smiths lake planning study volume 1: text - Great Lakes Council

SMITHS LAKE PLANNING STUDY 

VOLUME 1: TEXT 

Prepared for: 

Prepared by: 

Great Lakes Council 

WBM Oceanics Australia 

126 Belford Street 

PO Box 266 

BROADMEADOW NSW 2292 

Telephone: (02) 4940 8882 

Fax: (02) 4940 8887 

Document: 

11643.R1.2 

SMITHS_LAKE_PLANNING_STUDY.DOC 

O C E A N I C S 

A U S T R A L I A

DOCUMENT CONTROL SHEET 


490 Upper Edward Street 

SPRING HILL QLD 4004 

AUSTRALIA 

TELEPHONE: 07 3831 6744 

International: +617 3831 6744 

FAX: 07 3832 3627 

International: +617 3832 3627 

Document No: 

11643.R1.2 

Archive Document No: 00019068 

Original Date of Issue: 29 February 2000 

Project Manager: Greg Rogencamp 

Title: 

Author: 

Smiths Lake Planning Study 

Greg Rogencamp 

Client: 

Client Contact: 


Roger Busby 

Client Reference: 

Synopsis: This report documents the findings of Stages I,II and III of the Smiths Lake Planning Study. 

The study aims to identify the opportunities and constraints to development of the Smiths Lake Area 

with more detailed studies for a portion of this area called the Smiths Lake Village Area. 

REVISION/CHECKING HISTORY 

REVISION 

DATE CHECKED BY ISSUED BY 

NUMBER 

0 DRAFT DRAFT G Rogencamp 

1 11/5/99 JRB G Rogencamp 

2 29/2/00 W Syme G Rogencamp 

DISTRIBUTION 

DESTINATION 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 


1 

2 

20 

WBM Library 

- 

- 

1 


- 

1 

1 



A U S T R A L I A

CONTENTS 

I 

CONTENTS 

1 INTRODUCTION 1 

1.1 General 1 

1.2 Background 1 

1.3 The Study Area 2 

1.4 Study Goals and Objectives 2 

1.5 Study Stage 3 

1.6 Existing Development Entitlements 3 

2 SOILS AND GEOTECHNICAL 4 

2.1 Introduction 4 

2.2 Methodology 4 

2.3 Physical Characteristics 6 

2.4 Landuse 18 

2.5 Terrain Classification 19 

2.6 Urban Capability And Development Guidelines - SLVA 22 

2.7 Land Use Capability And Development Guidelines - SLA 25 

3 FLOODING AND DRAINAGE 27 

3.1 Site Characteristics and Available Data 27 

3.2 Flooding and Drainage Issues 29 

3.3 Impacts of Development 31 

4 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 34 


4.2 Receiving Environment Implications 34 

4.3 Whole of Study Area Considerations 34 

4.4 Recommended Stormwater Best Planning Practices 36 

4.5 Recommended Stormwater Best Management Practices 39 

4.6 Stormwater Management Requirements 42 

5 FLORA 44 

5.1 Methodology for Vegetation Mapping 44 

5.2 Vegetation Communities 45 



A U S T R A L I A

CONTENTS 

II 

5.3 Rare, Threatened or Significant Plant Species 54 

5.4 Conservation Values 57 

6 FAUNA 64 

6.1 Fauna Habitats 64 

6.2 Fauna Survey 67 

6.3 Fauna Conservation Values 74 

6.4 Habitat Ranking 74 

6.5 Habitat Conservation Mapping 77 

6.6 Ecological Development Constraints 77 

7 WATER QUALITY SENSITIVITY MAPPING 80 


7.2 Receiving Water Description 80 

7.3 Sensitivity Analysis Methodology 83 

7.4 Sensitivity Mapping 85 

8 VISUAL AND SCENIC QUALITY 86 

8.1 Landscape Character & Elements 86 

8.2 Existing Landscape Character 87 

8.3 Visual Assessment 90 

9 LAND CAPABILITY ASSESSMENT 95 

9.1 Approach 95 

9.2 Constraint & Response 98 

10 ABORIGINAL AND EUROPEAN HERITAGE 102 


10.2 Management Issues 102 

10.3 Aboriginal Heritage 106 

10.4 Environmental Context 107 

10.5 Archaeological Context 113 

10.6 Discussion 118 

10.7 Recommendations 122 

10.8 European Heritage 123 

11 INFRASTRUCTURE 128 



A U S T R A L I A

CONTENTS 

III 

11.1 Sewer 128 

11.2 Other Services 129 

12 BUSHFIRE MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATION 130 

12.1 Fire History 130 

12.2 Factors Influencing Fire Hazard 130 

12.3 Damage Potential 132 

12.4 Fire Fighting Infrastructure 134 

12.5 Fire Zoning and Management Strategies 135 

13 LAND SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT 139 

13.1 Approach 139 

13.2 Suitability Constraints 139 

13.3 Land Suitability Precincts 144 

13.4 Opportunities 147 

14 REFERENCES 150 



A U S T R A L I A

LIST OF FIGURES 

IV 


Figure 1-1 Study Areas 

Figure 1-2 Existing Zones in Villages 

Figure 2-1 Terrain Classification 

Figure 2-2 Slope Stability and Acid Sulphate Soil Zonation Plans 

Figure 2-3 Test Bore Locations and Regional Geology 

*Figure 2-4 Plasticity Chart for Classifying Fine-Grained Soils by Unified Soil 

Classification System 

Figure 3-1 Major Catchments 

Figure 3-2 1% AEP Peak Flows 

Figure 3-3 Delineation of Floodways and Flood Storage 

*Figure 3-4 Impacts of Development on Tarbuck Creek 1% AEP Flows 

*Figure 4-1 Water Resource Planning Units 

*Figure 4-2 Water Sensitive Design Overview 

*Figure 4-3 Existing SLVA Waterway Corridors 

*Figure 4-4 Existing SLVA Waterway Corridors 

*Figure 4-5 Example of Directly Connected Impervious Area 

*Figure 4-6 Existing SLVA Rainwater Tanks 

*Figure 4-7 Stormwater Infiltration Measures 

*Figure 4-8 Overland Flow 

*Figure 4-9 Existing Roadside Swale - SLVA 

*Figure 4-10 Existing Pole House - SLVA 

Figure 5-1 Vegetation Communities 

Figure 5-2 Location of Recorded Threatened Flora Species 

Figure 5-3 Vegetation Conservation Values 

Figure 6-1 Fauna Habitats 

Figure 6-2 Fauna Trapping Locations 

Figure 6-3 Fauna Conservation Values and Locations of Threatened Fauna Species 

Figure 6-4 Ecological Development Constraint Categories 

Figure 7-1 Water Quality: Terrain Slope 

Figure 7-2 Water Quality: Proximity to Waterway 

Figure 7-3 Water Quality: Soil Type 

Figure 7-4 Water Quality: Availability of Connection to Sewerage Service 

Figure 7-5 Water Quality: Disturbed Vegetation 

Figure 7-6 Water Quality Sensitivity Grades 



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V 

Figure 8-1 Visual Landscape Units 

Figure 8-2 Visual Management Zones 

Figure 10-1 Sites of Archaeological Significance 

*Figure 10-2 Lake Shore in the Area of Site 38-2-14, Recorded in 1984 

*Figure 10-3 Large Flake with Chopping Edges on Two Margins Found Below Eroding 

Midden 

*Figure 10-4 Stone Artefacts on Eastern Shore of Smiths Lake Village Area 

*Figure 10-5 Broken Flake In The Water Below The Shore Line 

*Figure 10-6 Scarred Tree in the NW Part of the Smiths Lake Village Area 

*Figure 10-7 Location of Isolated Find on Dirt Track 

Figure 11-1 Waste Water Treatment Works Buffer 

Figure 12-1 Generalised Vegetation Communities 

Figure 12-2 Slope and Aspect 

Figure 12-3 Fire Hazard Level 

Figure 13-1 Land Suitability Precinct: Blueys Beach 

Figure 13-2 Land Suitability Precinct: Northwest Smiths Lake 

Figure 13-3 Land Suitability Precinct: Northeast Smiths Lake 

Figure 13-4 Land Suitability Precinct: Cellito / Sandbar 

Figure 13-5 Land Suitability Precinct: Tarbuck Bay 

Figure 13-6 Land Suitability Precinct: Sugar Creek Road 

Figure 13-7 Land Suitability Precinct: Smiths Lake Village Area 

* These figures contained in “Volume 1: Text”. All others are in “Volume 2: Figures and Appendices”. 



A U S T R A L I A

LIST OF TABLES 

VI 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 2-1 Geological Units 7 

Table 2-2 Soil Data Profiles (DLWC) 8 

Table 2-3 Table Summary of Particle Size Distribution Analysis and Atterberg Limits 

(DPWS) 9 

Table 2-4 Atterberg Limit, Linear Shrinkage and Emerson Dispersion Class (RCA) 10 

Table 2-5 Acid Sulphate Laboratory Test Results (DPWS) 14 

Table 2-6 DLWC Laboratory Acid Sulphate Results 14 

Table 2-7 Action Criteria Based on ASS Soil Analysis and Soil Texture 15 

Table 2-8 Acid Sulphate Test Results, Total Actual and Potential Acidity 16 

Table 2-9 Groundwater Quality 17 

Table 2-10 Groundwater Quality – Pump station sites (DPWS) 18 

Table 2-11 EPA Criteria to Assess the Probable Presence of Pyritic Material 18 

Table 2-12 Terrain Units – Physical Characteristics 19 

Table 2-13 Terrain Units – Geotechnical Hazard Risk Assessment 20 

Table 2-14 Classification Of Risk Of Slope Instability 20 

Table 2-15 Land Use Constraints on the Basis of Geotechnical Hazards 21 

Table 2-16 Development Guidelines on the Basis of Slope Stability 23 

Table 3-1 Design Rainfall Intensities (mm/h) 28 

Table 3-2 Elevated Ocean Levels 30 

Table 4-1 Stormwater Management Requirements 43 

Table 7-1 Southern Wallis Lake Water Quality Data 81 

Table 8-1 Management of Visual Environment 94 

Table 9-1 Land Capability 99 

Table 10-1 European Heritage 123 

Table 12-1 Fire History Along the North-western Boundary 130 

Table 12-2 Determination of Fire Hazard Levels 132 

Table 12-3 Fire Response of Rare and Threatened Species 133 

Table 12-4 Fire Protection Zones 136 

Table 12-5 Suggested Fire Regimes for the Maintenance of Vegetation Communities 138 



A U S T R A L I A

INTRODUCTION 1 

1 INTRODUCTION 

1.1 General 

Great Lakes Council commissioned WBM Oceanics Australia to carry out a planning study for 

the north and north-western parts of the Smiths Lake catchment and the southern most 

catchment of Wallis Lake. 

WBM Oceanics Australia formed a team of consultants including in-house scientists and 

engineers as well as sub-consultants. A list of the study team is contained in Appendix A. 

This report documents the findings of Stages 1 to 3 of the Smiths Lake Planning Study. 

1.2 Background 

Smiths Lake is located about one half hour by car south of Forster, and about 3.5 hours north of 

Sydney. It is set in an attractive landscape which has high visual relief and quality, and 

substantial areas of native vegetation with potential conservation value. The Smiths Lake area 

also defines a sensitive catchment with good water quality which drains to Smiths Lake. 

Residential and small-scale tourist oriented developments have expanded the Village of Smiths 

Lake (the Village) over the years and now provide a range of accommodation and services for 

permanent and seasonal residents and visitors. 

The Village has a unique and desirable character attributable to extensive retention of 

vegetation, abundant landscaping, small scale houses built of a variety of materials, and narrow 

non-linear streets. 

Until recently, development potential may have been limited by the lack of reticulated 

sewerage system. Council has constructed a reticulated sewerage scheme for Pacific Palms 

which will extends to Smiths Lake. Existing development, and land with the potential for 

development in the scheme’s service area, will eventually be serviced. 

There has been an increase in rural development around Smiths Lake. Council receives many 

inquiries for subdivision and development, which if they were to proceed in an ad hoc manner, 

could reduce the environmental amenity of Smiths Lake to the detriment of all residents and 

visitors. Impacts of potential development need to be investigated before decisions on the form, 

extent and character of new development can be made. 

Hence, the Smiths Lake Planning Study presents an opportunity to consider a range of issues in 

planning the future land development of the area in a structured and informed manner. 

Stage 4 of the study will also fulfil the requirements of an environmental study under s57 of the 

Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 because parts of the Smiths Lake area are 

within the one kilometre zone of the NSW Coast — Government Policy. 



A U S T R A L I A


1.3 The Study Area 

There are two study areas for the Study. The wider study area includes the villages of Smiths 

Lake, Blueys Beach, Charlotte Bay, Bungwahl and Tarbuck Bay, and rural areas within the 

subcatchment that drains to Smiths Lake. It is called the Smiths Lake Area (the SLA). 

A smaller study area will focus on potential expansion of Smiths Lake Village. It is called the 

Smiths Lake Village Area (the SLVA). 

The two study areas are shown in Figure 1-1. 

1.3.1 Smiths Lake Area 

The SLA is bounded by Boomerang Drive at Blueys Beach and the Wallingat State Forest to 

the north; the catchment divide near Round Hill to the west; a line north of Seal Rocks Road at 

the south; and the coast. 

Overall the SLA takes in about 60 km 2 of land and water area. However, the land component 

would have an area of about 22 km 2 . The study area contains a variety of landforms including 

steep headlands, low coastal plains, lake and estuarine lands, and steeper forested and partly 

cleared hills and slopes. 

1.3.2 Smiths Lake Village 

The SLVA adjoins and surrounds the boundaries of the Village of Smiths Lake. It takes in 

about 3 km 2 and contains steep, vegetated landforms, including lakeshore and estuarine land, 

forested toe, mid and upper slopes, ridge tops and partly urbanised areas. 

1.4 Study Goals and Objectives 

The study has two goals: 

1. Identify land with capability and suitability for urban development and formulate 

recommendations for the location, form, infrastructure needs and socio-economic impacts of 

future land releases in the SLVA; and 

2. Identify land capability and suitability units in the SLA with sufficient precision to enable 

broad-scale environmental planning attributes to be identified and considered by the 

community. 

The objectives of the study are to identify, document and/or resolve the following issues in both 

study areas: 

• soils and geotechnical characteristics; 

• flooding, hydrology and drainage; 

• flora and fauna; 

• aboriginal and European heritage; 



A U S T R A L I A


• visual quality; 

• infrastructure; 

• all other socio-economic and cultural; and 

• bush fire hazard. 

1.5 Study Stage 

Due to the nature of the study, it is possible and desirable to divide the study components into a 

number of stages. These are described below: 

Stage 1: This stage involves collection, analysis and presentation of the physical and 

ecological data for the study areas, culminating in a land capability map. 

Stage 2: This stage involves collection, analysis and presentation of the general socioeconomic 

data for the study areas. 

Stage 3: This stage draws upon the results of the first two stages to produce land suitability 

assessments including mapping of areas suitable for development. 

Stage 4: This stage involves more detailed socio-economic and demographic assessments of 

existing and future populations, supply and demand for land and urban design and character. 

This report presents the findings of Stages 1 to 3. 

1.6 Existing Development Entitlements 

The first three stages of this study do not consider existing entitlements conferred by zoning, 

registered subdivision plans, property boundaries or development consents. The main purpose 

of Stages 1 to 3 of this study is to investigate and identify land that has capability and 

suitability for development based on the biophysical and cultural attributes of the land in the 

study area. Using this approach, the underlying suitability of the study area to accommodate 

future development is made explicit. Such data assists Council in considering the merits of 

planning for expansion of the Smiths Lake Area, and helps to clarify issues of merit as opposed 

to entitlement. 

However, Council must consider existing development entitlements. In particular, land with 

high conservation value in the Smiths Lake Village Area is zoned and subdivided. The current 

zonings for the villages in the study area (ie. Smiths Lake and Tarbuck Bay) are presented in 

Figure 1-2. Provided development consent is obtained, such land may be used for urban scale 

development, notwithstanding that these areas are not included in land capability or suitability 

precincts. 

If Council should decide to proceed to Stage 4 of this study (ie. the preparation of an 

environmental study to support proposed amendments to Great Lakes LEP 1996), existing 

development entitlements will need to be considered in formulating a draft LEP. These issues 

are discussed further in Section 6.6.3 and 13.4.7. 



A U S T R A L I A

SOILS AND GEOTECHNICAL 4 

2 SOILS AND GEOTECHNICAL 

2.1 Introduction 

The objective of the soils and geotechnical component of the study is to describe the physical 

characteristics of the Smiths Lake Area and Smiths Lake Village Area and assess urban and 

land capability and formulate development guidelines. This component of the study and the 

preparation of this report has been undertaken by Robert Carr & Associates Pty Ltd and: 

• Outlines the geology, physical properties and distribution of soil and rocks within the study 

area with particular emphasis on acid sulphate soils. 

• Assesses land and urban capability in terms of slope instability, high erosion potential, 

foundation conditions and acid sulphate soils. 

• Provides geotechnical management guidelines for urban and low low-scale development. 

The area of the study has been classified into two areas, the Smiths Lake Area (SLA) and the 

Smiths Lake Village Area (SLVA). The SLA and the SLVA contain a variety of landforms and 

vegetation, including steep headlands and slopes to low-lying coastal and estuarine lands. The 

SLVA comprises an urbanised area of about 3 km 2 . The SLA includes 60km 2 , of which 38km 2 

comprises the shallow saline coastal lagoon, Smiths Lake with the remainder comprising forest, 

rural development and the small urban villages of Tarbuck Bay and Charlotte Bay. 

2.2 Methodology 

Investigation methodology has involved review of available background data, field mapping, 

drilling and sampling and laboratory testing of soil and groundwater samples. 

2.2.1 Background Data 

Background data relevant to the study area has been sourced from: 

• Webb, McKeown and Associates, 1998, Smiths Lake Estuary Process study. 

• Department of Land and Water Conservation (DLWC). Soil profiles from 11 locations 

throughout the study area have been sourced through the Soil Data System and are 

appended. Acid Sulphate Soil Risk Maps (Wooton, Pacific Palms, Myall Lake and Seal 

Rocks sheets at a scale of 1: 25,000) have been used in the acid sulphate soil assessment. 

• Department of Public Works & Services (DPWS), geotechnical investigations carried out 

between 1991 and 1996 for the Pacific Palms and Smiths Lake waste water and water 

supply infrastructure. Investigations included subsurface investigation with physical and 

chemical testing of soil and water samples. 

• Geological and groundwater data as outlined in the Geology of the Camberwell, Dungog 

and Buladelah 1:100,000 Sheet. 



A U S T R A L I A


2.2.2 Field Investigation 

Fieldwork undertaken by Robert Carr & Associates Pty Ltd involved: 

• Drilling and logging of 17 hand auger bores and exposures (up to 1.7m depth) for soil 

profile identification and to provide samples for physical and acid sulphate testing and 

groundwater quality assessment. 

• Installation of three 50mm PVC standpipe piezometers for groundwater sampling and 

quality assessment. 

• Mapping of soil profiles, rock exposures, slope gradient, erosion, and site feature by a senior 

engineering geologist. 

2.2.3 Laboratory Testing 

Laboratory testing was undertaken to characterise site conditions and supplement existing data. 

Laboratory testing involved: 

• Acid sulphate screening tests on 17 samples to assess total sulphur levels with POCAS 

(Peroxide Oxidation Combined Acidity and Sulphate) testing undertaken on 2 samples to 

assess soil buffering capacity and net acid generating potential. Testing was undertaken at 

the Centre for Coastal Management at Southern Cross University. 

• Emerson crumb dispersion testing on 12 samples to assess potential dispersive erodibility of 

site soils. Testing was undertaken at the NATA registered Newcastle laboratory of Robert 

Carr & Associates Pty Ltd. 

• Atterberg limit (2) and linear shrinkage (6) tests on samples to quantify physical soil 

properties. Testing was undertaken at the NATA registered Newcastle laboratory of Robert 

Carr & Associates Pty Ltd. 

• Water quality, pH and electrical conductivity testing of 3 groundwater samples recovered 

from piezometers and sent to AMDEL Laboratories in Sydney. 

2.2.4 Data Presentation 

Data from the background review, fieldwork and laboratory results is appended as: 

Appendix B 

Soil Profiles 

Test bore profiles by Robert Carr & Associates Pty Ltd 

Department of Land and Water Conservation soil profiles 

Appendix C 

Laboratory Data 

Physical test data 

Acid sulphate test results - Southern Cross University 

Groundwater quality - Amdel 



A U S T R A L I A


Results are presented on the following figures: 

• Terrain Classification (Figure 2-1) showing the inferred distribution of terrain units, 

• Slope Stability and Acid Sulphate Soil Zonation Plans (Figure 2-2) assessing the risk of 

slope instability and acid sulphate soil occurrence, and 

• Test bores and sample locations together with regional geological boundaries (Figure 2-3). 

2.3 Physical Characteristics 

2.3.1 Topography 

The topography across the study area is variable and comprises: 

• Moderate to steep hillside areas with elevations up to 220m AHD. Surface slopes are 

generally concave in profile with steep upper hillside slopes up to 50% usually decreasing to 

10% to 25% across footslope areas. The hillside areas occur as a series of north-west / 

south-east striking ridgelines separated by broad drainage paths. The alignment of the 

ridgelines coincides with the regional bedding strike of the geological units. Geological 

structure appears to have had a strong influence on the region’s topography. These areas are 

characterised by rock outcrop and shallow residual soils that have weathered in place from 

the underlying rock. 

• Broad gently sloping drainage paths along the valley floor areas between the ridgelines 

(Wamwarra, Tarbuck, Jacks and Wallis Creeks). The drainage paths follow the same 

general alignment (north-west, south-east) as the ridgelines. These areas are characterised 

by deep soil profiles comprising soils that have weathered in place, been washed off 

surrounding hillside areas or accumulated as alluvium along the drainage paths. 

• Low lying areas with surface elevation less than 5m AHD that occur around the margin of 

Smiths Lake and the southern edge of Wallis Lake and are subject to estuarine influence. 

Past fluctuation in lake and sea level has resulted in periodic inundation of these areas with 

the deposition of sandy, muddy and organic estuarine sediment. 

• Coastal barrier sands and ridges in the Sandbar area. The coastal and wind blown (aeolian) 

sand deposits have formed sand dunes up to 47m AHD in elevation. Most of the sand dunes 

have gentle to moderate surface slopes of less than 25%, however there are some steep lee 

slopes with gradients in excess of 50%. 

2.3.2 Drainage 

Smiths Lake is a shallow, saline coastal lagoon that is protected from the ocean by a sand 

barrier that is occasionally opened to the sea by floods. 

Catchments in the study area discharges to Smiths Lake via Wamwarra and Tarbuck Creeks, 

with the larger catchment area of Ducks and Wallis Creek discharging to Wallis Lake. There 

are several creeks, but no major rivers draining into the lake. 



A U S T R A L I A


2.3.3 Geology 

The geology of the study area comprises Quaternary soil deposits (less than 2 million years old) 

along the coastal and drainage areas with Carboniferous Age (300 million years old) 

sedimentary rock occurring over the hillside areas. The geological units that occurs in the study 

area are presented in Table 2-1, with geological boundaries shown on Figure 2-3. 

Table 2-1 Geological Units 

Geology Material Type Deposition 

Quaternary Alluvium 

(Qa) Undifferentiated Clays and silts with minor sand Fluvial creek overbank 

and back swamp areas 

(Qpem) Estuarine and estuarine clay / silt and muddy sand 

Estuarine 

muddy deposits 

(Qpes) Estuarine sandy Interbeds of sand, muddy sand and estuarine clay Estuarine 

backbarrier deposits / silt 

(Qpds) Transgressive Quartzose sands 

Marine sands 

dune sand 

Carboniferous Rock 

(Cla) Koolanock 

Sandstone 

Sandstone – lithic sandstone with thin interbeds 

of bioturbated siltstone. Ryholite flows present. 

Fluvial – deltaic 

deposition 

(Cly)Yagon Siltstone Siltstone and mudstone with some sandstone Marine deposition 

interbeds – thinly bedded, fossiliferous and 

bioturbated 

(Cet) Booti Booti Sandstone – quartzose feldspathic or lithic Fluvial deposition 

Sandstone 

Undifferentiated Late 

Carboniferous sediments 

2.3.4 Soils 

sandstone with crossbedding present. 

Mudstones, siltsones and sandstones 

The area has been subject to a series of tectonic deformational events in the geological past 

including folding and faulting during the Permian Age and possible further faulting in the 

Triassic Age. 

These deformational events have resulted in a number of structural features: 

• north and northwest trending faults. There is a strong correlation between topographic lows 

/ drainage paths and inferred fault locations. 

• bedding generally dips at about 20° to 45° to the west over the central to eastern part of the 

study area with dip slopes increasing up to 60° to 70° over the western part. Local variations 

in bedding dip angle and direction can be noted. 

• relatively closely spaced jointing in the rockmass. 

Soil types that occur at specific localities are the result of a number of interacting factors of 

which the soil parent material (ie. the rock from which the soil is derived) is usually the 

dominant factor. As noted in Section 2.3.3, there is a wide range of geological formations and 



A U S T R A L I A


rock types across the study area which combined with variable topography and coastal 

processes results in a variety of soil forming factors. 

Soil profiles undertaken by the DLWC in the study area and incorporated into the NSW soil 

data system are attached in Appendix B and are summarised in Table 2-2. 

Table 2-2 Soil Data Profiles (DLWC) 

Profile Location Soil Type Erosion Hazard 

1 Off Lakes Way, 

Wamwarra Bay 

3 Road to Sandbar, Symes 

Bay 

69 Lakes Way north of 

Sandbar 

159 Corner Lakes Way and 

Macwood Road 

160 Amaroo Drive, Smiths 

Lake 

161 Tarbuck Bay residential 

area 

162 Corner Lakes Way and 

Sugar Creek Road 

Lacustrine / aeolian sediments - hydrosol Moderate 

Acid sulphate testing 

Deep sands - hydrosol 

Slight 

Acid sulphate testing 

Silty and clay loam over silty clay 

Very high 

Sodosol 

Silty loam over silty clay 

Very high 

hydrosol 

Silty and clay loam over medium-heavy clay Moderate 

- sodosol 

Medium to heavy clay - kurosol 

High 

Silty and clay loam over light-heavy clay Extreme 

hydrosol 

193 Sugar Creek Road Sandy clay loam - tenosol Slight 

194 Sugar Creek Road Silty and clay loam over medium clay High 

426 Sandbar Road near Silty and clay loam - tenosol 

Slight 

quarry 

427 Sandbar Road near 

quarry 

Silty and clay loam over medium clay 

kurosol 

Moderate 

The profiles in Table 2-2 indicate the soil profiles within the study area typically comprise silty 

clay loams over silty clays and medium to heavy clays. 

The physical properties of the areas soils have been characterised by testing undertaken by the 

Department of Public Works & Services which includes particle size distribution (sieve and 

hydrometer analysis) and Atterberg limits. Results of this testing are presented in 

Table 2-3. 



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Table 2-3 Table Summary of Particle Size Distribution Analysis and Atterberg Limits 

(DPWS) 

Location 

Depth 

(m) 

Particle Size Distribution (%) 

ATTERBERG 

limit 

Unified Soil 

Classification and 

description 

Gravel Sand Silt Clay 

P1 1.0-1.3 - 7 36 57 55 19 36 (CH) silty clay, dark grey 

P1 1.3-2.0 58 24 34 (CI) silty clay, grey-brown 

P2 0-1.0 3 48 49 44 23 21 (CL) silty clay, black 

P2 1.5-2.0 58 16 26 (SC) clayey sand, grey 

P3 1.0-2.0 5 48 47 47 19 28 (ML) clayey silt, grey 

brown 

P4 0.4-1.7 74 30 44 (CH) silty clay, brown 

P5 1.0-2.0 82 36 46 (CH) silty clay, yellowbrown 

P6 1.0-2.0 3 26 37 34 (CL) sandy clayey silt, dark 

brown 

P7 0.8-1.2 28 32 40 56 20 36 (CH) sandy silty clay, 

yellow-brown 

P8 0.8-1.25 21 40 39 (ML/CL) sandy clayey silt, 

yellow -brown 

P9 2.0-2.45 88 12 - (SM-SP) sand with some 

silt, grey 

P10 0.8-1.25 80 20 - (SC) silty sand, grey 

P11 0.4-0.7 2 29 48 21 25 14 11 (ML) sandy clayey silt, 

yellow brown 

P12 2.0-2.5 4 45 51 73 31 42 (CH) silty clay, lt brown 

P13 0.5-0.9 4 30 66 75 32 43 (CH) silty clay, yellow - 

brown 

P14 2.2-2.5 10 14 48 28 56 29 27 (MH) clayey silt, light 

brown 

P15 1.3-1.6 1 39 60 72 31 41 (CH) silty clay, lt grey 

P16 2.0-2.3 78 32 46 (CH) silty clay, lt grey 

LL = liquid limit 

PL = plastic limit 

PI = plasticity index 

The results shown in Table 2-3 indicate that the soils within the hillside and footslope areas 

comprise mainly silty clays of medium to high plasticity. This is typical of soils that have been 

transported from or weathered in-situ from siltstone and lithic sandstone rock types. Based on 

the particle size distribution, the soils would be described as a clayey silts or silty clays with a 

variable sand content. 

The sandy soils in the low lying estuarine areas contain a variable fines content ranging from 

about 10% to 40%. In general terms, the sands would be described as “dirty”. The effect of an 

increased fines content in the sand will be a lower permeability of the sand. 

LL 

% 

PL 

% 

PI 

% 



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Bore 

The results of testing undertaken by Robert Carr & Associates Pty Ltd (RCA) as part of this 

study are presented in Table 2-4. This has involved Atterberg limit and linear shrinkage testing 

of clay samples as well as Emerson crumb tests to assess soil dispersion. 

Table 2-4 Atterberg Limit, Linear Shrinkage and Emerson Dispersion Class (RCA) 

Depth 

Soil Type 

Liquid 

Limit 

(%) 

Plastic 

Limit 

(%) 

Plasticity 

Index 

(%) 

Linear 

Shrinkage 

(%) 

Emerson 

Class 

(m) 

RCA3 0.5-0.6 Clay 63 15 48 4.7 5 

RCA6 0.25 Sandy clay 5 

RCA6 0.75 Silty clay 82 27 55 6.0 5 

RCA7 0.4-0.65 Sandy clay 5 

RCA7 1.0-1.1 Clay 14.3 5 

RCA10 0.4 Clay 8.1 5 

RCA12 0.2 Gravelly clay 10.6 5 

RCA15 0.3-0.4 Silty clay 5.1 5 

P17 Clay 5 

P18 Clay 5 

P19 Clay 5 

P20 Clay 5 

Figure 2-4 shows a plot of the Atterberg limits test results on the plasticity chart for classifying 

fine-grained soils by the Unified Soil Classification System. The Atterberg limits test results 

indicate that the clays would be generally classified according to the Unified Soil Classification 

System as clays of high plasticity (CH). The linear shrinkage results indicate that the clay soils 

are susceptible to volume change (shrinkage and heave) with variation in moisture content. 

The Emerson class numbers shown in Table 2-4 indicate that the clays and silts tested are nondispersive 

in nature. Dispersive soils contain clays that go into suspension in contact with water 

and are indicated by an Emerson class of 1 or 2. 

2.3.5 Erosion 

The magnitude of erosion that can occur at a particular location is dependant on the potential of 

erosive agents such as wind, rain and runoff to erode soils and the erodibility of the soil. 

Assessment of soil erodibility takes into consideration soil properties such as texture, structure, 

dispersion, depth and infiltration and generally provide a general indication of relative 

resistance to water erosion. 

The Soil Conservation Service of NSW (Dyson, 1985) has noted that the soils in the general 

study area have a moderate to high erodibility. The soils are noted to be prone to sheet erosion 

once disturbed and the presence of locally dispersive subsoils has been noted in the soils 

developed on the Yagon Siltstone (Smiths Lake Village Area). Site specific soil profile 

assessment undertaken by the DLWC and shown in Table 2-2, confirms the moderate to high 

erodibility of the study area soils. 

The Emerson crumb dispersion test results indicate that the clay soils tested are non dispersive. 

This indicates that the erosive nature of the clay soils is related to soil structure and texture 



A U S T R A L I A


rather than dispersiveness. The clay soils have well developed pedality (fissured/ granular 

structure) and as such they are poorly aggregated. When subject to water flows, the clay soils 

have limited coherence between soil peds and are prone to detachment and sheet / scour erosion 

where exposed to water flow. The loamy topsoils also have limited coherence and as such are 

prone to erosion where vegetation has been removed. 

The estuarine clays and muddy sands are prone to scour and sheet erosion along the margins of 

hillside areas where high runoff velocities can occur. The sandy soils have a high risk of wind 

erosion particularly where vegetation has been removed or depleted. The estuarine soils along 

the shoreline of Smiths Lake are prone to wave erosion. 

In general the soils of the study area have a high risk of erosion, particularly where vegetation 

is removed or depleted. 

2.3.6 Acid Sulphate Soils 

General 

Sediments in coastal NSW from the Holocene geological age often contain iron pyrite, the 

main constituent of acid sulphate soils. The Holocene sediments are generally found below an 

elevation of 5m AHD, typically in coastal and floodplain areas. The sediment can be divided 

into classes based on its oxidised state. If the pyritic material above the water table is 

undergoing oxidation and has a pH of less than 4.0, it is called acid sulphate soil (ASS). If the 

material is below the groundwater table and has not been oxidised, it is termed potential acid 

sulphate soil (PASS) and generally has a pH of greater than 4.0. The pH has the potential to 

become much lower when the soil is exposed to oxygen as a result of activities such as 

excavation and drainage and this can lead to the generation of sulphuric acid. Acidic leachate 

can lead to the release of toxic concentrations of aluminium and iron into water bodies which 

can affect water quality and cause ecological damage. 

ASS can therefore be a major constraint on land use and development, however successful 

management of areas of ASS is possible. 

ASS can occur in the following geomorphic settings: 

• Sediments of recent geological age 

• Soil horizons not more than 5m above high tide level 

• Marine and estuarine settings 

Potential ASS are typically waterlogged, pH neutral and dark grey, estuarine, clays, silts or 

sands. 

The presence of actual ASS is indicated by acid surface or groundwater, iron stains on any 

drain surfaces or iron stained drain water, jarosite present in soil (indicated by pale yellow 

precipitates and coatings) and unusually clear or milky green drain water. 



A U S T R A L I A


Laboratory Testing 

The following laboratory tests are available for assessing the acid potential of a soil - 

Peroxide Oxidisable Sulphur Analysis (POSA) - the POSA test measures the acidity 

potentially produced from pyrite oxidation only and does not include acidification from other 

sources (such as carbon). This test may be conservative because it does not take into account 

the natural acid buffering capacity of the soil. 

EPA guidelines state that samples with more than 0.05% oxidisable sulphur may constitute a 

significant risk in the absence of buffering sources. 

For clayey soils, levels of POSA greater than 1.54 kg H 2 SO 4 /tonne of dry soil may constitute a 

significant risk while for sandy soils 0.31 kg H 2 SO 4 /tonne of dry soil is the threshold value 

(NSW EPA, 1995). 

Acid Neutralising Capacity (ANC) – some soils have a natural acid buffering or neutralising 

capacity which can be assessed by determining the soil lime (calcium carbonate) content. The 

ANC is used in conjunction with the POSA results to determine the Net Acid Generating 

Potential (NAGP) of the soil. 

Net Acid Generating Potential (NAGP) – NAGP is the amount of acidity by pyrite oxidation 

less the buffering capacity of the soil. If the acid produced is greater than the buffering capacity 

of the soil, acid will be produced. NAGP can be used to assess the amount of neutralising agent 

required to treat the net acid generated. 

A NAGP greater than zero indicates that acid may be produced during the oxidation of pyrite. 

Total Carbon - the oxidation of organic carbon in soils can also produce low pH results due to 

the production of organic acids. However, in the field, this oxidation process is slow and any 

acid produced is assimilated by the surrounding environment. It is therefore important to 

determine if a high acid result is due to the sulphur content or the total carbon content. This can 

be achieved by determining the total carbon level in the soil. 

Total actual acidity (TAA) and Total potential acidity (TPA) - the total actual acidity (TAA) is 

the total amount of acidity in the soil at the time of testing. The total potential acidity (TPA) is 

the maximum amount of acidity which a soil may contain after complete oxidation and takes 

into account the neutralising capacity of the soil. The difference between the TAA and TPA 

result gives a potential for the future oxidation that may occur. 

TAA and TPA analyses enable an assessment of the neutralisation required to bring the soil 

material pH to 5.5. There are no criteria for acceptable concentrations of TPA or TAA although 

a TPA of zero indicates that no significant levels of acid are expected to be produced on 

oxidation. 

pH before and after oxidisation with peroxide - soils are tested using a calibrated pH meter 

before and after oxidation in peroxide. Soils with an in-situ pH less than 4 are actual ASS and 



A U S T R A L I A


soils with a pH of less than 2.5 after oxidisation in peroxide are potential ASS. This test does 

not differentiate between sulphur based and organic based acidity. 

