Final report - Ministry for Primary Industries

Hedging our bets: choosing hedgerow plants 

to enhance beneficial insects to optimise crop 

pollination and pest management on 

Canterbury farms 

Davidson MM, Howlett BG 

June 2010 

A report prepared for: 

MAF SFF, Grant No. L09-009 

Melanie M Davidson 

Plant & Food Research, Location 

Brad G Howlett 

Plant & Food Research, Location 

SPTS No. 4104 

PFR Client Report No. 37105 

PFR Contract No. 24631

DISCLAIMER 

Unless agreed otherwise, The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited does not give any prediction, 

warranty or assurance in relation to the accuracy of or fitness for any particular use or application of, any information or 

scientific or other result contained in this report. Neither Plant & Food Research nor any of its employees shall be liable 

for any cost (including legal costs), claim, liability, loss, damage, injury or the like, which may be suffered or incurred as 

a direct or indirect result of the reliance by any person on any information contained in this report. 

This report has been prepared by The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited 

(Plant & Food Research), which has its Head Office at 120 Mt Albert Rd, Mt Albert, Auckland. 

This report has been approved by: 

Melanie Davidson 

Scientist/Researcher, Vegetable, Arable & Southern Entomology 

Date: 23 June 2010 

Louise Malone 

Science Group Leader, Applied Entomology 

Date: 23 June 2010

Contents 

Executive summary 

i 

1 Introduction 3 

2 Methods 4 

3 Results 5 

4 Conclusions and recommendations 9 

5 Acknowledgements 10 

6 References 10 

7 Appendices 12

Executive summary 

Hedging our bets: choosing hedgerow plants to enhance beneficial insects to 

optimise crop pollination and pest management on Canterbury farms 

Davidson M, Howlett BG, June 2010, SPTS No. 4104 

We undertook a desk-top study to examine the associations between plants, insect herbivores, 

their natural enemies and pollinators to evaluate the potential of using perennial plant 

assemblages on non-productive areas of a farm to maximise the establishment and abundance 

of beneficial insects. Pollination and pest suppression are key on-farm services provided by 

beneficial insects (pollinators, predators, and parasitoids). Yet the potential of beneficial insects 

to provide these essential services is often not realised because they are absent or low in 

numbers, generally due to historical management practices. 

Based on database (Plant Synz) and general internet searches, the present study revealed that 

many of the native plants examined are superior to existing hedgerow and shelterbelt species 

growing in Canterbury for their associations with pollinating insect species. 

• Only two pollinating species, Apis mellifera and Bombus terrestris, were found to be 

associated with Pinus radiata or Ulex europaeus, while none were found associated 

with Cupressus macrocarpa, the three most common shelterbelt or hedgerow species in 

Canterbury. 

• Seventeen of 45 pollinator species are associated with both exotic and native (including 

endemic) plant species. 

As for native plants acting as pest reservoirs, 41 insect pest species (out of 961 herbivorous 

species) were common to some of the native and exotic plant species included in this study. 

Eighteen were endemic (only found in New Zealand) or native, and 26 were exotic species. The 

vast majority of the 122 pest species identified in this study are not found in vegetable or arable 

crops. 

With regards to native plants becoming weeds, there was no information suggesting that the 

native plant species listed in Appendix 1 could become or had ever been described as weeds, 

unlike P. radiata and U. europaeus, which are well known weeds in New Zealand. 

From a beneficial insect perspective, evidence to date suggests improving resources for 

pollinators (e.g. food, habitats for establishing populations) may bring about the most obvious 

benefits at the farm scale. 

While there is also potential for natural enemies from surrounding non-crop vegetation to attack 

pests in a crop, how many and how far such insects will move into the crop, and how mortality 

factors (e.g. hyperparasitism, intraguild predation) will affect their ability to suppress pest 

populations is not known. 

This study provides a starting point for exploring plant–insect herbivore–beneficial insect 

associations and interactions. The associations outlined in the current research need to be 

verified in the field. Results suggest that the use of native plant species in non-productive areas 

has promise, but further research is required to confirm this. For example, it would be helpful to 

determine how far beneficial insects may move out of these native plant assemblages into the 

crop and whether the floral resources from the native plants provide optimal nutrition for 

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4104 Hedging our bets: choosing hedgerow plants to enhance beneficial insects to optimise crop pollination and pest management on 

Canterbury farms.

eneficial insects. Beyond the entomological questions, consideration should also be given to 

other factors that may promote or limit their use. These include: 

• the accessibility and cost-effectiveness of such native plant species relative to exotic 

species 

• the ability to quickly and easily establish the identified plants 

• how well they fit within the non-productive areas 

• how they may compete with or overshadow neighbouring crop plants 

• how they may affect livestock that may feed on them 

• what pathogens may be associated with the plants. 

