Fascinating Lichens of Sri Lanka

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Front Cover 

Heterodermia queensberryi was first recorded by Dr. Gothamie 

Weerakoon and named after Dilmah’s Queensberry Estate 

where it was discovered during an expedition supported by 

Dilmah Conservation. Thus far, this endemic species has only 

been observed on smooth tree bark in the high mountain 

forests in Sri Lanka. 

An online key to complement this publication 

is available at: 

http://dbiodbs.units.it/carso/chiavi_pub21?sc=656 

This online key is made available with the endorsement of the 

Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Italy and the 

National Geographic Society. 

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Citation 

Weerakoon, G. (2015). Fascinating Lichens of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka: 

Ceylon Tea Services PLC. 

Text by 

Gothamie Weerakoon 

Photographs by 

Andre Aptroot, Alissa Allen, Felix Schumn, 

Gothamie Weerakoon, Mendis Wickramasinghe, 

Nilantha Vishvanath, Robert Lucking, Sarath Perera 

Vimukthi Ambuldeniya, Vishan Pushpamal 

Line drawings, Design and Layout by 

Kasun Pradeepa. Wild Studio 

Printed and bound 

Karunaratne & Sons (Pvt)Ltd. 

ISBN: 978-955-0081-15-8 

Ceylon Tea Services PLC 

MJF Group 

111, Negombo Road 

Peliyagoda 

Sri Lanka 

Contact 

info@dilmahconservation.org 

2015. 

Fascinating 

Lichens 

of Sri Lanka 

Gothamie Weerakoon

Message from the Founder 

Having spent many years of my life in Sri Lanka’s tea fields, I have noticed the 

common presence of lichens upon tree bark and rocks, and even man-made 

structures. However, I did not pay particular attention to the unassuming presence of 

lichens in and around our environment until a new species of lichen Heterodermia 

queensberryi was discovered in Dilmah’s Queensberry Estate in Nawalapitiya. It is 

through that discovery that I learned about the valuable environmental contribution 

of these overlooked organisms. Lichens are an essential but often unnoticed part of 

nature. 

There is a dearth of knowledge about lichens which is hampering people’s 

opportunities to learn more about and appreciate their important role in ecosystems. 

As such, I am glad that Dilmah Conservation has partnered with Dr. Gothamie 

Weerakoon to develop Fascinating Lichens of Sri Lanka; the first effort of its kind in Sri 

Lanka. I hope that this visual compilation will help stir an interest in young people in 

particular to observe the world around them with keener eyes and understand the 

vital part played even by its ignored and seemingly insignificant constituents. 

This book represents an invitation to young people to go out into the environment 

and learn more about uncommon and unusual flora, fauna and other fascinating 

organisms which remain unknown due to the lack of accessible knowledge. We at 

Dilmah Conservation hope that as the first ever local publication on this subject, this 

introduction to Lichens of Sri Lanka serves as a source of encouragement to a wider 

audience to learn more about lichens and their distribution. 

Merrill J. Fernando 

Founder – Dilmah Conservation

Fascinating 


of Sri Lanka 


Cladonia didyma

Foreword 

Preface 

08 Fascinating Lichens of Sri Lanka 

Lichens are fascinating symbiotic organisms exhibiting an extraordinary diversity 

of morphologies and colours. Their appearance is so different from its individual 

partners, fungi and algae and/or cyanobacteria, that lichenologists until the mid- 

19th century did not recognize their dual nature. This symbiotic association produces 

tough creatures able to grow under the harshest conditions at high elevations of 

the Himalayas to Nunataks in continental Antarctica. However, they occur in basically 

all terrestrial ecosystems and in fact are most speciose in tropical regions of the 

world. In tropical ecosystems they occur at all elevations from mostly crustose, 

often inconspicuous species in lowland rain forests to large macrolichens at higher 

elevations, especially at elevations that are under the influence of Passat clouds. 

Lichens and their associated bryophytes form the most important epiphytic organisms 

and are also first colonizers of soil and rocks and hence contribute significantly to the 

production and stabilization of soil. Despite their ecological importance and the high 

diversity of lichens in the tropics, the diversity of lichens in the tropics is generally 

poorly known. In the 19th century most tropical countries were visited by general 

botanists who collected lichens among a number of different organisms, and the 

study of those lichens was often done by specialist who either never or rarely studied 

tropical lichens in nature. Subsequently, European or North American lichenologists 

visited tropical countries for expeditions collecting specifically lichens and hence 

enhancing our knowledge of lichen diversity in the tropics. However, the main step 

forward was the increasing number of lichenologists working in the tropics where the 

lichen diversity is high. In Sri Lanka the recent local increase in interest in lichenology 

resulted in a remarkable increase in new records for the country and even the Indian 

subcontinent and numerous new species were discovered. Thus the time to publish 

a guide to introduce interested citizens into the fascinating world of lichens in Sri 

Lanka is ideal. Gothamie Weerakoon, the author of this beautiful guide, is one of the 

new generation of Sri Lankan lichenologists who has contributed to the knowledge 

of lichens in Sri Lanka to a great extent. She has worked intensely on the ecology of 

lichens in the highlands of Sri Lanka and worked on the taxonomy mainly of crustose 

lichens, especially the megadiverse family Graphidaceae. The latter family consists 

of approximately 2,500 described species, and has its center of distribution in the 

wet tropics. Therefore it seems appropriate that Gothamie devoted one chapter of 

her guide to this diverse family. I hope that this guide will encourage a number of 

young students and citizen scientists to get interested in these fascinating symbiotic 

organisms and join forces with current Sri Lankan lichenologists in their endeavor to 

understand lichen diversity in this diversity hotspot. 

H. Thorsten Lumbsch 

President, International Association for Lichenology 

Robert A. Pritzker Director of the Integrative Research Center, 

The Field Museum, Chicago, IL, USA 

One of the ongoing puzzles that has plagued me is why only a handful of people, 

including amateur and professional naturalists in Sri Lanka, know about or indeed, care 

about lichens. As an integral part of life around us, lichens seem to have everything 

going for them. Lichens are a visible and a vital component of any landscape, yet they 

are not perceived as life forms in their own right. 

They are colourful, varied, can be found all through the year, occur almost everywhere, 

often easy to recognize, and require minimum equipment to appreciate. Lichens are 

the essence of our forests, as they prefer unpolluted and undisturbed landscape. To 

find them in abundance, just find any corner in Sri Lanka where the environment is 

still pure and unspoiled. 

In a world in which few habitats remain pristine as a consequence of human 

activities, an appreciation of lichens can strengthen the desire to preserve and defend 

biological diversity and protect natural areas. To study them, one must go on foot and 

look closely at parts of the landscape which are as yet unspoiled. 

Flourishing, long-lived symbiotic lichens endure searing seasonal changes, heavy 

rains, frigid nights, episodes of intensive grazing and trampling. These lichens in all 

their varied magnificence, support myriads of animals ranging from tiny mites and 

tree frogs that spend their entire lives in a few square meters, to wide-ranging birds, 

variety of insects, snails and mammals among others. People of many areas have also 

used lichens as food, medicines, dye etc. Lichens have been used as natural indicators 

to monitor air quality and as indicators of forest health. 

While the flora of Sri Lanka has been explored for centuries, why then have Sri Lankan 

lichens been paid very little attention for so long? I believe it is because there have 

never been easily accessible keys or guides available for the country, not even for the 

most common and conspicuous species. Indian scientists have produced numerous 

well-illustrated books dealing with lichens for many regions of India, while the Sri 

Lankan lichen flora had only received some attention by foreign lichenologists until 

recent years. Even so, no comprehensive treatment has been produced for the 

country. 

The idea of preparing a book to fill the basic requirement of Sri Lankan lichenology 

came up from the conversations between me and Dilmah Conservation in late 2013. 

Consequently, I made two short trips with the Dilmah team to photograph some 

species in known localities during my family vacation last year. 

Fascinating Lichens of Sri Lanka 09

Acknowledgements 

This book provides only an introduction to the fascinating and diverse lichens of Sri 

Lanka. The book does not contain extensive descriptions that are usually typical to 

lichen field guides, as I wanted to make the book simple enough for anyone who 

wishes to discover these organisms. This book includes most of the macrolichens that 

one is likely to encounter in frequently visited areas such as Horton Plains, Nuwara 

Eliya, the Knuckles Mountains or Adams Peak (Sri Pada), plus a few of the more 

common and distinctive crustose species. The images in this book are drawn mostly 

from those I took for my recent studies, and in some cases I have reused colleagues’ 

photos for certain species absent from the herbarium or those that were not noted 

during the short field trips. 

Whenever I am in a lichen-rich landscape of Sri Lanka, I am astounded by the diversity 

and complexity surrounding me—countless lichens, interacting at multiple levels, 

both visible and invisible to the human eye occur from ground level to canopy top, 

shaping and in turn being shaped by the physical environment. Spending time in 

an unaltered forest and to be immersed in the result of thousands of generations of 

competition and natural selection resulting in a dynamic array of diversity, which, 

collectively, is supremely attuned to this unique landscape, is such a fantasy. 

According to my field observations and ongoing research studies, over 2000 different 

lichen species could occur in Sri Lanka. How many lichens have you seen so far? Do 

you really want to know about these fascinating organisms? For me, lichens are an 

essential part of any landscape. I began studying them not long ago, only in 2009. 

Learning to recognize lichens as distinct life forms, and beginning to distinguish one 

from the other, was a revelation to me; a powerful invitation to find out more. I invite 

the reader to embark on a similar journey. 


Scientific Affiliate, Integrative Research Centre, The Field Museum, 

1400 South Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496, U.S.A.; 

email: gothamiew@yahoo.com 

I am especially grateful to Dilmah Conservation for funding the publication of this 

lichen book for Sri Lanka. 

This book was made possible by the kindness and encouragement from many 

people: fellow researchers, administrators, amateur enthusiasts and colleagues 

who contributed their expertise and assistance. Many lichenological colleagues 

contributed specimens, photographs, and helped with the identification of 

specimens. Special mention must be made of the following for their support: 

Thorsten Lumbsch, Robert Lucking, Pat Wolseley, Andre Aptroot, Susan Will-Wolf, 

Felix Schumn, Yoshihito Ohmura, Dan Blanchon, Sittiporn Parnmen, Matthew Nelson, 

Philippe Clerc, Holger Thues, Cecile Gueidan, Steve Leavitt, Ekaphan Kraichak, Eimy 

Rivas Plata, Bruce McCune, Pier Luigi Nimis, and Colman Patrick Cloonan. 

I am especially thankful to my senior supervisor, Thorsten Lumbsch, for his mentoring 

and encouragement which made this book possible. I wish to thank Pat Wolseley for 

inspiring my love for lichens. Further, I also wish to express my gratitude to Robert 

Lucking, and Andre Aptroot, whose profound knowledge of tropical lichens and 

guidance is absolutely central to my involvement with lichens. 

I wish to acknowledge the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, National Science 

Foundation-USA, Field Museum-USA, Natural History Museum-UK, National 

Geographic Society, British Lichen Society and Dilmah Conservation for their 

generous support for my research. Heartfelt thanks also to Peter Raven, President 

Emeritus of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 

Thanks to Chandrani Wijeyaratne for her valuable life lessons. 

And thanks to Siril Wijesundara, Veranja Karunaratne, Udeni Jayalal, Aruna 

Weerasooriya, Ranil Rajapakshe, and Dinzardhe Raheem for their support. 

Finally, I am very grateful for my husband, my two sons, my family, friends, and all 

those who made this book possible. 



Contents 

Foreword 08 

Preface 09 

Acknowledgements 11 

1. Lichens and Their Role 15 

1.1 What is a Lichen? 15 

Lichen Structure 16 

Types of Lichens 19 

Reproduction 22 

Noteworthy External Structures 25 

Colours and Chemistry of Lichens 27 

1.2 Use of Lichens 28 

1.3 Ecology and Diversity of Lichens 30 

2. The Sri Lankan Lichen Flora 32 

2.1 Earlier Records of Lichens 32 

2.2 Lichen Flora of Sri Lanka 33 

2.3 Distribution and Bio Geographical Relationships 36 

3. Conserving and Studying Lichens 37 

3.1 Conservation 37 

3.2 Studying, Collecting and Identifying 38 

4. Some Fascinating Lichens of Sri Lanka 41 

4.1 About this Book 41 

4.2 Illustrations of Some Fascinating Lichens 44 

5. Lichen Family Graphidaceae: 134 

Most Speciosus Lichen Family in Sri Lanka 

Appendix: 163 

Other New Species and New Records of Sri Lankan Lichens 

Glossary 176 

Bibliography and Resources for Further Study 180 

Index 183 

Scientific Names 

Pseudocyphellaria beccarii 



1. Lichens and Their Role 

1.1 What is a Lichen? 

Lichens are not a single organism, but a combination of two (or a few): a fungus 

and either an alga or a cyanobacterium. The fungus is called the mycobiont. 

The alga or cyanobacterium is known as the photobiont. The relationship 

between the mycobiont and photobiont is mutually beneficial and is termed as 

symbiosis. The mycobiont and some of the lichen forming photobionts do not 

or only rarely occur in a free-living state. They are obligate symbionts, meaning 

that symbionts depend on each other for survival. The fungus obtains food from 

the photobiont. The photobiont acquires additional sources of nutrients and a 

stable home within the lichen body (thallus), so it is protected from the vagaries 

of the environment. 

M - Mycobiont 

P - Photobiont 

P 

M 

Is the lichen thallus a controlled form of parasitism ? 

Heterodermia queensberryi 

Recent research has found that lichens have a diverse community of 

microbiological organisms inside them; namely, an assortment of bacteria and 

fungi that are different from the main symbiotic partners. The role of bacteria 

within the lichen requires extensive research to understand their functions. 


The lichen symbiosis is a successful relationship which allows lichens to 

thrive in almost all terrestrial habitats. Lichens live on sunlight, air and water. They 

do not have roots, and thus do not absorb nutrients or water. This allows lichens 

to grow on a wide variety of substrates. Lichens are fully adapted to function as 

miniature ecosystems. Therefore, lichens are found from the tropics to the Polar 

Regions, in built-up areas and even in extreme environments where a separate 

mycobiont and photobiont would be rare or nonexistent. Lichens flourish on 

old paint, rusty metal, glass, plastic, old shoes, and on tops of vehicles that have 

been parked in the same place for years. In fact, some lichen individuals which 

continue to exist in the arctic regions are reported to be over 3000 years old. 

Fungi are not plants, but organisms with an ancient lineage of their own, closer to 

animals than plants. Lichens have evolved from various groups of non-lichenized 

fungi at different times in the history of evolution. Therefore, diverse groups of 

lichens exist in nature. 

The main body of the lichen, the thallus, consists mainly of microscopic threads 

of fungus, known as hyphae. In most lichens, the algal or cyanobacterial cells 

lie among the hyphae, in a layer just beneath the surface. The thallus usually 

consists of several distinct layers in many lichens; 

1. Upper Cortex - outermost layer: composed of densely packed fungal cells; 

often brightly coloured, containing pigments that protect the thallus from 

radiation. The cortex forms a sort of skin on the lichen’s surface. 

2. Algal Layer - concentration layer of photobiont cells, cells of algae and/or 

cyanobacteria. 

3. Medulla - loosely interwoven, thread like fungal cells (hyphae). 

4. Lower cortex - in some lichens root-like structures or rhizines, attach the 

thallus to the substrate. 

Upper cortex 

Although lichens have a simple construction, they cannot be considered as 

primitive. According to their DNA sequence data, lichens are older than 

dinosaurs and would have first appeared about 300 to 250 million years ago 

during the Permian period on the single supercontinent Pangaea. These early 

lichen groups continue to exist today. 

The Permian is a geologic period extended from 300 to 250 

million years ago. It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era. At the 

time, the world was dominated by a single supercontinent known 

as Pangaea, surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa. The 

Permian Period (along with the Paleozoic Era) ended with the largest 

mass extinction in Earth’s history, in which nearly 90% of marine 

species and 70% of terrestrial species died out. 

Cross section of the lichen thallus 

(Source: Indian lichens) 

Algal layer 

Fruiting body 

(apothecium) 

Medulla 

Lower cortex 

Thallus 

Rhizines on the thallus undersurface 

Lichen Structure 

The body of the lichen is called the thallus and is composed of the cells of the 

mycobiont and the photobiont. The thallus of a lichen is treated as an individual. 

The mycobiont is mostly a member of the Ascomycota (cup fungi) and is 

typically the dominant partner. What a lichen looks like is strongly influenced by 

the photobiont. The resultant thallus is unlike either of the individual symbionts. 

Every lichen has its own unique thallus. The taxonomic nomenclature (name 

of the lichen) is assigned on the basis of the fungus of the lichen. 

Apothecium 

Ascus with 

spores 

Algal cells 

Upper cortex 

of the thallus 

Lower cortex 

Rhizines 

(Above) Diagrammatic representation 

of a lichen, (Left) with a section 

through the thallus and apothecium 

Fungal hyphae 

(comprising the 

medulla) 



Types of Lichens 

The vegetative structure of the lichen has developed to a complexity that has 

not yet been reached by any other group in the fungal kingdom. Consequently, 

lichens come in many colours and have various structures. In general, lichens are 

subdivided into several growth forms. These forms are used for convenience of 

categorizing lichens and have no taxonomic basis. Thus, each form could include 

very different unrelated families and genera, and conversely, a single family or a 

genus could span several growth forms. 

Initially, lichens can be categorized as microlichens and macrolichens based on 

the size of the thallus. Based on the habit of lichens, all of them can be integrated 

within the threefold artificial scheme of growth forms viz. crustose, foliose and 

fruticose. The simplest growth form, crustose lichens, is principally considered as 

a microlichen. Usually smaller, flat patches on bark or rock are crustose. They are 

closely attached to the substrate growing directly on the surface with the lower 

surface tightly attached, so water loss is restricted to the upper surface. 

Lichen species with more complex, larger and more conspicuous growth forms 

are termed as macrolichens and mainly include the foliose and fruticose lichens. 

Thallus structure. 

(Left) Filamentous (Ephebe lanata) 

(Right) Squamulose (Placidium lachneum) 

but also the typical cellular arrangement of a foliose lichen. 

(Above) Branched rhizines 

(Hypotrachyna laevigata), (Below) 

Simple rhizines 

(Parmotrema crinitum) 

Foliose lichens have a leaf-like, flattened, partially attached thallus that expands 

and spreads horizontally. The thallus is usually attached to the substrate by 

rhizines present on the lower surface, consisting of a root-like hair that may be 

simple, dichotomously, or irregularly divided and grow centrifugally outwards. 

Prothallus 

Prothallus - in some lichens, the thallus may be attached to the substrate 

directly by a mat of hyphae of the medulla or cortex. When present, this 

has a distinct colour (black, red, pink, brown). 

Fruticose lichens have upright, bushy or shrubby growth or pendulous, hairlike 

or strap-shaped growth by which the thallus is attached to the substrate 

at the base (by a holdfast). In fruticose lichens, the upper cortex goes all the 

way around the branches or stalks, so there is no upper or lower surface. The 

photobiont layer is found below the cortex, and the medulla lies deeper within. 

There are two types of fruticose thalli: radiate-fruticose (e.g. Usnea) and stratosefruticose 

(e.g. Cladonia). Some fruticose lichens have a solid interior while some 

genera have a hollow interior (Cladonia). Lichens which belong to genus Usnea 

have an elastic central cord. 

Some species with tiny, crowded, often overlapping lobes called squamules are 

often referred to as squamulose. These have been grouped with the crustose 

species except for those in Cladonia, a special case. Most Cladonia species have a 

base consisting of a mass of squamules, the primary thallus from which single or 

branched stalks arise, called podetia that are essentially fruticose. So this genus 

has been placed with the other fruticose genera. 

Prothallus is formed in some lichens; Parmeliella brisbanensis 



Microlichens 

Crustose 

Crustose lichens: 

A mosaic of species growing on bark 

b. Radiate-fruticose - (Left) Ramalina usnea, 

(Middle) Fruticose - beard-like, (Right) Holdfast 

(Left) Crustose : leprose, (Middle) Crustose : areolate, (Right) Crustose : placodioid 

Macrolichens 

a. Stratose-fruticose, b. Radiate-fruticose, c. Foliose, d. Squamulose 

c. Foliose - (Left) Pseudocyphellaria beccarii, 

(Right) Foliose 

a. Stratose-fruticose - (Left) Cladonia coccifera, (Right) Fruticose : cuplike 

d. Squamulose - (Left) Phyllopsora halei, 

(Right) Squamulose 



Lichen communities are classified based on the substrate on which they grow on 

viz. terricolous (on soil), saxicolous (on rock), lignicolous (on wood), corticolous 

(on bark), foliicolous (on leaves), and omnicolous (on various substrates). 

Corticolous (bark-inhabiting) communities are the major component of 

epiphytic communities (that also includes foliicolous species on living leaves) in 

tropical forest areas. 

(Left) Many different 

saxicolous lichens (on rock) 

(Below left)Chroodiscus 

australiensis, one of most 

beautiful foliicolous lichen 

found in Sri Lanka. 

(Below right) Foliicolous 

lichens (on leaves); rain 

forests are home to many 

different lichens, also 

growing on living leaves. 

These structures vary in different lichen species, with colour, texture and size. The 

most common type observed, are apothecia. 

In some lichen genera, the fruiting bodies are perithecia, which are flaskshaped 

structures immersed in the lichen tissue and opening at the top with a 

small hole. 

There are special types of apothecia called lirellae. Lirellae are linear and 

elongated apothecia, often branched, with a slit-like opening. 

Apothecia share common features, although those can be arranged in diverse 

ways. Within the apothecia, microscopic Spores are produced in a sac like 

structure called Asci. The outer margin of the apothecium is called exciple; it 

may be blackened like carbon (lecideine) or pale to colourless (biatorine), or it 

may consist of thallus-like tissue, an amphithecium, forming a thalline margin 

containing algae. Apothecia with thalline margins are called lecanorine (margin 

is the same colour as the thallus), after the genus Lecanora. 

Reproduction 


The majority of the lichenized ascomycetes have a sexual reproduction 

(via spores) and / or an asexual reproduction (vegetative / some form of 

fragmentation of thallus). 

With a few exceptions, lichenized fungi are ascomycetes, and their fruiting bodies 

are known as ascomata. Sexual reproduction of lichens happens only in the 

mycobiont as reproduction by both the symbionts is usually not possible. The 

structures formed by the mycobiont are usually roundish, disk-shaped or globular. 

The wavy lines like fruiting bodies called apothecia, perithecia or lirellae. 

