PLANT PROTECTION 1 â Pests, Diseases and Weeds

PLANT 

PROTECTION 1 

Pests, Diseases and Weeds 

4th edition 

Ruth M. Kerruish 

Phillip W. Unger 

drawings by 

Adrienne L. Walkington

PLANT PROTECTION SERIES 

PLANT PROTECTION 1 

Pests, Diseases and Weeds. 

Pests and Diseases 

• Insects and allied pests 

• Snails and slugs 

• Vertebrate pests 

• Nematode diseases 

• Virus and virus-like diseases 

• Bacterial diseases 

• Fungal diseases 

• Parasitic flowering plants 

• Non-parasitic problems 

Weeds 


Methods of control. 

Cultural methods 

Sanitation 

Biological control 

Resistant varieties 

Plant quarantine 

Disease-tested planting material 

Physical and mechanical methods 

Pesticides 

Plant Management 

IPM (Integrated Pest Management) 

Organic standards, 

• BMP (Best Management Practice) 


Selected Ornamentals, Fruit and Vegetables. 

Annual and herbaceous perennials 

Bromeliads 

Bulbs, corms, rhizomes and tubers 

Cacti, ferns 

Fruit and nuts 

Orchids, palms, roses 

Trees, shrubs and climbers 

Turf grasses 

Vegetables 

• Also Australian native plants, Bonsai, Compost, Containers, Garden centres, Greenhouses, Herbs, House 

plants, Hydroponic systems, Interior landscapes, Manure, Mulches, Nurseries, Plant tissue culture, Postharvest, 

Potting mixes, Seedlings, Seeds, Soil, Urban bushland, Urban landscapes, Water, Water plants, Xeriscapes. 


How to Diagnose Plant Problems. 

• Step 1. The client’s enquiry 

• Step 2. Identify affected plant 

• Step 3. Examine plant parts for signs and symptoms 

• Step 4. Visit site, history, questions 

• Step 5. Consult references 

• Step 6. Seek expert help 

• Step 7. Report the diagnosis

PLANT PROTECTION 1 – Pests, Diseases and Weeds 



Pests, Diseases and Weeds 

4th edition 

Ruth M. Kerruish 

Phillip W. Unger 

with original line drawings by 

Adrienne L. Walkington 

ROOTROT PRESS ACT


COPYRIGHT 

Copyright for material in this book is held by the authors, illustrators and third parties who have 

made photographs, drawings and product labels available for educational purposes only. Trademarks 

used in this book to describe firms or their products are trademarks of those firms or the registered 

proprietor of the trademark and are therefore also protected by copyright. Other material in this book 

is available for personal use. 

Copyright©2010 Ruth M. Kerruish and Phillip W. Unger 

Copyright©2010 Adrienne L. Walkington 

Copyright©NSW Department of Industry and Investment 

Copyright©Canberra Institute of Technology 

Copyright©Insense/Desire Pest management 

Copyright©David Olsen 

Copyright©Western Australian Agriculture Authority 

Copyright©Pesticide and other product labels 

FOURTH EDITION 2010 

Previous editions: 1 st edition 1985; 2 nd edition 1991, 3 rd edition 2003 

DISTRIBUTED BY: 

Qld Textbook Warehouse 

PO Box 3220, Bracken Ridge, Qld, Australia 4017 

07 3261 1300 Fax 07 3261 1966 

email: info@qtw.com.au 

web: www.qtw.com.au/ 

PRINTED BY: 

Kwik Kopy Printing Strathpine 

172 South Pine Road, Brendale 4500 

07 3881 3133 Fax 07 3881 3260 

email: sales@kkp.com.au 

web: www. kkp.com.au/ 

PUBLISHED BY 

RootRot Press - ACT 

22 Lynch Street, Hughes, ACT, Australia 2605 

02 6281 3650 

ISBN 978 1 875907 07 6 (print) 

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: 

Author: Kerruish, Ruth M. (Ruth MacNeil), 1936- 

Title: Plant Protection 1: Pests, Diseases and Weeds / Ruth M. Kerruish and 

Phillip W. Unger; illustrator Adrienne L. Walkington. 

Other Authors/Contributors: Unger, Phillip W. (Phillip Wayne), 1945- 

Walkington, Adrienne L. 

Notes: 

Subjects: 

Dewey Number:632.0994 

ISBN 978 1 875907 05 2 (online) 

Includes bibliographical references and index. 

Plant diseases--Australia 

Plant parasites--Australia 

Weeds--Australia 

By the same author: 

PLANT PROTECTION 2 : Methods of Control 

PLANT PROTECTION 3 : Selected Ornamentals, Fruit and Vegetables 

PLANT PROTECTION 4 : How to Diagnose Plant Problems 

Front cover: Rose ‘mosaic’, dandelion, twospotted mites 

ii


DISCLAIMER 

This book is a guide only. While the information in this book is believed to be accurate 

at the time of publication, the authors and publisher make no warranties, expressed or 

implied, as to the accuracy, adequacy or currency of the information presented in this 

book. The material contained in this book is not intended to provide specific advice. 

No reader should act on the basis of anything contained in this book without taking 

appropriate advice on their own particular circumstances. 

It should be recognized that there are differences in soils, climates and seasonal 

conditions, and that pests, diseases and weeds do not occur uniformly across Australia 

and may spread to new regions within Australia. New pests, diseases and weeds may 

enter Australia. Advisors and growers will need to adapt information to suit their 

particular conditions, regions and situations. 

Reference to a product or a particular brand of product in this publication (whether the 

reference appears in an illustration, photograph or in any other form) does not imply the 

authors’ or publisher’s approval or endorsement of the product or the brand. Similarly, 

by the omission of certain trade names and some formulated products, either 

unintentionally or from lack of space, the authors or the publisher are not inferring that 

these products or brands are not approved. 

By allowing the use of their product labels and other material, companies do not imply 

that they are endorsing the contents of the publication. Although efforts are made to 

have up-to-date material, labels change, and with time the labels in this publication may 

not be the current version. 

The authors and publisher do not guarantee the current status of registered uses of any of 

the pesticides or other products mentioned as these are constantly changing. Users must 

comply with current pesticide legislation and follow instructions on currently registered 

labels attached to the container. If information in this book conflicts with that on a 

current label, follow label instructions. 

Websites referred to, or activated in this book, are not under the control of the authors or 

publisher who accept no responsibility or liability in relation to their content. 

AS 6000—2009. Organic and Biodynamic 

Products (Standards Australia) outlines 

minimum requirements to be met by growers and 

manufacturers wishing to label their products 

‘organic’ or ‘biodynamic’ within Australia. 

Organic Federation of Australia (OFA) is the 

peak body for the organic industry in Australia 

www.ofa.org.au 

and follow the links to obtain the domestic and 

export organic standards and certifiers. 

Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA) 

www.bfa.com.au 

NASAA Certified Organic 

www.nasaa.com.au 

Organic Growers of Australia (OGA) 

www.organicgrowers.org.au/ 

Registration of pesticides in Australia is the 

responsibility of the Australian Pesticides and 

Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA). 

APVMA assesses and registers these chemicals 

to ensure that they perform as claimed and are 

safe for people, animals and the land. APVMA 

also issues permits for off-label uses. Check on 

the APVMA database that the chemicals you use 

are registered for use: 

www.apvma.gov.au 

and follow the links to PUBCRIS (the Public 

Chemical Registration Information System). 

Many registered products 

are not available for use by 

home gardeners 

iii


The authors would like to express their appreciation of the many people, organizations 

and companies, whose contributions have made this book possible. 

Advice and support 

Horticultural assistance 

Computing assistance 

Canberra Institute of 

Technology 

Contributors to previous 

editions 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Bill Kerruish, Adrienne Walkington 

Douglas Kerruish, Canberra, ACT; Phillip Unger, Canberra, ACT. 

Andrew Forster, Canberra, ACT; Alan Mann, Canopy Tree Experts, ACT. 

Stefan Alexander, Canberra, ACT; John Kerruish, Sydney, NSW 

Drawings, diagrams, charts and photographs are reproduced with permission of the 

Canberra Institute of Technical Education for educational purposes only 

Phil Carne, Beverley Karpinski, George Khair, Jenni Marsh, Chris McKenna, Patricia 

Sellars, John Stanisic, Chris Tynan, John Walker, Paul Walker, Paul Weiss 

The following drawings, diagrams, photographs and labels are reproduced for educational purposes only with permission of: 

CopyrightNSW Department of Industry and 

Investment 

Fig.2.Rust 

Fig.3.Hormone herbicide injury 

Fig.8.Bean weevil and damage 

Fig.11.Codling Moth E.H.Zeck 

Fig 12.Fruit tree borer damage 

Fig.13.Vegetable weevil E.H.Zeck 

Figs.14,15.Apple leafhoppers and damage 

Fig.20.Cottonycushion scale 

Fig.21.Apple dimpling bug damage 

Fig.22.Woolly aphid damage 

Figs.28,29.Case moths 

Fig.30.Leafcutting bee damage 

Fig.32.Sooty mould 

Fig.41.Queensland fruit fly E.H.Zeck 

Fig.45.Cineraria leafminer damage 

Fig.50.Whitestemmed gum moth caterpillar 

Fig.51.Painted apple moth caterpillar 

Fig.55.Lightbrown apple moth E.H.Zeck 

Fig.56.Cabbage white butterfly E.H.Zeck 

Fig.59 Codling moth W.G.Thwaite 

Fig.60 Codling moth E.H.Zeck 

Fig.64.Oriental fruit moth E.H.Zeck 

Fig.66.Fruit-tree borer and damage 

Fig.68.Elephant weevil and damage 

Fig.69.Beetle borers 

Fig.70.Leaf beetle, eggs and larvae 

Fig.76.African black beetle E.H.Zeck 

Fig.77.Fig longicorn and larvae 

Fig.78.Bean weevil 

Fig.79.Teatree sawfly 

Fig.90.Argentine ant E.H.Zeck 

Fig.91.Citrus gall wasp E.H.Zeck 

Fig.92.Pear and cherry slug adult 

Fig.93.Steelblue sawfly and damage 

Fig.94.Leafblister sawfly damage 

Fig.97.Gladiolus thrips 

Fig.98.Gladiolus thrips damage to corms 

Fig.99.Plague thrips E.H.Zeck 

Fig.101.Green vegetable bug E.H.Zeck 

Fig.102.Crusader bugs 

Fig.106.Green peach aphid E.H.Zeck 

Fig.107.Woolly aphid damage 

Fig.109.Longtailed mealybug and predator 

Fig.111.Gumtree scale, frosted scale, soft brown and 

white wax scale, cottony cushion 

Fig.112.Black scale E.H.Zeck 

Fig.113.Red and white louse scales 

Fig 114.San Jose scale E.H.Zeck 

Fig.116.Greenhouse whitefly 

Fig.117.Termite galleries and mound 

Fig.118.Timber damaged by termites E.H.Zeck 

Fig.119.Subterranean termites 

Page178.Table35.Termite damage E.H.Zeck 

Figs.120,121.Australian plague locust and damage 

Fig.122.Australian plague locust flights 

Fig.123.Grasshopper parasites 

Fig.124.European earwig 

Fig.125.Springtail 

Fig.126.Spider mites E.H.Zeck 

Fig.127.Grapeleaf blister mite E.H.Zeck 

Fig.129.Slaters 

Fig.130.Snails on trunk of citrus tree 

Fig.132.Foliar nematode symptoms 

Fig.133.Stem and bulb nematode symptoms 

Fig.136.Root knot nematode symptoms 

Page278.Ringspot virus symptoms M.Senior 

Fig.143.Tomato spotted wilt symptoms on dahlia 

Fig.144.Tomato spotted wilt-symptoms on arum lily, 

Fig.145.Tomato spotted wilt symptoms on nasturtium 

Fig.150.Bacterial scab of gladiolus 

Fig.152.Fungal leaf spots of mulberry 

Fig.156.Bacterial canker of stone fruit 

Fig.158.Bacterial leaf and stem rot of pelargonium 

Fig.164.Azalea petal blight 

Fig.165.Loose smut M.Senior 

Figs.166,167.Damping off 

Fig.168.Lemon scab M.Senior 

Fig.169.Black spot of grapevine M.Senior 

Fig.170.Brown rot M.Senior 

Fig.171.Freckle M.Senior 

Fig.172.Collar rot of citrus 

Fig.173.Red wood rot fungus M.Senior 

Fig.174.Stem canker of rose 

Fig.175.Phytophthora root rot 

Fig.176.Rhizoctonia stem rot M.Senior 

Fig.178.Peach leaf curl defoliation 

Fig.187.Downy mildew of lettuce M.Senior 

Fig.188.Downy mildew of grapevines M.Senior 

Fig.190.Geranium rust 

Fig.191.Bean rust 

Fig.200.Peach leaf curl M.Senior 

Fig.205.Sclerotinia rot, Sclerotium stem rot M.Senior 

Fig.207.Damping off 

Fig.208.Lichens 

Fig.209.Wind injury 

Fig.211.Sooty mould 

Fig.219.Sunburnt trunk 

Fig.220.Rind splitting of orange 

Fig.222.Cold injury to carnation 

Fig.226.Enlarged lenticels on potato tuber 

Fig.227.Potato leaf roll 

Fig.229.Magnesium deficiency M.Senior 

Fig.231.Whiptail on crucifer 

Fig.244.Mutant orange 

CopyrightCanberra Institute of Technology 

Pagexiii.Plant clinic activities 

Fig.1.Christmas beetle 

Fig.6.Citrus butterfly caterpillars 

Fig.7.Pear and cherry slug damage 

Fig.9.Azalea leafminer damage 

Fig.10.Citrus gall wasp damage 

Page18.Spittle bug 

Fig.16.Green peach aphids 

Fig.17.Greenhouse whiteflies 

Fig.18.Lerps 

Fig.23.Black peach aphids 

Fig.24.Green house thrips damage 

Fig.25.Onion thrips damage 

Fig.26.Thrips in dahlia flowers 

Fig.27.Callistemon leafrolling thrips damage 

Fig.31.Webbing caterpillar damage 

Fig.33.Tomato big bid phytoplasma damage 

Fig.36 Christmas beetle, corn earwom 

Fig.45.Cineraria leafminer damage 

Fig.52.Cup moth caterpillar 

Fig.54.Leafminer damage to bottlebrush 

Fig.57.Corn earworm and damage 

Fig.63.Oriental fruit moth damage to peach fruit 

Fig.72.Leafeating ladybirds and damage 

Fig.73.Predatory ladybirds 

Fig.78.Bean weevil damage 

Fig.80.Callistemon sawfly larvae 

Fig.81.Callistemon sawfly larvae damage 

Fig.83.Cypress pine sawfly larvae. 

Fig.92.Pear and cherry slug and damage 

Fig.94.Leafblister sawfly larvae 

Fig.95.Onion thrips damage 

Fig.96.Leafrolling thrips damage to callistemon 

Fig.98.Gladiolus thrips damage to flowers 

Fig.102.Crusader bug damage on wattle 

Fig.104.Cabbage aphid damage 

Fig.107.Woolly aphids on apple 

Fig.108.Lerps and lerp damage 

Fig.109.Longtailed mealybug 

Fig.111.Wattle tick scale, black scale 

Fig.113.San Jose, red and rose scales 

Fig.116.Greenhouse whiteflies 

Page175.Termite damage to potato 

Page178.Table35.Borer and wood rot damage 

Page227.Snail damage to cabbage 

Page229.Snail damage to gazania - skeletonization 

Fig.130.Snail damage to cabbage, kangaroo paw 

Page240.Bird damage to roses 

Fig.132.Foliar nematode, symptoms(?) 

Page273.Hydrangea mosaic 

Page275.Ringspots on watermelon 

Page 277.Apple mosaic, tomato spotted wilt symptoms 

Page278.Tulip flower breaking 

Fig.138.Grapevine fanleaf, camellia yellow mottle 

Fig.139.Yellow net vein, flat limb 

Fig.141.Tomato spotted wilt, capsicum, tomato 

Fig.142.Thrips in dahlia flowers 

Fig.146.Tomato big bud on tomato 

Fig.147.Tomato big bud symptoms on gazania, parsnip 

Fig.148.Rose mosaic 

Fig.152.Bacterial blight of mulberry 

Fig.154.Crown gall symptoms on rhubarb and rose 

Fig.156.Bacterial canker of stone fruit 

Fig.159.Shothole damage to leaf 

Fig.160.Fungal leaf spot on strawberry 

Fig.161.Powdery mildew of euonymus 

Fig.162.Rust on antirhinum 

Fig.163.Petal blight on rose flowers 

Fig.177.Damping off 

Fig.185.Powdery mildew of euonymus 

Fig.192.Gall rust on wattle 

Fig.193.Rose rust 

Fig.196.Black spot on rose 

Fig.197.Anthracnose on rose 

Fig.199.Leaf curl symptoms on plum fruit 

Fig.202.Wood rot fruiting bodies and damage 

Page372.Damping off 

Pages380-382.Mistletoe, devil’s twine, dodder, 

broomrape 

Fig.212.Wood rot fungus in container 

Fig.213.Fairy ring in a lawn 

Fig.218.Sunscorch injury to capsicum and tomato 

Fig.221.Splitting of skin on tomato 

Fig.225.Oedema on umbrella leaf 

Fig.227.Leafrolling on rhodendron leaves 

Fig.230.Iron deficiency on rhodendron 

Fig.232.Blossom end rot on tomato 

Fig.233.Simazine injury to Prunus 

Fig.237.Lawnmower injury to base of tree 

Fig.238.Potbound roots 

Fig.239.Hail damage to fruit 

Fig.240.Chimera on tulip and apple 

Fig.241.Fasciation on rose 

Fig.242.Variegated leaf on citrus 

Fig.243.Burr knots on Prunus 

Figs.251,252,253.Herbicide injury 

Page462.Herbicide injury 

Fig.254.Weeds in container 

Copyright Insense/Desire Pest management 

Page92.Desire codling moth trap 

Copyright David Olsen 

Fig.148.Rose mosaic 

Copyright Western Australian Agriculture 

Authority, 2009 

Fig.84.Gall wasp on Geraldton wax Wood and Grimm 

Copyright Pesticide and other product labels 

AgBiotech 

Agrimm Technologies 

Bayer 

Becker Underwood 

Bioglobal 

Chemtura 

Colin Campbells 

Crop Care 

Desire 

Dow AgroSciences 

Ecogrow 

Monsanto 

Multicrop 

Organic Crop Protectants 

Sanoway 

Scotts Australia 

SST Australia 

Syngenta 

UPL 

Valent BioSciences 

Yates 

iv


CONTENTS 

Copyright ii 

Disclaimer iii 

Acknowledgements iv 

Contents v 

Preface xi 

Diagnostic and Information Services xiv 

Selected References xvi 

PESTS and DISEASES 1 

PARASITIC PESTS AND DISEASES 3 

Insects and allied pests 5 

Snails and slugs 227 

Vertebrate pests 239 

Nematode diseases 251 

Virus and virus-like diseases 273 

Bacterial diseases 293 

Fungal diseases 313 

Parasitic flowering plants 377 

NON-PARASITIC PESTS AND DISEASES 387 

WEEDS 409 

Glossary and Acronyms 475 

Index 481 

PESTS AND DISEASES 1 

PARASITIC PESTS AND DISEASES 3 

Insects and Allied Pests 5.. 

Biology 7 

Why are insects successful? 8 

What are insects? 9 

External anatomy of adult insects 10 

Integument (body covering) 12 

Head 13 

Thorax 15 

Abdomen 16 

Insect excretions 18 

Insect secretions 19 

Life cycles and growth 20 

Metamorphosis 20 

Diapause 21 

Growth 22 

Reproduction 23 

Types of larvae 24 

Blood system 26 

Nervous system, communication 26 

Plant damage 27 

Host range 27 

How insects damage plants 28 

Direct feeding damage 29 

Chewing damage 29 

Piercing and sucking damage 31 

Rasping and sucking damage 33 

Indirect damage 34 

Pest cycle 35 

Overwintering, oversummering 36 

Spread 37 

Conditions favouring 38 

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 39 

Control methods 40 

Legislation 40 

Cultural methods 40 

Sanitation 41 

Biological control 42 

Resistant, tolerant varieties 45 

Plant quarantine 46 

Pest-tested planting material 47 

Physical and mechanical methods 48 

Insecticides, miticides 49 

Resistance 56 

Insecticide Mode of Action Groups (Table 2) 57 

Bio-insecticides, spray oils, soaps, pheromones, etc (Table 3) 61 

Identification and Classification 63 

Orders of Insects 64 

Order Diptera (flies, gnats, leafminers, midges, mosquitoes) 65 

Fruit flies 68 

Cineraria leafminer 73 

Fungus gnats 75 

Garden maggots 77 

v


Insects and Allied Pests.. (contd) 

Order Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths) 78 

Cabbage white butterfly 84 

Corn earworm 86 

Codling moth 89 

Oriental fruit moth 93 

Fruit-tree borer 96 

Order Coleoptera (beetles, weevils) 98 

Leafeating ladybirds 104 

Black vine weevil 106 

Scarab grubs 108 

Longicorn beetles 111 

Bean weevil 113 

Order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps, sawflies) 114 

Ants 119 

Citrus gall wasp 121 

Pear and cherry slug 123 

Steelblue sawfly 125 

Leafblister sawfly 127 

Order Neuroptera (lacewings, antlions. aphidlions) 129 

Order Thysanoptera (thrips) 130 

Gladiolus thrips 133 

Plague thrips 136 

Western flower thrips (WFT) 138 

Order Hemiptera (bugs; hoppers; 

aphids, lerps, mealybugs, scales, whiteflies) 141 

Crusader bug 148 

Cabbage aphid 150 

Green peach aphid 152 

Woolly aphid 155 

Lerp insects, psyllids 158 

Longtailed mealybug 160 

Black scale 164 

San Jose scale 168 

Greenhouse whitefly (GHWF) 171 

Order Isoptera (termites, "white ants") 174 

Termites 177 

Order Orthoptera (crickets, grasshoppers, katydids, locusts) 180 

Australian plague locust 182 

Order Dermaptera (earwigs) 186 

European earwig 188 

Order Blattodea (cockroaches) 190 

Order Phasmatodea (stick insects, leaf insects, phasmatids) 193 

Order Mantodea (mantids, praying mantids) 195 

Order Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies) 196 

Allied Pests 197 

Springtails (Class Collembola) 197 

Mites (Class Arachnida, Order Acarina) 199 

Twospotted mite 202 

Grapeleaf blister mite 206 

Spiders (Class Arachnida, Order Araneida) 209 

Slaters (Class Malacostraca, Order Isopoda) 212 

Millipedes (Class Diplopoda) 214 

Review questions and activities 216 

Selected references 224 

Snails and Slugs 227. 

Biology and Identification 228 

No. species in Australia 228 

Some distinctive features 228 

Method of feeding 228 

Feeding and plant damage 229 

Classification, identification, diagnostics 229 

List of some species 230 

Pest cycle 231 


Spread 232 






Sanitation 233 






Molluscicides 235 

Molluscicides (Table 47) 236 

Molluscicide safety (Table 48) 237 



vi


Vertebrate Pests 239.. 

Biology 240 


Damage 240 

List of some vertebrate pests 241 

Spread, conditions favouring 242 








Animal quarantine 245 

Pest-damaged planting material 245 


Pesticides 247 

Repellents, avicides (Table 49) 248 

Rodenticides (Table 50) 249 



Nematode Diseases 251. 


No. diseases in Australia 252 


Life cycle 252 


Symptoms 253 

Classification 256 

Identification and sampling 256 


Distribution within plants 259 

Disease cycle 259 


Spread 260 


Integrated Disease Management (IDM) 262 






Resistant, tolerant cultivars and rootstocks 264 


Disease-tested planting material 264 


Nematicides 265 

Non-fumigant nematicides (Table 51) 266 

Fumigants (Table 52) 267 

Example of a nematode disease 268 

Root knot 268 



Virus and Virus-like Diseases 273. 




"Life cycle" 274 

Symptoms 275 

How viruses infect host plants 276 

Distribution within a plant 276 

Detection and identification 276 

Virus names and classification 277 

List of some virus and virus-like diseases 278 



Spread 282 












Pesticides (viricides, insecticides) 285 

Examples of virus and virus-like diseases 286 

Tomato spotted wilt 286 

Tomato big bud (greening, virescence) 289 

Virus diseases of roses (rose "mosaic") 291 



vii


Bacterial Diseases 293. 






Identification 295 

Symptoms 295 

List of some bacterial diseases 297 

Nutrition and parasitism 299 

How bacteria infect host plants 299 

Distribution in plant 299 



Spread 300 












Bactericides 303 

Examples of bacterial diseases 304 

Crown gall 304 

Bacterial canker of stone fruit 307 

Bacterial leaf spots 310 



Fungal Diseases 313. 

Biology, Identification and Classification 314 




Symptoms, damage 315 


Classification of fungi 319 

List of some fungal diseases 320 


How fungi infect host plants 324 

Distribution within host plant 324 



Spread 326 












Fungicides 331 

Resistance 337 

Fungicide Activity Groups (Table 58) 338 

Disinfectants (Table 59) 343 

Bio-fungicides, soaps, bicarbonates, milk, etc (Table 60) 344 

Examples of fungal diseases 345 

Powdery mildews 345 

Downy mildews 348 

Rusts 351 

Black spot of rose 355 

Peach leaf curl 358 

Wood rots 361 

Phytophthora root rot (Pc) 364 

Damping off 371 



viii


Parasitic Flowering Plants 377. 




Weed status of parasitic plants 378 

Beneficial values 378 


Hemi-parasites 379 

Native cherries 379 

Western Australia Christmas tree 379 

Witchweeds 380 

Mistletoes , 380 

s381 

True parasites 381 

Dodder 381 

Broomrape 382 

Integrated Weed Management (IWM) 382 








Weed-tested planting material 385 


Herbicides 385 



NON-PARASITIC PESTS AND DISEASES 387 

Causes and Diagnostics 388 

What are non-parasitic pests and diseases? 388 

Symptoms and damage 389 

Diagnostics 389 

Examples of non-parasitic problems 390 

Living agents 391 

Non-living agents 392 

Environment 392 

Climate change, salinity 394 

Nutrient deficiencies and toxicities, pesticide injury, acid soil 395 

Pollutants, mechanical injuries 396 

Genetic abnormalities 397 

Delayed effects, spread, conditions favouring 398 





Tolerant varieties 401 


Problem-tested planting material 402 



Plant growth regulators (Table 70) 403 

Leaf anti-transpirants, soil wetting agents, water storage (Table 71) 405 



ix


WEEDS 409 

Biology, Classification and identification 410 


What are weeds? 410 

Why are some plants likely to become weeds? 410 

Harmful effects of weeds 411 

Beneficial effects of weeds 411 

Weed identification 412 

Classifying weeds 413 


Description of some weed species 419 

Dicotyledons (broadleaved weeds) 419 

Rosettes 419 

Not rosettes 420 

Small or fine leaved 421 

Woody weeds 422 

Monocotyledons (narrowleaved weeds) 423 

Grass weeds 423 

Sedges 425 


Overwintering, oversummering, the seed bank 426 

Spread (dispersal) 427 


Integrated Weed Management (IWM) 429 

Effective weed management 430 






Tolerant, well adapted plant varieties 436 






Herbicide Mode of Action Groups (Table 72) 450 

Other products, plant extracts (Table 73) 454 

Examples of weed situations 455 

Adjuvants (spray additives) 455 

Marking systems 456 

Post-emergent, pre-emergent and soil residual herbicides 457 

Broadleaved weeds 460 


Weeds in turf 462 

Weeds in flower plantings 463 

Weeds in containers 464 

Tree suckers 466 

Brush and woody weeds 467 

Unwanted individual trees 469 

Environmental weeds 470 



Glossary & Acronyms 475. 

Index 481. 

x


PREFACE 

This book is the first in a series which combines the basic principles of pests, diseases and weeds into 

a single, integrated program. Plant Protection is a dynamic field and a systematic understanding of 

the strategies involved is necessary for the successful management of plants and crops and to permit 

constant updating. It can readily be used in conjunction with the season-related learning of plant 

pests, diseases and weeds. In this preface suggestions are made on how this book may best be used. 



REPRESENTATIVE 

PROBLEMS 

Representative 

problems have been 

chosen to indicate 

possible types of damage, 

control measures, etc. 

Criteria for inclusion 

of a pest, disease or 

weed, include economic 

importance, abundance, 

interesting or striking 

appearance. 

WEB SITES 

Registered and/or 

recommended 

pesticides change 

from time to time 

and it is therefore 

difficult to keep 

a text current 

Pests, Diseases and Weeds (the causes of problems) 

PESTS and DISEASES. 

It can be difficult to know whether one is dealing with a pest or disease. 

Definitions of these terms are often inconsistent, so pests and diseases 

have been grouped together and re-divided into 2 new groups: 

Parasitic problems include: 

Insects and allied pests 

Snails and slugs 

Vertebrate pests 

Nematode diseases 

Virus and virus-like diseases 

Bacterial diseases 

Fungal diseases 

Parasitic flowering plants 

Non-parasitic problems include: 

Living agents, eg fairy rings, lichens 

Non-living agents, eg heat, pollutants 

For each group, the 

following is described: 

Distinctive features 

Host range 

Damage/Symptoms 

Pest/Disease cycle 

‘Overwintering’ 

Spread 

Conditions favoring 

IPM and Control methods 

Representative problems 

Review questions and activities 

Selected references 

WEEDS. 

Weeds are less complex to study than pests and diseases and are treated 

in a traditional manner. 

FACT SHEETS 

Information relating to a particular problem is presented in standardized Fact 

Sheets with the following headings/sub-headings: 

Common name (of pest, disease or weed) 

Cause/Scientific name 

Host range/Plants affected/Situation 

Description and Damage/Symptoms/Effect 

Diagnostics 

Pest/Disease/Weed cycle 

 

Spread 

Conditions favouring 

Integrated Pest Management 

Control methods 


Sanitation 


Resistant/Tolerant varieties 


Pest/Disease/Weed-tested planting material 

Physical and mechanical methods 

Pesticides 

PESTICIDES, BLANK SPACES 

Pesticides are not always listed as there are many computerized 

systems which provide up-to-date information on registration and safety, 

eg some industries such as the grapevine industry publish current 

recommendations for their particular industry. 

www.apvma.com.au 

Blank spaces in some instances, have been left so that where appropriate, 

currently registered pesticides, new resistant/tolerant varieties, pest 

management programs and other up-to-date information can be inserted. 

In the online format of this book websites can be accessed by using the 

Select Text button on the tool bar and pasting them into your search engine. 

Those that you might want to use regularly can be placed under ‘Favourites’ 

on your computer. 

xi


COLLECTIONS 

Insect collection 

Plant disease and 

damage collection 

Weed collection 

WHY IDENTIFY 

THE PEST, 

DISEASE OR 

WEED? 

THE AIM OF THE COLLECTIONS 

The aim is to help in the systematic study of pests, diseases and weeds and to 

obtain experience in correctly identifying the causes of plant problems. About 

20 specimens should be prepared for each collection. It is a good idea to 

swap specimens with other collectors. Instructions can be given for all 

collections, including details about collecting and preserving them, well 

before commencing the study of Plant Protection. It is easy to compile 

collections during the summer. Collections can be a valuable personal 

reference for many years. 

Insect collection. A dry and preserved collection of local pests of 

economic importance can be prepared and identified. A systematic index 

should accompany the collection, ie insects should be arranged according 

to Order. Some specimens may be compulsory; the others collected as 

desired but be of relevant horticulture interest. 

Plant disease and damage collection. A dry herbarium collection of 

plant diseases and plant damage can be collected and arranged according 

to the agents which cause plant problems, eg insects, snails, nematode 

diseases, virus diseases, etc (page xi). A systematic index should 

accompany the collection, ie diseases should be arranged according to 

their type, eg bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, etc. Some specimens may 

be compulsory and others of local or personal horticultural interest. 

Weed collection. A dry herbarium collection should be prepared and 

arranged according to specified weed groups. An index should accompany 

the collection. Collection of the majority of weeds should be compulsory. 

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) 

Pests, diseases and weeds are the main causes of plant problems and 

if they are not identified accurately, control measures are likely to be 

ineffective. 

Identification of the pest, disease or weed is the 3 rd step in IPM. If 

dealing with: 

– Diseases, the term IDM (Integrated Disease Management) is used. 

– Weeds, the term IWM (Integrated Weed Management) is used. 

Some pests, diseases and weeds are difficult to identify. 

IPM 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

 

CROP, 

REGION 

List the 

diseases 

and pests 

and weed 

problems 

that your 

crop gets 

Prepare a 

fact sheet for 

each problem 

 

IDENTIFY 

PROBLEM 

STEPS 

1. Client’s enquiry 

2. Identify affected 

plant, crop 

3. Examine plant 

parts for signs, 

symptoms, tests 

4. Visit site, history, 

questions 

5. Consult 

resources 

(colleagues, 

books, websites) 

6. Seek expert help 

7. Report the 

diagnosis 

MONITOR 

Know: 

When to monitor? 

Where to 

monitor? 

What to count, 

eg pest & 

beneficial 

insects, eggs, 

etc? 

How to monitor, 

sticky traps, 

etc? 

Keep records 

THRESHOLD 

Economic? 

Aesthetic? 

Biodiversity? 

Complaints? 

Is there a 

threshold for this 

pest above which 

controls must be 

implemented? 

Is there a legal 

requirement to 

comply? 

CONTROL, 

ACTION 

Decision making 

? 

Legislation 

Cultural 

Sanitation 

Biological 

Resistance 

Quarantine 

Disease-tested 

Physical etc 

Pesticide 

BMP 

Organic, etc 

Combinations 

of these 

EVALUATE 

 

Was the IPM 

program 

successful? 

Did you 

achieve the 

control you 

wanted? 

Can the IPM 

be improved? 

YES/NO? 

 

 

 

Steps in Integrated Pest Management (IPM). 

xii


HOW MUCH OF 

THE BOOK 

SHOULD BE 

STUDIED? 

 

? 

 

 

SYSTEMATIC STUDY 

Causes of plant problems should be studied systematically, preferably 

starting with insects and allied pests in autumn, they are easy to collect and 

study, most people find them interesting. 

However, it is not necessary to cover all the problems within each group, but 

rather that some be selected for more or less detailed study. 

Always include some important local pests, diseases and weeds. 

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE 

To obtain sufficient practical experience in examining fresh material and 

diagnosing plant problems, the following activities may be undertaken: 

Bringing specimens to class. Students are encouraged to bring specimens 

for class study and diagnosis. 

 

 

 

 

Seasonal pests, diseases and weeds can be examined when available. 

Regular testing. Initially students can examine seasonal specimens according 

to their cause. After a few weeks and some experience has been acquired, 

regular weekly or fortnightly self-testing of selected specimens can commence. 

Field studies. Take every opportunity to examine problems in the field at 

different times of the year but especially during spring and autumn, field 

studies are of most benefit towards the end of the course, when students have 

acquired some skills. Examine real plant problems at work and in gardens, ask 

colleagues and friends. Plant clinics and advisory services can be useful aids. 

Emailing photographs to diagnostic services. 

Many insects and weeds can be readily 

identified from pictures sent to a diagnostic 

service – Christmas beetle. 

Some diseases have distinctive symptoms and 

a general identification can be made from photos 

sent to a diagnostic service – rose ‘mosaic’. 

Many diseases can be difficult to identify from 

symptoms and may require fresh material, 

knowledge of the plant, its history and/or specific 

tests for identification – the plant is Choysia. 

What questions might you want to ask? 

Fresh material with 

the enquirer is often 

 

questions 

Plant clinics can provide a range of plant problems 

for students that they might not normally see. 

Greenhouses are always a great source 

of pests and diseases. 

Trips to look at problems in the field are essential for many situations – though 

photographs can be emailed. Left: Ash tree dying back due to prolonged drought. Right: Soil 

disease of English daisy, a laboratory test is required for a positive identification. 

xiii


DIAGNOSTIC AND INFORMATION SERVICES 

Free home garden advice may be provided by your local horticulture college, botanic gardens, garden 

centres and garden clubs. Talkback radio, Gardening Australia TV and newspapers all provide further 

opportunities for gardeners to seek advice. On-line fact sheets are a big help for home gardeners. However, a 

pest still needs to be correctly identified, so plant specimens or their photos may still need to be sent or taken to 

a garden advisory service. Remember some problems can be difficult to identify from photographs. 

Commercial diagnostic services and pest management services are offered by consultants, 

industry associations, CSIRO and state departments of primary industry. Some are free, others cost recovery. 

Most diagnostic services specialize in pests or diseases, soil or water testing, etc. 

There are diagnostic services for some crops are available, eg grape, cotton and turf. The Nursery & 

Garden Industry has developed a pest, disease and identification tool for use in the field on handheld 

PDAs (Personal Data Assistants) and some Smartphones. Some crops have a ‘One Stop Shop for Your 

Crop’ via the internet, eg CropWatch Online for grapevines. 

Local councils offer advice on noxious weeds and vertebrate pests, bees, possums. 

The following are examples of some commercial diagnostic services for plant pests, diseases and weeds. 

Australia-wide 

GrowSearch Australia 

An information service for producers of ornamentals, 

horticultural and nursery crops. 

PO Box 327, Cleveland, Qld 4163 

(07) 3824 9555 Fax (07) 3286 7618 

email growsearch@dpi.qld.gov.au 

www.dpi.qld.gov.au/ and search for GrowHelp 


Plant Health Australia is the lead national coordinating 

body for plant health in Australia. There are links to the 

website below at www.planthealthaustralia.com.au/ 

Emergency Plant Response Deed (EPRD) 

Underpinning the EPRD is PlantPlan the agreed technical 

response plan used by jurisdictions and industry in 

responding to an EPP incident. 

PaDIL (Pest and Diseases Image Library) provides high 

quality images of exotic organisms, assists with 

diagnostics, trains and encourages public awareness in 

quarantine. www.padil.gov.au 

National Pest and Disease Outbreaks 

Outbreak only reports on pests and diseases that are 

exotic to Australia, and are under eradication programs. 

www.outbreak.gov.au/ 

CSIRO Insect Identification Service 

Australian National Insect Collection - ACT 

ANIC Collection Manager 

Clunies Ross Street, Acton ACT 2601 

(02) 6246 4281 Fax (02) 6246 4264 

email ento-ident@csiro.au 

www.csiro.au/services/ 

Biological Crop Protection 

Specializes in nematodes, plant diseases, soil-borne 

diseases, biological control, diagnostic services in 

nematology, plant pathology and soil biology. 

3601 Moggill Rd, Moggill, Qld 4070 

(07) 3202 7419 

email info@biolcrop.com.au 

www.biolcrop.com.au 

Northern Australia 

Northern Australia Diagnostics Network (NADN) 

Is concerned with detection, management and control of 

diseases and pests of horticulture and agriculture in the 

NT, north WA and north Qld. 

www.tpp.uq.edu.au/Default.aspx?tabid=722 

CRCTPP [Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical 

Plant Protection)] 

Level 5 John Hines Building 

The University of Queensland, Qld 4072 

(07) 3365 2790 

email j.irwin@uq.edu.au 

Australian Capital Territory 

XCS Consulting 

A European Wasp and Insect Identification Service. 

(02) 6162 1914 

New South Wales 

Plant Health Diagnostic Service (PHDS), NSW DPI 

Plant Pests and Disease Identification 

www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/ 

Elizabeth MacArthur Agriculture Institute 

Woodbridge Road, Menangle, NSW 2568 

(02) 4640 6327 Fax (02) 4640 6400 

Orange Agricultural Institute 

Forest Road, Orange, NSW 2800 

(02) 6391 3800, 1800 675 821 Fax (02) 6391 3899 

Plant Disease Diagnostic Unit Service 

Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney 

Mrs Macquarie’s Road, Sydney, NSW 2000 

(02) 9231 8111 www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/ 

Northern Territory 

Dept. of Regional Development, Primary Industry, 

Fisheries and Resources (DRDPIFR) 

Entomology A range of entomological services is provided to 

growers, government departments, householders, home 

gardeners and the general public. 

Plant Pathology Branch Identify plant diseases caused by 

various bacteria, fungi, nematodes, phytoplasmas, viruses and 

viroids as well as non-living agents. Also develop disease 

management practices. 

Address 

Berrimah Farm 

Makagon Road, Berrimah, NT 0828 

GPO Box 3000, Darwin, NT 0801 

(08) 8999 2162 Fax (08) 8999 2312 

www.nt.gov.au/d/Primary_Industry/ 

email info.drdpifr@nt.gov.au 

Queensland 

Dept. of Primary Industries 

Grow Help Australia provides a disease and pest diagnostic 

service for horticultural crops, testing for disease organisms 

in plants, seeds, potting mix, soil and water; plant pathogen 

testing to fulfil nursery accreditation scheme and export 

requirements; remedial advice. 

www.dpi.qld.gov.au/26_12360.htm 

Grow Help Client Service Officer 

Entomology Building 

80 Meiers Road, Indooroopilly Qld 4068 

(07) 3896 9668 Fax (07) 3896 9446 

email growhelp@dpi.qld.gov.au 

HORTUS Technical Services 

Laboratory and field testing, pre- and post-plant analysis, fruit 

testing, potting mixes, quick soil and hydroponic tests, fruit, 

sap tests and potting mix tests, pest monitoring, training. 

410 Langbeckers East Road, Bundaberg, QLD 4670 

Locked Bag 3901, Bundaberg, Qld 4670 

(07) 4132 50000 Fax (07) 4155 6656 

www.croptech.com.au www.hortus.net.au/ 

xiv


South Australia 

SA Research and Development Institute (SARDI) 

www.sardi.sa.gov.au/ follow link to Pests and Diseases, 

then Diagnostic Services 

Crop diagnostics provide seed and plant pathology services, 

virus testing, nematode identification and sampling 

(08) 8303 9384 

Horticulture Diagnostic Services provide disease diagnosis, 

virus testing, nematode identification and sampling 

(08) 8303 9562 / 8303 9585 Fax (08) 8303 9303 

Insect Diagnostic Services provides insect identification, 

biological control advice when requested 

(08) 8303 9540 Fax (08) 8303 9542 

PreDicta B (B =broadacre) is a DNA based soil testing 

service to identify which soilborne pathogens which pose a 

significant risk to broadacre crops prior to seeding. 

(08) 8303 9393 

Tasmania 

Dept. of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and 

Environment 

Weeds, pests and diseases 

www.dpipwe.tas.gov.au/ 

Diseases 

Senior Pathologist 

13 St Johns Avenue, Newtown, Tas 7008 

(03) 6233 6864, 1300 368 550 (local call cost) 

Fax (03) 6278 2716 

Pests 

Entomologist 

1 Rundle Road, Devonport, Tas 7310 

(03) 6421 7636 Fax (03) 6424 5142 

Victoria 

Dept. of Primary Industries 

Crop Health Services (DPI – Knoxfield) provides 

diagnostic services for plant diseases and pests and 

management recommendations as appropriate. Also 

provides disease-tested planting material of potatoes, 

strawberries and other crops and monitoring services. 

Crop Health Services 

621 Burwood Highway, Knoxfield, Vic 3180 

Ferntree Gully Delivery Centre, Vic 3156 

(03) 9210 9356 Fax (03) 9887 3166 

www.dpi.vic.gov.au and search for Crop Health Services 

Cropwatch is the division of Fruit Growers Victoria Ltd 

which provides Integrated Pest and Disease Management 

(IPDM) and field services to commercial fruit growers on a 

fee for service basis. 

www.cropwatch.com.au/ 

www.fgv.com.au/cropwatch.htm 

Western Australia 

Department of Agriculture 

AGWEST Plant Laboratories 

Provides a range of services including seed certification, 

weed and insect identification and plant disease diagnosis. 

Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia 

3 Baron-Hay Court, South Perth, WA 6151 

(08) 9368 3721 Fax (08) 9474 2658 

email agwestplantlabs@agric.wa.gov.au 

www.agric.wa.gov.au/ 

Grain Guard and Hort Guard provide specialist diagnostic 

service for many plants problems, eg broomrape. 

PestWeb - a searchable database that contains identification and 

control information for insect pests of farms and quarantine 

significance. 

Keys to allied pests of extensive agriculture - an adapted and 

abridged web version of the popular extension booklet. 

Identifying and managing aphids in potatoes - aphid 

management and identification keys 

Bruchid pest host database - a database to outlining bruchid 

pests, distribution and various host plants. 

Pest and Disease Information Service (PaDIS) 

Free advice and specimen identification 

Freecall 1800 084 881 or email: info@agric.wa.gov.au 

Turf Consultants 

Australian Golf Course Superintendents Assoc. 

(AGCSATech) 

Suite 1, Monash Corporate Centre 

752 Blackburn Road, Clayton VIC 3168 

(03) 9548 8600 Fax (03) 9548 8622 

email info@agcsa.com.au 

www.agcsa.com.au/ 

Globe Australia 

Soil testing and plant diagnostic services 

(02) 8713 5555 Fax (02) 8713 5550 

www.globeaustralia.com.au/turf 

www.globeaustralia.com.au/ 

SportsTurf 

Diagnostic Soil, Water and Plant Analysis 

Soil, plant tissue and water analysis 

Disease, insect and weed identification 

Nematode testing 

45 Westerfield Drive 

Notting Hill VIC 3168 

(03) 9574 9066 Fax (03) 9574 9072 

email info@sportsturf.com.au 

www.sportsturf.com.au 

SAMPLES 

Consult the advisory service or website to find out how to 

sample and send the specimen. 

Samples should be fresh and show early and late stages of 

damage. 

Insects and fungal fruiting bodies causing damage may be 

collected. 

For identification of plants/weeds, collect leaves, flowers 

and seeds where possible. 

If collecting small plants or grasses, collect roots as well. 

Do not wrap specimens in plastic or wet them, specimens 

rot. Use clean dry paper. 

Photographs, digital images and maps assist diagnosis. 

Soil and water samples must be in secure containers. 

All samples must be clearly labeled. 

Diagnostic forms can be downloaded from the laboratory’s 

website, filled in and attached to the specimen. 

If posting specimens use express post and mark urgent. 

Postal address may be different from delivery address. 

Services offered include: 

Pest and disease identification 

Weed identification 

Online diagnostics 

Guidelines for control 

IPM strategies 

Some are highly specialized: 

Nematode identification 

Seed certification 

Soil and water analysis 

Soil moisture monitoring 

Irrigation advice 

Plant tissue analysis 

Potting mix test 

Sap tests 

Fruit tests 

Root identification 

Environmental monitoring 

Specific crops 

Diagnostics – 

online 

PDA devices will make 

it possible to have a 

complete guide for 

known crop pests and 

diseases on every 

 

eg the electronic Pest, 

Disease, Beneficial & 

Weed Identification 

tool (Nursery & Garden 

Industry Queensland 

(NGIQ). 

xv


SELECTED REFERENCES 

Pests and diseases 

Fact Sheets by State/Territory Depts of Primary Industries 

and the Commonwealth Government are available online: 

Bureau of Rural Sciences (BRS) www.daff.gov.au/brs 

Australian Capital Territory www.act.gov.au 

New South Wales www.dpi.nsw.gov.au 

Northern Territory www.nt.gov.au 

Queensland www.dpi.qld.gov.au 

South Australia www.pir.sa.gov.au 

Tasmania www.dpiw.tas.gov.au 

Victoria www.dpi.vic.gov.au 

Western Australia www.agric.wa.gov.au 

Keys Centre for Biological Information Technology (CBIT) 

Lucid keys www.lucidcentral.org/ 

Management manuals produced by individual states and 

industry associations, provide information on pests and 

diseases of particular crops are available as books or 

online, eg Floriculture; AUSVEG which is the national 

peak industry body representing the interests of Australian 

vegetable and potato growers www.ausveg.com.au/ 

American Phytopathological Society (APS) Press, St. 

Paul, Minnesota produces compendiums on diseases 

and pests of particular plants. www.shopapspress.org 

Bodman, K., Carson, C., Forsberg, L., Gough, N., 

Hughes, I., Parker, R., Ramsey, M. and Whitehouse, 

M. 1996. Ornamental Plants : Pests, Diseases and 

Disorders. Q196001. Qld DPI, Brisbane. 

Buczacki, S. and Harris, K. 2005. Pests, Diseases and 

Disorders of Garden Plants. 3 rd edn. Collins, UK. 

Deardorff, D. and Wadsworth, K. 2010. What's Wrong 

With My Plant? Timber Press, USA. 

Goodwin, S., Steiner, M. Parker, R., Tesoriero, L., 

Connellan, G., Keskula, E., Cowper, B., Medhurst, 

A. and Rodriguez, C. 2000. Integrated Pest 

Management in Ornamentals : Information Guide. 

Agrilink. QAL0004, NSW DPI. Sydney. 

Goodwin, S. and Steiner, M. (eds). 2000. The Pests, 

Diseases, Disorders and Beneficials in Ornamentals 

– Field Identification Guide. DPI. Will be available 

digitally for use in the field. 

Horst, R. K. (ed.). 2008. Westcott's Plant Disease 

Handbook. 7 th edn. eReference, originally published 

by Springer, NY. 

Jones, D. L. and Elliot, W. R. 1986. Pests, Diseases and 

Ailments of Australian Plants. reprinted 1995. 

Lothian Pub., Melbourne. 

Kerruish, R. M. 1997. Plant Protection 3: Selected 

Ornamentals, Fruit and Vegetables. RootRot Press, 

ACT. avail. online 

Kerruish, R. M. 2006. Plant Protection 4: How to 

Diagnose Plant Problems. RootRot Press, ACT. 

avail. online 

McMaugh, J. 1994. What Garden Pest or Disease is 

That? Lansdowne Press, Sydney. 

Tesoriero, L. et al. 2009. Managing Diseases and Pests 

in Asian Vegetables. RIRDC, ACT. 

Yates. Yates Garden Guide. cur. edn. Angus and 

Robertson, Sydney. There is also a pest guide. 

Pests 

CSIRO entomology www.ento.csiro.au/education/about.html 

Introduction to Entomology http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/ 

Aust. Ento. Supplies www.entosupplies.com.au 

Victorian Museum www.mov.vic.gov.au/ 

Australian insect farm www.insectfarm.com.au/about.htm 

Broadley, R. and Thomas, M. . The Good Bug Book : 

Beneficial Insects and Mites Commercially Available 

in Australia for Biological Pest Control. ABC/Qld 

DPI/RIRDC. 

Hadlington, P. W. and Johnston, J. A. 1998. An 

Introduction to Australian Insects. Revised edn. 

UNSW Press, Kensington, NSW. 

Zborowski, P. and Storey, R. 1995. A Field Guide to 

Insects in Australia. Reed Books, Port Melbourne. 

Diseases 

The Australasian Plant Pathology Society (APPSnet) 

www.australasianplantpathologysociety.org.au/ 

The American Phytopathology Society (APSnet) 

www.apsnet.org/ 

Lucid disease keys - First microscope key to microbes 

An initial guide for the identification of microbes observed 

with the light microscope. www.lucidcentral.org/ 

NIASA. The Nursery Industry Accreditation Scheme, Australia. 

www.ngia.com.au/ 

Agrios, G. N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 5 th edn. Academic 

Press, NY. 

Brown, J. F. and Ogle, H. J. 1997. Plant Pathogens and 

Plant Diseases. Rockvale Pubs., Armidale, NSW. 

Committee on Standardization of Common Names for 

Plant Diseases of The American Phytopathological 

Society, 1978-2007 (compiled by). Common Names 

of Plant Diseases. APSnet online Resources. 


Cooke, T., Persley, D and House, S. (eds) 2009. 

Diseases of Fruit Crops in Australia. CSIRO 

Publishing, Melbourne. 

Fahy, P. C. and Persley, G. J. 1983. Plant Bacterial 

Diseases : A Diagnostic Guide. Academic Press, 

North Ryde, NSW. 

Keane, P. J., Kile, G. A., Podger, F. D. and Brown, 

B. N. (eds). 2000. Diseases and Pathogens of 

Eucalypts. CSIRO Pub., Collingwood, Vic. 

Persley, D., Cooke, T. and House, S. 2010. Diseases 

of Vegetable Crops in Australia. CSIRO Pub., 

Melbourne. 


Fact Sheets by State/Territory Depts of Primary Industries 

and the Commonwealth Government are available online 

Weeds in Australia www.weeds.gov.au 

Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au 

National Weeds Lists www.weeds.gov.au/weeds/lists/index.html 

Lucid weed keys www.lucidcentral.org/ 

Field Guides – WEEDeck, Regional Ute Guides 

Auld, B. A. and Medd, R. W. 1986. Weeds : An 

Illustrated Botanical Guide to the Weeds of 

Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Parsons, W. T. and Cuthbertson, E. G. 2001. Noxious 

Weeds of Australia. 2nd edn. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Biological control/Organic standards/IPM. 

List of suppliers www.goodbugs.org.au/ 

Organic Federation of Aust (OFA) www.ofa.org.au 

for organic certifiers, draft national standard, publications 

AS 6000—2009. Organic and Biodynamic Products 

www.standards.org.au/ www.ofa.org.au/ 

Organic Growers of Australia www.organicgrowers.org.au/ 

NASAA Certified Organic www.nasaa.com.au 

Organic Crop Protectants www.ocp.com.au/ 

Australian Organic Journal www.australianorganic.com.au/ 

Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA) for publications, 

standards, producers, registered products directory, 

contacts www.bfa.com.au 

Companies, eg Becker Underwood, Bioglobal, Bugs for Bugs, 

Ecogrow 

Caldwell, B., Rosen, E. B., Sideman, E. A, Shelton, 

A. M. and Smart, C. D. 2000. Resource Guide for 

Organic Insect and Disease Management. 

www.nysipm.cornell.edu/organic_guide/ 

Quarantine 

Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) 

www.daff.gov.au/aqis search for DAFF online 

PaDIL Pest and Disease Image Library has diagnostic 

photographs and information www.padil.gov.au/ 

Target lists of weeds, insects, plant and animal pests and 

diseases. www.daff.gov.au and search for target lists 

Pesticides. 

Pubcris. APVMA. Canberra www.apvma.gov.au 

Infopest, Qld www.dpi.qld.gov.au/infopest 

Herbiguide, Albany, WA 

Croplife Australia www.cropelifeaustralia.org.au/ 

MSDS www.msds.com.au/ 

Company websites, Industry Pest Control Guides 

Regional Pest and Disease Guides 

Journals 

Plant Protection Quarterly www.weedinfo.com.au/ppq_toc 

Farm Online www.farmonline.com.au 

Aglinks www.aglinks.com.au/ 

Acres Australia www.acresaustralia.com.au/ 

Rural Press www.ruralpress.com/ 

IPMnet www.ipmnet.org 

Cropnet www.cropnet.com 

xvi


PESTS 

AND 

DISEASES 

Twospotted mites 

(Tetranychus urticae) can 

be seen with a hand lens. 

Steelblue sawfly (Perga spp.) 

larvae (spitfires) rest during the 

day in clumps and feed on eucalypt 

leaves at night. 

Peach leaf curl (Taphrina 

deformans) is a fungal disease 

affecting some stone fruits. 

PESTS AND DISEASES 1 

Parasitic pests and diseases 3 









Non-parasitic pests and diseases 387 



Pests and diseases 1


WHAT ARE PESTS AND DISEASES? 

PESTS AND 

DISEASES 

A PEST is an organism that at any given time or place, is undesirable. 

Cabbage white butterfly caterpillar 

chewing broccoli leaves. The cabbage white 

butterfly is the worst butterfly pest in the world. 

PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

A DISEASE is any condition of a plant that interferes with its normal 

structure, functions or economic value. 

Fungal leaf spots on strawberry 

PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment (M.S.Senior). 

DIFFERENCE 

BETWEEN A 

PEST AND A 

DISEASE 

. 

IT CAN BE DIFFICULT TO KNOW. whether one is dealing with 

a pest or disease, as definitions of these terms are often inconsistent. 

Pests and diseases have been grouped together and re-divided into 

2 new groups: 

Parasitic pests and diseases 

– Insects and allied pests 

– Snails and slugs 

– Vertebrate pests 

– Nematode diseases 

– Virus and virus-like diseases 

– Bacterial diseases 

– Fungal diseases 

– Parasitic flowering plants 

Non-parasitic pests and diseases 

– Living agents, eg lichens 

– Non-living agents, eg environment 

2 Pests and diseases


PARASITIC 

PESTS 

AND 

DISEASES 

Cabbage white 

butterfly (Pieris rapae), 

caterpillars feed on 

cabbages, stock, etc. 


damage a wide range 

of plants 

Fruit bats (flying foxes) 

can be pests of fruit. 

Root knot nematodes 

(Meloidogyne spp.) cause 

galls up to 20 mm across 

to develop on roots. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium 

sp.) causes galls 20-300 mm 

across to develop at the 

crown of Rosaceous plants. 

Rose mosaic 

(a complex of 

virus diseases). 

Black spot of rose 

(Marsonnina rosae). 

Mistletoe on a tree. 

PARASITIC PESTS & DISEASES 3 









PARASITIC pests and diseases 3


WHAT ARE PARASITIC PESTS AND DISEASES? 

PARASITIC. 

PESTS AND 

DISEASES 

PARASITIC PESTS AND DISEASES. are caused by LIVING agents 

(plants and animals) which damage plants by obtaining their food from 

them. Parasitism occurs where one organism benefits to the detriment of the 

other. Parasitic pests and diseases of plants commonly include: 

Insects and allied pests 


Vertebrate pests 


Virus and virus-like diseases 




Other organisms such as algae and protozoa may also be parasitic but are not as 

commonly encountered. 

Fig. 1. Christmas beetle feeding on a 

eucalypt leaf. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 2. Rust pustules on the under 

surface of a geranium leaf. Photo NSW Dept. 

of Industry and Investment. 

NON-PARASITIC. 

PESTS AND 

DISEASES 

Although non-living 

agents cause plant 

damage in their own 

right, some create 

an environment 

favourable to the 

development of a 

parasitic problem, 

eg the fungus 

Phytophthora 

produces spores 

which can swim in 

water and infect 

poorly developing 

plant roots in overwatered 

potting 

mixes. 

NON-PARASITIC PESTS & DISEASES are caused by: 

LIVING. agents (plant and animals) which damage plants mechanically, or 

in some way other than by obtaining their food from them. Examples 

include leafcutting bees, dogs, cats, children, fairy rings, lichens and slime 

moulds. 

NON-LIVING. agents such as heat, frost, drought, waterlogging, lightning, 

pesticide injury, deficiencies and pollution. This group is almost infinite in 

number and type. 

Fig. 3. Hormone herbicide (2,4-D) injury to grapevine leaves. Thickened veins, 

reduced interveinal leaf area, pronounced saw-toothed leaf margins. Photo NSW Dept. of Industry 

and Investment. 

4 PARASITIC pests and diseases


Insects and Allied Pests 

Insect Mites Spider Springtails 

Millipede Centipede Slater 

BIOLOGY 7 

Why are insects successful? 8 

What are insects? 9 

External anatomy of adult insects 10 

Integument (body covering) 12 

Head 13 

Thorax 15 

Abdomen 16 

Insect excretions 18 

Insect secretions 19 

Life cycles and growth 20 


Diapause 21 

Growth 22 


Types of larvae 24 

Blood system 26 

Nervous system, communication 26 

PLANT DAMAGE 27 

Host range 27 

How insects damage plants 28 

Direct feeding damage 29 

Chewing damage 29 

Piercing and sucking damage 31 

Rasping and sucking damage 33 

Indirect damage 34 

Pest cycle 35 


Spread 37 


INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) 39 




Sanitation 41 






Insecticides, miticides 49 

Resistance 56 

Insecticide Mode of Action Groups (Table 2) 57 

Bio-insecticides, spray oils, soaps, pheromones, etc (Table 3) 61 

Insects and allied pests - Biology 5


IDENTIFICATION & CLASSIFICATION 63 

Orders of Insects 64 

ORDER DIPTERA (flies, gnats, leafminers, midges, mosquitoes) 65 

Fruit flies 68 




ORDER LEPIDOPTERA (butterflies, moths) 78 





Fruit-tree borer 96 

ORDER COLEOPTERA (beetles, weevils) 98 



Scarab grubs 108 



ORDER HYMENOPTERA (ants, bees, wasps, sawflies) 114 

Ants 119 

Citrus gall wasp 121 




ORDER NEUROPTERA (lacewings, antlions, aphidlions) 129 

ORDER THYSANOPTERA (thrips) 130 




ORDER HEMIPTERA (bugs; hoppers; 

aphids, lerps, mealybugs, scales, whiteflies) 141 





Lerp insects, psyllids 158 


Black scale 164 

San Jose scale 168 

Greenhouse whitefly (GHWF) 171 

ORDER ISOPTERA "") 174 

Termites 177 

ORDER ORTHOPTERA (crickets, grasshoppers, katydids, locusts) 180 


ORDER DERMAPTERA (earwigs) 186 


ORDER BLATTODEA (cockroaches) 190 

ORDER PHASMATODEA (stick insects, leaf insects, phasmatids) 193 

ORDER MANTODEA (mantids, praying mantids) 195 

ORDER ODONATA (dragonflies, damselflies) 196 

ALLIED PESTS 197 

Springtails (Class Collembola) 197 

Mites (Class Arachnida, Order Acarina) 199 



Spiders (Class Arachnida, Order Araneida) 209 

Slaters (Class Malacostraca, Order Isopoda) 212 

Millipedes (Class Diplopoda) 214 

REVIEW QUESTIONS & ACTIVITIES 216 

SELECTED REFERENCES 224 

6 Insects and allied pests - Biology


BIOLOGY 

Phylum Arthropoda, Class Insecta 

Insects are the most abundant and most diverse of all animals. More than 86,000 species of 

insects have been identified in Australia and probably a similar number are awaiting discovery. It is 

likely that some may become extinct without ever having been discovered! 

CSIRO Insects and Their Allies www.ento.csiro.au/education/about.html 

SOME 

BENEFIFICAL 

INSECTS 

Wasp laying 

an egg in a 

scale insect 

POLLINATORS OF MANY PLANTS 

Bees, wasps, flies, beetles and other 

insects are important pollinators of crops. 

Bee 

FOOD SOURCE OF MANY ORGANISMS 

Bats, birds, fish, frogs and lizards feed on many different types of insects. 

Humans and animals feed on honey, bogong moths, witchetygrubs (woodboring 

larvae, sometimes called bardee grubs), termites can be roasted. 

Plants such as the Venus fly trap, feed on flies. 

FEED ON AND RECYCLE ANIMAL AND PLANT WASTES, DEAD ANIMALS 

Garden maggots in compost heaps digest and biodegrade organic matter. 

Dung beetles bury and decompose dung. 

PARASITES AND PREDATORS OF MANY PLANT AND ANIMAL PESTS 

Red scale of citrus can be controlled biologically by parasitic wasps. 

Insects may also transmit biological control agents, eg mosquitoes transmit 

the myxomatosis virus used to control rabbits. 

PRODUCE ITEMS USED BY HUMANS 

Beeswax, shellac, dyes, silk, medicines, royal jelly, red food colouring 

products are all used in today's society. 

AESTHETIC VALUES 

Beautiful insects especially butterflies are collected. 

Wings of dead butterflies in some parts of Africa are used as an art form to 

create pictures. Butterflies and beetles are used as head or body decorations. 

SOME 

HARMFUL 

INSECTS 

Weevil 

chewing 

leaves 

MOST INSECTS AND ALLIED PESTS ARE NOT ‘PESTS’! 

 

Less than 0.1% of the nearly 1 million known species are harmful. 

‘PESTS’ OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 

Plants may be damaged by aphids, fruit flies, scales and other insects. 

Stored products by grain moths, grain beetles. 

Paper, leather and textiles by beetles, cockroaches, silverfish, moths. 

Animals by blowflies, fleas. 

Humans by fleas, scabies, mosquitoes, ticks, lice, bedbugs. 

Many insects are nuisance pests, eg bush flies, many ants. 

Some ‘stinging’ insects, eg bees, wasps, and some ants inject poisoning and 

paralyzing liquids via a modified egg-laying structure. Some ‘biting’ pests 

pierce the skin to feed on blood; many dogs are infested with ticks each 

year and some may die from tick paralysis. 

Arachnophobia is a fear of spiders. 

TRANSMIT DISEASES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 

Plants, eg tomato spotted wilt virus is spread by thrips. 

Humans, eg malaria (a protozoa) is spread by a species of mosquito which 

pierces the skin (‘bites’) to feed on blood. 



Why are insects successful? 

PROLIFIC 

REPRODUCTION 

RATE 

OCCUR IN EVERY 

ENVIRONMENT 

MANY POSSESS 

WINGS 

PROTECTIVE 

EXOSKELETON 

SMALL SIZE 

COMPLETE 

METAMORPHOSIS 

A QUEEN TERMITE CAN DEPOSIT MORE THAN 2000 EGGS PER DAY 

and she can live for more than 10 years! It has been estimated that a single 

green peach aphid in one year could give rise to a population of more than 

10 million aphids! Although many do not survive, enormous numbers do. 

Many insects have a short life cycle, there are exceptions, eg the life cycle of 

some cicadas may be as long as 17 years, some moth borers may tunnel in 

wood for as long as 2-5 years in trees before pupating. 

INSECTS ARE FOUND ON BOTH LAND AND WATER under most climatic 

conditions. 

WINGS ARE NOT FOUND in any other 

invertebrate animal. This is 

one of the decisive factors in the 

supremacy of insects on land and 

in air. 

Large citrus butterfly 

INSECTS AND OTHER ARTHROPODS such as mites, spiders, millipedes and 

slaters have a hard protective external skeleton (an exoskeleton). Humans 

have an internal bony skeleton. 

THE GENERALLY SMALL SIZE OF INSECTS is probably one of their most 

important characteristics in the struggle for existence. The majority 

are 125 mm or less in length, but there is considerable variation, the smallest 

being less than 0.25 mm and the largest about 260 mm in length. 

METAMORPHOSIS is the process of change from egg to adult. Insects in the 

most abundant orders have a complete metamorphosis which means that: 

They hatch from the egg in 

a form totally dissimilar 

to the adult. 

Each stage of development 

may be specialized, eg 

moths and butterflies: 

– Larvae are specialized 

for feeding. 

– Adults for reproduction 

and spread. 

Cabbage white butterfly 

POLYMORPHISM 

CAMOUFLAGE 

FINDING FOOD 

SENSORY 

SOPHISTICATION 

POLYMORPHISM (the occurrence of 3 or more distinct types of adults in 

a single species) is common among insects, eg adult honeybees may be either 

a: 

Queen (the reproductive) 

Drone (male), or a 

Worker 

CAMOUFLAGE assists many avoid predators, eg some look like green or 

brown leaves, twigs, others merge with the colour of bark, some caterpillars 

have ‘eye spots’ to frighten predators, some are spiny (page 13). 

MANY WAYS OF FINDING FOOD, eg large eyes identify movement, eggs are 

laid in their larval food source, forelegs may be modified to catch prey, stinging. 

SENSORY PROCESSES, eg smell, taste, sight, hearing and feeling surpass 

most other organisms. 



What are insects? 

Insects belong to the Class Insecta in the Phylum Arthropoda, the largest phylum in the Animal 

Kingdom. Other classes in the Phylum Arthropoda are listed below. 

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA 

(Insects and Allied Pests) 

The most important distinguishing features common to adults of the Phylum Arthroproda are: 

1. Body is divided into segments. 

2. Hard outer covering on body and limbs, with flexible joints for movement. 

3. Paired limbs. 

4. Bilateral symmetry (each side of the body is a mirror image of the other). 

CLASS 

INSECTA 

CLASS 

COLLEMBOLA 

CLASS 

ARACHNIDA 

INSECTS 

1. Three body segments. 

2. Three pairs of legs on thorax. 

3. Antennae present (1 pair). 

4. Wings either present or absent. 

SPRINGTAILS 


2. Three pairs of legs on the thorax. 

3. Furcula on abdomen for jumping. 

4. Wingless. 

MITES, TICKS, SPIDERS, SCORPIONS 

1. Two body sections. 

2. Four pairs of legs. 

3. No antennae. 

4. No compound eyes. 

5. Simple eyes present. 

CLASS 

MALACOSTRACA 

CLASS 

DIPLOPODA 

PRAWNS, CRABS, BARNACLES, SLATERS 

1. Two body sections. 

2. Five or more pairs of legs. 

3. Antennae present. 

4. Usually sea dwellers, sometimes on land. 

MILLIPEDES 

1. At least 11 body segments. 

2. Body round. 

3. Two pairs of legs to each segment, no 

poison fangs. 


CLASS 

CHILOPODA 

CENTIPEDES 

1. At least 19 body segments. 

2. Body long and flattened. 

3. One pair legs to each segment, first pair 

modified to form poison fangs. 




External anatomy of adult insects 

BODY 

HARD COVERING 

The hard covering is called an exoskeleton. 

SEGMENTATION PROVIDES MOBILITY 

The body is segmented into the head, thorax and abdomen. 

Segmentation and mobility allows some insects and allied pests, eg 

funnelweb spiders, to adopt threatening positions. 

BILATERALLY SYMMETRICAL AND MORE OR LESS ELONGATED 

Each half is a mirror image of the other. 

HEAD 

SEGMENTATION AND MOBILITY 

Segments of the head are fused. 

There is a joint between the head and thorax. 

ANTENNAE 

There are 2 antennae (1 pair) for smelling, feeling, occasionally 

tasting and hearing. 

EYES 

Compound and/or simple eyes. 

MOUTH 

Chewing, sucking, siphoning, sponging, lapping, etc. 

THORAX 


The thorax is segmented into 3 parts to provide mobility. 

WINGED OR WINGLESS 

If winged, 1 or 2 pairs (most insects have 2 pairs of wings). 

If 2 pairs, 1 pair attached to each of the 2 nd and 3 rd thoracic segments. 

THREE PAIRS OF JOINTED LEGS 

Legs are flexible with a hard covering. 

One pair is attached to each of the 3 thoracic segments. 

SPIRACLES 

Spiracles (for breathing) may be present or absent. 

ABDOMEN 


The abdomen is segmented into up to 11 segments to provide mobility. 

LARGE ABDOMEN 

The abdomen is large compared with the head and thorax. 

SPIRACLES 

Spiracles (for breathing) may be present or absent, often 1 pair per 

segment. 

OTHER APPENDAGES 

Cerci at the end of the abdomen (for feeling) may be used 

during mating (page 16). 



Fig. 4. Diagrammatic drawings of an insect from above. 

HEAD THORAX ABOMEN 

 

Fig. 5. Diagrammatic drawing of a young locust (nymph) from the side. 



INTEGUMENT 

(Body covering) 

The shape of an insect is determined by its tough outer covering, the integument. This forms a 

skeleton (an exoskeleton) within which lie all the soft tissues. 

The integument plays an important part in insect development and physiology and in relation to the 

action of insecticides. It is made up of the cuticle, epidermis and the basement: 

CUTICLE 

EPIDERMIS 

BASEMENT 

COLOUR 

THE CUTICLE IS USUALLY HARD, DENSE, INELASTIC AND 

IMPERMEABLE to liquids and is variable in thickness. The cuticle 

consists of: 

THE EPICUTICLE, which is thin and 

waxy, gives the characteristic 

impermeable nature to the cuticle, and 

protects the insect from water loss. 

Silica gel is sometimes used to control 

cockroaches. It physically destroys the 

wax so that the insects dry out and die. 

THE EXOCUTICLE is thicker and 

gives rigidity to the cuticle. It is 

composed of hard chitin and other 

substances and may contain pigments. 

THE ENDOCUTICLE, is never 

pigmented and is the most flexible 

and elastic portion of the cuticle. 

Cuticle 

When the cuticle is first formed it is soft and pliable, but certain layers of 

it soon harden (see above). The cuticle hardens in sections or plates with 

flexible unsclerotized cuticle between. The cuticle of many larvae, eg 

caterpillars, remains soft all over the body. 

THE EPIDERMIS is a continuous single layer of living cells which 

secrete the substances forming the cuticle. It also contains specialized 

cells which produce surface hairs and glandular secretions. These are 

found on the surface of the cuticle. 

BASEMENT MEMBRANE 

The basement membrane is a very thin layer separating the epidermis 

from the body cavity. 

COLOUR CAN HAVE MANY USES 

Camouflage. Stick insects resemble either sticks or leaves, their 

colour, shape and swaying movement make them very difficult to see 

against a background of trees and shrubs. 

Discouraging predators. The brightly coloured spots of many 

ladybirds and the red stripe of female redback spiders warn off 

predators which might eat them. ‘Eye’spots on the wings of some 

moths and on the rear of some caterpillars confuse predators. Birds 

learn to avoid insects that are brightly coloured or taste unpleasant. 

Catching prey. Larvae of some predatory glow-worms produce light 

which glows from the tip of the abdomen and attracts prey. 

Mating. Colour and light are used to gain the attention of females 

during mating. 



HEAD 

SEGMENTATION 

ANTENNAE 

Movement 

Smelling 

Feeling 

Tasting 

Hearing 

SINGLE HARD HEAD CAPSULE 

Although originally formed of 6 segments, the head is compacted into a 

single hard head capsule. 

There is usually a narrow ‘neck’ region behind the head which allows the 

head to move. 

ONE PAIR OF ANTENNAE 

The antennae arise from the front of the head, usually situated between or in 

front of the compound eyes. Antennae are: 

Used for smelling, feeling and occasionally for tasting and hearing. 

Mobile and can move in all directions. 

Made up of few or many segments. 

Variable in size and shape. 

Butterfly 

antenna 

Moth 

antennae 

Weevil 

antenna 

(clubbed) (variable) (elbowed) 

EYES 

MOST INSECTS HAVE BOTH COMPOUND AND SIMPLE EYES 

However, only one or other may be present. 

COMPOUND EYES 

Most insects have 1 pair. 

They are usually conspicuous 

shiny objects on the side of the 

head, eg in flies, and are round, 

convex or kidney-shaped. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 pair large compound eyes 

Compound eyes are composed of minute hexagonal panes fitted closely 

together. Each pane admits a point of light, a bit of the total scene that the 

insect sees. Nerves carry the information to the brain and all the bits of the 

picture are then pieced together to form the whole picture (like a television 

picture). The more panes an insect has the sharper the picture, eg flies have 

4,000 and dragonflies more than 20,000 panes. 

Insects cannot move their eyes but they can move their heads. 

They have no eyelids, their eyes are always open. 

They can see a sharp image up to 1 meter, further is a blur. 

They can quickly see movement. 

They can discriminate colors, see colors we cannot see, eg ultraviolet and 

infrared. 

3 tiny simple eyes 

arranged in a triangle 

between 1 pair of 

large compound eyes 

‘ Eyespot’ on grapevine 

hawk moth caterpillar 

SIMPLE EYES (ocelli) 

Each adult insect has up to 3 simple eyes, each with only 1 lens, usually 

arranged in a triangle on the top of the head. It is doubtful if any of them 

see a clear image but they are able to distinguish light from darkness and 

may discern faint images. The simple eyes found in larvae are called 

‘stemmata’. 

Larvae of insects with a complete metamorphosis do not have compound 

eyes, they have 6 simple eyes on the side of their head. 

‘EYESPOTS’ 

Eyespots on caterpillars and insect wings are not real eyes, they are for 

decoration to frighten predators. 



HEAD (contd) 

MOUTH PARTS 

The mouth of an insect is surrounded by mouth parts which differ in 

appearance depending on their method of feeding. They may be jaw-like for 

chewing or tube-like for sucking. In many insects which have a complete 

metamorphosis, the mouth parts are different in the larval and adult stages. The 

stages of insects which damage plants have mouth parts belonging to the 

first three types illustrated below: 

Many 

variations 

1. CHEWING (biting mouthparts). 

Solid food, eg beetles, grasshoppers. 

2. PIERCING and SUCKING. 

Liquid food, eg bugs, aphids, lerps, 

mealybugs, scales, whiteflies. 

Many 

variations 

3. RASPING and SUCKING. 

Liquid food, eg thrips. 

4. SIPHONING. 

Liquid food, eg butterflies, moths. 

Many 

variations 

5. SPONGING. 

Liquid food, eg flies; the mouth parts of 

mosquitoes are modified so they can 

pierce the skin and feed on blood. 

6. CHEWING AND LAPPING. 

Solid and liquid food, eg honeybees. 



THORAX 

The thorax is made up of 3 segments (from front to rear): 

1 pair of legs on each . 

PROTHORAX (1 st ) 

MESOTHORAX (2 nd ) 

METATHORAX (3 rd ) 

1 pair of wings and 

1 pair of spiracles on each 

All 3 thoracic segments may not be visible from above, eg beetles. 

LEGS 

Moths, mantids and 

grasshoppers have 

ears on their legs 

Some legs 

(and bodies) 

are covered with 

sensory hairs 

Mole cricket, 

front leg modified 

for digging. 

WINGS 

Sound and 

communication 

Some 

grasshoppers 

and beetles rub 

their rear leg and 

forewing together. 

Some male 

crickets chirp on 

hot summer 

nights by rubbing 

specialized parts 

of their forewings 

to attract females. 

Honey bees' 

wings stroke over 

11,000 times per 

minute, to make 

their distinctive 

buzz. 

Mosquitoes beat 

their wings in 

flight to make the 

w 

Males have bushy 

antennae which 

are designed to 

pick up on the 

wing beat of their 

mates. 

House flies beat 

their wings up to 

200 times per 

second to make 

their familiar buzz. 

ADULT INSECTS HAVE 6 LEGS (3 PAIRS) 

There is 1 pair on each segment of the thorax. 

LEGS ARE JOINTED AND HAVE 5 PARTS 

Coxa (articulates with the sternum). 

Trochanter (often overlooked, tiny). 

Femur (the stoutest part). 

Tibia (usually long and slender). 

Tarsus of 1-5 segments, in adults the 

last tarsal segment usually has a pair 

of claws, larvae usually have one claw. 

LEGS ARE OFTEN MODIFIED FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES, 

not necessarily for locomotion: 

Digging, eg mole crickets. 

Catching prey, eg praying mantids. 

Cutting leaves, eg leaf-cutting bees. 

MANY, BUT NOT ALL INSECTS HAVE WINGS 

There is 1 pair on the mesothorax and 1 pair on the metathorax. 

WING STRUCTURE 

Wings are usually formed of 2 layers of thin membrane strengthened 

by a framework of tubular veins, the spaces between being known as cells. 

In the early stages of development wings are present as wing buds which 

are filled with blood and supplied with trachea (air tubes). 

Wings are articulated to the sides of the thorax and connected 

internally to strong muscle bands. 

Wing venation is used for identification especially, in wasps and flies. 

VARIATIONS include: 

Some adults have no wings, eg female painted apple moth. 

Some insects with wings cannot fly, eg German cockroach. 

Hind wings modified to form clubs (halteres), eg flies. 

Forewings modified to form hardened wing covers (elytra), eg beetles. 

Forewings have a thickened front portion, the rest of the wing being 

gauzy, eg true bugs (green vegetable bug). 

Surface of wings may be covered with hairs or scales, eg butterflies. 

Wings may be coupled together, eg butterflies. 

Fly, hind wings 

club-shaped (halteres). 

Beetle, forewings 

hardened (elytra). 

Bug, forewing with 

thickened portion. 



ABDOMEN 

The abdomen is made up of a number of segments joined by flexible membranes. Up to 

11 segments may be present though the number is often less. In addition, several segments may be 

much reduced or modified for mating so that in some cases there may only be 4-5 segments. 

PROLEGS 

LARVAE OF SOME INSECTS HAVE PROLEGS 

Moth, butterfly and some sawfly larvae have prolegs. 

Prolegs develop on the abdomen and are not true jointed legs. 

They assist with walking and attachment to their host plant. 

Grape vine moth caterpillar 

NUMBER OF PROLEGS VARY 

Larvae of butterflies and moths have up to 5 pairs. 

Larvae of some sawflies have 6-8 pairs. 

SEXUAL 

APPENDAGES 

CERCI 

Some insects have a pair of cerci located at the tip of the abdomen. They are 

used for feeling and are often used during mating. 

Earwigs 

OVIPOSITORS 

Some females, eg wasp parasites, have long ovipositors (tubes) for 

depositing their eggs deeply in tissue. They usually arise from beneath 

segments 8 and 9. 

In bees, wasps and some ants, the ovipositor is also a stinging organ. 

Parasitic wasp 

CLASPING OR HOLDING ORGANS 

These occur in male insects, are used during mating and are usually on 

the 9 th segment. 

If the 5 th pair of prolegs on moth larvae are well developed they may also 

be called claspers. Caterpillars of the doubleheaded hawk moth are huge 

(up to 12 cm long). The terminal claspers are very large and at first glance 

could be mistaken for the head, hence the insect's common name. 



ABDOMEN (contd) 

SPIRACLES 

Breathing 

COMMONLY 8 PAIRS OF SPIRACLES 

One pair to each segment. 

Used for respiration. 

SPIRACLES ARE APERTURES 

Spiracles allow oxygen to enter the body and carbon dioxide to pass out. 

They can open and close. 

The spiracles are the openings which lead into a system of air tubes or 

trachea which are spirally strengthened to retain their shape. They branch 

and become smaller in diameter until they are called ‘tracheoles’ which end 

blindly within cells in all parts of the body. Oxygen and carbon dioxide 

diffuse across the thin walls of the tracheoles. 

Scarab grub (larva) 

Grasshopper (adult) 

ANUS 

END OF THE ABDOMEN 

The anus is usually situated at the end of the abdomen. 

MATERIAL EXCRETED 

Several different types of materials are excreted through the anus including: 

Frass 

Honeydew 

Spittle 

MORE INFORMATION? 

Excretions are detailed on the following page. 

CORNICLES 

CORNICLES ARE TUBE-LIKE STRUCTURES arising from the upper side of 

the 5 th and 6 th abdominal segment. 

They secrete a defensive fluid. 

Cornicles are present on many species of aphids. 

Green peach aphid (view from above). 

SOUND 

MALE CICADAS HAVE A PAIR OF PLATES OR DRUMS on either side of 

their abdomen which they vibrate to make their familiar sound. They also have 

ears on the abdomen. 



. 

FRASS 

HONEYDEW 

Insect excretions 

FRASS is the undigested food and waste particles passed out through the anus. 

It may be solid or liquid. 

Solid frass is produced by many insects, eg beetles, caterpillars, sawfly 

larvae. Because the faeces of some insects are characteristically shaped this 

feature can be used for identifying these insects, for example cup moth 

larvae which may be feeding high up in a tree. Pellets of excreta found on 

the lower leaves of pot plants or on benches in glasshouses often indicate 

that caterpillars are feeding higher up in the foliage. Solid frass and 

undigested residues of eaten wood may fill tunnels in which the larvae of 

borers have been feeding. 

Liquid frass is produced by some insects, eg flies, thrips: 

– The ‘fly specks’ found on ceilings and light globes are the dried liquid 

excreta of the common house fly. 

– The small black spots on the undersurfaces of viburnum leaves is the 

liquid excreta of the greenhouse thrips. 

SOME SUCKING HEMIPTEROUS INSECTS PRODUCE HONEYDEW, eg 

Aphids 

Leafhoppers 

Lerp insects 

Mealybugs 

Soft scale insects 

Whiteflies 

Aphid sucking plant sap and excreting honeydew 

Ants 

HONEYDEW EXCRETED THROUGH THE ANUS may be produced in 

enormous volumes, up to several times the weight of the insect in 24 hours. 

THE EXTREMELY HIGH CARBOHYDRATE CONTENT, which may exceed 

80% of the total weight of fresh excreta, makes it very attractive to other 

insects such as ants, which may tend certain species as we would tend cows. 

Composition of honeydew varies with the seasonal composition of the 

plant sap. In addition to the constituents of the plant sap which pass straight 

through the alimentary canal of the insect, there is a variety of sugars and 

nitrogenous compounds which are synthesized in the body of the insect. 

Honeydew may be produced in such large quantities that plants and 

paths beneath infested plants become sticky. 

Black sooty mould fungus may grow on the honeydew causing further 

disfigurement. 

SPITTLE 

1st STAGE NYMPHS OF SPITTLE BUGS PRODUCE SPITTLE 

As soon as the nymphs begin feeding they almost immediately 

commence excreting the frothy spittle which gives the insects their name. 

Spittle is formed from excess plant fluids (with the addition of some 

internal secretions) and discharged through the anus. The excretion is 

stirred into a stable froth by abdominal contractions which force bubbles of 

air from specialized air canals on the abdomen into the liquid. 

Spittle (froth) completely covers the insect and protects it from 

desiccation and attack by natural enemies. 

Exposed spittle bug 

with froth above. 


Insect secretions 


WAX GLANDS 

SILK, WEBBING 

Leaf curling spider 

curls a dead leaf with silk 

to form a hiding place. 

ODOURS, 

TASTE 

 

Spider web 

ATTRACTANTS 

POISON GLANDS 

Stingers are used 

to lay eggs, 

for self-defence 

and stinging 

THE SECRETION OF WAX BY THE EPIDERMAL GLANDS is a normal 

process of cuticle formation in all insects. However, in some insects profuse 

discharges of wax occur. 

Beeswax is the natural secretion of the worker honeybee that is poured out 

in thin scales or flakes from glands that open on the underside of the 

abdomen. Its production directly follows the consumption and digestion of 

a quantity of honey, a kilogram of wax resulting from the consumption of 

from 2-10 kg of honey in about 24 hours! 

Several insects belonging to the Order Hemiptera also secrete wax 

profusely, including the tiny lac scale insect which is native to India and 

Burma and produces the substance from which shellac (a varnish) is made. 

Woolly aphids and mealybugs secrete large quantities of waxy materials. 

SILK AND WEBBING are produced by many insects, mites and spiders. 

Silk is used by caterpillars of moths and butterflies for many 

purposes, including cocoon construction to protect the pupa, case making 

for sheltering caterpillars, binding leaves together and for lowering 

themselves for dispersal, eg leafrolling caterpillars. The silk is produced in 

special glands and comes out via the mouth. The Chinese untangled the silk 

from the pupa of the silkworm cocoons to give the world silk. 

Webbing is also produced by ‘spider’ mites, eg twospotted mite, from 

glands which open into the mouth. In heavy infestations, the fine silk 

threads form a web over the entire plant. The mites crawl over the webbing 

and fasten their eggs to it. 

All spiders use silk to cover their eggs. The use of silk to form various 

types of webs to capture food is widespread. Young spiders (spiderlings) 

use silk for dispersal (ballooning). 

DERMAL GLANDS, which secrete unpleasant odours which have a protective 

function, are common in bugs in the Order Hemiptera, eg bronze orange bug 

and the crusader bug. 

Stink bugs give out a particularly disagreeable smell when disturbed, 

hence their common name. 

 

 

Birds learn to avoid brightly colored insects that taste unpleasant. 

Social insects, eg ants, bees and wasps, use odours to communicate with 

each other. 

PHEROMONES are substances produced by external glands on insects which 

produce specific reactions in other individuals of the same species. 

The best known pheromones are the sex attractants which are 

commonly found in moths and flies and used in pest control. 