For further information please contact: 

Melanie Davidson 

The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd 

Plant & Food Research Lincoln 

Canterbury Agricultural and Science Centre 

Private Bag 4704 

Christchurch 8140 

NEW ZEALAND 

Tel: +64-3-325 6400 

Fax: +64-3-325 2074 

Email: 

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Canterbury farms

1 Introduction 

We examined the associations between plants, insect herbivores, their natural enemies and 

pollinators to evaluate the potential for using perennial plant assemblages on non-productive areas of 

farms to maximise the establishment and abundance of beneficial insects. Pollination and pest 

suppression are key on-farm services provided by beneficial insects (pollinators, predators, and 

parasitoids). Yet the potential of beneficial insects to provide these essential services is often not 

realised because they are absent or low in numbers, generally due to historical management 

practices. Pest management strategies and honey bee pollination may be compatible with the use of 

“natural” beneficial insects, although greater scientific knowledge is needed to understand how this 

could be achieved. The aim of this project was to identify optimal host plant associations that could 

maximise and support stable populations of beneficial insect species. 

Beneficial insects have great potential to suppress insect pests and/or pollinate crops. For example, 

the predatory brown lacewing significantly reduced aphid levels in outdoor lettuces and was critical to 

the success of the integrated pest management programme (Walker et al. 2007). Increasing costs 

associated with honey bee management (up to $0.5 B to New Zealand’s agricultural industries over 

the next 15 years (MAF 2000, 2002)) may threaten the viability of some industries unless alternative 

pollinating species are encouraged. Recent research has demonstrated the benefit that many 

unmanaged bees and flies can provide to crop pollination in New Zealand (Rader et al. 2009). 

Introducing the right combination of indigenous vegetation into non-productive areas (e.g. 

hedgerows), could sustain larger populations of beneficial insect species while inhibiting pest 

populations (Altieri 1999). 

We determined the species composition of insect herbivores (pests and non-pests) associated with a 

range of crop plants, and existing hedgerow and shelterbelts composed of non-native species 

(predominantly Pinus radiata, Cupressus macrocarpa and Ulex europaeus) in Canterbury. In the early 

1990s hedges and shelterbelts on the Canterbury Plains were predominantly made up of these three 

exotic species and extended to a combined length of almost 300,000 km (Price 1993). We compared 

insect associations of these plant species with those of native plant species that could be used as 

alternative hedgerows, shelterbelts, or in other areas of non-productive land. We wanted to see if 

native plants would be less likely to act as a reservoir for crop pests than non-native species. We then 

examined the relationships of natural enemies and pollinators with native and/or exotic hosts (plant 

and/or insect species). The associations between plants and their herbivores was examined using 

current information to determine: 1) if the plants could support exotic insect pests, 2) whether the 

alternative prey/hosts of the native predators and parasitoids could become pests on nearby crops, 

and 3) whether the biology of the plants would limit/negate their ability to become weeds. 

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4104 Hedging our bets: choosing hedgerow plants to enhance beneficial insects to optimise crop pollination and pest management on Canterbury 

farms.

2 Methods 

We accessed all available published and unpublished information via the PlantSynz database and the 

internet in general and identified: 1) native plant species which would support beneficial insects, 2) 

common pest species and their host plants (both native and exotic), and 3) beneficial insect species. 

“Beneficial insects” were defined in this study as all known insect pollinators and natural enemies 

(parasitoids and predators) of pest species commonly found on vegetable and arable crops grown 

within Canterbury. 

We determined the numbers and origins (native and endemic, or exotic) of pest and non-pest 

herbivorous species associated with economically important exotic plants, native plants, and existing 

shelterbelt and hedgerow plant species. The term endemic describes species that are found only in 

New Zealand. We focussed on economically important exotic plant species. We defined “non-pest 

insects” as plant-feeding insect species that may be associated with the plant but do not require 

active management and “pests” as plant-feeding insect species that have to be controlled or 

managed. Economically important plants included vegetable, arable, horticultural and agricultural (e.g. 

grass) species. An association between a plant and an insect herbivore (non-pest or pest) occurred 

where at least one life stage of the insect could feed on a plant species without being harmed and 

could pass on to the next life stage or lay fertile eggs. For pollinators, an association occurred where 

an insect species visited and foraged (collected nectar or pollen) from a flower. 

We then summarised information on: a) the associations between beneficial insects and plants, b) 

whether native plants could become a reservoir for insect pests from within the crops, c) whether the 

insect prey/hosts that support predators/parasitoids on the native plants could become pests on the 

crop, d) species composition of native pollinators, e) when flowering of native plants occurs, and f) the 

likelihood of the native plant species becoming weeds. 

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3 Results 

We looked at the insects associated with 103 native plant species, 41 exotic species, and 3 exotic 

species commonly used in shelterbelts and hedgerows, including the economically important species 

P. radiata. The vegetable and arable crops included in the present study were: Brassica oleracea, B. 

rapa, Solanum tuberosum, Alium cepa, Raphanus sativus, Cucurbita moschata, Pisum sativum, 

Daucus carota, Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbita moschata, Triticum aestivum, Avena sativa, Hordeum 

vulgaris, Medicago sativa, and Trifolium sp. (seed). 

We derived our native (and endemic) plant species list from information we could gather on those 

plants with which insect pollinators may be associated (Table 1). We limited the list to plant species 

known to grow in the South Island, particularly Canterbury, assuming that these species would have 

the best chance to establish in Canterbury. There is very little information on possible plant 

associations with natural enemies (predators and parasitoids). Consequently, we have listed the prey 

or host associations with predators and parasitoids commonly found in vegetable and arable crops 

(Table 2). We also determined the number of species of herbivorous insects from the different orders 

that predators may feed on, associated with native plants listed in Table 1, and the predominant 

shelterbelt and hedgerow species in Canterbury (Table 3). Not surprisingly, the more plant species 

there are, the greater the number of herbivorous insect species and potential prey for generalist 

predators. Of particular note are the high number of non-pest Hemiptera (191 species) associated 

with the 44 native plant species examined, while only one hemipteran species was associated with 

one of the three exotic plant species. Hemiptera, which includes aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs and 

scale insects, may be important prey for a number of generalist predators. 