Different types of reproductive structures and spores in an Ascus: 

(Above left) a. Lirellae (Graphis gonimica), 

(Above middle) Lirellae (Graphis srilankensis), 

(Above right) b. Lecideine apothecia (Megalospora sulphurata), 

(Below left) c. Lecanorine apothecia (Heterodermia diademata), 

(Below middle) d. Apothecia on thalline stalk/ Podetia (Cladonia fruticulosa), 

(Below right) e. Spores in Asci 


f. different lichen spores - (Left) Muriform spore; Thelotrema spp. , 

(Middle) Septate spores; Arthonia spp. , (Right) g. Perithecia pyrenula spp. 

Structure of flask - like 

perithecium showing thick 

black outer wall and asci 

containing spores. Spores are 

ejected via the small opening 

(ostiole)at the top. 

(Left) a. Soredia on the thallus margin of Pseudocyphellaria intricata, 

(Right) Diagram of structure of soralium containing soredia 

Isidia are tiny cylindrical or granular shaped outgrowths from the thallus and 

often finger-like structures arising from of the upper cortex where both algal and 

fungal symbionts are present. They are attached from their base to the thallus, so 

break off easily and disperse to grow into a new thallus in a new location. 

Evidently, fungal spores by themselves cannot make a new lichen; they need 

to find a suitable species of algal or cyanobacterial partner to generate a new 

thallus. It is still a mystery how often this happens in nature, since both the 

fungus and alga come together on a microscopic scale. Possibly that is the main 

reason that lichens have evolved into developing other asexual/ nonsexual / 

vegetative ways of reproducing by several kinds of vegetative propagules. 


These propagules are formed on the thallus surface and are easily detached. 

The propagules contain little bits of a complete lichen, and they are spread by 

wind and rain or by insects, birds, snails and other animals. They are, perhaps the 

dominant ways by which a lichen is dispersed and becomes established on new 

substrates. 

Isidia and soredia are considered as the most important symbiotic propagules 

among the many different vegetative propagules. 

Soredia are the most common vegetative structures. These tiny balls consist of 

a few threads of fungal hyphae surrounding a few cells of algae. Soredia do not 

have a cortex, and can be fine and powdery (farinose) or coarse and granular. 

In many lichens, soredia are formed in soralia which are simply scattered on the 

surface. The types and location of soralia are important characters in identifying 

many lichen species: soralia may be marginal along the lobe margins; laminal, on 

the upper surface of the lobes; or labriform, like tiny lips on the lobe tips. 

Noteworthy External Structures 

(Left) b. Isidia on the thallus margin of Pseudocyphellaria 

desfontainii, (Right) Diagram of isidium structure 

The colour of the lichen surface is important in differentiating one species from 

another, as is whether the surface is shiny or dull, smooth or crusty and rough. 

A number of non-reproductive features are also important in identifying many 

lichens. Pruina, a thin coating of crystals and dead cells resembling pale white 

or rarely yellow dust or frosting is one of the most important characters in lichen 

identification. Pruina lightens the colour of the lichen surface, and can be found 

on the lobes or on apothecia. 

Cyphellae (round white depression on lower surface) that are actually holes in 

the cortex and Pseudocyphellae (see under genus Pseudocyphellaria). 


Colours and Chemistry of Lichens 

Many lichen fungi produce one or more unique chemical compounds. There 

are hundreds of compounds produced by lichens, many that are not created by 

any other organism. These colours often found in lichen growing in exposed, 

bright locations, help protect the algal layer from overexposure to sunlight. Also 

these chemicals help to repel herbivores, kill attacking microbes and discourage 

competition from other organisms. Some colourless chemical substances in 

lichens can be useful, and often essential in species identification. 

(Left) Cyphellae on the lower 

surface of of Sticta weigelii, 

(Right) Pores on the lower surface of Sticta spp. 

(R.above) (cyphellae), (Right below) Pseudocyphellaria 

spp. (pseudocyphellae) 

Cilia on the margin of lobes of Heterodermia sp. 

Some lichen species have cilia, 

slender, hair like growths on the 

margins of lobes or around the rims 

of apothecia. They can be pale to 

dark, and unbranched or branched. 

Cilia do not fasten the lichen to the 

substrate. 

Many different chemical 

compounds are found 

in lichens: TLC of 

Heterodermia hypochraea 

Some lichens whose main photobiont is a green alga also contain cyanobacteria. 

The cyanobacteria can serve as a secondary photobiont. These cyanobacterial 

cells are clustered into gall-like lumps or granules called cephalodia, usually seen 

as darker coloured bumps. These cyanobacteria fix nitrogen which can be used 

by the lichen and other plants. Thus, they assist lichens in colonizing nitrogenpoor 

environments and enrich the soil for plants. 

Fairly simple spot tests can be carried out using few chemicals, to tell species 

apart. Information on simple chemical tests is included in the species descriptions 

in this book where relevant. 

The basic techniques required for spot tests are simple. A few reagents and a 

capillary tube are needed to apply a tiny amount of reagent to the lichen, often 

a specific part of it. The most commonly used reagents are: 

K (KOH): 10% solution of KOH, potassium hydroxide. 

C: strong solution of NaCIO, sodium hypochlorite. Undiluted laundry Bleach can 

be used. 

Cephalodia - gall -like lumps that are 

brown red colour on the thallus of 

Stereocaulon austroindicum 

P: a solution of para-phenylenediamine. Must obtain from a chemical supplier 

and store in a brown bottle. 



and is brilliantly camouflaged as a lichen, (Wickramasinghe and Wickramasinghe 

2012) and Pseudophilautus jagathgunawardanai is commonly observed on tree 

trunks among lichens (Wickramasinghe et al.2013). Lichens occupy a critical 

position in the Arctic food chain as they are the main food source for reindeer. 

Some butterflies store lichen compounds in their tissues as a chemical defence. 

Xanthoria parietina, a bright orange 

yellow foliose lichen produces a pink 

coloured compound that is used for 

dying wool 

1.2 Use of Lichens 


Lichens have had many practical applications for mankind from the production 

of food to clothing during various times and across cultures around the world, in 

addition to the ecological role they play in our environment. 

Since the dawn of human civilization, lichens have been used for medicinal 

purposes. Many communities use lichens as sources of food, and to produce 

dyes, perfumes, and cosmetics. They are also used as herbal remedies, and to 

produce antibiotics. Ancient tribal communities used lichens such as Letharia to 

poison arrow heads. 

Scientists have looked at lichen compounds for a number of years for their 

possible uses as medicines. Usnea has been used for making deodorants and 

skin cream. Nevertheless, the use of lichens for all these applications has a great 

limiting factor: how can it be supplied? Lichens cannot be harvested sustainably 

for commercial purposes due to their slow growth and small size. 

Lichen dyes 

(Left) Letharia columbiana 

dyed wool, 

(Right) Umbilicaria 

mammulata dyed wool 

Some bird species and Northern flying squirrels use lichens as nesting material. 

Many animal species feed on lichens while some insects and tree frogs capitalize 

on the camouflage provided by the lichens. Few frog species have very close 

association with lichens in Sri Lanka: Pseudophilautus cavirostris (hollow snouted 

shrub frog / Hirigadu panduru mediya) hides amongst lichens on tree trunks 

(Left) Humming bird nest made with lichens, 

(Right) Pseudophilautus cavirostris (hollow snouted shrub frog /Hirigadu 

panduru mediya) brilliantly camouflaged as lichens - bryophytes-bark 

The ecological role of lichens: Lichens are well known as pioneers in plant 

succession and display a significant resilience for invasion in much of the world’s 

terrestrial surface, often in stressful, extreme environments inhospitable to other 

forms of life. It is believed that lichens cover 8% of the Earth’s land surface. Their 

dominance means they play a globally important role in the earth’s ecology. 

Lichens act as carbon sinks delaying global warming as they consume carbon 

dioxide for photosynthesis. When lichens cover the ground, they prevent the 

soil from drying out. They conserve moisture where water is scarce, especially 

in deserts, by capturing fog and dew. Lichens are capable of accumulating 

and releasing nitrogen and phosphorus, which helps with the growth of forest 

trees on nutrient-poor soils. Lichens play a major role in rock weathering and 

contribute to soil formation. 

Lichens cover rocks in rocky landscapes of temperate and arctic regions, so 

valuable geological information is protected. As lichen communities forming 

on different types of rock are unique, they enhance field mapping and remote 

sensing in the earth sciences. The colourful patina imparted by lichens has been 

immortalized in the names of rocks and hills throughout the temperate region. 

Lichens have been successfully used to monitor contamination by radioactive 

elements, nuclear bomb testing and the crashing of nuclear-powered satellites. 

Further, lichens have proved they are good candidates to monitor changes in 

UV-B radiation due to the ozone hole. 


Lichens as bioindicators: The dual nature of the lichen association and its 

highly susceptible behaviour to natural and anthropogenic disturbance make 

them powerful environmental indicators. They have become good candidates 

because they are long lived, widely distributed on a global scale, form perennial 

bodies, and concentrate elements from their immediate environment. Hence, 

lichens are used as indicators in many different ways. They are used to assess 

physiological, biochemical or morphological changes, and changes in 

community structure through extinction or species substitution. 

Monitoring the pollution status or health of the ecosystems using lichens has 

been carried out extensively for several decades and a large body of literature 

has been published numbering several thousand articles. Air quality, metal 

contamination, conservation and health status of ecosystems and effects of 

global warming have all been monitored using lichens. Since lichens replace 

monitoring techniques using instrumental recording, they have become a lowcost 

option for environmental monitoring. 

1.3 Ecology and Diversity of Lichens 

The ecology of lichen communities and their dynamics have been investigated 

by numerous lichenologists. They have found that lichen succession is largely 

directional, and changes taking place in the environment affect lichen 

communities. Changes in lichen succession are arrested and environmental 

changes are minimized in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, deserts, rocky outcrops 

of temperate areas, rocks along rivers, lakes, and oceans. Lichen communities last 

for centuries in these habitats. 

Though lichens play a dominant role in terrestrial communities, knowledge of 

their community ecology as relevant to remote areas, especially in inaccessible 

Polar Regions and many of the tropical areas, is limited. About 18,000 lichens have 

been recorded so far while the current estimation remains as 28,000. Estimates 

agree that half of the global estimation, 14,000 lichens, is entirely harboured in 

the tropics. 

The appearance of lichen communities is similar in wide geographical areas of 

the world while the species composition varies from region to region. Certain 

lichens are found to be restricted to specific substrates (the surface on which 

lichens are attached). Some lichen groups are cosmopolitan and become 

established in specific communities. 

Lichens are most striking in arctic and alpine environments, as they often 

form extensive carpets on the ground and colourful crusts on rock surfaces. 

Comparatively, lichens tend to be inconspicuous in tropical environments, 

except in some mountain forests, which are festooned with fruticose lichens. 

Lichens on organic substrates (bark, leaf surface) are most diverse in the tropics, 

while lichens on rocks are poorly represented. The tropical primary forest canopy 

is an unexplored frontier for lichen survival. 

The significance of lichens in the tropics is not immediately obvious. Not enough 

attention has been given to their biodiversity. Most of the tropical areas still 

remain under-explored or unexplored. 

Lichen dynamics change more in tropical forest areas, since environmental 

conditions fluctuate throughout the year. Lichens become established first in 

abandoned fields, typical forest areas or similar habitats. Then they are replaced 

by bryophytes, ferns and finally by higher plants in the tropics. 

A cryptogam reproduces by spores, 

without flowers or seeds. The best 

known groups of cryptogams are 

algae, lichens, mosses and ferns. 

Cryptogams - Lichens, mosses and fern 

on a tree trunk 

Old car covered with 

various lichens 

Although lichenized fungi are better known than other fungi, there are significant 

geographical and taxonomic gaps in the tropics. A geographical analysis of 

lichen checklists suggests that most missing species will be found in the tropics 

and the southern hemisphere. 

Knowledge of tropical lichens is crucial for the accurate estimation of 

global lichen richness. 




So far, the most speciose type of lichens known in tropics, are corticolous 

lichens. The factors determining their development are: climate, site characters, 

phorophyte characters, degree of illumination and humidity, continuity and 

age of vegetation cover in a particular site, age of the bark surface, pH of the 

bark, degree of corrugation of the bark, degree and rate of sloughing of bark, 

moisture-retention and absorbent properties of the bark, inclination of the 

trunk, aspect, and degree of bark leaching by the rain. 

Among South Asian countries, most work on lichens has been done in India, 

from 1925 onwards. The nucleus for lichenological studies was initiated by D.D. 

Awasthi in late 20th century in Lucknow and he is renowned as the father of 

lichen taxonomy in India. Out of these early publications Awasthi’s “Catalogue of 

lichens from India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Ceylon” (1965), “A key to the Microlichens 

of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka” (1991) and “A Compendium of the Macrolichens 

from India, Nepal and Sri Lanka” (2007) also documented the lichens of Sri Lanka. 

The most recently published “An Annotated Checklist of Indian Lichens” by Singh 

and Singha (2010) compiled 2303 lichens found in India. 

2. Sri Lankan Lichen Flora 

2.1 Earlier records of Lichens 

G.H.K. Thwaites, a director of the Botanical Gardens in Sri Lanka from 1849-1880, 

made the first collection of lichens in Sri Lanka, duplicates of which are housed at 

the Natural History Museum in London and in other European herbaria. Leighton 

(1869) described 196 species for this collection including 43 species new to 

science. A visit by Almquist in 1879 produced a collection of lichens that formed 

the basis of Nylander’s Lichenes Ceylonenses (Nylander 1900 a, b). A.G.H. 

Alston (1938), who wrote the “Kandy Flora”, a supplement to Trimens handbook, 

made the third lichen collection which included lichen species collected during 

1926-1931. S. Kurokawa and M. Mineta in 1966 and 1968 provided accounts of 

Anaptychia (Kurokawa 1973) and Parmeliaceae (Kurokawa & Mineta 1973). Under 

the Flora of Ceylon project conducted by Smithsonian institution (1970-1976), 

lichens were collected from a range of sites including the drier lowlands areas 

of the country by R. Santesson, A. Tehler & L. Wheeler. During the 70’s R. Moberg 

and M. Hale visited Sri Lanka, where Hale collected lichens from the canopies of 

giant dipterocarp trees while the logging was taking place in the largest pristine 

rainforest of Sinharaja. These collections resulted in regional accounts of Relicina 

(Hale 1980) and “A revision of the lichen family Thelotremataceae in Sri Lanka” 

which was published in the Bulletin of the Natural History Museum in 1981. 

Following a botanical excursion from the University of Vienna in 1984, 

Brunnbauer (1984-1987) compiled an account of the literature on lichens in Sri 

Lanka in 15 fascicles (unpublished), which included 546 species together with 

synonymy. Jayasooriya, in 1984, donated his collection of lichens which included 

17 specimens to the National Herbarium of Sri Lanka from Ritigala Strict Nature 

reserve. Further publications by Moberg (1986, 1987), Awasthi (1991), Makhija 

& Patwardhan (1992), Breuss & Brunnbauer (1986) and Vězda et al. (1997) have 

brought the number up to 659 species of lichens recorded from Sri Lanka. 

The first workshop on Lichenology at Peradeniya was conducted by P.A. Wolseley 

and G.N. Hariharan in 1999, during which 98 taxa were collected and deposited 

at the National Herbarium of Sri Lanka. Collections made for extracting the 

secondary products of lichens parallel to this workshop contributed to publish 

papers on Usnea and a description of two new species of leprarioid lichens 

(Orange et al. 2001). During a five year survey of lichens carried out by S.C. 

Wijeyaratne (1999-2003) in the Ritigala Mountains, 35 lichens were recorded for 

Sri Lanka. 

Since then, several other lichenological excursions brought the lichen number 

in Sri Lanka up to 696 (Nayanakantha & Gajemeragedara, 2003). Attanayaka 

(2006) carried out a study on diversity and distribution of corticolous lichens 

as indicators of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide levels in Colombo and 

suburbs. This was the very first study of air quality monitoring using the lichens 

in Sri Lanka. This study identified 47 lichen genera including ten genera that 

were sensitive to air pollutants. Udeni Jayalal and research team carried out 

a survey in the Horton Plains in the years 2004-2009. Results from this study 

suggest that the total lichen number could be c. 800 species. Further this study 

added several new lichen records and two Anzia species (Jayalal et al. 2012) 

to Sri Lankan lichen list. The extensive study carried during 2008-2012 in the 

Knuckles mountain region covering 16 different vegetation types by Gothamie 

Weerakoon and research team discovered nine new lichen species and 159 new 

records for Sri Lanka ( Weerakoon et al. 2012 a, b & c; Wijeyaratne et al. 2012) . 

2.2 Lichen Flora of Sri Lanka 

The combination of an ancient, topographically and geologically diverse 

landscape and repeated influxes of biota from diverse regions in Sri Lanka in 

response to climatic change have resulted in a unique juxtaposition of lichens 

from spatially and temporally disparate bio-geographic regions. Many lichen 

species not typically found in nearest sub-continental South India have adapted 

to suitable microhabitats, and survived in Sri Lanka through changes of climate. 

Geology, altitude and vegetation types strongly influence the Sri Lanka’s lichen 

flora. Geology plays a main role, either directly (rock colonizing species), or 


indirectly through its influence on soil and vegetation. Altitude, on the other 

hand, has major effects, governing the humidity, rainfall, temperature and wind 

which are the main environmental factors that affect lichen communities in Sri 

Lanka. 

Lichens are represented in all terrestrial habitats, from costal rocks to the highest 

mountain peak Pidurutalagala (2524 m). Lichens are usually the richest plant 

group in most vegetation types in Sri Lanka. Lichens thrive in the cool, brightly lit 

conditions of high altitude montane and submontane rainforests. Some lichens 

occur below the high-water mark on seashores, and are found semi-permanently 

submerged in rivers and lakes while some lichens have even invaded manmade 

substrates. Only mosses and liverworts in moist environments attain a level 

of diversity comparable to that of lichens. Lichens, together with mosses, and 

liverworts can be found in abundance competing for space on trunks, twigs, 

rocks, soil and rotting wood. 

a b c d 

e 

f 

g 

h 

i 

Different types of 

Crustose lichens 

j 

Road side sign post covered by 

lichens at Horton Plains National Park, 

some foliose, crustose and Usnea spp. 

Crustose lichens; The most diverse type of lichens 

in Sri Lanka. Knowledge of crustose lichens is most 

incomplete in Sri Lanka. 

The central mountain region with the largest units of continuous montane 

vegetation documents the highest levels of endemic, rare, or disjunct lichen 

biota known to date. However, this region has been poorly explored from 

a lichenological perspective. The little lichen work was done in the central 

mountain region prior to field work conducted by local lichenologists in recent 

years in Sri Lanka. Many foreign lichenologists compiled their expeditions of 

macrolichens and few microlichens in a portion of Sri Lanka, stating in their 

introductions “no professional local lichenologist has ever collected in the 

region”. This sober assessment of the current state of lichenological knowledge 

in the region must explicitly acknowledge that there are many more lichens yet 

to be documented from the interior highlands; preliminary work carried out by 

local lichenologists suggests that there are many undescribed species. 

m 

k 

a. Haematomma accolens, b. Letrouitia parabola, 

c. Cratiria obscurior, d. Letrouitia subvulpina, 

e. Brigantiaea leucoxantha, f. Malmidea granifera, 

g. Haematomma africanum, h. Lecanora helva, 

i. Letrouitia domingensis, j. Lecanora leprosa, 

k. Haematomma flexuosum, l. Bacidia millegrana, 

m. Lecanora tropica, n. Megalospora sulphurata, 

o. Malmedia leproloma, p. Malmedia bakeri, 

q. Ramboldia russula, r. Cresponea proximata 

l 

n 

At present, nearly 1000 lichen species are known for Sri Lanka, as lichen research 

is ongoing for the country (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2013; Weerakoon and Aptroot 

2014; Weerakoon et al. 2014, Weerakoon et al. in press). Nevertheless, given the 

poor state of knowledge relating to many Sri Lankan lichen groups, it is more 

likely that 2000 or more lichen species can be found on the island. 


o p q r

2.3 Distribution and Biogeographical 

Relationships 

Lichens have migrated across the globe, from the Northern to Southern 

Hemisphere and across the Neotropics to Paleotropics, because lichens have 

an exceptional ability to disperse. The spores and vegetative propagules are 

readily transported by wind or water. Additionally, some distribution patterns 

are considered to be very ancient and lichens reflect past land connections. 

Many of the recorded Sri Lankan lichens are found in the central highlands, 

west, and southwest of the island. These lichens have close relatives in similar 

geographic areas in India, South-East Asia, the Andaman Islands, South Australia, 

and Tasmania. Lichen species in the mountain areas of Sri Lanka are related to 

the Northern Hemisphere “Gondwanan” species and “Bipolar” species of the 

Alpine and Polar Regions. Some species even represent relics of past and wider 

distributions; many are possible examples of dispersal via the world’s mountain 

chains. 

In the drier areas of Sri Lanka, especially the dry evergreen forest, deciduous 

forest and the mangrove forest of coastal areas, the lichen flora shows strong 

similarities to mainland India. These lichens underline the ecological and climatic 

affinities of the two regions, and the frequency of past land connections. Some 

lichens are known to be endemic to Sri Lanka (c. 60 species), i.e., restricted to a 

very local geographical area. 

A considerable amount of the lichen species of Sri Lanka are closely related to 

lichens of the Indo-Malaysian floristic region of the world, sharing many common 

families and genera. The close relationships between them are credited to their 

common origin in the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana. 

Many lichen species in Sri Lanka are cosmopolitan species. 

Cosmopolitan lichens are found in most vegetation types and habitats. They are 

most abundant around settled areas, on man-made substrates, and on exotic 

trees in plantations, parks and gardens. Disturbed, man-modified habitats 

are also lichen rich colonies and certain species are abundant in cardamom 

plantations in the Kalupahana-Knuckles mountain region. During the period of 

British colonization, substantial areas of the central highlands were irrevocably 

altered by tea plantations, resulting in the local extinction of many lichen species. 

Nevertheless, some lichen species have managed to establish or survive in these 

areas, preserving an element of native vegetation in the altered environment 

and providing an important source of fascinating floristic diversity. 

3. Conserving and Studying 


3.1 Conservation 

As a result of human activities, some lichens suffer adversely, like many other living 

things on this planet. Most lichens found in Sri Lanka are very tiny microlichens, 

hence it is not possible to immediately notice the loss of species or changes in 

distribution pattern. The loss of lichens mainly results from habitat destruction 

owing to atmospheric and aquatic degradation. Lichens quickly respond to air 

pollution and habitat changes. Their ecological roles and requirements are totally 

different from those of macro-organisms. Often without lichens, the survival of 

macro-organisms is in danger as lichens are vital components of ecosystem 

function. 