MANY ANTS, BEES, WASPS AND SOME ANTS secrete venom from glands 

and inject it through a modified ovipositor or a stinger as a mechanism of selfdefence. 

Honey bees have a large barbed stinger. 

Barbed stinger which the 

honey bee uses for self-defence. 

Worker bee 

SPIDERS BITE and some simultaneously inject venom via their fangs into 

their victim. 



Life cycles and growth 

METAMORPHOSIS 

All insects develop from eggs and the process of change from egg to adult is known as 

metamorphosis. A complete cycle from egg to egg may take as little as 7 days, eg whitefly, to as 

long as 17 years, eg some cicadas! There are basically 3 types of metamorphosis: 

NO METAMORPHOSIS 

Also known as: 

Ametabola 

Apterygotes 

The insect (usually called a 

nymph) hatches from the egg 

in a form closely resembling 

the adult. 

The only external change during 

growth and moulting is an 

increase in size. 

The insects in this group are 

wingless, eg silverfish. 

Silverfish 

INCOMPLETE 

OR 

GRADUAL 

METAMORPHOSIS 


Hemi-metabola 

Exopterygotes 


nymph) hatches from the egg 

in a form only generally 

resembling the adult. 

The early nymphal stages have 

no functional wings, but have 

external wing buds which 

gradually increase in size at 

each moult. 

Wings (when present) develop 

externally, eg grasshoppers. 

Grasshopper 

COMPLETE 

METAMORPHOSIS 


Holo-metabola 

Endopterygotes 


larva) hatches from the egg in 

a form totally dissimilar to 

the adult. 

Wing buds develop internally 

beneath the cuticle of the larva 

and are only visible externally in 

the pupal and adult stage. 

Wings develop internally, eg 

butterflies. 



DIAPAUSE 

ARRESTED 

DEVELOPMENT 

DIAPAUSE IS A STATE OF ARRESTED DEVELOPMENT 

It is principally an adaptation, synchronizing the life cycle of the insect 

with the seasonal changes in its environment. 

Insects may stop developing even though most conditions are favorable. 

DIAPAUSE MAY OCCUR IN ANY STAGE OF THE LIFE CYCLE, eg egg, 

larva, pupa or adult and is usually constant for a particular species: 

European red mite - Egg stage 

Oriental fruit moth - Larval stage 

Australian plague locust - Egg stage 

ENVIRONMENTAL 

CONDITIONS 

THERE IS A RANGE OF CONDITIONS which insects may need before a 

diapause is broken, including: 

TEMPERATURE 

Winter eggs of the European red mite require 150-200 days at 

temperatures of less than l0 o C before hatching occurs in spring, just before 

the time of apple bloom, so that there is plenty food for the nymphs. 

European red mite 

LIGHT 

In the oriental fruit moth diapause of the larva is controlled by 

temperature and daily exposure to light (photoperiod). 

Knowledge of the photoperiodic response, which appears to be rather 

general in diapausing insects, has proved useful in rearing insects in the 

laboratory and predicting pest outbreaks, etc. 



GROWTH 

WHICH STAGES 

GROW? 

ADULT INSECTS DO NOT GROW IN SIZE 

Only nymphal and larval stages grow and they do so by means of stages 

(also called instars). 

Only larval stages grow. 

Only nymphal stages grow. 

MOULTING 

CUTICLE 

Because the cuticle of an insect is hard and rigid it cannot grow or stretch 

once it is formed. The cuticle must, therefore, be shed at intervals and 

replaced by a larger one as the insect grows. 

Before the cuticle is shed a new one is formed beneath it and the insect, 

covered in a new soft cuticle, emerges from the old cuticle. 

MOULTING 

The act of casting the skin is called a ‘moult’. After a moult the insect 

enters a new stage, that is, the 1 st stage, then the 2 nd stage and so on. 

The number of moults which can occur during the life of an insect varies 

from 3-20 but it is usually a fixed number for any particular species. 

Adult cicada moulting. 

WHAT 

CONTROLS 

MOULTING? 

HORMONES 

Growth of an insect is controlled by hormones produced within the nervous 

system and special glands. 

BROKEN LIMBS 

INSECTS CAN REPLACE BROKEN LIMBS 

These are gradually regenerated at each successive moult so that a limb 

lost in an early stage will be more developed than one lost during a later 

stage. 



REPRODUCTION 

MALES AND 

FEMALES 

 

HOW DO EGGS 

HATCH? 

MOST INSECTS HAVE MALES AND FEMALES 

Male insects produce sperm and females produce eggs. 

Most insects occur as approximately equal numbers of males and females 

which mate, females then lay eggs. 

In social species, eg termites, most individuals are not sexual and 

reproduction is carried out by only a small number in the colony. 

Female egg-laying tubes (ovipositors may be modified for digging or 

serrated for cutting leaves (to insert eggs) or used as a stinger. 

EGGS ARE LAID AND HATCH LATER (oviparity) 

Larvae and nymphs emerge some time after eggs are deposited. 

This is the usual type of egg hatching, eg moths and butterflies. 

Adult 

aphid 

Live 

nymph 

EGGS ARE LAID AND HATCH IMMEDIATELY (oviviparity) 

Eggs contain fully developed larvae and nymphs which emerge 

immediately after the egg is laid. 

Examples include various flies and coccids. 

LIVE YOUNG ARE BORN (viviparity) 

Eggs mature and hatch within the female body. 

Common in aphids, scales and many flies. 

REPRODUCTIVE 

CAPACITY 

PARTHENOGENESIS 

Butterfly 

Bee 

Aphid 

INSECTS HAVE TREMENDOUS REPRODUCTIVE CAPACITY 

1 pair of San Jose scale insects can produce 1 million offspring each 

year! 

REPRODUCTION WITHOUT. FERTILIZATION OF EGGS 

Parthenogenesis may take place in any type of egg hatching (see above) 

and occurs in many different types of insects. 

SPORADIC 

Parthenogenesis may take place only occasionally although males occur 

regularly. 

Male and female butterflies and moths may be produced from 

unfertilized eggs. 

CONSTANT 

Parthenogenesis may take place regularly as a normal phenomenon, eg 

in aphids, stick insects and some wasps. 

Male honeybees are regularly produced from unfertilized eggs and 

females from fertilized eggs. 

CYCLIC 

Parthenogenesis alternates with normal sexual reproduction in a regular 

sequence throughout the year. 

Common in aphids. 

HERMAPHRODITE 

COLOUR AND LIGHT 

INDIVIDUALS WITH BOTH MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 

 

Individuals possess both functional male and female reproductive organs, 

eg cottonycushion scale. 

MATING 

Colour and lights can be used to gain attention of females for mating, eg 

female tropical butterflies display bright colors to attract a male. 



TYPES OF LARVAE 

JUVENILE 

STAGES 

LARVAE 

The juvenile stages of insects with a complete metamorphosis are 

called larvae. It is often difficult to distinguish one larval type from 

another and many keys have been compiled to aid in their identification. 

FEATURES USED 

IN IDENTIFYING 

LARVAE 

FEATURES include: 

Presence or absence of a segmented body. 

Presence or absence of an obvious head capsule. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Presence or absence of antennae. 

Presence or absence of true legs on the thorax. 

Length of the true legs on the thorax. 

Presence or absence of prolegs on the abdomen. 

Presence or absence of various appendages, eg fleshy lobes at the end 

of the body. 

Pattern of hairs around the anus, eg scarab grub larvae. 

INSECTS WITH 

A COMPLETE 

METAMORPHOSIS 

Remember, these 

orders also have 

beneficial members, 

eg parasitic flies 

and wasps, 

predatory ladybirds. 

THOSE WHICH MAY DAMAGE. PLANTS include: 

Order Diptera (flies). 

Larvae are usually called maggots, some maggots damage plants and 

animals, others are beneficial. 

 

Maggots 

Order Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths). 

Larvae are usually called caterpillars, most caterpillars are 

plant feeders, also sometimes called: 

Armyworms, Cutworms, ‘Borers’ 

 

 

Order Coleoptera (beetles, weevils). 

Some larvae damage plants, others are beneficial. Larvae are sometimes 

called: 

‘Borers’, ‘Grubs’, ‘Weevils’ 

Order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps, sawflies). 

Some larvae damage plants, others are beneficial. Larvae are sometimes 

called: 

‘Slugs’, ‘Spitfires’ 

THOSE WHICH ONLY HAVE BENEFICIAL. members include: 

 

Order Neuroptera (lacewings). 

Larvae feed on aphids and other insects. Larvae are sometimes called: 

Antlions, Aphidlions 

Lacewing larva 



Table 1. Examples of different types of larvae. 

INSECT ORDERS 

LARVAE 

WITHOUT LEGS 

Sense organs reduced 

Live among plentiful food so do 

not need legs to seek food 

LEPIDOPTERA 

Butterflies, 

moths 

DIPTERA 

Flies 

All fly larvae 

COLEOPTERA 

Beetles, 

weevils 

Some beetle or 

weevil larvae 

HYMENOPTERA 

Ants, bees, 

sawflies, wasps 

Ants, bees and some 

wasps 

Fruit fly 

maggots 

Longicorn 

beetle larva 

Citrus gall 

wasp larva 

Jewel beetle 

larva 

Weevil larva 

WITH 

LEGS 

Thoracic 

legs only 

More or less 

well 

developed 

thoracic legs 

Abdominal 

appendages 

usually 

absent 

Head 

capsule and 

appendages 

usually well 

developed 

LONG 

LEGS 

SHORTER 

LEGS 

Active predators 

Ladybird beetle 

larva 

Some beetle 

larvae 

Some sawfly larvae 

Steelblue sawfly 

larva (spitfire) 

Scarab grub 

Thoracic and 

abdominal legs 

Well developed 

segmentation 

Thoracic and abdominal 

legs (prolegs) well or 

moderately well developed 

Usually live on or near food 

No abdominal 

segmentation 

Only rudimentary 

appendages 

No spiracles 

Larvae emerge from egg 

into high nutrient food, eg 

eggs, or bodies of other 

insects 

All moth and 

butterfly larvae 

Grapevine moth 

caterpillar. Ring of 

hooks on end of 

prolegs 

Some sawfly larvae 

Callitris sawfly larva 

No ring of hooks on 

end of prolegs 

Some parasitic wasps 



Blood system 

YELLOW-GREEN 

FLUID 

CIRCULATION 

The blood of insects is a yellowish to greenish fluid. It is generally not 

confined to tubular arteries and veins as in humans but bathes all the internal 

organs and fills the body cavity. 

Insect blood is circulated by the pumping action of a tube-like heart which is 

located in the abdomen or thorax. The blood carries nutrients to the organs and 

transports waste from them. It carries very little oxygen or carbon dioxide. 

Nervous system, communication 

RECEPTORS 

PHEROMONES 

TOUCH, 

TASTING, 

SMELLING 

HEARING 

Pheromones 

guide ants 

along a trail 

SOUND 

PRODUCTION 

 

INSECTICIDES. 

l 

INSECTS HAVE RECEPTORS 

For seeing, feeling, tasting and hearing. 

Insects respond to these stimuli by appropriate behavior, eg moving. 

These functions rely on electrical messages sent along threadlike nerves. 

An insect's nervous system consists of a brain, various ganglions 

(groups of nerves) and other nerve structures. 

PHEROMONES are produced by special glands and are used to communicate 

or control behaviour or development of other insects. 

Insects can detect pheromones over long distances. 

Ants, bees and wasps use pheromones for communication within a group. 

Pheromones are easy to put in lures for monitoring insect presence, 

populations or for control. 

HAIRS ON VARIOUS PARTS OF AN INSECT BODY may be sensitive to 

touch or chemical substances. 

Movement of hair electrically stimulates nerves within the hair. 

The open ends of hairs on mouthparts, antennae or parts of the legs 

may be sensitive to chemicals and are called chemo-receptors. 

Feathery antennae of many male moths detect chemicals given out 

by females. 

Butterflies and flies taste their food by walking on it. 

INSECTS HAVE EARS 

Ears are thin areas of cuticle supplied with special nerve endings. 

Their position varies, eg some grasshoppers have an ear on each foreleg, 

cicadas have ears on the abdomen, some moths have ears on the thorax. 

MANY INSECTS PRODUCE SOUNDS usually by rubbing specialized parts of 

the body together. 

Some male crickets chirp on hot summer nights by rubbing specialised 

parts of their forewings together to attract the females. 

Male cicadas make a loud well known mating call by vibrating a pair of 

cuticle plates (drums), one on either side of the abdomen which amplifies 

the sound. It may also warn off predators. Each species has a distinct song. 

Mosquitoes make sound by beating their wings in flight. 

Some grasshoppers and beetles rub their rear leg and forewing together. 

Some insects make squeaky sounds by rubbing parts of their mouth together, 

others just tap on the ground or branch on which they are standing. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Most older insecticides were developed to affect the nervous system of insects. 

The best known ones being the organophosphates, eg Rogor (dimethoate), 

Malathion (maldison) and the carbamates, eg carbaryl. 



PLANT DAMAGE 

Host range 

Insects and allied pests vary tremendously in the range of plants on which they can feed. It is 

important to know whether a pest can infest other plants and if so, which ones. 

VERY WIDE 

HOST RANGE 

 

A GROUP OF 

PLANTS, 

A FAMILY OR 

A FEW GENERA 

 

A GENUS, 

A FEW SPECIES 

WITHIN A GENUS 

OR SOME 

VARIETIES 

 

INSECTS WITH A VERY WIDE HOST RANGE include: 

African black beetle 

Australian plague locust 

Black scale 

Black vine weevil 

European earwig 

Greenhouse whitefly 

Green peach aphid 

Lightbrown apple moth 

Looper caterpillars 

Longtailed mealybug 

Onion thrips 

Twospotted mites may attack 

a wide range of plants, including 

Plague thrips 

ornamentals, fruit and vegetables. 

Twospotted mite 

Western flower thrips 

INSECTS WITH A RESTRICTED HOST RANGE include: 

Argentine stem weevil - Cool season grasses, eg bent, also wheat 

Codling moth - Pome fruits, eg apples and pears 

Gladiolus thrips - Gladiolus, carnation, arum lily, calla lily, 

Monbretia, ‘red-hot’ poker and tiger flower 

Oak leafminer - Oak, beech, Spanish chestnut 

Oriental fruit moth - Stone fruits 

Pumpkin beetle - Cucurbits and related plants 

Rose scale - Blackberry, loganberry, raspberry, rose 

Webbing caterpillars - Mainly Leptospermum, Melaleuca, also 

Astartea, Baeckea, Kunzea, Thryptomene 

Woolly aphid - Apple, crab apple, occasionally other hosts, 

rarely pears 

INSECTS WITH A VERY RESTRICTED HOST RANGE include: 

Azalea lace bug - Azalea, rhododendron 

Azalea leafminer - Azalea 

Citrus gall wasp - Citrus (especially lemon and grapefruit) 

Couchgrass scale - Couchgrass 

Fern scale - Ferns 

Grapeleaf blister mite - Grapevine (some varieties only) 

Grape phylloxera - Grapevines (some varieties only) 

Gumtree scale - Eucalypt (some species only) 

Leafblister sawfly - Eucalypt (some species only) 

Steelblue sawfly - Eucalypt (some species only) 

Insects and allied pests - Plant damage 27


How insects damage plants 

BY DIRECT 

FEEDING 

CHEWING DAMAGE. 

LEAVES 

Eaten, eg various caterpillars 

Leafmining, eg oak leafminer (larvae feed inside leaves) 

Skeletonized, eg pear and cherry slug 

Weevil 

chewing 

leaves 

FLOWERS 

BUDS 

FRUIT 

STEMS 

BARK 

ROOTS 

Eaten, eg lightbrown apple moth, budworms (Helicoverpa) 

‘Worms’, weevils, eg fruit fly (larvae feed inside fruit) 

Borers, eg fruit-tree borer (larvae feed inside trunks, branches) 

Galls, eg citrus gall wasp (larvae feed inside stems) 

Eaten, eg scarab grubs 

PIERCING & SUCKING DAMAGE. 

LEAVES Galls, eg pimple psyllid (of callistemon) 

Leaf distortion, eg cabbage aphid 

Leaf spots, eg acacia-spotting bug 

Wilting, eg longtailed mealybug 

Yellow stippling, eg lace bugs, leafhoppers, 

twospotted mite, whiteflies 

Aphid 

sucking 

plant sap 

FLOWERS 

BUDS 

FRUIT 

STEMS 

BARK 

ROOTS 

Distortion, eg green peach aphid 

Distortion, eg apple dimpling bug 

Dieback, eg San Jose scale 

Galls, eg woolly aphid 


Natural size 

Thrips rasp plant 

surfaces and suck 

up plant sap 

RASPING & SUCKING DAMAGE. 

LEAVES Distortion, eg western flower thrips, callistemon leafrolling 

thrips 

Silvering, eg gladiolus thrips, greenhouse thrips 

FLOWERS 

BUDS 

Speckling, eg gladiolus thrips, western flower thrips 

CORMS 

Rotting, eg gladiolus thrips 

INDIRECT 

DAMAGE 

Saunder’s 

case moth 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Presence of insect itself, eg San Jose scale on fruit being exported to 

certain countries may cause the entire consignment to be condemned. 

Transmission of virus and other diseases, eg aphids transmit many 

chrysanthemum viruses, thrips transmit tomato spotted wilt virus. 

Frass, eg caterpillars. 

Honeydew, eg aphids. 

Sooty mould growing on the honeydew produced by aphids. 

Larva and nymph skins, eg aphid nymph skins. 

Spittle, eg froghoppers (spittle bugs). 

Bag shelters, eg many native moths, Saunder’s case moth. 

Webbing, eg webbing caterpillars. 

Tainted fruit, eg stink bug. 

Mechanical injury, eg leafcutting bee. 

28 Insects and allied pests - Plant damage


DIRECT FEEDING DAMAGE 

Chewing damage 

Fig. 6. Citrus butterfly caterpillars chew lemon leaves. 

Upper: Large citrus butterfly caterpillar (up to 65mm long). 

Lower: Small citrus butterfly caterpillar (up to 40mm long). 


Fig. 7. Pear and cherry slug larva (up to 13 mm long) 

chewing the surface of a cherry leaf (skeletonization). 


Fig. 8. Bean weevil damage. 

Larvae feed inside bean seed creating 

cavities which are covered by thin skin 

through which the adult emerges. 

PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 9. Azalea leafminer damage. Undersurface of 

azalea leaves showing mines, the tiny caterpillars feed 

between the upper and lower leaf surfaces. Later they roll 

the leaf tips under to form a chamber in which they later 

pupate. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 10. Citrus gall wasp damage. Left: Swellings 

on a stem of a citrus tree produced by the larvae feeding 

inside the stem. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). Right: Galled 

twig showing exit holes of adult wasp. 

Fig. 11. Codling moth damage. 

Caterpillar (larva) chewing inside an 

apple near the core. PhotoNSW Dept of 

Industry and Investment (E.H.Zeck). 



Chewing damage (contd) 

Fig. 12. Fruit-tree borer. Larval damage to trunks. Left: External damage to trunk. 

Right: Tree split longitudinally to show internal damage, note tunnel is only about 

10 cm long. PhotosNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 13. Vegetable 

weevil (Listroderes difficilis). 

PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and 

Investment (E.H.Zeck). 

Enlarged x5: 

1. Eggs 

2. Larva 

3. Pupa (or chrysalis) in earthen cell 

4. Weevil (or adult) 

Actual size: 

5. Earthen cell from which adult has 

emerged 

6. Carrots damaged by larvae and 

adults 



Piercing and sucking damage 

Fig. 14. Apple leafhopper damage to crabapple leaves. 

Left: Healthy foliage Right: Foliage spoilt by leafhoppers. 

PhotosNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 15. Apple leafhoppers resting 

on the undersurfaces of apple leaves 

(50% natural size). PhotoNSW Dept. of 

Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 16. Green peach aphid damage. The sucking of the 

aphids causes leaves to curl. Do not confuse with the fungal disease 

peach leaf curl (page 358). PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 17. Greenhouse whiteflies on the 

undersurfaces of a tomato leaf. 


Fig. 18. Lerps on eucalypt foliage. Discolored areas of the leaf 

develop where lerps have been feeding. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 19. Acacia-spotting bug damage to 

Acacia leaves. Left: Damage to leaves with no 

marked veinal structure. Right: Damage to 

leaves with a marked veinal structure. 



Piercing and sucking damage (contd) 

Fig. 20. Cottonycushion scales 

on wattle and citrus stems. PhotoNSW 

Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 21. Apple dimpling bug damage to apple. 

Upper: Healthy apples. Lower: Damaged apples. 

PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 22. Woolly aphid injury. 

A: Galls produced on roots. 

B: Healthy undamaged twig. 

C and D: Damaged apple twigs. 

PhotosNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 23. Black peach aphids feeding on new spring growth of peach. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Rasping and sucking damage 

Fig. 24. Greenhouse thrips injury to the leaves of viburnum 

(Viburnum tinus) showing silvering of leaves and spots of dark 

excreta mainly on the undersurface. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 25. Onion thrips injury to onion leaves. 


Fig. 26. Thrips in dahlia flowers. 


Natural size about 1 mm long. 

Fig. 27. Callistemon leaf-rolling 

thrips injury to Callistemon leaves. 




INDIRECT DAMAGE 

Fig. 28. Ribbed case moth. 

Pupa, larva and case. PhotoNSW 


Fig. 29. Leaf case moths showing leaf fragments and 

pine needles used to cover their pupal cases. PhotoNSW Dept. 


Fig. 30. Leafcutting bee damage to rose 

leaves. Bees cut circular pieces from leaf edges 

with their mandibles and use the pieces to line 

their nests. PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 31. Webbing caterpillar damage to melaleuca. 

Caterpillars spin silky webbing which becomes coated 

with pellets of excreta and plant debris. PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 32. Sooty mould fungus on 

orange leaf. Black sooty mould grows 

on the honeydew excreted by some sap 

sucking insects, eg aphids. PhotoNSW 


Fig. 33. Tomato big bud phytoplasma. Left: Common 

brown leafhopper (about 1 mm long) transmits the tomato big 

bud phytoplasma. Right: Healthy chrysanthemum on left and 

infected plant on right (greening of flower parts). PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 



Pest cycle 

The LIFE CYCLE. of an insect is the stage or succession of stages in growth and development 

that occurs between the appearance or re-appearance of the same stage, eg the adult. 

The PEST CYCLE describes where each stage of the life cycle occurs, eg host, seed, soil, the 

length of each stage, the number of generations, its seasonal occurrence and so on. The range of 

insect pest cycles is almost infinite so that only a few common examples of where stages may occur 

are presented. Many insects spend some part of their life cycle in the soil. 

HOST ONLY 

HOST, 

HOST DEBRIS, 

LITTER, ETC 

Codling moth 

larva in fallen 

fruit 

HOST AND SOIL 

Pupa of scarab 

grub in soil 

WHY IS 

KNOWLEDGE OF 

THE PEST CYCLE 

IMPORTANT? 

SOME INSECTS SPEND NEARLY ALL THEIR LIFE in a close parasitic 

relationship with their hosts with perhaps only very short stages occurring 

away from the host, eg 

Bean weevil (seeds) 

Black scale (stems, leaves) 

Green peach aphid (buds, leaves, shoots) 

Longtailed mealybug (leaf bases, flowers, fruit) 

Twospotted mite (mainly leaves, herbaceous stems) 

SOME INSECTS CONTINUE TO DEVELOP 

IN SEED, HOST PLANT DEBRIS, LITTER, eg 

Citrus gall wasp (in galls of pruned stems) 

Codling moth larvae (in fallen fruit) 

CATERPILLARS OF MANY MOTHS 

AND BUTTERFLIES MAY PUPATE 

on host plants, host plant debris or on 

general litter: 


Codling moth 

Life cycle of the 

cabbage white butterfly 

DEBRIS FROM SOME PLANTS MUST BE DESTROYED, eg 

Prunings of citrus containing mature citrus gall wasp larvae and/or pupae 

should be burnt to prevent adult wasps from emerging. 

LARVAE OF MANY INSECTS feed on or in leaves and other plant parts but 

pupate in the soil, eg 

Corn earworm, grapevine moth 

Pear and cherry slug 


EGGS, LARVAE, NYMPHS AND ADULTS of some insects may occur in or 

on the soil but feed on roots, stems, trunks, seed and other plant parts, eg 


Cutworms and armyworms 

Mole crickets 

FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF EFFECTIVE CONTROL MEASURES, eg 

Planning IPM (Integrated Pest Management) programs (page 39). After 

identifying the pest, knowledge of the pest cycle is essential as the pest 

scout needs to know where to look for the pest, eg on leaves or bark. 

Does the seed or other propagation material need to be treated? 

Could sanitation and other non-chemical methods be useful controls? 

When should pesticides be applied? When the pest is under the bud 

scales during winter or when it is feeding on the new leaves in spring? 



Overwintering, oversummering 

‘Overwintering’ describes how the pest carries over from one season to the following one, ie 

either over winter (for pests active in summer) or over summer (for pests active in winter). 

KNOWLEDGE 

ESSENTIAL FOR 

CONTROL 

MEASURES 

Where does the pest 

? 

fruit, seed, leaf, 

root, host debris, soil? 

SOME INSECTS ‘OVERWINTER’ IN SEVERAL STAGES, eg 

In coastal areas, the Queensland fruit fly can ‘overwinter’ as maggots in 

fruit and as adults. 

MANY INSECTS MAY ‘OVERWINTER’ IN SEVERAL PLACES, eg 

Cabbage white butterfly as pupae on attached to the host or nearby object. 

Codling moth on the trunk of the host and on litter on the ground. 

KNOWLEDGE OF STAGES AND PLACES 

Knowledge of the stages which ‘overwinter’ (adults, eggs, etc) and the places 

where they occur (host, alternate weed hosts, seed, plant debris, soil, etc) is 

used to develop control measures. For pests which ‘overwinter’ on/in: 

Deciduous hosts, dormant sprays can be applied, eg 

Grapeleaf blister mite 

Rose scale 

Alternate hosts, these may be removed and destroyed - important for 

effective control, eg 

Cineraria leafminer (host plants, weed hosts, eg sow thistle) 

Gladiolus thrips (volunteer gladioli plants from previous crops) 

Propagation material, pest-free cuttings and seed must be selected, eg 

Chrysanthemum gall midge (on chrysanthemum cuttings) 

Bean weevil (in bean seed) 

Litter and trash from the crop, removal and destruction of such plant 

residues contribute to their control and may be compulsory, eg 

Codling moth 

Fruit fly 

Soil, control measures of some type may be required. 

ON THE 

HOST PLANT 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Azalea leafminer 

Black scale 


Codling moth 


Oriental fruit moth 

Mealybugs 

- Larvae in cocoons under leaves 

- Nymphal stages 

- Larvae in pupae 

- Larvae in cocoons on trunk 

- Adult mites under bud scales 

- Larvae in cocoons on trunk 

- Eggs on roots, stems, other plant parts 

ALTERNATE 

HOSTS 

 

 

Cineraria leafminer 

Greenhouse thrips 

- Host plants, including weed hosts 

- Host plants including weed hosts 

SEED, OTHER 

PROPAGATION 

MATERIAL 

 

 

 

Rice weevil 

Bulb mites 

Scale 

- Eggs, larvae, pupae in seed 

- Mites, eggs on bulbs 

- Adults, eggs on cuttings, 

nursery stock 

HOST DEBRIS, 

LITTER, ETC 

 

 

 

 

Codling moth 

Driedfruit beetle 



- Larvae in cocoons on stable litter 

- Adults or larvae in fallen fruit 

- Larvae in cocoons in mummified fruit and on 

stable litter 

- Adult females shelter in litter and trash 

SOIL 

Scarab grubs remain 

dormant in winter 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grapevine moth 


Plague locust 


Corn earworm 

Scarab beetles 

- Larvae in cocoons 


- Eggs in soil 


- Pupae 

- Larvae 



Spread 

Many control measures are designed to prevent spread of a pest either within a crop, within a 

state, between states or into and out of Australia. This principle is the basis of quarantine. Computer 

software packages can predict the spread of pests, diseases, weeds and beneficial organisms. They 

can also define areas at risk from colonization by pests and alternative control strategies including 

appropriate quarantine measures. 

FLIGHT 

WIND 

Moth 

CRAWLING 

INFESTED PLANT 

MATERIAL 

SOIL 

Cuttings 

HANDS, SHOES, 

CLOTHING, 

VEHICLES 

MOST ADULT INSECTS HAVE WINGS AND SO CAN FLY 

Some insects can fly great distances, eg 

– Wanderer butterfly, Australian plague locust. 

– Monarch butterflies, the world’s largest migrant butterfly has a wing span of 

up to 10 cm, migrates between North America and Mexico. 

– Bogong and corn earworm moths migrate long distances in the eastern states 

of Australia. 

Some are not very strong fliers, eg 

– Azalea leafminer (adult moths can only fly about 1 metre). 

– Gladiolus thrips ability to spread through a crop is assisted by wind. 

– Codling moths only fly about 100 metres but are also assisted by wind. 

FLIGHT MAY BE ASSISTED BY WIND, AIR CURRENTS, STORMS, eg 

Twospotted mites may be spread on windblown leaves. 

Storms and hurricanes over-ride weather systems, eg monarch butterflies 

can be blown off course, eg from North America to Britain. 

Currant-lettuce aphid is thought to have been to blown by wind to Tasmania 

from New Zealand. 

WINGLESS ADULT INSECTS, NYMPHS AND LARVAE of many insects, 

spread by crawling, eg 

Weevil larvae and adults 

Locust nymphs 

Mite nymphs and adults 

Mite 

Moth and butterfly caterpillars 

Caterpillar 

EGGS, NYMPHS OR LARVAE, PUPAE AND ADULT INSECTS may be 

transported on or in any part of a plant, eg 

Bulbs - Bulb mites, bulb flies 

Fruit - Fruit fly, codling moth 

Nursery stock - Twospotted mite, scale insects 

Packing cases - Codling moth 

Cut flowers - Thrips 

Seeds - Rice weevil Rice weevil larva 

in seed 

INSECTS WHICH MAY BE TRANSPORTED IN SOIL, eg 

Root mealybugs in containers. 

Black vine weevil larvae and adults in containers. 

OVERSEAS PASSENGERS MAY CARRY INSECTS 

On their clothing, hand baggage and other items. 

ANIMALS 

WATER 

OTHER INSECTS, SNAILS, BIRDS, ETC 

Ants may carry scales from plant to plant. 

SOME ARE COMMONLY CARRIED ON WATER, eg 

Springtails. 

Ants 




CONDITIONS 

FOR 

DEVELOPMENT 

SPECIFIC 

REQUIREMENTS 

CLIMATE 

CHANGE 

 

WARNING 

SERVICES 

 

GENERAL CONDITIONS 

Most insects prefer warm and humid weather. 

Some insect pests are favoured by lush growth, eg nitrogenous fertilizers. 

Weather the previous season can be as important as that in the current 

season, eg plague thrips cause most plant injury after unusually moist 

autumns and winters, which favour survival of pupae in the soil. 

The significance of a disease outbreak also depends on the stage of crop 

development, eg seedling, or just before harvest; or its place in a cropping 

sequence, eg continuous cropping favours certain pests (and diseases). 

TEMPERATURE 

Nearly all insects become inactive at temperatures below 4-15 o C (no insect 

damage occurs below 4 o C). Many insects can hibernate at temperatures 

much lower than this. 

No insects can survive for long at 60-65 o C. Generally 3 hours at 

51-56 o C will kill most insects. 

The body temperature of insects is closely related to the temperature 

of the surrounding environment. The growth of an insect increases as 

temperature increases until the optimum temperature for a particular type 

of insect is exceeded, at this point the growth rate rapidly declines. 

MOISTURE 

Moisture may or may not be essential for some stages of insect 

development. For example moths and butterflies cannot emerge from 

pupae unless moisture is present. 

Rain, can kill off large numbers of some insects, eg thrips. 

MANY INSECT PESTS HAVE SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS, eg 

Cineraria leafminer - Cool and moist (a late winter and spring pest) 

Gladiolus thrips - Hot and dry 

Greenhouse whitefly - Warm and moist (glasshouse/outdoor pest) 

Redlegged earth mite - Cool and moist (winter pest) 

Twospotted mite - Hot and dry/hot and humid (glasshouse/outdoor pest) 

Woolly aphid - Cool and moist (mostly a spring and autumn pest) 

CHANGES WHICH MIGHT TAKE PLACE IN SOME REGIONS 

Some pests may spread to new areas, eg fruit fly to Tasmania. 

Some pests may be more or less serious in certain regions. 

New pests may emerge. 

MAY NEED TO BE REGULARLY UPDATED 

Warning services for insect pests, eg are based on temperature, rain, 

humidity, length of leaf wetness etc. 

Fact Sheets and other information about pests require constant updating. 

ENVIRONMENT 

Does it favour the crop or the aphids? 

SUSCEPTIBLE 

CROP PLANT 

Aphids 

INSECT PEST 

PRESENT 

Fig. 34. Pest triangle. 




MAIN STEPS 

IPM is not a specific set 

of rules, there is no central 

program for everyone 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

? 

X. 

IPM maximizes the use of non-chemical controls and optimizes/minimizes the use of 

chemical methods while taking into account all environmental factors, economics, etc. 

IPM provides improved long term control and slows/prevents the development of 

pesticide resistance. As the effect of a pest on a crop is influenced by many factors, eg 

weather, natural enemies, crop variety, etc, a range of controls is usually needed. 

1. Plan well in advance to use an IPM program that fits your situation. Some expertise 

is needed to use an IPM plan. Keep records of the crop, eg source of planting 

material, planting/sowing dates, temperature, irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides. 

2. Plant/crop/region. Know the problems which occur on your crop or in your 

region. IPM programs are available for pests on a range of crops in particular 

regions. Check if an IPM program is available for your pest/crop, eg 

IPM programs are available for some pests, eg twospotted mite, corn earworm 

(Helicoverpa) and Western flower thrips (WFT) on particular crops. 

Many commercial crops have computer programs and websites which 

incorporate and provide information on IPM programs. Best Management Practice 

(BMP) programs are available for cotton, grape, citrus, nursery crops. CropWatch 

provides commercial IPM services for fruit growers in southern Victoria; Scientific 

Advisory Services provides IPM for tropical horticulture. 

3. Identification of the pest(s) must be confirmed. Consult a diagnostic service if 

necessary (page xiv). Successful IPM depends on sound knowledge of pests, their 

beneficials, their life cycles, spread, conditions favouring, population distribution, 

etc. Obtain a fact sheet for each pest. 

4. Monitoring indicates seasonal trends, the best time to start control if necessary, 

and the effectiveness of earlier control measures. Record findings. You must: 

Know when it must be done, eg before sowing, before flowering. Warning 

services based on weather, calculate when outbreaks may occur. 

Check where they are to be monitored, eg leaves, soil, flowers. Checking the top 

15cm of soil before planting for earth mites, black field crickets, scarab grubs. 

Decide what has to be monitored, eg eggs, larvae or adults of pests and beneficial 

insects and/or damage. Check if they are still alive and established. 

Know how to monitor, eg sticky traps, lures? Use a x10 hand lens. 

5. Threshold. The level of pest numbers or damage at which treatment is necessary to 

manage a pest problem. How much damage can you accept? Have any insect and/or 

damage thresholds been established? If so, what are they, eg economic, aesthetic, 

environmental? It may be nil for quarantine purposes. 

6. Action/Control/Decision making. Many control methods will be preventative, 

eg pest-tested planting material, seed treatments. Take appropriate action at the 

correct time when a prescribed threshold is reached. There may be legal and/or 

organic standard requirements. Potential damage may not warrant any action. 

For pests not yet in Australia or in some states, quarantine can prevent entry. 

For new arrivals spread can be minimized by early detection. Response Programs 

assist control of specified pest outbreaks. Noxious pest legislation and other 

regulations are most effective during these early stages of invasion, when eradication 

could be attempted. Available pest control methods do not eradicate pests unless they 

have been selected for a national or state eradication program. 

For established pests the best we can hope for is containment using appropriate 

control methods strategically and early. Eradication is generally impossible. 

7. Evaluation. Review IPM program. Make improvements if necessary which may 

involve continued monitoring. Remember the aim is not to eradicate pests (unless 

legislated for), but to maintain populations below that which causes economic, 

aesthetic, and/or, other effects. Be prepared to accept some damage if appropriate. 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

 


CROP 

Each crop has 

its own pest 

complex. 

List the pests 

that occur on 

your crop in 

your region 

IDENTIFY 

PROBLEM 

Enquiry 

Which plant sp. 

Examine plant 

Check history 

References 

Expert advice 

Diagnosis 

Fact sheet for 

each pest 

MONITOR 


Where to monitor? 

What to count, eg 

pest & beneficial 

insects, eggs etc? 

How to count? 

Keep records 

THRESHOLD 

Economic? 

Aesthetic? 

Biodiversity? 

Complaints? 

Is there a threshold 

for this pest above 

which controls must 

be implemented? 

Is it compulsory? 

ACTION 

CONTROL 

? 

Legislation 

Cultural 

Sanitation 

Biological 

Resistance 

Quarantine 

Pest-tested 

Physical etc 

Pesticides 

Organic, BMP 

Combinations 

EVALUATION 

 

Fig. 35. Steps in IPM. 

 

Was the IPM 

program 

successful? 

Did you achieve 

the control you 

wanted? 

Can IPM be 

improved? 

YES/NO? 

Insects and allied pests - Integrated pest management 39



LEGISLATION 

LEGISLATION, 

REGULATIONS 

Legislation and various regulations affect many aspects of pest control and examples 

are described under each method of control. 

CULTURAL METHODS 

LEGISLATION 

WHAT ARE 

CULTURAL 

METHODS? 

CONDITIONS 

FAVOURABLE TO 

THE HOST CROP 

CONDITIONS 

UNFAVOURABLE 

TO THE PEST 

REPELLENT AND 

BAIT PLANTS 

Purchase 

one of the 

many books 

available on 

companion 

plantings 

Cultural methods may be compulsory in some states/territories/regions of Australia 

for some pests of some plants. For example, a banana plant must not be planted or 

cultivated in a Banana Plant Quarantine Area (BPQA) in certain areas of Queensland 

without an inspector's approval, unless the plant (a) is to be planted and cultivated in 

a residential plantation, or (b) is an approved cultivar for the BPQA. 

Cultural methods involve ordinary day-to-day horticultural practices. They are 

usually used in conjunction with other methods and are preventative and are an 

essential part all plant management programs. 

PLANT VIGOUR, ETC 

Balanced irrigation/fertilizer regimes. 

– Trees attacked by borers show a marked improvement if their vigour is 

stimulated by watering, fertilizing and judicious pruning. 

– Plants attacked by sucking insects, eg mealybugs and aphids, can tolerate 

attacks better if there is adequate soil moisture. 

– Avoid excessive plant vigour, eg oriental fruit moth injury to shoots is more 

common on lush growth due to excessive fertilization, watering or pruning. 

Genetically modified crops may be able to grow faster, mature earlier. 

CONDITIONS 

Weather, eg gladiolus thrips is favoured by hot dry weather. Efficient irrigation 

can significantly reduce the amount of damage. 

Cultivation of soil exposes insects, eg scarab grubs, to birds, desiccation or 

mechanical damage. Some larvae and pupae can be buried so deeply that they 

cannot emerge or be brought to the surface and desiccate. Note that minimum 

tillage may result in an increase of some pests. 

Crop rotation aims to reduce pest numbers by depriving them of food. Is 

more successful in controlling diseases than insect pests. 

– Continual cropping of the same crop risks a buildup of pest problems 

specific to that crop. Rotation crops should not be related to the following 

crop or a potential weed. 

– Crop rotation can assist in the control of insect pests if the pest is either 

wingless or can only attack a single group of plants. Potato moth only attacks 

potato, other Solanaceous plants and weeds. Lucerne seed wasp can be 

reduced with lucerne-free rotations. 

– Most established soil pests can be reduced by a period of fallow between 

cultivation of pasture and sowing the crop. 

– Brassica break crops such as canola or mustard when ploughed in release 

toxic bio-fumigants and may suppress some soilborne insect pests. 

Harvesting and planting dates, eg early maturing stone fruit varieties can 

be harvested before the development of damaging fruit fly populations. 

Warning services based on modeling programs provide information on 

conditions favourable to the pest, eg moisture, temperature, wind, etc. 

Climate change. Research is determining how changes in moisture, temperature, 

etc will affect the distribution and severity of current and emerging insect pests. 

Windbreaks to protect predators. 

COMPANION PLANTS 

Repellent plants are reputed to repel certain pests, eg garlic aroma can repel 

some species of aphids. One must know which species of aphids is repelled and 

the situations where it is effective, eg in a vegetable patch or in a rose garden. 

Bait or trap plants attract certain pests and once on that plant they can then be 

readily destroyed by picking or spraying. Corn earworm moths prefer to feed on 

chickpeas rather than cotton. Patches of chickpeas in cotton crops could be 

slashed to stop further development. 

Beneficial insect attractants. Coriander attracts hoverflies which feed 

on aphids and small caterpillars and so reduce pest infestation in cabbages. 

40 Insects and allied pests - Integrated pest management


SANITATION 

LEGISLATION 

WHAT IS 

SANITATION? 

CROP DEBRIS, 

LITTER 

LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENTS include: 

Sanitation measures are often part of an overall management program and 

be compulsory in some situations, eg 

– Codling moth 

– Mediterranean and Queensland fruit flies 

Method of disposal may also be prescribed by legislation, eg 

– Mediterranean and Queensland fruit flies 

– Citrus gall wasp 

Sanitation is aimed at eliminating or reducing the amount of infested material in a 

garden, nursery, orchard, glasshouse or other situation, preventing spread of pests to 

other healthy plants or produce. 

FRUIT, PLANTS 

Infested fruit on the tree and all fallen fruit (healthy and infested) must 

be removed and destroyed at regular intervals as prescribed by legislation, eg 

codling moth, fruit fly. 

Promptly remove and destroy all plant debris. Some insects 

‘overwinter’ on crop debris and litter surrounding host plants, eg 

– Mealybugs can survive on crop debris. 

– Cabbage white butterfly as pupae attached to the food-plant debris. 

Destroy old crops by ploughing in as soon as harvest is complete. As the 

plants breakdown so do the most of the organisms that were attacking it. The 

ploughed-in plant material must be fully broken down before the new crop is 

planted or pests will move onto the new crop. 

DESTRUCTION OF 

HOST PLANTS 


may n 

weed 

hosts, eg sowthistle 

PRUNING 

HYGIENE 

IT MAY BE NECESSARY TO DESTROY HOST PLANTS 

Roguing is the removal and destruction of infested plants in a crop that could 

spread infestation to healthy plants within the crop, eg 

– Insect populations that develop on a few plants can provide a source of 

infestation for the whole crop. 

– Indoor and glasshouse plants may be so badly infested with mealybugs 

that chemical and other methods of control are likely to be ineffective. Their 

destruction would be a necessary part of a control program. 

Many plant pests ‘overwinter’ on weed hosts, alternate hosts, volunteer 

seedlings and crops and are a source of infestation for commercial plantings as 

they dry off. Destruction of these hosts before they seed is essential for control, 

exceptions might be where these hosts support predators. Weed hosts of some 

plant pests include: 

Cape weed 

Sowthistle, other Asteraceae 

Weeds, other herbaceous plants 

Grass, herbage 

Unwanted and unharvested fruit trees 

- Brown vegetable weevil 

- Cineraria leafminer 

- Twospotted mite 

- Rutherglen bug 

- Codling moth, fruit fly 

SEVERELY INFESTED PORTIONS OF PLANTS 

Pruning of severely infested parts of plants and destroying them is frequently an 

effective way of coping with some pests, eg 

– Callistemon tip borer 

– Oriental fruit moth 

– Scale infestation on ferns 

WHERE APPROPRIATE (depends on the crop) 

Clean and disinfect benches and floors regularly in glasshouses. 

Clean equipment before moving it to clean areas. 

Thoroughly clean containers and packing equipment prior to re-use. 

Clean and sterilize secateurs, pruning tools and harvest utensils. 

Restrict movement by vehicles and people (insects adhere to clothes). 

Handle pest-free plants before handling infested plants. Wash hands. 



BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 

LEGISLATION, 

ETC 

WHAT IS 

BIOLOGICAL 

CONTROL? 

The Biological control Act 1984 (Cwlth) regulates the choice of target pests, 

biological control agents which can be researched, approval for release and persons 

releasing the agents. Target list of Biological Control Agents: 

www.daff.gov.au/ 

Suppliers of biological control agents: 

Australasian Biological Control (ABC) www.goodbugs.org.au/ 

Biological Farmers of Australia/Organic Standards www.bfa.com.au/ 


Toxicity of commonly used chemicals to some beneficial species www.goodbugs.org.au/ 

AS 6000—2009. Organic and Biodynamic Products (Standards 

Australia) outlines the minimum requirements to be met by growers and 

manufacturers wishing to label their products ‘organic’ or ‘biodynamic’ (page 49). 

CLASSICAL BIOLOGICAL CONTROL may be defined as the deliberate use of a 

pest's natural enemies to control a pest. In practice: 

Several biological control agents may be released to control a single pest, eg 

biological control of insects and mites may be brought about by other insects and 

mites, diseases, pheromones and genetic engineering. 

Insecticides not toxic to predators assist control. Fungicides, and other pesticides 

used to control other pests and diseases must also be non-toxic to predators. 

Some industries, eg cotton, have guides on the impact of individual insecticides on 

natural predators of major cotton pests. By focusing on conserving the natural 

enemies of major cotton pests, eg Helicopverpa, mites, aphids, mirids and tipworms, 

it is possible to significantly reduce insecticide use without impairing productivity. 

Biological control agents are most effective when used in IPM programs. 

BY INSECTS 

OR MITES 

Many predators 

and parasites 

can be purchased 

for release 

Ladybirds feed 

on aphids, scales 

Twospotted 

mite (about 

0.5mm long) 

Chilean 

predatory 

mite (about) 

PREDATORS. 

Predatory insects and mites feed on many other insects or mites (prey). Common 

predators include ladybirds and mites. Predators can supplement their diet by 

feeding on pollen, nectar and fungi. 

General predators, eg 

Ants, eg green ants 

Assassin, pirate and damsel bugs 

European and paper nest wasps 

 

 

Lacewing larvae (various spp.) 

Predatory ladybirds, eg 

Ladybirds (various species) 

Red chilocorus (Chilocorus circumdatus) 

Ladybird (Rodalia cardinalis) 

Cryptolaemus beetle (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) 

Native ladybird (Rhizobius lindi) 

Predatory mites, eg 

Chilean predatory mite (Phytoseiulus persimilis) 

Predatory mite (Typhlodromus occidentalis) 

Predatory mite (Hypaspis spp.) 

Predatory mite (Neosiuilus cucumeris) 

Predatory mite (Amblyseius victoriensis) 

Predatory mite (Amblyseius montdorensis) 

- Aphids 

- Armoured scales 

- Cottonycushion scale 

- Mealybugs (many species) 

- San Jose scale 

- Twospotted mite 

- Thrips 

- Black vine weevil, thrips 

pupae, fungus gnats 

- Thrips 

- Rust mites, broad mite 

- Mealybugs, thrips 

0.7mm long PARASITES. 

Parasitic insects feed and live in, or on, a single insect. The most common parasitic 

insects are wasps and flies which lay their eggs in adults, larvae and eggs of pest 

insects. The wasp eggs hatch inside its host and the larva ultimately consume and kill 

the pest. In the future it may be possible to alter the DNA of wasps so they can 

parasitize a range of insect pests. 

Wasp laying egg 

in a scale insect 

 

Wasps, eg 

Wasp (Aphidius rosae) 

Wasp (Encarsia formosa) 

Wasp (Trissolcus basalis) 

Wasp (Aphytis spp.) 

Wasp (Aphelinus mali) 

Wasp (Apunta spp.) 

Wasp (Trichogramma spp.) 

Wasp (Trichogrammatoidea 

cryptophebiae) (MacTrix) 

Wasp (Aphidius colemani) 

Wasp (Metaphycus helvolus) 

Greenhouse thrips parasite 

(Thripobius semiluteus) 

- Rose aphids 

- Greenhouse whitefly nymphs 

- Green vegetable bug eggs 

- Red scale 

- Woolly aphids 

- Cabbage white butterfly caterpillars 

- Moth eggs 

- Macadamia nutborer eggs 

- Aphids, eg green peach aphid 

- Soft brown scale, black scale 

- Greenhouse thrips 



BIOLOGICAL CONTROL (contd) 

BY DISEASES 


Microbial agents 

Microbial pesticides 

Biological pesticides 

Biocontrol agents 

50 MILLION 

INFECTIVE 

JUVENILES 

VIRUSES. 

Some viruses only attack insects, eg beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars. Viruses 

can be genetically engineered to increase the speed at which they kill infected insects 

(page 88). 

Gemstar®, ViVUS Gold (Heliothis virus) is used in IPM programs for corn 

earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and native budworm (H. punctigera) in cotton 

and certain fruit, vegetable, ornamental, field crops. The virus is ineffective against 

large caterpillars, taking so long to kill the infected host caterpillars that much crop 

damage can occur in the mean time. The virus must be eaten. 

Other insect viruses, include: 

Cabbage white butterfly virus 

Codling moth virus 

Lightbrown apple moth virus 

Potato moth virus 

BACTERIA. 

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) , a soilborne bacterium, is marketed as a ‘biological 

pesticide’ to control leaf eating caterpillars with a high gut pH. The caterpillars 

eat the bacterial spores which contain a toxin that causes septicaemia killing them. 

Different strains of Bt attack different insects (page 59). New strains of Bt are still 

being developed. Research is continuing on whether insects may develop 

resistance to Bt. Bt. used to control caterpillars of the gypsy moth in Chicago may 

also kill caterpillars of many other species. 

Dipel ® , various (Bt subsp. kurstaki) - Some leafeating caterpillars, has some 

activity against mosquitoes. 

XenTari ® , various (Bt subsp. aizawai) - Caterpillars, eg corn earworm or cotton 

bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), 

diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) 

- Mosquito larvae 

 

 

Cybate ® , Vectobac ® (Bt subsp. 

israelensis) 

Novodor ® (Bt subsp. tenebrionis) 

Spinosad (derived from soil bacteria) 

Entrust ® Naturalyte ® Insect Control, 

Success ® , Tracer ® (spinosad) 

- Chrysomelid and tenebrionid beetle pests 

in plantation eucalypts, elm leaf beetle 

(under research) 

- Certain insect pests of certain crops, eg 

cotton, vegetables, fruit, ornamentals 

Many other bacteria are being researched overseas including Wolbachia 

bacteria which could be used to modify natural populations of the dengue fever 

mosquito (Aedes aegypti) to prevent it transmiting the virus to humans. Bacillus 

firmus is an insect pathogen of some caterpillars. 

FUNGI. 

Green muscardine fungus (Metarhizium spp.) can be purchased, eg 

BioCane ® (Metarhizium sp.) - Greyback canegrub 

GreenGuard ® (Metarhizium sp.) - Locusts, grasshoppers 

BioBlast ® (Metarhizium sp.) - Termites (in the USA) 

www.beckerunderwood.com.au/ 

Other fungi which kill a range of insects include Verticillium lecanii, 

Beauveria bassiana, Entomophthora, Paecilomyces spp. Overseas also 

Aschersonia aleyrodis is being researched to suppress whiteflies. 

NEMATODES. Entomopathogenic nematodes (ENs) 

Some nematodes are symbiotically associated with bacteria which they carry within 

their intestinal tract, often within a specialized vesicle. The nematodes seek out 

natural openings on insects and move into the bloodstream where they release the 

bacteria causing septicaemia. Most insects are susceptible and given enough nematodes 

they will die, eg 

www.beckerunderwood.com.au/ 

www.ecogrow.com.au/ 

Beddingia siricidola 

Heterorhabditis bacteriophora 

Heterorhabditis zealandica 

Steinernema carpocapsae 

Steinernama feltiae 

Steinernema feltiae 

- Sirex wasp in Pinus radiata 

- Black vine weevil 

- Argentine stem weevil, certain scarab 

grubs, bill bug weevil 

- Banana borer weevil, cutworm, 

armyworm, house termites, cat flea 

- Currant borer moth caterpillars 

- Fungus gnats, mushroom fly 



STERILE INSECT 

RELEASE METHOD 

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL (contd) 

SIRM (Sterile Insect Release Method) 

Male insects are sterilized and released, so that although mating takes place there are 

no offspring. SIRM has been used against some fly pests, eg 

 

 

 

Old world screw-worm fly (Chrysomya bezziana) is a pest of livestock in 

Papua New Guinea. Male screw-worm flies are reared in large numbers and 

sterilized by exposure to gamma radiation. Large numbers are released. When 

they mate with wild females there are no offspring. 

Fruit flies. Large scale breeding and release of sterile males is carried out to 

control fruit flies in Australia. 

Sometimes called SIT (Sterile Insect Technique). 

BIOLOGICAL 

CHEMICALS, 

BAITS, TRAP 

CROPS ETC 

Moth lure 

Like all 

technologies 

mating disruption 

must be 

managed well 

PHEROMONES, BAIT AND FOOD SPRAYS, TRAP CROPS 

Pheromones are chemical substances produced and released by insects which affect, 

in some way, other individuals of the same species. Sex attractants are the most 

common types of pheromones used in pest control, eg 

Pheromones are widely used in survey work to monitor presence of a pest 

so that pesticides are only applied when necessary, eg 

– Codling moth lures used for monitoring attract male codling moths only. 

Regular weekly counts provide a reliable means of monitoring population levels 

ensuring the accurate timing of chemical or non-chemical controls. Lures are also 

available for monitoring other moths, eg LBAM, OFM, pantry moths. 

– Fruit fly lures, eg Dak.pot contains a pheromone to attract male Queensland 

fruit flies (QFF) and an insecticide, usually maldison, to kill them. Another lure 

contains capilure + dichlorvos which attracts male Mediterranean fruit fly 

(MedFly). 

Mating disruption. Pheromone dispensers are tied around new wood in spring 

and release so much female pheromone that males become confused and can’t 

mate. Widely used instead of insecticide sprays to manage some moths, eg 

– Codling moth (Isomate ® C-S Pheromone, Disrupt-CM) 

– Lightbrown apple moth (Isomate ® LBAM Plus Pheromone) 

– Oriental fruit moth (Disrupt-OFM, Isomate ® OFM Rosso-S Pheromone) 

Plastic dispensers 

containing pheromone 

Envirofeast 

Predalure 

 

 

 

Pest baits plus insecticides 

– Fruit fly protein baits + insecticide, eg 

Eco-Naturalure ® , Naturalure ® fruit fly bait concentrates contain protein/sugarbased 

bait + spinosad (derived from soil bacteria) to attract and control both QFF 

and Medfly. They have the BFA registered product logo on their labels. 

– Magnet ® (attractants and feeding stimulants, plus an insecticide, sold separately) 

for Helicoverpa moths which are killed when they contact or ingest it, preventing 

egg laying. Other attractants, eg BioATTRACT Heli (kairomone bait) are being 

researched for use in the management of Helicoverpa and certain other moths. 

Predator lures and food sprays can be applied to insect-infested crops or to 

draw predators away from crops if they are to be sprayed. Many predators and 

parasites of plant pests also feed on nectar, honeydew or pollen. Commercial 

products can be applied to crops to provide food to attract, conserve and buildup 

natural enemies, eg 

– Envirofeast ® (yeast-based) attracts more than 20 species of beneficial insects into 

cotton crops to feed on Helicoverpa spp. and mites. 

– Predalure ® (oil of wintergreen) attracts predatory insects into gardens, eg green 

lacewing (Chrysoperia carnea), ladybirds (Coleomegilla maculata) and various 

syrphids (hover flies) target pests such as aphids, mealybugs, scales, small 

caterpillars, greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) and twospotted mite 

(Tetranychus urticae). 

Trap crops are an option for area-wide management of Helicoverpa on some 

crops, eg cotton. Moths are attracted to particular trap crops, eg chickpeas, where 

they can be destroyed. Precise strategies depend on whether the trapping is 

carried out in spring or summer. 



RESISTANT, TOLERANT VARIETIES 

LEGISLATION 

WHAT DOES 

RESISTANCE/ 

TOLERANCE 

MEAN? 

ENVIRONMENTAL ACTS, PESTICIDE ACTS, ETC may regulate their use, eg 

GM crops must be approved for release. 

Prescribed growing of resistant varieties which do not require pesticide 

sprays in buffer zones close to urban settlements or in pest-free quarantine areas. 

Phylloxera, a root-and foliage-feeding aphid, is one of the world’s most 

devastating pests of grapevines is slowly spreading in Australia and can only be 

controlled through the use of resistant root stock and quarantine measures. 

A FEW DEFINITIONS 

The use of resistant and tolerant plant varieties is an increasingly important 

solution to insect and other plant problems. 

Host resistance/tolerance may be based on chemicals present in the host 

plant, colour or morphological features, such as thorny and hairy surfaces that 

make it difficult for insects to feed on foliage, etc. 

– Traditional cross breeding. The parent plant is crossed (hybridized) with 

a cultivated or wild species which has the desired resistant genes. 

– Genetic engineering. Genes for resistance are transferred into susceptible crop 

varieties, thereby reducing the time required to develop new resistant varieties. 

– Some pests may adapt to resistant or tolerant species and if large plantings 

are planned, some non-resistant or non-tolerant varieties should be included. 

Immune 

Resistant 

Tolerant 

Cannot be infected by a given pest or pathogen. 

Possessing qualities that hinder the development of a 

given pest, pathogen; may be affected little or not at all. 

The ability of a plant to sustain the effects of a pest or 

disease without dying or suffering serious injury or crop 

loss. Even slightly tolerant varieties can be useful. 

Acceptable levels of damage on these varieties 

(thresholds of damage) can be defined before sprays 

need to be applied, eg green mirids on cotton. 

SOME EXAMPLES 

UNLIMITED RANGE OF TOLERANCE AND RESISTANCE IN NATURE 

Some species of eucalypts are more or less tolerant to pests such as gumtree 

scale, lerp and Christmas beetle attack. But provenances and individual trees 

within each eucalypt provenance may differ in their tolerance to Christmas beetles. 

Genetic engineering is increasingly being used to modify crops so they have 

some resistance or tolerance to certain insect pests and other plant problems 

reducing pesticide use, eg 

– Probably the best known is Ingard cotton (Bt cotton) which has been 

genetically modified to produce its own insecticides, ie to produce protein from 

Bt which is toxic to cotton bollworms (Helicoverpa spp.), the major caterpillar 

pests of cotton, but not toxic to beneficial or other organisms. 

– Peas have been genetically engineered to have resistance to the pea weevil 

(Bruchus pisorum) which is a major pest of peas. 

Christmas beetles favour certain eucalypts. 

Corn earworm, cotton bollworm is a major 

pest of sweetcorn, cotton, ornamentals. 

Pea weevil severely 

damages field peas. 

Fig. 36. Resistant/tolerant hosts is the only long term solution to these pests. 


. 


PLANT QUARANTINE 

LEGISLATION 

AUSTRALIAN 


QUARANTINE 

SERVICE 

AQIS. 

INTERSTATE & 

REGIONAL 


QUARANTINE 

LOCAL PLANT 

QUARANTINE 

Restrict movement 

by vehicles and people 

THE QUARANTINE ACT (1908) AND AMENDMENTS is the legal base for 

quarantine in Australia. Australia’s quarantine function is delivered by: 

Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) which undertakes 

quarantine operations and ensures compliance with quarantine policy. Prohibited 

imports include insects and products on, or in which they might be carried. Soil is a 

prohibited import. 

Biosecurity Australia which develops quarantine policy and advises the 

Government. Biosecurity has a plan of action if pests enter Australia. 

www.daffa.gov.au/aqis 

INSECT PESTS NOT YET IN AUSTRALIA include: 

Some insect pests of plants not as yet in Australia include: 

Colorado potato beetle 

European corn borer 

Japanese beetle, Khapra beetle 

Leafmining insects of chrysanthemum 

New Zealand grass grub 

Rice stem borers 

For target lists of insects, plant pests and diseases and weeds, visit: 

www.daff.gov.au/aqis/quarantine/naqs/target-lists 

PaDIL (Pests and Diseases Image Library) is a good reference for exotic pests: 

www.padil.gov.au/ 

INSECT VECTORS NOT YET IN AUSTRALIA include: 

Asian citrus pysllid (a vector for the bacterial disease citrus greening) 

PESTS WHICH HAVE ARRIVED in Australia within the last 10 years include: 

Aphids, eg currant lettuce aphid, Monterey pine aphid 

Mites, eg olive bud mite, southern red mite 

Thrips, eg banana thrips, fig thrips, melon thrips, Western flower thrips 

Whiteflies, eg ash whitefly, cabbage whitefly, spiralling whitefly 

Others, eg elm leaf beetle, mango leafhopper, red imported fire ant 

PESTS WHICH OCCUR IN AUSTRALIA BUT NOT IN OTHER COUNTRIES 

Export fruit, plant material and other items infested with such pests may not be 

permitted entry to countries where the pest does not occur, such pests include: 

Various species of fruit flies 

San Jose scale, many pests of eucalypts 

QUARANTINE WITHIN AUSTRALIA (domestic quarantine) 

Insect pests subject to quarantine measures within Australia include: 

Azalea leafminer 

Citrus leafminer, citrus gall wasp 

Mediterranean and Queensland fruit flies 

Argentine ant, red imported fire ant 

Western flower thrips, melon thrips 

Codling moth 

Elm leaf beetle 

Grape phylloxera 

European red mite Wendy Unger 

Sorghum midge 

For more information on interstate quarantine visit: 

www.quarantinedomestic.gov.au/ 

SOME INSECTS DO NOT FLY VERY FAR, SOME ARE WINGLESS 

One of their main methods of spread of such pests is by the movement of 

infested plant material and they are often re-introduced into glasshouses 

and nurseries by this means, eg on cuttings, in soil, vehicles, clothes many insects may 

be found on clothes, shoes, vehicles, containers. 

Azalea leafminer moths can only fly about 1 meter. 

Mealybugs and mites crawl. 

Adult female scales which are stationary. 

Isolate new introductions until pest-freedom is assured. 

There is no legislation to control this level of quarantine. 



PEST-TESTED PLANTING MATERIAL 

LEGISLATION 

Legislation regulates production, the supply line and sale of pest-tested planting 

material to growers, eg 

Horticultural Stock and Nurseries Acts 

Seed Acts 

WHAT IS 

PEST-TESTED 

PLANTING 

MATERIAL? 

Insect pests and mites (and diseases) may be carried in, on or in association with, 

bulbs, cuttings and other vegetative propagation material. They may also be 

carried in seeds and in soil. Many terms have been used in the past to describe ‘tested 

planting material’, eg virus-tested, disease-tested, high health, 

elite stock, etc. 

ALWAYS PLANT PEST-TESTED PLANTING MATERIAL (if available) 

Planting material is only free from the pests (and diseases) for which it has 

been tested and found to be free from. It may carry other pests (and diseases) for 

which it has not been tested. Efforts are made to ensure that pest-tested planting 

material is as free from as many other pests, diseases and weeds as possible, and 

is of good horticultural quality. 

To get rid of the specified pests, disease-tested planting material has either 

undergone treatment or been grown in special areas free from the specified 

pests (area freedom). In either case the planting material is tested again (or 

continually) before sale to ensure that it really is free of the specified pests. 

– Treatments include hot water, insecticides. 

– Area-freedom. Crops grown for seed may be grown in areas that are free of 

the target pest, eg Western flower thrips, grape phylloxera. These areas are 

 

 

defined by legislation. 

Certification Schemes aim to provide seed or vegetative propagation 

material conforming to cultural characteristics and guaranteed-free from specified 

pests, diseases and weeds to the grower. 

Suppliers. Contact your crop association. 

INSECT PESTS ASSOCIATED WITH PROPAGATION MATERIAL 

Ornamental plants 

Azaleas cuttings, plants 

Chrysanthemum cuttings 

Daffodil bulbs 

Gladiolus corms 

Rose nursery stock 

Bulb fly Fruit trees 

maggots Citrus nursery stock 

 

Stone fruit nursery stock 

Pome fruit nursery stock 

Currants 

Grapevine rootstock 

- Azalea leafminer, azalea lace bug 

- Chrysanthemum gall midge, 

cineraria leafminer 

- Bulb flies, bulb mites 

- Gladiolus thrips 

- Rose scale 

- Citrus gall wasp, 

citrus leafminer, scales 

- San Jose scale, aphids 

- San Jose scale, woolly aphid Citrus gall wasp 

- Currant borer moth larvae damage 

- Phylloxera 

Vegetable and field crops 

Bean seed 

- Bean weevil 

Potato tubers 

- Potato moth 

Lucerne seed 

- Lucerne seed wasp 

Rice seed 

- Rice weevil Rice weevil damage 

PREVENT RE- 

INFESTATION 

PREVENT RE-INFESTATION by not introducing infested bulbs, tubers, nursery 

stock, cuttings, etc, which may carry pests that may attack your crop. 

Pest-tested planting material is usually not resistant to attack by the pests (and 

diseases) it has been freed from and so may be re-infested. 

Only introduce pest-tested planting material into pest-free areas and plant into 

pest-free media or soil. 



PHYSICAL & MECHANICAL METHODS 

LEGISLATION 

WHAT ARE 

PHYSICAL & 

MECHANICAL 

METHODS? 

PHYSICAL 

METHODS 

 

Sticky 

trap 

Legislation provides for the proper construction of insect-proof 

quarantine houses, post harvest treatments of fruit for fruit flies 

and many other treatments of plant materials. 

These control methods have become prominent in recent years because of the 

development of resistance to pesticides, the need to avoid pesticide residues and 

for economic reasons. Unfortunately, many are difficult to apply on a large scale, are 

only partially effective, offer no long term protection and some are labour intensive. 

TEMPERATURE 

Heat. Treatment at 50-60 o C for varying periods generally kills all stages of insect 

pests. Hot water treatments are used to kill bulb mites and bulb flies. Some 

nurseries pasteurize soil and potting media with steam reduced to 60 o C for about 

30 minutes, soil still retains living beneficial micro-organisms and is undamaged 

structurally. Insect pests, some diseases and some weed seeds are killed. 

Cooling. Low temperatures are useful for retarding insect development but 

freezing temperatures are usually required to kill them. Seed may be held in cold 

storage to prevent or slow down insect development. Postharvest cold disinfestation 

treatments of citrus eliminate possible fruit flies. 

OTHER PHYSICAL METHODS 

Humidity. Insect development is retarded at relatively low humidities. Grain is 

usually dried before storage until its moisture content is less than 12%. 

Light is attractive to many insects especially nocturnal species. Probably the best 

known light trap is the electric grid light trap found in butcher shops and 

delicatessens. Insects attracted by the ultraviolet light are electrocuted. 

– Yellow sticky traps are attractive to a wide range of small flying insects both pest 

and beneficial (blue is attractive to thrips and shoreflies). Used to monitor insects 

for timing sprays but can reduce numbers to some extent. 

– Solar-powered UV light attracts insects into traps of various kinds, eg drums of 

swirling water where they drown. 

Gases. Long term storage of grain in pits began with the Pharaohs, where 

exclusion of air killed insects in the grain. Today oxygen levels in silos can be 

lowered and replaced by carbon dioxide or nitrogen. 

Inert abrasive and absorptive dusts act by abrading or absorbing the waxy 

cuticle of insects which then dehydrate and die. Inert dusts, eg mineral earths, 

diatomite, are used to protect stored grain from insect pests. The use of inert dusts is 

not new; the ancient Egyptians used a type of inert dust. 

Physical shocks. Some stages of insect development, eg pupae, are very 

sensitive to physical shocks and grain turning can significantly reduce the insect 

populations in stored grain products. 

Irradiation is used to eliminate pests and from foodstuffs and commodities 

increasing their storage life. Used for some non-food items in Australia. 

MECHANICAL 

METHODS 

Fly 

swat 

Tree banding - 

codling moth, fruit tree 

root weevil and white 

cedar moth 

Moths are 

attracted to the 

pheromone on a 

sticky surface 

OPERATIONS 

Hand operations include swatting flies, 

collecting slow-moving insects and 

destroying them. Collect weevils and 

cutworms by torchlight at night. 

BARRIERS 

Insect-proof greenhouses prevent 

aphids from attacking plants and spreading 

virus diseases. They are used routinely for 

plant quarantine purposes. UV-resistant 

fabrics (which must comply with various 

Standards), include anti-insect nets which 

can generally protect crops from pests and 

increase yields, control temperature, light. 

TRAPS 

Most traps work by appealing to a pest's 

need for food, shelter or sex, eg earwigs 

are attracted to rolled newspapers by their 

need for shelter. Bands of cardboard tied 

around trunks trap larvae that climb tree 

trunks. Fruit fly pheromones attract certain 

male and/or female fruit flies which are then 

killed by insecticide in the trap. 

Collecting insects by hand 

Insectproof greenhouse 

Earwig shelter traps. Rolled newspaper 

and shredded paper in upturned flower pot 



INSECTICIDES, MITICIDES 

LEGISLATION 

LEGISLATION. 

Commonwealth legislation provides for a national system of pesticide 

registration up to the point of sale. Registration is the responsibility of the 

Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority ( APVMA). 

APVMA 

www.apvma.gov.au/ and search PUBCRIS for registered chemicals 

or purchase Infopest www.dpi.qld.gov.au/infopest 

AS 6000—2009. 

Organic and 

Biodynamic Products 

(Standards Australia) 

outlines minimum 

requirements to be met 

by growers and 

manufacturers wishing 

to label their products 

 

 

To check for products permitted in organic systems 

AS 6000—2009. Organic and Biodynamic Products www.standards.org.au/ 

Organic Federation of Australia (OFA) www.ofa.org.au/ 

Biological Farmers of Australia www.bfa.com.au/ 

National Association for Sustainable Agriculture, Australia (NASAA) www.nasaa.com.au/ 

Organic Growers of Australia (OGA) www.organicgrowers.org.au/ 

State/Territory/Regional legislation currently regulates the use of pesticides. 

However, it is intended that there be a national system. All persons using pesticides 

commercially must undergo training in the safe handling and use of pesticides. 

INSECTICIDE APPLICATIONS. 

Insecticide applications (page 50). 

Non-systemic and systemic insecticides (movement in plants (page 51). 

Summary and examples (page 52). 

How are insecticides absorbed by insects? (page 53). 

Non-selective and non-selective insecticides (page 54). 

When should insecticides be applied? (page 55). 

Resistance (page 56). 

Insecticide Mode of Action Groups (Table 2, page 57). 

Bio-insecticides, spray oils, soaps, pheromones (Table 3, page 61). 

Fumigants (page 267). 

Contact CropLife Australia for updates of Insecticide Mode of Action Resistance Groups 

www.cropelifeaustralia.org.au/ 

BIOPEST OIL 

SUMMER OIL 

WHITE OIL 

Fig. 37. Some insecticide labels. 



INSECTICIDE APPLICATIONS. 

New equipment and improved methods for delivery of insecticides are continually being developed. 

INSECTICIDES 

MAY BE USED TO 

TREAT 

Bulbs, corns 

FORMULATIONS 

ALL PLANT PARTS, eg 

Foliage and stems 

Trunks and limbs 

Flowers, fruit and seeds 

Roots, cuttings, seedlings 

Bulbs, corms, tubers, etc 

Air space 

Seeds prior to planting 

Stored seed, grain 

Potting mixes and soil Seeds Cuttings Nursery stock 

LIQUIDS, eg 

Emulsifiable concentrates 

Suspension concentrates 

Liquid concentrates 

Micro-encapsulated suspensions 

Some 

formulations 

combine 

fertilizers 

with insecticides 

SOLIDS, eg 

Baits 

Dusts 

Granules 

Powders 

OTHERS, eg 

Aerosols 

Fumigants 

Slow release generators 

The formulation is the 

product purchased 

APPLICATION 

EQUIPMENT 

Application equipment ranges from expensive large units to small ready-to-use 

convenient container-applicators, eg 

Trolleypak 

Knapsack 

SPRAY EQUIPMENT, eg 

Hydraulic sprayers, eg 

knapsacks, trolleypaks, 

trailer sprayers, booms 

Air blast sprayers 

Mist blowers 

Rotary atomizers 

Electrostatic sprayers 

Fog generators 

Aeroplane sprayers 

OTHER EQUIPMENT, eg 

Dusters 

Granule dispensers 

Tree injection 

Soil injectors 

Truck sprayer Trailer sprayer 

Boom sprayer 


Many pests and some 

diseases reside on the 

undersides of leaves. 

Some spray equipment 

has nozzles that can 

rotate 360 degrees 

allowing the undersides 

of leaves to be sprayed 

with ease. 

SELF-DISPENSING 

APPLICATORS, eg 

Hose-ons 

Dusters 

Guns 

Aerosols 

Hose-one Duster Gun Aerosol 



NON-SYSTEMIC & SYSTEMIC INSECTICIDES 

Contact & translocated insecticides – Movement in plants 

NON-SYSTEMIC 

INSECTICIDES 

Contact 

NON-SYSTEMIC INSECTICIDES ARE NOT. ABSORBED BY THE PLANT. 

They are only effective at the site of application. Contact sprays are only 

effective on insects, eg scales and mealyugs that are actively moving over the 

plant. Adult scales and mealybugs that have developed their waxy covering are 

difficult to kill with contact pesticides. 

They are sometimes called ‘preventative’ as they are often applied before the 

insect has actually been found but where it is expected. 

Contact sprays may be devastating to beneficial insects. 

NON-SYSTEMIC. – FOLAGE, eg 

Dipel , various (Bacillus thuringiensis) 

Malathion , various (maldison) 

Mavrik , various (tau-fluvalinate) 

Pyrethrum 

Success , various (spinosad) 

NON-SYSTEMIC. - SOIL, eg 

Garlon , various (triclopyr) 

Lorsban , various (chlorpyrifos) 

Malathion , various (maldison) 

SYSTEMIC 

INSECTICIDES 

Translocated 

SYSTEMIC INSECTICIDES ARE. ABSORBED BY THE PLANT. 

They are carried (translocated) through the sap stream to parts remote from the 

site of application where they control sap-sucking pests, eg aphids, mites, which 

are actively feeding. Once the pest has stopped feeding it is too late to control it. 

They can be effective against some insects already inside the plant. 

The whole plant surface need not be treated, eg systemic insecticides may be 

applied as foliage, root and soil or as tree injection treatments. 

New developing foliage may be protected from insect attack 

Systemic insecticides are not necessarily evenly distributed within the plant. Know 

how a particular product moves within the plant. Penetrants are insecticides that 

just penetrate the cuticle, eg Lebaycid (fenthion) will kill fruit fly eggs laid 

immediately under the skin of fruit. 

May control a pest more slowly than contact non-systemic insecticides. 

SYSTEMIC. - FOLIAGE, eg 

SYSTEMIC. – APPLIED TO SOIL, eg 

Taken up by LEAVES 

Confidor , various (imidacloprid) 

Folimat , various (omethoate) 

Pirimor , various (pirimicarb) 

Rogor , various (dimethoate) 

Taken up by ROOTS 

Gaucho , Merit , Premise , various (imidacloprid) 

Nemacur , various (fenamiphos) 

Temik (aldicarb) 

Excessive residues 

may still occur if withholding 

periods are not 

observed. Washing the 

outside of fruit does 

not remove internal 

residues. If surface 

residues disappear 

quickly, they will result 

in minimum risk to 

non-target 

organisms 

Systemic insecticides applied to foliage do 

not generally move downwards to the roots 

Once applications of systemic pesticides 

have been absorbed by the plant foliage they 

cannot be washed off by rain or irrigation. 

When applied to the soil, systemic pesticides 

dissolve in soil water and are taken up by the 

roots and translocated upwards to varying 

degrees within the plant. The soil must be kept 

moist for continued uptake. Some systemic 

insecticides applied to roots and trunks are 

translocated upwards into the foliage to control 

foliage-feeding insects. 



SUMMARY & EXAMPLES. 

Fig. 38. 

INSECTICIDES & MITICIDES 

Foliage Soil Trunks 

of trees 

Seed 

dressings 

Bulbs 

Corms 

Roots 

Fruit 

NON- 

SYSTEMIC 

Contact 

SYSTEMIC 

NON- 

SYSTEMIC 

SYSTEMIC 

Abamectin 

(abamectin) 

Azamax , Neem 

(azadirachtin) 

Dipel (Bacillus 

thuringiensis) 

Derrist dust 

(rotenone) 

Entrust , Success 

(spinosad) 

Insegar 

(fenoxycarb) 

Dursban 

(chlorpyrifos) 

 

Lebaycid 

(fenthion) 

Malathion 

(maldison) 

Mavrik (taufluvalinate) 

Oil sprays 

(petroleum, 

paraffinic, 

botanical) 

Omite 

(propargite) 

Pyrethrin 

Apollo SC 

(clofentezine) 

Natrasoap 

(soap sprays) 

Confidor 

(imidacloprid) 

Crown 

(acetamiprid) 

Calypso 

(thiacloprid) 

Actara , 

Cruiser , 

Meridian 

(thiamethoxam) 

Regent 

(fipronil) 

Tempo 

(betacyfluthrin) 

Orthene 

(acephate) 

Rogor 

(dimethoate) 

Folimat 

(omethoate) 

Pirimor 

(pirimicarb) 

Biogreen 

(Metarhizium) 

Biocane 

(Metarhizium) 

Nematodes 

(various) 

Dursban 

(chlorpyrifos) 

Malathion 

(maldison) 

Confidor 

Guard Soil 


Merit 


Initiator 


Nemacur 

(fenamiphos) 

Dormant woody 

primarily to 

control scales 

Lime sulphur 

Oil sprays 

(petroleum, 

paraffinic) 

Rogor 

(dimethoate) 

Gaucho 


Rogor 

(dimethoate) 

Malathion 

(maldison) 

Sulphur 

Some products have been approved 

for use in organic systems 

(BFA REGISTERED PRODUCT). 

Regent 



HOW ARE INSECTICIDES ABSORBED BY INSECTS? 

CONTACT 

ACTION 

STOMACH 

ACTION 

HAS TO PENETRATE THE SKIN, CUTICLE OR FEET. 

Contact insecticides are applied 

directly onto the insect or to the 

area to be protected. Insecticides 

with contact action include: 

Bugmaster (carbaryl) 

Confidor (imidacloprid) 

Dursban (chlorpyrifos) 

Insegar (fenoxycarb) 

Lebaycid (fenthion) 

Malathion (maldison) 

Mavrik (tau-fluvalinate) 

Pirimor (pirimicarb) 

Rogor (dimethoate) 

Petroleum oils (smothers insects) 

Vegetable oils (smothers insects) 

Soaps (dissolves insect wax) 

Insects are wetted by spray, 

eg aphids (adapted from Gerozisis and Hadlington 2001). 

Crawling insects walk on treated 

surfaces, eg codling moth, cockroaches 

(adapted from Gerozisis and Hadlington 2001). 

HAS TO BE EATEN BY THE PEST BEFORE IT IS EFFECTIVE. 

Stomach insecticides are useful 

against foliage chewing insects. 

Insecticides with stomach action 

include: 

Bugmaster (carbaryl) 

Confidor Insect eats treated plant surface 


Derris or poisonous baits, eg caterpillars 

Dust (rotenone) 

(adapted from Gerozisis and Hadlington 2001). 

Dipel (Bacillus thuringiensis) 

Dursban (chlorpyrifos) 



Mavrik (tau-fluvalinate) 

Naturalyte (spinosad) 

Insect ingests insecticide during 

grooming, eg termites (adapted from Gerozisis 

and Hadlington 2001). 

FUMIGANT 

ACTION 

Knockdown 

insecticide spray 

is designed for 

use against flying 

insects. It acts 

quickly causing 

sprayed insects to 

fall, eg pyrethrin 

ACTS THROUGH INHALATION OR ABSORPTION OF VAPOUR. 

Nearly all insecticides have some 

degree of volatility but for most this 

is a very low level. Some, however, 

can be highly volatile and are 

breathed in via the spiracles and are 

said to have respiratory, inhalation 

or fumigant action, eg 

Dichlorvos 

Pyrethrin 

Sulphur (sulphur) Insect breathe in insecticide, eg 

flying insects (adapted from Gerozisis and Hadlington 2001) 

MANY MODES OF MANY HAVE MORE THAN ONE MODE OF ACTION, eg 

ACTION Bugmaster (carbaryl) - Contact and stomach action 

Derris Dust (rotenone) - Contact and stomach action 


- Contact and stomach action 

Ambush (permethrin - Contact and stomach action 

Mavrik (tau-fluvalinate) - Contact and stomach action 

Confidor (imidacloprid) - Contact and stomach action 

Pirimor (pirimicarb) - Contact and fumigant action 

Sulphur 

- Contact and fumigant action 

Insectigas (dichlorvos) - Contact, stomach and fumigant action 

Slay-afe (pyrethrin) 

- Contact, stomach and fumigant action 



NON-SELECTIVE AND SELECTIVE INSECTICIDES 

Broad & narrow spectrum insecticides 

There is a wide range between the two extremes of non-selective and selective products, also some insecticides 

can be used selectively, eg fruit fly baits (spinosad). 

NON-SELECTIVE ACTIVE 

INSECTICIDES 

 

Broad spectrum 

SELECTIVE 

INSECTICIDES 

Narrow spectrum 

 

AGAINST A WIDE RANGE OF PEST AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS 

Extensive repeated use of non-selective insecticides may result in upsurges 

of pest species due to the reduction in populations of parasitic and predatory 

insects, eg the use of cabaryl repeatedly to control codling moth on apples may 

result in outbreaks of twospotted mite. 

Other non-selective insecticide/miticides include: 

Confidor (imidacloprid) 

Folimat (omethoate) 


Maldison (malathion 

Mavrik (tau fluvalinate) 

Regent (fipronil) 


Success , Entrust (spinosad) 

Talstar (bifenthrin) 

ONLY ACTIVE AGAINST SOME SPECIES OR SOME STAGES OF INSECTS 

Selective insecticides may not kill off natural enemies preventing upsurges of new 

pests and so are useful in IPM programs. 

Some are bio-pesticides, eg Dipel ® (Bacillus thuringiensis), and are less toxic, not 

many are available. 

Some may have to be applied more frequently. 

A wider range of pesticides may have to be stored and applied. 

Examples of selective insecticides/miticides include: 

Fruit fly lures and baits (many) - Fruit fly (adults) 

Isomate C-S Pheromone (tiers) - Codling moth (adults) 

Dipel (Bacillus thuringiensis) - Some leafeating caterpillars 


- Codling moth 

Vivus (virus) 

- Corn earworms (Helicoverpa spp.) 

Pirimor (pirimicarb) 

- Aphids (nymphs and adults) 

Greenguard (Metarhizium sp.) - Locusts and grasshoppers 

Omite (propargite) 

- Mites (adults and nymphs) 

Apollo (clofentenzine) 

- Mites (ovicide, nymphs) 

Calibre (hexythiazox) 

- Mites (ovicide) 

Pyranica (tebufenpyrad) 

- Mites (all stages) 

Avid (abamectin) 

- Mites, native budworm on cotton 

Aramite , Floramite (bifenazate) - Mites 



WHEN. SHOULD INSECTICIDES BE APPLIED?. 

Follow label directions for use and insecticide resistance warnings. Companies may restrict 

application and/or number of applications of certain chemicals on crops being grown for their use. 

GROWTH STAGE 

OF HOST 

Insecticides must be applied to the appropriate part of the host. 

Foliage Flowers Dormant Seeds, cuttings Bulbs, corms Roots, soil 

woody plants 

SUSCEPTIBLE 

STAGE IN PEST 

LIFE CYCLE 

Cabbage white 

butterfly 

NUMBER AND 

INTERVAL 

BETWEEN 

APPLICATIONS 

SOME PESTS ARE SUSCEPTIBLE TO INSECTICIDES at only at certain stages of 

their life cycle, eg 

Aphids 

Black scale 



Codling moth 


Scarab grubs 


- Nymphs and adults on plants 

- Nymphs (crawlers) on plants (see below) 

- Larvae (caterpillars) on plants 

- Larvae (fly maggots) in mines 

- Adult moths 

- Larvae (slugs) feeding on the plant 

- Young larvae (grubs) in soil 

- Larvae (spitfires) in the host 

MONITOR THE SUSCEPTIBLE STAGE(S) 

Know which stage of pest (eggs, larvae, adults), on which part of the plant 

(flowers, leaves, stems etc), and what sampling techniques to use. 

Better selection and application of pesticide will provide more effective control and 

greater safety to workers and the environment. 

Correct timing, eg time of year season etc. 

BLACK SCALE (an example) 

Number of applications. Many insecticides do not kill all stages of an insect. 

Black scale on evergreen hosts is controlled by spraying the susceptible ‘crawler’ 

stage in spring and/or autumn. However, insecticides used to kill the ‘crawler’ stage, 

may not kill adults or eggs, therefore a 2 nd application about 10-14 days later after the 

1 st spray, is often required to kill the ‘crawlers’ emerging from eggs which were still 

unhatched at the time of the 1 st spray (pages 164-166). 

Interval between applications depends on the particular insecticide, its 

persistence and other factors. If persistence is too short the pest may not be controlled, 

if too long, the environment may be adversely affected. 

Black scale 

(Saissetia oleae) 



RESISTANCE. 

WHAT IS 

RESISTANCE? 

RESISTANCE 

MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGIES 

Classification by 

Croplife Australia is 

according to how a 

pesticide kills the 

insect, fungus or 

weed and is used 

for resistance 

management. 

It does not indicate 

toxicity, 

 

that some groups are 

more toxic than 

others as indicated by 

the signal headings 

on their labels (see 

page 237). 

Applications may 

fail for reasons 

other than 

resistance, eg 

Incorrect identification 

of the pest. 

Wrong insecticide may 

have been used. 

Equipment not 

calibrated properly. 

Applied at wrong time. 

Weather was unsuitable 

for application. 

Insecticide resistance is the ability of a pest to survive doses of insecticide that 

would normally provide control. The pest is not adequately controlled. 

At least 50% of world pests have developed some resistance to any one 

major group of pesticides. It is so extensive that it is difficult to find effective 

chemicals for some pests. Use of the few remaining effective ones has been 

restricted in an attempt to prolong their useful life. 

Using the same insecticide continually to control the same pest will lead 

to the development of resistance by the pest. 

In Australia, insects and mites which have developed resistance to a range of 

insecticides/miticides include: 

Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) 

European red mite (Panonychus ulmi) 

Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) 

Western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) 

Use IPM programs which include non-chemical control methods to preserve beneficial 

insect and mites. Some insects, eg members of the Order Hymenoptera do not seem to 

develop resistance to insecticides. Seek advice about ways of reducing and managing 

resistance. 

Insecticide Resistance Management Strategies. Commercial crops. 

– CropLife Australia has classified insecticides into Insecticide Mode of Action 

Groups which indicate the mode of action of the insecticide on a metabolic 

process in the pest, ie how it kills or suppresses the pest (page 57, Table 2) . 