We found 839 herbivorous insect species (pests and non-pests), based predominantly on information 

in PlantSynz (accessed May and June 2010). An additional 122 insect species described as pests 

were also found to be associated with the selected plant species (Scott 1984; general internet 

searches (accessed 4, 5 June 2010)). We also identified an additional 45 species described as 

pollinators associated with the plant species we examined (Chinn 2005; Donovan 2007; Heine 1937; 

Howlett & Lankin 2005; Howlett et al. 2009; Lankin & Howlett 2005; Primack 1983; Rader et al. 2009; 

Walsh 1967). Of those insect species associated with the exotic plant species, including the 

hedgerow and shelterbelt species, 35 pest species were native or endemic, and 70 pest species were 

exotic. Of those associated with the native plant species, 21 pest insect species were native or 

endemic and 35 pest species were exotic. There were 41 pest species common to some of the native 

and exotic plant species, 18 of which were endemic or native and 26 were exotic insect species 

(Appendix 1). The vast majority of pests listed in Appendix 1 are not found in vegetable or arable 

crops. 

While a large number of pest species were associated with plant species commonly used in 

shelterbelts and hedgerows (Table 4), none of these species was described as a pest of vegetable or 

arable crops (Appendix 2). However, the only pollinators reported to be associated with C. 

macrocarpa, P. radiata or U. europaeus were Apis mellifera and Bombus mellifera (Appendix 

2),whereas all but one of the insect pollinators listed in Appendix 3 have been found to be associated 

with native plant species. This may be an underestimate of the range of both exotic and native plants 

these pollinators could visit. 

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farms.

Table 1: List of plant species associated with pollinators, and of those plant species, numbers of 

associated insect herbivores and pests (all pests and those pests found in vegetable and arable 

crops). Numbers in parentheses for pollinator species indicate number of species also described as 

predators. Only those plants species with distributions in the South Island, particularly within 

Canterbury, are included. 

No. all 

pest 

species b 

No. vegetable, arable c 

pest species 

Plant species 

No. pollinator 

species a 

No. non-pest 

species 

Alectryon excelsus 1 12 6 0 e 

Carmichaelia corrugata 7 (1) - d - 0 

Carmichaelia kirkii 1 - - 0 

Carmichaelia spp. 14 14 4 0 

Carpodetus serratus 5 23 4 0 

Celmisia spp. 6 5 - 0 

Clematis afoliata 1 - - 0 

Clematis paniculata 4 4 1 0 

Clematis spp. (Perennial herb) 1 - - 0 

Colobanthus spp. (Perennial 

herb) 

1 3 - 0 

Coprosma lucida 1 20 3 0 

Coprosma repens 1 14 5 0 

Coprosma sp. 3 - - 0 

Cordyline australis 18 (2) 24 7 0 

Coriaria arborea 1 11 4 0 

Corokia cotoneaster 7 (1) 4 2 0 

Corynocarpus laevigatus 1 38 11 0 

Cotula spp. (Perennial herb) 3 - - 0 

Discaria toumatou 4 23 - 0 

Disphyma sp. 1 - - 0 

Epilobium sp. (Perennial herb) 2 9 - 0 

Fuchsia excorticata 2 21 8 1 (Aulacorthum solani) 

Gentiana spp. 7 3 - 0 

Hebe elliptica 9 19 5 1 (Myzus persicae) 

Hebe loganioides 3 - - 0 

Hebe macrocarpa 5 15 1 0 

Hebe salicifolia 18 12 2 1 (Aphis gossypii) 

Hebe stricta 8 (2) 32 8 2 (Macrosiphum euphorbiae, Myzus 

persicae) 

Hebe subalpina 9 6 1 0 

Hebe traversii 5 - - 0 

Hebes spp. 23 (1) 4 - 0 

Helichrysum bellidioides 

(Perennial herb) 

1 - - 0 

Hoheria angustifolia 8 12 1 0 

Hoheria glabrata 1 - - 0 

Hoheria populnea 5 26 4 0 

Hoheria sexstylosa 4 12 1 0 

Hoheria spp. 7 (1) 25 1 0 

Kunzea ericoides 21 54 8 0 

Leptospermum scoparium 27 (1) 60 6 0 

Leucopogon fraseri 5 (1) 5 - 0 

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farms

Plant species 

No. pollinator No. non-pest 

No. all 

pest 

No. vegetable, arable c 

pest species 

species a species species b 

Lophomyrtus obcordata 8 4 1 0 

Melicope simplex 1 8 4 0 

Metrosideros spp. 17 (1) 76 14 0 

Meuhlenbeckia australis 6 - - 0 

Meuhlenbeckia complexa 3 - - 0 

Meuhlenbeckia spp. 6 - - 0 

Mimulus repens (Perennial herb) 3 - 1 0 

Myoporum laetum 2 33 11 1 (Myzus persicae) 