Careful observation, 

correct identification, 

enthusiasm, extensive 

sampling and long 

laboratory hours are 

essential to understand 

the fascinating lichen 

flora of Sri Lanka 

Both at species level and at a community level, much of the lichen flora is confined 

to montane, submontane, and rain forests in Sri Lanka. These vegetation types 

have the highest risk in the country. The utmost threat to Sri Lankan lichens is via 

habitat destruction. When natural vegetation is replaced, be it agricultural land 

or plantation forest / monoculture plantations (e.g. Cardamom, tea), a substantial 

and irreplaceable segment of lichen diversity is inevitably lost. 




The importance of very old trees that host many extremely specialized lichen 

species must not be underestimated. These old trees can be found in cardamom 

and tea plantations, botanical gardens, parks, and home gardens. Also, it is 

essential to maintain a continuous, stable, unbroken canopy which shields the 

interior of the vegetation from the vagaries of the climate and from invasion by 

adventive weedy species. 

Lichen research carried out in Sri Lanka has proved that fragmentation of forests 

into small, isolated stands has had a deleterious effect on the lichen flora. 

Fragmentation results in a general drying-out of the site due to its small size. 

This leads to the establishment of ‘weedy’ non-forest lichen species from nearby 

vegetation. So the native epiphytic forest lichens completely lose their habitat 

or lose their reproductive ability. The end result is the swamping away of native 

lichen forest flora by opportunistic species from outside. Once vanished, the 

chances of forest epiphytic lichens re-invading the site are reduced due to the 

increased distance from other forests which could serve as a source of lichen 

spores. 

Many areas with a high conservation value for flowering plants may also 

have a high value for lichens and bryophytes, but the reverse is not always 

true. Grasslands and rocky areas with no conservation value when it comes 

to flowering plants may still be rich in lichens. The lack of awareness on the 

environmental importance of lichens means that such areas could be overlooked 

during conservation assessments. 

There is much more to learn about Sri Lankan lichens—their diversity, biology 

and ecology. The knowledge of lichens in the wet zone, intermediate zone, 

dry zone, arid zone and in aquatic habitats (both freshwater and marine) 

is lacking. Conservationists often lack information on lichens in prioritizing 

conservation decisions. Moreover, lichens can be discovered in unexplored 

locations as these areas may harbour many new species. As rapid development 

is causing a massive loss to biodiversity in Sri Lanka, it is crucial to document 

our fascinating lichens before they disappear. It is critical that we document our 

threatened lichens on the National Red list and take necessary actions to protect 

both lichens and their sensitive microhabitats. It is worth questioning whether 

lichen conservation can become a reality in Sri Lanka. 

3.2 Studying, Collecting and Identifying 

Unlike birds, butterflies, seasonal flowers or many other organisms, there are 

no special times of year to observe lichens. The only limiting factor may be 

accessibility to a specific habitat. Hundreds of lichen species are accessible and 

remain relatively unchanged at any time of the year. You can enjoy lichens in 

their natural habitats. 

There are many lichens just sitting in your back yard which you may have 

never noticed. 

Although professional lichenologists insist on collections for identification in 

the lab for scientific purposes, most of us will never have the need to collect 

lichens. Leave them right where they grow best and enjoy them. Close 

up photography and sketching will help produce tangible memories of your 

experience. 

Never collect lichens from protected areas without a permit. Also do not collect 

these slow growing organisms, unless you need them for a scientific purpose. 

A hand lens is the single most important tool to have with you (10X jewellers 

lens), which will make it easy to see most of the obvious characteristics of 

lichens. Most of the macrolichens can be told apart by their general appearance. 

The macrolichens included in this book are very easy to identify, just by using a 

hand lens in the natural habitats. However, a majority of microlichens, especially 

crustoses can only be identified through the careful study of their microscopic 

characteristics, the number and type of spores, detail of the ascus structure, and 

so forth. Every so often, thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is needed to identify 

the lichen compounds more thoroughly. 

You need to pay close attention when you collect for scientific purposes. It will 

leave a scar when gathering crustose species, as it can only be collected by 

removing some of the substrate. This can only be done by using a knife or a 

chisel. To obtain lichens found on rocks, the collector may even need a hammer 

and cold chisel. Once collected, specimens should be kept in folded paper 

packets (not plastic bags) because lichens need to be kept dry or they will rot. 

Even experts often have trouble naming lichens with confidence, because the 

range of variation within a species can make it resemble closely related ones. 

More and more, lichenologists are using molecular methods and statistical 

methods of revealing evolutionary relationships to circumscribe genera and 

species. However, none of this should discourage readers who want to try 

their hand at serious identification. There are good sources of help beyond this 

primary guide book for anyone who wants to dig deeper. Access to a good 

dissecting tool, a compound microscope, and few easily obtainable chemicals 

can take you to higher level. 

Like many other groups of organisms, some lichen species are common while 

some species are rare to very rare. Currently there is no organization or institution 

that is working to identify extremely uncommon or endangered lichens species 

in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, the true evolutionary relationships among species of 

lichen fungi are just beginning to be worked out, so the classification of lichen 



is changing rapidly, and it is difficult for available information in print and even 

online to keep up. Collections of data for many species (even some species listed 

on this book) are scant, and many older identifications (based on literature and 

collections of Sri Lanka) are questionable. Therefore, the true range of many 

species, especially crustoses, is largely unknown. Published information often 

reflects where collectors have gone as much as where the species actually grow. 

The potential for trained collectors and naturalists to make a real contribution to 

our knowledge of Sri Lankan lichens, therefore, is substantial. 

It is better to keep in mind that lichen classification is changing rapidly 

though lichens evolve slowly. 

One of the fascinating aspects about lichens is that a species which is generally 

uncommon, may be strikingly abundant in one area. I recall that I had not 

encountered Hypogymnia zeylanica anywhere in Sri Lanka until I went to a 

particular spot in Horton Plains, where suddenly it seemed to be on almost all 

the trees. If you see this species, you might think this is a common species, but I 

have not encountered it anywhere else except for very specific places in Horton 

Plains and few adjacent locations. I think this element of surprise is one of the 

most satisfying rewards of looking for lichens, along with the fact that they grow 

in all of the wildest and most beautiful environments. 

4. Some Fascinating 

Lichens of Sri Lanka 

4.1 About this Book 

This is a preliminary treatment of the fascinating lichen flora of Sri Lanka. This 

book includes a few conspicuous lichens that can be easily spotted by any 

naturalist. The majority of these lichens are found in high elevation montane 

habitats. Many species included in the book can be found in the Horton Plains, 

Hakgala Botanical Gardens, many places in Nuwara Eliya, the National Botanical 

Garden in Peradeniya and Adam’s Peak (Sri Pada). 

It is necessary to emphasize a caveat about this book. This is a first attempt to 

compile a lichen field guide for Sri Lanka, and to provide information about the 

distribution and ecology of a few species in Sri Lanka. Some of the treatments 

are preliminary, and in a few cases, as indicated in the text, there is considerable 

uncertainty regarding the application of a name for several species. Even with a 

few uncertainties, a field guide book such as this can be a useful tool in gaining 

an understanding of the local lichen biota and facilitating the availability of 

accessible information. Out of hundreds of known lichen species in Sri Lanka, 

this book includes few of the macrolichens and very few conspicuous crustose 

genera with few examples. 

A serious observer will undoubtedly find many lichens that are not mentioned 

here since there are over 1000 lichens known from the country. I have not 

provided keys or extensive descriptions. Readers who wish to confidently identify 

lichens will need to consult primary sources. I would also encourage readers to 

consult the keys to lichens that are found in other published sources, as keys are 

the quickest route to identification. The Bibliography of this book lists some of 

the important books on lichens, scientific journals that regularly publish articles, 

and a number of useful online resources. A number of lichens can be found with 

good photographs and extensive descriptions on the internet. 

In this guide, the lichens are arranged alphabetically by genus. For each genus 

included in this book, there is a heading with the genus (Genus), family (F), 

Order (O) and how many species are known in the world for each genus (W) 

followed by a brief synopsis of diagnostic features. This synopsis pertains only 

to those members of the genus listed in the book, and not necessarily to all 

members of the genus. Information on morphology, chemistry, and ecology 

is for the most part derived from central highland material, with emphasis on 

the lower elevations. In a few instances, I have based my comments on other 

Asian and temperate material, or relied on literature reports for taxa, particularly 

regarding sexual characters for species which are mostly sterile in Sri Lanka. 

Each lichen included in the book is given the species name, standard coding 

acronym used on field data (when available), and the growth form (foliose, 

fruticose, crustose etc.). This is followed by distribution, habitat, ecology, and 

any other information of importance about the lichen, as well as any diagnostic 

information on chemical constituents for further characterization of the species. 

The descriptions include distinguishing traits with as little technical jargon as 

possible. Thallus details include colour, shape, and unique features. Apothecia 

details are limited to where appropriate. Chemistry is included only when it is 

necessary to identify the species. Positive identification of lichens often requires 

chemical testing (it is best to do the chemical tests under a microscope when 

lichens are collected for further studies). The special notes include tips for field 

identification characteristics and similar species with which the subject lichen 

may be confused. 


I chose to use close-up photos that depict the most visible characteristics of 

the lichen to identify them in the field. It is important to read the text below 

to get a sense of the traits which can be used in the field and confirming the 

identification in a lab when necessary. It is advised to look at the lichen closely 

with a hand lens (10x magnification). The most common substrates and habitats 

of the species included in this book are listed according to my current field 

experience. Your best bet is to find the species, will be under similar climatic 

and habitat conditions. However, be mindful that this is not exclusively so. Some 

species have very narrow or specific needs while others can vary widely. 

Species 

In trying to understand and appreciate the biological diversity of Sri Lanka, 

especially in the face of human impact on the environment, it is essential not 

to overlook any significant part of the country’s biodiversity. This unfortunately 

has been the case with lower plants and fungi, including lichens. Thus, in this 

book, the fascinating world of lichen biology is briefly introduced, covering not 

only what lichens look like but also where they are found and what economic 

and ecological importance they have. In the diversity of their colours and 

habitats, lichens are a fascinating and important part of nature. By observing life 

around us, we become better and more responsible keepers of the sustainable 

systems upon which we depend. For those who want to observe nature in their 

childhood, the world can become a wonderful place to cultivate a lifelong love 

of nature. I hope this preliminary treatment will inspire casual nature lovers; 

especially the next generation of students and young naturalists to advance the 

knowledge of these fascinating organisms. 

Illustrations 

Common name 

Scientific name 

Description 

Status 

Habitat 

Locations 

Family 

name 

Family 

colour 

code 

Common Name 

Genus 

Order 

Family 

Number 

of species 

recorded in the 

world up to 

2014 

Description 

Genus 

Record Status 

E Endemic, SL new record for Sri Lanka, 

IC New record to Indian subcontinent 

and for Sri Lanka 

E SL IC 

Distributation Status 

VC Very Common, C Common, R Rare, 

VR Very Rare, DD Data Deficient 

VC C R VR DD 

Cladoniaceae 

Coccocarpiaceae 

Coenogoniaceae 

Collemataceae 

Graphidaceae 

Pannariaceae 

Parmeliaceae 

Physciaceae 

Ramalinaceae 

Roccellaceae 

Colour 

Code 

Lichens Type 

Cr Crustose, Fr Fruticose, Fo Foliose 

Lecanoraceae 

Megalosporaceae 

Sphaerophoraceae 

Stereocaulaceae 

Cr Fr Fo 

Lobariaceae 

Usneaceae 



Bunodophoron 

Lecanorales Sphaerophoraceae 

24 

Bunodophoron is a characteristic genus found in cool, wet, temperate areas 

and montane rainforests in tropical and subtropical areas. Its species are mostly 

epiphytes, only rarely found on rocks. This genus includes some of the most 

conspicuous epiphytic lichens of the shaded forests interior. 

In Sri Lanka, they usually grow on mossy trunks. They have a hanging Christmas 

tree-like appearance due to their pendant fruticose thalli. Bunodophoron species 

produce a black, powdery fruiting body known as mazaedium. Mature fruiting 

bodies were not observed on any species collected in Sri Lanka. Different species 

are readily distinguished by their thallus form, colour and chemistry. Their size 

and colour also provides important information for differentiating species. 

Few species of Bunodophoron are widespread, most showing distinct preference 

for particular forest communities, favouring mature mossy trunks. Only 

Bunodophoron diplotypum and Bunodophoron formosanum are widespread 

in Sri Lanka. Other species have a distinct preference for particular montane 

communities. 

Bunodophoron diplotypum 

C 

Fr 


Apothecia called mazedia, terminal or laminal, greyish to reddish brown. 

Chemistry Medulla K-or K+ yellow; C-;P-or P+ yellowish to red, I-. UV+ white. 

In fungi, a fruiting body is a multi-cellular structure on which spore-producing 

structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. The fruiting body is part of the 

sexual phase of a fungal life cycle. 

Description This fruticose lichen has an erect, elongated thallus that is irregularly 

branched. It forms large colonies. The upper surface is greyish yellow and green 

to pale grey, or sometimes almost white. The medulla is hollow. Mazedia are not 

seen on Sri Lankan material. 

Status This common species can be spotted easily, as it forms large colonies on 

the mature trunks of trees in shady interiors. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m. 


Locations Horton Plains and Kalupahana, montane forests in the Knuckles 

mountain region. 



Cladonia 

Reindeer lichens, Caribou lichens, Reindeer moss 

Lecanorales Cladoniaceae 

350 

Cladonia is a large lichen genus and widely distributed in both hemispheres. A 

number of species are cosmopolitan, typically favouring sunny habitats, but a 

few occur in shady forest interiors. Most commonly found on soil but occur on 

all kinds of substrates. It is especially abundant on sandy soil, exposed acid rock 

outcrops, dead wood in rather dry situations, eucalyptus and pinus forests and 

at forest margins. 

Several species are widespread in Sri Lanka, but are often misidentified due to 

their complex morphology and chemistry. Few recent collections were studied 

recently by Gothamie Weerakoon and Andre Aptroot. Twelve new records of 

Cladonia were discovered for Sri Lanka including 4 species that are new records 

for the Indian subcontinent (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2014). It is possible that many 

undiscovered species occur in particular montane communities. The species 

form extensive colourful lawns on the forest floor and in open stony areas. 


Fr 

C 

Bunodophoron formosanum 

Description The thallus of this fruticose lichen forms extensive colonies. The 

slender sparse branches are flattened, particularly at the base. The upper surface 

is pale, greyish green to whitish dirty green. The medulla or internal layer is dense 

to hollow. The lower surface is whitish grey. Mazedia are not seen on Sri Lankan 

material. 

Status This common species can be spotted easily as it forms large colonies on 

the mature trunks of trees in shady interiors. 

The species in this genus have a complex morphology. The development of 

the lichen thallus begins with a scaly (Squamulose) primary thallus. Next, erect 

stalks or podetia develop from the surface or the edge of the squamules. In 

some species, the primary squamules disappear leaving the podetia. Podetia are 

hollow, simple or branched, can end in a cup-like structure or be tapered or have 

a pointed tip. 

The end of Podetia produces brown or bright red (sometimes waxy yellowish 

beige) biatorine apothecia (disc) containing colourless, single celled spores, 8 

per ascus. 

Chemistry Contains wide variety of compounds. 

Cladoniaceae 

Habitat Cosmopolitan species. Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests 

above 1000m. 

Locations Horton Plains, Pidurutalagala, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, 

Kalupahana, Knuckles, and Gombaniya montane forests in the Knuckles 

mountain region. 



Fr 

R 

SL 

Cladonia cartilaginea 

Cladonia coccifera 

R 

Fr 

Cladoniaceae 

Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose, persistent, with a 

green upper side. Podetia are simple or branched, white to light grey, tough, tall, 

slender and sorediate. The podetia surface is circular to angular, discs are dark 

brown at the tips of the podetia. 

Status A rare species that is only spotted in a few locations. Found at a forest 

margin in an open sunny habitat. Pantropical species. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 900-1200 m. 

Locations Kandy and Nuwara Eliya. 

Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose and persistent, with 

a green upper side and white or orange white below. The thallus is esorediate. 

Podetia are greenish, yellowish or whitish grey, and cup-bearing. Cups are 

wide and usually single. Conspicuous brick red to bright red podetia discs are 

abundant. 

Status Only spotted in two locations. But this species when abundant makes a 

red lawn on the soil. Known from many temperate forests of the world from arctic 

to temperate regions in Asia, Europe, North and South America, this species can 

be easily identified as it forms large colonies. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation interior forests above 1200 m. 

Cladoniaceae 

Locations Near Pattipola station - forest department monoculture forest. Seen 

on stumps of logged wood. 



Fr 

DD 

SL 

Cladonia corniculata 

Cladonia didyma Southern soldiers 

DD 

Fr 

Cladoniaceae 

Description Fruticose, Primary thallus is squamulose, small, sorediate and 

brown on upper side. Podetia are white to yellowish grey, thick at the base and 

branched in the apical region. Podetial discs are pale brown. Podetia surface is 

sorediate. 

Status Only spotted in a few localities. New record for Sri Lanka. 


Locations Nuwara Eliya. 

Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is microsquamulose and 

inconspicuous. The thallus is esorediate. The podetia grow on basal squamules. 

Podetia are simple or sparingly branched, pale to dark brown -greenish, fragile , 

fairly common, the disc is wide and bright red. 

Status Only spotted in two locations. This species can be readily identified as it 

forms large colonies. The simple podetia with red discs are conspicuous. 


Locations Horton Plains and Knuckles montane forests. 

Cladoniaceae 



Fr 

VC 

SL 

Cladonia fruticulosa 

Cladonia humilis 

SL 

DD 

Fr 

Cladoniaceae 

Description Fruticose. Basal squamules are persistent, small to medium size, and 

cottony granulose sorediate on the lower side. Pale to dark brown grey podetia 

grow from basal squamules. Podetia are simple, and rarely branched. Podetial 

discs are common, convex, pale brown to dark brown. 

Status Very common. Can be easily identified as this species forms large 

colonies and has simple, brown podetia. New record for Sri Lanka. (Weerakoon 

& Aptroot 2014) 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 900 m. Mostly 

observed on sunny open places growing on soil and soil banks. 

Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose and large, irregularly 

lobate. Podetia are whitish grey brown, thick at base, simple, closed, inner side 

not sorediate, outer side sorediate and squamulose and disc brown. 




Cladoniaceae 

Locations Horton Plains and Kikiliyamana tower area, Pidurutalagala montane 

forests. 



Fr 

Cladonia kurokawae 

Cladonia mauritiana 

DD SL 

SL DD Fr 

Cladoniaceae 

Description Fruticose. Primary thallus squamulose; squamules large, lobed, 

ascending, persistent. Podetia pale grey, 4-11 mm tall, simple, consisting of a 2-8 

mm wide, regular cup, the inner side granulose, the outer side areolate, corticate, 

with granules developing into schizidia. Apotecia and Pycnidia are brown. 

Photobiont: chlorococcoid. Spot-tests: K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange-red (with 

atranorin and fumarprotocetraric acid). 

Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose, and subcrustose to 

small. Podetia are whitish grey, simple, sparingly branched in the upper part, with 

a brown disc at the tips of podetia. The Podetial surface has microsquamules 

projecting downwards. 


Cladoniaceae 








Fr 

DD 

IC 

Cladonia phyllopoda 

Cladonia poeciloclada 

R 

Fr 

Cladoniaceae 

Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose, persistent, upper side 

green, white or orange-white below. The thallus is esorediate. Podetia are pale 

brownish to greenish, and sparsely branched. Mature discs are wide, abundant, 

brick red to bright brown and conspicuous. 

Status Only spotted in one locality. Found at a forest margin in an open sunny 

habitat. New record for the Indian subcontinent and for Sri Lanka. 


Description Fruticose, basal squamules are sparsely lobed, white and sometimes 

sorediate below. Podetia are pale or pale brown to grey, thick, and unbranched. 

Podetial discs are light brown. 

Status Rare species. Can be identified as this species forms large and simple 

podetia that are greenish grey. 


Observed in sunny open places, growing on soil and soil banks. 

Cladoniaceae 

Locations Near Ohiya road from Horton Plains. 

Locations Horton Plains montane forests. 



Fr 

VR 

SL 

Cladonia singhii 

Cladonia subdelicatula 

IC 

DD 

Fr 

Cladoniaceae 

Description Fruticose. Basal squamules are green and small. Most of these 

squamules disappear in mature lichens. Pale to grey brownish Podetia grow from 

basal squamules. Podetia are simple to sparingly branched. The Podetial discs are 

brownish, and nearly cup shaped. 

Status Very rare species. Can be identified as it forms large colonies, and has 

simple podetia that are greenish grey. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevations above 1200 m. Observed in 

sunny open places growing on soil and soil banks. 

Locations Side bank of the Pattipola Road. 

Description Fruticose. Primary thallus is persistent, consisting of narrowly 

laciniate, esorediate squamules. Podetia are simple to slightly dichotomously 

branched, without axillary funnels, tips narrow, subulate. The podetial surface 

is granular, covered by abundant, finely laciniate squamules, and is esorediate 

but sometimes soredia-like granules are present. Light brown podetial discs are 

infrequent. 

Status Only spotted in a few localities. New record for the Indian subcontinent 

and Sri Lanka. 



Cladoniaceae 



Coccocarpia 

Shell lichens 

Peltigerales Coccocarpiaceae 

25 

Coccocarpia is mainly a tropical genus widely distributed in tropical and 

subtropical to oceanic-temperate regions on all substrata including living leaves. 

This is the only genus of the family Coccocarpiaceae recorded in Sri Lanka so far. 

The speciation has taken place in two main centres, one in the northern part of 

South America and one in South-East Asia. 

In Sri Lanka, few species are common and distributed in low elevation humid 

forests to montane forests across a huge variation of elevations and in many 

different types of vegetation types. 

Fr 

DD 

SL 

Cladonia submultiformis 

Some species are closely appressed foliose lichens while few remain as 

microfruticose. All species contain cyanobacteria in a well-defined algal layer and 

have a white medulla. The thallus is usually bluish grey in colour, and dissected 

into linear or round lobes that are rather thick. Some species have isidia. Rhizines 

are white to black. Coccocarpia is similar in colour to many species of Leptogium, 

but Leptogium is a jelly lichen that becomes translucent when wet and also lacks 

a medulla. Also some Coccocarpia species resemble species of Parmeliella. 

