</strong> are<br />
dominated by sedges <strong>and</strong> rushes. Limited<br />
areas of open water also occur. Bogs are<br />
primarily located below 4,500 ft. While<br />
sphagnum exists in these bogs, it is unclear<br />
whether it is native.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Limiting factors<br />
include a lack of native<br />
pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
pest species (e.g.,<br />
ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
diseases).<br />
The hydrology of bogs is driven by the<br />
retention of rainfall <strong>and</strong> surface water<br />
retention in a clay layered depression,<br />
as opposed to perched (i.e., the<br />
expression of groundwater at the<br />
surface) water table.<br />
The conversion of<br />
Carex sp. to Juncus sp.<br />
has occurred due to the<br />
rooting activities of<br />
pigs. Enhanced soil<br />
erosion from ungulate<br />
activities also has<br />
increased the<br />
eutrophication of bogs.<br />
Faunal use of bogs is primarily by<br />
invertebrates. However, koloa maoli are<br />
known to use bogs. Other species of<br />
conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern<br />
include native forest birds, nēnē, <strong>and</strong><br />
endangered plants.<br />
Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern F-5
Natural Processes<br />
(biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic processes<br />
responsible for habitat conditions) Limiting Factors<br />
Population/Habitat Attributes<br />
(age class, structure, serial stage, species<br />
composition)<br />
Habitats (plant<br />
communities that represent<br />
existing BIDEH)<br />
Limiting factors<br />
include a lack of native<br />
pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
pest species (e.g.,<br />
ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
diseases).<br />
The leeward west-facing slopes of the<br />
Kona Forest Unit are protected from the<br />
majority of tradewind-dominated<br />
rainfall which occurs throughout the<br />
year. The lower elevation gradient of<br />
this habitat type receives approximately<br />
80 inches of rainfall annually. The<br />
upper gradient receives approximately<br />
60 inches of rainfall. Heavier rainfall<br />
occurs October-March.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Kona Forest Unit<br />
Montane wet ‘ōhi‘a forest Upper <strong>and</strong> lower elevation gradients occur in<br />
this habitat type. The lower gradient occurs<br />
2,000-3,000 ft elevation. The lower gradient<br />
upper tree canopy is dominated by 60-80 ft<br />
mature closed canopy ‘ōhi‘a. The midcanopy<br />
is dominated by nonnative Christmas<br />
berry, strawberry guava, <strong>and</strong> a mix of<br />
flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting tree species (e.g.,<br />
‘ōhi‘a, hame, kōlea), tree ferns (up to 15 ft),<br />
the vine ‘ie‘ie, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes. Ground cover<br />
is dominated by nonnative Clidemia sp.,<br />
thimbleberry, a mix of nonnative <strong>and</strong> native<br />
ferns, <strong>and</strong> areas of dense matted ferns.<br />
Past human<br />
disturbances include<br />
traditional farming <strong>and</strong><br />
ranching practices <strong>and</strong><br />
fire. The effects of this<br />
past activity include<br />
increased grassl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> a loss of native<br />
plant species.<br />
Moderately steep slope <strong>and</strong> relatively<br />
young lava flows are found along with a<br />
thin layer of organic soil. Surface water<br />
streams are not present in either the<br />
upper or lower elevation gradient.<br />
The upper gradient is found between 3,500-<br />
4,500 ft elevation. The upper gradient tree<br />
canopy is also dominated by 60-80 ft mature<br />
closed canopy ‘ōhi‘a. The mid-canopy is<br />
dominated by a mix of flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting<br />
tree species (e.g., ‘ōhi‘a, pilo, Clermontia sp.,<br />
‘ōlapa, kāwa‘u, kōlea, pūkiawe), tree ferns<br />
(up to 15 ft), the vine ‘ie‘ie, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes.<br />
Ground cover is dominated by nonnative<br />
grasses, mixed nonnative <strong>and</strong> native ferns,<br />
<strong>and</strong> areas of dense matted ferns.<br />
The primary differences between the upper<br />
<strong>and</strong> lower elevation gradients in this habitat<br />
type are the increased plant diversity in the<br />
mid-canopy of the upper gradient, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
F-6 Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern
Natural Processes<br />
(biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic processes<br />
responsible for habitat conditions) Limiting Factors<br />
Population/Habitat Attributes<br />
(age class, structure, serial stage, species<br />
composition)<br />
Habitats (plant<br />
communities that represent<br />
existing BIDEH)<br />
change from a herbaceous ground cover in the<br />
lower gradient to a grass-dominated ground<br />
cover in the upper gradient.<br />
A diverse native bird community first appears<br />
in the upper gradient of this habitat type,<br />
primarily due to elevations above the<br />
mosquito zone <strong>and</strong> more diverse forest. Other<br />
species of conservation <strong>and</strong> management<br />
concern include the ‘alalā, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong><br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
endangered plants.<br />
Limiting factors<br />
include a lack of native<br />
pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
pest species (e.g.,<br />
ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
diseases).<br />
The leeward west-facing slopes of the<br />
Kona Forest Unit are protected from the<br />
majority of tradewind-dominated<br />
rainfall which occurs throughout the<br />
year. This habitat type receives<br />
approximately 75 inches of rainfall<br />
annually. Heavier rainfall occurs<br />
October-March.<br />
This habitat type contains a mixed age class<br />
of koa- <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a- dominated forest <strong>and</strong><br />
occurs 4,500-5,800 ft in elevation. The midcanopy<br />
is dominated by a mix of flowering<br />
<strong>and</strong> fruiting trees (e.g., Clermontia sp., pilo,<br />
pūkiawe, ‘ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa‘u), tree ferns,<br />
mixed ferns, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes.<br />
Montane mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a<br />
forest<br />
Moderately steep slope <strong>and</strong> relatively<br />
young lava flows are found along with a<br />
thin layer of organic soil. Surface water<br />
streams are not present in this habitat.<br />
A diverse native bird community occurs in<br />
this habitat type, primarily due to elevations<br />
above mosquito zone <strong>and</strong> more diverse forest<br />
plant community. Other species of<br />
conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern<br />
include the ‘alalā, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, endangered<br />
plants, <strong>and</strong> an endangered invertebrate.<br />
Limiting factors<br />
include a lack of native<br />
pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
pest species (e.g.,<br />
ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
The leeward west-facing slopes of the<br />
Kona Forest Unit are protected from the<br />
majority of tradewind-dominated<br />
rainfall which occurs throughout the<br />
year. This habitat type receives<br />
approximately 40 inches of rainfall<br />
This habitat type contains a mixed age class<br />
koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane co-dominant forest <strong>and</strong><br />
occurs 5,800 ft - 6,100 ft in elevation. The<br />
mid-canopy is dominated by a mix of<br />
flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting trees (e.g. ‘iliahi<br />
(s<strong>and</strong>alwood), pilo, naio, pūkiawe, ‘ōhelo)<br />
Dry koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane<br />
forest<br />
Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern F-7
Natural Processes<br />
(biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic processes<br />
responsible for habitat conditions) Limiting Factors<br />
annually. Heavier rainfall occurs invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
October-March.<br />
diseases).<br />
Population/Habitat Attributes<br />
(age class, structure, serial stage, species<br />
composition)<br />
Habitats (plant<br />
communities that represent<br />
existing BIDEH)<br />
<strong>and</strong> mixed ferns.<br />
Moderately steep slope <strong>and</strong> relatively<br />
young lava flows are found along with a<br />
thin layer of organic soil. Surface water<br />
streams are not present in this habitat.<br />
A diverse native bird community occurs in<br />
this habitat type, primarily due to elevations<br />
above mosquito zone <strong>and</strong> more diverse forest<br />
plant community. Other species of<br />
conservation <strong>and</strong> management concern<br />
include the ‘alalā, the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, endangered<br />
plants, <strong>and</strong> an endangered invertebrate.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Trampling or the<br />
release of pest species<br />
from human<br />
disturbance, rats, or<br />
breaches in the lava<br />
tube ceiling could<br />
destroy the entire<br />
invertebrate community<br />
<strong>and</strong> destroy sub-fossil<br />
<strong>and</strong> archeological<br />
resources.<br />
During periods of active volcanism,<br />
flowing lava often times created<br />
subterranean channels where molten<br />
lava flowed. When flowing lava<br />
subsided, a hollow channel or lava tube<br />
was formed, the opening to which<br />
creates a lava tube cave.<br />
Lava tube caves Lava tubes contain an endemic subterranean,<br />
invertebrate faunal community. Moisture,<br />
moist air, relatively constant moderate<br />
temperature, <strong>and</strong> lack of light are required<br />
attributes of these cave systems.<br />
Within the confines of the cave,<br />
invertebrates have evolved in this<br />
unique habitat. These mostly blind<br />
invertebrates feed on ‘ōhi‘a roots that<br />
penetrate the lava tube roof.<br />
Sub-fossil bird remains found in the detrital<br />
soils inside the cave systems are a valuable<br />
resource which can be used to document premodern<br />
Hawaiian avifauna.<br />
Lava tube caves found throughout the Isl<strong>and</strong><br />
of Hawai‘i supported use by Native<br />
Hawaiians. Insufficient study has occurred on<br />
the Refuge to document archeological<br />
resources. However, there is the potential that<br />
cultural resources do exist in Refuge caves.<br />
F-8 Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern
Natural Processes<br />
(biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic processes<br />
responsible for habitat conditions) Limiting Factors<br />
Collapse of lava tube roof <strong>and</strong> resulting Limiting factors<br />
vertical walled opening protects include a lack of native<br />
remnants of once common plants, now pollinators <strong>and</strong> several<br />
rare or endangered, from grazing by pest species (e.g.,<br />
ungulates.<br />
ungulates, rats, mice,<br />
slugs, mosquitoes,<br />
invasive plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
diseases).<br />
Population/Habitat Attributes<br />
(age class, structure, serial stage, species<br />
composition)<br />
Habitats (plant<br />
communities that represent<br />
existing BIDEH)<br />
The vertical walls created from the collapse of<br />
lava tube roofs naturally protect native plant<br />
communities. Skylights, unlike the lava tubes<br />
themselves, are exposed to the surface<br />
environment of rainfall, sunlight, <strong>and</strong><br />
temperature fluctuations.<br />
Lava tube skylights<br />
[Various above-ground<br />
habitats surround<br />
skylights, depending upon<br />
elevation]<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
There are a finite<br />
number of lava tubes.<br />
Typically skylights<br />
form shortly after lava<br />
tube formation.<br />
These steep-sided depressions prevent<br />
degradation from ungulates, thus providing<br />
protected habitat for one fern species,<br />
Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare that is<br />
unique to skylight habitats, <strong>and</strong> also high<br />
populations of other rare <strong>and</strong> endangered<br />
plant species.<br />
Human disturbance<br />
such as trampling could<br />
destroy any sub-fossil<br />
or archeological<br />
resources.<br />
Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern F-9<br />
Note: nomenclature for habitat names follows Jacobi et al. (1989).
Table 4-2. Resources of Concern.<br />
Other Benefiting<br />
Species<br />
Life History<br />
Requirement<br />
Focal Species Habitat Type Habitat Structure<br />
Nesting <strong>and</strong> foraging. All native forest bird<br />
species <strong>and</strong><br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
plants.<br />
A mixed age class of koa- <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a-dominated<br />
forest, occurring between 5,000-6,000 ft in<br />
elevation on the windward slopes of Mauna<br />
Kea. The mid-canopy is dominated by a mix of<br />
flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting trees (e.g., ‘ōlapa, ‘ākala,<br />
pilo, pūkiawe, ‘ōhelo, kōlea, kāwa‘u), mixed<br />
ferns, <strong>and</strong> epiphytes. Ground cover is ferns <strong>and</strong><br />
woody seedlings, herbs <strong>and</strong> nonnative grasses.<br />
Birds<br />
‘akiapōlā‘au Montane wet<br />
koa/‘ōhi‘a forest.<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
A diverse native bird community occurs in this<br />
habitat type, primarily due to elevations above<br />
mosquito zone <strong>and</strong> more diverse forest plant<br />
community. Other species of conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
management concern include koloa maoli,<br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a, <strong>and</strong> endangered plants.<br />
Foraging. ‘Amakihi, ‘elepaio,<br />
‘apapane, Hawai‘i<br />
creeper.<br />
Koa, in reforestation areas, a minimum 8-10<br />
year old growth, density <strong>and</strong> height<br />
requirements unknown but density is a<br />
‘akiapōlā‘au Koa/‘ōhi‘a forestreforestation<br />
from<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
dependent factor. Above mosquito zone.<br />
Nesting <strong>and</strong> foraging. All native forest bird<br />
species <strong>and</strong><br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
plants.<br />
Nesting: Old growth trees, minimum 24 inches<br />
dbh with cavities for nesting.<br />
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa Native ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
koa/‘ōhi‘a forest.<br />
Foraging: mixed age class st<strong>and</strong> native koa <strong>and</strong><br />
‘ōhi‘a forest above mosquito zone.<br />
Nesting <strong>and</strong> foraging. All native forest bird<br />
species <strong>and</strong><br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
plants.<br />
Mature koa <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a forest with native<br />
understory<br />
above mosquito zone.<br />
Hawai‘i creeper Native ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
koa/‘ōhi‘a forest.<br />
F-10 Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Life History Other Benefiting<br />
Focal Species Habitat Type Habitat Structure<br />
Requirement Species<br />
‘io Native ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong> Mature ‘ōhi‘a trees, home range of 7-988 acres. Nesting. All native forest bird<br />
koa/‘ōhi‘a forest.<br />
species <strong>and</strong><br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
plants.<br />
‘io Native <strong>and</strong> Forests, grassl<strong>and</strong>s, urban areas. Hunting for prey. In native forest, all<br />
nonnative forest<br />
native forest bird<br />
<strong>and</strong> open habitats.<br />
species <strong>and</strong><br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
plants.<br />
nēnē Open shrubl<strong>and</strong>s Short grass, native <strong>and</strong> nonnative, less than 18 Foraging. Pueo, ‘io, kōlea,<br />
<strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s. inches, mixed shrubs.<br />
native plant dispersal.<br />
nēnē Open shrubl<strong>and</strong>s Short grass, native <strong>and</strong> nonnative, less than 18 Nesting, roosting, Pueo, ‘io, kōlea.<br />
<strong>and</strong> grassl<strong>and</strong>s. inches, mixed shrubs.<br />
foraging<br />
‘ō‘ū Native koa/‘ōhi‘a Mature koa <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a forest with native Nesting <strong>and</strong> foraging. All native forest bird<br />
forest.<br />
understory, above mosquito zone.<br />
species <strong>and</strong><br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
plants.<br />
Nesting <strong>and</strong> foraging. All native forest bird<br />
species <strong>and</strong><br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
plants.<br />
Mature koa <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a forest with native<br />
understory, above mosquito zone. Elevational<br />
gradient with closed canopy, with mid-canopy<br />
understory to seasonally follow maturing fruits.<br />
‘alalā Native koa/‘ōhi‘a<br />
forest.<br />
Shallow water, with emergent vegetation edge. Foraging <strong>and</strong> nesting. ‘Alae ke‘oke‘o, nēnē<br />
Ponds, streams,<br />
bogs.<br />
Hawaiian duck, koloa<br />
maoli<br />
Ponds, bogs. Shallow water, with emergent vegetation edge. Foraging <strong>and</strong> nesting. Koloa maoli <strong>and</strong><br />
nēnē.<br />
Hawaiian coot, ‘alae<br />
ke‘oke‘o<br />
Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern F-11
Other Benefiting<br />
Species<br />
Life History<br />
Requirement<br />
Focal Species Habitat Type Habitat Structure<br />
Mammal<br />
All native forest bird<br />
species <strong>and</strong> plants.<br />
Breeding, roosting,<br />
<strong>and</strong> foraging.<br />
Mature forest.<br />
Native koa/‘ōhi‘a<br />
forest <strong>and</strong> nonnative<br />
forest.<br />
Hawaiian hoary bat,<br />
‘Ōpe‘ape‘a<br />
Invertebrate<br />
All native forest bird<br />
species, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a,<br />
<strong>and</strong> plants.<br />
Breeding <strong>and</strong><br />
feeding.<br />
Mature mesic native forest with abundant<br />
clermontia sp.<br />
Endemic to west<br />
side of Hawai‘i<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>, native<br />
koa/‘ōhi‘a forest.<br />
Drosophila<br />
heteroneura, Picturewing<br />
fly<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
All native forest bird<br />
species, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a,<br />
invertebrates, <strong>and</strong><br />
other forest plant<br />
species.<br />
Mature, undisturbed, <strong>and</strong> uneven aged forests. All life-history stages<br />
for all plant species<br />
are required.<br />
Wet ‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong><br />
mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a<br />
forests.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ts<br />
Asplenium peruvianum<br />
var. insulare<br />
Clermontia lindseyana<br />
Clermontia peleana<br />
Clermontia pyrularia<br />
Cyanea hamatiflora<br />
Cyanea platyphylla<br />
Cyanea shipmannii<br />
Cyanea stictophylla<br />
Cyrt<strong>and</strong>ra tintinabula<br />
Nothocestrum<br />
breviflorum<br />
Phyllostegia floribunda<br />
Phyllostegia racemosa<br />
Phyllostegia velutina<br />
Sicyos macrophyllus<br />
All native forest bird<br />
species, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a,<br />
invertebrates, <strong>and</strong><br />
other forest plant<br />
species.<br />
Mature, undisturbed, <strong>and</strong> uneven aged forests. All life-history stages<br />
for all plant species<br />
are required.<br />
Dry<br />
koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane<br />
forest<br />
Portulaca sclerocarpa<br />
Silene hawaiiensis<br />
F-12 Appendix F: Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health <strong>and</strong> Resources of Concern
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Program<br />
1.0 Background<br />
IPM is an interdisciplinary approach utilizing methods to prevent, eliminate, contain, <strong>and</strong>/or control<br />
pest species in concert with other management activities on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters to achieve<br />
wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management goals <strong>and</strong> objectives. 1<br />
IPM is also a scientifically based, adaptive<br />
management process where available scientific information <strong>and</strong> best professional judgment of the<br />
refuge staff as well as other resource experts would be used to identify <strong>and</strong> implement appropriate<br />
management strategies that can be modified <strong>and</strong>/or changed over time to ensure effective, sitespecific<br />
management of pest species to achieve desired outcomes. In accordance with 43 CFR<br />
46.145, adaptive management would be particularly relevant where long-term impacts may be<br />
uncertain <strong>and</strong> future monitoring would be needed to make adjustments in subsequent implementation<br />
decisions. After a tolerable pest population (threshold) is determined considering achievement of<br />
refuge resource objectives <strong>and</strong> the ecology of pest species, one or more methods, or combinations<br />
thereof, would be selected that are feasible, efficacious, <strong>and</strong> most protective of non-target resources,<br />
including native species (fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plants), <strong>and</strong> Service personnel, Service authorized agents,<br />
volunteers, <strong>and</strong> the public. Staff time <strong>and</strong> available funding would be considered when determining<br />
feasibility/practicality of various treatments.<br />
IPM techniques to address pests are presented as CCP strategies (see Chapter 2 of this CCP) in an<br />
adaptive management context to achieve refuge resource objectives. In order to satisfy requirements<br />
for IPM planning as identified in the Director’s Memo (dated September 9, 2004) entitled Integrated<br />
Pest Management <strong>Plan</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Pesticide Use Proposals: Updates, Guidance, <strong>and</strong> an Online Database,<br />
the following elements of an IPM program have been incorporated into this CCP:<br />
• Habitat <strong>and</strong>/or wildlife objectives that identify pest species <strong>and</strong> appropriate thresholds to indicate<br />
the need for <strong>and</strong> successful implementation of IPM techniques; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Monitoring before <strong>and</strong>/or after treatment to assess progress toward achieving objectives including<br />
pest thresholds.<br />
Where pesticides would be necessary to address pests, this Appendix provides a structured procedure<br />
to evaluate potential effects of proposed uses involving ground-based applications to refuge<br />
biological resources <strong>and</strong> environmental quality. Only pesticide uses that likely would cause minor,<br />
temporary, or localized effects to refuge biological resources <strong>and</strong> environmental quality with<br />
appropriate best management practices (BMPs), where necessary, would be allowed for use on the<br />
refuge.<br />
This Appendix does not describe the more detailed process to evaluate potential effects associated<br />
with aerial applications of pesticides. Moreover, it does not address effects of mosquito control with<br />
pesticides (larvicides, pupacides, or adulticides) based upon identified human health threats <strong>and</strong><br />
presence of disease-carrying mosquitoes in sufficient numbers from monitoring conducted on a<br />
refuge. However, the basic framework to assess potential effects to refuge biological resources <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental quality from aerial application of pesticides or use of insecticides for mosquito<br />
1 This appendix uses the term “pest” to describe those species referred to as “nonnative” in the main body of this<br />
CCP. In Hawai‘i, nonnative refers to invasive or introduced species, which also aligns with the 569 FW1 pest<br />
definition.<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
management would be similar to the process described in this Appendix for ground-based treatments<br />
of other pesticides.<br />
2.0 Pest Management Laws <strong>and</strong> Policies<br />
In accordance with Service policy 569 FW 1 (Integrated Pest Management), plant, invertebrate, <strong>and</strong><br />
vertebrate pests on units of the Refuge System can be controlled to assure balanced wildlife <strong>and</strong> fish<br />
populations in support of refuge-specific wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat management objectives. Pest control<br />
on Federal (refuge) l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters also is authorized under the following legal m<strong>and</strong>ates:<br />
• National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, as amended (16 USC 668dd-<br />
668ee);<br />
• <strong>Plan</strong>t Protection Act of 2000 (7 USC 7701 et seq.);<br />
• Noxious Weed Control <strong>and</strong> Eradication Act of 2004 (7 USC 7781-7786, Subtitle E);<br />
• Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, <strong>and</strong> Rodenticide Act of 1996 (7 USC 136-136y);<br />
• National Invasive Species Act of 1996 (16 USC 4701);<br />
• Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention <strong>and</strong> Control Act of 1990 (16 USC 4701);<br />
• Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 (7 USC 136);<br />
• Executive Order 13148, Section 601(a);<br />
• Executive Order 13112; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Animal Damage Control Act of 1931 (7 USC 426-426c, 46 Stat. 1468).<br />
Pests are defined as “…living organisms that may interfere with the site-specific purposes,<br />
operations, or management objectives or that jeopardize human health or safety” from Department<br />
policy 517 DM 1 (Integrated Pest Management Policy). Similarly, 569 FW 1 defines pests as<br />
“…invasive plants <strong>and</strong> introduced or native organisms that may interfere with achieving our<br />
management goals <strong>and</strong> objectives on or off our l<strong>and</strong>s, or that jeopardize human health or safety.”<br />
517 DM 1 also defines an invasive species as “a species that is non-native to the ecosystem under<br />
consideration <strong>and</strong> whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or<br />
harm to human health.” Throughout the remainder of this CCP, the terms pest <strong>and</strong> invasive species<br />
are used interchangeably because both can prevent/impede achievement of refuge wildlife <strong>and</strong><br />
habitat objectives <strong>and</strong>/or degrade environmental quality.<br />
In general, control of pests (vertebrate or invertebrate) on the refuge would conserve <strong>and</strong> protect the<br />
nation’s fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plant resources as well as maintain environmental quality. From<br />
569 FW 1, animal or plant species, which are considered pests, may be managed if the following<br />
criteria are met: 2<br />
• Threat to human health <strong>and</strong> well being or private property, the acceptable level of damage by the<br />
pest has been exceeded, or State or local government has designated the pest as noxious;<br />
• Detrimental to resource objectives as specified in a refuge resource management plan (e.g.,<br />
comprehensive conservation plan, habitat management plan), if available; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Control would not conflict with attainment of resource objectives or the purpose(s) for which the<br />
refuge was established.<br />
2 Note that during the 15 year life span of the CCP, policies, such as 569 FW 1, may be updated <strong>and</strong> revised. As<br />
such, the Refuge will comply with the most updated Service policies related to IPM.<br />
G-2 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The specific justifications for pest management activities on the refuge are the following:<br />
• Protect human health <strong>and</strong> well being;<br />
• Prevent substantial damage to important to refuge resources;<br />
• Protect newly introduced or re-establish native species;<br />
• Control nonnative (exotic) species in order to support existence for populations of native species;<br />
• Prevent damage to private property; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Provide the public with quality, compatible wildlife-dependent recreational opportunities.<br />
In accordance with Service policy 620 FW 1 (Habitat Management <strong>Plan</strong>s), there are additional<br />
management directives regarding invasive species found on the refuge:<br />
• “We are prohibited by Executive Order, law, <strong>and</strong> policy from authorizing, funding, or carrying<br />
out actions that are likely to cause or promote the introduction or spread of invasive species in the<br />
United States or elsewhere.”<br />
• “Manage invasive species to improve or stabilize biotic communities to minimize unacceptable<br />
change to ecosystem structure <strong>and</strong> function <strong>and</strong> prevent new <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong>ed infestations of<br />
invasive species. Conduct refuge habitat management activities to prevent, control, or eradicate<br />
invasive species...”<br />
Animal species damaging/destroying Federal property <strong>and</strong>/or detrimental to the management<br />
program of a refuge may be controlled as described in 50 CFR 31.14 (Official Animal Control<br />
Operations). For example, on the mainl<strong>and</strong>, the incidental removal of beaver damaging refuge<br />
infrastructure (e.g., clogging with subsequent damaging of water control structures) <strong>and</strong>/or negatively<br />
affecting habitats (e.g., removing woody species from existing or restored riparian areas) managed on<br />
refuge l<strong>and</strong>s may be conducted without a pest control proposal. Exotic nutria, whose denning <strong>and</strong><br />
burrowing activities in wetl<strong>and</strong> dikes causes cave-ins <strong>and</strong> breaches, can be controlled using the most<br />
effective techniques considering site-specific factors without a pest control proposal. Along with the<br />
loss of quality wetl<strong>and</strong> habitats associated with breaching of impoundments, the safety of refuge<br />
staffs <strong>and</strong> public (e.g. auto tour routes) driving on structurally compromised levees <strong>and</strong> dikes can be<br />
threaten by sudden <strong>and</strong> unexpected cave-ins.<br />
Trespass <strong>and</strong> feral animals also may be controlled on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Based upon 50 CFR 28.43<br />
(Destruction of Dogs <strong>and</strong> Cats), dogs <strong>and</strong> cats running at large on a national wildlife refuge <strong>and</strong><br />
observed in the act of killing, injuring, harassing or molesting humans or wildlife may be disposed of<br />
in the interest of public safety <strong>and</strong> protection of the wildlife. Feral animals should be disposed by the<br />
most humane method(s) available <strong>and</strong> in accordance with relevant Service directives (including<br />
Executive Order 11643). Disposed wildlife specimens may be donated or loaned to public<br />
institutions. Donation or loans of resident wildlife species will only be made after securing State<br />
approval (50 CFR 30.11 (Donation <strong>and</strong> Loan of <strong>Wildlife</strong> Specimens)). Surplus wildlife specimens<br />
may be sold alive or butchered, dressed <strong>and</strong> processed subject to federal <strong>and</strong> state laws <strong>and</strong><br />
regulations (50 CFR 30.12 (Sale of <strong>Wildlife</strong> Specimens)).<br />
3.0 Strategies<br />
To fully embrace IPM as identified in 569 FW 1, the following strategies, where applicable, would<br />
be carefully considered on the refuge for each pest species:<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
• Prevention. This is the most effective <strong>and</strong> least expensive long-term management option for<br />
pests. It encompasses methods to prevent new introductions or the spread of the established pests<br />
to un-infested areas. It requires identifying potential routes of invasion to reduce the likelihood<br />
of infestation. Hazard Analysis <strong>and</strong> Critical Control Points (HACCP) planning can be used<br />
determine if current management activities on a refuge may introduce <strong>and</strong>/or spread invasive<br />
species in order to identify appropriate BMPs for prevention. See http://www.haccp-nrm.org/ for<br />
more information about HACCP planning.<br />
Prevention may include source reduction, using pathogen-free or weed-free seeds or fill;<br />
exclusion methods (e.g., barriers) <strong>and</strong>/or sanitation methods (e.g., wash stations) to prevent reintroductions<br />
by various mechanisms including vehicles, personnel, livestock, <strong>and</strong> horses.<br />
Because invasive species are frequently the first to establish newly disturbed sites, prevention<br />
would require a reporting mechanism for early detection of new pest occurrences with quick<br />
response to eliminate any new satellite pest populations. Prevention would require consideration<br />
of the scale <strong>and</strong> scope of l<strong>and</strong> management activities that may promote pest establishment within<br />
uninfested areas or promote reproduction <strong>and</strong> spread of existing populations. Along with<br />
preventing initial introduction, prevention would involve halting the spread of existing<br />
infestations to new sites (Mullin et al. 2000). The primary reason of prevention would be to keep<br />
pest-free l<strong>and</strong>s or waters from becoming infested. Executive Order 11312 emphasizes the<br />
priority for prevention with respect to managing pests.<br />
The following are methods to prevent the introduction <strong>and</strong>/or spread of pests on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s:<br />
o Before beginning ground-disturbing activities (e.g., disking, scraping), inventory <strong>and</strong><br />
prioritize pest infestations in project operating areas <strong>and</strong> along access routes. Refuge<br />
staff would identify pest species on site or within reasonably expected potential invasion<br />
vicinity. Where possible, the refuge staff would begin project activities in uninfested<br />
areas before working in pest-infested areas.<br />
o The refuge staff would locate <strong>and</strong> use pest-free project staging areas. They would avoid<br />
or minimize travel through pest-infested areas, or restrict to those periods when spread of<br />
seed or propagules of invasive plants would be least likely.<br />
o The refuge staff would determine the need for, <strong>and</strong> when appropriate, identify sanitation<br />
sites where equipment can be cleaned of pests. Where possible, the refuge staff would<br />
clean equipment before entering l<strong>and</strong>s at on-refuge approved cleaning site(s). This<br />
practice does not pertain to vehicles traveling frequently in <strong>and</strong> out of the project area<br />
that will remain on roadways. Seeds <strong>and</strong> plant parts of pest plants would need to be<br />
collected, where practical. The refuge staff would remove mud, dirt, <strong>and</strong> plant parts from<br />
project equipment before moving it into a project area.<br />
o The refuge staff would clean all equipment, before leaving the project site, if operating in<br />
areas infested with pests. The refuge staff would determine the need for, <strong>and</strong> when<br />
appropriate, identify sanitation sites where equipment can be cleaned.<br />
o Refuge staffs, their authorized agents, <strong>and</strong> refuge volunteers would, where possible,<br />
inspect, remove, <strong>and</strong> properly dispose of seed <strong>and</strong> parts of invasive plants found on their<br />
clothing <strong>and</strong> equipment. Proper disposal means bagging the seeds <strong>and</strong> plant parts <strong>and</strong><br />
then properly discarding of them (e.g., incinerating).<br />
o The refuge staff would evaluate options, including closure, to restrict the traffic on sites<br />
with on-going restoration of desired vegetation. The refuge staff would revegetate<br />
disturbed soil (except travel ways on surfaced projects) to optimize plant establishment<br />
for each specific site. Revegetation may include topsoil replacement, planting, seeding,<br />
G-4 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
fertilization, liming, <strong>and</strong> weed-free mulching as necessary. The refuge staff would use<br />
native material, where appropriate <strong>and</strong> feasible. The refuge staff would use certified<br />
weed-free or weed-seed-free hay or straw where certified materials are reasonably<br />
available.<br />
o The refuge staff would provide information, training <strong>and</strong> appropriate pest identification<br />
materials to refuge staffs, permit holders, <strong>and</strong> recreational visitors. The refuge staff<br />
would educate them about pest identification, biology, impacts, <strong>and</strong> effective prevention<br />
measures.<br />
o The refuge staff would inspect borrowed material for invasive plants prior to use <strong>and</strong><br />
transport onto <strong>and</strong>/or within refuge l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
o The refuge staff would consider invasive plants in planning for road maintenance<br />
activities.<br />
o The refuge staff would restrict off road travel to designated routes.<br />