Myrsine australis 1 33 4 0 

Olearia adenocarpa 5 (2) - - 0 

Olearia avicenniifolia 1 10 - 0 

Olearia spp. 15 (2) 17 4 0 

Ozothamnus leptophyllus 8 50 5 0 

Pachystegia insignis 

(Perennial herb) 

3 - - 0 

Parahebe hulkeana 4 - - 0 

Parahebes spp. 1 2 1 0 

Parsonsia heterophylla 1 29 - 0 

Pennantia sp. 4 - - 0 

Peraxilla colensoi 2 7 2 0 

Phormium tenax 14 34 9 1 (Aulacorthum solani) 

Pittosporum crassifolium 5 (1) 18 5 2 (Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae) 

Pittosporum eugenioides 4 24 5 2 (Macrosiphum euphorbiae, 

Trialeurodes vaporariorum) 

Pittosporum tenuifolium 4 47 8 1 (Aphis craccivora) 

Pseudopanax crassifolium 2 26 2 0 

Pseudopanax spp. 3 - - 0 

Raoulia sp. (Perennial herb) 8 - - 0 

Rubus australis 1 17 1 0 

Rubus schmidelioides 1 - - 0 

Samolus repens (Perennial 

herb) 

1 1 - 0 

Solanum laciniatum 2 2 8 1 (Bactericera cockerelli) 

Sophora microphylla 7 (1) 3 1 0 

Sophora spp. 1 - - 0 

Tupeie antarctica 1 - - 0 

a 

Pest species causing levels of damage requiring management of populations 

b Herbivore insect species described species that did not have any information indicating levels of 

damage that could require management of insect populations 

c Some typical vegetable and arable crops grown include, Brassica oleracea, B. rapa, Solanum 

tuberosum, Alium cepa, Raphanus sativus, Cucurbita moschata, Pisum sativum, Daucus carota, 

Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbita moschata, Triticum aestivum, Avena sativa, Hordeum vulgaris, Medicago 

sativa, Trifolium sp. (seed). 

d – indicates no record 

e 0 indicates that no herbivorous insect species have been recorded as pests in vegetable or arable 

crops. 

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farms.

Table 2: Some insect natural enemies of pest species commonly found on vegetable and arable 

crops. 

Function Species Prey/hosts 

Predators Melanostoma fasciatum a Aphids (Hemiptera), 

Small larvae, eggs, nymphs belonging to a 

range of orders? 

Melangyna novaezealandiae a 

Aphids (Hemiptera), 

Small larvae, eggs, nymphs belonging to a 

range of orders? 

Adalia bipunctata 

Generalist predator (mostly aphids 

(Hemiptera), small caterpillars (Lepidoptera), 

Eggs – belonging to a range of orders? 

Coccinella undecimpunctata 

Generalist predator (mostly aphids 

(Hemiptera), small caterpillars (Lepidoptera), 

Eggs – belonging to a range of orders? 

Micromus tasmaniae 

Generalist predator; soft bodied sessile (low 

mobility) species, e.g. nymphs of Hemiptera 

Oechalia schellembergii 

Generalist soldier bug predator; polyphagous, 

but prefer larvae of Lepidoptera 

Cermatulu nasalis 

Generalist soldier bug predator; polyphagous, 

but prefer larvae of Lepidoptera 

Nabis kinbergii 

Generalist predator (aphids, mirids, wheat bug, 

small larvae of Lepidoptera) 

Staphylinidae beetles 

Generalist ground dwelling predators; range of 

orders? 

Carabidae beetles 

Generalist ground dwelling predators; range of 

orders? 

Phytodeiidae mites 

Predatory mites of Tetranychidae mites (Acari) 

Parasitoids Aphelinus spp. Range of aphid species 

Aphidius spp. 

Range of aphid species 

Diaretiella rapae 

Brevicoryne brassicae 

Trichogramma spp. 

Moth eggs 

Copidosoma floridanum 

Chrysodeixis eriosoma 

Apanteles (Cotesia) ruficrus Mythima separata 

Cotesia rubecula 

Pieris rapae 

Cotesia (Apanteles) subandinus Phthorimaea opercullela 

Asobara persimilis 

Scaptomyza flava 

Diadegma semiclausum 

Plutella xylostella 

Diadromus collaris 


Alloxysta brassicae 


a Adults are pollinators, larvae are predators 

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Table 3: Range of insect orders and number of herbivorous species within each order found on 

native plant species listed in Table 1 (with known associations) and on the predominant exotic 

plant species used for shelterbelts and hedgerows (C. macrocarpa, P. radiata, U. europaeus). 

Native plant 

species (n = 44) a 

Shelterbelt & hedgerow exotic plant 

species (n = 3) 

Acari (mites) 65 1 

Coleoptera (beetles) 204 40 

Diptera (flies) 59 0 

Hemiptera (sucking insects) 191 1 

Lepidoptera (moths, butterflies) 144 24 

Orthoptera (e.g. grasshoppers) 16 2 

Thysanoptera (thrips) 8 0 

a Includes native plant species not listed specifically in Table 1, but encompassed within listed 

genera (e.g. Coprosma spp., Hebe spp., etc.) 