Previous Acid Sulphate Studies 

The Myall Lake, Wootton, Pacific Palm and Seal Rock 1:25,000 Acid Sulphate Risk maps by 

the Department of Land and Water Conservation show the probability of encountering acidsulphate 

soils in the study area. Areas described as having "high probability of occurrence of 

acid-sulphate soil materials within the soil profile" occur at: 

• Wamwarra Creek and western shores of Smiths Lake, 

• Tarbuck Bay at the mouth of Tarbuck Creek, 

• Charlotte Bay around the mouth of Wallis Creek, 

• Eastern shore of Symes Bay along sandy low lying areas situated between between rocky 

headlands (SLVA), 

• Low lying sandy area at the southern end of Amaroo Drive (SLVA), and 

• Low lying sandy and estuarine areas along the northern and eastern shores of Symes Bay 

and extending across to the golf course area at Cellito. 

Previous testing for acid sulphate soils has been undertaken by The Department of Public 

Works & Services (DPWS) in the Smiths Lake Village as part of the Pacific Palms Sewerage 

Scheme. The soils tested generally were sampled from depths of in excess of 1m to 2m. Results 

are presented in Table 2-5 and indicate: 

• All samples had a potential acidity on oxidation although in most cases this was limited. 

• Samples having a potential acidity in excess of the action criteria noted in Table 2-7 are 

noted in bold in Table 2-5 (GM39, GM48, GM51, GM70, GM73, GM99, and Pump Station 

W). The soils at these locations generally occur below ground water level and as such 

would be classified as potential acid sulphate soils (PASS). It should be noted that the test 

results at the above locations only marginally exceeded the action criteria and as such the 

soils would be classified as marginally acid sulphate. 

• The samples from GM51 have a potential acidity in excess of the action criteria, however 

the results of POSA testing are below the criteria suggesting the acidity is likely to be 

related to the presence of organic materials rather than sulphur. 



A U S T R A L I A


Bore 

Depth 

(m) 

Table 2-5 Acid Sulphate Laboratory Test Results (DPWS) 

Soil type 

Depth to 

Groundwater 

(m) 

pH after 

oxidation 

TPA 

(moles/ kg) 

GM39 0-0.6 Sand 0.2 2.8 0.015 0.49 

1.05-1.5 Clayey silt 0.2 2.6 0.017 0.31 

GM48 1-1.4 Sand 1.0 2.5 0.02 

GM51 1.0-1.3 Sand 1.0 2.4 0.1 0.01 

1.3-1.45 Sand 1.0 2.7 0.038 

1.5-2.0 Sand 1.0 2.6 0.064 0.13 

BH27 1.0-1.8 Sandy gravel - 2.8 0.022 

GM99 1.5-1.9 Clayey silt 3.4 2.3 0.067 

2.0-2.45 Clayey silt 3.4 3.0 0.021 

Pump Stn W 3-3.45 Sand 2.0 2.4 0.104 

4.5-4.95 Sand 2.0 3.8 0.109 

6-6.45 Sand 2.0 3.8 0.056 

8.55-9 Sand 2.0 2.7 0.024 

GM69 3-3.45 Sand 2.5 3.6 0.022 

4.2-4.65 Clay 2.5 3.6 0.023 

BH34 1.5-2.0 Sandy gravel - 3.2 0.03 

GM73 3.9-4.35 Sand 2.6 2.4 0.043 

GM74 3.15-3.6 Clayey sand - 3.7 0.016 

Pump Stn L 3.0-3.45 Clayey silt 4.3


The results indicate no actual or potential acid sulphate soils based on pH before and after 

oxidation and that potential for acid production from these soils is very limited. 

Acid Sulphate Testing 

The methodology adopted for the acid sulphate soils investigation was based on acid sulphate 

guidelines established by the EPA and more recent guidelines developed by the EPA, 

Department of Urban Affairs and Planning and the Acid Sulphate Soils Management Advisory 

Committee (1997). 

Seventeen samples were recovered from borehole locations, stored in airtight plastic bags at 

below 4°C and sent to the Centre for Coastal Management at Southern Cross University for 

analysis. Sample analysis involved screening testing to assess pH, total sulphur (%S) and total 

carbon (%C). At selected locations (2) where the total sulphur content exceeded the action 

criteria guidelines, more detailed testing involving oxidisable sulphur (%SOx), POSA, peroxide 

oxidisable sulphuric acidity (kg H 2 SO 4 /tonne), total actual acidity (TAA) and total potential 

acidity (TPA) were undertaken with assessment of lime neutralising requirements for the soils. 

Laboratory acid sulphate test results are summarised in Table 2-8. 

Table 2-7 Action Criteria Based on ASS Soil Analysis and Soil Texture 

Texture Soil type Approx 

clay 

content % 

Action criteria 

Oxidisable sulphur 

% S 

Coarse Sands to loamy sands 40 0.1 64 

Acid Sulphate Soils Management Advisory Committee (1977) 

Acid 

Mol H + / tonne 



A U S T R A L I A


Bore 

Table 2-8 Acid Sulphate Test Results, Total Actual and Potential Acidity 

Depth 

(m) 

Soil 

Type 

Ph 

(water) 

Total 

Sulphur 

% 

Oxidisable 

Sulphur 

% 

POSA 

Kg H 2 SO 4 

/ tonne 

Neutral. 

Req. * 

Kg lime/m 3 

RCA1 1.0-1.1 Silty sand 5.7 0.04 

RCA3 0.5-0.6 Clay 5.8 0.05 

RCA4 0.9-1.0 Organic clay 6.1 0.06 

RCA4 0.7-0.8 Sand 6.0 0.01 

RCA5 0.6-1.0 Clayey sand 7.7 0.15 

RCA5 0.3-0.4 Organic sand 7.5 0.22 0.096 3.0 0 

RCA8 0.6 Clayey silt 6.4 0.06 

RCA8 1.5 Silty clay 6.6 0.06 

RCA9 0.3-0.4 Clay 6.8 0.03 

RCA11 0.3 Clayey silt 6.1 0.31 

RCA11 0.9 Clay 7.3 0.58 0.272 8.5 7.1 

RCA12 0.2 Gravelly clay 5.3 0.06 

RCA13 0.4 Clayey sand 5.9 0.04 

RCA14 0.2-0.3 Clayey silt 4.4 0.04 

RCA15 0.3-0.4 Silty clay 5.7 0.06 

RCA16 0.2-0.3 Clayey sand 4.7 0.04 

RCA17 0.4-0.5 Silty clay 5.1 0.03 

* Neutralising requirements based on TPA results; POSA = peroxide oxidisable sulphur analysis; TPA = total potential acidity 

Results indicate that, apart from bores RCA5 and 11, none of the samples tested would be 

classified as actual or potential acid sulphate soils. The soil profile at bore RCA5 on the 

northern shore of Symes Bay comprised dark grey estuarine clayey sands with the soil profile 

at RCA11 at the mouth of Tarbuck Creek comprising estuarine clays and silts with some sand 

layers. The soil tested from bore RCA5 had zero potential acidity (TPA) indicating that the soil 

at the depth tested has sufficient buffering capacity (ie. carbonates such as shell fragments) to 

neutralise acid that would result from oxidisation of the sulphur. At bore RCA11, the soil tested 

did not have inherent buffering capacity and on oxidation the soil would require in the order of 

7kg of lime per cubic metre for neutralisation. 

The soils encountered at locations RCA5 and RCA11 would be classsified as PASS. 

The tested POSA values at bores RCA5 and 11 greater than the threshold of 0.31kg H 2 SO 4 / 

tonne of soil and 1.54kg H 2 SO 4 / tonne used by the NSW EPA (1995) for sandy and clayey 

soils and would be considered as having a high risk of acid generation. 

2.3.7 Groundwater Quality 

Three samples of groundwater were collected from piezometers installed in bores RCA4, 

RCA11 (estuarine area) and RCA13 (aeolian sands) and tested for general water quality 

indicators.. The locations and soil types are noted below with laboratory results presented in 

Table 2-9: 

• RCA 4 – Sandbar camping area, beach sand soils (fill?) over muddy estuarine sands. 



A U S T R A L I A


• RCA11 – Tarbuck Bay at the mouth of Tarbuck Creek, estuarine / alluvial clays and muddy 

sands. 

• RCA13 – Eagle Nest Parade, Smiths Lake Village adjacent to Pumping Station O. Wind 

blown and alluvial sands over residual clay soils. 

Table 2-9 Groundwater Quality 

Analyte 

Bore Hole Location 

RCA13 RCA11 RCA4 

Calcium 13.5 34.6 1.9 

Magnesium 10 110 2.1 

Sodium 65.4 1250 24.8 

Potassium 3.8 57.3 2.4 

Carbonate nd nd nd 

Bicarbonate 52 13 15 

Sulphate 24 418 14 

Chloride 87 1944 16 

Nitrate .05 .02 .03 

E.C. (µS/cm) 321 7292 127 

Field pH (pH units) 6.6 5.7 5.8 

TDS 205 4667 81 

Cl/SO 4 (ratio by 

mass) 

3.6 4.7 1.1 

All results are expressed in mg/l, unless otherwise stated. nd – not detected 

The results of the testing indicate that the groundwater has the following characteristics: 

• Sodium is the dominant cation in all groundwater bores 

• Chloride is the dominant anion in bores RCA13 and 11, with chloride, bicarbonate and 

sulphate at similar levels in bore RCA4. 

• Near neutral pH in RCA13 with slightly acidic groundwater in bores RCA11 and 4. 

• Salinity varies from fresh (Bores RCA13 and 4) to brackish/ saline (Bore RCA11). The 

significantly higher EC value at bore RCA11 is likely to be a result of the close proximity of 

the bore to a brackish creek near the edge of Smiths Lake. 

• Nitrate levels were found to be low. 

Groundwater samples from pump station sites were analysed by The Department of Public 

Works & Services in the SLVA as part of the Pacific Palms Sewerage Scheme. Results are 

presented in Table 2-10 and indicate: 

• Near neutral to slightly acidic pH. 

• Higher chloride and sulphate concentrations in groundwater within the rock mass which 

was deposited under marine conditions (Yagon Siltstone). 



A U S T R A L I A


Table 2-10 Groundwater Quality – Pump station sites (DPWS) 

Location 

Analyte 

Pump 

stn L 

Pump 

stn O 

Pump 

stn P 

Pump 

stn Q 

Pump 

stn R 

Pump 

stn U 

Lake 

water 

Field pH 6.2 6.1 6.8 5.5 6.4 6.6 7.4 

Chloride 64 99 740 320 530 250 15000 

Sulphate 60 9 80 60 50 3 1900 

Cl/SO 4 (ratio by mass) 1.1 11 9.2 5.3 11 83 7.9 

Iron 91 680 240 74 310 49 1.1 

Aluminum 190 1200 350 180 780 210 10 

Material 

6m clay 2m sand rock 3m silt rock 2m sand 

Depth to groundwater 

(m) 

All results are expressed in mg/l, unless otherwise stated. 

& silt - rock 

- rock 

- rock 

4.3 1.2 6 5.8 7.8 1.6 

Table 2-11 outlines the criteria established for assessing the presence, or former presence, of 

acid sulphate soils based on the chloride to sulphate ratio and the pH of the samples. The 

groundwater samples indicate the presence of pyritic material which is in agreement with total 

sulphur values noted in Table 2-8. However the pH values suggest the presence of a buffering 

agent. It should be noted that the ratio of sulphate to chloride becomes less predictive with low 

salinity ratios and as such the results of the water analyses are not considered to be as reliable 

as those of the soil analyses for RCA 4 and 13. 

Table 2-11 EPA Criteria to Assess the Probable Presence of Pyritic Material 

pH Cl-:SO4-2 (by mass) Assessment 

6 to 8 approx. 7 No pyritic material present or pyrite has not 

been oxidised at any time 

< 5 approx. 7 No pyritic material present or pyrite has not 

been oxidised at any time and low pH can be 

attributed to other causes 

6 to 8 < 2, if < 4 do further analysis Presence of pyritic material plus the presence 

of a buffering agent 

< 5 < 2, if < 4 do further analysis Presence of pyritic material with little 

buffering agent 

Source: NSW EPA, DUAP, ASSMAC, 1997, Acid Sulphate Soils: Assessment and Management Guidelines. 

2.4 Landuse 

2.4.1 Smiths Lake Village Area 

The Smiths Lake Village Area (SLVA) comprises an urban residential area with sewer, town 

water, stormwater and electrical services. The roads are predominantly sealed with stormwater 

drainage via concrete kerb and gutters as well as unlined table drains. 

Residential development comprises predominantly brick structures founded on slab or strip / 

pad foundation systems with some pole frame residences on steep slope areas. On the moderate 



A U S T R A L I A


to steeper slopes, extensive cutting, filling and retaining wall construction has been undertaken 

for access and landscaping. 

2.4.2 Smiths Lake Area 

The remainder of the study area comprises rural properties typically 5Ha to 30Ha in area with 

small urban residential communities at Tarbuck Bay and Charlotte Bay. Sandbar Caravan Park 

covers an area of about 1km 2 between Symes Bay and the beach at Cellito / Sandbar. 

Two small shale quarry pits are situated on the southern side of the access road to Sandbar. It is 

likely that these pits are or have been used as a local source of pavement gravels for minor 

roads. 

2.5 Terrain Classification 

The study area can be subdivided into terrain units which outline areas of similar physical 

characteristics on the basis of landform, slope angle, drainage, soil type, soil origin and 

groundwater. Each terrain unit defines a set of physical characteristics that will impose 

constraints on landuse in terms of geotechnical hazards such as: 

• Slope stability 

• Soil erosion 

• Acid sulphate soils 

• Foundation bearing capacity 

Table 2-12 describes each of the terrain units in terms of physical characteristics and 

Table 2-13 outlines risks associated with geotechnical hazards for each of the terrain units. 

Table 2-12 Terrain Units – Physical Characteristics 

Unit Soil Origin Soil / Rock Type Typical 

soil depth 

(m) 

R1 Residual Clay and siltstone 

/ sandstone rock 

R2 Residual Clay and siltstone 

Slope 

Gradient 

(%) 

Topography 

40 Steep upper ridge slopes. Scarps 

along lake shore. 

0.5 – 1 25 – 40 Ridge crests and upper to mid slopes 

/ sandstone rock 

R3 Residual Clay 1 – 2 10 – 25 Rounded hillslopes and footslopes 

R4 Residual Clay >2 3 5 5 5 10 – 25 Gentle to moderate sandhills and 

sheets 

S3 Aeolian Sand >5 25 – 40 Moderate to steep sandhills 

S4 Aeolian Sand >5 >40 Very steep sand hills with soil creep 



A U S T R A L I A


Unit 

Landuse constraints in relation to geotechnical hazards for the terrain units are presented in 

Table 2-13 on the basis of risk of occurrence. The risk of slope instability is assessed based on 

the scheme presented in Table 2-14 which is widely used by local government authorities for 

zonation purposes. 

Soil 

Origin 

Table 2-13 Terrain Units – Geotechnical Hazard Risk Assessment 

Slope 

Gradient 

(%) 

Risk of 

Slope 

Instability 

Risk of Acid 

Sulphate 

Soils 

Erosion Hazard 

Risk of Low 

Strength 

Foundation 

Soils * 

R1 Residual >40 High Very low Moderate (sheet) Very low 

R2 Residual 25 – 40 Medium Very low Moderate (sheet) Very low 

R3 Residual 10 – 25 Low Very low Moderate – high Very low 

(sheet, gully) 

R4 Residual


Based on the geotechnical hazard risk assessment presented in Table 2-13 for slope instability, 

soil erosion, acid sulphate soils and low bearing capacity soils, land use constraints for the 

terrain units are presented in Table 2-15. 

Table 2-15 Land Use Constraints on the Basis of Geotechnical Hazards 

Unit Soil Origin Slope 

Gradient 

(%) 

Land Use 

Urban Development Potential 

R1 Residual >40 Severe physical limitation to urban development. 

Generally not suitable for development. 

Development would require detailed geotechnical 

investigation to assess feasibility with development 

if appropriate requiring detailed engineering design 

and site management. 

R2 Residual 25 – 40 Moderate to severe physical limitations to 

development that can be overcome by detailed 

design and site management techniques. Selective 

development (ie residences founded on rock, pole 

frame). Incorporation as backyard areas in R3 or 

R4. Development restrictions in relation to 

earthworks, site disturbance, erosion control etc are 

likely to apply. Development requires specific 

geotechnical investigation. 

R3 Residual 10 – 25 Minor to moderate physical limitations to 

development. Suitable for residential development 

subject to erosion control measures. Geotechnical 

investigation appropriate where earthworks in 

excess of 1m depth proposed. 

R4 Residual


2.6 Urban Capability And Development Guidelines - SLVA 

2.6.1 Foundation Conditions 

Subsurface conditions in the SLVA generally comprise clay soils overlying rock at a relatively 

shallow depth, typically 0.5m to 1m with some areas of surface rock outcrop. The clay soils 

and weathered rock materials noted in the SLVA are generally considered to be of adequate 

bearing capacity for residential development. 

Specific geotechnical assessment of soil bearing capacity should be undertaken in sand soil 

areas of the SLVA (terrain units S1, S2, S3 and S4). 

Excavation problems are likely to be encountered where rock is encountered in earthworks. 

Testing of rock core recovered by the Department of Public Works for the sewer reticulation 

indicates that the rock is of high to very high strength with tested unconfined compressive 

strengths in the range of 50 to 150 MPa. The orientation and spacing of rock joints and 

fractures will have a major influence on rock excavatability. 

Based on the results of linear shrinkage testing and the highly plastic nature as presented in 

Table 2-4, the clay soils present in the SLVA are likely to be reactive (expansive). Reactive 

clays are soils that swell on wetting and shrink on drying, resulting in ground movements that 

can damage lightly loaded structures founded on inappropriately designed footing systems. The 

amount of ground movement is mainly related to the physical properties and depth of the clay 

and environmental factors such as climate, vegetation and watering. A higher probability of 

damage can occur on reactive sites where abnormal moisture conditions occur, due to factors 

such as: 

• Growth of trees too close to a footing or removal of large trees prior to construction. 

• Lack of maintenance of site drainage, failure to repair plumbing leaks and excessive or 

irregular watering of gardens adjacent to the house. 

• Unusual moisture conditions caused by removal of structures, ground covers (pavements), 

drains and dams etc. 

Foundation design should be undertaken in accordance with AS2870 – 1996 Residential Slabs 

and Footings. AS2870 – 1996 establishes performance requirements and specific designs for 

common foundation conditions as well as providing guidance on the design of footing systems 

using engineering principles. 

2.6.2 Slope Stability 

Slope stability zonation for the SLVA is shown on Figure 2-2 with zones defined on the basis 

of risk of instability as defined in Table 2-14. Four zones have been defined: 

• High Risk - steep (>25-40%) sand covered slopes (ie. in the area of Amaroo Drive and 

along the foreshore below Ski Cove Street. Terrain units S3 and S4. 

• High Risk - steep (>40%) soil and rock slopes located along some foreshore areas of Symes 

Bay. Terrain unit R1. 



A U S T R A L I A


• Medium Risk 

terrain unit R3. 

- moderate to steep slopes. Terrain unit R2 and steeper sections of 

• Low Risk – gentle slopes. Terrain units A, E, S1, S2, R4 and part R3. 

Development in high risk zones will require specific geotechnical investigation to assess 

project feasibility and the geotechnical design requirements required to reduce risk to 

acceptable levels. 

Development in medium risk zones should require geotechnical assessment to assess the risk of 

slope instability and outline development guidelines and engineering practices appropriate for 

hillside construction. 

Typical guidelines for residential development on hillslopes are presented in Table 2-16. The 

guidelines are not intended for design purposes but to highlight the measures that can be 

undertaken in the various risk zones to minimise the risk of overall slope instability and local 

instability associated with excavations, fills and retaining walls. 

Table 2-16 Development Guidelines on the Basis of Slope Stability 

Risk Development Guidelines 

Zone 

Type of structure High Specific geotechnical investigation 

Medium Geotechnical assessment 

Flexible structures such as brick veneer, timber or similar are 

considered appropriate with measures such as split level design to 

minimise slope modification (ie cut and fill) 

Low No constraints on the type of residential structure provided all 

foundations are designed and constructed in accordance with 

AS 2870- 1996, Residential Slabs and Footings 

Earthworks High Specific geotechnical investigation 

Medium Geotechnical assessment 

Restriction on excavation / fill depth and batter slope 

Engineered retaining walls 

Erosion control 

Low Batter slopes for excavations and fills at 2H:1V or flatter with steeper 

batters (i.e. rock) subject to specific geotechnical assessment Erosion 

control 

Filling 

In accordance with AS 3798 – 1996, Guidelines on Earthworks for 

Commercial and Residential Development 

Stormwater 

Pipe to street drainage or inter-allotment drainage system 



A U S T R A L I A


2.6.3 Erosion 

The soils of the SLVA have a moderate to high erodibility and are prone to sheet and scour 

erosion once disturbed. Development should be undertaken in accordance with Department of 

Land and Water Conservation guidelines. The following guidelines can be adopted in planning 

and development to minimise the impact of erosion and sedimentation: 

• Investigate site features to ensure that land capability and the proposed development are 

compatible. 

• Undertake development in accordance with an erosion and sediment control plan. 

• Undertake erosion control involving managing runoff at a non- erosive velocity, controlling 

runoff onto, through and from the site, minimising the duration and area of soil exposed 

during earthworks and providing protection for the soil surface. 

• Undertake sediment control involving trapping and containing soil particles that have been 

eroded. 

• Undertake rehabilitation and re-vegetation of disturbed areas within 14 days of completion 

of earthworks. Re-use topsoil. 

• Maintain erosion and sediment control measures. 


Acid sulphate soil investigation should be undertaken for all developments proposed in the 

medium and high risk areas as shown on Figure 2-2. This includes all activities where soils are 

to be excavated or disturbed (roadworks, foundations, drains etc) and where groundwater levels 

may be lowered (drains, groundwater extraction etc). Investigation should comprise a detailed 

soil survey with analytical data on the sulfide content down the profile. The acid producing 

potential of the soil needs to be quantified and evaluated in the context of the local 

environment. 

Where areas of acid sulphate soil are quantified (analytical results exceed the action criteria 

outlined in Table 2-7), options are to avoid the area / site identified or undertake development 

in accordance with an Acid Sulphate Management Plan. The plan should provide a framework 

for the on going management and monitoring of the impacts throughout construction and 

operation of any project. The plan should comprise the following: 

• A summary of the soil and groundwater conditions. 

• Discussion of construction activities likely to impact on ASS. 

• The expected degree of impact of construction activities. 

• Control and management of construction activities to minimise impact. 

• Monitoring requirements to assess impacts. 

• Contingencies should monitoring demonstrate the occurrence of significant impact. 



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There are various methods to treat or manage ASS: 

• Avoidance of acid sulphate soils. 

• Prevention of pyrite oxidation such as burial below the watertable. 

• Neutralisation by addition of agents such as lime. Neutralisation is likely to only be a viable 

option for sandy soils. 

• Separation and treatment (usually only applicable to large scale dredging operations). 

2.6.5 On Site Effluent Disposal 

The occurrence of moderate slopes, medium to heavy clay subsoils and the shallow depth to 

rock are major constraints to the use of on site effluent disposal systems. All septic waste 

disposal should be connected to the reticulated system. 

2.7 Land Use Capability And Development Guidelines - SLA 

2.7.1 Foundation Conditions 

Foundation design should be undertaken in accordance with AS2870 – 1996 Residential Slabs 

and Footings. 

2.7.2 Slope Stability 

Slope stability zonation for the SLA is shown on with zones defined on the basis of risk of 

instability as defined in Table 2-14. Development guidelines are the same as the SLVA as 

outlined in Section 2.6.2. 

2.7.3 Erosion 

The soils of the SLA have a moderate to high erodibility and are prone to sheet and scour 

erosion once disturbed. Development should be undertaken in accordance with guidelines 

outlined in Section 2.6.3. 


As outlined in Section 2.6.4, acid sulphate soil investigation should be undertaken for all 

development proposed in the medium and high risk areas as shown on Figure 2-2. 

2.7.5 On Site Effluent Disposal 

On site effluent disposal should be subject to specific investigation in accordance with the 

guidelines of On-site Sewage Management for Single Households, 1998, prepared by the 

Department of Local Government. 

Areas of terrain units R3 and R4 and A are the only units likely to meet the above guidelines in 

terms of slope gradient, soil type and depth, flooding and proximity to water bodies and 

drainage paths. This would need to be confirmed by specific investigation. 



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60 

Plasticity Index (%) 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

A-line 

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 

Liquid Limit (%) 

Figure 2-4 Plasticity Chart for Classifying Fine-Grained Soils by Unified Soil 

Classification System 



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FLOODING AND DRAINAGE 27 

3 FLOODING AND DRAINAGE 

3.1 Site Characteristics and Available Data 

3.1.1 Topography and Watercourses 

The catchments of the major watercourses within the study areas are delineated in Figure 3-1. 

The majority of the SLA and SLVA drains to Smiths Lake, with the remainder draining to 

Wallis Lake. The areas of these major catchments are listed below: 

• Wamwarra Creek = 7.2 km 2 

• Tarbuck Creek = 2.1 km 2 

• Duck Creek = 5.1 km 2 

• Wallis Creek = 8.5 km 2 

The dominant features of the topography of the study area are: 

• On the eastern boundary of the SLA, a steep-sided ridge line runs north to south separating 

the Wallis Creek catchment from the sea. This ridge is dominated by Yaric peak at 216 

mAHD and slopes of up to 50%; 

• South-west of the Lakes Way, the Wallis Creek catchment is rather low-lying and swampy. 

A number of artificial lakes have been created possibly from sand mining activities; 

• In the centre of the SLA a ridge line running north-west to south-east separate the 

Wamwarra Creek and Tarbuck Creek catchments from the Wallis Creek and Duck Creek 

catchments. 

• In the western portion of the SLA a ridge lines running north-west to south-east separates 

Jacks Creek (a tributary of Wamwarra Creek) from the lower catchment of Wamwarra 

Creek. 

• The SLVA topography is comprised of a number of short ridges running from the north to 

the south at Smiths Lake. A number of minor creeks and gullies run between these ridges. 

Smiths Lake was formed as a barrier lagoon with a coastal sand dune barrier on the eastern 

shore (south-east of the SLVA). 

Dunes occur in the eastern part but are more extensive to the east and south of the study areas. 

Wind movements mainly affect the beach zone but note for example comments in Section 

10.5.2 on Symes Bay. 

3.1.2 Rainfall and Flood Data 

Webb (1998) quotes a Bureau of Meteorology record for Station 60013 (Forster Post Office) 

giving an average annual rainfall of 1215 mm and annual median rainfall of 1206 mm for the 

period 1896 to 1997. 



A U S T R A L I A


Based on Australian Rainfall and Runoff (IEAust, 1987), the design rainfall intensities for the 

SLA and SLVA are listed in Table 3-1 below. 

Average 

Table 3-1 Design Rainfall Intensities (mm/h) 

Duration 

Recurrence Interval 1 hour 12 hour 72 hour 

2 years 40.0 8.0 2.5 

50 years 76.0 13.6 4.6 

Regional skew is listed as 0.01 and F2 and F50 values are listed as 4.32 and 16.15 respectively. 

Willing and Partners (1996) states that DLWC and NSW Department of Works and Services 

(through Manly Hydraulics Laboratory, MHL) do not operate any gauging stations or have any 

data on discharge of flood levels relating to the Smiths Lake catchment. 

3.1.3 Groundwater Characteristics 

Groundwater within the study area occurs in aquifer systems within either fractured rock or 

unconsolidated sediments. The Department of Land and Water Conservation has indicated that 

there are no registered groundwater sources or bores within the study area. 

The Carboniferous Age rocks have been subject to considerable folding and faulting and this 

has resulted in a network of joints and fractures that can store and transmit water. Groundwater 

generally infiltrates fractures near the surface in topographically high areas and drains through 

the fractures and joints until it discharges into the surface drainage system. Groundwater 

quality within fractured rock aquifers is likely to be variable with higher salinity values in areas 

where the sedimentary rocks have a marine origin such as the Yagon Siltstone. 

Areas of unconsolidated sediment within the study area comprise: 

• alluvial sediments (Unit A) along drainage paths. These areas are characterised by clayey 

sediments and as such groundwater availability is likely to be very low. 

• Estuarine (Unit E) sandy and muddy sediments in low lying coastal backdune areas. 

Groundwater availability and quality in these areas can vary considerably due to the 

complex depositional history and the interaction between marine and fluviatile 

environments. In general, groundwater occurs as lenses of fresh water overlying denser 

brackish or saline waters with recharge from rainfall. Groundwater availability in these 

areas is likely to be restricted to low yield non potable (drinking) supplies. 

• Aeolian (wind blown) coastal sand beds and dunes (Unit S). These sediments are usually 

characterised by low salinity, high yield and potable groundwater reserves with recharge 

from rainfall. The extent of clean sand beds within the study area is restricted to sandhills at 

Sandbar. A potential constraint on groundwater usage in the Sandbar area would be the 

potential for salt water intrusion with over pumping. 

An assessment of groundwater quality is presented in Section 2.3.7. 



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3.2 Flooding and Drainage Issues 

Flooding and drainage issues in the SLA and SLVA is dominated by three types of flooding 

resulting in inundation: 

• elevated ocean levels; 

• creek flooding; 

• combination of both of these. 

These issues are discussed further below. 

3.2.1 Elevated Ocean Levels 

Elevated ocean levels have the potential to result on rises in Smiths Lake water levels due to 

sea water flowing from the sea to Smiths Lake via the entrance (either open or closed). These 

elevated ocean levels can be the result of any one or a combination of the following natural 

causes, briefly described below: 

• Wind Set-up: When strong wind blows over an open body of water (eg. during a cyclone 

as wind blows from the east over the ocean), drag forces result in a transportation of water 

towards the coast causing a rise in water level. 

• Inverse Barometric Effect: Cyclones and other low pressure systems are accompanied by a 

drop in atmospheric pressure resulting in a flow of water from high pressure areas to the 

areas experiencing low pressure. When combined with wind se-up, this effect is called 

Storm Surge; 

• Wave Set-up: Wave set-up occurs shoreward of the breaker zone resulting in a concave 

upward shape of the water surface. At the shore this causes a rise in water level. 

• High Tides: Normal tidal variations result in two high tides per day. When these coincide 

with the other phenomena described here, then the peak water levels can occur; 

• Eustatic Changes (ie. The Greenhouse Effect): Increasing concentrations within the 

earth’s atmosphere of various gases, largely derived from the burning of fossil fuels, are 

trapping solar radiation. The resulting global warming (enhanced Greenhouse effect) has 

the potential to change weather systems, rainfall patterns, wind velocities and, significantly, 

cause mean sea level to rise. CSIRO (1998) states that sea level rise by 2050 is expected to 

be between 10cm and 40cm, with a ‘best guess’ of 20cm. 

It is a large and complex study to consider the effects of all of these factors to result in a peak 

ocean elevated level for planning purposes. A study of this size is beyond the scope of this 

study. However, estimates can be drawn from nearby studies of a similar nature. 

In 1989 AWACS assessed the elevated ocean levels at the two Manning River entrances at 

Harrington and Old Bar (Farquhar Inlet). Given that the latter entrance is similar in nature to 

the Smiths Lake entrance (ie. shallow and sometimes closed) as well as only 50km to the north 

of the study area, it is reasonable to assume that the elevated ocean levels will be similar. 



A U S T R A L I A


The AWACS study concluded that the elevated ocean levels for Old Bar are those listed in 

Table 3-2. However, due to this study being completed in 1989, it did not account for the 

Greenhouse Effect. Hence, a conservative value of 0.2m is added to the Old Bar values to 

derive appropriate levels for planning purposes. 

Average Recurrence 

Interval (years) 

Table 3-2 Elevated Ocean Levels 

Old Bar Levels (mAHD) 

(from AWACS, 1989) 

Recommended Smiths 

Lake Levels (mAHD) 

20 1.9 2.1 

50 2.0 2.2 

100 2.1 2.3 

During a cyclonic event that would result in such elevated ocean levels, it is conceivable that 

ocean water would flow into Smiths Lake with little hindrance from the entrance. Hence, it 

could be conservatively assumed that these ocean levels are a useful guide for extreme levels 

within Smiths Lake. 

In considering the combination of runoff into Smiths Lake adding to these levels, it needs to be 

recognised that the resulting lake level will only be sufficient to maintain the hydraulic gradient 

from the lake to the ocean for draining the catchment runoff. Given the relative efficiency of 

the entrance (ie. compared with a river), it is unlikely that this level will be significantly higher 

than that in the ocean. 

It is also possible that a cyclone could result in significant erosion of the entrance. This would 

allow penetration of ocean waves into Smiths Lake causing higher levels of inundation due to 

wave setup on the east-facing shores. However, to quantify and confirm this phenomena is a 

complex task requiring consideration of such issues as lake bathymetry, storm orientation and 

entrance conditions. It is suggested that assessment of this issue could be included in a coastal 

hazard study. 

3.2.2 Creek Flooding 

RAFTS-XP Modelling 

As described in Section 3.1.1, there are a number of watercourses in the SLA. The flood flows 

associated with these catchments were analysed using the runoff routing program RAFTS-XP. 

Each of the major catchments was modelled using site characteristics such as area, slope, creek 

shape, degree of urbanisation and vegetation cover. 

1% AEP Design Flows 

Using the design rainfall data presented in Section 3.1.2, design flood events were simulated 

using the RAFTS-XP models of the catchments. The critical durations for the catchments were 

in the order of one hour. The peak flows for the 1% AEP flood events are shown in Figure 3-2 

for the major catchments. 



A U S T R A L I A


3.2.3 Floodway, Flood Fringe and Flood Storage Areas 

Hydrological runoff routing modelling, as described above, will allow quantification of the 

flows resulting from specific design rainfall events. However, in order to define peak flood 

levels, these flows are used as input into hydraulic models (eg. MIKE-11, HEC-RAS etc). 

These models require accurate definition of creek cross-sections and flood storage details. 

This level of survey data was not available for this study. Hence, it was not possible to 

accurately define the boundaries of floodways without this detailed hydraulic modelling. 

In order to assist with the planning process of this study, estimations of areas of floodway, 

flood fringe and flood storage were determined based on the derived peak flows and the limited 

topographical information available (2m contour intervals from photogrammetry). These 

estimated areas are presented in Figure 3-3. 

This figure also shows an approximation of the 2.3 mAHD contour as the flood storage 

delineation based on elevated ocean levels. Due to the steepness of most of the catchments and 

the probability that the peak runoff will not be associated with a cyclonic event resulting in 

elevated lake levels, there would be little effect of this tailwater level of 2.3 mAHD on creek 

flooding behaviour. 

It is difficult to justify detailed hydraulic modelling of all catchments in the SLA if only a 

portion of the area will be developed. It is, therefore, recommended that detailed hydraulic 

modelling be limited to those areas proposed for development and that these studies be carried 

out in conjunction with the regular planning approvals process (eg. DA). This will allow an 

appropriate focus on the watercourses of interest to each particular development proposal. 

3.3 Impacts of Development 

3.3.1 Impacts of Residential Development on Flooding 

The most significant impact of residential (or commercial) development on catchment 

hydrology is a resulting increase in peak flow and volume of runoff. This is due to the increase 

in impervious areas associated with development. These impervious areas allow less 

infiltration (ie. more rainfall becomes runoff) and are also more hydraulically efficient (ie. 

runoff flows faster to the catchment outlet). 

As an example of the possible increases in peak flow and runoff for the SLA, a simulation of 

the development of the entire Tarbuck Creek catchment to medium density residential area was 

conducted. It was assumed for this assessment that the impervious portion of the developed 

catchment was 30%. It was also assumed that there are no detention measures employed within 

the developed catchment. 

The resulting increases in runoff are presented in Figure 3-4. This figure shows a resulting 

increase in peak flow of approximately 34.4% and an increase in runoff volume of 34.5%. 

These percentage increases would be higher for smaller catchments and for higher densities of 

development. 



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60 

50 

Natural 

Urbanised 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Time 1 (hours) 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 

Figure 3-4 Impacts of Development on Tarbuck Creek 1% AEP Flows 

These higher flows and greater runoff volumes will also result in higher flood levels and 

increased velocities. This usually causes scour of the creek bed and under-cutting of creek 

banks. The subsequent bank slump into the creek can produce sedimentation of the creeks 

further downstream where slopes are flatter and velocities are lower. This sedimentation is in 

addition to the increased sediment load coming from the catchment through inappropriate 

construction practices. 

All of the impacts described above are able to be mitigated to varying degrees through the 

implementation of a workable Stormwater Management Plan. A plan would need to be created 

for each area of land to be developed taking into account the specifics of the site’s 

characteristics (eg. soil types, slopes, type of development). These issues are discussed in more 

detail in Section 4. 

3.3.2 Impacts of Filling for Residential Development in SLVA 

The primary impacts on the hydrological regime of filling for residential development include: 

• loss of flood storage causing increased flood levels in some circumstances; and 

• loss of floodway conveyance causing reduced flow capacity, increased velocities and flood 

levels. 

These two impacts are discussed below. 

Loss of Flood Storage 

In applying the first of these principles to the SLA, an important characteristic of the flood 

behaviour requires consideration. As described in Section 3.2.1, the peak flood levels around 



A U S T R A L I A


the perimeter of the lake are dominated by elevated ocean levels. It has been assumed that the 

level in Smiths Lake will rise during cyclonic events due to inflow of water from the ocean to 

the lake. 

This filling, and the ultimate peak level, is independent of the volume of available flood storage 

in Smiths Lake. The lake will continue to fill until an equal level is reached in both the lake 

and the ocean. 

Hence, the filling of flood storage land around the perimeter of the lake will not result in an 

increase in the peak flood levels predicted for the lake. 