Some biological insecticides are not classified by CropLife Australia (page 61, 

Table 3). Contact Croplife Australia for updates and classification and click on 

Resistance Management: 

www.croplifeaustralia.org.au/ 

– To minimize the development of resistance and prolong the life of existing 

insecticides, observe 1, 2, 3…. groups on commercial insecticide labels. 

Follow resistance warnings. Rotate insecticides between different groups as 

recommended. Remember, persons using commercial insecticides must 

undergo training. Home garden products available from garden centres 

are not required to have insecticide mode of action groups on them. 

– CropLife Australia has also prepared management strategies for some pests 

and for some crops to minimize the development of resistance. 

Pest resistance management strategies developed for some pests include 

corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera), Western flower thrips (WFT) 

(Occidentalis frankliniella). 

Crop-Pest Resistance Management Strategies have been developed, eg for 

cole crops - diamondback moth. 

Follow label instructions and warnings. which include resistance 

strategies. Application of some insecticides for control of some pests is restricted 

in order to prevent or delay the likelihood of resistance developing. “Example” 

and “Company” are used in the following general instructions to avoid using 

specific insecticide or company names. 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 

GROUP 4A INSECTICIDE 

Insecticide Resistance Strategy 

For insecticide resistant management, Example is a group 4A insecticide. Some 

naturally occurring insect biotypes resistant to Example and other Group 4A 

insecticides may exist through normal genetic variability in any insect population. 

The resistant individuals can eventually dominate the insect population if 

Example and other Group 4A insecticides are used repeatedly. The effectiveness 

of Example on resistant individuals could be significantly reduced. Since 

occurrence of resistant individuals is difficult to detect prior to use, Company 

accepts no liability for any losses that may result from the failure of Example to 

control resistant insects. 

Resistance Management Strategies 

Strategies are outlined on the label for various pests or crops; there may be 

industry management strategies which must be followed. For further information 

contact your local supplier, company representative or local agricultural 

department agronomist. 



INSECTICIDE MODE OF ACTION GROUPS 

Insecticides are classified by Croplife Australia into mode of 

action groups which assist in resistance management. 

The following tables are a summary guide only, and not a 

substitute for reading a currently registered label, the MSDS 

and obtaining up-to-date advice. 

The tables also provide an overall picture of the types of 

insecticides available for crop protection. 

Mark insecticides you use at work. 

Contact Croplife Australia for a full list of insecticides, 

updates of the classification and further information: 

www.croplifeaustralia.org.au 

Check Pubcris for current registration status: 

www.apvma.gov.au/ 

Infopest can be purchased www.dpi.qld.gov.au/ 

Table 2. Insecticide Mode of Action Groups. (2009) some examples 

MAIN MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 

and 

Primary Site of 

Action 

1 

Acetylcholinest 

erase inhibitors 

Nerve action 

all members of 

this class may 

not be cross 

resistant 

2 

GABA-gated 

chloride channel 

antagonists 

Nerve action 

3 

Sodium channel 

modulators 

Nerve action 

(more than 

200products in 

this group) 

4 

Nicotinic 

acetycholline 

receptor agonists 

Nerve action 

CHEMICAL 

SUBGROUP or 

Exemplifying 

Active 

constituent 

1A 

Carbamates 

1B 

Organo 

Phosphates 

2A 

Cyclodiene 

organochlorines 

2B 

Phenylpyrazoles 

(Fiproles) 

3A 

Pyrethroids 

Pyrethrins 

derived from 

chrysanthemum 

flowers 

3B 

No registered 

actives 

4A 

Neonicotinoids 

(an important 

group of 

insecticides 

because of their 

effectiveness 

and wide target 

range) 

contd next page 

Trade name 

Active constituent 

THE PRODUCT 

BUGMASTER, 

VARIOUS 

carbaryl (not approved for 

use on food-producing 

plants in the home garden) 

APHIDEX, VARIOUS 

pirimicarb 

FOLIMAT 

omethoate 

LEBAYCID, VARIOUS 

fenthion 

MALATHION 

maldison 

ROGOR, VARIOUS 

dimethoate 

ENDOSAN, THIODAN 

endosulfan 

Restricted product 

COSMOS, GOLIATH, 

VARIOUS 

fipronil 

MAVRIK, VARIOUS 

tau-fluvalinate 

often formulated with the 

fungicide myclobutanil 

BAYTHROID, VARIOUS 

cyfluthrin 

SLAY-AFE, VARIOUS 

pyrethrin + piperonyl 

butoxide (may be 

formulated with garlic, 

eucalyptus, etc) 

TALSTAR, VARIOUS, 

MAXGUARD 

bifenthrin 

may be formulated with 

other insecticides 

No registered actives 

CONFIDOR, MERIT, 

GAUCHO, PREMISE, 

INITIATOR, VARIOUS 

imidacloprid 

CROWN, VARIOUS 

acetamiprid 

CALYPSO 

thiacloprid 

Mode of action 

Non-systemic 

Contact action 

Stomach action 

may thin apples 

Slightly systemic 


Fumigant action 

Systemic 


Slightly penetrant 



Non-systemic 


Systemic 


Some fumigant 

Non-systemic 

Contact, stomach 

action, some 

fumigant action 

Systemic 



Seed treatments 

Non-systemic 

Contact 


Suppresses mites 

Non-systemic 



Non-systemic 

Contact, stomach 

& fumigant action 

rapid knockdown, air 

borne for up to 4 hrs 

Non-systemic 



Systemic 



anti-feedant, 

residual activity up 

to 70 days 

Systemic 


Residual 

Systemic 

does not affect 

predatory mites 

SOME USES 

Read label, obtain advice from company 

CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Certain, turf, fruit, 

ornamentals, 

vegetables, field 

crops, non-crop 

Ornamentals, fruit, 

vegetable, pasture, 

field crops 

Cotton, certain 

ornamentals, some 

fruit & vegetables 


some vegetables, 

Long residual 



crops, pasture 



crops, turf, pasture 

Only to be sold to 

or used by an 

authorized person 

Bananas, wine 

grape, turf, field 

crops, vegetables, 

ornamentals, forestry 

Ornamentals, 

apples, stone fruit, 

cauliflower, tomato 

Certain vegetables, 

ornamentals, turf 

Ornamentals, 

gardens, indoors, 

buildings (short 

residual) 


turf, field crops 

Ornamentals, trees, 

turf, fruit, field crops, 

vegetables, buildings, 

poles, establishing 

eucalypts; seed 

treatments (certain 

insect pests & prevent 

spread of barley yellow 

dwarf virus in cereals) 

Ornamental plants, 

cotton, potatoes, 

potting mixes 

Some pome & stone 

fruits, some 

ornamentals 

PESTS CONTROLLED, 

SUPPRESSED 


beetles, bugs, caterpillars, 

wireworms, grasshoppers, 

pear & cherry slug 

Aphicide 

certain aphids 


sucking insects, eg aphids 

thrips, lace bugs, whiteflies 

Miticide 

twospotted mite, others 


fruit flies, codling moth, 

lightbrown apple moth, 

oriental fruit moth, others 


aphids, lace bugs, scales, 

fruit fly, oriental fruit moth, 

beetles, grasshoppers etc 


sucking insects, aphids, 

thrips, fruit fly maggots, 

leafminers, mites, etc 


long persistence 


thrips, caterpillars, 

beetles, Argentine stem 

weevil, fruit fly lures 

Broad spectrum, eg 

Helicoverpa, cabbage 

moth, cabbage white 

butterfly, aphids, thrips. 


caterpillars eg Helicoverpa, 

weevils, turf pests 


most flying insects, 

aphids, flies, whiteflies, 

household insects 


surface feeding insects 

eg ants, turf pests 

Miticide 

many species of mites 


sucking insects, eg 

thrips, aphids, whiteflies; 

not mites; chewing 

insects, eg scarab grubs, 

billbug 


sucking insects, eg 

aphids, mealybugs, scales, 

thrips, lace bug, whiteflies; 

fungus gnats, shore flies 


sucking insects (apple 

dimpling bug, aphids); 

chewing insects (codling 

moth, oriental fruit moth) 



Table 2. Insecticide Mode of Action Groups (2009) some examples 

MAIN MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 



Action 

4 

(contd) 

5 

Nicotinic Acetyl 

choline receptor 

allosteric 

activators 

Nerve action 

6 

Chloride 

channel 

activators 

Nerve action 

7 

Juvenile 

hormone 

mimics 

Growth 

regulation 

8 

Miscellaneous nonspecific 

(multi-site) 

inhibitors 

9 

Selective 

Homopteran 

feeding 

blockers 

10 

Mite growth 

inhibitors 

Growth 

regulation 

CHEMICAL 

SUBGROUP or 

Exemplifying 

Active 

constituent 

4A 

Neonicotinoids 

(contd) 

4B 

No registered 

actives 

Spinosyns 

Eco-naturalure 

is a BFA 

CERTIFIED 

PRODUCT FOR 

ORGANIC GARDENS 

Avermectins 

Milbemycins 

(from 

Streptomyces 

sp.) 

7A 

Juvenile 

hormone 

analogues 

7B 

Fenoxycarb 

7C 

Pyriproxyfen 

8A 

Alkyl halides 

8B 

Chloropicrin 

8C 

Sulfuryl fluoride 

9A 

No registered 

actives 

9B 

Pymetrozine 

10A 

Clofentezine 

10B 

Etoxazole 

Trade name 


ACTARA, CRUISER, 

MERIDIAN 

thiamethoxam 


THE PRODUCT 

ECO-NATURALURE, 

TRACER NATURALYTE, 

VARIOUS 

spinosad 

(derived from soil 

bacteria) 

DELEGATE 

spinetoram 

ABAMECTIN, 

VERTIMEC, 

VARIOUS 

abamectin 

(fermentation product 

of soil micro-organism 

MILBEKNOCK, 

ULTIFLORA 

milbemectin 

Any on the surface is 

degraded by sunlight 

RIZACON, GRAIN- 

STAR, VARIOUS 

methoprene 

INSEGAR, 

VARIOUS 

fenoxycarb 

SUMILARV 

pyriproxyfen 

To be used by licensed 

pest control operators 

only 

METHYL BROMIDE 

methyl bromide 

VARIOUS 

chloropicrin 

VARIOUS 

sulfuryl fluoride 


CHESS 

pymetrozine 

APOLLO 

clofentezine 

CALIBRE 

hexythiazox) 

PARAMITE 

etoxazole 


Systemic 

Contact 

Stomach 



baits & sprays, 

may kill certain wasp 

parasites and some 

lacewings 

Non-systemic 



slow acting, good 

persistence effective 

against insects 

resistant to other 

insecticides 

Non-systemic 

but absorbed by 

young leaves, taken 

up by feeding mites 

and remains active 

for many weeks 

Insect growth 

regulator, 

prevents insects from 

maturing to adults, eg 

inhibits larval moulting 

Insect growth 

regulator 



ovicidal, inhibits 

larval moulting 

Insect growth 

regulator 



SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Turf; citrus, cotton, 

tomato, maize sorghum, 

sweetcorn, sunflower 

Certain herbs, fruit & nut 

crops, vegetables, 

ornamentals, 

field crops, tea tree, 

eucalypts 

Pome & stonefruit 

Ornamentals, roses, 

apple, pears, citrus, 

cotton, tomatoes, 

strawberries, 

minimum impact on 

beneficials 

Strawberries, 

ornamentals including 

roses, chrysanthemums, 

carnations 

Stored cereal grains, 

also dogs, cats 

Apples, pears 

Buildings, houses, 

restaurants, puppies, 

cats kittens 

see Fumigants page 267 

All fumigants must only be supplied to and used by 

professional and registered fumigators 



Systemic 



long lasting 


ovicide, larvicide, not 

adults, control for up to 

80 days, slow acting 

Non-systemic 



Ovicidal, not adults 

Contact action, 

Translaminar 

Residual activity of 4-5 

weeks; not adult 

mites. Adults lay 

sterile eggs, stops 

existing eggs and 

nymphs developing 

Certain brassica 

vegetables, potatoes, 

stone fruit, cotton 

Certain pome & stone 

fruits, bananas, hops, 

ornamentals 

Ornamentals, apple, 

pear, stone fruit, 

strawberry 

Pome fruit, stone fruit, 

table grapes, cotton 


SUPPRESSED 


soil & sucking insects, eg 

larvae of various scarabs, 

billbug; wireworm, 

earwigs, thrips, aphids 

Insecticide 

Helicoverpa,, loopers, 

other caterpillars, pear 

& cherry slug, beetles, 

Queensland and 

Mediterrean fruit flies. 



loopers and oriental 

fruit moth 

Miticide 

motile stages only, no 

ovicidal activity 

Insecticide 

leafminers, native 

budworm 

Miticide 

twospotted mite 


stored grain pests; 

fleas, etc 


codling moth, 


aids in control of San 

Jose scale 


cockroaches, fleas 

(retards growth of 

insect larvae, ovicidal) 


aphids (can remain alive 

for 2-4 days but stop 

feeding in a few hours) 

Miticide 

European red mite, 

bryobia mite, strawberry 

mite, twospotted mite 

Miticide 



Miticide 

twospotted mite, bean 

spider mite, European 

red mite 




MAIN MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 



Action 

11 

Microbial disruptors 

of insect midgut 

membranes 

(includes transgenic 

crops expressing Bt 

toxins) 

BIOLOGICAL 

INSECTICIDES 

12 

Inhibitors of 

mitochondrial ATP 

synase) 

Energy metabolism 

CHEMICAL 

SUBGROUP or 

Exemplifying 

Active 

constituent 

Bacillus 

thuringiensis 

or 

B. sphaericus 

and the 

insecticidal 

proteins they 

produce 

12A 

Diafenthiuron 

12B 

Organotin 

miticides 

12C 

Propargite 

12D 

Tetradifon 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


AQUABAC,VECTOBAC, 

VARIOUS 

Bt. subsp. israelensis 

VECTOLEX 

Bacillus sphaericus 

XENTARI 

Bt. subsp. aizawai 

COSTAR, DIPEL, 

DELFIN, VARIOUS 

Bt. subsp. kurstaki 

NOVODOR 

Bt. subsp. tenebrionis 

TRANSGENIC CROPS 

Bt. crop proteins: 

Cry1AcCry2Ab 

PEGASUS 

diafenthiuron 

TORQUE 

fenbutatin-oxide 

OMITE 

propargite (cyclosulfine) 

MASTA-MITE 

tetradifon (formulated 

with dicofol) 





young caterpillars 

stop feeding, 

starve to death, 

slow acting 


young caterpillars 

stop feeding, 

starve to death, 

slow acting 


Mite growth 

regulator 

Non-systemic 



Effective against all 

stages of mite 

Non-systemic 


only motile forms, 

no ovicidal activity, 

not toxic to most 

beneficial mites 

Non-systemic 


motile stages only 

Non-systemic 


All stages of mites 

SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Salt marshes, still 

water, waste water 

Salt marshes, still 

water, waste water 

Cole crops 

(cabbage, 

cauliflower, 

broccoli, Brussel 

sprouts) 

Ornamentals, 

cotton, vegetables, 

vines, fruit trees, 

field crops, 

forestry, turf 

elms, 

experimentally on 

eucalypt 

Cotton 

Certain 

ornamentals, fruit & 

hops 

Ornamentals, 

fruit, vegetables, 

Certain fruit trees, 

vegetables, 

ornamentals 


SUPPRESSED 


larvae of mosquitoes 


larvae of mosquitoes 


cabbage moth, cabbage 

white butterfly, cabbagecentre 

grub, cabbage 

cluster caterpillar 


leafeating caterpillars of 

Helicoverpa spp., & 

certain other moths & 

butterflies 


various chrysomelid & 

tenebrionid beetles, eg 

elm leaf beetle 


Insecticide 

cotton aphid, suppresses 

silver leaf whitefly 

Miticide 


Miticide 

twospotted mite, 


bryobia mite, citrus 

mites, etc 

Miticide 

spider mites, 


passionvine mite, 

false spider mites 

Miticide 

certain mites 

13 

Uncoupler of oxidative 

phosphorylation via 

disruption of the proton 

gradient 


Chlorfenapyr 

14 No registered 

Nicotinic acetyl-choline actives 

receptor chanel blockers 

Nerve action 

15 

Inhibitors of chitin 

biosynthesis, type 0, 

Lepidopteran 

Grow regulation 

16 

Inhibitors of chitin 

biosynthesis type 1 

Homopteran 


17 

Moulting disruptor, 

Dipteran 


18 

Ecdysone receptor 

agonists 


INTREPID, SECURE 

chlorfenapyr 


Benzoylureas ALSYSTIN 

triflumuron 

Buprofenzin 

Cyromazine 

Diacylhydra 

zines 

APPLAUD 

buprofezin 

(adult insects not 

controlled, no effective 

on eggs, persists long 

time) 

VETRAZIN, VARIOUS 

cyromazine 

PRODIGY 

methoxyfenoxide 


More effective 

against small larvae 

(< 4 mm), may be 

highly persistent 


Larvicide interferes 

with insect 

moulting (chitin 

formation) 

Insect growth 

regulator (IGR) 



(treated insects 

lay sterile eggs) 


larvicide 



(accelerates 

moulting, feeding 

ceases almost 

immediately) 

Cotton, brassica 

vegetables, apples 

peaches, pears 

Mushroom 

casing/compost; 

many other 

situations 

Citrus, grapes, 

pears, mango, 

persimmons, 

custard apple, 

passionfruit 

Sheep, animal 

housing, feedlots, 

poultry manure 

Pome fruit, 

certain other 

fruits and crops 

Insecticide 

bollworms (Helicoverpa 

spp.), cabbage white 

butterfly, diamond back 

moth 

Miticide 



larvae of sciarid flies 

& other insects 


Hemiptera, eg 

mealybugs, scales, not 

Lepidoptera, Diptera. 

Hymenoptera 


larvae of many flies 


lightbrown apple moth 

and other Lepidoptera 

caterpillars 




MAIN MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 



Action 

19 

Octopamine 

receptor agonists 

Nerve action 

20 

Mitchondrial 

complex 111 

electron transport 

inhibitors (coupling 

site 11) 


21A 

Mitchondrial 

complex 1 electron 

transport inhibitors 


22 

Voltage-dependent 

sodium channel 

blockers 

Nerve action 

23 

Inhibitors of acetyl 

CoA carboxalase 

Lipid synthesis, 

growth regulation 

CHEMICAL 

SUBGROUP or 

Exemplifying 

Active 

constituent 

Amitraz 

20A 

Hydramethylnon 

20B 

No registered 

actives 

20C 

No registered 

actives 

21A 

METI acaricides 

21B 

Rotenone 

22A 

Indoxacarb 

22B 

No registered 

actives 

No registered 

actives 

24 24A 

Mitochondrial Phosphine 

complex IV electron 

transport inhibitors 

Energy metabolism 24B 

25 

Vacant 

26 

Vacant 

27 

Vacant 

28 

Ryanodine receptor 

modulators 

Nerve & muscle 

action 

UN 

Compounds of 

unknown or 

uncertain 

mode of action 1 

Diamides 

Azadirachtin 

Eco-neem is a 

BFA CERTIFIED 

PRODUCT FOR 

ORGANIC GARDENS 

Bifenazate 

Dicofol 

Trade name 


AMITRAZ, OPAL, 

VARIOUS 

amitraz 

AMDRO 

hydramethylnon 

Professional pest 

control operators 



PYRANICA 

tebufenpyrad 

SANMITE 

pyridaben 

DERRIS DUST 

rotenone 

(found in roots of 63 

species of legumes) 

STEWARD, AVATAR, 

VARIOUS 

indoxacarb 



THE PRODUCT 

VARIOUS 

phosphine 

aluminium phosphate 

magnesium phosphate 


ACELEPRYN, 

ALTACOR, CORAGEN 

chlorantraniliprole 

(branded as RynaXypyr ) 

AZAMAX, ECO-NEEM, 

NEEMAZAL 

azadirachtin (seeds of 

Azadirachta indica) 

(see Fumafert pages 

267, 344) 

ACRAMITE, FLORAMITE 

bifenazate 

KELTHANE 

dicofol 


Non-systemic 


Vapour action 

Repellent action, all 

stages of mites, ovicidal 


Non-systemic 


stomach action 

effective against all 

mite stages 

Non-systemic 

all stages of mites, 

good residual activity 

Non-systemic 



very toxic to fish 

Non-systemic 





Translaminar 

activitiy 



slightly trans-laminar, 

Inhibits larval 

moulting, repellent & 

antifeedant 

Non-systemic 


Non-systemic 


Eggs, motile stages. 

Long residual 

60 Insects and allied pests - Integrated pest management 

SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Cotton; 

cattle, deer, 

goats, pigs, 

sheep 

Non-crop, 

residential & 

commercial 

buildings, turf, 

gardens 

Apples, pears. 

peaches, 

ornamentals 

Apple, pear, stone 

fruit, grapes, 

bananas, roses 

Ornamentals, 

vegetables, 

vines 

Cotton, certain 


crops; buildings 

Vegetables, pome 

& stone fruit, 

grapes, turf (good 

control of turf 

pests) 

Ornamentals, 

floriculture, potting 

soil for floriculture 

& horticulture 

Do not use on plants 

that produce food for 

human or animal 

consumption 

Pome & stone 

fruits 

Certain 

ornamentals, 

fruits, vegetables, 

field crops 


SUPPRESSED 

Insecticide 

Helicoverpa on cotton 

Miticide 

ticks on animals 

Insecticide 

ants, cockroaches 

Miticide 

twospotted mites, 


Miticide 

certain mites 


aphids, thrips, 

caterpillars, mostly 

home garden use 


Helicoverpa spp., 

certain other insects; 

also cockroaches 


certain Lepidopteran 

caterpillars, eg codling 

moth, certain beetles, 

eg African black beetle 


certain aphids, 

whiteflies, fungus 

gnats, twospotted mite 

Miticide 

twopotted mite, 

bryobia mite, 


Miticide 

organo-phosphate 

resistant mites, no 

insecticide activity 

1 A compound with an unknown or controversial mode of action or an unknown mode of toxicity will be held in group ‘un’ until evidence becomes available 

to enable that compound to be assigned to amore appropriate mode of action group


Table 3. Bio-insecticides, spray oils, soaps, pheromones, etc. (some are 

agricultural biological products) 

THE PRODUCT 

SOME USES 

TYPE 


Trade name 


CROPS, SITES 

PESTS 

BIO- 

INSECTICIDES 

SPRAY OILS 

Petroleum oils 


BIOCANE GRANULES 

Metarhizium sp. 

GREEN GUARD 

Metarhizium sp. 

Nematode 

Beddingia siricidicola 

Nematode 

Heterorhabditis 

bacteriophora 

Nematode 


zealandica 

Nematode 

Steinernema 

carpocapsae 

Nematode 

Steinernema feltiae 

GEMSTAR 

Helicoverpa NPV (zea) 

WINTER OIL, DORMANT 

OIL, STIFLE, VARIOUS 

petroleum oil 

Fungal disease of 

insects 

as above 

Nematode disease of 

insects 

TREATED 

 

crop 

Agricultural areas, 

pastures, crops, forage 

crops, non-crop areas 

Pinus radiata. 

CONTROLLED 

Selective insecticide 

greyback canegrub 


grasshopper, locusts 


sirex wasp 

as above Ornamentals Selective insecticide 

black vine weevil 

as above Turf Insecticide 

Argentine stem weevil, 

African black beetle, 

black-headed cockchafer, 

Argentine scarab, bill bug 

as above Bananas, etc Insecticide 

banana borer weevil, 

cutworm, armyworm, house 

termites, cat flea 

as above 

Virus disease of 

Helicoverpa spp. 


Smothers pests 

Currants; seedlings, 

hydroponically grown 

flowers, mushroom houses 

Various crops including 

cotton 

Used only on dormant 

deciduous pome and stone 

fruit tree & vines 

Insecticide 

currant borer moth, fungus 

gnat, mushroom fly, 

western flower thrips 



Insecticide 

especially scale insects & 

insects 

Paraffinic 

oils 

s SUMMER OIL, 

PEST OIL, WHITE OIL, 

VARIOUS 

petroleum oil 

BIOPEST, ECOPEST 

OIL, VARIOUS 

paraffinic oil 

paraffinic oils must contain at 

least 62% paraffinic chains 

BioPest 

Paraffin Oil 





. 

Used on plants in foliage. 

Certain fruit, ornamentals, 

special oils developed 

for some crops, bananas, 

citrus, grapes 


Fruit trees, eg citrus, pome 

fruit & stone fruit, grapes, 

certain vegetables, field 

crops roses, ornamentals 

Insecticide/Miticide/ 

especially scale insects, 

mites, citrus leafminer, 

also aphids, mealybugs, 

whiteflies 

Fungicide 

certain banana diseases 

& powdery mildews 


mites, scales, citrus 

leafminer, also aphids, 

mealybugs, whtieflies 

Fungicide 

certain banana diseases 

& powdery mildew 

Botanical oils, 

vegetable oils 

Oil seeds, eg 

soybean, 

canola, cotton 

ECO-OIL, VARIOUS 

botanical oils 


suffocates pests, waxy 

cuticle is denatured 

dehydrating insects, 

repellent activity 


Certain ornamentals, fruits, 

vegetables 


scales, mites, aphids, 

whiteflies, citrus leafminer 

OILS ARE USED AS: 

1.Spray oils for pest control are mixed with water 

and applied to plants as a high volume spray for 

managing certain pests and diseases. They kill 

insects by smothering them so a good film of oil has 

to be applied to leaves, fruit, twigs and branches. 

Some insects avoid spray oils so that feeding by 

some sap-sucking insects, eg aphids, which spread 

virus diseases, is reduced; spray oils can also inhibit 

viruses spread mechanically by humans. They can 

provide some control of leaf spots, powdery mildews, 

rust diseases. Spray oils are suited to IPM programs. 

2.Spray adjuvants/spray additives to improve 

the effectiveness of insecticides, herbicides and 

fungicides (page 455). Some spray oils used for pest 

control are also used as spray additives. 

SAFETY AND EFFECTIVENESS: 

1.How safe will it be to the plant and environment, 

eg dormant or winter (only applied when plants are dormant), 

summer or white (may be applied when in leaf), superior oils 

(applied year round without toxicity). 

2.How effective it will be in helping control sedentary 

or semi-sedentary pests and fungal diseases. Paraffinic oils 

are effective and considered to be superior over vegetable, 

pine and other mineral oils for controlling a rage of pests 

and diseases (Sacoa www.sacoa.com.au/) 

3.For more information on spray oils: 

Beattie and Hardy 2005, Walsh et al. 2008 

Precision Spray Oils www.caltex.com.au/cropprotection/ 

SACOA Spray Oils www.sacoa.com.au 



Table 3. Bio-insecticides, spray oils, soaps, pheromones, etc. (some are 

agricultural biological products) (contd) 

TYPE 

SYNERGISTS 

SOAPS 

PHEROMONES 

Insect control 

FOOD SPRAYS, 

LURES, 

ATTRACTANTS 

Reduce pesticide 

usage 

FUNGICIDE 

GROUP M2 

ABRASIVE 

DUSTS 

INORGANIC 

METALS 

OTHERS 

Some may be 

toxic to humans, 

animals, bees 

and other 

beneficials 

THE PRODUCT 

SOME USES 


Trade name Mode of action CROPS, SITES TREATED PESTS, CONTROLLED, 


SUPPRESSED 

VARIOUS 

piperonyl butoxide 

NATRASOAP, 

BUGGUARD, VARIOUS 

potassium salts of fatty 

acids (soap sprays) 

ISOMATE CTT 

pheromone insect 

confusion agent (tiers) 

ISOMATE C 

as above 

also ISOMATE C-S 

ISOMATE C/OFM TT 

as above 

ISOMATE OFM ROSSO 

as above 

also ROSSO-S 

ISOMATE LBAM PLUS 

as above 

AMINOFEED, ENVIRO- 

FEAST, PRED FEED 

AminoFeed, Mobait 

(yeast-based) 

Envirofeast, PredFeed 

(sugar based) 

PREDALURE 

oil of wintergreen 

BIO-ATTRACT HELI 

kairomone bait 

MAGNET 

attractant/feeding 

stimulant (alpha-pinene, 

anisyl alchohol, butyl salicylate, 

cineole (eucalyptol). D-limonen 

phenylacetaldehyde) 

+ insecticide 

CARPOPHILUS MASS 

TRAPPING SYSTEM 

SULPHUR 

DRYACIDE 

silica 

VARIOUS 

borax as borax 

boron as boric acid 

FUMAFERT 

mustard seed, 

neem cake 

EXPERIMENTAL 

eg vegetable products, 

eucalyptus oil, tea tree 

oil, melaleuca oil, the 

addition of fertilizers, etc 

Synergist, formulated with 

pyrethrum to enhance its 

performance 


Dissolves the waxy 

covering of the insect 

Mating disruption 

Large quantities of female 

pheromones are released 

from tiers confusing male 

moths, preventing mating 

Pot plants, vegetables, 

fruit trees, ornamentals. 

Apples, pears, 

Insecticide 

sedentary or semisedentary 

soft-bodied 

insects, eg aphids, thrips, 

mealybugs, whiteflies, 

scale crawlers, mites 

Single species 

insecticide 

codling moth 

As above Apples, pears Single species 

insecticide 

codling moth 

As above Pome fruit Single species 

insecticide 

codling moth, oriental 

fruit moth 

As above Peaches, nectarines Single species 

insecticide 

oriental fruit moth 

As above Apple, grapes Single species 

insecticide 

lightbrown apple moth 

Attracts > 20 species of 

beneficial insects which 

feed on pests. 

Must be a source of beneficial 

insects or a ‘refuge’ from where 

they can be attracted 

Attractant for beneficial 

insects 

Attractant for Helicoverpa 

moths 

Attractant for 

Helicoverpa moths which 

are killed when they 

contact or ingest it 

preventing egg laying 

Attractant for Carpophilus 

beetles 

Protectant (non-systemic) 

Contact, some fumigant 

action 

Contact action, kills 

insects by desiccation 


Ingested when the insect 

cleans itself, absorbed 

through insect cuticle 

Cotton. Used in IPM 

programs 

Cotton; blanket coverage 

is not necessary; timing is 

critical. 

Stone fruit (currently 

under APVMA Research 

Permit 9971/11344) 


vegetables 

Grain sheds, buildings, 

ware-houses, equipment, 

silos, stored grain 

Commercial and 

domestic buildings 

slow acting requiring 

7-10 days for control 

Beneficial insect 

sustenant 

Helicoverpa spp. & 

spotted mites 

Beneficial insect 

sustenant 

Pest insect attractant 

adult Helicoverpa & 

certain other moth pests 


Helicoverpa spp. moths 


Carpophilus spp. 

Fungicide/Miticide/ 

Insecticide 

see Fungicides (page 341) 

Insecticide 

controls organophosphate-resistant 

strains of insects 

Insecticide 

ants, cockroaches, 

silverfish 

Has soil bio-fumigant properties which aid in the control of some soil, insects, 

diseases and nematodes (page 267). 

Contact action, smothering effects, may kill adults & nymphs feeding, eg aphids, 

mirids and mites in some crops, also some scarab grubs and lawn armyworms ; may 

modify feeding and egg laying behaviour of insects on some plants 

Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis 

Cinnamite (cinnamon oil) (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) - all stages of aphids, mites, powdery mildew (roses) 

Garlic (Allium sativum)) - often mixed with pyrethrum - aphids, flies, etc 

Quasia (Quasia amara) - wood and bark - aphids caterpillars 

Rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum) - leaves - aphids 

Ryania (Ryania speciosa) - roots, leaves and stems - codling moth, thrips 



IDENTIFICATION & CLASSIFICATION 

HOW EASY IS IT 

TO IDENTIFY 

INSECTS? 

 

 

 

XPERT 

CLASSIFICATION 

SOME ARE EASY TO IDENTIFY IN A GENERAL WAY 

Become familiar with the pest and beneficial insects which occur in your crop 

and be able to identify them accurately. This is part of all IPM programs. 

Identifying insects, mites, and the damage they cause, is usually easier 

than sorting out problems associated with diseases and plant nutrition. 

Scarab grub larvae in lawns are readily recognized as such. Other easy to 

recognize pests include aphids on roses, sawflies on eucalypyts. 

Books and computer programs illustrate groups of insects, eg flies, locusts, 

thrips and flies; also pests affecting crops in particular regions, eg vegetables, 

brassicas, turf, nurseries (page 224). Pocket guides are available for use in the 

field. Eventually complete guides for known crop pests and diseases will be 

available via mobile phones for farmers and growers. 

INSECT KEYS 

Although insect keys for identifying adults, nymphs, larvae and pupae of insects 

generally to orders and families, and for identifying special groups of insects, eg 

moth and butterfly larvae on brassica crops, have been compiled, in practice, their 

use by the non-expert can be difficult. Reasons include: 

The small size of some insects and allied forms. 

Difficulty in recognizing, in some instances, whether the insect is an adult or 

immature stage, eg a nymph. 

Some closely allied pest forms resemble insects at some stages. 

The large number and diversity of insect species in Australia. 

Keys for identifying insects are on CSIRO’s and Lucidcentral’s websites: 

www. ento.csiro.au/ education/ www. lucidcentral.org/ 

State websites have keys for identifying insects and damage on some crops. 

NEED EXPERT HELP? 

Although some insects such as scarab grubs are readily recognized as such, it 

can be difficult to identify the precise species which is needed for implementing 

effective control measures in commercial turf. 

Similarly identifying the precise species of fruit fly damaging you crop. 

DNA fingerprinting complements structural features to identify exotic pests. 

A wide range of soil pests and diseases can now be identified from a single soil 

sample using new Australian soil testing techniques. 

Contact a diagnostic service for assistance (page xiv). 

Classification of insects (Class Insecta) to orders and families is based on a wide 

range of features, including: 

Wing features, eg 

– Winged or wingless 

– Number of pairs of wings 

– Size 

– Texture, scales, etc 

– Thickenings 

– Venation, vein patterns 

Life cycle, eg 

– No metamorphosis 

– Incomplete metamorphosis 

– Complete metamorphosis 

Mouthparts, eg 

– Chewing 

– Piercing and sucking 

– Rasping and sucking 

– Lapping 

Antennae, eg 

– Clubbed 

– Feathery 

Abdomen, eg 

– Ovipositors, cerci 

– Hairs 

– Constrictions 

Tarsi segments, eg 

– Number 

Body shape, eg 

– Flattened 

Thrips 

(< 3 mm long) 

– Small size 

– Wedge-shaped 

Insects and allied pests - Identification and classification 63


Orders of Insects 

Fig. 39. Insect orders of interest to horticulture. 

CLASS INSECTA - Insects 


2. Three pairs of legs on thorax. 

3. Antennae present (1 pair). 

4. Wings present or absent. 

WINGLESS 

(primitively wingless) 

WINGED ADULTS 

(some secondarily wingless) 

NO 

METAMORPHOSIS 

WINGS DEVELOP 

INTERNALLY 

COMPLETE 

METAMORPHOSIS 

(larvae dissimilar to adults) 

WINGS DEVELOP 

EXTERNALLY 

INCOMPLETE 

METAMORPHOSIS 

(nymphs similar to adults) 

ORDERS 

THYSANURA 

(silverfish, not really a 

horticultural pest) 

ORDERS 

DIPTERA 

(flies, gnats, midges, 

mosquitoes) 

LEPIDOPTERA (butterflies, 

moths) 

COLEOPTERA 

(beetles, weevils) 

HYMENOPTERA 

(ants, bees, sawflies, wasps) 

NEUROPTERA (lacewings) 

ORDERS 

THYSANOPTERA 

(thrips) 

HEMIPTERA (bugs) 

(bugs; hoppers; lerps, 

mealybugs, scales, 

whitefly) 

ISOPTERA 

 

ORTHOPTERA 

(crickets, grasshoppers, 

katydids, locusts) 

DERMAPTERA 

(earwigs) 

BLATTODEA 

(cockroaches) 

PHASMATODEA 

(leaf insects, stick insects) 

MANTODEA 

(mantids, praying mantids) 

ODONATA 

(dragonflies, damselflies) 

Insects and their Allies 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects_allies.html 

64 Insects and allied pests - Identification and classification


ORDER DIPTERA 

Flies, gnats, leafminers, midges, mosquitoes 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

More than 8,000 species have been identified in Australia. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/diptera.html 

www.brisbaneinsects.com/brisbane_flies/index.html 

Lucid key On The Fly - The Interactive Atlas and Key to Australia Fly Families 

www.lucidcentral.org/ 

Members of this order are fairly similar in appearance. 

ADULT Wings 1. One pair of membraneous forewings. Do not confuse 

flies with wasps which have 2 pairs of wings. 

2. Hindwings reduced to small club-like structures 

(halteres) are used as stabilisers during flight. 

3. Some species are wingless. 

Eyes 

Mouth 

Usually large compound eyes, each eye has up to 

4000 lens. Can see movements quickly. 

1. Varies among different families, but usually used 

for sucking up liquid (except for carnivorous types). 

2. In some families, eg mosquitoes, the mouth has 

been adapted for piercing. 

LARVA Legs No true legs, often called a ‘maggot’. 

Head 

Mostly very reduced head capsule. 

LIFE CYCLE 

There is a complete metamorphosis - egg, larva (maggot), pupa and 

adult (fly). 

Queensland 

fruit fly 

4-5 mm long 

Many variations, 

eg bean fly, 

cineraria leafminer, 

fungus gnats, 

garden maggots 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

LARVA 

Sucking and sometimes piercing. Feeds on liquids. 

Liquid diet. Some predatory larvae have mandibles, eg hover flies. 

Larvae eat the food they hatch on (carefully selected by the mother fly). 

Insects and allied pests - Diptera (flies) 65



DAMAGE 

DIRECT FEEDING DAMAGE. 

Larvae (maggots) are responsible for most plant damage. 

LEAVES Leafmining, eg pittosporum leafminer, cineraria leafminer 

Galls, eg chrysanthemum gall midge 

FRUIT 

STEMS 

BULBS 

Maggot damage, eg fruit fly, ferment fly, 

metallic-green tomato fly 

Galls, eg chrysanthemum gall midge 

Borers, eg bean fly 

Maggot damage, eg bulb flies 

INDIRECT DAMAGE. 

During feeding, fruit fly maggots introduce decay organisms, eg bacteria 

and fungi, causing fruit rots. 

Fruit may be disfigured by the egg laying of female fruit flies (‘stings’). 

INJURIOUS HAIRS/BRISTLES, etc. 

Some flies are blood suckers, eg mosquitoes, and are pests of humans 

and animals. 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Do not confuse 

with fruit flies 

Major fruit fly pests of 

commercial fruit. 

(many minor or non-pest 

species commonly 

found in traps) 

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME HOST RANGE (maggots) 

(not exhaustive) 

FERMENT FLIES (Family Drosophilidae) 

Ferment fly, vinegar fly Drosophila spp. Associated with decaying 

fruit, etc. Used in genetics 

FRUIT FLIES (Family Tephritidae) 

Mediterranean fruit fly (Medfly Ceratitis capitata Fruit in WA 

Queensland fruit fly (QFF) Bactrocera tryoni Fruit in Qld, NSW, Vic 

Lesser Queensland fruit 

fly 

B. neohumeralis Most commercial and many 

native fruit, Qld, north NSW 

Cucumber fly 

B. cucumis 

Cucurbits, tomato (Qld, NSW) 

Jarvis’s fruit fly 

B. jarvisi 

Fruit (Northern Australia, Qld, NSW) 

Banana fruit fly 

Mango fly 

B. musae 

B. frauenfeldi 

Banana, papaya, quince, Qld 

Banana, mango, citrus, guava 

Some destructive Malaysian fruit fly B. latifrons Malaysia, Solanaceous crops 

fruit flies Melon fly B. cucurbitae PNG, serious vegetable pest 

overseas not 

Asian papaya fruit fly B. papayae PNG, northern Torres Strait 

Australia 

Eradicated from Qld in 1999 

Fruit fly monitoring Carambola fruit fly B. carambolae Sumbawa, Indonesia 

Oriental fruit fly B. dorsalis complex Vietnam, destructive pest of fruit 

currently present in 

is carried out in far north 

Queensland and the 

Torres Strait, WA, etc 

Mexican fruit fly Anastrepha ludens Central & south America, USA, 

Canada. Citrus, mango, etc 

Natal fruit fly Ceratitis (Pterandrus rosa) Africa, Indian ocean, many fruit 

New Guinea fruit fly B. trivialis PNG (Western Province) 

Philippines fruit fly B. philippinensis Philippines. Commercial fruit. 

Eradicated from Darwin, 1999 

Breadfruit fly, jackfruit fly B. umbrosa Torres Strait, PNG, Indonesia, 

detected in traps in NT 

GALL MIDGES (Family Cecidomyiidae) 

Chrysanthemum 

Chrysanthemum gall 

midge 

Sorghum midge 

Citrus blossom midge 

Wattle gall fly 

Rhopalomyia 

chrysanthemi 

Contarinia sorghicola 

Cecidomya sp. 

C. acaciae- longifolia 

Serious pest of sorghum 

Citrus flowers 

Wattle 

Eucalyptus gall midge Harmomyia omalanthi Eucalypt 

Mushroom white cecid Heteropeza pygmaea Mushrooms 

66 Insects and allied pests - Diptera (flies)


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

(contd) 

Bulb fly maggots 

Moth, sawfly and 

beetle larvae may 

also mine in leaves 

Not known in 

Australia 

Fungus gnat 

maggot 

Biological 

control agents 

Natural 

controls 

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME HOST RANGE (maggots) 


GARDEN MAGGOTS (several families) 

Garden maggot 

Garden soldier fly 

Bibio imitator 

Exaireta spinigera 

HOVER FLIES (Family Syrphidae) 

Lesser bulb fly Eumerus tuberculatus 

Narcissus bulb fly Ampetia equestris 

Adults feed on nectar, larvae feed 

on decaying organic matter in 

compost heaps, etc 

Bulbs 

Bulbs 

LEAFMINER FLIES (Family Agromyzidae) 

Bean fly Ophiomyia phaseoli Maggots bore into stalks and 

stems of beans and related plants, 

but not broad beans 

Beet leafminer Liriomyza chenopodii Beet, spinach, wall flower and 

chickweed 

Cabbage leafminer L. brassicae Crucifers 

Vegetable leafminer L. sativae Fruit, vegetables and ornamentals 

Celery fly Melanagromyza apii Larvae bore into celery stalks 

Cineraria leafminer Chromatomyia 

Asteraceae eg cineraria, gazania, 

nasturtium 

syngenesiae 

chrysanthemum, lettuce, weeds, 

eg sow thistle, capeweed 

Pittosporumleafminer Phytobia pittosporphyllii Pittsporum spp., P. undulatum 

Soybean fly Malanagromyza sojae Soybean 

MIDGES (Family Chironomidae) 

Seedling bean midge 

Rice bloodworm 

Smittia macleayi 

Chironomus tepperi 

FUNGUS GNATS (several families) 

Fungus gnats Family Mycetophilidae 

Black fungus gnats Family Sciaridae 

Mushroom sciarids Lycoriella spp., Sciaridae 

SHORE FLIES (Family Ephydridae) 

Rice leafminer Hydrellia sp. 

Shore fly 

Scutella australiae 

Beans, cucurbits 

Rice 

Organic matter, decaying fungi in 

roots, root hairs 

All stages of mushrooms 

Rice, other plants 

Algae in greenhouses 

OTHERS (Many families) 

Atherigona Atherigona orientalis Damaged tomato fruit, rotting 

plant and animal matter 

Couchtip maggot Delia urbana 

New turf, especially couch 

Eucalyptus flies 

Metallic-green 

tomato fly 

Family Fergusoninidae 

Lamprolonchaea 

brouniana 

Eucalypt 

Tomato fruit. Do not confuse 

maggots with those of ferment 

or fruit flies 

Onion maggot Delia platura Onion, bean, brassicas, cucurbits 

Mosquitoes Family Culicidae Vector of human diseases, eg 

malaria, Ross River fever 

BENEFICIAL FLIES 

Elm leaf beetle fly Erynniopsis antennata Elm leaf beetle (Pyrrhalta luteola) 

Bathurst burr seed fly Euaresta bullans Bathurst burr 

Groundselbush gall fly Rhopalomyia californica Groundsel bush 

St John’s Wort midge Zeuxidiphosis giandi St John’s Wort 

Lantana seed fly Ophiomyia lantanae Lantana 

Mediterranean fly Sarcophaga penicilliata Pointed snail (Cochlicella acuta), 

proposed biological control agent 

Hover flies 

Snail-killing flies 

Robber flies 

Tachinid flies 

Crane flies 

Family Syrphidae 

Family Sciomyzidae 

Family Asilidae 

Family Tachinidae 

Family Tipulidae 

Some species are pollinators, larvae 

of some species are aphid predators 

Predators or parasites of snails 

Predators of many insects 

Parasitic on eggs of caterpillars, 

beetles, grasshoppers. Eggs laid on 

outside of insects, larvae feed inside 

Larvae feed on decaying plant 

material 



Fruit flies 

Fruit flies are a major world-wide pest of 

fruit. Control measures are compulsory under 

legislation. In some areas, eg Tablelands of NSW, 

fruit fly is often a sporadic pest and in some 

seasons is not a problem. Some of the exotic fruit 

fly present in countries to Australia’s north could 

have devastating effects on many Australian crops 

(page 66). There is a Fruit Fly Research Centre 

(University of Sydney). Papaya fruit fly outbreaks 

cost millions of dollars in lost trade, control, 

treatment and eradication. 

Scientific name 

Fruit flies (Order Diptera, Family Tephritidae). 

There are more than 100 species of fruit flies in 

Australia about 16 species attack commercial fruit 

(page 66). Queensland fruit fly (QFF) (Bactrocera 

tryoni) is the pest species in eastern Australia and 

Mediterranean fruit fly (Medfly) (Ceratitis 

capitata) MFF is the pest species in WA. Many fruit 

flies are native species and are not economic pests. 

In the NT the major fruit flies are B. aquilonis and 

B. jarvisi, both with wide host ranges. 

Host range 

QFF attacks a wider range of fruit than MFF. 

Fruit and nuts, eg pome fruits (loquats early in 

the season, apple, pear, quince), stone fruits 

(apricot, peach, nectarine), avocado, banana, citrus 

(especially grapefruit), fig, grape, most exotic fruit, 

walnut, a variety of tropical and cultivated fruits. 

Ornamental fruits, eg crabapple, peach, 

japonica, fruiting berries, Clivia spp. 

Vegetables, eg tomato, capsicum. 

Native fruits, eg kangaroo apple, lilly-pilly, 

native guava. 

Description & damage 

Adults are small colorful flies, wings are mostly 

banded or spotted. The head is distinct, the 

abdomen tapers to a point and the female has a 

prominent ovipositor. Species differ slightly in size 

and appearance. MFF are 4-5 mm long with a 

yellow body marked with white, brown, blue and 

black, mottled wings and pale green eyes. QFF are 

about 7-8 mm long (a little larger than the common 

housefly) and are reddish brown with yellow 

markings on the thorax, wings are clear with a 

narrow dark band along the front margins and a 

transverse stripe near their base. MFF are not as 

mobile as QFF. Maggots (larvae) are about 

8-9 mm when fully grown (last stage larvae) and 

are white to creamy-white. They have a pointed 

head with a pair of small black hook-like jaws, no 

legs, and a squarish rear end. Maggots are capable 

of ‘skipping’ or ‘jumping’ up to 15 cm. In their 

natural environment fruit flies have a positive 

role as plant pollinators and as a source of food for 

birds and vertebrates 

Only fruit. is damaged. 

Stings (egg laying punctures) vary depending on 

the type of host attacked and are difficult to detect 

in some fruits, eg mango, papaya. Stings are made 

by the ovipositors of female fruit flies, small 

punctures may be visible, sunken areas, sap may 

be present and premature ripening adjacent to the 

sting. Stings may also appear as small black marks 

on the skin, which become discolored. They may 

be surrounded by a ring of tissue that fails to 

colour as the fruit ripens, rot may occur close to 

the sting. 

Maggots feed in fruit. 

Fruit may rot due the introduction of decay 

organisms after stinging and maggots feeding. 

Fruit may fall following stinging and decay. 

Fruit may be inedible or downgraded to 

juice grade. 

Location and degree of damage varies 

with type of fruit, number of larvae in fruit and 

the climatic conditions, eg 

– Apple and pear. A discolored area may develop 

around each sting. Burrowing by hatched maggots 

in the fruit soon become noticeable. Decay can 

readily be detected by hand. 

– Loquat ‘stings’ are similar to those in apple. 

Loquats are the main host of early infestations. 

– Citrus are not good hosts. The citrus acid in fruit 

pulp and oil in rind kill s many eggs and maggots. 

The area around the sting may yellow, punctures 

may ooze. Later, water-soaked areas around the 

sting may develop green mould (Penicillium spp.). 

– Stone fruit may appear intact and sound but 

maggots are easily detected when fruit is opened. 

Decay is associated with their activity especially 

around the stone. 

– QFF will lay eggs in all varieties of persimmon and 

passionfruit but maggot development is rare. 

– Home garden tomatoes may be heavily 

infested in autumn. Commercial tomato crops are 

seldom attacked except when grown in urban areas. 

Postharvest losses include that from: 

– Further development of maggots. 

– Presence of fruit flies and their damage. Affected 

fruit may be unsaleable or downgraded at market. 

– Growers may be required to perform postharvest 

treatments. 

– Quarantine restrictions being imposed by domestic 

or export markets. Affects export earnings. 

Fig. 40. Queensland fruit fly (B. tryoni). 

Upper: Fruit fly, actual size. 

Lower: Maggots in a peach. 



Diagnostics. 

Obtain local information on fruit fly species 

which occur in your area. Posters of Fruit Flies 

of Australia and the world may be purchased 

from Scientific Advisory Services 

www.saspl.com.au/ 

Plant Health Australia is developing a webbased 

remote microscope system to improve 

Australia’s fruit fly diagnostic capability. 

Morphological differences between adults, 

eg size, colour of abdomen. Experts may be 

required to differentiate adults of different 

species. Gene technology identifies strains. 

Eggs and larvae of fruit flies look alike. 

Experts are required to differentiate species. 

On some hosts, fruit fly maggots can be 

confused with those of ferment flies (Drosophila 

spp.) which only attack ripe fruit. On other hosts, 

eg tomato, fruit fly maggots may additionally be 

confused with those of green tomato fly or 

athergona (tomato fly). 

Pest cycle 

There is a complete metamorphosis (egg, 

maggot, pupa and adult) with up to 5 or more 

generations each year. Adults live for long 

periods, mate at dusk and are often seen during the 

day basking on the sunny side of trees feeding on 

bacterial colonies which are more plentiful under 

humid conditions. The adult female lays eggs 

under the skin of the fruit. Hatching occurs in 

2-3 days and the maggots burrow (tunnel) and 

feed in the pulp (flesh) for 10 days or more. 

When mature they leave the fruit and burrow into 

the soil and pupate to form a smooth, light brown 

pupa. Depending on the temperature the adult 

fruit fly emerges from the pupa 2-8 weeks later, 

mates within a week and females begin laying 

eggs and the cycle starts again. The complete 

cycle of the QFF from egg to adult takes about 

5 weeks in hot weather while MFF may take as 

few as 4 weeks. The life cycle of MFF in WA is 

generally similar to that of the QFF. 


Fruit flies can be active all year round in warm 

moist areas. 

Fruit flies usually ‘overwinter’ as inactive 

adults but are killed by cold winters, as are 

pupae in the ground. It is likely that the pest is 

introduced into these cooler regions each spring 

and summer in infested fruit. 

Spread 

By movement of infested fruit and vegetables. 

Airline passengers carrying a few pieces of 

fruit are one of the main means for spread of fruit 

flies from one country to another. 

Adults are strong fliers and assisted by wind, 

can travel many kilometers. Cyclonic winds may 

carry fruit flies into northern Australia. 

QFF extends southwards in Victoria every year. 

Pest Free Areas (PFAs). Medfly and QFF do not 

occur in these PFAs and are incapable of naturally 

dispersing to these PFAs from infested areas, due 

in part to the hostile conditions experienced in the 

PFAs and surrounding lands. Introductions usually 

occur through transport by humans which is 

strictly controlled by legislation. 


Warm moist conditions, especially after good 

falls of summer rain. Hot dry weather reduces 

numbers of emerging adults. 

Fruit become susceptible to fruit fly some weeks 

before harvest and maturity. 

Infestations usually begins with earlier ripening 

fruits, eg loquats. QFF mainly attacks summer 

fruits, particularly later maturing varieties and 

is more severe during mid to late summer. 

Tree-ripened fruit. As the season progresses, 

fruit fly populations, the attractiveness of fruit to 

fruit fly and the risk of damage all increase. 

Fig. 41. Queensland fruit fly 

(Bactrocera tryoni). PhotoNSW Dept of 


Enlarged x5 

1. Eggs 

2. Larva or maggot 

3. Pupa 

4. Adult fruit fly 

Actual size 

5. Apple showing punctures 

 

been deposited 

6. Peach showing decay and 

tunnels of the maggots 

7. Egg clusters beneath the skin 

8. Pupa in the ground 



Conditions favoring (contd) 

Climate change (Sutherst 2000). 

As the limiting effects of rainfall are largely offset by 

irrigation, the southern distribution of QFF is limited by 

temperature. It is expected that the impact of QFF on 

Australian horticulture will progressively increase over 

the next few decades. With longer and more favorable fly 

seasons leading to more generations per year and 

reduced winter deaths, it is likely that QFF populations 

will increase and become established over a wider area. 

Potential consequences include: 

Threat to the sustainability of area freedom in the 

current Fruit Fly Exclusion Zones (FFEZ). 

Increased damage and control costs for commercial 

growers in endemic areas except northern Australia. 

Increased damage to backyard growers 

especially in SA and Vic. Thus the QFF poses a real 

threat to southern states under modest projected 

increases in temperature to the extent that the likely 

cost increases raises doubts about the ability of some 

industries in southern areas and remain viable. 

Management (IPM) 

There is a National Fruit Fly Strategy (NFF). 

www.planthealthaustralia.com.au/fruitfly 

1. Plan in advance and obtain advice for your 

situation. Control measures vary according to where 

you live, whether you are a commercial grower or 

home gardener, etc. 

2. Crop, region. Seek advice from local authorities to 

ensure your plan is for your fruit crop in your region. 

3. Identify the fruit flies likely to be found in you area. 

Understand their life cycle, host range, how they 

'overwinter', spread, etc. Is your fruit fly a pest species? 

Consult a diagnostic service if needed (page xiv). 

4. Monitor presence of male fruit flies using synthetic 

pheromone traps in an area so that baits or cover sprays 

may be timed more precisely. Use correct lure as some 

fruit flies are not attracted to lures. Many fruit flies 

caught in traps are native species. Exotic fruit flies 

are trapped in northern Australia and in other in pest-free 

areas. Fruit Fly Hotlines in SA may be contacted by the 

public who find maggots in fruit from gardens or 

bought from a shop. 

Fruit should also be checked for stings (egg laying 

activities) by female fruit flies. 

Control activities can then be directed towards either 

the eggs and maggots in fruit, or towards the adults. 

Fruit flies may be so serious that monitoring may be 

irrelevant, eg on guava in some areas. 

Male annihilation. Traps with pheromones to attract 

male fruit flies and an insecticide, help to reduce 

numbers but do not satisfy quarantine regulations. 

5. Thresholds. There is nil tolerance in a FFEZ and for 

many export markets. To control and eradicate QFF and 

MedFly in a FFEZ, treatment measures are prescribed. 

Thresholds are available for some species of fruit fly, 

they vary with the crop. How much damage can you 

tolerate economically or aesthetically before you 

implement control measures? Growers in some regions 

must consider whether likely damage is sufficient to 

warrant spraying. 

6. Take appropriate action when a threshold is 

reached (depends on whether it is a quarantine, 

commercial grower or home garden problem. Keep upto-date 

with official advice, information and legal 

obligations. If in a FFEZ, immediately report sightings 

of fruit flies to local authority/department of agriculture. 

Costly suppression or eradication programs may be 

under-taken by government/agricultural agencies. 

Treat other nearby susceptible fruit crops. 

Both cover sprays and bait sprays may be used 

concurrently in commercial orchards. 

Pre and post harvest treatments may be required to 

gain entry to southern and export markets. 

Contingency plans are in place for exotic fruit flies 

should they be detected in any part of Australia. 

Programs are available for organic growers, eg 

Organic Farming : Managing Fruit Fly in Citrus 

www.dpi.vic.gov.au/ 

7. Evaluation. Review your monitoring and treatment 

records. Decide whether an improved program is 

needed for next season. 


Each state/region has particular requirements for 

the control of fruit flies and the local regulatory 

authorities should be contacted for information 

on control or if fruit fly is suspected. Control 

measures for quarantine officers, local councils, 

commercial growers and home gardeners vary 

according to the region in which you live, ie if it 

is a fruit-fly free zone (FFEZ), if fruit fly is a 

major economic cost for commercial growers, if it 

is an area where exotic fruit flies may enter, or if 

it is in an area where fruit fly is a sporadic 

problem not requiring control in some seasons. 

Legislation. 

It is the responsibility of the occupier of land to 

prevent infestation by fruit fly. Each State/ 

Territory has particular requirements for the 

control of fruit flies. Consult the appropriate local 

authority for current regulations for the area in 

which you live, these usually include sanitation 

measures, quarantine regulations and insecticide 

applications. There are also import/export 

quarantine regulations. Search for fruit fly at: 

www.aqis.gov.au/ 

Cultural methods. 

Some climatic areas are not suited for the 

continued development of fruit fly. 

Grow early maturing varieties and harvest 

before fruit fly populations build up. 

Some commodities can be harvested at a mature 

stage before they are susceptible to fruit fly. 

Prune trees to a manageable size to facilitate 

picking, spraying and baiting. 

Cultivate soil around trees and keep weed-free. 

Boil fruit for 

at least 

10 minutes. 

Burn. Is this 

permitted? 

Immerse fruit in water 

inside covered container 

for at least 3 days. 

Secure fruit inside a plastic 

garbage bag. Expose bag 

to sun for at least 3 days. 

Fig. 42. Sanitation measures for treating fruit infested with fruit fly maggots. 



Sanitation reduces breeding sources. 

You are required by law in prescribed areas to: 

Remove unwanted or regularly unharvested 

fruit trees and orchards around sheds, boundary 

fences. There may be specific requirements in 

some regions for some crops, eg quince. 

Treatment of alternative fruiting hosts 

and removal of wild hosts in and around orchards 

help reduce numbers. 

Collect and destroy immediately all ripe, 

fallen fruit and tomatoes. Remove all infested 

fruit from trees and tomato plants at intervals 

not exceeding 3 days, to eliminate breeding sites. 

Remove any late hanging fruit. Keep ground 

beneath trees and around tomato crops free from 

long grass and weeds. Destroy fruit by either: 

– Boiling for at least 10 minutes. Take care. 

– Burning (if permitted). 

– Soaking for at least 3 days in water topped with 

kerosene. Dispose of fruit after treatment. 

– Placing in water in a covered container for 3 days. 

– Securing fruit inside a plastic garbage bag and 

exposing the bag to sun for 3 days, and disposing 

in the garbage. Suitable for home gardeners. Could 

this be buried in the soil? 

– Treating with an approved insecticide, prior to 

burying. Do not bury untreated fruit as this does 

not kill the maggots and adult flies can emerge 

from pupae as deep as 1 meter. 

– Slash between rows to destroy fruit. 

– Practice good packing shed hygiene with 

thorough inspections to remove any infested fruit. 

– Special arrangements may be negotiated with 

organic growers in eradication areas to remove all 

fruit from a property not treated. Remember it is 

only possible to grow organic fruit because 

neighbours co-operate in fruit fly eradication. 

What are your local regulations? 

Biological control. 

Natural controls. Fruit flies also infest the fruit 

of native plants; native parasites and predators, 

some of which can be mass reared and released to 

help provide control of fruit fly populations. 

– Parasitic wasps commonly lay eggs in fruit fly 

eggs and maggots but do not significantly reduce 

fruit fly numbers. 

– Predators of adult fruit flies include the assassin 

bug, praying mantises, spider and birds. 

. 

SIT (Sterile Insect Technique) is the large 

scale breeding and release of sterile male flies 

which mate with wild female flies in the field 

producing non-viable eggs leading to eradication. 

The method is species specific. Fruit flies are 

sterilized by exposing pupae to gamma radiation. 

– Used for most outbreaks of QFF in SA following an 

initial baiting program. May be available for Medfly 

control in SA and with baiting techniques to 

eradicate MedFly in WA. 

– Medfly is harder to eradicate than QFF because it is 

less responsive to bait. 

New lures for female Bactrocera spp. of fruit 

flies being researched will improve monitoring 

and so protect current markets for fresh produce. 

Resistant varieties. 

Late ripening fruits are very susceptible. Early 

ripening fruits act as a source of infestation of later 

ripening fruits. 

Plant quarantine. 

Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service 

(AQIS) controls the entry of exotic fruit flies 

(page 66) into Australia, using a combination of 

X-ray units, detector dogs, physical inspection 

and quarantine surveillance (trapping, regular host 

fruit surveys of high risk species, eg guava, mango). 

– Northern Australian Quarantine Strategy 

(NAQS) trapping program detects exotic fruit fly 

incursions in the Torres Strait and from Asia, eg 

Asian Papaya fruit fly, melon fruit fly and 

Bacterocera trivialis which are directly related to 

weather patterns. This warning detection 

program uses traps baited with lures to detect lureresponsive 

exotic fruit flies. Exotic fruit flies in the 

Torres Strait are eradicated. 

– Fruit is imported from fruit-fly pest free areas 

overseas, based on results of trapping, climatic data 

and verification visits to pest-free areas, etc. 

Interstate & Regional Plant Quarantine 

Checkpoints throughout Australia prevent spread 

of fruit fly into fruit fly-free regions. 

– Tasmania and NZ are free from Medfly and QFF, 

as is SA. 

– Medfly occurs in WA except in the Ord River 

Irrigation Area which has area freedom status. 

– QFF is present in NT, Qld, NSW and Vic. 

– The Fruit Fly Exclusion Zone (FFEZ). Comprises 

parts of NSW, Victoria and SA (Fig. 43). 

www.agric.nsw.gov.au 

–Maintenance of the FFEZ and other Fruit Fly 

Free Areas involves: 

Roadblocks to confiscate fresh fruit and 

vegetables. Warning signs and disposal bins are 

located on most roads leading into the FFEZ. 

Fruit fly traps to detect outbreaks (monitoring). 

Eradication of detected outbreaks. 

Control of movement of infested fruit by regional 

Quarantine Regulations within Australia. 

Coordination and management of the FFEZ by 

the TriState Fruit Fly Committee involving 

Commonwealth, NSW, Vic, SA and industry. 

–Recognition of fruit fly free areas by overseas 

countries means that fruit can be exported without need 

for costly treatments, eg citrus to Japan. 

–Pest Quarantine Areas for fruit fly incursions, eg 

papaya fruit fly in Queensland, limited its spread and 

facilitated monitoring and eventual eradication. 

Fig. 43. Fruit Fly Exclusion 

Zone (FFEZ). Quarantine areas 

marked with dots, other quarantine 

areas are prescribed as necessary. 

If you find maggots 

in fruit or vegetables 

in areas considered 

free of fruit fly 

contact your local 

Department of 

Agriculture for 

advice. 

Fig. 44. Examples of interstate 

quarantine leaflets. 



Growers sending fruit interstate and overseas. 

– Must comply with the Conditions of Entry 

restrictions of the receiving State or Country. These 

indicate the required treatments or inspections for 

fruit fly. A guarantee of fruit fly-free status may be 

achieved by quarantine and phytosanitary measures. 

Many countries have a nil tolerance. Outbreaks of 

papaya fruit fly in Australia caused NZ to ban 

imports of Australian bananas – lifting the ban was 

conditional on the bananas being harvested, packed 

and exported in the unripe mature-green state. 

– Must contact their nearest Department of 

Agriculture/Primary Industry about required postharvest 

treatments/inspection procedures. 

– Search for exotic fruit flies www.daff.gov.au/aqis 

Physical & mechanical methods. 

Postharvest. Fruit may be disinfested by heat, 

eg hot water dipping and circulating hot air, by 

cold disinfestation treatments and irradiation. 

Exclusion products. Mesh enclosures (about 

2 mm diameter) exclude fruit flies, some other 

insect pests, and birds. High value ripening fruit, 

eg avocado, grapes, can be bagged by gardeners 

and growers, eg PestGuard Bags, Fruit Sleeves. 

Insecticides. 

Fruit on trees. Control adults using cover 

and/or bait sprays after monitoring, they are 

compulsory by law in most States/Territories. 

– Cover sprays, eg dimethoate, are usually systemic 

insecticides that are applied to the whole tree to kill 

the various stages of fruit fly (adults, eggs and larvae 

present in fruit). On some crops, fruit flies are 

controlled by insecticide sprays used against other pests. 

Penetrant sprays, eg fenthion, are effective in 

areas where baits are not. Sprays quickly kill adult 

flies on foliage and fruit, and eggs and just hatched 

maggots immediately under the skin of the fruit. 

Table 4. Fruit flies – Some lures and insecticides. 

What to use? 

TRAPS TO DETECT AND MONITOR ADULTS 

TRAPS - LURE MINUS INSECTICIDE 

Fly Bye Fruit fly lure, Wild May fruit fly attractant (4-(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2- 

butanone acetate) attract and kill male QFF 

Many recipes for home made wet traps, eg 

2 L water + half cup sugar +1 teaspoon of imitation vanilla essence + 2 

tablespoons cloudy ammonia, hang 2 bottles in each tree as soon as trees 

are in bloom. Household products, eg vegemite, marmite, sugar) 

Insectrap is a non-toxic, sticky, yellow trap that attracts and traps 

Diptera insects, it also traps citrus gall wasps. 

TRAPS – LURE PLUS INSECTICIDE 

Different lures/insecticides are used in different traps 

.Group 1B, eg 

Biolure + maldison attracts female Medfly 

Capilure + dichlorvos attracts male Medfly, QFF, papaya fruit fly 

Dak pot Lure & Insecticide (maldison) Trap, Q-Fly Lure, Searles Fruit 

Fly Wick Attractant, Eco-naturalure attract male QFF 

Methyl eugenol + maldison attracts many exotic male fruit flies 

Trimedlure + insecticide attracts male Medfly 

Group 2B, eg 

Cue-lure + fipronil attracts male QFF, lesser QFF, some exotic 

species, attracts male within radius of 400 meters or more. 

Wet or food traps (protein or sugar + insecticide) attracts both male 

and female Medflies, other flies as well. 

FOLIAGE BAITING (LURE PLUS INSECTICIDE) 

Group 1B, eg Dak-pot fruit Fly Attractant (yeast, for use with a suitable 

insecticide, usually maldison). State/territories provide specific 

information on foliage baiting. 

Group 5, eg Eco-naturalure Fruit Fly Bait Concentrate, Naturalure Fruit Fly 

Bait Concentrate, Yates Nature Way Fruit fly (protein/sugar-based 

bait + spinosad), controls fruit flies including QFF and Medfly. 

COVER SPRAYS 

Group 1B, eg chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, fenthion, maldison, 

trichlorfon) 

POSTHARVEST DIPPING OF FRUIT 

Group 1B, eg dimethoate, fenthion 

72 Insects and allied pests - Diptera (flies) 

Disadvantages of cover sprays. 

May be very disruptive to parasites and predators. 

Their use may increase other pests. 

Do not prevent adults laying eggs in the fruit. Egg 

laying punctures may be unacceptable blemishes. 

Lebaycid (fenthion) is very toxic to birds. 

Some sprays, eg Rogor (dimethoate) may cause 

leaf and fruit drop in apricots and early peaches 

–Protein bait sprays, a mixture of protein, water and 

insecticide, can be spot sprayed onto trees and other 

sites in an orchard. Protein attracts both male and 

female fruit flies which are killed as they feed. 

Female fruit flies require protein for egg laying and 

are especially attracted. Baiting is more effective 

when carried out in the morning when fruit flies are 

active. Mark trees which have been bait sprayed. 

Advantages of bait sprays 

Effective against both male and female fruit flies. 

Applied to foliage or boards, not fruit. Less costly. 

Less disruptive to natural controls, honey bees. 

Only small quantities of insecticide are used. 

Helicopters can be used to over wide areas. 

Most effective in isolated or semi-isolated areas 

for orchard or community baiting schemes. 

Not all trees may need to be treated. 

Disadvantages of bait sprays 

Only kills adult flies, does not prevent development 

of eggs and maggots already in the fruit. If fruit is 

infested supplementary cover sprays may be needed. 

May not provide adequate control under high fly 

pressure or in highly susceptible crops. 

Are applied more frequently than cover sprays. 

Less effective for a few trees or in orchards near 

urban areas with high fruit fly populations. 

Not rainfast, re-application is necessary after heavy 

or continuous rain to maintain effectiveness. 

May mark commercial fruit, eg mango. 

Fruit postharvest may need disinfestation to 

comply with quarantine regulations. 

Comments 

Traps are used to detect and monitor the presence of 

fruit flies in an area so that baits or cover sprays may be 

timed precisely. Lures used to attract adult fruit flies 

include pheromones, food (protein/sugar) or coloured 

spheres coated with a sticky gel (blue best for QFF and 

yellow for Medfly). Depending on the type of trap 

used, flies get caught on a sticky surface, killed by 

insecticide, dehydrate or drown in liquid bait. 

Lure plus insecticide traps for detection/monitoring 

are used in conjunction with a baiting program or cover 

sprays (or a combination of both) to effect control of the 

targeted fruit fly. Regular monitoring of the crop for egglaying 

by female flies should be employed in addition to 

the use of lures. These traps are a mixture of usually a 

male attractant (pheromone or food attractant) and an 

insecticide to kill the attracted fruit fly. Lures are usually 

placed in trees and can be applied as gels, impregnated 

fibre board blocks, absorbent wicks and strings or traps, 

placed at high densities in the areas where the targeted 

species is known to occur. The aim is to reduce the 

populations to such an extent that no mating occurs, but 

their main function is monitoring. They do not satisfy 

quarantine regulations. May be used in area-wide 

management strategies. 

Foliage baits are a mixture of a food attractant and an 

insecticide. Both male and female fruit flies are attracted 

and die after coming in contact with the insecticide or 

ingesting it. Follow label instructions on where and 

when to apply, etc. Wash all fruit after harvest to remove 

any residues. Foliage baiting may not be as effective as 

cover spraying under severe pest pressure or frequent rain. 

Must be applied more often. 

Cover sprays are used to spray the entire tree (foliage/ 

fruit) to kill fruit flies resting in the tree, maggots and eggs 

in the fruit. Time of application varies with species, other 

insects present at time of spraying will be killed. 

There may be dipping requirements for commercial 

certification of produce against fruit flies.



An example of a leafminer 

Leafminers generally do not kill plants. 


Chromatomyia syngenesiae (Order Diptera, 

Agromyzidae). Minor pest in NSW, Victoria, SA. 

Other leafminers are listed on page 67. 

Host range 

Mainly Asteraceae and related plants. eg 

Ornamentals, eg cineraria, chrysanthemum, 

gazania, gerbera, Helichrysum, also mist flower, 

nasturtium. 

Vegetables, eg lettuce. 

Weeds, eg capeweed, prickly lettuce, sowthistle. 


Adult flies are small inconspicuous grayishblack 

flies 2-3 mm long. They may be seen 

walking over the leaves of host plants during 

winter and spring but they often go unnoticed. 

They may fly slowly making short hopping flights 

of about 1 meter at a time. Female flies feed by 

repeatedly puncturing the undersurfaces of young 

leaves with their ovipositors and sucking up the 

sap which flows from the wound. These punctures 

appear as bleached spots on the upper surface of 

the leaf. On some varieties of chrysanthemum 

these spots can be confused with early stages of 

white rust. Larvae are creamy-white, legless and 

4-5 mm long when fully fed. They have no head 

and there is usually only one larva or maggot per 

mine. Pupae are elongate, barrel-shaped, light 

brown and about 2.5 mm long and can be easily 

seen through the undersurface of the leaf at the end 

of tunnels. A single leaf may contain several pupae. 

Leaves. Foliage is spoilt. Maggots tunnel 

between the upper and lower surfaces of leaves. 

Initially the mines appear as pale, narrow, threadlike 

lines but as the maggots grow, the mines 

become wider and more obvious and may eventually 

reach 1.5 mm in across. A trail of insect excreta 

can often be seen in the mines when held up to the 

light. Pupae are easily seen in the mines through 

the leaf undersurface. 

General. The appearance of foliage is spoilt 

and in cinerarias and other species which become 

heavily infested, plants may wilt and growth may 

be severely retarded. If the leafmining of the 

maggots destroys most of the leaves plants may 

die. Very often, however, affected plants will still 

produce a good crop of flowers. 

Diagnostics. 

Meandering leaf mines on leaves of susceptible 

varieties. 

Larvae and/or pupae can be seen through lower 

leaf surfaces when held up to the light. 

The only leafmining insect that attacks these 

plants in Australia at present. 

Lucid keys www.lucidcentral.org/ 

– Key to the World Genera of Eulophidae Parasitoids 

(Hymenoptera) of Leafmining Agromyzidae (Diptera) 

– Liriomyza Parasitoids in South East Asia 

– Polyphagous Agromyzid Leafminers Identification 

Key Tutorial is available at: 

keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/leafminers/tutorial.htm 

Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and adult) with several generations 

each season. The life cycle from egg to adult takes 

about 3-4 weeks. Female flies lay eggs singly 

within the leaf tissues on the undersurfaces of 

leaves and the puncture marks or ‘stings’ may be 

seen as small scars on the leaf surface. Eggs hatch 

in about 4-5 days and the larvae feed and tunnel 

within the leaves between the upper and lower 

epidermis for 15-18 days (Goodwin et al 2000). 

When fully grown they pupate at the end of the 

tunnel. Adult emerge 10 days later. 

Fig. 45. Cineraria leafminer (Chromatomyia syngenesiae). 

Damage caused by maggots. Left: Cineraria. PhotoNSW Dept of 

Industry and Investment. Right: Marguerite daisy. PhotoCIT, Canberra. 

(P.W.Unger) 




On host plants, pupae may be seen in the tunnels 

on the undersurface of the leaf. 

Spread 

By adults flying, by propagation, eg cuttings from 

infested plants and by the movement of infested 

plants, plant parts, infested plant debris. 


Cool humid weather during late winter, spring and 

early autumn. Fine meandering lines initially 

appear on leaves during late winter and spring. 

There seem to be more of a problem in coastal 

areas such as Melbourne and Sydney. 


Are you a commercial grower or home gardener? 

1.Access/prepare a plan which fits your 

situation based on previous records of cineraria 

leafminer damage to susceptible varieties. 

2.Crop, region. Know and mark all susceptible 

varieties in your area/garden which may require 

treatment. 

3.Identification of pest must be confirmed by a 

diagnostic service if necessary (see page xiv). 

4.Monitor. Examine leaves for mines and larvae 

during late winter and early spring depending on the 

region (page 39). Record your findings. 

5.Threshold. How much damage can you accept? 

Have any thresholds been established? If so, what are 

they, eg economic, aesthetic? Do you need to calculate 

your own threshold? Commercial growers often have 

a threshold of appearance of the first mines. This will 

vary with season and region. 

6.Take appropriate action when any decided 

threshold is reached. Prune out any infested leaves and 

apply insecticides as soon as mines are detected and 

when maggots are still mining in leaves but have 

not pupated. Repeat applications may be required 

until warm weather arrives. Record treatment dates, 

etc. Home gardeners usually settle for sanitation 

measures. Remember if pupae have formed in the 

leaves it is too late to spray. 

7.Evaluation. Review IPM program to see how well 

it worked. Recommend improvements if required, ie 

growing less susceptible varieties. Continue to 

examine leaves to ensure treatment has been 

successful or there is a need for further treatment. 


Cineraria leafminer can be difficult to manage. 

Cultural methods. Fertilize and water 

affected plants. Overseas adding potassium silicate 

to fertilizer mixes with potted chrysanthemums 

(200ppm or higher) saw a significant reduction in 

leafminers emerging from treated plants versus the 

control. This may be a good cultural tool for 

suppressing leafminers. 

Sanitation. Occasional shoots which are 

infested may be pruned off and destroyed in such a 

way that adult flies cannot emerge from the pupae 

within the leaf tissues. All prunings from infested 

plants should be destroyed. Control weeds and 

volunteer hosts. 

Biological control. Overseas, parasitic 

wasps may control cineraria leafminer on 

chrysanthemum. Check with Australasian 

Biological Control for possible biocontrol agents. 

List of suppliers www.goodbugs.org.au 

Resistant varieties. Varieties vary in 

resistance. The florists chrysanthemum 

(C. sinense) seems to be resistant. Margarite 

chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum frudi) and 

shasta daisy (C. maximum) are susceptible. 

Plant quarantine. There are other leafmining 

insects which are major pests of chrysanthemum 

and other Asteraceae overseas. Serpentine 

leafminer (Liriomyza trifolii) is probably the most 

important. Chrysanthemum and gypsophila 

imported from areas where it occurs are subjected 

to mandatory treatment. Other leafminers overseas 

include L. huidobrensis, L. sativae and 

Amauromyza maculosa. 

Pest-tested planting material. Avoid 

taking cuttings from infested plantings. If this is 

unavoidable, select plants for propagation which 

are apparently damage-free. 

Insecticides. 

See Table 5 below. 

Table 5. Some insecticides for leafminers generally. 

What to use? 

FOLIAGE SPRAYS 

Group 1B, eg Rogor (dimethoate) 

Group 4A, eg Confidor Guard Soil Insecticide 

(imidacloprid) - citrus leafminer on citrus 

Group 5 eg Success 2 Naturalyte Insect Control (spinosad) 

See also page 128 

Spray oils, eg petroleum oils, paraffinic oils, botanical oils 

Remember, check the plant and the leafminer the 

product is registered for use on 

When and how to apply? 

If using a spray: 

Use a penetrant or systemic chemical to kill larvae 

inside leaves. 

If maggots have pupated, it is too late to spray. Hold 

several leaves up to the light, if most tunnels have a 

small round hard pupa at the end, then pupation has 

taken place and spraying is not effective. 

Several sprays at approximately weekly intervals 

may be necessary if larvae are still active and further 

infestations occur, ie in late winter and early spring if 

weather is cool and wet. 

Ensure that both sides of the leaves are wetted 

thoroughly with spray. 



Fungus gnats 

Fungus gnats are becoming an increasingly 

widespread and damaging nursery pest. 


Fungus gnats (Order Diptera, Family 

Mycetophilidae) and black fungus gnats (Family 

Sciaridae), eg glasshouse sciarids (Bradysia spp.) 

are widespread pests. Do not confuse fungus gnats 

with shore flies (Family Ephydridae) and their 

larvae which are often minor pests in greenhouses 

(Goodwin et al 2000). 

Host range 

Flies (adults) are short-lived and do not feed on 

plants. Maggots (larvae) feed on decaying fungi 

and other organic matter in soil and potting media. 

They also feed on roots and stems of most 

seedlings, cuttings and soft-foliaged mature plants 

such as carnation, gerbera, poinsettia and most 

hydroponic crops. Shore fly maggots feed on 

algae living on media surfaces while the adults 

imbibe liquids and leave faecal spots on foliage. 


Adult flies are mosquito-like, slender, gray or 

black and about 2-5 mm long. They have long 

slender dangling legs, long antennae and 1 pair of 

wings with a Y-shaped vein at the tip. They are 

weak fliers, hover in groups around plants or run 

over the surface of seedling and cutting trays and 

pots at dusk and can be a nuisance indoors around 

potted plants. Larvae (maggots) are mostly small, 

thread-like, active, almost transparent (internal 

organs can be seen), legless, about 5-8 mm long 

with small dark heads (Fig. 46) and can be found 

wriggling on or near the surface of soil and potting 

mixes. Maggots may leave a tiny slimy glistening 

trail on the soil/mix surface. They may gain access 

to roots through the base of pots. Pupae are 

3-6 mm long, brown, cylindrical and are found in 

soil or potting media. 

Roots of seedlings, cuttings and young plants 

may be damaged by large numbers of maggots. 

Roots may be scarred and root hairs eaten off, 

causing wilting and secondary attack by disease 

organisms. Maggots may also feed on the callus 

of cuttings, preventing striking or slowing down 

root development. Larger maggots may tunnel into 

stems of seedlings and cuttings just below the soil 

surface killing them. 

General. 

Leaves yellow, plants lack vigour. Reduce 

plant growth rate and yields – the root damage 

reduces nutrient and water uptake. 

Spread disease. Feeding maggots can ingest 

and spread fungal spores of root rot fungi. 

Pythium, Fusarium, Thielaviopsis (Chalara) and 

Verticillium are carried in their gut and retained 

through to the adult fly to be spread elsewhere. 

Adults can also spread grey mould (Botrytis) 

which attacks foliage. Shore flies and their larvae 

can also transmit Phytophthora and Pythium spp. 

Customers complain about flies and maggots, 

poor presentation of damaged plants at point of 

sale. Shore flies may also reduce marketability. 

Flies irritate staff. 

Diagnostics. 

Fungus gnats are often confused with shore 

flies. They are mosquito-like and often found 

running on the soil surface, maggots have a 

distinct head (Fig. 46). Shore flies look like house 

flies, stout, with 5 pale spots on their wings, 

maggots have no distinct head (Fig. 47). Adults 

can be caught on sticky yellow traps but they can 

be difficult to identify. You may need to get 

advice. Use a x 10 lens and record counts. 

Damage by larvae is often unnoticed because 

they can be difficult to find in media or within 

plant stems. Reduced growth is hard to quantify. 

Pest cycle 

There is a complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, 

pupa and adult) with several overlapping generations 

each season in greenhouses. Development varies with 

temperature. At 24 o C egg to adult fly life cycle is 

about 3 weeks. Adults mate soon after they emerge 

from pupae in the soil and within 2-3 days the female 

lays 100-200 small white eggs in cracks on 

continually wet soil surfaces, particularly around the 

base of plants or in plant debris. These eggs hatch 

after 4-6 days into maggot-like larvae which feed for 

2-3 weeks on media and plant roots then pupate in 

soil or potting media. 


Possibly as pupae. Fungus gnats may breed 

continuously at temperatures above 24 o C, in 

greenhouses and in surrounding drains, etc. 

Spread 

By adults flying. 

By movement of contaminated soil or media in 

pots or plant material. 

Fig. 46. Fungus gnat (Mycetophilidae). 

Left: Adult (fly), 2-5 mm long, mosquito-like. 

Right: Larva (maggot), 5-8 mm long, obvious head. 

Fig. 47. Shore fly (Ephydridae). 

Left: Adult (fly) 3-4 mm long, 5 pale spots on wings. 

Right: Larva (maggot), 6-8 mm long, no obvious head. 




Soil or media which is continually wet, over 

watered, poorly drained. Highly moistureretentive 

potting mixes. 

Persistent pest in protected nurseries. 

Soil or potting media rich in organic matter. 

Low light, high humidity, misting systems. 

At 24 o C reproduction is continuous. 



1. Prepare a plan if fungus gnats are an ongoing 

problem which includes better management of media, 

drainage, humidity and fertilizers. 

2. Crop, area. Mark plants or areas where control is 

required. Proper application and use of nematodes 

will vary with crop and production system. 

3. Identification of adults and larvae must be 

confirmed. Consult a diagnostic service if necessary 

(see page xiv). Locate main breeding areas, be familiar 

with its life cycle, method of spread, etc. 

4. Monitor pest and/or damage and record results which 

will indicate when peak populations occur (page 39). 

Trap adults on yellow sticky traps. 

Monitor maggots by placing potato discs on moist 

potting media. Larvae are attracted to the discs and 

tunnel underneath or into the discs. 

5. Threshold. How much damage can you accept? 


they, eg economic, aesthetic? Do you need to calculate 

your own threshold for crops at risk? 

6. Action. Implement appropriate treatment, when any 

threshold has been exceeded. Early treatment prevents 

damage. If using nematodes apply initially at planting 

and shortly thereafter or if yellow card counts are 

< 50/trap/week (guide only). 

7. Evaluation. Continue monitoring to ensure control 

measures have been effective. Records compiled 

over several seasons help develop control thresholds 

relevant to the month and stage of crop growth. 



The only permanent cure is to avoid overfertilizing 

and overwatering. Improve drainage. 

Allow media to dry out as much as possible 

without injuring plants before watering will kill 

many maggots. Maggots do not like dry media. 

Avoid using potting media high in organic matter 

such as peat. Plants may need to be repotted using 

less organic matter. 

Avoid storing media where it can get wet and 

attract adult flies. They will colonize it and then 

enter the production cycle. 

Shore flies are controlled in a similar manner. 

Sanitation. 

Remove and destroy badly infested containers. 

Keep areas below benches, walkways, corners 

and surrounding areas free of pools of water, 

fertilizer, spilled potting media, unwanted pot 

plants, plant debris and weeds. Disinfect 

surfaces; remove algae (shore fly). 


Natural controls include predatory mites, 

beetles and parasitic wasps. 

Commercially available agents. Many 

variables can affect the performance of biocontrol 

agents, eg pesticides used for other pests, 

improper storage and incorrect use. 


– Nematodes (Steinernema spp.) are applied as a 

drench or spray drench to growing media after 

planting. The nematodes seek out natural openings 

on the fungus gnat larvae present among the roots 

of plants. When inside they release bacteria which 

causes septicaemia in the maggots. After 2 weeks 

the nematodes have multiplied inside the maggots 

which rupture releasing more nematodes to search 

for more maggots. Store at 5 o c do not freeze. 

Becker Underwood www.beckerunderwood.com/ 

Ecogrow Environmental www.ecogrow.com.au 

50 MILLION 

INFECTIVE JUVENILES 

– Cybate , Vectobac (Bacillus thuringiensis var. 

israelensis), bacteria which produce a crystalline 

protein is registered for the control of mosquito 

larvae and possibly could be useful in the future 

against fungus gnat larvae. 

– Predatory soil-dwelling mites (Hypoaspis sp.) 

feed on larvae of fungus gnats. Introduce soon after 

planting before fungus gnats become established. 

– Predatory rove beetles (Dalotia (Atheta) 

coriaria) feed on shoreflies in addition to thrips 

and fungus gnats. 


Vermiculite (50 cm) or sand on top of soil 

discourages adult flies from egg-laying. 

Sticky yellow boards trap adult flies. 

Light traps also capture large numbers of flies. 

Screening greenhouses to exclude adult flies. 

Properly compost potting media to kill maggots. 

Pasteurization of media, if practical. 

Increasing light levels and ventilation reduce 

favourable breeding conditions. 

Insecticides. 

Foliage sprays and dusts may control adult flies 

while soil drenches control maggots (Table 6). 

Compost-incorporated insecticides and insect 

growth regulators (IGRs) have been used 

overseas with good results. IGRs interfere with 

molting of maggots killing them. More target 

specific, not broad spectrum. Often have shorter 

restricted-entry intervals. Choose one which does 

not injure roots/plant bases. 