Table 4: Number of pest and pollinator insect species associated with the predominant 

shelterbelt and hedgerow plant species in Canterbury. Insect species associated with each 

plant species are listed in Appendix 4. 

Species Herbivores Pest Pollinators 

Cupressus macrocarpa 14 7 0 

Pinus radiata 55 24 1 

Ulex europaeus 16 9 2 

We did not find any information suggesting that the native plant species listed in Table 1 could 

become or had been described as weeds, unlike P. radiata and U. europaeus, which are well 

known weeds in New Zealand. 

4 Conclusions and recommendations 

Many of the native plants examined in the present study are superior to existing hedgerow and 

shelterbelt species growing in Canterbury for their associations with pollinating insect species 

(Table 1 and Appendix 3). Hedgerows and shelterbelts are a substantial landscape feature in 

Canterbury. The most comprehensive analysis of Canterbury shelterbelts and hedgerows 

undertaken in the early 1990s determined that there was approximately 170,000 km of 

hedgerows, dominated by U. europaeus, and more than 100,000 km of shelterbelts, dominated 

by P. radiata (Price 1993). No equivalent information is available presently; however, it seems 

likely that this area of hedges and shelterbelts has been markedly reduced with the increased 

installation of pivot irrigation. 

From a beneficial insect perspective, evidence to date suggests improving resources for 

pollinators (e.g. food, habitats for establishing populations) may bring about the most obvious 

benefits at the farm scale. This is because pollinators can forage over large areas, from 100s of 

meters, to several kilometres (Cane 2001; Schulke & Waser 2001). However, it will be important 

to ensure flowering of non-crop vegetation occurs outside of the crop flowering time, to avoid 

competition between the floral resources. 

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Canterbury farms

We do not know if the generalist predators listed in Table 2 will prey on herbivorous insects 

associated with the native plants listed Table 1. Such predator/prey relationships would need to 

be verified in the field. If such generalist predators can utilise the native plant herbivores then 

there may be potential for them to attack pests in neighbouring crops. However, it is not known 

how far and how many natural enemies may disperse into surrounding crops, nor how effective 

such predators could be in the crop (e.g. predation rate). Also, predators can themselves be 

attacked by parasitoids or other predators. It is not known how these and other factors may 

impact on populations of natural enemies and thus possibly affect their ability to suppress pest 

populations. 

This study provides a starting point for exploring plant–insect herbivore–beneficial insect 

associations and interactions. The associations outlined in the current research need to be 

verified in the field and further detailed information gathered relating to plant-insect interactions 

in the Canterbury district. The findings of this study demonstrate the potential benefits of using 

selective native plant species in non-productive areas for promoting populations of beneficial 

insects. Further research is required to determine: 

• how far beneficial insects may move out of these native plant assemblages into the crop 

• whether selected plantings within agro-ecosystems can maintain stable long-term 

populations of beneficial insects 

• whether the floral resources from the native plants provide optimal nutrition for 

beneficial insects. 

Beyond the entomological questions, consideration should also be given to the advantages and 

disadvantages of using native plants within non-productive areas. These include: 

• how accessible and cost-effective such native plant species could be relative to exotic 

species 

• how quickly and easily native plants establish and grow 

• how well they fit within the non-productive areas 

• how they may compete with or overshadow neighbouring crop plants 

• how they may affect livestock that could feed on them 

• and which pathogens may be associated with the plants. 

5 Acknowledgements 

We would like to thank Leaderbrand (Mike Arnold), ECan (Ray Maw), and HortNZ (Ken 

Robertson) for co-funding this research along with funding from MAF SFF (L09-009). We also 

thank FAR (Nick Pike, Richard Chynoweth), for supporting this project. 

6 References 

Altieri MA 1999. The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems. Agriculture Ecosystems 

& Environment 74: 19–31. 

Cane JH 2001. Habitat fragmentation and native bees: a premature verdict? Conservation 

Ecology 5(1): 149–161. 

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Chinn W 2005. Insect pollination of native plant species at McLeans Island, Canterbury. Report 

prepared for the Department of Conservation and the Christchurch City Council. 38 p. 

Donovan BJ 2007. Apoidea (insecta: Hymenoptera). Fauna of New Zealand, 57. Christchurch, 

New Zealand, Landcare Research Ltd. 295 p. 

Heine EM 1937. Observations on the pollination of New Zealand flowering plants. Transactions 

of the New Zealand Society 67: 133–148. 

Howlett BG, Lankin GO 2005. A survey of white clover flower visitors in central Canterbury: the 

range of potential pollinators. Christchurch, Crop & Food Research Confidential Report 

No. 1486. 34 p. 

Howlett BG, Walker MK, Newstrom-Lloyd LE, Donovan BJ, Teulon DAJ 2009. Window traps 

and direct observations record similar arthropod flower visitor assemblages in two mass 

flowering crops. Journal of Applied Entomology 133: 553–564. 

Lankin GO, Howlett BG 2005. A survey of carrot flower visitors in central Canterbury and central 

Otago – the range of potential pollinators. Christchurch, Crop & Food Research 

Confidential Report No. 1422. 38 p. 

MAF 2000. Varroa in New Zealand: economic impact assessment. Wellington, New Zealand, 

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. www.varroa.org.nz/resources/assessment.pdf. P. 

24. 

MAF 2002. Review of Varroa economic impact assessment: recommendations on revision. 