Loss of Conveyance 

If filling takes place on land that is currently designated as floodway (or even flood fringe), 

there will be a loss of flood conveyance resulting in increased flood levels and velocities. It is 

difficult to properly mitigate against these impacts and should be avoided if possible. Creek 

banks can be protected from scour by rock protection, but this can also result in the loss of 

riparian vegetation and changes to the hydrological behaviour of the creek system (eg. flood 

timings etc). 

3.3.3 Impacts of Residential Development on Groundwater 

Residential development will result in an increase in impervious areas causing a decrease in the 

volume of water infiltrating to the groundwater table as recharge. In the clay and rock areas 

(Figure 2-1), groundwater recharge through infiltration of the low permeability clay and 

weather rock is likely to be minimal and as such the potential impact of residential development 

in these areas on groundwater levels is likely to be negligible. The degree to which residential 

development would lower the groundwater levels in the higher permeability sand areas will 

depend on the ratio of impervious surface area to uncovered areas. This ratio would need to be 

relatively high before a noticable lowering of groundwater levels occured. The effects may be 

minimised by other factors such as the groundwater gradient and recharge from adjacent areas. 

If some of the recommended stormwater management measures involving infiltration (see 

Section 4) are adopted, then there is potential for a lessening of this effect. However, there is 

also the potential for an increase in the pollutant load in the groundwater from the urban 

stormwater. 



A U S T R A L I A

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 34 

4 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT 


This section of the report assesses stormwater management requirements for both the SLA and 

SLVA. The approach taken in regard to this issue, and the findings of our assessments are 

closely related to the Water Quality Sensitivity Mapping activities discussed in Section 7. 

In accordance with acceptable and contemporary stormwater management planning practice, 

this study has not just considered stormwater from a drainage perspective. An holistic 

viewpoint has been taken, making appropriate stormwater management recommendations 

based on the consideration of a wide range of issues, including the following: 

• receiving water environmental and ambient quality characteristics; 

• catchment characteristics such as slope, soil type and vegetation cover; and 

• development characteristics, such as urban density and how stormwater infrastructure can 

be integrated within urban area layouts. 

In this regard, firstly the receiving environment characteristics of the study catchments are 

described, and whole of catchment stormwater/pollutant export objectives are specified. 

Subsequently, relevant stormwater management actions that are recommended to apply across 

the entire catchment are introduced, and finally additional actions required in areas of specific 

stormwater related ‘sensitivity’ are discussed. 

4.2 Receiving Environment Implications 

Section 7.2 of this report presents a summary of available water quality data for both Wallis 

and Smiths Lakes. Other discussion contained in Section 7 introduces the recommendations of 

this study that there be a ‘no worsening’ criteria applied with respect to non-point source 

(stormwater) pollutant export. This recommendation is a key influence on the acceptable 

nature of development and stormwater infrastructure within the SLA and SLVA. 

4.3 Whole of Study Area Considerations 

As described above, both Smiths and Wallis Lakes are sensitive to significant changes in 

catchment/stormwater pollutant export. The basic reasons for this are: 

• Smiths Lake is in an almost ‘natural’ condition and has little capacity for assimilating 

change in catchment loads due to the long retention times of the lake and occasional vertical 

water column stratification; and 

• Wallis Lake nutrient levels are already higher than desirable due to other catchment inputs 

and the poor flushing characteristics of the southern sections of the lake. 

Given the above, this planning study must aim for a no worsening scenario with future 

development in terms of total stormwater pollutant export to the lakes. 



A U S T R A L I A


This study aims to achieve this goal via a three-fold approach, as follows: 

• the development of a range of overall site/catchment drainage planning principles (or Best 

Planning Practices (BPP’s)); 

• the development of a ‘suite’ of relevant stormwater Best Management Practices (BMP’s) to 

be applied in association with the aforementioned BPP’s; and 

• use of catchment/receiving water quality sensitivity mapping, (Section 7) to identify areas 

which will require ‘extra’ attention. 

In this regard, we propose that those areas of low, moderate and high receiving water quality 

sensitivity identified in Section 7 of this study be directed to apply progressively greater ranges 

of the aforementioned BPP’s and BMP’s in order to guarantee environmental protection. 

Figure 4-1 Water Resource Planning Units 

The above approach is compatible with the Water Sensitive 

Urban Design (WSUD) approach promulgated in Whelans 

et. al. (1994). Two figures are reproduced from this 

reference in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 which illustrate both the 

proposed approach of using sensitivity mapping to identify 

appropriate water resources planning units (Figure 4.1) and 

how BMP’s and BPP’s combine to achieve an appropriate 

design (Figure 4.2). 

It should be noted at this point that the study brief called for 

the conceptual design of four systems including ‘traditional’, 

‘non-traditional’ and one based on maximising infiltration. 

WBM Oceanics Australia see no logical reason for such 

works as: 

• a ‘traditional’ design would violate the defined no 

worsening criteria for pollutant export, and as such 

is unacceptable; 

• a ‘non-traditional’ system is what is proposed; and 

• a system which solely maximises infiltration 

ignores the wide range of other stormwater 

management and treatment mechanisms (filtration, 

detention etc) and is unlikely on its own to achieve 

the no-worsening criteria. 

Figure 4-2 Water Sensitive Design Overview 



A U S T R A L I A


4.4 Recommended Stormwater Best Planning Practices 

Definition and description of BPP’s can be difficult, and often overlaps somewhat with the 

more straightforward definition of BMP’s. The relevant overall site and planning principles 

recommended by this study for areas draining to both Wallis and Smiths Lakes are as follows. 

4.4.1 Protect all existing waterways 

Nearly all of the waterways/creeks in the study area are in a near-pristine condition due to the 

low density of existing urban development and lack of previous broad land clearing (Figure 4.3 

and Figure 4.4). Preservation and use of these waterways as sympathetic drainage corridors to 

Wallis and Smiths Lakes is recommended via the following actions: 

• Allow no development or significant disturbance within 30m of the centerline of existing 

waterways. This buffer area will: 

◊ 

◊ 

◊ 

protect stream banks from erosion; 

filter runoff before it enters the stream; and 

encourage stormwater infiltration 

• Ensure careful design and construction of any waterway crossings. 

• Ensure that where concentrated stormwater is directed ‘into’ these buffers, that appropriate 

measures (eg. level spreaders) are used to distribute flow, preventing gully type erosion. 

Figure 4-3 Existing SLVA Waterway Corridors 



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Figure 4-4 Existing SLVA Waterway Corridors 

4.4.2 Careful Design of Sewerage System 

Council should consider the application of ‘extra’ design factors of safety on sewerage systems 

within the area to minimise the incidence of sewer overflows and spills. Such extra factors 

could include the following: 

• larger wet well capacities; 

• prominent alarms; and 

• regular checking/inspection of illegal connections and tree roots infestation of sewers. 

4.4.3 Appropriate Development Layouts 

It is proposed that the existing creeks within the study area be used as ‘trunk’ stormwater 

conveyance mechanisms to Wallis and Smiths Lake. Outside the buffers recommended for the 

creeks, we recommend that the following general development layout practices be considered: 

• place ‘feeder’ roads serving allotments around natural contours, and use appropriate road 

scale BMP’s (see Section 4.5); 

• larger lot sizes are recommended, especially for the areas identified in Section 7as having 

moderate and high receiving water quality impact potential. For such larger lot sizes, 

consideration should be given to having no formal stormwater drainage ‘network’, relying 

on overland flow, swales, rainwater tanks and infiltration measures; and 

• adopt development layouts which retain natural vegetation. 



A U S T R A L I A


4.4.4 Retention of Vegetation 

Where possible, as much native/existing vegetation as possible should be retained. This 

vegetation serves a key role in reducing soil erosion (through minimising the impact velocity of 

rain drops) and maintaining the soil-water balance. Much of the present SLVA development 

area has been undertaken in a way which achieves this goal. 

4.4.5 Minimisation of Directly Connected Impervious Area 

Wherever possible, impervious areas should not (Figure 4.5) be directly connected to trunk 

stormwater drainage systems. Opportunities should be explored to: 

• connect impervious areas to dedicated infiltration areas; 

• reduce the amount of impervious area by substituting modular pavers for concrete for 

example; and 

• reuse or recycle impervious area runoff (eg. rainwater tanks) 

Figure 4-5 Example of Directly Connected Impervious Area 

4.4.6 Education and Awareness 

Especially in the case of Smiths Lake, Council will need to consider the preparation of 

appropriate education and awareness raising material for council officers, builders and 

residents. This material will need to encompass both construction and operational stormwater 

issues, and is particularly important given the ‘non-traditional’ nature of proposed site 

stormwater management recommendations. 



A U S T R A L I A


4.4.7 Sediment and Erosion Control 

Particular attention will be required to sediment and erosion control measures within the lake 

catchments. Due to the steep slope within much of the catchment of Smiths Lake, this will be a 

particular issue in this area. Council should consider extra requirements and greater 

surveillance/policing in this regard. 

4.4.8 Avoidance 

One stormwater BPP that Council should seriously consider for those areas identified as having 

high receiving water impact sensitivity may be avoidance. That is, no development/disturbance 

allowed within these areas. 

4.5 Recommended Stormwater Best Management Practices 

Descriptions are provided below of a ‘suite’ of BMP’s. Section 4.6 of this report provides 

recommendations of appropriate relationships between BPP’s, BMP’s and defined levels of 

receiving water quality sensitivity proposed for the study area. 

4.5.1 Rainwater Tanks 

Figure 4-6 Existing SLVA Rainwater Tanks 

Rainwater tanks are 

recommended for all future 

residential developments in the 

area. Many houses in the SLVA 

already have rainwater tanks 

(Figure 4.6). WBM Oceanics 

Australia strongly recommend 

that Council consider the use of 

rainwater tanks as a source of 

water supply for toilet flushing, 

as well as possible non-potable 

(and maybe potable) use within 

the house. 

Rainwater tank overflow should be directed to appropriately designated infiltration measures 

(see Section 4.5.2 below). 

4.5.2 On-Site Infiltration 

Excess stormwater/rainwater from households should be directed to suitably designed and 

constructed infiltration measures (Figure 4.7). Given the predominantly sandy nature of much 

of the soils in the SLVA, such infiltration will be very effective in controlling stormwater 

quantity and quality. 



A U S T R A L I A


Figure 4-7 Stormwater Infiltration Measures 

4.5.3 Overland Flow/Vegetation Filtration 

Wherever possible, excess stormwater should be passed off-site as diffuse overland flow, 

preferably being directed through areas of dense vegetation to both slow flows, filter pollutants, 

and encourage infiltration. Use of locally specific, native vegetation is preferred. 

Figure 4-8 Overland Flow 



A U S T R A L I A


4.5.4 Swale Drainage 

Given the sandy nature of soils of much of the SLA and SLVA areas, swale drainage is 

recommended. Experience elsewhere in Australia and overseas has shown swales to be an 

extremely effective component of a stormwater treatment system where: 

• slopes are moderate (1000m 2 ) are 

proposed. 

With appropriate road layouts (ie. placing minor 

roads around contours), these criteria can all be 

satisfied in the area. 

There are many unintentional (and in some cases 

very steeply sloping) examples of such swales 

already present within the SLVA (Figure 4.9). 

Figure 4-9 Existing Roadside Swale - SLVA 

4.5.5 Appropriate Housing Form 

One of the major potential 

impacts that could occur due to 

expanded development of some 

of the steeper portions of the 

SLVA will occur during the 

housing construction phase. In 

this regard, WBM Oceanics 

Australia strongly recommend 

that for all areas identified as 

having high water quality 

sensitivity, that only ‘pole’ 

housing (which has minimal lot 

scale earth disturbance) be 

allowed. In many areas of SLVA 

(Figure 4.10), such housing is 

presently used with considerable 

success. 

Figure 4-10 Existing Pole House - SLVA 

For areas with moderate sensitivity, all efforts should be made to minimise earthworks, 

possibly by allowing ‘combined’ slab on ground and pole housing. We would recommend 

‘conventional’ slab on ground construction only for areas of low sensitivity. 



A U S T R A L I A


4.5.6 Wastewater System BMP’s 

For sites that are unable to be connected to a reticulated sewerage system, careful design, 

construction and operation of wastewater treatment and disposal systems is recommended. 

Rather than ‘automatic’ adoption of a septic system, consideration should be given to 

innovative wastewater disposal and reuse option such as: 

• on site wastewater treatment (eg. Biocycle units) with storage and irrigation and discharge 

to infiltration areas only under wet weather conditions; 

• grey water treatment and reuse; 

• mounding and transpiration systems; and 

• composting toilets. 

4.5.7 Wetlands and Detention Basins 

The use of major structural measures such as wetlands, lakes and detention basins to manage 

stormwater is not considered relevant to the SLVA due to the local land form and the 

environmental significance and heavily vegetated nature of waterways in the area. For those 

portions of the larger SLA however, there may be potential for the application of such measures 

within more sparsely vegetated or cleared land draining to Wallis Lake via Duck and Wallis 

Creeks. 

4.6 Stormwater Management Requirements 

Previous sections have presented a ‘suite’ of planning and management practices which, when 

appropriately combined, will enable sustainable development in the SLA and SLVA area. 

Table 4.1 below provides Council with appropriate recommendations with respect to how these 

separate planning and management practices could be combined for each of the areas of 

sensitivity of receiving water quality protection identified in Section 7. 



A U S T R A L I A


Table 4-1 Stormwater Management Requirements 

Receiving Water Quality 

Sensitivity Ranking 

Low 

Moderate 

High 

BPP’s 

• Moderate Density 

• Appropriate Layouts 

⇒ waterway buffers 

⇒ WSUD road layout 

• Extra sewerage system 

measures 

• Vegetation retention 

• Education and Awareness 

• Low-Moderate Density 

• Minimise DCIA 

• Additional sediment and 

erosion control 

• Other measures from above 

• Avoidance? 

• Low Density 

• High sediment and erosion 

control measures 


BMP’s 

• Roadside swales 

• Rainwater tanks 

• On-site infiltration 

• Overland flow 

• Wetlands and basins (Wallis 

Lake only) 

• Wastewater system BMP’s 

• Combined pole/slab on ground 

housing 


• Pole housing only 

• No vegetation disturbance or 

clearing 

• Careful site access/driveway 

planning 




A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 44 

5 FLORA 

5.1 Methodology for Vegetation Mapping 

5.1.1 Air Photo Interpretation 

5.1.1.1 Photo Typing 

The vegetation of the reserves has been mapped by means of air photo interpretation (API). 

The stereo-paired colour photography used were specifically for the Smiths Lake Study at a 

scale of 1:20000. Preliminary stratification of the vegetation into photo types was undertaken 

by reference to such diagnostic features as colour, texture, crown architecture, aspect and 

topographic position. A process of preliminary stratification, selective field sampling and 

specification and interpretation adjustment was continued until a satisfactory level of 

confidence in photo type recognition was reached. 

5.1.1.2 Ground Truthing 

The selective field sampling (ground truthing) was undertaken over a period of 16 days from 

October 1998 to January 1999. During this process observations were made of the structure 

and floristic composition of each photo type. A species checklist was also compiled during this 

fieldwork, which is provided in Appendix D. 

5.1.1.3 Mapping 

The boundaries of the photo types, which are generally analogous to plant communities, were 

digitised from the aerial photographs using MapInfo software. The Smiths Lake Village Area 

was mapped at a scale of 1:5000, while the remainder of the study area was mapped at 1:10000. 

5.1.2 Plot-Based Surveys 

5.1.2.1 Site Selection 

The location of sites for the plot-based sampling was undertaken using air photo patterns 

derived above. A single 20 x 20 metre plot was placed in each of the 25 vegetation community 

in the Smiths Lake Area. 

5.1.2.2 Data Collection 

A number of attributes were measured or estimated for each plot including floristic 

composition, vegetation structure, aspect, elevation, slope, topographic position and any forms 

of disturbance. 

5.2 Vegetation Communities 

Twenty-five (25) vegetation communities were identified in the Smiths Lake Area and these are 

described in summary on the next few pages, in relation to their structural and floristic 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 45 

characteristics. Some vegetation units are mapped showing a duel vegetation type. This occurs 

where it is difficult to assign a single type to an area due to the complexity of the vegetation. 

There is also small areas of disturbed woodland and regrowth in the area and these 

communities are also described below. Figure 5.1 shows the distribution of the vegetation 

communities in the Smiths Lake Area and Smiths Lake Village Area. 

5.2.1 Palm (7) 

Structure: This is a closed forest, usually with a low canopy only reaching 10-15 metres high. 

The shrub and herb layers vary from dense to sparse depending upon canopy density. 

Floristic Description: This community is dominated by palms, either as a monoculture or a 

combination of cabbage tree palm (Livistonia australis) and bangalow palm (Archontophoenix 

cunninghamiana). The shrub layer is dominated by rainforest species, usually including lilly 

pilly’s (Acmena smithii and Syzygium spp.). Where it has been exposed to disturbance this 

community is sometimes infested with lantana (Lantana camara). The herb layer includes a 

variety of ferns and grasses. 

Distribution: This forest type occurs in small stands in very moist, sheltered gullies, often 

surrounded by other moist forests and rainforests. In the study area it is found in the more 

steeply sloping lands, using on south-facing slopes. It occurs to the south of Pacific Palms and 

to the north of Tarbuck Bay, covering an area of 35.1 hectares. 

5.2.2 Myrtle (23) 

Structure: This forest type has a low, dense canopy usually only reaching 8-10 metres in 

height. The shrub layer is usually sparse to non-existent, while the herb layer is also very 

sparse. Occasional emergent old-growth eucalypts occur in this community. 

Floristic Description: This community is dominated by brown myrtle (Choricarpia 

leptopetala). A number of other rainforest species are present in low numbers. The shrub layer 

is composed of small canopy species or lantana (Lantana camara). The ground cover is 

dominated by ferns and sedges. Emergents include grey gum (Eucalyptus propinqua), 

turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera) and brush box (Lephostemon confertus). 

Distribution: This community type only occurs in a sheltered depression to the south of Pacific 

Palms. It occupies an area of 17 hectares. 

5.2.3 Tuckeroo (24) 

Structure: This forest type has a low, dense canopy usually only reaching 10 metres in height. 

The shrub layer is usually sparse to non-existent, while the herb layer is also very sparse. 

Floristic Description: This community is usually dominated by tuckeroo (Cupaniopsis 

anarcardioides). A number of other rainforest species are occasionally present, while coastal 

banksia (Banksia integrifolia ssp integrifolia) is present as an emergent. The shrub layer is 

composed of small canopy species or lantana (Lantana camara). The ground cover is 

dominated by ferns and lomandras. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 46 

Distribution: This community type only occurs in the study area as a duel type with forest type 

25 described below. It occurs in a small patch, of 0.2 hectares, on the south-eastern edge of the 

study area. 

5.2.4 Littoral Rainforest (25) 

Structure: This community has a low to tall closed tree canopy which varies in height from 10- 

25 metres. The shrub layer, varies from sparse to mid-dense and consists of rainforest species 

of varying heights. The herb layer is usually very sparse. 

Floristic Description: This community is dominated by yellow tulipwood (Drypetes 

australasica), lilly pilly (Acmena smithii), red olive plum (Cassine australis var. australis) and 

Sarcomelicope simplicifolia ssp. simplicifolia. Common shrub species include native holly 

(Alchornea ilicifolia), Cleistanthus cunninghamii, black plum (Diospyros australis) and veiny 

wilkiea (Wilkiea huegeliana). The herb layer is dominated by a variety of ferns including rasp 

fern (Doodia aspera) and shield fern (Lastreopsis decomposita). 

Distribution: This forest type is found in sheltered gullies and slopes in mountainous areas. In 

the study area it is only to the south of Pacific Palms, covering an area of 9.7 hectares. 

5.2.5 Swamp Mahogany (30) 

Structure: This is an open to closed forest to 25 metres in height. The shrub layer is usually 

very sparse or non-existent, however the ground cover is usually very dense. 

Floristic Description: The canopy is dominated by swamp mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta). 

Occasionally other species will also occur in the canopy, including broad-leaved paperbark 

(Melaleuca quinquenervia) and swamp she-oak (Casuarina glauca). The understorey is 

composed of herbs and shrubs which tolerate impeded drainage, such as swamp water-fern 

(Blechnum indicum) and saw-sedges (Gahnia spp.). 

Distribution: This forest is typically found on heavy, poorly drained soils near the coast. It 

grades into paperbark or swamp oak forest as drainage becomes further impeded. In the study 

area this community is found to the east of the Lakes Way, in a small patch on the northern 

edge of Wamwarra Bay and in the far north-western corner of the study area near the State 

Forest. It occupies 24 hectares of the Smiths Lake Area. 

5.2.6 Paperbark (31) 

Structure: This community has a closed tree canopy usually between 10 and 25 metres. The 

ground layer is usually dense, however, the shrub layer varies from being non- existent to 

sparse. 

Floristic Description: The dominant tree is broad-leaved paperbark (Melaleuca 

quinquenervia), which is often the only tree species present. Occasionally, other melaleuca’s 

dominate the stand including prickly-leaved paperbark (M. styphelioides) and snow-in-summer 

(M. lineariifolia). Other associates include swamp oak (Casuarina glauca) and swamp 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 47 

mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta). The herb layer consists of a variety of swamp tolerant species 

including swamp water-fern (Blechnum indicum) and Restio tetraphyllus ssp. meiostachyus 

Distribution: This forest type is found on very poorly drained soils where water may cover the 

surface for prolonged periods. In the study area this community predominantly occurs to the 

east of the Lakes Way, however a small area of this community is also found on the northern 

edge of Wamwarra Bay. This community covers 93.1 hectares of the Smiths Lake Area. 

5.2.7 Swamp Oak (32) 

Structure: This community has an open to partially closed canopy, usually only reaching 15 

metres in height. The herb layer is sparse to dense, while the shrub layer is non-existent or 

limited to isolated individuals. 

Floristic Description: Swamp oak (Casuarina glauca) dominates this community, usually in 

pure stands. Broad-leaved paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia) may also occur in small 

numbers. The ground cover is dominated by sedges, usually tolerant of saline conditions such 

as jointed twigrush (Baumea juncea). 

Distribution: This forest type is found on very poorly drained sites, probably under the 

influence of greater soil salinity than the paperbark forests. This community is only found in a 

few small patches in the northern corner of the study area adjacent to Wallis Creek. It only 

occupies 1.5 hectares of the Smiths Lake Area. 

5.2.8 Moist Blackbutt (36) 

Structure: This community has a closed to partially closed canopy which reaches up to 40 

metres in height. The shrub layer is usually dense, although it can occasionally be sparse. The 

ground cover is usually mid-dense to dense. 

Floristic Description: The dominant tree species in this forest type is blackbutt (Eucalyptus 

pilularis), which may occur in pure stands. Other common associates include tallowwood (E. 

microcorys), grey gum (E. propinqua), flooded gum (E. grandis), turpentine (Syncarpia 

glomulifera) and brush box (Lephostemon confertus). The shrub layer includes a variety of 

species such as laurels (Cryptcarya microneura and C. rigida), Maiden’s wattle (Acacia 

maidenii) and common hop bush (Dodonaea triquetra). Ground cover is dominated by ferns 

and grasses. 

Distribution: This forest type occurs on relatively sheltered south or south-east facing slopes in 

the area. In the study area this community is found in and around the Smiths Lake Village 

Area and near Sugar Creek Road. It occupies 107 hectares of the Smiths Lakes study area. 

5.2.9 Dry Blackbutt (37) 

Structure: This forest type has an open to closed forest canopy from 30-35 metres in height. 

The shrub layer is usually sparse, while the herb layer is dense. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 48 

Floristic Description: The canopy is dominated by blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis), with other 

associated species including stringybarks (E. eugenoides or E. agglomerata) and grey gum (E. 

propinqua). The shrub layer is composed of xeric shrubs including forest oak (Allocasuarina 

torulosa), narrow-leaved geebung (Persoonia linearis) and a variety of wattles (Acacia 

binervata, A. longissima and A. longifolia). The herb layer is dominated by a variety of grasses 

including blady grass (Imperata cylindrica var. major), kangaroo grass (Themeda australis) 

and tussock grass (Poa labillardieri). 

Distribution: This forest type is more widespread than the moist blackbutt and is found in a 

variety of sites throughout the area. It dominates the Smiths Lake Village Area and is also 

found throughout the southern portion of the whole study area. This community cover 439.3 

hectares of the study area. 

5.2.10 Blackbutt - Bloodwood/Apple (41) 

Structure: The canopy of this community varies from open to closed, reaching a height of 20- 

30 metres. The shrub layer is predominantly open, while the ground cover is usually dense. 

Floristic Description: The dominated trees are blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis) and smoothbarked 

apple (Angophora costata), with pink or red bloodwood (Corymbia intermedia and C. 

gummifera) also occuring. The shrub layer is variable but usually includes saw banksia 

(Banksia serrata), Sydney golden wattle (Acacia longifolia var. sophorae), geebungs 

(Persoonia levis and P. linearis), grass tree (Xanthorrhoea macronema) and bush peas 

(Pultenaea spp. and Dillwynia spp). Ground cover is usually dominated by grass such as blady 

grass (Imperata cylindrica var. major) and kangaroo grass (Themeda australis) and bracken 

fern (Pteridium esculentum). 

Distribution: This forest type is found in coastal areas, usually on deep coastal sand deposits, 

especially on remnant sand dunes. It is found in the south-eastern corner of the Smiths Lake 

study area around Symes Bay, it is also found to the east and north-east of Smiths Lake Village. 

It occupies 23.1 hectares of the Smiths Lake Area. 

5.2.11 Tallowwood (45) 

Structure: This community is a tall forest, up to 40 metres in height, with a closed canopy. A 

mid-dense to dense shrub and/or small tree layer is usually present. The herb layer varies from 

sparse to dense. 

Floristic Description: The dominant species is tallowwood (Eucalyptus microcorys). Other 

common species include turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera), brush box (Lephostemon 

confertus) and grey gum (Eucalyptus propinqua). The shrub layer often includes lantana 

(Lantana camara) and other rainforest species such as forest mapel (Cryptocarya rigida), 

myrtle ebony (Diospyros pentamera) and cabbage tree palm (Livistona australis). The herb 

layer is dominated by grasses, ferns and sedges including rasp fern (Doodia aspera) and sawsedge 

(Gahnia melanocarpa). 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 49 

Distribution: This forest type is found in sheltered, moist sites in mountainous terrain. It often 

forms an intergrade community between the flooded gum and the more exposed communities. 

This community is found scattered throughout the Smiths Lake Area, occupying 34.6 hectares. 

5.2.12 Sydney Blue Gum (46) 

Structure: This community has a closed canopy which reaches heights of between 35 and 50 

metres. The shrub and herb layers are usually dense. 

Floristic Description: The dominant species in this area is Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus 

saligna). Other species commonly found in this community include tallowwood (E. 

microcorys), flooded gum (E. grandis), grey gum (E. propinqua), ironbarks (E. fergusonii ssp. 

fergusonii and E. siderophloia) and turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera). The shrub layer is 

composed of rainforest species similar to those in the previous community, while the ground 

cover is often dominated by ferns. 

Distribution: This forest type is found on clayey soils of moderate to high fertility. It occurs in 

moist sites, often in gullies or along creeklines. This community occupies 88.5 hectares of the 

study area and is only found to the west of the Lakes Way. 

5.2.13 Flooded Gum (48) 

Structure: This closed forest commonly grows to 40 metres in height, although occasionally is 

higher. The presence of shrub layers varies depending upon the degree of disturbance, 

however, there is usually a number of dense layers present. The herb layer is also usually very 

dense. 

Floristic Description: The tree layer of this community is composed almost entirely of flooded 

gum (Eucalyptus grandis), although occasional species such as tallowwood (E. microcorys), 

turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera) and brush box (Lephostemon confertus) also occur. The 

shrub layer is composed of a variety of rainforest species. The herb layer is dominated by 

sedges and ferns. 

Distribution: This vegetation community is predominantly found on low-lying land, near 

creeks or in sheltered gullies at altitudes usually less than 750 metres. It is found 

predominantly west of the Lakes Way, although a few smaller patches also occur on the eastern 

side. It occupies a total of 325.5 hectares of the Smiths Lake Area. 

5.2.14 Inland Brush Box (53) 

Structure: This community is a tall closed forest up to 40 metres in height. A small tree layer 

is sometimes present, while there is usually a sparse to mid-dense shrub layer below this. The 

herb layer varies from dense to sparse dependant upon light penetration. 

Floristic Description: Brush box (Lephostemon confertus) is the dominant tree species in this 

forest, with a number of other associates occurring in smaller numbers including Sydney blue 

gum (Eucalyptus salignus), flooded gum (E. grandis), tallowwood (E. microcorys) and 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 50 

turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera). The small tree and shrub layers are composed of rainforest 

species including cabbage tree palm (Livistona australis), laurels (Cryptocarya spp.), myrtles 

(Choricarpia spp., and Backhousia myrtifolia), lilly pilly’s (Acmena smithii and Syzygium spp.) 

and native guava (Rhodomyrtys psidioides). The herb layer is predominantly composed of 

ferns and other soft herbs. 

Distribution: This forest type is found in sheltered gullies and appears to be an intermediate 

stage in the replacement of eucalypt forest with rainforest. This community is found 

throughout the Smiths Lake Area, occupying 65.8 hectares. 

5.2.15 White Mahogany/Red Mahogany/Grey Ironbark/Grey Gum (60) 

Structure: This forest has a predominantly closed forest canopy, although some patches are 

open due to human disturbance. The height of the tree layer generally ranges from 25 to 30 

metres, however, some areas reach 35 metres in height. A sparse to dense shrub layer is 

present, while the herb layer is generally dense. 

Floristic Description: This community is dominated by white mahogany (Eucalyptus 

acmenoides), grey ironbark (E. siderophloia), ironbark (E. fergusonii spp. fergusonii), grey 

gum (E. propinqua) and tallowood (E. microcorys). Other occasional species include red 

mahogany (E. resinifera), blackbutt (E. pilularis) and pink bloodwood (Corymbia intermedia). 

The shrub layer includes a variety of sclerophyll and rainforest shrubs such as pittosporums (P. 

undulatum and P. revolutum), large mock-olive (Notelaea longifolia f. intermedia) and wattles. 

The ground cover includes grasses, ferns and a variety of other soft herbs including rasp 

fern,tussock grass (Poa labillardieri) and mat-rush (Lomandra longifolia). 

Distribution: This forest type commonly forms a intermediate zone between the dry Grey 

Gum/Grey Ironbark/White Mahogany found on the ridgetops and upper slopes and the Flooded 

Gum or Tallowwood/Sydney Blue Gum on the lower slopes and gullies. This community is 

the most dominant community type found scattered throughout the Smiths Lakes Area. It 

covers a total area of 439.7 hectares. 

5.2.16 Grey Gum/Grey Ironbark/White Mahogany (62) 

Structure: The closed to open forest canopy reaches a height of 20-35 metres. A sparse shrub 

layer is usually present, while the herb layer varies from dense to sparse depending upon 

topographic position and aspect. 

Floristic Description: This community is dominated by grey gum (Eucalyptus propinqua), 

ironbark (E. fergusonii spp. fergusonii) and white mahogany (E. acmenoides). Spotted gum 

(Corymbia maculata) and pink bloodwood (C. intermedia) are also common in this forest type, 

while a variety of other eucalypts may be present on occasion. The shrub layer is dominated by 

dry sclerophyll shrubs including wattles, coral heath (Epacris calvertiana), paper daisy 

(Ozothamnus diosmifolius) and forest oak (Allocasuarina torulosa). The herb layer is 

composed of grasses. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 51 

Distribution: This forest type occupies the drier and more exposed areas of the study including 

the ridgelines and northern slopes. This community occupies 79.2 hectares in the study area. It 

is distributed to the south of Pacific Palms and to the west of the Lakes Way. 

5.2.17 Spotted Gum (70) 

Structure: This is an open to closed forest, that grows up to 35 metres in height. The shrub 

layer is usually sparse, while a dense herb layer occurs. 

Floristic Description: Spotted gum (Corymbia maculata) is the sole dominant species in this 

community. Other eucalypt species may also occur on occasion. The shrub layer is sparse and 

consists of xeric shrubs, while the herb layer is dominated by grasses. 

Distribution: The forest type has a very restricted distribution in the study area and is found on 

shallow soils on the upper slope of the mountain range immediately to the south of Pacific 

Palms. Elsewhere, this forest type is replaced with forest types 60 and 62. This community 

occupies a small 1 hectare patch of forest in the Smiths Lake Area on a single ridgeline to the 

south of Pacific Palms 

5.2.18 Spotted Gum - Ironbark/Grey Gum (74) 

Structure: This is an open to closed forest, that grows up to 35 metres in height. The shrub 

layer is usually sparse, while a dense herb layer occurs. 

Floristic Description: The dominant species in this community is spotted gum (Corymbia 

maculata) and ironbark (Eucalyptus fergusonii ssp. fergusonii), with smaller associations of 

grey gum (E. propinqua). The shrub and herb layers are similar to the previous community. 

Distribution: The forest type has a very restricted distribution in the study area and is found on 

shallow soils on the upper slopes adjacent to forest type 70 south of Pacific Palms. Elsewhere, 

this forest type is replaced with forest types 62. This communities occupies 5.3 hectares of 

land adjacent to the previous community. 

5.2.19 Smoothbarked Apple (105) 

Structure: This community has a partially closed to open canopy which only reaches 20 to 25 

metres in height. The shrub layer is usually very sparse, while the herb layer is dense. 

Floristic Description: The dominant species in this community is smoothbarked apple 

(Angophora costata). Other subdominant species include red bloodwood (Corymbia 

gummifera) and an occasional blackbutt (E. pilularis). The shrub layer is often dominated by 

banksias (Banksia serrata and B. integrifolia) or other heathland species. The herb layer is 

usually composed of grasses. 

Distribution: This forest type is found on sandy soils with high moisture availability, often 

near alluvial flats. This community is found in small patches, totaling 34.1 hectares, 

throughout the Smiths Lake Area. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 52 

5.2.20 Smoothbarked Apple - Sydney Peppermint - Stringybark (106) 

Structure: This community has a closed canopy usually with a height of less than 20 metres, 

but in favourable sites it may reach 30 metres. The shrub layer is moderately dense, while the 

herb layer varies from dense to sparse. 

Floristic Description: The dominant species is Sydney peppermint (Eucalyptus piperita) and is 

smoothbarked apple (Angophora costata), with smaller occurrences of white stringybark (E. 

globoidea). The shrub layer contains a variety of species including snow-in-summer 

(Melaleuca linariifolia) and bush-pea (Pultenaea blakelyi ). The herb layer is dominated by 

grasses, sedges and ferns. 

Distribution: This forest type is restricted to small patches of forest adjacent to the Lakes Way 

and to the east of the Lakes Way. It occupies 29.6 hectares of the Smiths Lake Area. 

5.2.21 Banksia (107) 

Structure: This community is a closed forest only reaching 8 to 10 metres in height. 

Occasionally taller emergent trees may occur. There is usually no small shrub layer and the 

herb layer is sparse. 

Floristic Description: The dominant species in this community is coastal banksia (Banksia 

integrifolia). Occasional eucalypts also occur including red bloodwood (Corymbia gummifera) 

and smooth-barked apple (Angophora costata). The herb layer is usually grassy. 

Distribution: This forest type is found on coastal sand deposits, usually only a short distance 

inland from the ocean. This community is found in a small 1 hectare patch in the south-eastern 

corner of the Smiths Lake Area surrounded by Forest Type 224. 

5.2.22 Introduced Scrub (221) 

Structure: This forest type is dominated by introduced woody weeds, that reach a height of 6-8 

metres. 

Floristic Description: This community is composed almost entirely of lantana (Lantana 

camara). Other small herbs, grasses and sedges are also found in this community. 

Distribution: This community is found in a small area (0.6 hectares) in the south-eastern 

corner of the study area. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 53 

5.2.23 Scrub (224) 

Structure: This is a closed community of shrubs, usually less than 6 metres in height although 

it may extend up to 8 metres. The herb layer is very sparse. 

Floristic Description: The dominant shrub layer is composed almost entirely of coast teatree 

(Leptospermum laevigatum). An occasional coastal banksia (Banksia integrifolia) is also 

present. The herb layer is composed of a variety of species including blue flax lilly (Dianella 

caerulea) and sword sedge (Lepidosperma concavum). 

Distribution: The community occupies well drained siliceous sands of foredunes close to the 

sea, with limited occurrences also extending to exposed aspects of bedrock headlands. It is 

found in the extreme south-east of the study area, occupying 31.4 hectares. 

5.2.24 Mallee (225) 

Structure: This is a dense closed community composed of small trees that reach heights of 6-8 

metres. The shrub layer is very sparse to non-existent, while the herb layer is also very sparse. 

Floristic Description: The composition of this community is dominated by bracelet 

honeymyrtle (Melaleuca armillaris) and black she-oak (Allocasuarina littoralis). The herb 

layer is composed of grasses and sedges. 

Distribution: This community is found on relatively steep, south to south-west facing aspects 

of hillslopes close to the sea. It is found in a small patch (0.3 hectares) in the south-eastern 

corner of the study area. 

5.2.25 Disturbed Woodland (DW) 

Structure: This community has been partially cleared to enable grazing or other landuses to 

occur, however a number of trees have been retained to form a woodland habitat. These trees 

reach up to 30 metres in height. No shrub layer is present, but a grassy herb layer exists. 