o In order to confine potential weed introductions to frequently monitored areas, visitors<br />
will restrict their activities to roads <strong>and</strong> established trails whenever possible.<br />
o Permittees <strong>and</strong> visitors will implement precautions to prevent the introduction of alien<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> arthropods to the Refuge. Vehicles, boots, clothing, day packs, photographic<br />
gear <strong>and</strong> equipment must be cleaned <strong>and</strong> inspected for seeds, insects, eggs, larvae, etc.<br />
prior to entry.<br />
o All researchers <strong>and</strong> assistants must have <strong>and</strong> use Refuge-dedicated rain gear, packs <strong>and</strong><br />
boots. This equipment is to be used <strong>and</strong> stored only at the Refuge.<br />
These prevention methods to minimize/eliminate the introduction <strong>and</strong>/or spread of pests were<br />
taken verbatim or slightly modified from Appendix E of US Forest Service (2005).<br />
• Mechanical/Physical Methods. These methods would remove <strong>and</strong> destroy, disrupt the growth<br />
of, or interfere with the reproduction of pest species. For plants species, these treatments can be<br />
accomplished by h<strong>and</strong>, h<strong>and</strong> tool (manual), or power tools (mechanical) <strong>and</strong> include pulling,<br />
grubbing, digging, tilling/disking, cutting, swathing, grinding, sheering, girdling, mowing, <strong>and</strong><br />
mulching of the pest plants.<br />
For animal species, Service employees or their authorized agents could use mechanical/physical<br />
methods (including trapping) to control pests as a refuge management activity. Based upon 50<br />
CFR 31.2, trapping can be used on a refuge to reduce surplus wildlife populations for a “balanced<br />
conservation program” in accordance with Federal or state laws <strong>and</strong> regulations. In some cases,<br />
non-lethally trapped animals would be relocated to off-refuge sites with prior approval from the<br />
state.<br />
Each of these tools would be efficacious to some degree <strong>and</strong> applicable to specific situations. In<br />
general, mechanical controls can effectively control annual <strong>and</strong> biennial pest plants. However, to<br />
control perennial plants, the root system has to be destroyed or it would resprout <strong>and</strong> continue to<br />
grow <strong>and</strong> develop. Mechanical controls are typically not capable of destroying a perennial<br />
plant’s root system. Although some mechanical tools (e.g., disking, plowing) may damage root<br />
systems, they may stimulate regrowth producing a denser plant population that may aid in the<br />
spread depending upon the target species. In addition, steep terrain <strong>and</strong> soil conditions would be<br />
major factors that can limit the use of many mechanical control methods.<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Some mechanical control methods (e.g., mowing), used in combination with herbicides, can be a<br />
very effective technique to control perennial species. For example, mowing perennial plants<br />
followed sequentially by treating the plant regrowth with a systemic herbicide often would<br />
improve the efficacy of the herbicide compared to herbicide only treatment.<br />
• Cultural Methods. These methods would involve manipulating habitat to increase pest<br />
mortality by reducing its suitability to the pest. Cultural methods could include water-level<br />
manipulation, mulching, winter cover crops, changing planting dates to minimize pest impact,<br />
prescribed burning (facilitate revegetation, increase herbicide efficacy, <strong>and</strong> remove litter to assist<br />
in emergence of desirable species), flaming with propane torches, trap crops, crop rotations that<br />
would include non-susceptible crops, moisture management, addition of beneficial insect habitat,<br />
reducing clutter, proper trash disposal, planting or seeding desirable species to shade or outcompete<br />
invasive plants, applying fertilizer to enhance desirable vegetation, prescriptive grazing,<br />
<strong>and</strong> other habitat alterations.<br />
• Biological Control Agents. Classical biological control would involve the deliberate<br />
introduction <strong>and</strong> management of natural enemies (parasites, predators, or pathogens) to reduce<br />
pest populations. Many of the most ecologically or economically damaging pest species in the<br />
United States originated in foreign countries. These newly introduced pests, which are free from<br />
natural enemies found in their country or region of origin, may have a competitive advantage<br />
over cultivated <strong>and</strong> native species. This competitive advantage often allows introduced species<br />
to flourish, <strong>and</strong> they may cause widespread economic damage to crops or out compete <strong>and</strong><br />
displace native vegetation. Once the introduced pest species population reaches a certain level,<br />
traditional methods of pest management may be cost-prohibitive or impractical. Biological<br />
controls typically are used when these pest populations have become so widespread that<br />
eradication or effective control would be difficult or no longer practical.<br />
Biological control has advantages as well as disadvantages. Benefits would include reducing<br />
pesticide usage, host specificity for target pests, long-term self-perpetuating control, low<br />
cost/acre, capacity for searching <strong>and</strong> locating hosts, synchronizing biological control agents to<br />
hosts’ life cycles, <strong>and</strong> the unlikelihood that hosts will develop resistance to agents.<br />
Disadvantages would include the following: limited availability of agents from their native<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s, the dependence of control on target species density, slow rate at which control occurs,<br />
biotype matching, the difficulty <strong>and</strong> expense of conflicts over control of the target pest, <strong>and</strong> host<br />
specificity when host populations are low.<br />
A reduction in target species populations from biological controls is typically a slow process, <strong>and</strong><br />
efficacy can be highly variable. It may not work well in a particular area although it does work<br />
well in other areas. Biological control agents would require specific environmental conditions to<br />
survive over time. Some of these conditions are understood; whereas, others are only partially<br />
understood or not at all.<br />
Biological control agents will not completely eradicate a target pest. When using biological<br />
control agents, residual levels of the target pest typically are expected; the agent population level<br />
or survival would be dependent upon the density of its host. After the pest population decreases,<br />
the population of the biological control agent would decrease correspondingly. This is a natural<br />
cycle. Some pest populations (e.g., invasive plants) would tend to persist for several years after a<br />
G-6 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
biological control agent becomes established due to seed reserves in the soil, inefficiencies in the<br />
agents search behavior, <strong>and</strong> the natural lag in population buildup of the agent.<br />
The full range of pest groups potentially found on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters would include<br />
diseases, invertebrates, vertebrates <strong>and</strong> invasive plants (most common group). Often it is<br />
assumed that biological control would address many if not most of these pest problems. There<br />
are several well-documented success stories of biological control of invasive weed species in the<br />
Pacific Northwest including Mediterranean sage, St. Johnswort (Klamath weed) <strong>and</strong> tansy<br />
ragwort. Emerging success stories include Dalmatian toadflax, diffuse knapweed, leafy spurge,<br />
purple loosestrife, <strong>and</strong> yellow star thistle. In Hawai‘i, it would include banana poka <strong>and</strong><br />
Eurythrina gall wasps. However, historically, each new introduction of a biological control agent<br />
in the United States has only about a 30% success rate (Coombs et al. 2004). Refer to Coombs et<br />
al. (2004) for the status of biological control agents for invasive plants in the Pacific Northwest.<br />
Introduced species without desirable close relatives in the United States would generally be<br />
selected as biological controls. Natural enemies that are restricted to one or a few closely related<br />
plants in their country of origin are targeted as biological controls (Center et al. 1997, Hasan <strong>and</strong><br />
Ayres 1990).<br />
The refuge staff would ensure introduced agents are approved by the applicable authorities.<br />
Except for a small number of formulated biological control products registered by EPA under<br />
FIFRA, most biological control agents are regulated by the US Department of Agriculture<br />
(USDA)-Animal <strong>Plan</strong>t Health Inspection Service, <strong>Plan</strong>t Protection <strong>and</strong> Quarantine (APHIS-<br />
PPQ). State departments of agriculture <strong>and</strong>, in some cases, county agricultural commissioners or<br />
weed districts, have additional approval authority.<br />
Federal permits (USDA-APHIS-PPQ Form 526) are required to import biocontrols agents from<br />
another state. Form 526 may be obtained by writing:<br />
or<br />
USDA-APHIS-PPQ<br />
Biological Assessment <strong>and</strong> Taxonomic Support<br />
4700 River Road, Unit 113<br />
Riverdale, MD 20737<br />
through the internet at URL address:<br />
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/permits/organism/plantpest_howtoapply.shtml<br />
The Service strongly supports the development, <strong>and</strong> legal <strong>and</strong> responsible use of appropriate,<br />
safe, <strong>and</strong> effective biological control agents for nuisance <strong>and</strong> non-indigenous or pest species.<br />
State <strong>and</strong> county agriculture departments may also be sources for biological control agents or<br />
they may have information about where biological control agents may be obtained. Commercial<br />
sources should have an Application <strong>and</strong> Permit to Move Live <strong>Plan</strong>t Pests <strong>and</strong> Noxious Weeds<br />
(USDA-PPQ Form 226 USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Biological Assessment <strong>and</strong> Taxonomic Support,<br />
4700 River Road, Unit 113, Riverdale, MD 20737) to release specific biological control agents in<br />
a state <strong>and</strong>/or county. Furthermore, certification regarding the biological control agent’s identity<br />
(genus, specific epithet, sub-species <strong>and</strong> variety) <strong>and</strong> purity (e.g., parasite free, pathogen free, <strong>and</strong><br />
biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic contaminants) should be specified in purchase orders.<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-7
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Biological control agents are subject to 7 RM 8 (Exotic Species Introduction <strong>and</strong> Management).<br />
In addition, the refuge staff would follow the International Code of Best Practice for Classical<br />
Biological Control of Weeds (http://sric.ucdavis.edu/exotic /exotic.htm) as ratified by delegates<br />
to the X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Bozeman, MT, July 9, 1999.<br />
This code identifies the following:<br />
o Release only approved biological control agents;<br />
o Use the most effective agents;<br />
o Document releases; <strong>and</strong><br />
o Monitor for impact to the target pest, <strong>and</strong> nontarget species <strong>and</strong> the environment.<br />
Biological control agents formulated as pesticide products <strong>and</strong> registered by the EPA (e.g., Bti)<br />
are also subject to PUP review <strong>and</strong> approval (see below).<br />
A record of all releases would be maintained with date(s), location(s), <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />
conditions of the release site(s); the identity, quantity, <strong>and</strong> condition of the biological control<br />
agents released; <strong>and</strong> other relevant data <strong>and</strong> comments such as weather conditions. Systematic<br />
monitoring to determine the establishment <strong>and</strong> effectiveness of the release is also recommended.<br />
The NEPA documents regarding biological <strong>and</strong> other environmental effects of biological control<br />
agents prepared by another federal agency, where the scope is relevant to evaluation of releases<br />
on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s, would be reviewed. Possible source agencies for such NEPA documents include<br />
the Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management, USFS, National Park Service, USDA-APHIS, <strong>and</strong> the military<br />
services. It might be appropriate to incorporate by reference parts or all of existing document(s)<br />
from the review. Incorporating by reference (43 CFR 46.135) is a technique used to avoid<br />
redundancies in analysis. It also can reduce the bulk of a Service NEPA document, which only<br />
must identify the documents that are incorporated by reference. In addition, relevant portions<br />
must be summarized in the Service NEPA document to the extent necessary to provide the<br />
decision maker <strong>and</strong> public with an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of relevance of the referenced material to the<br />
current analysis.<br />
• Pesticides. The selective use of pesticides would be based upon pest ecology (including mode of<br />
reproduction), the size <strong>and</strong> distribution of its populations, site-specific conditions (e.g., soils,<br />
topography), known efficacy under similar site conditions, <strong>and</strong> the capability to utilize best<br />
management practices (BMPs) to reduce/eliminate potential effects to non-target species,<br />
sensitive habitats, <strong>and</strong> potential to contaminate surface <strong>and</strong> groundwater. All pesticide usage<br />
(pesticide, target species, application rate, <strong>and</strong> method of application) would comply with the<br />
applicable federal (FIFRA) <strong>and</strong> state regulations pertaining to pesticide use, safety, storage,<br />
disposal, <strong>and</strong> reporting. Before pesticides can be used to eradicate, control, or contain pests on<br />
refuge l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters, pesticide use proposals (PUPs) would be prepared <strong>and</strong> approved in<br />
accordance with 569 FW 1. The PUP records would provide a detailed, time-, site-, <strong>and</strong> targetspecific<br />
description of the proposed use of pesticides on the refuge. All PUPs would be created,<br />
approved or disapproved, <strong>and</strong> stored in the Pesticide Use Proposal System (PUPS), which is a<br />
centralized database only accessible on the Service’s intranet (https://systems.fws.gov/pups).<br />
Only Service employees would be authorized to access PUP records for a refuge in this database.<br />
Application equipment would be selected to provide site-specific delivery to target pests while<br />
minimizing/eliminating direct or indirect (e.g., drift) exposure to non-target areas <strong>and</strong><br />
degradation of surface <strong>and</strong> groundwater quality. Where possible, target-specific equipment (e.g.,<br />
G-8 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
backpack sprayer, wiper) would be used to treat target pests. Other target-specific equipment to<br />
apply pesticides would include soaked wicks or paint brushes for wiping vegetation <strong>and</strong> lances,<br />
hatchets, or syringes for direct injection into stems. Granular pesticides may be applied using<br />
seeders or other specialized dispensers. In contrast, aerial spraying (e.g., fixed wing or<br />
helicopter) would only be used where access is difficult (remoteness) <strong>and</strong>/or the size/distribution<br />
of infestations precludes practical use of ground-based methods.<br />
Because repeated use of one pesticide may allow resistant organisms to survive <strong>and</strong> reproduce,<br />
multiple pesticides with variable modes of action would be considered for treatments on refuge<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters. This is especially important if multiple applications within years <strong>and</strong>/or over a<br />
growing season likely would be necessary for habitat maintenance <strong>and</strong> restoration activities to<br />
achieve resource objectives. Integrated chemical <strong>and</strong> non-chemical controls also are highly<br />
effective, where practical, because pesticide resistant organisms can be removed from the site.<br />
Cost may not be the primary factor in selecting a pesticide for use on a refuge. If the least<br />
expensive pesticide would potentially harm natural resources or people, then a different product<br />
would be selected, if available. The most efficacious pesticide available with the least potential<br />
to degrade environment quality (soils, surface water, <strong>and</strong> groundwater) as well as least potential<br />
effect to native species <strong>and</strong> communities of fish, wildlife, plants, <strong>and</strong> their habitats would be<br />
acceptable for use on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s in the context of an IPM approach.<br />
• Habitat restoration/maintenance. Restoration <strong>and</strong>/or proper maintenance of refuge habitats<br />
associated with achieving wildlife <strong>and</strong> habitat objectives would be essential for long-term<br />
prevention, eradication, or control (at or below threshold levels) of pests. Promoting desirable<br />
plant communities through the manipulation of species composition, plant density, <strong>and</strong> growth<br />
rate is an essential component of invasive plant management (Masters et al. 1996, Masters <strong>and</strong><br />
Shelly 2001, Brooks et al. 2004). The following three components of succession could be<br />
manipulated through habitat maintenance <strong>and</strong> restoration: site availability, species availability,<br />
<strong>and</strong> species performance (Cox <strong>and</strong> Anderson 2004). Although a single method (e.g., herbicide<br />
treatment) may eliminate or suppress pest species in the short term, the resulting gaps <strong>and</strong> bare<br />
soil create niches that are conducive to further invasion by the species <strong>and</strong>/or other invasive<br />
plants. On degraded sites where desirable species are absent or in low abundance, revegetation<br />
with native/desirable grasses, forbs, <strong>and</strong> legumes may be necessary to direct <strong>and</strong> accelerate plant<br />
community recovery, <strong>and</strong> achieve site-specific objectives in a reasonable time frame. The<br />
selection of appropriate species for revegetation would be dependent on a number of factors<br />
including resource objectives <strong>and</strong> site-specific, abiotic factors (e.g., soil texture,<br />
precipitation/temperature regimes, <strong>and</strong> shade conditions). Seed availability <strong>and</strong> cost, ease of<br />
establishment, seed production, <strong>and</strong> competitive ability also would be important considerations.<br />
4.0 Priorities for Treatments<br />
For many refuges, the magnitude (number, distribution, <strong>and</strong> sizes of infestations) for pest problems is<br />
too extensive <strong>and</strong> beyond the available capital resources to effectively address during any single field<br />
season. To manage pests in the refuge, it would be essential to prioritize treatment of infestations.<br />
Highest priority treatments would be focused on early detection <strong>and</strong> rapid response to eliminate<br />
infestations of new pests, if possible. This would be especially important for aggressive pests<br />
potentially impacting species, species groups, communities, <strong>and</strong>/or habitats associated refuge<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-9
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
purpose(s), Refuge System resources of concern (Federally listed species, migratory birds, selected<br />
marine mammals, <strong>and</strong> interjurisdictional fish), <strong>and</strong> native species for maintaining/restoring BIDEH.<br />
The next priority would be treating established pests that appear in one or more previously uninfested<br />
areas. Moody <strong>and</strong> Mack (1988) demonstrated through modeling that small, new outbreaks of<br />
invasive plants eventually would infest an area larger than the established, source population. They<br />
also found that control efforts focusing on the large, main infestation rather than the new, small<br />
satellites reduced the chances of overall success. The lowest priority would be treating large<br />
infestations (sometimes monotypic st<strong>and</strong>s) of well established pests. In this case, initial efforts<br />
would focus upon containment of the perimeter followed by work to control/eradicate the established<br />
infested area. If containment <strong>and</strong>/or control of a large infestation is not effective, then efforts would<br />
focus upon halting pest reproduction or managing source populations. Maxwell et al. (2009) found<br />
treating fewer populations that are sources represents an effective long-term strategy to reduce of<br />
total number of invasive populations <strong>and</strong> decreasing meta population growth rates.<br />
Although state listed noxious weeds would always be of high priority for management, other pest<br />
species known to cause substantial ecological impact would also be considered. For example,<br />
cheatgrass may not be listed by a state as noxious, but it can greatly alter fire regimes in shrub steppe<br />
habitats resulting in large monotypic st<strong>and</strong>s that displace native bunch grasses, forbs, <strong>and</strong> shrubs.<br />
Pest control would likely require a multi-year commitment from the refuge staff. Essential to the<br />
long-term success of pest management would be pre- <strong>and</strong> post-treatment monitoring, assessment of<br />
the successes <strong>and</strong> failures of treatments, <strong>and</strong> development of new approaches when proposed<br />
methods do not achieve desired outcomes.<br />
5.0 Best Management Practices (BMPs)<br />
The BMPs can minimize or eliminate possible effects associated with pesticide usage to non-target<br />
species <strong>and</strong>/or sensitive habitats as well as degradation of water quality from drift, surface runoff, or<br />
leaching. Based upon the Department of Interior Pesticide Use Policy (517 DM 1) <strong>and</strong> the Service<br />
Pest Management Policy <strong>and</strong> Responsibilities (30 AM 12), the use of applicable BMPs (where<br />
feasible) also would likely ensure that pesticide uses may not adversely affect federally listed species<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or their critical habitats through determinations made using the process described in 50 CFR part<br />
402.<br />
The following are BMPs pertaining to mixing/h<strong>and</strong>ling <strong>and</strong> applying pesticides for all ground-based<br />
treatments of pesticides, which would be considered <strong>and</strong> utilized, where feasible, based upon target-<br />
<strong>and</strong> site-specific factors <strong>and</strong> time-specific environmental conditions. Although not listed below, the<br />
most important BMP to eliminate/reduce potential impacts to non-target resources would be an IPM<br />
approach to prevent, control, eradicate, <strong>and</strong> contain pests.<br />
5.1 Pesticide H<strong>and</strong>ling <strong>and</strong> Mixing<br />
• As a precaution against spilling, spray tanks would not be left unattended during filling.<br />
• All pesticide containers would be triple rinsed <strong>and</strong> the rinsate would be used as water in the<br />
sprayer tank <strong>and</strong> applied to treatment areas.<br />
• All pesticide spray equipment would be properly cleaned. Where possible, rinsate would be used<br />
as part of the makeup water in the sprayer tank <strong>and</strong> applied to treatment areas.<br />
G-10 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
• The refuge staff would dispose of triple-rinsed pesticide containers per label directions.<br />
• All unused pesticides would be properly discarded at a local “safe send” collection.<br />
• Pesticides <strong>and</strong> pesticide containers would be lawfully stored, h<strong>and</strong>led, <strong>and</strong> disposed of in<br />
accordance with the label <strong>and</strong> in a manner safeguarding human health, fish, <strong>and</strong> wildlife <strong>and</strong><br />
prevent soil <strong>and</strong> water contaminant.<br />
• The refuge staff would consider the water quality parameters (e.g., pH, hardness) that are<br />
important to ensure greatest efficacy where specified on the pesticide label.<br />
• All pesticide spills would be addressed immediately using procedures identified in the refuge<br />
spill respond plan.<br />
5.2 Applying Pesticides<br />
• Pesticide treatments would only be conducted by or under the supervision of Service personnel<br />
<strong>and</strong> non-Service applicators with the appropriate, state or Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management<br />
certification to safely <strong>and</strong> effectively conduct these activities on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters.<br />
• The refuge staff would comply with all federal, state, <strong>and</strong> local pesticide use laws <strong>and</strong> regulations<br />
as well as Department, Service, <strong>and</strong> Refuge System pesticide-related policies. For example, the<br />
refuge staff would use application equipment <strong>and</strong> apply rates for the specific pest(s) identified on<br />
the pesticide label as required under FIFRA.<br />
• Before each treatment season <strong>and</strong> prior to mixing or applying any product for the first time each<br />
season, all applicators would review the labels, MSDSs, <strong>and</strong> PUPs for each pesticide,<br />
determining the target pest, appropriate mix rate(s), PPE, <strong>and</strong> other requirements listed on the<br />
pesticide label.<br />
• A 1-ft no-spray buffer from the water’s edge would be used, where applicable, <strong>and</strong> it does not<br />
detrimentally influence effective control of pest species.<br />
• Use low impact herbicide application techniques (e.g., spot treatment, cut stump, oil basal,<br />
Thinvert system applications) rather than broadcast foliar applications (e.g., boom sprayer, other<br />
larger tank w<strong>and</strong> applications), where practical.<br />
• Use low volume rather than high volume foliar applications where low impact methods above are<br />
not feasible or practical, to maximize herbicide effectiveness <strong>and</strong> ensure correct <strong>and</strong> uniform<br />
application rates.<br />
• Applicators would use <strong>and</strong> adjust spray equipment to apply the coarsest droplet size spectrum<br />
with optimal coverage of the target species while reducing drift.<br />
• Applicators would use the largest droplet size that results in uniform coverage.<br />
• Applicators would use drift reduction technologies such as low-drift nozzles, where possible.<br />
• Where possible, spraying would occur during low (average
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
• Spray applications would not be conducted on days with >30% forecast for rain within 6 hours,<br />
except for pesticides that are rapidly rain fast (e.g., glyphosate in 1 hour) to minimize/eliminate<br />
potential runoff.<br />
• Where possible, applicators would use drift retardant adjuvants during spray applications,<br />
especially adjacent to sensitive areas.<br />
• Where possible, applicators would use a non-toxic dye to aid in identifying target area treated as<br />
well as potential over spray or drift. A dye can also aid in detecting equipment leaks. If a leak is<br />
discovered, the application would be stopped until repairs can be made to the sprayer.<br />
• For pesticide uses associated with cropl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> facilities management, buffers, as appropriate,<br />
would be used to protect sensitive habitats, especially wetl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> other aquatic habitats.<br />
• When drift cannot be sufficiently reduced through altering equipment set up <strong>and</strong> application<br />
techniques, buffer zones may be identified to protect sensitive areas downwind of applications.<br />
The refuge staff would only apply adjacent to sensitive areas when the wind is blowing the<br />
opposite direction.<br />
• Applicators would utilize scouting for early detection of pests to eliminate unnecessary pesticide<br />
applications.<br />
• The refuge staff would consider timing of application so native plants are protected (e.g.,<br />
senescence) while effectively treating invasive plants.<br />
• Rinsate from cleaning spray equipment after application would be recaptured <strong>and</strong> reused or<br />
applied to an appropriate pest plant infestation.<br />
• Application equipment (e.g., sprayer, all-terrain vehicle, tractor) would be thoroughly cleaned<br />
<strong>and</strong> personal protective equipment (PPE) would be removed/disposed of on-site by applicators<br />
after treatments to eliminate the potential spread of pests to un-infested areas.<br />
6.0 Safety<br />
6.1 Personal Protective Equipment<br />
All applicators would wear the specific PPE identified on the pesticide label. The appropriate PPE<br />
will be worn at all times during h<strong>and</strong>ling, mixing, <strong>and</strong> applying. PPE can include the following:<br />
disposable (e.g., Tyvek) or laundered coveralls; gloves (latex, rubber, or nitrile); rubber boots; <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
an NIOSH-approved respirator. Because exposure to concentrated product is usually greatest during<br />
mixing, extra care should be taken while preparing pesticide solutions. Persons mixing these<br />
solutions can be best protected if they wear long gloves, an apron, footwear, <strong>and</strong> a face shield.<br />
Coveralls <strong>and</strong> other protective clothing used during an application would be laundered separately<br />
from other laundry items. Transporting, storing, h<strong>and</strong>ling, mixing <strong>and</strong> disposing of pesticide<br />
containers will be consistent with label requirements, EPA <strong>and</strong> OSHA requirements, <strong>and</strong> Service<br />
policy.<br />
If a respirator is necessary for a pesticide use, then the following requirements would be met in<br />
accordance with Service safety policy: a written Respirator Program, fit testing, physical<br />
examination (including pulmonary function <strong>and</strong> blood work for contaminants), <strong>and</strong> proper storage of<br />
the respirator.<br />
G-12 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
6.2 Notification<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The restricted entry interval (REI) is the time period required after the application at which point<br />
someone may safely enter a treated area without PPE. Refuge staff, authorized management agents<br />
of the Service, volunteers, <strong>and</strong> members of the public who could be in or near a pesticide treated area<br />
within the stated re-entry time period on the label would be notified about treatment areas. Posting<br />
would occur at any site where individuals might inadvertently become exposed to a pesticide during<br />
other activities on the refuge. Where required by the label <strong>and</strong>/or state-specific regulations, sites<br />
would also be posted on its perimeter <strong>and</strong> at other likely locations of entry. The refuge staff would<br />
also notify appropriate private property owners of an intended application, including any private<br />
individuals have requested notification. Special efforts would be made to contact nearby individuals<br />
who are beekeepers or who have expressed chemical sensitivities.<br />
6.3 Medical Surveillance<br />
Medical surveillance may be required for Service personnel <strong>and</strong> approved volunteers who mix,<br />
apply, <strong>and</strong>/or monitor use of pesticides (see 242 FW 7 (Pesticide Users) <strong>and</strong> 242 FW 4 (Medical<br />
Surveillance)). In accordance with 242 FW 7.12A, Service personnel would be medically<br />
monitoring if one or more of the following criteria is met: exposed or may be exposed to<br />
concentrations at or above the published permissible exposure limits or threshold limit values (see<br />
242 FW 4); use pesticides in a manner considered “frequent pesticide use”; or use pesticides in a<br />
manner that requires a respirator (see 242 FW 14 for respirator use requirements). In 242 FW7.7A,<br />
“Frequent Pesticide Use means when a person applying pesticide h<strong>and</strong>les, mixes, or applies<br />
pesticides, with a Health Hazard rating of 3 or higher, for 8 or more hours in any week or 16 or more<br />
hours in any 30-day period.” Under some circumstances, individuals may be medically monitored<br />
who use pesticides infrequently (see section 7.7), experience an acute exposure (sudden, short-term),<br />
or use pesticides with a health hazard ranking of 1 or 2. This decision would consider the<br />
individual’s health <strong>and</strong> fitness level, the pesticide’s specific health risks, <strong>and</strong> the potential risks from<br />
other pesticide-related activities. Refuge cooperators (e.g., cooperative farmers) <strong>and</strong> other authorized<br />
agents (e.g., state <strong>and</strong> county employees) would be responsible for their own medical monitoring<br />
needs <strong>and</strong> costs.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard examinations (at refuge expense) of appropriate refuge staff would be provided by the<br />
nearest certified occupational health <strong>and</strong> safety physician as determined by Federal Occupational<br />
Health.<br />
6.4 Certification <strong>and</strong> Supervision of Pesticide Applicators<br />
Appropriate refuge staff or approved volunteers h<strong>and</strong>ling, mixing, <strong>and</strong>/or applying or directly<br />
supervising others engaged in pesticide use activities would be trained <strong>and</strong> state or federally (BLM)<br />
licensed to apply pesticides to refuge l<strong>and</strong>s or waters. In accordance with 242 FW7.18A <strong>and</strong> 569 FW<br />
1.10B, certification is required to apply restricted use pesticides based upon EPA regulations. For<br />
safety reasons, all individuals participating in pest management activities with general use pesticides<br />
also are encouraged to attend appropriate training or acquire pesticide applicator certification. The<br />
certification requirement would be for a commercial or private applicator depending upon the state.<br />
New staff unfamiliar with proper procedures for storing, mixing, h<strong>and</strong>ling, applying, <strong>and</strong> disposing<br />
of herbicides <strong>and</strong> containers would receive orientation <strong>and</strong> training before h<strong>and</strong>ling or using any<br />
products. Documentation of training would be kept in the files at the refuge office.<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-13
6.5 Record Keeping<br />
6.5.1 Labels <strong>and</strong> material safety data sheets<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Pesticide labels <strong>and</strong> material safety data sheets (MSDSs) would be maintained at the refuge shop <strong>and</strong><br />
laminated copies in the mixing area. These documents also would be carried by field applicators,<br />
where possible. A written reference (e.g., note pad, chalk board, dry erase board) for each tank to be<br />
mixed would be kept in the mixing area for quick reference while mixing is in progress. In addition,<br />
approved PUPs stored in the PUPS database typically contain website links (URLs) to pesticide<br />
labels <strong>and</strong> MSDSs.<br />
6.5.2 Pesticide use proposals (PUPs)<br />
A PUP would be prepared for each proposed pesticide use associated with annual pest management<br />
on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters. A PUP would include specific information about the proposed pesticide<br />
use including the common <strong>and</strong> chemical names of the pesticide(s), target pest species, size <strong>and</strong><br />
location of treatment site(s), application rate(s) <strong>and</strong> method(s), <strong>and</strong> federally listed species<br />
determinations, where applicable.<br />
In accordance with Service guidelines (Director’s memo (December 12, 2007)), a refuge staff may<br />
receive up to 5-year approvals for Washington Office <strong>and</strong> field reviewed proposed pesticide uses<br />
based upon meeting identified criteria including an approved IPM plan, where necessary (see<br />
http://www.fws.gov/contaminants/Issues/IPM.cfm). For a refuge, an IPM plan (requirements<br />
described herein) can be completed independently or in association with a CCP or HMP if IPM<br />
strategies <strong>and</strong> potential environmental effects are adequately addressed within appropriate NEPA<br />
documentation.<br />
The PUPs would be created, approved or disapproved, <strong>and</strong> stored as records in the Pesticide Use<br />
Proposal System (PUPS), which is centralized database on the Service’s intranet<br />
(https://systems.fws.gov/pups). Only Service employees can access PUP records in this database.<br />
6.5.3 Pesticide usage<br />
In accordance with 569 FW 1, the refuge Project Leader would be required to maintain records of all<br />