Cladoniaceae 

Description Fruticose. Squamules of the primary thallus are large, but gradually 

disappear when the lichen is mature. Podetia are grey, thick at base, and 

repeatedly branched with bluish tips. Podetia are esorediate and abundantly 

squamulose. Podetial discs are brown and located at the tips of the podetia. 



Apothecia laminal, adnate, biatorine, often with marginal hair, reddish brown to 

black; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless, simple. 

Chemistry No lichen substance detected in Sri Lankan species. 





Fo 

C 

Coccocarpia erythroxyli fruiting shell lichen 

Coccocarpia pellita 

C 

Fo 


Description The thallus is foliose, wide, lobulate, and grey to whitish grey. 

Species present in shaded habitats and can be sometimes seen as bluish black. 

Isidia are absent. The lower surface is pale to black. Rhizines are pale to black. 

Apothecia are not seen in Sri Lankan material. 

Status This common species is widespread and very variable. It is always seen on 

the mature trunks of trees in shady interiors or open rocky substrates. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forests above 

700m. Even found in disturbed sites and amidst man-made vegetation types. 

Common in home gardens in high elevation areas. 

Locations Central highlands, high elevation wet zone forests and along rocky 

stream margins. 

Description The thallus is foliose, wide, often thin and fragile. Grey to whitish 

grey when dry and yellowish to bluish grey when wet. Species present in shaded 

habitats can be sometimes bluish black. The lower surface is dull blackish to 

black. Flattened isidia are present. Rhizines are pale to black. Apothecia are not 

seen. The main characteristic relevant to identifying this species is its flattened 

isidia. 

Status Always seen on mature trunks of trees in shady interiors and rarely on 

mossy rocks. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid high elevation forests above 1200 m, and forestdwelling 

species. 

Locations Restricted to the central highlands. This species was seen in a few 

places along the Nuwara Eliya - Pattipola road that goes up to Horton Plains. 




Coenogonium 

Pixie-hair lichens 

Ostropales Coenogoniaceae 

80 

Coenogonium is a genus that mainly occurs in the subtropical and tropical 

regions of the world. The genus consists of species with a green to greyish 

green crustose or filamentous thallus. Most filamentous species of Coenogonium 

consist of lichenized filaments of Trentepohlia (green alga) which are similar in 

appearance to unlichenized Trentepohlia, which are present in the same habitats. 

It is therefore essential to find thalli for filamentous species with fruiting bodies, 

not only to be able to name the species but also to be sure you have a lichen. 

Only few species are known from Sri Lanka up to date, the most common of which 

tends to be a pantropical species. Recent research by Weerakoon and Aptroot 

(2014) documented a new record of this genus for the Indian subcontinent and 



Fo 

VR 

IC 

Coccocarpia stellata 

Description Foliose. The thallus is characterized by linear, thin lobes that are 

flat, branched and dissected. Lobes are apically often very slightly wider and 

dark grey. The upper surface is bluish grey, while the lower surface is pale and 

has white rhizines. The lower surface is pale to black. Rhizines are pale to black. 

Apothecia are abundant and originate from lobe margins. Apothecial discs are 

orange brown and flat. Apothecia have a thin, slightly raised concolourous (same 

colour) margin. 

The Sri Lankan species are distinctive epiphytes that occur on smooth-barked 

trunks, and on mossy rocks of sub-montane, and montane forests throughout 

undisturbed, high elevation, humid areas. 

Species known from Sri Lanka are overlooked and need taxonomic revision. 

Studies are also needed to collect and identify the total diversity of this genus 

in Sri Lanka, as it can be assumed that many more species remain undiscovered 

in similar habitats. 

Apothecia common, sessile, convex to flat, disc yellowish to pale orange brown; 

Asci: mostly 8-spored; Spores: colourless, ellipsoid, 1-2 celled. 

Chemistry No lichen substances. 


Status Seen on mature leaves and thin branches in settings that are more or 

less exposed to light. New record for the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid, high elevation forests above 1600 m, and a 

forest-dwelling species. 

Locations This species can be found in a few places along the Nuwara Eliya 

- Pattipola road that goes up to Horton Plains. Restricted to Horton Plains and 

Hakgala strict nature reserve. 



Cr 

VC 

IC 

Coenogonium linkii 

Coenogonium luteum 

VC 

Cr 


Description This species is a distinctive epiphyte with a soft, woolly appearance. 

The thallus is filamentous. Light green to white tufts, are slightly lifted from the 

surface at the lower edge. Isidia are absent. The yellowish orange apothecia are 

common. Apothecia are thin and flat. 

have 2-celled spores. 

Status Very common species. Always seen on mature tree trunks in very humid, 

shaded interiors and on moist rocky substrates. This species is pantropical. New 

record for the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. 

Description The pale greenish thallus is crustose, corticolous, thin, and smooth. 

The apothecia are large, sessile and mostly rounded, with orange discs. 

This species has been in the literature and available collections in the genus 

Dimerella. 

Status Very common species. Always seen on mature tree trunks in very humid 

forests. This species is widespread in temperate regions. 

Habitat found in humid upper montane forest above 1200 m. 



1000 m. 

Locations Dotalugala mountain of Knuckles mountain region and Hakgala SNR. 

Locations Central highlands, and along rocky stream margins of submontane 

and montane forests. 



Collema 

Jelly lichens, Tarpaper lichens 

Peltigerales Collemataceae 

75 

Collema is a large, cosmopolitan foliose genus of blackish grey to very dark olive, 

brownish olive lichens which often tend to be gelatinous, pulpy or swollen when 

wet. The species become steel grey to dark brownish black when the thallus is 

dry. Species of Collema are found on a wide variety of substrates in wet or dry 

habitats. The photobiont is a blue green cyanobacterium (usually Nostoc). 

Only few species are documented for Sri Lanka as most of the species which 

should be placed in the genus Collema are overlooked for Leptogium. Collema 

can be distinguished from the related genus Leptogium by the absence of a 

cortex. Also, Collema species are never hairy or shiny like Leptogium, which can 

have a shiny thallus or white fuzzy hairs. One of the species, Collema coilocarpum, 

which belongs to the core group of the genus, is included in this book. 

Collemataceae 

In Sri Lanka, species of Collema are most abundant at the scrubby edges of high 

elevation rainforests. They also occur in the submontane and montane interior 

but they tend to be less conspicuous there and are restricted to canopy branches 

or to moist shady recesses. 

It is worth climbing a tree to reach the canopy branches, to seek out these 

treasures in habitats where the species could possibly exist, since they are 

stunning black jelly beauties adorned with reddish, orange apothecia. This 

genus needs a detailed taxonomic revision in Sri Lanka. 

Apothecia lecanorine, developing on the upper surface of the thallus, disc 

reddish orange brown; Asci: 4-8-spored, Spores: colourless, 2-to many-celled 

(muriform). 


Collema coilocarpum 

Description Foliose. The thallus is mainly corticolous, and the upper side is olive 

grey, becoming purplish grey blue when dry (latter photos). Isidia are not found, 

but often develop erect, thickened lobules or cylindrical outgrowths can be seen 

that resemble isidia and can dominate the thallus (as shown in photos). Thallus is 

very pulpy and swollen when wet. Apothecia are dense. Discs are orange brown. 

The other species which is known to me in Sri Lanka is Collema pulcellum var. 

subnigrescens. But the species needs clarification with fresh sampling. It has a 

dark blackish olive green upper surface that is deeply ridged. Only seen in one 

place at Nuwara Eliya. 

C 

Fo 

Collemataceae 

Status Common, cosmopolitan species. The species is known to Sri Lanka from 

early lichen collections and has been documented many times. 

Habitat Mainly seen on the mature canopy branches of trees in rainforest edges, 

submontane and montane areas. 

Locations Central highlands, high elevation wet zone forests, Meemure and 

Kalupahana areas of the Knuckles mountain region. 



Dendriscosticta 

Peltigerales Lobariaceae 

5 

Dendriscosticta is more or less a northern Hemisphere genus newly described by 

Moncada et. al in 2013. This is macrofoliose (with very large lobes) genus, grows 

epiphytically, or very rarely on mossy rocks or logs, often between bryophytes 

and other lichens. 

The presence of cyphellae-like pores (cyphelloids) that are white and abundant 

on the lower surface distinguishes Dendriscosticta from the closely related 

Lobaria, Sticta and Pseudocyphellaria. However, Sri Lankan species need thorough 

morphological, chemical and molecular analysis. Especially the species placed 

in genus Lobaria in Sri Lanka need to be thoroughly studied to understand 

whether they belong to genus Dendriscosticta. Further, it is possible that more 

species could occur in the highlands which would have been overlooked as 

Lobaria in montane communities which have not yet been fully observed. 

Apothecia cup shape and lecanorine; Spores: acicular to fusiform, septate and 

hyaline. 

Chemistry No substance detected on Sri Lankan material. 

Dendriscosticta platyphylloides (Basionym:Sticta platyphylloides Nyl.) 

SL 

VR L 

LC Fo 

Lobariaceae 

Description This macrofoliose lichen becomes pale brownish to green grey 

when dry and yellowish green when wet. It is loosely attached, mostly found 

among other mosses and epiphytes. The individual lobes have irregular to round 

apices, with more rounded margins. Branches are irregular and form thallus 

rosettes. The lower surface is pale brown. Cyphellae- like pores are present 

(cyphelloids). Isidia or soredia were not observed. Apothecia were not observed 

in Sri Lankan material. 

Lobariaceae 

Status This very rare species is a new record for this new genus from Sri 

Lanka. So far only one species belonging to this genus is known in Sri Lanka. This 

species was first reported by D.D. Awasthi (2007) from India and Nepal. 

Habitat Mostly seen in humid, high elevation forest areas, sitting on high 

elevation montane forests. When the thallus is young, it is not easy to spot 

among mosses. 

Locations Knuckles mountain region. Only seen in a few sites off Kalupahana. 



Diploschistes 

Crater lichens 

Ostropales Graphidaceae 

c.40 

Diploschistesis a cosmopolitan genus that mainly occurs in xeric (very dry) 

situations, usually in full sun. They are found on rocks, soil, and sometimes on 

mosses or as parasitic on other lichens. 

The species are crustose, with rather thick thalli and are creamy white to grey 

or yellowish in colour. Some species are heavily pruinose, but none sorediate. 

Only four species are known from this genus in Sri Lanka. However the three 

species previously recorded in Sri Lanka are questionable. The species recently 

collected in Nawalapitiya, Diploschistes muscorum is a new record for the genus 

in Sri Lanka. 

Apothecia with a well-developed brown to black exciple (tissue forming margin 

or walls of an ascomata) surrounded by a thalline margin, apothecia open by a 

deep, relatively wide cavity Asci: 1-4-8-spored; Spores: ellipsoid, brown to dark 

brown or purple black, muriform. 

Chemistry Sri Lankan species thallus C+ red, KC +red, K+ yellow turning to 

purple, PD-. 

Diploschistes muscorum Cowpie lichen 

SL 

R 

Cr 

Graphidaceae 

Description The thallus is crustose, white to pale grey, and continuous with 

an uneven surface and has a white prothallus. Apothecia 1-2mm in diameter, 

disc black to dark brownish, crater-like, embedded in thallus, often with a double 

margin, white pruinose, thalline margin slightly raised above the thallus. Asci 

4-spored. 

Status This rare species is a new record for Sri Lanka, and can become 

established as a parasite on other lichens, especially Cladonia species. This 

is usually an aggressive crust that can invade other lichens and compete for 

resources or space. 

Graphidaceae 

Habitat Mostly found in disturbed conditions, in fully-exposed, sunny conditions. 

The specimens examined were collected from soil banks above 900 m. 

Locations Nawalapitiya. 



Everniastrum 

Powder-tipped antler lichen 

Lecanorales Parmeliaceae 

c.28 

Everniastrum is a pantropical genus. It is a small genus with centres of speciation 

in Central and South America and Asia. Few species extend up to the temperate 

regions of the world. It grows on tree bark and rock. Several species of the genus 

have extended to temperate zones. 

This genus forms small foliose, almost fruticose lichens. The thallus has regular 

dichotomous branching pattern. Fine dark green soredia develop on the upper 

surface of the thallus, from which it derives its common name: powder-tipped 

antler lichen. 

Parmeliaceae 

Seven species of this genus have been recorded from India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. A 

single corticolous species has been observed thus far in Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. 

It is possible that other species which have not yet been observed might occur 

in montane communities in the highlands. Everniastrum is similar to Hypogymnia 

in its size, branching pattern and soralia (at the lobe tips), but the lobes of 

Hypogymnia are clearly inflated and hollow. The genus is under revision and 

is phylogenetically considered as part of genus Hypotrachyna. 

Apothecia laminal, lecanorine, pedicellate, hollow, disc imperforate; Asci: 

8-spored; Spores: colourless, ellipsoid, and simple. 

Chemistry upper cortex K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; medulla K+ yellow then 

turning deep red, C-, KC-, P+ yellow then orange in the species found in Sri Lanka. 

Everniastrum cirrhatum 

Description Pendulous to fruticose. The thallus is corticolous, suberect to 

pendulous, very loosely adnate, richly dichotomously or subdichotomously 

branched. Strongly lobed to moderately involute or flat. Lobe apices are 

abundantly ciliate. The upper surface is pale grey to dark grey, but no soredia or 

isidia are found. The lower surface is black or brown or pale brown at the tips of 

the lobes, with rather elongated black rhizines. Apothecia with hollow stalks are 

present. 

R 

Fr 

Parmeliaceae 

Status Rare species. 

Habitat Mostly found on trees and shrubs and rarely on rocks in humid forests 

areas above 1400 m. 

Locations Horton Plains. 



Fuscopannaria 

Brown shingle lichen, Mouse lichens 

Peltigerales Pannariaceae 

40 

Fuscopannaria is mainly a temperate genus, mostly found in the Northern 

Hemisphere with two principal areas of speciation; Pacific North America and 

Atlantic-Mediterranean Europe. Some species of the genus are found in East Asia 

and the Himalayas. The genus is also present in the Southern Hemisphere where 

the species have spread to Australia, and Southeast Asian islands such as the 

Philippines and New Guinea and southern South America. 

Fuscopannaria has long been included within Pannaria, which has a foliosesquamulose 

to subcrustose thallus usually with grey tones, and with or without 

true hypothallus. The genus Parmeliella is a closely related to Fuscopannaria, 

but has apothecia with biatorine instead of lecanorine margins (biatorine and 

lecanorine are chemical compounds). 

Pannariaceae 

There are seven species found in the Indian subcontinent, Nepal and Sri Lanka 

(Singh & Sinha 2010). Recent studies done by Weerakoon & Aptroot (2014 

unpublished) report three new records of this genus for Sri Lanka, including one 

species that is a new record for the Indian subcontinent. 

Apothecia with or without a lecanorine margin (sometime even on the same 

specimen), sessile; Asci: 8-spored, Spores: colourless, ellipsoid, simple with 

epispore (outer wall of a spore). 

Chemistry hymenium I+ blue green turning to reddish brown, most species 

lack lichen substances. 

Fuscopannaria coerulescens 

SL 

Description Foliose-squamulose. The thallus forms like a cushion. The upper 

surface is brown with white- felted margins densely beset with blue-grey lobules. 

Apothecia are not seen on Sri Lankan material. 

Status Very rare species. Known from South India and Nepal. New record for 


VR 

Fo 

Pannariaceae 

Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 1600 m, growing together 

with bryophytes on tree trunks. 

Locations Few places in Horton Plains. 



Fo 

VR 

IC 

Fuscopannaria disecta 

Fuscopannaria siamensis 

SL 

R 

Fo 

Pannariaceae 

Description Foliose. Lobes are brown to reddish brown with no white edges 

when wet. The upper surface is grey when dry. The black hypothallus is 

conspicuous. Apothecia are sessile, and orange brown with thalline margin. 

Status Very rare species. Known from South India and Thailand. New record for 

the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 1600 m, growing on moss or 

on tree trunks. This species also grows on soil and rarely on rocks. 

Locations Few places in Nuwara Eliya. 

Description Foliose. Lobes are brown to reddish brown often with eroded 

secondary lobules. Apothecia are sessile orange brown with thalline margin. 

Status Rare species in Sri Lanka. Known from South India and Thailand. New 

record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 1600 m, growing together 

with bryophytes on tree trunks. 

Locations Few places in Horton Plains. 

Pannariaceae 



Heterodermia 

Fringe lichens, Centipede lichens 

Teloschistales Physciaceae 

102 

Heterodermia is a cosmopolitan genus. The majority of species are pantropical, 

whereas some species are found extending into warm temperate regions. Mostly 

these species are epiphytes but are also found on other substrata. 

Twenty five species of Heterodermia have been recorded in Sri Lanka including 

two recently described species that are endemic to Sri Lanka and four new 

records (One species is a new record for Indian subcontinent). Weerakoon & 

Aptroot (2013) published a key to identify 20 species of Sri Lankan Heterodermia. 

Thus far, this genus is one of the most speciose foliose lichen genera known from 

Sri Lanka. It is possible that more species could occur with distinct preferences for 

particular vegetation types, as the lichen flora of Sri Lanka is not yet completely 

known. 

The genus is mainly found on trees and is sometimes seen on rocks. Heterodermia 

is most similar to Physcia in size and colour. It differs from Physcia by the structure 

of the upper cortex and spore type. The structure of the upper cortex of 

Heterodermia gives the surface the appearance of flowing towards the lobe tips, 

whereas the upper surface in Physcia has a uniform, unoriented appearance. 

Heterodermia albicans 

SL 

R 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

Apothecia laminal, sessile to pedicellate, lecanorine; Asci 8-spored; Spores 2 

celled and mostly brown. 

Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow (atranorin). 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. The upper surface is greyish 

white. While the lobe margins are continuously sorediate, the lobe apices are 

not. The lower surface is rhizinate. Apothecia are not seen in Sri Lankan material. 

Status Rare. This species is restricted to few localities in Sri Lanka. It is necessary 

to survey species in similar localities in Sri Lanka. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Physciaceae 

Habitat Corticolous. Above 1200 m, in wet upper montane forests. 

Locations Kalupahana- Knuckles mountain region. 



Fo 

R 

Heterodermia barbifera 

Heterodermia circinalis 

IC 

C 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous, adnate and lobate. Lobes are 

sublinear to wide. The upper surface is greyish white to grey. The lower surface 

is white. Rhizines are present along the lobe margins. Apothecia are abundant. 

Status Spotted in a few localities, but not commonly found. This species is easily 

identified by the greyish apothecia which look like “Bunch of Flowers” and the 

black rhizine mat. 

Habitat Grows especially on twigs and branches in both moist and open sunny 

situations. Mostly found at forest margins. 

Description Foliose, grey to white, thin straps with long, black, branched hairs; 

turns brown when dry in exposed and dry conditions. Cilia are abundant, black 

and not branched. Apothecia are common, star shaped and apothecial margins 

lack cilia. 

Status This locally abundant species can be easily spotted as it forms a large 

colony which looks like black or brownish grey “messy hair” on the mature trunks 

of trees in shady interiors and roadside soil banks and moist rocks. This species 

is known as “fringe lichen” in the western world. New record for the Indian 

subcontinent and Sri Lanka. 

Physciaceae 

Locations Deenston, Corbets Gap, Riverston and Knuckles mountain of Knuckles 

mountain region and few places in Nuwara Eliya. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid forests and undisturbed areas above 1000 m. 

Locations Horton Plains , Knuckles mountain region, Nuwara Eliya and a few 

places in Kandy. 



Fo 

C 

Heterodermia comosa 

Heterodermia diademata Cupped fringe lichen 

C 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

Description Foliose. The corticolous thallus is attached by basal parts. Lobes are 

sub-erect. The upper surface is whitish grey with dense cilia. The lower surface 

is pale, and sorediate apices were seen sometimes. Apothecia are not seen in Sri 

Lankan material. 

Status Commonly found. However, this species is restricted to certain patches 

within known localities and misidentified in most collections obtained from Sri 


Habitat Corticolous, seen on twigs in both humid and exposed conditions. 

Above 1000m, in wet upper montane forests. 

Locations : Matale district. 

Description Foliose. Lobes are adjacent to one another, more or less plane and 

short. The upper surface is evenly thick and greyish to white in colour. The lower 

surface has a cortex and rhizines. Isidia and soredia are absent. Apothecia are 

numerous, brown colour, laminal, and sessile. The margin of thalline exciple is 

crenulate to lobulate. 

Status This locally abundant species can be easily spotted on the twigs and 

branches of trees in shaded, humid interiors. Few individuals were observed 

on sheltered rocks. This pretty species can be easily identified by the numerous 

brown crenulate to lobulate apothecia on its thallus. 

Habitat Common in both manmade and natural habitats above 1000m. It 

mostly grows together with mosses and bryophytes. 

Physciaceae 

Locations Knuckles mountain region, Horton Plains, Kandy, Kegalle, Matale, and 

Ratnapura districts. 



Fo 

R 

Heterodermia hypochraea 

Heterodermia isidiophora 

C 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

Description Foliose. Lobes are slightly disjunct, convex, and ascending, with 

short lateral branches. The upper surface is whitish greenish grey and is uneven 

in thickness. The lower surface is yellow to orange. Isidia and soredia are absent. 

Apothecia are apically (tip) or subapically stipitate (stipe / stalk of anascomata, 

having a stipe or a stipes), margin of the thalline exciple is lobulate, inner surface 

of lobules pigmented. (refer the 2 nd picture). 

Status Rare. This species is restricted to few localities in Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Corticolous, seen on twigs in both humid and dry conditions. Above 

1000m, in wet upper montane forests. 

Locations Fishing hut - Peak Wilderness and Hunuwala Kanda- Matale district. 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous and branched. The lobes are wide. 

The upper surface is greyish white, densely isidiate. Lower surface has a cortex 

and rhizines. Apothecia are not found in Sri Lankan material. 

Status Common species. 

Habitat Found mostly on bark, but has also been occasionally observed on 

rocks. Above 900 m, in submontane to upper montane forests. Seen in moist, 

humid conditions. 

Locations Knuckles mountain region, Pattipola, Unulugala mountain peak, 

Fishing hut, Peak wilderness, and Kabaragala mountain. 

Physciaceae 



Fo 

C 

Heterodermia japonica 

Heterodermia magellanica 

R 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is variable, irregular, and dichotomously lobate. 

Lobes sublinear, elongated, radiating, and widen towards the apices. The upper 

surface is greenish white, whitish to cream-coloured, and rarely brownish. 