Floristic Description: The tree species in this woodland consist of those found in other 

vegetation types, although in any one area the species composition is poor. The herb layer is 

composed of introduced and native grasses. 

Distribution: Patches of this community are found on the eastern side of the Lakes Way in the 

northern portion of the study area. This community occupies 17.3 hectares of land within the 

Smiths Lake Area. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 54 

5.2.26 Regrowth (R) 

Structure: This community is composed of vegetation that is in the process of regeneration 

following disturbance. It is usually composed of one or two layers, which vary in height and 

density depending upon the time since the area was disturbed. 

Floristic Description: The composition of the regeneration is variable, however, it usually 

includes of a variety of weeds. 

Distribution: A small patch of this community, occupying 0.7 hectares, is found on the 

ridgeline to the south of Pacific Palms. 

5.3 Rare, Threatened or Significant Plant Species 

5.3.1 Threatened Species (TSC Act) 

Six species, listed on the Threatened Species Conservation Act, have been recorded in the 

region or in the study area. Their distribution in the study area is shown in Figure 5.2, while 

Table 5-1 below summarises information on these species. 

Table 5-1 Threatened Plant Species 

Species Significance & Distribution Likelihood of Occurrence 

Allocasuarina defungens 

(Casuarinaceae) 

Allocasuarina simulans 

(Casuarinaceae) 

Asperula asthenes (Rubiaceae) 

Chamaesyce psammogeton 

(formerly Chamaesyce sparrmanii) 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

Cynanchum elegans 

(Asclepiadaceae) 

This ROTAP species (2E) occurs 

at its southern distribution limit in 

the Forster area. It is listed on 

Schedule 1 of the TSC Act. 

This is a ROTAP species (2VCa) 

which is endemic to the Forster - 

Nabiac area (Harden 1990). It is 

listed on Schedule 2 of the TSC 

Act 

This is a ROTAP species (3VC) 

which is found from Taree to 

Bulahdelah growing in moist 

sites. It is listed on Schedule 2 of 

the TSC Act. 

This is an uncommon species of 

beach sands (Harden 1990). It 

has recently been listed on 

Schedule 1 of the TSC Act. 

This ROTAP species (3Eci) 

reaches its northern distribution 

limit in the Manning River 

catchment. It is listed on Schedule 

1 of the TSC Act 

This species was not found 

during the survey and is 

considered unlikely to occur. 

This species was not found 

during the survey and is 

considered unlikely to occur. 

This species was not recorded 

in the study area but may 

occur in the area in suitable 

habitat. 


in the study area, but may 

occur on Sandhurst Beach. 

This species has been recorded 

in the Smiths Lake Area in the 

Littoral Rainforest (FT25) 

south of Pacific Palms. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 55 


Melaleuca biconvexa (Myrtaceae) 

Sygium paniculatum (Myrtaceae) 

This species has just recently been 

listed as vulnerable on Schedule 2 

of the TSC Act. 

This ROTAP species (3VCi) 

grows in littoral rainforests from 

Bulahdelah to Jervis Bay. It is 

listed on Schedule 2 of the TSC 

Act. 

This species was recorded as 

an understorey species in the 

Swamp Mahogany (FT30), in 

the far north-western corner of 

the area. 


during the present survey. 

However, it has a moderate to 

high likelihood of occurring in 

the Littoral Rainforest (FT 25) 

of the study area. 

5.3.2 Rare or Threatened Plants (ROTAP) 

Two species previously recorded in the region are listed on ROTAP but not listed on the TSC 

Act. These species is described below in Table 5-2. 

Table 5-2 ROTAP Plant Species 


Eucalyptus fergusonii ssp. 

fergusonii (Myrtaceae) 

This ROTAP species (3KC-) has 

a very sporadic distribution which 

was previously thought to extend 

from Morisset to Bulahdelah 

(Harden 1991). However, it has 

recently been recorded in Booti 

Booti NP. 

This species is the dominant 

ironbark throughout the study 

area. It is found in a variety 

of forest types including 74, 

60, 62, 36, 37 and 46. 

Goodenia fordiana (Goodeniaceae) This ROTAP species (2RC-) is 

distributed from Bulahdelah to 

Coffs Harbour. It grows in dry 

sclerophyll forests on the lower 

escarpment. 


in the study area, and is 

considered to only have a low 

likelihood of occurring. 

5.3.3 Distributional Limits or Restricted Distributions 

A number of species recorded during this survey are also significant due to being at or near 

their distributional limits, a range extension or of restricted distribution. Table 5-3 below 

summarises these species. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 56 

Table 5-3 Other Significant Plant Species 


Cassinia aculeata (Asteraceae) 

Cleistanthus cunninghamii 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

Deyeuxia quadriseta (Poaceae) 

Eucalyptus piperita (Myrtaceae) 

Jagera pseudorhus var. pseudorhus 

f. pseudorhus (Sapindaceae) 

Melaluca armillaris (Myrtaceae) 

Forster is the northern distribution 

limit for this species (Harden 

1992). 

This species was previously 

thought to reach the southern 

limit of its coastal distribution in 

Booti Booti NP (Floyd 1990). 

This grass is considered rare on 

the north coast, with only one 

other record in the area (at Old 

Bar). 

This species reaches its northern 

limit at Old Bar. This species is 

poorly reserved in the northern 

limits of its distribution. 

This species was previously 

thought to occur on as far south 

as Black Head (Floyd 1989). 

However, it has recently been 

recorded in Booti Booti NP. 

Although this species has a range 

which extends into Queensland 

(Harden 1991), it is not known 

from coastal headlands of NSW 

any further north than the Forster 

area 

It was recorded in the Mallee 

(FT225) community in the 


This species was recorded in 

the Myrtle Rainforest (FT23) 

to the south of Pacific Palms, 

representing an extension of 

this species range. 


the Paperbark Swamp (FT 31) 

in the Smiths Lake Area. 

This species was a dominant 

tree in the Smoothbarked 

Apple - Sydney Peppermint - 

Stringybark (FT106) forest 

type. 

It has been recorded in the 

Myrtle Rainforest (FT23) to 

the south of Pacific Palms. 

This represents a range 

extension southwards. 

Recorded as a dominant 

canopy species in the Mallee 

(FT225) community. 

Persoonia katerae (Proteaceae) 

Pisonia umbellifera 

(Nyctaginaceae) 

Prostanthera incana (Lamiaceae) 

Pultenaea blakelyi (Fabaceae) 

This species is endemic to the 

north coast of NSW where it is 

found on coastal sands between 

the Hastings River & Myall 

Lakes (Harden 1991). 

This species is considered to be 

widespread but not common in 

coastal NSW (Harden 1990). 

This species is considered to only 

occur south from Craven, near 

Gloucester (Harden 1990), 

although S. Griffith has recorded 

it in Wang Wauk SF. 

Records of this species and those 

recently recorded from Booti 

This species has been 

recorded in the Blackbutt - 

Bloodwood / Apple (FT41) 

community 


Littoral Rainforest (FT25) in 

the Smiths Lake Area. 


Flooded Gum (FT48) 

community in the area. This 

represents a range extension 

northwards. 


the Blackbutt Dry Forest 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 57 


Booti NP represent a range 

extension northwards from Myall 

Lakes (Harden 1991). 

(FT37), is a dominant 

understorey species in the 

Sydney Pepperming (FT106) 

forest, and is scattered in other 

communities. 

Ripogonum discolor 

(Ripogonaceae) 

Tetraria capillaris (Cyperaceae) 

Tripladenia cunninghamii 

(Uvulariaceae) 

Tylophora paniculata 

(Asclepiadaceae) 

This species reaches its southern 

distribution limit in the Myall 

Lakes area (Harden 1993). 

This species appear to be rare on 

the north coast with only 3 

records for the area lodged at the 

Royal Botanic Gardens. The 

northern limit of this species is at 

Old Bar. 

The distribution of this species 

extends north from the Myall 

Lakes area (Harden 1993). 

This species reaches its southern 

distribution limit at the Williams 

River (Harden 1992). 

Recorded in the Littoral 

Rainforest (FT25) of the study 

area. 


the Melaleuca Swamp Forest 

(FT 31) and the Sydney 

Peppermint (FT 106) 

community in the study area. 


recorded in the Brush Box 

(FT53) community in the 



recorded in a number of moist 

forests including FT23, 48 and 

60. 

5.4 Conservation Values 

5.4.1 Palm (7) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community is present in Booti Booti NP 

(National Park), Broadwater NP & Hat Head NP. The broader Archontophoenix - Livistona 

suballiance of Floyd (1990) is also found in several reserves away from the immediate 

coastline. 

Conservation Significance: Floyd (1990) has assessed the conservation status of this forest 

type as good. However, substantial areas of the community appear to have been cleared in the 

Forster area. 

5.4.2 Myrtle (23) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: The Choricarpia leptopetala suballiance of 

Floyd (1990) extends disjunctly along the north coast of NSW, with limited areas also present 

on the central coast. 

Conservation Significance Floyd (1990) has assessed the conservation status of the 

Choricarpia leptopetala suballiance as adequate across its range, although he recommended 

some form of environmental protection for an occurrence at Blueys Beach. The myrtle forest 

in the study area is most likely part of this occurrence. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 58 

5.4.3 Tuckeroo (24) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: The Cupaniopsis anacardioides suballiance 

of Floyd (1990) extends along the north coast where it is reserved in Bundjalung NP, Yuraygir 

NP, Hat Head NP, Crowdy Bay NP, Myall Lakes NP, Brunswick Heads NR, Broken Head NR, 

Iluka NR, Moonee Beach NR, Bundagen FR, Limeburners Creek NR, Sea Acres NR & 

Kattang NR. Additional areas outside of the reserve system are protected under SEPP 26 - 

Littoral Rainforest. 

Conservation Significance: Floyd (1990) has assessed the conservation status of the suballiance 

as excellent. 

5.4.4 Littoral Rainforest (25) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: Floyd (1990) reports the distribution of this 

forest type as extending from Gap Beach (Hat Head NP) to Myall Lakes, with a less 

representative occurrence also present in Royal NP on the central coast. This forest type is also 

found in Booti Booti NP. 

Conservation Significance: Floyd (1990) has assessed the conservation status of the suballiance 

as good. 

5.4.5 Swamp Mahogany (30) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This vegetation type occurs in Booti Booti 

NP, Broadwater NP, Bundjalung NP, Yuraygir NP, Hat Head NP, Myall Lakes NP 

(Myerscough & Carolin 1986), Moonee Beach NR, Limeburners Creek NR & Lake Innes NR. 

It is also found on areas of crown or freehold land (e.g. Evans Head, the Newrybar sand plain 

near Lennox Head, Frogalla Swamp north of Tuncurry). 

Conservation Significance: Relative to its extent on other tenures in the Forster - Tuncurry area 

(e.g. Frogalla Swamp), this vegetation type may be locally under-represented in existing 

reserves. 

5.4.6 Paperbark (31) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: The community is present in all major coastal 

reserves of northern NSW which sample vegetation on Quaternary sediments. Many additional 

areas outside of the reserve system are designated as coastal wetland under SEPP 14. 

Conservation Significance: Wetland vegetation is generally considered to have high 

conservation value, hence the inclusion of coastal sand & estuarine occurrences of this 

community under SEPP 14. Substantial areas of the community have also been cleared on the 

north coast of NSW. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 59 

5.4.7 Swamp Oak (32) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: The community is found in Booti Booti NP, 

Bundjalung NP, Yuraygir NP, Hat Head NP, Crowdy Bay NP, Ballina NR, Richmond River 

NR, Moonee Beach NR, Limeburners Creek NR, Lake Innes NR, Kattang NR and 

Khappinghat NR (S. Griffith, pers. comm.). Additional areas outside of the reserve system are 

designated as coastal wetland under SEPP 14. 

Conservation Significance: Wetland vegetation is generally considered to have high 

conservation value, hence the inclusion of estuarine occurrences of this community under SEPP 

14. Substantial areas of the community have also been cleared on the north coast of NSW. 

5.4.8 Moist Blackbutt (36) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: The community is found in Booti Booti NP, 

Bundjalung NP, Yuraygir NP, Hat Head NP, Dooragan NP, Crowdy Bay NP and Lake Innes 

NR. It is also present in many state forests, and some NPWS reserves away from the seaboard. 

Conservation Significance: Relative to its occurrence on other tenures, this community appears 

to be of limited extent in coastal reserves of the lower north coast. 

5.4.9 Dry Blackbutt (37) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community occurs in Booti Booti NP, 

Broadwater NP, Bundjalung NP, Yuraygir NP, Hat Head NP, Dooragan NP, Crowdy Bay NP, 

Limeburners Creek NR & Lake Innes NR (Griffith, pers. comm.). 

Conservation Significance: Relative to its extent on other tenures, the community may be 

under-represented in existing reserves on the lower north coast. 

5.4.10 Blackbutt - Bloodwood/Apple (41) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community occurs in Booti Booti NP 

(Griffith et al 1999) and Myall Lakes NP (Myerscough & Carolin 1986). It is not known for 

coastal reserves to the north of Booti Booti NP, although a related Eucalyptus pilularis - 

Angophora costata/E. gummifera/E. planchoniana is found on sand masses in Yuraygir NP and 

Bundjalung NP. 

Conservation Significance: This forest appears to be extensive in Myall Lakes NP 

(Myerscough & Carolin 1986). It is also found in some of the state forests in the area. 

5.4.11 Tallowwood (45) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community is only present in Booti 

Booti NP and Lake Innes NR. However, the equivalent forest type occurs in a number of state 

forests (Forestry Commission of NSW 1989). 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 60 

Conservation Significance: This community is uncommon in coastal reserves of the north 

coast, and the equivalent forest type is considered to have a restricted distribution (Forestry 

Commission of NSW 1989). 

5.4.12 Sydney Blue Gum (46) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community is present only in Lake Innes 

NR, however, it is found in many of the surrounding State Forests. 

Conservation Significance: Relative to its extent on other tenures, this community is underrepresented 

in existing coastal reserves of northern NSW. This community also contains the 

rare ironbark of the area. 

5.4.13 Flooded Gum (48) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community is present in Booti Booti NP, 

Broadwater NP, Bundjalung NP, Crowdy Bay NP, Moonee Beach NR, Limeburners Creek NR 

and Lake Innes NR, although generally as very limited stands. 


in existing coastal reserves of northern NSW. 

5.4.14 Inland Brush Box (53) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community is present in Booti Booti NP, 

Broadwater NP, Bundjalung NP, Yuraygir NP, Hat Head NP, Iluka NR and Lake Innes NR, 

although generally as small stands. 

Conservation Significance: The community is generally of limited extent in existing coastal 

reserves of northern NSW. 

5.4.15 White Mahogany/Red Mahogany/Grey Ironbark/Grey Gum (60) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community only occurs in Bundjalung 

NP, Yuraygir NP and Lake Innes NR. However, it is widespread in many of the State Forests 

in the area. 


in existing coastal reserves of northern NSW. This community also contains the 

rare ironbark. 

5.4.16 Grey Gum/Grey Ironbark/White Mahogany (62) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community is found in Bundjalung NP, 

Yuraygir NP and Lake Innes NR. It also is found in many of the State Forests of the region. 

Conservation Significance: The community is generally of limited extent in existing coastal 

reserves of northern NSW and it contains the rare ironbark. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 61 

5.4.17 Spotted Gum (70) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: Corymbia maculata has a mainly coastal 

distribution which extends south from the Manning River valley (Hill & Johnson 1995). The 

community is found in a number of state forests across this distribution (Forestry Commission 

of NSW 1989) and is also know to occur in Booti Booti NP, Bundjalung NP and Yuraygir NP. 

Conservation Significance: The community appears to be poorly reserved across its range on 

the north coast. 

5.4.18 Spotted Gum - Ironbark/Grey Gum (74) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community is only found in Bundjalung 

NP and Yuraygir NP. However, the distribution of Corymbia maculata is as stated in the 

previous forest type. 

Conservation Significance: The community is poorly reserved across its range on the north 

coast and in the study area is dominated by the rare ironbark. 

5.4.19 Smoothbarked Apple (105) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: Angophora costata is endemic to NSW where 

it has a predominantly coastal distribution south from the Evans River (Bale 1992; Harden 

1991), although with some major range disjunctions on coastal sand masses (e.g. between the 

Hastings & Macleay Rivers). This community is found in Booti Booti NP, Yuraygir NP & 

Crowdy Bay NP. 

Conservation Significance: In view of its limited and rather disjunct distribution in coastal 

situations on the north coast of NSW, this community may require further reservation. It 

appears that the community also has a limited distribution on sandmasses along the central 

coast between Newcastle & Sydney (refer Benson 1986). 


Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: Eucalyptus piperita reaches its northern limit 

at Old Bar. The only conservation reserve this community is found in is Myall Lakes NP. It 

also occurs in some of the State Forests around Bulahdelah. 

Conservation Significance: This community has a very limited distribution in coastal reserves 

in northern New South Wales. This forest type is also of conservation significance in the area 

as it is approaching its northern distributional limit. 

5.4.21 Banksia (107) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community is widespread in coastal 

reserves including Broadwater NP, Bundjalung NP, Crowdy Bay NP, Hat Head NP, Iluka NR, 

Kattang NR, Limeburners Creek NR, Moonee Beach NR, Myall Lakes NP, Richmond River 

NR and Yurraygir NP. 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 62 

Conservation Significance: This community is considered to be adequately reserved on the 

north coast of NSW. 

5.4.22 Introduced Scrub (221) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: This community is widespread in any areas 

that have been subjected to disturbance. 

Conservation Significance: This community has no conservation value. 

5.4.23 Scrub (224) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: Shrubland or forest stands of Leptospermum 

laevigatum occur in Booti Booti NP, Hat Head NP, Crowdy Bay NP, Limeburners Creek NR 

and Kattang NR. 

Conservation Significance: Leptospermum laevigatum reaches its natural northern limit of 

distribution in the Nambucca Heads area (Harden 1991), although it has been planted further 

north following sand mining. Natural stands of L. laevigatum on the lower north coast are at 

risk of displacement by the exotic shrub * Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata, 

however, the majority of the stand in the Smiths Lake Area is free from this weed species. 

5.4.24 Mallee (225) 

Distribution Within Northern New South Wales: The most northern known reservation of this 

community is within Booti Booti NP. South of this area the community is present at Seal 

Rocks (Clough 1979) and is likely to occur in Myall Lakes NP (Myerscough & Carolin 1986, 

as part of a ‘Headland Thicket’ map unit) and Tomaree NP (Benson 1981, as part of ‘closedscrub’ 

map unit). 

Conservation Significance: This community is significant in that it reaches the northern limit 

of its coastal distribution in the Forster area and has limited distribution in conservation 

reserves. 

5.4.25 Disturbed Woodland (DW) and Regrowth (R) 

Conservation Significant: These communities are of limited conservation value due to the 

disturbance in the area. 

5.4.26 Summary 

A summary of the conservation values of the forest types found in the Smiths Lake Area is 

provided in Table 5-2 below and is also displayed on Figure 5.3. This assigns a conservation 

rating of high, medium and low to each vegetation type, based upon distribution and adequacy 

of reservation. However, it should be noted that to assign a three-tiered rating of conservation 

to any area has inherent flaws and cannot adequately represent the complexity of vegetation 

conservation. 

Table 5-2 Vegetation Conservation Values 



A U S T R A L I A

FLORA 63 

Forest 

Type 

Description 

Conservation 

Value 

7 Palm Forest High 

23 Myrtle Rainforest High 

24 Tuckeroo Littoral Rainforest High 

25 Littoral Rainforest High 

30 Swamp Mahogany High 

31 Paperbark High 

32 Swamp Oak High 

36 Moist Blackbutt Medium-High 

37 Dry Blackbutt Medium-High 

41 Blackbutt - Bloodwood/Apple Medium 

45 Tallowwood High 

46 Sydney Blue Gum High 

48 Flooded Gum High 

53 Brush Box Medium-High 

60 White Mahogany - Red Mahogany - Grey Ironbark - Grey Gum Medium-High 

62 Grey Gum - Grey Ironbark - White Mahogany Medium-High 

70 Spotted Gum High 

74 Spotted Gum - Ironbark/Grey Gum High 

105 Smoothbarked Apple High 

106 Smoothbarked Apple - Sydney Peppermint - Stringybark High 

107 Banksia Medium 

221 Introduced Scrub Low 

224 Scrub (Leptospermum laevigatum) High 

225 Mallee (Melaleuca armillaris - Allocasuarina littoralis) High 

DW Disturbed Woodland Low 

R Regrowth Low 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 64 

6 FAUNA 

6.1 Fauna Habitats 

The vegetation communities described in Section 5 form the basis for the classification of the 

Smiths Lake Area into faunal habitats. While the vegetation mapping reflects changes in the 

floristic composition of an area, habitat identification is based upon structural components of 

the vegetation, age class of the vegetation (for example old growth, regrowth), specific habitat 

components (for example free-standing water, caves) and plant species composition. 

Therefore, some habitats are smaller than the vegetation unit, while others will incorporate a 

number of units. Figure 6.1 shows the habitat types and distribution in the study area. 

6.1.1 Rainforest (7, 23, 24 & 25) and Old Growth Rainforest 

Habitat Components: This habitat has a closed canopy with a varying diversity of species. 

There are a few structural layers, with the shrub and herb layers usually dense. Fruit producing 

trees provide good habitat for birds and a foraging resource for arboreal mammals. The herb 

layer provides shelter for terrestrial fauna. Suitable microclimatic conditions occur in this 

habitat to enable foliage-roosting bats to roost in this habitat. High moisture levels would also 

enable amphibians to flourish. Few tree hollows are normally found in this habitat type. 

However, in the old growth sections emergent eucalypts provide a high number of hollows for 

hollow dependant fauna including birds, bats and mammals. 

6.1.2 Mixed Swamp Mahogany (30 & 30/106) and Old Growth 

Habitat Components: This habitat is characterised by an open to closed tree canopy and a 

dense understorey. The winter flowering tree species present in this area are an important food 

source for nectivorous birds and mammals. It is also very important for koalas. Dense ground 

cover and litter, plus available water would provide good habitat for amphibians, reptiles and 

ground mammals. Few to many hollows form in this habitat, depending upon the diversity of 

tree species present. 

6.1.3 Paperbark (31) and Old Growth Paperbark 

Habitat Components: This habitat is characterised by a predominantly closed tree canopy and a 

dense understorey. It has a low species diversity in the canopy, however, the profuse flowering 

paperbarks provide an important foraging source for nectivorous birds and mammals. The area 

also provides a high quality nesting resource for birds. Koalas may forage in this habitat type. 

Dense ground cover and litter, plus available water would provide good habitat for amphibians, 

reptiles and ground mammals. Hollows are not usually found in this community, however, in 

the old growth sections intermittent eucalypts in the area do provide tree hollows for arboreal 

mammals, bats and birds. 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 65 

6.1.4 Swamp Oak (32) 

Habitat Components: This habitat is characterised by a closed tree canopy with a low species 

diversity. The understorey is usually dense, providing good habitat for reptiles and ground 

mammals. Amphibian numbers are usually low due to saline conditions. This area provides a 

high quality nesting area for birds. 

6.1.5 Moist Blackbutt (36) and Old Growth Moist Blackbutt 

Habitat Components: This community has a moderately low canopy diversity, with blackbutt 

dominating the stand. However, a number of other species are also commonly found. Some of 

these species are known koala food trees. The ground cover and shrub layer are usually dense 

and floristically diverse, composed of a variety of rainforest species. Therefore, this forest type 

would provide good quality habitat for terrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. 

Blackbutts are also known to produce good hollows, with moderate numbers of hollows 

observed in many of these areas. High quality habitat is therefore provided for arboreal 

mammals and bats, especially in the old growth sections. 

6.1.6 Dry Blackbutt (37 & 41) and Old Growth Dry Blackbutt 

Habitat Components: This forest type has a low to moderate canopy diversity, with blackbutt 

dominating the stand, with only a few additional species occurring. The shrub layer in the area 

varies from dense to sparse and correspondingly the number of reptiles, terrestrial mammals 

and birds also vary. This habitat usually contains some mature trees with hollows suitable for 

sheltering and nesting of arboreal mammals, birds and bats, with hollow numbers increasing in 

the old growth sections. The lack of available water limits the suitability of this habitat for 

amphibians. 

6.1.7 Mixed Tallowwood (45 & 46) and Old Growth Mixed Tallowwood 

Habitat Components: This habitat consists of a mixed forest canopy usually containing 

tallowwood and a number of other tree species, often including Sydney blue gum. Some 

hollows occur in this habitat, although they are usually not abundant except in the old growth 

sections. The moist understorey conditions and rainforest shrub layer provide high quality 

habitat for amphibians, terrestrial mammals, reptiles and birds. Bats would also forage in this 

community. Koala food trees are common in this community. 

6.1.8 Flooded Gum (48) and Old Growth Flooded Gum 

Habitat Components: This forest type has a low canopy diversity, with often the canopy 

composed of only 1 or 2 species. However, the structural layers of this forest type are well 

developed, with dense shrub layers and usually a dense herb layer. The shrub layer is usually 

composed of rainforest species, which provide a good foraging source for fruit eating birds and 

mammals. This community is predominantly found around flowing creeks or low-lying areas, 

providing good quality habitat for amphibians. Logs and rocks are also a feature normally 

found in this area. Hollow density varies from many to some depending upon human access 

and past logging practices. 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 66 

6.1.9 Brush Box (53) and Old Growth Brush Box 

Habitat Components: This forest type is often found on steeply sloping sheltered slopes and 

has a moderate number of hollows in the canopy, which increase in numbers in the old growth 

areas. The diversity of tree species varies from low to medium. A dense rainforest understorey 

is present, usually with a variety of layers. Ground cover is variable, usually with logs and 

rocks littering the forest floor. Therefore, this habitat would support a diverse number of birds, 

reptiles, amphibians and mammals. 

6.1.10 Mixed Grey Gum (60) and Old Growth Mixed Grey Gum 

Habitat Components: The predominantly closed tree canopy contains few to many trees with 

hollows depending upon the location of the old growth forest. These hollows are suitable for 

sheltering and nesting of arboreal mammals, birds and bats. The canopy has a high species 

diversity with more than 5 species being recorded in the area. This habitat is structurally 

diverse with a well developed shrub and herb layer. The dense shrub layer, sometimes 

containing rainforest species, provides good habitat for a variety of birds. Nectar producing 

shrubs and trees also provide a good foraging resource nectivorous species. The area would be 

utilised by insectivorous bats. Dense ground cover and much debris/leaf litter, makes this good 

habitat for reptiles and ground mammals. The sheltered topographic position of this habitat and 

subsequent moist conditions would also make this habitat suitable for amphibians. 

6.1.11 Mixed Dry Sclerophyll Forest (62) and Old Growth Mixed DSF 

Habitat Components: This forest type has a high canopy diversity with 5 tree species recorded 

in the area. However, the shrub layers and the herb layer are often lacking or very sparse, 

providing minimal habitat for birds and terrestrial mammals. It is predominantly found on 

ridgetops and north-facing slopes. No ponding or flowing water occurs in the area, however 

logs and other ground debris are found in this forest type. Therefore, it would provide 

moderate quality habitat for reptiles, but poor habitat for amphibians. Hollows are usually 

sparsely distributed in this habitat, except in the old growth areas. 

6.1.12 Spotted Gum - Ironbark Forest (70 & 74) 

Habitat Components: This habitat predominantly has a low canopy diversity, with spotted gum 

and ironbark dominating the area. Occasionally, an additional species will also occur. Hollow 

density is also usually low, while the shrub layer is sparse. Therefore, this community would 

not support high numbers of birds or arboreal mammals. The dense herb layer would provide 

good habitat for terrestrial mammals and reptiles. The dry conditions would also preclude 

many amphibian species. 

6.1.13 Smoothbarked Apple (105) and Old Growth Smoothbarked Apple 

Habitat Components: This forest type is structurally simplistic, with a canopy cover, a sparse 

shrub layer and the ground cover. The canopy diversity is low, with usually only 1 or 2 

species. Hollows are frequently found throughout these areas, increasing in numbers in the old 

growth sections. This habitat provides good habitat for hollow dependant fauna. The 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 67 

heathland shrub layer would provide a foraging resource for nectivorous fauna and nesting for 

birds. The dry conditions would limit amphibian numbers, although good quality habitat is 

provided for reptiles and terrestrial mammals. 


Habitat Components: This habitat has a low diversity of canopy species, with usually only 2 or 

3 species occurring. A moderate to high number of hollows occur, providing quality habitat for 

hollow-dependant fauna. The shrub layer usually dense and includes paperbarks, providing 

good quality habitat for birds and nectivorous fauna. High quality amphibian habitat is 

provided with high moisture levels in the area, while reptiles and small mammals are also likely 

to occur in high numbers due to the dense shrub and herb layers. 

6.1.15 Scrub (107, 224 & 225) 

Habitat Components: This habitat is structurally simplistic, with a tall shrub/small tree layer 

dominating the area. Minimal undergrowth occurs beneath this layer. No hollows are present, 

but this habitat is regionally important as a foraging resource for nectivorous birds and bats. 

Reptiles would utilise this area, but the dry conditions and proximity to the coast would make 

this habitat unsuitable for amphibians. Small ground mammals are likely to be sparse in this 

area. 

6.1.16 Regrowth (221 & R) 

Habitat Components: This habitat type is dominated by lantana, with faunal habitat values 

being low due to the structural and floristic simplicity of the area. 

6.1.17 Disturbed Woodland (DW) 

Habitat Components: This forest type is structurally simplistic with usually only one 

distinctive layer, being the ground cover dominated by weeds and grasses. Predominantly no 

shrubs are found in this area, however, tree density varies from a very open woodland to 

scattered individuals.. This habitat would provide shelter and foraging for some small 

mammals, reptiles and seed-eating birds. Dams are often found in this community supporting 

amphibian populations, but, there is usually few rocks or logs on the ground. 

6.2 Fauna Survey 

6.2.1 Methodology 

Based on the identification of fauna habitats in the study, survey sites were selected to identify 

the presence of fauna, with particular emphasis on identifying the presence, or likely presence, 

of threatened fauna in the area. A total of 30 survey sites were identified in the study area, 

sampling the range of habitat types. The location of each survey site is shown on Figure 6.2. 

At each site a comprehensive survey was undertaken involving the following: 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 68 

6.2.1.1 Birds 

Plot style surveys along a 200-300 metre transect were undertaken. This involved sampling at 

50 metre intervals two pre-set transects. At each point for a period of 10 minutes, all bird 

species observed or heard callings within an arbitrary 50 metre radius of the point, are recorded. 

Each site is sampled on two separate occasions, during mornings between the hours of 0700 - 

0900 hours, and evenings between the hours of 1700 - 1900 hours. 

Nocturnal bird census involving listening for calls at night for 30 minutes. Following the 

census period, five minute pre-recorded calls of Powerful, Masked, Eastern Grass and Sooty 

Owls were broadcast through a 13W portable amplifier, with short periods of listening for 

vocal responses from the owls. Subsequent to playback calls, a period of 15 minutes quiet 

listening for vocal responses, and fifteen minutes spotlighting the area is undertaken. 

No playback calls were undertaken on nights with rainfall and/or strong winds, as these 

conditions adversely affect the detectability of all nocturnal bird species. Nocturnal bird 

investigations were conducted within the first four hours following sunset. 

Opportunistic sampling of bird species was also undertaken during other field activities. 

Diurnal searches for whitewash or regurgitation pellets of owls in close proximity to large 

mature trees with abundant hollows was conducted. Stag watching was also conducted beneath 

these trees to observe any owls departing tree hollows at dusk, as well as listening for calls of 

owl species which may be roosting nearby. 

6.2.1.2 Mammals 

Several strategies were adopted in order to determine the presence of threatened mammals. 

i. Koala 

Diurnal searches to determine the presence of Koala including scanning the main trunk and 

outer branches of preferred food trees with binoculars. This is carried out at survey sites with 

suitable habitat. Searches are conducted beneath preferred food trees for scats, and 

examination of the main trunk or bole for distinctive scratch marks to indicate the presence of 

Koalas. Nocturnal investigations include spotlight searches conducted on foot and quiet 

listening for vocalisations. 

ii. 

Possums and Gliders 

Arboreal trapping for possums and gliders was undertaken with Elliott Type B (15 x 16 x 45 

cm) and Type A (8 x 10 x 33 cm) folding aluminium traps mounted on platforms. Five 

arboreal traps in total were mounted on the main bole or trunk approximately 2 metres above 

the ground at each site. This totalled 600 trap nights for the study area. 

Arboreal traps were located at survey sites in close proximity to likely den trees (stages or 

mature trees with hollows) or trees in flower. Each trap was baited with a mixture of peanut 

butter, rolled oats, honey and sesame oil (hence referred to as a peanut butter ball). The trunk 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 69 

of the tree adjacent to the trap was also sprayed with a 50:50 mixture of water and honey to act 

as an attractant. Each trap was checked daily, and re-baited when necessary. 

Spotlighting searches for possums and gliders was conducted at survey sites with suitable forest 

habitat for a period of 2-3 hours per site. These searches were carried out on foot and from a 

vehicle, involving 10-15 minutes of spotlighting, followed by quiet listening in darkness for 

animal movements or vocalisations. Particular attention was paid to trees in flower, as the 

blossom provides a food source. In addition, playback calls of Yellow-bellied Glider and 

Squirrel Glider were broadcast through a portable cassette recorder and 13W amplifier, as these 

species are known to respond to such calls. 

Hair tubes were located on trees adjacent to likely den trees, and baited with a peanut butter 

ball. The trunk adjacent to the trap will be sprayed with a 50:50 mixture of water and honey to 

act as an additional attractant. Five hair tubes were placed at each site and left for a period of 

ten days. 

iii. 

Terrestrial Mammals 

Diurnal ground searches were conducted at survey sites with suitable habitat in order to locate 

indirect evidence of mammal species, such as tracks, scats, scratches and feeding nick marks on 

tree trunks, and ground burrows. 

Trapping for small terrestrial and scansorial (climbing) mammals was undertaken with 8 Elliott 

Type A and 2 Elliott Type B traps baited with a peanut butter at each survey site. Therefore the 

study site was sampled for a total of 1200 trap nights. 

Trapping for larger terrestrial mammals, such as bandicoots and quolls, was undertaken with a 

small cage trap (30 x 30 x 50 cm) at each site. Nine additional fox traps (45 x 45 x 80 cm) 

were also placed throughout the study area. 

At each site, pitfall traps (consisting of plastic conduit 16 cm diameter x 40 cm deep with a drift 

fence 10 metres long and 15 cm high) was set up and baited with a peanut butter ball. Each 

trap was inspected twice daily. 

Scats of small and large mammals, including predators, were collected and submitted to 

Barbara Triggs of Victoria for examination. This technique is useful in determining the 

presence of a species which may not be recorded by other sampling methods, such as quolls. 

6.2.1.3 Reptiles and Amphibians 

Diurnal searches for reptiles and frogs involve searching beneath ground litter, such as sheets of 

iron, fallen timber, leaf litter, decorticating bark, tufts of vegetation, stones, domestic rubbish, 

etc. Frogs are also identified by nocturnal searches and listening for characteristic calls of each 

species. Searches with a head-mounted torch were conducted along any stream banks or ponds 

for calling males. Spotlighting along roads and tracks was also undertaken by motor vehicle 

whilst travelling between survey sites. A minimum of one hour of reptile searches and one 

hour of amphibian searches was undertaken at each survey site. 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 70 

6.2.1.4 Bats 

Pitfall trapping is also undertaken to capture small reptiles and amphibian species, methodology 

as discussed previously. 

At each site a harp trap was set up in a suitable flyway to capture bats. These traps were 

checked each morning, with the bats identified and then released. The position of the trap was 

changed after the first two nights and set up in another suitable flyway to assist in the detection 

of different bat species. 

An ultrasonic bat recorder was also be utilised throughout the study area. Recordings were 

undertaken for approximately 30 minutes at each site, with the detector moved continuously. 

Recordings made was then analyised using the anabat computer program. 

6.2.2 Weather Conditions 

Four weeks of fauna survey work was undertaken in the study area involving two or three 

people. Surveying occurred in 1998 from the 25 October to the 7 November, 22 to 28 

November and from 6 to 12 December. The weather conditions for these survey periods are 

outlined below: 

Week 1 (25-31/10/98) - One day of rainy conditions, with the rest of the week being fine 

weather. One night of high winds experienced. Temperature range from 15-27°C. 

Week 2 (1-7/11/98) - Cloud cover experienced for three days/four nights. Rain showers 

occurred over two days. Two nights of windy conditions. Temperature range from 14-23°C 

Week 3 (22-28/11/98) - Rain, with dense cloud cover most of the week. Very windy 

conditions experienced on two nights. Temperature range from 16-24°C. 

Week 4 (6-12/12/98) - Rain and cloud cover occurred for two days. Mostly calm weather with 

small periods of gusty winds. Temperature range from 16-27°C. 

6.2.3 Results of Fauna Survey 

A large variety of species were recorded in the study area. All fauna recorded in the study site 

is outlined in Table 6-1 below. space. 