pesticides annually applied on l<strong>and</strong>s or waters under refuge jurisdiction. This would encompass<br />
pesticides applied by other Federal agencies, state <strong>and</strong> county governments, non-government<br />
applicators including cooperators <strong>and</strong> their pest management service providers with Service<br />
permission. For clarification, pesticide means all insecticides, insect <strong>and</strong> plant growth regulators,<br />
dessicants, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, acaricides, nematicides, fumigants, avicides, <strong>and</strong><br />
piscicides.<br />
The following usage information can be reported for approved PUPs in the PUPS database:<br />
• Pesticide trade name(s);<br />
• Active ingredient(s);<br />
• Total acres treated;<br />
• Total amount of pesticides used (lbs or gallons);<br />
• Total amount of active ingredient(s) used (lbs);<br />
G-14 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
• Target pest(s); <strong>and</strong><br />
• Efficacy (% control).<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
To determine whether treatments are efficacious (eradicating, controlling, or containing the target<br />
pest) <strong>and</strong> achieving resource objectives, habitat <strong>and</strong>/or wildlife response would be monitored both<br />
pre- <strong>and</strong> post-treatment, where possible. Considering available annual funding <strong>and</strong> staffing,<br />
appropriate monitoring data regarding characteristics (attributes) of pest infestations (e.g., area,<br />
perimeter, degree of infestation-density, % cover, density) as well as habitat <strong>and</strong>/or wildlife response<br />
to treatments may be collected <strong>and</strong> stored in a relational database (e.g., Refuge Habitat Management<br />
Database), preferably a geo-referenced data management system (e.g., Refuge L<strong>and</strong>s GIS (RLGIS))<br />
to facilitate data analyses <strong>and</strong> subsequent reporting. In accordance with adaptive management, data<br />
analysis <strong>and</strong> interpretation would allow treatments to be modified or changed over time, as<br />
necessary, to achieve resource objectives considering site-specific conditions in conjunction with<br />
habitat <strong>and</strong>/or wildlife responses. Monitoring could also identify short- <strong>and</strong> long-term impacts to<br />
natural resources <strong>and</strong> environmental quality associated with IPM treatments in accordance with<br />
adaptive management principles identified in 43 CFR 46.145.<br />
7.0 Evaluating Pesticide Use Proposals<br />
Pesticides would only be used on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s for habitat management as well as facilities<br />
maintenance after approval of a PUP. In general, proposed pesticide uses on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s would only<br />
be approved where there would likely be minor, temporary, or localized effects to fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife<br />
species as well as minimal potential to degrade environmental quality. Potential effects to listed <strong>and</strong><br />
non-listed species would be evaluated with quantitative ecological risk assessments <strong>and</strong> other<br />
screening measures. Potential effects to environmental quality would be based upon pesticide<br />
characteristics of environmental fate (water solubility, soil mobility, soil persistence, <strong>and</strong><br />
volatilization) <strong>and</strong> other quantitative screening tools. Ecological risk assessments as well as<br />
characteristics of environmental fate <strong>and</strong> potential to degrade environmental quality for pesticides<br />
would be documented in Chemical Profiles (see Section 7.5). These profiles would include threshold<br />
values for quantitative measures of ecological risk assessments <strong>and</strong> screening tools for environmental<br />
fate that represent minimal potential effects to species <strong>and</strong> environmental quality. In general, only<br />
pesticide uses with appropriate BMPs (see Section 4.0) for habitat management <strong>and</strong><br />
cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s that would potentially have minor, temporary, or<br />
localized effects on refuge biological <strong>and</strong> environmental quality (threshold values not exceeded)<br />
would be approved.<br />
7.1 Overview of Ecological Risk Assessment<br />
An ecological risk assessment process would be used to evaluate potential adverse effects to<br />
biological resources as a result of a pesticide(s) proposed for use on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. It is an established<br />
quantitative <strong>and</strong> qualitative methodology for comparing <strong>and</strong> prioritizing risks of pesticides <strong>and</strong><br />
conveying an estimate of the potential risk for an adverse effect. This quantitative methodology<br />
provides an efficient mechanism to integrate best available scientific information regarding hazard,<br />
patterns of use (exposure), <strong>and</strong> dose-response relationships in a manner that is useful for ecological<br />
risk decision-making. It would provide an effective way to evaluate potential effects where there is<br />
missing or unavailable scientific information (data gaps) to address reasonable, foreseeable adverse<br />
effects in the field as required under 40 CFR Part 1502.22. Protocols for ecological risk assessment<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-15
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
of pesticide uses on the refuge were developed through research <strong>and</strong> established by the EPA (2004).<br />
Assumptions for these risk assessments are presented in Section 6.2.3.<br />
The toxicological data used in ecological risk assessments are typically results of st<strong>and</strong>ardized<br />
laboratory studies provided by pesticide registrants to the EPA to meet regulatory requirements under<br />
the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide <strong>and</strong> Rodenticide Act of 1996 (FIFRA). These studies assess the<br />
acute (lethality) <strong>and</strong> chronic (reproductive) effects associated with short- <strong>and</strong> long-term exposure to<br />
pesticides on representative species of birds, mammals, freshwater fish, aquatic invertebrates, <strong>and</strong><br />
terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic plants. Other effects data publicly available would also be utilized for risk<br />
assessment protocols described herein. Toxicity endpoint <strong>and</strong> environmental fate data are available<br />
from a variety of resources. Some of the more useful resources can be found in<br />
Section 7.5.<br />
Table 1. Ecotoxicity tests used to evaluate potential effects to birds, fish, <strong>and</strong> mammals to establish<br />
toxicity endpoints for risk quotient calculations.<br />
Species Group Exposure Measurement endpoint<br />
Acute Median Lethal Concentration (LC50)<br />
Bird<br />
Chronic<br />
No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC) or<br />
No Observed Adverse Effect Concentration (NOAEC) 1<br />
Acute Median Lethal Concentration (LC50)<br />
<strong>Fish</strong><br />
Chronic<br />
No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC) or<br />
No Observed Adverse Effect Concentration (NOAEC) 2<br />
Mammal<br />
Acute<br />
Chronic<br />
Oral Lethal Dose (LD50)<br />
No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC) or<br />
No Observed Adverse Effect Concentration (NOAEC) 3<br />
1<br />
Measurement endpoints typically include a variety of reproductive parameters (e.g., number of<br />
eggs, number of offspring, eggshell thickness, <strong>and</strong> number of cracked eggs).<br />
2<br />
Measurement endpoints for early life stage/life cycle typically include embryo hatch rates, time<br />
to hatch, growth, <strong>and</strong> time to swim-up.<br />
3<br />
Measurement endpoints include maternal toxicity, teratogenic effects or developmental<br />
anomalies, evidence of mutagenicity or genotoxicity, <strong>and</strong> interference with cellular mechanisms<br />
such as DNA synthesis <strong>and</strong> DNA repair.<br />
7.2 Determining Ecological Risk to <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
The potential for pesticides used on the refuge to cause direct adverse effects to fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife<br />
would be evaluated using EPA’s Ecological Risk Assessment Process (2004). This deterministic<br />
approach, which is based upon a two-phase process involving estimation of environmental<br />
concentrations <strong>and</strong> then characterization of risk, would be used for ecological risk assessments. This<br />
method integrates exposure estimates (estimated environmental concentration (EEC) <strong>and</strong><br />
toxicological endpoints (e.g., LC50 <strong>and</strong> oral LD50)) to evaluate the potential for adverse effects to<br />
species groups (birds, mammals, <strong>and</strong> fish) representative of legal m<strong>and</strong>ates for managing units of the<br />
Refuge System. This integration is achieved through risk quotients (RQs) calculated by dividing the<br />
EEC by acute <strong>and</strong> chronic toxicity values selected from st<strong>and</strong>ardized toxicological endpoints or<br />
published effect (Table 1).<br />
G-16 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
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<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
RQ = EEC/Toxicological Endpoint<br />
The level of risk associated with direct effects of pesticide use would be characterized by comparing<br />
calculated RQs to the appropriate Level of Concern (LOC) established by EPA (1998 (Table 2)).<br />
The LOC represents a quantitative threshold value for screening potential adverse effects to fish <strong>and</strong><br />
wildlife resources associated with pesticide use. The following are four exposure-species group<br />
scenarios that would be used to characterize ecological risk to fish <strong>and</strong> wildlife on the refuge: acutelisted<br />
species, acute-nonlisted species, chronic-listed species, <strong>and</strong> chronic-nonlisted species.<br />
Acute risk would indicate the potential for mortality associated with short-term dietary exposure to<br />
pesticides immediately after an application. For characterization of acute risks, median values from<br />
LC50 <strong>and</strong> LD50 tests would be used as toxicological endpoints for RQ calculations. In contrast,<br />
chronic risks would indicate the potential for adverse effects associated with long-term dietary<br />
exposure to pesticides from a single application or multiple applications over time (within a season<br />
<strong>and</strong> over years). For characterization of chronic risks, the no observed concentration (NOAEC) or no<br />
observed effect concentration (NOEC) for reproduction would be used as toxicological endpoints for<br />
RQ calculations. Where available, the NOAEC would be preferred over a NOEC value.<br />
Listed species are those federally designated as threatened, endangered, or proposed in accordance<br />
with the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 USC 1531-1544, 87 Stat. 884, as amended-Public Law<br />
93-205). For listed species, potential adverse effects would be assessed at the individual level<br />
because loss of individuals from a population could detrimentally impact a species. In contrast, risks<br />
to nonlisted species would consider effects at the population level. A RQLOC would indicate a “may affect, likely to adversely<br />
affect” for listed species <strong>and</strong> it would also pose unacceptable ecological risk for adverse effects to<br />
nonlisted species.<br />
Table 2. Presumption of unacceptable risk for birds, fish, <strong>and</strong> mammals (US Environmental<br />
Protection Agency 1998).<br />
Risk Presumption Level of Concern<br />
Listed Species Non-listed Species<br />
Acute Birds 0.1 0.5<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> 0.05 0.5<br />
Mammals 0.1 0.5<br />
Chronic Birds 1.0 1.0<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> 1.0 1.0<br />
Mammals 1.0 1.0<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-17
7.2.1 Environmental exposure<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Following release into the environment through application, pesticides would experience several<br />
different routes of environmental fate. Pesticides which would be sprayed can move through the air<br />
(e.g., particle or vapor drift) <strong>and</strong> may eventually end up in other parts of the environment such as<br />
non-target vegetation, soil, or water. Pesticides applied directly to the soil may be washed off the<br />
soil into nearby bodies of surface water (e.g., surface runoff) or may percolate through the soil to<br />
lower soil layers <strong>and</strong> groundwater (e.g., leaching) (Baker <strong>and</strong> Miller 1999, Pope et. al. 1999, Butler<br />
et. al. 1998, Ramsay et. al. 1995, EXTOXNET 1993a). Pesticides which would be injected into the<br />
soil may also be subject to the latter two fates. The aforementioned possibilities are by no means<br />
complete, but it does indicate movement of pesticides in the environment is very complex with<br />
transfers occurring continually among different environmental compartments. In some cases, these<br />
exchanges occur not only between areas that are close together, but it also may involve transportation<br />
of pesticides over long distances (Barry 2004, Woods 2004).<br />
7.2.1.1 Terrestrial exposure<br />
The estimated environmental concentration (ECC) for exposure to terrestrial wildlife would be<br />
quantified using an USEPA screening-level approach (US Environmental Protection Agency 2004).<br />
This screening-level approach is not affected by product formulation because it evaluates pesticide<br />
active ingredient(s). This approach would vary depending upon the proposed pesticide application<br />
method: spray or granular.<br />
7.2.1.1.1 Terrestrial-spray application<br />
For spray applications, exposure would be determined using the Kanaga nomogram method (US<br />
Environmental Protection Agency 2005a, US Environmental Protection Agency 2004, Pfleeger et al.<br />
1996) through the USEPA’s Terrestrial Residue Exposure model (T-REX) version 1.2.3 (US<br />
Environmental Protection Agency 2005b). To estimate the maximum (initial) pesticide residue on<br />
short grass (
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
output from the T-REX Kanaga nomogram would be used as an EEC for calculation of RQs. This<br />
approach would yield a conservative estimate of ecological risk.<br />
Table 3. Average body weight of selected terrestrial wildlife species frequently used in research to<br />
establish toxicological endpoints (Dunning 1984).<br />
Species Body Weight (kg)<br />
Mammal (15 g) 0.015<br />
House sparrow 0.0277<br />
Mammal (35 g) 0.035<br />
Starling 0.0823<br />
Red-winged blackbird 0.0526<br />
Common grackle 0.114<br />
Japanese quail 0.178<br />
Bobwhite quail 0.178<br />
Rat 0.200<br />
Rock dove (aka pigeon) 0.542<br />
Mammal (1000 g) 1.000<br />
Mallard 1.082<br />
Ring-necked pheasant 1.135<br />
7.2.1.1.2 Terrestrial – granular application<br />
Granular pesticide formulations <strong>and</strong> pesticide-treated seed would pose a unique route of exposure for<br />
avian <strong>and</strong> mammalian species. The pesticide is applied in discrete units which birds or mammals<br />
might ingest accidentally with food items or intentionally as in the case of some bird species actively<br />
seeking <strong>and</strong> picking up gravel or grit to aid digestion or seed as a food source. Granules may also be<br />
consumed by wildlife foraging on earthworms, slugs or other soft-bodied soil organisms to which the<br />
granules may adhere.<br />
Terrestrial wildlife RQs for granular formulations or seed treatments would be calculated by dividing<br />
the maximum milligrams of active ingredient (ai) exposed (e.g., EEC) on the surface of an area equal<br />
to 1 square foot by the appropriate LD50 value multiplied by the surrogate’s body weight (Table 3).<br />
An adjustment to surface area calculations would be made for broadcast, b<strong>and</strong>ed, <strong>and</strong> in-furrow<br />
applications. An adjustment also would be made for applications with <strong>and</strong> without incorporation of<br />
the granules. Without incorporation, it would be assumed that 100% of the granules remain on the<br />
soil surface available to foraging birds <strong>and</strong> mammals. Press wheels push granules flat with the soil<br />
surface, but they are not incorporated into the soil. If granules are incorporated in the soil during<br />
b<strong>and</strong> or T-b<strong>and</strong> applications or after broadcast applications, it would be assumed only 15% of the<br />
applied granules remain available to wildlife. It would be assumed that only 1% of the granules are<br />
available on the soil surface following in-furrow applications.<br />
EECs for pesticides applied in granular form <strong>and</strong> as seed treatments would be determined<br />
considering potential ingestion rates of avian or mammalian species (e.g., 10-30% body weight/day).<br />
This would provide an estimate of maximum exposure that may occur as a result of granule or seed<br />
treatment spills such as those that commonly occur at end rows during application <strong>and</strong> planting. The<br />
availability of granules <strong>and</strong> seed treatments to terrestrial vertebrates would also be considered by<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-19
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
calculating the loading per unit area (LD50/ft 2 ) for comparison to USEPA Level of Concerns (US<br />
Environmental Protection Agency 1998). The<br />
T-REX version 1.2.3 (US Environmental Protection Agency 2005b) contains a submodel which<br />
automates Kanaga exposure calculations for granular pesticides <strong>and</strong> treated seed.<br />
The following formulas will be used to calculate EECs depending upon the type of granular pesticide<br />
application:<br />
• In-furrow applications assume a typical value of 1% granules, bait, or seed remain<br />
unincorporated.<br />
mg a.i./ft. 2<br />
= [(lbs. product/acre)(% a.i.)(453,580 mg/lbs)(1% exposed))] / {[(43,560 ft. 2<br />
/acre)/(row<br />
spacing (ft.))] / (row spacing (ft.)}<br />
or<br />
mg a.i./ft 2<br />
= [(lbs product/1000 ft. row)(% a.i.)(1000 ft row)(453,580 mg/lb.)(1% exposed)<br />
Where:<br />
EEC = [(mg a.i./ft. 2<br />
)(% of pesticide biologically available)]<br />
• Incorporated b<strong>and</strong>ed treatments assume that 15% of granules, bait, seeds are unincorporated.<br />
mg a.i./ft. 2<br />
= [(lbs. product/1000 row ft.)(% a.i.)(453,580 mg/lb.)(1-% incorporated)] / (1,000<br />
ft.)(b<strong>and</strong> width (ft.))<br />
EEC = [(mg a.i./ft. 2<br />
)(% of pesticide biologically available)]<br />
• Broadcast treatment without incorporation assumes 100% of granules, bait, seeds are<br />
unincorporated.<br />
mg a.i./ft. 2<br />
= [(lbs. product/acre)(% a.i.)(453,590 mg/lb.)] / (43,560 ft. 2<br />
/acre)<br />
EEC = [(mg a.i./ft. 2<br />
)(% of pesticide biologically available)]<br />
• % of pesticide biologically available = 100% without species specific ingestion rates<br />
• Conversion for calculating mg a.i./ft. 2<br />
using ounces: 453,580 mg/lb. /16 = 28,349 mg/oz.<br />
The following equation would used to calculate a RQ based on the EEC calculated by one of the<br />
above equations. The EEC would divided by the surrogate LD50 toxicological endpoint multiplied by<br />
the body weight (Table 3) of the surrogate.<br />
RQ = EEC / [LD 50 (mg/kg) * body weight (kg)]<br />
As with other risk assessments, a RQ>LOC would be a presumption of unacceptable ecological risk.<br />
A RQ
7.2.1.2 Aquatic exposure<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Exposures to aquatic habitats (e.g., wetl<strong>and</strong>s, meadows, ephemeral pools, water delivery ditches)<br />
would be evaluated separately for ground-based pesticide treatments of habitats managed for fish <strong>and</strong><br />
wildlife compared with cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance (for Hakalau Forest NWR, this would be<br />
streams <strong>and</strong> bogs). The primary exposure pathway for aquatic organisms from any ground-based<br />
treatments likely would be particle drift during the pesticide application. However, different<br />
exposure scenarios would be necessary as a result of contrasting application equipment <strong>and</strong><br />
techniques as well as pesticides used to control pests on agricultural l<strong>and</strong>s (especially those cultivated<br />
by cooperative farmers for economic return from crop yields) (not applicable to Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR) <strong>and</strong> facilities maintenance (e.g., roadsides, parking lots, trails) compared with other managed<br />
habitats on the refuge. In addition, pesticide applications may be done
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Lbs/acre EEC (ppb)<br />
5.00 1839<br />
6.00 2207<br />
7.00 2575<br />
8.00 2943<br />
9.00 3311<br />
10.00 3678<br />
7.2.1.2.2 Cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance treatments<br />
Field drift studies conducted by the Spray Drift Task Force, which is a joint project of several<br />
agricultural chemical businesses, were used to develop a generic spray drift database. From this<br />
database, the AgDRIFT computer model was created to satisfy USEPA pesticide registration spray<br />
drift data requirements <strong>and</strong> as a scientific basis to evaluate off-target movement of pesticides from<br />
particle drift <strong>and</strong> assess potential effects of exposure to wildlife. Several versions of the computer<br />
model have been developed (i.e., v2.01 through v2.10). The Spray Drift Task Force AgDRIFT®<br />
model version 2.01 (SDTF 2003, AgDRIFT 2001) would be used to derive EECs resulting from drift<br />
of pesticides to refuge aquatic resources from ground-based pesticide applications >25 feet from the<br />
high water mark. The Spray Drift Task Force AgDRIFT model is publicly available at<br />
http://www.agdrift.com. At this website, click “AgDRIFT 2.0” <strong>and</strong> then click “Download Now” <strong>and</strong><br />
follow the instructions to obtain the computer model.<br />
The AgDRIFT model is composed of submodels called tiers. Tier I Ground submodel would be used<br />
to assess ground-based applications of pesticides. Tier outputs (EECs) would be calculated with<br />
AgDRIFT using the following input variables: max application rate (acid basis [see above]), low<br />
boom (20 inches), fine to medium droplet size, EPA-defined wetl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
≥25-foot distance (buffer) from treated area to water. No cropl<strong>and</strong>s exist for Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
7.2.2 Use of information on effects of biological control agents, pesticides, degradates, <strong>and</strong><br />
adjuvants<br />
NEPA documents regarding biological <strong>and</strong> other environmental effects of biological control agents,<br />
pesticides, degradates, <strong>and</strong> adjuvants prepared by another federal agency, where the scope would be<br />
relevant to evaluation of effects from pesticide uses on refuge l<strong>and</strong>s, would be reviewed. Possible<br />
source agencies for such NEPA documents would include the Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management, US<br />
Forest Service, National Park Service, US Department of Agriculture-Animal <strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Health<br />
Inspection Service, <strong>and</strong> the military services. It might be appropriate to incorporate by reference<br />
parts or all of existing document(s). Incorporating by reference (40 CFR 1502.21) is a technique<br />
used to avoid redundancies in analysis. It also would reduce the bulk of a Service NEPA document,<br />
which only would identify the documents that are incorporated by reference. In addition, relevant<br />
portions would be summarized in the Service NEPA document to the extent necessary to provide the<br />
decision maker <strong>and</strong> public with an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of relevance of the referenced material to the<br />
current analysis.<br />
In accordance with the requirements set forth in 43 CFR 46.135, the Service would specifically<br />
incorporate through reference ecological risk assessments prepared by the US Forest Service<br />
G-22 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
(http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/invasiveplant-eis/Risk-Assessments/Herbicides-Analyzed-Inv<strong>Plan</strong>t-<br />
EIS.htm) <strong>and</strong> Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management (http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/more/veg_eis.html).<br />
These risk assessments <strong>and</strong> associated documentation also are available in total with the<br />
administrative record for the <strong>Final</strong> Environmental Impact Statement entitled Pacific Northwest<br />
Region Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>t Program – Preventing <strong>and</strong> Managing Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts (US Forest Service<br />
2005) <strong>and</strong> Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides on Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management L<strong>and</strong>s in 17<br />
Western States Programmatic EIS (PEIS) (Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management 2007). In accordance with<br />
43 CRF 46.120(d), use of existing NEPA documents by supplementing, tiering to, incorporating by<br />
reference, or adopting previous NEPA environmental analyses would avoid redundancy <strong>and</strong><br />
unnecessary paperwork.<br />
As a basis for completing “Chemical Profiles” for approving or disapproving refuge PUPs,<br />
ecological risk assessments for the following herbicide <strong>and</strong> adjuvant uses prepared by the US Forest<br />
Service would be incorporated by reference:<br />
• 2,4-D;<br />
• Chlorosulfuron;<br />
• Clopyralid;<br />
• Dicamba;<br />
• Glyphosate;<br />
• Imazapic;<br />
• Imazapyr;<br />
• Metsulfuron methyl;<br />
• Picloram;<br />
• Sethoxydim;<br />
• Sulfometuron methyl;<br />
• Triclopyr; <strong>and</strong><br />
• Nonylphenol polyethylate (NPE) based surfactants.<br />
As a basis for completing “Chemical Profiles” for approving or disapproving refuge PUPs,<br />
ecological risk assessments for the following herbicide uses as well as evaluation of risks associated<br />
with pesticide degradates <strong>and</strong> adjuvants prepared by the Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management would be<br />
incorporated by reference:<br />
• Bromacil;<br />
• Chlorsulfuron;<br />
• Diflufenzopyr;<br />
• Diquat;<br />
• Diuron;<br />
• Fluridone;<br />
• Imazapic;<br />
• Overdrive (diflufenzopyr <strong>and</strong> dicamba);<br />
• Sulfometuron methyl;<br />
• Tebuthiuron;<br />
• Pesticide degradates <strong>and</strong> adjuvants (Appendix D – Evaluation of risks from degradates,<br />
polyoxyethylene-amine (POEA) <strong>and</strong> R-11, <strong>and</strong> endocrine disrupting chemicals).<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-23
7.2.3 Assumptions for ecological risk assessments<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
There are a number of assumptions involved with the ecological risk assessment process for<br />
terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic organisms associated with utilization of the US Environmental Protection<br />
Agency’s (2004) process. These assumptions may be risk neutral or may lead to an over- or underestimation<br />
of risk from pesticide exposure depending upon site-specific conditions. The following<br />
describes these assumptions, their application to the conditions typically encountered, <strong>and</strong> whether or<br />
not they may lead to recommendations that are risk neutral, underestimate, or overestimate ecological<br />
risk from potential pesticide exposure.<br />
• Indirect effects would not be evaluated by ecological risk assessments. These effects include the<br />
mechanisms of indirect exposure to pesticides: consuming prey items (fish, birds, or small<br />
mammals), reductions in the availability of prey items, <strong>and</strong> disturbance associated with pesticide<br />
application activities.<br />
• Exposure to a pesticide product can be assessed based upon the active ingredient. However,<br />
exposure to a chemical mixture (pesticide formulation) may result in effects that are similar or<br />
substantially different compared to only the active ingredient. Non-target organisms may be<br />
exposed directly to the pesticide formulation or only various constituents of the formulation as<br />
they dissipate <strong>and</strong> partition in the environment. If toxicological information for both the active<br />
ingredient <strong>and</strong> formulated product are available, then data representing the greatest potential<br />
toxicity would be selected for use in the risk assessment process (US Environmental Protection<br />
Agency 2004). As a result, this conservative approach may lead to an overestimation of risk<br />
characterization from pesticide exposure.<br />
• Because toxicity tests with listed or c<strong>and</strong>idate species or closely related species are not available,<br />
data for surrogate species would be most often used for risk assessments. Specifically, bobwhite<br />
quail <strong>and</strong> mallard duck are the most frequently used surrogates for evaluating potential toxicity to<br />
federally listed avian species. Bluegill sunfish, rainbow trout, <strong>and</strong> fathead minnow are the most<br />
common surrogates for evaluating toxicity for freshwater fishes. However, sheep’s head minnow<br />
can be an appropriate surrogate marine species for coastal environments. Rats <strong>and</strong> mice are the<br />
most common surrogates for evaluating toxicity for mammals. Interspecies sensitivity is a major<br />
source of uncertainty in pesticide assessments. As a result of this uncertainty, data is selected for<br />
the most sensitive species tested within a taxonomic group (birds, fish, <strong>and</strong> mammals) given the<br />
quality of the data is acceptable. If additional toxicity data for more species of organisms in a<br />
particular group are available, the selected data will not be limited to the species previously listed<br />
as common surrogates.<br />
• The Kanaga nomogram outputs maximum EEC values that may be used to calculate an average<br />
daily concentration over a specified interval of time, which is referred to as a time-weightedaverage<br />
(TWA). The maximum EEC would be selected as the exposure input for both acute <strong>and</strong><br />
chronic risk assessments in the screening-level evaluations. The initial or maximum EEC<br />
derived from the Kanaga nomogram represents the maximum expected instantaneous or acute<br />
exposure to a pesticide. Acute toxicity endpoints are determined using a single exposure to a<br />
known pesticide concentration typically for 48 to 96 hours. This value is assumed to represent<br />
ecological risk from acute exposure to a pesticide. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, chronic risk to pesticide<br />
exposure is a function of pesticide concentration <strong>and</strong> duration of exposure to the pesticide. An<br />
organism’s response to chronic pesticide exposure may result from either the concentration of the<br />
pesticide, length of exposure, or some combination of both factors. St<strong>and</strong>ardized tests for<br />
chronic toxicity typically involve exposing an organism to several different pesticide<br />
concentrations for a specified length of time (days, weeks, months, years or generations). For<br />
G-24 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
example, avian reproduction tests include a 10-week exposure phase. Because a single length of<br />
time is used in the test, time response data is usually not available for inclusion into risk<br />
assessments. Without time response data it is difficult to determine the concentration which<br />
elicited a toxicological response.<br />
• Using maximum EECs for chronic risk estimates may result in an overestimate of risk,<br />
particularly for compounds that dissipate rapidly. Conversely, using TWAs for chronic risk<br />
estimates may underestimate risk if it is the concentration rather than the duration of exposure<br />
that is primarily responsible for the observed adverse effect. The maximum EEC would be used<br />
for chronic risk assessments although it may result in an overestimate of risk. TWAs may be<br />
used for chronic risk assessments, but they will be applied judiciously considering the potential<br />
for an underestimate or overestimate of risk. For example, the number of days exposure exceeds<br />
a Level of Concern may influence the suitability of a pesticide use. The greater the number of<br />
days the EEC exceeds the Level of Concern translates into greater the ecological risk. This is a<br />
qualitative assessment, <strong>and</strong> is subject to reviewer’s expertise in ecological risk assessment <strong>and</strong><br />
tolerance for risk.<br />
• The length of time used to calculate the TWA can have a substantial effect on the exposure<br />
estimates <strong>and</strong> there is no st<strong>and</strong>ard method for determining the appropriate duration for this<br />
estimate. The T-REX model assumes a 21-week exposure period, which is equivalent to avian<br />
reproductive studies designed to establish a steady-state concentration for bioaccumulative<br />
compounds. However, this does not necessarily define the true exposure duration needed to elicit<br />
a toxicological response. Pesticides, which do not bioaccumulate, may achieve a steady-state<br />
concentration earlier than 21 weeks. The duration of time for calculating TWAs will require<br />
justification <strong>and</strong> it will not exceed the duration of exposure in the chronic toxicity test<br />
(approximately 70 days for the st<strong>and</strong>ard avian reproduction study). An alternative to using the<br />
duration of the chronic toxicity study is to base the TWA on the application interval. In this case,<br />
increasing the application interval would suppress both the estimated peak pesticide<br />
concentration <strong>and</strong> the TWA. Another alternative to using TWAs would be to consider the<br />
number of days that a chemical is predicted to exceed the LOC.<br />
• Pesticide dissipation is assumed to be first-order in the absence of data suggesting alternative<br />
dissipation patterns such as bi-phasic. Field dissipation data would generally be the most<br />
pertinent for assessing exposure in terrestrial species that forage on vegetation. However, this<br />
data is often not available <strong>and</strong> it can be misleading particularly if the compound is prone to<br />
“wash-off”. Soil half-life is the most common degradation data available. Dissipation or<br />
degradation data that would reflect the environmental conditions typical of refuge l<strong>and</strong>s would be<br />
utilized, if available.<br />
• For species found in the water column, it would be assumed that the greatest bioavailable fraction<br />
of the pesticide active ingredient in surface waters is freely dissolved in the water column.<br />
• Actual habitat requirements of any particular terrestrial species are not considered, <strong>and</strong> it is<br />
assumed that species exclusively <strong>and</strong> permanently occupy the treated area, or adjacent areas<br />
receiving pesticide at rates commensurate with the treatment rate. This assumption would<br />
produce a maximum estimate of exposure for risk characterization. This assumption would<br />
likely lead to an overestimation of exposure for species that do not permanently <strong>and</strong> exclusively<br />
occupy the treated area (US Environmental Protection Agency 2004).<br />
• Exposure through incidental ingestion of pesticide contaminated soil is not considered in the<br />
USEPA risk assessment protocols. Research suggests
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
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nomogram indicates incidental soil ingestion will not likely increase dietary exposure to<br />
pesticides. Inclusion of soil into the diet would effectively reduce the overall dietary<br />
concentration compared to the present assumption that the entire diet consists a contaminated<br />
food source (Fletcher et al. 1994). An exception to this may be soil-applied pesticides in which<br />
exposure from incidental ingestion of soil may increase. Potential for pesticide exposure under<br />
this assumption may be underestimated for soil-applied pesticides <strong>and</strong> overestimated for foliarapplied<br />
pesticides. The concentration of a pesticide in soil would likely be less than predicted on<br />
food items.<br />
• Exposure through inhalation of pesticides is not considered in the USEPA risk assessment<br />
protocols. Such exposure may occur through three potential sources: spray material in droplet<br />
form at time of application, vapor phase with the pesticide volatilizing from treated surfaces, <strong>and</strong><br />
airborne particulates (soil, vegetative matter, <strong>and</strong> pesticide dusts). The USEPA (1990) reported<br />
exposure from inhaling spray droplets at the time of application is not an appreciable route of<br />
exposure for birds. According to research on mallards <strong>and</strong> bobwhite quail, respirable particle size<br />
(particles reaching the lung) in birds is limited to maximum diameter of 2 to 5 microns. The<br />
spray droplet spectra covering the majority of pesticide application scenarios indicate that less<br />
than 1% of the applied material is within the respirable particle size. This route of exposure is<br />