Sorediate on lateral or terminal lobes, spreading along the lobe margin. The lower 

surface is white to brownish or bluish black, sparsely spotted with a brownish 

orange-red pigment towards the lobe apices. Rhizines are marginal and simple. 

Status Cosmopolitan. Widespread in tropical to subtropical areas, extending 

to warm temperate regions. Common in Sri Lanka, and is easily identified by 

the entangled mats of elongated linear lobes bearing long black cilia and the 

ecorticate lower surface. 

Habitat On tree trunks or on rocks in open and shady situations. Species is 

characterized by dull upper surface, “fan-like” lobe apices and a white to blackishviolet 

lower surface. Lobes become elongated in shady habitats, and develop 

long, black marginal rhizines. 

Locations Knuckles mountains, Matale, Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Hakgala, 

Sabaragamuwa mountain region, Peak wilderness, Laxapana and Seven Virgin 

Mountains and roadside banks on the Haputale- Bandarawela Road. 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. The lobes are slightly disjunct 

or adjacent, more or less plane, and do not ascend, have short lateral lobes. The 

upper surface is greyish green. The lower surface is white. Isidia and soredia are 

absent. Apothecia are laminal, sessile to substipitate (short-stalked). 

Status Spotted in a few localities, but fairly uncommon. This species is easily 

identified by the greyish apothecia which look like a bunch of flowers and the 

black rhizine mat. 

Habitat Found growing especially on twigs and branches, in both moist and 

open, sunny places. Mostly found at forest margins. 

Locations Deenston, Corbet’s Gap, Riverston and Knuckles mountain of Knuckles 

mountain region and few places in Nuwara Eliya 

Physciaceae 



Fo 

C 

Heterodermia obscurata 

Heterodermia podocarpa 

R 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is mostly corticolous. The lobes are wide with 

short lateral lobules. The upper surface is greyish. The lobes are sorediate at the 

apices. The lower surface is yellow to orange with marginal rhizines. Apothecia 

are not found in Sri Lankan material. 

Status Common species. 

Habitat Mostly corticolous, but also seen on wet rocky surfaces. Above 900m, 

submontane to upper montane forests near stream margins. 

Locations Galhiriya estate, Dehigolla watta upper division abandoned habitats, 

Nawanagala in the Knuckles mountain region. 

Description Foliose to subfruticose.The thallus is Irregularly lobate. Lobes are 

variable in width, often ascending and with whitish cilia along the margins. The 

upper surface is greyish white to grey. Soredia and isidia are absent. The lower 

surface is white, both sorediate and rhizinate. Rhizines are marginal, and simply 

to irregularly branched. Pruinose apothecia are abundant and appear terminally 

with well-developed squamules on the margin and a pale greyish white to dark 

grey disc. 

Status Widespread in specific areas but not a common species. This species is 

easily identified by the greyish apothecia and marginal rhizines. 

Habitat Found growing on twigs and on small branches in both moist and 

open, sunny conditions. Also found on dry rocks exposed to the sun. 

Physciaceae 

Locations Nawalapitiya and Laxapana areas. 



Fo 

R 

Heterodermia propagulifera 

Heterodermia pseudospeciosa 

SL 

R 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is adnate and ascends towards the margin. The 

upper surface is grey green. The lower surface has red spots. Cilia are black, dull, 

marginal and simple. Rhizines are black and simple. Soredia are mainly found on 

the secondary lobes. Apothecia are not seen in Sri Lankan material. 

Status This rare species was only found once on a tree in a shaded interior. 

Habitat Found only in montane forests above 1400m. Grows together with 

mosses. 

Locations Horton Plains, Kalupahana in the Knuckles mountain region (only 

photographs were taken). 

Description Foliose. The thallus is small, usually less than 4 cm in diameter, 

loosely attached and densely dichotomously branched. Lobes are long and 

narrow, repeatedly branched, weakly convex and widening. The upper surface 

is greyish white to grey to brownish grey, darker at lobe tips, sometimes weakly 

pruinose and sorediate. Soredia are white to bluish grey, mainly arising from small 

lateral knob-like structures. The lower surface has a cortex and rhizines. Rhizines 

are weakly developed, usually short and pale to dark brown or black. Apothecia 

are rare, margins are sorediate with a brown to blackish brown disc. 

Status This rare species is a new record for Sri Lanka and has only been spotted 

a few times. It is mostly a Northern Hemisphere species, which is scattered in 

various localities across all the continents. This species is characterized by the 

narrow, convex, long lobes and the soralia that mainly arise from the marginal 

knob-like structures forming small, semi-capitate soralia. 

Physciaceae 

Habitat On rocks, and more rarely on trees in open but humid situations. 

Locations Nawalapitiya and Laxapana areas. 



Fo 

VR 

E 

Heterodermia queensberryi (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2014, New Species) 

Heterodermia rubrotricha (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2013, New Species) 

E 

VR 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus forms tufts, divided into linear, grey lobes that 

taper at the tips and are slightly recurved and dichotomously branched. The flat 

upper surface is smooth, not shiny, appearing green in shaded conditions and 

greyish white in exposed conditions. The lower surface does not have a cortex 

or rhizines, yellow-orange, blackening towards the centre of the thallus. Cilia are 

black, dull, marginal, simple or with many perpendicular branchlets. Soredia are 

granular, grey and upturned at lobed tips, both in the centre of the thallus and 

on the margins. Apothecia are common, laminal on the upper surface, and not 

terminal. They are grey, white, and pruinose with a yellow-orange lower surface. 

Description Foliose. The thallus forms tufts up to 10 cm in diameter. Lobes are 

divided into linear, ascending to pendulous or nearly erect whitish lobes that 

have tapering tips that are dichotomously branched. The upper surface is smooth, 

shiny and flat to convex. The lower surface does not have rhizines and is whitish in 

colour. The thick cilia are black, dull, marginal, simple or with many perpendicular 

branchlets, mostly covered by pruina (a dark peony red pigment), usually except 

at the base and the very tips. Rhizines, soredia, isidia and pseudocyphellae are 

absent. Apothecia are common, laminal on the upper surface of the thallus lobes, 

not terminal, disc brownish grey, often, but not always, heavily white pruinose. 

Physciaceae 

Status Endemic to Sri Lanka. Spotted on branches of trees in shaded, humid 

interior regions. Once observed on an open rock growing among mosses. 

Status Endemic to Sri Lanka. This is a new lichen species. Known only from the 

type locality. Only few individuals were recorded from the type location. 

Habitat Found only in natural habitats above 1000m. Mostly grow together with 

mosses and bryophytes. 

Habitat Found on the smooth bark of tea (Camellia) trees in tea plantations. 

Known only from Sri Lanka. 

Locations The Queensberry tea estate in Nawalapitiya (6°59’ N, 80°35’ E), Horton 

Plains and Kalupahana in Knuckles mountain region. 

Locations Type locality is Nuwara Eliya -Pattipola, Mahagasthotte tea plantation 

upper division, 6°56’N, 80°47’E and elevation 1706 m. 



Hypogymnia 

Tube lichens, bone lichens, pillow lichens 


45 

Hypogymnia is widely distributed throughout both hemispheres. It is most 

common all over Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and North America, and 

particularly in countries such as Japan and New Zealand. Most of the species 

are epiphytes on bark and twigs. Some species are found on rocks, dead wood 

and sometimes on soil in cool to cold areas in well lit, exposed habitats in high 

altitudes. Most species are mainly confined to the canopy and upper branches 

of trees. 

Hypogymnia species are medium to large foliose lichens, greenish grey to light 

brown, with more or less inflated lobes that are hollow (tube-like). The lower 

surface is usually blackish dark brown. 

Physciaceae 

Fo 

R 

Heterodermia speciosa Powderd fringe lichen, powdered centipede 

Description Foliose. Lobes are plane, not ascending. The upper surface is greyish 

white and sorediate. Soredia are primarily seen on the main or lateral lobes. The 

lower surface has a cortex and rhizines. Apothecia are not seen in Sri Lankan 

material. 

Status Uncommon. Only seen at few locations. 

Only Hypogymnia zeylanica is common in Horton Plains and some localities close 

to Horton Plains in Sri Lanka. This species is corticolous in Sri Lanka. It is possible 

that more species occur in the highlands in montane communities which have 

not yet been observed. They usually grow on mature, mossy trunks. 

Apothecia lecanorine, red-brown; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless, simple. 

Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow (atranorin); medulla K-, C-; most species KC+ pink 

(physodic acid). 

An epiphyte is an organism that grows non-parasitically upon a tree or shrub, 

and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from 

debris accumulating around it instead of the structure it is fastened to. 

Parmeliaceae 

Habitat Mostly corticolous. Above 1200 m, in wet upper montane forests. 

Locations Nawanagala in the Knuckles mountain region and Kabaragala in 

Matale district. 



Kroswia 

Pixie-hair lichens 


03 

Kroswia is a sterile lichen genus and apparently paleotropical. It is found in 

primeval tropical forests in South and Southeast Asia and East Africa. The genus 

has been recorded from subtropical East Africa, South India, Sri Lanka and Taiwan 

as corticolous in damp, montane forests. 

This genus is very small. So far, of the three species known worldwide, a single 

species has been observed in Sri Lanka at Horton Plains, a few adjacent localities 

and a few places in Nuwara Eliya. Habitats are restricted to moist undisturbed 

conditions in montane forests in Sri Lanka. 

This species is corticolous in Sri Lanka. Other known species could occur in the 

highlands in montane communities which have not yet been observed. 

Parmeliaceae 

Fo 

C 

Hypogymnia zeylanica 

Description Foliose and corticolous. The lobes are wide, spreading, inflated and 

solid. Pinnate branching is observed in this species. The thallus is yellowish grey 

to brownish grey. The lower surface is wrinkled and pale brown to dark brown 

or blackish brown. The thallus has true isidia, which are simple to branched. The 

apothecia are lecanorine, rare, sessile, flat and brownish black. 

The species found in Horton Plains is very significant as it has true isidia (that is 

very unusual in Hypogymnia) and has pinnate branching. Further study of this 

species is needed to confirm its taxonomic status. 

Apothecia unknown for the genus, a conclusion about the genus requires 

confirmation from the apothecia or molecular data. 

Chemistry All reactions are negative. 

The Paleotropical Kingdom (Paleotropics) is a floristic kingdom comprising 

tropical areas of Africa, Asia and Oceania including northern Australia. 

Pannariaceae 

Status Common in Horton Plains. There could be a new species of Hypogymnia 

in Horton Plains. Hypogymnia zeylanica has been reported from the lower 

temperate region of India, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid forests areas above 1600 m. 

Locations Horton Plains, few places along the Pattipola road and Ohiya Road 

close to the Horton Plains entrance. 



Lecanora 

Rim-lichens 

Lecanorales Lecanoraceae 

600 

Lecanora is one of the most speciose lichen genera. It is cosmopolitan and 

occurs from the tropics to the arctic. The species are found on various kinds of 

substrates, such as bark, wood and rock. More rarely, they are found on soil or 

moss, mostly in open areas. 

The genus Lecanora includes a wide variety of growth forms and colours. It is 

best circumscribed by its crustose habitat, Lecanora- type asci and simple spores. 

Many species have lecanorine apothecia with prominent, thallus coloured 

apothecial margins that form the rim of the discs. Apothecia and spores always 

need to be examined under the microscope for the identification of the species 

of this genus, together with the chemistry of the species using TLC. 

Pannariaceae 

Fo 

R 

Kroswia crystallifera 

Description The thallus is foliose, thin, spreading and membranous. The lobes 

are elongated, fan-shaped (flabellate), swells considerably when wet, and is 

entirely composed of thread -like hyphae (homoiomerous) .The upper surface 

is olive grey with white marbling, with bluish grey gymnidia (non-corticate isidia 

that leave inconspicuous scars after falling off ) marginally . The lower surface is 

veined and blackened towards the centre and with scattered tufts of blackish 

rhizohyphae (single hyphae on the lower thallus surface for attachment). 

Apothecia unknown in all the specimens collected in the world. This is a sterile 

species, that is to say, it does not produce reproductive structures in its life cycle. 

About 34 species have already been recorded in Sri Lanka. The three species 

included here are new records for Sri Lanka which were recently recorded by 

Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014). It is possible that more species exist in Sri Lanka, 

as there are many gaps in relation to local lichen taxonomy. 

Apothecia yellowish, green brown, or black, often pruinose, usually with 

lecanorine margins the same colour and texture as the thallus (sometimes with 

biatorine or rarely with lecideine), margins often contain calcium oxalate crystals; 

Asci: Lecanora -type; Spores: simple and colourless. 

Chemistry extremely variable. Atranorin or usnic acid or xanthones, and a wide 

range of depsides, depsidones, terpenoids and fatty acids. 

Lecanoraceae 

Status A rare lichen in Sri Lanka that is restricted to specific habitats. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid montane forests above 1400 m together with 

mosses on tree trunks facing the sun. 

Locations Horton Plains and a few places in Nuwara Eliya. 



Cr 

C 

SL 

Lecanora helva 

Lecanora leprosa 

SL 

C 

Cr 

Lecanoraceae 

Description Crustose. The thallus is thin to thick, plane, continuous to 

verruculose, and entirely yellowish white to yellowish green or greenish grey. 

Soredia are absent. Prothallus is brownish. Apothecia are immersed when 

immature, but become sessile with a pale brown to orange or pale greening 

brown disc when mature. The apothecia margin is concolourous (same colour as 

the thallus), thin, entire, and verrucose. 

Description Crustose. The thallus is thin to thick, plane, continuous or dispersedverrucose 

to verruculose (delicately warted), and yellowish white to yellowish 

grey or greenish grey. Soredia are absent. Prothallus is not visible. Apothecia are 

immersed when immature, becoming sessile with a pale orange to yellowish 

disc. The apothecia margin is concolourous (same colour as the thallus), thin to 

thick, entirely, and sometimes verrucose. 

Lecanoraceae 

Chemistry Thallus and apothecial margin K+ yellow, C-, PD + pale orange. 

Chemistry Thallus and apothecial margin K+ yellow, C-, PD + pale orange. 

Status Common at high elevations, found on bark and wood. New record for 


Status Collected from very few places in Sri Lanka on bark and wood, thus far. 

New record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 800 m. Occurs on the bark of 

trees. This species is pantropical. 



Locations Kandy, Kegalle, Matale, Nuwara Eliya, Nawalapitiya, and Hatton. 

Locations Knuckles mountain region and Matale district. 



Leioderma 

Treepelt lichen, Mouse ears 


c.10 

Leioderma is mainly found in the Southern Hemisphere. It is extremely rare in the 

Northern Hemisphere and is only known to occur in a few localities. It is a small 

genus. Most species are epiphytes found on shrubs and trees. They are restricted 

to moist habitats and found in undisturbed conditions at the scrubby margins of 

montane forests in Sri Lanka. 

Thus far, only one species, Leioderma sorediatum has been found in Sri Lanka. 

Namely, in Horton Plains and a few adjacent localities, a few places in Nuwara 

Eliya, Kalupahana and the Knuckles Peak of the Knuckles mountain range. The 

distribution known so far demonstrates that this genus is confined to high 

elevation montane forests. 

Cr 

VC 

SL 

Lecanora tropica 

This species is corticolous in Sri Lanka. The thallus is foliose and has loosely 

attached rosettes. This small genus is mostly related to Pannaria and Parmeliella. 

It is probably most similar to Erioderma sorediatum (an extremely rare species in 

Sri Lanka), but has longer lobes, is paler grey, and has many more tufted rhizines 

on the lower surface. It is possible that more species could occur in the highlands 

in montane communities which have not yet been observed. 

Lecanoraceae 

Description The thallus is dispersed-verrucose (having small rounded processes) 

to continuous or byssoid (thallus is comprised of loosely interwoven threads and 

appears rather cottony), and yellowish white grey in colour. Soredia are absent. A 

black prothallus is present. Apothecia are sessile, with a pale to dark brown disc. 

The apothecial margin is concolourous (same colour as the thallus), thick, and 

verrucose. 

Apothecia round, biatorine, disc pale to red brown; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: 

colourless, and simple. 

Chemistry hymenium I+ persistent blue (except one species in the genus) 

Pannariaceae 

Chemistry Thallus and apothecial margin K+ yellow, C+ Orange, PD + yellowish 

orange. 

Status Very common. New record for Sri Lanka. 



Locations Kandy, Kegalle, Sinharaja forest, Gampaha, Matale, Nuwara Eliya, 

Ampara, and Kurunagala. 



Leptogium 

Jellyskin lichens, Vinyl lichens 

Peltigerales Collemataceae 

180 

Leptogium is most common in the tropical regions of the world but is widely 

distributed in warm and cool temperate regions and has a few species which 

reach the Arctic and Sub-Antarctic regions. It is found on bark, soil, rocks or 

mosses in very wet or dry habitats. 

This is a very conspicuous and common genus found in most natural and 

disturbed habitats in the various climatic regions of Sri Lanka. More than 20 

species are known from Sri Lanka in this genus. Some species are widely spread 

across the island. Few recent collections were studied by Gothamie Weerakoon 

and Andre Aptroot. Five new records of Leptogium were discovered for Sri 

Lanka including one species that is a new record for the Indian subcontinent 

(Weerakoon & Aptroot 2014). It is probable that many undiscovered species 

could occur in particular montane communities. Therefore, further study is 

required to discover the total diversity. 

Pannariaceae 

Fo 

VC 

Leioderma sorediatum 

Description Small, olive grey foliose lichen found as a corticolous species in Sri 

Lanka. The lobes are scalloped, and flat to slightly concave. Blue grey granular 

soredia develop along the lobe margins. The upper surface is dark bluish green 

when wet and pale olive greenish colour when dry. The lower surface has 

scattered tufts of rhizines that are white to bluish, buff centrally, and white at the 

margins. The upper surface is felt-like with tiny, very appressed hairs. Apothecia 

are not seen on the material from Sri Lanka. Apothecia when present; are scarce, 

usually only seen as pinkish initials. This species is very similar to Erioderma 

sorediatum, but has longer lobes, is paler grey, and has many more tufted rhizines 

on the lower surface. 

In the field, this genus is difficult to distinguish from its sister genus Collema as 

they have much in common, especially when their thalli are moist and swollen. 

On the whole, Leptogium species are steel grey to grey or more reddish brown 

when dry, with a smoother, more skin-like texture. Collema is never shiny in dry 

or wet conditions, probably because it has no upper cortex. 

Apothecia lecanorine, sessile, common in most species after rainy seasons, disc 

orange-red, red brown to black; Asci: 4-8-spored; Spores: colourless, 4-celled 

to muriform. 

Chemistry All reactions negative. 

Collemataceae 

Status Very common in Horton Plains. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid forests areas above 1400 m. 

Locations Horton Plains, few places along the Pattipola road and Ohiya Road, 

close to the Horton Plains entrance, Lover’s Leap - Nuwara Eliya, Knuckles and the 

Kalupahana peaks of the Knuckles mountain region. 



Fo 

R 

SL 

Leptogium austroamericanum Dixie jellyskin 

Leptogium azureum Blue jellyskin 

C 

Fo 

Collemataceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is adnate, with round lobes, and steel-grey. The 

surface of the lobes is conspicuous but minutely wrinkled and covered with 

cylindrical to flattened isidia which are also present on the lobe margins. The 

lower surface is paler than the upper surface in colour, and is wrinkled with tufts 

of hyphal hair. The specimen was sterile. 

This species closely resembles Leptogium cyanescens except for the minutely 

wrinkled thallus. 

Status Rare. Found on bark as a corticolous species at high elevations in Sri 

Lanka. Occurs in North, Central and South America and Australasia. New record 

for Sri Lanka 

Habitat In humid high elevation forests above 1000 m. 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous or saxicolous, and adnate. The 

upper surface is blue grey, lead grey to dark grey with no isidia. Lobes are thin, 

folded and round at the margins. Lobe surfaces are not distinctly wrinkled, but 

are uneven or roughened in the older parts of the thallus. The lower surface has 

scattered tufts of hyphal hair. Apothecia were not observed in the material. But 

in this species usually cup-like apothecia with red-brown disks and thin cream 

coloured to pale brownish margins are commonly produced on the surface 

of the thallus. Asci 8-spored. Spores are muriform. Leptogium cyanescens is 

about the same size and colour but has marginal and laminal isidia. Leptogium 

austroamericanum and Leptogium corticola are often found in the same habitats, 

and have distinctly wrinkled lobes. 

Status Common on bark as corticolous species at mid to high elevations in Sri 

Lanka. Widely distributed in the tropical to subtropical regions of the world. 

Collemataceae 

Locations Near the Matale district. 

Habitat In humid mid to humid high elevation interior forests above 900 m. 

Locations Matale and Nuwara Eliya. 



Fo 

VC 

Leptogium cochleatum 

Leptogium cyanescens Blue jellyskin, Blue oilskin 

VC 

Fo 

Collemataceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. Lobes are orbicular. The upper 

surface is lead grey and smooth. This species is not isidiate. The lobes of the 

lower surface are paler. Apothecia are sessile, isidiate. Asci 8-spored. Spores are 

muriform. 

Status Very common corticolous species found at high elevations in Sri Lanka. 

Found on bark and sometimes on mossy, shaded rocks. Widely spread in Africa 

and Australia. 

Habitat Found in humid high elevation interior forests above 1200 m. 


Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous or saxicolous, and adnate. The 

upper surface is blue grey to lead grey, with thin, rough spreading or folded 

lobes. Lobe margins are rounded or somewhat toothed or lobulate. Isidiate. 

Isidia are cylindrical to flattened and lobule like, often branched, and usually 

abundant on the lobe margins and upper surface. The lower surface of the lobes 

is smooth. Apothecia are sessile and isidiate. Asci 8-spored. Spores are muriform. 

Misidentifications are caused by the varying quantity of isidia produced on the 

lobes, or the roughness of the surface of older lobes being interpreted as wrinkles. 

Species often mistaken for L. cyanescens include L. corticola, L. austroamericanum 

and L. azureum. L. denticulatum is like L. cyanescens, but with thin scale-like lobes 

instead of cylindrical isidia occurring on the lobe surface and along the margins. 

Status Very common corticolous species in Sri Lanka at high elevation. On all 

kinds of bark, and on logs or even on mossy, shaded rocks. 

Collemataceae 

Habitat In humid mid elevation to humid high elevation interior forests above 

900 m. 

Locations Kandy, Matale and Nuwara Eliya. 