Table 6-1 Fauna Recorded in the Area 

Common Name Scientific Name Survey Habitat Type 

Method 

Mammals 

T koala Phascolarctos cinereus Sp, Sc 30, 37, 60 

T Squirrel Glider Petaurus nofolcensis Sp, AC 37, 48, 60 

T Ruffous Bettong Aepyprymnus rufescens Sp, HT 60 

T Long-nosed Potoroo Perameles nasuta Tr 23, 37, 60 

T Yellow-bellied Glider Petaurus australis Sp, AC 36,37,48,62 

T Eastern Chestnut Mouse Psuedomys gracilicaudatus Tr, HT 31, 60 

Sugar Glider Petaurus breviceps Sp 37,46,60 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 71 


Method 

Brown Antechinus Antechinus stuartii Tr 37,60,62 

Northern Brown Bandicoot Isoodon macrourus Tr All 

Echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus Ob 37,60 

Swamp Rat Rattus leutreolus Tr 30, 31, 48 

Bush Rat Rattus fuscipes Tr All 

Red-necked Pademelon Thylogale thetis Sp 30,106 

Red-necked Wallaby Macropus rufogriseus Sp, Sc All 

Eastern Grey Kangaroo Macropus giganteus Sp, Sc 37, 60, 62 

Swamp Wallaby Wallabia bicolor Sp 30,31,48,53 

Common Ringtail Possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus Sp Rf, 

Common Brushtail Possum Trichosuerus volpecula Sp, Sc 36,37,45,48,53,60,62,106 

Eastern Pygmy Possum Cercartetus nanus AE 36,53 

Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus Sp, AC 31,37,45,48,60 

T Little Bent-wing Bat Miniopterus australis H, E 37,45,53,60,106 

T Large Bent-wing Bat Miniopterus schreibersii H, E 37,45,53,60 

T Greater Broad-nosed Bat Scoteanax rueppellii E Rf, 45,48 

T Hoary Bat Chalinolobus nigrogriseus H 62 

T Golden-tipped Bat Kerivoula papuensis H 37 

Goulds Wattle Bats Chalinolobus gouldii H, E 60 

Chocolate Wattle Bat Chalinolobus morio E 48,60 

Little Free-tail Bat Mormopterus loriae E 37 

Little Forest Bats Vespadelus vulturnus H, E All 

Eastern Forest Bat Vespadelus pumilus E 23,45,53,60 

Southern Forest Bat Vespadelus regulus H, E All 

Eastern Broad-nosed Bat Scotorepens orion E 37,62,105 

Goulds Long-eared Bat Nyctophilus gouldii E 36,48,60 

Lesser Long-eared Bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi H 31,48,106 

White-striped Mastiff Bat Tadarida australis E 60 

*Black Rat Rattus rattus Tr 37,48,60,62 

*House Mouse Mus musculus Tr 36,37 

Reptiles 

Green Tree Snake Denrelaphis punctulata Ob Rf,48 

Marsh Snake Hemiaspis signata Ob 30,31,32 

Carpet Python Morelia spilota Ob Rf,60 

Red-bellied Black Snake Pseudechis porphyriacus Ob 37,60 

Small-eyed Snake Cryptophis nigrescens Ob 62 

Yellow-faced Whip Snake Cacophis squamulosus Ob 106 

Eastern Water Dragon Physignathus lesueurii Ob 37,48,60 

Lace Monitor Varanus varius Ob 37,105 

Grass Skink Lampropholis delicata Ob. All 

Skink Calyptotus ruficauda Ob 37 

Eastern Water Skink Eulamprus qyoyii Ob 37,48,53,60 

Blue-tongued Lizard Tiliqua scincoides Ob 36,37 

Common Scaly-foot Pygopus lepidopodus Ob 60 

Amphibians 

Tusked Frog Adolotus brevis AC Near Water 

Whirring Tree Frog Litoria verreauxii Ob, AC Near Water 

Peron’s Tree Fog Litoria peronii AC Near Water 

Tyler’s Tree Frog Litoria tylerii AC Near Water 

Common Eastern Froglet Crinia signifera AC Near Water 

Eastern Dwarf Tree Frog Litoria fallax Ob Near Water 

Leaf Green Tree Frog Litoria phylochroa AC Near Water 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 72 


Method 

Bleating Tree Frog Litoria dentata AC Near Water 

Freycineti’s Frog Litoria freycineti Ob Near Water 

Broad-palmed Frog Litoria latopalmata Ob Near Water 

Rocket Frog Litoria nasuta Ob Near Water 

Brown Toadlet Pseudophryne bibroni AC, C Near Water 

Red-backed Toadlet Pseudophryne coriacea Ob, AC Near Water 

Striped Marsh Frog Lymnodynastes peroni Ob, AC Near Water 

Birds 

White-bellied Sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster Ob Many 

Whistling Kite Haliastur sphenurus Ob, AC Many 

Brown Goshawk Accipiter fasciatus Ob Many 

Australian Kestrel Falco cenchroides Ob Many 

Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis Ob 60 

Brown Quail Corturnix australis Ob 37 

Peaceful Dove Geopelia cuneata Ob Many 

Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica Ob Rf 

White-headed Pigeon Columba leucomela Ob Many 

Crested Pigeon Ocyphaps lophotes Ob Many 

Brown Cuckoo-dove Macropygia amboinensis Ob Many 

Wonga Pigeon Leucosarcia melanoleuca Ob Many 

T Wompoo Fruit-Dove Ptilinopus magnificus Ob 23 

Galah Cacatua roseicapilla Ob Many 

Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo Calyptorhynchus funereus Ob, AC Many 

Rainbow Lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus AC Many 

Scaley-breasted Lorikeet Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus Ob, Ac Many 

Little Lorikeet Glossopsitta pusilla Ob Many 

Eastern Rosella Platycercus eximius Ob, AC Many 

King Parrot Alisterus scapularis AE Many 

Common Koel Eudynamys scolapacea AC Many 

Phseasant Coucal Centropus phasianinus Ob Many 

Southern Boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae AC Many 

Barking Owl Ninox connivens AC Many 

T Masked Owl Tyto novaehollandiae Ob, AC 37, 45, 46, 48, 60 

Tawny Frogmouth Podargus strigoides Ob, AC Many 

Australian Owlet Nightjar Aegotheles cristatus AC Many 

White-throated Nightjar Caprimulgus mysticalis AC Many 

Australian Kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae Ob, AC Many 

Forest Kingfisher Halycon macleayi Ob Many 

Sacred Kingfisher Halycon sancta Ob Many 

Noisy Pitta Pitta versicolor AC Rf 

Welcome Swallow Hirundo neaxena Ob Many 

Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike Coracina nobaehollandiae Ob Many 

Cicarda bird Coracina tenuirostris AC Many 

Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis Ob Many 

Rose Robin Petroica phoenica Ob Many 

Jacky Winter Microeca leicophaea Ob Many 

Golden Whistler Pachycephala pectoralis Ob Many 

Rufous Whistler Pachycephala rufiventris Ob, AC Many 

Grey Shrike-thrush Colluricincia harmonica Ob Many 

Restless Flycatcher Myiagra inquieta Ob Many 

Rufous Fantail Rhipidura rufifrons Ob Many 

Grey Fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa Ob Many 

Willy Wagtail Rhipidura leucophrys Ob Many 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 73 


Method 

Logrunner Orthonyx temminckii Ob Many 

Eastern Whipbird Psophodes olivaceus AC Many 

Superb Blue Wren Malurus cyaneus Ob Many 

Variegated Wren Malurus assimilis Ob Many 

White-throated Gerygone Gerygone olivacea Ob Many 

Brown Gerygone Gerygone mouki Ob Many 

Striated Thornbill Acanthiza lineata Ob Many 

Buff-rumped Thornbill Acanthiza reguloides Ob Many 

Brown Thornbill Acanthiza pusilla Ob Many 

Varied Sitella Daphoenositta chrysoptera Ob Many 

White-throated Treecreeper Cormobates leucophaea Ob Many 

Brown Treecreeper Acanthiza pusilla Ob Many 

Little Wattlebird Anthochaera chrysoptera Ob Many 

Noisy Friarbird Philemon corniculatus AC Many 

Noisy Miner Manorina melanocephala Ob, AC Many 

Scarlet Honeyeater Myzomela obscura Ob Many 

White-eared Honeyeater Lichenostormus leucotis Ob Many 

New Holland Honeyeater Phylidonyris albifrons Ob Many 

Lewin’s Honeyeater Meliphaga lewinii Ob, AC Many 

White-cheeked Honeyeater Phylidonyris nigra Ob Many 

Eastern Spinebill Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris Ob Many 

Spotted Pardalote Pardalotus punctatus Ob Many 

Striated Pardalote Pardalotus stiatus Ob Many 

Silvereye Zosterops lateralis Ob Many 

Red-browed Finch Neochmia temporalis Ob Many 

Olive-backed Oriole Oriolus sagittatus Ob Many 

Figbird Sphecotheres viridis Ob Many 

Satin Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus violaceus Ob Many 

Green Catbird Ailureodus crassirostris Ob, AC Rf 

White-browed Scrubwren Sericornis frontalis Ob Many 

White-winged Chough Corcorax melanorhamphus Ob Many 

Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca Ob Many 

Masked Lapwing Ob Many 

Spotted Pardalote Pardalotus punctatus Ob Many 

Grey Butcherbird Cracticus torquatus Ob, AC Many 

Pied Butcherbird Cracticus nigrogularis Ob, AC Many 

Pied Currawong Strepera graculina Ob Many 

Torrisian Crow Corvus coronoides Ob Many 

Australian Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen Ob, AC Many 

Australian Raven Corvus coronoides Ob, AC Many 

NOTE: AC = Audible Call Tr = Trapped Sp = Spotlight 

HT = Hairtube Analysis Sc = Scat Analysis Ob = Observed 

C = Captured AE = Anecdotal Evidence T = Threatened Species 

6.2.4 Threatened Species 

A total of thirteen threatened species were recorded in the study area. These were the Koala, 

Yellow-bellied Glider, Squirrel Glider, Eastern Chestnut Mouse, Long-nosed Potoroo, Rufour 

Bettong, Little Bent-wing Bat, Large Bent-wing Bat, Greater Broad-nosed Bat, Hoary Bat, 

Golden-tipped Bat, Masked Owl and Wompoo Fruit-dove. An additional nine threatened 

species have previously been recorded in the locality and have a high likelihood of occurring in 

the study area. These species are the Tiger Quoll, Wallum Froglet, Powerful Owl, Regent 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 74 

Honeyeater, Osprey, Glossy Black Cockatoo, Stephen’s Banded Snake, Square-tailed Kite and 

Turquoise Parrot. 

6.3 Fauna Conservation Values 

The results obtained from the fauna surveys were combined with the intrinsic habitat values of 

the faunal habitats outlined in Section 6.1. The results were utilised to assign a conservation 

value to each habitat type, as outlined in Table 6-2 below. 

Table 6-2 Fauna Habitat Conservation Values 

Forest Type Description Conservation 

Value 

7, 23, 24, 25 Rainforest High 

30 Swamp Mahogany High 

30 Swamp Mahogany Old Growth High 

31 Paperbark Medium-High 

31 Paperbark Old Growth High 

32 Swamp Oak Low-Medium 

36 Moist Blackbutt Medium-High 

36 Moist Blackbutt Old Growth High 

37,41 Dry Blackbutt Medium-High 

37,41 Dry Blackbutt Old Growth High 

45, 46 Mixed Tallowwood High 

45, 46 Mixed Tallowwood Old Growth High 

48 Flooded Gum High 

48 Flooded Gum Old Growth High 

53 Brush Box Medium-High 

53 Brush Box Old Growth High 

60 Mixed Grey Gum High 

60 Mixed Grey Gum Old Growth High 

62 Mixed Dry Sclerophyll Medium 

62 Mixed Dry Sclerophyll Old Growth High 

70, 74 Spotted Gum - Ironbark/Grey Gum Low-Medium 

105 Smoothbarked Apple Medium 

105 Smoothbarked Apple Old Growth High 

106 Smoothbarked Apple - Sydney Peppermint - Stringybark High 

107,224 225 Scrub Low 

221, R Regrowth Low 

DW Disturbed Woodland Low 

6.4 Habitat Ranking 


The habitat ranking system utilised for this project was undertaken to assess the relative values 

of the habitat within the study area. It is based upon an assessment of eight factors for each 

mapped vegetation unit. Each factor was assigned a numerical value generally between 0 and 

3, except in the case of disturbance which is assigned a negative rating. Each of these factors is 

explained below. The first three relate to the individual vegetation unit, while the remaining 

five relate to its value within a vegetation complex. 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 75 

6.4.1.1 Community Habitat Components 

This factor is based upon the assessment of the habitat values of each forest type outlined in the 

previous table. The features examined included structural components, floristic diversity, the 

presence of hollows, presence of logs or rocks, available water and any other noteworthy 

features. Each of the forest types have been ranked as high, medium or low quality habitats (or 

combination) and assigned a numerical value of between 3 and 1. A value of 3 relates to high 

quality habitat and 1 low quality habitat. 

6.4.1.2 Conservation Value 

This factor relates to the forest type and its conservation value in the region. This is based upon 

distributional abundance, the adequacy or otherwise of its conservation in reserves and 

National Parks and the likely presence of threatened species. Values are assigned in a similar 

manner to the habitat values with a value of 3 representing a high conservation value and 1 

representing a low conservation value. This has already been assessed in the previous chapter. 

6.4.1.3 Disturbance 

The majority of vegetation communities in the study area have had some disturbance to them to 

varying degrees, either through fire, logging, grazing, underscrubbing, tracks / fences, weed 

invasion or mining. Disturbance is also often a transitory state, with the vegetation community 

commonly recovering once the disturbance is halted. Any areas that were in a disturbed state so 

as to affect their fauna values were assigned a negative rating of -1. All other areas were given 

a value of 0 for disturbance. 

6.4.1.4 Habitat Node 

This factor relates to whether the individual vegetation unit is part of a larger habitat node, 

which will influence the value of the area for fauna. The larger the vegetated area usually the 

higher the diversity of fauna it can support. In this way if the unit is part of a vegetated area 

which is less than 1 km² it was given a habitat node value of 0. If the area forms a vegetated 

patch between 1-5 km² it was assigned a value of 1; between 5-10 km² it was assigned a value 

of 2; while if the area is greater than 10 km² it was given a rating of 3. 

6.4.1.5 Corridor Potential 

The corridor potential of a vegetation unit was also assessed. Vegetated corridors were 

identified between the core areas, such as the State Forest, Booti Booti National Park. Units 

forming a more or less continuous corridor were assigned a value of 3. Units not forming a 

continuous corridor, but occurring in an identified corridor band were given a value of 2, while 

isolated units or units outside the identified corridors were given 1 point. 

6.4.1.6 Proximity to Other Vegetation Units 

This factor relates to the isolation of vegetation units and therefore their value to fauna. If a 

vegetation unit is less than 50 metres from another unit, then it is assigned a rating of 3. If it is 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 76 

between 50 and 250 metres it was given a value of 2. If it is between 250 and 500 metres from 

another unit then it was only given a value of 1, while if it is greater than 500 metres it was 

given a rating of 0. 

6.4.1.7 Local Area Biodiversity 

This factor relates to the variability of vegetation units within 1 km². This is based upon the 

higher the diversity of vegetation types in an area, the higher the faunal habitat values. 1 km² 

was chosen as it would encompass the home ranges of the majority of sedentary fauna species 

which require a range of vegetation types within close proximity. A value of 3 for local 

biodiversity is applied to areas that have greater than 5 different forest types within 1 km². A 

value of 2 was given to units that have between 3 and 5 different types within the 1 km², while 

a value of 1 was applied to areas with less than 3 different communities. 

6.4.1.8 Known Presence of Threatened Species 

This factor varies in value with the records of threatened species. A vegetation unit that has 

one or more records of a threatened species within a 1 km radius was given a value of 1 for 

each threatened species. All other units were given 0. 

6.4.1.9 Summary of Ranking Methodology 

The eight factors utilised to determine habitat values of the vegetation units and their relative 

numerical ranking is summaries in Table 6-3 below: 

Table 6-3 Ranking Methodology Summary 

Value Factor 1 2 3 

Habitat Value Low Medium High 

Conservation Value Low Medium High 

Disturbance Present (-1) Absent (0) 

Habitat Node >10 

km² 

500m=0) 

250-500m 50-250 m

FAUNA 77 

6.4.2 Problems with the Methodology 

While the methodology outlined above attempted to provide a comprehensive assessment of all 

factors, the variability of the natural environment and its relative value for fauna is difficult to 

quantify. The ecosystem is designed to function as a whole with many faunal groups requiring 

a range of habitat types within a given area to meet their foraging and sheltering requirements. 

Other fauna species have highly specialised requirements and are dependant upon a particular 

shrub/tree or microclimatic condition of a habitat for their survival. Therefore, any one 

vegetation area will provide high quality habitat for some species and poor quality habitat for 

others. This includes both highly disturbed or cleared areas and pristine rainforest. 

In addition, assessment of any areas relative habitat value is subjective and based upon limited 

human perceptions of the environment. While the above methodology attempted to minimise 

individual human subjectivity, the assignment of numerical values and their relative weighting 

is initially subjective, despite being based on known ecological principals. Therefore, while the 

system is based upon a numerical ranking, the habitat map produced does not show individual 

numbers, but has divided the area into high, medium and low quality habitat as outlined below. 

6.5 Habitat Conservation Mapping 

The habitat conservation values are shown in Figure 6.3. This mapping while based upon the 

numerical ranking system outlined above, does not show individual numbers for each unit. 

This was undertaken to minimise the subjectivity of the viewers individual interpretation of the 

relative weighting of each of the figures. A typical human response would be to assume that an 

area with a value of 18 is twice as good habitat as an area with a 9 ranking, three times as good 

as a 6, etc. However, this purely mathematical approach does not adequately represent the 

complexity of the natural environment. 

Therefore, the individual numbers, ranging from 3 to 19, were assigned to one of three classes: 

low, medium or high values. Units having a value of less than 8 were assigned a low habitat 

value. Medium values were given to areas with a rating of between 9 and 14, while high 

quality habitat was assigned to any area with a rating of 15 or greater. Therefore, the two lower 

habitat values have 6 individual numbers and the high habitat only has 5. However, some of 

the individual habitat and conservation values have been assigned ½ a mark. Therefore, if a 

unit was found to equal 14½ it was also given a high rating. 

6.6 Ecological Development Constraints 

6.6.1 Constraints Map 

A number of ecological constraints to development occur in the Smiths Lake Area. Three 

threatened plant species were found in the area, Melaleuca biconvexa, Cynanchum elegans and 

Eucalyptus fergusonii spp fergusonii. The first two of these species have highly specialised 

habitat requirements and occur in fairly small restricted areas. Therefore, development of these 

areas would result in the extinction of a local population of a threatened species and hence 

should not be undertaken. These areas have been classified as highly constrained for 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 78 

development. The distribution of the rare ironbark is more widespread in the area and it is 

therefore more difficult to exclude from development all communities containing this species. 

A number of vegetation communities were also identified as being of high conservation value 

for a variety of reasons. Thirteen threatened fauna species were also recorded in the Smiths 

Lake Area. 

To determine the development constraints of the study area, the conservation map for flora was 

overlain with the conservation map for fauna. As mentioned in the previous paragraph the 

areas containing the localised threatened plant species were classified as highly constrained 

areas. In addition, areas that were identified as being high conservation for both flora and 

fauna, or high conservation for fauna and medium or medium-high conservation for flora were 

also classified as highly constrained areas. 

Areas of medium or low conservation significance for fauna and high or medium-high 

conservation significance for flora were classified as moderately constrained. In addition, areas 

of high fauna conservation and low flora conservation were also classified as moderately 

constrained. All other areas (ie low conservation for both fauna and flora or low for flora and 

medium for fauna) were identified as having few constraints for development. The distribution 

of these development constraint categories in the study area is shown in Figure 6.4. 

6.6.2 Other Considerations 

The map of development constraints provides broad guidelines for development. Development 

of areas that are highly constrained would have a significant impact upon local populations of 

threatened species and is likely to result in local extinctions. Development of moderately 

constrained land may also result in a significant impact to threatened populations. However, the 

impact to populations would not be as great as the previous category. While the fauna trapping 

undertaken was comprehensive, there is still areas that were not targeted with surveys. Areas 

of moderately constrained land may in fact be more constrained if additional surveys were 

undertaken in these areas and threatened species detected. 

While a diverse range of threatened fauna species were recorded in Smiths Lake Village, a 

number of residents have noted a decline in the distribution of some species, especially the 

koala. Therefore, it would appear that while the habitat in the area currently supports viable 

populations of threatened species, any more loss of habitat is likely to result in local extinctions 

in the Smiths Lake Village Area. However, it is also possible that some populations in the 

Village are already headed towards extinction due to the loss of habitat, presence of domestic 

pets and mortality through collisions with vehicles. This is especially the case in the more 

isolated areas of the village towards the south-eastern corner. Any developments in this area 

would require an SIS to be undertaken as local extinctions are likely to result. 

Development of areas that have few constraints on them would have very minimal impact on 

any threatened population in the study area. 



A U S T R A L I A

FAUNA 79 

6.6.3 Development of Medium and High Conservation Value Land 

Land with existing development entitlements conferred by registered subdivision plans and 

residential zones is located within areas of medium and high conservation value in the Smiths 

Lake Village Area. Under current legislation, development consent would be needed to 

construct dwellings on these lots. 

Generally, consideration of impacts on threatened species would not be undertaken for 

residential scale development. However, given the importance of medium and high 

conservation land in the Smiths Lake Village Area, Council may need to consider such impacts 

due to the adverse cumulative effects of small scale clearing over extensive areas. 

Council may wish to consider a more holistic approach than that which would occur if each 

application that included clearing within a residential lot were considered in isolation. For 

example, the formulation of a conservation and development strategy for the Smiths Lake 

Village Area, based on stakeholder involvement of Council, land owners, residents of Smiths 

Lake Village and public authorities, could be pursued separately from this study. It would assist 

land owners and the community to understand the difficulties that may arise with extensive 

clearing, ensure that a consistent and fair approach was adopted by Council in considering 

applications for residential development, and provide greater certainty to land owners of future 

development entitlements. 



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WATER QUALITY SENSITIVITY MAPPING 80 

7 WATER QUALITY SENSITIVITY MAPPING 


This component of the study, which is closely related to the stormwater management 

assessments presented in Section 4, is intended to classify land areas of the SLA and SLVA 

according to their importance for maintenance of water quality within Smiths and Wallis Lakes. 

In fact, what has been done is somewhat different to this specific wording requirement of the 

study brief, with WBM Oceanics Australia having identified land areas with potential to 

seriously affect water quality in Wallis and Smiths Lakes. By inference, an area which could 

seriously affect receiving water quality can be defined as land with considerable importance for 

maintenance of water quality. 

The approach taken by the study in regard to the above is summarised below: 

• conduct a thorough site inspection of the catchment and receiving waters; 

• collate and review all relevant catchment and receiving water quality data; 

• develop a set of categories and criteria to enable the assessment of the potential impacts of 

particular areas of the SLA and SLVA on receiving water quality; and 

• use the categories/criteria and relevant GIS analytical techniques to map the SLA and 

SLVA with respect to potential for degrading receiving water quality. 

The last component of the above study approach subsequently comprised the key ‘start’ point 

for study stormwater management assessments discussed in Section 4. 

7.2 Receiving Water Description 

Data on the quality of waters present in Wallis and Smiths Lakes were available to WBM 

Oceanics Australia from Estuary Processes Studies of these two waterways conducted by Webb 

McKeown and Associates for Great Lakes Council. A final copy of the Smiths Lake Estuary 

Processes Study was made available to WBM Oceanics Australia, while relevant water and 

sediment quality data for the as yet incomplete Wallis Lake study were provided by Webb 

McKeown/Marine Pollution Research to WBM Oceanics Australia. Based on these data, and 

field observations made by WBM Oceanics Australia staff, the following generic comments 

can be made: 

7.2.1 Smiths Lake 

• water and sediment quality levels are close to pristine (ie. resembling that of an undisturbed 

catchment); 

• water quality levels generally comply with protection of aquatic ecosystems and primary 

contact recreation water quality guidelines; 

• the lake limnological and water quality state would appear to be prone to potential rapid 

degradation due to increased catchment loads as: 



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◊ 

◊ 

retention times in the system are lengthy; and 

slight increases in sediment nutrient reserves (due to deposition of runoff related 

inputs) combined with occasional lake stratification could rapidly lead to 

worsening in lake water quality via the initiation of enhanced sediment nutrient 

release processes. 

• lake bacteriological levels appear to increase under wet weather conditions. 

7.2.2 Wallis Lake 

• Data collected by Webb McKeown and supplied to WBM Oceanics Australia was 

completely inadequate to develop any significant understanding of water quality in the 

southern extent of Wallis Lake. Only three ambient/sites were located in the lake (sites L4, 

L5 and L6). For these sites: 

◊ 

◊ 

no chemical data at all appears to have been collected at site L6 

site L4 had one survey/set of analyses for NO x and PO 4 , 3 surveys for faecal 

coliforms and 4 surveys for chlorophyll a. 

◊ site L5 had one survey/set of analyses for NO x and PO 4 . 

This lack of data was reported (Paul Anink, pers comm) to be due to decisions made during 

the study to focus limited analytical resources elsewhere in the estuary. 

• Webb McKeown included one sampling and analysis site in Wallis Creek (site C5) for 

which four (4) dry weather surveys and laboratory constituent analyses were performed. 

These data (Paul Anink, pers comm) are generally representative of water quality in 

southern Wallis Lake. No wet weather data was collected from this site. 

• The above data set is presented in Table 7.1 

Table 7-1 Southern Wallis Lake Water Quality Data 

Site Date NO x 

(mg/L) 

PO 4 

(mg/L) 

TN 

(mg/L) 

TP 

(mg/L) 

NH 3 

(mg/L) 

TSS 

(mg/L) 

FC 

(cfu/100mL) 

Chl a 

(µg/L) 

L4 10/8/97


• From these data, it would appear that: 

◊ 

◊ 

◊ 

◊ 

average total nitrogen (0.53mg/L) levels are high; 

average total phosphorus (0.03mg/L) levels are elevated; 

waters are moderately productive, as evidenced by an average chlorophyll a 

level of 4µg/L; and 

bacterial and suspended solids levels are low. 

• With respect to physical water quality in southern Wallis Lake, data collected by Webb 

McKeown (Paul Anink, pers comm) indicated shallow, well mixed, well oxygenated, 

estuarine conditions prevail in the area. 

7.2.3 Summary 

Based on the reasonable data set for Smiths Lake, and the extremely limited Wallis Lake 

information, the following summary comments can be made with respect to receiving water 

quality levels in the study area: 

• Smiths Lake is a near pristine, oligotrophic (mean chlorophyll a 1.2µg/L) lake exhibiting 

high levels of water quality. Lake stratification does occur, and this, combined with the 

poorly flushed nature of the lake and it’s potential for nutrient accumulation require high 

levels of protection to prevent water quality and ecological deterioration. 

• Wallis Lake water quality is considerably more degraded than Smiths Lake. Nutrient levels 

appear to be significantly higher than those in Smiths Lake (average Total N of 0.53mg/L in 

Wallis Lake compared to 0.28mg/L in Smiths Lake, Total P of 0.03mg/L compared to 

0.01mg/L in Smiths Lake). Primary productivity rates are commensurately higher, as 

evidenced by typical Wallis Lake chlorophyll a levels of 3.0µg/L and Smiths Lake 

chlorophyll a levels of 1.2µg/L. 

Regardless of the above differences in ambient water quality levels, in terms of sensitivity for 

maintenance of water quality, this study sees no reason to discriminate between areas draining 

to Wallis or Smiths Lakes. It could be argued that Smiths Lake water quality is ‘further’ from 

relevant water quality criteria than is the case for Wallis Lake, and hence has a greater 

assimilative capacity for increased catchment loads. It is the opinion of WBM Oceanics 

Australia however, that Smiths Lake is also more susceptible to significant water quality and 

environmental degradation if changes occur in catchment loads. This is due to the sporadic 

nature of tidal exchange and the observed occasional water column stratification within the 

lake. 

Given the above, and the fact that Wallis Lake nutrient levels are likely to already exceed 

ANZECC criteria for the protection of aquatic ecosystems, this study believes that each 

receiving waterbody should be treated identically with respect to water quality sensitivity, and 

that any future catchment development (see Section 4 for further discussion) should aim to 

achieve a ‘no-worsening’ criteria with respect to pollutant export into the lakes. 



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7.3 Sensitivity Analysis Methodology 

7.3.1 Preamble 

In order to derive relevant receiving water quality impact sensitivity maps, a logical process 

was developed which had the following key steps: 

• firstly, a number of key parameters which were considered relevant to potential receiving 

water quality impact were identified; 

• relevant numerical ranges (eg. slopes > 20%) of these parameters were then identified, and 

maps of the relevant parameter ranges prepared; and 

• finally, a methodology was developed to combine the respective parameters to produce a 

receiving water quality impact ‘score’ for each area of land within the SLA and SLVA. The 

magnitude of the resulting ‘score’ used to define the high, moderate or low receiving water 

quality impact (or level of sensitivity for maintenance of water quality) designation required 

in the study brief. 

The results of this analysis methodology are presented below. 

7.3.2 Key Sensitivity Parameters 

Water quality and catchment management specialists of the study team identified the following 

as key parameters relating to the potential receiving water quality impact of the SLA and 

SLVA. 

• land slope - the steeper the slope, the greater the potential for erosion and hence water 

quality impact, especially in the event of any construction; 

• tributary and waterway proximity (or buffer width) - the closer a site is to Wallis and Smiths 

Lake and major tributaries thereof, the greater the potential for water quality effect; 

• soil type - the finer the soil the greater the potential effect; 

• presence of a reticulated sewerage system - if an area is sewered, there is less potential for 

development related receiving water impact; and 

• existing vegetation - if an area is presently heavily vegetated, there is greater sensitivity of 

receiving water quality impact than if it has already been cleared. 

7.3.3 Parameter Mapping 

Figures 7.1 to 7.5 illustrate the relevant mapping conducted by WBM Oceanics Australia of 

each of the previously sensitivity parameters. For each parameter, a series of ‘ranges’ was 

adopted on the basis of experience and a brief literature/Internet search, as follows: 

• land slope 40% 

• tributary and waterway proximity >100m, 30-100m,


• sewerage 

• existing vegetation 

yes, no 

cleared, uncleared/natural 

7.3.4 Parameter Combination and Sensitivity Designation 

Having defined relevant parameters, and ranges for each parameter, the next step in the study 

was to assign a ‘score’ to each range of each parameter, add the ‘scores’ for each parcel of 

study area within a GIS framework, and finally correlate the total ‘score’ for each parcel of the 

study area with designated values for high, medium and low water quality sensitivity. Equal 

weighting was given to each parameter as no rationale could be identified to do otherwise. 

The ‘scoring’ system that was developed for each range of each parameter was as follows: 

Parameter 

Slope Range 40% 

Score 0 1 2 4 5 

Waterway Range >100m 30 - 100m


7.4 Sensitivity Mapping 

Figure 7-6 presents the derived map of areas of the SLA and SLVA with low, moderate and 

high sensitivities for maintenance of water quality. Based on this mapping, 66% of the SLA is 

classed as having a high sensitivity for maintenance of water quality, and 32% having a 

moderate sensivitivity for maintenance of water quality. For the SLVA, 58% is classed as 

having high sensitivity for maintenance of water quality, and 39% is classed as having 

moderate sensitivity for maintenance of water quality. 



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VISUAL AND SCENIC QUALITY 86 

8 VISUAL AND SCENIC QUALITY 

8.1 Landscape Character & Elements 

Three general categories describe landscape character in the study area: urban, rural, and 

natural. They are each composed of finer elements that are based on landform, visibility, 

prominence and modification. Essentially, all areas are natural environments unless or until 

they are modified. 

Prominence means the degree to which an element can be viewed from different viewpoints 

and distances. Visibility means the degree to which a viewer can perceive elements in their view 

shed. 

8.1.1 Urban Elements 

There are five elements that contribute to urban character in the study area: 

• sealed roads, with or without curb, gutter or footpaths; 

• houses, commercial or community structures and facilities without substantial separation 

distances; 

• formal landscaping around houses; 

• utility services; 

• vehicles, parked in driveways or on the road. 

Urban elements cause the greatest modification to the natural environment. Urban elements 

may have varying degrees of visibility, depending on landform and intervening vegetation. 

However, they are generally prominent within the view shed. 

Prominent urban elements are now confined to the Smiths Lake Village Area, and to a lesser 

extent, Tarbuck Bay. 

8.1.2 Rural Elements 

Six elements contribute to rural character in the study area: 

• partly or fully cleared flats, slopes or ridges; 

• fenced and managed grassed flats or slopes; 

• rural structures such as dams, sheds, barns, dairy bales or yards; 

• individual houses separated by expansive areas; 

• utility services that are often isolated by localised clearing of corridors; 

• narrow, unsealed roads, sometimes lined by remnant vegetation along fence lines within a 

road reserve. 



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Rural elements contribute to the modification of the natural environment. However, their visual 

impacts are less obvious. To an extent, rural landscapes may be accepted as natural landscapes. 

Rural elements may have varying degrees of visibility and prominence. However clearing 

causes the greatest change to the environment. Depending on landform, vegetation coverage 

and the distance to viewing areas, many rural elements may be difficult to distinguish within a 

natural landscape and would not be prominent. 

The areas on both sides of The Lakes Way contain elements contributing to rural character. 

Further to the south, the character becomes more natural because views are dominated by the 

expanse of Smiths Lake and Tarbuck Bay. 

8.1.3 Natural Elements 

The elements which contribute to natural character in the study area are: 

• beaches and foreshore areas; 

• coastal headlands; 

• vegetated valleys; 

• vegetated slopes and ridges; 

• vegetated low lying wetland areas near the foreshore. 

Each element may have a variety of native vegetation associated with it. Natural elements may 

include roads, but they would not dominate. 

Elevated areas, including slopes, ridges and headlands, are prominent. However visibility is 

limited due to intervening landform and native vegetation. Beaches and foreshores may not be 

prominent due to intervening landforms and vegetation, but they have high visibility. 

Beach and foreshore areas are prominent from sealed roads and lower elevations. They have 

high visibility over level areas but limited visibility to higher areas. 

8.2 Existing Landscape Character 

8.2.1 Boomerang Drive to Charlotte Bay 

The study area boundary starts at the interface between urban and cleared areas at Blueys 

Beach and the south side of Boomerang Drive. The northern part of the study area has a 

predominantly natural character defined by steep slopes and prominent vegetated ridge lines. 

There are no urban or rural elements visible from adjacent roads. 

The area from The Lakes Way, between Boomerang Drive and Charlotte Bay contains mostly 

natural elements, and is provides intermittent views of Wallis Lake, dense vegetation and a 

cleared utility corridor. 



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8.2.2 Charlotte Bay to Kookie Avenue 

The settlement along Charlotte Bay Street contains urban elements, including closely-spaced 

buildings and a sealed road. The view shed to the west quickly changes to natural with 

prominent vegetation defining Wallis Creek. It has a defined edge and is compact. 

To the east, the view shed takes in rural elements. In the foreground, the view shed is 

dominated by densely vegetated undulating land. Vegetated slopes and ridges dominate the 

background views from vantage points that have good visibility. 

Opposite Kookie Avenue, Cabbage Tree Palms are prominent in foreground and mediumground 

views. To the east, the landscape contains mostly rural elements in the foreground. The 

background contains views to vegetated slopes and ridges. 

In this area, vegetation abuts The Lakes Way in many places, enclosing views from the road. 

8.2.3 Charlotte Bay to Sandbar Turnoff 

Between Charlotte Bay and the Sandbar turnoff, foreground views to the east include rural 

elements, primarily agricultural land, water bodies, widely scattered houses and intermittent 

dense vegetation. 

To the west, foreground views are of rolling and undulating, mostly cleared land. Rural 

elements dominate lower elevations. 

To the east and west, vegetated undulating land rises to background views of densely vegetated 

slopes and ridges. 

At the Sandbar turnoff, vegetation abuts The Lakes Way and restricts all but foreground views 

to the east. To the west, views are more open. The foreground is dominated by cleared rural 

land while background views are dominated by densely vegetated slopes and ridges. 


Smiths Lake Village Area has dense overlays of natural and urban elements. It has achieved a 

good balance between changes that result from urban development, and conservation of natural 

elements that contribute to the visual qualities of the Village. 

Urban elements dominate foreground views along higher roads such as Macwood Drive, The 

Jack, Patsy’s Flat Road and the three ridge roads. However, most urban areas retain extensive 

areas of vegetation and canopy cover is mostly intact. The retention of vegetation is important 

to conserving scenic qualities. 

Urban elements and form in many areas of Smith Lake Village also contributes to the 

conservation of scenic qualities and has been achieved by: 

• narrow roads that follow contours or ridge lines; 

• road verges that do not delineate boundaries with kerb and gutter or paved/turfed areas; 



A U S T R A L I A


• minimising clearing around houses; 

• adapting house design to site characteristics so that the need for cuts and fills, or level 

building platforms is reduced or eliminated; 

• varying mass, form and height and spacing of buildings so that they do not overpower 

natural ones; 

• using external materials and colour schemes that complement natural elements. 

Most developed areas do not have high prominence, but they provide good visibility to scenic 

views of Smiths Lake and at higher elevations, the ocean. Many streets have views that are 

extensive. 

A large property on Sand Bar Road contains mostly rural elements and is partly cleared. It has 

low prominence from adjacent areas. 

8.2.5 Sandbar Turnoff to Tarbuck Bay 

The Lakes Way rises between the Sandbar turnoff and Macwood Drive. It traverses rolling 

topography before rising to a local crest at Macwood Drive. Views to the west contain rural 

elements in the foreground, and intermittent foreground vegetation blocks background views of 

vegetated slopes and ridges. To the east, undulating cleared land with intermittent vegetation 

dominates foreground views. 