Table 6. Fungus gnats – Some insecticides and bio-control agents 

What to use? 

TO CONTROL ADULTS 

Group 3A, eg pyrethrins 

TO CONTROL LARVAE 

Group 1A, eg Mesurol spray (methiocarb) 

Group 4A, eg Crown (acetamaprid) 

Group 15, eg Dimlin Insect Growth Regulator (diflubenzuron) 

Group UN, eg Azamax , Eco-neem , Neemazole (azarachtin) 

Bio-control agents (nematodes), eg 

Steinernema. feltiae, S. carpocapsae 


Adult flies must be killed before egg laying. 

Drench soil, potting mix or compost in which infested 

plants are growing. Apply when larvae are first seen. 

Drench media thoroughly. 



Garden maggots 


Minor pests, Order Diptera: 

Bibionid fly (Bibio imitator) 

Garden Soldier fly (Exaireta spinigera) 

Host range 

The adults are nectar-feeding and the maggots feed 

on decaying organic matter, so are often found in 

overwet compost heaps. 


Gardeners find the wriggling masses of maggots 

repulsive and usually want to get rid of them 

immediately! 

Bibionid fly. Female flies are about 12 mm 

long, the middle of the head is red and the rest 

black. The thorax and the base of the wings are 

smoky-brown and the abdomen orange. Maggots 

(larvae) are legless, dull gray-brown, and about 

14 mm long when fully-fed. Their more or less 

cylindrical bodies are covered with a number of 

protuberances, those near the end of the abdomen 

being the longest. 

Garden soldier fly. Flies are about 13 mm 

long and have a narrow glossy black body. Wings 

are black and white, the hind pair being very long. 

When at rest the legs are spread out and the wings 

folded together down the back. Maggots (larvae) 

are about 15 mm long when fully-fed and are dull 

brown. Their broad, flattened bodies which 

measure about 3 mm across bear a number of fine 

hair-like protuberances. 

Roots. Where plants are deep rooted, the 

loosening of the soil by the maggots has little 

effect on them. However, with shallow-rooted 

plants some injury may occur due to the drying out 

of the loosened soil. 

General. The maggots look unsightly but often 

do not seem to do much damage to plants. They 

mostly indicate less than ideal growing conditions. 

Diagnostics. The large size of the maggots, 

their unattractive ‘hairiness’ and habit of clustering 

together in overwet areas, make them easy to 

recognize. 

Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and adult) with several generations 

each season. 


Overwet compost, excessive rains, poor drainage, 

organic fertilizers. 



1.Prepare a plan. There is limited need for an 

IPM program in this case . 

2. Crop, region. Recognize variations. 

3. Identification of pest must be confirmed. 

Consult a diagnostic service if necessary (page 

xiv). Locate breeding areas and be familiar with 

appearance of maggots, their life cycle and 

habits. 

4. Monitor pest and/or damage and record results 

as recommended. 

5. Thresholds. Have any aesthetic thresholds 

been established? Do you need to calculate your 

own threshold? 

6. Action. Take appropriate action when any 

threshold is reached or when shallow-rooted 

plants are affected. Reduce moisture. 

7. Evaluation. Review program to see if garden 

maggots were controlled and recommend 

improvements if necessary. 


Control of these maggots in the soil or compost is 

not usually desirable or necessary. 

Cultural methods. Reduce moisture in 

compost and provide adequate drainage. 

Sanitation. If it is thought they may be 

disturbing the roots of shallow rooted plants, their 

habit of clustering together makes them easy to 

remove. 

Fig. 48. Garden soldier fly (Exaireta spinigera). 

Left: Adult (fly) about 12 mm long. 

Center: Larvae (maggots) about 15 mm long. 


Various stages depending on the region. 

Spread 

By adults flying. Probably also by movement of 

compost from place to place. 



ORDER LEPIDOPTERA 

Butterflies, moths 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

Moths vary in size 

more than any 

other insect group. 

A Hercules moth 

has a wingspan of 

30 cm while that 

of a leafminer 

may be only 3 mm 

Larvae are 

commonly known 

as caterpillars 

LIFE CYCLE 

In excess of 20,000 species in Australia. The second largest of the insect 

orders after the Coleoptera. Some butterflies are listed as endangered species in 

some states and Butterfly Action Plans have been put in place (Piper 2001). 

Butterflies are included in the Flora for Fauna project (page 81). 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/lepidoptera.html 

www.brisbaneinsects.com/brisbane_moths/index.html 

Lepidoptera larvae of Australia http://nla.gov.au/nla.arc-114644 

ADULT Wings 1. Two pairs large wings. A few moths are wingless. 

2. Densely covered with minute overlapping scales. 

Mouth 

Eyes 

Mouthparts in the form of an elongated tube, coiled like 

a watch spring when at rest. There are a few exceptions. 

Large compound eyes. One occeli above each eye. 

As a rule of thumb: 

BUTTERFLIES are day flying with clubbed antennae, 

brightly colored. Wings vertical when at rest. 

There are a few exceptions. 

MOTHS are night flying, antennae are other than clubbed, 

often feathery in males, often drab when colored. 

Wings flat when at rest. There are a few exceptions. 

LARVA Legs 3 pairs of legs on thoracic segments and up to 

5 pairs of unsegmented prolegs on abdominal 

segments. Prolegs have a ring of fine hooks on the end. 

Mouth Chewing. 

PUPA Often in a silken cocoon (moths) usually a chrysalis (butterflies). 

There is a complete metamorphosis - egg, larva (armyworm, bagworm, 

bollworm, borer, budworm, caterpillar, cluster grub, cutworm, grub, 

inchworm, looper, ‘worm’), pupa and adult. 

Large 

citrus 

butterfly 

Males have a 

wingspan of 

up to 120 mm 


eg codling moth, 

moth borers, 

cutworms 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

LARVA 

Feeds only on nectar or other liquids of flowering plants using a 

long coiled tube (proboscis). Some adults do not feed at all. 

Chewing mouthparts, feeds almost exclusively on plant tissue. 

Vast majority feed on foliage or wood. Some are carnivorous, 

feeding on other caterpillars and soft-bodied insects, eg ant larvae. 

78 Insects and allied pests - Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths)



DAMAGE 


Only the larvae (caterpillars) damage plants. 

Caterpillars eat 

all plant parts 

LEAVES 

FLOWERS 

BUDS 

FRUIT 

STEM, 

BARK 

ROOTS 

SEEDLINGS 

SHOOTS 

Leaves eaten, eg cabbage white butterfly, citrus butterflies, 

painted apple moth 

Leafmining, eg oak leafminer, azalea leafminer 

Skeletonization, eg autumn gum moth, gumleaf 

skeletonizing moth 

Eaten, eg painted apple moth, budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) 

Surface chewing damage, eg lightbrown apple moth 

‘Worm’ damage, eg codling moth, oriental fruit moth, 

corn earworm (tomato grub) 

Borers, eg oriental fruit moth, callistemon tip borer, 

fruit-tree borer, Australian goat moth 

‘Grubs’, ‘worms’ eg cutworms, armyworms 


Frass (excreta produced by larvae, anything else left behind), may: 

– Disfigure a plant. 

– Aid in diagnosing a problem. 

Formation of structures, eg bag shelters, case moths, leaf rolls and 

webbing. 

May introduce decay organisms, eg brown rot of stone fruit may be 

spread by caterpillars of the oriental fruit moth. 

INJURIOUS HAIRS/BRISTLES, etc. 

Larvae and cocoons may be covered with hairs that irritate, eg white 

stemmed gum moth. 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME HOST RANGE (caterpillars) 


ADMIRALS, BROWNS (Family Nymphalidae) 

Common brown 

butterfly 

Heteronympha merope Grasses 

Meadow argus 

butterfly 

Junonia villida calybe 

Antirrhinum 

Oleander butterfly Euploea core corinna Oleander 

Wanderer butterfly, 

monarch butterfly 

Danaus plexippus 

Migratory in North America but 

not obviously so in Australia 

Asclepiadaceae, eg cotton 

bushes (Asclepias spp.), moth 

plant (Araujia hortorum), 

Calotropis gigantean 

BORERS (several families) 

Callistemon tip borer Lepidoptera Callistemon, melaleuca 

Currant borer moth 

Fruit-tree borer 

Small fruit-tree borer 


Synanthedon tipuliformis 

Maroga melanostigma 

Cryptophasa albacosta 

Graphiolita molesta 

Currant, gooseberry, raspberry 

Wide range of trees, shrubs 

Wide range of trees, shrubs 

Stone fruit 

Tomato stemborer Symmetrischema plaesiosema Tomato 

Goat moths, wood moths (Family Cossidae) 

Australian goat moth Culama caliginosa 

Giant wood moth Xyleutes cinereus 

Wattle goat moth X. encalypti 

Witjuti grub Xyleutes sp. 

Various trees 

Eucalypts 

Wattles 

Acacia kempeana 

Insects and allied pests - Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths) 79


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

(contd) 

Larvae have 

‘stingers’ 

Cutworm damage 

Moth leafminers 

may belong to 

other families, eg 

silkyoak leafminer 

(see below) 

Not known in 

Australia, 

monitored in 

northern Australia 

Biological 




CASE MOTHS, BAGWORMS (Family Psychidae) 

Saunders' case moth, 

large bagworm (Qld) 

Oiketicu elongatus 

Eucalypt, teatree, melaleuca, 

citrus, ornamentals 

Others Clania spp., Hyalarcta spp Teatree, pine, many garden 

plants eg roses 

CUP MOTHS (Family Limacodidae) 

Chinese junks (larvae) Doratifera spp. Eucalypt, brush box, apricot, 

guava 

CUTWORMS, ARMYWORMS, NOCTUIDS, 

SEMI-LOOPERS (Family Noctuidae) 

Armyworms 

Leucania spp., Spodoptera 

spp., Persectania sp. 

Common cutworm, Agrotis infusa 

Bogong moth 

Black cutworm A. ipsilon 

Brown cutworm, A. munda 

pink cutworm 

Corn earworm, cotton Helicoverpa armigera 

bollworm, tomato grub, 

Grasses, cereals 

Newly sown crops, 

transplanted seedlings 

cereals, fodder and field 

crops, vines, weeds, 

ornamentals 

Sweetcorn, sorghum, tomato, 

pea, strawberry, cotton, many 

other crops 

tobacco budworm 

Native budworm H. punctigera Tomato, linseed, other plants 

Loopers Chrysodeixis spp. Wide range, ornamentals, 

field, vegetable, weeds 

Grapevine moth Phalaenoides glycinae Vines, fuchsia, Hibbertia sp., 

Glycine, Gnaphalium 

Gumleaf skeletonizer Uraba lugens Eucalypts 

HAWK MOTHS (Family Sphingidae) 

Australian privet hawk 

moth 

Psilogramma menophron 

menophron 

Jasmine, native olive (Olea 

paniculata) 

Convolvulus hawk moth Agrius convolvuli Convolvulus and other plants 

Grapevine hawk moth 

Vine hawk moth 

Hippotion celerio 

Theretra oldenlandiae 

LEAFBLOTCH MINERS (Family Gracillariidae) 

Azalea leafminer Caloptilia azaleella 

Citrus leafminer Phyllocnistis citrella 

Oak leafminer 

Phyllonorycter messaniella 

Wattle leafminer Acrocercops plebeia 

LEAFROLLER MOTHS (Family Tortricidae) 

Codling moth 

Cydia pomonella 

Lightbrown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana 


(peach tip moth) 

Grapholita molesta 

Silkyoak leafminer Peraglyphis atimana Grevillea 

PYRALID MOTHS (Family Pyralidae) 

Webbing caterpillars, Catamola spp., 

teatree caterpillars other genera 

Cedar shoot caterpillar, 

cedar tip borer 

Pasture webworms 

European corn borer 

Redbanded mango 

caterpillar 

Hypsipyla robusta 

Hednota spp. 

Ostrinia nubilalis 

Deanolis sublimbalis 

Grapes 

Grapes, related plants, sweet 

potatoes 

Azaleas 

All citrus, finger lime. 

Oak, beech, chestnut 

Wattle 

Pome fruit 

Wide range, fruit trees,citrus, 

grapes, ornamentals, weeds 

Stone fruit, sometimes apples 

Wide range, small leafed 

Myrtaceae, eg Astartea, 

Leptospermum, Kunzea, 

Melaleuca, Thryptomene 

Bores into tips of red cedar 

(Toona australis) 

Cereals and pasture grasses 

Overseas, maize, other crops 

Mango fruit, other fresh fruit 

Cactoblastis Cactoblastis cactorum Imported to biologically 

control prickly pear 

Waterhyacinth moth Sameodes albiguttalis Water hyacinth 



LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

(contd) 

Endangered 

butterflies. These 

have been given 

protection under the 

Fauna Conservation Act 

Causes severe 

irritation 

Not known in 

Australia 



LOOPERS, INCHWORMS (Family Geometridae) 

Autumn gum moth Mnesampela privata 

Grevillea looper Oenochroma vinaria 

Eucalypts 

Grevillea 

STORED GRAIN MOTHS (several families) 

Angoumois grain 

moth 

Sitotroga cerealella Stored grain (primary pest) – 

attacks sound grain 

Indian meal moth Plodia interpunctella Stored grain (secondary pest) – 

attacks damaged grain 

SWALLOWTAILS (Family Papilionidae) 

Large citrus butterfly, Princeps aegeus 

orchard butterfly 

Small citrus butterfly Eleppone anactus 

Cairns birdwing 

butterfly 

Richmond birdwing 

butterfly 

Ulysses butterfly 

Triodes euphorion 

T. richmondius 

Princeps ulysses joesa 

Plants belonging to the Rutacae 

family eg citrus, Acronchia, 

Halfordia, native limes, also 

Choisya, Zieria, wilga 

Native Aristolochia tagala 

A. deltantha, introduced A. elegans 

Native vine (A. praevenosa) 

Euodia elleryana, E. bonwickii, 

introduced citrus. 

TUSSOCK MOTHS (Family Lymantridiidae) 

Mistletoe browntail 

moth 

Euproctis edwardsii Mistletoe (on eucalypts only) 

Painted apple moth Teia anartoides Wide range of native plants, 

ornamentals, fruit trees, 

vegetables, weeds 

White cedar moth Leptocneria reducta White cedar 

Asian gypsy moth Lymantria dispar 

Ornamental plants, deciduous 

trees, eucalypts, pine, fruit trees 

OTHERS (Many families) 

Cabbage moth Plutella xylostella Brassicaceae, flowers, 


Cabbage white 

butterfly 

Pieris rapae 

Brassicaceae, flowers, 


Emperor gum moth Opodiphthera eucalypti Wide range of native trees, also 

citrus, olive, pepper trees. 

Potato moth, tobacco 

leafminer (Qld) 

Phthorimaea operculella Potato, tomato, tobacco, related 

weeds, eg thornapple 

Processionary Ochrogaster lunifer Acacia pendula 

caterpillar, bagshelter 

moth 

Scribblygum moth 

Silkworm 

Ogmograptis scribula 

Bombyx mori 

Scribblygum 

Mulberry 

Endangered moth Golden sun moth Synemon plana Grasslands 

Cause severe 

irritation 

Whitestemmed gum 

moth 

Chelepteryx collesi 

Eucalypts. Do not handle 

caterpillars, pupae, etc 

Fig. 49. Flora for Fauna is an initiative of the Nursery 

and Garden Industry (NGIA) and is supported by the 

Natural Heritage Trust. The program identifies and 

promotes a range of 

, 

plants that are known to attract, feed 

e fauna, initially birds and 

butterflies, and to a lesser extent frogs, lizards, possums, 

fruit bats, etc. A Flora for Fauna plant list is available on 

their websites 

www.floraforfauna.com/ 

Flora 

For Fauna 

Individual native plants will be labeled 

with the Flora for Fauna label. Some 

will also be labeled: 

Plant for Butterflies 

. 



BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 

Summary - Some exceptions 

SOME DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 

BUTTERFLIES ADULT Flight Day flying 

Colour Bright 

Antennae Clubbed 

Wings Vertical when at 

rest 

LARVA Legs 

3 pairs legs 

on the thorax 

and up to 

5 pairs prolegs on 

the abdomen 

PLANT DAMAGE (caterpillars) 


LEAVES 

FLOWERS 

BUDS 

FRUIT 

Leaves eaten, eg citrus 

butterflies 

Chewing damage, eg 

grass blue butterfly 

‘Worm’ damage, eg 

pea butterfly 

SEEDLINGS Chewing damage, eg 

SHOOTS cabbage white 

butterfly 


Frass, eg cabbage white butterfly 

MOTHS ADULT Flight Nightflying; moths 

are attracted to lights 

at night; a few dayflying 

moths are 

brightly coloured, eg 

grapevine moth 

Colour Often drab coloured 

Antennae Not clubbed 

Wings 

LARVA Legs 

Fig. 50. Whitestemmed gum moth caterpillar 

(Chelepteryx collesi). PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Wings flat when at 

rest 

As for butterflies 


LEAVES 

FLOWERS 

BUDS 

FRUIT 

Leaves eaten, eg cup 

moth 

Leafmining, eg oak 

blotch miner 

Skeletonization, eg 

gumleaf 

skeletonizer 

Chewing damage eg 

corn earworm 

‘Worm’ damage, eg 

codling moth 

Surface chewing, eg 

lightbrown apple 

moth 

STEMS Borers, eg fruit-tree 

BARK moth borer 

SEEDLINGS Chewing damage, eg 

SHOOTS cutworms 


Frass, eg all caterpillars 

Formation of structures, eg case 

moths 

Introduction of decay organisms, 

eg oriental fruit moth 

Fig. 51. Painted apple moth caterpillar 

(Teia anartoides). PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 52. Cup moth caterpillar (Doratifera spp.) 

PhotoCIT, 

Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Fig. 53. Cutworm damage (Family Noctuidae). 

Left: Stem of seedling chewed off just above 

ground level during the night. They also chew 

holes in leaves, buds and fruit near the ground. 

Right: Cutworm (caterpillar) is smooth-bodied, 

30-40 mm long at maturity and may be olivegreen 

to brown or almost black. When disturbed 

they quickly curl up. Cutworms hide in soil near 

damaged plants during the day. 

Fig. 54. Leafminer (moth) damage to bottlebrush (Callistemon 

spp.) leaves. Note meandering mines made by the larva feeding 

between the upper and lower leaf surfaces. Leafmining insects tend 

to be host specific and may attack both exotic and native plants. 


Fig. 55. Lightbrown apple 

moth (Epiphyas postvittana). 



Enlarged x 4 

1. Group of eggs laid on leaf 

2. Caterpillar, slender, green; 

when disturbed it wriggles 

and drops down on a silken 

thread. It feeds on buds, 

flowers and leaves in 

protected places by 

webbing or rolling leaves or 

flowering parts together 

3. Pupa 

4. Adult moth, adults are bellshaped 

and vary in color. 

Females are pale about 20 

mm long, males are smaller 

and show variable colour 

patterns 

Actual size 

5. Eggs on leaf 

6. Caterpillar on citrus leaf 

7. Empty pupal shell from 

which moths have emerged 

8. Adult moth resting on leaf 

9. Apple showing injury by 

caterpillar feeding on the 

surface 

10. Caterpillar damage to citrus 

leaf 




An example of a leafeating caterpillar 


The introduced cabbage white butterfly (Pieris 

rapae, Order Lepidoptera) is the most serious 

economic butterfly pest in Australia. Its status as a 

pest varies depending on the crop and the region. 

Host range 

Butterflies visit a wide range of flowers to feed on 

nectar. Caterpillars feed on Brassicas (crucifers) 

and some other species. 

Ornamentals, eg stock, wallflower, geranium, 

mignonette, nasturtium, spider flower (Cleome). 

Vegetables, eg broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, 

Brussel sprouts, radish, mustard, kale and turnip. 

Field crops, eg canola, rape. 

Weeds, eg shepherd's purse, wild mustard. 


Butterflies, although popularly referred to as 

‘white’ butterflies, are usually a general gray-white 

and have a wingspan of 40-50 mm. Hindwings 

beneath are yellow and the forewings are paler. 

Females have 2 black spots on the upper surface of 

each forewing, while males have only one spot. 

Both sexes have one black spot on each hindwing. 

Larvae (caterpillars) are velvety green, covered 

with fine short hairs 20-30 mm long when fully 

grown with a faint yellow stripe down the back and 

along each side. They are well camouflaged, their 

color closely resembles that of the plant on which 

they are feeding. Caterpillars generally feed at 

night and frequently rest during the day with their 

bodies extended along leaf midribs and are not 

readily seen. Tell-tale droppings often reveal the 

location of caterpillars. Pupae are about 18 mm 

long, light gray, yellow or green and are attached 

to the host plant or some nearby object. 

Leaves/heads. Young caterpillars feed 

mainly on leaf undersurfaces while older 

caterpillars feed from the uppersurfaces and eat 

large irregular holes from the outer leaves of 

broccoli or cauliflowers. Greenish-brown pellets of 

excrement are caught in the angles of leaves. Only 

leaf ribs and veins of seedling leaves may be left. 

General. So much of the leaf tissue is generally 

eaten by these caterpillars that the growth of plants 

is seriously interfered with and the heads of 

cabbages or cauliflowers are stunted or do not form 

at all. Leafy vegetables are rendered unfit for 

human consumption. 

Diagnostics. Do not confuse damage with 

that caused by: 

Other caterpillars seen on the plant or on the 

ground which attack brassicas, eg cabbage moth, 

cluster caterpillar, diamondback moth, etc. Some 

are more damaging than others. Different species 

vary greatly in size. Keys assist identification of 

caterpillar pests of brassicas. 

Snails and slugs which chew holes, leave snail 

droppings and slimy glistening trails. 

Bird damage, eg silver eyes, which feed on 

seedlings. 

Over-mature cabbages which split overnight. 

Caterpillar droppings of various species can be 

found under infested plants. 

If still unsure seek advice. 

Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and adult), with at least 2 generations 

each season. Females lay pale yellow eggs singly, 

usually on the undersides of the outer leaves, 

which provide food for young caterpillars. When 

fully grown they pupate on the food-plant, some 

nearby object, or even on debris on the ground. 

The pupa is attached by its tail to a silken pad; its 

body is supported by a fine silken girdle around the 

middle. Females may live for up to 4 weeks 

during which time they lay several hundred eggs. 

Fig. 56. Cabbage white 

butterfly (Pieris rapae). 


Investment (E.H.Zeck). ` 

1. Egg (x10) 

2. Larva or caterpillar (x2.5) 

3. Pupa or chrysalis (x 2.5) 

Actual size 

4. Eggs on leaf 

5. Larva or caterpillar 

6. Pupae attached to plant 

7. Adult butterfly 




Usually in the pupal stage which is attached by its 

tail to the food-plant or nearby object. 

Spread 

By butterflies flying assisted by wind, strong fliers 

may be found many kilometers from host plants. 

Movement of infested host plants carrying eggs, 

caterpillars or pupa. 


Warm weather at any time of the year. 

Most active in spring/early summer, autumn. 


Best practice kits which incorporate Lucid keys 

for diagnosing problems in Brassica vegetable 

crops and linked to best practice management 

strategies are available for commercial crops. 

1. Obtain/prepare a plan that fits your situation. IPM 

programs are available for caterpillars and aphids on 

commercial Brassica crops. Obtain local information. 

2. Crop, region. IPM management programs are 

available and vary with the region and the particular 

crop, eg broccoli, cauliflower cauliflower or cabbage. 

3. Identification of pest must be confirmed. Consult a 

diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv). 

4. Monitor the crop regularly as recommended and 

record results, eg 

When and how often to monitor, eg weekly. 

Stage of host development, eg seedling to 5 cm 

head, 5-10 cm head. Number of plants inspected. 

Stage of pest development, eg egg, caterpillar, 

adult. Also monitor beneficial insects. 

Extent of pest damage. 

5. Threshold How much damage can you accept? Have 

any thresholds been established? If so, what are they, 

eg economic, aesthetic? Do you need to calculate your 

own threshold? Will it be different for each variety of 

Brassica and for each growth stage? 

6. Action. Depends on decided threshold, especially to 

seedbeds and in the field. Home gardeners usually 

control caterpillars when they are first observed. 

7. Evaluate IPM program to see how well it worked. 

Review records of monitoring, threshold, spray 

applications, release of bio-control agents, etc, for 

success of treatment and future IPM improvements. 


Sanitation. 

If only a few plants caterpillars can be hand 

picked, but they are green and hard to find. 

Remove weed hosts, keep crops weed-free. 

Destroy, eg plough or dig in, infested crop plant 

material to prevent development of the pest. 


Natural controls. 

– Many parasitic and 

predatory insects, birds, 

spiders, virus, bacterial 

and fungal diseases attack 

eggs, caterpillars, pupae 

and butterflies, reducing 

caterpillar numbers but Yellow cocoons of parasitic 

not economic control. wasps on dying caterpillar. 

–Some companion plants, eg dill, are reputed to 

attract parasitic wasps; sage is reputed to repel the 

cabbage white butterfly. 

Introduced wasp parasites, eg 

CWB pupal parasite (Pteromalus puparum). 

CWB parasite (Cotesia glomerata). 

– Apanteles glomeratus and A. rubecula parasitise 

caterpillars. Their cocoons are seen on fully grown 

caterpillars which stop feeding and die (see above). 

.Biocontrol agents for purchase eg 

–Trichogramma wasps parasitize CWB eggs. 

–Dipel (Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)) is a bacterium 

which is eaten by young caterpillars feeding on 

leaves. A toxin is released which kills CWB 

caterpillars. It has short residual activity but is slower 

acting than chemical insecticides. Caterpillars may 

take several days to die so it must be applied when 

caterpillars are small. It is not suitable for emergency 

treatment. It is a registered pesticide and marketed 

under a range of trade names (see below). 


All brassicas seem to be susceptible, but red 

cabbage has fewer of the taste components 

which attract adult butterflies. CWB feet carry 

hairs that allow it to recognize chemicals in 

the foliage on which it alights; it lays a single 

egg underneath a susceptible leaf. 

Overseas, some Brassicas may be bred to 

produce Bt avoiding the need to spray. 

Pest-tested planting material. 

Ensure purchased seedlings are caterpillar-free! 


In severe infestations home gardeners can place 

light fine woven mesh or other material over rows 

of seedlings to exclude butterflies. Seedlings grow 

and lift up the mesh. Many also provide protection 

from sun, light frosts and hail. Ensure adequate 

light penetration and air circulation. 

Screen greenhouse vents to exclude butterflies. 

Insecticides. 

Many insecticides are registered to control CWB 

caterpillars. Thoroughly spray to penetrate 

foliage and cover leaf undersurfaces. 

Control caterpillars while they are small. Older 

ones are less susceptible and may require 

application of synthetic insecticides. 

Croplife Australia Resistance strategies are 

on labels and should be carefully followed. 

Table 7. Cabbage white butterfly – Some insecticides and bio-control agents. 

What to use? 

FOLIAGE APPLICATIONS 

Group 1A, eg carbaryl (not on food-producing plants in home gardens) 

Group 1B, eg Orthene (acephate); Malathion (maldison) 

Group 2B, eg Regent (fipronil) 

Group 3A, Decis (deltamethrin); Mavrik (tau-fluvalinate); 

Sum-alpha , Flex (esfenvalerate) 

Group 5, eg Entrust , Success , Tracer (spinosad) 

Group 6A, eg Proclaim (emectin) 

Group 11, eg Dipel (Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki), 

Xentari (Bt subsp. aizawai) 

Group 13, eg Secure (chlorfenapyr) 

Group 21B, eg Derris Dust (rotenone) 

Group 28, eg Belt (flubendiamide) 

Biocontrol agents, include Groups 5 and 11 above 

Others, eg garlic oil; chilli/garlic 


Spinosad is derived from soil bacteria. 

Bacillus thuringensis (Bt) is slow-acting. 

Apply to small caterpillars. 

Stomach poison, caterpillars have to eat it. 

Selective, only controls leaf-eating caterpillars. 

Generally several applications are required. 



Corn earworm 

Cotton bollworm, tomato grub, tobacco budworm 


Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera, Family 

Noctuidae, Order Lepidoptera) is said to be the 

world’s worst agricultural pest. It is a major pest 

in NSW, Vic and WA and costs Australian growers 

more than $200 million each year. Related pests 

include: 

Native budworm (H. punctigera) 

Cape gooseberry budworm (H. assulta) 

Indian weed caterpillar (Heliothis rubrescens) 

Host range 

Many different commercial crops, eg 

Ornamentals, eg calendula, carnation, dahlia, 

everlasting, hollyhock, snapdragon. 

Vegetables, eg bean, pea, sweetcorn, tomato. 

Fruit, eg young apple, peach, strawberries. 

Field crops, eg clover, cotton, linseed, maize, 

soybean, sunflower, pasture, grasses, winter cereals. 

Weeds, eg capeweed, deadly nightshade, fat hen, 

Scotch thistle, stinging nettle. 


Moths (adults) are stout, brownish, with a 

wingspan of about 40 mm. There are distinctive 

dark markings on fore and hindwings. Moths hide 

among foliage during the day and fly at dusk, feed 

on nectar and lay eggs on young growth. Eggs 

are easily seen as they are about 0.5 mm in 

diameter, dome-shaped, flattened at the base and 

ribbed. They are initially whitish but change to 

brownish shortly before hatching when the head 

and body of the caterpillar can be seen. 

Caterpillars (larvae, bollworms, budworms, 

earworms) grow to 40-50 mm. Initially pale green 

or cream they change to shades of green, fawn, 

yellow, or red-brown depending on the foliage on 

which they are feeding. Brown or black stripes run 

along the body. Small larvae have bristle-like hairs, 

large caterpillars are smooth. There is no webbing. 

Pupae are brown, about 2 cm long and are 

found in soil. 

Damage. 

Young caterpillars feed on young leaves 

but soon move to buds, flowers, young fruit or 

seeds and eat their way in. 

Older larvae burrow into flower buds and 

fruit. Caterpillars may wander from fruit to fruit. 

Entry holes of tiny caterpillars are easily overlooked 

but as the caterpillars grow, entry holes 

are bigger and more easily seen (Fig. 57). 

Damage may continue postharvest. 

In the laboratory caterpillars can eat through 

plastic. 

Diagnostics. Holes in buds and flower heads 

indicate infestation. Caterpillars are distinctive. 

State fact sheets assist with identification. 

It may be necessary to seek specialized help to 

distinguish corn earworm from native budworm 

and other caterpillars (page xiv). 

To confirm that H. armigera is present and not 

H. punctigera (which is easily controlled with 

insecticides), CSIRO has developed a test which 

involves squashing eggs and larvae on to 

Lepton TM membranes, a particular colour change 

indicates H. armigera. Mainly used by 

diagnostic services. 

Scientists are sequencing the moth’s genome 

(unraveling its 14,000 genes) which they think 

will discover its weaknesses, and the 

development of specially designed insecticides. 

Fig. 57. Corn earworm, cotton bollworm, tomato 

grub (Helicoverpa spp.). Upper: Caterpillars (about 40 mm 

long) boring into sweetcorn cobs; Lower: Caterpillars boring 

into tomato fruit. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 58. Corn earworm life cycle. 



Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and adult) with several overlapping 

generations each growing season. In warmer areas 

there are 10 or more generations/year. Each female 

moth lays about 1000 eggs which are white, domeshaped, 

finely striped about 0.5 mm across, singly 

on upper parts of plants, eg growing tips, sepals, 

petals, young fruits and flower buds. Eggs change 

to yellow then brown prior to hatching. When fully 

grown larvae leave the host and burrow 8-10 cm 

below the soil surface to pupate. Pupal stage may 

be as long as 2-3 weeks in warm weather and up to 

6 weeks in cooler conditions. Life cycle from egg 

to adult can be about 4-6 weeks in summer or up to 

12 weeks in cool weather. 


As pupa in soil. Moths do not emerge from 

pupae formed in mid to late autumn until the 

following spring and early summer. In cooler areas 

they have fewer generations. The pupae enter a 

diapause (resting state) in autumn and adult 

moths emerge in spring. 

Spread 

Moths can fly only for short distances up to 

50 meters but can be carried up to 100 km, by wind 

to new hosts in bloom. They are attracted to lights. 

Movement of infested produce. 


Warm, moist, weather. Damage may be severe 

and widespread during periods of good summer 

rainfall when moisture stimulates emergence of 

moths and food plants are plentiful. Long dry 

cool spells delay emergence of moths. 

Amount of damage varies from year to year. 

Corn earworm (H. armigera) is more common in 

coastal, sub-tropical and northern areas. Native 

earworm (H. punctigera) is widely distributed 

throughout the inland and southern states. 

Usually there are 2 main periods of infestation, 

spring-early summer and autumn. Most common 

in late summer to autumn. 

Plentiful hosts starting to flower and fruit. 



1.Prepare a plan that fits your situation. Growers 

should obtain local information on scouting and 

recommendations on control. 

2.Crop, region. Recognize variations and regional 

susceptibility. Resistance and Best Management 

Strategies for Helicoverpa have been developed for 

some crops, eg cotton, sweetcorn. 

3.Identify the exact Helicoverpa species causing the 

damage. Consult a diagnostic service if necessary 

(page xiv). Fact sheets for your crop. 

4.Monitor pest and/or damage and record results as 

recommended (page 39), before deciding to use a 

biological or chemical insecticide or release beneficials. 

Monitor adults using pheromone traps to detect 

presence of moths and indicate population size. 

Monitor for very small larvae and eggs 

regularly at the appropriate times depending on 

weather, especially after heavy rainfall. 

Trap crops associated with cotton crops can be used 

for predicting Helicoverpa populations. 

5.Thresholds which differ, depending on the crop 

and/or crop value, precise species of caterpillar, 

region, season, climate, planting date, have been 

developed for some crops. How much damage can 

you accept? Remember that the threshold is the break 

even point where the cost of control equals the cost of 

likely damage, so you are no worse of if you spray 

and no worse of if you don’t. 

6.Action. Spraying thresholds are unlikely to be more 

than guidelines for timing sprays. Examine crops at 

least twice per week during danger periods. Before 

deciding to spray consider: 

Likely extent and severity of infestation. 

Ability of crop to either tolerate caterpillar damage 

without any significant loss or to replace leaves or 

fruiting parts lost to caterpillars. 

Estimated value of likely loss if crop is left 

untreated against anticipated cost of treatment. 

Only spray eggs and very small caterpillars (up to 

5 mm long). Larger caterpillars are unlikely to be 

controlled. 


it worked. Recommend improvements if required 

based on records of infestation in the current and 

previous seasons. Seek advice if necessary. 


Cultural methods. Cultivation will damage 

pupae, survivors may be eaten by birds, mice or 

earwigs. Hot wet conditions favour disease in 

larvae and may sharply reduce populations. Heavy 

rainfall may wash eggs off leaves; heat may kill up 

to 50% of the eggs and larvae. 

Sanitation. Attack in corn cobs can be 

prevented by cutting the tips off cobs and the silks 

after the latter are brown and beginning to dry out. 

For small infestations caterpillars can be handpicked 

off the plant. Remove alternative weed 

hosts. Destroy infested plant material and debris to 

prevent development of the pest. 


Natural controls are of limited effect: 

– Predators feed on eggs and larvae. Most abundant 

predators are birds, ladybird beetles, pirate bugs, 

black mired bugs and spiders which eat about 60% 

of eggs on unsprayed plants. Night stalker 

spiders are season-long predators of Helicoverpa 

eggs on cotton. Ants are early season predators of 

Helicoverpa eggs at the edges of cotton fields in 

Australia and in the USA are being considered for 

the biological control of insect pests of cotton. 

– Parasitic wasps and flies parasitize eggs, larvae 

and ‘overwintering’ pupae. 

– Diseases (viral, bacterial, fungal) infect caterpillars 

and are favoured by hot wet conditions. Some mycoinsecticides 

(based on fungi) are being researched for 

commercial use against Helicoverpa spp. 

Commercially available agents include: 

– Parasitic wasps (Trichogramma pretiosum). 

Parasitized eggs may be purchased and released. 

Eggs attacked by Trichogramma turn black 

3-4 days of attack. Trichogramma can be: 

Encouraged in crops by avoiding broad 

spectrum insecticides or using pesticides not 

toxic to Trichogramma www.goodbugs.org.au/ 

Purchased. Microplitis wasps also parasitize 

larvae. List of suppliers www.goodbugs.org.au/ 

Released after Helicoverpa eggs have been 

collected from sorghum and maize crops and 

assessed for levels of parasitism. 

– Food attractants. 

Natural enemies in bush around crops can be 

attracted to the crops by Envirofeast (yeastbased) 

which attracts > 20 species of beneficial 

insects into cotton crops to feed on Helicoverpa 

spp. For Envirofeast to work effectively a source of 

beneficial insects or a ‘refuge’ to draw them from 

is essential. 



– Diseases 

Dipel , (Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a 

bacterium which produces a toxin that kills 

caterpillars. It is marketed as an insecticide. 

Small caterpillars are easier to kill. 

Gemstar (Helicoverpa virus) may be applied 

by commercial growers of cotton, sorghum, 

chickpea. Slow-acting. 

– Trapping moths 

Moth attractants. Magnet (lure which is a 

blend of plant volatiles attractive to insects and 

feeding stimulants plus an insecticide sold 

separately) attracts Helicoverpa moths which are 

killed when they contact or ingest it, preventing 

egg laying, reducing the need for insecticides. 

Other products are being researched. Less than 

2% of the crop area may need to be treated. Other 

products are being researched for use in Australia, 

eg BioATTRACTHeli (attractant which consists of 

kairomones and sugar feeding stimulants) attracts 

adult Helicoverpa, armyworm and certain other 

moth pests; when combined with an insecticide 

registered for that crop, reduces moth numbers. 

Trap cropping is an option for area-wide 

management of Helicoverpa on some crops, 

eg cotton. Moths are attracted to particular 

trap crops, eg chickpeas, where they can be 

destroyed. Precise strategies depend on whether 

the trapping is carried out in spring or summer. 

Resistant/tolerant varieties. 

Genetically engineered plants reduce the 

need for spraying. 

– Ingard cotton (Bt cotton), engineered to contain an 

insect-specific toxin produced by Bt, was released in 

1997. Helicoverpa caterpillars feeding on Ingard 

cotton will die. Cotton varieties are now available 

which not only incorporate the Bt genes but also genes 

for herbicide resistance (Roundup Ready), and 

resistance to Fusarium and other diseases (Bollgard II). 

Beneficial insects, mammals and birds are not affected 

and there has been a 50% reduction in pesticide use. 

– Refuge crops are used in the cotton industry to help 

prevent Helicoverpa resistance to Bt cotton 

(genetically modified). Susceptible moths in these 

refuge crops can mate with resistant moths from the Bt 

cotton crop, diluting overall resistance levels. Refuge 

crops can also support beneficial insects, and 

secondary pests of cotton. 

– Other hosts are being researched so that virus 

particles can be synthesized in leaves to control 



Seedlings and cuttings may carry eggs and very 

small caterpillars, soil may support pupae. 

Only plant pest-free seedling and cuttings. 


Screen vents in greenhouses to exclude moths. 

Cut off infested tops of corn cobs after harvest 

before marketing. 

Insecticides. 

Helicoverpa Resistance Management 

Strategies have been developed. Check label. 

H. armigera has developed resistance to many 

insecticides, eg carbamates, pyrethroids, etc. 

– CropLife Australia Resistance Strategy. In 

some areas certain insecticides may only be used at 

certain times of the year on some crops. 

– Despite increasing difficulty in managing 

H. armigera with conventional chemical insecticides 

due to resistance problems and the increasing 

public concern about environment safety, chemical 

insecticides continue to be the most widespread 

commercially used method of controlling 


To preserve beneficial insects avoid using 

insecticides early in the season or use selective 

materials such as Bt. 

Number and frequency of sprays depends on 

duration and intensity of egg laying and weather, 

particularly temperature. 

Systemic insecticides are not particularly 

effective against caterpillars. 

Small caterpillars are easier to kill when using 

Dipel . Where large caterpillars (> 13 mm long) 

or large numbers of caterpillars are feeding 

consider applying a synthetic insecticide. 

Control Helicoverpa caterpillars when they are 

about to emerge from the eggs (black-brown in 

colour) before they can cause much damage. 

Once they are sheltered they are difficult to 

contact with insecticides. 

Thorough spray penetration of foliage is 

essential for good control. 

Other research options under investigation 

include applying semio-chemicals (behaviour 

modifying chemicals) to cotton plant surfaces. 

Improving the effectiveness of spray oils. 

Table 8. Corn earworm – Some insecticides and bio-controls agents. 

What to use? 



Group 1B, eg Rogor (dimethoate); Orthene , Tracer (acephate) 

Group 3A, eg Cymbush (cypermethrin); Mavrik (taufluvalinate); 

pyrethrins; Ambush (permethrin); 

Baythroid , Bullock (alpha-cyfluthrin); Talstar 

(bifenthrin); Decis (deltamethrin); Karate (lambdacyhalothrin) 

Group 5, eg Entrust , Success , Tracer (spinosad) 

Group 6, eg Affirm , Proclaim (emamectin) 

Group 11, eg Dipel , Costar (Bacillus thuringiensis various 

strains); INGARD cotton 

Group 13, eg Secure (chlorfenapyr) 

Group 19, eg Opal (amitraz) 


Group 22A, eg Steward (indoxacarb) 

Group 28, eg Belt (flubendiamide ) 

Spray oils, eg Canopy (paraffinic oil) 

Biocontrol agents, include Gemstar , Vivus (Helicoverpa 

virus); see also Groups 5 and 11 above 

House & Garden Sprays, eg bioallethrin, bioresmethrin 


Steward (indoxacarb) may temporarily affect 

beneficial insects but populations quickly recover. 

Biocontrol agents can be used to kill caterpillars with 

minimal impact on beneficial insects 



Codling moth 

An example of an internal-feeding caterpillar in fruit 

The codling moth is the key pest of pome fruit in 

eastern Australia. Unless effective control measures 

are applied the total crop may be lost. 


An introduced moth (Cydia pomonella, Order 

Lepidoptera). 

Host range 

Ornamentals, eg crabapple. 

Fruit and nuts, eg apple, pear, quince, nashi. 

Also uncommonly, walnut, stone fruits, 

persimmon, pomegranate and hawthorn. 


Moths (adults) when at rest with wings folded 

are brownish-gray in general appearance and about 

12 mm long. On closer examination, the fore part 

of the wing is found to be pale grayish-brown with 

faint narrow cross stripes. The rest of the forewing 

is dark chocolate brown. Metallic glints can be 

seen in the color pattern when the moth is 

examined under a hand lens. Caterpillars 

(larvae) are 12-20 mm long when fully grown, are 

cream to pinkish in colour with a brown head. 

Cocoons are tough, white and stick firmly to the 

bark of the fruit tree. Pupae are dark, orangebrown 

and about 1 cm long. 

Damage to fruit. Only the fruit are damaged. 

In unprotected crops, caterpillars may tunnel into 

50-100% of the fruit on a tree. 

The tiny caterpillar enters the fruit mainly near 

the calyx end. More damage occurs when they 

leave to pupate. If the fruit is split open tunnels 

are seen to run to the core and seeds on which 

the caterpillar feeds. Caterpillars tend to be 

cannibalistic so that usually only one caterpillar 

is found in the center of each infested fruit. 

When the caterpillar is fully grown, it tunnels to 

the surface of the fruit and emerges through a 

round exit hole. 

Damage on the outside is visible as small holes 

or punctures (Fig. 59). Later the holes become 

more obvious and masses of black frass protrude 

usually with gummy exudate. 

Sometimes, ‘stings’ occur on the surface of the 

fruit where a caterpillar has died after entering, 

or failed to enter the fruit successfully. 

Damaged fruit often drop prematurely. 

Diagnostics. 

Codling moth larvae are the only caterpillars 

that commonly tunnel to the core of apples and 

usually there is only one caterpillar per fruit. 

Do not confuse with caterpillars of the oriental 

fruit moth (OFM) which only rarely attack pome 

fruits or with fruit fly maggots which are much 

smaller and numerous. 

Fig. 59. Codling moth (Cydia 

pomonella). External signs of 

attack by caterpillars PhotoNSW Dept of 

Industry and Investment (W.G.Thwaite). 

Fig. 60. Codling moth 

(Cydia pomonella). PhotoNSW 

Dept of Industry and Investment (E.H.Zeck). 

1. Eggs (about x4). 

2. Caterpillar (about x3). 

3. Cocoon spun in crack in 

bark cut open to show pupa. 

4. Adult moths in resting position 

(about x4). 

Actual size 

5. Eggs on leaf. 

6. Cocoon showing empty pupal 

skin from which a moth has 

emerged. 

7. Moths resting on leaf. 

8. Apple showing damage 

caused by the caterpillar 

feeding inside 



Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and adult), with 2 generations each 

season and often a partial 3 rd generation (Fig. 61 

below). Multiple generations in warmer districts. 

The 1 st (spring) generation moths start to emerge 

early in October, reaching a peak about mid- 

November. Eggs are laid on leaves and fruit at 

dusk when the temperature is 16 o C or higher and 

the air is calm. They hatch in 5-10 days, young 

caterpillars soon entering into fruit to feed around 

the core. They become fully fed in about 4 weeks 

when they crawl down at night from the fruit to 

shelter under loose bark, in crevices around the 

trunk and main limbs to spin cocoons in which 

they later pupate. They may fall to the ground in 

infested fruit and then look for stable litter, eg 

packing cases, on which to pupate. The 1 st 

pupation occurs during the 1 st week in December 

and continues throughout December and January. 

Moths emerge in about 15 days and reach peak 

numbers in late January. Larvae from this 

generation ‘overwinter’ in a fully fed state in 

cocoons and pupate in mid-September. A partial 

3 rd generation sometimes occurs, infesting late 

varieties in April. 


Because adult moths are not very mobile, the main 

source of infestation in spring (the 1 st brood 

moths) in an orchard or on a tree is the overwintering 

cocoons in cracks and under loose bark 

on trunks, broken limbs, on stable litter on the 

ground, paling fences, packing cases, etc. A few 

‘strays’ will wander in from surrounding orchards, 

just as a few of the native population will depart, 

but their numbers are negligible. 

Spread 

By adults flying at dusk. In most orchards female 

moths will not spread over more than 5-10 trees, 

but males will fly as far as 180 meters. 

Transfer of fruit infested with caterpillars. 

Transfer of cocoons on packing containers or 

any other suitable carrier. Because the spread of 

codling moth to new areas is by the movement of 

infested fruit (larvae) or fruit boxes (cocoons) or 

any other suitable carrier, preventing this is an 

essential part of quarantine. 

Fig. 61. Pest cycle of codling moth (Cydia pomonella). 




Warm, dry weather in late spring and early summer 

speeds development of eggs and larvae. Warm 

autumns increase risk of late infestation. 

Optimum temperature 28-30 o C (cycle 4 weeks). 

Each stage of the life cycle has specific temperature 

requirements for development, eg 

– Moths do not mate or lay eggs until the temperature 

exceeds 16 o C and air is calm. Moths will not 

emerge from pupae, take flight or mate at < 16 o C. 

– Eggs hatch, larvae feed and grow and pupate at a 

minimum threshold of 10 o C. 

– Adult males fly at a minimum threshold of 13 o C. 

Good pupating sites on the tree itself. 



1.Obtain/prepare a plan based on your legal 

obligations in your State/Territory. Growers should 

obtain local information on scouting and control 

recommendations. 

2.Crop, region. Be aware of pest favourable 

climates, proximity of other susceptible crops, etc. 

3.Identification of codling moth larvae must be 

confirmed. Consult a diagnostic service if necessary 

(page xiv). 


recommended. Monitoring offers direct savings 

associated with the cost of sprays, long term benefits 

of reducing the numbers of sprays and slows down 

development of resistance to chemicals. 

Orchards without MD (mating disruption) need 

pheronome traps or codling moth warning systems (pages 

44, 92). Check infestation at thinning time (if present 

review program). 

– Monitor male moths. Synthetic female 

pheromones are used to attract male moths to 

sticky traps where they are counted regularly so 

that the number of routine pesticide applications 

can be reduced and timing improved. 

– Early warning systems have been developed 

which issue recommendations on the best time to 

spray based on codling moth populations and 

daily temperatures recorded by the grower. 

The system depends on establishing the first 

emergence of moths from ‘overwintering’ sites 

and then recording daily temperatures. Records 

are sent to the local Departments of Agriculture/ 

Primary Industries which enters them into a 

computer model which gives a prediction of when 

egg laying will commence and optimum date(s) 

for spraying with an insecticide. 

Orchards with MD need to be monitored by 

suitably trained staff or a consultant . 

– Monitor male moths with sticky male pheromone 

traps before moth activity starts so that MD 

dispensers can be placed in orchards at the correct 

time. However, MD interferes with trap readings. 

– Monitor fruit for damage by scouting from 

early December to harvest, depending on district. 

5.Thresholds. There may be nil quarantine requirement, 

eg in WA. How much damage can you accept? Take advice. 

6.Action. Decisions about some methods of control, 

eg mating disruption (MD), need to be made long 

before monitoring has indicated a need for an 

insecticide application. Seek expert advice if unsure. 


it worked. Recommend improvements if required. 

Record damage at harvest to help with management 

decisions for next season. 


Successful control requires careful hygiene, mating 

disruption, insecticide selection and application, 

resistance management and monitoring, etc. 

www.bioglobal.com.au/ 

Legislation. Control measures are compulsory 

under State/Territory legislation such as Plant 

Diseases Acts or their counterparts which require a 

grower of apples, pears and quinces in some areas 

to carry out certain sanitation treatments and to 

apply a minimum number of pesticide applications. 

Sanitation. You may be required by law to: 

Collect all fallen fruit and remove all infested fruit 

from trees at intervals not exceeding 7 days (for 

fruit fly the interval is 3 days). Keep ground 

beneath trees free from long grass and weeds. Treat 

fruit to be destroyed by boiling, burning or placing 

in a special insect-proof pit. 

Remove and destroy ‘overwintering’ sites, eg 

unwanted trees, unwanted litter and plant debris 

(boxes, tree props). 

Scrape loose bark and cocoons from the trunk and 

limbs of the tree during December and again at the 

end of February and during winter. 

At end of season check bulk bins and other 

handling equipment for cocoons in cracks and 

crevices, if found destroy larvae. 

Home gardeners in isolated areas could remove and 

destroy all fruit as it develops for 1 year. 

Biological control/Natural controls. 

Natural controls do not appear to reduce 

codling moth populations significantly. 

– Codling moth virus can devastate localized 

populations of codling moth larvae. This virus has 

been developed into a commercial product overseas 

but local trials in Australia have been disappointing. 

– A parasitic nematode has shown promise for 

control of ‘overwintering’ larvae. 

– Earwigs and mirid bugs prey on codling moth 

eggs but neither gives significant control. 

– Wasps, eg Trichogramma, parasitize codling moth 

eggs. In Australia the rate of parasitism is too low 

for commercial use. 

Commercial use. Male moths are attracted to 

females by strong scent (pheromones). 

– Female pheromone lures have been used for 

decades to attract male moths to sticky traps where 

they are counted regularly. This ensures better timing 

of insecticide applications, reducing pesticide usage. 

Picking up fruit 

Monitoring male moths, 

some traps attract both 

male and female moths 

Mating disruption 

(tiers are attached 

to twigs) 

Cocooning sites 

Fig. 62. Codling moth (Cydia pomonella). Sanitation, biological methods 

(pheromones for monitoring, mating disruption) and physical methods assist control. 



– Desire traps (InSense Duo Lure) have both 

female pheromones (sex scents) that attract male 

moths and a karimone (food scent) that attracts 

female moths. Many male and female moths are 

caught on replaceable sticky pads and fewer eggs 

are laid. Contact Desire Pest Management: 

http://insense.com.au/products.htm 

Desire Codling moth trap. PhotoInsense 

– Mating disruption (MD) is used in large orchards 

(pages 44, 91 Fig. 62). The orchard is saturated with 

synthetic female pheromone emitted from slow-release 

dispensers (tiers). This prevents male moths from using 

pheromones emitted from female moths to locate and 

mate with the females (confusion strategy). 

However, MD interferes with the use of pheromone 

traps for monitoring moth populations to determine if 

there is a need to supplement MD with other treatments. 

Like all technologies mating disruption must be 

managed well. New attractants are being researched. 

– Nematodes, Steinernema carpocapsae (Millenium ) 

can be applied to ‘overwintering’ larvae. Timing of 

application is based on favourable weather conditions. 

www.beckerunderwood.com/ 

Resistant varieties. All apple and pear varieties 

seem to be equally susceptible. Late ripening apples may 

be particularly susceptible. 


AQIS (Australian Quarantine & Inspection 

Service). It is illegal to bring fruit into Australia. 

Interstate and regional quarantine. 

– Codling moth does not occur in WA. The 

movement of infested fruit and packing cases is 

strictly controlled by Interstate and Regional 

Quarantine Regulations within Australia. 

– In WA and other areas where codling moth 

does not occur . If infested fruit is found (an apple or 

other pome fruit with a frass-filled tunnel reaching 

to the core) take it to the nearest agricultural office 

for identification. Fruit from the eastern states must 

be declared at checkpoints and airports. Monitoring 

is carried out to detect any incursions. 

Table 9. Codling moth – Some insecticides and bio-controls. 

What to use? 

STICKY TRAPS 

Used for monitoring attract male codling moths only. 

May assist control. Desire codling moth kits attract both 

male and female codling moths for one season. 

MATING DISRUPTION (MD) TIERS 

Isomate C Pheromone Insect Confusion Agent 

Isomate C-S Pheromone Insect Confusion Agent 

Isomate CTT Pheromone Insect Confusion Agent 

Isomate C/OFM TT Pheromone Insect Confusion Agent 

Disrupt-CM Mating Disruption Agent 

IF PREDATORY MITES ARE BEING USED 

COVER SPRAYS 


Group 1B, eg Lebaycid (fenthion), others 

Group 3A, eg Gringo , Talstar , various (bifenthrin) 

Group 4A, eg Calypso (thiacloprid); Sumarai (clothianidin) 

Group 5, eg Entrust , Success , Tracer ® (spinosad); 

Delegate (spinetoram) 

Group 7B, eg Insegar (fenoxycarb) 

Group 18, eg Mimic (tebufenozide) 

Group 22A, eg Avatar (indoxacarb) 

Group 28, eg Altacor (chlorantraniliprole) 

Spray oils, eg Summer spray oils (paraffinic oil, petroleum oil) 

Local quarantine. As moths only fly short 

distances do not bring in fruit, fruit cases, etc into 

isolated properties where codling moth does not 

occur. 


In home gardens, artificial cocooning sites 

such as bands of clothe or corrugated cardboard tied 

with wire around tree trunks, allows ‘overwintering’ 

larvae to be trapped and destroyed. 

Exclusion products, eg 'Apple Pouches' are 

available for purchase! 

Insecticides. 

Successful codling moth control with 

chemical pesticides depends on competent spraying. 

Since 1 mated female can produce > 1000 2 nd brood 

caterpillars, good spraying will not only produce a 

clean crop, but will reduce the ‘overwintering’ 

population in the orchard. 

Sprays are directed to killing the moths (not 

caterpillars which almost immediately burrow into 

fruit out of reach of pesticides). The aim is to put a 

thin layer of spray on the upper surfaces of as many 

leaves and young fruit as practicable. The better the 

coverage, the more effective will be the spray. When 

moths alight on leaves and young fruit in the 

evening, they absorb the chemical through their feet. 

Some insecticides used to control codling moth 

may kill the natural enemies of two-spotted mite, 

woolly aphid and other pests, so that further sprays 

are required to control these pests, eg carbaryl. 

Select insecticides which will control codling moth 

but not affect natural controls and any biological 

control agents used to control other pests. 

Some insecticides, may disfigure some 

varieties of fruit if applied before, during 

or shortly after adverse conditions. Check the label. 

Resistance to many insecticides used to 

control codling moth has occurred. 

Implement sanitation measures. 

– Prune trees to ensure good spray coverage. 

Check sprayer calibration, get advice if unsure. 

– Use mating disruption if the block meets minimum 

requirements regarding size www.bioglobal.com.au/ 

– Follow Croplife Australia resistance management 

strategies. 


Regular weekly counts provide a reliable means of 

monitoring population levels ensuring the accurate 

timing of chemical or non-chemical controls . 

Suitability depends on size and layout of blocks. Seek 

advice from district horticulturist if necessary. 

May be necessary to supplement MD with insecticide 

and sanitation measures. 

Apply dispensers at the recommended times during 

each season, rate per hectare, height and distribution. 

Only use pesticides recommended by the supplier to 

control codling moth, twospotted mite and other pests. 

A minimum number of sprays may be compulsory 

under legislation. Check. 

Follow label instructions for rates, number of 

applications and interval between applications. Fewer 

sprays are required if damage was not severe the 

previous season. Spraying usually commences at 

petal fall or soon after. 

Thoroughly wet every part of foliage and fruit with 

spray. 

Observe with-holding periods. 

Insegar is an IGR and prevents eggs from hatching. 



Oriental fruit moth, peach tip moth 

An example of a tip or shoot boring caterpillar 


Introduced moth (Grapholita molesta, Lepidoptera). 

Widespread in southern Australia and coastal Qld. 

Not known to occur in WA. 

Host range 

Fruit, eg mainly stone fruits, peach, nectarine, also 

almond, apricot, plum and cherry and is becoming a 

more serious pest of nashi, quince, apple and pear. 

Ornamental varieties of these species. 


Moths (adults) are mottled brown-grey and 

6-7 mm long when at rest with wings folded. Males 

are slightly smaller than females. When their wings 

are outspread they measure about 13 mm across. 

Moths are inactive during the day and are rarely 

seen but during late afternoon on warm days they 

can be seen in flight near the tree tops. Moths are 

only active in dim light and when the temperature is 

high enough probably above 18 o C. If these 

conditions prevail mating followed by egg laying 

will occur. Caterpillars (larvae) when fully grown 

are nearly 12 mm long, creamy white or pale pink, 

with a light brown head. They have a special 

appendage, the anal comb, a toothed horny plate on 

the last segment. Pupae are cocoons about 15 mm 

long by 3 mm wide at the center. 

Twigs/shoots. The caterpillar usually enters 

the twig near the tip (and often through the petiole) 

and tunnels downward for 7-10 cm causing the 

twig to wilt, collapse, produce gum and die. An 

individual larva may attack as many as 3 shoots 

during a season. When older larvae move from one 

twig to another, the point of entry into the shoots 

may be at the axil of a leaf below the tip. Death of 

the tip of a shoot may cause the buds below to 

break dormancy and grow resulting in a rosette of 

shoots. There may be severe damage to twigs. 

Fruit. Later generations bore into the fruit as 

well. Larvae may enter fruit either through the 

stem of the fruit or where a leaf or small branch 

touches the fruit (Fig. 63). Fruit can appear perfect 

on the outside but when cut open numerous 

feeding burrows can be seen. These tunnels may 

be filled with brown particles of excreta, similar to 

codling moth damage to apples. 

General. 

Populations which build up on growing 

points in spring invade fruit later in the summer. 

Damage to growing points is usually more 

important in young trees which are being trained. 

Up to 80% of the crop can be lost in some 

untreated peach orchards and spread of brown 

rot is enhanced especially during wet weather. 

Diagnostics. 

Limited host range. 

Blackened shoot tips which may exude 

blobs of gum are easy to recognize. 

Fruit may also be attacked by other caterpillars, 

eg budworms (Helicoverpa spp.), peach and 

nectarines also by the yellow peach moth 

and the orange fruitborer, depending on the 

region. Rarely by codling moth. Expert assistance 

may be required to differentiate some of these 

pests. Do not confuse with fruit fly maggots which 

are smaller (page 68). 

Fig. 63. Oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta). 

Peach fruit damaged by caterpillars. Note leaf stuck by 

webbing to fruit and the small caterpillar on the surface. 

Brown rot infection may develop around entrance holes. 


Fig. 64. Oriental fruit moth 

(Grapholita molesta). PhotoNSW 


1. Eggs (x 10) 

2. Caterpillars (x 8) 

3. Pupa (x 8) 

4. Moth (x 8) 

5. Twig dieback caused by the 

caterpillar feeding within tips 



Pest cycle 


caterpillar, pupa and adult) with several overlapping 

generations (probably 5-6) each year. 

Adult moths lay their eggs on the undersides or on 

young stems or fruit. Mature larvae spin a cocoon 

usually high in the tree near where it has been 

feeding. Life cycle takes about 5 weeks in summer. 

Moths which emerge late in the season lay eggs 

but except for those which infest quince most of 

the larvae which hatch from these eggs die. The 

last generation of larvae in late summer and 

autumn spin their silken cocoons under bark near 

the base of the host tree, in wounds from broken 

limbs or on litter on the ground. Late in winter or 

early spring dormant larvae pupate; the pupa, at 

first yellowish, turns brown then almost black just 

before the moth emerges any time from August to 

early November depending on temperature. 


As larvae in cocoons under bark on the trees, on 

mummified fruit and litter on the ground, and in 

crevices in the soil. Very cold winters can kill 

some carry-over pupae. 

Spread 

By moths flying, they are not strong fliers. They 

may migrate from lightly infested adjacent trees 

into susceptible fruit orchards. 

Transfer of infested fruit, litter, 

Transfer of infested nursery stock. 

Possibly also in packing boxes. 

. 


Warm, moist conditions, over-irrigation, 

over-fertilizing, severe pruning or other factors 

which favour lush tree growth and plenty 

food for caterpillars. Moth populations buildup 

quickly. These conditions also favour the 

brown rot fungus. 

The lower development threshold is 7.5 o C. 

Hot, dry and windy weather is unfavorable. 

Even if a heavy infestation is threatened in 

spring, hot summer winds can reduce it. 

Twig damage can occur from early spring 

through to autumn. 

Late-maturing varieties of peaches suffer greater 

losses than early varieties. 

Populations on other hosts nearby which only 

suffer slight damage can cause problems for 

peaches and nashi. 

. 

Fig. 65. Pest cycle of the oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta). 





1.Obtain/prepare a plan that fits your situation. 

2.Crop region. Recognize variations. 

3.Identification of pest must be confirmed. Consult 

a diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv). 


recommended. 

Orchards without MD need pheromone traps 

and/or spray warning services (if available) 

which indicate when conditions favour 

infestation. Also check infestation at thinning 

time, if present review program. 

Orchards with MD. It is recommended that 

growers use a consultant or suitably trained staff to 

carry out monitoring as MD interferes with trap 

catches. Efforts are being made to find more 

effective attractants for monitoring. 

Monitoring may be required after harvest through to 

leaf fall. 



they, eg economic, aesthetic, environmental? Do you 

need to calculate your own threshold? 

6.Action. Decisions about some methods of control, 

eg mating disruption (MD), need to be made long 

before monitoring has indicated a need for an 

insecticide application. Seek expert advice if unsure. 

Orchards without MD or warning service, 

should apply insecticides when moth activity is 

first observed (usually within 14 days of petal fall, 

October onwards) or if 10% of shoots are infested. 

If a warning service based on trap catches is 

available, intervals between applications could be 

extended beyond the usual 3 weeks. Observe 

withholding periods. 

Orchards with MD may require spraying. 

7. Evaluation. Review IPM program to see how 

well it worked, eg after harvest through to leaf fall . 


Infestations should be controlled in both bearing 

and young non-bearing trees as the framework of 

developing trees may be seriously damaged. Also 

moths may spread to adjoining mature trees. 

Cultural methods. Avoid heavy pruning, 

fertilizing, irrigation which promote lush growth. 

Sanitation. 

Damage to individual home garden trees may be 

reduced by pruning off and destroying infested 

tips (about 20 cm) starting in spring. This 

reduces the number of 1 st generation moths. 

Destroy all fallen and infested fruit on the tree 

every few days (page 91, codling moth). 

Remove loose or rough bark under which larvae 

may pupate from the tree. 


Natural controls. Wasps parasitize larvae and 

pupae and may reduce numbers considerably. 

For purchase. Mating disruption (MD). 

– Pheromone lures are available for monitoring. 

– Pheromones, eg Isomate OFM Rosso-S, 

Isomate C/OFM TT and Disrupt-OFM , are used 

commercially to control oriental fruit moth. The 

pheromone is contained in a thin flexible polythene 

tube with an aluminum wire for stiffness. It looks 

rather like a garbage bag tie. The large quantities of 

female pheromone released by the dispensers confuse 

male moths, preventing them from locating and 

mating with females. Dispensers are twisted around 

the laterals of trees in spring, when leaf buds are 

emerging from dormancy in spring. They must be 

replaced with new dispensers 3 months later. All trees 

in an orchard must be treated, for near perfect control 

it is also necessary to treat trees adjacent to the 

orchard (See Table 10 below and page 44). 

– MD for OFM control has been successful over large 

areas with low populations and where alternative 

hosts are not present. MD can be augmented with 

pesticides if populations are high. Alternate hosts 

should be treated with MD to prevent migration of 

mated female moths. 

Resistant varieties. Fruit damage is said not 

to be so common in low-chill cultivars. 


Hessian or cardboard bands around trunks can be 

used in a manner similar to that for codling moth. 

Insecticides. 

Determine the need for spray applications by 

monitoring and refer to predictive models which 

use temperature and other factors to predict 

favourable conditions. The aim is to kill moths 

as they alight on treated surfaces and caterpillars 

as they crawl on the surface of the plant. 

The use of pesticides to control oriental fruit 

moth may reduce natural enemies of twospotted 

mites increasing damage by this pest and special 

attention to its control may be necessary. 

Table 10. Oriental fruit moth – Some insecticides and bio-controls. 

What to use? 

MATING DISRUPTION (MD) 

Pheromones, eg 

Isomate OFM Rosso –S Pheromone Insect Confusion 

agent 

Isomate OFM Rosso Pheromone Insect Confusion 

Agent 

Isomate C/OFM TT Pheromone Insect Confusion 

Agent 

Disrupt-OFM Mating Disruption Agent 

TRAP CATCHES NOT AVAILABLE 


Group 1B, eg Lebaycid (fenthion); Malathion (maldison) 

Group 4A, eg Calypso (thiacloprid); Sumarai (clothianidin) 

Group 5, eg Entrust Naturalyte Insect control (spinosad) 

Group 22A, eg Avator (indoxacarb) 

Group 28, eg Altacor (chlorantraniliprole) 

TRAP CATCHES FROM PHEROMONE LURES 

Available for monitoring only 


Mating disruption of OFM has been successful where 

populations of OFM are low over large areas and 

alternate hosts not present. When traps indicate, apply 

dispensers at the recommended number per hectare, 

height and distribution in trees. Suitability depends on 

size and layout of blocks. May be necessary to 

supplement MD with an effective insecticide. 

Follow label instructions. 

Apply when moth activity is indicated 

from monitoring and at recommended intervals 

thereafter. 

These sprays may affect predators of twopotted mite 

and lightbrown apple moth. 

Intervals between spraying will be longer and will 

depend on trap catches. 




A native moth (Maroga melanostigma, Order 

Lepidoptera). Synonym Crytophasa melanostigma. 

Other borers may also attack shrubs, trees, vines 

(page 79) including: 

Order Lepidoptera 

Family Oecophoridae, eg fruit-tree borer 

Family Cossidae (wood moths) 

Family Hepialidae (ghost moths) 

Order Coleoptera (page 99) 

Family Cerambycidae (longicorn beetles) (page 111) 

Family Curculionidae (weevils) 

Family Bostrichidae (auger beetles) 

Family Platypodidae (ambrosia beetles,pinhole borers) 

Family Scolytidae (bark beetles) 

Order Hymenoptera 

Family Siricidae (wood wasps, eg sirex wasp, page 116) 

Host range 

Ornamental trees, eg black wattle (Acacia 

decurrens), banksia, flowering Prunus spp., elm, 

plane, willow, Pistacia spp., crepe myrtle and 

jacaranda, eucalypt, grevillea, hakea, NSW 

Christmas bush (Ceratopetalum gummiferum), 

Cassinia, Helichrysum (shrubby species), 

Leptospermum, melaleuca, Prostanthera. 

Fruit trees, eg stone fruits, especially cherry, 

peach, nectarine, plum, prune, also apple, pear, 

raspberry. 

Fruit-tree borer 

The most easily controlled ‘borer’ 


Moths (adults) are satiny-white and 35-60 mm 

across their outspread wings. The upper surface of 

the abdomen is black, with an orange-colored 

fringe of hairs, and a thick tuft at the tip. Moths are 

nocturnal and rarely seen. Caterpillars (larvae) 

are fleshy, brownish-red, sparsely hairy and up to 

50 mm long and feed in the phloem-cambium 

region. During the day the caterpillars hide in the 

tunnel and come out to feed at night on callus 

tissue which grows around tunnel entrances. 

Caterpillars sometimes take leaves into their 

tunnels for food. 

Trunks and branches. Although this is 

probably the most frequently noticed borer, many 

other borers cause more serious damage. Tunnels 

are vertical, short (only 8-10 cm deep) and are 

usually made in the forks of trees or between main 

branches. Damaged areas and tunnel entrances are 

neatly covered with chewed wood, bark, webbing 

and droppings which protect caterpillars from 

predators, eg ants. Some trees, eg cherry, ooze gum 

from damaged areas. 

Attacks weaken branches and may ringbark and 

kill smaller branches or small trees and allow 

entry of wood rot fungi. 

Branches may also be completely ringbarked or 

severely weakened in the crotches. Damaged 

branches, stems or canes may break. 

Productivity of commercial crops such as 

prunes may be affected. 

Diagnostics. 

Fruit-tree borer tunnels only 8-10 cm deep. 

Can be mistaken on some hosts with damage 

caused by other moth borers, eg wood moth 

damage on wattles, which are also covered with 

webbing, chewed wood but the larvae and the 

tunnels they make are much larger in diameter. 

Do not confuse with beetle borers (pages 103, 111). 

It is often necessary to seek diagnostic assistance 

(page xiv). 

Fig. 66. Fruit-tree borer (Maroga melanostigma). 

Left top: Adult moth (natural size). Left lower: Caterpillar 

(up to 50 mm long). Right: Branch showing webbed material 

covering tunnel entrance, when webbed material is removed 

the damage is apparent (see page 30 for internal damage). 

Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 



Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and adult) with 1 generation every 

1-2 years. Eggs are laid on the surface of the bark, 

usually at branch junctions, and the larvae hatching 

from the eggs burrow downwards into the tree 

creating short tunnels. The tunnel is increased in 

size as the larva grows, until it is 6-10 cm in length 

by the time the larva is fully grown. When fully 

grown the larva closes the entrance to the tunnel 

with a wad of silken web and chewed wood and 

changes into a pupa. Moths emerge the following 

summer. 


Probably as caterpillars or pupae in tunnels in 

trunks and branches. 

Spread 

Mainly by moths flying. Infested wood could 

spread caterpillars and pupae. 


Trees stressed by poor soil, inadequate irrigation, 

poor drainage. Trunks damaged by sunburn may be 

more susceptible. 



1.Obtain/prepare a plan if this borer is a 

problem, which fits your situation. 

2.Crop, region. Recognize variations for your crop, 

eg ornamental, commercial, and for your locality. 

3.Identification of pest may have to be confirmed 

professionally (page xiv) to avoid mistaken diagnosis 

as larvae of wood moths or beetles which make longer 

tunnels and are more difficult to control. 


recommended. Inspect deciduous trees during 

dormancy in winter when damage is easily 

observed. Frass is easily seen. The giant wood moth 

(Xyleutes cinereus) is monitored in some eucalypt 

plantations in coastal areas of Qld, and northern NSW. 


Have any thresholds been established? Do you need to 

calculate your own threshold? 

6.Action is usually taken when infestation is first 

noticed to avoid serious damage to smaller trees. 

Prune to remove damaged branches, fertilize and 

irrigate to promote vigour. Treat remaining borer 

tunnels as recommended. In extreme cases treat major 

hosts in your cropping area. 

7.Evaluation. Check trees regularly for infestation. If 

the frass is visible again then the borer is still active and 

further treatments will be needed. Review the control 

program and monitoring techniques to decide further 

improvements, especially cultural/sanitation practices. 


As caterpillars do not tunnel far into the wood, this 

borer is easy to control on small trees. Other borers 

are not usually noticed until they have done much 

damage and larvae have penetrated deep into the 

wood. Apply control measures when infestation is 

first noticed. The most convenient time to do it on 

deciduous trees is usually during winter pruning, 

when damage is easy to see. If large trees are badly 

affected contact a qualified arborist to properly 

assess and treat the damage. 


Fertilize and irrigate trees appropriately. 

Provide good cultural care, eg adequate 

drainage, irrigation, good fertilizer practices, etc. 

Judicious pruning at the correct time may 

stimulate vigour and protect limbs from sunburn. 

Make all pruning cuts cleanly so that stubs are 

not left to dieback and so encourage further borer 

attack. Trim ragged edges around the damaged 

area. 

Sanitation. 

If the problem is extensive, or occurs over 

more than one season, consider either treating or 

removing other major hosts in the areas such as 

plums or thickets of black wattle trees within 

50m of commercial plantings to reduce buildup 

of moth populations. 

If small twiggy growth on shrubs or trees 

has been attacked, prune off. Consider removing 

severely damaged limbs during pruning. 

Cut back severely infested branches well 

below infested sections and paint the cut surface 

with fungicide paint if recommended. 

Do not leave prunings lying around as 

moths may emerge to lay eggs on other hosts. 


The wasp (Trichogramma carverae) lays its eggs in 

the eggs of the fruit-tree borer and is being studied 

as a possible bio-control agent. There are several 

other parasites and predators of the larvae. 

Physical methods/Insecticides. 

These are mostly suitable if only a few trees are 

involved as in a home garden situation. 

Remove webbing and sawdust-like material to 

expose damaged wood and caterpillars which 

can then be squashed or if they are in the tunnel 

either poke a thin wire down the short tunnels to 

kill the caterpillars, or squirt a household 

insecticide into the tunnels. 

Only in severe infestations is it necessary to 

spray trunks, branches and leaves. Seek advice. 

If considered necessary, smooth damaged wood, 

plug tunnels with putty or similar material. 

Light trapping of moths at night is being 

researched. 

Table 11. Fruit-tree moth borer – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

INSECTICIDES, eg 


Seek advice regarding spray applications. 



NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

Elytra enable them 

expand into habitats 

which could damage 

unprotected wings 

LIFE CYCLE 

ORDER COLEOPTERA 

Beetles, weevils 

More than 28,000 named species in Australia. There are more than 6000 

species of native weevils in Australia. The Coleoptera is by far the largest 

order of insects both in Australia and world wide and has more plant feeders 

than any other order. Many species are predatory and feed on other insects. 

Rhinoceros, flower and other beetles are kept as pets. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/coleoptera.html 

ADULT Body 1. Hard and compact (with exceptions). 

2. Prothorax often appears separated from the other 

2 parts of the thorax. 

3. Many beetles are brilliantly colored and are of 

various shapes and sizes. 

Wings 1. Usually 2 pairs. 

2. Forewings hardened into hard wing covers (elytra) 

which are not used in flight. 

3. Hindwings gauzy and used in flight. They are 

neatly tucked under wing covers when not in use. 

Mouth Chewing mouthparts. 

Antennae Usually well developed and conspicuous. 

Eyes Compound eyes. 

LARVA Legs 1. No prolegs (abdominal legs). 

2. Commonly 3 pairs thoracic legs (long or short) each 

pair ending in 1-2 claws, eg scarab grubs. 

3. Some are entirely legless, eg longicorn beetle larvae. 

Head Always distinct, usually dark colored, bearing 

definite but minute antennae. 

Mouth Chewing mouthparts. 

There is a complete metamorphosis (egg, larva (grub, curl grub, scarab 

grub, wireworm, mealworm, borer), pupa and adult. Life cycles vary in 

duration and location. 

Christmas 

beetle 

Many 

variations 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

LARVA 

Biting and chewing mouthparts, usually well developed. Many feed 

on plant material, nectar or are predators, some do not feed at all. 

Biting and chewing mouthparts, usually well developed. 

98 Insects and allied pests - Coleoptera (beetles, weevils)



DAMAGE 

DIRECT CHEWING DAMAGE. 

Both adults and larvae may feed on plant material. 

Feeding habits of 

adults and larvae 

may be similar 

or different 

LEAVES 

Chewed, eg leaf beetles (adults and larvae), pumpkin beetle 

(adults), metallic flea beetles (adults), Christmas beetle 

(adults), black vine weevil (adults) 

Skeletonization, eg leafeating ladybirds (adults and larvae), 

elm leaf beetles (adult and larvae) 

Leafmining, eg lantana leafminer (larvae) 

FLOWERS, Chewing, eg orchid beetle (adults) 

BUDS 

FRUIT, 

SEED, 

GRAIN 

TRUNKS, 

BARK 

ROOTS, 

CROWNS 

Chewing damage, eg bean weevil (larvae), 

driedfruit beetles (adults and larvae), 

rust red flour beetle (adults and larvae) 

Borers, eg longicorn beetles (larvae), jewel beetles (larvae), 

auger beetle (larvae) 

Bark beetles, eg pine bark beetles (adults and larvae) 

Chewing damage, eg scarab grubs (larvae), 

black vine weevil (larvae), orchid beetle (larvae), 

vegetable weevil (larvae) 

.INDIRECT DAMAGE. 

Transmission of diseases, eg 

– Driedfruit beetles and caterpillars of oriental fruit moth and lightbrown 

apple moth, help spread brown rot of stone fruit (fungal disease). 

– Squash mosaic virus of melons in Qld is spread by leafeating beetles. 

– Overseas, elm bark beetles spread Dutch elm disease (fungal disease). 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Bark beetle. Larvae 

damage under bark 

Top:Jewel beetle larva 

Lower:Longicorn larva 

Not known 

in Australia 

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME HOST RANGE 


BARK BEETLES (several families) 

Cypress bark beetle Phloeosinus cupressi 

Cypress bark Aesiotes leucurus 

weevil 

Elm bark beetle 

Five spined bark 

beetle 

Pine bark weevil 

Scolytus multistriatus 

Ips grandicollis 

Aesiotes notabilis 

BORERS (several families) 

Auger beetles 

Elephant weevil 

Jewel beetles 

Kurrajong weevil 

Longicorn beetles 

Asian longicorn 

beetle 

Family Bostrichidae 

Orthorhinus cylindrirostris 

Family Buprestidae 

Axionicus insignis 

Family Cerambycidae 

Anoplophora glabripennis 

Cypress, other conifers 

Cypress, Pinus spp. 

Elm 

Many Pinus spp. 

Various conifers 

Eucalypts, tamarisk 

Trees, fruit trees Curculionidae 

Various trees, especially cypress. 

Adults are nectar feeders and 

pollinators of native plants 

Kurrajong Curculionidae 

Various trees, shrubs, especially 

eucalypts 

Wide range of mainly deciduous 

trees. Larvae bore holes in wood 

of living trees and forest products 

Australian standards. 

Timber natural 

durability ratings 

Powderpost beetles 

Lyctus spp, (Bostrichidae) 

Sapwood of certain hardwoods, 

not softwood 

Insects and allied pests - Coleoptera (beetles, weevils) 99


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 



(contd) 

LADYBIRDS (Family Coccinellidae) 

Leafeating Cucurbit ladybird Epilachna cucurbitae Cucurbits, many other plants 

ladybirds 

Twentysixspotted E. vigintioctopunctata Potato, tomato, sometimes 

potato ladybird pardalis 

beans, weeds 

Beneficial Predatory ladybirds Some feed on fungi 

ladybirds 

Common spotted Harmonia conformis 

ladybird 

Aphids, scales 

Fungus-feeding ladybird 

(bright yellow) 

Illeius galbula 

Powdery and downy mildews 

Mealybug ladybird Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Main targets are mealybugs and 

soft scales, but also other insects 

Mite-eating ladybirds Stethorus spp. 


Mite-eating (tiny, black, 2 mm long) 

ladybird 

Transverse 

ladybird 

Scale-eating ladybird 

Spotted amber 

ladybird 

Transverse ladybird 

Vedalia ladybird 

Rhyzobius lophanthae 

Hippodamia variegata 

Coccinella transversalis 

Rodolia cardinalis 

100 Insects and allied pests - Coleoptera (beetles, weevils) 

Scales 

Small insects, eg aphids, thrips 

Aphids, scales 

Cottonycushion scale 

Leaf beetles LEAF and FLEA BEETLES (Family Chrysomelidae) >3000 spp in Australia 

Bean weevil Acanthoscelides obtectus Beans 

Couch flea beetle 

Elm leaf beetle 

Eucalyptus tortoise 

Chaetocnema australica 

Pyrrhalta luteola 

Chrysophtharta spp. 

Turf, eg bent, couch 

Elms 

Eucalypts 

beetles 

Paropsis spp. 

Figleaf beetles Poneridia spp. Cultivated ornamental and 

fruiting and figs, native 

Moreton Bay fig 

Metallic flea beetles Haltica spp. Ornamentals, eg fuchsia, 

hibiscus, hollyhock, zinnia, 

weeds, eg mallow 

Orchid beetle Stethopachys formosa Orchids 

Palm leaf beetle Brontispa longissima Palms 

Pumpkin beetle 

Redshouldered leaf 

beetle 

Aulacophora hilaris 

Monolepta australis 

Cucurbits, related plants 

Fruit, ornamentals blossoms, 

tender foliage, fruit of a wide 

range of fruit and vegetables 

Swarming leaf beetles Rhyparida spp. Ornamentals, fruit, native trees, 

pasture species 

Staghorn fern beetle Halticorcus platycerii Ferns 

Leafminers 

Biological 

control agent Lantana leafminers Octotoma scabripennis 

Uroplata girardi 

Many scarab beetles, 

eg Dilochrosis walteri 

feed on flowers in 

southwest WA 

Nectar scarab. 

small native beetle 

up to 6 mm long 

SCARAB BEETLES (Family Scarabaeidae) 

African black beetle Heteronychus arator 

Argentine scarab Cyclocephala signaticollis 

Blackheaded pasture 

cockchafer 

Aphodius tasmaniae 

Lantana. Introduced biological 


Grasses, other plants 

Grasses, other plants 

Grasses, clovers 

Christmas beetles Anoplognathus spp. Adults feed on foliage of 

eucalypt and other plants. 

Larvae feed on roots of grasses 

and garden plants 

Flower scarabs Protaetia spp. Flowers of trees, melaleuca, 

roses, wattle 

Japanese beetle 

Not known in Australia 

Nectar scarabs 

Pruinose scarab 

Popillia japonica 

Phyllotocus spp. 

Sericesthis geminata 

Destructive plant pest. Adults 

feed on foliage of fruit, many 

different plants, larvae attack 

roots of grasses, field crops, 

garden and nursery plants. 

Adult scarabs feed on pollen 

As for Christmas beetles


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

(contd) 

Not known 

in Australia 

Catarcus weevil 

chewing leaves. 

Endangered 

species 

Natural 

controls 

Soldier beetles 

About 13 mm long 

Biological 




STORED PRODUCT PESTS (various families) 

Confused flour beetle Trilobium confusum 

Rice weevil 

Lesser grain borer 

Khapra beetle 

Sitophilus oryzae 

Rhyzopertha dominica 

Trogoderma granarium 

Damaged stored foodstuffs, 

seed, peanuts, chocolate, etc 

Undamaged grain, destructive 

pest of stored products 

The most serious pest of stored 

grain in Australia 

Grains, seeds, processed products; 

monitored at storage sites in export 

terminals & grain processors to 

maintain Australia’s pest-free status 

WEEVILS (Family Curculionidae) 

Apple root weevils 

Argentine stem weevil 

Botany Bay weevil 

Wattle pigs 

Perperus spp. 

Listronotus bonariensis 

Chrysolopus spectabilis 

Leptopius spp. 

Apples, pears, peaches 

Grasses and cereals 

Feed on wattles in east Australia 

Large and sluggish, bits of soil on 

its body, spends some time in soil 

Black vine weevil Otiorhynchus sulcatus Ornamentals, berry crops, nurseries 

Fruit-tree root weevil Leptopius squalidus Pome & stone fruits 

Fuller's rose weevil Asynonychus cervinus Roses, ornamentals, fruit trees 

Garden weevil 

Strawberry weevil 

Vegetable weevil 

Vine weevil 

Whitefringed weevil 

Phlyctinus callosus 

Rhinaria perdix 

Listroderes difficilis 

Orthorhinus klugi 

Graphognathus leucoloma 

OTHER FAMILIES 

Click beetles, Family Elateridae 

wireworms 

Driedfruit beetles Family Nitidulidae 

Small hive beetle Aethina tumida 

Broad-toothed stag Lissotes latidens 

beetle 

BENEFICIAL BEETLES 

Vegetables, succulents, eg cacti 

Strawberry 

Vegetables, weeds, etc 

Grape, black wattles 

Shrubs, fruit trees, vegetables 

Grass, flowers, grains, vegetables, 

can flick into the air 

Maturing fruit. Spreads brown 

rot of stone fruit 

Combs in honeybee colonies 

Rotting logs on the ground in 

Tasmania 

Ground beetles Family Carabidae Feed on caterpillars, insects, etc. 

Occasionally may damage plants 

Steelblue ladybird Halmus chalybeus 

Aphids, scale, other insects; was 

introduced to NZ from Australia 

for control of scales 

Chilocorus predators Chilocorus spp. 

Red, oriental & white louse scale 

Plague soldier beetle Chauliognathus lugubris Adults & larvae feed on insects. 

(Family Cantharidae) Adults weigh down plants when 

resting but may nibble cherries, etc. 

Larvae in soil mostly predatory, 

some feed on plant seeds and roots 

Rove beetles Staphylinidae 

Adults and larvae feed on ground 

dwelling insects, eggs and larvae 

Dung beetles 

Family Scarabaeidae 

(some native spp. endangered) 

of pest moths in gardens 

Adults roll balls of dung to store 

food for themselves and their larvae 

Chilocorus predators Chilocorus spp. Red, oriental, white louse scales 

Lantana leafminers Various species Lanatana camara 

Suppliers Predatory ladybirds Coccinellidae See previous page 

www.goodbugs.org.au/. Salvinia weevil Cyrtobagous salviniae Salvinia 

St John’s wort leaf 

beetles 

Seed-feeding weevils 

Chrysolina spp. 

Melanterius spp 

St John’s wort 

Wattles, introduced to South Africa 

from Australia for wattle control 

Fig 67. Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae). Left: Adult (3 mm long). 

Centre: Larvae in seed. Right: Exit hole of adult 


Ruth rescan 


BEETLES AND WEEVILS 



BEETLES ADULT Flight Usually can fly 

Head 

Body 

LARVA Legs 

Antennae 

Not long 

Not roughened 

Various (not 

usually elbowed) 

Mostly thoracic 

legs which may be 

short or long 


.DIRECT FEEDING DAMAGE. 