further limited because the permissible spray drop size distribution for ground pesticide<br />
applications is restricted to ASAE medium or coarser drop size distribution.<br />
• Inhalation of a pesticide in the vapor phase may be another source of exposure for some<br />
pesticides under certain conditions. This mechanism of exposure to pesticides occurs post<br />
application <strong>and</strong> it would pertain to those pesticides with a high vapor pressure. The USEPA is<br />
currently evaluating protocols for modeling inhalation exposure from pesticides including nearfield<br />
<strong>and</strong> near-ground air concentrations based upon equilibrium <strong>and</strong> kinetics-based models. Risk<br />
characterization for exposure with this mechanism is unavailable.<br />
• The effect from exposure to dusts contaminated with the pesticide cannot be assessed generically<br />
as partitioning issues related to application site soils <strong>and</strong> chemical properties of the applied<br />
pesticides render the exposure potential from this route highly situation specific.<br />
• Dermal exposure may occur through three potential sources: direct application of spray to<br />
terrestrial wildlife in the treated area or within the drift footprint, incidental contact with<br />
contaminated vegetation, or contact with contaminated water or soil. Interception of spray <strong>and</strong><br />
incidental contact with treated substrates may pose risk to avian wildlife (Driver et al. 1991).<br />
However, available research related to wildlife dermal contact with pesticides is extremely<br />
limited, except dermal toxicity values are common for some mammals used as human surrogates<br />
(rats <strong>and</strong> mice). The USEPA is currently evaluating protocols for modeling dermal exposure.<br />
Risk characterization may be underestimated for this route of exposure, particularly with high<br />
risk pesticides such as some organophosphates or carbamate insecticides. If protocols are<br />
established by the USEPA for assessing dermal exposure to pesticides, they will be considered<br />
for incorporation into pesticide assessment protocols.<br />
• Exposure to a pesticide may occur from consuming surface water, dew or other water on treated<br />
surfaces. Water soluble pesticides have potential to dissolve in surface runoff <strong>and</strong> puddles in a<br />
treated area may contain pesticide residues. Similarly, pesticides with lower organic carbon<br />
partitioning characteristics <strong>and</strong> higher solubility in water have a greater potential to dissolve in<br />
dew <strong>and</strong> other water associated with plant surfaces. Estimating the extent to which such<br />
pesticide loadings to drinking water occurs is complex <strong>and</strong> would depend upon the partitioning<br />
characteristics of the active ingredient, soils types in the treatment area, <strong>and</strong> the meteorology of<br />
the treatment area. In addition, the use of various water sources by wildlife is highly species-<br />
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specific. Currently, risk characterization for this exposure mechanism is not available. The<br />
USEPA is actively developing protocols to quantify drinking water exposures from puddles <strong>and</strong><br />
dew. If <strong>and</strong> when protocols are formally established by the USEPA for assessing exposure to<br />
pesticides through drinking water, these protocols will be incorporated into pesticide risk<br />
assessment protocols.<br />
• Risk assessments are based upon the assumption that the entire treatment area would be subject<br />
to pesticide application at the rates specified on the label. In most cases, there is potential for<br />
uneven application of pesticides through such plausible incidents such as changes in calibration<br />
of application equipment, spillage, <strong>and</strong> localized releases at specific areas in or near the treated<br />
field that are associated with mixing <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ling <strong>and</strong> application equipment as well as<br />
applicator skill. Inappropriate use of pesticides <strong>and</strong> the occurrence of spills represent a potential<br />
underestimate of risk. It is likely not an important factor for risk characterization. All pesticide<br />
applicators are required to be certified by the state in which they apply pesticides. Certification<br />
training includes the safe storage, transport, h<strong>and</strong>ling, <strong>and</strong> mixing of pesticides, equipment<br />
calibration <strong>and</strong> proper application with annual continuing education.<br />
• The USEPA relies on Fletcher (1994) for setting the assumed pesticide residues in wildlife<br />
dietary items. The USEPA (2004) “believes that these residue assumptions reflect a realistic<br />
upper-bound residue estimate, although the degree to which this assumption reflects a specific<br />
percentile estimate is difficult to quantify”. Fletcher’s (1994) research suggests that the pesticide<br />
active ingredient residue assumptions used by the USEPA represent a 95 th<br />
percentile estimate.<br />
However, research conducted by Pfleeger et al. (1996) indicates USEPA residue assumptions for<br />
short grass was not exceeded. Baehr <strong>and</strong> Habig (2000) compared USEPA residue assumptions<br />
with distributions of measured pesticide residues for the USEPA’s UTAB database. Overall<br />
residue selection level will tend to overestimate risk characterization. This is particularly evident<br />
when wildlife individuals are likely to have selected a variety of food items acquired from<br />
multiple locations. Some food items may be contaminated with pesticide residues whereas others<br />
are not contaminated. However, it is important to recognize differences in species feeding<br />
behavior. Some species may consume whole above-ground plant material, but others will<br />
preferentially select different plant structures. Also, species may preferentially select a food item<br />
although multiple food items may be present. Without species specific knowledge regarding<br />
foraging behavior characterizing ecological risk other than in general terms is not possible.<br />
• Acute <strong>and</strong> chronic risk assessments rely on comparisons of wildlife dietary residues with LC50 or<br />
NOEC values expressed as concentrations of pesticides in laboratory feed. These comparisons<br />
assume that ingestion of food items in the field occurs at rates commensurate with those in the<br />
laboratory. Although the screening assessment process adjusts dry-weight estimates of food<br />
intake to reflect the increased mass in fresh-weight wildlife food intake estimates, it does not<br />
allow for gross energy <strong>and</strong> assimilative efficiency differences between wildlife food items <strong>and</strong><br />
laboratory feed. Differences in assimilative efficiency between laboratory <strong>and</strong> wild diets suggest<br />
that current screening assessment methods are not accounting for a potentially important aspect<br />
of food requirements.<br />
• There are several other assumptions that can affect non-target species not considered in the risk<br />
assessment process. These include possible additive or synergistic effects from applying two or<br />
more pesticides or additives in a single application, co-location of pesticides in the environment,<br />
cumulative effects from pesticides with the same mode of action, effects of multiple stressors<br />
(e.g., combination of pesticide exposure, adverse abiotic <strong>and</strong> biotic factors) <strong>and</strong> behavioral<br />
changes induced by exposure to a pesticide. These factors may exist at some level contributing<br />
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to adverse affects to non-target species, but they are usually characterized in the published<br />
literature in only a general manner limiting their value in the risk assessment process.<br />
• It is assumed that aquatic species exclusively <strong>and</strong> permanently occupy the water body being<br />
assessed. Actual habitat requirements of aquatic species are not considered. With the possible<br />
exception of scenarios where pesticides are directly applied to water, it is assumed that no habitat<br />
use considerations specific for any species would place the organisms in closer proximity to<br />
pesticide use sites. This assumption produces a maximum estimate of exposure or risk<br />
characterization. It would likely be realistic for many aquatic species that may be found in<br />
aquatic habitats within or in close proximity to treated terrestrial habitats. However, the spatial<br />
distribution of wildlife is usually not r<strong>and</strong>om because wildlife distributions are often related to<br />
habitat requirements of species. Clumped distributions of wildlife may result in an under- or<br />
over-estimation of risk depending upon where the initial pesticide concentration occurs relative<br />
to the species or species habitat.<br />
• For species found in the water column, it would be assumed that the greatest bioavailable fraction<br />
of the pesticide active ingredient in surface waters is freely dissolved in the water column.<br />
Additional chemical exposure from materials associated with suspended solids or food items is<br />
not considered because partitioning onto sediments likely is minimal. Adsorption <strong>and</strong><br />
bioconcentration occurs at lower levels for many newer pesticides compared with older more<br />
persistent bioaccumulative compounds. Pesticides with RQs close to the listed species level of<br />
concern, the potential for additional exposure from these routes may be a limitation of risk<br />
assessments, where potential pesticide exposure or risk may be underestimated.<br />
• Mass transport losses of pesticide from a water body (except for losses by volatilization,<br />
degradation <strong>and</strong> sediment partitioning) would not be considered for ecological risk assessment.<br />
The water body would be assumed to capture all pesticide active ingredients entering as runoff,<br />
drift, <strong>and</strong> adsorbed to eroded soil particles. It would also be assumed that pesticide active<br />
ingredient is not lost from the water body by overtopping or flow-through, nor is concentration<br />
reduced by dilution. In total, these assumptions would lead to a near maximum possible waterborne<br />
concentration. However, this assumption would not account for potential to concentrate<br />
pesticide through the evaporative loss. This limitation may have the greatest impact on water<br />
bodies with high surface-to-volume ratios such as ephemeral wetl<strong>and</strong>s, where evaporative losses<br />
are accentuated <strong>and</strong> applied pesticides have low rates of degradation <strong>and</strong> volatilization.<br />
• For acute risk assessments, there would be no averaging time for exposure. An instantaneous<br />
peak concentration would be assumed, where instantaneous exposure is sufficient in duration to<br />
elicit acute effects comparable to those observed over more protracted exposure periods<br />
(typically 48 to 96 hours) tested in the laboratory. In the absence of data regarding time-to-toxic<br />
event, analyses <strong>and</strong> latent responses to instantaneous exposure, risk would likely be<br />
overestimated.<br />
• For chronic exposure risk assessments, the averaging times considered for exposure are<br />
commensurate with the duration of invertebrate life-cycle or fish-early life stage tests (e.g., 21-28<br />
days <strong>and</strong> 56-60 days, respectively). Response profiles (time to effect <strong>and</strong> latency of effect) to<br />
pesticides likely vary widely with mode of action <strong>and</strong> species <strong>and</strong> should be evaluated on a caseby-case<br />
basis as available data allow. Nevertheless, because the USEPA relies on chronic<br />
exposure toxicity endpoints based on a finding of no observed effect, the potential for any latent<br />
toxicity effects or averaging time assumptions to alter the results of an acceptable chronic risk<br />
assessment prediction is limited. The extent to which duration of exposure from water-borne<br />
concentrations overestimate or underestimate actual exposure depends on several factors. These<br />
include the following: localized meteorological conditions, runoff characteristics of the<br />
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watershed (e.g., soils, topography), the hydrological characteristics of receiving waters,<br />
environmental fate of the pesticide active ingredient, <strong>and</strong> the method of pesticide application. It<br />
should also be understood that chronic effects studies are performed using a method that holds<br />
water concentration in a steady state. This method is not likely to reflect conditions associated<br />
with pesticide runoff. Pesticide concentrations in the field increase <strong>and</strong> decrease in surface water<br />
on a cycle influenced by rainfall, pesticide use patterns, <strong>and</strong> degradation rates. As a result of the<br />
dependency of this assumption on several undefined variables, risk associated with chronic<br />
exposure may in some situations underestimate risk <strong>and</strong> overestimate risk in others.<br />
• There are several other factors that can affect non-target species not considered in the risk<br />
assessment process. These would include the following: possible additive or synergistic effects<br />
from applying two or more pesticides or additives in a single application, co-location of<br />
pesticides in the environment, cumulative effects from pesticides with the same mode of action,<br />
effects of multiple stressors (e.g., combination of pesticide exposure, adverse abiotic [not<br />
pesticides] <strong>and</strong> biotic factors), <strong>and</strong> sub-lethal effects such as behavioral changes induced by<br />
exposure to a pesticide. These factors may exist at some level contributing to adverse affects to<br />
non-target species, but they are not routinely assessed by regulatory agencies. Therefore,<br />
information on the factors is not extensive limiting their value for the risk assessment process. As<br />
this type of information becomes available, it would be included, either quantitatively or<br />
qualitatively, in this risk assessment process.<br />
• USEPA is required by the Food Quality Protection Act to assess the cumulative risks of<br />
pesticides that share common mechanisms of toxicity, or act the same within an organism.<br />
Currently, USEPA has identified four groups of pesticides that have a common mechanism of<br />
toxicity requiring cumulative risk assessments. These four groups are: the organophosphate<br />
insecticides, N-methyl carbamate insecticides, triazine herbicides, <strong>and</strong> chloroacetanilide<br />
herbicides.<br />
7.3 Pesticide Mixtures <strong>and</strong> Degradates<br />
Pesticide products are usually a formulation of several components generally categorized as active<br />
ingredients <strong>and</strong> inert or other ingredients. The term active ingredient is defined by the FIFRA as<br />
preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating the effects of a pest, or it is a plant regulator,<br />
defoliant, desiccant, or nitrogen stabilizer. In accordance with FIFRA, the active ingredient(s) must<br />
be identified by name(s) on the pesticide label along with its relative composition expressed in<br />
percentage(s) by weight. In contrast, inert ingredient(s) are not intended to affect a target pest. Their<br />
role in the pesticide formulation is to act as a solvent (keep the active ingredient is a liquid phase), an<br />
emulsifying or suspending agent (keep the active ingredient from separating out of solution), or a<br />
carrier such as clay in which the active ingredient is impregnated on the clay particle in dry<br />
formulations. For example, if isopropyl alcohol would be used as a solvent in a pesticide<br />
formulation, then it would be considered an inert ingredient. FIFRA only requires that inert<br />
ingredients identified as hazardous <strong>and</strong> associated percent composition, <strong>and</strong> the total percentage of<br />
all inert ingredients must be declared on a product label. Inert ingredients that are not classified as<br />
hazardous are not required to be identified.<br />
The USEPA (September 1997) issued Pesticide Regulation Notice 97-6 which encouraged<br />
manufacturers, formulators, producers, <strong>and</strong> registrants of pesticide products to voluntarily substitute<br />
the term “other ingredients” for “inert ingredients” in the ingredient statement. This change<br />
recognized that all components in a pesticide formulation potentially could elicit or contribute to an<br />
adverse effect on non-target organisms <strong>and</strong>, therefore, are not necessarily inert. Whether referred to<br />
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as “inerts” or “other ingredients,” these constituents within a pesticide product have the potential to<br />
affect species or environmental quality. The USEPA categorizes regulated inert ingredients into the<br />
following four lists (http://www.epa.gov/opprd001/inerts/index.html):<br />
• List 1 – Inert Ingredients of Toxicological Concern;<br />
• List 2 – Potentially Toxic Inert Ingredients;<br />
• List 3 – Inerts of Unknown Toxicity;<br />
• List 4 – Inerts of Minimal Toxicity.<br />
Several of the List 4 compounds are naturally-occurring earthen materials (e.g., clay materials,<br />
simple salts) that would not elicit toxicological response at applied concentrations. However, some<br />
of the inerts (particularly the List 3 compounds <strong>and</strong> unlisted compounds) may have moderate to high<br />
potential toxicity to aquatic species based on MSDSs or published data.<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong>ly assessing potential effects to non-target fish, wildlife, plants, <strong>and</strong>/or their habitats<br />
from pesticide use is a complex task. It would be preferable to assess the cumulative effects from<br />
exposure to the active ingredient, its degradates, <strong>and</strong> inert ingredients as well as other active<br />
ingredients in the spray mixture. However, it would only be feasible to conduct deterministic risk<br />
assessments for each component in the spray mixture singly. Limited scientific information is<br />
available regarding ecological effects (additive or synergistic) from chemical mixtures that typically<br />
rely upon broadly encompassing assumptions. For example, the US Forest Service (2005) found that<br />
mixtures of pesticides used in l<strong>and</strong> (forest) management likely would not cause additive or<br />
synergistic effects to non-target species based upon a review of scientific literature regarding<br />
toxicological effects <strong>and</strong> interactions of agricultural chemicals (ATSDR 2004). Moreover,<br />
information on inert ingredients, adjuvants, <strong>and</strong> degradates is often limited by the availability of <strong>and</strong><br />
access to reliable toxicological data for these constituents.<br />
Toxicological information regarding “other ingredients” may be available from sources such as the<br />
following:<br />
• TOMES (a proprietary toxicological database including USEPA’s IRIS, the Hazardous Substance<br />
Data Bank, the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances [RTECS]).<br />
• USEPA’s ECOTOX database, which includes AQUIRE (a database containing scientific papers<br />
published on the toxic effects of chemicals to aquatic organisms).<br />
• TOXLINE (a literature searching tool).<br />
• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) from pesticide suppliers.<br />
• Other sources such as the Farm Chemicals H<strong>and</strong>book.<br />
Because there is a lack of specific inert toxicological data, inert(s) in a pesticide may cause adverse<br />
ecological effects. However, inert ingredients typically represent only a small percentage of the<br />
pesticide spray mixture, <strong>and</strong> it would be assumed that negligible effects would be expected to result<br />
from inert ingredient(s).<br />
Although the potential effects of degradates should be considered when selecting a pesticide, it is<br />
beyond the scope of this assessment process to consider all possible breakdown chemicals of the<br />
various product formulations containing an active ingredient. Degradates may be more or less<br />
mobile <strong>and</strong> more or less hazardous in the environment than their parent pesticides (Battaglin et al.<br />
2003). Differences in environmental behavior (e.g., mobility) <strong>and</strong> toxicity between parent pesticides<br />
<strong>and</strong> degradates would make assessing potential degradate effects extremely difficult. For example, a<br />
less toxic <strong>and</strong> more mobile, bioaccumulative, or persistent degradate may have potentially greater<br />
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effects on species <strong>and</strong>/or degrade environmental quality. The lack of data on the toxicity of<br />
degradates for many pesticides would represent a source of uncertainty for assessing risk.<br />
An USEPA-approved label specifies whether a product can be mixed with one or more pesticides.<br />
Without product-specific toxicological data, it would not be possible to quantify the potential effects<br />
of these mixtures. In addition, a quantitative analysis could only be conducted if reliable scientific<br />
information allowed a determination of whether the joint action of a mixture would be additive,<br />
synergistic, or antagonistic. Such information would not likely exist unless the mode of action would<br />
be common among the chemicals <strong>and</strong> receptors. Moreover, the composition of <strong>and</strong> exposure to<br />
mixtures would be highly site- <strong>and</strong>/or time-specific <strong>and</strong>, therefore, it would be nearly impossible to<br />
assess potential effects to species <strong>and</strong> environmental quality.<br />
To minimize or eliminate potential negative effects associated with applying two or more pesticides<br />
as a mixture, the use would be conducted in accordance with the labeling requirements. Labels for<br />
two or more pesticides applied as a mixture should be completely reviewed, where products with the<br />
least potential for negative effects would be selected for use on the refuge. This is especially relevant<br />
when a mixture would be applied in a manner that may already have the potential for an effect(s)<br />
associated with an individual pesticide (e.g., runoff to ponds in s<strong>and</strong>y watersheds). Use of a tank mix<br />
under these conditions would increase the level of uncertainty in terms of risk to species or potential<br />
to degrade environmental quality.<br />
Adjuvants generally function to enhance or prolong the activity of pesticide. For terrestrial<br />
herbicides, adjuvants aid in the absorption into plant tissue. Adjuvant is a broad term that generally<br />
applies to surfactants, selected oils, anti-foaming agents, buffering compounds, drift control agents,<br />
compatibility agents, stickers, <strong>and</strong> spreaders. Adjuvants are not under the same registration<br />
requirements as pesticides <strong>and</strong> the USEPA does not register or approve the labeling of spray<br />
adjuvants. Individual pesticide labels identify types of adjuvants approved for use with it. In<br />
general, adjuvants compose a relatively small portion of the volume of pesticides applied. Selection<br />
of adjuvants with limited toxicity <strong>and</strong> low volumes would be recommended to reduce the potential<br />
for the adjuvant to influence the toxicity of the pesticide.<br />
7.4 Determining Effects to Soil <strong>and</strong> Water Quality<br />
The approval process for pesticide uses would consider potential to degrade water quality on <strong>and</strong> off<br />
refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. A pesticide can only affect water quality through movement away from the treatment<br />
site. After application, pesticide mobilization can be characterized by one or more of the following<br />
(Kerle et al. 1996):<br />
• Attach (sorb) to soil, vegetation, or other surfaces <strong>and</strong> remain at or near the treated area;<br />
• Attach to soil <strong>and</strong> move off-site through erosion from run-off or wind;<br />
• Dissolve in water that can be subjected to run-off or leaching.<br />
As an initial screening tool, selected chemical characteristics <strong>and</strong> rating criteria for a pesticide can be<br />
evaluated to assess potential to enter ground <strong>and</strong>/or surface waters. These would include the<br />
following: persistence, sorption coefficient (Koc), groundwater ubiquity score (GUS), <strong>and</strong> solubility.<br />
Persistence, which is expressed as half-life (t½), represents the length of time required for 50% of the<br />
deposited pesticide to degrade (completely or partially). Persistence in the soil can be categorized as<br />
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the following: non-persistent 100<br />
days (Kerle et. al. 1996). Half-life data is usually available for aquatic <strong>and</strong> terrestrial environments.<br />
Another measure of pesticide persistence is dissipation time (DT50). It represents the time required<br />
for 50% of the deposited pesticide to degrade <strong>and</strong> move from a treated site; whereas, half-life<br />
describes the rate for degradation only. As for half-life, units of dissipation time are usually<br />
expressed in days. Field or foliar dissipation time is the preferred data for use to estimate pesticide<br />
concentrations in the environment. However, soil half-life is the most common persistence data<br />
cited in published literature. If field or foliar dissipation data is not available, soil half-life data may<br />
be used. The average or representative half-life value of most important degradation mechanism will<br />
be selected for quantitative analysis for both terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic environments.<br />
Mobility of a pesticide is a function of how strongly it is adsorbed to soil particles <strong>and</strong> organic<br />
matter, its solubility in water, <strong>and</strong> its persistence in the environment. Pesticides strongly adsorbed to<br />
soil particles, relatively insoluble in water, <strong>and</strong> not environmentally persistent would be less likely to<br />
move across the soil surface into surface waters or to leach through the soil profile <strong>and</strong> contaminate<br />
groundwater. Conversely, pesticides that are not strongly adsorbed to soil particles, are highly water<br />
soluble, <strong>and</strong> are persistent in the environment would have greater potential to move from the<br />
application site (off-site movement).<br />
The degree of pesticide adsorption to soil particles <strong>and</strong> organic matter (Kerle et. al. 1996) is<br />
expressed as the soil adsorption coefficient (Koc). The soil adsorption coefficient is measured as<br />
micrograms of pesticide per gram of soil (μg/g) that can range from near zero to the thous<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Pesticides with higher Koc values are strongly absorbed to soil <strong>and</strong>, therefore, would be less subject<br />
to movement.<br />
Water solubility describes the amount of pesticide that will dissolve in a known quantity of water.<br />
The water solubility of a pesticide is expressed as milligrams of pesticide dissolved in a liter of water<br />
(mg/l or ppm). Pesticide with solubility 10,000 ppm highly soluble (US Geological Survey 2000). As pesticide<br />
solubility increases, there would be greater potential for off-site movement.<br />
The Groundwater Ubiquity Score (GUS) is a quantitative screening tool to estimate a pesticide’s<br />
potential to move in the environment. It utilizes soil persistence <strong>and</strong> adsorption coefficients in the<br />
following formula.<br />
GUS = log10 (t½) x [4 - log10 (Koc)]<br />
The potential pesticide movement rating would be based upon its GUS value. Pesticides with a GUS<br />
4.0 would have a very high potential to move toward groundwater.<br />
Water solubility describes the amount of pesticide dissolving in a specific quantity of water, where it<br />
is usually measured as mg/l or parts per million (ppm). Solubility is useful as a comparative measure<br />
because pesticides with higher values are more likely to move by run-off or leaching. GUS, water<br />
solubility, t½, <strong>and</strong> Koc values are available for selected pesticides from the OSU Extension Pesticide<br />
Properties Database at http://npic.orst.edu/ppdmove.htm. Many of the values in this database were<br />
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derived from the SCS/ARS/CES Pesticide Properties Database for Environmental Decision Making<br />
(Wauchope et al. 1992).<br />
Soil properties influence the fate of pesticides in the environment. The following six properties are<br />
mostly likely to affect pesticide degradation <strong>and</strong> the potential for pesticides to move off-site by<br />
leaching (vertical movement through the soil) or runoff (lateral movement across the soil surface).<br />
• Permeability is the rate of water movement vertically through the soil. It is affected by soil<br />
texture <strong>and</strong> structure. Coarse textured soils (e.g., high s<strong>and</strong> content) have a larger pore size <strong>and</strong><br />
they are generally more permeable than fine textured soils (i.e., high clay content). The more<br />
permeable soils would have a greater potential for pesticides to move vertically down through the<br />
soil profile. Soil permeability rates (inches/hour) are usually available in county soil survey<br />
reports.<br />
• Soil texture describes the relative percentage of s<strong>and</strong>, silt, <strong>and</strong> clay. In general, greater clay<br />
content with smaller the pore size would lower the likelihood <strong>and</strong> rate water that would move<br />
through the soil profile. Clay also serves to adsorb (bind) pesticides to soil particles. Soils with<br />
high clay content would absorb more pesticide than soils with relatively low clay content. In<br />
contrast, s<strong>and</strong>y soils with coarser texture <strong>and</strong> lower water holding capacity would have a greater<br />
potential for water to leach through them.<br />
• Soil structure describes soil aggregation. Soils with a well developed soil structure have looser,<br />
more aggregated, structure that would be less likely to be compacted. Both characteristics would<br />
allow for less restricted flow of water through the soil profile resulting in greater infiltration.<br />
• Organic matter would be the single most important factor affecting pesticide adsorption in soils.<br />
Many pesticides are adsorbed to organic matter which would reduce their rate of downward<br />
movement through the soil profile. Also, soils high in organic matter would tend to hold more<br />
water, which may make less water available for leaching.<br />
• Soil moisture affects how fast water would move through the soil. If soils are already wet or<br />
saturated before rainfall or irrigation, excess moisture would runoff rather than infiltrate into the<br />
soil profile. Soil moisture also would influence microbial <strong>and</strong> chemical activity in soil, which<br />
effects pesticide degradation.<br />
• Soil pH would influence chemical reactions that occur in the soil which in turn determines<br />
whether or not a pesticide will degrade, rate of degradation, <strong>and</strong>, in some instances, which<br />
degradation products are produced.<br />
Based upon the aforementioned properties, soils most vulnerable to groundwater contamination<br />
would be s<strong>and</strong>y soils with low organic matter. In contrast, the least vulnerable soils would be welldrained<br />
clayey soils with high organic matter. Consequently, pesticides with the lowest potential for<br />
movement in conjunction with appropriate best management practices (see below) would be used in<br />
an IPM framework to treat pests while minimizing effects to non-target biota <strong>and</strong> protecting<br />
environmental quality.<br />
Along with soil properties, the potential for a pesticide to affect water quality through run-off <strong>and</strong><br />
leaching would consider site-specific environmental <strong>and</strong> abiotic conditions including rainfall, water<br />
table conditions, <strong>and</strong> topography (Huddleston 1996).<br />
• Water is necessary to separate pesticides from soil. This can occur in two basic ways. Pesticides<br />
that are soluble move easily with runoff water. Pesticide-laden soil particles can be dislodged<br />
<strong>and</strong> transported from the application site in runoff. The concentration of pesticides in the surface<br />
runoff would be greatest for the first runoff event following treatment. The rainfall intensity <strong>and</strong><br />
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route of water infiltration into soil, to a large extent, determine pesticide concentrations <strong>and</strong><br />
losses in surface runoff. The timing of the rainfall after application also would have an effect.<br />
Rainfall interacts with pesticides at a shallow soil depth (¼ to ½ inch), which is called the mixing<br />
zone (Baker <strong>and</strong> Miller 1999). The pesticide/water mixture in the mixing zone would tend to<br />
leach down into the soil or runoff depending upon how quickly the soil surface becomes<br />
saturated <strong>and</strong> how rapidly water can infiltrate into the soil. Leaching would decrease the amount<br />
of pesticide available near the soil surface (mixing zone) to runoff during the initial rainfall event<br />
following application <strong>and</strong> subsequent rainfall events.<br />
• Terrain slope would affect the potential for surface runoff <strong>and</strong> the intensity of runoff. Steeper<br />
slopes would have greater potential for runoff following a rainfall event. In contrast, soils that<br />
are relatively flat would have little potential for runoff, except during intense rainfall events. In<br />
addition, soils in lower areas would be more susceptible to leaching as a result of receiving<br />
excessive water from surrounding higher elevations.<br />
• Depth to groundwater would be an important factor affecting the potential for pesticides to leach<br />
into groundwater. If the distance from the soil surface to the top of the water table is shallow,<br />
pesticides would have less distance to travel to reach groundwater. Shallower water tables that<br />
persist for longer periods would be more likely to experience groundwater contamination. Soil<br />
survey reports are available for individual counties. These reports provide data in tabular format<br />
regarding the water table depths <strong>and</strong> the months during which it is persists. In some situations, a<br />
hard pan exists above the water table that would prevent pesticide contamination from leaching.<br />
7.5 Determining Effects to Air Quality<br />
Pesticides may volatilize from soil <strong>and</strong> plant surfaces <strong>and</strong> move from the treated area into the<br />
atmosphere. The potential for a pesticide to volatilize is determined by the pesticide’s vapor pressure<br />
which would be affected by temperature, sorption, soil moisture, <strong>and</strong> the pesticide’s water solubility.<br />
Vapor pressure is often expressed in mm Hg. To make these numbers easier to compare, vapor<br />
pressure may be expressed in exponent form (I x 10 -7 ), where I represents a vapor pressure index. In<br />
general, pesticides with I1,000 would have a high potential to volatilize (Oregon State University 1996). Vapor pressure<br />
values for pesticides are usually available in the pesticide product MSDS or the USDA Agricultural<br />
Research Service (ARS) pesticide database.<br />
7.6 Preparing a Chemical Profile<br />
The following instructions would be used by Service personnel to complete Chemical Profiles for<br />
pesticides. Specifically, profiles would be prepared for pesticide active ingredients (e.g., glyphosate,<br />
imazapic) that would be contained in one or more trade name products that are registered <strong>and</strong> labeled<br />
with USEPA. All information fields under each category (e.g., Toxicological Endpoints,<br />
Environmental Fate) would be completed for a Chemical Profile. If no information is available for a<br />
specific field, then “No data is available in references” would be recorded in the profile. Available<br />
scientific information would be used to complete Chemical Profiles. Each entry of scientific<br />
information would be shown with applicable references.<br />
Completed Chemical Profiles would provide a structured decision-making process utilizing<br />
quantitative assessment/screening tools with threshold values (where appropriate) that would be used<br />
to evaluate potential biological <strong>and</strong> other environmental effects to refuge resources. For ecological<br />
risk assessments presented in these profiles, the “worst-case scenario” would be evaluated to<br />
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determine whether a pesticide could be approved for use considering the maximum single application<br />
rate specified on pesticide labels for habitat management <strong>and</strong> cropl<strong>and</strong>s/facilities maintenance<br />
treatments pertaining to refuges. Where the “worst-case scenario” likely would only result in minor,<br />
temporary, <strong>and</strong> localized effects to listed <strong>and</strong> non-listed species with appropriate BMPs (see Section<br />
5.0), the proposed pesticide’s use in a PUP would have a scientific basis for approval under any<br />
application rate specified on the label that is at or below rates evaluated in a Chemical Profile. In<br />