The Lakes Way descends to near lake level south of Macwood Drive. Adjacent to the Smiths 

Lake Village Area, foreground views are dominated by a dense canopy of tall vegetation that 

rises and falls steeply from the road. Intermittent background views over Smiths Lake and 

Sandbar become visible. These features combine to create a highly scenic transition between 

rural elements to the north, and the prominent and highly attractive natural elements of Smiths 

Lake. 

The Lakes Way turns to the west once it reaches a near-lake elevation. To the north, steep 

slopes abutting the road dominate foreground views. The slopes are mostly vegetated. To the 

south, intermittent vegetation abuts the road, providing glimpses of Smiths Lake in the 

background. This area contains mostly natural elements. 

The views from the road then focus on more gently-sloping and open areas surrounding the 

village of Tarbuck Bay. To the south, vegetation becomes sporadic and all views are dominated 

by natural elements of Smiths Lake and its foreshore. To the north, steep slopes with high 

visibility contain a broad vegetated canopy. The canopy is broken where houses have been 

built on The Lakes Way, Windsor Street and Crown Close. 

Natural elements combine with urban elements to create a good balance between development 

and conservation of scenic values in Tarbuck Bay. Houses are well-adapted to steep slopes and 

significant components of the tree canopy are retained. Houses are closely spaced and strongly 

define urban spaces and edges. A public reserve along the foreshore provides good public 

access while maintaining some natural elements. 



A U S T R A L I A


Foreground views of Tudor Street are characterised by gently undulating land containing urban 

elements such as roads and houses. Background views are dominated by steeply sloping and 

folding vegetated land rising to several prominent ridges north of Tarbuck Bay. 

Most houses in Tarbuck Bay enjoy views of Smiths Lake and other natural elements in 

background views. They have varying degrees of visibility, depending on vegetation, 

orientation and adjoining houses. Importantly, from areas to the south along The Lakes Way, 

urban elements at Tarbuck Bay do not dominate foreshore views. Its prominence is low and 

helps maintain the balance between urban and natural elements. 

8.2.6 Tarbuck Bay to Wamwarra Bay/Sugar Creek Valley 

West of Tarbuck Bay, roadside vegetation on the foreshore ranges from open to dense, and 

provides intermittent views across Smiths Lake. On the opposite side of the road, natural and 

rural elements are visible in foreground views while background views are of steep and rolling, 

mostly vegetated land with intermittent clearing. 

Along Tarbuck Park Road, the road rises and provides access to low-density rural settlement. 

Most views are of natural and rural elements. Cleared areas that are used for pasture are 

prominent from the road. Most houses have low prominence and are not readily visible. 

Between Tarbuck Park Road and Sugar Creek Road, views are of dense vegetation and steep 

slopes in the foreground, with dense vegetation extending to the road edge. Natural elements 

dominate foreground and background views. Intermittent views of Wamwarra Bay and Smiths 

Lake occur where vegetation is more open at ground level. 

At Sugar Creek Road, foreground views are dominated by rural elements, Areas cleared for 

rural settlement and agriculture are prominent from The Lakes Way and Sugar Creek Road. 

The land is undulating in the foreground, and rises to more steeply vegetated slopes and ridges 

in the background. Cleared areas along Sugar Creek Road give way to continuously-vegetated 

slopes and ridges at a point about two kilometres from the intersection of The Lakes Way. 

Rural elements, including houses, have high prominence and visibility. Because clearing 

extends in places to the foreshore, elevated areas along Sugar Creek Road would have 

extensive views of Wamwarra Bay and its foreshore. 

8.3 Visual Assessment 

The majority of the locations in the study area now have rural or natural character. Future 

development of these locations could create visual impacts in existing developed areas, 

depending on the extent of development and the degrees of prominence and visibility. 

A methodology developed by the United States Department of Agriculture has been used with 

modifications to identify and manage visual impacts. Use of the methodology results in the 

definition of five visual management zones. 



A U S T R A L I A



The extent to which modification of the study area may affect the visual environment can be 

assessed by dividing the study area into discrete landscape units that have common visual 

characteristics. Each landscape unit is assigned a visual quality rating of high, medium or low. 

Visual quality is based on the variety and diversity of structural components, colours and 

textures within each unit. 

The time that observers are able to view a landscape unit, and the distance of observers from 

each unit, are determined for each landscape unit and a sensitivity classification is made. The 

three variables are then arranged in a matrix. Management zones are assigned for each 

combination of the three variables. Each management zone has objectives which guide the 

consideration of potential modifications within them. 

8.3.2 Landscape Units 

Five landscape units were identified in the study area based on landform, vegetation and human 

modification. Figure 8-1 shows the location of landscape units. 

Undulating Forested Land (UFL) 

This unit includes large areas east of The Lakes Way between Charlotte Bay and the Smiths 

Lake Village Area, the back of Tarbuck Bay, and the Sugar Creek Road valley. 

The unit is characterised by undulating land with partial to full vegetation coverage. It contains 

rural and natural elements, although natural elements tend to dominate. Vegetation in this unit 

has varied structure and colour. 

The unit has moderate visual quality because of its prominence and vegetation structure, and 

because it forms a transition from lower, cleared areas to steeper vegetated slopes. 

Forested Slopes & Ridges (FSR) 

This unit covers most of the higher elevations within the study area. It includes the prominent 

ridges north of Tarbuck Bay, and the prominent high ridges extending between Sandbar and 

Blueys Beach, at the eastern edge of the study area. 

This unit is characterised by mostly continuous vegetation coverage, steep slopes and 

prominent ridge lines. This unit has vegetation with strong colour and texture. It is comprised 

of natural elements. 

The unit has a moderate to high visual quality because of its prominence, the variation in 

structure and colour of vegetation, and its mostly natural character. 

Lake & Foreshore (LF) 

This unit takes in all foreshore and tidal areas within the study area. 



A U S T R A L I A


The unit is characterised by natural elements including sand, water, tidal vegetation and its flat 

topography. Vegetation cover ranges from cleared to sporadic at Tarbuck Bay to dense near 

undeveloped areas surrounding Symes Bay and Smiths Lake. 

The unit has a high visual quality because of its prominence from many viewing areas, its 

limited extent and its importance in maintaining scenic qualities and recreational values. 

Urban Land (Urban) 

This unit takes in developed areas in Charlotte Bay, Kookie Avenue, Sandbar, Smiths Lake 

Village Area, and Tarbuck Bay. 

The unit is characterised by close settlement of houses, formalised streets, formal landscaping, 

the presence of vehicles parked in streets and non-residential buildings. Remnant vegetation is 

usually present, and may be dense and form a defining canopy. It is comprised of mostly urban 

elements, but may include features found in rural and natural elements. 

The unit has a low to medium visual quality because it tends to reduce or eliminate natural 

elements. 

It is acknowledged that some people may prefer to view urban elements in the context of high 

quality streetscapes, gardens and architecture, however promotion of such values is addressed 

in urban design and development control policies. 

Cleared & Rural Land (CRL) 

This unit takes in areas of rural settlement and agricultural land uses. It generally includes land 

at lower elevations. Extensive areas of cleared land are found adjacent to The Lakes Way, on 

Sugar Creek Road and at Cellito / Sandbar. 

The unit is characterised by the presence of pasture species. Although some native shrub and 

tree cover remains, the vegetation has low structural diversity and ground covers and grasses 

dominate visually. It mostly occurs on flat to gently undulating land. 

The unit has a medium visual quality because of its varied topography and vegetation cover. It 

has high prominence from adjacent areas and offers high visibility due to a lack of obstructing 

features. 

8.3.3 Sensitivity Levels 

Sensitivity levels express the concern people have for the visual quality of an area. Concern 

varies according to the needs of the viewer. For example, residents who view an area daily 

from their home would have greater concern for visual quality than someone who infrequently 

visits the area. The concern that tourists might have for visual quality is important because of 

tourism’s value to the local economy. 



A U S T R A L I A


Sensitivity also relates the number of people who might view a landscape unit and their 

viewing duration. Three levels of vantage points corresponding to different levels of sensitivity 

are considered: 

• Level One includes areas of high sensitivity where a large number of existing residents or 

visitors have moderate to long viewing duration. 

• Level Two includes areas of moderate sensitivity where a moderate number of existing 

residents or visitors have short to moderate viewing duration. 

• Level Three includes areas of low sensitivity where few residents or visitor have little or no 

viewing duration. 

Sensitivity is modified by a factor expressing the distance from the observer to the landscape 

unit: 

• the foreground (fg) is the area within 0 to 100 metres of the observer, where landscape 

details are visible. 

• the middle ground (mg) is the area between 100 and 1,000 metres from the observer, where 

vegetation textures and land use patterns are visible. 

• the background (bg) is the area which is 1,000 metres beyond the observer, where textures 

and patterns are indistinct. 

Sensitivity is combined with distance to provide a sensitivity classification, such as “mg-2”. 

This would indicate that the area falls within the middle ground and has a sensitivity level of 

two. Where an area is visible from more than one location, the more restrictive sensitivity 

classification is used. Figure 8-1 shows the extent of each sensitivity classification. 

8.3.4 Visual Management Zones 

Five visual management zones are defined and contain objectives guiding the extent of 

activities or modifications which may occur within each management zone: 

• Zone 1 is a visual conservation zone and allows for only natural changes. All modifications 

and activities, other than low impact casual recreation facilities such as bushwalking tracks, 

should be discouraged. 

• Zone 2 is also sensitive to visual modification and should be retained in a predominantly 

natural state. Activities or modifications should only be permitted if they repeat the form, 

line, colour and texture of the landscape unit. Suitable activities and modifications would 

include narrow roads and small scale, low structures, clad in natural materials, which cause 

limited disturbance to native vegetation. 

• Zone 3 is a limited development zone. Activities and modifications should remain visually 

subordinate to the visual character, and native vegetation should be substantially retained. 

Development should be compatible with surrounding visual characteristics. Development 

which would be suitable includes rural dwellings and farm buildings, rural intensive 

development, urban cluster development, and small scale tourist facilities. 



A U S T R A L I A


• Zone 4 is less sensitive to development than Zone 3. Modifications and development may 

visually dominate surrounding visual characteristics. Activities and modifications suitable in 

this zone include urban development, infrastructure and community facilities. Development 

should be sympathetic with surrounding visual characteristics and native vegetation should 

be retained where practical. 

• Zone 5 is a development zone where activities and modifications may dominate 

surrounding visual characteristics. Native vegetation would not be retained. 

Visual management zones were assigned to landscape units based on a matrix incorporating 

visual quality and sensitivity classifications. The matrix is shown in Table 8-1. 

Table 8-1 Management of Visual Environment 

Visual Quality 

Sensitivity Classification (Distance & Viewer Sensitivity) 

fg-1 mg-1 bg-1 fg-2 mg-2 bg-2 3 

High Zone 1 Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 2 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 3 

Moderate to High Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 4 

Moderate Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 3 Zone 3 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 4 

Low to Moderate Zone 3 Zone 3 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 4 Zone 4 Zone 5 

Low Zone 4 Zone 4 Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 5 Zone 5 Zone 5 



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LAND CAPABILITY ASSESSMENT 95 

9 LAND CAPABILITY ASSESSMENT 

9.1 Approach 

The preceding sections of this Study have provided information on: 

• physical characteristics of the landforms and water bodies in the study area; 

• surveys and descriptions of vegetation and animals found in the study area; 

• major forces which act on them; 

• likely outcomes when landforms are altered; 

• planning and management practices that would limit adverse changes so that environmental 

qualities are not degraded. 

This section defines constraints, management responses and the locations of precincts that 

capability for development. This section also links recommended planning and construction 

practices with the principles of ecologically sustainable development. 

The results are shown on accompanying figures. 

9.1.1 Constraints 

Actions that change landform, water bodies, vegetation or habitat have the potential to cause 

impacts that are recognised or accepted as being undesirable, harmful, or in some cases 

prohibited by legislation. The physical and biological characteristics of the environment 

determine whether actions that change it are likely to cause potential impacts. 

Four environmental characteristics of the study area have been examined: 

• soils and geotechnical characteristics; 

• flooding, hydrology and drainage; 

• flora and fauna; 

• visual quality. 

In addition, land was not considered to be capable of development if it was located within 100 

m of the boundary of a Coastal Wetland or a Littoral Rainforest under SEPP 14 or SEPP 26. 

This land was therefore excluded and considered not capable for development. 

There is a strong causal link between these environmental characteristics, and likely 

environmental changes. These characteristics will determine the nature and magnitude of 

impacts that would be caused by changes to the environment from future development. 

Constraints have been defined as types or categories of environmental characteristics that when 

changed, may cause impacts that are unacceptable or harmful to the environment. Some 

constraints, such as very steep slope, or high conservation value habitat, cannot be overcome 



A U S T R A L I A


because of the impracticality or impossibility of limiting consequent changes. In these cases, 

the only acceptable response is avoidance. 

Other constraints can be managed with careful planning and management. It is important that 

Council has an appreciation of not only the constraints, but the response needed to manage the 

constraint. 

9.1.2 Responses Needed to Manage Constraints 

9.1.2.1 Effort 

Many constraints can be overcome by formulating management responses. There are two 

objectives that must be considered in formulating responses: 

• the primary objective is to avoid or limit adverse impacts that would, without intervention, 

be unacceptable or prohibited; 

• the secondary objective is to ensure that the response does not unreasonably transfer 

impacts, or the burden of avoiding or minimising impacts, to other parties or the 

community. 

The characteristics of planning and management responses are discussed below. 

Depending on the particular constraint, most responses needed to avoid or minimise potential 

adverse impacts will require physical intervention. In considering such responses, it is useful to 

identify the magnitude, complexity and cost of the intervention that will be needed. This is 

defined as effort and is a qualitative, not quantitative, expression. Magnitude means the extent 

of the intervention, both spatially and in time. Complexity means the degree to which the 

response depends on technology or manufactured materials that may require monitoring, 

maintenance or other attention. Cost refers to the amount needed to initiate and maintain the 

response. It is a comparative expression. 

For instance, if a site contained potential acid sulphate soils, and development would disturb 

them resulting in acid discharge to the environment, one response would be to neutralise the 

soils. Depending on the volume of soil, and the quantity of acid it could release, any one of the 

three factors defined above – magnitude, complexity or cost – could raise the effort needed to 

manage the response to a level at which it would be impractical to undertake. 

Effort is ranked as either high, medium or low. 

9.1.2.2 Time Frame 

The response needed to avoid or minimise impacts will have a time frame during which 

intervention occurs. The response to a constraint such as sedimentation is ongoing because as 

long as the disturbance to soil and vegetation continues, the response is needed. Other 

constraints, such as steep slopes, require a response that is finite. For example, construction of a 

pole frame or pole platform house on a steep slope requires short term intervention during 

construction, after which, the site becomes stable and no further intervention is required. 



A U S T R A L I A


Time frame is shown as short-term or long-term. 

9.1.2.3 Sustainability of Response 

Some responses will require ongoing intervention to succeed in limiting adverse changes to an 

environmental characteristic. 

For example, most of the planning and management responses identified in this study that relate 

to maintenance of existing water quality rely on catchment-based interventions. Minimising 

impervious areas, and use of rainwater tanks to reduce off-site stormwater flows, on-site 

infiltration, vegetation filtration and swale drainage reduce stormwater flows at the source. 

In contrast, conventional trunk drainage systems rely on efficient conveyance of stormwater to 

a centralised detention and treatment facility prior to discharge. A centralised facility is an 

example of a response that is difficult to sustain in the long term. It may lose treatment 

effectiveness and allow adverse changes to downstream water quality due to siltation or failure 

of physical or biological components. 

As a second example, the disposal of effluent on-site, using conventional septic systems, results 

in the buildup of nutrients and pathogens that are difficult to confine. While in the short term, 

such systems may not cause changes to soil or water quality, in the long term there is high 

certainty that adverse changes will occur. It would be rated as poor. In this case, the preferable 

response is to plan development that can be connected to the reticulated sewer system, and thus 

avoid the potential impacts to the environment. 

Sustainability is rated as excellent, good or poor. 

9.1.3 Consistency with Council’s Goals & Objectives 

Council continuously improves it capability to manage the environment. Council is now 

gathering base line survey information on a range of environmental characteristics to assist with 

the management of the environment, particularly effluent, stormwater and habitat conservation. 

Generally, all recommendations in this study, and the basis for planning and management 

responses, are consistent with known policies and studies now being formulated or undertaken 

by Council. 

9.1.4 Principles of Ecologically Sustainable Development 

In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development released Our Common 

Future. It used the term sustainable development: 

development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability 

of future generations to meet their own needs (Great Lakes Council, 1995). 

The Commonwealth Government uses the term ecologically sustainable development to mean: 



A U S T R A L I A


development that improves the quality of life, both now and in the future, in a way 

that maintains the ecological processes on which life depends (Great Lakes 

Council, 1995). 

The goal of ecologically sustainable development, or ESD, is to link development with 

protection of the environment so that basic human needs are met, living standards are 

improved, and ecosystems are better protected and managed. 

Four principles are found in the Environmental Planning and Assessment Regulation with 

respect to environmental impact assessment: 

1. The Precautionary Principle: if there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental 

damage, lack of scientific certainty should not be a reason for postponing measures to 

prevent environmental degradation; 

2. Inter-generational Equity: the present generation should ensure that the health, diversity, 

and productivity of the environment is maintained or enhanced for future generations; 

3. Conserve biological diversity and ecological integrity; 

4. Improve valuation and pricing of environmental resources for comparison with social and 

economic resources when considering management options. 

In identifying environmental characteristics, this study has used the four ESD principles to 

formulate categories of constraints, and planning and management responses. 

For example, habitat ranking is based on nine factors that give effect to inter-generational 

equity, conservation of biological diversity and valuation of environmental resources. 

Constraints that are considered impractical to manage support the precautionary principle. The 

formulation of water quality sensitivity mapping parameters also supports the precautionary 

principle, as well as inter-generational equity because it is providing more sustainable systems 

to manage the impacts of development. 

9.2 Constraint & Response 

Constraints, planning and management responses, and the characteristics of each response, are 

presented in Table 9.1 below. 

Areas in which constraints to development can be managed are shown as precincts in Figure 9- 

1. Areas outside of these precincts have characteristics and constraints that cannot be practically 

managed. 



A U S T R A L I A


Environmental 

Characteristic 

Soils / Geotechnical 

R1 

Table 9-1 Land Capability 

Primary Constraints Planning Response Management Response Response Characteristics 

slope; slope instability, erosion 

hazard, 

Effort (High, Med, Low) 

Time Frame (Short or Long Term) 

Sustainability (Excellent, Good, Poor) 

Avoid n/a Low; Long term; Excellent No 

R2 slope; slope instability; erosion hazard Limit extent detailed geotechnical investigation; High, Long term, Good 

Yes 

minimise disturbance; pole housing, 

erosion controls 

R3 erosion hazard Limit extent detailed geotechnical investigation Medium; Short term; Good 

Yes 

for earthworks deeper than 1 m; 

erosion controls 

R4 erosion hazard n/a erosion controls Low, Short term; Good Yes 

A 

E 

S 

S1 

S2 

erosion hazard; acid sulphate soils; 

drainage; low bearing capacity 

low bearing capacity; acid sulphate 

soils; erosion hazard; drainage 

low bearing capacity; erosion hazard 

(wind, wave); acid sulphate soils; 

drainage 

low bearing capacity, erosion hazard 

(wind, wave); slope instability; slope 

low bearing capacity; erosion hazard 

(wind, wave); slope instability; slope 

n/a 

Limit extent 

Limit extent 

geotechnical, acid sulphate soils, 

flooding investigations 





Medium; Long Term; Good 

High; Long Term; Good 

High; Long Term; Good 

Limit extent detailed geotechnical investigation High; Long Term; Poor Yes 

Avoid n/a Low; Long Term; Excellent No 

Flooding & Drainage 

Increase in peak flows stormwater management plan using 

water sensitivity urban design 

Increase in runoff volume stormwater management plan using 


Reduction in groundwater 

recharge 

Stormwater Quality 

stormwater management plan using 


Low; Long Term; Excellent 


Low; Long Term; Good 

Changes to water quality 

30 m buffer from centre line of all 


Yes 

waterways 

Changes to water quality Smaller roads to follow contours Low; Long Term; Excellent Yes 

Changes to water quality Retain vegetation Low; Long Term; Excellent Yes 

Include in 

Land 

Capability 

Precinct? 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 


O C E A N I C S A U S T R A L I A


Environmental 


Flora & Fauna 

High Habitat Value 

(score greater than 15) 

Medium Habitat Value 

(score between 9 & 14) 


Changes to water quality 

Changes to 

water quality 

Minimise impervious areas; direct runoff 

to infiltration areas; reuse runoff 




Medium; Long Term; Excellent 

Education & Awareness High; Long Term; Good Yes 

Changes to water quality Effective sediment and erosion controls Medium; Short Term; Good Yes 

Changes to water quality Use rainwater tanks for non-potable Medium; Long Term; Excellent 

Yes 

uses; overflows directed to 

infiltration areas 

Changes to water quality Use onsite infiltration Medium; Long Term; Excellent Yes 

Changes to water quality Use vegetation to diffuse and filter Low; Long Term; Excellent 

Yes 

overland flows 

Changes to water quality Use swale drains in sandy soils with Low; Long Term; Good 

Yes 

moderate slopes and large lots 

Changes to water quality Use appropriate housing forms that 

minimise ground disturbance 

Medium; Short Term; Good 

Yes 

Avoid Low; Long Term; Excellent No 

Three development precincts include 

Med Habitat Value in parts that are 

adjacent to Low Habitat Value 

Prepare detailed investigation of 

need to conserve/retain Medium 

Value Habitat in each precinct 

Medium; Long Term; Poor 

Include in 

Land 

Capability 

Precinct? 

Yes 

Yes 

Limit extent to fragments, and case by 

case review. 

Control clearing, domestic pets, 

weeds; access 

Future development potential 

subject to s5A tests 

Low Habitat Value 

(score less than 8) 

Encourage replanting of native 

species; control domestic pets and 

weeds 


Yes 

Water Quality Sensitivity 

Low sensitivity Depends on combination of Low; Short Term; Excellent Yes 




Environmental 






parameters 

Include in 

Land 

Capability 

Precinct? 

Moderate sensitivity Depends on combination of 

parameters 

High sensitivity Depends on combination of 

parameters 

Visual Quality 


High; Long Term; Poor 

Yes 

Yes 

Zone 1 High quality Retain in natural state Low; Long Term; Excellent No 

Zone 2 High quality Retain in natural state Allow minimal change Low; Long Term; Excellent Yes 

Zone 3 Medium Quality Limit extent of development Low; Long Term; Good Yes 

Zone 4 Medium Quality Encourage sympathetic 

development 

Low; Long Term; Good 

Yes 

Zone 5 Low Quality No controls Low; Long Term; Good Yes 



ABORIGINAL AND EUROPEAN HERITAGE 102 

10 ABORIGINAL AND EUROPEAN HERITAGE 


The archaeologist engaged by WBM for this component of the study was Dr Laila Haglund of 

Haglund and Associates, Cultural Heritage Consultants. 

Mr. M. Leon, Sites Officer, and Messrs R. Paulson and S. Brereton represented Forster Local 

Aboriginal Land Council (FLALC) in discussions about the project and a field visit. 

Mr. Leon generously forwarded information from the Land Council data base and provided 

access to their library of reports and publications. This has been used in the preparation of this 

report. A selection is included in Appendix E. 

The section provides: 

• A summary of management issues deriving from existing legislation; 

• A summary of discussions with Local Aboriginal Land Council representatives; 

• A brief description of the landscape of the study area noting aspects of particular importance 

to traditional Aboriginal life; 

• An assessment of the Aboriginal archaeological resource in the region, as presently known, 

by reference to the NSW National Parks and Wildlife (NPWS) site register, consultant 

reports, other relevant literature and discussions with colleagues regarding work in progress; 

• A description and broad assessment of the Aboriginal heritage potential and management 

requirements of various sections of the area noting problems relating to lack of surface 

visibility; 

• Suggested strategies for future investigations; 

• Management recommendations based on these results and relevant legislative requirements. 

10.2 Management Issues 

10.2.1 Legislative Context 

In NSW management of Aboriginal heritage locations, including archaeological sites, is at 

present primarily the responsibility of the Director of the NSW National Parks and Wildlife 

Service (NPWS). Such management is carried out within a legislative framework and 

management policies take into account the assessed or potential significance or value of the 

locations to various groups within the community and in particular to the local and broader 

Aboriginal community. Development is regulated by state and federal legislation, some of 

which plays a direct and specific role in managing Aboriginal heritage. 

SMITHS_LAKE_PLANNING_STUDY.DOC


State Legislation 

The National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974 (as amended) makes it illegal to damage, deface or 

destroy an Aboriginal relic without written permission of the Director of the NPWS. Any 

person aware of the location of a relic is required to report its existence to the Director unless 

there is good reason to believe that the relic has already been reported. Such relics may be 

portable (e.g. one or more loose artefacts) or fixed (e.g. painted or engraved art on rock faces). 

Heritage locations (‘Aboriginal sites’) vary in character and may comprise e.g. burials or 

ceremonial sites, or practical items such as tools and manufacturing debris embedded in the 

floor deposit of a shelter, or in a midden, or grinding grooves or hollows on rock outcrops, 

quarried outcrops with their tell-tale debris, or trees with scars or carvings resulting from 

Aboriginal activities. 

Most Aboriginal sites have the status of real property and thus belong to the landowner who 

can restrict access but may not remove items or in some other way disturb or destroy the site 

without written consent. 

If Aboriginal sites, potential archaeological deposits (PADs) or other areas of heritage potential 

are identified prior to proposed development, some form of sub-surface testing may be 

recommended, depending on an assessment of e.g. the effects of past land use and surface 

disturbance, the character and type of the expected content and its possible significance, and the 

outcome of consultation with authorities and relevant interest groups. 

Such assessment and consultation would normally be part of the process of acquiring a 

Preliminary Research Permit from the NPWS. Obtaining such permit is mandatory prior to any 

excavation ‘for the purpose of finding relics’ (which includes testing to see if any are present). 

If testing proves negative (with regard to Aboriginal or other heritage items), there would be no 

archaeological constraint on the proposed development. 

If relics/sites are identified, these (as well as previously known heritage material in the relevant 

area), would be subject to assessment to determine potential impact by the proposed 

development. If impact is likely, then a Consent to Destroy must be sought from the NPWS. 

This should normally be preceded by review of possible modification of the proposal, 

alternative locations or other means of mitigating the potential impact. 

Applications for research permits and consents to destroy Aboriginal heritage material require 

prior consultation with relevant Aboriginal representatives as well as written documentation of 

this, e.g. via a letter or statement from the relevant group or groups, normally at least the Local 

Aboriginal Land Council. There may be a need to consult additional groups, e.g. if several 

family groups affiliated with the location have divergent opinions. 

A consent to destroy may be issued with the proviso that appropriate salvage investigations, 

e.g. surface collection and/or archaeological excavation and analysis are completed. 



The Act enables the NPWS to acquire land containing significant relics. This may be dedicated 

as Aboriginal Areas or Historic Sites. The NPWS may also enter into Conservation Agreements 

with landowners for the protection of relics and/or may, with the consent of the owners, 

declare particular places to be Protected Aboriginal Areas though remaining in private 

ownership. Locations which are significant to Aboriginal people but lack physical relics to 

mark their existence may be declared Aboriginal Places and thereby obtain the same protected 

status as physical relics. 

It is the policy of the NPWS that local Aboriginal communities be consulted about matters 

affecting sites in their area. The Director is not bound by their views, but, as noted above, 

written notification from relevant communities are a required part of documentation to be 

submitted with applications for permits to investigate or consent to destroy heritage locations. 

The recent National Parks and Wildlife Amendment (Aboriginal Ownership) Act 1996 No. 

142, though strictly speaking applying to National Parks in NSW, has a wider application in 

terms of the principles adopted. What the Director of the NPWS applies as policy for its own 

domains with regard to Aboriginal ownership (in effect, rights to be consulted and have a say in 

decision-making) can hardly be watered down in relation to other areas. 

The Act establishes (or will do so over time) a register of Aboriginal owners which is 

administered by the Registrar of the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1983. Listing on the register 

will be via criteria of descent and cultural tradition. 

The Act is intended (NPWS information brochure December 1996) to provide an opportunity 

to: 

• Return ownership of national parks and reserves to Aboriginal people; 

• Ensure that parks are managed by Aboriginal people in partnership with NSW NPWS; and 

• Return Aboriginal relics and ancestral remains. 

Federal Legislation 

The Australian Heritage Commission Act, 1975, establishes the Australian Heritage 

Commission which maintains a Register of the National Estate. The Register includes many 

Aboriginal sites which are covered by provisions of relevant state legislation. The Commission 

offers advice on conservation of listed sites. The Act constrains Federal ministers in relation to 

matters which might affect sites. 

Under the terms of the Federal Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act, 

1984, the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs may, upon application by Aborigines intervene to 

protect objects deemed to be of traditional significance to Aborigines and which are under 

threat. 

The Native Title Act, 1993, focuses on continuity of links with an area (Butt 1993). Where this 

can be demonstrated Aborigines of local derivation and ancestry will have a case for making 

claims for land interests arising from it. 



But as will be clear from recent political events and court cases, the whole area of Aboriginal 

rights is still in flux and will require much further negotiation. Private agreements negotiated 

between land owners and Aboriginal representatives may in the long run be at least as 

important in relation to Aboriginal heritage matters as legislative requirements. 

10.2.2 Significance Values 

The heritage value (ie. assessed Aboriginal, scientific and public significance) of archaeological 

sites normally provides the basis for their management (Sullivan & Bowdler 1984). 

Scientific or archaeological significance relates to the potential of a site to answer research 

questions, now or in the future. Here lies a challenge in that it is difficult and well nigh 

impossible to assess what may have the potential to answer research questions not yet 

imagined. As our knowledge expands and new techniques are developed, new questions will 

appear. 

Criteria commonly used in significance assessment are site condition/integrity, structure, 

content and representativeness, the latter being partially defined by rarity or commonness of a 

relic/site. All of these are difficult to define or apply; each case has to be argued thoughtfully. 

For example, with regard to representativeness – what does a site represent? Sites in a certain 

landform? With certain resources? With certain contents? How do we know what these might 

be? And how are these criteria justified and applied? 

Some examples of problems inherent in assessment attempts: 

Rock shelter sites are traditionally seen as having considerable potential to provide data about 

past occupation of an area because their deposits are often bounded and apparently relatively 

stable and may therefore preserve cultural and organic materials for long periods of time in 

chronologically stratified and dateable contexts. Open sites are, on the other hand, seen as 

providing complementary material allowing study of a fuller range of cultural elements but, 

unfortunately, in less secure contexts. 

However, the presumed stability of stratified shelter sites is becoming seen as less certain as 

techniques develop and awareness of e.g. potential effects of bio-turbation grows. And there are 

large question marks with regard to what aspects and proportion of past cultural life may be 

represented by shelter sites. Quite specialised and limited? Occasional? Rare? And were shelter 

sites and open sites complementary or, at least periodically, part of alternative life styles? We 

will always need to look at the known range of sites within a broader area and try to assess the 

finds in a proposed development area against this background. 

Aboriginal significance may involve archaeological as well as other cultural elements which 

form links with the past for Aboriginal groups. These elements may or may not accord with the 

interpretations made by archaeologists and must be assessed by the Aboriginal people 

themselves. 

Public significance concerns the potential for use of a site to educate people about the past in 

cultural and/or environmental terms. It may also relate to the heritage value of particular sites as 



representative examples of past lifestyles and to their aesthetic value, e.g. with regard to art 

sites. 

10.3 Aboriginal Heritage 

10.3.1 Present Interest 

The FLALC is assembling material for a local history but is, understandably, focussing on 

material relating to Aborigines or Aboriginal concerns. Some of the information below has 

been forwarded to the land council by the late L.J. Constable, former custodian of the holdings 

of the Wallambi & Districts Historical Society. The land council is continuing its contact and 

co-operation with the historical society. There is undoubtedly more information to be gleaned 

from newspapers, journals and diaries. 

Members of the land council and of families who have been in the area for some generations, 

are also donating personal holdings such as early maps and photographs. Archaeological 

material from test excavations or salvaged from sites for which consent to destroy was granted, 

e.g. from the Buladelah – Coolongolook Deviation of the Pacific Highway, will be curated by 

the FLALC and will in time provide an extensive educational resource. 

Several members of the land council are skilled with regard to the recognition and reporting of 

Aboriginal relics and sites, are in contact with and reporting to the NPWS and are actively 

teaching coming generations through interaction with schools and other community based 

means. 

But the representatives spoken to are quite despairing about the rate of ongoing development, 

e.g. for housing, without prior heritage investigation being undertaken. Nor can they see any 

general awareness of or interest in the fact that Aboriginal heritage is disappearing at an equally 

fast rate, like butter in the sun. 

They believe that there is a fear about in the general population that finding and acknowledging 

the presence of Aboriginal relics on your land is going to lead to some ‘Aboriginal land grab’. 

In reality, what is wanted most of all by them is an opportunity to know about what is there and 

a chance to discuss the matter to see if something can be recorded or perhaps preserved and at 

least shown some respect. 

Might not a tree with a scar that contributed bark to a canoe or to somebody’s funeral wrapping 

be something to give pride of place on your property rather than something to torch or whack to 

pieces with a big machine? 

As landowner might it not give you a good feeling to know that the place you so lovingly 

selected for your home was enjoyed by generations before you who left signs of their presence 

on the land? Why not honour your predecessors? 



10.3.2 History 

Reports of Aboriginal presence in the Great Lakes area go back at least to 1770 when Captain 

Cook sailed along the coast line. There may have been still earlier face to face meetings, but in 

1790 Aborigines from the Hawks Nest area ‘adopted’ and looked after five escaped convicts 

until they were recaptured. 

A comment relating to October 29, 1818, notes that John Oxley and his party camped for the 

night in a small bay, which from his description is interpreted as located immediately south of 

Bald Head between Sandbar and Cellito (on the eastern rim of the present study areas). Oxley 

wrote: 

“… The natives are extremely numerous along this part of the coast … large troops of 

them appear on the beaches, whilst their canoes on the lakes are equally numerous. In the 

morning their fires are to be observed in every direction …” (Oxley 1820 in Murray 1964: pp 

345-346.) 

Numerous unofficial contacts resulted from the incursions of cedar getters (from about 1816 

on). This, and the arrival of early settlers in the Manning Valley (from about 1831 on) severely 

disrupted Aboriginal life here and barred them from or destroyed their traditional food sources. 

Severe conflicts and direct hostilities followed and the Aborigines were pushed into rugged 

country on the north-west reaches of the Manning River. The cedar getters have a particularly 

poor reputation amongst the local Aborigines and there are rumours that there was a massacre 

at that time somewhere in the Tarbuck Bay area. 

By the turn of the century remaining Aborigines in this general coastal area had been 

encouraged to settle in official reserves at Forster (1895), Karuah (1898) and Purfleet (1900). 

10.4 Environmental Context 

10.4.1 General Observations 

The natural environment influences not only the availability of local resources such as food and 

raw materials for artefacts but also the likely presence or absence of various types of 

archaeological material/evidence and whether or not such evidence is likely to be preserved. 

Changes in environment through time are important factors in this equation. For example, the 

clearing of natural vegetation in an area can alter groundwater characteristics and lead to faster 

or slower decomposition of organic material in an archaeological site. It may also hasten or 

initiate erosion processes, thereby affecting the rate of degradation of surfaces, potentially 

exposing and moving Aboriginal archaeological material. Or it could intensify aggradation 

which may hide such material. 

Land use practices, historic and prehistoric (digging drains, terracing, ploughing, burning off, 

installation of services, exploration drilling etc.) may have similar effects. It is increasingly 

acknowledged that the landscape into which white settlers moved was to quite some extent the 



product of past Aboriginal land use. With regard to Australia, the ‘wilderness’ concept has had 

to be modified quite markedly. 

Various aspects of the environment are analysed elsewhere in the document and from different 

perspectives. This brief summary concentrates on aspects, e.g. availability of resources, known 

or believed to have been particularly relevant to past Aboriginal land use and patterns of 

movement. 

10.4.2 Location 

The study covers the north and north-western parts of the Smiths Lake catchment and the 

southernmost catchment of Wallis Lake. The boundaries of Smiths Lake Study Area (SLA) and 

Smiths Lake Village Study Area (SLVA) reflect administrative divisions such as portion 

boundaries or natural boundaries such as the lake shore.. 

The division into two areas reflects predicted development trends and probable administrative 

needs, with the SLVA expected to face the more immediate pressure. But this division could 

not readily be applied to the discussion of heritage management needs or the recommendations. 

These had to be framed in more general terms as problems and requirements are largely shared 

and identical. 

For an assessment of heritage resources, the total area involved is considered in terms of 

topography and distribution of natural resources, as outlined below. 

10.4.3 Geology and Topography 

Geology 

This summary draws heavily on comments by Kerr (in Haglund 1998) relating to the Buladelah 

– Coolongolook area a little further west and by Appleton (1993, 1994) relating to immediately 

adjoining areas to the north. 

The study area is situated in the south-eastern part of the New England Fold Belt. This consists 

of folded and faulted sedimentary and volcanic rocks of predominantly Carboniferous age and 

extends from the northern and eastern side of the Hunter Valley to the New England Tablelands 

and into Queensland. 