Wellington, New Zealand, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. 

http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/files/pests-diseases/animals/varroa/assessmentreview.pdf. 

P. 10. 

Price LW 1993. Hedges and shelterbelts on the Canterbury Plains, New Zealand: 

transformation of an Antipodean landscape. Annals of the Association of American 

Geographers 83(1): 119–140. 

Primack RB 1983. Insect pollination in the New Zealand mountain flora. New Zealand Journal of 

Botany 21: 317–333. 

Rader R, Howlett B, Cunningham S, Westcott D, Newstrom-Lloyd L, Walker M, Teulon D, 

Edwards W 2009. Alternative pollinator taxa are equally efficient, but not as effective as 

the honeybee in a mass flowering crop. Journal of Applied Ecology 46: 1080–1087. 

Schulke B, Waser NM 2001. Long-distance pollinator flights and pollen dispersal between 

populations of Delphinium nuttallianum. Oecologia 127(2): 239–245. 

Scott RR 1984. New Zealand Pest and Beneficial Insects. Lincoln University College of 

Agriculture, Canterbury. 373 pp. 

Walker .G, Cameron P, Workman P, Wright P, Fletcher J, Stufkens M 2007. Information guide 

for integrated pest management in outdoor lettuce. CD-rom, ISBN 978-0-473-13196-8. 

Walsh RS 1967. Nectar and pollen sources of New Zealand. Wellington, National Beekeepers 

Association of New Zealand. 55 p. 

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7 Appendices 

Appendix 1: Insect pest species associated with native and exotic plants examined in this study. 

Pest species Common name Biostatus Native plant sp. Exotic plant species 

Two-toothed 

Ambeodontus tristis longhorn endemic Pennantia corymbosa Cupressus macrocarpa 

Pinus radiata 

Bactericera 

cockerelli Potato-tomato psyllid Solanum laciniatum Solanaceae 

Carystoterpa 

fingens Spittle bug endemic Myoporum laetum Brassica oleracea 

Citrus limon 

Vitis vinifera 

Chrysodeixis 

eriosoma Green looper native Urtica ferox Brassica oleracea 

Brassica rapa 

Ipomoea batatas 

Lactuca sativa 

Medicago sativa 

Pisum sativum 

Raphanus sativus 

Solanum tuberosum 


Cnephasia jactatana Nz leafroller endemic Coprosma robusta Actinidia chinensis 

Metrosideros spp. 

Muehlenbeckia complexa 

Phormium tenax 

Urtica ferox 

Citrus sinensis 

Pinus radiata 

Trifolium repens 

Coptomma lineatum Longhorn beetle endemic Corynocarpus laevigatus Pinus radiata 

Ctenopseustis 

herana 

Ctenopseustis 

obliquana 

Hebe stricta 

Leptospermum 

scoparium 

Myrsine australis 

Brownheaded 

leafroller endemic Carpodetus serratus Persea americana 

Fuchsia excorticata 

Leucopogon spp. 

Muehlenbeckia australis 

Olearia spp. 

Pinus radiata 

Prunus armeniaca 

Prunus domestica 


Ulex europaeus 

Brownheaded 

leafroller endemic Clematis foetida Actinidia chinensis 

Coprosma repens 

Coprosma robusta 

Corynocarpus laevigatus 


Hoheria populnea 

Kunzea ericoides 



Mimulus repens 

Citrus limon 


Malus sylvestris 

Persea americana 

Pinus radiata 


Prunus avium & cerasus 


Prunus persica 

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Olearia spp. 

Peraxilla colensoi 


Pseudopanax arboreus 




Kalotermes brouni (Dead wood borer) endemic Alectryon excelsus Cupressus macrocarpa 

Cordyline australis 




Pinus radiata 


Pittosporum eugenioides 

Leanobium 

flavomaculatum Household borer endemic Carpodetus serratus Cupressus macrocarpa 

Leptospermum 

scoparium 

Pinus radiata 

Oemona hirta Lemon tree borer endemic Alectryon excelsus Citrus limon 

Planotortrix 

excessana 

Planotortrix octo 

Platypus apicalis 



Hebe salicifolia 


Leptospermum 

scoparium 


Myoporum laetum 

Other Hoheria 

Ozothamnus leptophyllus 

Pennantia corymbosa 

Pittosporum crassifolium 


Citrus reticulata 



Persea americana 

Pinus radiata 




Prunus persica var. 

nucipersica 

Pyrus communis 



Pittosporum tenuifolium 

Greenheaded 

leafroller endemic Fuchsia excorticata Citrus limon 


Peraxilla colensoi 

Urtica ferox 

Pinus radiata 






Greenheaded 

leafroller endemic Corynocarpus laevigatus Citrus sinensis 







New Zealand pinhole 

borer endemic Cordyline australis Pinus radiata 


Pseudopanax 

crassifolium 

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Pseudocoremia Common forest 

suavis 

looper endemic Carmichaelia sp. Cupressus macrocarpa 


Coriaria arborea 

Corokia cotoneaster 


Leptospermum 

scoparium 

Leucopogon spp. 