some cases, the Chemical Profile would include a lower application rate than the maximum labeled<br />
rate in order to protect refuge resources. As necessary, Chemical Profiles would be periodically<br />
updated with new scientific information or as pesticides with the same active ingredient are proposed<br />
for use on the refuge in PUPs.<br />
Throughout this section, threshold values (to prevent or minimize potential biological <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental effects) would be clearly identified for specific information presented in a completed<br />
Chemical Profile. Comparison with these threshold values provides an explicit scientific basis to<br />
approve or disapprove PUPs for habitat management <strong>and</strong> cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance on refuge<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s. In general, PUPs would be approved for pesticides with Chemical Profiles where there would<br />
be no exceedances of threshold values. However, BMPs are identified for some screening tools that<br />
would minimize/eliminate potential effects (exceedance of the threshold value) as a basis for<br />
approving PUPs.<br />
Date: Service personnel would record the date when the Chemical Profile is completed or updated.<br />
Chemical Profiles (e.g., currently approved pesticide use patterns) would be periodically reviewed<br />
<strong>and</strong> updated, as necessary. The most recent review date would be recorded on a profile to document<br />
when it was last updated.<br />
Trade Name(s): Service personnel would accurately <strong>and</strong> completely record the trade name(s) from<br />
the pesticide label, which includes a suffix that describes the formulation (e.g., WP, DG, EC, L, SP,<br />
I, II or 64). The suffix often distinguishes a specific product among several pesticides with the same<br />
active ingredient. Service personnel would record a trade name for each pesticide product with the<br />
same active ingredient.<br />
Common chemical name(s): Service personnel would record the common name(s) listed on the<br />
pesticide label or material safety data sheet (MSDS) for an active ingredient. The common name of a<br />
pesticide is listed as the active ingredient on the title page of the product label immediately following<br />
the trade name, <strong>and</strong> the MSDS, Section 2: Composition/ Information on Ingredients. A Chemical<br />
Profile is completed for each active ingredient.<br />
Pesticide Type: Service personnel would record the type of pesticide for an active ingredient as one<br />
of the following: herbicide, dessicant, fungicide, fumigant, growth regulator, insecticide, pisicide, or<br />
rodenticide.<br />
EPA Registration Number(s): This number (EPA Reg. No.) appears on the title page of the label<br />
<strong>and</strong> MSDS, Section 1: Chemical Product <strong>and</strong> Company Description. It is not the EPA<br />
Establishment Number that is usually located near it. Service personnel would record the EPA Reg.<br />
No. for each trade name product with an active ingredient based upon PUPs.<br />
Pesticide Class: Service personnel would list the general chemical class for the pesticide (active<br />
ingredient). For example, malathion is an organophosphate <strong>and</strong> carbaryl is a carbamate.<br />
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CAS (Chemical Abstract Service) Number: This number is often located in the second section<br />
(Composition/Information on Ingredients) of the MSDS. The MSDS table listing components<br />
usually contains this number immediately prior to or following the % composition.<br />
Other Ingredients: From the most recent MSDS for the proposed pesticide product(s), Service<br />
personnel would include any chemicals in the pesticide formulation not listed as an active ingredient<br />
that are described as toxic or hazardous, or regulated under the Superfund Amendments <strong>and</strong><br />
Reauthorization Act (SARA), <strong>Comprehensive</strong> Environmental Response, Compensation, <strong>and</strong> Liability<br />
Act (CERCLA), Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), Occupational Safety <strong>and</strong> Health<br />
Administration (OSHA), State Right-to-Know, or other listed authorities. These are usually found in<br />
MSDS sections titled “Hazardous Identifications”, “Exposure Control/Personal Protection”, <strong>and</strong><br />
“Regulatory Information”. If concentrations of other ingredients are available for any compounds<br />
identified as toxic or hazardous, then Service personnel would record this information in the<br />
Chemical Profile by trade name. MSDS(s) may be obtained from the manufacturer, manufacturer’s<br />
website or from an on-line database maintained by Crop Data Management Systems, Inc. (see list<br />
below).<br />
Toxicological Endpoints<br />
Toxicological endpoint data would be collected for acute <strong>and</strong> chronic tests with mammals, birds, <strong>and</strong><br />
fish. Data would be recorded for species available in the scientific literature. If no data are found for<br />
a particular taxonomic group, then “No data available is references” would be recorded as the data<br />
entry. Throughout the Chemical Profile, references (including toxicological endpoint data) would be<br />
cited using parentheses (#) following the recorded data.<br />
Mammalian LD50: For test species in the scientific literature, Service personnel would record<br />
available data for oral lethal dose (LD50) in mg/kg-bw (body weight) or ppm-bw. Most common test<br />
species in scientific literature are the rat <strong>and</strong> mouse. The lowest LD50 value found for a rat would be<br />
used as a toxicological endpoint for dose-based RQ calculations to assess acute risk to mammals (see<br />
Table 1 in Section 7.1).<br />
Mammalian LC50: For test species in the scientific literature, Service personnel would record<br />
available data for dietary lethal concentration (LC50) as reported (e.g., mg/kg-diet or ppm-diet). Most<br />
common test species in scientific literature are the rat <strong>and</strong> mouse. The lowest LC50 value found for a<br />
rat would be used as a toxicological endpoint for diet-based RQ calculations to assess acute risk (see<br />
Table 1 in Section 7.1).<br />
Mammalian Reproduction: For test species listed in the scientific literature, Service personnel<br />
would record the test results (e.g., Lowest Observed Effect Concentration [LOEC], Lowest Observed<br />
Effect Level [LOEL], No Observed Adverse Effect Level [NOAEL], No Observed Adverse Effect<br />
Concentration [NOAEC]) in mg/kg-bw or mg/kg-diet for reproductive test procedure(s) (e.g.,<br />
generational studies [preferred], fertility, new born weight). Most common test species available in<br />
scientific literature are rats <strong>and</strong> mice. The lowest NOEC, NOAEC, NOEL, or NOAEL test results<br />
found for a rat would be used as a toxicological endpoint for RQ calculations to assess chronic risk<br />
(see Table 1 in Section 7.1).<br />
Avian LD50: For test species available in the scientific literature, Service personnel would record<br />
values for oral lethal dose (LD50) in mg/kg-bw or ppm-bw. Most common test species available in<br />
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scientific literature are the bobwhite quail <strong>and</strong> mallard. The lowest LD50 value found for an avian<br />
species would be used as a toxicological endpoint for dose-based RQ calculations to assess acute risk<br />
(see Table 1 in Section 7.1).<br />
Avian LC50: For test species available in the scientific literature, Service personnel would record<br />
values for dietary lethal concentration (LC50) as reported (e.g., mg/kg-diet or ppm-diet). Most<br />
common test species available in scientific literature are the bobwhite quail <strong>and</strong> mallard. The lowest<br />
LC50 value found for an avian species would be used as a toxicological endpoint for dietary-based<br />
RQ calculations to assess acute risk (see Table 1 in Section 7.1).<br />
Avian Reproduction: For test species available in the scientific literature, Service personnel would<br />
record test results (e.g., LOEC, LOEL, NOAEC, NOAEL) in mg/kg-bw or mg/kg-diet consumed for<br />
reproductive test procedure(s) (e.g., early life cycle, reproductive). Most common test species<br />
available in scientific literature are the bobwhite quail <strong>and</strong> mallard. The lowest NOEC, NOAEC,<br />
NOEL, or NOAEL test results found for an avian species would be used as a toxicological endpoint<br />
for RQ calculations to assess chronic risk (see Table 1 in Section 7.1).<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> LC50: For test freshwater or marine species listed in the scientific literature, Service personnel<br />
would record a LC50 in ppm or mg/L. Most common test species available in the scientific literature<br />
are the bluegill, rainbow trout, <strong>and</strong> fathead minnow (marine). Test results for many game species<br />
may also be available. The lowest LC50 value found for a freshwater fish species would be used as a<br />
toxicological endpoint for RQ calculations to assess acute risk (see Table 1 in Section 7.1).<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> Early Life Stage (ELS)/Life Cycle: For test freshwater or marine species available in the<br />
scientific literature, Service personnel would record test results (e.g., LOEC, NOAEL, NOAEC,<br />
LOAEC) in ppm for test procedure(s) (e.g., early life cycle, life cycle). Most common test species<br />
available in the scientific literature are bluegill, rainbow trout, <strong>and</strong> fathead minnow. Test results for<br />
other game species may also be available. The lowest test value found for a fish species (preferably<br />
freshwater) would be used as a toxicological endpoint for RQ calculations to assess chronic risk (see<br />
Table 1 in Section 7.1).<br />
Other: For test invertebrate as well as non-vascular <strong>and</strong> vascular plant species available in the<br />
scientific literature, Service personnel would record LC50, LD50, LOEC, LOEL, NOAEC, NOAEL, or<br />
EC50 (environmental concentration) values in ppm or mg/L. Most common test invertebrate species<br />
available in scientific literature are the honey bee <strong>and</strong> the water flea (Daphnia magna). Green algae<br />
(Selenastrum capricornutum) <strong>and</strong> pondweed (Lemna minor) are frequently available test species for<br />
aquatic non-vascular <strong>and</strong> vascular plants, respectively.<br />
Ecological Incident Reports: After a site has been treated with pesticide(s), wildlife may be<br />
exposed to these chemical(s). When exposure is high relative to the toxicity of the pesticides,<br />
wildlife may be killed or visibly harmed (incapacitated). Such events are called ecological incidents.<br />
The USEPA maintains a database (Ecological Incident Information System) of ecological incidents.<br />
This database stores information extracted from incident reports submitted by various federal <strong>and</strong><br />
state agencies <strong>and</strong> non-government organizations. Information included in an incident report is date<br />
<strong>and</strong> location of the incident, type <strong>and</strong> magnitude of affects observed in various species, use(s) of<br />
pesticides known or suspected of contributing to the incident, <strong>and</strong> results of any chemical residue <strong>and</strong><br />
cholinesterase activity analyses conducted during the investigation.<br />
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Incident reports can play an important role in evaluating the effects of pesticides by supplementing<br />
quantitative risk assessments. All incident reports for pesticide(s) with the active ingredient <strong>and</strong><br />
associated information would be recorded.<br />
Environmental Fate<br />
Water Solubility: Service personnel would record values for water solubility (Sw), which describes<br />
the amount of pesticide that dissolves in a known quantity of water. Sw is expressed as mg/L (ppm).<br />
Pesticide Sw values would be categorized as one of the following: insoluble 10,000 ppm (US Geological Survey 2000). As pesticide<br />
Sw increases, there would be greater potential to degrade water quality through run-off <strong>and</strong> leaching.<br />
Sw would be used to evaluate potential for bioaccumulation in aquatic species [see Octanol-Water<br />
Partition Coefficient (Kow) below].<br />
Soil Mobility: Service personnel would record available values for soil adsorption coefficient (Koc<br />
[μg/g]). It provides a measure of a chemical's mobility <strong>and</strong> leaching potential in soil. Koc values are<br />
directly proportional to organic content, clay content, <strong>and</strong> surface area of the soil. Koc data for a<br />
pesticide may be available for a variety of soil types (e.g., clay, loam, s<strong>and</strong>).<br />
Koc values would be used in evaluating the potential to degrade groundwater by leaching (see<br />
Potential to Move to Groundwater below).<br />
Soil Persistence: Service personnel would record values for soil half-life (t½), which represents the<br />
length of time (days) required for 50% of the deposited pesticide to degrade (completely or partially)<br />
in the soil. Based upon the t½ value, soil persistence would be categorized as one of the following:<br />
non-persistent 100 days (Kerle et.<br />
al. 1996).<br />
Threshold for Approving PUPs:<br />
If soil t½ ≤100 days, then a PUP would be approved without additional BMPs to protect water<br />
quality.<br />
If soil t½ >100 days, then a PUP would only be approved with additional BMPs specifically to<br />
protect water quality. One or more BMPs such as the following would be included in the Specific<br />
Best Management Practices (BMPs) section to minimize potential surface run-off <strong>and</strong> leaching<br />
that can degrade water quality:<br />
• Do not exceed one application per site per year.<br />
• Do not use on coarse-textured soils where the ground water table is 12 inches.<br />
• Do not use on steep slopes if substantial rainfall is expected within 24 hours or ground is<br />
saturated.<br />
Along with Koc, soil t½ values would be used in evaluating the potential to degrade groundwater by<br />
leaching (see Potential to Move to Groundwater below).<br />
Soil Dissipation: Dissipation time (DT50) represents the time required for 50% of the deposited<br />
pesticide to degrade <strong>and</strong> move from a treated site; whereas, soil t½ describes the rate for degradation<br />
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only. As for t½, units of dissipation time are usually expressed in days. Field dissipation time would<br />
be the preferred data for use to estimate pesticide concentrations in the environment because it is<br />
based upon field studies compared to soil t½, which is derived in a laboratory. However, soil t½ is the<br />
most common persistence data available in the published literature. If field dissipation data is not<br />
available, soil half-life data would be used in a Chemical Profile. The average or representative halflife<br />
value of most important degradation mechanism would be selected for quantitative analysis for<br />
both terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic environments.<br />
Based upon the DT50 value, environmental persistence in the soil also would be categorized as one of<br />
the following: non-persistent 100<br />
days.<br />
Threshold for Approving PUPs:<br />
If soil DT50 ≤100 days, then a PUP would be approved without additional BMPs to protect water<br />
quality.<br />
If soil DT50 >100 days, then a PUP would only be approved with additional BMPs specifically to<br />
protect water quality. One or more BMPs such as the following would be included in the Specific<br />
Best Management Practices (BMPs) section to minimize potential surface run-off <strong>and</strong> leaching<br />
that can degrade water quality:<br />
• Do not exceed one application per site per year.<br />
• Do not use on coarse-textured soils where the ground water table is 12 inches.<br />
• Do not use on steep slopes if substantial rainfall is expected within 24 hours or ground is<br />
saturated.<br />
Along with Koc, soil DT50 values (preferred over soil t½) would be used in evaluating the potential to<br />
degrade groundwater by leaching (see Potential to Move to Groundwater below), if available.<br />
Aquatic Persistence: Service personnel would record values for aquatic t½, which represents the<br />
length of time required for 50% of the deposited pesticide to degrade (completely or partially) in<br />
water. Based upon the t½ value, aquatic persistence would be categorized as one of the following:<br />
non-persistent 100 days (Kerle et. al. 1996).<br />
Threshold for Approving PUPs:<br />
If aquatic t½ ≤100 days, then a PUP would be approved without additional BMPs to protect water<br />
quality.<br />
If aquatic t½ >100 days, then a PUP would only be approved with additional BMPs specifically to<br />
protect water quality. One or more BMPs such as the following would be included in the Specific<br />
Best Management Practices (BMPs) section to minimize potential surface run-off <strong>and</strong> leaching<br />
that can degrade water quality:<br />
• Do not exceed one application per site per year.<br />
• Do not use on coarse-textured soils where the ground water table is 12 inches.<br />
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• Do not use on steep slopes if substantial rainfall is expected within 24 hours or ground is<br />
saturated.<br />
Aquatic Dissipation: Dissipation time (DT50) represents the time required for 50% of the deposited<br />
pesticide to degrade or move (dissipate); whereas, aquatic t½ describes the rate for degradation only.<br />
As for t½, units of dissipation time are usually expressed in days. Based upon the DT50 value,<br />
environmental persistence in aquatic habitats also would be categorized as one of the following:<br />
non-persistent 100 days.<br />
Threshold for Approving PUPs:<br />
If aquatic DT50 ≤100 days, then a PUP would be approved without additional BMPs to protect water<br />
quality.<br />
If aquatic DT50 >100 days, then a PUP would only be approved with additional BMPs specifically to<br />
protect water quality. One or more BMPs such as the following would be included in the Specific<br />
Best Management Practices (BMPs) section to minimize potential surface run-off <strong>and</strong> leaching<br />
that can degrade water quality:<br />
• Do not exceed one application per site per year.<br />
• Do not use on coarse-textured soils where the ground water table is 12 inches.<br />
• Do not use on steep slopes if substantial rainfall is expected within 24 hours or ground is<br />
saturated.<br />
Potential to Move to Groundwater: Groundwater Ubiquity Score (GUS) = log10(soil t ½) x [4 –<br />
log10(Koc)]. If a DT50 value is available, it would be used rather than a t ½ value to calculate a GUS<br />
score. Based upon the GUS value, the potential to move toward groundwater would be recorded as<br />
one of the following categories: extremely low potential4.0.<br />
Threshold for Approving PUPs:<br />
If GUS ≤4.0, then a PUP would be approved without additional BMPs to protect water quality.<br />
If GUS >4.0, then a PUP would only be approved with additional BMPs specifically to protect water<br />
quality. One or more BMPs such as the following would be included in the Specific Best<br />
Management Practices (BMPs) section to minimize potential surface run-off <strong>and</strong> leaching that can<br />
degrade water quality:<br />
• Do not exceed one application per site per year.<br />
• Do not use on coarse-textured soils where the ground water table is 12 inches.<br />
• Do not use on steep slopes if substantial rainfall is expected within 24 hours or ground is<br />
saturated.<br />
Volatilization: Pesticides may volatilize (evaporate) from soil <strong>and</strong> plant surfaces <strong>and</strong> move offtarget<br />
into the atmosphere. The potential for a pesticide to volatilize is a function of its vapor<br />
pressure that is affected by temperature, sorption, soil moisture, <strong>and</strong> the pesticide’s water solubility.<br />
Vapor pressure is often expressed in mm Hg. To make these values easier to compare, vapor pressure<br />
G-40 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
would be recorded by Service personnel in exponential form (I x 10 -7 ), where I represents a vapor<br />
pressure index. In general, pesticides with I1,000 would have a high potential to volatilize (Oregon State University 1996).<br />
Vapor pressure values for pesticides are usually available in the pesticide product MSDS or the<br />
USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) pesticide database (see References).<br />
Threshold for Approving PUPs:<br />
If I ≤1000, then a PUP would be approved without additional BMPs to minimize drift <strong>and</strong> protect air<br />
quality.<br />
If I >1000, then a PUP would only be approved with additional BMPs specifically to minimize drift<br />
<strong>and</strong> protect air quality. One or more BMPs such as the following would be included in the Specific<br />
Best Management Practices (BMPs) section to reduce volatilization <strong>and</strong> potential to drift <strong>and</strong><br />
degrade air quality:<br />
• Do not treat when wind velocities are 10 mph with existing or potential inversion<br />
conditions.<br />
• Apply the large-diameter droplets possible for spray treatments.<br />
• Avoid spraying when air temperatures >85 o F.<br />
• Use the lowest spray height possible above target canopy.<br />
• Where identified on the pesticide label, soil incorporate pesticide as soon as possible during or<br />
after application.<br />
Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient (Kow): The octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow) is the<br />
concentration of a pesticide in octanol <strong>and</strong> water at equilibrium at a specific temperature. Because<br />
octanol is an organic solvent, it is considered a surrogate for natural organic matter. Therefore, Kow<br />
would be used to assess potential for a pesticide to bioaccumulate in tissues of aquatic species (e.g.,<br />
fish). If Kow >1000 or Sw30 days, then there would be high potential for a<br />
pesticide to bioaccumulate in aquatic species such as fish (US Geological Survey 2000).<br />
Threshold for Approving PUPs:<br />
If there is not a high potential for a pesticide to bioaccumulate in aquatic species, then the PUP<br />
would be approved.<br />
If there is a high potential to bioaccumulate in aquatic species (Kow>1000 or Sw30 days), then the PUP would not approved, except under unusual circumstances where approval<br />
would only be granted by the Washington Office.<br />
Bioaccumulation/Bioconcentration: The physiological process where pesticide concentrations in<br />
tissue would increase in biota because they are taken <strong>and</strong> stored at a faster rate than they are<br />
metabolized or excreted. The potential for bioaccumulation would be evaluated through<br />
bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) or bioconcentration factors (BCFs). Based upon BAF or BCF<br />
values, the potential to bioaccumulate would be recorded as one of the following: low – 0 to 300,<br />
moderate – 300 to 1000, or high >1000 (Calabrese <strong>and</strong> Baldwin 1993).<br />
Threshold for Approving PUPs:<br />
If BAF or BCF≤1000, then a PUP would be approved without additional BMPs.<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-41
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
If BAF or BCF>1000, then a PUP would not approved, except under unusual circumstances where<br />
approval would only be granted by the Washington Office.<br />
Worst-Case Ecological Risk Assessment<br />
Max Application Rates (acid equivalent): Service personnel would record the highest application<br />
rate of an active ingredient (ae basis) for habitat management <strong>and</strong> cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance<br />
treatments in this data field of a Chemical Profile. These rates can be found in Table CP.1 under the<br />
column heading “Max Product Rate – Single Application (lbs/acre – AI on acid equiv basis)”. This<br />
table would be prepared for a chemical profile from information specified in labels for trade name<br />
products identified in PUPs. If these data are not available in pesticide labels, then write “NS” for<br />
“not specified on label” in this table.<br />
EECs: An estimated environmental concentration (ECC) represents potential exposure to fish <strong>and</strong><br />
wildlife (birds <strong>and</strong> mammals) from using a pesticide. EECs would be derived by Service personnel<br />
using an USEPA screening-level approach (US Environmental Protection Agency 2004). For each<br />
max application rate [see description under Max Application Rates (acid equivalent)], Service<br />
personnel would record 2 EEC values in a Chemical Profile; these would represent the worst-case<br />
terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic exposures for habitat management <strong>and</strong> cropl<strong>and</strong>s/facilities maintenance<br />
treatments. For terrestrial <strong>and</strong> aquatic EEC calculations, see description for data entry under<br />
Presumption of Unacceptable Risk/Risk Quotients, which is the next field for a Chemical Profile.<br />
Presumption of Unacceptable Risk/Risk Quotients: Service personnel would calculate <strong>and</strong> record<br />
acute <strong>and</strong> chronic risk quotients (RQs) for birds, mammals, <strong>and</strong> fish using the provided tabular<br />
formats for habitat management <strong>and</strong>/or cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance treatments. RQs recorded in<br />
a Chemical Profile would represent the worst-case assessment for ecological risk. See Section 7.2<br />
for discussion regarding the calculations of RQs.<br />
For aquatic assessments associated with habitat management treatments, RQ calculations would be<br />
based upon selected acute <strong>and</strong> chronic toxicological endpoints for fish <strong>and</strong> the EEC would be derived<br />
from Urban <strong>and</strong> Cook (1986) assuming 100% overspray to an entire 1-foot deep water body using<br />
the max application rate (ae basis [see above]).<br />
For aquatic assessments associated with cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance treatments, RQ calculations<br />
would be done by Service personnel based upon selected acute <strong>and</strong> chronic toxicological endpoints<br />
for fish <strong>and</strong> an EEC would be derived from the aquatic assessment in AgDRIFT ® model version 2.01<br />
under Tier I ground-based application with the following input variables: max application rate (acid<br />
basis [see above]), low boom (20 inches), fine to medium/coarse droplet size, 20 swaths, EPAdefined<br />
wetl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> 25-foot distance (buffer) from treated area to water.<br />
See Section 7.2.1.2 for more details regarding the calculation of EECs for aquatic habitats for habitat<br />
management <strong>and</strong> cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance treatments.<br />
For terrestrial avian <strong>and</strong> mammalian assessments, RQ calculations would be done by Service<br />
personnel based upon dietary exposure, where the “short grass” food item category would represent<br />
the worst-case scenario. For terrestrial spray applications associated with habitat management <strong>and</strong><br />
cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance treatments, exposure (EECs <strong>and</strong> RQs) would be determined using the<br />
Kanaga nomogram method through the USEPA’s Terrestrial Residue Exposure model (T-REX)<br />
G-42 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
version 1.2.3. T-REX input variables would include the following: max application rate (acid basis<br />
[see above]) <strong>and</strong> pesticide half-life (days) in soil to estimate the initial, maximum pesticide residue<br />
concentration on general food items for terrestrial vertebrate species in short (LOCs, then a PUP would only be approved with additional BMPs specifically to minimize<br />
exposure (ecological risk) to bird, mammal, <strong>and</strong>/or fish species. One or more BMPs such as the<br />
following would be included in the Specific Best Management Practices (BMPs) section to reduce<br />
potential risk to non-listed or listed species:<br />
• Lower application rate <strong>and</strong>/or fewer number of applications so RQs≤LOCs<br />
• For aquatic assessments (fish) associated with cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance, increase the<br />
buffer distance beyond 25 feet so RQs≤LOCs.<br />
Justification for Use: Service personnel would describe the reason for using the pesticide based<br />
control of specific pests or groups of pests. In most cases, the pesticide label will provide the<br />
appropriate information regarding control of pests to describe in the section.<br />
Specific Best Management Practices (BMPs): Service personnel would record specific BMPs<br />
necessary to minimize or eliminate potential effects to non-target species <strong>and</strong>/or degradation of<br />
environmental quality from drift, surface runoff, or leaching. These BMPs would be based upon<br />
scientific information documented in previous data fields of a Chemical Profile. Where necessary<br />
<strong>and</strong> feasible, these specific practices would be included in PUPs as a basis for approval.<br />
If there are no specific BMPs that are appropriate, then Service personnel would describe why the<br />
potential effects to refuge resources <strong>and</strong>/or degradation of environmental quality is outweighed by<br />
the overall resource benefit(s) from the proposed pesticide use in the BMP section of the PUP. See<br />
Section 4.0 of this document for a complete list of BMPs associated with mixing <strong>and</strong> applying<br />
pesticides appropriate for all PUPs with ground-based treatments that would be additive to any<br />
necessary, chemical-specific BMPs.<br />
References: Service personnel would record scientific resources used to provide data/information<br />
for a chemical profile. Use the number sequence to uniquely reference data in a chemical profile.<br />
The following on-line data resources are readily available for toxicological endpoint <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental fate data for pesticides:<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-43
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
1. California Product/Label Database. Department of Pesticide Regulation, California<br />
Environmental Protection Agency. (http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/label/labelque.htm#regprods)<br />
2. ECOTOX database. Office of Pesticide Programs, US Environmental Protection Agency,<br />
Washington, D.C. (http://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/)<br />
3. Extension Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET) Pesticide Information Profiles. Cooperative effort<br />
of University of California-Davis, Oregon State University, Michigan State University, Cornell<br />
University <strong>and</strong> University of Idaho through Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon.<br />
(http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ghindex.html)<br />
4. FAO specifications <strong>and</strong> evaluations for plant protection products. Pesticide Management Unit,<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t Protection Services, Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture Organization, United Nations.<br />
(http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/)<br />
5. Human health <strong>and</strong> ecological risk assessments. Pesticide Management <strong>and</strong> Coordination, Forest<br />
Health Protection, US Department of Agriculture, US Forest Service.<br />
(http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/pesticide/risk.htm)<br />
6. Pesticide Chemical Fact Sheets. Clemson University Pesticide Information Center.<br />
(http://entweb.clemson.edu/pesticid/Document/Labels/factshee.htm)<br />
7. Pesticide Fact Sheets. Published by Information Ventures, Inc. for Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management,<br />
Dept. of Interior; Bonneville Power Administration, U.S. Dept. of Energy; <strong>and</strong> Forest Service,<br />
US Department of Agriculture. (http://infoventures.com/e-hlth/pesticide/pest-fac.html)<br />
8. Pesticide Fact Sheets. National Pesticide Information Center. (http://npic.orst.edu/npicfact.htm)<br />
9. Pesticide Fate Database. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.<br />
(http://cfpub.epa.gov/pfate/home.cfm).<br />
10. Pesticide product labels <strong>and</strong> material safety data sheets. Crop Data Management Systems, Inc.<br />
(CDMS) (http://www.cdms.net/pfa/LUpdateMsg.asp) or multiple websites maintained by<br />
agrichemical companies.<br />
11. Registered Pesticide Products (Oregon database). Oregon Department of Agriculture.<br />
(http://www.oda.state.or.us/dbs/pest_products/search.lasso)<br />
12. Regulatory notes. Pest Management Regulatory Agency, Health Canada, Ontario, Canada.<br />
(http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/pmra-arla/)<br />
13. Reptile <strong>and</strong> Amphibian Toxicology Literature. Canadian <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service, Environment Canada,<br />
Ontario, Canada. (http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/nwrc-cnrf/ratl/index_e.cfm)<br />
14. Specific Chemical Fact Sheet – New Active Ingredients, Biopesticide Fact Sheet <strong>and</strong> Registration<br />
Fact Sheet. U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.<br />
(http://www.epa.gov/pestidides/factsheets/chemical_fs.htm)<br />
G-44 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
15. Weed Control Methods H<strong>and</strong>book: Tools <strong>and</strong> Techniques for Use in Natural Areas. The Invasive<br />
Species Initiative. The Nature Conservancy. (http://tnsweeds.ucdavis.edu/h<strong>and</strong>book.html)<br />
16. <strong>Wildlife</strong> Contaminants Online. US Geological Survey, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C.<br />
(http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/contaminants-online/)<br />
17. One-liner database. 2000. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs,<br />
Washington, D.C.<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-45
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Chemical Profile<br />
Date:<br />
Trade Name(s): Common Chemical<br />
Name(s):<br />
Pesticide Type: EPA Registration<br />
Number:<br />
Pesticide Class: CAS Number:<br />
Other Ingredients:<br />
Toxicological Endpoints<br />
Mammalian LD50:<br />
Mammalian LC50:<br />
Mammalian Reproduction:<br />
Avian LD50:<br />
Avian LC50:<br />
Avian Reproduction:<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> LC50:<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> ELS/Life Cycle:<br />
Other:<br />
Ecological Incident Reports<br />
Environmental Fate<br />
Water solubility (Sw):<br />
Soil Mobility (Koc):<br />
Soil Persistence (t½):<br />
Soil Dissipation (DT50):<br />
Aquatic Persistence (t½):<br />
Aquatic Dissipation (DT50):<br />
Potential to Move to Groundwater<br />
(GUS score):<br />
Volatilization (mm Hg):<br />
Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient<br />
(Kow):<br />
Bioaccumulation/Biocentration: BAF:`<br />
BCF:<br />
Worst Case Ecological Risk Assessment<br />
Max Application<br />
Rate<br />
(ai lbs/acre – ae<br />
basis)<br />
Habitat Management:<br />
Cropl<strong>and</strong>s/Facilities Maintenance:<br />
EECs Terrestrial (Habitat Management):<br />
Terrestrial (Cropl<strong>and</strong>s/Facilities Maintenance):<br />
Aquatic (Habitat Management):<br />
Aquatic (Cropl<strong>and</strong>s/Facilities Maintenance):<br />
G-46 Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management
Habitat Management Treatments:<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Presumption of Unacceptable Risk<br />
Risk Quotient (RQ)<br />
Listed (T&E)<br />
Species<br />
Nonlisted Species<br />
Acute Birds [0.1] [0.5]<br />
Mammals [0.1] [0.5]<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> [0.05] [0.5]<br />
Chronic Birds [1] [1]<br />
Mammals [1] [1]<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> [1] [1]<br />
Cropl<strong>and</strong>/Facilities Maintenance Treatments:<br />
Presumption of Unacceptable Risk<br />
Risk Quotient (RQ)<br />
Listed (T&E)<br />
Species<br />
Nonlisted Species<br />
Acute Birds [0.1] [0.5]<br />
Mammals [0.1] [0.5]<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> [0.05] [0.5]<br />
Chronic Birds [1] [1]<br />
Mammals [1] [1]<br />
<strong>Fish</strong> [1] [1]<br />
Justification for Use:<br />
Specific Best<br />
Management Practices<br />
(BMPs):<br />
References:<br />
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management G-47
Table CP.1 Pesticide Name<br />
Trade<br />
Name a<br />
Treatm<br />
ent<br />
Type b<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Max Product<br />
Rate – Single<br />
Application<br />
(lbs/acre or<br />
gal/acre)<br />
Max<br />
Product<br />
Rate -<br />
Single<br />
Application<br />
(lbs/acre -<br />
AI on acid<br />
equiv basis)<br />
Max Number<br />
of<br />
Applications<br />
Per Season<br />
Max Product<br />
Rate Per<br />
Season<br />
(lbs/acre/seas<br />
on or<br />
gal/acre/seas<br />
on)<br />
Minimum<br />
Time<br />
Between<br />
Application<br />
s (Days)<br />
a From each label for a pesticide identified in pesticide use proposals (PUPs), Service personnel<br />
would record application information associated with possible/known uses on Service l<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
b Treatment type: H – habitat management or CF – cropl<strong>and</strong>/facilities maintenance. If a pesticide is<br />
labeled for both types of treatments (uses), then record separate data for H <strong>and</strong> CF applications.