LEAVES 

FLOWERS 

BUDS 

FRUIT 

SEED 

STEMS 

BARK 

Eaten, eg Christmas beetles 

Leafmining, eg lantana 

leafminer 

Skeletonization, eg leafeating 

ladybirds 

Chewing damage, eg orchid 

beetle 


driedfruit beetles 

Bark, eg elm bark beetle 

Borers, eg longicorn beetle 


Transmit diseases, eg elm bark beetle 

spreads Dutch elm disease overseas 

WEEVILS ADULT Flight Many unable to 

fly 

Head 

Body 

Antennae 

Long snout 

Usually rounded, 

often roughened 

with knobs, 

spines, scales 

Often elbowed, 

clubbed at tips 

.DIRECT FEEDING DAMAGE. 

LEAVES 

SEEDS 

STEMS 

BARK 

ROOTS 

TUBERS 

Chewed edges, eg black vine 

weevils 

Chewing, eg rice weevil 

Bark, eg pine bark weevil 

Borers, eg elephant weevil 

larvae 

Surface chewers, eg garden 

weevil 

Gouging tubers, eg black vine 

weevil 

LARVA Legs 

Body 

Legless 

Stout grub, 

usually feeds 

within plant 

tissues (stems, 

trunks, roots, 

seeds etc) 


Fig. 68. Elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris.). 

Left: Exit holes made by emergence of adults after pupating 

under bark. Right: Adult elephant weevils, note elbowed 

antennae. PhotosNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 



Fig 69. Beetle ‘borers’ can grow up to 30 mm 

in length, bark has been removed. Upper: Larvae 

of jewel beetles (Buprestidae) are cobra-shaped. 

Lower: Larva of a longicorn beetle (Cerambycidae). 

Adults do little, if any damage, some jewel beetles 

are important pollinators. PhotosNSW Dept of Industry and 

Investment. 

Fig. 70. Leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae). Upper: Leaf beetle 

(adult) 5-15 mm long which feeds on foliage. Lower: Larvae 

10-20 mm long which also feed on foliage. PhotosNSW Dept of 


TRADE 

NAMES 

NEMATODE 

SPECIES 

TARGET 

BEETLE/WEEVIL 

Fungi BioCane Metarhizium sp.) Greyback canegrub 

(Dermolepida albohirtum) 

SUPPLIERS 


www.beckerunderwood.com 

Nematodes Nematode Heterorhabditis 

bacteriophaga 

Black vine weevil 

(Otiorhynchus sulcatus) 

EcoGrow 

www.ecogrow.org.au/ 

Nematode 



Argentine stem weevil 

(Listronotus bonariensis) 


Blackheaded cockchafer 

Redheaded cockchafer 

Argentine scarab 

Bill bug weevil 

EcoGrow 


Nematode 

Steinernema 

carpocapsae 

Banana weevil borer 

(Cosmopolites sordidus) 

EcoGrow 


Bionem C 

Millenium 

Steinernema 

carpocapsae 

Ground dwelling insects 

including billbugs, black vine 

weevil, strawberry root weevil 


www.beckerunderwood.com 

Fig. 71. Biological control of beetles using fungi and nematodes. Follow storage and 

application instructions carefully. 



Potato leafeating ladbirds 

An example of a leafeating beetle 


Potato ladybirds (Epilachna spp., Coccinellidae). 

Host range 

Mainly cucurbits, eg 

Vegetables, eg all cucurbits especially 

rockmelon also cucumber, marrow, pumpkin, 

zucchini, related vine plants; bean, potato, tomato. 

Weeds, eg nightshades (Solanum spp.), false 

castor oil and paddymelon. 


Both adults and larvae chew leaves. 

Adult beetles are oval, strongly convex in 

outline and about 6 mm long with chewing 

mouthparts. They are mainly yellow-orange with 

26 or 28 black spots, they fly well but do not fly 

readily and are rather sluggish. Larvae, when 

fully grown are yellow-green, and 6 mm long and 

covered with long, black branching spines which 

give them a ‘burry’ appearance. 

Leaves. Adults feed on leaf uppersurfaces, 

often starting at the margin while the larvae 

generally feed on leaf undersurfaces. Leaves are 

initially skeletonized but adults may also chew 

holes right through leaving only the veins. 

Severely skeletonized leaves wither, plants look 

scorched. Young crops may be severely injured. 

Fruit. Young fruits, eg cucurbits, may have parts 

of their skin eaten. Injury reduces yield. 

Diagnostics. 

Do not confuse potato ladybirds with: 

– Pumpkin beetles which have a limited host 

range and 2 large spots on each wing cover. 

– Common spotted ladybirds (Harmonia 

conformis) which have only 18 spots are 

beneficial and feed on aphids, scales and other 

small insects. 

– Other beneficial ladybirds which have fewer 

spots or various patterns on their wing covers. 

Do not confuse larvae with larvae of 

beneficial ladybirds which are not ‘burry’. 


Damage by adults and larvae is distinctive, ie 

skeletonisation. 

Fig. 72. Leafeating ladybirds (Epilachna spp). Left: Typical skeletonization caused by leafeating ladybirds and 

their larva. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). Centre: Spiny larva and adult. Extreme right: Pumpkin beetle. All about 6 mm long. 

Larvae of beneficial ladybirds 

Fig. 73. Predatory ladybirds and their larvae feed on aphids, scales, mites and other insects. 

Left: Common spotted ladybird (Harmonia conformis). Centre: Transverse ladybird (Coccinella 

transversalis). Right: Larva of beneficial ladybirds. All about 5-7 mm long. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and adult), with many overlapping 

generations during spring, summer and autumn. 

The life cycle takes about 5-6 weeks for 

completion and all stages may be found on the 

plant at once. Female beetles deposit eggs in spring 

in small groups usually on the lower surfaces of 

leaves, where most of the larval feeding occurs. 

When fully grown, the larvae congregate in 

numbers on the foliage of the food plant or nearby 

litter and pupate. The pupae are attached to the 

plant or litter at their hind end. The last larval skin 

remains attached around the end of the pupa. 


As inactive adults. 

Spread 

By adult beetles flying (although they do not fly 

readily, this is their main method of spread). 

They may be assisted by wind. 

Movement of infested seedlings. 


High humidity as in coastal or irrigated areas. 

October to April. Leafeating ladybirds require 

higher humidity than pumpkin beetles so are more 

of a problem in coastal areas than inland. 

However, in certain irrigated inland areas they can 

be a problem, eg Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. 



1. Prepare a plan that fits your situation. 


3. Identification can be difficult so consult a 


4. Monitor larvae, adults, pest damage and beneficial 

insects weekly during the time when damage is 

expected, eg examine a prescribed number of potato 

plants in a row at several widely spaced locations 

throughout the crop. Seek advice if necessary on 

monitoring and about the need for monitoring in your 

crop and region. Remember if monitoring, you need to 

know when and where to look, and what and how 

to monitor. 

5.Thresholds will vary according to the crop. How 

much damage can you accept on your crop? An 

example of a threshold might be: 

If there is more than an average 25% leaf area lost 

on 3 out of 30 potato plants examined, then control 

measures should be started (Brough et al. 1994). 

6. Action. Take appropriate action when your 

predetermined threshold is reached. 




Sanitation. 

On a few plants in a home garden situation, 

adults and larvae may be collected or squashed. 

Destroy infested crop debris as soon as possible 

after harvest to assist control, though adult 

beetles spread by flying. 


A few parasitoids and predators attack larvae and 

adults. The ‘burry’ larvae may deter some known 

parasites and predators. 

No biological control agents are available for 

purchase and none have been released by 

government agencies. 


Check incoming seedlings for adults and larvae. 

Insecticides. 

Apply foliage sprays or dusts if monitoring 

indicates a need. 

Table 12. Leafeating ladybirds – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

FOLIAGE SPRAYS AND DUSTS 

Group 1A, eg various products (carbaryl is not registered for 

use on food-producing plants in the home garden) 

Group 1B, eg various products (malathion) 

Home garden sprays, eg several containing bioallethrin + 

bioresmethrin 

When and how to use? 

Apply after monitoring or at first sign of infestation, 

depending on the situation. 



Black vine weevil (BVW) 


Otiorhynchus sulcatus (Family Curculionidaae). 

Do not confuse this weevil with the vine weevil 

(Orthorhinus klugi). Other weevils damage plants 

in a similar manner to BVW, eg 

Fruit-tree root weevil (Leptopius squalidus) 

Fuller’s rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) 

Garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus) 

Whitefringed weevil (Graphognathus leucoloma) 

Host range 

Ornamentals, eg numerous greenhouse and 

outdoor plants, begonia, cyclamen, geranium, 

impatiens, orchids, maiden hair fern, woody 

ornamentals (azalea, conifers, fuchsia, pittosporum, 

rhododendron, rose), containers, nurseries. 

Fruit, eg apple, blackberry, blackcurrant, 

gooseberry, grape, strawberry. 

Vegetables, eg seedlings, and some Weeds. 


Adult weevils are 10-12 mm long with an 

elongated snout. They are shiny black with faint 

yellow spots on their backs. Adult females are about 

9 mm long, black with rough wing cases, which are 

relatively rounded with parallel ridges running 

length-wise with patches of yellowish hair. Antennae 

are long, slender and elbowed. Adults feed at night, 

hide during the day under mulch, clods of earth or 

debris on the soil surface, or rest on the plant in dark 

protected places. If disturbed on the plant during the 

day they drop to the ground as if dead. Eggs are 

each about 0.7 mm in diameter, roughly spherical 

and white initially before turning brown. Larvae are 

white, curved, legless, about 10 mm long when fully 

grown and have brownish heads. Newly hatched 

larvae have straight, pinkish white bodies with brown 

heads. Pupae are 8-10 mm long, milky white 

initially with large spines on the head, legs and 

abdomen. As they mature they darken until almost 

black. They are hard to find in the soil. 

Leaves. Adults feed at night chewing large 

ragged notches from flower and leaf margins. They 

may eat whole leaves, leaving only the midribs and 

main veins. Damage may be unsightly but usually 

not significant on most perennials. 

Stems and stalks. Adults feed on stems of 

seedlings and host plants at, or just below, ground 

level. They may also chew fruit stalks of grapes 

and sometimes feed on fruit. 

Roots, corms. Larvae feed on roots eating 

smaller ones and ring barking larger roots or the 

main stem just below the surface. Large larvae 

may bore into crowns or corms. Look for larvae 

2-40 cm down in the soil near roots. Severe root 

damage may cause infested plants to suddenly 

wilt and die. It is the root damage that is serious. 

General. Plants may grow poorly in spring due 

to larvae feeding on roots. Others may die after 

planting out, which can be embarrassing for 

contractors and purchasers. BWV can cause 

substantial losses in container-grown perennials. 

Slow growing species cannot compensate for the 

European strawberry weevil (Tas.) 

loss of root tissue and suffer most damage. In hot 

weather plants that appear healthy may deteriorate 

when subjected to the slightest water stress. 

Diagnostics. Detection of either adults (which 

are active at night) or larvae is difficult, and 

infestations are sometimes overlooked for years. 

Adults. Do not confuse with other weevil 

pests, eg garden weevil (Philistines callous) 

which may be confused with BVW. It is smaller 

(6-7 mm long) and dull gray with a pale ‘V’ on 

the upper elongated snout. Adults of both species 

rest during the day under leaves or plants and so 

are seldom associated with damage. 

Larvae. Do not confuse with scarab grub larvae 

which have 3 pairs legs on the thorax and are 

larger. 

Damage. Tell-tale notching on leaves by adults 

is distinctive, look for adults during the day under 

pot rims, etc, or on the plants at night. Root and 

stem damage by larvae may be mistaken for 

Phytophthora root rot. Look for larvae near roots. 

Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and female adult) with 1 generation over 

1-2 years. In glasshouses there may be 2 generations 

per year, all stages may be present at the same time. 

Female weevils emerge in early spring and feed for 

about a month, then can lay up to 1000 fertile eggs 

without mating, during their life (about 1 year) in 

the soil near the base of plants. Peak emergence is 

Jan-Feb and again in Aug-Sept. Adults may lay 

200-400 eggs in the 1 st year and 400+ eggs the 

next. Eggs hatch in 15-21 days; larvae feed for 

3-4 months then pupate a few centimeters below the 

soil surface. Pupal period lasts 18-20 days. 


Usually as larvae but all stages can 'overwinter'. 

Fig. 74. Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) 

Above: Corm damage by larvae, leaf damage by adults. 

Below: Larva (9 mm long) and adult (12 mm long) 



Spread 

By the adults crawling up to 1,000 metres a day. 

Adults do not fly. 

By humans, eg various stages (eggs, larvae, 

pupae, adults) may be carried on potted plants, 

other plant material and in infested soil. 


Precise timing of life cycle varies from year to 

year depending on temperature and humidity. 

Warmer temperatures during late summer and 

early autumn might allow more adults to survive. 

Larvae/adults feed at temperatures as low as 2 o C. 

Use of polythene sheeting in strawberries. 



1.Obtain/prepare a plan that fits your crop or 

situation. 


3.Identification can be difficult so consult a 

diagnostic service (page xiv). Adult weevils are seen 

between Nov. and Jan. in NSW. 

4.Monitor and record your findings of pest/damage. 

Monitor indicator plants (very susceptible hosts) 

for signs of infestation and keep records. 

Check for adults weekly from Nov. to Mar. under 

boards or other traps, placed close to susceptible 

plants, eg rhododendron. Shake out traps over a 

white sheet at midday during summer and count/ 

record number. Also check under rims of pots for 

adults hiding during the day. 

Check for larvae during winter near the crown or 

root ball when repotting. 

Check for larvae on roots of susceptible plants 

randomly from March onwards, especially during 

hot weather if plants look stressed despite adequate 

irrigation. For some plants, 3-5 grubs in a litre pot 

(about 120cm diameter) can sever the root system. 

Check crop plants regularly during spring and 

summer for tell-tale leaf notching. 

5. Threshold. May be very low in commercial crops 

which can sustain considerable economic damage. 

You may have to calculate your own threshold at 

which you start control methods. 

6. Action. In nurseries, sanitation, purchase of weevilfree 

stock, monitoring and bio-control agents can keep 

BVW under control. Purchase stock for resale when 

adults are not likely to be active. 




Control is difficult especially in field grown crops. 

Adults tend to live and feed in protected areas of 

the plant and larvae live in soil. 

Sanitation. 

Discard severely infested container plants and 

treat remainder. Also destroy infested plant 

material and crop debris. 

Remove media (and larvae) from potted plants 

and repot in clean soil. 

Do not re-use potting mix from infested plants 

or compost unless it is pasteurized. 

Reduce hiding places used by adults during the 

day by removing litter on the soil surface. 


Natural enemies include predatory wasps, 

flies and beetles, various parasitic flies. Chickens 

feed on vine weevils in management systems. 

Nematodes are commercially available, eg 

Heterorhabditis bacteriophaga 

Steinernema carpocapsae 

Becker Underwood www.beckerunderwood.com/ 

Ecogrow Environmental www.ecogrow.com.au 

They can reduce populations of 

BVW larvae by 90-100%. 

Nematodes seek out natural 

openings on larvae and move 

into the blood stream where 

they release bacteria causing 

septicaemia. BVW larvae die and nematodes 

multiply in the dead insects. After 2-3 weeks 

thousands emerge to attack other larvae. Follow 

instructions carefully for timing and conditions 

of application. Nematodes may be more 

expensive and usually need to be ordered in 

advance but may not need to be registered as a 

pesticide, and there may be no re-entry times. 

Check. 


Some varieties of some species appear to be very 

susceptible, eg Pittosporum ‘James Stirling’. 


Do not introduce infested media, soil or plants to 

non-infested areas. 


Only purchase stock from BVW-free properties 

or from suppliers with a control program. 

Check root areas of incoming stock. 

Use clean potting mix. 


Trap adults in corrugated cardboard around plant 

bases, shake out every day over a bucket of 

soapy water. 

Use Tanglefoot or other adhesive to trap adult 

weevils as they climb onto benches. Apply to 

table legs to trap adults active at night. 

If practiced daily, these may prove effective. 

Insecticides. 

Destroy badly infested container plants before 

treating the rest. 

Formulations applied to the soil need to provide 

sustained control of larvae. 

Soil drenching larvae can be ineffective due to 

chemicals leaching out of growing media after 

irrigation, the difficulty in contacting larvae deep 

among roots and getting uniform coverage of 

media where it is protected by foliage. 

Spraying adult weevils late in the day or at 

night can be ineffective as the weevils tend to 

drop to the ground when disturbed. Adults may 

develop resistance to insecticides. 

Table 13. Black vine weevil – Some insecticides, biocontrol agents. 

What to use? 

SOIL TREATMENTS TO CONTROL LARVAE 

Group 1B, eg SusCon Green (chlorpyrifos) 

Biocontrol agents, eg Nematodes (Heterorhabditis 

bacteriophaga, Steinernema carpocapsae) 


SusCon Green is incorporated into potting mix used 

for container-grown ornamentals. Minimal impact on 

non-target organisms. 



Scarab grubs 

Scarab beetles, cockchafers, dung beetles 


Scarab grubs belong to the Family Scarabaeidae 

(scarab beetles, cockchafers and dung beetles), a 

number of other members of this family also attack 

growing plants including: 

African black beetle (Heteronychus arator) 

Argentinian scarab (Cyclocephala signaticollis) 

Black beetle (Metanastes vulgivagus) 

Blackheaded pasture cockchafer (Aphodius tasmaniae) 

Blacksoil scarab (Othnonius batesii) 

Cane grubs (Lepidiota spp.) 

Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus spp.) 

Greyback canegrub (Dermolepia albohirtum) 

Pasture whitegrubs (Rhopaea spp.) 

Pruinose scarab (Sericesthis geminata) 

Redheaded pasture cockchafer (Adoryphorus couloni) 

Wheat root scarab (Sericesthis batesi) 

Brown cockchafer (Ataenius imparalis) 

Dusky pasture scarab (Sericesthis nigrolineata) 

Paspalum whitegrub (Lepidiota laevis) 

Pasture whitegrubs (Rhopaea spp.) 

See also page 100. 

Host range 

Adult beetles. feed on the young foliage of a 

range of plants depending on the species. 

Adults of some species feed on different plants 

from the larvae, eg Christmas beetles feed on 

eucalypt foliage, their larvae feed on grass roots. 

Adults of some species, eg African black beetle, 

feed on the same plants as the larvae. 

Young larvae. feed on organic matter in the soil 

and when older feed mainly on roots of: 

Ornamentals, eg herbaceous perennials, potted 

plants. Fruit, eg peanut, pineapple, strawberry. 

Vegetable s, 

eg potato. Field crops, eg maize, 

sugarcane, winter cereals. Grasses, eg pasture, 

lawns, turf, golf courses. Weeds. 


Adult beetles are 2-70 mm long, body is 

usually stout, chunky, convex and of various 

colors. Forelegs strongly developed for digging. 

They may be seen swarming on certain eucalypts 

during December-January. Many scarab beetles eat 

leaves but some feed on nectar. Some species fly at 

night, others during the day. Larvae or ‘curl’ 

grubs are 20-70 mm long when fully fed, plump, 

soft, gray to white in colour with a hard, shiny, 

dark coloured head with prominent jaws. They 

have well developed legs on the thorax and are 

nearly always curled into a C-shape. Larvae have 

3 stages or instars. Younger instars live closer to 

the surface; older instars feed at a greater depth. 

Turf/pasture. Adults burrow into fine grasses, 

physically disturbing the surface, some feed on the 

surface. Infestation tends to move outwards from a 

central point where the eggs were laid. 

Primary damage is caused by larvae chewing 

on grass roots which leaves the plant prone to 

water and heat stress. Damage is usually first 

noticed in autumn when patches of turf or 

pasture die and become soft and uneven. 

Secondary damage is caused by birds 

feeding on grubs particularly if the area is wet. 

Turf can be rolled back like a carpet to reveal the 

grubs. Stock may pull up pasture. Up to 

250 scarab grubs/square metre have been 

recorded in the ACT. In some species, eg 

pasture cockchafer late instar larvae cause 

further damage by harvesting leaves to take into 

burrows below the surface. 

Severe damage may result in bare areas allowing 

weed invasion. Damage is very patchy. 

Other hosts. Scarab grubs may be a sporadic 

pest of some crops. The entire root system of 

strawberries and pineapple can be eaten causing 

plants to be deprived of water and nutrients, wilt 

and die. Potato stems may be severed below 

ground or round deep holes gouged in tubers. 

Roots of potted plants in nurseries may be eaten 

right up to the crown causing them to wilt and 

wobble. Adults of some species chew stems just 

below ground level leaving a frayed edge. 

Diagnostics. Damage by larvae is often 

misdiagnosed. 

Adult beetles are more easily identified but may 

not be available when identification is needed. 

Larvae are often identified from the shape of the 

anus and surrounding hairs. 

Molecular diagnostics often are needed to 

identify larval insects or adult members of a 

species complex. 

Do not confuse with damage caused by other 

agents, eg root rot, etc. Scarabs are minor pests 

of glasshouses. Damage is more likely to be 

caused by BVW. 

Lucid keys www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Key to the Flower Chafers of NSW 

Key to the Christmas Beetles of NSW 

Key to the Dung Beetles of Eastern NSW 

Key to Adult Cane Beetles 

If in doubt see advice (page xiv). 

Typical larva Christmas beetle raster Pruinose scarab raster 

Fig. 75. Scarab grub larvae (Scarabaeidae) 

Left: Typical scarab grub (larva) up to 20-70 mm long, usually found in the soil. 

Right: Rasters of Christmas beetle and pruinose larvae. 



Pest cycle 


larva - curl grub, scarab grub, pupa and adult) with 

only 1 generation each 1-3 years. In spring female 

beetles, seek out egg laying sites usually near the 

soil surface of well watered fine open textured turf. 

Eggs hatch in Jan-Feb, larvae burrow and feed just 

below the soil surface on organic matter. Towards 

autumn larvae move deeper into the soil and feed 

on grass roots. At the start of winter, larvae feed 

less actively and burrow even deeper into the soil. 

During late spring they pupate and in summer 

(Dec.-Jan.) adults emerge, fly off to favored host 

plants, mate and start egg laying. All scarabs have 

a similar life cycle, eg 1 year - black beetle, 

pasture cockchafer, pruinose scarab, Argentinian 

scarab and pasture scarab; 2 years - Christmas 

beetle. Timing of the life cycle varies between 

species and is affected by climatic conditions. 


As larvae deep in the soil in special chambers. 

Spread 

Adults can fly long distances. 

Adults of some species may crawl in from 

nearby areas or be transported in flood water. 

Larvae may be spread in containers and bush 

litter used as mulch. 


Numbers are regulated by weather, natural 

enemies, eg birds, diseases. 

Beetles favour well watered lawns of fine textured 

grasses and open textured soil for egg laying. 

Street lights attract beetles which may burrow in 

soil under the lights in an attempt to lay eggs. 

Severe damage usually occurs during autumn. 

Planting crops, eg pineapple, strawberry, nursery 

stock, vegetables, in recently-ploughed pasture 

or grassland containing paspalum, a favoured 

food. Improved pastures. 

Severe defoliation of trees by adults usually only 

occurs when moist soil favour emergence of 

large numbers of adults (drought hardens soil, 

newly formed beetles die in their chambers). 



1.Obtain/prepare a plan that fits your situation, 

based on the previous season's records of infestation. 

2.Crop, region. Turf, pasture, eastern states, etc. 

3.Identification can be difficult at the grub stage so 

consult a diagnostic service (see page xiv) to ensure 

correct control methods for your scarab grub, eg 

Argentine scarab beetle is the main pest species in the 

ACT and African Black beetle in Vic. 

4.Monitor scarab grub numbers by soil plugs in 

October to indicate need for treatment. In high priority 

areas also monitor adults at egg laying time with light 

traps. Also check bird activity. Record findings. 

5.Threshold will vary with crop, locality and likely 

economic damage (page 39). How much damage is 

acceptable? For many crops, thresholds have not been 

determined. 

As many as 250 scarab grubs/square meter have been 

recorded in the ACT. Overseas recommendations 

suggest that pesticides are only necessary if there are 

6 or more scarab grubs in an area 30 cm by 30 cm 

square by 5-8 cm deep. Since larvae live in soil under 

the plants, it is always difficult to know how many 

are present. Generally the first sign of infestation is 

the symptoms produced on the plant. 

A population of about 5 mature larvae per pineapple 

plant produces visible wilting and yellowing. 

3 or more per strawberry plant - grower is not 

aware of them until plants start to show symptoms. 

6.Action. Good cultural methods can reduce 

populations of grubs and reduce damage. 

Remember by the time damage is apparent it is too 

late to apply chemicals. 

With some crops treat preplant as it is impossible to 

treat after planting. 

For some crops economic injury levels have not 

been established and there may be no satisfactory 

means of controlling these pests. 


it worked. Recommend improvements if required, eg 

use of more tolerant varieties, and compare the current 

seasons data with previous ones. 

Fig. 76. African black beetle 

(Heteronychus arator). PhotoNSW 


Enlarged about x3.5 

1.Eggs in soil 

2. 

3.Pupa 

4.Adult female beetle 

5.Adult male beetle, note shape 

of front tarsus or foot and 

damaged maize stem 

Actual size 

6.Eggs 

7. 

8.Pupa 

9.Beetle and young maize plants 

that have been attacked 




Control of scarab grubs is difficult and often not 

economic. Good culture is a good start. 

Cultural methods. Healthy vigorous turf can 

support many grubs without apparent damage. 

Avoid frequent light watering that may 

encourage egg laying and shallow-rooted turf 

which will not tolerate surface drying. Remedy 

soil compaction, the most common cause of 

water run-off, which prevents water penetration. 

Fertilize when turf is actively growing, eg 

spring/autumn. Fertilize and/or water pasture if 

economic. Reduce stocking pressure. 

Core turf to aerate lawn, aid water penetration. 

Lawns containing clovers are less severely 

damaged, as grubs prefer to eat grass roots. 

For crops other than turf, a period of fallow 

between ploughing and planting can be beneficial. 

Thorough preplant cultivations expose larvae 

to birds and mechanically injure and kill them. 

Avoid planting new ground with susceptible 

crops, eg maize, after pasture in areas with a 

known history of scarab grub infestation. 

Check the top 10-15cm of soil before 

planting for scarab grubs and other pests. 

Cut lawns at recommended height. 

Close or irregular cutting reduces turf vigour by 

removing too great a proportion of the leaf blade, 

which is the major food-producing part of the 

plant and exposes the crown to excessive drying 

out and damage. Bare patches may develop. 

– Mow turf frequently removing only l/3 rd of the 

height of the existing grass. Find out the correct 

mowing height for the turf you have. 

– If turf is allowed to grow too tall, only cut a few 

centimetres of the top and cut again a week later. 

Sanitation. 

Remove litter on the soil surface to reduce hiding 

places for adults during the day. 

Use clean potting mix to prevent larvae/pupae 

from being introduced. 

Avoid spreading infested soil or potting mix 

around the property. 

Before planting remove volunteer plants and 

trash through cultivation to maximize 

mechanical injury to larvae. 

Destroy any infested plant material and debris. 



– Predators. In wet turf and pasture, currawongs, 

starlings, other birds, bandicoots and ground beetles 

feed on larvae close to the surface or exposed by 

cultivation. Birds, robber flies adults and some 

species of possum will attack adult beetles. 

– Parasitic wasps and flies lay eggs in larvae. 

Wasps feed on nectar from flowers. 

– Diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi and 

nematodes infect larvae. If grubs are present and 

near the surface, watering during the day or early 

evening may increase activity of these diseases. 

– Prolonged drought, wet or extremely high soil 

temperatures at egg laying kills many eggs. 

– Viral, bacterial and fungal disease organisms are 

being researched for adult scarab beetles. 

Commercially available. products include: 

– Nematodes. Heterorhabditis zealandica controls 

African black beetle, Argentine scarab, Argentine 

stem weevil, black-headed cockchafer, red-headed 

cockchafer, bill bug weevil. 

www.ento.csiro.au/biocontrol/scarabs.html 

– Biocane TM Granules (Metarhizium sp.) controls 

greyback canegrub (Dermolepida albohirtum). 

Tolerant varieties. 

Roots of some grasses, eg tall fescue, regenerate 

more quickly than some other grasses. Clover is 

less severely damaged. 


AQIS. NZ grass grub (Costelytra zealandica) is 

a serious pest of pasture and crop plants in NZ. It 

could enter Australia as adult beetles in cargo 

and goods freighted to Australia from NZ. 


Plant clean plant material from properties known 

not to be infested. 

Check root area of incoming stock. 

Physical & mechanical method. 

Overseas a nail-studded roller behind mowers 

injures grubs feeding close to the surface and 

may encourage secondary infection of grubs. 

Insecticides. If chemical insecticides are to 

successfully control larvae then: 

Soil drenches will be needed. 

Apply during Jan-Feb when grubs are small, close 

to soil surface feeding on organic matter, body fat 

is minimal and before obvious damage. 

Treatment carried out when turf is damaged, 

usually late in autumn, leads to poor results, as 

grubs, feeding deeper in soil, contain larger 

quantities of fat which may absorb some of the 

chemical preventing them from being killed. 

Select insecticides non-toxic to birds. 

Target adult beetles by spraying late in the day or at 

night to control species active at that time. 

Failure to control scarab grubs is usually due to 

poor timing and/or methods of application. 

Spring applications for residual pesticides, control 

of scarab grubs may suppress earthworms and some 

predatory invertebrates but effects short-lived. 

Table 14. Scarab grubs – Some insecticides and biocontrol agents. 

What to use? 

SOIL TREATMENTS (LARVAE) 

Group 1A, eg carbaryl (not on food-producing plants in the home garden) 

Group 1B, eg various (chlorpyrifos) 

Group 3A, eg Baythroid Turf (cyfluthrin); Brigade , 

MaxGuard (bifenthrin); Tempo (beta-cyfluthrin) 

Group 4A, eg Confidor , Confidor Guard Soil Insecticide, 

Merit (imidacloprid); Initiator (imidacloriid + 

fertilizer); Meridian (thiamethoxam) 

Group 28, eg Acelepryn (chlorantraniliprole) 

Biocontrol agents, eg Nematode (Heterorhabditis 

zealandica); Biocane TM Granules (Metarhizium sp.) 

Others, eg Eucalyptus oil/Melaleuca oil 


Preplant treatment may be necessary for some 

crops, eg strawberry. 

Turf. Where scarab grubs are a problem apply in 

January after young grubs hatch out from Decemberlaid 

eggs. Check local dates for application. 

– Before treatment mow turf and water lightly and 

to ensure insecticide reaches larvae in soil. 

– After treatment water heavily to carry chemical 

into root zone and reach larvae 25 mm deep and 

avoid poisoning ducks. Check how long the 

treatment is effective for. 

Establishment of young eucalypts plantations. 

Initiator provides extended protection against damage 

caused by scarab larvae and adults, and other insects. 

Ornamentals in pots. Seek advice. Permits may 

be required. 




The native fig longicorn (Acalolepta vastator), 

Family Cerambycidae, Order Coleoptera. This 

family belongs to one of the most common 

groups of tree-boring insects in Australia. Other 

insects also damage trees and shrubs by ‘boring’ 

into limbs and trunks, and occasionally roots, eg 

Order Coleoptera. 

Family Cerambycidae (longicorn beetles), eg 

Citrus longicorn (Skeletodes tetrops) 

Fig longicorn (Acalolepta vastator) 

Pittosporum longicorn (Strongylurus thoracicus) 

Poinciana longicorn (Agrianome spinicollis) 

Family Curculionidae (weevils) 

Family Bostrychidae (auger beetles) 

Family Buprestidae (jewel beetles) 

Family Scolytidae (bark beetles) 

Family Platypodidae (ambrosia beetles, pinhole borers) 

Order Lepidoptera. 

Family Oecophoridae, eg fruit-tree borer (page 96) 

Family Cossidae (wood moths) 

Family Hepialidae (ghost moths) 

Order Hymenoptera. 

Family Siricidae (wood wasps, eg sirex wasp) 

Host range 

Most longicorn beetles only attack branches that 

are already dead, or newly felled trees. Species that 

attack living trees and shrubs may attack only one 

type of plant or only a few different types. 

Fig longicorn. Native and cultivated fig (Ficus 

spp.), citrus, grapevine, passion vine and wisteria, 

red cedar (Toona australis) and other plants. 


Adult beetles are about 30 mm long and gray. 

They have very long antennae (‘long horned’ or 

‘ longicorn’ refers to these antennae). Males have 

antennae about 3 times the length of the body. Fig 

longicorns have a prominent spine on each side of 

the thorax. Adults do very little damage, except 

perhaps chewing a few new shoots or young bark. 

Adults fly at night, may be attracted to house or 

shed lights and may be seen resting by day in the 

junction of main branches on infested trees. 

Larvae grow up to 40 mm long, are legless, 

creamy-white, club-shaped, glossy with a dark 

brown head and well developed black jaws. 

Compare with jewel beetle larvae which are 

more cobra-shaped (page 103). 

Pupae are whitish, about 25 mm long and 

slightly flattened, broadest across the middle. 

Trunks/limbs/roots. Fig longicorn attacks 

young healthy citrus trees as well as older trees. It 

is more prevalent after pruning especially in limes. 

Internal damage is caused by larvae 

chewing tunnels in the phloem and cambium 

under the bark and may affect the sap flow to 

roots and branches. Tunnels may extend up or 

down for a metre or more in trunks, limbs and 

roots. Tunnels are oval and tightly packed with 

frass (sawdust). Branches may die. 

Longicorn beetles 

Common borers 

External symptoms. 

– Damage is more noticeable in smooth-barked trees. 

Considerable damage may be done before cracking 

bark indicates their presence. 

– Damage is characterized by oval holes and dead 

patches of bark which crack and eventually fall 

away leaving the sapwood exposed. Unless 

controlled, longicorn beetles can cause excessive 

scarring of trees and often death by ringbarking. 

– Sometimes larvae may be traced by the formation 

of hard lumps along infested branches (frass and 

gnawed wood mixed with gum). 

– Trees are commonly attacked near the base of the 

trunk due to damage from lawnmowers and cars. 

– Branches may snap off. On some hosts exudation of 

gum is the most obvious symptom. 

Secondary damage. Under moist conditions, 

longicorn damage may predispose trunks and 

major limbs to secondary fungal rots. Injury by 

longicorns on mango facilitates entry of 

Botryodiplodia theobromae which can grow 

beyond damaged tissue. Frequently more 

advanced stages of longicorn damage are 

associated with attack by other boring insects, eg 

auger and bark beetles. However, they are much 

smaller insects and produce round or ovoid holes 

in the bark from which fine dry powdery sawdust 

is extruded. 

Diagnostics. 

Longicorn tunnels are often difficult to 

recognize. With beetle borers evidence of their 

presence may be first indicated when droplets 

of clear or yellowish gum exudes from the bark. 

Oval exit holes of the adult are visible on 

trunks or limbs in advanced infestations. 

It may be necessary to get expert advice from an 

arborist to confirm identity and get advice on 

control. If not immediately obvious then 

‘sounding’ will indicate the distribution of 

damage (Mann, personal correspondence). 

See also fruit-tree borer (page 96), termites 

(page 178) and wood rot (page 361). 

Lucid key www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Wood Boring Beetles of the World Part I: 

Wood Boring Beetle Families. 

Fig. 77. Fig longicorn (Acalolepta vastator). Left: Adult 

about 30 mm long causes little damage, may feed on new shoots 

or young bark. Centre: Larva about 40 mm long feeds internally 

just below the bark. Photos NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. Right: 

Larval damage by another species to eucalypt, bark removed, 

oval tunnels packed with coarse frass. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and adult) with 1 generation each year. 

Adults emerge from trees in spring and summer, 

mating occurs shortly afterwards. Egg laying 

begins and continues throughout most of summer. 

Females lay their eggs singly into rough bark, 

cracks of twigs and small branches or in wounds. 

They gnaw a circular patch about 1 mm in 

diameter around each egg. After hatching larvae 

eat their way into the wood and tunnel either 

upwards into the trunk or downwards into the roots 

for distances up to 1 metre. The circular patch of 

bark dries and falls out leaving a round pit which 

exposes the sapwood. When fully grown, larvae 

pupate just under the bark at the end of their 

tunnel. Adult beetles start to emerge from trees 

during spring through oval exit holes in late 

spring or summer. 


In trunks, limbs, roots of host plants as larvae. 

Spread 

By adults flying. Movement of infested wood. 


Adult female longicorns prefer to lay their eggs 

on trees that have been weakened in some way, 

eg drought, waterlogging, sunburn, often 

following canopy pruning) or severe pruning, 

lawnmower or storm damage, old age, insect 

damage, disease, or fire damage. 

Research suggests that excessive use of 

fungicides kill fungi which attack larvae and 

may result in increased borer damage. 




2. Crop, region. Recognize variations depending on 

the crop, eg citrus, wisteria. 

3. Identification of borer must be confirmed. Consult 

a diagnostic service if required (page xiv). 

4. Monitor pest and/or damage and record results as 

recommended (page 39). Seek advice but you could 

monitor all blocks that have a history of borer 

problems, a rating system for citrus, eg. 

0. No damage 

1. Small patch on the trunk or a limb 

2. Trunk and a limb with 2-3 patches 

3. Most lower limbs and trunk with serious patches 

4. Extensive damage, serious dieback, secondary rot. 

5. Threshold. For citrus, when the average rating is 

2 or more. How much damage can you accept? 

6. Action. Take appropriate action when any threshold 

is reached. 

7.Evaluation. Treated trees should be inspected at 

2-3 weeks intervals for the next few months after 

treatment and any missed tunnels or new larval 

damage treated. Review IPM program to see how well 



Control is difficult as damage is not usually noticed 

until larvae have penetrated deep into the wood. 

Cultural methods. Maintain tree vigour, 

adequate drainage and irrigation, fertilizer practice. 

The best treatment for all tree problems is to 

ensure that the trees are as healthy as possible and 

therefore have the resources to establish their own 

internal protective walls. Judicious pruning at the 

correct time may stimulate vigour. All large 

pruning cuts should be made cleanly so that stubs 

are not left to die back and encourage further borer 

attack. Surfaces may be painted as soon as 

possible with an insecticide. Seek advice. 

Sanitation. Control of larvae already in the 

wood is difficult. Regular pruning and burning of 

infested small branches may prevent loss of large 

sections of trees and minimize build-up of 

longicorns within the planting. If the main trunk is 

damaged affected tissues may be scraped away. 


Natural controls. Predatory beetles feed on 

larvae. Parasitic wasps attack larvae, papery 

cocoons and pupae are often seen in tunnels. 

No biological control agents seem to be 

available for purchase or been released as yet. 

Physical and mechanical methods. 

In small plantings, short tunnels may be probed 

with wire to kill larvae. Dissecting larvae from 

channels is discouraged due to mechanical damage 

caused by knives. 

Insecticides. 

Small accessible infestations involving 

only 1-2 small trees. Clean away loose bark until 

the perimeter around the wound is healthy bark, 

destroy any larvae found, then paint on or squirt 

in a household insecticide which will be 

absorbed without damaging the tree. 

Well established trunk boring insects cannot be 

controlled by spraying, tree injection or by just 

placing insecticide in oval exit holes on the bark. 

Large infestations may be treated by a licensed 

operator. Place nozzle over one of the tunnel holes 

and squirt insecticide under pressure into the 

tunnel. Penetration along the length will be 

obvious when the chemical seeps from the other 

holes along tunnels. Follow-up treatments may be 

necessary for several months. A fungicide may be 

included if secondary fungi are a problem (?) 

Seek advice for individual situations, eg 

citrus longicorn damage to citrus. 

Table15. Fig longicorn – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

INSECTICIDES for Fig longicorn 

Group 1B, eg Gusathion (azinphos-methyl); Supracide 

(methidathion) DANGEROUS POISON 

Group 2B, eg Regent , Legion , various (fipronil) 

Group 3A, eg Talstar , Venom , various (bifenthrin) 


Insecticide should only be applied to large trees 

and extensive infestations by licensed operators. 

Note: Stem injection of insecticides to control foliagefeeding 

insects does not control borers which mostly feed in 

dead tissue where there is no active conducting tissue. 




Acanthoscelides obtectus, Family Chrysomelidae, 

Order Coleoptera. Note that although this insect is 

called a weevil it is not a true weevil. 

Host range 

Beans and cowpeas in the field and in storage. 


Weevils (adults) are small, stout, oval beetles 

approximately 3 mm in length. They have white, 

gray, brown or black patches on the upper surface. 

The legs and antennae are reddish. Larvae. The 

1 st stage larvae have legs, and move through the 

pods and bore into seeds. Later stage larvae are 

white and legless and grow to a length of 3 mm. 

Seed. Damage is caused by the larvae feeding 

and developing inside the seed both in the field 

and after harvest in storage. After pupation of 

larvae inside the seed, emerging adults leave round 

exit holes. Infested seed is rendered unfit for 

human consumption and seed germination may be 

seriously affected. Infested seed that has not been 

treated may be found to be riddled when needed 

for planting. 

Diagnostics. 

Circular holes on seed. 

In lightly infested seeds all stages are difficult to 

find. A hand lens is needed to see adults feeding. 

Can be difficult to identify one species of weevil 

from another. Seek expert advice (page xiv). 

Fig. 78. Bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus). 

Left: Adult about 3 mm long. Photo NSW Dept of Industry and 

Investment. Right: Cavities produced in bean seed by 

larvae covered by thin circular caps of skin. PhotoCIT, 


Bean weevil 

Not really a weevil 

Table 16. Bean weevil – Some insecticides. 

Pest cycle 


larva, pupa, adult), with up to 6 generations each 

year. Adult females may lay several hundred small 

white eggs on bean pods or on split seed on the 

plant. After hatching, larvae enter and feed in the 

seeds, damage in the field is not usually noticeable. 

Larvae complete their development inside the seed 

after the seed is harvested. When fully grown, the 

larva excavates a chamber near the surface of the 

bean and pupates. A visible circular cap of skin 

covers the chamber and is broken when the adult 

beetle emerges leaving a circular hole. Beetles that 

emerge in storage from field-infested seed, lay eggs 

on other bean seeds in storage and on bean pods or 

exposed seeds on plants in the field. 


All stages in stored seed. 

Spread 

By adult beetles flying, adults can invade bean 

crops from where seed is stored. 

By the movement of infested seed. 


Warm, dry conditions for field infestations. 

In storage they may breed throughout the year. 



1. Obtain/pepare a plan that fits your situation. 




4. Monitor pest and/or damage and record results 

(page 39). 



is reached improving sanitation methods, etc. 

7. Evaluation. Review IPM program to see how well 



Cultural methods. To minimize infestation 

of seed in field, harvest as soon as seed is mature. 

When beans are harvested for seed they should be 

bagged as soon as dry and then treated if necessary. 

Sanitation. Destroy residues of old infested 

crops, seed residues and trash in boxes and sheds. 

Biological control. No biological control 

agents are available for purchase and none have 

been released by government agencies. Little 

appears to be known about natural controls. 


Check seed with a hand lens prior to planting. 

Insecticides. See Table 16 below. 

What to use? 

DUSTS & SPECIAL PACKAGING 

Dusts do not kill larvae or pupae inside the seed but they do 

kill the adults after they emerge preventing further infestation. 

FUMIGANTS 

Group 24A (pages 60, 267) 


Use only for seed known to be clean or lightly infested. 

After treatment, store in beetle-proof sacks or muslin bags 

to keep seed free from infestation for a long time. 



NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

LIFE CYCLE 

Steelblue 

sawfly 

(spitfires) 

ORDER HYMENOPTERA 

Ants, bees, sawflies, wasps 

More than 4,000 species of ants in Australia. World-wide decline in bees and 

other pollinators, eg beetles, butterflies, flies, bats and birds, is threatening 

yields of major field crops and biodiversity of wild plants. 25% of Britain’s 

250 native bee species are classified as rare or threatened. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/hymenoptera.html 

What wasp is that - An interactive identification guide to the Australasian families of 

Hymenoptera www.cbit.uq.edu.au/software/whatwasp/ 

Pesticides – A Guide to their effects on honey bees (Rhodes 2006) (available online). 

The toxicity of commonly used chemicals to beneficial species www.goodbugs.org.au/ 

1. Has the largest group of beneficial insects, eg predators, parasites and 

pollinators, of any insect order. 

2. Some show highly socialized behaviour, eg ants, bees. 

3. Resistance to pesticides has only occasionally occurred. 

ADULT Body 1. A marked constriction between the 1 st and 2 nd segments 

of the abdomen to form a ‘waist’. Exceptions are 

sawflies and wood wasps. 

2. No scales on body, if hairs then wings are clear. 

3. Females often have a long ovipositor for sawing, 

piercing or stinging. 

Wings 

1. Usually 2 pairs membraneous (lace-like) wings. A few 

species, eg ants, have largely dispensed with wings 

except for some brief prenuptial flights. 

2. Forewings larger than forewings and are held together 

by hooks (hamuli). 

3. Wings held flat over body when at rest. 

LARVA Legs Some have legs and others are legless, eg 

1. Caterpillar-like thoracic legs and 6-8 pairs prolegs, eg 

cypress pine sawfly larvae. 

2. Thoracic legs only, eg steelblue sawfly larvae (spitfires). 

3. Maggot-like (legless), eg parasitic wasp larva. 

Mouth 

Chewing mouthparts. 

There is a complete metamorphosis - egg, larva (grub, ‘slug’, spitfire) 

pupa and adult. 

Adults are about 

25 mm long 

Life cycle 

may vary 

markedly, 

eg ants, 

bees, 

wasps 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT Chewing, but mouthparts are sometimes modified for chewing 

and lapping. 

LARVA Chewing. 

114 Insects and allied pests - Hymenoptera (ants, bees, sawflies, wasps)



DAMAGE 


Larvae cause most plant damage. Occasionally adult ants will eat leaves. 

LEAVES Chewing damage, eg steelblue sawfly, callistemon sawfly, 

cypress pine sawfly 

Skeletonization, eg pear and cherry slug, elm leaf beetle 

Leaf mining, eg leafblister sawfly 

Galls, eg many wasp galls found on native plants, eg eucalypts, 

wattles 

STEMS Galls, eg citrus gall wasp 

TRUNKS 

Borers, eg sirex wasp 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Fire ants are 

notifiable 

pests in some 

states/territories 

Honey 

bees 

Not known 

in Australia 

Not established 

in Australia 

Not known 

in Australia 

There are about 1500 

species of native bees 

Not known in 

mainland Australia 


Wasps may spoil ripe fruit. 

Commercial damage is caused when pollinated flowers start to wither. 

Ants may transfer young scale and other insects to new feeding sites. 

The entrance to some ant nests is surrounded by a mound of soil disfiguring 

turf, paths, etc. 

Adult leafcutting bees use their legs to cut away portions of leaves to line 

their nests. 

OTHER EFFECTS. 

Ants, bees and wasps may aggressively sting humans, eg European wasp. 

Bees introduced to increase pollination of certain crops may displace native 

bees 

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME PEST STATUS/HOST RANGE/ 


ANTS (Family Formicidae) 

www.ento.csiro.au/science/ants/ 

Argentine ant Linepithema humile World’s worst ant pest. 

Bigheaded African ant Pheidole magacephala Major threat to NT rainforests 

including Kakadu NationalPark, 

displace native ant population 

Crazy ants 

Anoplolepsis gracilipes 

(Christmas Island, NT, Qld) 

Environmental pest, can be a 

minor agriculture pest. Decimate 

red crabs on Christmas Island 

Funnel ants Aphaenogaster spp. Create a mound around the 

entrance to the nest 

Seedharvesting ants Pheidole spp. Harvest seed. 

Fire ant, ‘red 

imported fire ant’ 

Solenopsis invicta 

Harvest seed. Agricultural and 

horticultural pest. Stings humans 

and pets repeatedly. National Fire 

Ant Eradication program in place 

Tropical fire ant Solenopsis geminata Harvest seeds. May feed on plants, 

emerging seedlings, insects and 

animal matter, honeydew 

BEES (Pollinators, several families) 

Honey bee Apis mellifera 

(European honey bee) 

Africanized honey African honey bee 

bee (AHB) 

(Apis mellifera scutellata) x 

European honey bee 

(A. mellifera ssp.) 

www.aussiebee.com.au/ab11.html 

Nectar, introduced pollinator. 

Extremely aggressive in defense 

of their colony and are easily 

provoked into stinging in response 

to vibration. 

Asian honey bee Apis cerana Is the natural host of varroa mites 

which deplete honey bee colonies, 

often intercepted in quarantine 

Giant honeybee Apis dorsata May carry mites which are 

parasitic on honeybees, often 

intercepted by quarantine 

Native honey bees Trigona spp. Nectar. Also called stingless 

bees, sugarbag bees 

Yellow-faced Bombus vosnesenskii Recent arrival, may impact native 

bumblebee 

flora and fauna. Could compete with 

native bees for pollen and nectar 

Large earth bumble 

bee (in Tasmania) 

Bombus terrestris 

Good pollinator but may displace 

some native bees. Can sting 

Leafcutting bees Leafcutting bees Megachile spp. Feed on nectar, damage rose, lilac 

Insects and allied pests - Hymenoptera (ants, bees, sawflies, wasps) 115


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME PEST STATUS/HOST RANGE 


(contd) WASPS (several families) www.cbit.uq.edu.au/software/whatwasp/ 

Gall wasps (not all galls are caused by wasps) 

Citrus gall wasp Bruchophagus fellis Citrus, esp. lemon, grapefruit. 

Preferred host is common rough 

lemon. Native host is fingerlime 

(Microcitrus australisica) 

Seed chalcids Eurytomidae Various types of seeds 

Citrus gall wasp 

damage by larvae 

Predatory 

wasps 

Locate nests 

by watching workers 

flying to & from the nest 

Biological 


Capri fig wasp 

Lucerne seed wasp 

Parsnip seed wasp 

Wattle apple-gall 

wasp 

Blastophaga psenes 

Bruchophagus roddi 

Systole sp. 

Trichilogaster 

acaciaelongifoliae 

Figs, pollinated Capri fig develop 

a special flavour and quality 

Lucerne 

Parsnip 

Wattles 

Predatory wasps (Vespidae) 

English wasp Vespula vulgaris Sting humans, attack damaged 

fruit, prey on insects 

European wasp V. germanica Sting humans, attack damaged 

fruit, rob bee-hives, kill bees. Prey 

on insects, eg flies and caterpillars 

Paper wasps Polistes spp., 

They sting humans, adults feed on 

Ropalidia spp. 

nectar and prey on caterpillars to 

feed their larvae 

Parasitic wasps (several families) 

Aphid parasites 

Various species of wasps eg Aphids. Wasp larvae live inside 

Aphidius colemani 

aphids. The adult wasp, escapes 

by chewing a circular hole in the 

back of the mummified aphid 

Braconid wasps Family Braconidae Parasites of various aphids, 

caterpillars, weevils etc 

Parasitized 

aphid 

Aphid 

Chalcid wasps Family Chalcididae Insect larvae and pupae 

Flower wasps Family Tiphiidae Both sexes feed mainly on nectar, 

larvae parasitic on scarab larvae. 

Baker, G and Hardy, J. 2005 

Survey Black Scale parasitoids 

in South Australian Olives. 

Sardi, SA.. (avail online) 

Parasitic wasp laying 

an egg in a scale insect 

Melaleuca sawfly 

(Lophyrotoma zonalis) is 

being used in USA as a 

biological control agent 

against melaleuca 

Potential biocontrol 

agent(?) 

Not known 

in Australia 

Hatchet wasps 

Ichneumon wasps 

Greenhouse 

whitefly parasite 

Red scale parasites 

Family Evaniidae 

Family Ichneumonidae 

Encarsia formosa 

Eggs, larvae of insects 

Eggs, larvae of insects 

Greenhouse whitefly, and to some 

extent silverfleaf whitefly 

Red scale (on citrus) 

Aphytis spp. 

Encarsia perniciosi 

Black scale parasite Metaphycus helvolus Soft brown scale 

Cabbage aphid 

parasite 

Diaeretiella rapae 

Cabbage aphid 

Cabbage white 

butterfly parasite 

Cotesia glomerata 


Sirex parasite Sirex noctilio Sirex on Pinus radiata 

Trichogramma wasp Trichogramma spp. Moths and butterflies eggs, 

caterpillars. 

Woolly aphid Aphelinus mali 

Woolly aphid 

parasite 

WOOD WASPS (Family Siricidae) 

Sirex wasp Sirex noctilio 

Pinus radiata, other Pinus spp. 

Tremex wasp Tremex fuscicornis 

Poplars and willows 

SAWFLIES (several families) 

Bramble sawfly Philomastix macleaii Blackberry, other brambles 

Ringed sawfly Pterygophorus cinctus Paperbark (Melaleuca spp.) 

Melaleuca sawfly, Lophyrotoma zonalis (other 

paperbark sawfly species may attack Callistemon, etc) 

Paperbark (Melaleuca spp.) 

Cypress pine sawfly Zenarge turneri 

Native Callitris, exotic cypress 

Raspberry sawfly Prophorus morio 

Raspberry, blackberry, loganberry 

Leafblister sawfly Phylacteophaga spp. Eucalypts 

Steelblue sawfly Perga spp. (‘spitfires’) Eucalypts 

Pear and cherry slug Caliroa cerasi Cherry, pear, plum, also peach, 

almonds, quinces, hawthorn, 

Rosaceous plants preferred 

Willow sawfly Nematus oligospilus Crack, weeping, golden and 

pencil willows 

Willow shoot sawfly Janus abbreviatus Poplar, willow 

Endangered (?) Flightless sawfly Clarissa tasbates In Tasmania 



ANTS, BEES, WASPS AND SAWFLIES 


ANTS 

BEES 

WASPS 


1. ‘Waist’ 

2. Swelling on ‘waist’ 

3. Social insects (males, queens, 

sterile workers and soldiers) 

4. Compare with ‘white ants’ 

(termites) which belong to the 

Order Isoptera 


2. Hairs on body 

3. Many have long tongue for supping 

nectar 

4. Bees feed their larvae on nectar 

5. Broader bodies than wasps 

6. Some bees are social insects (males 

or drones, queens, sterile workers) 

7. Use pollen and nectar as food for 

larvae 


2. No hairs on body 

3. Most are parasitic on other insects, 

some prey on other insects 

4. Some wasps are social insects 

(females, males, workers) 



LEAVES 

Chewed edges, eg adult ants 


 

 

 

 

 

Are attracted to honeydew 

Spread scale insects 

Repel parasitic insects which might 

control scales, aphids, leafhoppers, 

lerp insects, etc 

Nest in turf, bowling greens, etc 

May sting humans and animals 


Possible transfer of pollen containing 

genetically modified material 


 

 

 

Adult leafcutting bees cut pieces of 

leaves to build nests 

Pollination of flowers hastens 

withering reducing their commercial 

value 

Not all species sting. Honeybees 

vary in their aggressiveness. 

BENEFICIAL. 

Their main value is as pollinators 


LEAVES 

FRUIT 

STEMS 

Galls, eg on eucalypts 

General pest 

Galls, eg citrus gall wasp, 

sirex wasp (plus a fungus) 

SAWFLIES 

1. No ‘waist’ 

2. Stout saw-like ovipositor which the 

female uses to cut plant tissue to 

insert her eggs 

3. Larvae are often caterpillar-like 

(thoracic legs + 6-8 pairs prolegs), 

some only have true legs on the 

thorax. 


May sting aggressively 

BENEFICIAL. 

 

 

Biological control agents, eg parasitic 

wasps, predatory wasps 

Pollinators 


LEAVES 


steelblue sawfly 

Leafmining, eg leafblister 

sawfly 

Skeletonization, eg pear and 

cherry slug 


 

Unsightly and sometimes unpleasant 

communal behaviour 



Fig. 79. Teatree sawfly larvae 

(Pterygophorus sp.). PhotoNSW Dept of 


Fig. 80. Sawfly larvae feeding 

on Callistemon. PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 81. Callistemon leaves 

skeletonized by sawfly larvae. 


Fig. 82. Leafcutting bees 

(Megachile spp.) indiscriminately 

damage a number of species but 

have no great economic effect. 

Fig. 83. Cypress pine sawfly 

larva (Zenarge turneri). PhotoCIT, 


Fig. 84. Gall on flower stem of 

Geraldton wax caused by a small 

wasp. PhotoWA Agric (Wood & Grimm 1988). 

Fig. 85. Parasitic wasp. 

Tiny wasp laying an egg in a 

scale insect. 

Fig. 88. Suppliers of parasitic wasps. 

Fig. 86. Predatory wasp. 

Native paper wasps are common 

and are aggressive stingers. 

Fig. 87. Predatory wasp. 

European wasp (Vespula 

germanica). Sting is painful, 

especially if a mature nest is 

disturbed which can lead to 

hundreds of stings. Few 

predators in Australia to 

keep it under control. 

PARASITIC WASPS 

(some examples only) 

Parasitic wasp 

(Aphytis spp.) 

Greenhouse whitefly parasite 

(Encarsia formosa) 

Parasitic wasps 

(Trichogramma spp.) 

Parasitic wasps 

(Aphidius spp.) 

PEST 


Red scale (Aonidiella auranti) 


(Trialeurodes vaporariorum) 

Other whiteflies 

Moth eggs and caterpillars 

of Helicoverpa spp., codling 

moth and lightbrown apple 

moth 

Aphids, eg green peach aphid 

and cotton or melon aphid 

SUPPLIERS 

Australasian Biological Control (ABC) 

www.goodbugs.org.au/ 

This website lists commercial suppliers 

of bio control agents and provides advice on 

developing an IPM program suitable for your 

crop and situation. Some also provide 

IPM monitoring services. 

Lucid key What Wasp is That? 

www.cbit.uq.edu.au/software/whatwasp/ 

www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Parasitic wasps can be killed by insecticides 



Ants 


Family Formicidae, Order Hymenoptera. There are 

more than 5,000 species of ants in Australia, but 

only a few ever damage turf and other plant 

materials or are troublesome to humans, eg 

Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) 

Brown house ant (Doleromyrma darwiniana) 

Bull ants, bulldog ants (Myrmecia spp) 

Coastal brown ants (Pheidole spp.) . 

Funnel ant (Aphaenogaster pythia) 

Meat ants (Iridomyrmex spp.) 

Fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) 

Tropical fire ant (Solenopsis geminata) 


Ants Down Under http://anic.ento.csiro.au/ants/ 

Australian Ants Online 

www.csiro.au/resources/AustralianAntsOnline.html 

Host range 

Ants are important predators and scavengers; they 

contribute to nutrient recycling in soil and soil 

structure by constructing nests and burrows. They 

rival earthworms in their ability to move soil. 

Ants are attracted to the honeydew excreted by 

some sap sucking insects, eg aphids, scale. 

Edges of leaves and flowers may be eaten. 

Some species grow their own fungus for food. 


Ants are social insects and live in colonies. The 

queen lays all the eggs, is winged at birth but loses 

them after mating. There may be more than 1 queen 

in a nest. Workers are wingless sterile females 

who build the nest and tend the queen, larvae and 

pupae and forage for food. Soldiers defend the 

colony and often have large heads and mandibles. 

Males have wings and mate with the new queens. 

Plant damage. Ants may occasionally chew 

leaf edges causing minor injury. They can also be a 

nuisance when attempts are made to establish 

plants through direct seeding. They may nest in 

indoor potted plants. 

Nests may damage lawns, golf greens, 

pastures. Funnel ants (Aphaenogaster spp.) 

throw up mounds of earth around entrances to 

their nests creating an artificial drought by 

removing soil from around roots. 

Seedharvesting ants (Pheidole spp.) remove 

and destroy seeds. 

Honeydew produced by soft scales, aphids, 

leafhoppers, lerp insects, mealybugs and whiteflies, 

attracts ants which repel predators and parasites of 

these pests. Ants may spread young scales to new 

hosts. If ant populations are very high, numbers of 

soft scales increase dramatically, trees may dieback. 

Ants may nest in and around houses 

paths, paved areas, pots and invade houses, 

compost heaps, mulched garden beds and 

uncultivated land, lawns, school yards, parks. 

Ants can also block micro-sprinklers in orchards. 

A few species will occasionally attack electrical 

wiring and extensive damage has occurred. 

Some ants infest timber damaged by fungi, 

termites or borers in retaining walls, fences and 

buildings. None of the ant species present in 

Australia damages timber in good condition. 

Environmental threat, eg 

– Stings of some species need medical attention. 

Ants may irritate pickers in orchards. 

– Threaten outdoor activities, eg barbecues. 

– Fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) are a public 

nuisance and pest of agriculture and horticulture. If 

the nest is disturbed they will aggressively and 

repeatedly sting humans and pets. Fire ants are 

predators of root weevil larvae in citrus orchards. 

– Bigheaded African ants (Pheidole magacephala) 

are a major threat to Kakadu National Park. 

– Crazy ants (Anoplolepsis gracilipes) swarm all 

over, poison and eat slow moving red land crabs or 

young birds in nests on Christmas Island. Mainly 

an environmental pest but can be a minor 

agricultural pest in Christmas Island, NT and Qld. 

– Ant communities in any area may provide an 

indication of the level of disturbance of an area. 

– Overseas some species are known to carry diseases 

and can pose a threat in hospitals and veterinary 

clinics. Uncommon in Australia where in general 

ants are mainly a nuisance pest. 

Diagnostics. 

Ants are easily recognized due to their ‘wasp 

waists’ and elbowed antennae. 

Distinguishing one ant species from another may 

requires the help of an ant specialist or you can 

access online keys (see above). 

Fig. 89. Ants (Family Formicidae). 

Fig. 90. Argentine ant 

(Linepithema humile). PhotoNSW 


All enlarged x16 

1. Eggs 

2. Fully-fed legless larva 

3.Pupa of male showing 

developing wing buds 

4.Worker ants about 3 mm long 

5. Queen after wings have 

broken off 



Pest cycle 

There is a complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, 

pupa and adult). At certain times of the year males and 

females of most species make nuptial flights from the 

nests. The mated female, or queen, then sheds her 

wings and seeks a place in which to found a new 

colony. Nests of most species are made in the ground, 

under logs or stones under bark of trees or in old 

stumps, landscape timbers or in termite mounds. Some 

live in cavities in trees, others more rarely in nests 

amongst the foliage of trees. Black or brown ants 

invade buildings. A colony of ants may have more 

than one nest, and workers may be seen passing 

restlessly to and fro along regular runways for long 

distances through grass, along walls or other surfaces 

from one nest to another. These nests may be 

connected by tunnels below ground. The queen 

excavates a chamber or cell within which she remains, 

laying eggs. Eggs hatch into legless larvae which are 

fed by the queen, with secretions from her salivary 

glands, until they enter the pupal stage. Pupae change 

into worker ants that construct tunnels, forage for 

food, tend the queen, care for eggs, feed larvae (usually 

reared in groups) or move them from place to place in 

the nest. Soldiers (sub-castes of workers) defend the colony. 


As all stages in nests. 

Spread 

By ants crawling and mated queens flying. 

By transportation of ants, larvae and eggs in soil, 

grass sod, mulch, potting mix, on timber, 

containers, vehicles, machinery, infested nursery 

stock, hay, straw, landscaping materials. Humans. 


Each species has optimum temperature conditions. 

Many are attracted to their food source. 



1. Obtain/prepare a plan that fits your situation. 

Obtain leaflets on ant control for you local area. 

2. Crop, region. Recognize variations. Are the ants in 

containers, adjacent to glasshouses, barbecue areas? 

3. Identification of ant species can often only be 

accomplished by a trained taxonomist (page xiv). 


recommended. Examine trees, etc, during the warmer 

parts of the year and the warmer parts of the day, 

although some ant species are active at night. 

5. Threshold. Have any thresholds been established? 

If so, what are they, eg economic, aesthetic, 

environmental? Do you need to calculate your own 

threshold? Will depend on the ant species, eg 

For fire ants eradication is being attempted so 

there is a nil threshold. 

Fruit trees. Thresholds vary but examples include 

when ants are present on 50% or more of shoots 

examined for scales or other pests. On rare fruit 

when noticed or when 5 out of 50 trees are infested. 


is reached. Distribution of baits, tree banding, control 

honeydew-producing insects, eg scales. 

7. Evaluation. Review IPM program to see how well it 

worked. Recommend improvements if required. 


Controlling ants reduces aphid, mealybug and scales. 

Cultural methods. Maintain crop vigour. 

Sanitation. Clean up plant debris, other litter or 

food scraps. Store food in air tight containers. In 

orchards, skirt trees regularly, keep weeds under 

control so that ants cannot climb up trunks. 

Biological control. Many vertebrates prey on 

ants; wasps, flies and nematodes parasitize them. 

However, there is currently no effective bio-control 

agent available for controlling ants in Australia. 


AQIS. Many species are not yet in Australia. 

State/Regional Quarantine, eg the National 

Fire Ants Eradication program. There are legal 

requirement to report suspected fire ant outbreaks 

in some parts of Australia, areas are quarantined 

and eradication procedures implemented. 


Drown ants in pots by placing pots in water. 

Sticky materials used to bands trees prevent ants 

reaching the tops of trees to feed on honeydew, 

mate, or deposit eggs; some are chemicalimpregnated 

barriers. Labour intensive but some 

barriers can provide up to 3 years protection. 

Cultivating around nests discourages ants. 

Insecticides. 

Some insecticides used for commercial ant 

control are highly toxic. 

If practical locate and treat the nest. 

No chemicals are registered for use on crops. 

Spread baits that worker ants can take back to 

the nest during foraging to feed the queen. 

Small colonies in home gardens. Many dusts, 

etc are available from garden centers for ant 

control. Apply according to label directions. 

Soil around the base of tree may be treated 

but, depending on the persistence of the 

insecticide, ground sprays may only last a short 

time as subterranean colonies generally survive 

and rapidly return to pre-treatment levels. 

Table 17. Ants – Some insecticides and other controls. 

What to use? 

IN HORTICULTURE SITUATIONS 

Group 1A, eg carbaryl; Ficam (bendiocarb); Baygon (propoxur) 

Group 1B, eg Lebaycid (fenthion); various (chlorpyrifos) 

Group 2C, eg Choice (fipronil) 

Group 3A, eg pyrethrins; Baythroid (cyfluthrin); 

Cislin (deltamethrin); various (permethrin); 

Permaguard (diatmocous earth/pyrethrin); 

Temp Residual insecticide (beta-cyfluthrin) 

Group 20A, eg Permit required for this bait - Amdro 

(hyramethylnon/soybean oil/ground corm); Maxforce 

(hydramethylnon) 

Spray oils, etc, eg various oil sprays; eucalyptus oil, Beat-a-Bug 

(garlic/ chilli/pyrethrin/piperonyl butoxide); Hovex 

antkiller (boron decahydrate). 

Sticky materials, eg Tac-Gel (polybutene); Trappit Tanglefoot 

(natural gum resins/vegetable oil/wax) 


Permits may be needed in some states. 

Some insecticides are taken back to the nest before 

ants sense that anything is wrong. Generally slow 

acting. Colonies may die within weeks. 

Various Nest Kill Ant Baits (boron, fipronil) are 

available for use indoors. 

Ants may move nest sites when disturbed or with 

change in food supply, this can make their 

control difficult. 

Controlling soft scales and other honeydew 

producers will control ants on trees and shrubs. 

Used to band trees to trap ants attracted to honeydew 

produced by some sap sucking insects, eg aphids. 



Citrus gall wasp 

An example of a gall wasp 


A native wasp (Bruchophagus fellis, Eurytomidae, 

Order Hymenoptera) infests citrus in Queensland, 

NSW, Victoria and South Australia. Another gall 

wasp (Eurytoma sp.) has recently been found to 

also attack some citrus. 

Host range 

Citrus. Citrus gall wasp is native to coastal NSW 

and Qld where it develops in the native finger lime 

(Microcitrus australiasica). All citrus can be 

attacked, but there are differences in susceptibility. 


Damage is caused by the larvae. 

Adult wasps are black, about 3 mm long, they 

are smaller than the length of a match. Larvae, 

when fully grown are white, about 3 mm long, 

legless, tapering towards each end of the body. 

Stems. Injury is caused by the female wasps 

depositing eggs within the stem and subsequent 

feeding and development of wasp larvae which 

causes extensive galling. The galls may be up to 

25 cm long and 3 cm thick containing hundreds of 

larvae. Old galls are covered with the small 

emergence holes of the adult. Twigs. In spring 

heavily flecked young twigs indicate that citrus 

gall wasps are laying large numbers of eggs in the 

current spring growth. Twigs may die and be 

replaced by weaker growth. 

Leaf midribs, petioles & fruit stems. 

Although stems are most frequently attacked, 

these parts may also be infested. 

General. Damage is very serious in nursery 

stock as the main stem may be attacked. Heavy 

galling weakens older trees and may reduce 

fruiting. Fungal diseases, eg melanose, may 

invade dead tissues and cause further damage. 

Diagnostics. 

Galls are quite distinctive (Fig. 91 below). 

Do not confuse male citrus gall wasps (black 

on top and brown underneath) with parasitic 

native female Magastigmus wasps which are 

honey coloured, and about the same size. 

Lucid key What Wasp is That? 

www.cbit.uq.edu.au/software/whatwasp/ 

Pest cycle 


larva (4 stages), pupa and adult) with 1 generation 

each year. Adult wasps emerge from tiny exit holes 

on galls in spring, mate and females immediately lay 

eggs, after which they live only about a week. 

Young twigs only a few weeks old are selected for 

egg laying usually on the same tree. Each female 

deposits more than 100 eggs between bark and 

wood. Larvae hatch from eggs and feed within plant 

tissues during summer, autumn and winter to early 

spring when they pupate in the galls. 

Fig. 91. Citrus gall wasp 

(Bruchophagus fellis). PhotoNSW 


1. Eggs (x 24) 

2. Larvae 

3. Pupa 

4. Adult wasp 

5. Emergence holes of adults 

(all enlarged x 12) 

6. Galled lemon twig showing 

exit holes of adult wasps 

7. Gall cut open to show cells 

in which wasp develops 

8. Adult wasps laying eggs 

(all actual size) 




As larvae in galls on the host plant. 

Spread 

Adults are poor fliers, but are assisted by wind. 

By the movement of infested cuttings and plants. 


Mild winters, proximity to existing infestations in 

coastal districts of NSW and Qld. They are not a 

problem in cold tableland climates. 



1.Plan for your situation after obtaining advice from 

your local department of agriculture. 

2.Crop, region. Not a wide distribution. 

3.Identification of pest, not difficult, must be 

confirmed. Consult a diagnostic service (page xiv). 

4.Monitor and record damage and/or parasitism 

(page 39), eg 

Monitor stems for citrus gall wasp once during 

winter by examining 3-5 branches (30 cm long) from 

20 randomly selected trees in a 1-5 ha block. 

Monitor for parasitism in crop by collecting say 

2-3 galls from each of 10 trees in a block in late 

August, keeping them in plastic container with a 

fine mesh lid. Gall wasps will emerge first about 

10 days later, Megastigmus (if present) will emerge 

for 2-4 weeks. The number of trees from which 

samples should be taken depends on the block size 

and history of infestation. 

Yellow sticky traps attract wasps and other insects. 

5.Threshold is determined in some areas by 

legislation. Outside these legal obligations how much 

serious damage, weakened trees can you tolerate 

economically or aesthetically? 

6.Action/Control. Carry out measures prescribed by 

legislation. Otherwise biological control starts when 

no parasites have emerged by mid-October. Either 

release Megastigmus when 33% or more branches are 

infested with 1 or more fresh galls and forego 

spraying or apply a recommended pesticide between 

the last week in November and the first week in 

December, if there is a serious infestation. 

7.Evaluation. Review your current program, assess 

success of techniques and recommend improvements 

if necessary. Evaluate sanitation procedures and 

consider planting less susceptible varieties/crops. 


Legislation. There is a legal responsibility in 

some areas of Australia where citrus gall wasp is a 

‘proclaimed pest’, to carry out prescribed controls. 

Sanitation. 

Home gardeners. Because adults emerge 

from galls in spring, all galls must be removed 

by the end of August at the latest and burnt, 

before wasps emerge to lay eggs in new shoots. 

Table 18. Citrus gall wasp – Some insecticides. 

Commercial growers. 

– All galls from all the trees in one locality should be 

removed at one time. Wasps are not strong fliers 

and prefer to develop in the trees on which they 

themselves developed. 

– Cut off plants at ground level. Heavily galled trees 

will benefit from a heavy pruning during winter. 

– Burn all the removed growth in a manner which 

kills all citrus gall wasps present in the growth. 

– Destroy all regrowth not older than 2 years from 

the plants within 21 days of appearance. 

– Regular inspections of nurseries known to be 

infested have prevented the wasp from becoming a 

pest of commercial orchards. 

– Do not allow shoots to develop on rough lemon, or 

Troyer Citrange rootstock in the orchard to become 

heavily infested with citrus gall wasp. 


Natural controls. Citrus gall wasps may be 

killed by heat or ants (Pheidole spp.) as they 

emerge. Native wasps (Megastigmus spp.) 

parasitize gall wasp larvae and may be trapped in 

galls, unable to emerge. 

Wasps for purchase. Wasps (Megastigmus 

spp.) lay eggs in over 90% of gall wasp eggs in 

young twigs resulting in smaller and fewer galls. 



Avoid planting large areas of susceptible 

varieties where citrus gall wasp is a pest. 

Citrus gall wasp is more common in grapefruit 

(most susceptible), orange and lemon. Mandarins 

are least susceptible. 


Commonealth. Gall wasp (B. muli) occurs in 

Papua New Guinea. If introduced into Australia 

it could become a pest of limes. 

Regional quarantine. The wasp is a problem 

in Qld and northern NSW citrus areas and is 

believed to have been introduced to Sunraysia 

from infected budwood. Areas may be 

Declared Quarantine Areas and any owner or 

occupier of land on which infested trees are 

growing may be required to treat specified citrus 

trees in a prescribed manner. Check local 

requirements. 


Only purchase and plant gall wasp-free budwood 

and nursery stock. 


Yellow sticky traps. Insectrap is a non-toxic, 

sticky, yellow, cylindrical trap that attracts and 

kills adult citrus gall wasps for 3-4 months, 

reducing populations; it may attract bees and other 

insects. The trap is weatherproof and waterproof. 

The attractant within the trap is food-based. 

Insecticides. 

For home gardeners there is no practical 

chemical control. 

In commercial orchards, spray susceptible 

grapefruit and mandarins with an appropriate 

registered chemical when citrus gall wasp eggs 

have hatched and before woody tissue has started 

to form around the larvae, usually early December. 

Timing of pesticide application is critical. 

What to use? 

Group 1B, eg Supracide , Suprathion (methidathion) 

DANGEROUS POISON 

When & how to apply? 

Commercial growers only. Only to be applied by 

licensed operators. Toxic to parasitic wasps 

(Megastigmus) in IPM programs. 




Not really a slug but a sawfly 


A sawfly (Caliroa cerasi), Order Hymenoptera. 

Host range 

Fruit trees, especially cherry, but also plum, 

pear, occasionally peach, nectarine and almonds, 

quince, medlar. 

Ornamentals, eg ornamental varieties of stone 

fruits, hawthorn, cotoneaster, sometimes Photinia 

spp., Hardenbergia. 


Plant damage is caused by the larvae or ‘slug’. 

Adults are 7 mm long, glossy, black sawflies. 

The female has a saw-like ovipositor at the end of 

her abdomen, which she uses to cut slits in leaves 

in which to lay her eggs. Larvae or ‘slugs’ are 

about 13 mm long when fully grown, the body is 

rather enlarged in front and tapered to the rear. 

While feeding, the larvae are covered with an 

olive-green slime, but at each moult, and when 

fully grown, they shed this slime and so revert to 

an orange or an orange-yellow colour. 

Leaves only are attacked. Larvae feed mostly 

on the upper surface of leaves, eating everything 

except the veins and lower epidermis, creating a 

‘window pane’ effect. Severely skeletonized 

leaves turn brown, shrivel and fall; trees appear to 

be scorched by fire and unsightly. 

General. Severe infestations year after year can 

severely weaken trees and reduce cropping. Home 

gardeners can be bitterly disappointed with their 

choice of tree. 

Diagnostics. Larvae and damage are easy to 

recognize because of its: 

Limited host range and is the only pest which 

skeletonizes leaves of these hosts. 

Larvae are often thought to be moth caterpillars 

but they are slimy and have no legs. 

Pest cycle 


larva or slug, pupa and adult) with 2 or more 

generations per year, but there could be up to 

5-6 overlapping generations in some areas, eg 

ACT. The female has a saw-like ovipositor for 

slitting the leaf tissue to deposit the eggs under the 

epidermis. Larvae feed for several weeks then 

either fall or crawl to the ground where they pupate 

and spend a short pupal or resting stage. Adults 

emerge and the cycle starts again. The 2 nd and 

later generations are usually more numerous and 

destructive than the 1 st generation. Larvae can be 

seen feeding through spring, summer and autumn. 


Pear and cherry slug ‘overwinters’ as larvae in 

small earthen cells in the soil. In spring (late 

October or November) the adults emerge. 

Spread 

As adults flying. 

Movement of infested nursery stock with leaves. 

As there is no pear and cherry slug on deciduous 

trees in winter, bare-rooted nursery stock is 

most unlikely to introduce this pest. 


Cool, moist weather during spring, summer and 

autumn. Adults can only emerge from soil when 

the weather is moist. The ‘slugs’ shrivel up on leaf 

surfaces during hot, dry weather while during very 

wet weather they may feed on the undersurfaces of 

leaves. 

Fig. 92. Pear and cherry slug (Caliroa cerasi). Left: Adult sawfly (about 7 mm long). 

PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. Right: 

cherry leaf. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 





1.Prepare a plan which suits your situation for 

susceptible hosts and where pear and cherry slug is a 

perennial pest. 

2.Crop, region. Mainly a problem in cool moist 

areas and affects ornamental and fruiting species. 

3.Identification of pest is important because 

insecticides such as Dipel (Bacillus thuringiensis) are 

only effective against some leafeating caterpillars and 

not sawfly larvae. Consult a diagnostic service if 

necessary (page xiv). 

4.Monitor susceptible varieties during spring, summer 

and autumn for larvae and damage and record results 

(page 39). Seek advice about the need for monitoring 

in your crop and region. Inspect trees weekly during 

the time when damage is expected, eg examine foliage 

of at least 20 trees per hectare for damage, but the 

number will depend on the variety. 

5.Thresholds depend the economic value or 

aesthetic damage to trees, ie whether it is a fruiting or 

ornamental variety. Many species only have minor 

damage but some are severely affected. Depending on 

the variety, control measure might be required if more 

than 10-20% foliage are infested with larvae and are 

being skeletonized. 

6.Action/Control. Take appropriate action when any 

threshold is reached. 


it worked. Recommend improvements if required. For 

new plantings consider resistant varieties. 


Cultural methods. Avoid overhead irrigation 

so that the leaves are not wetted unnecessarily. 


agents are available for purchase. Parasites 

introduced in 1928 and 1931 failed to establish. 

There appear to be no parasites which attack the 

pear and cherry slug specifically. The predatory 

shield bug (Oechalia schellembergii) had been 

observed feeding on larvae. Predatory wasps and 

birds probably prey on them as well. 

Resistant varieties. Cultivars vary in 

susceptibility. Check before you recommend or 

purchase. 


These are suitable for home gardeners who only 

have 1-2 small, newly planted trees. 

Drying agents, eg lime, ash or vacuum cleaner 

dust, may be dusted on to leaves to dehydrate 

larvae on a small tree. 

Larvae may be squashed by hand. 

Because the insect pupates in the soil under the 

tree, home gardeners can possibly: 

– Spread fly netting on the soil or grass under the tree 

to trap any emerging sawfly. 

– If there is bare soil under the tree, cultivate to 

disturb the pupa, this will kill many of them but is 

not sound environmentally. 

– Hose off. 

Assess the effectiveness and ease of use of 

the above treatments. Remember adults fly and 

may invade trees from surrounding areas. 

Insecticides. 

Insecticides may be applied when larvae are first 

seen on the leaves. 

Note some insecticides will damage some plant 

varieties. Check the label. 

Not necessarily a major pest in commercial 

orchards as spray program against other pests 

prevents this pest from building up to cause 

damage 

Table 19. Pear and cherry slug – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 


Group 1A, eg carbaryl (not on food-producing plants in the home garden) 

Group 1B, eg Benthion , Gusathion (azinphos-methyl) 


Group 3A, eg pyrethrins 

Group 5, eg Entrust Naturalyte, Success Naturalyte, 

Success 2 Naturalyte (spinosad) – not toxic 

to some predators 

Others, eg Beat-a-Bug Insect Spray Concentrate 

(chilli/garlic/pyrethrin/piperonyl butoxide); 

Garden Spray (sulphur/mancozeb/carbaryl); 

various garden sprays and aerosols, eg pyrethrin 

PEARS AND PLUMS 

Pears 

Plums 


Apply when threshold is reached or as soon as slugs 

are observed especially during spring and autumn. If 

the 1 st generation is controlled in spring and early 

summer, later generations may not be such a problem. 

If the insecticide selected is only effective for a short 

time a 2 nd application may be necessary. Only apply 

later sprays if infestation warrants it. 

Observe withholding periods on fruiting varieties, 

further sprays can be applied after harvest. 

If sprayed regularly for codling moth pears are 

unlikely to be attacked. Non-bearing trees may have to 

be sprayed. 

If sprayed to control oriental fruit moth and aphids 

plums are unlikely be attacked by the pear and cherry 

slug. 



Steelblue sawflies 

‘Spitfires’ 


Perga spp.(Order Hymenoptera). This is the largest 

and commonest of the eucalyptus-feeding sawflies. 

Host range 

Various species of eucalypt, eg E. camaldulensis, 

E. globulus, E. occidentalis, E. melliodora, 

E. viminalis. 


Only the larvae damage plants. 

Adults are called ‘sawflies’ because of the 

characteristic saw-like egg-laying ovipositor of the 

female used for cutting plant tissues and inserting 

their eggs. Adults are about 25 mm long and are of 

a general steelblue colour with yellow markings on 

the head and thorax. They have yellow antennae 

and legs. The wings have well marked veins and 

are deep yellow. In the male the upper surface of 

the abdomen is covered with silvery down. 

Larvae (‘spitfires’). Young larvae are 

yellowish with black heads. Fully-fed larvae are 

about 70 mm long, black and covered with short 

white hairs. They have no prolegs on the 

abdomen. They have been called ‘spitfires’ 

because when disturbed, they bend back their 

bodies and exude from their mouths, a viscid 

yellowish substance which has a strong eucalyptus 

odour. At the same time they raise the tips of their 

abdomens and tap up and down. Large colonies 

survive better than smaller colonies and if 

individuals are separated from the colony they 

soon die. It has been suggested that some 

individuals in the colony lead the feeding and 

movement and the survival of other members is 

dependent on the activities of these leaders. The 

yellow exudate has a high concentration of 

eucalyptus oil and can cause severe pain if it gets 

in the eyes, the eyeball becomes bloodshot and is 

often called ‘Christmas eye’. Medical attention is 

required to ease the irritation. 

Leaves. Juvenile and adult foliage attacked. 

The larvae feed on the foliage and can seriously 

defoliate young trees. During the day they rest 

clustered together in a tightly packed mass on the 

tree upon which they are feeding. At night they 

wander individually over the foliage to feed and 

later return to their resting place. On older trees 

the damage is not usually long lasting. On small 

trees larvae from a single batch of eggs can 

defoliate the whole tree. 

Diagnostics. 

Adult sawflies which do not have a waist like 

ants and wasps are not often seen. 

Larvae are common, gregarious, conspicuous 

and resemble large hairy caterpillars but do not 

have any prolegs on the abdomen. 

Chewing damage to eucalypt leaves can also 

be caused by leafeating beetles and their larvae 

and many caterpillars. 

Adult sawfly (about x 2). 

Top: Young larvae. Lower: The cuticle 

of the leaf has been removed to show 

the eggs laid in the leaf tissue. 

Top left: Cocoon 

Top right: Young larva (x 5) 

Lower: Fully-fed larva (spitfire) 

Fully-fed larva (spitfires), 

about natural size. 

Fig. 93. Steelblue sawfly (Perga spp.). PhotosNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 



Pest cycle 


larva or ‘spitfire’, pupa and adult) with several 

generations each year. Adult females emerge from 

pupal chambers in the soil in late summer. They 

lay eggs in slits on leaves, larvae feed on foliage 

during autumn, winter and spring, when they 

descend from the tree in a slow moving mass (as 

many as 250) and may wander about on the ground 

for several days before burrowing into soft ground 

to a depth of 5-10 cm, usually about the base of the 

tree. They spin large cocoons in rows against each 

other, usually with their heads all facing one way. 

Cocoons are dark brown, thin-walled, cylindrical 

about 25 mm long and 12 mm across. Timing of 

the cycle varies according to species, subspecies 

and geographic location. 


As larvae in cocoons in the soil. Sometimes odd 

small colonies are observed even in winter. 

Spread 

As adults flying and as larvae crawling. 


Weather has most impact on sawfly numbers. 

Long term weather cycles determine numbers. 

Warm weather. In mild winters the pest cycle 

continues though at a slower rate. In some 

winters colonies appear particularly damaging. 

Hot and dry weather in early spring kills many 

mature larvae when they are about to enter soil 

which is too hard for them to dig into, to pupate. 

Larvae can survive heavy frost in winter. 

Attack declines once trees achieve canopy closure. 

Management (IDM) 



2.Crop, region. Recognize variations. 

3.Identification of pest is easy, though the exact 

species can be more difficult to determine. Consult a 

diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv). Damage is 

often not noticed until it is severe, late in the season and 

larvae are preparing to enter the ground to ‘overwinter’. 

4.Monitor pest and/or damage to trees and record 

results as recommended (page 39). If sawfly damage 

is anticipated, young trees can be inspected for 

clusters of young larvae in autumn before any major 

feeding has occurred. Techniques for assessing 

impacts in forest areas are available. 

5.Threshold. How much damage can you accept to 

young trees? Have any thresholds been established? If 

so, what are they, eg economic, aesthetic? 

6.Action. Take appropriate action when any threshold 

is reached. Larvae can be eliminated either by physical 

removal or by applying a chemical insecticide (see 

Table 20 below). 



replacing susceptible species/provenances. 


Biological control. Exudate produced by the 

‘spitfires’ might deter predators and parasites. 


– Parasitic flies and wasps parasitize larvae on 

leaves and pupae in the soil and seem to stabilize 

sawfly populations from year to year. 

– Vertebrate predators have only a limited impact 

on sawfly abundance as numbers of larvae tend to 

remain surprisingly constant throughout winter. 

Currawongs, cockatoos, gang-gangs and other 

birds feed on larvae but most find them distasteful. 

Gang-gangs pull off and discard the head and oil 

sac before eating the rest. 


Susceptible species in some areas include 

Blakely’s red gum (E. blakelyi), river red gum 

(E. camaldulensis), yellow box (E. melliodora), 

snow gum (E. pauciflora), manna gum 

(E. viminalis), swamp gum (E. ovata), wandoo 

(E. wandoo), others. 