The geological structure of the subject area is characterised by a series of north-north-westerly 

trending folds which have been faulted by similarly trending faults. These structures control the 

development of long north-north-westerly trending ridges and valleys. Softer strata erode more 

readily than adjacent harder strata, channelling water to produce valleys. Ridges consist of hard 

resistant sedimentary rocks and volcanics. Strata generally dip to the south-west, with a dip 

angle of up to 70 degrees. As a result of this structure, formations and strata outcrop in long 

north-north-westerly trending strips. Beds of a particular rock type can be traced in north-northwesterly 

and south-south-easterly directions along the strike. However, as the beds are 

commonly steeply dipping, several different rock types may occur over a small area across the 

strike, that is, in easterly and westerly directions. 



The geological map (1:100,000) shows the underlying geology as comprising (from west to 

east): a broad band of Yagon Siltstone + Booti Booti Sandstone with some Nerong Volcanics 

to the SW; the Karuah Formation; then another band of Yagon Siltstone followed by 

Koolanock Sandstone. There are pockets of Holocene deposits along streams and of 

Pleistocene and Holocene deposits along the Lake and between this and the sea. 

Soil characteristics are relevant with regard to potential for exposure and/or preservation of 

Aboriginal sites. Soils formed on the rock types represented here – generally shallow loamy 

yellow earths on the ridge crests, and yellow podsolic soils on the slopes – tend to be poorly 

aggregated, mobile and easily eroded, particularly when wet. Soils on slopes are dominated by 

a downhill movement. Sandy soils, the result of gradual infill and downward movement, 

dominate the flatter coastal lowlands, and swampy areas may contain organic peat. 

NSW coastal morphology results from three major factors: 

• Outcrops of bedrock and of pre-Holocene deposits which create a pattern of rocky points 

alternating with sandy beaches; 

• An onshore movement of sand; and 

• Reworking of coastal deposits by wind, wave and the influence of the current sea-level. 

The sea-level stabilised about 6,000 years ago (see discussion in Appleton 1993), which 

provides a time frame for certain types of Aboriginal land use and presence. Sea levels appear 

to have fluctuated somewhat during this period, probably within a range of about a metre. 

Coastal changes during this period appear to have involved sediment gain and losses and there 

are indications of periodic increased storminess. 

The development of systems of barrier dunes are typical of the this part of the Central Coast. 

These are formed by accumulations of sediment which block off or impound drainage from the 

hinterland. They are typically linear sand bodies, parallel to the shore and backed by a body of 

water which may range from sand or mud flat to swamp to open water, e.g. an estuary or 

lagoon. 

Two systems have been identified along this coast, an ‘Inner Barrier’ assessed as of Late 

Pleistocene age, and an ‘Outer Barrier’ of Holocene. The latter would be less than c.15,000 

years. (The Pleistocene now is generally placed as covering the period from c. 2 million years 

BP to about 15,000 years BP.) 

The period between c. 6,000 and 3,000 years ago is seen as a major period for such dune 

formation. From then on valleys and estuaries behind the dunes were progressively infilled with 

sediments deriving from the hinterland. 

Topography 

Reference to a topographic map suggest that the study areas comprise, from the north down: 

• In the eastern part a roughly north to south, steep-sided ridge line separating the 

southernmost part of the Wallis Lake catchment from the sea; 



• To the west Wallis Creek drains from this ridge into Wallis Lake; 

• Still further west, to either side of the Lakes Way, the Wallis Lake catchment is rather lowlying 

and swampy; 

• The eastern ridge line ends in sandy wetlands at Symes Bay, at the north-east corner of 

Smiths Lake, but a well vegetated dune forms a considerable rise at the northern end of the 

main sand bar which separates the lake from the sea and may be artificially opened to avoid 

flooding problems; 

• West of Symes Bay the Smiths Lake Village occupies another area of north to south 

trending and much dissected high ground; 

• In the western part ridge lines with varying types of slope and trending roughly north-west 

to south-east are dissected and separated by drainage lines joining to form Wamwarra 

Creek and Tarbuck Creek which drain into Wamwarra and Tarbuck Bays in Smiths Lake. 

Smiths Lake was formed as a barrier lagoon with a coastal sand dune barrier on the eastern 

shore (south-east of the study area). 

The lake has drowned the mouth of several small valleys and small floodplain deltas have 

formed between these, e.g. at the outlets for Wamwarra and Tarbuck Creeks; swamps and 

wetlands are common along the shore and on valley floors. 

Remnant, partly drowned ridge lines between them form headlands on the northern lake shore. 

The ridge lines provide a number of high crests: Stokes Hill just west of Wamwarra Bay 

reaches 125 m AHD; a ridge between Wamwarra and Tarbuck Creeks reaches 153 m AHD and 

the ridge between the latter and Duck Creek (a watershed between Smiths and Wallis Lake 

catchments) reaches c. 220m AHD. Further north-east the ridge behind Blueys Beach reaches 

216 m AHD. 

Dunes occur in the eastern part but are more extensive to the east and south of the study areas. 

Wind movements mainly affect the beach zone but note for example comments in 10.5.2 on 

Symes Bay. 

10.4.4 Climate 

This general area is characterised by a moderate semi-tropical climate with minimal seasonal 

variation, that is warm summers and mild winters. 

Temperatures average 29° C in summer and 19° C in winter (1993 EIS, Forster and Pacific 

Palms Sewerage Scheme). 

Webb (1998) quotes a Bureau of Meteorology record for Station 60013 (Forster Post Office) 

giving an average annual rainfall of 1215 mm and annual median rainfall of 1206 mm for the 

period 1896 – 1997. 

We may conclude, with past and present residents, that the area is comfortably habitable at all 

times. 



10.4.5 Vegetation, Fauna and Raw Materials 

Vegetation 

Varying terminology has been applied in previous studies. 

For example, a NPWS vegetation and land use map (reproduced in WP Geomarine 1996) 

shows the Smiths Lake Catchment as largely covered in Moist Open Forest (which continues 

northward to Wallis Lake) with areas of Coastal Sclerophyll Complex (notably on the ridges 

and steep slopes overlooking Smiths Lake) and relatively small patches of cleared land. 

On the other hand the 1993 EIS for a sewerage scheme describes Smiths Lake Village area as 

retaining much native forest, mainly Open Layered Sclerophyll Forest, ranging from Dry to 

Wet depending on the topography. The presence of remnant littoral rainforest between Blueys 

Beach and Sandbar is noted. 

Scattered through such reports we find also occasional comments relevant to a traditional 

Aboriginal economy, e.g. that salt marshes have been recorded in Wamwarra and Symes Bays, 

that sea grass beds are present in Smiths Lake and that these are important in breeding cycles of 

estuarine fish species and that the occasional presence of black apple and small fruited fig in 

the general area may indicate the former presence of littoral rain forest. 

Section five of this planning study presents updated and detailed statements on local flora. This 

could be useful to a future, detailed study of possible/probable Aboriginal land use patterns. 

Given the present poverty of actual heritage data, such studies would have to remain highly 

speculative. 

The use of several plants for equipment, dyeing and food is remembered by local Aborigines, 

e.g. Keith Leon, Don and Des Simon, and was quoted by Appleton (1993:12), but such 

statements refer to a tiny portion of potentially useful species. 

We may note that the presence of a potentially useful/edible species does not meant that it was 

necessarily used, or that use did not fluctuate over time. Use would have been to some extent 

determined by social factors (traditions, beliefs e.g. avoidance rules) and individual choice. But 

ethnographic studies indicate that knowledge of potential is likely to generally have outstripped 

actual use. It would therefore have contributed to the potentially available resource. 

Several points emerge strongly from previous environmental studies: 

• there would have been and still is a wide range of habitats in fairly close proximity, a 

situation known to have been advantageous in terms of a traditional economy; 

• movement through the area would have been easiest via waterways or walking along ridge 

crests with their drier and more open vegetation; and 

• much of the ground surface remains wooded and, in spite of past logging, relatively 

untouched by development. 



The last point is likely to be a major factor contributing to the local scarcity of recorded 

heritage material and will be discussed further in Section 10.6. 

Fauna 

Variation in species present reflects partly the existing flora, partly the effects of recent land 

use, e.g. the presence of roads with fast vehicles, fences and permanent residents. 

Certain environments, e.g. lush and well-watered creek flats and swamps, tend to contain a 

resident population of greater variety and greater numbers than e.g. dry ridges. Animal mobility 

tends to increase with scarcity of resources and need to move around to forage, as often, but not 

necessarily exemplified by human behaviour. 

Wildlife is still well represented and there is reason to believe that past Aboriginal residents 

would have had the choice of a wide range of resources including various marsupials, birds, 

reptiles, fish and shell fish. Note for example a comment ‘…the wetlands adjacent to the lake, 

… are thought to support an abundant and diverse fauna …’ (Webb 1998). 

Whilst some species may have been absent or poorly represented during certain seasons, the 

spectrum of species available at any one time is likely to have been quite rich, judging from 

comments from early observers such as Oxley (see below). 

Raw Materials 

Common rock types (see Section 10.4.3) are sedimentary: mudstone, siltstone, lithic and 

volcanoclastic sandstones and conglomerates; and extrusive igneous (volcanic): felsic 

porphyry, rhyolite , tuff, ignimbrite. 

Exposures, for example at headlands, could have provided raw material for stone tools as 

appears to have been the case somewhat further west, along the Buladelah to Coolongolook 

Deviation of the Pacific Highway (Haglund 1998). 

Sources of hard rock for making artefacts would preferentially have been outcrops on ridges, 

on hillsides and in the upper reaches of creek beds. Loose rocks occurring as scree and floaters 

on hillsides could also have been used. 

Raw materials were in some cases carried over considerable distances, but it is probable that at 

Aboriginal knapping sites, artefacts would generally be made from rock taken from the nearest 

source of suitable hard rock. 

By comparing the rock types of the artefacts to the rock types of the geological formations 

making up the bedrock at or near each site, it can be determined whether the source rock was 

likely to be close to the knapping site. 

Topography and a long history of aggradation and/or sand drift typical of much of the study 

area combine to suggest that: 

• sources of suitable rock and ancient quarry or extraction sites are unlikely to be exposed 

except on and along ridges and headlands, 



• such sources may have been more accessible in the distant past. 

10.4.6 Historic Land Use 

Apart from fishing and related activities, and small scale farming, the main historic land use 

involved logging. Comments below are based on personal observation and discussions with the 

FLALC. 

Logging was extensive and affected all of the two study areas (according to observations by 

FLALC staff). The stumps of large trees can be seen scattered through the areas. Some large 

trees remain, probably because they were the wrong species or in terrain to difficult to harvest; 

and that would have to be difficult indeed. 

Logging involved several species: 

• cedar (supply exhausted quite early, see Section 10.3.2); 

• turpentines were taken for use on wharves, piers and oyster leases as the wood is little 

affected by marine organisms; 

• blackbutt and tallowwood were sawn for building timbers; 

• flooded gum and coachwood were harvested mainly for cabinet making; and 

• cabbage tree palm was cut and turned into oyster sticks. 

10.5 Archaeological Context 

10.5.1 Site Types and Distribution 

The NSW NPWS keeps a register of Aboriginal sites as well as an extensive library of 

archaeological reports which are often the source of site data. 

But distribution patterns based of this register simply reflect observed examples of Aboriginal 

heritage. Within this broad category other patterns are observed, and interpretations attempted, 

e.g. site types are seen as reflecting patterns of land use. 

The patterns undoubtedly reflect an underlying reality, but they are skewed by various factors. 

For example, the register lists Aboriginal sites according to site types: rock shelters (with art 

and/or deposit and/or other material), open sites, middens, quarries, engraving sites, grinding 

grooves, wells, scarred/carved trees, ceremonial sites, burials etc. The classification used is not 

always logically consistent. It was initially applied to a small body of locations, often well 

known to researchers who would therefore be aware of an inherent range of variation. It now 

covers thousands of sites and inconsistencies are bedevilling attempts to use it for land use 

interpretation. 

For example: 

Many recorded sites are rock shelters with art and/or archaeological deposits. When such 

deposits (with stone artefacts and/or food debris) occur in the open they have long been 



referred to as open camp sites, but now more commonly just open sites, as not all of them need 

result from camp site activities. 

If there is food debris and this includes shells, the site is classified as a midden. But middens 

may also be open sites – or occur inside shelters. In terms of logic, middens are just one form of 

archaeological deposit. 

There are also problems relating to scale: 

Until recently the NPWS register did not allocate numbers to isolated finds of stone artefacts; 

information about them was buried in original reports. We know that one visible artefact 

frequently indicates the presence of at least a few more. Distribution patterns based on the 

register are therefore heavily skewed away from the results of one activity/incident. 

On the other hand, the midden category covers anything from a thin scatter of a few shells, the 

result of an incidental meal, to accumulations stretching for hundred of metres and perhaps 

several metres in depth, and resulting from intensive and/or long term use. 

For studies of limited areas it is still possible and often necessary to turn to relevant original 

NPWS site forms for more detail about each site. 

10.5.2 Archaeology of the Great Lakes area 

Studies in the General Area 

The NPWS record of Aboriginal sites in and near the Smiths Lake area was searched in relation 

to a previous study which cut across the present study area (Haglund 1984) but the results were 

meagre. 

A similar search by Appleton for his 1993 study gave a similarly meagre picture for the Smiths 

Lake area, but a very different picture for adjoining areas (Appleton 1993:16-17 and ibid., 

Fig.1). Most of the recorded sites shown on Appleton’s map are north of the present study areas 

and cluster notably. (Such clustering may reflect actual patterns but often indicates that the data 

result from systematic surveys of certain parcels of land within a larger area.) 

But there appears to be good reason to believe that sites occur or have been present in similar 

density relative to the terrain in adjoining areas, including the Smiths Lake area. Their absence 

from the register may be due to lack of systematic survey, lack of surface exposure and lack of 

observant witnesses, in combination. 

Of the 53 sites listed in 1993 as occurring within a broad south to north strip across Smiths 

Lake and Wallis Lake, all but 5 were listed as middens (ibid.). Of the remaining five locations, 

three are small artefact scatters. There is also a stone arrangement at Booti Booti, burials at 

Forster Aboriginal mission and a quarry and open site at Elizabeth Bay. 

Most known sites and isolated finds from the study areas and their neighbourhood relate to 

everyday activities such as getting, preparing and eating food, getting raw materials, making 

and using tools, making things to wear or carry, or finally discarding the remains or debris. 



In this coastal area finds generally relate to exploitation of lacustrine, estuarine or marine 

resources, and are seen mostly as middens. The latter can be divided into several sub-types 

according to size and/or content, and notably according to the dominant resource base, e.g. 

lagoon or estuarine shell species. Bigger middens tend to be associated with richer and more 

varied resources. 

Sullivan’s extensive coastline study (1982) found that 80-90% of known midden sites were 

within 200 metres of fresh or slightly brackish water, and that 30-40% are located near swamps. 

To what extent the proportions may have changed after sixteen years of systematic surveys 

which would have included less accessible areas, and the identification of greater numbers of 

middens, is uncertain. 

On the other hand Sullivan found that on occasion pipi shell had been carried as much as 3 km 

from the beach. Apparently some shellfish, e.g. Sydney rock oysters can be carried for some 

distance and keep fresh provided it is kept damp, whilst e.g. the Pacific oyster spoils more 

quickly. 

We may conclude that the general distribution pattern is probably applicable but with a caution 

that middens may occur outside the expected areas. 

Further inland isolated finds or scatters of stone artefacts tend to dominate in valleys and lowlying 

country. Few stone artefacts have been recorded in or near the Smiths Lake area. But, as 

noted above, an Aboriginal quarry and open site has been recorded at Elizabeth Bay and 

isolated artefacts at Pacific Palms (Haglund 1984 and below). Stone artefacts may indeed be 

comparatively rare, at least on the surface, but several factors may contribute to exaggerate this 

pattern. 

As noted above (Section 10.4.3), the study areas come within the New England Fold Belt. They 

lie at the very tip of a series of tilted strata which further west, towards Buladelah and 

Coolongolook, provided materials for Aboriginal artefacts as well as access routes across the 

landscape, from mountains to coast and lakes. During surveys for the road deviation, we found 

that artefacts were difficult to see and identify because of the colour and texture of the materials 

used and a lack of contrast when seen in or on the surface. Where sites were investigated, 

numbers of undoubted artefacts were larger than expected, though never large. Assemblages 

included standard types as well as pieces heavily modified by use (Haglund 1998). 

The problem of recognition is therefore likely to be a major factor also in the study areas and 

here increased by frequently unstable deposits of sand and silt which may have blown or 

washed over any artefacts present. 

In addition, experience indicates that more people would recognise clusters of bleached shell as 

possibly deriving from or indicating Aboriginal middens than would recognise Aboriginal 

stone artefacts. Well known types such as ground-edge axe heads or large grind stones, both 

relatively uncommon, may form exceptions. Also grooves resulting from the shaping and 

sharpening of stone tools such as axes or chisels, and indicating their local use, or from food 

preparation are commonly recognised if well preserved. 



As indicated, some heritage material may remain hidden, and the range may be wider than 

discussed. For example, dredging of Wallis Lake near Tiona brought to the surface a bark 

canoe with spears and boomerangs. (Present whereabouts have not yet been traced by Mr 

Leon.) It is not impossible that other items made of organic materials have been preserved in 

deposits that have remained constantly waterlogged and undisturbed, e.g. in swampy areas. 

Standing trees can still be found, though these are increasingly rare, that carry scars resulting 

from Aboriginal activities, having provided material for bark canoes, shields or containers (see 

below). 

Fish traps were used in many areas. Where suitable rock was available this might have been 

used and the traps may remain recognisable. In some areas organic materials were used, but 

few examples are likely to have survived unless they were portable and ended up in museums. 

But in addition to the evidence of past presence provided by e.g. middens, quarry sites and 

stone artefacts, some site types provide hints of a range of aspects of traditional Aboriginal 

society. Certain natural features and ceremonial sites, and probably most art sites, relate to 

beliefs and ritual. Burials, including those in recent cemeteries, may be a major concern (Byrne 

1998). 

Examples of this kind have been recorded or are remembered as occurring in the Great Lakes 

area: 

• At Hallidays Point - a goanna carved tree associated with a ceremonial ground; 

• At Saltwater (Wallabi Point) - sacred fig tree; 

• At Booti Booti – a stone arrangement; 

• At Bungwahl there was a bora ring, now apparently lost, and a camp site; 

• There is an historic Aboriginal cemetery in Forster . 

The Smiths Lake area 

As note above, little archaeological survey work has to date been done within the actual study 

areas:, and the work done has been largely limited to surveys of narrow corridors, e.g. for pipe 

lines. 

My own work followed proposed water supply lines (Haglund 1984). Appleton’s studies in 

1993 and 1994 (for a water and sewerage scheme) paid attention to the Smiths Lake area but 

focussed on the Pacific Palms and Wallis Lake area. He identified shell midden areas on the 

shoreline of Wallis Lake (Appleton 1993). 

A recent print-out of the NPWS Site Register listed only one site for the study areas, a midden 

recorded during my 1984 survey. (Two stone artefacts were during that survey found in the 

north-west corner of the present study areas, south-east of Wallis Lake, but isolated finds were 

at that stage not allocated site numbers.) 



The two study areas, and in particular the SLVA were recently visited with FLALC 

representatives, to check the state of the previously recorded midden and some finds reported 

by the FLALC (see also Appendix F). 

Site 38-2-0014, on the western shore of SLVA, is still there (Figure 10-1 and Figure 10-2). The 

shell deposit is eroding onto the beach, but the erosion possibly slowed by the provision of 

wooden steps from the parkland and parking areas down to the beach. There was less evidence 

now than in 1984 of erosion induced by people scrambling across the slope. 

But below the erosion front, on a strip of sand and occasional flat exposures of soft and 

cracking rock between this and the water, and for some distance into the water, there are stone 

artefacts which almost certainly derive from midden deposit that has slumped onto the beach. 

They vary in size, type and condition. Some are badly leached and battered and have been 

exposed to the weather for a long time. Others look fresh (Figure 10-3) and have, judging from 

their fairly sharp edges, not seen much exposure to wind, waves or foot traffic. Artefacts were 

seen intermittently for several hundred metres but no attempt made to search systematically or 

more widely. S. Brereton noted that he had previously seen stone artefacts over an even wider 

area. What is visible at any one time will depend on weather, wind and recent human 

movement across the beach. 

Moving across to the eastern side of SLVA, and opposite Sandbar, stone artefacts (of a variety 

of raw materials) were again seen along the lake shore, though largely at the water’s edge and 

in the water (Figure 10-4 and Figure 10-5). S. Brereton has on other occasions seen artefacts 

along a much longer stretch. Site information is being forwarded to the NPWS by the FLALC. 

No NPWS number has been allocated as yet. 

The shore line is here high and steep, almost vertical in places, ending in sand or level 

exposures of soft rock or mineralised/compacted sand, often ‘coffee rock’. No midden remains 

were seen. The place is exposed to icy southerlies and especially during winter storms, waves 

may drive right up to the foot of the slope and wash away anything left on the beach. 

The two locations are of markedly different character and would have been attractive at 

different times of the year. The eastern site is likely to have been used mainly during the 

summer, the western perhaps all the year round, but particularly in the winter as it gets very hot 

in the summer. 

Reports from old residents mention that canoe-trees were seen in fairly low-lying, swampy and 

undeveloped areas north-west of Symes Bay; the location would make good sense (refer to 

Oxley’s comment on this very area, 10.3.2) and it is possible that some could still be found. 

One scarred tree (also being reported to the NPWS) in the north-west part of the SLVA was 

identified by S. Brereton. The tree is dead but in reasonably good condition (Figure 10-6). The 

oval scar, now about 175 cm by 47 cm would have been somewhat larger; scar tissue forms a 

welt about 17 cm broad and 7 cm deep. The scar appears rather large for a container but too 

small for a canoe; it is suggested that it would have been the right size for a burial. The tree is 



within easy reach from existing roads and appears potentially endangered by future 

development. 

No sites have been recorded in the SLA, which is more extensive but at present less developed. 

Two stone artefacts were observed in 1984 and during the recent inspection a third was 

recorded a little further east, just north of SLA but south of Boomerang Drive (Figure 10-7). 

10.6 Discussion 

10.6.1 Planning Problems and Constraints 

In heavily developed areas or areas exposed to erosion by wind or water, such as the open 

coast, much of what once existed in the way of heritage material has now been lost. 

But material that has over time been covered by sediments and/or vegetation remains hidden 

and unknown unless exposed through deliberate search or accidentally, often by machinery 

during some development or through erosion, perhaps initiated as a result of some 

development. 

Heritage material has at times been saved as a result of accidental discovery, but this is a 

chancy business which depends on the presence of an observant and knowledgeable person in 

the right place at the right moment. 

For parts of the Smiths Lake area the poverty of data in combination with a low level of 

clearing and surface disturbance for development could be seen as a good omen for future 

heritage management. For these parts the lack of data is likely to mean that heritage material 

may yet be present quite widely, and some of it may be possible to protect and retain. 

However, the potentially richest area, the slightly raised strip of fairly level land along the lake 

shore, has already been heavily developed and modified and much of its heritage content 

probably lost or damaged. What is left is likely to be threatened. 

In the SLA notices of land for sale dot the road sides and beckon visitors to turn off on to 

smaller roads to chase the promise of wonderful blocks in areas of wilderness and magnificent 

views. Development may grow at exponential rates and it is questionable whether will any 

heritage values survive. 

Success in this will depend on appropriate planning, active measures and the involvement of 

persons who care and are willing to take a personal interest. 

Several constraints affect the planning aspect: 

• Councils can rarely afford to commission detailed surveys over large areas; 

• In well vegetated and relatively undeveloped areas heritage material may not be, or will 

only rarely be visible on the surface; 

• There may be political concerns with regard to potential reactions by land owners and 

developers if regulations are introduced; 



• Staff involved in issuing development consents may be neither aware of nor interested in 

landscape interpretation and associated heritage potential. 

It would be possible and important to institute a practice by which each area to be affected by a 

development application is considered with regard to theoretical and practical potential to retain 

Aboriginal heritage and decisions are made about need to investigate or monitor the situation. 

But as the selling off and development of individual blocks or small groups of blocks does not 

require consultation with or regulation by the local authority, the beneficial effects of this 

practice would be limited. Much development, possibly a majority of developments, would 

proceed without any attention to heritage values. 

Nor can the NPWS take action unless it is informed that heritage material is being or has been 

damaged or destroyed. 

10.6.2 Implications for the Study Areas 

Some of the potential problems of unchecked development affect not only heritage values and 

preventive measures may be officially imposed to counter such effects. 

For example, regulations and/or active measures may limit catchment clearing and reduce 

sediment runoff, gullying erosion or flooding. Slope instability is likely to be a major problem 

in the SLA. Some soil types are more prone to erosion than others (e.g. fine-grained soils with 

high silt and mud content but little clay), which means that embedded archaeological material is 

also at increased risk. 

The effects of present uses of parts of the study areas may also be detrimental to a range of 

environmental aspects and values, e.g. the increasing popularity of power-boating and other 

contraptions that move fast and increase wash, and thereby bank erosion, or the use of 4WD 

vehicles on beaches. 

If / when regulations and controls to limit such effects are imposed, the needs and fragility of 

heritage material should be remembered and taken into account in the planning. If not, we may 

find that the remedial measures may be as destructive to this aspect of the environment. 

Contour ploughing and clearing fire breaks are good examples. Such measures may need to be 

preceded or accompanied by consultation, surveys and/or monitoring for heritage material. 

As controls imposed by authorities are generally unpopular unless underlying reasons have 

been adequately explained and emotionally and intellectually accepted, there is likely to be a 

need for a carefully considered program of public education and consultation. 

10.6.3 Heritage Potential: Theoretical Possibilities and Constraints 

Predictive modelling on the basis of existing data from the general area and a few locations 

within the study areas, remains highly tentative but two main distribution models appear to 

apply. 



For the ridge country (SLA and parts of SLVA) we can use the model defined for the 

Buladelah – Coolongolook Deviation by Rich (1990) and tested during the salvage work 

(Haglund 1998): ridge lines were used as pathways through the landscape, e.g. moving between 

the lakes or to the coast. Evidence of past activities (camps, quarries, special activities such as 

processing bark, wood, certain plant foods etc.) can be expected on surfaces such as saddles, 

level tops or shelves on spurs or beside drainage lines with waterfalls. water-holes, rock shelves 

etc. 

The evidence will be difficult to find for a number of reasons such as dense surface vegetation 

and leaf litter, a generally low density and/or small number of stone artefacts and the raw 

materials used, generally local and likely to blend well with their background (Haglund 1998). 

Traces of activity will occur also on the slopes, e.g. at the sources of wood, bark, food plants 

etc. but will be more difficult to find because of the instability of slope sediments and a 

probably even denser vegetation, and the probably small number of items associated with 

single events. 

For the lake shore and coastal flats behind we can look at the map reproduced by Appleton 

(1993, Fig.1) and its clusters of midden sites. We know that this pattern applies in the SLVA 

(see below) and can probably be applied to parts of the SLA. The middens are likely to contain 

or have contained stone artefacts. Burials could occur almost anywhere within the sandy parts 

and need not be associated with middens. 

This pattern probably applies also in the Sandbar – estuarine area along the eastern margin of 

the study, although evidence may here be masked by wind deposited sand. Much of the sand is 

now stabilised and even massive deposits held in place by a thick cover of plants. But we have 

to remember that sea levels have fluctuated and there have been periods of greater storminess in 

the past, well within the period of Aboriginal presence in the area. 

But note that the two models discussed above refer mainly to site types that reflect everyday 

life styles and traditional economy, aspects that we can approach from our own understanding 

of the environment, past and present. 

Some finds may depend on unusual occurrencies or combinations of resources that we cannot 

know about. Other finds, and they may be the most intriguing to us and most important to 

Aboriginal descendants, cannot be predicted because we do not know what was in the mind or 

minds of those who created them, their beliefs and needs and social rules. 

10.6.4 Heritage Potential: Practical Possibilities 

The brief stated that one task would be to assess the data to assess extent of coverage and 

identify the gaps in knowledge. The limited amount of systematic heritage investigation carried 

out so far means that for the most part the study areas remain totally unknown with regard to 

data on Aboriginal heritage. 

Ironically ‘gaps’ in such a void will have to refer to a tentative but inadequate set of data for 

tiny areas, useful mainly in terms of indicating further potential. The discussions above should 



show that general heritage potential may be considerable and the needs for investigation 

equally large. 

How can such a problem best be tackled, given the limits imposed by finance, time, legal 

constraints , potential public reaction and political consequences? 

It is obviously unrealistic to expect a detailed survey of every square metre of the two areas. 

Nor would, because of vegetation cover, sand dunes etc., such survey be likely to provide all 

information wanted and needed. 

As suggested above, any practical program would be heavily dependent on the interest and 

goodwill and co-operation of a number of participants to be implemented successfully, and 

these participants would have to include representatives of the main stake holders, once these 

have been identified. Such identification could be done only in awareness of local dynamics. 

The list may well become surprising to outsiders. 

Some suggestions can be made. Regulating authorities such as the Great Lakes Shire Council 

(GLSC) the NPWS and the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) would have an obvious, 

probably permanent role. Others might become involved in relation to particular concerns, e.g. 

coastline management, public works, roads, soil conservation. 

The Forster Local Aboriginal Land Council is and should be acknowledged as a prime stake 

holder. In time and in relation to particular locations or areas, some sub-group, e.g. a particular 

Aboriginal descent group may emerge as having particular interests and responsibilities. 

Present land owners and developers also have a role. They may have paid for the land or 

inherited it; there will generally be no doubt in their minds that they own the land as well as the 

right to use it or sell it. They may or may not be aware of their legal obligations and constraints 

with regard to Aboriginal heritage but may choose to ignore this. They are likely to believe that 

heritage material means problems. 

There are also a number of community organisations that may have an interest in or, as part of 

their activities, a likely involvement in activities that may affect Aboriginal relics, e.g. 

volunteer fire-fighters, environmental care groups such as those who regenerate bushland 

vegetation and educational organisations. 

Recommendations that certain stake holders should be consulted may be accepted in principle 

but lead nowhere unless relevant procedures are initiated and responsibilities for action 

allocated. 

Management regulations may be framed but have little effect unless their purpose is both 

understood and accepted by those whom they affect, and, but conditional on the former, their 

observance is enforced when necessary. 



10.7 Recommendations 

10.7.1 General Recommendations 

The following recommendations are made on the basis of discussions above. They are seen as a 

beginning and as laying foundations for heritage management within the study areas, but will 

undoubtedly need to be developed further. Initial recommendations are: 

1. (a) That the Great Lakes Shire Council (GLSC) appoint one or more Aboriginal liaison 

officers to liase with the FLALC and any other relevant body of Aboriginal representatives, 

or 

(b) Delegate to one or more council employees a responsibility to consult with the FLALC 

and other relevant Aboriginal representatives and effectively transmit suggestions, 

proposals, and information about their concerns. Such information should include 

notification of development applications. 

2. That the GLSC in consultation with the FLALC initiate a heritage committee to help shape 

suitable educational and community liaison programs and develop guide lines for heritage 

identification and management ; 

3. That such committee comprise representatives of the GLSC, the FLALC and other relevant 

stake holders, as identified through community consultation; 

4. That such liaison officer/employee in consultation with FLALC and other committee 

members develop programs of education, community consultation and investigation; 

5. That the GLSC investigate means of developing and pursuing a program of heritage 

identification and protection; 

6. That the GLSC set an example by routinely considering the need for and allocating funds 

for heritage investigations and/or management with regard to its own activities; and 

7. That the GLSC routinely include attention to potential heritage needs in conditions imposed 

in relation to granting development consents. 

10.7.2 Specific Recommendations 

Several recommendations are appropriate for the lake shore parts of the SLA but have 

particular application to the SLVA: 

8. That the 30 m no development zone along the shore be strictly enforced; 

9. That any management/protective works to be undertaken within this zone, e.g. as part of the 

Coast Care programme, involve prior consultation with the FLALC; 



10. That any landscaping or excavation, e.g. for drainage or amenities, within public land 

behind the actual beach include consultation with and monitoring by the FLALC; and 

11. Such consultation/monitoring be encouraged or, if possible, required with regard to 

developments on private land. 

10.8 European Heritage 

Items or places of heritage value have been investigated by referring to heritage registers and 

schedules maintained by a variety of public and private organisations. No items or places of 

local, regional, state significance were found. Results are shown in Table 10-1. 

Table 10-1 European Heritage 

Organisation Source / Method Result 

Australian Heritage 

Commission. 

Great Lakes Council. 

National Trust of Australia 

(NSW). 

NSW Department of Urban 

Affairs and Planning. 

NSW Heritage Office. 

Register of the National Estate. 

Search using WWW site. 

Search of Great Lakes Local Environmental 

Plan 1996 

Register. 

Search of Great Lakes LGA. 

Hunter REP 1989. 

Telephone inquiry. 

State Heritage Inventory & s170 Register. 

Search using WWW site. 

No listings in study area. 

Listings in adjacent areas. 











Figure 10-2 Lake Shore in the Area of Site 38-2-14, Recorded in 1984. 

Figure 10-3 Large Flake with Chopping Edges on Two Margins Found Below Eroding 

Midden 



(Stone artefacts can be seen in the water along the shore. Camera facing south.) 

Figure 10-4 Stone Artefacts on Eastern Shore of Smiths Lake Village Area 

Figure 10-5 Broken Flake In The Water Below The Shore Line. 



(Camera facing north) 

Figure 10-6 Scarred Tree in the NW Part of the Smiths Lake Village Area. 



(just south of Boomerang Drive leading up to major ridge line - Camera facing east) 

Figure 10-7 Location of Isolated Find on Dirt Track 


INFRASTRUCTURE 128 

11 INFRASTRUCTURE 

11.1 Sewer 

Council has recently constructed a reticulated sewerage scheme for the Pacific Palms and 

Smiths Lake areas. During planning of the scheme, three major documents were released: 

• Pacific Palms Sewerage Strategy Study (Public Works Department, 1991); 

• Forster and Pacific Palms Sewerage Scheme Environmental Impact Statement (Manidis 

Roberts, 1993); and 

• Pacific Palms Sewerage Scheme Concept Design Report (Public Works Department, 

1993). 

After extensive investigations and discussions with local communities, Council has constructed 

a new waste water treatment plant (WWTP) between Smiths Lake and Charlotte Bay. The plant 

treats sewage to a secondary level from the communities of Elizabeth Beach, Boomerang 

Beach, Blueys Beach, Charlotte Bay, Tarbuck Bay, Sandbar and Smiths Lake. Following 

secondary treatment, effluent is transferred to the Forster WWTP for tertiary treatment, 

discharge and/or reuse. 

The strategy caters for holiday season loadings, and will provide for an equivalent population 

in 2016 of about 15,000 , or 3,500 equivalent tenements. Stage 1 will meet the loading of 

10,000 equivalent persons in the year 2006; Stage 2 will meet the loading of 15,000 equivalent 

persons in the year 2016. 

The current service area is shown in Figure 11-1. 

Areas outside of the current service area may be able to be connected economically to existing 

sewer mains, provided that there is sufficient capacity in sewer mains and in the throughput of 

the Forster waste water treatment plant. 

The Smiths Lake waste water treatment plant is expected to be brought on line by 2004. The 

current system of reticulating sewerage to Forster waste water treatment plant will then be 

changed to provide secondary treatment at Smiths Lake prior to pumping treated effluent to 

Forster. 

Great Lakes Council advises that there are no practical capacity limitations to extending sewer 

to the nine development precincts identified in the land capability assessment. Line capacity 

may need to be re-examined in some cases, but this is unlikely to be a deterrent to future 

development. 

A 400 m radius buffer from the Smiths Lake waste water treatment plant, as shown in Figure 

11-1, would reduce the development potential of the southern portion of the Northeast Smiths 

Lake Precinct. 



A U S T R A L I A

INFRASTRUCTURE 129 

11.2 Other Services 

NorthPower provides electricity to the study area. It advises that sufficient capacity is available 

to service future development. 

MidCoast Water provides reticulated water services to Pacific Palms, Smiths Lake and Tarbuck 

Bay. Water is pumped from Forster to storage reservoirs at Elizabeth Beach and Smiths Lake. 

From these reservoirs, water is reticulated by gravity throughout the service area. 

MidCoast Water advises that the nine development precincts are able to be serviced by 

reticulated water. Reticulated water can be provided to all areas up to 40 m AHD and maintain 

adequate head pressure from main storage reservoirs. The maximum service elevation is 76 m 

AHD. Developments between 40 m and 76 m AHD would need to provide booster systems to 

maintain adequate line pressure. 



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BUSHFIRE MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATION 130 

12 BUSHFIRE MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATION 

12.1 Fire History 

Bush fires occur within the region on a regular basis, although a record of the fire history 

within the study area as a whole has not been kept so far (Ian Lewis pers.comm.). NSW State 

Forests (Buladelah office) have, however, kept a record for fires originating from, or impacting 

on, the State Forest areas to the north-west. While some of these have been wild fires, most 

were initiated for fuel reduction purposes (prescribed burns). The year of last fire along the 

north-western boundary are listed in Table 12-1 (from State Forests of NSW fire management 

maps). 