8.0 References<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
AgDrift 2001. A user’s guide for AgDrift 2.04: a tiered approach for the assessment of spray drift of<br />
pesticides. Spray Drift Task Force, PO Box 509, Macon, Missouri.<br />
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances <strong>and</strong> Disease Registry) US Department of Health <strong>and</strong> Human<br />
Services. 2004. Guidance Manual for the Assessment of Joint Toxic Action of Chemical<br />
Mixtures. US Department of Health <strong>and</strong> Human Services, Public Health Service, ATSDR,<br />
Division of Toxicology. 62 pages plus Appendices.<br />
Baehr, C.H., <strong>and</strong> C. Habig. 2000. Statistical evaluation of the UTAB database for use in terrestrial<br />
nontarget organism risk assessment. 10 th Symposium on Environmental Toxicology <strong>and</strong> Risk<br />
Assessment, American Society of Testing <strong>and</strong> Materials.<br />
Baker, J. <strong>and</strong> G. Miller. 1999. Underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> reducing pesticide losses. Extension Publication<br />
PM 1495, Iowa State University Extension, Ames, Iowa. 6 pages.<br />
Barry, T. 2004. Characterization of propanil prune foliage residues as related to propanil use patterns<br />
in the Sacramento Valley, CA. Proceedings of the International Conference on Pesticide<br />
Application for Drift Management. Waikoloa, Hawaii. 15 pages.<br />
Battaglin, W.A., E.M. Thurman, S.J. Kalkhoff, <strong>and</strong> S.D. Porter. 2003. Herbicides <strong>and</strong><br />
Transformation Products in Surface Waters of the Midwestern United States. Journal of the<br />
American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 39(4):743-756.<br />
Beyer, W.N., E.E. Connor, S. Gerould. 1994. Estimates of soil ingestion by wildlife. Journal of<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Management 58:375-382.<br />
Brooks, M.L., D'Antonio, C.M., Richardson, D.M., Grace, J.B., Keeley, J.E. <strong>and</strong> others. 2004.<br />
Effects of invasive alien plants on fire regimes. BioScience 54:77-88.<br />
Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management. 2007. Vegetation treatments using herbicides on Bureau of L<strong>and</strong><br />
Management L<strong>and</strong>s in 17 western states Programmatic EIS (PEIS). Washington Office,<br />
Bureau of L<strong>and</strong> Management.<br />
Butler, T., W. Martinkovic, <strong>and</strong> O.N. Nesheim. 1998. Factors influencing pesticide movement to<br />
ground water. Extension Publication PI-2, University of Florida, Cooperative Extension<br />
Service, Gainesville, FL. 4 pages.<br />
Calabrese, E.J. <strong>and</strong> L.A. Baldwin. 1993. Performing Ecological Risk Assessments. Lewis<br />
Publishers, Chelsea, MI.<br />
Center, T.D., Frank, J.H., <strong>and</strong> Dray Jr., F.A. 1997. Biological Control. Strangers in Paradise: Impact<br />
<strong>and</strong> Management of Nonindigenous Species in Florida. P.245-263.<br />
Cox, R.D., <strong>and</strong> V.J. Anderson. 2004. Increasing native diversity of cheatgrass-dominated rangel<strong>and</strong><br />
through assisted succession. Journal of Range Management 57:203-210.<br />
Appendix G: Integrated Pest Management Program G-49
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Coombs, E.M., J.K Clark, G.L. Piper, <strong>and</strong> A.F. Cofrancesco Jr. 2004. Biological control of invasive<br />
plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, 467 pages.<br />
Driver, C.J., M.W. Ligotke, P. Van Voris, B.D. McVeety, B.J. Greenspan, <strong>and</strong> D.B. Brown. 1991.<br />
Routes of uptake <strong>and</strong> their relative contribution to the toxicologic response of northern<br />
bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) to an organophosphate pesticide. Environmental Toxicology<br />
<strong>and</strong> Chemistry 10:21-33.<br />
Dunning, J.B. 1984. Body weights of 686 species of North American birds. Western Bird B<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
Association. Monograph No. 1.<br />
EXTOXNET. 1993a. Movement of pesticides in the environment. Pesticide Information Project of<br />
Cooperative Extension Offices of Cornell University, Oregon State University, University of<br />
Idaho, University of California – Davis, <strong>and</strong> the Institute for Environmental Toxicology,<br />
Michigan State University. 4 pages.<br />
Fletcher, J.S., J.E. Nellessen, <strong>and</strong> T.G. Pfleeger. 1994. Literature review <strong>and</strong> evaluation of the EPA<br />
food-chain (Kenaga) nomogram, <strong>and</strong> instrument for estimating pesticide residue on plants.<br />
Environmental Toxicology <strong>and</strong> Chemistry 13:1381-1391.<br />
Hasan, S. <strong>and</strong> P.G. Ayres. 1990. The control of weeds through fungi: principles <strong>and</strong><br />
prospects. Tansley Review 23:201-222.<br />
Huddleston, J.H. 1996. How soil properties affect groundwater vulnerability to pesticide<br />
contamination. EM 8559. Oregon State University Extension Service. 4 pages.<br />
Kerle, E.A., J.J. Jenkins, P.A. Vogue. 1996. Underst<strong>and</strong>ing pesticide persistence <strong>and</strong> mobility for<br />
groundwater <strong>and</strong> surface water protection. EM 8561. Oregon State University Extension<br />
Service. 8 pages.<br />
Masters, R.A, <strong>and</strong> R.L. Sheley. 2001. Invited synthesis paper: principles <strong>and</strong> practices for managing<br />
rangel<strong>and</strong> invasive plants. Journal of Range Manage 54:502-517.<br />
Masters, R.A., S.J. Nissen, R.E. Gaussoin, D.D. Beran, <strong>and</strong> R.N. Stougaard. 1996. Imidazolinone<br />
herbicides improve restoration of Great Plains grassl<strong>and</strong>s. Weed Technology 10:392-403.<br />
Maxwell, B.D., E. Lehnhoff, L.J. Rew. 2009. The rationale for monitoring invasive plant<br />
populations as a crucial step for management. Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>t Science <strong>and</strong> Management 2:1-<br />
9.<br />
Mineau, P., B.T. Collins, <strong>and</strong> A. Baril. 1996. On the use of scaling factors to improve interspecies<br />
extrapolation to acute toxicity in birds. Regulatory Toxicology <strong>and</strong> Pharmacology 24:24-29.<br />
Moody, M.E., <strong>and</strong> R.N. Mack. 1988. Controlling the spread of plant invasions: the importance of<br />
nascent foci. Journal of Applied Ecology 25:1009-1021.<br />
Morse, L.E., J.M. R<strong>and</strong>all, N. Benton, R. Hiebert, <strong>and</strong> S. Lu. 2004. An Invasive Species Assessment<br />
Protocol: NatureServe.<br />
G-50 Appendix G: Integrated Pest Management Program
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Mullin, B.H., L.W. Anderson, J.M. DiTomaso, R.E. Eplee, <strong>and</strong> K.D. Getsinger. 2000.<br />
Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>t Species. Issue Paper (13):1-18.<br />
Oregon State University. 1996. EXTOXNET-Extension Toxicology Network, Pesticide<br />
Information Profiles. Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon.<br />
Pfleeger, T.G., A. Fong, R. Hayes, H. Ratsch, C. Wickliff. 1996. Field evaluation of the EPA<br />
(Kanaga) nomogram, a method for estimating wildlife exposure to pesticide residues on<br />
plants. Environmental Toxicology <strong>and</strong> Chemistry 15:535-543.<br />
Pope, R., J. DeWitt, <strong>and</strong> J. Ellerhoff. 1999. Pesticide movement: what farmers need to know.<br />
Extension Publication PAT 36, Iowa State University Extension, Ames, Iowa <strong>and</strong> Iowa<br />
Department of Agriculture <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong> Stewardship, Des Moines, Iowa. 6 pages.<br />
Ramsay, C.A., G.C. Craig, <strong>and</strong> C.B. McConnell. 1995. Clean water for Washington – protecting<br />
groundwater from pesticide contamination. Extension Publication EB1644, Washington State<br />
University Extension, Pullman, Washington. 12 pages.<br />
SDTF 2003 Spray Drift Task Force. 2003. A summary of chemigation application studies. Spray<br />
Drift Task Force, Macon, Missouri.<br />
Teske, M.E., S.L. Bird, D.M. Esterly, S.L. Ray, S.G. <strong>and</strong> Perry. 1997. A User's Guide for<br />
AgDRIFT TM 1.0: A Tiered Approach for the Assessment of Spray Drift of Pesticides,<br />
Technical Note No. 95-10, CDI, Princeton, New Jersey.<br />
Teske, M.E., S.L. Bird, D.M. Esterly, T.B. Curbishley, S.L. Ray, <strong>and</strong> S.G. Perry. 2002.<br />
AgDRIFT®: a model for estimating near-field spray drift from aerial applications.<br />
Environmental Toxicology <strong>and</strong> Chemistry 21: 659-671.<br />
Urban, D.J <strong>and</strong> N.J. Cook. 1986. Ecological risk assessment. EPA 540/9-85-001. US<br />
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs, Washington D.C. 94 pages.<br />
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Laboratory Test Methods of Exposure to Microbial<br />
Pest Control Agents by the Respiratory Route to Nontarget Avian Species. Environmental<br />
Research Laboratory, Corvallis, OR. EPA/600/3-90/070.<br />
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. A Comparative Analysis of Ecological Risks from<br />
Pesticides <strong>and</strong> Their Uses: Background, Methodology & Case Study. Environmental Fate &<br />
Effects Division, Office of Pesticide Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,<br />
Washington, D.C. 105 pages.<br />
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004. Overview of the ecological risk assessment process<br />
in the Office of Pesticide Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: endangered <strong>and</strong><br />
threatened species effects determinations, Office of Pesticide Programs, Washington, DC.<br />
101 pages.<br />
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005a. Technical overview of ecological risk assessment<br />
risk characterization; Approaches for evaluating exposure; Granular, bait, <strong>and</strong> treated seed<br />
Appendix G: Integrated Pest Management Program G-51
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
applications. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs,<br />
Washington, DC. http://www.epa.gov/oppefed1/ecorisk_ders/toera_analysis_exp.htm.<br />
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005b. User’s Guide TREX v1.2.3. U.S. Environmental<br />
Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs, Washington, DC. 22 pages.<br />
http://www.epa.gov/oppefed1/models/terrestrial/trex_usersguide.htm.<br />
U.S. Geological Survey. 2000. Pesticides in stream sediment <strong>and</strong> aquatic biota – current<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of distribution <strong>and</strong> major influences. USGS Fact Sheet 092-00, U.S.<br />
Geological Survey, Sacramento, California. 4 pages.<br />
U.S. Forest Service. 2005. Pacific Northwest Region Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>t Program<br />
Preventing <strong>and</strong> Managing Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts <strong>Final</strong> Environmental Impact Statement. 359 pages.<br />
Wauchope, R.D., T.M. Buttler, A.G. Hornsby, P.M. Augustijn-Beckers, <strong>and</strong> J.P. Burt. 1992. The<br />
SCS/ARS/CES pesticide properties database for environmental decision making. Reviews of<br />
Environmental Contamination <strong>and</strong> Toxicology 123:1-155.<br />
Woods, N. 2004. Australian developments in spray drift management. Proceedings of the<br />
International Conference on Pesticide Application for Drift Management, Waikoloa, Hawaii.<br />
8 pages.<br />
G-52 Appendix G: Integrated Pest Management Program
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix H. Statement of Compliance for Implementation of the<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge <strong>Comprehensive</strong><br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
The following Executive orders <strong>and</strong> legislative acts have been reviewed as they apply to<br />
implementation of the <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (CCP) for Hakalau Forest National<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge (NWR).<br />
National Environmental Policy Act (1969) (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.). The CCP planning<br />
process has been conducted in accordance with National Environmental Policy Act implementing<br />
procedures, Department of the Interior <strong>and</strong> U. S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service procedures, <strong>and</strong> has<br />
been performed in coordination with the affected public. Procedures used to reach this decision<br />
meet the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act <strong>and</strong> its implementing<br />
regulations in 40 CFR Parts 1500-1508. These procedures included the development of a range of<br />
alternatives for the CCP; analysis of the likely effects of each alternative; <strong>and</strong> public involvement<br />
throughout the planning process.<br />
An environmental assessment (EA) was prepared that integrated the CCP into the NEPA<br />
document <strong>and</strong> process. The Draft CCP/EA was released for a 30-day public comment period.<br />
The affected public was notified of the availability of the Draft CCP/EA through a Federal<br />
Register notice, news release to local media outlets, the Service’s refuge <strong>and</strong> refuge planning<br />
websites, <strong>and</strong> a planning update. Copies of the Draft CCP/EA <strong>and</strong>/or planning update were<br />
distributed to an extensive mailing list. Based on public comments received no changes were<br />
made to the selected alternative. A summary of comments <strong>and</strong> Service response was<br />
included in Appendix K.<br />
National Historic Preservation Act (1966) (16 U.S. C.470 et seq.). The management of<br />
historic, archaeological, <strong>and</strong> cultural resources of Hakalau Forest NWR complies with the<br />
regulations of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act. No historic, archaeological,<br />
<strong>and</strong> cultural resources are known to be affected by the implementation of the CCP based on the<br />
criteria of an effect or adverse effect as an undertaking defined in 36 CFR 800.9 <strong>and</strong> Service<br />
Manual 614 FW 2. Should historic properties be identified in the future, the Service will comply<br />
with the National Historic Preservation Act if any management actions have the potential to<br />
affect any of these properties.<br />
Executive Order 12372. Intergovernmental Review. Coordination <strong>and</strong> consultation with<br />
other affected Federal, State, <strong>and</strong> County agencies have been completed through personal contact<br />
by Service planners, the Refuge manager <strong>and</strong> supervisors. The Refuge manager determined there<br />
are no local or tribal governments (as defined by Executive Order 13175) associated with<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Executive Order 12898. Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority <strong>and</strong><br />
Low-Income Populations. All Federal actions must address <strong>and</strong> identify, as appropriate,<br />
disproportionately high <strong>and</strong> adverse human health or environmental effects of its programs,<br />
policies, <strong>and</strong> activities on minority populations, low-income populations, <strong>and</strong> Indian Tribes in the<br />
Appendix H. Statement of Compliance H-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
United States. The CCP was evaluated <strong>and</strong> no adverse human health or environmental effects<br />
were identified for minority or low-income populations, Indian Tribes, or anyone else.<br />
Executive Order 13186. Responsibilities of Federal Agencies to Protect Migratory Birds.<br />
This Order directs departments <strong>and</strong> agencies to take certain actions to further implement the<br />
Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA). The CCP is consistent with this Executive Order because<br />
management actions are consistent with the provisions of the MBTA <strong>and</strong> the CCP <strong>and</strong> NEPA<br />
analysis evaluated the effects of such action on MBTA species.<br />
Endangered Species Act (ESA) (16 U.S.C. 1531-1544). This Act provides for the conservation<br />
of threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species of fish, wildlife, <strong>and</strong> plants by Federal action <strong>and</strong> by<br />
encouraging the establishment of state programs. It provides for the determination <strong>and</strong> listing of<br />
endangered <strong>and</strong> threatened species <strong>and</strong> the designation of critical habitats. Section 7 requires<br />
refuge managers to perform consultation before initiating projects which affect or may affect<br />
endangered species. The Refuge will conduct consultation under Section 7 of the Endangered<br />
Species Act for any Refuge management program actions that have the potential to affect listed<br />
species.<br />
Coastal Zone Management Act, Section 307. Section 307(c)(1) of the Coastal Zone<br />
Management Act of 1972 amended, requires each Federal agency conducting or supporting<br />
activities directly affecting the coastal zone, to conduct or support those activities in a manner<br />
that is, to the maximum extent practicable, consistent with approved State coastal management<br />
programs. The implementation of the Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge CCP will not<br />
have an effect upon l<strong>and</strong> or water use within the purview of the State’s management program.<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Administration Act of 1966, as amended by the National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
System Improvement Act of 1997 (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee). During the CCP process, the<br />
Refuge Manger evaluated all existing <strong>and</strong> proposed Refuge uses at Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Priority wildlife-dependent uses (hunting, fishing, wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography,<br />
environmental education <strong>and</strong> interpretation) are considered automatically appropriate under<br />
Service policy <strong>and</strong> thus exempt from appropriate uses review. Appropriate Use Findings have<br />
been prepared for the following uses: commercial photography, videography, filming or audio<br />
recording; commercial tour operation/conservation <strong>and</strong> education group visits; the University of<br />
Hawai‘i Field station; <strong>and</strong> research, scientific collecting, <strong>and</strong> surveys. Compatibility<br />
Determinations have been prepared for the following uses: hunting, wildlife observation <strong>and</strong><br />
photography, commercial photography, videography, filming or audio recording, commercial<br />
tour operation/conservation <strong>and</strong> education group visits, the University of Hawai‘i Field Station,<br />
<strong>and</strong> research, scientific collecting, <strong>and</strong> surveys.<br />
Integrated Pest Management (IPM), 517 DM 1 <strong>and</strong> 569 FW 1. In accordance with 517 DM 1<br />
<strong>and</strong> 569 FW 1, an integrated pest management (IPM) approach has been adopted to eradicate,<br />
control or contain pest <strong>and</strong> invasive species on the Refuge. In accordance with 517 DM 1, only<br />
pesticides registered with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in full compliance<br />
with the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, <strong>and</strong> Rodenticide Act <strong>and</strong> as provided in regulations,<br />
orders, or permits issued by the EPA may be applied on l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> waters under Refuge<br />
jurisdiction.<br />
H-2 Appendix H. Statement of Compliance
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
H-4 Appendix H. Statement of Compliance
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix I. Acronyms <strong>and</strong> Abbreviations<br />
Ac Acres<br />
ACHP President’s Advisory Council on Historic Preservation<br />
Administration Act National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (16 U.S.C.<br />
668dd-668ee)<br />
ALUM State of Hawai‘i Agricultural L<strong>and</strong> Use Maps<br />
AM Adaptive Management<br />
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances <strong>and</strong> Disease Registry<br />
BCC Birds of <strong>Conservation</strong> Concern<br />
BIDEH Biological Integrity, Diversity, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Health<br />
BIISC Big Isl<strong>and</strong> Invasive Species<br />
Complex Big Isl<strong>and</strong> National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Complex<br />
BMPs Best Management Practices<br />
BRD Biological Resources Discipline<br />
CCP <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
CCS Challenge Cost Share<br />
CD Compatibility Determination<br />
CDP Community Development <strong>Plan</strong><br />
CEQ White House Council on Environmental Quality<br />
CI Confidence Interval<br />
CWCS <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> Strategy<br />
Dbh Diameter at Breast Height<br />
DHHL Department of Hawaiian Home L<strong>and</strong>s<br />
DLNR Department of L<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources<br />
DM Deferred Maintenance<br />
DOA State of Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture<br />
DOFAW Division of Forestry <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong><br />
DOI Department of the Interior<br />
DOSP Division of State Parks<br />
EA Environmental Assessment<br />
EE Environmental Education<br />
EIS Environmental Impact Statement<br />
ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation<br />
EPA Environmental Protection Agency<br />
ES Ecological Services<br />
ESA Endangered Species Act<br />
FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, <strong>and</strong> Rodenticide Act<br />
FIRM Flood Insurance Rate Map<br />
FOH Friends of Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact<br />
FPD Frost Protection Devices<br />
Ft Feet (Foot)<br />
FUMP Feral Ungulate Management <strong>Plan</strong><br />
GHG Greenhouse Gases<br />
HAVO Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park<br />
HAWP Hawai‘i Association of Watershed Partnerships<br />
Appendix I. Acronyms <strong>and</strong> Abbreviations I-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
HETF Hawai‘i Experimental Tropical Forest<br />
HFU Hakalau Forest Unit<br />
HPWRA Hawai‘i Pacific Weed Risk Assessment<br />
Improvement Act National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997<br />
I&M Inventory <strong>and</strong> Monitoring<br />
In Inch(es)<br />
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change<br />
IPIF Institute of Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Forestry<br />
IPM Integrated Pest Management<br />
ISST Invasive Species Strike Team<br />
KFU Kona Forest Unit<br />
LCC L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>Conservation</strong> Cooperatives<br />
LEIS Legislative Environmental Impact Statement<br />
LUPAG L<strong>and</strong> Use Pattern Allocation Guide<br />
MBTA Migratory Bird Treaty Act<br />
MBCA Migratory Bird <strong>Conservation</strong> Act<br />
Mgd Million gallons per day<br />
Mi Mile(s)<br />
MKWA Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance<br />
MOA Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Agreement<br />
MOU Memor<strong>and</strong>um of Underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
NAR Natural Area Reserve<br />
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act<br />
NFWF National <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Foundation<br />
NGO Nongovernmental organization<br />
NOAA National Oceanic <strong>and</strong> Atmospheric Administration<br />
NOI Notice of Intent<br />
NPL National Priorities List<br />
NPS National Park Service<br />
NRCS Natural Resources <strong>Conservation</strong> Service<br />
NRDC Natural Resources Defense Council<br />
NRHP National Register of Historic Places<br />
NWPS National Wilderness Preservation System<br />
NWR National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
NWRS National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System<br />
OHA Office of Hawaiian Affairs<br />
OKP ‘Ōla‘a-Kīlauea Partnership<br />
PDM Post Delisting Monitoring<br />
PEP(P) <strong>Plan</strong>t Extinction Prevention (Program)<br />
PICCC Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Climate Change Cooperative<br />
PIER Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Ecosystem at Risk<br />
PIF Partners in Flight<br />
PFT Permanent Full-Time<br />
PTA U.S. Army Pōhakuloa Training Area<br />
RO Regional Office<br />
RONS Refuge Operational Needs System<br />
SAMMS Service Asset Maintenance <strong>and</strong> Management System<br />
SCORP State <strong>Comprehensive</strong> Outdoor Recreation <strong>Plan</strong><br />
I-2 Appendix I. Acronyms <strong>and</strong> Abbreviations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
SD St<strong>and</strong>ard Deviation<br />
SE St<strong>and</strong>ard Error<br />
SGCN Species of Greatest <strong>Conservation</strong> Need<br />
SHC Strategic Habitat <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
SOC Species of Concern<br />
SUP Special Use Permit<br />
SWG State <strong>Wildlife</strong> Grants<br />
T&E Threatened <strong>and</strong> Endangered<br />
TBD To be Determined<br />
TMA Three Mountain Alliance<br />
TNC The Nature Conservancy<br />
UH University of Hawai‘i<br />
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture<br />
USDA-APHIS/WS USDA Animal <strong>and</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>t Health Inspection Service/<strong>Wildlife</strong> Services<br />
USFS U.S. Forest Service<br />
USFWS, FWS,<br />
the Service U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service<br />
USGS U.S. Geological Survey<br />
VFE Visitor Facility Enhancement<br />
WSA Wilderness Study Area<br />
Appendix I. Acronyms <strong>and</strong> Abbreviations I-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
I-4 Appendix I. Acronyms <strong>and</strong> Abbreviations
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix J. CCP Team Members<br />
The CCP was developed primarily by the core team members. The team sought expert advice <strong>and</strong><br />
review from other professionals from several different agencies <strong>and</strong> organizations. Extended team<br />
members provided input during reviews. Core <strong>and</strong> extended team members as well as regional office<br />
team members are listed below.<br />
Core <strong>Plan</strong>ning Team (those preparing the plan)<br />
Name <strong>and</strong> title (in alphabetical order) Responsibilities<br />
Ann Bell, Outdoor Recreation <strong>Plan</strong>ner, HIPAC<br />
NWRC (departed 2009)<br />
James Glynn, Deputy Refuge Manager, Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR<br />
Baron Horiuchi, Horticulturist, Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR<br />
Andy Kikuta, Maintenance Supervisor, Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR<br />
Lance Koch, <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist, Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR replaced,<br />
Jack Jeffrey, <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist, Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR (retired 2009)<br />
Jim Kraus, Refuge Manager, Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR replaced,<br />
Richard Wass, Refuge Manager, Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR (retired 2008)<br />
Writer/reviewer various CCP components; build <strong>and</strong><br />
maintain mailing list; visitor services goals <strong>and</strong><br />
objectives; communication plan; environmental<br />
education <strong>and</strong> interpretation guidance. Assist with<br />
outreach efforts <strong>and</strong> public meetings; review of<br />
documents; planning updates; NOI/NOA; news<br />
releases; communication plan.<br />
Writer/reviewer various CCP components<br />
(historical/cultural, physical facilities, public access<br />
<strong>and</strong> recreation, social <strong>and</strong> economic; vision<br />
statement, goals <strong>and</strong> objectives, alternatives,<br />
compatibility determinations, compliance, purposes,<br />
authorities for Hakalau Forest <strong>and</strong> Kona Unit);<br />
Section 7 consultations.<br />
Attend meetings, some writings of background<br />
information, review of final document related to<br />
outplanting strategies, implementation, <strong>and</strong> budget.<br />
Attend meetings, some writing of background<br />
information, review of final document related to<br />
IPM, weed management, facilities maintenance,<br />
ungulate control, <strong>and</strong> related implementation <strong>and</strong><br />
budget.<br />
Writer/reviewer; refuge vision; research/analysis/<br />
oversight of: habitats, invasive plants <strong>and</strong> animals,<br />
wildlife; Feral Ungulate Management <strong>Plan</strong>, Forest<br />
Reforestation <strong>Plan</strong>, Integrated Pest Management<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>, <strong>Wildlife</strong> Disease Contingency <strong>Plan</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
Predator Management <strong>Plan</strong> integration; ESA<br />
biological assessment(s); compatibility<br />
determinations, Section 7, rare plants <strong>and</strong> plant<br />
communities; compatibility determinations;<br />
assistance with production of working GIS maps <strong>and</strong><br />
graphics; public involvement.<br />
Supervision; responsible for overall coordination <strong>and</strong><br />
development of the CCP; decisionmaking; public<br />
involvement; planning updates <strong>and</strong> NOI’s; decision<br />
file. Writer/reviewer; editor of documents refuge<br />
vision; research/analysis/oversight; socioeconomics;<br />
Appendix J. CCP Team Members J-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Name <strong>and</strong> title (in alphabetical order) Responsibilities<br />
cultural resources; visitor services <strong>and</strong> compatibility<br />
determinations; compliance with NEPA, ESA,<br />
NHPA, etc.; <strong>and</strong> Federal <strong>and</strong> State agency, Office of<br />
Hawaiian Affairs <strong>and</strong> partner coordination.<br />
Christine Ogura, Natural Resource <strong>Plan</strong>ner,<br />
Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRC replaced,<br />
Bill Perry, Refuge <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ner,<br />
Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRC (departed<br />
2010) replaced,<br />
Charlie Pelizza, Refuge <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ner,<br />
Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRC (departed<br />
2008)<br />
Don Palawski, Deputy Project Leader, Hawaiian<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRC replaced,<br />
Jerry Leinecke, Deputy Project Leader, Hawaiian<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRC (retired 2009)<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ning team leader responsible for Regional <strong>and</strong><br />
Honolulu office coordination <strong>and</strong> process guidance<br />
for development of the CCP; process facilitator;<br />
public involvement; principal NEPA advisor;<br />
writer/reviewer/editor; document format <strong>and</strong> layout;<br />
<strong>and</strong> assist with refuge purposes, vision statement, <strong>and</strong><br />
goals, objectives, <strong>and</strong> strategies development <strong>and</strong><br />
public involvement.<br />
Supervised planner, reviewed both draft <strong>and</strong> final<br />
documents, assisted with Refuge/Honolulu office<br />
coordination <strong>and</strong> process guidance with the Regional<br />
office.<br />
Extended Team (those who attended periodic planning meetings <strong>and</strong> reviewed information)<br />
Name <strong>and</strong> Title (in alphabetical order) Responsibilities<br />
Donna Ball, <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist, USFWS -<br />
Ecological Services<br />
Laura Beauregard, Natural Resource <strong>Plan</strong>ner,<br />
Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRC<br />
Reviewer, technical expertise for biological<br />
resources.<br />
Assisted with planning initiative during vacant<br />
natural resource planner period, provided guidance<br />
to Refuge staff <strong>and</strong> new planner, assisted with<br />
public meetings.<br />
S<strong>and</strong>ra Hall, External Affairs, USFWS Assisted with printing CCP/EA <strong>and</strong> planning<br />
update 3 as well as posting information on the<br />
Hakalau website during public comment period.<br />
Lynne Hanzawa, Administrative Officer, Hakalau Mailings, public meetings, logistical support.<br />
Forest NWR<br />
Barbara Maxfield, External Affairs Chief, USFWS Assist with outreach efforts <strong>and</strong> public meetings;<br />
review of documents; planning updates;<br />
NOI/NOA; news releases; communication plan;<br />
preparation of documents for printing/distribution.<br />
Pearl Mokuhalii, Office Assistant, Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR replaced<br />
Clara Tsang, Office Automation Clerk, Hakalau<br />
Forest NWR (departed 2010)<br />
Barry Stieglitz, Project Leader, Hawaiian <strong>and</strong><br />
Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s NWRC<br />
Mailings, public meetings, assisting with compiling<br />
comments.<br />
Supervised planner early in the process, reviewed<br />
both draft <strong>and</strong> final documents, assisted with<br />
Refuge/Honolulu office coordination <strong>and</strong> process<br />
guidance with the Regional office, decisionmaker.<br />
J-2 Appendix J. CCP Team Members
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Regional Office Team (provided CCP process guidance, technical assistance, <strong>and</strong> review)<br />
Name <strong>and</strong> title (in alphabetical order) Responsibilities<br />
Carolyn Bohan, Regional Chief NWRS Major decisions on CCP direction.<br />
Liz Cruz, Geographer/GIS Specialist GIS advice; GIS data layer development <strong>and</strong> assistance with<br />
production of working maps for CCP/EA <strong>and</strong> final CCP,<br />
planning updates, agency/public involvement.<br />
Joe Engler, <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist IPM advice, data, <strong>and</strong> review; assist with development of<br />
objectives <strong>and</strong> strategies.<br />
Nicole Garner, Writer/Editor Assisted with developing planning update 3, processing<br />
public comments.<br />
Mike Green, <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist, Advice on birds, applicable goals from regional bird plans.<br />
Migratory Birds<br />
Ben Harrison, Division Chief Natural<br />
<strong>and</strong> Cultural Resources<br />
Chuck Houghten, Chief, Division of<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ning, Visitor Service, Transportation<br />
CCP Advisor, purposes, wilderness review, policy, CD<br />
review.<br />
Reviewer; planning workload assistance; coordination with<br />
other divisions.<br />
Kay Kier-Haggenjos, Lead Writer/Editor Editing of CCP related documents, preparation of documents<br />
for printing/distribution, planning update format, providing<br />
guidance on formatting <strong>and</strong> template resources <strong>and</strong> examples,<br />
posting related documents on the main planning website.<br />
Kevin Kilbride, <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist,<br />
Regional IPM Coordinator<br />
Greg Larson, Environmental<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ner/Specialist, SWCA<br />
Mike Marxen, Branch Chief, Visitor<br />
Services<br />
Scott McCarthy, Branch Chief, Refuge,<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ning<br />
Fred Paveglio, Branch Chief, Refuge<br />
Biology<br />
IPM advice, data, <strong>and</strong> review; assist with development of<br />
objectives <strong>and</strong> strategies for pest management.<br />
CCP development.<br />
CCP Advisor, layout graphics design, public use goals <strong>and</strong><br />
objectives; public involvement assistance, CD review.<br />
CCP Advisor, reviewer, coordination with other divisions.<br />
CCP Advisor, <strong>Conservation</strong> targets, Habitat management<br />
plan, habitat goals <strong>and</strong> objectives, CD review.<br />
Anan Raymond, Regional Archaeologist Cultural resources advice, data, <strong>and</strong> review.<br />
Patrick Stark, Visual Information<br />
Assistant<br />
Tiffany Thair, Environmental<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ner/Specialist, SWCA<br />
Assisted with layout <strong>and</strong> cover design, processed printing<br />
orders.<br />
CCP development.<br />
Robyn Thorson, Regional Director Decision maker, CCP/EA approval.<br />
Amy Wing, <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ner L<strong>and</strong> acquisition history, refuge purposes.<br />
Tara Zimmerman, <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologist,<br />
Migratory Birds<br />
Advice on birds, applicable goals from regional bird plans.<br />
Stephen Zylstra, Regional L<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> Manager<br />
Provided guidance on addressing climate change in CCP.<br />
Appendix J. CCP Team Members J-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
J-4 Appendix J. CCP Team Members
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix K. Summary of Public Involvement<br />
Public involvement was sought throughout the development of the CCP. Public involvement began<br />
in 2009 with the scoping process <strong>and</strong> publication of our notice of intent. In February 2009, we mailed<br />