Non-hosts include ironbark (E. sideroxylon), 

scribbly gum (E. rossi), grey box (E. microcarpa). 

Variation. Within a susceptible eucalypt host 

species there is little evidence that individual 

trees vary in their susceptibility. 

Terpenoid oils. Larvae feed on a wide variety of 

eucalypts with different amounts of terpenoid 

oils in the leaves. The ability of the larvae to 

utilize and store leaf oils for their own defense 

suggests they may be relatively immune to the 

effects of terpenoid oil defences in host plants. 

Physical & mechanical control. 

If only a few trees are affected and clumps of 

‘spitfires’ are within reach, they may be knocked 

from the tree with a long stick or hosed off with a 

strong jet of water and destroyed. Branches 

bearing clumps may be cut off. 

Insecticides. If it is not practical to remove 

and destroy clumps by hands, clumps on small 

trees less than 3 m high can be spot sprayed. Apply 

directly to the cluster of larvae using a good 

wetting agent. 

Table 20. Steelblue sawfly – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

SMALL TREES, LESS THAN 3 METRES 

Group 1B, eg Malathion (maldison); Rogor (dimethoate) 

Group 3A, eg Tempo Residual Insecticide (beta-cyfluthrin) 

Group 4A, eg Initiator Systemic Plant Insecticide and 

Fertiliser (imidacloprid/fertilizer) - steelblue 

sawfly larvae are not specifically listed on 

the label 

VERY LARGE VALUABLE TREES 


Spray when first noticed, the use of a wetting agent is 

considered essential when spraying eucalypts. 

Initiator improves the establishment of young 

eucalypts trees, enhancing growth and protection against 

damage caused by various insect pests, including some 

defoliating insects. 

Seek specialist advice. If tree injection is being 

considered, larvae must be feeding and the tree actively 

growing (sap moving) when tree injection is carried out. 



Leafblister sawflies 


Phylacteophaga spp. (Order Hymenoptera). The 

larvae of several moths and a beetle may also mine 

in various species of eucalypts. 

Beetle (Syrbis alycore) 

Blackbutt leafminer (Acrocercops lacinella) (a moth) 

Jarrah leafminer (Perthida glyphora) (a moth) 

Host range 

More than 30 species of eucalypts and occasionally 

brush box. Host species include Eucalyptus 

botryoides, E. grandis, E. saligna. 


Adults are only 5 mm long and live for less than 

a week and do not feed. Larvae are also small, 

only about 5-6 mm in length, and are only seen if 

the cuticle over the blistered leaf area is removed. 

Blisters also contain excreta produced by the 

larvae. Pupae. Oval-shaped cocoons may be seen 

within the blistered area. An oval hole cut from 

the center of the cocoon indicates that an adult 

sawfly has emerged. 

Leaves. Damage is caused by larvae mining 

between the upper and lower leaf surfaces giving 

the leaf a blistered appearance. At times almost 

every leaf on young trees (< 5 m in height) may 

be affected and the tree may have a scorched 

appearance. Affected leaves fall, and trees < 5 m in 

height may be completely defoliated. Larvae feed 

on juvenile leaves and young adult leaves near the 

ground, suggesting that leaf nutrition is more 

important than leaf chemistry and may limit 

populations once adult leaves start to form. 

Leafmining damage. Heaviest damage 

usually occurs to juvenile foliage within 6 m of the 

ground. Older trees, therefore, are not so seriously 

affected. Attack ceases on trees which have adult 

foliage. 

Diagnostics. Damage may be confused with: 

Other leaf mining insects of eucalypts, 

mostly moth larvae, but none construct a swollen 

pupal chamber like that of the leaf blister sawfly. 

The jarrah leafminer (Perthida glyphopa) is a 

major pest of jarrah in WA. 

Fungal leaf spots, eg Mycosphaerella, which 

causes a leaf spot on juvenile foliage of blue 

gums and allied species. This fungus is 

prevalent in warm, moist environments and 

causes pale, irregular lesions across both leaf 

surfaces which may eventually crack and blister. 

Check for larvae or cocoons in the blisters by 

holding leaves up to light. Check for exit holes. 

Pest cycle 


larva, pupa and adult) with 4-8 generations each 

year. The female sawfly cuts a slit in the leaf 

usually near the mid-vein into which the egg is 

laid. The leaf surface swells around the egg, 

forming a small ‘egg gall’. The small larvae feed 

between the leaf surfaces until the leaf appears 

blistered. Larvae pupate in the leaf by constructing 

their cocoons within the raised blister area and 

a small winged sawfly later emerges from the 

cocoon though a small hole in the leaf surface. Life 

cycle takes about 6 weeks in summer to several 

months in winter. Up to 150 eggs may be laid in a 

single leaf by several females. 


As larvae in leaves in north central Victoria. Also 

possibly in some areas as pupae in infested leaves. 

Spread 

Adults flying. 

Movement of infested nursery or tube stock. 


Activity ceases in cold weather but may continue 

at a reduced rate during mild winters. 

Large outbreaks can occur in young plantations. 

Trees stressed by abnormal weather conditions, 

eg drought, water logging; also soil deficiencies, 

competition from weeds, browsing wallabies, 

rabbits, livestock. 

Fig. 94. Leafblister sawfly (Phylacteophaga spp.). Left: Leaves showing 

leafmining damage by larvae. Larvae and excreta can be seen when leaves are 

held up to light. Right: Larva and female adult sawfly (both 5-6 mm long) 











recommended (page 39). Check the foliage regularly 

for signs of early infestation, especially around May- 

June and Sept-Oct. Look for egg galls and small 

blisters which indicate that leaf mining is in the early 

stages. These may be difficult to detect at first but will 

become more obvious with experience. Techniques for 

assessing impacts in forest areas are available. 

5. Threshold. Do you need a threshold? Have any 

thresholds been established? If so, what are they, eg 

economic, aesthetic? 

6. Action. Take the recommended action when any 

threshold is reached at the appropriate time before 

significant damage occurs. Chemical control is most 

useful when larvae are actively feeding but before 

they have caused significant damage. Often by the 

time damage is noticed it is too late to spray. 

7. Evaluation. Review IPM program to see how well it 


Continue regular surveillance and assessment of insect 

activity is essential for effective pest control. Assess 

as objectively as possible whether insecticide 

application will produce a benefit and is warranted. 


Cultural methods. Healthy vigorously 

growing eucalypts can usually outgrow damage 

caused by insects, so severe insect attack can be a 

sign that trees are under stress. Proposed sites for 

trees must be suitable for the species to be planted, 

eg water availability, seasonal rainfall, soil texture 

and structure and depth, site topography and prior 

land use. Avoid waterlogged hollows, drought 

conditions or excessively exposed sites. Drought is 

the major cause of seedling stress so seedlings must 

be planted when adequate moisture is available. 

Optimum tree spacing with consideration of growth 

rates, tree form and proposed silvicultural regime. 

Sanitation. Light infestations can be controlled 

by cutting off infested portions from small trees 

and destroying them. Remove dead or dying trees. 


Natural controls. Little birds such as 

pardalotes remove larvae from blisters for food. 

Parasitic wasps attack and kill larvae and pupae 

in infested leaves. 

Commercial applications. Some of the 

parasitic wasps now being used to control 

P. froggatti in NZ, where it was accidentally 

introduced are being investigated. 

Resistant varieties. Young trees of some 

eucalypt species are attacked in some seasons and 

in some regions of Australia. 

Very susceptible species. Flooded gum 

(E. grandis), Sydney blue gum (E. saligna), 

southern mahogany (E. botryiodes), swamp 

mahogany (E. robusta). 

Moderately susceptible. Blakely’s 

(E. blakelyi), river red gum (E. camaldulensis), 

blue gum (E. globules), sugar gum 

(E. cladocalyx), snow gum (E. pauciflora), 

manna gum (E. viminalis), swamp gum 

(E. ovata), red box (E. polyanthermos), others. 

Poor hosts. Grey box (E. microcarpa), 

Silverton gum (E. camaldulensis var. subcinerea), 

spotted gum (E. maculata). 

Provenances. Because of differences in their 

chemical and physical make-up, not all 

provenances of river red gum are equally 

susceptible to attack. In other species, such as 

flooded gum, there is as yet little evidence that 

provenances or individual trees of the same 

species vary in their susceptibility to attack. 

In areas susceptible to leaf blister sawfly attack 

consider selecting appropriate species or 

provenances with some resistance to the pest, 

eg Silverton race of river red gum rather than 

the susceptible Lake Albacutya and allied 

provenances. 

Insecticides. 

Blisters protect larvae from contact insecticides. 

Correct timing of insecticide application is 

essential. 

Systemic insecticides can give some control 

but only consider spraying if blisters are small 

and larvae are actively feeding. If pupae (raised 

oval lumps) can be seen in most blisters, then 

spraying will be ineffective as larvae are no 

longer feeding. 

Chemicals have a limited role in forest tree 

management due to the localized and sporadic 

nature of most insect damage. However, they 

may be needed in plantations of susceptible trees 

such as flooded gum in the 1 st two years after 

establishment when trees are 1-3 meters high. 

Table 21. Some insecticides for leafminers generally. 

What to use? 


Many products are registered for leaf miners generally, eg 


Group 5, eg Entrust Naturalyte, Success Naturalyte 

(spinosad), see also page 74 

Spray oils, eg Pest oil , Summer oil, White oil, DC-Tron Plus, 

various (petroleum oil); 

BioPest , SK_ENSPRAY (paraffinic oil); 

Eco-oil (botanical oil) 

Remember, check the plant and the leafminer the 

product is registered for use on 


As larvae are feeding within the leaf, systemic 

sprays are more effective than contact non-systemic 

ones. 

Apply at the first indication of damage during spring. 

The use of a wetting agent is considered essential for 

effective results when spraying eucalypts. 

If there are many blister and exit holes it is too late 

to control for this season. 

Initiator Systemic Plant Insecticide and 

Fertiliser (imidacloprid) improves the establishment of 

young eucalypts trees providing, enhancing growth and 

protection against damage caused by various insect 

pests, including some defoliating insects (note 

leafblister sawfly is not listed on the label). 



ORDER NEUROPTERA 

Lacewings, antlions, aphidlions 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

LIFE CYCLE 

More than 600 species. Important predators. Common throughout most of 

Australia, common on native vegetation such as flowering eucalypts and in 

suburban garden and homes, some are attracted to lights at night and will release 

a strong smell when disturbed. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/neuroptera.html 

www.brisbaneinsects.com/brisbane_lacewings/index.html 

ADULT Body Small to medium-sized, elongate, fragile, up to 50mm long. 

Wings Two pairs nearly equal lace-like wings with a network of 

veins. Wings held tent-like over body when at rest. Wing 

spans ranging from 5-150mm. 

Head 1. Prominent head. 

2. Large compound eyes, ocelli absent. 

3. Antennae long and thread-like or clubbed. 

Abdomen No cerci. 

LARVA 1. Active predators, some larva are called antlions, aphidlions. 

2. Modified chewing mouthparts for clasping prey. 

3. Three pairs of thoracic legs. 

There is a complete metamorphosis - egg, larva, pupa and adult. Some species 

have several generations each year and some in colder areas take up to 2 years. 

Lacewing 

Many variations 

in life cycle 

. 

BIOLOGICAL 

CONTROL 

AGENTS 

The native green lacewing (Mallada insigna) and brown lacewing 

(Micromus Tasmania) can be purchased in Australia as general predators of 

small insects. They may not be economically viable. 


METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

LARVA 

Chewing mouthparts. Adults may feed on soft sap sucking insects, eg 

aphids and scales, honeydew, pollen and nectar. May be attracted to 

crops by offering yeast, sugar and water. Overseas, adult clusters can 

be conserved during winter in chambers at temperatures which ensure 

their survival until spring. 

Modified chewing mouthparts for sucking. Most are active 

predators of other insects, eg ants, aphids, mites, thrips, whitefly, in 

the USA also azalea lace bug (Stephanotis pyrioides). Some larvae, eg 

antlions, in sandy areas often trap their prey in pits, small insects fall 

into the pit where they are grabbed and eaten by the antlion which is 

waiting just below the surface. Many larvae adorn themselves with the 

dried bodies of their victims. Strips of lacewing eggs can be attached 

to a pest-infested plant, eggs hatch and larvae clean up the pests. 

Insects and allied pests - Neuroptera (lacewings) 129


NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

LIFE CYCLE 

ORDER THYSANOPTERA 

Thrips 

There are more than 5500 species worldwide, but fewer than 100 species are 

important pests of economic plants. More than 75 species are associated with 

horticultural and agricultural crops in Australia. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/thysanoptera.html 

Lucid Keys www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Pest Thrips of the World, ThripsID, 

AQIS Identification Guide (ThripsID) - Thysanoptera 

ADULT Body Most species are tiny, up to 1.5 mm in length, some longer. 

Elongated body rather than spherical. 

NYMPH 

Wings 

Mouth 

Legs 

Two pairs of narrow strap-like, approximately equal 

length wings with fringes of hairs around edges which 

assist flight, the wing membranes being too small to 

sustain flight. Some species are wingless. 

Slightly asymmetrical cone with stylets. 

Minus claws. It is easy to observe this but you 

need a microscope. 

Usually paler in colour than the adults, often transparent. 

There is a gradual metamorphosis - egg, nymph (several stages) and adult. 

The larger nymphal stages may be non-feeding, resting pupa-like stages (prepupal 

and pupal). Parthenogenesis is common (fertilization is not necessary), 

the female insect produces live young without the necessity of mating). 

Plague 

thrips 

Natural 

size about 

1 mm long 

Some 

variations, eg 

gladiolus thrips, 

greenhouse thrips 

METHOD 

OF FEEDING 

ADULT 

NYMPH 

All stages feed by rasping plant tissue and sucking sap from 

individual cells on the surface of the plant. Many species feed on 

fungi, others feed on pollen and a few species prey on small insects 

and mites. 

130 Insects and allied pests - Thysanoptera (Thrips)



DAMAGE 

DIRECT RASPING & SUCKING DAMAGE. 

Damage is caused by both nymphs and adults feeding. Often the injury 

does not become apparent until the insects responsible have departed. Damage 

affects appearance of plants and also their ability to photosynthesize. 

Because damage 

caused by thrips 

may be confused 

with damage caused 

by mites, or other insects 

(whiteflies, leafhoppers, 

or on some hosts, 

lace bugs), correct 

identification of 

thrips is essential 

LEAVES 

FLOWERS 

BUDS 

FRUIT 

CORMS 

Silvering, eg greenhouse thrips, gladiolus thrips, onion thrips 

Galls, eg various species on wattle, eucalypt 

Leaf rolling, eg callistemon leafrolling thrips 

Brown areas, flecking, withering, eg gladiolus thrips, 

plague thrips, western flower thrips 

Distortion, eg gladiolus thrips, plague thrips, 

bean blossom thrips 

Distortion and twisting, eg plague thrips 

Prevent fruit or seed set, eg plague thrips 

Silvered or scarred, eg banana rust thrips 

Rotting, eg gladiolus thrips 


Transmission of virus diseases, eg Western flower thrips transmit tomato 

spotted wilt virus and impatiens necrotic spot virus. 

Drops of excreta disfigure leaves, flowers, etc. 

 

 

Consumers complain about thrips on plants. 

Yield loss and death of young plants. 

Cause quarantine problems in flowers for export. 

 

 

Settle on white sheets and pale coloured garments hung out to dry. 

Land on bare skin, causing itching and prickling, trying to get moisture from skin. 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Many crops/plants may 

be affected by several 

species of thrips, eg 

strawberry is a host for 

WFT, plague thrips, onion 

thrips 

Silvering of viburnum 

leaves by greenhouse 

thrips, dots of excreta. 



Banana flower thrips Thrips hawaiiensis Banana, various flowers 

Banana rust thrips Chaetanaphothrips Banana, cunjevoi (Alocasia 

signipennis 

macrorhiza) and some natives 

Banana silvering Hercinothrips bicinctus Banana, choko, passion fruit, 

thrips 

weeds 

Bean blossom 

thrips 

Megalurothrips usitatis 

Dwarf French beans, climbing 

beans, cow pea, weedy vine 

(Clitoria ternata) 

Black plague thrips Haplothrips froggatti Grasses 

Citrus rust thrips, 

orchid thrips 

Chaetanaphothrips orchidii Citrus, orchids, glasshouse 

plants 

Cocksfoot thrips Chirothrips manicatus Grasses 

Cuban laurel thrips Gynaikothrips ficorum Ficus microcarpa var. hillii 

(a leafrolling thrips) 

Dandelion thrips Ceratothrips frici Dandelion flowers 

Eucalypt thrips Thrips australis 

Flowers of eucalypts, Myrtaceae 

(thought to feed on nectar) 

Australothrips bicolor Leaves of eucalypts, other plants 

Gall thrips Phaeothripidae Syzygium, casuarina, wattles 

(Acacia aneurus, A. pendula) 

Gladiolus thrips Thrips simplex Gladiolus, iris, arum lily, torch 

lily, 'red-hot' poker, tiger flower, 

carnations 

Goldtipped tubular Haplothrips gowdeyi Commonly found in flowers 

thrips 

Gorse thrips Odontothripiella australis Polyphagous, lupins, etc 

Grain thrips Limothrips cerealium Cereals, especially wheat 

Greenhouse thrips Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis Foliage of azalea, persimmon, 

Resurgence in some 

parts of the world 

citrus, guava, house plants etc 

Insects and allied pests - Thysanoptera (Thrips) 131


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 



(contd) Leafrolling thrips Teuchothrips spp. Callistemon, Melaleuca, 

Bursaria, Myoporum, Pittosporum 

Lily thrips (Victoria) Liriothrips vaneeckei Lily bulbs (between the scales) 

Maize thrips Frankliniella williamsii Maize 

Melon thrips Thrips palmi (vector for some Ornamentals, vegetables, weeds, 

Major pest 

Not known 

in Australia 

Obligate 

predatory thrips 

Facultative 

predatory thrips 

Onion thrips, 

cotton seedling 

thrips 

viruses, eg tomato spotted wilt) 

Thrips tabaci (vector for some 

viruses, eg tomato spotted wilt 

virus, iris yellow spot virus) 

cucurbits, grasses, Solanaceae 

Wide host range, mainly foliage 

of vegetables, eg onion, bean, 

pea, tomato, weeds, grasses, 

ornamentals, eg carnation, rose 

Plague thrips Thrips imaginis Mainly feeds on the blossoms 

of ornamentals, eg roses, fruit 

trees, vegetables, weeds 

Redbanded thrips Selenothrips rubrocinctus Cashew, mango, guava, 

avocado, mangosteen 

Strawberry thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis Strawberry, citrus fruit 

South African citrus 

thrips (Qld) 

Tomato thrips 

Scirtothrips aurantii 

Frankliniella schultzei (vector 

for some viruses, eg tomato 

spotted wilt) 

Ornamental and fruit crops, 

especially citrus 

Flowers of tobacco, cotton, grain 

legumes, lettuce, tomato, others 

Western flower F. occidentalis (vector for some Many ornamentals, fruit, 

thrips (WFT) viruses, eg tomato spotted wilt) vegetables, field crops 

Banded greenhouse Echinothrips americanus Ornamentals, woody ornamentals; 

thrips 

often intercepted in quarantine 

PREDATORY THRIPS 

Predatory thrips Aleurodothrips fasciapennis Scales on mango and citrus. 

(only on insects, mites) 

Podothrips sp. 

Scales on grasses and bamboo 

Sixspotted thrips Scolothrips sexmaculatus Spider mites on leaves 

Predatory thrips Desmothrips 

Feed on larvae of other thrips in 

Aelothrips 

flowers of grasses and native 

Andrewarthaia 

plants. Also feed on plant tissue 

FUNGAL-FEEDING THRIPS 

Giant thrips Idolothrips spectrum Fungal spores on dead 

up to 7 mm long and one of eucalypt leaves 

the largest thrips in the world 

About 50% of thrips feed only on fungal hyphae or their liquid breakdown products, 

some ingest whole fungal spores. Fungal-feeding species live in leaf litter, dead twigs 

and branches, flowers and pollen grains. 

Fig. 95. Onion thrips injury to onion 

leaves. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 96. Leafrolling thrips (Teuchothrips sp.) 

damage to new leaves of bottlebrush (Callistemon sp.). 

PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). See also page 33. 



Gladiolus thrips 


Thrips simplex (Thysanoptera). A key pest in Qld, 

SA, a minor pest in NSW and NT. An entire crop 

can be ruined if control is inadequate. 

Host range 

Ornamentals: Unlike many other species of 

thrips, gladiolus thrips is restricted in its host 

range. A major pest of gladiolus, minor pest of 

carnations, iris, calla or arum lily, torch lily or 'redhot 

poker' (Kniphofia sp.), montbretias (Tritonia 

spp.), and tiger flower (Tigridia pavonia). 


Leaves, flowers and corms may be damaged by 

nymphs and adults rasping the surface of plant 

tissues and sucking up the sap which exudes. 

Adult females, are about 2 mm long, dark 

brown with 2 pairs of delicately fringed wings. 

Males are slightly smaller than females. Nymphs 

are similar to adults but are pale yellow and 

wingless. Pre-pupae and pupae are yellowish. 

Damage. 

Leaves. Young nymphs feed inside leaf 

sheaths and buds. Adults mostly feed in the 

open on leaves which become bleached and 

silvery. Extensive leaf damage may cause new 

corms to be stunted. 

Flowers. Thrips move into flower spikes as 

they develop. Flower spikes may be stunted, 

flowers may fail to open or be distorted or the 

petals marked with small pale flecks. Injury is 

often wrongly attributed to drought or disease. 

Slight injury especially on dark blooms appears 

as whitish or flecked areas, even a few flecks 

reduces their market value. Damage is very 

noticeable on dark-colored flowers. 

Corms. Thrips also feed and breed on corms in 

the ground and in storage. Surface of corms 

becomes sticky, then hard and scabby. Young 

root buds may also be injured. When damaged 

corms are planted, thrips feed on young roots 

and growth from the corm may be seriously 

affected. 

Diagnostics. Damage to leaves and flowers 

may be confused with damage caused by mites, 

drought, etc. 

It can be difficult to distinguish one species from 

another. Seek specialist advice if necessary. 

Home gardeners need to identify the problem 

only as thrips. 

Commercial growers need to identify the 

species of thrips, eg gladiolus thrips, western 

flower thrips (WFT) (page 138). 

Various keys are available, eg Lucidcentral: 

Search for a Thrips ID key www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Pest cycle 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (egg, 

nymph (2 stages), pre-pupa, pupa and adult) with 

many generations during the warmer months of the 

year. The life cycle from egg to adult varies from 

about 10 days in warm weather to a month or 

more under cool conditions. The tiny eggs are 

deposited in plant tissue. Nymphs and pre-pupae 

are found within leaf sheaths and flower buds, but 

the adults feed mainly in the open on the leaves. 

The pupal stage may be passed either on plants or 

in the soil beneath plants. 


In coastal areas all stages of the life cycle have 

been observed during winter. If plants are left for a 

long time in the field after flowering, thrips will 

migrate to, and ‘overwinter’ in, the corms as the 

leaves die down and continue feeding. 

Spread 

Adult thrips do not fly readily, migration through 

a gladiolus crop is slow, but is assisted by wind. 

By the movement of infested corms. 


Hot dry conditions. Cool, wet weather affects 

them adversely and heavy rain at times destroys 

large numbers. Gladiolus thrips can cause serious 

damage to late flowering plants and stored 

gladiolus corms. 

Egg, 1 st and 2 nd stage nymphs Pre-pupa and pupa Adult thrips Natural size 

Fig. 97. Gladiolus thrips (Taeniothrips simplex). Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Insects and allied pests - Thysanoptera (Thrips) 

133





Obtain leaflets on gladiolus thrips control for your 

local area. See IPM program for WFT as an example 

(see page 139). 




Commercial growers must confirm that the problem is 

thrips and that the thrips present is gladiolus thrips. 


recommended (page 39). Use blue sticky traps to 

monitor thrips and any beneficials in the crop or 

introduced to the crop before deciding treatment 

(page 139). Indicator plants can be used to detect 

new arrivals. 



they, eg economic, aesthetic? 

6.Action/Control. Take appropriate action when 

any threshold is reached. Remember thrips need to be 

managed rather than controlled. 



Continued monitoring is usually necessary. 



For new plantings select land as far away as 

possible from old plantings and volunteer plants. 

Avoid continuous cropping if practical. 

Commercial growers whose properties are 

isolated from areas in which gladioli or other 

host plants are growing, may make a break in 

planting, so that for a period of several months 

there is no foliage on which thrips can develop. 

Adult thrips do not fly readily. Where there is a 

dominant prevailing wind, early-blooming 

varieties can be planted in beds furthest downwind. 

Later-blooming crops can then be planted 

upwind from older infested crops. 

Gladiolus thrips is favoured by hot dry weather, 

frequent use of overhead sprinklers or hosing of 

plants will retard development of thrips but may 

damage flowers. Ensure satisfactory drainage. 

Sanitation. 

Remove and dispose of crop residues. 

Dispose of all trash (old plants, flowers, leaves, 

growing media, etc) and old unsaleable plants 

which could harbour thrips, daily. 

Pull up and destroy volunteer gladioli and other 

host pants growing around production areas 

before planting the main crop. 

Place old blooms infested with thrips in a black 

plastic bag, seal immediately and leave in sun to 

solarise (heat up) for at least 3 days to kill thrips. 

Keep greenhouses and surrounding facilities 

clean, neat and orderly. 

Fallow greenhouses between crops (page 139). 

Do not move from infested to ‘clean’ areas. 

Avoid wearing pale coloured clothing such as 

white, yellow or blue which attract thrips. 

Fig. 98. Gladiolus thrips (Thrips simplex). Left: Injury to gladiolus flowers and foliage. 

PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). Right upper: Corm showing injured area and killed rootlets around 

basal plate. Right lower: Uninjured corm. Photos NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 




Natural controls. There are many naturally 

occurring predators, eg mites and bugs, parasitic 

wasps and fungal pathogens. The beetle (Dalotia 

(Atheta) coriaria) is one such predator that will 

feed on thrips. 

Bio-control agents. for thrips generally can be 

purchased, eg a soil mite (Hypoaspis sp.) 

feeds on thrips pupae near the soil surface, also 

predatory mites (Neoseiulus cucumeris, 

Typhlodromus montdorensis). Their effectiveness 

on gladiolus thrips is untested. 


Resistant varieties. Varieties vary in their 

susceptibility to injury. 

Deep reds and purples are most severely 

affected, there are exceptions to this rule. 

In general, light coloured varieties are least 

liable to show damage. 

Plant quarantine. Quarantine new plants and 

check for thrips before introducing them into the 

property. Examine incoming plants to eliminate 

introduction. Inspect corms. 


Only purchase corms from reputable suppliers who 

will guarantee corms are thrips-free. Only save 

corms from thrips-free crops. 


To prevent infestation of protected crops use fine 

thrips-proof mesh screens. Vents must also be 

screened. 

Insecticides. 

Corm, soil and foliage treatments are available 

(Table 22 below). 

Sprays aim to kill nymphs and adults as they do 

not kill eggs inserted in plant tissue and pupae 

(mostly in the soil) are protected from sprays. 

Systemic foliage insecticides are usually 

more effective as there is difficulty in contacting 

thrips with non-systemic insecticides. Spray 

gladioli for thrips at the 4-leaf stage and again 

when the flower pikes appear through the leaves. 

Resistance strategy. 

– Follow CropLife Australia Resistance 

Management Strategies. If spraying is 

necessary rotate insecticides with different 

resistance groups to delay development of 

resistance. See also WFT (page 140). 

– Several sprays may be necessary for thorough 

control. Time between sprays will depend on 

the temperature (time of year). This allows 

eggs and pupae that were not exposed to 

chemicals at the time of the 1 st spray to 

develop into active life stages which can be 

killed by a 2 nd spray. 

Table 22. Gladiolus thrips – Some insecticides and physical treatments. 

What to use? 

FOLIAGE TREATMENTS 

Group 3A, eg Bifen , Scotts Procide , Surefire Fivestar , 

Talstar , various (bifenthrin) 

Many other insecticides are registered for thrips generally. 

CORM TREATMENTS 

1. Storage at l0 o C 

2. Hot water treatments (HWT) 

3. Pesticide dusts 

Group M2 (fungicide), eg Dusting Sulphur (sulphur) 


Where gladiolus thrips is a recurring problem, treatment 

may need to commence when susceptible varieties are 

about 15-20 cm high and may need to continue at regular 

intervals until flowering. 

The label may indicate need for a wetting agent. 

Most insecticides are toxic to bees. 

Before storing dust corms with an insecticide dust. 

HWT corms before planting. Obtain expert advice on 

how to do this so that thrips are controlled but corms not 

injured. 

Home gardeners can dust corms before storage by placing 

them in a bag with a little sulphur dust and shaking. 

Insects and allied pests - Thysanoptera (Thrips) 135


Plague thrips 

A native thrips, which is a key pest in NSW, 

Vic, SA and WA, minor pest in NT. 


Thrips imaginis (Order Thysanoptera). 

Host range 

Wide range of plants. 

Ornamentals, eg carnation, dahlia, marigold, roses. 

Native flowers, eg Acacia victoriae, Atriplex 

suberecta, Eucalyptus tetragona. Fruit, eg apple, 

citrus, stone fruits, grape, raspberry, strawberry. 

Vegetables, eg cucurbits. Pasture, eg grasses. 

Field crops, eg lucerne. Weeds, eg capeweed. 

Thrips can invade white washing on clotheslines. 


Damage is caused by nymphs and adults rasping 

the plant surface and sucking sap and by the egglaying 

of female thrips. Plague thrips is mainly a 

blossom feeder, but may attack young foliage. 

Other species of thrips also feed in blossoms, eg at 

least 2 species are found in rose flowers. 

Adult females are narrow-bodied, light brown 

or gray and about 1-2 mm long. Males are smaller 

and yellow. Both sexes have 2 pairs of narrow 

delicate wings, fringed with long hairs, which lie 

along the back when not in use. 1 st stage nymphs 

are yellow with red eyes, 2 nd stage nymphs change 

to orange-red. 2mm long. Nymphs are similar in 

shape, pale to orange-yellow, wingless and smaller. 

Damage. 

Flowers. Nymphs usually feed on stamens and 

pistils but can also feed on the petals, adults mainly 

feed on petals. If flowers are heavily infested adults 

can be easily seen with the naked eye. Thrips feeding 

causes anthers, petals and pistil to brown, 

shrivel and fall prematurely. Where thrips enter 

unopened blossoms, normal opening may be 

adversely affected. Petals of infested roses brown, 

dark drops of faeces disfigure light-coloured blooms. 

Leaves. Egg laying in young rose tissue may 

cause the tissue around the eggs to die and fall 

out, leaving small irregularly-shaped ‘shotholes’. 

Damage is barely detectable when leaves mature. 

Young leaves of some hosts, eg citrus, stone 

fruit may become spotted yellow and scarred 

with tiny blisters due to egg laying. 

Fruit. Apples, pears, peaches and plums may be 

heavily infested; injured blossoms turn brown 

and fall prematurely. In apples, egg laying and 

feeding by thrips causes blossoms to wither and 

reduces fruit set. Note reduced fruit setting in 

apples may also be caused by late frosts, unusual 

heat waves during blossoming, a dry spell before 

flowering and an absence of bees as well as 

thrips injury or a combination of any of these. 

Diagnostics. Thrips can be detected by shaking 

flowers upside down over a sheet of white paper or 

handkerchief. Alternatively they can be made to run 

around the side of flowers by gently breathing warm 

air into the flower. 

It can be difficult to distinguish one species from 

another. Home gardeners need to identify the 

problem only as thrips. 

As other thrips species also feed in flowers, eg 

WFT (Frankliniella occidentalis), onion thrips 

(F. schultzii), commercial growers need to 

identify the species of thrips, eg plague thrips, 

western flower thrips (WFT) (page 138). 

Lucid key Thrips ID key www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Pest cycle 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (egg, larval 

stages (2), pre-pupal, pupal and adult stage) with at 

least 12 generations each year. The adult female 

inserts minute, transparent eggs in the tissue of all 

parts of the flower, eg petals, sepals, blossom stems, 

stamens, pistils, calyx cups, and in the young leaves 

adjacent to the blossoms. As many as 150 eggs 

have been found in a single blossom stalk. The tiny 

nymphs that emerge cluster mainly inside blooms 

where they mostly feed on the pistils, stamens and 

petals, but may also feed on the young leaves. 

When fully grown they crawl down the plant, enter 

the soil to a depth of about 5 cm, change to prepupae 

and then pupae. The emerging females are 

yellow but they begin to turn brown in 2-3 days. 

The life cycle from egg to adult, varies from about 

10-30 days depending on temperature. 

136 Insects and allied pests - Thysanoptera (Thrips) 

Fig. 99. Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis). 

PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment (E.H.Zeck). 

Enlarged x35 

1. Egg 

2. 1 st stage nymph 

3. 2 nd stage nymph 

4. Pre-pupa 

5. Pupa 

6. Adult winged thrips 

Actual size 

7. Thrips on petals



In coastal areas plague thrips are present in varying 

numbers throughout the year but it is only in spring 

and early summer that they cause plant damage. 

Spread 

Adult thrips fly readily within a crop. 

They may be carried long distances by wind and 

migrate to crops in large numbers from a wide 

range of weeds, grasses, other flowering plants. 


Commonly found in huge numbers in and/or 

near blossoms in spring. Crops at greatest risk 

during flowering and podding. 

Serious spring outbreaks follow mild winters, 

which allow survival of the hibernating thrips, 

preceded by autumns with above average rainfall. 

If these conditions are followed by a dry sunny 

spring with abundant flowers on capeweed and 

other hosts, thrips build up on these hosts then, 

when their flowers dry off, migrate to crops, 

causing severe outbreaks of thrips in spring and 

early summer. 

A spring with alternating warm and cold periods 

bring thrips generations into line. During warm 

days millions of the tiny thrips appear suddenly, 

and often disappear next day in a cold change. 



1.Prepare a plan that fits your situation. Obtain 

leaflets on plague thrips control for you local area. 

See western flower thrips (WFT) (page 139). 




4.Monitor thrips on flowers during flowering on crops 

and weed hosts as for WFT (page 139). Otherwise open 

buds and examine flowers for presence of thrips, control 

if more than 4-6 per flower. Flowers could be stored in 

70% alcohol to dislodge thrips and prevent escape; they 

can be identified and counted later. 


What is your threshold? Economic, aesthetic? 

With fruit it is usual to commence applications 

when there are 4-8 thrips per flower or if the thrips 

look numerous on capeweed. As an example, in 

apple, 6-8 thrips per blossom during pink to full 

bloom following a warm dry spell, may indicate 

potential for reduced fruit set. 

On ornamentals like roses, it is usually necessary 

to commence applications as soon as thrips start to 

appear in buds or as soon as petal colour is visible. 


threshold is reached. Plague thrips can cause total loss 

of some fruit crops, eg raspberry, if not controlled. 

However, damage on some plants, eg grapevines, 

citrus, plum, pears, is not always economic and 

therefore control may not be necessary. 

7.Evaluation. Review IPM program to see how 

well it worked. Recommend improvements if required. 


Control of plague thrips in blossoms is difficult 

because eggs are inserted within the plant tissues 

and nymphs and adults feed and shelter within 

opening buds out of reach of insecticides. 

Cultural methods. Heavy rain or overhead 

irrigation can reduce infestations spectacularly but 

may damage flowers. If the soil surface is compacted 

adult thrips cannot emerge from pupae in soil. 

Vigorously growing crops can usually compensate 

for flower abortion. 

Sanitation. In the home garden, remove and 

destroy infested spent blooms of roses by placing 

in a plastic bag with the neck secured and leaving 

in sun for a few days. Remove weeds especially 

flowering ones, eg Paterson’s curse, wild mustard. 


Natural controls include fungal diseases 

(Metarhizium spp., Entomophora spp. Beauveria 

spp., Paecolomyces sp.). Although there are some 

predators, eg lacewing larvae, mites, thrips, and 

some parasites, eg wasps, their effect can be 

insignificant compared with that of the weather. 

Conserve pirate bugs, lacewing larvae and 

ladybirds which prey on thrips. 

Biocontrol agents which can be purchased. 

– A soil mite (Hypoaspis miles) feeds on thrips 

pupae near the soil surface. 

– Predatory mites Neoseiulus cucumeris and 

Typhlodromus montdorensis feed on thrips larvae. 



In greenhouses thrips-screens on vents and doors 

prevent their entry (page 140). 

Insecticides. When treating thrips in flowers, 

aim to not only kill thrips present but also to 

prevent re-infestation (page 140). 

Table 23. Plague thrips – some insecticides. 

What to use? 

TOXICITY OF INSECTICIDES TO BEES 

Most insecticides are toxic to some degree to bees. Follow label 

instructions regarding application. Information on the toxicity 

of insecticides to honey bees is available from local State/ 

Territory Depts., eg Pesticides – A Guide to their Effects on 

Honey Bees. NSW DPI Primefact 148 (2006). 

BLOSSOM TREATMENTS 

Group 2C, eg Regent (fipronil) 

Group 3A, eg pyrethrin, Baythroid (cyfluthrin), 

Mavrik (tau-fluvalinate); Talstar (bifenthrin), 

Sumi-Alfa Flex (esfenvalerate); Titan , various 

(cypermethrin) 

Group 4A, eg Crown , Procide (acetamiprid) 

Others, eg Beat-a-Bug (chilli/garlic/pyrethrin/piperonyl butoxide) 


Avoid spraying in full bloom, danger to bees. 

If unavoidable carefully consider the toxicity and 

formulation of the pesticide to be used. 

Any spraying should be done late in the evening 

when bees have returned to hives. 

For effective control it is necessary for the 

insecticide to have a residual activity of 2-4 weeks. 

The more quickly the insecticide breaks down, the 

more frequently it must be applied. 

Follow label directions but usually 2 applications are 

necessary - about 2 weeks apart. The 2 nd spray will kill 

nymphs which have hatched from eggs which were 

unaffected by the 1 st spray and adults which have 

emerged from pupae in the soil since the 1 st spray. 


137


Western flower thrips (WFT) 


WFT (Frankliniella occidentalis, Order 

Thysanoptera) is one of the world’s most 

important horticultural pests due to: 

Its resistance to many insecticides. 

Efficiently spreading tomato spotted wilt virus 

(TSWV) and impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV). 

Feeding in unopened growth or flower buds. 

Its tiny size, rapid life cycle (13 days at 30 o C), 

and high reproductive capacity (an adult female 

can live for 30-45 days and lay 150-300 eggs). 

Host range 

WFT has been recorded on more than 250 plant 

species including weeds and greenhouse crops. 

Ornamentals, eg chrysanthemum, gerbera, 

gypsophila and roses; cut flowers, native plants. 

Fruit, eg strawberry, stone fruits, soft fruits. 

Vegetables, eg capsicum, cucumber, lettuce, 

potato, tomato, various herbs. Field crops, eg 

peanut. Weeds, eg capeweed, flowering white 

clover, redflowered mallow, sow thistle, wild 

mustard, Paterson’s curse. 


Adults and nymphs damage plants by rasping or 

scraping surface cells and sucking cell sap. 

Adults are 1-2 mm long and just visible to the 

naked eye. They have 2 pairs of feathery long 

narrow wings with a fringe of long fine hairs along 

the margin. Wings are held parallel along the back 

when at rest. Nymphs are wingless, white, straw 

yellow or brown in color. 

Damage. 

Flowers, new buds and young leaves 

– Damage is not always obvious after feeding 

but becomes more obvious as affected flowers, 

leaves or fruit grow. Crops show silvering, 

flecking or deformation of flowers, growing 

tips, young foliage, stems and fruit. WFT does 

not generally infest foliage, but when it does, 

drops of excreta may disfigure leaves. 

– Most weeds are symptomless. 

Strawberry. Thrips feed between prominent 

seeds in green fruit causing surface bronzing, 

reducing shelf life and marketability. 

Pollen removal. Thrips are attracted to most 

plants in flower that produce copious quantities of 

pollen, eg Asteraceae, legumes. Flowers of African 

violets become covered with pollen. 

Transmission of virus diseases, eg tomato 

spotted wilt virus (TSWV), impatiens yellow spot 

virus (INSV) and other viruses are the main cause of 

crops losses. Symptoms of TSWV include stunting, 

distortion and color variation in the leaves (page 

286). Test kits are available for testing for TSWV. 

General. The presence of TSWV does not mean 

that WFT is in your crops, other thrips, eg onion 

thrips (Thrips tabaci), tomato thrips (F. schultzei) 

also spread TSWV. If thrips numbers are high their 

feeding can damage crops regardless of whether 

they have TSWV or not. Damage to native plants is 

confined to pollen removal. Thrips are attracted to 

white washing and pale coloured clothes. 

Diagnostics. 

Several species of thrips can infest flowers. 

WFT is the most serious. Diagnosis is difficult 

because to the naked eye most thrips found in 

flowers look alike. Other thrips commonly 

caught in traps in greenhouses are onion thrips 

(Thrips tabaci) and tomato thrips (F. schultzei). 

Thrips can be identified as thrips using a 

hand lens, but it is very difficult to tell one 

species from another. A qualified taxonomist is 

required to identify them accurately. Thrips can 

be caught on a yellow or blue sticky trap or be 

shaken out of flowers onto white paper or a 

sticky trap. Place in cling wrap and send it to 

your nearest diagnostic service (page xiv). 

Keys. There are many keys available, even ones 

for identifying thrips on particular crops, eg 

cotton, strawberries. There are also several Lucid 

Keys, eg ID Thrips, AQIS Identification Guide – 

Thysanoptera www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Commercial growers. If thrips are a recurring 

problem on crops, growers should learn how to 

distinguish one species from another using a 

high power microscope. WFT has a pair of long 

hairs at each corner of the thorax. 

DNA finger-printing indicates that there are at 

least 2 different WFT populations in Australia. 

Home gardeners. Because damage by thrips 

may be mistaken for damage caused by mites or 

other insects, eg leafhoppers, white flies or on 

some hosts, lace bugs, the main thing is for them 

to identify the problem as thrips and not as 

something else. 

Pest cycle 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (egg, larval 

stages, pre-pupal, pupal and adult stage) with many 

generations each year. The WFT life cycle is 

mostly continuous and all stages can be found 

throughout the year. Female thrips live for 

4-5 weeks and insert 150-300 eggs into flower 

parts and are protected from sprays. Nymphs have 

a pupal stage in the soil from which adults emerge. 

At 10-20 o C the length of the life cycle is 

25-35 days. At 20-30 o C the life cycle is 15-25 days. 


On infested crops, stock plants, cuttings, weed 

hosts, crop and weed debris. Especially critical in 

spring and early summer when a major source of 

WFT is likely to be greenhouse crops. 

Fig. 100. WFT (Frankliniella occidentalis). 

Left: Nymph. Centre: Adult (1-2 mm long). 

Right Natural size. 



Spread 

By thrips flying assisted by wind. Larvae pick 

up the virus during feeding, after which it is 

replicated and circulated in the thrips’ body. 

It can be successfully transmitted after only 

30 minutes by (predominantly) adult WFT 

during feeding to healthy plants for the rest of 

their adult life (30-45 days). 

Movement of infested plants, vegetative 

propagation material, cut flowers, cuttings, 

seedlings, runners, weeds. 

Thrips may continually invade flowers from 

surrounding areas. 


Warm and moist springs and summers, optimum 

temperature is 20-30 o C 

Thrips numbers outside are lowest in winter. 

Failure to allow a fallow break between 

successive WFT-susceptible crops. 


WFT is difficult to control once established. For 

commercial growers: 

1. Obtain advice from your State Dept. WFT 

Coordinator (state website), on monitoring and 

thresholds for different crops, eg Qld DPIF. 2008. 

Thrips and Tospovirus: A Management Guide; NSW 

DPI. 2007. Western FlowerThrips & Tomato Spotted 

Wilt Virus. There is a National Strategy for the 

Management of WFT. 

2. Crop, region. National Strategies for Managing 

WFT vary depending on the crop, eg field crops, 

cucumbers, strawberry, ornamentals, greenhouses, 

type of viruses spread, etc. 

3. Identification is critical for effective control so 

consult a diagnostic service (page xiv) if necessary. 

Early detection and regular monitoring of WFT with 

sticky traps, etc, is essential for effective control before 

populations reach damaging levels (page 39). 

4. Monitor for WFT in crops, greenhouses and sheds 

using blue sticky traps, the following is only a guide: 

– Record population trends on a chart. Continue 

monitoring after any treatments. 

– Know when to start monitoring, when to inspect 

flowers and put out traps, etc. 

– Crop inspection. Walk through and inspect the crop 

regularly, count thrips in new buds and flowers, or 

dislodge them by tapping flowers over a white tray. A 

x10 hand lens is needed to identify them. 

– Sticky blue traps attract thrips and some leafminers 

(not beneficial insects), yellow cards attract many 

other insects as well, eg thrips, whitefly, aphids, 

fungus gnats, shoreflies. Hang traps just above or 

within the crop, near green house doors, flowers and 

young growth, and packing sheds. Adjust position of 

traps so they are in the best place to catch thrips. 

Inspect traps fortnightly or as recommended, replace 

every 2 weeks or more frequently if they get dirty or 

crowded with insects. 

– Indicator plants, eg petunia (Calypso, Super Blue 

Magic, Summer Madness) or fava beans, can be 

placed in a greenhouse to detect for early TSWV 

and INWV symptoms. 

5. Thresholds are different depending on crop type and 

quarantine regulations, designation of WFT-free 

zones, etc. These are established thresholds and may 

need to be complied with. Swiss work shows that if 

sprays are only applied to chrysanthemum crops when 

the pest level reached 20 WFT/trap/week, damage did 

not exceed 5%. 

6. Action/control depends on delaying development 

of resistant WFT and whether an insecticide permit is 

needed before spraying with an appropriate chemical. 

Continued and vigorous non-chemical control 

including sanitation must be conducted at all times. 

Release bio-control agents if appropriate. Thrips 

programs need to be all year round. 

7. Evaluation. Review IPM program. How successful 

was it? Are improvements necessary? Continue to 

monitor, record and assess your methods. 



If practical propagate or plant crops when thrips 

numbers are low. 

If possible roses and nursery stock should have 

no leaves at the time of planting. 

Grow and train crops so that good spray coverage 

is easy to achieve. 

New susceptible crops should be planted as far 

away as possible from a source of infestation. 

Avoid continuous cropping. Start thrips control 

at the end of the previous crop or season. 

– Consider a plant-free fallow period before 

starting the next crop. Eliminate weeds/host plants. 

– Heat empty greenhouse until temperature of 

soil is about 30 o C for about 3 weeks, longer at 

lower temperatures. This will allow thrips in the soil 

to emerge as adults and starve in the absence of 

food plants. Check for living adult thrips on traps. 

When there are no thrips and any uprooted plants 

are completely dry, plants can be removed from the 

greenhouse. It may take between 2-4 weeks to dry 

uprooted plants and kill all thrips. 

– Some growers may apply a smoke or aerosol 

after the second week to ensure all thrips are killed. 

Sanitation. 

Aim to identify and eradicate non-crop hosts of 

WFT including weed hosts which not only serve 

as hosts for thrips but for viruses (INSV, TSWV), 

eg hanging baskets, etc. 

Avoid carryover from one crop to the next by 

removing prunings, unwanted blooms, remains 

of previous crops and weeds. 

Dispose of plant residues, eg plough in or burn 

old crop debris, cover dump and waste sites and 

place waste in black plastic bags, seal immediately 

and leave in the sun to solarize (heat up). 

Move from clean to infested greenhouses, never 

from infested to clean areas unless clothes are 

changed. Avoid wearing pale white, yellow or 

blue clothing attractive to thrips. 

Clean equipment after use in infested areas. 

Roguing. Remove any plants with thrips or 

symptoms of TSWV or INSW immediately. 

Remove plants that attract thrips in garden 

beds around production areas. Ideally have 

10 metres bare ground such as asphalt around 

greenhouses or closely mown grass. Do not plant 

flowers or allow weeds to grow in this area, this 

applies to hydroponic growers as well. 


Natural controls include predatory mites, bugs, 

parasitic wasps, eg (Ceranisus menes) and fungi, 

eg (Beauveria bassiana, Verticillium lecanii). 

Commercially available., eg 

– Predators. List of suppliers www.goodbugs.org.au 

Predatory mites, eg Amblyseius montdorensis 

and Neoseiulus cucumeris suppress low 

populations of WFT and other thrips in protected 

areas, eg greenhouses. Mainly attack 1 st stage 

nymphs, so large numbers and frequent 

introductions are needed for successful control. 

Provide adequate ventilation and choose 

insecticides carefully. If thrips are absent mites 

feed on pollen. 

Soil-dwelling mite (Hypoaspis miles) is a 

general predator feeding on thrips pupae near 

the soil surface, fungus gnat eggs, larvae and 

pupae, nematodes, etc. 

Pirate bugs (Orius spp.) feed on larvae and 

adult thrips, also excess pollen in the absence of 

thrips. May be difficult to establish. 

Lacewings. Mallada signata feeds on thrips, 

aphids, mealybugs, whiteflies. Chrysoperia sp. 

preys on WFT adults, larvae can be purchased. 


139



Plant WFT-tolerant cultivars if practical. This does 

not necessarily reduce spread of TSWV (page 286). 


AQIS. Consignments to some countries are 

fumigated and/or destroyed if thrips are found. 

All plants and cuttings imported into Australia 

are subject to mandatory treatments to kill thrips 

and other insects. Flowers, vegetables and fruit 

are subject to inspections and if infested, 

are treated. Some products may be destroyed. 

State/Regional quarantine. Status of WFT 

within Australia is under constant review. 

– Protocols for entry to various states may involve 

inspection, treatment, or sourced from a property 

free of this pest (area freedom). 

– Check with transporters to ensure plants do not 

become contaminated after they leave the property. 

– Non-hosts are plants not known to be hosts of WFT 

and include banana leaf, bulbs without leaves, 

conifers, ferns, roses (dormant and without leaf), 

trees (deciduous and without leaf). Non-hosts pose a 

very low risk of transporting WFT so that 

certification of WFT-free plants may not be needed. 

A declaration must accompany plants indicating that 

‘only non-hosts’ plants are being transported. 

Local quarantine. Do not bring plants onto your 

property or return them from market unnecessarily. 

– Quarantine new plants and check for thrips, if 

present treat before placing with rest of stock. 

– Separate growing and retail areas. 


Only buy certified WFT and TSWV-free seedlings 

and cuttings from reliable or accredited 

suppliers. Greatest risk is from cuttings. 

Ensure stock plants for cuttings are thrips-free. 


Insect microscreens (100-200 mesh) over 

greenhouse vents and doors prevent thrips 

invasions from outside (anti-thrips net). 

Greenhouse plastics. WFT prefer to enter 

tunnels that transmit higher levels of UV light. 

So UV-absorbing greenhouses plastic films could 

be used to influence flight behaviour. 

Insecticides. 

Except for WFT, thrips are easily controlled with 

current insecticides. Most states have a Western 

flower thrips (WFT) Insecticide Resistance 

Management Plan. Access a copy. 

Permits may be required. 

Intervals between sprays. Insecticides kill 

nymphs and adults, not eggs (which are inside 

the leaf) and pupae (which are mostly in the 

soil). Several sprays may be prescribed to cover 

the time taken for eggs to hatch into larvae and 

for pupae to develop into adults. 

Resistance management 

– WFT is notorious for its resistance to insecticides. 

– Only a few insecticides give any practical control of 

WFT which quickly becomes resistant to 

organophosphates, carbamate and synthetic 

pyrethroid insecticides. 

– Follow Croplife Australia Resistance 

Management Strategies for WFT on labels. 

Rotate insecticides as recommended to delay 

development of resistance. 

– Use application techniques, eg sprayer, aerosol, 

fogger, that give a good spray coverage of tiny 

droplets to contact thrips hiding in buds, etc. 

– Hydroponic growers incorporate insecticide into 

fertigation water. Weed removal is still essential 

otherwise WFT may again become a problem. 

– Consult various references (Stephens 2000). 

Once harvesting has commenced it is not 

possible to follow insecticide usage plans. 

Insecticides may be toxic to bees (page 114). 

Pest stimulation (increased egg laying) after 

exposure to residues of Mavrik (tau-fluvalinate), 

Kelthane (dicofol) and malathion occurs with 

citrus thrips. Whether this occurs with WFT is 

unknown, do not apply pesticides preventatively. 

Herbicides. Identify and eradicate non-crop 

hosts of WFT, including weeds. 

Effectiveness of insecticides may be improved 

by increasing greenhouse temperatures from 

21-23 o C to 26-28 o C. Once in the air thrips have a 

greater chance of being exposed to insecticide 

and mortality rates increase by about 25%. 

Table 24. Some insecticides for Western Flower Thrips and other thrips spp. 

What to use? 

FOLIAGE 

Group 5, eg Entrust Naturalyte, Success Naturalyte 

(spinosad) 

Each state has management strategies for WFT, 

check current recommendations in your state for 

your crop, eg 

WFT Insecticide Resistance Management Plans 

PERMITS MAY BE REQUIRED 

SEED TREATMENTS 

Group 4A, eg Picus Seed Treatment (imadicloprid) protects 

cotton seedlings from injury due to onion thrips 

(Thrips tabaci) and other thrips 

FERTIGATION, FUMIGATION 

TREATMENTS UNDER INVESTIGATION 

Group UN, eg soil drenches of Azamax (azadirachtin) and a 

foliar spray program of Neem (azadirachtin) 

Spray oils 


Remember WFT can be difficult to target with 

insecticides as they lurk in inaccessible places. 

For effective control it is necessary for the 

insecticide to have a residual activity of 2-4 weeks. 

Only larval and adult stages susceptible to insecticides. 

Follow Croplife Australia Resistance Management 

Strategies 

Seed treatments protect certain crops from injury from 

thrips and certain other sucking insects and subsequent 

spread of virus diseases. 

Insecticide in fertigation water, eg hydroponic lettuce. 

Some growers fumigate soil and greenhouse between 

crops (page 61, Table 6.) 



NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

ORDER HEMIPTERA 

Bugs; hoppers; aphids, lerps, mealybugs, 

scales, whiteflies 

More than 6,000 species. A very diverse Order. Aphids and whiteflies are 

commonly found on sticky traps together with other small flying insects such 

as thrips, fungus gnats, shore flies, leafminers (flies) and a range of beneficial 

insects. Identification of these insects can be difficult, but necessary. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/hemiptera.html 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

True bug, forewing 

with thickened portion 

Although some people 

 

this is not correct. 

True bugs belong to 

the Order Hemiptera 

LIFE CYCLE 

ADULT Wings Usually 2 pairs (sometimes wingless). 

1. Heteroptera (different wing). The true bugs, eg 

crusader bug, green vegetable bug. Forewings usually 

have a thickened front portion and a clear gauzy rear 

section, often folded flat over body. 

2. Hoppers (same wing), eg cicadas, leaf hoppers, plant 

hoppers. Forewings of same texture all over (either 

entirely thickened or entirely clear), often held tentlike 

over abdomen. 

3. Aphids, lerps, mealybugs, scales, whiteflies. 

Soft bodies and usually no wings, although some may 

have forewings only, adult whiteflies have 2 pairs. 

They often cover themselves with wax or froth which 

prevents their soft bodies from drying out. 

Antennae Often conspicuous in Heteroptera, but inconspicuous in 

the other 2 groups (there are some exceptions, eg aphids). 

Mouth Mouthparts common to all Hemiptera, include a 

sucking beak arising from the underside of the head. 

NYMPH 

Commonly resemble adults although color and markings may be 

very different. Young stages may be quite unlike the adult, eg 

Cicada nymphs are specialized for burrowing. 

Green vegetable bug nymphs are brightly colored with red, 

green, yellow, orange and black markings. 


No one member of the order is truly representative. There are many variations 

in winged/wingless populations, females may lay eggs, or give birth to live 

young. Parthenogenesis is common (page 23). 

Crusader 

bug 

20-30 mm 

long 

Many 

variations, 

eg aphids, 

lerps, 

mealybugs, 

scales 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

NYMPH 

Most Hemipterous adults and nymphs are plant feeders and 

feed by piercing plant tissues and sucking sap. The ‘beak’ is 

used to guide the mouthparts to food. Some are predators and 

feed on other insects, eg caterpillars, some feed on fungi. 

Insects and allied pests - Hemiptera (bugs, aphids, etc) 141



DAMAGE 

Honeydew 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

TRUE BUGS. 

Acacia-spotting bug 

sucking damage to leaves 

Green 

vegetable bug 

DIRECT SUCKING DAMAGE. 

Damage is caused by both the nymphs and adults sucking plant sap. 

LEAVES Chlorotic mottling, eg azalea lace bug, leafhoppers, 

greenhouse whitefly 

Death of tissue, eg black peach aphid, green peach aphid 

Distortion, curling, eg cabbage aphid, cherry aphid, green peach 

aphid, grape phylloxera aphid 

Galls, eg purse gall aphid 

Premature leaf fall, eg lerp insects 

FLOWERS Distortion, eg aphids 

FRUIT Distortion, eg apple dimpling bug 

BUDS Mottling, eg green vegetable bug 

Premature fruit fall, eg bronze orange bug 

SHOOTS Death, eg black peach aphid, crusader bug 

STEMS Distortion, eg green peach aphid, black citrus aphid 


Wilting, eg crusader bug, longtailed mealybug 

ROOTS Distortion, galls, eg grape phylloxera aphid, woolly aphid 


Presence of insects, nymph skins and excreta may reduce value of the crop 

and affect trade, eg scale on fruit. 

Transmission of many virus and virus-like diseases especially by 

aphids, some leafhoppers and whiteflies. 

Tainting of fruit, eg green vegetable bug, shield bugs generally. 

Honeydew/Sooty mould. Many Hemiptera, eg aphids, leafhoppers, lerp, 

mealy-bugs, soft scales and whitefly consume large quantities of watery plant sap. 

– Many sugars present in plant sap are not required by insects and are excreted as honeydew. 

Wherever honeydew falls sooty mould may grow. 

– Some Hemiptera, eg psyllids allow their honeydew to harden into protective ‘lerps’ while 

others use it to attract ants which protect them against predators. 

– Relationship can be specific, eg a single ant species may attend a single Hemipterous 

species or it may be broad. 

– Reduces the value of affected plants and fruit. Plants can look unsightly. 



BUGS (several families) 

MIRID BUGS Family Miridae 

Acacia spotting bug 

Apple dimpling bug 

Rayieria tumidiceps 

Campylomma livida 

STINK BUGS 

Family Pentatomidae 

142 Insects and allied pests - Hemiptera (bugs, aphids, etc) 

Acacia 

Apple, also peaches, potato, etc, 

May prey on some insects 

Bronze orange bug Musgraveia sulciventris Citrus (Family Tessaratomidae, very 

closely related to the Pentatomidae) 

Spined citrus bug Biprorulus bibax 

Citrus, esp. lemons, mandarins 

Green vegetable bug Nezara viridula Wide range of plants, especially 

fruit parts and pods 

Horehound bug Agonoscelis rutila Horehound, ornamentals, 

occasional fruit trees 

JEWEL BUGS 

Family Scutellidae 

Cotton harlequin bug Tectocoris diophthalmus Cotton, related weeds, 

kurrajongs, bottle trees 

CHINCH BUGS 

Family Lygaeidae 

A large number of true 

Rutherglen bug Nysius vinitor Fruit, vegetables, weeds 

bugs feed on seeds and 

fruit; some are predators SQUASH BUGS Family Coreidae 

and some feed on fungi 

Crusader bug Mictis profana Ornamentals, eg rose, eucalypt, 

wattle, fruit, eg citrus, grape 

Fruitspotting bug Amblypelta nitida Developing fruits 

Do not confuse cicadas 

with grasshoppers or 

beetles that have 

chewing mouthparts 

STAINER BUGS 

Family Pyrrhocoridae 

Harlequin bug Dindymus versicolor Ornamentals, fruit, vegetables 

Pale cotton stainer Dysdercus sidae Cotton, native/cultivated plants 

MISCELLANEOUS BUGS 

weeds 

Azalea lace bug 

Spittle bugs 

Stephanitis pyrioides 

Aphrophoridae, 

Cercopidae 

Azalea, rhododendron 

Ornamentals, eg wattles, 

eucalypts; herbs, eg mint 

CICADAS. CICADAS (Family Cicadidae) More than 250 species in Australia 

Greengrocer Cyclochila australasiae Nymphs of cicadas live in the soil 

Double drummer. Thopha saccata 

for up to 17 years feeding on tree 

roots. Large numbers are noisy


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

(contd) 

LEAFHOPPERS. 

(contd) 

FROGHOPPERS. 



LEAFHOPPERS (Family Cicadellidae) 

Apple leafhopper, 

canary fly (Tas) 

Edwardsiana australia Apples, crab apples, prunes 

Common brown Orosius argentatus 

Vegetables, ornamentals, field 

leafhopper 

crops, weeds. Spreads tomato 

big bud/greening phytoplasma 

Elm leafhopper Ribautiana ulmi Elm, Alnus subcordata sp. 

Glassy winged 

sharpshooter (GWSS) 

Homalodisca coagulata 

Overseas, a serious pest of 

horticultural crops. Spreads 

Pierce’s disease of grapes. 

Broadleaved plants, vegetables, 

ornamentals, weeds 

Vegetable leafhopper, Austroasca viridigrisea 

tomato leafhopper (Qld) 

FROGHOPPERS, PLANTHOPPERSA, TREEHOPPERS (several families) 

Froghoppers 

Green treehopper 

Gumtree hoppers 

Passionvine hopper 

Family Cercopidae 

Sextius virescens 

Eurymela spp. 

Scolypopa australis 

Turf planthopper Toya dryope Turf 

Native plants 

Wattles 

Eucalypts, wattles 

Ornamentals, fruit, eg passion 

vine, vegetables, eg beans 

APHIDS. APHIDS (Aphididae, other families) Spread virus diseases 

More than 70 

Black citrus aphid Toxoptera citricidus Mainly citrus, sometimes 

introduced species of 

other Rutaceae 

aphids, most native 

species are 

not a problem 

Recent 

introduction 

A parasitic wasp 

(Aphidius sonchi) was 

introduced to control 

sowthislte aphid 

LERPS. 

Not known 

in Australia 

Lerps on eucalypts 

Black peach aphid 

Blue-green aphid 

Cabbage aphid 

Cherry aphid 

Cotton aphid 

Brachycaudus persicae 

Acyrthosiphon kondii 

Brevicoryne brassicae 

Myzus cerasi 

Aphis gossypii 

Peach, other stone fruit 

Lucerne, other legumes 

Brassicaceae, vegetables, 

ornamentals and weeds 

Cherry 

Wide range, including cotton, 

vegetables, pawpaw, citrus 

Currant-lettuce aphid (Phenacoccus parvis) 

WA state quarantine in Tas, Vic, NSW not in WA & Qld (2005) 

Wide host range, eg lettuce, 

gooseberry, red currant, weeds 

Cypress pine aphid Cinara tujafilina Cypress pine (Callitris cupressi) 

Grape phylloxera 


Daktulosphaira vitifolii 

Myzus persicae 

Grapes 

Peach, nectarine; ornamentals 

vegetables, fruit, weeds 

Lily aphid Aulacorthium circumflexum Lily, greenhouse plants 

Oleander aphid 

Poplar gall aphid 

Aphis nerii 

Pemphigus bursarius 

Oleander, wild cotton 

Poplar 

Potato aphid, tomato Macrosiphum euphorbiae Wide range, especially 

aphid (Qld) 

tomato, potato, rose, 

gladiolus, weeds 

Turnip aphid Lipaphis erysimi Brassicas, eg, vegetables, 

stock, weeds 

Bean root aphid Smynthurodes betae Cotton seedlings, French bean 

Rose aphid 

Rose-grain aphid 

Woolly aphid 

Macrosiphum rosae 

Metopolophium dirhodum 

Eriosoma lanigerum 

Roses 

Cereals 

Apples, crab apples, rarely 

pears, occasionally hawthorn, 

cotoneaster, firethorn 

Sowthistle aphid Hyperomyzus lacturae Sowthistle, thought to carry the 

virus necrotic yellows of lettuce 

LERPS, PSYLLIDS (Family Psyllidae) 

Asian citrus psylla Diaphorina citri 

Bellbird psyllid Glycaspis baileyi 

Boronia psyllid Ctenarytaina thysanura 

Brown basket lerp Cardiaspina fiscella 

Citrus spp., other Rutaceae 

Eucalypts 

Boronia 

Eucalypt 

Morton Bay fig pysllid Mycopsylla fici Morton Bay fig 

Hibiscus woolly psyllid Heterpsylla cubana Hibiscus 

Kurrajong star psyllid 

Kurrajong twig psyllid 

Protyora sterculiae 

Aconopsylla sterculiae 

Kurrajong 

Kurrajong 



LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES (contd) 

MEALYBUGS. 

SCALES. 



MEALYBUGS (Family Pseudococcidae) 

Longtailed mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus Wide host range. Major pest of 

glasshouses, indoor plants. 

Citrophilous mealybug P. calceolariae Citrus, grapevine, other hosts 

Hibiscus mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus Hibiscus 

Root mealybug Rhizoecus falcifer Many plant species 

Wattle mealybug 

Woolly giant mealybug 

SCALES (several families) 

Melanococcus albizziae 

Monophlebulus pilosior 

Armoured ARMOURED SCALES Family Diaspididae 

Scales 

Very small


BUGS; HOPPERS; APHIDS, LERPS, 

MEALYBUGS, SCALES, WHITEFLIES 


BUGS 

HOPPERS 


1.Thickened region on forewing. 

2.Wings held flat over body, tips 

usually overlap. 

3.Antennae often long and 

conspicuous, jointed. 

4.Sucking beak arises from front part of 

the head. 

5.Some produce an offensive odour if 

disturbed, eg stink or shield bugs. 

1.Forewings same through out, same 

texture. 

2.Wings usually held roof-wise over 

body. 

3.Antennae mostly short but may be 

long. 

4.Sucking beak arises from hind part of 

head. 



LEAVES Chlorotic mottling, eg lace 

bugs 

Wilting, eg bronze orange 

bug, harlequin bug 

Spots, eg acacia spotting bug 

FRUIT Distortion, eg apple dimpling 

FLOWERS bug, green mired bug 

Marking, eg green vegetable 

bug 

SHOOTS Wilting, eg crusader bug, 

Rutherglen bug 


Disfigurement with frass, azalea lace 

bug. 

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS. 

Some bugs are beneficial, eg assassin 

bugs. 


LEAVES Mottling, eg apple leafhopper 

Wilting, eg passionvine 

hopper 


Secrete honeydew. 

Some transmit virus & virus-like 

diseases, common brown leafhopper 

transmits tomato big bud 

phytoplasma. 

APHIDS 

1.Soft, globular body (enlarged central 

portion of abdomen), up to 8 mm 

long. Variable in colour. 

2.Cornicles often present towards end 

of abdomen. 

3.Wingless or winged with wings 

usually held vertically above body. 

4.Wings same texture. 

5.Unusual life cycle: 

Often complex and variable 

 

 

Eggs or live young 

Parthenogenesis or sexual 

reproduction 


LEAVES Death, eg green peach aphid 

Distortion, eg cabbage aphid 

Galls, eg grape phylloxera 

FLOWERS Distortion, eg rose aphid, 

BUDS 

FRUIT 

STEMS 

TRUNK 

ROOTS 

black peach aphid 

Distortion, eg green peach 

aphid 

Fruit fall, eg woolly aphid 

Death of shoots (dieback), eg 

black peach aphid 

Shoot distortion, eg black 

citrus aphid 

Unhealthy plants, eg black 

peach aphid 


Produce honeydew, eg most aphids. 

Transmit many virus & virus-like 

diseases, eg cucumber mosaic virus. 

Stunted growth generally. 



Summary - Some exceptions (contd) 

LERPS 

MEALYBUGS 

SCALES 

WHITEFLIES 


1.Adults are similar in appearance to 

aphids with wings, usually free living 

and can jump (hence the nick name 

of jumping plant lice). 

2.Wings held roof-like over body. 

3.Vary in size, up to 10 mm. 

4.Nymphs of some species shelter 

beneath a lerp covering which is 

easily removed. 

1. Oval to elongated body up to 

20 mm long. 

2. Soft-bodied and quite mobile (move 

very slowly). 

3. Frill of white filaments around 

margin of body. 

4. Secrete a white waxy meal. 

5. Closely related to scale insects. 

1.Female wingless and stationary and 

degenerate, male is winged. 

2.Female is larger than the male. 

3.Female is protected by secretions: 

4.Armoured scales: 

Usually very small, may look like 

dust 

Soft flattened body under a 

separate hard scaly covering. 

Little if any honeydew 

5.Soft scales: 

Larger than armoured scales. 

Soft body with, initially no 

covering. However, the upper 

surface of adults is usually tough or 

protected with a waxy or mealy 

secretion. 

Produce honeydew in varying 

amounts which attracts ants and on 

which sooty mould grows. 

1.Adult male and female insects 

winged. 

2.Up to 3 mm wingspan. 

3.Body and wings covered with white 

powdery material. 

4.Two pairs wings of almost equal size, 

held flat over body. 

5.Nymphs oval and flattened, not 

mobile. Parasitized nymphs turn 

black. 



LEAVES Dead areas, eg many species 

which attack eucalypts 

Defoliation, eg as above 

Mottling, eg as above 


Secrete honeydew. 

Lerp coverings 


LEAVES Wilting and death eg longtailed 

mealybug especially on 

greenhouse and indoor 

plants 

ROOTS Death, eg root mealybugs 

GENERAL Death of plant, eg many 

species of mealybug 


Disfigurement from presence and 

honeydew and waxy deposits 


LEAVES Yellowing, eg black scale 

Leaf fall, eg red scale (citrus) 

FRUIT Disfigurement, eg red scale 

STEMS Dieback, eg San Jose scale, 

TRUNK gumtree scale 

GENERAL Stunting, eg white louse scale 

Dieback, especially armoured 

scales 


Soft scales produce honeydew, eg soft 

brown scale. 

Unsightly, eg white wax scale. 

Loss of overseas markets, eg San Jose 

scale. Citrus fruit with scale on local 

markets reduces value 


LEAVES Mottling, eg greenhouse 

whitefly (GHWF) 

GENERAL Death of seedlings, eg GHWF 

Reduced vigour, eg silverleaf 

whitefly (SLWF) 


Honeydew and associated sooty mould 

Overseas they are known to transmit 

some virus and virus-like diseases. 

146 Insects and allied pests - Hemiptera (bugs, aphids, etc)


Fig. 101. Miscellaneous true bugs. (Heteroptera). 

Green vegetable bug 

(Nezara viridula). PhotoNSW 

Dept of Industry and Investment 

(E.H.Zeck). 

Enlarged x4: 

1. 1 st -stage nymph 

2. 2 nd -stage nymph 

3. 3 rd -stage nymph 

4. 4 th -stage nymph 

(2 colour forms) 

5. 5 th -stage 

nymph 

(2 colour forms) 

6. Adult 

7. Egg 

All actual size: 

8. Tomato leaf 

9. Eggs laid in cluster 

10. 1 st stage nymphs (group) 

11. 2 nd stage nymph 

12. 3 rd stage nymph 

13. 4 th stage nymph 

14. 5 th stage nymph 

15. Adult 

Spined citrus bug 

(Biprorulus bibax), 

green, 20 mm long. 

Bronze orange 

bug (Musgraveia 

sulciventris), 

25 mm long. 

Rutherglen bug 

(Nysius vinitor), grey, 

5 mm long. 

Photo NSW Dept of Industry 


Harlequin bug 

(Dindymus versicolor), 

red/black, 12 mm long. 



Lace bugs (Tingidae). Only a few species damage plants, 

eg azalea, macadamia and olive lace bugs, they are host 

specific. Left: Adult lace bug, 3 mm long. Right: Spiny 

nymph, 3 mm long. 

BENEFICIAL BUGS. 

Assassin bugs Vine moth bug 

(Reduviidae), dark, (Oechalia schellembergii), 

20 mm long. brown, 12 mm long. 

Some predatory bugs seek out prey, others wait in ambush. 

Vine moth bug, predatory shield bug (Oechalia 

schellembergii) sucks the contents from a grapevine 

moth caterpillar feeding on a grapevine leaf. 



Crusader bug 

An example of a shield bug 

This native bug has a wide distribution over 

Australia, but does not occur in Tasmania. It has 

potential as a biological control agent for the giant 

sensitive tree (Mimosa pigra) (Elliott et al 1998). 


Mictis profana (Coreidae, Order Hemiptera). 

Host range 

Wide range of native and introduced plants. 

Ornamentals, eg cassia, eucalypt, hibiscus, rose, 

wattle, wisteria. Fruit, eg citrus, grape. 


Plant damage is caused by the nymphs and adults 

sucking sap from the young shoots. 

Adult bugs are 20-30 mm long and dark 

brown to black in colour. When wings are folded 

there is a well-defined yellow, St Andrew's 

Cross on its back, it is from this that the bug takes 

its popular name. The undersurface of the body 

and the long legs and antennae are brown, but in 

some individuals the tips of the antennae are 

orange. When disturbed adults fly readily and 

exude an unpleasant smelling liquid. Nymphs 

resemble the adults without the conspicuous 

yellow cross. The 1 st stage nymphs are brown with 

a reddish abdomen and look like large ants. Later 

stage nymphs are brown and have two small 

orange spots in the middle of the upper surfaces of 

their abdomens. The developing wings (or 

‘wingbuds’) are also marked with orange in the last 

2 nymphal stages. 

Shoots. Nymphs and adults suck sap from the 

young growth including flowering shoots causing 

them to wilt, turn brown and die. 

General. May be an important pest of young 

trees, eg Acacia spp. in the NT, A. ampliceps and 

A. auriculiformis in plantations in Qld when almost 

all trees and 95% of shoot tips can be attacked 

causing dieback, loss of apical dominance and 

‘bushing’ of trees. 

DIAGNOSTICS. 

Adults are identified by their creamy ‘cross’. 

Nymphs move rapidly over the plant and 

superficially look like rather large ants. 

Unpleasant smell. 

Wilted or dead tips of new growth which 

may curl over. Crusader bugs causing the 

damage may have long since departed to seek 

a new food source. 

Pest cycle 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph 

(5 stages), and adult) with 3-4 overlapping 

generations each season. In spring, ‘overwintering’ 

females lay eggs in rows or groups on leaves, twigs 

or fruit and sometimes debris on the soil. Eggs are 

relatively large, elongated and brown, with a 

rounded lid on top which is pushed off by the 

young bug when emerging. Nymphs feed on the 

foliage of host plants side by side with adults. 

Adults can live for more than 4 weeks. A complete 

life cycle takes about 8 weeks in summer. 


As adults in sheltered places emerging to attack 

new growth in spring. 

Spread 

Adults can fly freely in warm weather. 

Movement of infested plants (minor). 


Late summer and autumn especially in cooler 

regions. They are a sporadic pest, occurring one 

season and not the next. 

Fig. 102. Crusader bug (Mictis profana). Left: Nymph 

sucking sap from tips of new wattle shoots which wither. 

and die. Right: Nymphs and adults actual size (20-30 

mm long). PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). PhotoNSW Dept of 






1.Prepare a plan that fits your situation. 

2.Crop, region. Know the variations, eg not in 

Tasmania. 

3.Identification if necessary consult a diagnostic 

service (page xiv) but the adult is distinctive. 

4.Monitor the pest and/or damage visually during 

spring and summer. Remember you need to know 

when, where, what and how to monitor 

(page 39). 

Citrus trees are usually monitored once or twice 

from October to April, depending on development 

of infestations. Check 5 randomly selected young 

shoots on each tree (Smith et al 1997). 

5.Threshold. How much damage can you accept? On 

many plants the damage may not be significant. 

On citrus if 25% or more shoots are infested on 

young trees then action is needed. 

6.Action. Action is rarely required on older trees. If 

required, bugs on young trees may be collected and 

destroyed or in severe infestations spot sprayed with a 

selective insecticide. 

7.Evaluation. Review your program and 

recommend improvements where needed. It may be 

necessary to continue monitoring trees after treatment. 

Keep records so you can compare each year’s results. 


Often damage is of no economic importance and so 

no control measures are required. A few bugs on a 

large shrub can be ignored. 

Sanitation. If only a few small shrubs, plants or 

nursery stock are affected bugs can be collected by 

hand. Wear gloves to avoid getting their offensive 

fluid on hands. Alternatively, bugs may be shaken 

into a wide mouthed container or onto a sheet. 

Destroy bugs by stamping on or by some other 

means. Damaged shoots may be pruned off. 

Biological control. Many predators feed on 

crusader bugs including other insects, eg assassin 

bug (Pristhesancus plagipennis), praying mantises, 

and birds. Wasps that parasitize eggs are the main 

natural enemies of crusader bug. 

Resistant varieties. Some varieties of host 

plants are all susceptible, eg all citrus varieties are 

susceptible. 

Insecticides. Spot spray nymphal stages on 

plants if infestation is severe. Do not spray trees 

greater than 3 meters high (Table 25 below). 

Passionvine bug (Fabrictilis gonagra) 

is about 18 mm long, black with a red 

band behind its head and red spots on the 

underside of its body. 

Fruitspotting bugs (Amblypelta spp.) are 

difficult to see. Left: Yellow-green adult bug 

about 15 mm long. Right: Nymphs. 

Fig. 103. Other squash bugs (Coreidae). 

Table 25. Crusader bug – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 


No products are registered specifically for crusader 

bugs. Some sprays are registered for ‘bugs’ generally, eg 


Various home garden sprays, eg Bug Gun (permethrin) 


Application of insecticides is not usually necessary in a 

home garden situation. Non-chemical measures should be 

sufficient. 

Follow resistance management strategies on labels. 

Spot spray nymphs when first noticed. 

On citrus, the addition of a wetting agent such as white oil 

to the spray will make it more effective. 



Cabbage aphid 


Brevicoryne brassicae (Order Hemiptera). 

Common and serious pest of Brassicas 

wherever they are grown throughout the world. 

Several other aphids will also attack Brassicaceae, 

including the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), 

turnip aphid (Lipaphis erysimi). 

Host range 

Brassicas, including: 

Vegetables, eg broccoli, brussell sprouts, 

cabbage, cauliflower. 

Ornamentals, eg stock, wallflower. 

Field crops, eg rape, turnip. 

Weeds, eg Indian mustard, shepherd's purse, wild 

radish, turnip weed. 


Adult aphids are globular and about 2.5 mm 

long when mature, slaty grey and covered with a 

mealy material. Globules of honeydew may be 

seen among aphid colonies. Winged and wingless 

forms occur together on the same plant. 

Leaves, flower heads. Nymphs and adults 

damage plants by piercing plant tissues and 

sucking plant juices. Infestation usually starts on 

leaf upper surfaces, a single winged female 

surrounded by wingless young; leaves curl in and 

protect the colony. Aphids prefer to feed on the 

tender growing parts of the plant, eg youngest 

leaves and flowering parts deep within heads of 

cabbage and Brussel sprouts. Large colonies 

cause much curling of the leaves and twisting of 

tender shoots making the aphids hard to control. 

Plants stop growing and leaves become yellowish, 

they may suddenly wilt and die. 

Transplanted seedlings. Cabbage aphids do 

not usually infest seedlings but build up after 

thinning or transplanting. Large colonies can 

stunt or kill small plants. 

White caste skins (left behind after aphids 

have moulted), honeydew, ants, sooty mould. 

Aphids are most abundant on lower leaves 

of established plants. 

General. Spread through a crop is rapid. 

Transplanted seedlings. Cabbage aphids do 

not usually infest seedlings but build up after 

thinning or transplanting. Large colonies can 

stunt or kill small plants. 

Transmission of virus diseases. 

Cabbage aphid is a vector of the cauliflower 

mosaic virus and possibly other virus diseases as 

well in a non-persistent/semi-persistent manner. 

The virus is lost during moulting and is not 

transmitted directly to progeny. 

Diagnostics. 

Because of their mealy-gray appearance and habit 

of clustering together on leaf undersurfaces to form 

colonies, cabbage aphids are easy to recognize. 

Pest cycle 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (live 

nymphs, adult) with many generations each season. 

The aphids first appear on the leaves in small 

colonies, which may include adults and a variable 

number of young. Such colonies reproduce 

rapidly, no eggs are laid, active young are born 

alive. In warmer areas a generation matures in 

2 weeks. However, as the number of aphids in an 

area increases, the food decreases and their 

individual growth become much slower. 


In warmer areas, young are born alive throughout 

the year while in cooler areas wingless forms 

overwinter. In colder countries, this species has 

an egg-laying form and the eggs ‘overwinter’. 

Spread 

By winged forms flying. Winged forms are 

produced when the colony is crowded, spread 

through a crop is rapid. 

By seedlings. 


Warm, dry conditions during late summer and 

autumn. In coastal areas they may be important 

pests in spring. Aphids multiply in colonies at an 

incredibly rapid rate depending on temperature, eg 

each female can produce 3 young/day at 16 o C and 

up to 6/day at 24 o C. Aphids do not thrive in very 

hot and dry or very cold conditions. 

Fig.104. Cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae). 

Curling and distortion of cabbage leaves caused by 

cabbage aphids. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 





1.Access a plan in advance that fits your situation. 

2.Crop, region. Know variations. 

3.Identification. If necessary consult a diagnostic 

service (page xiv) as several species of aphids can 

attack cabbages. 

4.Monitor pest and/or damage and record results. Early 

aphid infestations are of greater significance in terms of 

potential damage. Different methods can be used, eg 

Monitor number of stunted plants. Inspect crop 

weekly when aphids are expected. Examine 10 plants 

at each of 6 widely spaced locations along a zigzag 

route through the crop. 

Monitor number of natural enemies of aphids, 

eg hoverflies, daily weather conditions. 

Satellite mapping. In the UK, aphid populations 

can be assessed on Brussell sprouts using satellite 

mapping and Geographic Information Systems 

(GIS) software. Research also indicates that growers 

may only need to monitor the edges of fields 

rather than the whole field. 

An Aphid Alert service is available in the USA for 

insects that affect soybeans. It provides a warning 

when aphids are near threshold level, indicating that 

it is time for growers to scout their fields and 

consider an insecticide application to protect their 

crops www.aphidalert.com 

5.The threshold is usually an economic threshold. 

How much damage can you accept? One suggestion is 

to take action if more than 10 out of 30 cabbage plants 

plants are infested. In some crops control measures are 

recommended (if all the plants inspected have aphids 

at a predetermined threshold levels). 

6.Action at the determined threshold can be bio-controls, 

which do not prevent economic damage and/or 

insecticides (see Table 26 below). Where transverse 

ladybirds are found in nurseries try to avoid spraying. 

7.Evaluation. Review your program, recommend 

improvements if necessary. 



Avoid year-round growing of Brassicas. 

Site plants away from sources of infestation. 

Sow late to avoid aphid flights, 

Organic gardeners may use repellant plants such 

as garlic to assist with aphid control. 

Planting dill near cabbage encourages predatory 

hover fly (Syrphidae) larvae. 

In the USA, opaque mulches of aluminum and 

other reflective materials reduce aphid numbers 

on vegetable plants by up to 96% and prevent 

weed growth. The aluminum reflects the blue of 

the sky and disorientates aphids. In Australia, 

plants tend to become scorched. 

Intercropping disrupts the visual and chemical 

cues that aphids use to locate host plants, ie the 

contrast between crop and surrounding soil is 

reduced. Intercropping Brussel sprouts with 

French dwarf beans or weeds may help reduce 

aphid infestations. 

Sanitation. 

Prompt disposal of harvested crops and control of 

Brassica weeds assist control. 


Natural controls do not prevent economic 

damage. 

– Predators, eg common spotted ladybird 

(Harmonia conformis), birds, young mantids, mites, 

lacewings, spiders, earwigs, hoverfly larvae. Some 

ladybirds can consume up to 100 aphids per day 

and will feed on twospotted mites if aphids are 

absent. Tasmanian lacewing (Micromus 

tasmaniae) larvae consume up to 10 aphids per day. 

– Parasitic wasps, eg the cabbage aphid parasite 

(Diaeretiella rapae) leaves many swollen empty 

aphids on plants, each with a small hole through 

which the adult wasp has emerged (page 152). 

– Various diseases are being researched for 

possible use as biological control agents, eg the 

fungi, Metarhizium anisoplia and Entomophora. 

– Heavy rain can destroy large numbers of aphids. 

Commercial biocontrol agents. 

– Predators, eg lacewings, ladybirds. 

– Parasitic wasps, eg Trichogramma spp. 



Use resistant or tolerant cultivars if practical; red 

cabbage is reputed to have some resistance. 


Not really applicable. 


Ensure transplants are aphid-free before planting. 

Screen seedling houses to exclude aphids prior to 

transplanting. 


Aphids can be hosed off plants using a strong jet of 

water but tend to return quickly. 

Insecticides. Table 26 below. 

Table 26. Cabbage aphid – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 


Group 1A, eg Aphidex , Pirimor , Ospray (pirimicarb) - 

systemic aphicide 

Group 1B, eg Eraser , Lancer , Orthene (acephate) 

Group 3A, eg Ambush , Pounce (permethrin) 

Group 4A, eg Confidor , various (imadicloprid) 

Group 9B, eg Chess (pymetrozine) - not toxic to predators 


Spray oils, eg Bioclear (paraffinic oil); Eco-oil (vegetable oil) 

House and garden sprays and dusts for aphids generally, 

eg soap sprays, pyrethrin, Derris Dust (rotenone) 

SEED TREATMENTS 


When observed. 

Insecticidal soap may be phytotoxic under some 

conditions especially to Brussel sprouts and cabbages. 

Observe label withholding periods for edible crops. 

Group 4A, eg Picus Seed Treatment (imadicloprid) 

protects seedlings of certain crops (cotton, canola and 

cereals) from early aphid injury caused by other aphid 

species and in some instances, spread of virus diseases. 





Myzus persicae (Order Hemiptera) is a common 

and major pest of many plants. 

Host range 

Primary. food plants. Peaches and nectarines, 

also apricot and plums, rarely almonds. 

Secondary. food plants. Wide range of plants 

including ornamentals, eg Iceland poppy, rose; 

fruit, eg plum, strawberry; vegetables, eg 

cabbages, peas, potatoes; weeds, eg capeweed, 

dock, sowthistle. Many ornamentals, vegetables, 

fruit and weeds may host several aphid species. 


Aphids have sucking beaks and feed by puncturing 

plant tissues and extracting sap. 

Adults are globular, mostly green with dark 

green markings but may be pale yellow or pale 

pink and about 2.5 mm long. On the abdomen 

there is 1 pair of cornicles with distinct dark tips. 

Aphids live in colonies formed from the young of a 

single female, single or small numbers of aphids 

are sometimes found on shoots. Nymphs are like 

adults except smaller and wingless, colour varies 

from green to pale yellow and pale pink. White 

papery nymph skins are shed as they moult and 

grow and are found on leaves and buds. 