Fo 

R 

SL 

Leptogium millegranum Stretched jellyskin 

Leptogium phyllocarpum Frilly jellyskin 

C 

Fo 

Collemataceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous and adnate. The upper surface 

is dark olive grey, strongly longitudinally wrinkled and isidiate. Isidia are found 

on the margin of the lobes and sometimes on the ridges. Isidia are globular to 

cylindrical. The lower surface is wrinkled. Apothecia are common and produced 

on the thallus surface. They are cup-like with red-brown discs, and small 

compared to other species. 

Description Foliose. The thallus is adnate, and irregularly lobate. Lobes are 

very irregular, elongate, and notably thickened (swelling markedly when wet). 

The upper surface is medium grey to dark grey to almost brown black, usually 

dull, and longitudinally wrinkled. The lower surface is pale to medium grey, and 

wrinkled. Apothecia are common, submarginal towards the lobe tips, sessile, 

with a brown to red disc. Asci 8-spored. Spores are colourless and muriform. 

Collemataceae 

This species can be easily identified by its large olive grey thallus whereas most 

others tend to be bluish grey rather than olive. Leptogium austroamericanum is 

very close to this species, but has rather thick isidia, sometimes lobulate, and 

most of the isidia are found on the lobe surface. 

Status Rare species. Found on tree bark at mid to high elevations in Sri Lanka. 

Distributed in North, Central and South America. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Leptogium phyllocarpum is characterized by the crisp lobes on the upper surface, 

that swell considerably when wet. Leptogium milligranum can be confused with 

this species due to its dark colour, but it has granular isidia. 

Status Common on bark as corticolous species at high elevations in Sri Lanka. 

Pantropical and subtropical, occurring in North and South America, Africa, 

Australasia and Asia. 

Habitat In humid mid to high elevation interior forests above 900 m. 

Habitat At high elevation in humid interior forests above 1200m. 


Locations Near Horton Plains, Knuckles mountain region and Pidurutalagala. 



Lobaria 

Lungworts, lung lichens 


90 

Lobaria is a cosmopolitan genus, but is strictly restricted to cool temperate, 

subtropical and montane-tropical regions. It is mainly distributed in East Asia 

and South America. Species are known from bark and rocks in high elevation 

montane forest. They are most commonly found in shaded forest interiors. The 

Sri Lankan species are only found in a few locations in the central highlands. 

This genus is conspicuous as it has large, broad lobes, typically with rather squarish 

(shape that is almost like a square) lobes. Species of this genus contain green algae 

and/or cyanobacteria as their photobiont. The pseudocyphellae or cyphellae are 

absent in Lobaria unlike the sister genera, Sticta and Pseudocyphellaria of the 

family. But all three genera, Lobaria, Sticta and Pseudocyphellaria are most similar 

to each other in size, colour and the appearance of the lower surface. 

Apothecia produced on the lobe surface or along the margin, lecanorine, 

reddish brown to brown disk; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless to slightly 

brownish, transversely septate (spore is transversely divided). 

Chemistry PD+ yellow to red, K+ yellow to red, KC+ red, C+ pink. 

Lobaria discolor 

C 

Fo 

Lobariaceae 

Description Foliose, the thallus is loosely adnate from the centre, with wide 

lobes that are free at the margins. The upper surface is greyish green to olive 

green brown when dry, and bright green when wet. Isidia and soredia absent. 

The lower surface is pale tan. Rhizines are found in older central areas. Apothecia 

are wide and red- brown, and were abundant and conspicuous on Sri Lankan 

species. 

Lobariaceae 

Status This species can be easily identified due to its red brown apothecia, and 

is only found in cool montane forests, typically on dead logs and on tree bark. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forest areas, growing on live 

and dead bark. This species can be seen within the view of the casual observer, 

but only in specific habitats. 

Locations Common in Horton Plains. 



Megalospora 

Teloschistales Megalosporaceae 

30 

Megalospora is a genus which is mainly restricted to the tropical regions of the 

world, but also extends into temperate regions, especially in Australasia. Species 

are found on bark, and rarely on wood, leaves or rock, mostly in rather humid 

situations. This genus is conspicuous and can be easily spotted by anyone who 

closely looking for lichens. 

Two species are widespread in Sri Lanka, but are often misidentified. Both 

species were already recorded in early lichen collections from many areas of 

Sri Lanka. These species are widely distributed in the wet zone, sub-montane 

and montane regions, both in natural and man-made vegetation types of Sri 

Lanka. The thallus could be green to grey or brown on both species. The thallus 

tends to take on shades of green in wet conditions. The thallus turns to shades 

of grey in open, exposed or disturbed conditions at high elevations. The thallus 

is often surrounded by a black hypothallus. Both species have very similar thallus 

characters, so careful observation is needed. 


Apothecia Sessile, disc brown to black, flat, margin pale brown to black; 

Asci: 1-8-spored; Spores: ellipsoid, transversely septate or muriform, hyaline 

(transparent, colourless), and with a thick wall. 

Chemistry Thallus K+ yellow, P+ red, UV+ yellow. 

Megalospora sulphurata 

Description The thallus is crustose, corticate, continuous, wide, smooth, and 

grey to whitish grey in colour. Species present in shaded habitats can have a 

greenish-grey thallus. A black hypothallus is present. Soredia are not observed. 

Apothecia are sessile with a brownish reddish black disc, and flat, margin 

chocolate brown to black. 

Status More common than Megalospora tuberculosa. Often seen on the mature 

trunks of trees in shaded interiors or open forests. 

VC 

Cr 



700 m. Even found in disturbed sites and amidst man-made vegetation types 

such as chenas, tea plantations, pines and acacia plantations. Common in home 

gardens in high elevation areas. 

Locations Central highlands and high elevation wet zone forests. 



Parmotrema 

Ruffle lichens, Scatter-rug lichens 


c.350 

Parmotrema is a genus of large, pale grey or grey -green to yellow green, foliose 

lichens with broadly rounded lobes. Most species are loosely attached, typically 

marginally ciliate, and have a black, rhizinate undersurface with a naked, marginal 

zone. This genus is best developed in tropical region. Species of this genus are 

large, conspicuous foliose lichens. 

More than 20 species are known from Sri Lanka up to date, the most common of 

which tend to be Pantropical species. Recent research by Weerakoon and Aptroot 

(2014) document many new records of this genus for Sri Lanka, including five 

species that are new records for the Indian subcontinent. The Sri Lankan species 

of Parmotrema occur on tree trunks, twigs, canopy branches, and on rocks of rain 

forests, sub-montane, montane and dry deciduous forests throughout moister 

areas. 


Cr 

R 

Megalospora tuberculosa 

Description The thallus is crustose, corticate, continuous, wide, smooth, and 

grey to whitish grey. Soredia are observed on some thalli. Apothecia are sessile, 

and the disc is brown to black and margins yellowish brown. 

Status Rarer than Megalospora sulphurata. Often seen on the mature trunks of 

trees in shaded interiors or open forests. 


700 m. Even found in disturbed sites and man-made vegetation types. Common 

in home gardens in high elevation areas. 

Species of Parmotrema are mainly separated by characteristics such as the 

presence or absence of asexual propagules, and by medullary chemistry. Most 

species known from Sri Lanka are overlooked and need taxonomic revision. 



in other habitats. 

Apothecia laminal, lecanorine, generally pedicellate (stalked), disc brown; 

Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless, simple, ellipsoid, thick walled. 

Chemistry varies from species to species. Testing with K, PD and C is important 

for identification of species. 

Parmeliaceae 

Locations Central highlands and high elevation forests in the wet zone. 



Fo 

R 

SL 

Parmotrema abessinicum 

Parmotrema clavuliferum 

IC 

R 

Fo 

Parmeliaceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. Lobes are rotund, crenate and 

ciliate. The upper surface is greenish grey, smooth, lacking isidia and soredia. The 

lower side is centrally black, and the nude marginal area is mottled in pale brown 

or white. The medulla is white (when observed with a hand lens). Apothecia are 

small, disc blackish brown. 

Chemistry Medulla PD-, K-, KC+ red, C- 

Status This species is rare. It is a species which Sri Lanka shares with the tropical 

African lichen flora. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous and saxicolous. Lobes are ciliate. 

The upper surface is grey to darker grey, densely white maculate, and fissured. 

Soralia are on long pointed lobes. Lower surface centrally black, marginal zone 

white, and rhizinate up to the margin. 

Medulla chemistry K+ yellow turning to blood red, C-, PD+ orange-red. 

Parmotrema clavuliferum is distinguished by the sorediate lacinules (refer the 

photo of this species), white variegated lower margin under the soralia and the 

presence of salazinic acid (K+ yellow --> blood red). 

Parmeliaceae 

Habitat It has only been observed once on a fallen canopy branch on the 

ground. 

Locations Kikiliyamana- Nuwara Eliya. 

Status This species is rare. New record for the Indian subcontinent and Sri 


Habitat It has only been observed once at an elevation of 840m. 

Locations Close to Unulugala peak - Coolbone tea estate Yatiyanthota. 



Fo 

C 

Parmotrema cristiferum Unwhiskered ruffle lichens 

Parmotrema latissimum 

SL 

VR 

Fo 

Parmeliaceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is adnate to loosely adnate, corticolous 

becoming finely cracked on the surface of older central portions. Lobes are broad 

and rounded, with fine soralia along the crinkled margins of the older lobes and 

on the lateral lobes. The upper surface is pale grey to whitish, greenish grey, and 

dull. The lower surface is centrally black, with a very broad brown naked edge. 

Marginal cilia are absent or sparse, and very short. 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. The lobes are eciliate (no cilia). 

The upper surface is grey. Lacks isidia and soredia. The lower side is centrally 

black, and the wide marginal zone is tan and nude. The medulla is white (when 

observed with a hand lens). Apothecia are reddish orange brown. 

Chemistry Medulla K+ yellow turning red, C-, PD+ orange-red. 

Parmeliaceae 

Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow, Medulla PD+ orange, K+ yellow turning red, KC-,C-. 

P. gardneri is similar to P. cristiferum, but PD +red orange, K-. P. praesorediosum has 

narrow lobes and is PD-. 

Status This common species is seen on the mature bark of trees in sunlit habitats 

in moist conditions. This species is cosmopolitan, and is widespread throughout 

tropical and subtropical areas mainly as a corticolous species. 

Habitat Mostly found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forest above 

800 m. 

Locations Nawalapitiya, Avissawella, some places in central highlands, Matale, 

Knuckles mountains, Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya. 

Status This species occurs very rarely. Distributed in India, China, Central and 

South America. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Has only been observed once at an elevation of 840m. 

Locations Close to Unulugala peak - Coolbone tea estate- Yatiyanthota. 



Fo 

C 

Parmotrema mellissii 

Parmotrema tinctorum Palm ruffle lichens 

VC 

Fo 

Parmeliaceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous and loosely adnate. Lobes are wide, 

crenate or dissected, and ciliate. The upper surface is pale grey to whitish grey or 

green grey, dull and fissured with the older parts flaking off. The medulla is white, 

with patches of yellow- brown to orange-brown. Isidiate or sorediate, especially 

near the lobe margins. Sometimes isidia or soredia can be submarginal. The 

lower surface is centrally black, and the narrow marginal zone is brown to white 

mottled, and nude. Rhizines simple, slender, long, and form scattered groups. 

Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow, Medulla (white part) K-, C-. KC+ red, PD-. Medulla 

(pigmented part) K+ purple. 

Status Common species. Mostly seen on the mature bark of trees in shaded 

interiors, or rarely growing on moist rocky substrates. 

Habitat Found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forests above 800 m. 

Locations Central highlands, wet zone high elevation forests and along the 

rocky stream margins of sub montane and montane forests. 

Description Foliose. The thallus is loosely adnate, corticolous or saxicolous and 

large (even up to 20 cm across). Most conspicuous species of this genus in Sri 

Lanka. The lobes are broad and wide (10-20-30 mm). Lobes do not have marginal 

cilia, but are covered with granular to cylindrical, branched isidia. The dull upper 

surface varies from pale grey to darker grey. The lower surface is centrally black, 

with a very broad tan to brown naked edge. 

Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow, Medulla PD-, K-, KC+ red, C+ blood red. This lichen 

is easily identified by the broad, pale isidiate lobes and C+ red reaction. 

Status Very common species in Sri Lanka. On mature bark of trees and on rocks 

in all sorts of habitats. Cosmopolitan, and widespread throughout the tropical 

and temperate regions. 

Habitat Common on bark. In humid mid elevation to high elevation forest 

above 600 m. 

Locations Avissawella to Hatton, Kegalle to Kandy, abundant in the central 

highlands, Matale, Knuckles, Horton Plains, Pidurutalagala, Sabaragamuwa hill 

range, Ratnapura, Haputale, Bandarawela, Badulla and Nuwara Eliya. 

Parmeliaceae 



Phaeophyscia 

shadow lichens 


28 

Phaeophyscia is a genus characteristic of cool wet temperate areas and montane 

rainforests in tropical and subtropical areas. They are epiphytes, and grow on 

bark, wood or rocks of all type. This genus includes rather small foliose lichens 

with olive to brown, yellowish thalli that have radiating lobes, and a black 

rhizinate lower surface. 

Only Phaeophyscia hispidula, which is a new record for Sri Lanka with very 

restricted distribution in montane areas, included here was observed. Other 

species which have not yet been observed could occur with a distinct preference 

for particular montane communities. This species usually grows on mature, 

mossy trunks. 

The closely related genus Physcia can often be confused with Phaeophyscia. 

Species of Physcia all contain atranorin, (K+ yellow) in the upper cortex and, 

except for few sub-tropical species, lack rhizines on the apothecial margins. 

Physciaceae 

Apothecia laminal, lecanorine, mostly rhizinate at base, greyish to reddish disc 

brown to black; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: brown, 2-celled, unevenly thickened 

walls. 

Chemistry Negative reactions in cortex and medulla (if any species have 

pigmented medulla orange or red it will give K+ red purple reaction). 

Phaeophyscia hispidula Whiskered shadow lichens 

SL 

Description Fruticose. The thallus is corticolous, and pale greyish brown or 

yellow brown with, relatively broad lobes, rather concave tips, and a white 

medulla. Soredia are present mainly on the margins and lobe surface. The lower 

surface is black. Black rhizines are abundant and long, projecting beyond the 

lobes, and often coalesce in to a mat, and appear as a fringe of “whiskers” when 

viewed from above. Apothecia are not observed on the Sri Lankan material. 

R 

Fr 

Physciaceae 

Status This rare species can be easily found as it forms a large colony on the 

mature trunks of trees in shaded interiors. New record for Sri Lanka. 


Locations Horton Plains and Hakgala strict nature reserve. 



Phyllopsora 

Lace- scale lichens 

Lecanorales Ramalinaceae 

c.70 

Phyllopsora is a crustose to squamulose genus. The genus consists of species 

growing primarily on the bark of tree trunks and main branches in tropical and 

subtropical humid montane forest to rainforests. However, Phyllopsora is still 

poorly known in many parts of the world. 

Most species have a thallus with corticate and loosely to closely appressed 

squamules usually green to greyish green or grey. There is a white to reddish 

brown hypothallus present. More than 15 species are known from Sri Lanka 

up to date, the most common of which tend to be Pantropical species. Recent 

research by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014) documents eight new records of this 

genus for Sri Lanka, including five species that are new records for the Indian 

subcontinent. The Sri Lankan species of Phyllopsora occur on tree trunks, wood, 

and on rocks of rainforests, sub-montane, and montane forests throughout 

humid areas. 

Ramalinaceae 

Most species known from Sri Lanka are overlooked and need taxonomic revision. 



in other habitats. 

Apothecia biatorine, disc reddish brown; Asci: mostly8-spored; Spores: 

colourless, ellipsoid, usually simple. 

Chemistry Various substances. 

Phyllopsora borbonica 

Description The thallus is formed of small, adnate, isodiametric areolae (an 

island of thalli that develop on hypothallus) which are discrete to adjoined 

peripherally, and forms a more or less continuous crust centrally. Areoles are 

pale green and glabrous (smooth, not hairy). Isidia are absent. The prothallus is 

brownish black. Apothecia are abundant, rounded, simple, plane to moderately 

convex and reddish brown. 

IC 

R 

Sq 

Ramalinaceae 

Chemistry No lichen substances 

Status Mostly seen on mature tree trunks in very humid, shaded interiors. New 

record for the Indian sub continent and Sri Lanka. 


1300 m. 

Locations Few places in Nuwara Eliya and Adam’s Peak trail. 



Sq 

VC 

SL 

Phyllopsora breviuscula 

Phyllopsora confusa 

SL C Sq 

Ramalinaceae 

Description The thallus forms incomplete circular patches, squamules large, 

adnate, elongated, contiguous or partly imbricate, becoming deeply divided, 

distinctly convex, medium green or often with brown patches. Isidia are absent. 

Prothallus is thick, reddish brown. Apothecia are common, rounded, simple, 

plane to moderately convex, medium brown, with a paler and indistinct margin. 

Can be confused with Phyllopsora parvifolia. 

Description The thallus has small, narrow ascending squamules, and is bluish 

green in colour. Isidia are absent. The prothallus is thin, but often well developed, 

white to partly reddish brown. Apothecia are rounded to irregular, simple, plane 

to moderately convex, and pale to medium brown. 


Ramalinaceae 


Status This species is Pantropical. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Status Very common species. Mostly found on mature tree trunks in very humid, 

shaded interiors and on moist rocky substrates. This species is pantropical. New 

record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Found in humid rain forest and humid sub montane areas. 

Locations Avissawella, Nawalapitiya ,Hatton and Knuckles mountain range. 


1000 m. 

Locations Central highlands, high elevation rain forests and along the rocky 

stream margins of sub montane and montane forests. 



Sq 

R 

IC 

Phyllopsora furfuracea 

Phyllopsora kiiensis 

IC 

R 

Sq 

Ramalinaceae 

Description The thallus is partly formed of minute areolae which often fuse 

and form a continuous pale green to dark green crust. Isidia develop directly 

from the prothallus. Isidia are often dominating. The prothallus is indistinct to 

well developed and white to reddish brown. Apothecia are not seen in Sri Lankan 

material. 

Chemistry Chemotype 1: furfuraceic acid; Chemotype 2: no lichen substances. 

Status This species is Pantropical. New record for the Indian sub continent 

and Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Found in humid rain forest and humid sub montane areas. 

Description The thallus has squamules that are medium sized, adnate, and pale 

green. Isidia are usually abundant, attached marginally to the squamules, often 

long, and simple to slightly branched. This species can be easily identified due 

to its well developed, reddish brown prothallus. Apothecia are not seen in Sri 

Lankan material. 

This species resembles Phyllopsora corallina, but contains furfuraceic acid like 

Phyllopsora furfuracea. It differs from the latter in forming a squamulose, not 

areolate, thallus. 

Status Recorded from Japan, Kenya, Tanzania, and Australia. New record for the 

Indian sub continent and Sri Lanka. 

Ramalinaceae 

Locations Avissawella, Nawalapitiya and Hatton. 

Habitat Found in dry to humid rain forest. 

Locations Ratnapura and Mathugama. 



Physcia 

Rosette lichens 


70 

Physcia is a cosmopolitan genus. This genus is found in cool, wet, temperate 

areas and montane rainforests in tropical and sub-tropical areas. This genus is 

most diverse in the Neotropics. Species of this genus grow on various substrates. 

Many species are widespread in Sri Lanka. However, these species have not yet 

been correctly identified due to the lack of apothecia. Descriptive keys available 

for the region are not very helpful in identifying species collected from Sri Lanka 

as they are related to African, Australian, North and South American, East Asian 

and European species. This genus needs extensive studies and fresh collections 

towards correct identification and to inventory the total diversity in Sri Lanka. 

Physciaceae 

Few species were analyzed by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014), leading to the 

discovery of seven new records for Sri Lanka including three species that are 

new records for the Indian subcontinent. The recently identified Physcia krogiae 

is also a new record for the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka (Weerakoon and 

Aptroot unpublished). These species in Sri Lanka usually grow on mossy trunks, 

twigs, rocks and dead wood. Some species are found on living leaves. This is 

one of the most speciose microfoliose genera in Sri Lanka. Most small, light grey 

foliose lichens with a pale undersurface and K+ yellow upper surface are species 

of Physcia. 

Apothecia laminal, lecanorine with dark brown to black disks; Asci: 8-spored; 

Spores: dark brown, 2 celled, thick walled, with angular to oval locules. 

Chemistry Upper cortex PD- or pale yellow, K+ yellow, KC-, C-; medulla PD- or 

PD +pale yellow, K- or K+ yellow, KC-, C-. 

Physcia alba 

SL 

Description Microfoliose. The thallus is adnate, has fragile lobes. Lobes radiating, 

flat, narrower, distinctly separate, tips often ascending. The upper surface is 

whitish grey to cream-coloured. Soredia and isidia are absent. The lower surface 

is white to pale graphite grey. Rhizines are concolourous with the lower surface. 

Apothecia are abundant and variable in size. Margins are thick and weakly 

crenulate, with a brown to black disc. 

R 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

This species is predominately tropical and is recognized by its narrow, truncate 

lobes, the abundant apothecia with thick margins and the pale lower surface. 

Status Rare species in Sri Lanka. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mainly corticolous growing in open forests on solitary trees, and also 

found on rocks in exposed sites above 900m. 

Locations Matale District- Nawanagala and Kabaragala. 



Fo 

R 

IC 

Physcia atrostriata 

Physcia integrata 

SL 

VC 

Fo 

Physciaceae 

Description Microfoliose. The thallus is orbicular to irregular. The upper side 

whitish grey, shiny to matte, sometimes with a pruina or a “frosty” coating on the 

lobe margins. Lobes are usually narrower, short and rounded, with the tips usually 

ascending. Soralia are marginal, mainly on the inner parts of the lobes, often best 

developed in the lobe angles. The underside is black and usually striate, in part 

brownish grey. Nearer to the lobe tips, it becomes more distinctly striate. Rhizines 

are grey to black or brown. Apothecia are not seen on the Sri Lankan material. 

Status Rare species in Sri Lanka. This is another unique species found in Sri Lanka, 

which is shared with the African continent. The species was first discovered in 

East Africa. New record for the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mainly corticolous species found growing in open forests on solitary 

trees, above 900m. 

Description Microfoliose. The thallus is orbicular (rounded convex or globular 

shape) to irregular, 5 cm in diameter, and closely adnate to the substrate. Lobe 

tips are rounded. The upper surface is whitish grey to grey, usually shiny, and 

sometimes scattered with white dots. The lower surface is black except for the 

pale lobe tips, with copious black rhizines. Apothecia are usually abundant with a 

dark brown to black disc, and sometimes covered with a white pruina. 