approximately 150 copies of <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 1 to interested individuals, local conservation <strong>and</strong><br />
interest groups, research organizations, Native Hawaiian organizations <strong>and</strong> local, State, <strong>and</strong> Federal<br />
government agencies <strong>and</strong> elected officials. <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 1 was available at two public open house<br />
meetings in March 2009. It was also posted on the Refuge’s website<br />
(http://www.fws.gov/hakalauforest/planning.html) <strong>and</strong> the Service’s Pacific Region refuge planning<br />
website (http://www.fws.gov/pacific/planning/main/docs/HI-PI/docshakalau.htm). A news release<br />
was issued announcing the open house meetings. An interagency scoping meeting was also held July<br />
2009, as well as briefings for government officials such as the Mayor of Hawai‘i County.<br />
In <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 1, we described the CCP planning process; Refuge purposes; draft wildlife,<br />
habitat, <strong>and</strong> public use goals; <strong>and</strong> preliminary issues to be considered in the CCP. In <strong>Plan</strong>ning<br />
Update 2 (made available in October 2009 <strong>and</strong> similarly circulated as the first update) we<br />
summarized the comments we received <strong>and</strong> listed primary management issues we used to draft<br />
alternatives <strong>and</strong> refine draft goals <strong>and</strong> objectives. We also included draft vision statements for both<br />
units.<br />
In the last stage of CCP development, <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 3, which announced the Draft CCP/EA<br />
availability during the public comment period <strong>and</strong> summarized the alternatives, was circulated<br />
similarly to previous planning updates. In addition, the public comment period was announced<br />
through a news release, holding a public open house meeting in Hilo on August 25, 2010, posting the<br />
draft document on both the Hakalau planning website <strong>and</strong> main Pacific Region refuge planning<br />
website, notice of availability in the Federal Register, <strong>and</strong> email <strong>and</strong> related list-serve<br />
announcements.<br />
Public Scoping Sessions<br />
The public scoping period for this CCP opened February 25, 2009, <strong>and</strong> ended March 27, 2009. Two<br />
public meetings were held, in Hilo <strong>and</strong> Captain Cook, Hawai‘i, on March 3, 2009, <strong>and</strong> March 4,<br />
2009, respectively. At the meetings, Refuge staff explained the CCP planning process; the Refuge<br />
purposes, vision, <strong>and</strong> management; <strong>and</strong> preliminary management issues, concerns, <strong>and</strong> opportunities.<br />
Refuge staff also answered questions from attendees <strong>and</strong> received written comments. Twelve private<br />
citizens <strong>and</strong> representatives from various organizations attended the meetings <strong>and</strong> commented on the<br />
issues <strong>and</strong> opportunities we presented. Six written responses were received from individuals or<br />
organizations during scoping. The comments we received addressed broad or long-range issues <strong>and</strong><br />
very specific or detailed strategies that could be used to achieve biological or public use objectives.<br />
Summaries of the issues identified <strong>and</strong> Service responses in <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 2 follow.<br />
How can we best protect endangered forest birds <strong>and</strong> the nēnē?<br />
The primary purpose of the Refuge is protection of endangered species. We manage Refuge<br />
resources to ensure high-quality habitat is available for endangered species, especially forest birds.<br />
Drawing on 20 years of Refuge management experience at the HFU, we have included objectives<br />
<strong>and</strong> strategies in the Draft CCP/EA for maintaining <strong>and</strong> enhancing native habitat communities to<br />
provide the life-history needs of Hakalau Forest NWR’s endangered species.<br />
Appendix K. Public Involvement K-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
How can we best protect montane wet koa/‘ōhi‘a forest, montane dry koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane<br />
forest, lava tubes, <strong>and</strong> lava tube skylights?<br />
These habitat types are key to the survival of endangered species. Refuge management objectives <strong>and</strong><br />
strategies will be designed to protect these habitat types, <strong>and</strong> where appropriate, restore areas to highquality<br />
habitat. We describe alternatives for managing these important resources in Chapter 2.<br />
What opportunities exist for exp<strong>and</strong>ing environmental education through outreach <strong>and</strong> onsite<br />
programs?<br />
Refuge staff have worked with ‘Imi Pono no ka ‘Āina on environmental education opportunities<br />
onsite <strong>and</strong> offsite in local schools. Through the CCP planning process, we have identified additional<br />
partnerships or opportunities to exp<strong>and</strong> upon the work that is already in place (e.g., through the<br />
Friends of Hakalau Forest Refuge).<br />
How can we best prepare for, manage, <strong>and</strong> prevent the spread of wildfires?<br />
There is concern, especially from adjacent l<strong>and</strong>owners, that a wildfire could be ignited on the Refuge<br />
<strong>and</strong> then spread onto private l<strong>and</strong>. The Refuge currently coordinates with the County of Hawai‘i to<br />
provide wildl<strong>and</strong> fire fighting capabilities. We are also concerned about the potential for wildfire as<br />
habitat restoration efforts are implemented. Within the past year, a fire adjacent to the HFU came<br />
close to spreading onto Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Close coordination with the County, other agencies, <strong>and</strong><br />
adjacent l<strong>and</strong>owners is essential to ensure an efficient response to fire threats. As part of the Draft<br />
CCP/EA, Refuge staff will review options for creating firebreaks <strong>and</strong> obtaining the equipment <strong>and</strong><br />
personnel required to meet firefighting needs at both units.<br />
How can we keep refuge visitors <strong>and</strong> others (e.g. contractors, Service staff) from trespassing on<br />
adjacent l<strong>and</strong>s?<br />
The KFU is currently closed to the public. At both units, a number of contractors <strong>and</strong> Refuge staff<br />
use the easements for accessing the Refuge. We continue to impress upon all individuals who access<br />
the areas the importance of using only the authorized <strong>and</strong> in some cases court-ordered easements.<br />
Where appropriate, trespass incidents will be referred to Service law enforcement.<br />
Is acquiring additional easements for accessing the Kona Forest Unit feasible?<br />
The existing easement includes difficult access from the Mamalahoa Highway, steep slopes, <strong>and</strong><br />
multiple gates. At this point, no additional access or easement opportunities have been identified.<br />
We will continue to explore options if they arise.<br />
What Native Hawaiian gathering activities occur on the Refuge?<br />
To date, there have been very few access requests for gathering activities. As part of the CCP,<br />
Refuge staff plan to review the process for granting Special Use Permits for gathering activities.<br />
Can we maintain public access to the historic Kaunene Trail?<br />
We have reviewed options for access to the trail. At this time access, safety, <strong>and</strong> resource<br />
management needs preclude maintenance <strong>and</strong> public access to the trail. Over time, we could revisit<br />
opportunities to reopen the Kaunene Trail.<br />
Do the Refuge units meet the minimum requirements for a wilderness designation nomination?<br />
A wilderness review, as required by Service policy, has been conducted as part of the CCP planning<br />
process <strong>and</strong> is included as Appendix D.<br />
K-2 Appendix K. Public Involvement
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Is there the potential to protect habitat for endangered forest birds through additional l<strong>and</strong><br />
acquisition or conservation easements?<br />
At each unit we will consider opportunities for Refuge boundary expansion on a case-by-case basis,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in accordance with Service policy. The Refuge is working with nongovernment conservation<br />
organizations (NGOs) that are familiar with private l<strong>and</strong>s in the vicinity of existing refuge units in<br />
evaluating any feasible acquisition opportunities that may arise. Currently, two tracts of l<strong>and</strong> with<br />
high-quality habitat within the HFU’s approved acquisition boundary have not been acquired <strong>and</strong> are<br />
being managed by an agency partner. All of the l<strong>and</strong> within the acquisition boundary for the KFU has<br />
been acquired. We encourage l<strong>and</strong>owners with high-quality habitat for forest birds to manage their<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s for conservation. In addition, Refuge staff will work with Regional staff to develop a l<strong>and</strong><br />
conservation plan as outlined in objectives 1e <strong>and</strong> 3e in Chapter 2.<br />
How can we better manage the Kona Forest Unit’s ungulate populations?<br />
Refuge staff are in the process of administering a contract to build a perimeter fence around the unit<br />
<strong>and</strong> two interior fences that would create three management areas within the unit. Options <strong>and</strong><br />
opportunities for ungulate management, including removal, are included as part of the management<br />
of the KFU in the preferred alternative.<br />
How will climate change impact the Refuge?<br />
The Refuge’s two units are unique in the Hawaiian Isl<strong>and</strong>s because of the range of elevations that<br />
occur on Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s. Through the CCP planning process we will evaluate the effectiveness,<br />
impacts, <strong>and</strong> benefits of providing wildlife habitats at a variety of elevations, temperatures, <strong>and</strong><br />
rainfall regimes, so that wildlife can move freely between them as conditions are altered through<br />
climate change processes <strong>and</strong> management responses.<br />
Interagency Scoping<br />
On July 1, 2009, Refuge <strong>and</strong> Hawaiian <strong>and</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s staff members met with some of our<br />
agency partners to discuss planning for Hakalau Forest NWR. Individuals from the DLNR, DHHL,<br />
USGS-BRD, <strong>and</strong> USFS attended the meeting. Refuge staff provided an overview of the planning<br />
process <strong>and</strong> current management of the Refuge. The following list of issues was developed based<br />
upon feedback received from these individuals.<br />
� Desire by partners to see staff <strong>and</strong> a satellite office in the vicinity of the KFU;<br />
� Potential for some joint planning with NPS at Kahuku;<br />
� Interest in developing some sort of “Partnership Boundary” that could include Three Mountain<br />
Alliance, Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance, Wai‘ea;<br />
� Need for strong management partnerships at KFU;<br />
� Climate Change<br />
o Issues that will likely become larger in the context of climate change include avian malaria,<br />
the need for corridors to connect habitat fragments;<br />
o Quote - “This is one of Hawai‘i’s great opportunities to deal with climate change”;<br />
o The <strong>Plan</strong> should look for opportunities to connect the subalpine habitat with wet-lower<br />
elevation habitats;<br />
� On adjacent l<strong>and</strong>s, DHHL is considering māmane restoration, bird corridors, koa restoration, <strong>and</strong><br />
gorse control. [Since this meeting DHHL’s ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program more completely<br />
outlines specific plans for adjacent areas.];<br />
Appendix K. Public Involvement K-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
� Endangered plants are an important piece of the habitats that are being restored. We should<br />
specify actions <strong>and</strong> species;<br />
� There should be more exploration into carbon sequestration. Previous efforts did not get off the<br />
ground, but there is an emerging market for “boutique” carbon that could serve Hakalau well;<br />
� Research<br />
o There is a need for research into habitat <strong>and</strong> species responses to adaptive management to<br />
help make adjustments over time;<br />
o There is a greater need for monitoring than for pure research;<br />
o Consider developing a Research Management <strong>Plan</strong> with a formal subcommittee;<br />
o Need a way to filter research requests;<br />
� Additional enforcement should be present at both units;<br />
� Education/Outreach<br />
o Consider exp<strong>and</strong>ing the open house to twice per year;<br />
o Develop an airport kiosk;<br />
o Host an annual “low-budget” research symposium: potential ideas include poster sessions,<br />
keynote speakers, in conjunction with other events that may be occurring on isl<strong>and</strong>;<br />
� Hakalau nēnē appear to be a migratory subpopulation that could provide an additional avenue for<br />
education about management at Hakalau;<br />
� Develop a bibliography of Hakalau research; <strong>and</strong><br />
� Review <strong>and</strong> use the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park ungulate control Environmental Impact<br />
Statement (EIS).<br />
Forest Bird Workshop<br />
The Service held a workshop with partner agencies, renowned forest bird researchers, <strong>and</strong><br />
statisticians in Hilo October 8-10, 2008, to exp<strong>and</strong> a review of the current status of the Hawai‘i<br />
‘ākepa <strong>and</strong> other endangered Hawaiian forest birds at the Refuge for development of options for<br />
management alternatives for the CCP.<br />
The Service has received contradictory information over the population status of the endangered<br />
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa in a portion of the Refuge, a major stronghold of the species, over the last several<br />
years. The Regional Director obtained the assistance of the USGS’ Dr. J. Michael Scott in<br />
conducting a review of available information on the Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, <strong>and</strong> this workshop was an<br />
extension of the review.<br />
The agenda was focused on the endangered Hawaiian forest birds found at the Refuge. It was<br />
anticipated that although the workshop focused specifically on the Refuge, much of the information<br />
shared would be applicable to these species throughout their ranges <strong>and</strong> to the broader Mauna Kea<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> ecosystems or forest bird survey methodology in general.<br />
The workshop purposes <strong>and</strong> objectives were:<br />
1. Identify <strong>and</strong> prioritize management needs <strong>and</strong> activities, including research, at Hakalau Forest<br />
NWR to recover endangered Hawaiian forest birds;<br />
2. Incorporate identified needs <strong>and</strong> activities in the Hakalau Forest 15-year CCP; <strong>and</strong><br />
3. Extrapolate Hakalau-specific information to the broader Mauna Kea area <strong>and</strong> other geographic<br />
areas <strong>and</strong> bird species <strong>and</strong> suites of birds as appropriate.<br />
K-4 Appendix K. Public Involvement
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
A number of suggestions came out of the workshop. The suggestions are listed below. The rankings<br />
for each of the lists are based upon voting by workshop participants. The complete forest bird<br />
workshop summary is included as Appendix E.<br />
Immediate Threats to Hawaiian Forest Birds at Hakalau Forest NWR<br />
1. Ungulates;<br />
2. Lack of Habitat;<br />
3. Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts;<br />
4. Predation;<br />
5. Data Insufficient to Meet Management Needs;<br />
6. Parasites; <strong>and</strong><br />
7. Interspecific Competition.<br />
Management Actions (Priority Ranking by Workshop Participants)<br />
1. *Grazers/browsers (Habitat destruction/relative to mosquito production) (High)<br />
� Fence construction, maintenance, <strong>and</strong> removal of animals;<br />
� See Research Priorities;<br />
2. Habitat Restoration (High)<br />
� Revegetation of pasture l<strong>and</strong>;<br />
� Improve ‘ōhi‘a densities;<br />
3. Invasive plants (High)<br />
� Continue invasive species control (e.g., blackberry, banana poka, gorse);<br />
� Prevent <strong>and</strong> eliminate incipient weeds;<br />
� See Research Priorities;<br />
4. Monitoring <strong>and</strong> Data Needs (High)<br />
� See Research priorities;<br />
� Delivery of technical information;<br />
5. Predation (Medium)<br />
� See Research priorities;<br />
6. Parasites (Low)<br />
� Incipient invasive parasites, true population counts, delouse birds;<br />
7. Interspecific competition (Low)<br />
� See Research priorities;<br />
� Identify ectoparasites/mites.<br />
Research Priorities (Priority Ranked by Workshop Participants)<br />
1. Monitoring <strong>and</strong> Data: Exp<strong>and</strong> point counts/b<strong>and</strong>ing data (combined primary counter training,<br />
consider use of a B-Bird (Breeding Biology Research <strong>and</strong> Monitoring Database) system<br />
(http://www.umt.edu/bbird/info.htm), <strong>and</strong> threat surveillance);<br />
2. Predation: Investigate effects of rats on forest birds; rodent population index;<br />
3. Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts: Develop effective biocontrols;<br />
4. *Grazers/Browsers: Predator proof fencing;<br />
5. Invasive <strong>Plan</strong>ts: Develop more efficient control methods <strong>and</strong> registration of herbicides;<br />
5. Determine the effects of global climate change at the Refuge; Develop more effective cat control<br />
techniques;<br />
6. Determine effects of ectoparasites on non-endangered bird populations; <strong>and</strong><br />
6. Experimental control of Japanese white-eyes.<br />
Appendix K. Public Involvement K-5
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
*Caveat: Activities to construct an ungulate-proof fence <strong>and</strong> a predator-proof fence caused some<br />
confusion. Dr. Scott obtained consensus that these activities could be combined with a third separate<br />
but related activity of removing ungulates.<br />
Public Comment Period<br />
In the last stage of CCP development, <strong>Plan</strong>ning Update 3, which announced the Draft CCP/EA<br />
availability during the public open comment period (August 16-September 15, 2010) <strong>and</strong><br />
summarized the alternatives, was circulated similarly to previous planning updates (which included<br />
mailings to national organizations). In addition, announcement of the public open comment period<br />
was made through a news release distributed within Hawai‘i <strong>and</strong> on the mainl<strong>and</strong>; holding a public<br />
open house meeting in Hilo on August 25, 2010; posting the draft document on both the Hakalau<br />
planning website <strong>and</strong> main Refuge RO planning website; notice of availability in the Federal<br />
Register as well as the Environmental Notice (State Office of Environmental Quality Control); <strong>and</strong><br />
email <strong>and</strong> related list-serve announcements. In addition, where meetings were already scheduled with<br />
partner agencies <strong>and</strong> organizations (e.g., Friends of Hakalau Forest NWR board meeting, quarterly<br />
Three Mountain Alliance meeting) during the public comment period, updates of the Draft CCP/EA<br />
were provided.<br />
Public Comments on the Draft CCP/EA <strong>and</strong> Service Responses<br />
This section addresses comments that were received on the Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
Draft <strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>and</strong> Environmental Assessment (Draft CCP/EA, August<br />
2010) during the official public comment period from August 16-September 15, 2010. A total of<br />
19 comments were received via letter, email, or at the public meeting. All comments are categorized<br />
(i.e., management strategies, research <strong>and</strong> monitoring, public use, historic resources, climate change,<br />
refuge capacity, <strong>and</strong> adequacy of document), summarized, <strong>and</strong> listed with our responses below.<br />
Editorial comments have been considered in the development of the final CCP.<br />
Table K-1. Draft CCP/EA Respondents<br />
Respondent Representing City/State<br />
Larry Wayne Jose Keauhou, Hawai‘i<br />
Daniel Rubinoff, Ph.D.,<br />
Associate Professor, University<br />
of Hawai‘i<br />
Honolulu, Hawai‘i<br />
Lorraine Ellison Kea‘au, Hawai‘i<br />
Patricia Richardson Hilo, Hawai‘i<br />
Jean Pbulic Florham Park, New Jersey<br />
Patrick Conant Volcano, Hawai‘i<br />
Leonard A. Freed, Ph.D., <strong>and</strong><br />
Rebecca L. Cann, Ph.D.,<br />
University of Hawai‘i<br />
Honolulu, Hawai‘i<br />
Stephen Stearns, Ph.D.,<br />
Professor, Yale University<br />
New Haven, Connecticut<br />
Mark Fox, Director of External The Nature Conservancy, Honolulu, Hawai‘i<br />
Affairs<br />
Hawai‘i Program<br />
K-6 Appendix K. Public Involvement
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Respondent Representing City/State<br />
Richard Hoeflinger, President Big Isl<strong>and</strong> Gun Dogs Kea‘au, Hawai‘i<br />
Matt Hoeflinger, Hunting Mauna Kea Recreational Users Hilo, Hawai‘i<br />
Committee Chair <strong>and</strong> Wayne<br />
Blyth, Chairman<br />
Group<br />
Gordon Tribble, Director Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong> Ecosystems<br />
Research Center, USGS<br />
Honolulu, Hawai’i<br />
Chris Farmer, Ph.D., Science<br />
Coordinator for Endangered<br />
Hawaiian Birds<br />
American Bird Conservancy Hawai‘i National Park, Hawai‘i<br />
Richard C. Wass, President Friends of Hakalau Forest<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
Hilo, Hawai‘i<br />
Gustav Bodner, Graduate<br />
Student, University of Hawai‘i<br />
Honolulu, Hawai‘i<br />
Walter D. Koenig, Ph.D.,<br />
Cornell Laboratory of<br />
Ornithology<br />
Ithaca, New York<br />
Cathy M. Lowder Hilo, Hawai‘i<br />
Annie Marshall, Ph.D. Nēnē Recovery Action Group Honolulu, Hawai‘i<br />
BJ Leithead Todd, <strong>Plan</strong>ning County of Hawai‘i <strong>Plan</strong>ning Hilo, Hawai‘i<br />
Director<br />
Department<br />
Kaulana H.R. Park, Chairman Department of Hawaiian Home Honolulu, Hawai‘i<br />
Hawaiian Homes Commission L<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Management Strategies<br />
Alternatives<br />
Several commenters specifically expressed their support for implementation of Alternative B, as<br />
described in the Draft CCP/EA. Commenters stated Alternative B was preferable because it includes<br />
the most acreage of reforestation <strong>and</strong> restoration across all forest types; large inventory, research, <strong>and</strong><br />
assessment components; <strong>and</strong> increased opportunities for outreach, volunteers, <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />
education; <strong>and</strong> because it would best maintain biodiversity. One commenter stated that Alternative B<br />
could be strengthened by including the best management strategies available.<br />
Response: Alternative B, identified as our preferred alternative in the Draft CCP/EA, has been<br />
incorporated into this final CCP. Based on more specific comments below, the management<br />
objectives <strong>and</strong> strategies have been clarified to improve the final plan.<br />
Biodiversity:<br />
A few commenters felt we should have placed more emphasis on conserving biological diversity<br />
rather than on protecting forest birds. Comments requested that we highlight additional species that<br />
may be just as endangered <strong>and</strong> important as they could be critical to ecosystem functioning. For<br />
example, insects may respond more quickly to positive <strong>and</strong> negative changes, but no allowance was<br />
made for underst<strong>and</strong>ing this. Another stated an effort to assess broader biodiversity would be a good<br />
idea to help the Service underst<strong>and</strong> how thing are changing in both restored <strong>and</strong> native habitats. One<br />
commenter suggested exp<strong>and</strong>ing the Refuge goals to include the conservation of biological diversity.<br />
Appendix K. Public Involvement K-7
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Response: The National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 directs the Service to<br />
ensure that the biological integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health of the Refuge System are<br />
maintained for the benefit of present <strong>and</strong> future generations of Americans. The Service’s policy<br />
(601 FW 3) also provides guidance on consideration <strong>and</strong> protection of the broad spectrum of fish,<br />
wildlife, <strong>and</strong> habitat resources found on refuges, <strong>and</strong> associated ecosystems that represent biological<br />
diversity on each refuge. In response to the public comments, we have exp<strong>and</strong>ed our discussion of<br />
biological integrity, diversity, <strong>and</strong> environmental health in Chapter 4 of the final CCP. Though the<br />
Refuge was established for the purposes of listed species protection, the establishment language also<br />
incorporates the ecosystems <strong>and</strong> habitats which support these species. Consequently, additional<br />
species will benefit from this approach. The Service recognizes that biodiversity in an integral part of<br />
the overall health of a functioning ecosystem.<br />
Ungulate Removal:<br />
Commenters both opposed <strong>and</strong> supported removal of ungulates from the Refuge. Those opposed to<br />
removal felt the animals deserve to be here as part of what the Hawaiians brought; that removal of<br />
ungulates could lead to more grasses <strong>and</strong> an increase in fire danger; <strong>and</strong> that it is impossible to<br />
remove all ungulates. Those in support of removing ungulates indicated it is a critical action if native<br />
habitats are to be restored <strong>and</strong> endangered forest birds <strong>and</strong> other species are to survive into the future.<br />
Response: Our goal is to restore <strong>and</strong> protect the native forests within the Refuge, which is in direct<br />
opposition to maintaining ungulates. The final CCP continues to call for the removal of all ungulates<br />
from both Units of the Refuge.<br />
One commenter asked to review evidence that “removal of the larger more aggressive pigs could<br />
result in population increases through ingress by additional pigs that use smaller territories <strong>and</strong><br />
reproductive response in the feral pig population.”<br />
Response: Since pigs are capable of rapid population growth, we have added language to clarify<br />
this statement that very high levels of annual removal are required from managed areas to suppress<br />
<strong>and</strong> retain the pig population to a near zero level.<br />
One commenter asked for a better description of the differences between alternatives, particularly as<br />
it relates to ungulate control; another asked that the Refuge’s Feral Ungulate Management <strong>Plan</strong><br />
(FUMP) be included in an appendix since it is referenced throughout the document in multiple<br />
places.<br />
Response: The fencing scheme for Alternative A depicted on Map 6 was developed as part of the<br />
1995 Feral Ungulate Management <strong>Plan</strong>. Based on a recent review of this scheme, we determined<br />
that it would be more effective to reduce the number of internal fenced units <strong>and</strong> align the fences<br />
parallel to certain natural elevation contours. This revised fencing scheme is part of the management<br />
regime in Alternatives B (Map 7) <strong>and</strong> C (Map 8). We have revised the CCP to explain this new<br />
approach to creating internal fenced units to promote ungulate eradication. The CCP has<br />
superseded the FUMP, <strong>and</strong> we will produce several stepdown management plans (see Appendix C)<br />
that tier from the CCP, including an Inventory <strong>and</strong> Monitoring <strong>Plan</strong> that would include ungulate<br />
management. However, any interested party is welcome to obtain a copy of the original FUMP<br />
document from the Refuge upon request.<br />
K-8 Appendix K. Public Involvement
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
One commenter supports the use of aerial drops of toxic baits for ungulate control wherever they are<br />
safe for native species, as is being done successfully in New Zeal<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Response: The aerial distribution of toxins is being considered Statewide, <strong>and</strong> we will continue<br />
working with our conservation partners to evaluate its usefulness in Hawai‘i. We support <strong>and</strong><br />
implement the concepts <strong>and</strong> procedures of Integrated Pest Management (as outlined in Appendix G)<br />
to control or eradicate invasive species on national wildlife refuges.<br />
Fencing:<br />
The internal fencing identified in Alternative B was supported as a good way to manage wild pigs.<br />
One commenter recommended removing feral ungulates immediately after fence installation as they<br />
can cause more damage if trapped in one smaller area.<br />
Response: Our goal is to immediately initiate ungulate removal after a management unit is fenced,<br />
but the schedule will be dictated by the availability of funding. We agree the action of complete<br />
enclosure of a unit should not occur until funding is available for immediate ungulate removal upon<br />
fence completion.<br />
Nēnē Management:<br />
One commenter stated that conflicts with nēnē <strong>and</strong> forest restoration will occur because the original<br />
Hakalau vegetation was not suitable for nēnē. He asked that we clarify how we plan to transition out<br />
of nēnē management in forested areas <strong>and</strong> whether expansion of nēnē efforts on adjacent l<strong>and</strong>s above<br />
the Refuge might be possible. Another commenter suggested, to avoid conflict with restoration areas,<br />
moving breeding habitat to lower elevations <strong>and</strong>/or in areas where restoration is more problematic<br />
within the Refuge. Another person suggested no areas be altered for grassl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Response: We agree that originally, no grassl<strong>and</strong>s would have existed at the HFU. However, the<br />
existing grassl<strong>and</strong>s created by years of cattle grazing do provide good habitat for this endangered<br />
species. Within the timeframe of this CCP (15 years), we do not expect complete reforestation of the<br />
HFU to occur. Thus we have chosen to continue to manage portions of this Unit for the recovery of<br />
nēnē <strong>and</strong> will seek a balance between the needs of various listed species on the Refuge. We will<br />
continue to work with our neighbors <strong>and</strong> partners to benefit native species, but have no control over<br />
the l<strong>and</strong>s beyond our boundaries.<br />
Two commenters suggested combining the nēnē habitat management proposals in Alternatives B <strong>and</strong><br />
C in the final CCP, thus protecting both breeding <strong>and</strong> foraging sites. Another commenter stated<br />
creation of additional nēnē habitat may lead to increased predation as nēnē densities increase.<br />
Another commenter expressed concern that nēnē develop behavioral problems when around humans<br />
<strong>and</strong> should not be near structures to avoid habitat imprinting that occurs. She suggested that current<br />
as well as future nesting <strong>and</strong> foraging areas be moved away from human infrastructure <strong>and</strong> areas<br />
where human/nēnē interactions would be minimal.<br />
Response: We have chosen to maintain the strategies for nēnē under Alternative B (the selected<br />
alternative) until we can evaluate how much foraging habitat is needed, our capacity to manage it<br />
(through mowing), <strong>and</strong> research into the predator <strong>and</strong> human/nēnē interaction <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
imprinting issues. Once these issues are more fully understood, we will determine an appropriate<br />
acreage <strong>and</strong> location for additional nēnē habitat. The final CCP calls for adaptive management as<br />
factors change on the Refuge.<br />
Appendix K. Public Involvement K-9
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Invasive Weed Control:<br />
One commenter supported the inclusion of biocontrol in all three alternatives as an important tool for<br />
controlling weeds (e.g., naio thrips in Kona could be a threat to naio trees at the Refuge).<br />
Response: We appreciate your support <strong>and</strong> agree that biocontrol can be an effective tool as part of<br />
an Integrated Pest Management program. It is further discussed in Appendix G of the final CCP.<br />
Fire Management:<br />
One commenter stated wildfire response should include development of interagency protocols, early<br />
detection, maintenance of water sources, <strong>and</strong> mobilization of equipment <strong>and</strong> firefighters.<br />
Response: A strategy under Alternative B (the selected alternative) for habitats in both units calls<br />
for the development of a fire prevention program, which will address the issues identified by the<br />
commenter. Additionally, the Refuge has fire management plans, <strong>and</strong> we are a member of the<br />
interagency Big Isl<strong>and</strong> Wildfire Coordinating Group, which also incorporates the issues above.<br />
Forest Bird Management:<br />
A commenter stated that ‘i‘iwi <strong>and</strong> ‘apapane do not live above 4,100 ft as they migrate to lower<br />
elevations during summer.<br />
Response: We have clarified this information in the final CCP.<br />
Another commenter said avian diseases <strong>and</strong> parasites should be emphasized as one of the top priority<br />
threats to all forest birds, including the Hawai‘i ‘elepaio.<br />
Response: We have clarified the text as requested.<br />
Research <strong>and</strong> Monitoring<br />
Two commenters expressed concern that the plan is an attempt to prioritize the management needs<br />
<strong>and</strong> activities for the next 15 years without a full discussion of avian population trends. They believe<br />
conclusions cited in the plan about forest bird recovery are untrue because they are based on flawed<br />
analysis <strong>and</strong> models, <strong>and</strong> that management actions are being proposed without fully underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
population trends. They stated that increased scrutiny needs to be given to ‘ākepa in light of its<br />
significant declines <strong>and</strong> that control of Japanese white-eyes should be at the core of adaptive<br />
management as they are limiting the food supply for native birds. They further stated that university<br />
scientists conducting research independent of agency bias have the potential to contribute<br />
significantly to the mission of the Refuge, <strong>and</strong> that these benefits outweigh any perceived<br />
disadvantages.<br />
Another commenter asked that we give weight to the research of Drs. Lenny Freed <strong>and</strong> Rebecca<br />
Cann on the decline of native honeycreepers in this part of Hawai‘i due to introduced forest birds <strong>and</strong><br />
stated the Refuge needs to make decisions based on the best available science. An additional<br />
commenter suggested allowing an independent expert bird ecologist to conduct a study on the impact<br />
of white-eye competition on native birds at Hakalau, suggesting that funding could be arranged from<br />
other sources so as not to interfere with Refuge priorities.<br />
K-10 Appendix K. Public Involvement
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Response: We have based our forest bird research <strong>and</strong> management priorities on those<br />
recommended by the experts convened for the Forest Bird Workshop in October 2008 (see<br />
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop). We agree that research on the demography, life history,<br />
carrying capacity, <strong>and</strong> competition for native forest birds is very important to the Refuge, <strong>and</strong> we<br />
have included it as a project in Appendix C <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation. We also evaluated the<br />
compatibility of research, scientific collecting, <strong>and</strong> surveys in Appendix B <strong>and</strong> found “[r]esearch on<br />
Hakalau Forest NWR is inherently valuable to the Service, since it is intended to exp<strong>and</strong> the<br />
knowledge base of those who are given the responsibility of managing the resources found within the<br />
Refuge.” We welcome suggestions for seeking non-Refuge funding to support such research.<br />
One comment letter indicated that the research proposal process, from evaluation <strong>and</strong> feedback to<br />
timetables for research <strong>and</strong> reporting, should be as transparent as possible.<br />