Leaves. The green peach aphid sucks sap from 

young leaves causing them to wrinkle. It produces 

copious amounts of honeydew, which attracts 

ants and on which sooty mould grows reducing 

photosynthesis, making plants shiny, unsightly and 

unsaleable. Honeydew is sticky and may drip on 

onto underlying leaves and plants, floors, seats, 

etc. Ants protect and care for the aphids, move 

them around and keep away predators and 

parasites. In return ants feed off the honeydew. 

Transmission of virus diseases. 

Over 100 virus diseases of secondary hosts 

may be transmitted from plant to plant by the 

green peach aphid during feeding, eg cucumber 

mosaic virus (the most common plant virus in 

the world), turnip mosaic virus, potato leaf roll 

virus, pea mosaic virus, bean yellow mosaic. 

Green peach aphid does not transmit virus 

diseases of stone fruits. 

Ornamental plants affected by virus diseases 

transmitted by green peach aphid include 

carnation, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, tulip, 

lilium, hyacinth, iris, narcissus, daphne, lilac. 

DAMAGE TO STONE FRUITS. 

Flowers/Fruit. Aphids feeding on swelling 

buds often cause premature opening of flowers. 

A single petal emerging from a bud indicates its 

presence. Later generations feed on flower parts 

before the petals unfold fully. Opening buds and 

flowers are distorted and fall readily, reducing fruit 

setting. Young fruit may be attacked and fall. 

Leaves/shoots. Aphids feed on spring growth 

and inject toxic saliva into the developing plant 

tissue producing shoot, leaf and flower distortion. 

Aphids infest young leaves and laterals of fruit 

trees, causing the leaves to curl, shrivel and fall 

(page 153, Fig. 106; page 31, Fig. 16). Trees may 

become unproductive and may take several years 

to recover from repeated severe attacks. 

DAMAGE TO ORNAMENTALS. 

Green peach aphid attacks new growth in spring 

causing shoot, leaf and flower distortion, wilting 

and retarded growth in a range of ornamentals. 

Small numbers affect plant appearance and 

distorted leaves cannot be fixed. Large numbers of 

live young may occur in hot spots in a crop. 

Diagnostics. 

On stone fruits green peach aphids are easy to 

recognize from other aphids. Cherry aphids and 

black peach aphids are black. 

If aphids have moved to secondary hosts, 

look for white nymph skins on leaves and buds of 

these plants, drops of honeydew, ants, sooty 

mould, shriveled leaves. Check leaf undersurfaces. 

On stone fruits do not confuse green peach aphid 

damage to leaves with the fungal disease peach 

leaf curl ( pages 152, 358). It is possible to have 

both problems together in spring. 

Comparison of symptoms: 

Leaves 

Other 

features 

Parasitized aphid 

Green peach 

aphid injury 

Leaves wrinkled (no 

blisters or thickening), 

aphids, nymph skins, 

honeydew, infested 

leaves die and fall 

Infested leaves die 

and fall trees become 

unproductive 

Peach leaf curl 

symptoms 

Blistered, may be 

thickened, affected 

areas blacken and 

die, affected leaves 

fall 

Fruit may be 

infected, reduced 

fruit crop, reduced 

tree vigour. 

Unparasitized aphid 

Fig. 105. Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae). 

Note distinctive cornicles at rear of aphids. 

Left: Parasitised aphid with exit hole through which the 

adult wasp has emerged. Right: Unparasitised aphid. 



Pest cycle 


nymphs, adult) with many generations each year. 

In spring aphids multiply rapidly on peach and 

nectarine trees, producing wingless young-bearing 

females and cause serious damage. In early 

summer, as the peach foliage hardens off, the 

winged forms migrate to their secondary food 

plants (ornamentals, vegetables and weeds), where 

they spend the summer. In late autumn, some 

females and males migrate back to the peaches and 

nectarines. Eggs are laid about the bases of the 

buds from May to mid-July. Eggs may also be laid 

on cherry trees but fail to survive. Eggs hatch in 

late July to mid-August, but the aphids remain in 

the buds until bud burst when they multiply rapidly 

as the trees come into leaf. In warm districts (eg 

coastal areas) the autumn migration to the peach 

and nectarine trees does not occur and so eggs are 

rarely seen. 


In mild climates there is no egg stage. Aphids 

breed throughout the year on secondary host plants 

occasionally producing winged forms which fly to 

other secondary hosts. Where winters are cold, 

eggs ‘overwinter’ about the bases of buds on peach 

and nectarine trees. Sheltered conditions may 

allow aphids to survive throughout the year. 

Spread 

As winged forms flying assisted by wind. 

Movement of infested plants, young nursery 

trees may carry over-wintering eggs. Seedlings 

and container plants may carry wingless forms. 


Aphids generally do not like hot dry weather. 

Aphids are seasonal pests and may occur in 

large numbers for a relatively short time usually 

during spring and autumn. 

Abundant growth of herbaceous weeds in the 

previous summer and autumn, 

Late leaf-fall from the peach trees. 

Cool wet weather in spring favours severe 

damage in spring due to the slow hardening 

of early peach growth and delayed 

appearance of natural enemies. 

Researchers in the UK have found that GPAs 

that had become more resistant to pesticides 

were less able to withstand the British winter. 

They also became less sensitive to their 

environment and didn’t notice warnings from 

alarm pheromones secreted by other aphids and 

became victims to ladybirds and other predators. 



1.Access a plan in advance that fits your situation. 

2.Crop, region. Recognize variations as weather can 

affect severity of damage and appearance of natural 

enemies. GPA is a serious pest. 

3.Identification must be confirmed. Consult a 

diagnostic service if necessary (pages 152, xiv). 

4.Monitor at least weekly for aphids and beneficials 

when they are expected, seek advice (page 39). Know 

when and where to look, what and how to monitor. 

Stone fruits. 'Overwintering' eggs on peach and 

nectarine trees in cool climates; can be monitored 

by inspecting bark of all trees while they are being 

pruned. Mark all trees infested with the tiny black 

'overwintering' eggs (Brough et al 1994. 

Ornamentals and vegetables crops. Monitor 

populations on commercial crops. Control measures 

can be implemented before damage is obvious. 

– Yellow sticky traps can be used to monitor winged 

adults; other insects are also attracted so accurate 

identification of the trapped insects is important. 

– Examine say 10 plants at say 5 locations in the 

crop for aphids, caste skins, honeydew and black 

sooty mould, predators and parasitized aphids 

(mummies). Also look for ants. 

5.Thresholds will vary depending on the crop. 

Economic damage to ornamentals and vegetables can 

be considerable. There may be a nil threshold on 

peach trees, ie all infested trees should be treated. 

There may be a complaint threshold for honeydew. 

6.Action/control. Unless aphids are present in high 

numbers on some crops, eg potatoes, they may not 

cause major damage. Biological control agents are 

commercially available. Spray all marked infested 

peach trees with winter oil either while trees are 

dormant or at budswell. Brough (1994) suggested 

checking results at flowering by inspecting 5 flower 

clusters from each infested tree. If aphid colonies are 

found spray with a recommended insecticide when all 

petals have fallen. Control ants if present. 

7.Evaluate the program, are improvements needed? 

Fig. 106. Green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae). PhotoNSW Dept of 


All enlarged about x14 

1. 1 st stage nymph 

2. Adult wingless viviparous female 

3. Pre-adult nymph of winged 

viviparous female 

4. Adult winged viviparous female 

5. Overwintering egg when first laid 

6. Eggs several days old 

Actual size 

7. Peach shoot showing curling and 

distortion of leaves 

8. Peach twig; arrows indicate 

where eggs are generally laid 




For peach and nectarine trees. 

Ants attracted by honeydew and sooty mould will 

disappear once aphids are under control. 


Avoid overfertilising plants, especially with 

nitrogen as aphids prefer lush growth. 

Control ants as they spread and protect aphids 

from natural enemies. 

Some plants repel aphids eg chives, garlic, 

lavender, mint, pyrethrum, rosemary, tansy, 

wormwood. 

Sanitation. Remove weeds which can be 

alternate hosts in and around nurseries and 

greenhouses to reduce breeding sites. Remove 

severely infested herbaceous plants. 


Natural control. Encourage natural enemies 

which attack aphid colonies in spring, however, 

they do not usually prevent economic damage. 

– Predators, eg hoverfly larvae (Syrphidae), small 

birds, eg silver eyes. Ladybird beetles and their 

larvae reportedly eat as many as 2,4000 aphids 

during their lives. Green lacewing larvae 

(Chrysopidae) consume up to 100 aphids/day. 

– Parasitic wasps, eg Diaeretiella sp., lay their 

eggs in aphid bodies which swell up. When the 

adult wasp emerges there is an obvious exit hole, 

‘mummies’ may be brown/black (page 152). 

– Fungal and other diseases. Various fungi attack 

aphids in warm humid weather, eg Aschersonia, 

Beauveria, Entomophora, Metarhizium, Verticillium. 

– GPA populations are reduced by heavy rain and/or 

early leaf fall in autumn. 

– If weather prevents returning winged males from 

reaching peach trees females will lay infertile eggs. 

Commercially available 

– Predatory green lacewings (Mallada signata). 

– Parasitic wasps (on aphids), eg Aphidius colemani. 

– List of suppliers www.goodbugs.org.au 


Not practical for tree hosts but may be useful for 

secondary hosts, eg lettuce. Lucerne aphids are 

now controlled by a combination of parasites, 

predators and tolerant or resistant varieties. 


Use aphid-free planting material as aphids 

reproduce rapidly and establish quickly on crops. 

Keep parent stock plants free of aphids (and 

other vectors) to prevent infection with virus 

diseases and to reduce spread of aphids on 

propagation material. 


Some growers install screens (correct mesh size) 

on greenhouse vents to prevent entry of aphids 

and other small insects such as thrips. 

Squash aphids with fingers by simply wiping 

down the sides of affected shoots with your 

finger. Wear gloves to avoid stains. 

Hosing with water may temporarily remove 

aphids from some plants. Aphids tend to return. 

Insecticides. 

Many naturally occurring or commercial biocontrols 

are susceptible to insecticides. 

GPA has developed resistance to more than 

60 insecticides including several organophosphates, 

carbamates and synthetic pyrethroids. 

Follow Croplife Australia’s resistance 

management strategies and label directions. 

Insecticides combined with the activity of aphid 

predators in spring are an important component 

of the resistance management strategy for green 

peach aphid. 

Aphicides will reduce impacts on non-target 

organisms. 

Newer systemic insecticides may be applied 

as spot sprays or root drenches and used with 

biocontrol agents. 

Spot treatment is the preferred application 

method, not blanket spraying. Sprays other than 

oils will kill large number of predators. 

Table 27. Green peach aphid - Some insecticides for use on stone fruit. 

What to use? 

DORMANT SPRAYS 

Spray oils, eg Winter oil (petroleum oil); Bioclear , Biopest 

(paraffinic oil) – dormant or delayed dormant 

SEMI-DORMANT SPRAYS 


Group 1A, eg Pirimor (pirimicarb ) – systemic aphicide 

Group 1B, eg Malathion (maldison) 

Group 4A, eg Confidor , various (imidacloprid); Calypso 

(thiacloprid); Samurai , various (clothianidin) 

Group 9B, eg Chess (pymetrozine) - not toxic to some 

predators 

Spray oils, soaps, eg Eco-oil (botanical oils); insecticide soaps 

Home garden sprays, eg there are many sprays for aphids 

generally on roses and other ornamental plants. 


Apply to dormant peaches and nectarines no later 

than early budswell to kill 'overwintering' eggs. 

Limited use as aphids move in from adjacent plants. 

Semi-dormant sprays to control young aphids when 

hatching is complete. 

These sprays can often be combined with other 

pesticide sprays which may be necessary at this time. 

Trees must have produced some foliage for these 

sprays to be effective. 

Apply when observed. 

Some sprays are toxic to early peaches. Only spray if 

monitoring indicates a need (infestation is severe) 

and the early budswell oil spray was missed. 

Follow resistance management strategies. 

. 



Woolly aphid 


Eriosoma lanigerum (Order Hemiptera). 

Woolly aphid is a serious pest of apple trees. 

Other aphids also attack apples. 

Apple-grass aphid (Rhopalosiphum insertum) 

Pear root aphid (E. pyricola) 

Spiraea aphid, apple aphid (Aphis spiraecola) 

Overseas also Aphis pomi, Dysaphis plantaginea 

Host range 

Fruit, eg apple, rarely pears. Ornamentals, eg 

crab apple, occasionally cotoneaster, hawthorn 

(Pyracantha spp.), liquidamber. 


Adults are nearly all females and wingless, 

however, winged females may be produced in 

autumn. Aphids are globular in shape, purplishbrown 

and usually covered with long, white woolly 

threads which they secrete from pores on the body. 

These threads form a loose tangled mass over the 

active colonies and act as protection. The aphids 

also produce a white powder which covers their 

bodies. Nymphs are smaller than adults, pale and 

initially not so globular. Honeydew (sticky sugary 

secretion) is produced. Sooty mould grows on it 

and the white woolly threads stick to it. 

Above ground limbs & lateral growth. 

Woolly aphids feed on the laterals and trunks of 

apple trees by piercing and sucking plant sap. 

However, they can only attack wood where the 

bark is still thin, eg lateral growth, or where the 

bark has been broken as a result of injury or at 

existing feeding sites. The feeding sites become 

gnarled and lumpy and trees may be weakened. 

Lateral growth may become cracked and distorted 

and most or all the buds are destroyed. Heavily 

infested trees become ‘staggy’ in appearance, with 

the quantity of productive wood greatly reduced. 

The woolly threads secreted by the aphids 

disfigure the laterals. 

Fruit. Black sooty mould grows on honeydew 

and the white woolly threads stick to it. Heavy 

infestations: 

Disfigure fruit. 

Annoy pickers. 

Cause fruit to fall prematurely. 

Interfere with the coloring of red varieties. 

Downgrade commercial fruit. 

Roots. Heavy infestations, mostly on roots near 

the surface, produce characteristic lumpy swellings 

and can severely stunt growth, particularly in 

young trees. But once trees are established, root 

infestations do not usually affect their vigour. 

General. The major cause of damage occurs 

when large aphid populations build up on laterals. 

The copious amounts of honeydew encourages 

sooty mould which interferes with the tree's growth 

by preventing photosynthesis. 

Diagnostics. 

White woolly threads, black aphids, sticky 

honeydew. 

Black sooty mould growing on the honeydew. 

Limited host range. 

Do not confuse with mealybugs. 

Do not confuse with powdery mildew, etc. 

Gnarled and lumpy lateral growth. 

Fig. 107. Woolly aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum). 

Top left: Swellings on lateral growth caused by 

aphids feeding. Lower left: Galls on apple root. 

PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. Right: Twigs with 

aphids under woolly threads. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Pest cycle 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (eggs that 

rarely hatch, live nymphs and adults) with many 

generations each year. Survival of the population 

during winter depends mostly on young aphids in 

cracks and crevices of old wood. Most aphids are 

wingless females that reproduce asexually (without 

being fertilized) and give birth to between 

2-20 live female nymphs a day. These take from 

8-20 days to mature. Once aphids settle at a 

feeding site they remain there until autumn. A few 

sexual forms appear on apple but they do not feed 

and their eggs rarely hatch. Some migration from 

trees to susceptible rootstocks takes place in early 

winter with a return to aboveground parts in 

spring. On roots and aerial parts reproduction 

continues through winter though at a reduced rate. 


Mainly as young aphids in cracks and crevices 

on the above ground parts of apple trees and on 

exposed roots or those less than 10mm below the 

soil surface. 

As young aphids on the roots of susceptible 

rootstock but these aphids do not appear to be 

important for ‘overwintering’. 

Woolly aphid infestations survive better in the 

field during winter on Granny Smith and 

Jonathan than on Delicious or Rome Beauty. 

Spread 

Occasionally young winged adults, produced 

during summer, establish colonies on 

neighboring trees. 

Movement of infested propagating stock, nursery 

stock and plant material. 

By wind, birds, insects or people. 


Spring and autumn, eg 6-18 o C temperature. 

Low humidity and temperatures above 27 o C are 

unfavourable to it, but low temperatures have 

little effect apart from slowing down their rate of 

development. 

Cool and moist conditions, eg shaded 

situations, the interiors of dense, strongly 

growing trees or trees shaded by windbreaks. 

Lack of predators, parasites and diseases which 

attack woolly aphids (Asante 1999). 

As aphids become more resistant to pesticides 

they become less sensitive to their environment. 



1.Access a plan that fits your situation. State 

Orchard Plant Protection Guides available. 



a diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv) to avoid 

confusing waxiness, sooty mould and honeydew with 

other pests. 

4.Monitor pest and/or damage and record results 

weekly (page 39). Seek advice for your situation. 

Early detection before the ‘waxy wool’ is 

produced in quantity is important as it protects the 

aphids from insecticide sprays. 

It is easier to count colonies to estimate population 

numbers than to tally individual aphids. 

Brough et al (1994) suggested inspecting 5 laterals 

from each of 20 trees per hectare during spring and 

autumn. 


Thresholds have been determined for some commercial 

growers, eg if one (1) or more laterals are found to be 

infested. 


is reached, preferably that which does not harm 

natural parasites and predators. A resurgence of aphids 

may occur prior to harvest. 


well it worked. Recommend improvements if 

required, eg use of resistant rootstock for new 

plantings so that woolly aphids will no longer multiply 

on and damage roots. 


Control is difficult because susceptible rootstock 

have a more-or-less permanent infestation on the 

roots, which may re-infest aerial parts. 

Biological control. The introduced wasp 

parasitoid (Aphelinus mali) and native species of 

ladybird beetles will attack woolly aphid but their 

populations may not increase rapidly enough to 

prevent woolly aphid populations reaching 

damaging levels. 

Introduced Aphelinus. Woolly aphid has been 

under biological control since 1923 when the 

parasitic wasp (Aphelinus mali) was released. 

The wasp lays eggs in the body of the aphid and the 

larva feeds on the body of the aphid killing it. 

Parasitized aphids lose their woolly covering and 

become black. A small exit hole which can be 

seen with the naked eye, is made in the back of the 

dead aphid by the wasp when it emerges. The wasp 

'overwinters' as a pupa in the body of a dead 

parasitized aphid and the adult wasps emerge in 

September at the same time as the colonies of 

woolly aphid become active. It is possible that 

dormant sprays do not affect the protected stage of 

the parasite but many of the more modern 

insecticides used during the growing season are 

harmful, the wasp is therefore scarce in 

commercial orchards but gives useful control in 

non-bearing orchards where fewer pesticides are 

used. A. mali can complete 8-9 overlapping 

generations each year. Conserving Aphelinus mali: 

– Occasional infestations on hawthorn and other 

hosts are valuable for maintaining Aphelinus 

populations. Hawthorn and other hosts near apples 

should not be sprayed. 

– Twigs with parasitized aphids may be collected 

before winter and stored in a shed away from birds 

and placed in infested trees in spring. 



Natural controls. Natural enemies of woolly 

aphid have been well documented by Asante 

(1997). However, they often do not increase 

quickly enough to prevent woolly aphid 

populations reaching the threshold level detailed 

on page 156. 

– Predators in Australia include ladybirds, eg 

common spotted ladybird (Harmonia conformis), 

transverse ladybird (Coccinella transversalis), 

mealybug ladybird (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri), 

also lacewing and syrphid fly larvae and earwigs. 

– Parasites, eg 5 species of wasps and 2 species of 

mites assist in reducing woolly aphid populations. 

– Fungal diseases, eg Verticillium lecanii is 

reputed to infect woolly aphid. 


Malling-Merton series rootstocks with 

some resistance to woolly aphid have been 

readily available for many years, and trees are 

grafted onto these stocks. The use of resistant 

rootstocks means that woolly aphid can no 

longer multiply on or damage roots and act as a 

source of re-infestation and that woolly aphid 

has only to be controlled on aerial parts of trees. 

Note that even on resistant rootstock a few 

aphids may still be found on roots. 

Rootstock can be chosen which have some 

resistance not only to woolly aphid, but also to 

Phytophthora collar rot and fireblight (NSW 

Agfact Apple Rootstock Identification). 

Northern Spy: 

– Is resistant to wooly aphid. 

– Is moderately susceptible to Phytophthora. 

– Is moderately resistant to fireblight. 

– Causes minimal suckering. 

– Is tolerant to different soil types. 

– Other roots stock may be more susceptible to 

Phytophthora, fireblight, etc. 


Examine purchased nursery stock to check for the 

need for treatment prior to planting. 

Insecticides. Apples 

A dormant spray of winter oil may kill 

some ‘overwintering’ aphids in cracks on trunks 

and limbs (not very effective) but not Aphelinus. 

Growing season sprays should be applied 

when infestations are first noticed usually in 

spring and autumn when trees are growing 

vigorously. Remember, 

– Sprays may be toxic to Aphelinus. 

– A resurgence of aphids may occur prior to harvest. 

Table 28. Woolly aphid – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

ROOT OR NURSERY STOCK DIPS 

Group 1B, eg Rogor (dimethoate), permit may be required 

DORMANT SPRAYS - deciduous trees 

Spray oils, none registered for woolly aphid 

GROWING SEASON SPRAYS 

Group 1A, eg Aphidex , Pirimor , various (pirimicarb) - 

systemic aphicide 

Group 1B, eg Rogor (dimethoate) - systemic 

Folimat , Sentinel (omethoate) – systemic 

Malathion (maldison) - non-systemic 

Lorsban , various (chlorpyrifos) - non-systemic 

Group 4A, eg Confidor , Kohinor , Surefire , (imidacloprid); 

Samurai (clothianidin) - systemic 


Use for nursery trees with gross infection prior to 

planting. Severely infested roots or whole plants of 

nursery stock may be dipped in insecticide and drained 

prior to planting. 

Indicates their lack of effectiveness, but does not kill 

Aphelinus. 

Apply when infestations are first noticed and any 

threshold is reached, usually in spring and autumn. 

Systemic pesticides give best control and should be 

applied when trees are growing vigorously. If trees are 

not growing vigorously use contact insecticides. 

SOIL TREATMENTS 

Group 4A, eg Confidor , Confidor Soil Guard Insecticide 

(imidacloprid) - systemic - to conserve Aphelinus 

mali use at the reduced rate as recommended on the 

label. Commercial growers only. 

For trees up to 7 years of age. 

During late summer/autumn, mark affected trees for 

treatment the following season, ie green tip to petal fall. 

If aerial colonies are present, maximum effectiveness 

may not be achieved until the following season. Do not 

treat any more than once in any 2 year period. 



Lerp insects, psyllids 


Psyllids (Family Psyllidae, Order Hemiptera). 

Many species in Australia are of little economic 

significance but some may kill hosts. 

Brown basket lerp (Cardiaspina fiscella) 

Redgum sugar lerp (WA, NT, Qld) (Glycaspis blakei) 

Bluegum psyllid (Ctenarytaina eucalypti) 

Eucalypt shoot psyllid (Blastopsylla occidentalis) 

Spottedgum psyllid (Eucalyptolyma maideni) 


Host range 

Lerp insects attack native trees, especially eucalypts. 

Psyllids attack a wide range of native plants, eg 

callistemon, eucalypts, hibiscus, grevillea, Christmas 

bush, boronia, leucaena. Many psyllids are host 

specific or restricted to one group of closely related 

eucalypts, eg bluegum psyllid (Ctenarytaina eucalypti) 

infests blue gum (E. globulus), shining gum and some 

species with blue-grey foliage. Some eucalypt species 

may be infested with many species of psyllids, eg 

Sydney bluegum (E. saligna) may host 16 species. 


Adult lerps and psyllids are small free living, 

sap sucking insects (rather like aphids), with 2 pairs 

of wings held roof-like over their head. They are not 

strong fliers, but they can jump, hence their nickname 

‘jumping plant lice’. Adult psyllids are up to 

10 mm long. 

Nymphs of lerp insects secrete a shell-like 

covering called a lerp beneath which they shelter 

and feed. The lerp has a characteristic shape and 

colour for each species; it is about 1-5 mm across. 

Nymphs may be seen either through the covering or 

when it is removed. Unlike scales they remain fully 

mobile through all stages. Some argue that the lerp 

offers protection against predators and parasites 

while others say that it protects it against 

dehydration. The first sign of attack is the presence 

of lerp coverings on leaves. Nymphs of psyllids 

are free-living and do not form a lerp covering, but 

secrete white waxy threads. They feed on leaves 

and terminal shoots, causing distortion and discolouration. 

Sometimes their feeding causes 

exudation of sticky white sap which hides the insect. 

Fig. 108. Lerp insects. 

Left: Discoloured areas caused by lerp insects sucking 

plant sap. Right: Leaves with lerp coverings. PhotosNSW 

Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Leaves. If attack is severe, masses of whitish 

lerps give trees a silvery appearance. Discarded 

lerp coverings fall from the tree. Purplish patches 

develop on leaves due to the sucking of nymphs 

and adults. The toxic saliva of some lerp insects 

causes leaf tissue to break down and brown. Trees 

look as if scorched by fire. If attack is severe, 

infested leaves may fall prematurely. Lerp insects 

produce honeydew which attracts ants and on 

which sooty mould grows, making trees and 

evergreen plants underneath appear black. 

Cut foliage of bluegum is downgraded by 

bluegum psyllid (Ctenarytaina eucalypti); 

seedlings are injured in commercial nurseries. 

Saplings of Dunn’s white gum (E. dunnii) in 

plantations may be killed. 

Single trees are unlikely to die from attack. 

Psyllids tend to concentrate on the older less 

vigorous lower foliage of a tree. 

General. Populations ebb and flow. Local 

outbreaks can slow tree growth and make trees 

more susceptible to attack by other insects, 

especially borers and termites. Lerps of some 

species were used by aborigines as food. 

Vigorously growing eucalypts can usually recover 

from one infestation when psyllid populations 

decline, but if infestations are sustained over 

consecutive seasons, trees may die. 

Diagnostics. 

Silvery appearance of tree due to lerp coverings. 

The differing shapes and patterns of lerps are 

used to identify the species attacking a tree 

(Fig. 108 below). 

Do not confuse lerp covering with scale insects. 

Do not confuse damaged left by lerps (after lerp 

coverings have gone) with damage caused by 

other sapsucking insects, fungal leaf spots or 

environmental conditions. 

Psyllids secret waxy threads and may hide in blobs 

of plant sap, do not confuse with mealybugs. 

Pest cycle 


5 nymphal stages and adult) with several 

generations each season. Adult brown lace 

lerps deposits their eggs on leaves. Eggs hatch 

into tiny flattened pink crawlers which wander 

over the leaf searching for stomata near a vein to 

insert its stylets and start feeding on plant sap. 

Once settled nymphs quickly secrete a lerp (made 

of starch derived from the plant sap), which is 

glued onto one side of the leaf. As nymphs grow 

the lerps are enlarged from one edge. After the 

winged adult has emerged and flown off, empty 

lerps remain on the leaf for some time. The life 

cycle may be completed in 1-2 months. 


The main lerp stage appears to be from autumn 

through winter to spring. Adults appear in summer. 

Spread 

By adults flying within adjacent plantings but they 

cannot fly far. Re-infestation is slow. 




Heavy infestations do not usually occur until 

autumn, when summer leaf growth has replaced 

foliage defoliated by the previous infestation. 

Outbreaks do not occur every year. Not known 

why some species have population explosions. 

High populations collapse eventually either due 

to changes in weather or depletion of suitable 

foliage due to feeding damage and premature 

leaf fall. Once populations start to decline effect 

of natural enemies increases. 

Stress due to wind, frost, root damage, 

compacted soil, drought, waterlogging may 

make foliage more attractive to psyllids. 

Outbreaks may occur after a succession of 

unusually dry and/or wet conditions. 

Prolonged high temperatures are unfavourable. 



1.Plan in advance that fits your situation. 

2.Crop, region. Recognize variations, eg urban tree 

plantings, plantation forests. 



4.Monitor pest and/or damage early, especially new 

foliage, to prevent stress and/or death of susceptible 

young trees, record results. Check bird populations 

which prey on lerps to avoid unnecessary treatments. 



they, eg economic, aesthetic, environmental? 

6.Action. Take appropriate action when a threshold is 

reached, eg improve tree vigour. 

7.Evaluation. Review the program and assess its 

success, recommend improvements if required, eg 

replacing susceptible varieties in young plantings. 

Continue to monitor trees after treatment. 


Control is difficult. Practically there is not much 

you can do about large populations on tall trees. 

Small trees continually attacked may be better 

replaced with less susceptible species. 

Cultural methods. Improve general vigour of 

trees. It is thought that the more nutritious the sap 

(quality and quantity of nitrogen compounds in the 

sap), the faster psyllid populations grow. 


agents are available for purchase or have been 

released in Australia. Natural controls exert some 

control if lerp densities are low. Ants attracted to 

honeydew deter insect predators/parasites. 

Predators feed on lerp insects but do not exert 

sufficient influence to keep attacks in check. 

– Larvae of syrphid flies and ladybirds, also 

lacewings and spiders. 

Table 29. Lerp insects – Some insecticides. 

– Birds. Canopy-feeding birds such as pardalotes feed 

on the nymphs whereas bell miners feed on the lerp 

itself. Flying adults are captured by swallows and 

martens. Aggressive colony-forming bell miners, 

the honeyeater (Manorinus melanophrys), in the 

canopy of unhealthy Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus 

saligna) has been well reported. Bell miners are 

thought to reduce the effectiveness of natural enemies 

by feeding directly on or interfering with their 

reproduction thus causing more damage. But it may 

be that when lerp and other insects are numerous on 

blue gums they damage trees severely, irrespective of 

the presence of bell miners. 

Parasites. Minute wasps parasitize nymphs 

under the lerp. The wasp larva develops within 

the nymph and eventually pupates into a distinct 

dark black pupa under the lerp. Holes in lerp 

coverings (exit holes) indicate parasitism. 

Bluegum psyllid in California is controlled by a 

parasitoid Psyllaephagus pilosus from Australia. 

Resistant/Tolerant varieties. In lerp-prone 

areas of Australia resistant or tolerant species and 

provenances of eucalypts is the only viable long term 

strategy. Trees produced vegetatively or selections of 

seedlings from resistant parent trees may be used for 

planting, rather than seedlings from parents of 

unknown resistance. Establishment of seed orchards 

of resistant stock as a source of improved seed is a 

long term option. 

Susceptible species vary according to the 

region and include Swamp mahogany 

(E. robusta), Flooded gum (E. grandis), 

Mahogany gums (E. botryoides, E. robusta), 

River red gum (E. camaldulensis), Forest red 

gum (E. terecornis), Yellow box (E. melliodora), 

and Blakely’s red gum (E. blakelyi). 

Insecticides. 

Young eucalypts during establishment may 

be protected by insecticide/fertilizer in tablet 

formulation applied at planting. 

Small trees < 3 m high. As the protective lerp 

covering makes contact sprays ineffective, 

systemic insecticides may be applied at the first 

sign of infestation. Wetting agents improve 

effectiveness. Foliage applications may disrupt 

natural controls temporarily; also there is often 

rapid re-infestation during outbreaks. 

Timing. Only treat severe infestations. When 

damage is noticeable it is usually too late to take 

effective action. Apply insecticide when new 

foliage has developed and lerps seem to be 

increasing. One application per season may give 

effective control for 6-8 weeks or longer if isolated 

trees are treated (re-infestation is slow, adults do 

not fly far). Insecticides are not a long term 

solution. 

Stem injection is effective for large trees. 

What to use? 

SMALL TREES (less than 3 metres) 

Foliage sprays, eg 


Group 4A, eg Confidor (imidacloprid); Crown (acetamiprid) 

Soil treatments eg 

 

Group 4A, eg Initiator (imidacloprid/fertilizer) 

LARGE TREES 

Foliage sprays, eg 


Stem injection, eg 



Foliage sprays, at first sign of infestation. Add a wetting 

agent. 

Initiator is for use in the establishment of young 

eucalypt plantations by providing enhanced growth and 

extended protection against damage by caused by 

various insect pests including psyllids. 

Foliage sprays. Only councils and arborists have 

suitable equipment to spray large trees. 

Stem injection. A systemic insecticide is injected into 

the sap stream near the base of the tree and is carried to 

the upper crown which is then taken up by feeding 

psyllids. Permits may be required for stem injection. 



Longtailed mealybug 


Pseudococcus longispinus (Pseudococcidae, Order 

Hemiptera). This is a common and key pest in 

NSW, Victoria and WA. It is a minor pest in the 

NT. Other mealybugs include: 

Citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) 

Citrophilous mealybug (Pseudococcus calceolariae) 

Root mealybug (Rhizoecus spp.) 

Hibiscus mealybug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus) 

Grass-crown mealybug (Antonina graminis) 

Tuber mealybug (Pseudococcus affinis), the most 

important root-feeding mealybug in Australia 


Closely related to scales but mealybugs remain 

mobile throughout their lives. Mealybugs are a 

major cause of plant damage in greenhouses. 

Host range 

Very wide host range. A serious pest of both 

indoor and outdoor plants in warm, humid climates, 

rarely attacks annuals but is an important pest of 

perennial plants. They attack roots, stems and 

leaves. Woody trees, shrubs and ferns are the most 

important plants infested. 

Ornamentals, eg trees and shrubs, herbaceous 

plants, ferns, orchids, bulbs, African violets, cacti, 

indoor plants, ornamental grasses, eg Papyrus, 

a major greenhouse pest. 

Fruit, eg citrus, custard apple, grapes. 

Pastures, field crops, clovers. 


Adult females are 3-5 mm long, slow moving, 

oval, wingless, flattened with well developed legs. 

Their bodies are covered with wax glands which 

secrete a white mealy wax (hence the name 

mealybug), which forms short hair-like filaments at 

the sides of the body. The hind end bears a pair of 

wax filaments which are usually longer than the 

body and may be broken off. They have well 

developed legs and antennae and when disturbed or 

seeking fresh feeding sites, crawl slowly but freely. 

The length of the side filaments are about ½ the 

length of the body. Adult males are tiny, delicate 

winged insects with long waxy tail filaments, but are 

rarely seen. Nymphs. 1 st stage nymphs (crawlers) 

are minute, pink and mobile. Later stage nymphs 

resemble adult females. Males resemble females, but 

later form cottony cocoons about 3 mm long within 

which they develop. A colony can be almost 

completely enveloped in a woolly mass. 

Above-ground damage. Mealybugs feed on 

stems and leaves by sucking sap and congregate in 

sheltered parts, eg sheaths, leaf bases, leaf undersurfaces, 

around buds, stems, lower parts of fronds, 

crowns, flowers, where 2 pieces of fruit touch. 

Infestations are often not noticed until numerous 

and unsightly. 

Sap feeding distorts and yellows foliage. 

Unchecked infestations on soft-leaved plants, 

eg African violet, cause them to wilt and die. 

Economic damage on many plants is caused 

by the large quantities of honeydew produced; 

sooty mould develops on it, disfiguring leaves, 

stems and fruit. Large infestations make plants 

unsaleable. 

Ants are attracted to honeydew. Coastal brown 

ants (Pheidole megacephala) tend mealybugs 

for honeydew and move them around and fend 

off natural enemies. 

Overseas mealybugs have been recorded as 

transmitting virus diseases, eg citrus mealybugs 

possibly vector banana streak virus (BSV). 

Below-ground damage. Other species may 

also feed on roots and this may not be noticed until 

the plant is repotted, wilts or dies. 

Diagnostics. 

Check roots of wilted plants for mealybugs. 

Indoor plants often have large numbers of some 

species before their presence is noticed. 

Do not confuse: 

– Mealybug colonies with fungal growth. 

– Mealybugs with the larvae of mealybug ladybirds 

which feed on mealybugs. Ladybird larvae are 

about 3 times as long as mealybugs. They have 

long marginal filaments, are also covered with 

white mealy material, but they are more active 

and have biting mouthparts (Fig. 109 below). 

Identification of species depends on: 

– Length of anal filaments. 

– Colour of body fluid exuded from dorsal glands. 

– Presence of wax-free areas along the back. 

– Expert help is usually needed. 

Longtailed mealybug has tail filaments 

longer than its body. When squashed, body fluid 

is pale yellow and there is no wax-free area 

along the back. Eggs laid beneath the body hatch 

almost immediately. Do not confuse with: 

– Citrophilous mealybug with tail filaments 

about rd its body length, 4 dark longitudinal dorsal 

stripes. Body fluid dark red, eggs laid in cottony sac. 

– Citrus mealybug with tail filaments not more 

than rd body length, median dorsal stripe. Body 

fluid yellow-orange, eggs laid in cottony mass. 

Longtailed mealybugs, 3-5 mm long. 

Cluster of mealybugs. 

Mealybug 

ladybird larvae 

8-15 mm long. 

Fig. 109. Longtailed mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus). Photos NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

160 Insects and allied pests - Hemiptera (bugs, aphids, etc) 

Cluster of mealybug ladybird 

larvae.


Pest cycle 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (eggs, 

nymphs (3-4 stages) and adults) with several 

overlapping generations per year in NSW and Vic 

and SA. Longtailed mealybugs produce about 

200 young in 2-3 weeks. Eggs hatch as they are 

being laid. Eggs of other species, eg citrophilous 

and tuber mealybugs, are laid in a loose cottony 

mass, light yellow crawlers hatch 3-9 days later. 

Life cycle takes about 6 weeks in summer and 

about 12 weeks in winter. 


Outdoors, as eggs during cold weather. 

In greenhouses and warm climates the cycle is 

continuous. 

On citrus most longtailed mealybugs 

'overwinter' as juveniles which reach adulthood 

by Aug-Sept. 

Mealybugs can ‘overwinter’ on weeds growing 

in paths, etc which can lead to rapid reinfestation. 

Spread 

Mealybugs move around only short distances 

very slowly to find better feeding sites. 

Movement of infested plants into glasshouses, 

purchasing infested plants, taken to displays, etc. 

By wind and visiting insects. 

By ants, birds and on worker’s clothing. Ants 

tunnel through soil and potting mix to move 

young root mealybugs from plant to plant 

(including weeds) quickly spreading these pests 

throughout a nursery. 


Warm, humid conditions, as in greenhouses, 

bathrooms. 

Sprays used to control other pests kill off 

ladybird and lacewing predators which usually 

suppress mealybug populations. 

Weakened plants, eg those grown in very dry 

situations or those held in pots for too long. 

Thickly-foliaged mature trees. Shade. 

Dusty trees. 

Ants attracted to honeydew discourage the 

predatory mealybug ladybirds (Cryptolaemus). 

Plants with a high nitrogen content. 




2. Crop, region. Obtain a program for longtailed 

mealybugs on your crop in your region. 

3. Identification can be difficult. Consult a diagnostic 

service to avoid confusion with other species of 

mealybugs (page xiv). 

Fig. 110. Pest cycle of the longtailed mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus). 



4. Monitor for mealybugs when they are known to be 

active and record findings. Check roots of wilting 

plants, for the presence of mealybugs, sooty mould, 

honeydew, ants. Also monitor for biological control 

agents. If using an IPM program it will tell you when 

and where to look, what and how to monitor, eg 

adults, crawlers, main parasites and predators. Desire 

Sticky traps are available for citrophilous mealybug: 


5. Thresholds vary according to the crop and method of 

proposed control. Some pest scouts prefer to use a lower 

action level early in the season depending on the variety, 

populations of mealybugs and predators, and degree of 

parasitism. How much damage can you accept? 

6. Action. Take appropriate action if threshold is reached. 

7. Evaluation. Review your program and recommend 

improvements. Monitor trees and bins after treatment, 

compare results with the previous season. 



Adequate irrigation helps reduce effects of 

infestation by replacing sap lost to sucking insects. 

Maintain plant vigour. 

Cover crops decrease temperatures, increase 

humidity in summer favouring natural controls. 

Sanitation. 

Discard severely infested small plants of little 

value in greenhouses and houses. 

Prune off badly affected sections of plants. 

Minor infestations on house plants may be 

picked off and killed or removed by dabbing with 

a small brush or cotton bud dipped in methylated 

spirits. This is tedious and time-consuming, will 

not eradicate them and may break stems and 

foliage of soft-foliaged plants. Plants may be 

washed with or dipped upside down in warm 

soapy water and then rinsed in clear tepid water. 

Large plants may be sponged. 

Sooty mould in the navels of mature oranges is 

not easy to remove by washing before packing. 

Throughly disinfest recycled pots to avoid 

transferring eggs or nymphs from crop to crop. 

If root mealybugs, thoroughly disinfest nearby 

gravel including beneath plastic and weed mats. 


Natural controls are not always effective. 

Parasites and predators are discouraged by dust and 

ants (attracted by honeydew) and some pesticides. 

– Predators include lacewing larvae (Chrysopa sp., 

Oligochrysa lutea), mealybug ladybird. 

– Parasites include various wasp parasites, eg 

Anagyrus, Leptomastix. 

– Root mealybugs are underground and not so 

accessible to natural controls. 

Commercially available. 

– Main parasite is the small wasp (Leptomastix 

dactylopii) which may be reared or purchased. Two 

parasites (Coccophagus gumeyi and Tetracnemoides 

brevicornis) have been released to suppress 

citrophilous mealybug. 

– Main predator is the mealybug ladybird 

(Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) which is black and red, 

3.5 mm long, lays its yellow eggs singly in mealybug 

egg sacs or near clusters of mealybugs. Other 

ladybirds include Rhyzobius ruficollis and Scymnus 

spp. Larvae of the cecid fly (Diadiplosis koebelei) and 

lacewings (Mallada spp.) also feed on mealybugs. 

– List of suppliers www.goodbugs.org.au 

Resistant/Tolerant varieties. Some plants 

are very susceptible, eg African violet, citrus, ferns. 

Plant quarantine. Nurseries growing very 

susceptible species should quarantine and examine 

new stock brought in from external sources. 

Keeping mealybugs out of nurseries is preferable to 

controlling them once they are established. 


Only propagate from and purchase mealybug-free 

stock. Examine all stock plants. 

Insecticides. Mealybugs are difficult to control 

with insecticides because they feed in protected 

places, are covered with water-repellent wax and lay 

large numbers of eggs which develop quickly under 

ideal conditions (see also page 170). 

Glasshouses may require regular treatments. 

Apply insecticides to crawlers - the arrival of ants 

indicate crawlers are about! Use a hand lens to 

identify them so you can initiate control measures. 

Control ants if present outdoors in spring. 

Systemic insecticides are generally more 

effective than contact ones. 

Apply high volume sprays to fully wet canopy, 

application must be thorough. 

If mealybugs are on roots of plants in pots, wet 

soil in pot thoroughly the night before treatment 

to lesson chance of root damage. Place pot in basin 

and allow insecticide solution to soak in. 

Use enough liquid to wet the complete root zone. 

Table 30. Longtailed mealybug – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

HOUSE PLANTS 

Only use sprays labeled for indoor use. 

GLASSHOUSES 

Seek advice 

OUTDOORS 

Insecticides registered for mealybugs generally: 

Group 1A, eg Bugmaster (carbaryl) 

Group 1B, eg Rogor (dimethoate); maldison; 

Folimat (omethoate) 

Group 3A, eg pyrethrins, Baythroid (cyfluthrin); 

Procide , various (bifenthrin) 

Group 4A, eg Confidor ,various (imidacloprid); 

Maxguard (acetamiprid); 

Sumarai (clothianidin) 

Group 16, eg Applaud (buprofezine) 

Spray oils, eg certain petroleum, paraffinic and 

botanical oils 

Soap sprays, eg BugGuard , Natrasoap 

(potassium salts of fatty acids) 


Take plants outside for treatment unless label advises otherwise. 

Oils may injure many indoor plants, especially maiden hair ferns. 

Regular treatments may be required. Outdoors avoid spraying 

mealybug-prone plants for other pests and diseases (this will kill 

any natural controls). Control ants. Consider spot spraying. 

Only after monitoring and if natural enemies cannot cope with 

infestation. 

Contact sprays are only effective if mealybugs are actively 

moving over the plant. Adult mealybugs that have developed their 

waxy covering are difficult to kill with contact pesticides. Contact 

sprays are devastating to all beneficials. Contact sprays can be 

effective against crawlers. 

Systemic sprays give good control of adult mealybugs that are 

feeding. Once they have stopped feeding it is too late to control 

them. Some systemic sprays are not so harmful to some beneficials. 

Spray oils are only effective against young stages of mealybugs 

but are less harmful to beneficials than many insecticides. 

Loosens sooty mould. Oil sprays smother nymphs. 



Fig. 111. Some soft scales (Family Coccidae) 

(some other honeydew-producing scales are included) 

Wattle tick scale (Cryptes 

baccatus). Drops of honeydew. 


Gumtree scale (Eriococcus coriaceus). 

Small male scales and larger female scales. 


Black scale (Saissetia oleae) 

on stems. PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

Frosted scale (Eulecanium pruinosum). 


Soft brown scale (Coccus 

hesperidum) on stems and leaf midribs. 


White wax scale (Ceroplastes 

destructor) on stems and leaf midribs. 


Cottonycushion scale 

(Icerya purchasi). Fluted 

egg sac. PhotoNSW Dept of 




Black scale 

An example of a soft scale (Family Coccidae) 


Saissetia oleae (Order Hemiptera), sometimes 

called brown olive scale. Widespread, common. 

Key pest in Qld, NSW, Vic, NT and WA. See page 

144 for other soft scales. 

Host range 

Wide range of plants. Mostly woody plants, but 

occasionally found on succulent hosts, eg vines, 

geraniums, watermelon. 

Ornamentals, eg gardenia, holly, house plants. 

hibiscus, oleander, poplar, tamarisk. 

Fruit crops, eg especially citrus, also apricot, 

passionvine, olive, vines, apple, pear, plum. 


Adult female scales are stationary and tend 

to cluster in small colonies on various parts of the 

plant. They are dark brown, bun-shaped, and about 

3 mm long and 2 mm wide (Fig. 112). The surface 

is smooth but ridges on their back form a raised 

'H' pattern, particularly on young adult scales. 

Young adult females, before egg laying, are dark 

mottled grey, softer and less humped than later and 

are often called the ‘rubber’ stage. Male scales 

are narrower, flat, tiny, winged and rarely seen. 

Nymphs are initially light brown or pink and 

about 0.5 mm long. Newly hatched ‘crawlers’ 

move around for 12-24 hours in search of food 

then settle permanently along veins of young 

leaves. Older stages look like adult females but 

are paler. 

Honeydew, sooty mould and ants... 

Plant damage caused by nymphs and adults sucking 

plant sap is often not great. It is the production of 

copious amounts of honeydew by the young scales 

with the resultant growth of sooty mould which 

causes the greatest problem. Ants are attracted to 

honeydew especially when eggs hatch into crawlers. 

Ants feed on the honeydew protecting the scales 

from natural enemies and help spread the crawlers 

from plant to plant. 

Leaves, twigs and stems. Although all 

stages are found on branches, twigs, stems, stalks, 

leaf midribs and young fruit, twigs and stems are 

preferred. Soft scales feeding on young tissue can 

produce distorted foliage and yellowing of foliage. 

Heavy infestation can cause twigs and branches to 

die back. Leaves drop if infestation is heavy. 

Fruit. Citrus fruit are greenish where scales were 

attached, and if covered with scales or sooty 

mould, are difficult to clean before packing, 

especially if skin is rough, eg mandarins. 

General. Extensive sooty mould can reduce 

photosynthesis and tree vigour. Soft scales can be 

major economic pests, eg grapevine scale, 

(Parthenolecanium persicae) on grapevines, but 

not all scales are economic pests (Buchan 2008). 

Diagnostics. 

Soft scale are so named because most species 

have bodies that are exposed and ‘soft’ but in many 

cases, mature females are not the least bit soft, upon 

maturing their skin becomes hardened serving as a 

shell for eggs shell for the eggs and young. 

Adult females are generally large, obvious and 

are easy to recognize on stems. They are domeshaped 

and about the size of a match head. The 

tiny eggs laid under the female look like piles of 

very find sand. Black scale may be confused in 

the juvenile stages with citricola, hemispherical 

and soft brown scales. After the 2 nd moult black 

scale can be recognized by the characteristic ‘H’ 

pattern on its back. 

Scale covers or ovisacs may remain on twigs 

long after scales have died. Squash the scale 

between the fingers to see if it is alive, if alive 

your fingers will be wet from the juice squeezed 

out, if dead you fingers will be dry and dusty. 

Increased ant activity, eg aggressive meat ants 

(Iridomyrmex spp.) protect scales and other 

honeydew producing insects. 

Soft scale produce large amounts of honeydew 

one sure sign is the presence of honeydew so if 

you see that or sooty mould look for a culprit. 

Lucid Keys www.lucidcentral.com/ and search for: 

Scale Insects: Identification Tools for Species of 

Quarantine Significance 

Fig. 112. Black scale (Saissetia oleae). 

PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment (E.H.Zeck). 

Enlarged x24 

1. Eggs 

st 

2. 1 stage female or "crawler" 

Enlarged x12 

3. 2 nd stage female 

4. Adult female (top view) 

5. Adult female (side view 

Actual size 

6. Scales and sooty on citrus shoots, leaves 



Pest cycle 


nymphs and adults) with 2 overlapping generations 

per year in southern Australia and 3-4 in northern 

Australia (page 55). In southern areas the main 

hatchings are usually in spring and autumn. The life 

cycle takes 4-8 months in southern districts but less 

in warmer areas, eg Qld. Each female may lay up to 

2,000 eggs which appear like little heaps of sand 

beneath the parent scale. The young nymphs, after 

hatching remain beneath the parent scale for 1-2 

days, and then crawl actively (crawlers) about 

before settling usually along the veins on leaves or 

on young shoots. After eggs have hatched, the 

body of the female scale seems to shrink and 

eventually falls off. After 4-6 weeks the young scale 

moults and migrates to the stem of the plant, where 

it remains for the rest of its life. After another 4-6 

weeks moulting again occurs and the insect reaches 

the ‘rubber’ or early adult stage, when the ‘H’ 

formation on its back becomes obvious. The period 

from settling to the start of the next hatch of eggs is 

3-4 months. The autumn hatched eggs may mature 

on the leaves. Other species of soft scales have only 

one generation of crawlers each year, while others 

have several. 


On the host plant in cooler areas as adults. 

Spread 

Because of their small size and habit of feeding 

in concealed areas, scales are commonly spread 

on infested plants (cuttings, nursery stock, etc). 

By nymphs crawling from plant to plant if plants 

touch. Crawlers also move from plant to plant by 

wind dispersal and on clothing and equipment. 

By ants and other insects, by birds. 


Temperate climates with moderate temperatures 

and high humidities. 

High temperatures (44 o C and above) and dry 

conditions kill nearly all eggs and crawlers 

beneath parent scales. Settled crawlers are not 

so susceptible. 

Dense unpruned portions of trees. 

Vigorous citrus trees are more likely to suffer 

infestation. Not usually a problem of olive trees 

in good health but in some regions it seems to 

attack trees of all health levels. 




2.Crop, region. Recognize variations, eg is black 

scale really a problem. Host? 

3.Identification must be confirmed. If in doubt 

consult a diagnostic service (page xiv) as it is essential 

to be able to distinguish: 

The crawler and adult stage. 

When they are likely to occur, are there 2, 4 or 

6 generations each year? 

Where each stage will occur during the 

year, spring crawlers will settle on stems and twigs 

while autumn crawlers may settle on leaves. 

4.Monitor scales, crawlers and their predators and 

parasites, honeydew, sooty mould and ants on fruit, 

trunks, branches or leaves using a x 10 hand lens at 

regular intervals. Ant presence increases when crawlers 

are around. Record your findings: 

Stock plants can be a source of scales. Check 

mature scales for eggs underneath and check if any 

adult scales are still alive. 

Check and monitor for signs of beneficials, 

eg predators and parasites, holes in scale covering. 

Ants, sooty mould and honeydew on leaves, 

stems and fruit especially if conditions are humid. 

On citrus and other evergreen trees, 

depending on your situation, check for crawlers 

and natural enemies once in Nov-Dec and again 

in Feb-March (Brough et al 1994). Check for 

presence or absence of adult female scales on 

5 randomly selected green twigs (with 5-10 leaves) 

per tree. If trees are tall, take 10% of samples from 

the tops of trees. 

5.Thresholds vary according to the crop, eg 

Citrus. The threshold may be 10% or more of 

green twigs infested with one or more scales, while 

for mandarins the threshold may be 5%. 

Otherwise seek advice or determine your own 

threshold depending on how much damage you can 

tolerate economically or aesthetically. 


is reached, eg sanitation, parasites and predators, 

insecticides and controlling ants, if active, at tree base. 

7.Evaluation. Review your program to see how 

well it worked, recommend improvements if required. 

Monitor trees for scale after treatment. 


Difficult to control because mature scales are 

resistant to pesticides and correct timing is 

necessary to target crawlers. 


Maintain trees in good health but do not 

encourage excessive vigour. 

Provide wind shelter to limit spread of crawlers. 

Pruning to provide open airy trees discourages 

black scale infestation. Heavily infested plants 

should be fertilized to restore vigour. 

Harvest fruit at the correct time. 

Sanitation. 

Discard heavily infested house or stock plants. 

Prune out or hand pick isolated infestations on a 

few plants or wash with soap using a soft brush 

to remove scales and sooty mould. Some scales 

are easier to remove than others. 


Many natural enemies when not undermined by the 

indiscriminate use of sprays. Most common 

biocontrols are parasitic wasps and ladybeetles. 

Natural controls. Weather, parasites, 

predators and diseases in some plantings can 

exert some control. However, ants in large 

numbers can deter parasitic wasps. Very hot 

weather can kill many crawlers. 

– Parasites. Several wasps parasitize adult black 

scales. Some species of wasp will target a specific 

species of scale but some attack a range of scales. 

Introduced wasps (Aphytis spp., (common) 

Aspidiotiphagus sp., Comperiella bifasciata, 

Encarsia perniciosi, Metaphycus sp., Scutellista sp. 

Native wasps (Rhopalencyrtoidea dubia, 

Aenasoidea varia). 

Wasps deposit eggs on or under scales, and 

larvae feed on the scale. Parasitized scales are 

dark and there is an obvious exit hole. 

Wasp parasites together with proper pruning 

may provide sufficient control in some areas. In 

other regions biological control may be ineffective. 

Baker, G and Hardy, J. 2005 Survey Black Scale 

Parasitoids in South Austraian Olives. Sardi, SA. 

– Predators 

Ladybirds and larvae scatter scale eggs and kill 

adults, eg mealybug ladybird (Cryptolaemus 

montrouzieri), ladybirds (Orcus australasiae, O. 

chalybeus), Diomus spp. and steelblue ladybird 

(Halmus chalybeus). Also gumtree scale ladybird 

(Rhyzobius ventralis), black ladybird (R. forestieri), 

and scale-eating ladybird (R. lophanthae). 



Lacewings (Order Neuroptera), various species 

feed on black scales. 

Scale-eating caterpillar (Catablemma dubia) 

use remnant scale coverings to ‘ornament’ their 

grey parchment-like cocoons. 

Wasps. Larvae of some parasitic wasps prey on 

eggs of black and other soft scales. Adult wasps 

also kill scales by sucking their juice. 

– Fungal diseases. Several species, eg Nectria 

spp., a red-headed fungus (Fusarium coccophilum) 

and a felt fungus (Septobasidium sp.) may attack 

scales in warm moist autumns and cover scaleinfested 

branches with a white fungal growth. 


Some predators may be purchased, eg 

mealybug ladybird. 

Parasitic wasps (Metaphycus spp.) for the 

control of black scale and soft brown scale on 

citrus, olives and ornamentals are being 

researched. 



Black scale has a wide host range but not all 

varieties of a particular species are susceptible, eg 

although all citrus varieties are susceptible to red 

scale, lemons are preferred. 


Avoid introducing infested stock, buds, grafts, 

or cuttings into the property or into the 

greenhouse. Inspect new arrivals. 

Lucid Keys www.lucidcentral.com/ and search 

for: Scale Insects: Identification Tools for 

Species of Quarantine Significance 


Only plant scale-free nursery stock. 


Ants attracted to honeydew produced by soft scales 

can be controlled by applying thick sticky bands, 

insecticide sprays or baits around the base of 

trunks, to trap or kill the ants. Skirt pruning and 

good weed control prevents ants accessing trees. 

Insecticides. 

Avoid indiscriminate use of persistent broad 

spectrum insecticides which kill natural enemies. 

Timing. Spray when crawlers can be seen on 

leaves and twigs and no liquid exudes when old 

scales are squashed. Later stages have a 

protective waxy layer which makes them 

resistant to insecticides and spray oils. 

Spray oils control scales by suffocating the 

insect. Plants must be thoroughly sprayed. Oil 

will not kill eggs that are under the adult scales. 

– Evergreen trees, eg citrus, may be sprayed with 

petroleum oil in summer. 

– Deciduous trees (< 3 m high) may be sprayed 

with petroleum oil when trees are bare in winter. 

– Oil sprays also loosen sooty mould. 

– Caution when using oils. 

If oil is absorbed into the plant, injury will result. 

Oils vary in their ability to cause plant injury, the 

lower the viscosity of the oil the less likely it is 

to injure plants. 

Do not spray on days when shade temp is likely 

to exceed 35 o C and/or soil is dry. 

Ensure that the oil-water mixture in the spray is 

well agitated to prevent separation. 

Oils are available in varying degrees of 

refinement. 

If applied at the right time and with good 

coverage oil sprays will kill scale without 

injuring beneficial insects or the host. 

Contact chemicals are only effective against 

crawlers. Adult scales with their waxy coverings 

are difficult to kill with contact pesticides. 

Contact sprays are devastating to all beneficials. 

Systemic chemicals should give good control 

of adult scales that are actively feeding. Once the 

scale has stopped feeding it is too late to control it. 

Systemics are absorbed by the plants so beneficials 

are less exposed to them. 

Ants repel parasites and predators of black scale 

and spread scale around the property. Increased 

ant activity serves as a good guide to presence of 

crawlers of black and other soft scales. 

Table 31. Soft scales – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

DECIDUOUS SHRUBS AND TREES, eg ash 

Spray oils, eg Pest Oil (petroleum oil), 

Bioclear , EcoPest Oil, SK-Enspray99 (paraffinic oil) 

EVERGREEN PLANTS, eg oleander, citrus 

Foliage sprays 

Group 1B, eg various products 

Group 3A, eg pyrethrin 

Group 4A, eg Confidor (imidacloprid) 

Group 7C, eg Admiral IGR (pyriproxyfen) 

Sprays oils, eg D-C-Tron Plus, Pest oil , Summer oil, White oil 

(petroleum oil); Bioclear l , BioPest l , EcoPest l 

Oil, various (paraffinic oil); Eco-Oil (botanical oil) 

Soap sprays were the original control for scales on the citrus tree 

growing at the back door of old homesteads 

Soil-applied insecticides 

Group 4A, eg Iniator (imidacloprid/fertilizer) – protects young 

eucalypts from insect pests including gumtree scale. 

Confidor Guard soil insecticide (imidacloprid) is 

registered for pink wax scale on citrus 

STEM INJECTION – LARGE TREES 

Various systemic chemicals are available to kill scale and other sap 

sucking insects, but they are difficult to control. 


Dormant oil applications are the preferred spray 

for scales on deciduous plants. One spray is 

usually enough. They have few or no harmful 

effects on parasites and predators but require 

substantial amount of oil for control and there are 

no crawlers at that time. Oil sprays smother the 

scales, but do not kill the eggs under the adult 

scale. Apply after pruning where appropriate. 

Do not neglect small infestations. Apply sprays 

at the crawler stage, later stages are resistant 

to insecticides. 

Two sprays during each crawler stage are 

necessary because pesticides do not kill the 

eggs, the 2 nd spray, therefore, kills crawlers 

developing from the eggs still unhatched at the 

time of the 1 st spray. A 2 nd crawler stage may 

be present sometime in autumn. 

The main crawler stage is usually about mid- 

December to mid-January but timing will 

depend on observation of the stages present and 

increased ant activity. 

Ensure appropriate spray volumes are applied 

to thoroughly drench trees. 

Apply after badly infested areas have been 

pruned out, some scales can be washed off. 

Seek professional advice. Permits may be 

required for stem injection use. 



Fig. 113. Some armoured scales (Family Diaspididae) 

San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) on 

apple. Pinkish discolouration around each tiny scale. 


San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) 

on trunk of a flowering cherry tree. Scales are tiny and 

look like specks of dust. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger) 

Red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) on 

citrus fruit. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Armoured scale on Russian olive (Eleagnus sp.). 


Armoured scales on citrus twigs. Left: Red scale 

(Aonidiella aurantii). Right: White louse scale (Unaspis citri). 


Rose scale (Aulacaspis rosae) on rose canes. 

Left: Small rectangular male scales. Right: Round 

female scales. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



San Jose scale 

An example of an armoured scale (Family Diaspididae) 

A major pest of deciduous fruit trees throughout 

the world. Minor pest in SE Qld, Vic and WA. 


Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Order Hemiptera), 

an armoured scale, sometimes called a hard scale). 

Host range 

Wide range of deciduous fruits and trees and 

shrubs, other plants, including: 

Fruit, eg especially pome fruit, eg apple, pear, 

quince, and stone fruit, eg almond, apricot, cherry, 

peach, plum. Not usually citrus. 

Ornamentals, eg the flowering species of pome 

and stone fruits, also many introduced trees and 

shrubs, eg hawthorn, willow. 

Other crops, eg hedges of tree lucerne may 

become seriously infested. 


Adult females are yellow, about the size of a 

pin head, soft bodied and concealed by a roughly 

circular 2 mm diameter grey-brown scale covering. 

The male scale covering is smaller and oval in 

shape with a raised dot near the larger end of the 

scale. The adult male emerges from the scale 

covering as a minute, winged insect. Scales can 

overlap. Nymphs (crawlers) are active, 6-legged 

and yellow. These settle near the adult, insert their 

long tube-like mouthparts into the sap, lose their 

legs and begin secreting their scale covering. 

Twigs, limbs and trunks. This scale is 

found principally on the trunk, branches and twigs 

of deciduous trees. Small circular gray scales can 

be seen on the base of young shoots, originating 

from main branches. Nymphs and adults damage 

plants by sucking sap mainly through the bark and 

injecting a substance toxic to the plant. 

Poor growth, dead or rough, cracked twigs 

Infested plants may suffer water stress. 

Young trees can be quickly killed by heavy 

populations of scales on the trunk and limbs. 

Limbs and twigs heavily infested with scale 

may die during the growing season, especially in 

autumn. The following spring, shoots develop 

below dead branches; the framework of young 

trees may be seriously affected. 

Little or no honeydew is produced. 

Bark is rough, pink or ashy due to the masses of 

tiny difficult-to-see scale coverings. The purplish 

colour is similar to the colour of the bark. Pink 

or red spots about 1 mm in diameter surrounded 

by a white halo develop around each gray scale. 

Gum droplets occur on branches of stone fruit. 

Fruit, especially apples and pears, develop 

characteristic pink or red spots about 1 mm in 

diameter surrounded by a white halo. One tiny 

scale is in the center of each reddish spot. Other 

scale insects may produce the same reaction. 

Cherry fruit are infested mostly at the calyx end. 

Leaves may also be infested, usually with male 

scales. Look for look for yellowish areas on leaves 

where scale have settled, leaves which fall and 

twigs and stems dying. 

General. Small populations cause debilitation 

and aesthetic value. Once established it usually 

increases very rapidly and may seriously injure 

or kill the tree over a period of several years 

Examine closely the photographs on 

the previous page to appreciate how 

tiny the scales are, they are easily 

overlooked on twigs and branches 

Fig. 114. San Jose scale 

(Quadraspidiotus perniciosus). 

Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment (E.H.Zeck). 

All enlarged x35 

 

2. 2 nd -stage nymph 

3. Adult female 

4. Scale covering of male 

5. Scale covering of female 

Actual size 

6. Scale on twigs and leaves 



Diagnostics. Look at twigs for encrusted scales. 

Although the scale is visible throughout the year, it 

is most readily detected in winter on deciduous hosts 

when trees are bare of foliage and on fruits during 

harvest. 

Low populations of scale are hard to detect 

and can become major infestations before 

they are noticed. 

Honeydew is not produced. 

Dying branches in autumn. 

Limbs and trunk covered with ‘dust’ (scales). 

Hand lens is needed to confirm identification. 

May be necessary to consult a diagnostic service. 

Determine whether scales are dead or alive. Lift 

the hard grey scale cover with a pin or finger nail 

and examine the insect body underneath. Dead 

scale insects will be dry and shrivelled while live 

scales will be soft and fluid-filled. 

Pest cycle 


nymphs and adult) with several generations each 

year. In spring, the 2 nd stage nymphs (‘black 

caps’) begin to grow and are usually fully grown 

by the time the trees come into bloom. The 

females when mature produce active 6-legged 

young (crawlers) which make their way from 

under the parent scale, move about for a while, 

then settle down near the adult to feed by inserting 

their long tube-like mouth into the sap; they lose 

their legs and begin secreting their protective scale 

covering. They remain fixed in this one place for 

life. Male nymphs develop a pair of wings and 

emerge. The period from birth until young are 

again produced is about 6 weeks, as 1 female can 

produce as many as 400 live young, the increase in 

numbers of scale insects in one season is obviously 

tremendous! Large populations can build up in one 

season, covering all the bark on the tree. 


nd 

In colder districts, as 2 stage nymphs, often 

called ‘black caps’. In warmer areas, all stages 

may be found. 

Spread 

Movement of infested nursery stock is the main 

method of spread. 

Nymphs may be blown by wind. 

Nymphs may also be accidentally carried by 

birds, insects and humans, and on boxes, bags, 

fruit and other materials. 


Relatively warm, dry climates but will tolerate 

humid or cold conditions. 




Follow any control measures prescribed by legislation. 

San Jose scale often develops to damaging proportions 

before growers become aware of its presence. 


3.Identification. If in doubt consult a diagnostic 

service (page xiv). Scales are obvious on fruit and 

leaves. Scales on limbs are easily seen with a hand 

lens during winter. 

4.Monitor scales and damage, tag infested trees. 

Know when crawlers should be around. 

Use a hand lens to see crawlers. Check for holes in 

armoured scales which indicate parasites active; 

check during monitoring if the scales are still alive. 

Examine bark of trees during winter pruning, 

dormancy, fruiting and after harvest, for cracked, 

rough, scaly bark, dead twigs. Check prunings to 

make sure that scale has not developed in tree tops. 

Suspect trees should be checked thoroughly for 

live scales. Check trees downwind of infested trees. 

Monitor trees for crawlers using double-sided 

sticky tape in spring if inadequate control is 

achieved with dormant sprays. 

Traps are available to monitor male scale flights in 

spring. Desire sticky and InSense Lure traps 

available for San Jose, red scale and citrus red scale: 


Monitor scale populations on fruit during 

harvest and grading. Tag infested trees and 

record which blocks are infested. 

Keep records of all infested trees (page 39). 

5.Threshold may be nil tolerance for export grade 

fruit and if any scales are found control is prescribed 

by law. How much damage can you accept? 

6.Action/control for some markets is compulsory by 

law. Trees can be thoroughly sprayed with an 

appropriate registered chemical. The aim should be to 

eradicate San Jose scale from every tree in the orchard. 

In practice this is rarely achieved. All infestations 

should be controlled immediately. Winter oil is the 

preferred treatment on deciduous hosts. Due to potential 

damage from the pest on apples annual dormant sprays 

are recommended in some areas. Occasionally 

inadequate control is achieved with dormant sprays. 



Approximately 6-12 weeks after the initial oil spray 

during dormancy on deciduous hosts, examine scales 

by removing scale covers and confirming that they are 

dead. If any live scales are found consider a spray with 

other insecticides. Repeat this procedure until no live 

scales are found. Record results. 


This scale is difficult to control. It is a ‘proclaimed 

pest’ in some areas and its control is required by 

law. Scale should be eradicated from every tree in 

an orchard. 

Sanitation. 

Remove dead or dying infested branches. 

Reduce movement of staff through infested areas; 

crawlers may be carried on clothes and equipment. 




Natural controls are present but appear to have 

little or no economic effect. Most common 

biocontrols are parasitic wasps and ladybeetles. 

– Diseases, eg red-headed fungi (Fusarium spp.). 

– Predators, eg native ladybird (Rhizobius lindi), 

lacewing larvae, moth caterpillar (Batrachedra sp.), 

predatory green and brown lacewings, predatory 

beetles and mites, scale-eating caterpillars. 

– Parasitic wasps (on scales). Avoid long-lasting 

sprays which might have residual effects. 

Wasp depositing an egg in a scale insect 

Commercially available. Green lacewing 

(Mallada sp.) larvae feed on crawlers. A wasp 

(Aphytis melinus) can be purchased for red scale 

control. List of suppliers www.goodbugs.org.au 


AQIS. Presence of San Jose scale on fruit will 

result in its rejection as export grade fruit to 

European countries. 

Lucid keys - www.lucidcentral.com/ Scale 

insects: Identification Tools for Species in 

Quarantine. 

State/Regional quarantine. San Jose scale does 

not occur in SA. 

Local quarantine. Avoid introducing infested 

plant material (stock, buds, grafts or cuttings) 

into a property. 


Maintain scale-free stock plants. 

Do not propagate from infested plants. Careful 

inspection of propagation wood is essential, if in 

doubt, discard it! It can be difficult to disinfest 

propagation wood from this pest. 

Carefully examine young trees when received 

from the nursery and, if infested, dipped in a 

suitable oil emulsion (excluding the roots) and 

then drain, tops downwards in the shade before 

planting out in the orchard. This can delay 

appearance of scale in an orchard for years. 

Insecticides. Because scales can be found 

under rough bark, behind buds and within cracks 

of the bark, it is essential to spray thoroughly right 

to the base of the trunk. 

If any scales are found, spray thoroughly with 

a registered chemical at bud movement. 

Winter oil is the preferred treatment. Oil sprays 

smother scale insects but eggs are not killed. 

Spray oils can also be applied at the susceptible 

crawler stage. To determine when crawlers are 

hatching set traps of double-sided sticky tape. 

Tightly encircle infested twigs or branches with 

the tape, examine it with a hand lens to identify 

crawlers. Crawlers will appear as yellow or 

orange specks. Check tapes weekly. 

Do not apply spray oils during fog or rain or 

during hot weather (above 34 o C). Some plants 

are prone to damage from spray oils. 

Avoid indiscriminate use of broad spectrum 

sprays that kill natural enemies and have long 

lasting residual effects. 

Treat isolated infestations by spot spraying, 

pruning or hand-picking to remove scales. 

Resistance. Reliance on just one chemical will 

hasten the development of insecticide resistance 

in scale populations. Follow Croplife Australia 

Resistance Management Strategies. 

Try to control the crawlers which have not yet 

produced their protective waxy covering. Control 

of scale is difficult because of the ‘timing 

window’ that allows the grower only limited 

periods in which to apply control measures. 

Armoured scales resist their actions well. 

Eradication, pruning and discarding seem to be 

the best methods of controlling armoured scale. 

Contact sprays are only effective on scale crawlers 

and mealybugs that are actively moving over the 

plant. Adult scales and mealybugs that have 

developed their waxy covering are difficult to kill with 

contact pesticides. Systemics give good control of 

adult scales and mealybugs that are feeding. Once 

the pest has stopped feeding it is too late to control it. 

Table 32. Armoured scales – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

DECIDUOUS TREES 

Light infestation 

Group M2 (fungicide), eg Lime Sulphur (polysulphides) 

Spray oils, eg Winter Oils, Dormant Oils (petroleum oils); 

White oil, Pest Oil (petroleum oil); 

Bioclear , EcoPest Oil (paraffinic oil) 

Well established infestations and especially on mature 

and rough-barked trees, one example: 

1st spray Winter oil (petroleum oil) during dormancy. 

2nd spray The insecticide selected will depend on the need to 

control other pests, eg mites, caterpillars. 

3rd spray Only if winter sprays have been missed; the 

insecticide selected will also depend on the need to 

control other pests, eg mites, caterpillars. 

EVERGREEN TREES 

Group 1B, eg various products 

Group 7B, eg Insegar (fenoxycarb) - suppression only. 

Group 4A, eg Confidor Guard soil insecticide (imidacloprid) 

is registered for red scale on citrus 


Apply 1 spray in mid-winter. If infestation is light on 

deciduous ornamentals usually one application of the 

winter spray is usually sufficient. 

Apply spray oil before budbreak. 

High volume sprays have traditionally been used to 

thoroughly wet the trunk and branches (the whole tree 

above ground level). 

Do not use 2 full strength oil sprays in 1 season. 

Only apply after monitoring has indicated that the 

infestation is well established. 

Apply 1 spray in mid-winter. 

During the growing season, on fruiting varieties, 

sprays are best applied after harvest is complete. 

Seek advice on what and when to apply as some are 

more toxic to mite predators than others, also some 

may cause fruit damage. 

If infested trees have cracked bark it is very difficult to 

locate the scales or contact them with sprays. 



Greenhouse whitefly (GHWF) 


There are about 20 species of whiteflies in Australia 

including the greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum , Aleyrodidae,Order Hemiptera), also: 

Ash whitefly (AWF) (Siphoninus phillyreae) 

Eastern Australian native whitefly (Bemisia tabaci 

Aus) (EANW) 

Tobacco whitefly (TWF) (Bemesia tabaci) 

Silverleaf whitefly (SLWF) (Bemesia tabaci B- 

Biotype). Recently Bemesia tabaci Q-Biotype) 

has been found in Australia which cannot be 

differentiated visually from the Q-Biotype. 

Spiralling whitefly (SPWF) (Aleurodicus dispersus) 

AWF and SPWF are serious pests of plants in Australia. 

www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7401.html 

Host range 

GHWF and SLWF have a broad and overlapping 

host range of over 600 plant species. It is not 

unusual to find both insects on the same property 

or even on the same crop. 

GHWF is a serious, persistent pest of broadleaved 

plants in greenhouses and outdoors, eg 

ornamentals, eg boronia, fuchsia, hibiscus; fruit, 

eg citrus; vegetables, eg beans, cucurbits, potatoes, 

tomatoes; weeds, eg sow thistle. 

SLWF - many species, field crops, eg beans, carrots. 

AWF - trees and shrubs, pome and stone fruit, citrus. 

SPWF - fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, weeds. 


Adults are small, delicate, moth-like, 1-2 mm 

long with 2 pairs of white powdery wings which 

are folded when at rest (Fig.116). Wings held 

flat and roof-like over body. Adults are gregarious, 

do not fly readily and usually remain on the undersurfaces 

of young leaves uppermost on the host 

plant. Males usually live for about 1 month and 

females for 1-3 months. Adults fold their wings in 

a triangle. Eggs are inserted vertically into the 

leaf undersurface often in circles and are small, 

bullet shaped and yellowish when laid and grayish 

purple when mature. Nymphs are whitish to 

greenish yellow, flattened and oval (scale-like) 

with fine waxy marginal filaments (Fig. 115). 

Nymphs are 0.3-0.75 mm long depending on 

nymphal stage. Pupae have a few long hairs and a 

fringe of very short hairs around upper edge. 

Leaves. Nymphs and adults suck sap from new 

shoots and leaf undersurfaces of soft-foliaged 

plants. If an infested plant is disturbed, adults may 

rise in the air, flutter about the plant but resettle 

quickly. Leaves develop a sandy mottle. Nymphs 

and adults secrete honeydew on which sooty 

mould grows disfiguring plants and preventing 

Table 33. Leaf symptoms caused by some sucking insects and mites. 

photosynthesis. Parasitized nymphs are black and 

commonly found on infested plants. 

Heavily infested seedlings may die. 

Fruit. Sooty mould may make fruit so dingy that 

it has to be washed before marketing or eating. 

General. Plants may wilt, turn yellow and 

display reduced growth rates if infestations are 

severe. The yield of established plants can be 

reduced if infestations continue unchecked 

throughout the growing season. Severe 

infestations can cause plants to lose vigour and 

wilt. Small numbers of whiteflies in a home garden 

may not be a cause of concern, doing little damage. 

Transmit virus diseases. GHWF spreads 

lettuce infectious yellow virus which infects 

petunia, zinnia and other hosts. SLWF spreads 

tomato leaf curl virus in ornamentals and vegetables. 

Diagnostics. 

Do not confuse damage caused by thrips to 

leaves with that caused by other insects and 

twospotted mite (Table 33 below). 

Adult whiteflies as a group, are easy to 

distinguish from other insects, but it can be 

difficult to distinguish one species from another. 

Nymphs are often mistaken for scale insects 

and are more difficult to identify but are 

distinctive for each species (Fig 115). 

Identification of one species from another is 

based on size, shape of wings, pupae hairs, 

pattern of egg laying, etc (Goodwin et al 2000). 

GHWF - examine late instar or redeye pupal 

stage with a hand lens (x10) or a microscope. 

Some whiteflies only attack certain type of 

plants, eg AWF mainly attacks trees and shrubs. 

SLWF flies greater distances than GHWF. 

Know which whiteflies are present in your crop so 

you can select appropriate biocontrols/insecticides. 

If unsure, consult a diagnostic service. 

Lucid keys - www.lucidcentral.com/ Platanthera 

Interactive Key to North America, north of Mexico 

(Pupal Key to Genera of White Flies), also Whitefly 

Fauna of the Word, Key to Cotton Insects 

Greenhouse Silverleaf Ash Eggs 

Spiralling 

Fig. 115. Stationary later stage nymphs (pupae) of 

different species of whiteflies (about 0.8 mm long). The pupal 

stage which looks like small scale under leaves is often the 

more distinctive if not send to a diagnostic service. 

Upper leaf 

surface 

Lower leaf 

surface 

Greenhouse 

whitefly 

Sandy speckling, 

Whiteflies, 

Stationary nymphs, 

honeydew, sooty mould 

Various 

leafhoppers 

Speckled 

feeding patterns 

Clean, insects 

have flown away 

Lace bugs 

Greenhouse 

thrips 

Twospotted 

mite 

Sandy speckling Silvering Sandy speckling 

Lace bugs, spiny 

nymphs, black 

spots of excreta 

Thrips visible, 

black spots of 

excreta 

Mites visible, 

webbing, 

excreta 



Pest cycle 


4 nymph stages and adult) with many generations 

each year. One generation from egg to adult takes 

3-8 weeks, depending on the temperature and the 

host plant. Each female lays several hundred eggs 

in circles or arcs on smooth-leafed plants, or 

scattered about if leaves are hairy. Each egg has a 

short stalk which is embedded in leaf tissue, 

supporting the egg in an upright position; a cluster 

of eggs looks rather like a group of minute pegs. 

After hatching, the 1 st stage nymph crawls about on 

the underside of the leaf for up to 3 days before 

settling down to feed. Later nymphal stages 

complete their development at this site chosen by 

the 1 st stage nymph. These oval shaped immature 

forms look like scale insects. The adult emerges 

after the 4 th nymphal stage. 


Outdoors in cooler climates as unhatched eggs on 

leaf undersides and as adults in sheltered places. 

In warm climates and in greenhouses the cycle is 

continuous. 

Spread 

As adults flying assisted by wind. 

Movement of infested plants carrying eggs, 

nymphs and/or adults. 


Mild moist conditions. Optimum temperature is 

about 30 o C when life cycle takes about 18 days. 

Outdoors, sporadic pest in protected humid sites 

in late spring, summer and autumn. 

High nitrogen levels. 



1.Plan well in advance, consulting professionals if 

necessary, eg. National Spiralling Whitefly 

Consultative Committee. 

2.Crop, region. Recognize that variations in climate 

and species will affect your plan. The Cotton CRC 

website has a Cotton Pest Management Guide. 

3.Identification. Consult a diagnostic service (page 

xiv) if necessary, to ensure correct identification of the 

whitefly in your crop. 

4.Monitor to detect early infestation of whiteflies and 

their parasites before applying an insecticide (page 39). 

Group susceptible plants to maintain regular monitoring 

and treatments. GHWF nymphs become black and SLWF 

nymphs become brown about 2 weeks after successful 

parasitism. Monitor weekly mainly during autumn and 

spring as GHWF is most active during that time (this 

may vary depending on the crop). 

Plant inspections for nymphs. Crops very 

susceptible to whiteflies are useful for pest scouting, 

eg poinsettia, gerbera, rose, hibiscus. (Bodman and 

Hargreaves 2000). Examine 5 compound leaves 

(5 simple leaves = 1 compound leaf) on 20 plants 

widely spaced through the crop. 

Yellow sticky traps trap adults (1 per 100 m 2 ). 

Monitor GHWF weekly. Desire sticky and InSense 

Lure traps are used to monitor adult whitefly: 


Sooty mould and honeydew also be monitored. 

Whitefly on leaf undersurface can be hard to see but 

look for honeydew dripping down on leaves below. 

5. Thresholds vary with area, host, etc, and have 

been determined for some commercial crops, but seek 

up-to-date advice about the need to monitor, eg 

Specialist propagators may have a nil tolerance 

for whitefly. Treatment is applied as soon as whiteflies 

(particularly SLWF) are detected. 

Roses. Treatment may be required if more than 

10% plants are infested. 

6. Action/control. Small populations in a home 

garden can often be ignored. Commercially suppression 

using Encarsia sp. is preferred. When any threshold is 

reached commercial growers should apply control in the 

early stages of infestation. If Encarsia is used, an 

insecticide program prior to shipment may be required. 

Insecticides can be useful to: 

Reduce whitefly numbers to a level at which Encarsia 

can be successful. Control whiteflies in hot spots. 

If temperature is not suitable for Encarsia. 

Continue to monitor plants after treatment. 

Destroying nests of ants feeding on aphid honeydew 

will allow parasites and predators do their job. 

Avoid broad spectrum insecticides. 


it worked and implement improvements if required. 


GHWF and other whiteflies may be common in some 

areas but are easy to control compared with SLWF 

which has a wider host range, higher reproductive 

rate, develops resistance rapidly to insecticides and 

is adapted to high temperatures. Where populations 

are a mix of SLWF and GHWF, consider treating as if 

all are SLWF. 


Reducing humidity can help to control whitefly 

in glasshouse and outdoor situations. 

Some plants, when used as companion plants are 

reputed to repel whiteflies, eg nasturtium. 

Fig. 116. Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum). Left: Adults on undersurface of leaf. 

Centre: Adult about 1 mm long. Right clockwise: Egg on stalk (about 0.24 mm long); Top and side views of 

1 st stage nymph (when fully fed about 0.3 mm long); 4 th stage nymph (about 0.75 mm long) with wax rods on the 

upper surface which are not always obvious, may be mistaken for scale. Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 



Sanitation. 

Avoid carry-over to new crops, remove and 

destroy crop debris and infested plant material. 

Remove older affected leaves. 

If practical completely clean the production area 

at the end of the crop. Remove all plant material, 

including weeds, for a week or more. 

Control broadleaf weeds around crops and 

greenhouses as SWF has a very wide host range. 


Natural controls include many predators, parasites 

and diseases. Some overseas examples. 

– Ash whitefly. A small parasitic wasp, Encarsia 

inaron, provides good control in the USA and NZ. 

– Computer programs, eg Biocontrol-Poinsettia, 

helps growers overseas calculate how many wasps 

they should release and how often. 

– The fungal diseases BotaniGard , Naturalis -L 

(Beauveria bassiana) and Verticillium lecanii can 

be used while populations are still low. 


– Predatory lacewing (Mallada signata). 

– Greenhouse whitefly wasp parasite (Encarsia 

formosa), a tiny introduced parasitic wasp, 0.5 mm 

long, lays one egg inside the body of the 4 th stage 

whitefly nymph. When hatched the wasp larva feeds 

inside the whitefly nymph which turns black within a 

few days (unparasitized nymphs are white; when the 

wasp, Eretmocerus, lay its eggs under young scale, 

the host darkens then yellows). Wasp larva pupate 

and after 3-4 weeks, the adult wasp emerges by 

cutting a round hole through the upper surface of the 

nymph. Infestations are often kept in check and plants 

should be examined for parasitized nymphs since 

chemical treatment may not be necessary. 

In greenhouses, Encarsia is often killed by 

sprays used to control other pests, eg aphids, and 

does not work well in hairy or sticky leafed crops. 

The 1 st , 2 nd and 3 rd stage nymphs may also be 

parasitized but are unsuitable hosts and nymphs 

of the whitefly and larvae of the wasp die. 

In greenhouses, temperatures > 22 o C must be 

maintained if Encarsia is to be successful in 

reducing whitefly populations. At temperatures 

< 22 o C whitefly development is considerably 

faster than that of Encarsia. 

Encarsia can take 10 days after an initial release to 

exert its full effect. About 80% of nymphs must be 

parasitized before new releases can be stopped. 

Encarsia is more successful in controlling GHWF 

than SLWF. 

Lucid keys - www.lucidcentral.com/ What Wasp 

is That? 


Table 34. Whiteflies generally - Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

FOLIAGE TREATMENTS 

Group 1B, eg Rogor , various (dimethoate), Folimat 

(omethoate), Lancer , Orthene (acephate) 

Group 3A, eg Baythroid (cyfluthrin), Jury , Talstar , 

Procide , various (bifenthrin), Tempo Residual 

(beta-cyfluthrin) 

Group 4A, eg Confidor (imidacloprid), Crown (acetamiprid), 

Actara (thiamethoxam) 

Group 7C, eg Admiral Insect Growth Regulator (pyriproxifen) 

SLWF & GHWF on 

Group 12A, eg Pegasus cotton & some vegetables 

(diafenthiuron) suppresses SLWF in 

cotton with minimal disruption to natural enemies. 

Group UN, eg Neemtech (azadarachtin) 

Spray oils (immature stationary whitefly), eg Pestoil , 

White oil (petroleum oil), Bioclear , Biopest , 

Ecopest oil (paraffin oil), Eco-Oil (botanical oil) 

Soap sprays, eg Natrasoap (potassium salts of fatty acids 

Various Garden sprays, eg Beat–a-Bug (chilli/garlic/ 

pyrethrin/piperonyl butoxide), also pyrethrin, 

bioallethrin, bioresmethrin 

SOIL TREATMENTS 

Group 4A, eg Confidor Guard Soil Insecticide (imidacloprid) 

for SLWF on certain vegetables. Permit required 

Resistant varieties. Use if possible, cultivars 

with hairy leaves and toxic sap which are 

considered to slow whitefly development. 


GHWF is spread throughout Australia. Inspect plant 

material before introducing it into growing areas. 

SPWF. Quarantine areas have been declared in 

some regions for SPWF which prohibit and 

regulate movement of SPWF-infested and 

uninfested plants, plant materials and fruit, out of 

Quarantine areas without an inspector’s approval. 

Interstate Certification Assurance (ICA) 

Operational Procedures, Property Freedom for 

Spiraling Whitefly (ICA-36), covers certification 

of property for live plants and parts of plants 

including plant parts intended for propagation, 

leafy vegetables and cut flowers and foliage. 

Inspection and Treatment of Plants for 

Spiraling whitefly (ICA-35) is in preparation. 


Inspect new plant material before introducing it to the 

main growing area/greenhouse. Use hand lens. 

Physical a mechanical methods. 