Status One of most common species. This species is easily identified by its 

appearance; the black lower cortex and the shiny upper surface. In some 

specimens the thallus is dissected into narrow lobes. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid mid to high elevation forests above 1000 

m and man-made vegetation. Found growing on tree trunks and rocks in rather 

open but moist, subtropical situations. 

Physciaceae 

Locations Matale district- Nawanagala. 

Locations Avissawella, Ratnapura, Pidurutalagala, Horton Plains, Matale, 

Kegalle, Kandy, Knuckles mountains, Hinuduma Kanda, Hakgala and Peradeniya, 

Sabaragamuwa mountains, Sinharaja-Sinhagala and Athwalthota. 



Fo 

R 

IC 

Physcia krogiae 

Physcia sorediosa 

SL 

RL 

LC Fo 

Physciaceae 

Description Microfoliose. The thallus is closely adnate to the substrate. Lobes 

up to 2-3 mm, flat, considerably branched, radiate, usually widening at the tips 

and becoming lobulate. The upper surface is whitish bluish grey to grey, and 

dull with a “frosty” surface, especially at the lobe margins. Extreme margins are 

paler in colour and thus, more distinct. Soralia are laminal to marginal, mostly 

forming large patches of soralia. The lower surface is black, in part dark brown, 

rarely greyish brown, matte, lobe margins white. Rhizines black. Apothecia are 

not observed on the Sri Lankan material. 

Status Rare species in Sri Lanka. This is another unique species found in in Sri 

Lanka which is also shared with the African continent. This species was first 

discovered in East Africa. New record for the Indian subcontinent. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m. Found 

growing on tree trunks in moist montane areas. 

Description Microfoliose. The thallus is orbicular to irregular. Lobes are usually 

broadest near the tips, and typically overlap. The upper surface is whitish grey 

to grey, shiny or rarely pruinose, and sorediate. Soredia are marginal, granular 

and small. The lower surface is black, with dark grey lobe tips. Rhizines are black. 

Apothecia are not common, margins are crenulated, disc black and with or 

without pruina. 

Status Rare species in Sri Lanka. This species is known from South America, East 

Africa and Southeast Asia. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Grows on both on rocks and on tree trunks in open areas above 900m. 

Locations Few locations in the Matale district. 

Physciaceae 

Locations Matale district- Maussakanda estate and Kabaragala. 



Pseudocyphellaria 

Specklebelly lichens 


120 

Pseudocyphellaria is most diverse in the Southern Hemisphere as a cool 

temperate forest genus, but is considered as cosmopolitan, comprising some of 

the largest, most beautiful and conspicuous foliose lichens. 

Different species of this genus have distinct ecological preference. Most 

commonly found in the shaded forest interior, these lichens give the impression 

of green lushness as expressed by their abundance and lettuce-like thalli. Some 

species may be found on upper trunks, because they tend to grow high in 

the trees and beyond the view of the casual observer, usually in rather humid 

areas. They are found rarely on mossy rocks. Species of this genus either contain 

cyanobacteria or green algae as their photobionts. Cyanobacterial species are 

capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, contributing significantly to the nutrient 

budget of forest ecosystems. 

Lobariaceae 

Pseudocyphellaria is closely related to Sticta and Lobaria, and the species resemble 

each other very closely. The principal distinguishing character unique to this 

genus is the presence of conspicuous pseudocyphellae on the lower surface 

of the lobes. As Pseudocyphellaria species are often associated with old humid 

forests in undisturbed settings, they are often used as indicators of valuable old 

growth forests. 

Apothecia on the surface of the thallus or along the margins; Asci: 8-spored; 

Spores: colourless, 2- many celled, with pointed ends. 


Pseudocyphella (Pseudocyphellae): A break or opening in the cortex where 

medullary hyphae protrude; it may be round, irregular, angular, or a minuscule 

pore 

Pseudocyphella 

Pseudocyphellaria beccarii 

Description Foliose. Lobes are dark brownish and dirty green-grey, dichotomously 

and irregularly branching. Apices are red-brown. The lower surface is pale redbrown 

to blackish. Apothecia are red brown, and usually numerous. 

Status This common species can be readily identified by its orange brown 

apothecia when present. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid, high elevation forest areas. Also found in 

fragmented forest patches at high elevations (above 1200m), tea estates, and 

along streams, growing on upper portions of tree trunks within the view of 

casual observer. Easily spotted on moist rocky boulders, and mainly prefers the 

shaded forest interior. 

Locations Horton Plains (common), Knuckles upper montane forest ( common 

in Kalupahana, Knuckles, Riverston, Dotalugala, Gombaniya areas), Adam’s Peak 

montane forest, Kikiliyamana, Ambewela, Pattipola, Seetha Eliya, Hakgala strict 

nature reserve and Kandapola in the Nuwara Eliya district. 

C 

Fo 

Lobariaceae 



Fo 

R 

Pseudocyphellaria desfontainii 

Pseudocyphellaria intricata 

R 

Fo 

Lobariaceae 

Description Foliose. The thallus is pale greyish, dirty green-grey brown. Thallus 

forms a rosette or could be spreading. Lobe margins isidiate. Isidia are yellow, 

and the lower surface is pale yellowish, buff or reddish dirty brown. Apothecia are 

rare, with red brown to grey-white disc. 

Status This rarely spotted species can be identified by the yellowish isidia on the 

margin of its lobes. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forest areas. It is also found in 

fragmented forest patches at high elevations (above 1200m), growing on upper 

trunks and dead bark within the view of casual observer. Easily spotted in well lit 

situation. 

Description Foliose. The thallus forms a rosette and spreads irregularly. The 

lobes are loosely attached, dark greenish brown to greyish when dry, and 

bluish black to dirty green after the rain. The margins of the lobes are sorediate, 

and the soredia are white to grey. The lower surface is pale chocolate brown. 

Pseudocyphellae are white and scattered. Apothecia have not yet been observed 

on the specimens collected in Sri Lanka. 

Status This cosmopolitan species can be identified by its white marginal soredia 

on the margin of the lobes. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid forest areas, growing on dead wood and 

bark in sheltered sites within the view of casual observer. Occasionally saxicolous. 

Lobariaceae 

Locations Horton Plains (common), Kikiliyamana, Ambewela, Pattipola, 

Seethaeliya, Hakgala strict nature reserve (SNR) and Kandapola in the Nuwara 

Eliya District. 

Locations Horton Plains (common), Pattipola, Hakgala strict nature reserve and 

Pidurutalagala peak in the Nuwara Eliya district. Laxapana water fall, Hiniduama 

Kanda, and Kitulgala forest. 



Ramalina 

Lecanorales Ramalinaceae 

200 

Ramalina is a cosmopolitan fruticose lichen genus found in cool, wet, temperate 

areas and montane rainforests in tropical and subtropical regions. Its species are 

mostly epiphytes but some species occur on rocks. Most diverse in the Pacific 

and the Neotropics. 

Species of the genus Ramalina have been used to make dye and perfumes in 

Europe and for dye and foodstuffs in India. Some species are used as nesting 

material by birds, such as warblers, especially where Ramalina replaces Usnea as 

the dominant epiphyte. 

Ramalinaceae 

The most slender to almost filamentous species of this genus have been 

misidentified as Usnea in Sri Lanka. Two species have been newly recorded for Sri 

Lanka by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014).This genus is represented by pendent 

or shrubby fruticose lichens with long, more or less flattened branches which 

can be broad or slender. The thalli are usually rather stiff, solid throughout or 

hollow close to the base, and have a yellowish green to yellowish thallus. 

Apothecia lecanorine, with pale yellowish, often pruinose discs; Asci: 8-spored; 

Spores: colourless, 2-celled, ellipsoid. 

Chemistry Cortex PD-,K-,KC+ dark yellow, C -, medulla and Soralia with various 

reactions. 

Ramalina conduplicans 

Description The fruticose thallus is corticolous, rarely saxicolous, 3-5-10 cm 

long, erect, greenish grey to yellowish brown, and branched. The upper side is 

smooth. The lower side is rugose (roughened) with raised, round, and prominent 

pseudocyphellae. Soredia are absent. Medulla is solid. Apothecia are not found 

in Sri Lankan specimens. 

Status Very common species. New record for Sri Lanka. 

SL 

VC 

Fr 

Ramalinaceae 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1400 m. Also 

collected in low elevation in sunlit habitats. 

Locations Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya. Low elevation areas such as in 

Divulapitiya-Gampaha, and Negombo. 



Sclerophyton 

Arthoniales Roccellaceae 

15 

Sclerophyton is a genus confined to the tropical and oceanic areas of the world. 

But it is possible that this genus is found in all parts of the world below an altitude 

of 1500m, with a mean temperature over 5° C and an annual precipitation over 

500mm. In Sclerophyton, the highest species diversity occurs in South and Central 

America and tropical Asia. Temperate Europe, Central America, Australia and 

Southeast Asia have their own species. Out of all known species of Sclerophyton, 

only four are considered as widespread. 

Typically, corticolous species of this genus are found on palm beaches, coastal 

scrublands and in woodlands. Saxicolous species grow on shaded, often 

overhanging rocks. Some species grow in tropical rainforests. Most species are 

distributed within a small area. All species of Sclerophyton grow on nutrient poor 

to nutrient rich, acid to neutral or inert substrates, such as smooth, acidic bark, 

hard wood and sclerophyll leaves (hard leaves with short internodes). 

Ramalinaceae 

Fr 

VC 

Ramalina usnea 

Description The fruticose thallus is corticolous, pendulous, long, yellowish 

brown, and branched with ribbon-like branches that are spirally twisted, and are 

often cracked. Pseudocyphellae are linear. Soralia are absent. Medulla is solid. 

Apothecia are not found in Sri Lankan specimens. 

Status Very common species. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forest above 1400 m. 

Locations Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya. 

Though this genus is mostly found in dry habitats, the species included here is 

observed in an upper montane area above 1300 m, along the Pattipola road in 

the Nuwara Eliya District. This is the first species of this genus to be recorded 

in Sri Lanka (Weerakoon & Aptroot unpublished). It is possible that many other 

species of this genus could be present in Sri Lanka, as other genera of the family 

Roccellaceae are frequently recorded. 

Apothecia round to elongate or asteroid, immersed, generally in groups or lines, 

disc exposed, pink or pale to dark brown to black, often pruinose, margins white 

to grey, often fusing to form stromata (a thick compact wad of hyphae, often 

covering or supporting a group of ascomata); Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless, 

clavate, septate (3-10) or muriform. 

Chemistry Thallus UV- or UV+ yellow , PD+ yellow or PD+ orange , K+ Yellow or 

K+ yellow turning red, C+ red. 

Roccellaceae 

Oceanic areas: Pertaining to a climate characterized by mild, wet winters, cool, 

moist summers, and frequent fogs. 



Siphula 

Waterfingers 

Pertusariales Icmadophilaceae 

30 

Siphula is a lichen genus found mainly on soil exposed to sun in humid high 

elevations, with centres of diversity in South America, South Africa, and 

Australasia. One other species has been recorded from Sikkim -India. 

No species of Siphula is known to produce apothecia, however several studies 

have used molecular data. This genus has very beautiful fruticose species that are 

fragile, and become attached to substrates by a stolone-like rhizine. The thallus 

is erect, has branched to unbranched white grey stalks in dense clumps that are 

more or less scattered. The stalks are blunt at the tips, usually with long furrows. 

No isidia, soredia or apothecia are seen on any of the species known so far. 

Cr 

R 

Sclerophyton elegans 

The species included here was found at an open soil bank on a moss mat, and on 

dead wood among mosses along the Pattipola road -Nuwara Eliya. This is a new 

record for Sri Lanka and the Indian subcontinent (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2014) 

and has a very restricted distribution in a few habitats in montane areas. Further 

field studies need to be carried out in similar habitats in upper montane regions 

of Sri Lanka to discover the total diversity of this genus. 

Roccellaceae 

Description The thallus is corticolous, smooth to uneven, pale grey to greyish 

white. The prothallus is thin and grey to black. Ascomata are lirelliform, aggregated 

in a stroma, and the disc is pale to dark brown. The thalline margin exists in line 

with the ascomatal disc, but is slightly raised above the sterile part of the thallus, 

and is paler in colour. 

Chemistry Thallus C-, K+ yellowish or brownish, PD+ yellow, UV- 

Apothecia Not known. 

Chemistry Varies from species to species. 

A dorsiventral organ is one that has two surfaces differing from each other in 

appearence and structure, as an ordinary leaf. 

Physciaceae 

Status Rare species. 

Habitat as a corticolous species in humid high elevation forest edges above 

1200 m. 

Locations Pattipola road- Nuwara Eliya. 



Stereocaulon 

Foam lichens, Easter lichens 

Lecanorales Stereocaulaceae 

125 

Physciaceae 

Fr 

VR 

IC 

Siphula decumbens 

Description Fruticose. The thallus is whitish grey, broad, and with lobes that 

are frequently dorsiventral with one side more markedly scabrid (rough with 

irregular, delicate projections), irregularly branched and lobed in several planes, 

attached to the substrate by a rhizine like rooting system, fragile and erect. 

Medulla is solid. This is a sterile species. 

Chemistry K+ bright- yellow turning brownish red. 

This species is varied significantly over a range of habitats, exhibiting considerable 

morphological variation. 

Stereocaulon cosmopolitan genus found mainly on rocks and soil commonly 

mixed with mosses covering large areas of soil or rocks. Species of Stereocaulon 

produce cephalodia (brown and pink-purple structures seen on the following 

photos included under this genus), that are important in the nitrogen cycling 

of habitats. Cephalodia are structures which form on the surface or inside of a 

lichen thallus, containing cyanobacteria as a secondary photobiont that fixes 

nitrogen. 

So far, six species are known from the upper montane habitats of Sri Lanka. 

Recent work carried out in the Nuwara Eliya District, led to the discovery of one 

species that is a new record for Sri Lanka by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014) which 

was previously only known from high elevation sites in Sikkim - India. The two 

species included here were found in montane open soil banks in Nuwara Eliya, 

and have restricted distribution in montane areas. Further field studies in similar 

habitats in the upper montane regions of Sri Lanka are required to estimate the 

total diversity of this genus. 

This genus includes dimorphic fruticose lichens, with a granular to squamulose 

horizontal primary thallus that is disappearing in most species. The secondary 

thallus is vertical and fruticose. The branched stalks are generally seen in thick 

clumps or tight cushions and attached by a basal holdfast. 

Stereocaulon replaces reindeer lichens (Cladonia) as the dominant ground cover 

in some parts of the boreal forest. In these regions, it becomes an important 

component of the caribou winter diet. Some species of Stereocaulon have been 

used as medicine in China and India by mountainous tribal people. 

Apothecia lateral or terminal, rounded, brown to black, central cone compact; 

Asci: 4-8 spored; Spores: colourless, needle shape, elongate, 2-30 septate. 

Chemistry cortex K+ yellow in all species, PD+ orange, KC-, C- or PD-, KC+ pink 

or violet, C- in most species. 


Status Very rare species. Can be easily spotted, as the species forms a conspicuous 

grey colony among moss mats on well lit soil banks and logs. New record for the 

Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1200 m to 

1400m on soil banks and on few mossy logs. 

Locations Few locations along the Pattipola Station to Horton plains. 

Primary thallus; A 

squamulose or 

crustose thallus 

from which fruticose 

stalks or podetia 

arise as secondary 

components. 

Podetia ; lichenized 

stem- like portion of an 

apothecium, this forms 

the fruticose part of the 

thallus, and apothecia 

discs are absent. (Pseudopodetia= 

Fake podetiate) 

Phyllocladia; squamule 

-like structure occurring 

in Stereocaulon 



Fr 

R 

Stereocaulon austroindicum 

Stereocaulon foliolosum 

SL 

R 

Fr 


Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is terricolous to saxicolous (on 

decomposing rocks) and persistent. Pseudopodetia are erect, up to 2 cm tall, 

aggregated, simple to branched, whitish brown, apices white. Phyllocladia are 

pseudo-sorediate. Cephalodia are brown to dark brown enclosing cyanobacteria 

(Stigonema, rarely Gloeocapsa). Apothecia are terminal. 

Chemistry Phyllocladia K+ yellow, PD+ pale yellow. 

Status This rare species can be easily recognized as the species forms a 

conspicuous grey brown colony on well lit soil banks and on the decomposing 

substrates of rocks. 

Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forest above 1200 m to 

1400m on soil banks. 

Locations Few locations along Pattipola station to Horton plains, Kikiliyamana 

forest and few localities in Nuwara Eliya district. 

Description Fruticose. Pseudopodetia terricolous (on the ground) or rarely 

saxicolous, up to 4 cm tall, sparingly branched and brownish white. Phyllocladia 

flattened, leafy like. Cephalodia brown enclosing cyanobacteria (Nostoc). 

Apothecia terminal (apothecia form, or are situated on the surface). 

Chemistry Phyllocladia K+ yellow, PD+ pale yellow. 

Status This rare species can be readily identified as the species forms a 

conspicuous whitish brown colony on well lit soil banks. New record for Sri 


Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1300 m, and 

on soil banks. 

Locations Very few locations along Pattipola station to Horton plains. 




Sticta 

Moon lichens, Crater lichens 


100 

Sticta is a cosmopolitan genus. The genus is most diverse in subtropical and 

tropical regions. It is found mostly on tree bark and dead wood, and sometimes 

on rocks and soil. Most Sticta species have cyanobacterial photobionts, while 

some have green algae. It is commonly found in highly humid habitats and is 

typically absent in drier parts of the country. 

Sticta is a genus of large foliose lichens. It is characterized by the presence of 

distinctive crater-like pits known as cyphellae in the lower surface of the thallus. 

This genus can be distinguished by violet colour in a simple chemical test using 

potassium hydroxide (KOH). This genus can be easily identified in its natural 

habitat even by a non-lichenologist. The presence of cyphellae on the lower 

surface immediately distinguishes Sticta from the closely related Lobaria and 

Pseudocyphellaria. 

Lobariaceae 

Apothecia marginal to laminal, disc red brown- brown black, lecanorine or 

biatorine, crenate or entire margin; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless to brown, 

fusiform, septate. 

Chemistry No substance detected on Sri Lankan materials. 

Sticta limbata 

SL 

Description Foliose. The thallus is reniform (kidney like) to irregular, and loosely 

attached at one point. The lobes are broad, round, margins thickened and 

densely sorediate. The upper surface is greyish green to brown when dry, and 

greyish-brown to reddish when wet. The lower surface is pale yellowish brown to 

grey-brown to dark reddish brown, Cyphellae sparse and rounded. Apothecia are 

not seen on the material collected in Sri Lanka. 

R 

Fo 

Lobariaceae 

Status Rare species. Careful observation is needed, as it has only been spotted 

only once. New record for Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Seen in the humid high elevation montane forest of the Kalupahana- 

Knuckles region only. This species could be restricted to montane forests. Found 

at shady, highly humid sites, growing together with mosses. 

Locations Kalupahana area in the Knuckles mountain region. 



Usnea 

Beard lichens, Old man’s beard 

Lecanorales Usneaceae 

c.500 

Usnea is a cosmopolitan genus found in cool, wet, temperate areas and montane 

rainforests in tropical and sub tropical areas. Species of Usnea are collectively 

referred as old man’s beard. This is a very large genus of conspicuous fruticose 

lichens comprising more than 500-600 species. It is found on rocks, bark, wood, 

canopy branches, twigs, shrubs, and soil in a very wide range of habitats. Also 

it is noteworthy that some species have been observed on sign boards, power 

poles, fence posts and grave tombs etc. invading man-made structures in moist, 

humid high elevation areas. 

This genus is under revision at the moment due to the molecular data change 

causing the delimitation of species within the genus. Many species which were 

known under one common name have been identified as consisting distinct 

lineages. In Sri Lanka, the genus remains very poorly known. 

Lobariaceae 

Fo 

C 

Sticta weigelii 

Description Foliose, dark brownish black when dry, becomes reddish chocolate 

brown when wet, broadly rounded lobes which resembles an arrangement of 

cabbage leaves. Lobe margins are densely isidiate. Isidia are small. The lower 

surface is dark brown to pinkish brown. Cyphellae are scattered. Apothecia are 

reddish and numerous. 

Status Common species. Can be easily recognized due to its reddish apothecia 

and broad brown lobes. 

In montane forests of the central highlands, Usnea is a dominant component 

of the forest canopy, which is one of the least studied habitats in Sri Lanka. 

Recent work carried out by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014) recorded six new 

Usnea species for Sri Lanka including four species that are new records for the 

Indian subcontinent. Around 15-20 species are known from Sri Lanka, that need 

taxonomic revision using molecular and chemical data. 

Usnea can be easily distinguished from similar genera by having a characteristic 

central cord. Usnea is one of the most commercially important lichens because 

of its use in the production of usnic acid, an effective antibiotic against certain 

bacteria. Some species of Usnea are used in dye-making and are also used to 

brew beer (in Mexico). Usnea species are also important to wildlife as both food 

and nesting material. 

Usneaceae 

Habitat Mostly seen in humid high elevation forest areas. However, this is a rare 

species occurring on high elevation rainforests and montane forests. When the 

thallus is young, it is not easy to spot among mosses. 

Locations Horton Plains (common), Knuckles upper montane forest- common 

in Kalupahana, and Gombaniya areas, Hakgala strict nature reserve and 

Pidurutalagala peak. 

Apothecia lecanorine, lateral, subterminal or terminal, disc pruinose, concave 

to plane, usually pale lemon green; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless, simple 

ellipsoid. 

Chemistry Usnic acid present in cortex of all species KC+ dark yellow, medulla 

with a varied chemistry. Many different chemotypes are present even within 

the same species, therefore TLC is essential for the correct identification of the 

species. 



Usneaceae 

Fr 

VC 

Misidentification Usnea barbata 

Possible Species Ramalina thrausta OR Ramalina usnea 

Description for Usnea barbata Fruticose. The thallus is pendulous and long, 

and may partly be divided into irregular segments by annular cracks. The 

branches are uneven in thickness, often with depressions and/or ridges. Fibrils 

are short ranging from few to numerous. Isidia are few or absent. Papillae could 

be abundant, sparse or absent. Soralia are punctiform (with small spots or pits) 

irregular, few to abundant, develop on the top of eroded papillae, tubercles or 

ridges. The cortex is thin. The medulla is thick and loose. Apothecia are not seen. 

Most of the Usnea species collected from Sri Lanka are identified as Usnea 

barbata by most of the collectors, but is not in actuality the aforementioned 

species. The lichen Usnea barbata has been referred to as a common lichen in 

Horton Plains in the historical records of hunters and explorers. However, this is 

a misidentification. 