Table 12-1 Fire History Along the North-western Boundary 

Location 

Years of Last Fire 

Western boundary (north to Sugar Creek Road) 1994-95 

North-western boundary (along Southern Boundary Road) 1991-92 

Central northern boundary (east of Southern Boundary Road to the eastern edge 

of the State Forest) 

before 1980-81 

(probably early 1950’s) 

12.2 Factors Influencing Fire Hazard 

There are four factors which are the main contributors to fire hazard within the study area, 

including the nature of the vegetation, weather, slope, and the degree of development and 

human occupation. 

12.2.1 Vegetation 

The majority of the study area is covered with forest, apart from some cleared areas which 

occur mostly along the Lakes Way. Like most other Australian forests, the majority of this 

forest is adapted to, or is a result of, a regular incidence of fire. Vegetation types particularly 

susceptible to fire include the dry sclerophyll and heathland types, which cover the southern 

parts of the study area (including the SLVA) and the areas adjacent to the Lakes Way (Figure 

12-1). These types tend to carry a dense ground cover of grasses and other low herbs and 

shrubs which easily dry out and provide fuel for fires. They include the paperbark swamp 

forests which, although very wet during most of the year, can dry out during dry spells. Such 

forests often have a considerable biomass in the ground layer, providing fuel during bushfires. 

The high frequency of fires commonly experienced in dry sclerophyll communities (whether 

prescribed or wildfires) regularly reduces the fuel load, resulting in relatively low intensity 

fires. Exclusion of fire for extended periods of time can, however, result in high fuel loads with 

the potential to develop intense fires. All dry sclerophyll communities therefore represent a fire 

hazard. 



A U S T R A L I A


The incidence of fire in the wet sclerophyll types in the north-west would be lower than in the 

dry sclerophyll. As noted in Table, the last fire in the State Forest area adjacent to the central 

northern boundary of the study area was probably 50 years ago, suggesting that the wet 

sclerophyll forest which adjoins this area (within the study area) may have been fire free for a 

similar period. It should be noted, however, that wet sclerophyll forests do burn periodically. If 

the understorey is sufficiently dry, the fuel load can be considerable, which would result in high 

intensity fires. all wet sclerophyll forests therefore represent a fire hazard, particularly during 

extended dry periods. 

Small patches of rainforest occurring in the eastern part of the study area would generally have 

developed in an absence of fire. Such forests are unlikely to develop fire or carry fire, due to 

perennially moist conditions and an open understorey with relatively little fuel. These forests 

do not represent a major fire hazard. 

12.2.2 Weather 

In general, fire conditions develop in August during dry westerly winds. These conditions tend 

to last to November when the rainfall increases. Another fire season may occur during late 

January or February when the rainfall has tapered off. In this later season, re-ignitions from 

open-ended burning or lightning strikes can produce large, high intensity fires. 

12.2.3 Slope and Aspect 

The potential for fire is also influenced by slope and aspect (Figure 12-2). Where a fire hazard 

exists (ie where there is sufficient dry fuel), slopes facilitate fire moving upslope, but hinder 

fires moving downslope, particularly when slopes are steep. In response to the position of the 

sun and the dry westerly winds (see above), fire hazard is also increased on northern and 

western slopes and reduced on southern and eastern slopes. 

Several ridge systems occur within the study area. These are moderately steep and tend to run 

from the north-west to the south-east. While slopes as such are therefore important in the likely 

fire behaviour within the study area, aspect on these ridges is generally of little consequence, as 

most locations would be exposed to either the north or west. This is reflected in the vegetation 

on the slopes which is similar on either side of the ridge (Figure 12-1). There are, however, a 

number of areas on steep slopes with a north-western aspect which represent areas of particular 

risk. These are mainly concentrated in the SLVA. 

12.2.4 Development 

Increased development and human occupation has the potential to affect fire hazard in a 

number of contrasting ways. While vegetation clearing and construction of roads and other 

hard surfaces can reduce the spread of fire, the incidence of fires tends to increase due to 

deliberate or accidental ignition by a larger human population. Increased human population is 

usually also accompanied by modifications to the vegetation of the area, whether from 

increased fire or otherwise, resulting in types of vegetation which are often more readily burned 

than the original. 



A U S T R A L I A


Substantial modification would have occurred to the vegetation surrounding the developed 

areas in the southern part of the study area and along the Lakes Way. As these areas coincide 

with the “dry sclerophyll forest” types (in contrast to the “wet sclerophyll” remainder of the 

study area), it is suggested that the “dry sclerophyll” nature of these forest is the direct result of 

human interference within the ecology of this vegetation. However, further research through 

checking of historic records and survey maps would be required to confirm this observation. 

Vegetation clearance may reduce the fire hazard only if the amount of fuel within the cleared 

area is kept low, such as in the grazed land along Sugar Creek Road. In the absence of grazing, 

mowing, or slash and removal, an increase in the biomass of the ground layer vegetation 

(which naturally tends to follow the clearing of tree canopies) would substantially increase the 

risk and spread of fire. 

12.2.5 Fire Hazard Map 

Fire hazard levels were determined as per Table 12-2. The distribution of these levels within 

the study area is shown in Figure 12-3. It should be noted that these levels are indicative only 

and are subject to all of the caveats outlined above. In particular, hazard is highly dependent on 

weather conditions, with hazard considerably enhanced during dry spells, and reduced during 

prolonged wet periods. Hazard may also be reduced considerably through appropriate fire 

management. 

Table 12-2 Determination of Fire Hazard Levels 

Level 

Very high 

High 

Medium 

Low 

Determinants 

Dry sclerophyll communities on steep slopes 

Dry sclerophyll communities 

Wet sclerophyll communities 

Rainforests 

12.3 Damage Potential 

While fire has the potential to cause damage to developments and human life, it may also be 

deleterious to particular ecosystems and species, as discussed below. 

12.3.1 Life and Property 

The potential for fire damage to life and property is presently concentrated in the SLVA and 

along the Lakes Way. The SLVA is particularly at risk from fire as it is located on steep land 

with a number of north-western facing slopes covered with easily combustible dry sclerophyll 

vegetation. The relatively large human population not only indicates that the risk to life could 

be high, but that the potential for ignition is also high. 

Several individual dwellings are also scattered in small forest clearings and along the forest 

edge elsewhere within the study area. These properties are also at risk during bushfire. 



A U S T R A L I A


Smoke arising from bushfires would also have the potential to endanger traffic along the roads 

traversing the study area, particularly on the well used Lakes Way. 

12.3.2 Ecosystems and Species 

As noted above, vegetation types within the study area have adapted to different fire regimes. 

In general, “dry sclerophyll forest” types would have a greater fire frequency than “wet 

sclerophyll forest” types. Although both types would be damaged in the short term by fire, both 

would require fire periodically to maintain their characteristic species composition and 

structure in the long term. Other types, including the “rainforest” types would be damaged in 

the long term by any substantial fire. 

In general, the ability of individual species to respond to fire is reflective of the response of the 

general ecosystem in which they are found, and do not warrant particular attention. The 

exceptions are highly valued species such as rare and threatened species. While the response of 

many of these species to fire is not known precisely, estimates can be made on the basis of the 

response from the ecosystems in which they most often occur or on the basis of known 

responses from closely related species. Table 12-3 lists the rare and threatened species found or 

likely to occur within the study area and their response to fire. Most of the species listed are 

likely to be fire sensitive, and fire should be excluded for long term survival. 

Table 12-3 Fire Response of Rare and Threatened Species 

Species Prevalent Ecosystem Estimated Response to Fire 

Plants 

Asperula asthenes Damp sites on riverbanks Plant and seed killed (long term damage to 

population) 

Chamaesyce psammogeton Sand dunes Woody rootstock would afford some protection to 

light fires, but probably killed by intense fires, 

which, however, are unlikely to occur often on 

dunes. It would, therefore, appear to be adapted to 

occasional light fires. 

Cynanchum elegans Littoral rainforest Plant and seed killed (long term damage to 

population) 

Sysygium paniculatum Littoral rainforest Plant and seed killed (long term damage to 

population), though when fully grown into a tree, 

this plant may survive a very light fire. 

Animals 

Koala (Phascolarctos 

cinereus) 

Squirrel Glider (Petaurus 

norfolcensis) 

Sclerophyll 

Sclerophyll 

Able to withstand cool ground fires, but killed in 

hot canopy fires 


hot canopy fires. Able to move to nearby fire free 



A U S T R A L I A


Species Prevalent Ecosystem Estimated Response to Fire 

areas if connected by a continuous canopy 

Rufous Bettong 

(Aepyprymnus rufescens) 

Long-nosed Potoroo 

(Perameles nasuta) 

Yellow-bellied Glider 

(Petaurus australis) 

Eastern Chestnut Mouse 

(Pseudomys gracilicaudatus) 

Little Bent-wing Bat 

(Miniopterus australis) 

Large Bent-wing Bat 

(Miniopterus schreibersii) 

Greater Broad-nosed Bat 

(Scoteanax rueppelii) 

Hoary Bat (Chalinolobus 

nigrogriseus) 

Golden-tipped Bat 

(Kerivoula papuensis) 

Wompoo Fruit-dove 

(Ptilinopus magnificus) 

Masked Owl (Tyto 

novaehollandiae) 

Dense grass cover 

Sclerophyll with dense under 

storey 

Sclerophyll (mostly wet) 

Sclerophyll (mostly wet) 

Variable 

Variable 

Wet sclerophyll and rainforest 

Variable 

Variable 

Rainforest 

Strongly affected by fires 



hot canopy fires 


Roost affected by hot canopy fires, otherwise able 

to fly to fire free areas 









Unlikely to be affected by fire. Able to fly away 

from fire 

Nest affected by hot canopy fires, otherwise able 


12.4 Fire Fighting Infrastructure 

There are a number of roads, tracks, and trails traversing the study area which are providing 

both fire breaks and access for fire fighting, particularly in areas where the risk for damage to 

life and property is highest (ie along Lakes Way and in the SLVA). Tracks also occur along the 

perimeter of the State Forest area in the north-west and in the south-eastern part of the Wallis 

Creek catchment (in the eastern part of the study area), while trails occur along the length of the 

main ridges. 

Watering points have a similar distribution, with most concentrated in areas of habitation, 

providing ready access during fire fighting. 

While access to the central northern (west of Lakes Way) and north-eastern (east of Lakes 

Way) parts of the study area is among the most difficult within the study area, and watering 



A U S T R A L I A


points do not occur here, there is presently relatively little risk to life and property within these 

areas. However, there are a number of ecosystems (eg littoral rainforests and cabbage tree palm 

forest) within these areas which require fire to be excluded or minimised and which therefore 

require access for fire fighting. In addition, as the areas adjacent to the Lakes Way have been 

designated for development, improved fire fighting access will be required in these areas in the 

future. 

Specific fire management strategies to prevent, minimise, and mitigate damage from fire (or a 

lack of fire) are described in the Section 12-5. 

12.5 Fire Zoning and Management Strategies 

To facilitate planning for fire management, two fire management zones have been identified 

within the study area on the basis of the intended usage of these zones. These include a 

development zone, which includes land that is either developed or is proposed for development, 

and a conservation zone, which covers the remaining majority of the study area. 

12.5.1 Development Zone 

The objective of fire management within the development zone would be to minimise the risk 

of bushfire to life and property, while minimising the impact of fire management on the visual 

qualities and other conservation values of this zone. 

Specific planning strategies available to achieve this objective in areas subject to medium-very 

high fire hazard include the following: 

Fire Protection Zone (FPZ) 

A FPZ should be provided between the development and any major source of potential bushfire 

fuel (ie the bush edge) to ensure that progressive fuel reduction occurs towards the 

development. The FPZ incorporates a Fuel Reduced Zone (FRZ) towards the source of 

bushfires and a Fuel Free Zone (FFZ) nearer the development. 

The fuel load within the FRZ should be kept to a level where the fire intensity expected will not 

impact on adjacent developments. This would generally be 8 t/ha. The width of this zone would 

vary from 10 m on flat ground to 60 m where the hazard is downhill on a slope of 20 degrees or 

over (Table 12-4). 

The FFZ consists of a zone of 20 m width, incorporating on the outside a road or track with a 

minimum width of 6 m and passing bays about every 200 m, and an area cleared of fuel on the 

inside. Where the hazard is downhill, additional cleared areas will be required as a buffer 

within lots located immediately on the inside of this reserve, as shown in Table 12-4. The 

additional cleared area required within allotments located on slopes uphill from potential fire 

hazards limits the minimum depth of the allotments as shown in Table 12-4. 



A U S T R A L I A


Access 

Access to perimeter roads and tracks should be of a design and construction standard to allow 

unrestricted two-way movement of fire fighting trucks of a fully loaded weight of 28 tonnes or 

8 tonnes per axle. In this respect, curves should be minimised and have a minimum inner radius 

of 12 m and grades should not exceed 15%. Any dead end road should not exceed 200 m in 

length and incorporate a 12.5 m turning circle at the end. Perimeter tracks should be connected 

to the subdivision road network at regular intervals to facilitate access. 

Subdivision Design and Staging 

Subdivision lay-outs should be square or circular whenever practicable in order to minimise 

perimeter length for any given subdivision area. Bottleneck designs should be avoided as these 

hinder access to and from either side of the bottleneck. The same principle applies to additional 

developments. These should preferably be situated in such a manner that the total perimeter 

(around both the new and old development) is minimised. 

Where developments are staged, the perimeter should be developed fully first. This would 

result in a line of dwellings, which tends to minimise the threat to the remaining part of the 

subdivision through the provision of cleared areas, access, and other fire prevention and fire 

fighting features. 

Table 12-4 Fire Protection Zones 

Aspect: for N, N.W., W, S.W. and S. slopes 

Slope FPZ = FRZ + FFZ FFZ = PR + Cleared 

Part of Lot 

Minimum Lot 

Depth 

0° 30 = 10 + 20 20 = 20 + 0 30 

5° 35 = 15 + 20 20 = 20 + 0 30 

10° 45 = 20 + 25 25 = 20 + 5 35 

15° 70 = 40 + 30 30 = 20 + 10 40 

20° 100 = 60 + 40 40 = 20 + 20 50 



A U S T R A L I A


Aspect: for N.E., E and S.E. slopes 

Slope FPZ = FRZ + FFZ FFZ = PR + Cleared 

Part of Lot 

Minimum Lot 

Depth 

0° 30 = 10 + 20 20 = 20 + 0 30 

5° 30 = 10 + 20 20 = 20 + 0 30 

10° 35 = 15 + 20 20 = 20 + 0 30 

15° 40 = 20 + 20 20 = 20 + 0 30 

20° 60 = 30 + 30 30 = 20 + 10 40 

Source: Gates, A., 1991, Planning for Bushfire Protection, NSW Department of BushFire Service, Rosehill, Sydney. 

FPZ = Fire Protection Zone 

FRZ = Fuel Reduced Zone 

FFZ = Fuel Free Zone 

PR = Perimeter Road 

Assumes house envelope (house and surrounding yard) of 30m and includes the cleared part of the lot; 

Distances are measured in metres horizontally. 

12.5.2 Conservation Zone 

The objective of fire management within the conservation zone would be to meet the fire needs 

of ecosystems and species. 

As noted in Section 12.2.1, the various vegetation communities encountered within the study 

area would have developed under different fire regimes. Any change in the fire regime 

experienced would result in a change of the vegetation composition and structure. While 

detailed information on the fire history is not available, comparison with the fire histories and 

fire regime experience from elsewhere (NPWS 1998 a, b) suggest that a relatively limited 

number of regimes would cover most of the communities encountered within the study area. 

These are listed in Table 12-5. It should be noted that these regimes are designed to maintain 

the existing vegetation communities. If the management objective were to restore the species 

composition and structure of the vegetation found in the area prior to European arrival, it is 

likely that the incidence of fire should be reduced further. As noted in a Section 12.5.1, further 

research would be required on this topic. 



A U S T R A L I A


Table 12-5 Suggested Fire Regimes for the Maintenance of Vegetation Communities 

Community 

Littoral rainforest 

Fire Management Regimes 

Fire excluded 

Wet sclerophyll forest Decline expected if successive fires, of any intensity, occur less than 50 

years apart; 

Decline expected if there are no fires for more than 200 years. 

Dry sclerophyll forest 

Decline expected if more than 2 successive fires occur at intervals of less 

than 5 years; 

Decline expected if there are no fires for more than 30 years; 

Decline expected if successive fires occur which totally scorch or 

consume the tree canopy. 

Shrubland/heath 

complex 

Decline expected if more than 2 successive fires occur at intervals of less 

than 8 years; 

Decline expected if there are no fires for more than 15 years; 

Decline expected if no fire occurs for more than 30 years. 

Most of the rare or threatened species found within the study area are likely to be fire sensitive. 

Fire should therefore be excluded from known locations of such species. These are generally 

likely to be in places which would naturally have a low fire incidence. However, additional 

ignitions and other disturbance arising from such developments as access roads may add to the 

local extinction risk of these species. Fire breaks or other fire prevention methods (eg fencing to 

restrict access) may assist in the prevention of fire damage to these species. 



A U S T R A L I A

LAND SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT 139 

13 LAND SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT 

13.1 Approach 

Land capability introduced the idea that site specific environmental characteristics place 

limitations on the ability of land to be altered or developed. Limitations, or constraints to 

development, may be so severe that they render land undevelopable. Other constraints require 

management to avoid adverse outcomes. 

The land capability assessment examined physical, ecological and visual management 

constraints. Nine land capability precincts were identified in which development could be 

considered, subject to sustainable management of their capability constraints. 

Land suitability addresses additional characteristics that may constrain potential development. 

They are not physical constraints so much as socio-economic and community-value constraints. 

These constraints can only be managed at additional cost or loss of values that are held to be 

worthwhile by the community. 

13.2 Suitability Constraints 

Three suitability constraints are investigated, as required by Council’s Brief: 

• Aboriginal and European Heritage, reviewed in Chapter 10; 

• Provision of reticulated sewer and water, reviewed in Chapter 11; 

• Bushfire management, reviewed in Chapter 12. 

In addition, the land capability assessment highlighted five important constraints that require 

additional evaluation: 

• The level of development or change that would be consistent with Medium Habitat Value 

Areas; 

• The level of development that can be managed in Zone 2 Visual Management Areas; 

• The level of development that can be managed in areas with high sensitivity for 

maintenance of water quality; 

• The level of development that can be managed in the R2 Terrain Unit; 

• The effect of effluent disposal on development patterns. 

These constraints are characterised by varying degrees of impact or risk to the environment. 

13.2.1 Aboriginal and European Heritage 

Among other things, Chapter 10 highlights that little is known of the presence or location of 

Aboriginal artefacts or places in the Smiths Lake Area. A number of activities, including 

development, contribute to the disturbance or loss of local Aboriginal cultural heritage. 



A U S T R A L I A


Based on the two distribution models, ridge and lake foreshore areas are more likely to contain 

evidence of Aboriginal occupation or use than other areas. A 30 m development exclusion zone 

adjacent to foreshore areas should be established. Several additional recommendations are 

presented that primarily focus on improving consultation and communication between the 

Council, the Forster Local Aboriginal Land Council and land owners. 

No items or places of European heritage are listed within the Smiths Lake Area and they are not 

further considered. 

13.2.2 Infrastructure 

13.2.2.1 Sewer 

With the completion of the first stage of the Pacific Palms reticulation scheme, the Smiths Lake 

Village Area, Tarbuck Bay and Charlotte Bay are now connected to the reticulated sewerage 

system. By 2004, the Pacific Palms Waste Water Treatment Plant will begin to treat effluent 

prior to pumping to the Forster Waste Water Treatment Plant. 

The nine land capability precincts could be serviced by reticulated sewer, subject to the 

developers meeting the costs to increase headwork capacity and provide mains and internal 

reticulation to their developments. 

Line capacity to Tarbuck Bay may become a constraint if future demand in the land capability 

precincts south of the Pacific Palms Waste Water Treatment Plant exceeds the existing line’s 

capacity. If this were to occur, the line would need to be upgraded to provide additional 

capacity. Additional investigation would be required to determine a servicing strategy for 

reticulating sewer. 

The costs of providing reticulated sewer may be substantial, particularly to extend past existing 

serviced areas. The Northeast and Northwest Smiths Lake and Cellito / Sandbar land capability 

precincts are either adjacent to existing sewer mains or are a short distance from serviced areas. 

However, extension of reticulated sewer to the Tarbuck Park and Sugar Creek Road land 

capability precincts would be costly. It would also be inefficient for Council to extend and 

maintain services to these Precincts prior to more efficiently serviced areas being further 

developed. 

A 400 m buffer should be maintained around the Pacific Palms Waste Water Treatment Plant, 

following the recommendation in the Forster and Pacific Palms Sewerage Scheme EIS by 

Manidis Roberts (1993). Within this buffer, most development would be prohibited. Some rural 

land uses could be considered if they were not affected by odour or noise, and were not likely 

to create conflict with the Pacific Palms Waste Water Treatment Plant. 

13.2.2.2 Water 

The nine land capability precincts could be serviced by reticulated water to an elevation of 

40 m AHD. Between 40 and 76 m AHD, booster pumps would be needed to maintain adequate 



A U S T R A L I A


line pressure. It may be costly for MidCoast Water to install and service a network of booster 

pumps. 

Water should be reticulated to locations where reticulated sewer is available or can be extended 

to service land suitability precincts. In areas that will not be provided with reticulated sewer, 

Council should consider whether it is desirable to require a reticulated water supply. The 

efficiency and sustainability of on onsite effluent disposal systems may be compromised by 

large water volume inputs. 

The extension of reticulated water is practical to all land capability precincts. 

13.2.3 Bush Fire Hazard 

Fire hazard is primarily controlled by vegetation type, slope, weather conditions, and intensity 

of development. Fire hazard levels are low in rainforest communities, and increase in wet and 

dry sclerophyll communities. Steep slopes with north or west aspects have higher hazard levels 

than flat terrain of slopes with aspects to the east and south. 

Two management zones – development and conservation – are proposed. The fire management 

objective in the development zone is to minimise risk of bush fire to life or property. 

Development within this zone is constrained by the need to establish a fire protection zone 

incorporating fuel reduced and fuel free zones. The need to minimise subdivision perimeter 

length may be difficult given certain site conditions such as slope, connection to the existing 

road network or property ownership. 

Areas with high fire hazard are found in cleared land. The hazard level is caused by existing 

grasses and ground and shrub vegetation. Because some of these areas do not contain attributes 

such as medium or high conservation value or slope instability, the fuel source could be 

removed in the course of development, thereby reducing or eliminating the existing fire hazard. 

These areas should be considered suitable for urban scale subdivision and development, 

provided that measures to manage fuel as discussed in Section 12.5 are implemented. Rural 

residential development, or similar forms of low density development that are likely to result in 

extensive areas of grass land or regeneration of native vegetation, should not be permitted. 

Areas with very high fire hazard levels and those areas adjacent to very high hazard areas are 

excluded because of the high risk to property and life and the inability to reduce and 

sustainably manage fire hazard without substantial adverse effects on visual qualities and 

habitat values. The Tarbuck Park land capability precinct contains high and very high hazard 

levels due to vegetation, slope and aspect. 

13.2.4 Medium Habitat Value Areas 

Low and Medium Habitat Value Areas include all locations other than roads, quarries, utility 

clearings, water bodies and urban areas in the Smiths Lake Area and Smiths Lake Village Area. 

High Habitat Value Areas are mostly a subset of Medium Habitat Value Areas. 



A U S T R A L I A


If all Medium and High Habitat Value Areas were excluded from development consideration, 

about 350 ha of land would remain, most of which is scattered in small pockets where pasture 

or clearing has disturbed native vegetation. Contiguous Low Habitat Value Areas of substantial 

size are found in the Sugar Creek Road, Northwest Smiths Lake, Northeast Smiths Lake 

Precincts, and directly west of Blueys Beach. 

Medium Value Habitat Areas are based on a range of factors that are given scores between 9 

and 14. Because the ranking distinguishes only three categories of habitat value, it does not 

readily show the transition between Low and Medium, and Medium and High Habitat Value 

Areas. 

Medium Value Habitat Areas that are contiguous with Low Value Habitat Areas are more 

likely to have lower scores than those adjacent to or surrounded by High Habitat Value Areas. 

For this reason, Medium Value Habitat Areas are excluded from the Land Suitability Precincts 

where they are adjacent to areas containing High Value Habitat Areas. 

Future development proposals within precincts containing Medium Habitat Value Areas would 

need to be assessed under Section 5A of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 

1979. Their inclusion in a land suitability precincts is neither a substitute for further assessment, 

nor a finding that they should be able to be developed. 

This study would provide important background and survey information to assist with the 

preparation of Section 5A assessments. 

13.2.5 Zone 2 Visual Management Areas 

Zone 2 Visual Management Areas include Landscape Units with medium to high visual quality 

combined with moderate and high sensitivity foreground and middle ground viewing 

opportunities. 

Management of development within Zone 2 is based on maintaining a predominantly natural 

state. It provides opportunities for development of small scale, low structures, clad in natural 

materials, and sited to minimise disturbance of native vegetation. 

The area west of Blueys Beach is within a Zone 2 Visual Management Area. It does not contain 

other capability constraints and is therefore identified as a land suitability precinct. 

Development within Zone 2 areas should be of a lower density and scale to minimise the loss 

of visual quality to adjacent viewing areas for residents and visitors. Site-specific development 

control plans that address development form, landscaping, earthworks and density should be 

prepared to guide development of Zone 2 areas. With suitable design and construction 

responses, the loss of visual quality can be minimised. 

Good examples of low visual impact developments in urban settings are found in Pacific Palms 

and Smiths Lake Village. 



A U S T R A L I A


13.2.6 High Water Quality Sensitivity Areas 

Areas that have high sensitivity for maintenance of water quality are determined based on a 

combination of slope, proximity to waterways, soil type, presence of vegetation, and whether 

they are now provided with reticulated sewer. 

Due to the manner in which the limits for low, medium and high are defined, the value for 

sewer could push a low or medium scoring area to a medium or high score, notwithstanding 

that it may be economical and practical to extend reticulated sewer to those areas in the future. 

Accordingly, a revised score for areas with high sensitivity has been prepared to eliminate the 

influence of whether existing reticulated sewer is available. 

Areas with high sensitivity, without reference to whether existing reticulated sewer is available, 

will be difficult to manage sustainably unless, among other things, they can by provided with 

reticulated sewer. Accordingly, areas with high sensitivity in the Tarbuck Park and Sugar Creek 

Road land capability precincts are excluded from land suitability precincts. 

A buffer area 30 m in width from the centre line of all watercourses should be protected from 

clearing or other disturbance in all developments. 

13.2.7 R2 Terrain Unit 

The R2 Terrain Unit includes land with a slope between 25° and 40° with medium slope 

instability and moderate sheet erosion hazard. In the land capability assessment, it is not a 

constraint that precludes development. However, the unit has moderate to severe physical 

limitations. 

The R2 Terrain Unit occurs to a limited extent in the Sugar Creek Road, Tarbuck Bay, 

Northeast Smiths Lake and Cellito / Sandbar land capability precincts. It covers most of the 

Tarbuck Park land capability precinct. 

Given the limitations of this unit, and the long term effort needed to sustainably manage 

potential impacts, the R2 Terrain Unit is excluded from land suitability precincts. 

13.2.8 Effect of Effluent Disposal on Development Patterns 

Given the high water quality of Smiths Lake, and Council’s interests in maintaining water 

quality, future development in the Smiths Lake Area should generally be connected to the 

reticulated sewerage system. Development within the Smiths Lake Village Area, the Northeast 

Smiths Lake, Northwest Smiths Lake, and Tarbuck Bay Precincts, and the area west of Blueys 

Beach, should be provided with reticulated sewer. Development of these precincts without the 

provision of reticulated sewer will increase the complexity of systems needed to maintain water 

quality in Smiths and Wallis Lakes and the risk of degrading water quality. 

13.2.8.1 Sugar Creek Road 

The Sugar Creek Road land capability precinct is furthest from the limit of the reticulated 

sewerage system and is characterised by low density development in an open visual 



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environment. Development at a density that allows sustainable onsite effluent disposal – 

perhaps 5 to 10 ha per lot – would be consistent with the existing character and underlying 

subdivision pattern. 

Further redevelopment in the Sugar Creek Road precinct could be considered if studies 

establish that it has suitable characteristics to allow sustainable onsite effluent disposal. Such 

studies should address Council’s current and emerging policies on onsite effluent disposal, and 

guidelines prepared by the NSW Environment Protection Authority. 

13.2.8.2 Cellito / Sandbar 

The Cellito / Sandbar precinct is now used for tourist accommodation and recreation facilities. 

Occupation, and therefore the generation of wastewater, is variable and likely to be subject to 

significant peak loads during holiday periods. 

The Cellito / Sandbar land capability precinct could be provided with reticulated sewer. This 

would be desirable because it would reduce the existing risk of pollution of groundwater or 

Symes Bay during peak holiday use. 

However, the provision of reticulated sewer could create an expectation of more intense and 

extensive development, so that the costs of providing reticulated sewer could be distributed 

more economically and recovered. 

The Cellito / Sandbar land capability precinct is located in a sensitive area that is subject to 

constraints other than water quality – habitat values, visual management and bush fire hazard. 

Expectations of urban scale development should not be supported unless further assessments 

identify Cellito / Sandbar’s environmental carrying capacity and its ability to sustain more 

intense development 

13.3 Land Suitability Precincts 

Based on the delineation of land capability precincts, and the modification to them required by 

consideration of the suitability criteria considered above, land suitability precincts are presented 

in Figure 13.1. The seven individual precincts are presented in Figures 13.2 to 13.8, and are 

discussed in detail below. 

13.3.1 Blueys Beach 

This precinct could accept development at a density and scale that minimises the loss of visual 

quality to adjacent viewing areas for residents and visitors. Site-specific development control 

plans should be prepared that address development form, landscaping, earthworks and density 

to guide development. 

The precinct is located within one lot and can be provided with reticulated water and sewerage. 

Vegetation is highly modified and of Low Habitat Value. Steep slope constrains the extent of 

development, however, water quality could be maintained by implementing best-practice 

management techniques for stormwater. 



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The Blueys Beach land suitability precinct is about 4 ha in area. 

13.3.2 Northwest Smiths Lake 

The Northwest Smiths Lake land suitability precinct is about 44 ha in area. It includes five 

large rural lots and has the same boundaries as its land capability precinct. 

This land suitability precinct contains Medium Value Habitat Areas that may limit the intensity 

or extent of development under a Section 5A assessment. 

13.3.3 Northeast Smiths Lake 

The Northeast Smiths Lake land suitability precinct is about 115 ha in area. It includes five 

large rural lots and land in Charlotte Bay and is similar to its land capability precinct except 

that it excludes: 

• an area to accommodate the buffer to the Pacific Palms waster water treatment plant; 

• steep land comprising the R2 Terrain Unit, very high bush fire hazard and Medium Habitat 

Value areas. 



13.3.4 Cellito / Sandbar 

The Cellito / Sandbar land suitability precinct is about 29 ha in area, and includes most of the 

existing development including the Sandbar Caravan Park (a small 2ha parcel of land to the 

south of the main portion of this precinct). 

It is similar to its land capability precinct except that it excludes land south and east of an 

existing track in a Medium Habitat Value Area that provides a buffer to sensitive dunal 

vegetation to the east. 



13.3.5 Tarbuck Bay 

The Tarbuck Bay land suitability precinct is about 16 ha in area, including existing urban 

development totalling about 9 ha. It is similar to its land capability precinct except that it 

excludes: 

• steep land comprising the R2 Terrain Unit; 

• Medium Value Habitat Areas. 





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To minimise changes to visual quality, native vegetation should be substantially retained to 

screen views of new development from adjacent residences and Smiths Lake. 

13.3.6 Sugar Creek Road 

The Sugar Creek Road land suitability precinct is about 47 ha in area. It is similar to its land 

capability precinct except that it excludes: 

• land with high sensitivity to maintenance of water quality; 

• land with very high bush fire hazard; 

• Medium Habitat Value Areas adjacent to High Habitat Value Areas along its western 

boundary; 

• steep land comprising the R2 Terrain Unit. 




There are three Smiths Lake Village land suitability precincts totalling about 28 ha in area, 

including existing development: 

• the Paradise Drive precinct of about 19 ha; 

• the Lodge precinct of about 5 ha; 

• the Macwood precinct of about 4 ha. 

These land suitability precincts contain Medium Value Habitat Areas that may limit the 

intensity or extent of redevelopment under a Section 5A assessment. 

13.3.8 Tarbuck Park 

The Tarbuck Park land capability precinct contains five constraints that preclude its inclusion in 

a land suitability precinct: 

• it contains mostly Medium Value Habitat Areas; 

• it is almost entirely within the R2 Terrain Unit; 

• it contains an area of high and very high bush fire hazard, due to steep slopes, north-easterly 

aspect and dry vegetation; 

• it is completely within an area with high sensitivity for maintenance of water quality, 

although it would be impractical to economically extend reticulated sewer; 

• it is within the Zone 3 visual management area and clearing to reduce bush fire hazard 

would be inconsistent with the zone’s objectives. 



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13.4 Opportunities 

Each land suitability precinct contains land that is suitable for development. However, existing 

factors, primarily existing subdivision patterns and the physical dimensions of certain land 

suitability precincts, are likely to preclude substantial development opportunities. 

Opportunities for each land suitability precincts are summarised below. 

13.4.1 Blueys Beach 

The northern part of this precinct would provide development opportunities for land with 

access to Boomerang Drive and Croll Street. Access to the southern part of this precinct could 

be gained via Samuel Street. 

This precinct could yield about 20 to 30 residential lots. 

13.4.2 Northwest Smiths Lake 

This precinct spans six lots. It provides opportunities for a variety of residential scale 

developments that could be coordinated by a development control plan. 

This precinct has few development constraints. At a net density of 8 dwellings per hectare, the 

precinct could yield up to 350 lots. 

Although land to the immediate north of this precinct is outside of the study area, it appears to 

have capability and suitability for further development. Accordingly, it should be considered in 

any future strategic studies or investigations of either the Northwest Smiths Lake or Northeast 

Smiths Lake precincts. 

13.4.3 Northeast Smiths Lake 

This precinct spans six large rural lots and the residential areas of Charlotte Bay. Due to the 

distance between The Lakes Way and Wallis Creek, opportunities for development to the west 

of The Lakes Way are limited to redevelopment and minor subdivision. Land to the east of The 

Lakes Way has some constraints but would provide opportunities for a range of development. 

13.4.4 Cellito / Sandbar 

Due to this precinct’s proximity to Symes Bay and coastal dunes, and the habitat conservation 

values of the surrounding land, it has limited opportunities for development. The following 

comments apply equally to the Cellito part of this precinct to the north and the Sandbar portion 

to the south (ie. the Sandbar Caravan Park). 

Intensification of development in this precinct should only occur if it is provided with 

reticulated sewerage. Expansion or extension of recreational and tourist facilities would be 

preferable to the introduction of development that provides permanent residential-scale 

development because: 



A U S T R A L I A


• permanent occupation would increase traffic on Sandbar Road and require its upgrading 

through areas of high value habitat; 

• permanent occupation would have the potential to degrade areas of medium and high value 

habitats by expanding edge effects, extending human disturbance, and introducing domestic 

pets; 

• permanent occupation would have the potential to degrade areas of coastal vegetation by 

expanding edge effects and extending human disturbance. 

In summary, if development were to be considered in this precinct, the following impacts, and 

the potential to sustainably manage them, should be addressed before a commitment to rezone 

land in this precinct is made: 

• legal and practical access, including consideration of upgrading requirements and associated 

impacts on natural features and water quality; 

• edge effects caused by more intense tourist development or permanent occupation; 

• costs, both public and private, to extend or augment utility services from existing supply 

points; and 

• the consequences of permanent occupation, including the ability of the environment to 

sustainably carry it. 

13.4.5 Tarbuck Bay 

This precinct includes the subdivided and developed areas of Tarbuck Bay. Opportunities for 

development occur to the north of existing development fronting Windsor Street, and to the 

north and west of Tudor Road. 

New development in this precinct should be provided with reticulated water and sewer. 

13.4.6 Sugar Creek Road 

Land within this precinct is already subdivided into lots ranging from 3 to 10 ha. Underlying 

property fragmentation, and existing dwellings, would make future redevelopment of this 

precinct difficult. Without reticulated sewer, lot sizes smaller than about 2 to 5 ha are unlikely 

to be achievable using on-site effluent disposal. Given these constraints, an additional increase 

in lot yield appears unlikely. 


The Lodge precinct straddles two lots at the end of Tropic Gardens Drive. The existing pattern 

of urban development could be continued in this precinct, provided that reticulated sewer is 

extended to new development. 

The Paradise Drive precinct is already subdivided into lots ranging between about 0.4 and 

1.0 ha. Underlying property fragmentation, and existing dwellings, would make future 

redevelopment of this precinct difficult. With the extension of reticulated sewer, re-subdivision 

may be achievable, if property owners wish. 



A U S T R A L I A


The Macwood precinct is a larger holding surrounded by urban development. It could be 

developed for urban uses provided that bush fire risk (mostly very high hazard) is managed 

according to the principles outlined in Chapter 12. 

As noted in Chapter 6, land that has been subdivided and can be used for urban scale 

development (subject to consent being obtained) is located within areas with medium and high 

conservation value. Within the framework of this study, this land does not have capability or 

suitability for development. However, Council will need to address future applications for 

residential uses that may result in many instances of small scale clearing that cumulatively lead 

to extensive fragmentation and loss of areas with medium and high conservation value. 

Council may wish to consider means by which development of these areas is assessed in a more 

holistic manner than that which would occur if each application were considered in isolation. 



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