Response: We have included extensive information about the research proposal process within<br />
Appendix B. Appropriate Uses <strong>and</strong> Compatibility Determinations, under the Research, Scientific<br />
Collecting, <strong>and</strong> Surveys compatibility determination, including formats for proposals, annual<br />
progress reports, <strong>and</strong> Memor<strong>and</strong>a of Underst<strong>and</strong>ing for curatorial services. The compatibility<br />
determination outlines the proposal process, as well as reporting requirements <strong>and</strong> stipulations to<br />
ensure permitted research conforms to Service regulations <strong>and</strong> policies <strong>and</strong> will be performed in a<br />
manner that will not impact Refuge resources.<br />
One commenter asked that the alternatives description have an additional paragraph dealing with<br />
research <strong>and</strong> monitoring.<br />
Response: The final CCP does not include alternatives, thus we have not added this text. However,<br />
research <strong>and</strong> monitoring are fully described in several locations within the CCP, including in<br />
Chapter 2 <strong>and</strong> Appendices B <strong>and</strong> C.<br />
One commenter stated the Refuge should monitor for ungulate presence to optimize effectiveness of<br />
fencing <strong>and</strong> ungulate removal.<br />
Response: We agree that a long-term concerted effort is required as part of overall ungulate<br />
management. We plan to continue ungulate surveys as frequently as practicable to monitor their<br />
population status <strong>and</strong> will utilize available resources to take actions necessary to eliminate ungulates<br />
from newly fenced units <strong>and</strong> prevent the ingress of ungulates into existing restored <strong>and</strong> protected<br />
forest habitats. This aspect of ungulate management has been clarified in Chapter 2 under general<br />
guidelines, ungulate-proof boundary fencing <strong>and</strong> sequence of management actions.<br />
Public Use<br />
Hunting:<br />
Several commenters addressed the issue of public hunting on Hakalau Forest NWR, both in favor<br />
<strong>and</strong> opposed. Those in favor stated that hunting provides sustenance for local people, is part of<br />
Hawai‘i family lifestyles, is effective in reducing pig numbers, <strong>and</strong> can be accomplished without<br />
impacting other natural resources. Those opposed stated that hunters are less than 3 percent of the<br />
American public <strong>and</strong> should not be allowed to monopolize the sites so that the majority of Americans<br />
cannot safely use them, that public hunting is not effective at controlling pigs because 70 percent of<br />
Appendix K. Public Involvement K-11
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
the pig population must be removed annually to effect control, <strong>and</strong> that the potential damage to<br />
recovered habitat <strong>and</strong> the risk of new weed introductions is too great.<br />
Response: The Service recognizes its strong legal encouragement to offer public hunting on national<br />
wildlife refuges when this recreational use can be conducted in a manner that is compatible with the<br />
purpose(s) for which the refuge was established. Based on the compatibility determination found in<br />
Appendix B, we have determined that public hunting is not compatible with the purposes of the<br />
Refuge. Use of public recreational hunting as a tool to meet the overall goals of the Refuge’s<br />
ungulate control program was not successful in the past. Reduction <strong>and</strong> ultimately eradication of<br />
ungulates is necessary to achieve the required level of protection <strong>and</strong> eliminate disturbance to<br />
endangered species. Recreational hunting is unlikely to achieve the desired goal of reducing pig<br />
populations in managed units by >70 percent annually, in order to assure control objectives are<br />
achieved where more efficient methods are available (Hess et al.2006). Additionally, keeping<br />
ungulate populations at levels required to provide public recreational hunting is not compatible with<br />
the Refuge’s purposes of protecting listed species <strong>and</strong> the habitats they rely on.<br />
We believe it is most efficient <strong>and</strong> effective to control ungulates through staff efforts <strong>and</strong>/or by<br />
contract. Bids for such contracts would be solicited from the public <strong>and</strong> would not necessarily<br />
preclude a contractor from using the services <strong>and</strong> expertise of local hunting groups to complete the<br />
work. Such contracts would have strict stipulations to prevent negative impacts on native species as<br />
well as be required to obtain liability insurance, be permitted to carry a firearm, have gone through<br />
the State’s Hunter Education Program <strong>and</strong> carry a State hunting license/permit, <strong>and</strong> any other<br />
stipulations identified in the contract solicitation.<br />
One commenter indicated public hunting is addressed only for pig hunting, avoiding other isl<strong>and</strong><br />
game species.<br />
Response: We agree. We modified our hunting compatibility determination to reflect that hunting of<br />
game birds is not compatible because the flight paths of the endangered nēnē <strong>and</strong> wild turkeys<br />
overlap.<br />
One commenter felt the discussion of hunting in the Draft CCP/EA offered abundant speculation <strong>and</strong><br />
opinion, <strong>and</strong> little that is factually accurate. Others stated there is no substantiated evidence of<br />
hunters purposefully pursuing game into impenetrable vegetation or cutting or pulling endangered<br />
plants, <strong>and</strong> it is speculative to say public hunting has negative impacts on such resources. Another<br />
asked if other public uses are allowed in the area would not have the same impacts as hunters.<br />
Response: We have reviewed the language included within our hunting compatibility determination<br />
to ensure it is more objective <strong>and</strong> accurate. Unlike other public use opportunities, such as wildlife<br />
photography <strong>and</strong> bird watching, which occur on identified roads or paths to keep people from<br />
negatively impacting Refuge resources, hunting is not an activity that has similar infrastructure in<br />
place to protect resources <strong>and</strong> guide the user. Hunting is a pursuit of a wild animal that can go<br />
anywhere <strong>and</strong> the hunter follows. This unguided pathway through Refuge habitat could inadvertently<br />
impact native vegetation <strong>and</strong> restoration efforts as well as disturb habitat for native species.<br />
Additional concerns about impact to Refuge resources are the inadvertent spread of nonnative weed<br />
species through Refuge habitats. Given the many other hunting opportunities on the rest of the<br />
isl<strong>and</strong>, it is unknown what invasive plant species seeds or other reproductive plant medium may be<br />
K-12 Appendix K. Public Involvement
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
attached to clothing or equipment. The cost of controlling invasive weeds in remote areas is high,<br />
<strong>and</strong> it is easier to prevent the establishment of nonnative plants than control them after the fact.<br />
<strong>Wildlife</strong> Observation, Photography, Interpretation, <strong>and</strong> Environmental Education:<br />
Two commenters supported additional visitor uses within the Refuge. One asked to open the Pua<br />
‘Ākala tract to the public once a month for birding, wildlife photography, <strong>and</strong> other compatible uses;<br />
to develop a wildlife observation platform in the vicinity of Pua ‘Ākala cabin <strong>and</strong> Maulua; <strong>and</strong> to<br />
advertise <strong>and</strong> host a monthly onsite environmental education event. Another suggested opening the<br />
KFU to the public for guided interpretation, nature study, <strong>and</strong> photography.<br />
Response: Based on staffing limitations <strong>and</strong> concerns about additional impacts to endangered forest<br />
birds <strong>and</strong> plants, we have determined a small-scale wildlife observation <strong>and</strong> photography program<br />
with strict stipulations is appropriate only in the Upper Maulua Unit of the HFU (See Appendix B).<br />
The final CCP also calls for the development of a Visitor Services <strong>Plan</strong> in the coming years, <strong>and</strong><br />
proposals to exp<strong>and</strong> visitor programs may be reevaluated at that time as well as when additional<br />
funding is available to support visitor services positions.<br />
One commenter stated that outreach is key to gaining public support, especially for restoring ‘alalā at<br />
the KFU.<br />
Response: We agree that outreach is important to gain public support for maintaining <strong>and</strong><br />
recovering all native species <strong>and</strong> for management activities at Hakalau Forest NWR. We will seek<br />
further opportunities with other Hawai‘i refuges, the State, nongovernmental organizations, schools,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Friends of Hakalau Forest NWR to exp<strong>and</strong> our outreach efforts, as discussed under<br />
Objective 7.4.<br />
Historic Resources<br />
One commenter asked who would manage Pua ‘Ākala cabin if it is listed on the National Register of<br />
Historic Places <strong>and</strong> how it would be managed.<br />
Response: We have clarified in the final CCP that the cabin would remain under the management of<br />
the <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service if it is designated as historic <strong>and</strong> that it would be managed in<br />
accordance with guidelines from the National Registry <strong>and</strong> the Secretary of the Interior’s St<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
for Historic Preservation.<br />
Climate Change<br />
Two commenters addressed the issue of climate change on the Refuge, one stating that outplanting<br />
species that were present many years ago is impractical <strong>and</strong> wasteful due to climate change, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
other encouraging the Refuge to consider other components of Hawaiian biota threatened by climate<br />
change (not just forest birds) in assessing future l<strong>and</strong> acquisition.<br />
Response: We have added substantial text to the final CCP (Chapter 3) regarding climate change.<br />
The Service is supporting the development of regional L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>Conservation</strong> Cooperatives that<br />
will integrate local climate models with models of climate change responses by species, habitats, <strong>and</strong><br />
ecosystems. Cooperatives will collectively plan <strong>and</strong> design appropriate conservation actions at a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape scale, monitor responses to climate change, <strong>and</strong> assess the effectiveness of management<br />
Appendix K. Public Involvement K-13
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
strategies. The local version of these L<strong>and</strong>scape <strong>Conservation</strong> Cooperatives is the Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Climate Change Cooperative (PICCC), headquartered in Honolulu, Hawai‘i, but working across the<br />
Pacific. By working with PICCC, the Refuge will identify additional mitigation measures for climate<br />
change.<br />
Refuge Capacity<br />
Several commenters either expressed concern that the Service has not had the funding <strong>and</strong> staffing<br />
necessary to manage the Refuge at the current level or expressed support for exp<strong>and</strong>ing Refuge<br />
staffing to implement the CCP. Some particularly supported filling the positions for a park<br />
ranger/volunteer coordinator, fire fuels specialist, <strong>and</strong> office assistant.<br />
Response: As indicated in Appendix C. <strong>Plan</strong> Implementation, Hakalau Forest NWR recognizes the<br />
need for additional staffing for current management operations as well as to implement the final<br />
CCP. Position priorities will be determined as funding becomes available <strong>and</strong> based on skills needed<br />
at that time.<br />
Adequacy of Document<br />
One commenter stated there is little explanation of how the various management target areas were<br />
determined for the different forest objectives <strong>and</strong> asked that we clarify how they are currently<br />
managed <strong>and</strong> what needs to be done for each of the targeted areas.<br />
Response: Management targets were established based on evaluation of the vegetation type maps<br />
found in the Draft CCP/EA. A new appendix (L) was created to summarize past <strong>and</strong> current<br />
management actions. We recognize that more detailed planning would be beneficial in carrying out<br />
management actions identified in the CCP. The Service planning process provides for the<br />
development of “stepdown plans” to facilitate this additional planning need (see Appendix C). We<br />
will be preparing an Inventory <strong>and</strong> Monitoring <strong>Plan</strong> which will assist managers in implementing<br />
habitat protection, maintenance, <strong>and</strong> restoration strategies. Additionally, as the Service implements<br />
its new Inventory <strong>and</strong> Monitoring approach, we will be fine tuning our habitat related management<br />
targets <strong>and</strong> actions annually through the new habitat database system.<br />
One commenter felt availability of the draft plan for public review was not adequately publicized<br />
within the other 49 States.<br />
Response: Our efforts to seek public involvement in the planning process are outlined earlier in this<br />
Appendix. Although we recognize each national wildlife refuge belongs to all Americans, typically<br />
those nearest to the site are most interested in commenting on its management. We published a notice<br />
of availability in the Federal Register, mailed numerous planning updates to nonlocal entities such<br />
as national organizations, <strong>and</strong> distributed a news release throughout the Pacific Region. Information<br />
also has been available on various Service websites.<br />
One commenter supported development of an environmental impact statement rather than an<br />
environmental assessment.<br />
Response: As indicated in the Finding of No Significant Impact, the Service believes that<br />
implementing Alternative B as the CCP for management of Hakalau Forest NWR is not a major<br />
K-14 Appendix K. Public Involvement
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Federal action that would significantly affect the quality of the human environment within the<br />
meaning of section 102(2) (c) of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. Accordingly, the<br />
Service is not required to prepare an environmental impact statement.<br />
Appendix K. Public Involvement K-15
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
K-16 Appendix K. Public Involvement
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management<br />
When Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge was created in 1985 to protect native forest habitat<br />
for endangered animals <strong>and</strong> plants, the initial l<strong>and</strong>s acquired with the help of the Nature Conservancy<br />
had been used for cattle ranching, some of which had also been logged. As such, the condition of the<br />
native forest had been degraded by 100 years of cattle grazing, with about 5,000 acres of upper<br />
elevation forest (mostly above 6,000 ft) converted into open woodl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> pasture dominated by<br />
introduced grasses (though most of the Refuge still had closed canopy forest, with the most intact<br />
areas in the lower elevations). Under the closed canopy forest, certain sections of the understory had<br />
been disturbed by cattle, pigs, <strong>and</strong> rats. The mesic koa/‘ōhi‘a <strong>and</strong> koa/māmane forests were the most<br />
severely degraded. Listed species that were found at the time included Phyllostegia racemosa <strong>and</strong><br />
Clermontia lindseyana. The first initial management actions implemented by the Refuge included<br />
surveys (forest bird, native plant, weed, ungulate), construction of ungulate proof fences, ungulate<br />
removal, weed control, <strong>and</strong> reforestation (outplanting of koa) <strong>and</strong> reforestation research focused on<br />
techniques (mainly with assistance of the USFS-Institute of Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s Forestry (IPIF)). Due to<br />
the remote location of the Refuge, a cabin <strong>and</strong> storage building as well as water catchment systems<br />
had to be constructed to support Refuge operations. The last cattle permitted to graze at the Refuge<br />
were removed in 1996. Over the years, other parcels of the Refuge (Pua ‘Ākala, Middle Papaikou,<br />
Middle Hakalau, <strong>and</strong> units B-F) were acquired so that today, HFU is 32,730 acres.<br />
In 1997, an additional 5,300 acres was purchased from the Les Marks Estate in South Kona, bringing<br />
the total Refuge acreage up to 38,030 acres. This unit was established specifically for the endangered<br />
‘alalā, as well as other listed species. Vegetation at the lower portions, around the 2,000-foot<br />
elevation, was dominated by a mixture of introduced <strong>and</strong> native trees, shrubs, <strong>and</strong> grasses. These<br />
included guava (Psidium guajava), strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum), silky oak (Grevillea<br />
robusta), <strong>and</strong> Christmas berry (Schinus terebinthifolius), <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha) was<br />
the most common native tree. Above the 2,500-foot elevation, introduced trees <strong>and</strong> shrubs become<br />
less prevalent, <strong>and</strong> the forest community was dominated by an overstory of ‘ōhi‘a trees <strong>and</strong> an<br />
understory of native trees, shrubs, <strong>and</strong> hapu‘u tree ferns (Cibotium spp.). Between the 3,000-<br />
6,000 foot elevations, a diverse native forest community was found. This forest type is characterized<br />
by an overstory comprised of a mixture of koa (Acacia koa) <strong>and</strong> ‘ōhi‘a trees <strong>and</strong> an understory of<br />
native shrubs <strong>and</strong> hapu‘u. Cattle grazing had created pastures in some of these upper elevations.<br />
Above the 6,000-foot elevation, the native forest was characterized by a mixed māmane-s<strong>and</strong>alwood<br />
(Sophora chrysophylla-Santalum ellipticum) <strong>and</strong> koa or ‘ōhi‘a dryl<strong>and</strong> natural communities with<br />
ground cover of nonnative grasses <strong>and</strong> native shrubs. Listed species found included the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a,<br />
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa, the Hawai‘i creeper, the ‘akiapōlā‘au, <strong>and</strong> the ‘io. Initial refuge management of this<br />
unit included securing road access, surveys (forest bird, native plant, weed, ungulate), <strong>and</strong><br />
establishing a field camp.<br />
Current Refuge management for both units (Hakalau Forest Unit <strong>and</strong> Kona Forest Unit) revolves<br />
around maintaining <strong>and</strong> constructing new fencing, controlling pest species (plants <strong>and</strong> animals),<br />
native forest restoration, reforestation, <strong>and</strong> threatened <strong>and</strong> endangered species management. In<br />
addition, the Refuge contains structures <strong>and</strong> facilities that existed before the original acquisition. The<br />
Refuge has built its own facilities to support management. All require maintenance, including a<br />
c<strong>and</strong>idate historic structure (Pua ‘Ākala Cabin). Chapter 5 provides additional information on Refuge<br />
facilities.<br />
Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management L-1
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
For the Hakalau Forest Unit, eight internal management units exist, consisting of 14,150 fenced<br />
acres. There are 45 miles of ungulate proof fencing established, including both perimeter <strong>and</strong> internal<br />
fences (Figure 2-1). Middle Honohina (1) is roughly 550 acres, Shipman (2) 5,000 acres, Lower<br />
Honohina (3) 1,800 acres, Upper Maulua (4) 2,000 acres, Upper Honohina (5) 1,000 acres, Middle<br />
Hakalau (6) 1,500 acres, Middle Papaikou (7) 1,800 acres, <strong>and</strong> Pua ‘Ākala (8) 500 acres. Middle <strong>and</strong><br />
Lower Maulua <strong>and</strong> Lower Honohina consist of closed canopy forest with relatively intact understory.<br />
Middle Honohina, which has been pig free for the longest time period (since 1989), also consists of<br />
closed canopy forest as are units B, C, E, <strong>and</strong> F.<br />
A majority of restoration <strong>and</strong> reforestation work has been conducted within Pua ‘Ākala, Shipman,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Upper Honohina, with over 400,000 native plants (mainly koa) outplanted since 1987 in order to<br />
create additional native forest habitat in formerly grazed <strong>and</strong> degraded areas (see before <strong>and</strong> after<br />
photographs below). Most recent restoration management has focused on using other native plants to<br />
build up the understory now that koa canopy coverage has been established. Preparation of l<strong>and</strong> for<br />
outplanting includes grass control to reduce competition by using mechanical (dozer) as well as h<strong>and</strong><br />
control (it has been documented that pasture grasses as well as lack of seed, soil conditions, <strong>and</strong><br />
harsh climate (frost) in open grassl<strong>and</strong>s can inhibit natural forest regeneration). In addition, listed<br />
plants have also been outplanted in these areas including Clermontia pyrularia, Clermontia<br />
lindseyana, Clermontia peleana, Cyanea shipmanii, Phyllostegia racemosa, <strong>and</strong> Pyllostegia velutina<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ranunculus hawaiiensis. Native habitat vegetation in each unit can be seen in Figure 4-2, with<br />
Middle Papaikou, Middle Hakalau, Lower Honohina, Middle Maulua <strong>and</strong> units A-F containing the<br />
most intact native forests on the Refuge.<br />
Intermittent streams can be found in upper elevation units 1-8, while lower elevations have perennial<br />
streams (Figure 4-2). Additional aquatic habitats include Carex bogs found in montane wet<br />
‘ōhi‘a/uluhe forest. Some hydrology research has been conducted. However, very little management<br />
(other than gorse removal in the upper units) has been done for these aquatic habitats.<br />
The invasive weeds of most concern are: (1) gorse, which is found most heavily in open pasture<br />
areas at Pua ‘ākala, with smaller populations in Shipman <strong>and</strong> Upper Honohina, <strong>and</strong> (2) Florida<br />
blackberry, which can be found in all units above 5,000 ft. Pua ‘Ākala also has a heavy English holly<br />
infestation, with some smaller populations in Shipman <strong>and</strong> Upper Honohina. All three units of<br />
Honohina <strong>and</strong> the two upper units of Maulua also have banana poka. Hotenia davidiana has the<br />
highest concentration in Middle Honohina <strong>and</strong> the upper portions of the Lower Honohina. The<br />
highest concentration of nonnatives is found at the higher elevations above 5,000 ft. All invasive<br />
weeds that currently exist at HFU are in a monitoring, control, or maintenance stage of management,<br />
with a focus on both chemical <strong>and</strong> mechanical control. Florida blackberry control activities are<br />
conducted May-October <strong>and</strong> gorse control focused on in winter months; while English holly is yearround.<br />
Volunteers assist with banana poka control.<br />
Listed species management includes both flora <strong>and</strong> fauna. Listed animal species of most concern can<br />
be found in the following units with Pua ‘Ākala <strong>and</strong> Shipman having the highest concentration of<br />
listed species:<br />
• ‘Akiapōlā‘au can be found in all units above 4,500 ft elevation;<br />
• Hawai‘i ‘ākepa can be found in all units above 4,500 ft elevation with the greatest densities<br />
in the Shipman <strong>and</strong> Pua ‘Ākala units;<br />
• Hawai‘i creeper can be found in all units above 4,500 ft elevation;<br />
L-2 Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
• ‘Ō‘ū had two unconfirmed detections in the late 1990s in the lower Honohina tract;<br />
• ‘Io can be found in all units;<br />
• Nēnē can be found at Pua ‘Ākala <strong>and</strong> Shipman;<br />
• Koloa maoli can be found in stock ponds in the upper units; <strong>and</strong><br />
• ‘Ōpe‘ape‘a can be found in all units.<br />
The <strong>Plan</strong>t Extinction Prevention (PEP) Program for Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> has been collecting seeds for PEP<br />
listed species. Seeds of Phyllostegia racemosa were collected from plants in the Maulua tract in years<br />
past are being grown at the Volcano Rare <strong>Plan</strong>t facility, <strong>and</strong> seeds from these plants are being<br />
propagated. Other examples are Asplenium schizophyllum (collected one founder - lower Honohina<br />
(unit 3)) <strong>and</strong> Trematolobelia gr<strong>and</strong>ifolia (collected one founder in unit 6). Outplantings of PEP<br />
plants onto Refuge l<strong>and</strong>s includes seedlings of Clermontia peleana in unit 7, unit 6, <strong>and</strong> in Maulua.<br />
All other PEP plant outplantings were conducted in the Maulua tract, including Clermontia<br />
pyrularia, Clermontia lindseyana <strong>and</strong> Cyanea shipmanii. The listed Cyanea shipmanii (3,896 acres<br />
of critical habitat are identified at HFU) as well as Phyllostegia racemosa (over 2,317 acres of<br />
critical habitat are identified at HFU) can be found at Pua ‘Ākala. Critical habitat can also be found<br />
for Clermenonita peleana <strong>and</strong> Clermontia lindseyana (over 2,000 acres).<br />
Surveys for forest birds occurred every year since 1987 (Figure 4-5). Additional surveys include<br />
‘ōpe‘ape‘a (in Pua ‘Ākala <strong>and</strong> Upper Maulua), invasive plants occasionally (which follow the forest<br />
bird transects), <strong>and</strong> ungulates on forest bird transects annually until 2005.<br />
Species research includes ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, nēnē, invertebrates, pollination, listed plants <strong>and</strong> animals,<br />
forest structure <strong>and</strong> species diversity, <strong>and</strong> restoration. Most research occurs in units 2, 4, 5 <strong>and</strong> 8 <strong>and</strong><br />
some research occurs in units 1, 3, 6, <strong>and</strong> 7.<br />
Fire (fuel) breaks <strong>and</strong> gates are also maintained, along with internal dirt/gravel roads for management<br />
purposes in units 2, 4, 5 <strong>and</strong> 8 (Figure 5-2). Wildl<strong>and</strong> fire history at the Refuge is minimal. The<br />
Refuge sustained its first fire in 2002 in the Maulua unit. Its cause is undetermined. Most of the fires<br />
occur outside the Refuge <strong>and</strong> are human caused. Several have burned right up to Refuge fences, but<br />
were stopped by the fuel breaks.<br />
Fences are an integral part of ungulate management. Forty-five miles of fence are inspected/repaired<br />
once a month (when staffed) to prevent new animals from entering control units. Several methods are<br />
employed to control pigs <strong>and</strong> cattle. These include hunting, trapping, snaring, <strong>and</strong> driving. Normally<br />
a combination of methods is used to eradicate the animals in an area. These units are sized to<br />
efficiently remove animals over a given period of time. As an example, a 1,500 acre unit will be<br />
snared at a rate of one snare per acre. This will facilitate control within 5 years. Middle Papaikou has<br />
1,700 snares <strong>and</strong> Middle Hakalau has 1,600 snares. Lower Honohina has 1,000 snares but also has<br />
active baiting <strong>and</strong> trapping as well. Monitoring of fences for ungulate ingress will be an on-going<br />
activity.<br />
For the Kona Forest Unit (Figure 2-2), a perimeter as well as internal fenceline has been cleared in<br />
preparation for building 17 miles of ungulate proof fencing, anticipated to be completed within<br />
2 years. Three management units within KFU will exist once the fencing is completed. The PEP<br />
Program for Hawai‘i Isl<strong>and</strong> has been similarly collecting seeds for PEP listed species at this unit <strong>and</strong><br />
propagating them at the Volcano Rare <strong>Plan</strong>t Facility. These include Asplenium peruvianum var.<br />
Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management L-3
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
insulare (several founders, not considered PEP anymore), Sicyos macrophylla (one founder);<br />
Sanicula s<strong>and</strong>wicensis (three founders); Cyanea marksii (one founder); Cyanea stichtophylla (two<br />
founders); Phyllostegia ambigua (one founder); Phyllostegia spp. (one founder); Stenogyne<br />
macrantha (one founder); Rubus macraei (one founder); <strong>and</strong> Fragaria chiloensis ssp. s<strong>and</strong>wicensis<br />
(three founders). No outplantings have occurred at KFU because it has not been fenced. <strong>Plan</strong>ts that<br />
were collected <strong>and</strong> matured to outplanting sizes have been outplanted in State Natural Area Reserve<br />
fenced exclosures in nearby south Kona. Other PEP species occur on l<strong>and</strong>s adjacent to the Kona<br />
Forest Unit <strong>and</strong> have been collected for future outplantings in the KFU once it is protected by fencing<br />
<strong>and</strong> animals have been removed.<br />
The KFU is also considered potential habitat for listed Cyanea hamatiflora carlsonii <strong>and</strong> is critical<br />
habitat for listed Drosophila. Four bird transects have also been established <strong>and</strong> bird surveys are<br />
conducted intermittently. The U.S. Geological Survey has been conducting basic cave<br />
reconnaissance related to lava tubes <strong>and</strong> skylights. Additional surveys that have been made of the<br />
area include archaeological, rare plant, ‘io, <strong>and</strong> weed surveys. There is also an access road easement<br />
on private l<strong>and</strong>s from the highway to the Refuge that requires periodic repairs (Figure 5-3). Though<br />
no aquatic habitats occur at KFU, the area is considered a groundwater recharge area <strong>and</strong> critical for<br />
this drought prone region of the isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
The current budget (FY2010) for Hakalau Forest NWR is $1,168,098. This budget funds seven full<br />
time staff members (refuge manager, deputy refuge manager, maintenance supervisor, maintenance<br />
worker leader, wildlife biologist, horticulturalist, <strong>and</strong> administrative officer) as well as all operational<br />
needs. An additional six staff (field crew <strong>and</strong> administrative support positions) are all funded through<br />
soft monies (non-base funding).<br />
The following two tables are a chronological description of the acquisition history listing dates, tract<br />
numbers, acreage, expiration dates as applicable, <strong>and</strong> any specific relevant comments.<br />
Table L-1. Refuge Acquisition History for Hakalau Forest NWR.<br />
Date<br />
Acquired<br />
Legal<br />
Document Tract # Acreage Comments<br />
10/28/1985 Easement 14R 19.45 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $0.00 cost included with<br />
Tract 14.<br />
10/29/1985 Fee Title 10 4,994.00 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $2,800,000.00<br />
Signed 10/21/85. All metallic<br />
minerals to the State of Hawai‘i.<br />
10/29/1985 Fee Title 14 3,300.00 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $1,000,000.00<br />
A road easement consisting of<br />
19.45 (Tract 14R) was also<br />
acquired in the same deed signed<br />
10/21/85. all minerals <strong>and</strong> metallic<br />
mines to State of Hawai‘i.<br />
Expiration<br />
Date<br />
unknown<br />
L-4 Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management<br />
n/a<br />
n/a
Date<br />
Acquired<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Legal<br />
Document Tract # Acreage Comments<br />
06/05/1986 Easement 11-1R 1.05 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $0.00<br />
The price for easements 11R <strong>and</strong><br />
11R1 were included with Tract 11<br />
<strong>and</strong> 11A.<br />
06/05/1986 Easement 11R 3.17 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $0.00<br />
The price for easements 11R <strong>and</strong><br />
11R1 were included with Tract 11<br />
<strong>and</strong> 11A. Road, utilities, access<br />
trails for ancient Hawaiian use or<br />
custom. All mineral <strong>and</strong> metallic<br />
mines to State of Hawai‘i.<br />
06/06/1986 Fee Title 11a 2,523.78 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $849,017.00<br />
Tracts 112R <strong>and</strong> 11R-1 are<br />
included in this cost. Signed<br />
6/5/86.<br />
06/06/1986 Fee Title 11 717.54 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $240,983.00<br />
All minerals <strong>and</strong> metallic mines to<br />
State of Hawai‘i. Roads, utilities,<br />
access trails for ancient Hawaiian<br />
use or custom. Tracts 11R <strong>and</strong><br />
11R-1 are included in this cost.<br />
Signed 6/5/86.<br />
09/24/1986 Easement 13-1R 1.65 From: Hawaiian Home L<strong>and</strong>s<br />
Cost: $900.00<br />
Nonexclusive, perpetual road<br />
easement, including right to trim<br />
vegetation <strong>and</strong> right of entry upon<br />
easement area <strong>and</strong> adjoining l<strong>and</strong><br />
of Hawaiian Home l<strong>and</strong>s for<br />
maintenance of FWS jeep trailterm<br />
6/1/86.<br />
12/31/1986 Fee Title 16 1,542.50 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $1,064,325.00<br />
signed 12/29/86.<br />
12/11/1987 Fee Title 14a 1,977.82 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $550,000.00<br />
Mineral <strong>and</strong> metallic mines to State<br />
of Hawai‘i. Hilo Forest Reserve<br />
easement. Perpetual license dated<br />
10/31/78 for purposed of surplus<br />
water signed 10/5/87.<br />
Expiration<br />
Date<br />
unknown<br />
unknown<br />
Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management L-5<br />
n/a<br />
n/a<br />
perpetual<br />
n/a<br />
n/a
Date<br />
Acquired<br />
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Legal<br />
Document Tract # Acreage Comments<br />
12/14/1988 Fee Title 15 400.00 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $360,000<br />
Mineral <strong>and</strong> metallic mines to State<br />
of Hawaii. Signed 12/2/88 Sutton.<br />
01/27/1993 Fee Title 11b 1,033.94 From: The Nature Conservancy<br />
Cost: $1,033.94<br />
No deed signed date given.<br />
Liluokalani.<br />
09/14/1994 Fee Title 12 15,715.54 From: World Union<br />
Cost: $10,000,000.00<br />
Mineral <strong>and</strong> metallic mines to State<br />
of Hawai‘i. Deed signed 7/22/94.<br />
04/12/1995 Fee Title 17 500.00 From: W.H. Shipman LTD.<br />
Cost: $500,000<br />
Deed signed 4/6/95.<br />
Table L-2. Refuge Acquisition History for Kona Forest Unit.<br />
Date<br />
Acquired<br />
Legal<br />
Document<br />
Expiration<br />
Date<br />
n/a<br />
Tract # Acreage Comments Expiration<br />
Date<br />
10/01/1997 Fee Title 20 5,300.00 From: Les Marks Trust<br />
Cost: $7,780,000.00<br />
Road <strong>and</strong> utility easements. Native<br />
tenant rights. Other authorities are<br />
DT authority 1888 & 1931.<br />
03/30/2005 Easement 21-1R 4.00 From: Les Marks Trust<br />
Cost: $20,000.00<br />
Grant of Nonexclusive easement<br />
document. Monetary purchase <strong>and</strong><br />
settlement agreement.<br />
03/30/2005 Easement 21-2R 13.00 From: Les Marks Trust<br />
Cost: $40,000.00<br />
Grant of Nonexclusive easement<br />
document. Monetary purchase<br />
<strong>and</strong> settlement agreement.<br />
L-6 Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management<br />
n/a<br />
n/a<br />
n/a<br />
n/a<br />
unknown<br />
unknown
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
Figure L-1. 1993 pre-reforestation <strong>and</strong> restoration efforts (photo courtesy of Jack Jeffrey).<br />
2007 post-reforestation <strong>and</strong> restoration effort (photo courtesy of Jack Jeffrey).<br />
Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management L-7
Hakalau Forest National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge<br />
<strong>Comprehensive</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>Plan</strong><br />
L-8 Appendix L. Summary of Past <strong>and</strong> Current Management
U.S. Department of the Interior<br />
U.S. <strong>Fish</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Wildlife</strong> Service<br />
Big Isl<strong>and</strong> National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge Complex<br />
60 Nowelo Street, Suite 100<br />
Hilo, Hawai‘i 96720<br />
Phone: 808/443-2300<br />
Fax: 808/443-2304<br />
http://www.fws.gov/hakalauforest<br />
National <strong>Wildlife</strong> Refuge System Information<br />
1 800/344 WILD<br />
April 2011<br />
Front Cover Photos: Back Cover Photos:<br />
‘Akiapōlā‘au ‘Ākepa<br />
©Jack Jeffrey ©Jack Jeffrey<br />
‘I‘iwi ‘Io<br />
©Michael Walther ©Michael Walther<br />
Nēnē Hakalau Forest<br />
USFWS USFWS