Status Recorded as a very common species especially at Horton Plains as “old 

man’s beard” lichen. Further studies using molecular, morphology and chemistry 

is recommended for the correct identification of the Usnea and Ramalina species 

in Horton Plains and similar habitats. 

Usneaceae 

This species is very polymorphic and may represent a collection of intergrading 

taxa (species that pass into another form by a series of intervening forms). Several 

characteristics (e.g. presence of fibrils, papillae, isidia, degree of depressions and 

ridges) vary greatly. Careful observation under the microscope is required. 

Medullary chemistry Two chemotypes have been recorded for Usnea barbata: 

(1) with salazinic acid as a main substance (K+ yellow, orange or red, Pd+ yellow to 

orange) and protocetraric acid as an accessory substance; (2) without medullary 

substances (K–, Pd–). 

Habitat Usnea barbata is mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests as 

a corticolous species. Reported in Europe: Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, 

Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, 

Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine and 

Estonia. However, it is worth noting that this species has not been recorded in 

India, Nepal or other South Asian regions. 

Locations Historical identification of locations lists Horton Plains and the 

Nuwara Eliya district. 



Fr 

R 

IC 

Usnea cornuta 

Usnea steineri 

IC 

R 

Fr 

Usneaceae 

Description Fruticose. The thallus is corticolous or saxicolous. The thallus is erect 

and shrubby, with main branches inflated, secondary branches tapering and 

distinctly constricted at their base, and curved. The whole thallus is dichotomously 

branched. The base is the same colour as the branches, or paler. Fibrils are thick, 

short and often numerous on the tips. Papillae are few to numerous. Soralia are 

concentrated at branch tips. The cortex is glossy and thin. The medulla is white, 

thick and loose. 

Medullary chemistry Chemotypes : (1) salazinic acid (K+ red, Pd+ yellow to 

orange) (2) stictic and norstictic acids (K+ yellow to orange, Pd+ yellow to orange) 

(3) lobaric and norstictic (4) norstictic acid (5) protocetraric acid (6) chemotype 

with no medullary compounds. 

Status Rare species. ‘New record for the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. 

Habitat Restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1200 m. Observed on 

trees, rocks and shrubs in open, humid forests. 

Description Fruticose. The thallus is corticolous, reddish, erect and shrubby. 

The trunk is concolourous and black at its base. The branching is dichotomous, 

with the branches tapering to irregular and reddish. Spinules are sparse. The 

medulla also has a reddish pigment. Papillae (small, wart-like protuberance) are 

numerous. Pseudocyphellae are present on the tubercles (small wart-like tubes). 

The cortex is shiny. The medulla is whitish orange. Apothecia are usually present 

with numerous cilia. Spores are colourless. 

Medullary chemistry (1) Protocetraric acid, related substances, pigment, (2) 

norstictic acid, pigment, (3) salazinic acid, pigment. In all three chemotypes 

barbatic acid has been frequently found in the apothecia only. 


Habitat Restricted to high elevation humid montane forests above 1400 m. On 

twigs and small branches in the tree canopy. Also in open habitats, forest relics, 

shrubby areas, and along roads within secondary montane cloud forests. 

Usneaceae 

Locations Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya district. 

Locations Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya district. 



5. Graphidaceae: 

the most speciose lichen 

family in Sri Lanka 

Genera 103+ 

Ostropales Graphidaceae 

c.2500 

Graphidaceae is the largest family of tropical crustose lichens, with 103 genera 

known to date comprising 2500 accepted species. Recent phylogenic and 

statistical analysis showed that Sri Lanka and South India are the Graphidaceae 

hotspots in the world with 499 species (Lücking et al. 2014). 

Usneaceae 

Fr R IC 

Usnea subcornuta 

Description Fruticose. The species is found on bark or rocks. The thallus is erectshrubby 

to subpendent and small. The trunk is of the same colour as the tapering 

branches. Lateral branches with annular cracks that are constricted at the point 

of attachment. Bases are pale. Long and slender fibrils are present, and are scarce 

to abundant. Soralia are usually large. The cortex is glossy and thin. The medulla is 

loose, and contains an orange-reddish pigment sub-cortically (inside the cortex). 

Medullary chemistry Stictic and norstictic acids as main substances (K+ yellow 

to red, Pd+ orange). 

Has been considered as identical to U. cornuta, however, it is indicated that this 

is a distinct species characterized by the presence of orange-reddish pigment in 

the cortical layers. 


Habitat Restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1400 m. Found on the 

exposed branches of young trees, on bark or wood in open places, forest relics, 

evergreen lower montane forests, and secondary montane cloud forests. 

Locations Kalupahana area- Knuckles mountain region. 

This is the most speciose lichen family in Sri Lanka with c.400 species known 

from over 40 genera. More than 175 species in this family are new records for the 

country (Weerakoon et al. in preparation). Since 2012, over 42 new species have 

been discovered in family Graphidaceae by local lichenologists from Sri Lanka 

(Weerakoon et al. 2012 a & b; Weerakoon et al. 2014; Weerakoon et al. A in press, 

Wijeyaratne et al. 2012). Out of the recently described species, 97% are endemic 

to Sri Lanka, with majority retaining point endemics. 

Hale’s (1981) extensive monograph of the species, which at the time included 

Thelotremataceae, but now forms part of the Graphidaceae, no doubt represents 

the turning point of monographic work on lichen fungi in Sri Lanka. Several 

recent publications now in press (Weerakoon et al. 2014; Weerakoon et al. A, & 

B, in preparation) continue the inventory of the Graphidaceae of the country, 

confirming the extraordinary diversity in Sri Lanka. 

As the family is extremely diverse and includes over 40 genera, trained 

lichenologists should identify the species using advanced morphological and 

chemical characters. Most of the species are inconspicuous crustose lichens 

in Graphidaceae, therefore only a few conspicuous species that are within the 

reach of the casual observer in natural habitat are included in this book. Except 

for the genus Diploschistes (single most easily identified species known for Sri 

Lanka), generic and species descriptions are not given. Readers who wish to 

confidently identify the species of this family should use recent keys. However, I 

hope the colourful photos included in the book will give you an idea about the 

diversity of family Graphidaceae in Sri Lanka. 

Graphidaceae 



Acanthothecis 

Acanthothecis 

aurantiacodiscus 

at Kabaragala- Matale 

Carbacanthographis 

marcescens at Nawula- Matale 

Chapsa 

Carbacanthographis 

Ampliotrema 

Ampliotrema auratum 

at Badulla 

Graphidaceae 

Chapsa thambapanni 

at Horton Plains 

Chapsa magnifica 

at Sinharaja rain forest 

Graphidaceae 

Astrochapsa 

Astrochapsa wolseleyana 

at Kalupahana-Kunckles 

mountain range 

Chapsa isidiata 

at Nawanagala 

Chapsa pulchella 

at Hewainna- Avissawella 



Fissurina 

Clandestinotrema 

Clandestinotrema stylothecium 

at Raththotta-Matale 

Diorygma 

Fissurina srilankensis 

at Hulankanda-Knuckles 

mountain region 

Glyphis 

Fissurina tuberculifera 


Graphidaceae 

Diorygma erythrellum 

at Hewahata road -Kandy 

Diorygma junghuhnii 

at Lagalla -Matale 

Fibrillithecis 

Graphis 

Glyphis aff. cicatricosa 

at Knuckles mountain region 

Graphidaceae 

The highest number of new species in family Graphidaceae in Sri 

Lanka are described from this genus. Out of the 380 species known to 

date in the world, over 100 species have been recorded from part of 

the central highlands and a few locations in the wet zone of Sri Lanka. 

Therefore, the total diversity of this genus is expected to be higher in 

Sri Lanka. This is the most speciose lichen genus in Sri Lanka. 

Fibrillithecis argentea 

at Anuradhapura 

Fibrillithecis gibbosa 

at Rangama- Kurunagala 



Graphis 

Graphis 

Graphis allugallenensis 

at Allugallena trail-Knuckles 


Graphis dotalugalensis 

at Dotalugala mountain- 

Knuckles mountain region 

Graphis srilankensis 

Found all over Sri Lanka. Recorded 

as most common Graphis species 

for the country. Described in 

2012,and recently reported from 

Singapore, Vietnam and Borneo. 

Halegrapha 

Halegrapha masoniana 

at Cottaganga Ella-Knuckles 

mountain region. Named after Dr 

Mason E. Hale. Looks very similar 

to Graphis srilankensis. Only this 

species is known so far for the genus 

Halegrapha in Sri Lanka. 

Graphidaceae 

Graphis dupaxana 


Graphis knucklensis 

at Knuckles -Knuckles 


Hemithecium 

Graphidaceae 

Graphis mahaeliyensis 


Graphis subtenella 


Hemithecium aphanes 

at Divulapitiya- Gampha 

Hemithecium 

chlorocarpum at Ragama 



Myriotrema 

Leptotrema 

Leptotrema wightii 

at Kadapola-Kandy 

Leucodecton 

Myriotrema microporum 

at Matale 

Myriotrema polytretum 

at Ratnapura 

Nadvornikia 

Nadvornikia hawaiiensis 

at Matale 

Graphidaceae 

Leucodecton canescens 

at Maussakanda-Matale 

Leucodecton fuscomarginatum 

at Kikiliyamana -Nuwara Eliya 

Melanotrema 

Ocellularia 

Graphidaceae 

Melanotrema lirelliforme 

at Badulla 

Melanotrema platystomum 

at Dambulla 

Ocellularia balangoda 

at Hunasgiriya-Kandy 

Ocellularia cloonanii 

at Fishing hut- Adams Peak 



Pallidogramme 

Reimnitzia 

Reimnitzia santensis 

at Nuwara Eliya 

Pallidogramme chrysenteron 

at Nuwara Eliya 

Pallidogramme chlorocarpoides 


Phaeographis 

Rhabdodiscus 

Phaeographis intricans 

at Knuckles mountain region, 

common species 

Rhabdodiscus isidiatus 

at Elkaduwa -Matale 

Graphidaceae 

Platythecium 

Sarcographa 

Graphidaceae 

Platythecium dimorphodes 


Platythecium sripadakandense 

at Fishing Hut- Adams Peak 

Sarcographa labyrinthica 

at Hinudama kanda-Ratnapura 

Sarcographa tricosa 

at Hunnas falls-Kandy 



Thelotrema 

Schizotrema 

Schizotrema guadeloupense 

at Kadugannawa- Kandy 

Thalloloma 

Thelotrema heladiwensis 


Thelotrema pseudosimilans 

at Dotalugala -Knuckles 


Topeliopsis 

Graphidaceae 

Thalloloma haemographum 


Thalloloma pedespulii 

at Nawula-ManikDena, Matale 

Topeliopsis subtuberculifera 


Graphidaceae 

Thecaria 

Wirthiotrema 

Thecaria quassiicola 


Wirthiotrema glaucopallens 

at Dikoya- Kandy 



Glossary 

Entire Without teeth; more or less smooth on the margin 

Epruinose Lacking pruina 

Exciple The margin around the apothecial disk 


Acuminate Gradually narrowing to a point, like a spade on a playing card 

Adnate Attached tightly to the surface 

Alga (Algae) A simple plant composed of a single cell or a string of cells 

Apothecium (Apothecia) A disk- or cup-shaped spore-producing organ 

Appressed Lying flat or pressed, closely against the substrate 

Areolate A lichen thallus that is broken into patches (areoles), often like tiny tiles 

Ascus (Asci) Asac-like structure in which spores are formed 

Byssoid made up of delicate threads, cotton-like 

Cephalodium (Cephalodia) A small growth like gall, containing cyanobacteria, that 

occurs in some lichens with green algae as the main photobiont and cyanobacteria as 

secondary photobiont 

Chemotype A form of a particular species that has distinctive chemistry but is otherwise 

the same 

Cilia Small hair like appendages on the margins of the thallus or apothecia of many lichens 

Concolourous Of the same colour throughout 

Cortex The outermost layer of the thallus, which, if present, consists of hyphae which may 

appear either cellular or fibrous 

Corticolous Growing on bark 

Crenate With a scalloped or round-toothed edge 

Crenulate having the edge finely toothed with rounded teeth 

Crustose Crust-like lichens that are closely attached to their substrate and lack a lower 

cortex 

Cyanobacterium (Cyanobacteria) Prokaryoticphotosynthesizing organisms that can fix 

atmospheric nitrogen and serve as a photobiont in lichen associations (also called bluegreen 

algae) 

Cyphella (Cyphellae) A round pore in the lower surface of some lichens where medullary 

hyphae protrude 

Disc The upper surface of a lichen apothecium enclosed by, but not including, the margin 

Dorsiventral Flattened, with upper and lower surfaces 

Ecorticate Without a cortex and never having had one, cf. decorticate 

Endemic Found only in a certain area 

Foliose Having leaf-like lobes with distinct upper and lower surfaces 

Fruticose A shrubby or hair-like growth form attached only at the base or free growing and 

normally with no clearly distinguishable upper and lower surfaces 

Globose Globe-shaped 

Hypha (Hyphae) Fungal filaments, often modified and resembling round or angular cells 

Hypothallus The first and purely fungal (without photobiont) layer upon which an algaecontaining 

thallus may develop, sometimes appearing as radiating, branched hyphae or 

hyphal bundles, often projecting beyond the thallus onto substrateoften with a distinctive 

colour or texture but sometimes merging with the exciple 

Imbricate With overlapping layers 

Immersed Embedded in the substratum 

Isidium (Isidia) Small, asexual reproductive structures on lichens that are minute and 

finger-like, covered with a cortex and contain the photobiont 

Isidioid Resembling isidia 

Isidiate Having isidia 

Laminal In the middle, or main part, of the thallus surface, rather than on the margins 

Lecanorine An apothecial margin which usually contains a photobiont and often 

re¬sembles the thallus, but not the disk, in colour and texture 

Lecideine An apothecial margin with no photobiont cells that often resembles the disk, 

but not the thallus, in colour and texture 

Lichen Composite organism made up of a fungus and an alga, a cyanobacterium, or all 

three 

Lirella (Lirellae) A type of apothecium that is elongated, sometimes branched 

Lobate Bearing lobes 

Lobe A flattened branch or projection 

Lobulate Having lobules 

Lobule Tiny, lobe-like, dorsiventral asexual reproductive outgrowths 

Maculate Spotted or blotched 

Margin Referring either to the outer edge of foliose or crustose lichen thalli or the outer 

boundary of apothecia 

Medulla Whitish (rarely orange or yellow) internal layer of most lichens, generally 

composed of loosely packed fungal hyphae 

Mycobiont The fungal component of a lichen 


Oblong Proportioned about 1:3-6 with the margins more or less parallel; rectangular but 

ends not necessarily squared off 

Ovate Egg-shaped with the larger end at the base 

Obovate Inversely ovate, with the narrower end at the base 

Ostiole A small opening or pore 

Papilla (Papillae) Minute protuberance on the surface of a cell 

Papillose Having papillae 

Perithecium (Perithecia) A globose or flask-shaped fruiting body (ascoma) completely 

enclosed with protective sterile tissue and with an opening pore 

Photobiont The photosynthetic component in a lichen, either algae in the strict sense 

(e.g., green algae) or cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), or both 

Squamulose Composed of or characterized by having squamules—an intermediate 

growth form between crustose and foliose 

Sterile Without sexual reproductive structures 

Stratified Differentiated into layers 

Subfoliose Almost foliose, pertaining to the overall growth form of a crustose thallus that 

has marginal lobes showing some tendency to curve upwards 

Thallus (Thalli) The vegetative body consisting of both algal and fungal components, not 

differentiated into a stem and leaves 

TLC Thin layer chromatography—a technique used to separate chemical compounds 

Verrucose Having small rounded processes or ‘ warts’ 

Verruculose Delicately warted 

Podetium (Podetia) The upright, hollow stalk formed by an elongated apothecium 

Prothallus A fringe of purely fungal tissue, white, black, or pigmented, usually seen at 

the edge of certain crustose lichens, but also visible between the areoles of some lichens 

Pruina Powdery frost-like deposit, typically composed of calcium oxalate, sometimes 

dead cells, usually white or pale grey, on the surface of many lichens or on their apothecia 

Pruinose Having a frosted appearance caused by a deposit of pruina 

Pseudocyphella (Pseudocyphellae) A tiny white break or opening in the cortex where 

medullary hyphae protrude; it may be round, irregular, angular, or a minuscule pore 

Pycnidium (Pycnidia) Minute, flask-shaped, fungal structure producing vegetative 

propagules and/or spermatia 

Recurved Curved downward or backward 

Rhizine Root-like hyphae on the lower side of a foliose lichen thallus 

Rosette A flower-like pattern arrayed around a common point of attachment 

Sessile Attached directly to the thallus surface without a stalk of any kind 

Simple Not divided; unbranched 

Soralium (Soralia) An area of the thallus in which the cortex has broken down or cracked 

and soredia are produced 

Soredium (Soredia) Asexual reproductive structure that is powdery to granular, not 

covered with a well-defined cortex, and contains both algal (photobiont) and fungal 

(mycobiont) components 

Sorediate Having soredia 

Spores Microscopic reproductive bodies released from the sporophyte capsule of a moss 

or liverwort, or from the apothecia of a lichen 

Spot test Tests for colour reactions obtained by applying a liquid chemical reagent to a 

lichen 

Squamule Small flakes or scales of a lichen, lifting from the substrate, at least at the edges, 

often rounded, ear-like, or lobed 




Bibliography and Resources 

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Index 

Scientific Names 

Acanthothecis aurantiacodiscus 164 

Ampliotrema auratum 164 

Astrochapsa wolseleyana 164 

Bunodophoron diplotypum 45 

Bunodophoron formosanum 46 

Carbacanthographis marcescens 165 

Chapsa isidiata 165 

Chapsa magnifica 165 

Chapsa pulchella 165 

Chapsa thambapanni 165 

Cladonia cartilaginea 48 

Cladonia coccifera 49 

Cladonia corniculata 50 

Cladonia didyma 51 

Cladonia fruticulosa 52 

Cladonia humilis 53 

Cladonia kurokawae 54 

Cladonia mauritiana 55 

Cladonia phyllopoda 56 

Cladonia poeciloclada 57 

Cladonia singhii 58 

Cladonia subdelicatula 59 

Cladonia submultiformis 60 

Clandestinotrema stylothecium 166 

Coccocarpia erythroxyli 62 

Coccocarpia pellita 63 

Coccocarpia stellata 64 

Coenogonium linkii 66 

Coenogonium luteum 67 

Collema coilocarpum 69 

Dendriscosticta platyphylloides 71 

Diorygma junghuhnii 166 

Diorygma erythrellum 166 

Diploschistes muscorum 73 

Everniastrum cirrhatum 75 

Fibrillithecis gibbosa 166 

Fibrillithecis argentea 166 

Fissurina srilankensis 167 

Fissurina tuberculifera 167 

Fuscopannaria coerulescens 77 

Fuscopannaria disecta 78 

Fuscopannaria siamensis 79 

Glyphis aff. cicatricosa 167 

Graphis allugallenensis 168 

Graphis dotalugalensis 168 

Graphis dupaxana 168 

Graphis knucklensis 168 

Graphis mahaeliyensis 168 

Graphis srilankensis 168 

Graphis subtenella 168 

Halegrapha masoniana 169 

Hemithecium aphanes 169 

Hemithecium chlorocarpum 169 

Heterodermia albicans 81 

Heterodermia barbifera 82 

Heterodermia circinalis 83 

Heterodermia comosa 84 

Heterodermia diademata 85 

Heterodermia hypochraea 86 

Heterodermia isidiophora 87 

Heterodermia japonica 88 

Heterodermia magellanica 89 

Heterodermia obscurata 90 

Heterodermia podocarpa 91 

Heterodermia propagulifera 92 

Heterodermia pseudospeciosa 93 

Heterodermia queensberryi 94 

Heterodermia rubrotricha 95 

Heterodermia speciosa 96 

Hypogymnia zeylanica 98 

Kroswia crystallifera 100 

Lecanora helva 102 

Lecanora leprosa 103 

Lecanora tropica 104 

Leioderma sorediatum 106 

Leptogium austroamericanum 108 

Leptogium azureum 109 

Leptogium cochleatum 110 

Leptogium cyanescens 111 

Leptogium millegranum 112 


Leptogium phyllocarpum 113 

Leptotrema wightii 170 

Leucodecton canescens 170 

Leucodecton fuscomarginatum 170 

Lobaria discolor 115 

Megalospora sulphurata 117 

Megalospora tuberculosa 118 

Melanotrema lirelliforme 170 

Melanotrema platystomum 170 

Myriotrema microporum 171 

Myriotrema polytretum 171 

Nadvornikia hawaiiensis 171 

Ocellularia cloonanii 171 

Ocellularia balangoda 171 

Pallidogramme chlorocarpoides 172 

Pallidogramme chrysenteron 172 

Parmotrema abessinicum 120 

Parmotrema clavuliferum 121 

Parmotrema cristiferum 122 

Parmotrema latissimum 123 

Parmotrema mellissii 124 

Parmotrema tinctorum 125 

Phaeographis intricans 172 

Phaeophyscia hispidula 127 

Phyllopsora borbonica 129 

Phyllopsora breviuscula 130 

Phyllopsora confusa 131 

Phyllopsora furfuracea 132 

Phyllopsora kiiensis 133 

Physcia alba 135 

Physcia atrostriata 136 

Physcia integrata 137 

Physcia krogiae 138 

Physcia sorediosa 139 

Platythecium dimorphodes 172 

Platythecium sripadakandense 172 

Pseudocyphellaria beccarii 141 

Pseudocyphellaria desfontainii 142 

Pseudocyphellaria intricata 143 

Ramalina conduplicans 145 

Ramalina usnea 146 

Reimnitzia santensis 173 

Rhabdodiscus isidiatus 173 

Sarcographa labyrinthica 173 

Sarcographa tricosa 173 

Schizotrema guadeloupense 174 

Sclerophyton elegans 148 

Siphula decumbens 150 

Stereocaulon austroindicum 152 

Stereocaulon foliolosum 153 

Sticta limbata 155 

Sticta weigelii 156 

Thalloloma haemographum 174 

Thalloloma pedespulii 174 

Thecaria quassiicola 174 

Thelotrema heladiwensis 175 

Thelotrema pseudosimilans 175 

Topeliopsis subtuberculifera 175 

Usnea barbata 158 

Usnea cornuta 160 

Usnea steineri 161 

Usnea subcornuta 162 

Wirthiotrema glaucopallens 175

Fascinating Lichens of Sri Lanka

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