Pinus radiata 


Pyrgotis plagiatana (Leafroller) endemic Carmichaelia sp. Pinus radiata 

Coriaria arborea 


Hebe elliptica 

Hebe stricta 

Hebe subalpina 

Melicope simplex 




Tupeia antarctica 


Scolypopa australis Passionvine hopper endemic Coprosma lucida Persea americana 






Stathmopoda 

skelloni endemic Phormium tenax Actinidia chinensis 

Thrips obscuratus 


New Zealand flower 

thrips endemic Bulbinella spp. Malus sylvestris 

Carmichaelia sp. 


Hoheria angustifolia 

Hoheria sexstylosa 


Leptospermum 

scoparium 

Muehlenbeckia australis 







Trifolium pratense 


Vicia faba 


Amasa truncata Ambrosia beetle adventive Kunzea ericoides Pinus radiata 

Leptospermum 

scoparium 


Ambrosiodmus 

compressus adventive Kunzea ericoides Pinus radiata 


Asynonychus Fuller's rose weevil adventive Corynocarpus laevigatus Malus sylvestris 

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cervinus 

Aulacorthum solani 

Brachycaudus 

helichrysi 

Brevipalpus 

obovatus 




Foxglove aphid, 

glasshouse potato 

aphid adventive Fuchsia excorticata Lactuca sativa 


Lycopersicon esculentum 

Solanum laciniatum Solanum tuberosum 

Leaf-curling plum 

aphid adventive Coriaria arborea Prunus domestica 



Privet mite, 

ornamental flat mite adventive Coprosma repens Citrus limon 


Ceroplastes 

destructor White wax scale adventive Pittosporum tenuifolium Citrus limon 

Ceroplastes 

sinensis 


Chinese or hard wax 

scale adventive Coprosma robusta Citrus limon 

Hebe stricta 


Melicope simplex 

Olearia spp. 


Coccus hesperidium Soft brown scale adventive Carmichaelia sp. Medicago sativa 

Epiphyas 

postvittana 


Pseudopanax 

crassifolium 

Pinus radiata 





Lightbrown apple 

moth adventive Phormium tenax Actinidia sp. 



Pinus radiata 








Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis Greenhouse thrips adventive Alectryon excelsus Actinidia sp. 








Pinus radiata 


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Hemiberlesia 

lataniae Latania scale adventive Carpodetus serratus Actinidia sp. 



Rubus australis 

Hemiberlesia rapax Greedy scale adventive Alectryon excelsus Actinidia sp. 

Icerya purchasi 

Clematis paniculata 

Coprosma propinqua 


Corokia cotoneaster 



Hebe stricta 

Lophomyrtus obcordata 


Tupeia antarctica 

Cottony cushion 

scale adventive Myoporum laetum Citrus limon 



Urtica ferox 


Isotenes miserana Orange fruit borer adventive Metrosideros spp. Citrus sinensis 

Macrosiphum 

euphorbiae Potato aphid adventive Clematis foetida Brassica oleracea 

Hebe stricta 


Lactuca sativa 


Pittosporum eugenioides Zea mays 

Maleuterpes 

spinipes Dicky rice weevil adventive Melicope simplex Citrus sp. 

Myzus persicae Green peach aphid adventive Hebe elliptica Brassica oleracea 

Orchamoplatus citri 

Hebe stricta 



Brassica rapa 

Pisum sativum 

Raphanus sativus 


Australian citrus 

whitefly adventive Alectryon excelsus Citrus sp. 


Parasaissetia nigra Nigra scale adventive Pittosporum tenuifolium Prunus armeniaca 

Phthorimaea 

operculella Potato tuber moth adventive Solanum laciniatum Solanum tuberosum 

Pseudococcus 

longispinus 

Long-tailed 

mealybug adventive Phormium tenax Prunus domestica 



Pseudococcus 

viburni Obscure mealybug adventive Pittosporum tenuifolium Vitis vinifera 

Solanum laciniatum 

Saissetia coffeae Hemispherical scale adventive Coprosma robusta Prunus persica 


Hebe macrocarpa 

Hebe stricta 


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Saissetia oleae 


Other parahebes 

Black scale, 

mediterranean black 

scale, olive scale, 

olive soft scale adventive Coprosma repens Pyrus communis 




Olearia spp. 



Sceliodes cordalis Eggfruit caterpillar adventive Solanum laciniatum Solanum tuberosum 

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Appendix 2: Insect species associated with existing exotic plant species historically used for 

shelterbelts and hedgerows. 

Cupressus macrocarpa 

Herbivores Pests Pollinators 

Kalotermes banksiae 

Chrysorthenches virgata 

Declana floccosa 

Garyus altus 

Hadrobregmus magnus 

Hierodoris atychioides 

Mitrastethus baridioides 

Planotortrix notophaea 

Prionophus reticularis 

Pseudocoremia fenerata 

Stolotermes inopinus 

Stolotermes ruficeps 

Torostoma apicale 

Xylotoles laetus 

Anobium punctatum 

Ambeodontus tristis 

Calliprason pallidus 

Kalotermes brouni 

Leanobium flavomaculatum 

Pseudocoremia suavis 

Xyleborinus saxesenii 

? 

Pinus radiata 


Kalotermes banksiae 

Anagotus helmsi 

Androporus discedens 

Apoctena conditana 

Apoctena flavescens 

Apoctena orthropis 

Blosyropus spinosus 

Chloroclystis filata 

Coptomma sulcatum 

Crisius binotatus 


Declana hermione 

Declana leptomera 

Eiratus ornatus 

Euophryum rufum 

Gellonia dejectaria 

Hadrobregmus australiensis 

Hadrobregmus magnus 

Helmoreus sharpi 

Hemideina crassidens 

Hexatricha pulverulenta 

Hierodoris atychioides 

Holocola zopherana 

Hybolasius modestus 

Hybolasius vegetus 

Liothula omnivora 

Microcryptorhynchus 

(Microcryptorhynchus) kronei 

Microcryptorhynchus 

(Microcryptorhynchus) vafer 

Mitrastethus baridioides 

Nesoptychias simpliceps 

Odontria sylvatica 

Pachycotes peregrinus 

Paedaretus hispidus 

Pasiphila inductata 

Amasa truncata 

Anobium punctatum 

Arhopalus tristis 

Hylotrupes bajulus 

Ambeodontus tristis 

Ambrosiodmus compressus 

Calliprason pallidus 

Cnephasia jactatana 

Coccus hesperidium 

Coptomma lineatum 

Costelytra zealandica 

Ctenopseustis herana 

Ctenopseustis obliquana 

Epiphyas postvittana 

Eucolaspis brunnea 

Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis 

Kalotermes brouni 

Leanobium flavomaculatum 

Oemona hirta 

Planotortrix excessana 

Platypus apicalis 


Pyrgotis plagiatana 

Xyleborinus saxesenii 

Bombus terrestris 

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Phloeophagosoma dilutum 

Phymatus phymatodes 


Poecilasthena pulchraria 

Pogonorhinus opacus 

Prionophus reticularis 

Proteuxoa comma 

Psepholax sulcatus 

Pseudocoremia fenerata 

Pseudocoremia leucelaea 

Rhopalomerus tenuicornis 

Shapius brouni 

Somatidia antarctica 

Stethaspis lineata 

Stethaspis sp. 

Stolotermes inopinus 

Stolotermes ruficeps 

Strongylopterus hylobioides 

Torostoma apicale 

Xylotoles laetus 

Zermizinga indocilisaria 



Lampides boeticus 

Acanthoxyla sp. 

Aceria genistae 

Anisoplaca ptyoptera 

Chloroclystis filata 

Ctenoplectron fasciatum 


Deinacrida sp. 'Mahoenui' 

Dysnocryptus inflatus 

Hybolasius viridescens 

Mitophyllus arcuatus 


Pleosporius bullatus 

Pseudococcus hypergaeus 

Shapius brouni 

Zeamordella monacha 

Ctenopseustis herana 

Ctenopseustis obliquana 

Epiphyas postvittana 

Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis 

Oemona hirta 

Planotortrix excessana 


Pyrgotis plagiatana 

Thrips obscuratus 

Apis mellifera 

Bombus terrestris 

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Appendix 3: Some insect pollinator species and numbers of native (n, includes endemic species), and 

exotic (e) plant species they visit (Chinn 2005; Donovan 2007; Heine 1937; Howlett & Lankin 2005; 

Howlett et al. 2009; Lankin & Howlett 2005; Primack 1983; Rader et al. 2009; Walsh 1967). The 

number of vegetable or arable crops visited by pollinators is included in parentheses. 

Insect Species 

No. exotic plant species No. native plant species 

Apis mellifera 5 (4) 30 

Bombus hortorum 3 (3) 5 

Bombus terrestris 9 (7) 56 

Calliphora spp. 5 (5) 8 

Dilophus nigrostigma 4 (4) 6 

Eristalis tenax 5 (5) 2 

Euryglossina prototrypoides 2 

Hylaeus agilis 9 

Hylaeus asperithorax 2 

Hylaeus capitosus 12 

Hylaeus matamoko 2 

Hylaeus relegatus 14 

Lasioglossum cognatum 3 

Lasioglossum mataroa 4 

Lasioglossum maunga 11 

Lasioglossum sordidum 43 

Lasioglossum spp. 5 (5) 26 

Leioproctus boltoni 10 

Leioproctus fulvescens 9 

Leioproctus huakiwi 13 

Leioproctus hudsoni 9 

Leioproctus imitatus 9 

Leioproctus kanapuu 3 

Leioproctus keehua 1 

Leioproctus maritimus 4 

Leioproctus metallicus 2 

Leioproctus monticola 8 

Leioproctus nunui 2 

Leioproctus paahauma 1 

Leioproctus paahaumaa 3 

Leioproctus pango 20 

Leioproctus pekanui 8 

Leioproctus purpureus 5 

Leioproctus spp. 6 (6) 14 

Leioproctus vestitus 9 

Leioproctus waipounamu 12 

Lucilia sericata 4 (4) 4 

Megachile rotundata 2 (2) 2 

Melangyna novaezelandiae 1 4 (4) 12 

Melanostoma fasciatum 1 4 (4) 4 

Muscid spp. 4 7 

Odontomyia spp. 4 3 

Oxysarcodexia varia 4 3 

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Insect Species 

No. exotic plant species No. native plant species 

Pollenia pseudorudis 4 

Scaptia sp. 1 (1) 3 

Tachinid spp. 5 (5) 8 

1 Larval instars are predatory 

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Final report - Ministry for Primary Industries

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