Yellow plastic sheets or fluorescent painted 

boards, covered with clear sticky grease attract 

whiteflies which stick to the surface when they 

land. Clean boards regularly and re-coat with the 

sticky material. Useful for small areas outdoors, in 

glasshouses and if pesticides cannot be used. To 

avoid catching parasites keep traps above plants. 

Small outbreaks can be dispersed by hosing. 

Greenhouse screens with a pore size 400 m 

(micrometers) or less, prevent adult whiteflies 

moving in from infested areas. Screens are 

expensive and these will not screen out WFT. 

UV blocking plastic being researched. Different 

types of UV reflective mulches. 

Destroying nests of ants feeding on honeydew 

will assist parasites and predators to do their job. 

Insecticides. 

Spray application must be thorough, as 

infestations are mostly on leaf undersurfaces. 

Apply to young nymphs and adults. Systemic 

sprays may be needed for persistent infestations. 

Restrictions on some crops, permits may be required. 

Follow CropLife Australia Resistance 

Management Strategies as SLWF can rapidly 

develop resistance. 

Avoid broad spectrum insecticides. 


Follow CropLife Australia Resistance Management 

Strategies. When observed, thoroughly apply to 

undersurfaces of leaves. Repeat applications may be 

needed as insecticides may not kill eggs. Seek advice 

about when is best to spray the crop. 

Spray oils and soap sprays suppress development of 

eggs, metamorphosis and adult formation. They are 

most effective against immature whitefly. 

Permits may be required for many situations, eg in 

glasshouses. 

Few insecticides for glasshouse whitefly control are 

predator- and parasite-safe. Admiral and Pegasus 

cause minimal disruption of the parasites and predators 

of SLWF. Overseas the growth regulator Novaluron 

(novularon) has little effect on Encarsia and other 

introduced beneficials, also suppresses leafminers, WFT 

and some moth pests. 



ORDER ISOPTERA 

Termites, ‘white ants’ 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

More than 300 species. Their resemblance to ants is superficial; they are more 

closely related to cockroaches. Comparatively few species damage standing 

trees economically or are considered to be major pests of buildings. Termites 

cause over $80 million damage each year in Australia. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/isoptera.html 

www.termite.com.au/termites/ 

Pest control company Fact Sheets 

Termites are social insects that work and live together in colonies. Within 

each colony are several types (castes), eg workers, soldiers and reproductives. 

Their body is not constricted between thorax and abdomen as in ‘true ants’. 

ADULT 

Workers 1. Wingless, sterile and blind. 

2. Small, soft body, whitish in colour with large rounded, 

often brown head with powerful jaws. 

3. Build and repair the nest, construct galleries, tend the 

king, queen and young, find food for themselves and 

other castes. 

Soldiers 1. Wingless, sterile and blind. 

2. Similar to workers but with heavily armoured dark 

coloured head and larger jaws, head may be pointed. 

3. Protect the nest from invaders (defence) 

Reproductives 

1. Kings, queens and other reproductive forms. 

2. Adults have, for a short period only, 2 pairs of nearly 

equal membranous wings which break off after flight. 

LIFE CYCLE 

Termites 


Nests may contain as 

many as 3-4 million 

individuals depending 

on the species 

Tunnels. Most 

termites remain within 

a closed system of 

tunnels devoid of light, 

protected to some 

extent from natural 

enemies, temperature 

and humidity extremes 

The only exceptions 

are during swarming 

flights, repair or 

construction of a nest. 

Exceptions include 

grass-eating species. 

Nest. Most species 

either build a small 

mound at the base of 

a tree trunk or live in a 

nest remote from the 

feeding sites foraging 

tunnels which can be 

up to 200 metres 

away from the nest to 

the feeding sites. 

Large earthen 

mounds can be up to 

7 meters high. 


Only the king and queen reproduce (only the queen lays eggs). 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

NYMPH 

Both have chewing mouthparts. Termites eat all types of plants 

and plant materials, eg grass, wood. Cellulose is the basic food of 

all termites which they digest with the aid of micro-organisms in 

their gut. They mostly live in the dark and build protective tunnels 

to travel between the nest and food source. 

174 Insects and allied pests - Isoptera (termites, ‘white ants’)



DAMAGE 

Few species feed 

on living plants 


Only the worker castes damage plants and plant material, and may comprise 80% to 

90% of a termite colony. They eat out large galleries or runways through which the 

workers forage for food and travel to and from the nest. Cellulose found in plants is the 

basic food requirement of all termites. They may damage materials they cannot digest, 

eg plastics, tuber, metal or mortar encountered during their search for food. 

TREES Young and old trees and shrubs. 

WOOD Buildings, fence posts, telegraph 

poles, piers, wood chips and bark 

used as landscape mulches. 

STRAW 

CROPS 

Some species of grasses only. 

Tubers, eg potatoes. 

Stalks, eg sugarcane. 


Termite tunnels in potato (cross section) 

Weakening of structures (collapse of trees, timber) and infrastructure damage, eg 

cables, plastic sheathing and conduits. 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Most pest 

species are 

subterranean. 

Most small termite species in the 

NT do little damage to native 

plants, ornamentals or fruit trees 

and rarely need to be controlled 

(Andersen, et al. 2000) 

The most 

destructive 

termite species 

in Australia 

The world’s worst 

termite. 

Not known in 

Australia 

Many other genera 

and species 



SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES . 

Require a constant source of moisture. They obtain their moisture from the soil 

and are generally ground-dwelling. 

Tunnels are underground, usually in the top 20 cm of the soil, originating from the 

nest, to reach a source of food, which may be up to 50 meter from a central colony; or 

as shelter tubes up vertical objects. 

They build their nests in soil, in trees and other sheltered situations. Nests are 

mostly around ground level. Many nests are started in or near dead tree stumps. 

OBLIGATE MOUND COLONIES 

Central colony is always a raised mound. Subterranean tunnels radiate from the 

central colony to food sources. 

Subterranean termite Coptotermes lacteus 

Qld, NSW, Vic 

C. brunneus WA 

Dead wood in ground (poles, fallen 

trees), not a pest of buildings or 

living trees. Fruit trees. Nest up to 

2 m high 

Spinifex termite Nasutitermes triodiae Grass, not timber in service, nest 

Magnetic termite, 

compass termite 

Amitermes meridionalis 

up to 7 m high 

Grass, mound is up to 4 m high, 

Orientated N-S so the E and W sides 

face the morning and afternoon sun 

respectively. The thin wedge faces 

N at midday thus striving to keep 

the nest at the preferred 30 o C. As 

the morning or afternoon sun heats 

up a side of the mound the termites 

move to the other cooler side 

NON-MOUND COLONIES 

Nests underground inside living or dead trees, stumps, poles, wood in the ground. 

Some species build mounds in some areas. Subterranean tunnels radiate from the 

nest to food sources. 

Subterranean termite 

Formosan 

subterranean termite 

Giant northerntermite 

Workers > 12 mm 

Coptotermes acinaciformis 

Occurs throughout Australia, this 

species builds nests in mounds in the 

northern (Qld) & SW areas of its 

range. 

All timber structures, forest, fruit 

and ornamental trees. Eats out a 

central pipe within trees especially 

eucalypts. Packed with ‘mudguts’ 

or claylike faecal material. Adjacent 

trees become infested via galleries 

C. formosanus A destructive species damaging 

houses, buildings, live trees, crops 

Mastotermes darwiniensis 

Most damaging species in the NT 

Houses, posts, young trees, sugarcane, 

etc. Threat to tree planting, 

may ringbark trees. Largest soldiers 

in Australia. Very destructive 

where it occurs 

ARBOREAL COLONIES . 

Nests in trees at various heights or on top of posts. Ground contact is necessary and 

galleries run down inside and outside the stem. Underground tunnels radiate from the 

base of the tree or post to food sources. 

Niggerhead termites Nasutitermes walkeri Decayed timber in fences in contact 

with soil. Rarely attacks timber on 

or in houses 

Insects and allied pests - Isoptera (termites, ‘white ants’) 175


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

(contd) 

Many other 

genera/species 

Not established 

in Australia 



DAMPWOOD TERMITES 

Nests are small; there may be separate and independent colonies in stumps, rotting 

logs or rot pockets in dead or living trees and timber that has a high moisture content. 

Often no contact with soil. Rambling tunnels in damp wood. 

Dampwood termite Porotermes adamsoni Living trees, mainly eucalypts, 

other trees, poles, occasionally 

houses. Rarely infests small 

diameter trees 

Ringant termite 

DRYWOOD TERMITES 

Neotermes insularis 

Largest termite species in 

Australia up to 15 mm long. 

Colonies in branches and stubs of 

wood of living trees, especially 

eucalypts. Serious pest of forests 

of the east coast of Australia 

Nests are small and independent groups in dead branch stubs, stumps, poles on 

ground. Attack either dead wood in trees or dry wood in service in houses. 

Moisture. They require only the moisture of the atmosphere and of the dry timber in 

which they occur. They obtain water from the wood in which they live and have no 

contact with the soil, or any other source of moisture. 

Rambling galleries in dry wood, They occur in warm tropical areas and in dry areas 

of subtropical Australia. 

Drywood termites Cryptotermes spp. Furniture, structural timber, 

dead wood in trees and poles 

West Indian Cryptotermes brevis 

drywood termite 

BENEFICIAL ACTIVITIES OF TERMITES 

RECYCLING OF NUTRIENTS 

 

 

Buildings, furniture. The world’s 

most destructive termite species 

Termites play a prominent part in the recycling of plant nutrients through the 

disintegration and decomposition of dead wood, plant debris, fungi and animal 

droppings. Most termite species eat grass and other surface vegetation and have an 

important role in maintaining soil fertility and aeration. Many convert dead trees and 

other plant material to organic matter and minerals. They may search for food in the 

open on humid nights. 

Termite galleries improve soil structure, water entry and storage in soil. 

HABITATS FOR WILDLIFE 

 

 

The excavation of termites alters the structure of trees and provides habitat 

spaces for bats, birds, reptiles, etc. 

Lace monitors (tree goannas) lay eggs in termite mounds in eastern Australia 

which are perfect incubators. After the eggs are laid, the termites quickly repair the 

damage imprisoning and protecting the monitor eggs inside the mound for 9 

months. Adult monitors return at precisely the right time to dig an escape tunnel for 

the hatchlings. Termites pay a heavy price as the effort to re-build their nests year 

after year is extraordinary and in some occasions the termite colony may die. 

FOOD CHAIN 

 

Termites are an important component of the food chain of many animals, eg birds, 

lizards, echidnas, spiders and predatory insects. 

DIDJERIDOO 

 

When termites hollow out the center of a log many channels and irregularities are 

formed. It is this that alters the resonance of the didgeridoo creating the unique 

sound that is distinctive of Aborigine Australian culture. 

Fig. 117. Termites. Upper left: Termite galleries on a 

timber pole; galleries tend to follow cracks in the wood. 

Lower: Small termite mound (Nasutitermes exitiosis). 

Portion removed to show internal structure. PhotoNSW Dept of 


Fig. 118. Timber damaged by termites. Paper thin 

. 

PhotoNSW 




Not all termite species found in timber are a threat to 

houses. Only a few of the species found in trees may 

infest buildings. Of the few hundred Australian species 

only about six are considered to be major pests of 

buildings. Seek species identification and treatment 

advice if buildings are close by to avoid unnecessary 

treatments. Check pest species which occur in 

your area. 


Termite pests of living trees include: 

Subterranean termites, eg Coptotermes spp. 

Dampwood termites, eg Porotermes spp. 

Drywood termites, eg Cryptotermes spp. 


In Australia, subterranean termites are the most 

destructive species, working from a central nest or 

colony situated in the ground or in trees from which 

subterranean tunnels radiate to food sources. 

Host range 

Timber, eg building timbers, fence posts, rail sleepers, 

telegraph posts, wood chips and bark. Trees, shrubs, 

fruit trees, vines, eg large and small trees and shrubs, 

cashew, citrus, grape. Crops, eg potatoes, sugarcane. 

Some species feed on grass, spinifex, and fungi in the 

nest or on moist wood from which they get proteins, etc. 


Adults (males and females) are winged insects 

about 14 mm long (including wings). They leave the 

nest, establish new colonies and become ‘king’ and 

‘queen’ of the new nest. Workers are small, 

wingless, sterile white-bodied (‘white ants’), blind, 

with well-developed jaws for gnawing wood. About 

80-90% of the colony in our common pest species are 

workers. Soldiers, depending on the species, are 

blind, sterile and have longer jaws than workers. 

They protect the colony from invaders, and may 

constitute as little as 2% of the colony. Termites 

have a thin skin and desiccate readily. 

Trees. Damage is caused by workers seeking food 

for the colony traveling to and from the nest along 

runways in a continuous stream. Large trees are 

usually attacked through the centre of the trunk, often 

with little external evidence of termite activity. They 

do not normally affect the living part of the tree but 

cause structural weakness in old slow-growing trees. 

Termites work inside the trunk, along the grain, 

eating out large runways. In one tree, there may be 

several runways which are gradually widened and 

extended until only thin layers of wood remain 

between them (Fig. 118). 

Firewood. Seek advice about local termite 

species. Many termites found in firewood are feeding 

workers from large colonies, unable to survive on 

their own, in small pieces of wood or to invade 

structural timbers. Some species found may not attack 

buildings. Large blocks of firewood or intact logs 

could possibly harbour a small nest. It is unwise to 

stack large timber next to houses or fences. Some 

species that can damage sound timber will dry out 

and die in chopped wood. 

Mulches and compost. Wood chips, bark 

and neglected compost heaps can provide food and 

shelter for some termite species. Finer mulches, eg 

leaf litter, lucerne hay, break down too quickly to 

provide enough food and shelter. 

Termites 

‘White ants’ 

Potato stems and tubers become tunneled, ‘honeycombed’ 

and spongy, skin is intact (page 175). Crops 

are mainly reached by underground runways. 

Diagnostics. Trees and other plants. 

All tree assessments should be carried out by a 

professional arborist. 

Do not confuse termite damage to trees with 

that caused by borers or wood rot (page 178, 

Table 35). Termite galleries are constructed from soil. 

Wood-boring moths often cover their activities at the 

junction of branches with frass (silk and droppings). 

Damage is difficult to detect in the early stages. 

Unless runways are discovered during monitoring, 

inspections or pruning, damage is not often noticed 

until trees collapse, or crops harvested. Occasionally 

runways can be traced back to the nest. 

– Expert ID needed. It is usually easy to know 

whether the pest is a termite or not but difficult to 

distinguish one species of termite from another. 

Collect several soldiers, put in methylated spirit in a 

jar and take to a termite expert. Collect soldier caste 

termites with as little disturbance as possible. 

Termite diagnostics is offered by arborists and pest 

control companies. 

– Bait monitors alert tree growers to the presence 

of termites and can be placed at various distances 

from trees where termite activity is suspected. 

– Wood chips. Water area well the evening before 

gently scraping back the wood chips. During hot 

and dry weather termites move deeper under-ground 

to keep cool and damp. 

– Inspection tools. Experience is necessary and 

when used in conjunction with other technology 

helps identify where termites might be. 

Tappers (Termite Inspection Tools) or hammers. 

As old living trees with fungal decay (page 361) 

appear to be most susceptible to termite damage 

(some exceptions in tropics), the analysis of 

termite damage is the same as for fungal decay 

hollows (Mann, 2009). 

Drilling of trees to assess presence of termites 

can be destructive to trees. 

Temperature probes can locate termite colonies 

in trees. The temperature of areas with termite 

activity is generally several degrees higher than 

‘normal’ tree temperature and can be detected. Noninvasive 

Thermacam Technology can be used by 

arborists to locate termites in trees. All material has 

a unique thermal signature and when moisture, heat 

or pests are introduced, thermal images change. 

Moisture meters are non-destructive. Termites 

need moisture to survive. 

Termatrac technology (rather similar to radar), 

can detect termites inside timber, plaster board etc. 

Borescopes give a clear picture using mirrors and 

a small light at the end of a flexible probe. They 

are expensive and usually only used to check for 

termites in inaccessible places in buildings. 

Male winged form Worker Nymph Soldier 

Fig. 119. Subterranean termite (Coptotermes acinaciformis). 

Left: Male winged form. Upper: Female winged form. Lower left 

to right: Worker (forages for food), nymph with wing buds; soldier 

(defends the nest). Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 



Pest cycle 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymphs, 

workers, soldiers, kings and queens). Once a year (or 

more often, during warm humid weather) winged males 

and females leave the nest in thousands. After a short, 

fluttering flight they alight on the ground, cast off their 

wings, pair and start to form new nests in a gallery or 

chamber in the ground adjacent to timber or an old 

stump. A few survive to found new colonies of which 

they become ‘king’ and ‘queen’. Eggs are laid and new 

generations of worker and soldier termites are 

produced. The queen may live and continue to lay eggs 

for many years. The destructive potential of the colony 

is not fully developed for many years; a colony from a 

single pair reaches about 100 strong in 3-5 years. 


As all stages in colonies. Reproductives in termite 

colonies can survive for many years. Soldiers and 

workers for only short periods of time. 

Spread 

Workers of some types may travel up to 50 meters 

through galleries searching for food but cannot 

establish new colonies. 

By winged adult males and females flying. In 

summer during hot humid weather flights may 

occur inside buildings late in the day or to lighted 

windows at night. 

Movement of timber or wood carrying eggs, a 

queen or nymphs. 


The main pest species are subterranean termites 

which must have contact with the ground or access 

to a continual source of moisture. 

Warm soil with an abundant supply of food in the 

form of wood or other cellulose material. 

Trees with fire scars. 

Termites are generally more abundant in the 

tropical and semi-tropical regions of Australia. 

Old living trees often with fungal decay appear to 

be most susceptible to termite damage (except a 

Coptotermes sp. that is only found in the tropics). 

Potatoes or fruit trees planted in freshly or 

incompletely cleared land or adjacent to 

bushland may be attacked. Infestations start from a 

dead tree stump or log in the potato field, orchard 

or on adjoining land. Outside rows are more likely 

to be attacked than inner rows. 

The adoption of zero till and stubble retention 

practices has resulted in the re-appearance of 

subterranean termites in some cropping lands. 

Wooden stakes of susceptible timbers or sapwoods 

used for supporting plants can attract termites. 

Mulches of chips of wood, bark and nut shells are 

also attractive. 

Management (IPM 

1. Obtain/plan. In most situations termite control 

should be carried out by licensed pest control 

operator. 

2. Crop, region. Pest species vary according to region. 

Obtain leaflets on local species. It may be necessary to 

treat areas before planting fruit or other trees. 

3. Identification. Consult an arborist, licensed pest 

controller or a diagnostic service (page xiv). 


recommended by a trained pest control specialist. 

– Regular inspections by trained personnel of 

trees, fences, where termites have been a problem. 

– Early warning systems. Bait stations (usually 

containing an attractive wood) are placed in areas 

where termites may be foraging. The termites 

aggregate at the station and continue to feed. Use 

mountain ash (E. regnans) as bait for termites less 

resin in it. Some termite monitoring and baiting 

systems are designed to be spread throughout the 

colony by the worker termites. 

– Monitor mulch by vigorously raking it back and 

forth at least twice a year, especially during sultry 

summer months when queens are likely to be 

starting new colonies. 

5. Threshold is usually a nil tolerance if it is a species 

that devastates trees, plantations, buildings. How 

much damage can you accept? 

6. Action. Professionals will undertake any treatments 

required and may recommend treatments that you can 

carry out, eg removal of unwanted timber, etc. 

7. Evaluation of the program may require an annual 

inspection by trained personnel. Keep records of 

treatments, inspections and results. Put improvements 

in place if necessary. 

Table 35. Comparison of termite, borer and wood rot damage. 

Tree 

trunk 

External 

damage 

Internal 

damage 

TERMITE DAMAGE BORER DAMAGE WOOD ROT 

Flight cuts, through 

which winged 

termites leave 

parent colony. 

Often no obvious 

damage, timber 

hollowed out from 

within. 

In some cases 

distinctive gallery 

running on trunk 

or structure. 

Photo NSW Dept of 

Industry and Investment 

Fluted areas, termite damage, it is 

easy to distinguish from borer damage, 

and wood rot (fungal decay). 

‘Mud guts’. 

If active, termites seen. 

Timber hollow and light in density. 

Flight holes of 

various sizes 

depending on 

species of borer. 

Fine timber dust. 

Shape, size of holes 

and host indicate 

which borers 


Individual tunnels may be oval or round, 

may or may not be filled with frass. 

Galleries below bark. 

Presence of either sluggish larvae or in 

some cases, adults below bark. 

If decay is advanced, 

fruiting bodies of 

various colours, eg 

red pink, white or 

brown and of various 

shapes and sizes, 

may have developed 


Heartwood stained with coloured or white 

threads, may be soft, lighter in density. 

When dried out wood is friable, very light in 

weight with no structural strength. 

No hollow fluted areas (termites) or holes 

(borers). 


and Investment (E.H.Zeck). 




Control in trees. No system provides total 

control against termites, but risk of termite attack can 

be minimized. For most horticulturists, termite 

control is a specialist task and trained pest control 

specialists should be consulted to identify, locate and 

deal with the infestation. Incorrect or rough attempts 

to control termites may cause the termites to withdraw 

from the treated area, to another location, spreading the 

problem. Standards are available for termite prevention 

and control in buildings and structures. 


During maintenance avoid mechanical injury to 

trunks and limbs of trees. 

The best treatment for all tree problems is to ensure 

that the trees are as healthy as possible. 

Sanitation. 

Prior to planting clear old stumps, roots and timber 

that might attract termites from within 100 meter 

radius. Burn or completely remove tree stumps. 

Clearing and cultivating land for dryland cropping 

can eliminate termites from these soils. 

After planting. Keep ground under trees free of 

weeds and logs. 

After attack. Check current legislation regarding 

tree removal. Obtain professional advice from an 

arborist (tree surgeon) to assess hazard and damage, 

and under-take treatments, eg apply insecticide to 

trunk. Find nest or colony, if possible, and destroy it. 


Natural predators. Winged reproductives are eaten 

by lizards, snakes, frogs, birds, ants, dragonflies and 

other insects. Echidnas use the long, sharp claws on 

their feet to dig open termite and ant nests and 

subterranean galleries to feed on workers and soldiers. 

Ants, some beetles and other insects feed on young 

termites, eggs and termite wastes in termite nests. 

Commercially available agents. may be able to 

treat established infestations in the future: 

– Green muscardine fungus (Metarhizium sp.). 

– A nematode (Steinernema carpocapsae). 

Resistant/tolerant varieties. CSIRO 

releases timber durability ratings, termite hazard 

potential maps and decay potential for the whole of 

Australia to ensure that correct timber is used. Some 

timbers have some resistance to some termite species, 

eg Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) is resistant to 

Coptotermes acinaciformis but susceptible to 

Nasutitermes exitiosus. Resistant timbers will not 

protect buildings. 

Plant quarantine. Serious termites overseas: 

Formosan termite (Coptotermes formosanus) 

West Indian drywood termite (Cryptotermes 

brevis) was first detected in Qld in 1964 but is not 

established throughout the country. Infestations in 

buildings are fumigated. 


Destroy nests on the ground by breaking open and 

burning (if local regulations permit). 

Turn over compost regularly. 

Insecticides. 

Most insecticides used for termite control may 

only be applied by Licensed Pest Control Operators. 

Safety precautions prevent personal exposure to 

insecticide. 

Because of toxicity problems, fewer and fewer 

insecticides are available for termite control. 

Before or during planting. In areas of high 

termite activity, nests should be found and destroyed, 

planting holes and soil may need treatment. 

After attack. 

– Small trees and shrubs. When the tree itself 

cannot be treated, insecticide may be pressure 

injected to soil around the base of the affected tree. 

– Large trees. Boring holes about 15mm in diameter, 

sloping slightly downwards into the tree at several 

levels above the ground. This will give you some idea 

of the extent of the damage and decide whether the 

tree should be treated or removed. 

– Locate nest by probing the trunk, crown or 

between the roots. Ideally, holes are drilled into the 

hollow center of the trunk above the nest and 

insecticide run or forced into galleries. If the nest 

cannot be located, it may be necessary to drill into 

the galleries and flood them with insecticide. Nests 

high in trees made by arboreal termites may be 

removed and insecticide run into the galleries. 

– Suppressing or eliminating a colony. A bait 

toxicant in timber or cellulose matrix can be placed 

in a bait station or the colony indirectly by dusting 

aggregated termites. Bait stations may be below and 

above ground. The Sentricon Termite Colony 

Elimination System acts as a monitoring device 

to detect foraging termites. The bait can be 

replaced with a bait toxicant when termites are 

found. Following cessation of termite activity, the 

bait matrix is replaced with wood and monitoring 

resumed. 

Table 36. Termites in trees, stumps – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

NESTS IN TREES 

Group 1B, eg Chlorpyrifos , Deter , Dursban (chlorpyrifos); 

Maldison (malathion) 

Group 2B, eg Termidor (fipronil) 

Group 3A, eg Ambush (permethrin); Generex , EnviroGuard , 

various (bifenthrin); Prevail , Stedfast (alphacypermethrin) 

Group 4A, eg Imidacloprid Termiticide, Premise Foam 

(imidacloprid, 

Group 15, eg Intrigue (triflumuron) 

BAITS STATIONS 

Group 15, eg Recruit , Sentricon (hexaflumuron); 

Nemesis , Requiem (chlorfluazuron) termite bait; 

Flurox Termite Bait (flufenoxuron) 


Application by Licensed Pest Control Operators. 

Make an effort to locate the nest. 

Application by Licensed Pest Control Operators. 

Licensed pest control operators will provide advice on 

the location of bait stations and prepare a diagram of 

buildings, grounds and trees etc., inspect fences etc. 



ORDER ORTHOPTERA 

Crickets, grasshoppers, katydids, locusts 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

LIFE CYCLE 

In excess of 2,500 species. The general appearance of these insects makes this 

order difficult to confuse with other orders. Resistance to pesticides has only 

occasionally occurred. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/orthoptera.html 

The Australian Plague Locust Commission (APLC) may be accessed at: 

www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/locusts 

ADULT Body Generally fairly large, no distinct constriction between 

head and thorax. Many are well camouflaged. 

Wings 

Legs 

1. Two pairs in adult. Some species with short wings or 

without wings. 

2. Forewing thickened, forming a cover over the hindwing. 

3. Hindwing gauzy and plaited or fan-like. 

4. Some males produce sounds by rubbing specialized 

parts of the forewings, abdomen and/or legs together to 

produce a characteristic song, eg crickets rubbing their 

forewings together. 

Hindlegs enlarged and developed for jumping. 

Thorax Pronotum (upper surface of 1 st segment of the thorax) is 

prominent, often saddle-shaped.. 

NYMPH Similar to adult, but smaller and wingless. 

There is a gradual metamorphosis - egg, nymph (usually 5 stages) and 

adult. It is difficult to produce a generalized life cycle for such a diverse order. 

For example, locusts and crickets lay eggs in the soil but tree grasshoppers 

or long horned crickets and grasshoppers lay them on leaves. 

Australian 

plague 

locust 

Adults are 

20-45 mm long 

There are many 


spur-throated locust 

has 1 generation 

each year 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT All stages have chewing mouthparts and mostly feed on plants, 

NYMPH a few species prey on other insects. Many feed at night and rest 

on plants during the day. 

180 Insects and allied pests - Orthoptera (locusts)



DAMAGE 


Damage is caused by both adults and nymphs feeding. Since ancient times 

locusts have been known for devouring crops when large swarms occur. 

However, some tree ‘crickets’ are omnivorous and may do little harm. 

LEAVES 

STEMS 

FRUIT 

SEED 

ROOTS 

Eaten, eg Australian plague locust 

Eaten, eg citrus treehopper (fruit), field crickets (seed) 

Eaten, eg mole crickets, sandgropers 


Tunneling in soil, eg mole crickets. 

Some tree crickets bite if handled. 

LOCUSTS OR GRASSHOPPERS. 

Locusts form into bands as hoppers (flightless young) and swarms (adults). 

Grasshoppers do neither. Some gregarious grasshoppers are called locusts, 


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Mole cricket 

front legs 

modified for 

digging 

Australian 

plague locust 

Not known in 

Australia 

Sand 

groper 

Threatened 

species 



CRICKETS (several families) 

Most are vegetarians, some predators 

Arboreal cricket Hemiphonus sp. River red gum, wattle 

Black field cricket Teleogryllus commodus Grasses, clovers, vegetables, 

nursery stock. Widespread 

Mole crickets 

Family Gryllotalpidae 

Their loud persistent, monotonous 

call can be heard after dark coming 

from holes in lawns especially 

after afternoon rain 

Roots of turf, tubers, other 

garden species. Common 

KATYDIDS & LONGHORNED GRASSHOPPERS (Family Tettigoniidae) 

Citrus katydid 

Inland katydid 

Caedicia spp. 

C. simplex 

Citrus fruits, blackberries, etc 

Fruit, eg peaches, citrus. 

Common in gardens 

LOCUSTS & GRASSHOPPERS (Family Acrididae) 

Australian plague 

locust (APL) 

Chortoicetes terminifera Almost any plant material, but 

prefer grasses 

Spur-throated locust Nomadacris guttulosa Grass, eucalypts, other trees. 

May roost in trees 

Migratory locust Locusta migratoria Range of species, palms 

Eastern plague locust Oedaleus australis Almost any plant material 

Yellow-winged locust Gastrimargus musicus Almost any plant material 

Desert locust Schistocerca gregaria Plagues threaten agricultural 

production in Africa, the Middle 

East, Asia (done so for centuries) 

Giant grasshopper, 

hedge grasshopper 

Valanga irregularis Trees, shrubs in northern 

Australia, eg palms, agricultural 

and horticultural crops, young 

eucalypts. Up to 75 mm long. 

Smallplaguegrasshopper Austroicetes cruciata Almost any plant material 

Wingless grasshopper Phaulacridium vittatum Wide range of plants 

SANDGROPERS (Family Cylindrachetidae) 

Sandgropers Cylindracheta spp. Live underground in sandy 

soils, feeding and shredding 

under-ground stems and roots. 

BENEFICIAL & ENDANGERED ORTHOPTERA 

Tree crickets 

King crickets 

Gryllacridae 

Stenopelmatidae 

Caterpillars, insect eggs. May 

feed on leaves 

Predatory grasshopper Tettigoniidae Other insects, may eat plants 

Cooloola Monster 

(primitive cricket-like) 

Cooloola propator Believed to feed on other soildwelling 

insects 

Insects and allied pests - Orthoptera (locusts) 181



Outbreaks of the Australian Plague Locust (APL) 

are common throughout south eastern Australia. 

Plagues also occur in WA. The APL can easily 

cause costly disruption to agricultural production 

and urban horticulture in rural towns. It is not so 

much a problem in coastal cities and towns. 


Chortoicetes terminifera (Order Orthoptera). 

Native to Australia. 

Host range 

APL prefers grasses such as pasture and related 

winter and summer cereal crops, but will eat any 

green plant material if grass is not available, eg 

sorghum, lucerne, vegetables and orchard trees. 


Adults are 20-45 mm long. Forewings with 

mottled markings, hindwings with black tips 

(otherwise clear); shank of hindlegs scarlet. Males 

are usually smaller than females. The general 

color is brown, but green forms are common in 

dispersed populations. Hoppers (nymphs) 

resemble adults but lack fully grown wings. Bands 

of hoppers can be so dense that they can be seen 

from the air as an advancing front eating out 

vegetation as they progress. 

Damage. Hopper and adults chew pieces out of 

leaves and stems often all that remains is the 

midrib and stems. Pasture and young crops can 

be invaded by hoppers and completely defoliated. 

Orchards, vegetables, other crops may be 

damaged in closely settled districts. Home 

gardens in urban areas usually only suffer minor 

damage. 

General. APLs migrate in huge swarms 

denuding large areas of vegetation. A single swarm 

may contain millions of locusts. APLC have 

calculated that a 1 km swarm of APL could eat 

between 0.8 and 10 tonnes of vegetation per day 

depending on swarm density. Losses may amount 

to several millions of dollars during a plague 

unless organized control action is taken. 

Diagnostics. Adult APLs are relatively easy to 

identify from the black tips on their hindwings and 

red shanks of their hindlegs (Fig.120 below). 

Hoppers are more difficult to identify. Good 

descriptions are available: 

State/Territory Department Fact Sheets. 

Australian Plague Locust Commission (APLC) 


Zborowski. 1998. Field Guide to the Locusts and 

Related Grasshoppers in Australia. APLC, GPO 

Box 858, Canberra, ACT 2601. 

If still in doubt send specimens to your local 

diagnostic service (page xiv). 

Fig. 120. Australian plague locust (APL) (Chortoicetes terminifera). Left: 5 nymphal stages of hoppers. 

Size and orientation of wingbuds differentiates stages. Right: Adult APL. Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 121. Locusts. Left: A swarm of locusts shelter in the shade of a tree during the heat of the day. 

Right: Damage to sorghum, probably by migratory locusts. Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 



Pest cycle 


nymphs (5 stages) and adult). There may be 

3 overlapping generations during spring, summer 

and autumn. Females deposit pale yellow bananashaped 

eggs in the soil in batches (egg pods) of 

30-50. Up to 4 egg pods may be laid by a single 

female but rare for females to survive that long. A 

concentration of egg pods is termed an egg-bed. 

During outbreaks, eggs may be laid in a variety of 

situations, including fallow and stubble paddocks 

as well as among grass roots in sandy soil. Egg 

beds may vary from a few to several hundred 

square meters scattered irregularly throughout an 

area. Eggs need warmth and moisture to hatch. 

Nymphs move away from egg beds as solitary 

insects, as numbers increase they form dense 

bands of hoppers which vary in size from a few 

square meters to several hectares. Hopper bands 

may merge and increase to several kilometers 

with a distinct front. 

After the final moult, adults concentrate in 

swarms which make low drifting flights up to 

50 meters high and can cover 10-20 km per day, 

but can migrate over much larger distances 

during the night. 

Research into how to prevent locusts from 

forming bands and swarming is ongoing. 


Usually eggs laid in soil in autumn overdiapause 

(in a state of arrested development) and 

hatch in spring as soil temperatures increase. 

During dry weather eggs become quiescent and 

may survive for 8-10 months. 

‘Overwintering’ nymphs over-diapause in the 

3 rd stage but few survive until spring. 

In regions with a more uniform and higher 

rainfall (300-500 mm) frequent outbreaks result 

from local buildup or breeding by immigrants. 

These outbreaks may persist and develop into 

plagues. 

– Locust numbers multiply rapidly in seasons of 

above-average rainfall, particularly when the 

previous season had below-average rainfall or 

drought conditions. At such times, locust numbers 

may increase simultaneously over a vast area. 

– Egg laying by 1st generation females may be 

concentrated resulting in localized high density 

hatchings which then form hopper bands. 

– This 2nd generation which is crucial in the 

development of an outbreak, produces locusts in 

numbers sufficient to form dense swarms. 

– The swarms may move long distances, expanding 

the infested area and damaging pastures and crops. 

Distance traveled by swarms varies greatly and 

depends on factors such as age of adults, swarm 

size, density of locusts in the swarm, stage of the 

outbreak process and prevailing weather 

conditions, eg wind speed, temperature. 

Long distance migration will occur at night 

in suitable weather and if green feed has been 

available to enable fat accumulation. 

– They may simply disperse within a local area or the 

majority may take off at dusk reach considerable 

altitudes and travel downwind until conditions for 

flight become unsuitable. 

– Locusts can travel up to 500 km in a single night, 

leading to a sudden ‘overnight’ relocation of an 

outbreak. 

Swarms flying during the day tend to follow 

well-defined pathways determined to some 

extent by barriers such as timberlines along 

rivers or chains of hills. 

The introduction of farming, land clearing and 

grazing has provided them with the ideal 

environment to build up numbers and swarm. 

Spread 

Late stage hoppers can travel up to 

500 meters/day when in dense bands. 

Adults flying in swarms assisted by wind can 

extend an outbreak up to 200 km from the 

breeding area in a single generation during night 

migration. 

Outbreaks in areas of intensive agricultural 

production are typically the result of an influx 

from breeding in inland areas. 


Locusts have occurred in plagues since the earliest 

of times, destroying crops even then. Droppings 

were considered lethal. Moderate outbreaks of the 

APL occur in most years in the interior of 

Australia. Major plagues occur less frequently. 

Locust outbreaks occur: 

In seasonally arid areas of NSW, Qld and SA 

(annual rainfall less than 300 mm) outbreaks are 

infrequent and can be the result of successful 

breeding in response to widespread rainfall. 

Such outbreaks tend to collapse suddenly with 

the return to unfavorable breeding conditions or 

with emigration. Migrants from these short-lived 

outbreaks often start secondary outbreaks in 

other areas to the south and east. 

Fig. 122. Australian plague locust. Hot northerly 

winds ahead of a depression (often associated with a cold 

front) may induce mass take-off at dusk and long distance 

migration downwind during the evening. Cold conditions 

in the wake of the depression stop further migration and 

prevent any return movement. Night flights can result in 

sudden relocation of plagues. Photo NSW Dept of Industry and 

Investment. 




Some state legislation requires landholders to report the 

presence of plague locusts on their land to a designated 

authority and to control locusts when the nymphs band 

together. Insecticide is provided free of charge and can 

be obtained from your local authority office. Advice is 

usually available on the state department’s website. 

1.Access/prepare a plan. As part of a program of 

preventative control the APLC (Australian Plague 

Locust Commission) begins treatment when 

populations are low and before they reach crops. The aim 

ideally is to prevent plagues from occurring. The APLC 

engages in operations designed to combat outbreaks, 

which in the opinion of the Commission are likely to 

result in damage to rural industries in another State. 

Protection of crops is not the responsibility of the 

Commission although on occasion that may occur as a 

consequence of controlling a significant band or swarm 

target. In some states, landowner are levied a fee to assist 

with locust control. 

2.Crop, area, region. Which crop, which State? 

Recognize variations. Coastal cities, towns and home 

gardens are less vulnerable. 

3. Identification. Species must be identified 

accurately (Diagnostics page 182) or consult a 


4. Monitor, forecast. The APLC conducts regular 

surveys to assess the current size of any concentrated 

bands of nymphs (hoppers) and adult swarms and 

issues Monthly Locust Bulletins. The printed 

version of the Locust Bulletin is produced monthly 

during the spring-autumn period and includes a 

general summary for each major locust species, details 

of known distributions with regional forecasts, and 

maps of locust distributions and rainfall events. 

– Good records must be kept. 

– Forecasting involves actual observation, 

monitoring rainfall and weather systems and field 

surveillance work (driving around rural areas and 

surveying for locusts). 

– A Decision Support System (DSS) integrates 

large amounts of weather data with locust surveys, 

reports and light trap records, to predict where an 

increase in locust activity is likely to occur during 

favorable weather conditions. Forecasts are 

published in the Locust Bulletin: 


5. Threshold. Treatment to protect pasture alone is 

not usually warranted unless hopper bands or adult 

swarms are causing significant pasture damage and 

food for stock is limited. Crops are sprayed only if 

there are swarms or hopper bands in the crop causing 

significant damage. 

6. Action. Action must be coordinated with authorities 

before locusts become winged adults if possible, since 

hopper bands are denser, easier and cheaper to control 

by aerial or ground spraying than swarms. Home 

gardeners usually settle on non-chemical methods. 

7. Evaluation. Review IPM program to see if it 

worked or not. Recommend improvements if required. 


Legislation. Effective suppression of locusts 

can only be achieved by the combined cooperation 

of the Australian Plague Locust Commission 

(APLC), State/Territory governments, local 

councils and private landholders. 

www.affa.gov.au/aplc 


The APLC is a highly specialized unit responsible 

for the monitoring and forecasting plague locust 

populations that pose a major threat to agriculture 

it is jointly funded by the Commonwealth, NSW, 

Vic, SA and Qld. The APLC is a good example of 

how cooperation between the Commonwealth and 

State governments can achieve good outcomes. 

APLC’s role is to: 

– Manage outbreaks of the APL, spur-throated 

locust and migratory locust which are considered 

an interstate threat. 

– Assist States to manage locust outbreaks in their 

area of responsibility. 

– Seek to improve effectiveness and safety of 

locust field operations. 

Within a State, APL outbreaks are coordinated 

and supervised by Departments of Agriculture/ 

Primary Industries, through local bodies such as 

the Pastures Protection Boards. 

Local government may also undertake spraying 

operations within their own area. 

Landholders. Under provisions of State/ 

Territory legislation in affected States, landholders 

have an obligation to report and control hopper 

bands on their properties. Landholders in some 

states pay Livestock Health and Pest rates which 

contribute to the operations of the APLC. 

Grasshopper parasites feed 

internally on the locust. The locust 

usually dies after the parasite emerges. 


Parasitic nematodes. 


Grasshopper egg parasite (Scelio sp.). 

A small, black wasp burrows through the froth 

plug of the locust egg pod soon after it is laid 

and deposits a small egg in each locust egg. 

Wasp larva feeds on the yolk of the locust egg, 

pupates inside the egg, and emerges as a 

wasp 1-2 weeks after un-parasitized eggs 

have hatched. The parasites are sometimes 

abundant and can destroy vast numbers of 

locust eggs. Photo NSW Dept of Industry and 

Investment. 

Biocontrol agent (Metarrhizium sp.) 

www.beckerunderwood.com/en/home 

Fig. 123. Examples of natural and commercial biological controls. 



Obtain advice. 

– Regulations under the relevant Acts prescribe 

methods of control to be adopted. 

– If an infestation develops on a property, it must be 

reported to the nearest administering office. 

– Log onto State/Territory websites (page xiv). 

Cultural methods. Cultivation of egg pods 

particularly in agricultural areas could destroy 

eggs, but is not very effective as most egg pods 

will be missed. 


Natural enemies. All stages of locusts may be 

attacked. The degree of control depends on 

number of parasites and predators, size of the 

locust population and the season. 

– Parasites include various flies, and wasps. 

– Predators include birds, small marsupials, feral 

pigs, dogs and foxes, lizards, frogs, ants, bugs, ants, 

spiders. 

– Diseases include various fungi, nematodes and 

protozoa especially in high rainfall areas. 


– Green Guard (Metarhizium anisopliae var. 

acridium) has been developed from a naturally 

occurring fungus as a biocontrol agent for organic 

properties and environmentally sensitive areas. 

This fungal strain only attacks locusts and 

grasshoppers and is harmless to all other kinds of 

organisms. Fungal spores are suspended in a 

mineral or vegetable oil (to prevent drying out) and 

sprayed onto locusts using conventional aerial and 

ground spraying equipment. The live spores 

germinate on the body of the insect, grow through 

the skin and eventually kill up to 90-95% of locusts 

after 7-20 days, but locusts can still damage plants 

for a number of days after they are infected. Ants 

and other scavenging insects eat the dead insects 

and so they are often difficult to find. Further 

information and a newsletter are available on the 

APLC website. 


In gardens netting or shade cloth can be used to 

protect special or expensive plants. 

Insecticides. 

Chemical control is difficult. Specific areas or 

bands or swarms are targeted (Table 37). Blanket 

spraying over large areas is not carried out. 

Timing. 

– Hopper bands. Treating small areas of dense 

masses of hoppers can effectively control 

potentially damaging populations. However, more 

than 1 application may be needed because eggs may 

hatch over a period of several weeks. Coordinated 

use of appropriate sprays on hopper bands can 

reduce an infestation from a potential major plague 

to a minor outbreak. Should control measures taken 

against hoppers fail, swarms may migrate from the 

breeding area and a plague may develop. 

– Control of flying locusts is beyond the scope of 

an individual landholder. Adult locusts can be 

controlled by treating swarms with aerial ULV 

applications of an insecticide. Differential Global 

Positioning Satellite (DGPS) units are fitted to spray 

aircraft to ensure precise application within target 

areas in pastoral areas inland. Crop protection is 

primarily the responsibility of the grower who 

should report incidence of locusts and obtain 

information from the local council or appropriate 

organization. 

There are ‘no spray’ buffer zones of 1.5km 

between sprayed areas and sensitive areas 

downwind, eg residences, dams and waterways. 

In addition no pesticides are applied within 5km 

of beehives or crops being pollinated by bees. 

Impact of pesticides on the environment, eg 

researching the impact of pesticides on dunnarts 

(Sminthopsis macrour), a small marsupial that 

looks like a hopping mouse. Dunnarts gorge on 

locusts and store body fat for the coming winter. 

So they will ingest a small amount of pesticide. 

Application equipment. Locust control is 

through a combination of ground and aerial 

pesticide spraying (landholders and APLC). 

Pesticide application methods are improving all 

the time, eg drift reduction and improved 

adherence to regulations and other safety 

requirements. 

The APLC also provides advice to landholders 

and state agencies. APLC becomes involved in 

control when the magnitude of control is beyond 

the realms of the individual landholder or stage 

agency and where particular groups of locusts 

are a threat to interstate agriculture. 

Table 37. Australian plague locust – Some insecticides and biocontrol agents. 

What to use? 

CHECK WITH YOUR LOCAL AUTHORITY 

Registered insecticides vary from state to state and 

depend on the situation, crop, etc. 

Group 1A, eg carbaryl 

Group 1B, eg chlorpyrifos, fenitrothion, maldison 

Group 2B, eg Regent , various (fipronil) 

PERMITS MAY BE REQUIRED 

Group 3A, eg Tempo (beta-cyfluthrin) is registered for control 

of grasshoppers on turf, native plants, ornamentals 

in domestic, and certain other situations. 

Fungal biological control agents 

GreenGuard TM (Metarhizium anisopliae var. aecidium.) - 

various formulations 


Locusts can be controlled chemically at the nymph 

(hopper bands) and adult stages (swarms). Some 

insecticides may be too persistent for use on some crops 

and in some situations. Withholding periods must be 

observed. 

Various formulations of GreenGuard TM is used by APLC 

against the APL, migratory locust, spur-throated locust 

and wingless grasshopper in situations where insecticides 

cannot be used to control locusts, eg certified organic 

pastoral properties or environmentally 

sensitive areas. 



ORDER DERMAPTERA 

Earwigs 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

More than 60 species. Mainly nocturnal, hiding in crevices or forest litter 

during the day. The common pest is the introduced European earwig. The 

name earwig comes from a European myth that these insects had a habit of 

crawling into human ears. However, the name more likely originated from the 

ear-shape of the hind wings. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/dermaptera.html 

ADULT Body 1. Small to medium dark coloured elongated insects. 

2. Body is somewhat flattened with hard outer covering. 

3. Highly distinctive 5-50 cm long. 

Wings 1. Two pairs of wings 

2. Forewings are very short and hardened (tegmina). 

3. Hindwings membraneous, ear-shaped and intricately 

fold under the forewings when not in use. 

4. Some species are wingless. 

Abdomen Terminates in a pair of horny forceps termed ‘cerci’. 

Usually shape of the cerci varies according to the sex, 

males curved, females straight with a slight inward 

pointing tip. Cerci are also used to hold food and carry 

prey after it has been killed. 

NYMPHS Similar to adults but smaller and paler, may be wingless. 

LIFE CYCLE 

There is a gradual metamorphosis - egg, nymph (several stages) and 

adult. The life cycle has not been studied in detail in Australia, but it appears 

that there may be only 1 generation per year. 

European 

earwig 

About 

12-20 cm 

long 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

NYMPH 

All stages have chewing mouthparts. Some are valuable predators, 

others are generally omnivorous (feed on all kinds of food). 

Earwigs are nocturnal feeding at night and sheltering during the day. 

186 Insects and allied pests - Dermaptera (earwigs)



DAMAGE 


Plant damage is caused by both nymphs and adults feeding. Feed on a wide 

range of living and dead plant and animal matter. Several species have become 

cosmopolitan and are pests in some areas. 

LEAVES 

FLOWERS 

FRUIT 

SEEDLINGS 

SEEDS 

ROOTS 

Characteristic chewing damage. 


Presence of earwigs on harvested produce is unpleasant. 

Droppings (pellets of excreta) may make plants unsightly and messy. 

Also contaminate windrows at harvest time. 

Potential to become a much worse problem. 

Prop roots of maize and sorghum damaged so that plants lodge (fall over). 

Poor crop establishment. 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Adults are black 

and shiny with 

forceps, probably 

 

females and lay 

eggs the 

following spring 

Valuable 

predators 




Introduced pest species 

Black field earwig 

Native pest species 

. 

Common brown earwig 

Native species 

Giant earwig 

Native species 

Forficula auricularia 

12-20 mm long 

Nala lividipes 


Pest species in Qld and NSW 

Labidura truncata 


Found throughout most of 

Australia and may be 

common in backyards 

Titanolabis colossea 

Up to 55 mm long 

Wide range of plants 

including ornamental 

flowers, eg dahlias, roses and 

zinnias are favored 

ornamental hosts, fruit, 

vegetables and field crops. 

May also feed on seedlings, 

roots, mosses and lichens. 

European earwigs also feed 

on foodstuffs, living and 

dead insects. 

Usually feeds on decaying 

material but also eats newly 

sown and germinating seeds, 

seedlings, stems, roots, 

ringbarks stems of crops, eg 

leucaena, sunflower, summer 

and winter cereals, azuki 

beans, beetroot, maize 

sorghum. Prefers cultivated 

soil rather than zero till. 

A large native earwig that 

prefers to feed on caterpillars 

both larger and smaller than 

itself. They may also feed on 

other insects including other 

earwigs if hungry enough. 

Attacks codling moth larvae 

searching for cocooning sites. 

One of the world’s largest 

earwigs lives in the wet 

forests of the east coast. 

Giant earwigs feed on 

organic matter and other 

insects. 

Native earwig Gonolabis michaelseni Lack the black body and 

pincers of the European 

earwig. 

Insects and allied pests - Dermaptera (earwigs) 187




Forficula auricularia (Dermaptera). Can be a 

serious pest of some crops, but often just a nuisance 

or minor pest in a home garden. 

Host range 

Earwigs are omnivorous feeders and may feed on a 

range of living and dead plant and animal material. 

Crops. Many different types of plants, including 

ornamentals, eg chrysanthemums, dahlias, zinnias, 

fruit, eg grapevines, passion fruit, vegetables, eg 

beans, lettuce, rhubarb, field crops, eg barley, 

canola, lupins, also mosses, lichens and algae. 

Others. Insects. Both dead and living insects 

may be eaten. Foodstuffs. Houses close to infested 

areas may be entered and flour, starch, sugar, fat 

and meat may be eaten. Clothing and carpets. 

May enter houses and chew holes in clothing and 

carpets. They prey on a wide range of insects 

and mites that might occur in a vineyard, consider 

its usefulness before using control measures. 


Adult earwigs have characteristic pincers 

(cerci) at the end of the abdomen and are about 

12-20 mm long, brown and have a flattened body. 

On the upper surface of both the 2 nd and 

3 rd abdominal segments is a pair of pores from 

which the earwig can eject a liquid with an 

offensive odour to a distance of 7-10 cm. Adult 

earwigs have well developed wings but seldom fly. 

They are nocturnal and usually found during the 

day hiding in flowers, fruit clusters, vegetable 

flower head clusters, eg broccoli, rubbish and 

under bark. Nymphs are similar to adults except 

they are smaller and paler in color. 

Plant damage. 

European earwigs tend only to become a 

problem if populations become large. 

Emerging seedlings are damaged to the extent 

that re-seeding may be necessary. 

Leaves and flowers (petals) may become 

ragged in appearance, ragged holes. Fruit and 

pods may be chewed. Earwigs also spoil plants 

by their presence and their excreta. 

Grain and crop seed may be contaminated and 

need cleaning. 

May be a pest in machine-harvested fruit in 

grape vines. Can be a nuisance around packing 

sheds. 

Diagnostics. 

The European earwig is smooth shiny dark 

brown with pale yellow legs, pincers and 

shoulders and 12-20 mm long. Do not confuse 

with other earwigs or other insects, eg 

– Black field earwigs which are shiny, black 

and 12-15 mm long and which also damage 

crops. 

– Native beneficial earwigs (several species) 

generally have reddish brown foreparts and 

legs with a darker abdomen and pincers. They 

are widespread and mainly feed on leaf litter 

and other organic matter. They rarely cause 

any damage to plants. The common brown 

earwig is larger than pest species and up to 30 

mm long. 

– Rove beetles which have no pincers and are 

predators living in soil or leaf litter, some feed 

on dung and fungi. 

Do not confuse damage with that caused by 

other chewing pests, eg caterpillars, beetles, 

grasshoppers, snails and slugs. Earwigs hide in 

crevices and soil during the day, and are not 

readily seen. 

Pest cycle 


nymph and adult) with only 1 generation each 

year. The female lays 2 batches of 20-80 white 

oval eggs, the 1 st in spring and the 2 nd early in 

summer. Eggs are deposited in burrows in topsoil 

and hatch in 2-3 weeks. Females guard their eggs 

until they hatch and may stay for some time with 

the small, developing earwigs in the nest. The 

young earwigs grow by a series of moults (thought 

to be 6 in Australia) until they become winged 

adults. The 1 st and 2 nd stage nymphs do not wander 

far from the nest and quickly retreat to them if 

disturbed. Both nymphs and adults are nocturnal. 


As adult earwigs in stubble, under mulch, ground 

cover, other plant debris, etc. 

Fig. 124. European earwig (Forficula auricularia). Photos NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Left: Female (left) with straight pincers and male (right) with curved pincers. 

Right: The female earwig in the nest with the newly hatched nymphs. 

188 Insects and allied pests - Dermaptera (earwigs)


Spread 

By nymphs and adults crawling, adults have 

wings but seldom use them. They may slowly 

spread from around houses and sheds through 

gardens into neighboring properties. 

Mainly spread by human activity, eg 

– Transport of hay, machinery, soil in nursery stock, 

ornamental plants, bulbs, pot plants, also on 

contaminated seeds and cardboard boxes. 

– Infestations in caravan parks infest caravans and 

tents are transported to other parks. 


Cool moist weather. Most active during spring 

and autumn and rarely troublesome during very 

cold or hot weather. Heavier soil. 

Intensive cropping and stubble retention practices 

improve the habitat for earwigs. Large populations 

can build up in stubble from relatively undamaged 

crops to damage subsequent emerging crops, eg build 

up in lupin stubble, to devastate later emerging crops 

of canola. It may be necessary to reseed some crops. 

Use of mulching material and groundcovers. 

Also damage mature crops. After harvest they 

migrate to windrows where they feed on pods 

when windrows are put through the harvester to 

extract seed, the harvester is contaminated and 

may require cleaning. 



1. Plan in advance. IPM programs are available for 

some other earwigs, eg black field earwigs on various 

crops, eg sweetcorn, providing information on 

monitoring, thresholds and action levels. 

2. Crop, region. Obtain information on local pest 

species and their control. 

3. Identification of species must be confirmed. Earwigs 

are only a problem if numbers are large. Distinguish 

between local pest and beneficial species. Consult a 


4. Monitor earwigs and/or damage weekly early in the 

season if they were a pest the previous season, record 

results. For vegetable crops, lightly scrape soil and 

sieve to detect adults and nymphs prior to planting, use 

germinating seed baits, etc. For grapevines, knock vines 

sharply to dislodge any sheltering earwigs, band with 

corrugated cardboard and examine soil around trunks. 

5. Thresholds have been established for some crops. 

How much damage can you accept? If so, what are 

they, eg economic, aesthetic, environmental? Do you 

need to calculate your own thresholds? 

6. Action. Take appropriate action when decided 

threshold is reached. Home gardeners usually settle on 

non-chemical methods eg sanitation, traps. 

7. Evaluate procedures to see how well they worked. 

Recommend improvements if required 


Sanitation. Removal of rubbish, decaying plant 

material and other debris, where earwigs might 

breed and shelter during the day, assist control. 

See also Plant quarantine below. 


agents are available for purchase or been released. 

Birds are well known predators of earwigs. 

They may be parasitized by some insects and a 

nematode. The offensive fluid they eject may 

repel some predators and parasites. 


State/regional quarantine. The European 

earwig was discovered a few years ago in WA. 

The Industry Resource Protection Program, 

Agriculture WA, is surveying the extent of 

infestation. Occurrences in WA should be 

reported to Agricultural Protection Board in 

your district, so their spread can be restricted. 

Ensure that all machinery, vehicles and 

equipment arriving on your property has been 

cleaned. Also ensure that you minimize the risk 

of spreading them in WA. 


Check seed and plant material for live earwigs 

before bringing them onto your property. Only 

plant earwig-free material. 


Indoors. Earwigs can be swept up and destroyed 

as found. They breed outdoors and invade houses. 

Put in plastic bag and leave in sun for a day. 

Crops. Burning stubble has shown some success but is 

not a preferred option because of the risk of wind 

erosion and environmental pollution. 

Garden traps. Earwigs hide during the day and 

can be attracted to shelter traps placed in areas 

where they are a problem. 

– Rolled newspapers or rolled corrugated cardboard. 

– Upturned flower pots filled loosely with straw or 

crumpled or torn paper. 

– Examine traps twice per week and destroy earwigs 

by shaking into a bucket of soapy water. Paper rolls 

could be destroyed directly by burning if permitted. 

Insecticides. Control with contact insecticides 

is difficult because earwigs shelter under mulch, bark, 

organic matter, in fence posts and other inconspicuous 

places. Baits are used in some crops (Table 38). 

Table 38. European earwig - Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

OUTDOORS 

Group 1A, eg various (carbaryl) – some residual activity 

Group 1B, eg various (chlorpyrifos) - baits 

Group 22A, eg Avatar (indoxacarb) 

Various home garden products, eg pyrethrins; Beat-A- 

Bug Insect Spray (chilli/garlic/pyrethrins); 

Baythroid (cyfluthrin) 


Home gardeners should not need to use insecticides. 

Commercially, grain baits containing insecticide, seed 

dressings and sprays offer some protection. Baits may 

be more effective if earwigs are present on the ground. 

No insecticides may be registered for your crop. 

Seek advice for spray/bait recommendations 

for your region and your crop. 

SEED TREATMENT 

Group 4A, eg.Picus Seed Treatment Insecticide (imidacloprid) is Only apply to healthy seed. 

used to control black field earwigs in certain crops 

INDOORS 

Remember earwigs breed outside. Shovel up earwigs 

found inside and if necessary control earwigs outside. 

Insects and allied pests - Dermaptera (earwigs) 189


ORDER BLATTODEA 

Cockroaches 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

LIFE CYCLE 

Over 450 Australian species, most live under stones, logs and bark, some are 

useful predators, most are not pests. The best known cockroaches are the 

introduced species that infest houses, restaurants and other buildings. Due to 

global changes, evolution scientists warn that pest animals such as cockroaches 

and rats will flourish at the expense of more specialized wild organisms. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/blattodea.html 

www.amonline.net.au/factsheets/cockroaches.htm 

ADULT Body 1. Oval shape, up to 70 mm long. The body is 

flattened so they can make use of tight hiding 

places, eg cracks and crevices. 

2. Thorax covered by a large plate (pronotum) 

which extends partly over the head. 

3. Two compound eyes, two simple eyes (ocelli). 

4. Long many segmented antennae. 

5. Prominent cerci. 

NYMPH 

Wings 

Legs 

1. Winged or wingless, two pairs wings when present. In 

winged species females are wingless. Many do not fly. 

2. Hardened forewings (tegmina) cover membranous 

hindwings. Wings folded left over right when at rest. 

1. They can run quickly if disturbed. 

2. Long spiny legs. 

Generally resemble adults, except for their wings, genitals and 

sometimes body covering. 


Eggs are laid in an egg case (capsule) containing 16-40 eggs. In some species 

this is carried by the female, protruding from the end of her abdomen. 

German 

Cockroach 

Up to 

15 mm 

long 

Although winged, 

this species does 

not seem to fly 

Probably the 

most widespread 

and successful 

species that 

co-exists with 

humans 

in buildings 

METHODS OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT, 

NYMPH 

Both adults and nymphs have chewing mouthparts with 

strong toothed mandibles. Cockroaches are nocturnal, 

usually hiding during the day and coming out to feed at night. 

190 Insects and allied pests - Blattodea (cockroaches)



DAMAGE 


Pest species will eat almost anything. Native species are often found in 

flowers and on foliage of a wide range of native or exotic plants but do not 

seem to do any harm, they probably also feed on detritus associated with 

surface leaf litter and some can feed on and digest the rotting logs they live in. 

Some native species feed on pollen, others on honeydew. 

NEW ROOTS Cockroaches gnaw on soft tissue in greenhouses, crops. 

AND SHOOTS 


Spoil food with their excreta and their characteristic odour. 

Spread disease by physically transporting disease organisms. 

Salmonella organisms are passed on to food in this way. 

General annoyance, allergy, bites. 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Introduced pest 

species can be 

difficult to 

tell apart 

(Gerozisis and 

Hadlington 2001) 

Many more pest 

cockroaches 

overseas 

Many more 

native species, 

some are 

endangered 

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITS 

INTRODUCED PEST SPECIES (various families) 

German cockroach, Blattella germanica Domestic and commercial 

Russian cockroach 

kitchens and other food handling 

Probably originated in Asia 

areas. Will eat almost any organic 

material found in these areas, eg 

crumbs, built-up grease 

American cockroach Periplaneta americana Largest cockroach that infests 

buildings. Pest of buildings, will 

eat almost any food (like the 

German cockroach). Adults can 

survive for 3-4 months without food 

Australian cockroach 

Probably originated in Asia, 

warm subtropical to tropical 

areas 

P. australasiae Prefers food of plant origin. Often 

found under bark or leaf litter in 

gardens, wood piles, also other 

locations that offer moist decaying 

vegetable matter, eg greenhouses, 

sub-floor voids, wall cavities, 

garages and sheds. May fly in 

warm weather 

Oriental cockroach Blatta orientalis Commonly encountered outdoors 

under leaf litter and bark and in 

damp sub-floors around drainage 

systems. Feeds on a variety of 

decaying organic matter in 

garbage disposal areas, starches, 

wall paper sizing and books may 

be attacked 

Brownbanded 

cockroach 

Smokybrown 

cockroach 

AUSTRALIAN SPECIES (various families) 

Macropanesthia 

rhinoceros 

Giant burrowing 

cockroach 

Rhinoceros cockroach 

Supella longipalpa Relatively small, tends to be an 

indoor pest often infests the 

dwelling parts of the buildings as 

well as offices, kitchens. 

Scattered throughout buildings 

P. fuliginosa Prefers food of plant origin and is 

often a pest in greenhouses, bush 

houses, nurseries, gardens, indoor 

plants, ferns, epiphytic orchids 

Lives in tunnels in soil in north 

Qld. Females feed their young on 

dead leaves. It can reach up to 70 

mm in length, weigh up to 30 g, 

may hiss when threatened. May 

be kept as pets; they live for years. 

www.insectfarm.com.au/ 

Wingless cockroach Calolampra spp. Nips off seedlings at ground 

level, eg cotton, sunflower, 

sorghum, maize, leucaena, 

summer cereals 

Nullarbor caves 

cockroach 

Trogloblattella 

nullarborensis 

Lives in caves, is blind and 

restricted to cave life 

Insects and allied pests - Blattodea (cockroaches) 191


‘OVERWINTERING’ All stages, eg adults, nymphs, but varies with the species. 

SPREAD Some winged species fly short distances in warm weather, eg American 

and Oriental cockroaches. 

Transportation on ships, containers, aeroplanes, trains, etc. 

CONDITIONS 

FAVOURING 

 

 

 

Warm moist weather, plenty of food. 

Active during warmer months. 

Conservation tillage, which also favours other soil pests. 

INTEGRATED 

PEST 

MANAGEMENT 

CONTROL 

METHODS 

. 

STEPS IN IPM. 


1. Access/prepare a plan if there is a history of cockroach infestation. Obtain 

advice from your local department of agriculture. 

2. Crop, region. Is your situation a crop, glasshouse, or domestic premises? 

3. Identify the species causing the problem and prepare a prescription sheet so that 

you know its life history. Consult a diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv). 

4. Monitor. Depending on location, check premises/crops at night; set suitable 

traps (see above). If cockroaches are present during the day infestation is serious. 

5. Thresholds. In food areas there is a nil threshold. In crops how much damage 

can you accept? Have any thresholds been established? 

6. Action. Choice of appropriate controls often realistically involves the use of an 

insecticide and sanitation measures, whether it is in a crop or a building. 

7. Evaluation must include continual monitoring after treatment, recording 

results and recommending improvements/continued treatment. 

Cockroaches may be difficult to control, but their tendency to form groups 

assists control. 

LEGISLATION 

Health legislation requires that pest species be controlled. Inspections, 

fines and closures occur. 

CULTURAL METHODS 

Reduce water availability. 

Balance conservation tillage against degree of infestation. 

SANITATION 

Do not leave crop debris lying around in greenhouses and bush houses. 

Store food in tight cockroach proof containers. Regularly clean up food 

remains and empty garbage. In houses seal cracks in cupboards, etc. 

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 

Predators include birds, marsupials, lizards, frogs, mice. 

Parasites such as hatchet wasps lay their eggs in cockroach egg capsules. 

PHYSICAL & MECHANICAL METHODS 

Sticky traps placed in appropriate places will capture some cockroaches 

but on their own do not achieve high levels of control. They are useful for 

monitoring for the presence of cockroaches in IPM programs. 

Inspection at night by torchlight is useful for determining numbers. 

INSECTICIDES 

Insecticides may be applied to: 

– Crops, eg seed dressings and baits may be applied, some by air. 

– Commodities, eg fumigants. 

– Buildings. 

Cleanup before application. 

Surface sprays to skirting boards, cracks. 

Space sprays indoors may be applied as high pressure aerosols, mists or 

fogs. Occupants must vacate the premises. 

Aerosol and bombs. 

Dusts applied to their body are ingested during grooming. 

Baits. 

Fumigants. 

Re-infestation may occur some time after treatment due to subsequent 

hatching of eggs not directly affected by insecticides. 

Follow Resistance Management Strategies on insecticide labels. 

192 Insects and allied pests - Blattodea (cockroaches)


ORDER PHASMATODEA 

Stick insects, leaf insects, phasmatids 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRLIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

LIFE CYCLE 

There are over 150 species. Most species are relatively rare and of unusual 

appearance to the extent that they can be purchased and are often kept as pets. 

There is a ‘Friends of the Phasmid’ website which is the gate way to 

information on the critically endangered stick insect (Dryococelus australis): 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/phasmatodea.html 

www.friendsofthephasmid.org.au/ www.insectfarm.com.au 

ADULT Body 1. Medium to very large insects. 

2. Most are long and thin, 3–30 cm long, or flattened. 

3. Most species resemble sticks, grasses, leaves, etc. Stick 

and leaf insects are usually well camouflaged, blending 

well with twigs and green or dead leaves when motionless. 

4. Do not confuse members with praying mantids (Order 

Mantodea, page 195). 

NYMPH 

Wings 1. Wings mostly absent. In winged species, there are 

2 pairs, males have developed wings, females usually have 

very small wings but are unable to fly. 

2. Forewings are small and leathery (tegmina) to protect and 

cover part of the large membraneous hind wings. 

3. Hindwings are small relative to the size of the insect. 

Leading edge of the hindwings is often hardened. 

Legs 

Forelegs are not modified for catching prey. 

Usually resemble wingless adults. Occasionally 1 st stage nymphs may 

be brightly coloured, mimicking ants. 

There is a gradual metamorphosis - egg, nymph (several stages)and adult. 

Stick 

insect 

Compare 

with 

Mantodea 

Length of 

life cycle 

varies from 

1-3 years 

Phasmatid eggs may be eaten by ants and other insects, lizards and mice or 

parasitized by tiny wasps. Adults and nymphs may be eaten by reptiles, birds 

and other insects including praying mantids. 

Insects and allied pests - Phasmatodea (stick insects) 193


METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

NYMPH 

All stages have chewing mouthparts and feed on the leaves of a 

large variety of plant species. All species feed on the leaves of 

trees and shrubs, although a few species are known to eat grasses. 


DAMAGE 

Not really a horticultural or garden pest but at least three species are major 

pests of eucalypt forests. Most species are uncommon, but some species reach 

plague proportions at irregular intervals and defoliate forests. 


LEAVES Eucalypts in forests may be completely defoliated. Several species 

may reach plague numbers at irregular intervals. Rarely a 

problem in urban areas. 


 

Can give handlers a painful bite. 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Brock, P. D. and 

Hasenpusch, J. W. 2009. 

A Complete Field Guide 

to Stick and Leaf Insects 

of Australia. CSIRO 

Publishing 



Stick insects 

Acrophylla spp. 

Leaves of a wide range of 

plants, usually solitary and 

adult 36 cm long 

rarely warrant removal. 

Wülfing’s stick-insect, giant 

walking stick (Acrophylla 

wuelfingi) is often kept as a 

pet 

Goliath stick insect Eurycnema goliath Found over much of northern 

Australia and down the east 

coast. Females grow up to 

25 cm 

Plagues Ringbarker phasmatid Podocanthus wilkinsoni 

Spiny leaf insect 


Extatosoma tiaratum 


Plagues Spurlegged phasmatid Didymuria violescens 

Plagues 

Endangered 

Tessellated phasmatid 

(Australia-wide) 

Lord Howe Island stick 

insect, land lobster 


Ctenomorphodes tessulatus 


Dryococelus australis 

adult15 cm long 

Became extinct and rediscovered 

2001 

Resembles a big brown 

sausage with spiny legs 

May reach plague 

numbers and defoliate 

whole eucalypt forests 

Can cause significant damage 

to eucalypt forests, but 

rarely a garden pest. Also 

feeds on Acacia spp., other 

plants. Often kept as a pet. 

May reach plague 

numbers and defoliate 

whole eucalypt forests. One 

of the few pests which has 

required aerial application 

of an insecticide to protect 

native forests from excessive 

damage 

May reach plague numbers 

and defoliate whole eucalypt 

forests, may kill forest red 

gums (Eucalyptus tereticornis) 

Associated with eucalypt 

dieback. Also attacks 

Allocasuarina, Lophostemon. 

The ten -inch stick 

(Ctenamorphodes briareus) 

is often kept as a pet 

The world’s oldest and 

rarest species of insect 

feeds on tea tree bushes. 

Eggs and nymphs eaten by 

introduced rats. Three insects 

were found in 2001 on Balls 

Pyramid, a volcanic rock 

without rats, jutting out of the 

sea north of Lord Howe island 

194 Insects and allied pests - Phasmatodea (stick insects)


ORDER MANTODEA 

Mantids, praying mantids 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

Have a characteristic 

way of standing with 

forelegs held together 

as if in prayer while 

waiting for prey 

LIFE CYCLE 

More than 160 species in Australia. About 18,000 species worldwide. Mantids 

are considered to be beneficial, preying on insects of all kinds. Some large 

species will feed on frogs and small lizards. Owing to their low numbers they 

are unlikely to significantly affect populations of beneficial insects. Green 

mantid (Orthodera ministralis) is a common garden species. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/mantodea.html 

www.brisbaneinsects.com/brisbane_hoppers/Mantids.htm 

Members of this order are fairly homogeneous in appearance. The praying 

mantis is so called because of its praying pose as it sits in wait for passing 

insects. Mantids usually occur as single individuals in tree tops to ground level. 

ADULT Body 1. Generally fairly large and elongated, 1-12 cm long. 

2. Most mantids are green or brown and well camouflaged. 

Wings 1. Two pairs. Forewings are narrow and thickened and 

cover membranous hindwings, broad and folded in 

longitudinal plaits when at rest. Some species have 

reduced wings or are wingless. 

2. Males of most species are fully winged and can fly while 

females have either reduced wings or no wings at all. 

Legs Front legs modified with 1 or 2 rows of spines for seizing 

prey from ambush (raptorial legs). 

Head 1. Triangular head which moves freely. 

2. Antennae long and thin. 

3. Large compound eyes and 3 simple eyes (ocelli). 

NYMPH 

Similar to adults but wingless, light in colour, often eaten by 

other insects, spiders and birds. 

There is a gradual metamorphosis - egg, nymph (several stages) and adult 

with 1 generation each year in colder climates. In the tropics 2 overlapping 

generations may occur each year. 

Praying 

mantid 

Compare 

praying mantids 

with leaf insects 

(Phasmatodea) 

which do not have 

raptorial legs 

Some lacewings 

(Neuroptera) also 

have raptorial 

front legs. 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

NYMPH 

Praying mantids lay their eggs in a frothy mass 

attached to branches and trunks of plants or placed 

on the ground under logs or stones. The frothy mass 

hardens, emerging nymphs resemble wingless adults. 

Eggs hatch and each little mantid forces its way 

through the opening at the top of the egg case. The 

surface of the hardened egg mass often has small 

round emergence holes of wasps which have 

parasitized and destroyed the mantid eggs inside. 

Ants, small mammals and birds may eat the eggs. 

All stages have chewing mouthparts. All mantids are predators, 

eating insects of all kinds. They adopt a ‘sit and wait’ method for 

capturing prey. Very large species in northern Australia may eat small 

frogs, birds and lizards. Males and female mantids may eat their 

young, females may eat males. Mantids may bite if handled. 

Insects and allied pests - Mantodea (mantids) 195


ORDER ODONATA 

Dragonflies, damselflies 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 


with: 

Damsel bugs 

which have a 

sucking beak 

(also predatory) 

or 

Flies which only 

have 1 pair of 

wings 

LIFE CYCLE 

More than 300 species in Australia. As both adults and nymphs eat large numbers 

of mosquitoes and other insects, they are considered to be beneficial insects. 

Nymphs and adults are eaten by fish, frogs, birds and platypuses. Some are 

endangered, eg giant dragonfly (Petalura sp.). 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/odonata.html 

Lucid Key: Dragonflies of the World www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Theischinger, G. and Hawking, J. 2006. The Complete Field Guide to Dragonflies 

of Australia. CSIRO Publishing. 

ADULT Body 1. Long slender bodies up to 7.5 cm long. about 15cm long. 

2. Abdomen long, slender, cylindrical and soft. 

3. Short legs. 

4. Dragonflies – Internal gills. 

Damselflies – Have 3 leaf-like gills for extracting oxygen 

at the tip of the abdomen. More colorful 

bodies than dragonflies. 

Head 

Wings 

1. Two large compound eyes on the side of the head. 

2. Three simple eyes (ocelli) between the compound eyes. The 

simple eyes assist in stabilizing their flight. 

3. Very small antennae. 

1. Two pairs long rigid membranous wings of similar shape 

and size. 

Dragonflies – Hind wings slightly broader than forewings. 

Wings held horizontally when at rest. 

Damselflies – Fore and hind wings about the same size. 

Wings held vertically when at rest. 

2. Strong fliers, in fact they are aeronautical marvels, no small 

aircraft can surpass them. 

NYMPH Aquatic (fresh water). Only slightly similar to wingless adult, with 

mouthparts specially modified for catching prey. Adults are commonly 

found near fresh water though some roam far afield. 

There is a gradual metamorphosis - egg, nymph (several stages) and adult 

with 1 to several generations each year depending on the species. 

Dragonfly 

Some 


nymphs of some 

species in Qld 

have been 

recorded as 

being terrestrial, 

some dragonflies 

in Carnarvon in WA 

lay eggs in young 

stems of 

French beans 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT 

NYMPH 

All stages have chewing mouthparts. Adults are aerial predators 

while nymphs are aquatic predators. 

196 Insects and allied pests - Order Odonata (dragonflies)



Class Collembola, Phylum Arthropoda. There 

are more than 1600 species in Australia. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/hexapods/collembola.html 

Species include: 

Garden springtails (Bourletiella spp.) 

Mushroom springtails (Hypogastrura spp.) 

Purple scum springtail (H. vernalis) 

Rootfeeding springtails (Onychiurus spp.) 

White springtail (Folsomia candida) 

Lucerne flea (Sminthurus viridis) is a serious 

introduced pest of lucerne, vegetables, etc. 

The Toohey forest collembola (Dinaphorura 

tooheyensis) is being assessed by the threatened 

species scientific committee. 

Beneficial springtails. 

Litter and soil species play a role in the 

maintenance of soil fertility by helping to 

breakdown organic matter through grazing on 

fungi and vegetable matter. 

The grazing of large populations of the sewage 

springtail (Hypograstrura viatica) controls 

excessive algal growth in sewage beds. 

Host range 

Adults and nymphs feed on the same material. 

Springtails are mainly scavengers feeding on fungi, 

algae, pollen but under exceptional conditions 

may injure soft plant tissue of a range of plants, eg 

Mushrooms and mushroom compost where 

they feed on decaying organic matter and fungi. 

Occasionally healthy seeds and seedling roots 

and shoots are attacked. 

Some species are found in turf cores. 

Compost, potting mixes and soil. 

Bulbs and corms are also damaged. 

Some species live amongst moss. 

Springtails may live in perennial plant 

production systems; field crops can also be 

injured. 

ALLIED PESTS - Springtails 

Class Collembola 


Adult springtails are generally < 6 mm long 

with the most frequently observed species being 

white or gray and about 1-3 mm long. Rarely up 

to 10mm long. Some are green or yellow with 

irregular darker markings; or blue-black, red or 

banded with a metallic sheen. They are primitive 

insects and the bodies of some species are covered 

with scales or hairs. Springtails have: 

A bilaterally symmetrical body. 

An exoskeleton (outer hard covering to body). 

A segmented body. 

Three pairs of legs. 

One pair of antennae. 

Simple eyes. 

Entirely and primitively wingless. 

Many have a forked furcula on the abdomen for 

jumping. The popular name of ‘springtail’ has 

been applied because some species bear a 

‘spring’, a pair of partly joined appendages, at 

the end of the abdomen which enables them to 

spring or jump when disturbed. 

Nymphs resemble adults but they are smaller. 

Damage. Springtails have tube-like chewing 

mouthparts sunk into the head. Springtails are 

often found in very large numbers in mushroom 

compost where they can damage the crop if present 

in high enough numbers. Seeds and seedlings may 

also be damaged, corms rot. Delicate foliage of 

growing plants may occasionally be attacked. 

Diagnostics. 

Springtails are so small that they are seldom 

noticed except by those looking for them. Some 

are more easily seen with the aid of a microscope 

or hand lens. 

Most commonly noticed after rain as small 

‘grayish scum’ floating in their hundreds in 

puddles of water ceaselessly moving or springing 

on top of soil or pools in open drains, where the 

water is still, not moving. 

They are sometimes mistaken for thrips moving 

over potting media especially after plants have 

been irrigated. 

White springtails on soil. Side view of springtail View from above 

Fig. 125. Springtails (Class Collembola) commonly 1-3 mm long. 

Photos NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Insects and allied pests - Springtails (Collembola) 197


Pest cycle 

There is no metamorphosis (eggs, 5-6 nymphal 

stages, adult) with several (3-4) generations each 

year. Adults continue to grow and alternate 

between a stage that usually does not feed, but can 

reproduce, and one that cannot reproduce but does 

most of the feeding. Each generation takes about 3- 

5 weeks. The female springtail lays minute semispherical 

eggs in small groups in the soil or among 

organic matter where adults may be feeding. The 

eggs hatch into young which resemble the adult in 

general form and grow by a series of moults. 


Probably as eggs in soil among organic matter but 

they may occur all year round if moisture is 

present and it is not too hot or cold. 

Spread 

By floating on water in drainage channels, pots, 

streams. 

Movement of decaying vegetable matter or soil 

containing such. 

Movement of turf sod, containers, etc. 


Favoured by prolonged cool, damp or wet 

weather in autumn and spring. 

Common following rain or heavy watering. 

Springtails float on the surface of drainage water. 

Stagnant water. 

Decaying moist organic matter, eg compost 

heaps, leaf mould. 

Numbers decrease during warm summer months 

when soils are drier. 



1.Obtain/prepare a plan if necessary, that fits 

your situation. 

2.Crop, region. Remember springtails may be 

generally beneficial and only occasionally damage 

some crops, eg mushrooms, seedlings. 

3.Identification of pest must be confirmed. Do not 

confuse with thrips (page 130). Consult a diagnostic 

service if necessary (page xiv). 

4.Monitor populations of springtails and beneficials 

especially during cool, damp weather, where there is 

stagnant water and they are known to be a problem. 

Remember you need to know when, where, what 

and how to monitor (page 39). Record findings. 



they, eg economic, aesthetic or environmental? Do 

you need to calculate your own threshold? 

6.Action. You may need to reduce irrigation, improve 

drainage and encourage natural enemies by 

minimizing insecticide use. It is not necessary to use 

insecticides in the home garden. 

7.Evaluation. Review the IPM program. Adjust 

control strategies if required. 


Cultural methods. Reduce moisture. If 

planting seedlings in soil heavily infested with 

springtails, liming and frequent turning over of the 

earth before planting will reduce their numbers and 

the risk of injury to plants. Reduce irrigation, 

improve drainage. 

Biological control. Natural enemies include 

ants, beetles, bugs, mites and probably spiders. 

Birds will feed on them. 

Insecticides. In a home garden situation 

pesticides are not recommended. In commercial 

crops insecticides may be applied to soil or plants 

only if monitoring indicates there is likely to be 

there is to be economic injury to seeds or seedlings. 

Table 39. Springtails – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

SPRAYS, eg 

Commercial crops only, eg 

Group 1B, eg Lorsban , various (chlorpyrifos) is registered 

to control springtails in young cotton plants. 

Insecticides are not necessary in the home garden. 


Springtails occasionally may require control in some 

commercial crops, eg cotton, mushrooms, turf, vegetables. 

It may be necessary to add a wetting agent. 

Insecticides should only be applied: 

After springtails have been identified, and numbers 

indicate damage is likely to occur. 

When cultural control methods such as reduced moisture 

do not bring about a quick reduction in numbers and 

If seeds or seedlings of commercial crops are likely to 

continue to be injured. 

198 Insects and allied pests - Springtails (Collembola)


ALLIED PESTS - Mites 

Class Arachnida, Order Acarina 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

. 

LIFE CYCLE 

Probably several hundred species in Australia and approximately 30,000 species 

world wide. Most mites are too small to be seen with the naked eye, so that 

identifying them as the cause of a plant problem can be difficult. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/allies/acarina.htm 

Lucid keys Mites of Quarantine Importance, Mites in Soil, Invasive Mite Identification 

www.lucidcentral.org/ 

ADULT Body 1. Two main body regions (fused head/thorax, abdomen). 

However, the body appears to have just 1 body segment 

Compare with insects which have 3 obvious body regions. 

2. Small in size. 

Mites - Up to 1mm in length, many are much smaller. 

Ticks - Larger than mites. 

2. No antennae or wings. 

3. Simple eyes. 

3. Globular or pear-shaped. 

Legs 

1. Usually 4 pairs (some nymphs have 3 pairs). 

2. Eriophyid mites have only 2 pairs of legs. 

NYMPH Usually similar to adults but smaller, some only have 3 pairs of legs. 

There is a gradual metamorphosis – egg, nymph (several stages) and adult. 

Twospotted 

mite 

(red spider) 

Adults are about 

0.5 mm long, 

but are difficult 

to see without 

a hand lens 

METHODS OF 

FEEDING 

ADULT All stages have piercing and sucking mouthparts. Mites feed on a 

NYMPH variety of plants and animals, both living and dead. 

Insects and allied pests - Mites (Arachnida, Acarina) 199



DAMAGE 


LEAVES Blisters, curls, eg grapeleaf blister mite, pearleaf blister mite, 

SHOOTS walnut blister mite, native eriophyid mites, broad mite 

Bud mites, eg camellia bud mite 

Chlorosis (sandy stippling, may turn grayish), eg twospotted mite 

Defoliation, eg twospotted mite (large populations on many plants) 

Erineum, eg grapeleaf, pearleaf and walnut blister mites 

Leaf rolling, eg twospotted mite (on apples) 

Pigmentation, eg European red mite (bronzing), grapeleaf blister 

mite (pink) 

Silvering, eg peach silver mite, earth mites on grasses, etc 

Witches’ broom, eg lucerne bud mite, native eriophyid mites 

BULBS, Rotting, eg bulb mite 

STORED Droppings, odour, eg flour mite 

PRODUCTS 

FRUIT Malformation, eg citrus bud mite 

Russetting, eg citrus rust mite, tomato russet mite 

STEMS Bronzing, eg tomato russet mite 

Galls, eg Chrondilla gall mite on skeleton weed (bio-control agent) 


Webbing by spider mites. 

Virus disease transmission (unusual), eg fig mosaic virus. 

Grass itch mite (Odontacarus australiensis) and scrub typhus mite 

(Leptotrombidium deliense) suck blood from wild birds and animals, 

domestic cats and humans causing intense irritation. 

Varroa mite (Varroa destructor), about the size of a pinhead, is an external 

parasite of bees. Australia is the last major beekeeping country free from 

this serious pest of honey bees which weakens and kills honey bee colonies 

and can also transmit honey bee viruses. 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Eriophyid mite 

Redlegged 

earth mite 



ERIOPHYID MITES (Family Eriophyidae) 

1. Very small, 0.2 mm in length 

2. Elongated, tapered body 

3. Only 2 pairs legs located at head 

4. Cannot be seen with naked eye and is hard to see with a hand lens 

Camellia rust mite 

Citrus rust mite 

Acaphylla steinwedeni 

Phyllocoptruta oleivora 

Citrus bud mite Eriophyes sheldoni Citrus 

Couch mite E. tenuis 

Couchgrass mite E. cynodoniensis 

Hibiscus erineum E. hibisci 

mite 

There are more than 1000 species of 

eriophyid mites which infest plants 

worldwide; many do little harm to their 

hosts - a x40 lens is needed to see 

them 

Camellia 

Citrus, esp. oranges, mandarins 

Bent, couch, kikuyu 

Bent, couch, kikuyu 

Malvaceae, eg cotton, Hibiscus 

spp., eg okra, Rosella 

Native eriophyid 

mites 

Various genera 

Eucalypt, Angophora, Acacia, 

Leptospermum 

Tulip bulb mite, 

onion mite 

Aceria tulipae 

Bulbs (Alliaceae, Liliaceae) 

Olive bud mite Oxycenus maxwelli Some varieties of olive, entered 

NSW since 1996 

Grapeleaf blister mite Colomerus vitis 

Grapes 

Pearleaf blister mite Eriophyes pyri Pear, overseas apple, related plants 

Walnut blister mite E. tristriatus Walnut 

Tomato russet mite Aculops lycopersici Tomato, other Solanaceae, eg 

eggplant, capsicum, petunia, 

weeds, eg black nightshade 

EARTH MITES (Family Penthaleidae) 

1. Adults 1 mm long. 

2. Red legs. 

3. No webbing. 

Blue oat mite Penthaleus major 

Cereals, pasture 

Redlegged earth mite Halotydeus destructor Cereals, pasture 

200 Insects and allied pests – Mites (Arachnida, Acarina)


LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

(contd) 

Brown almond mite 

1. Nearly 1 mm long 

2. Front pair of legs 

longer than others 


1. Up to 0.5 mm long 

2. Four rows of long 

curved spines on back 

3. Eggs distinctive 


About 0.5 mm long just 

visible to the naked eye 

Not known 

in Australia 

Broad mite 

Adults 0.2 mm long, 

wider than other mites 

Not known 

in Australia 

Chilean 

predatory mite 

Adults 0.7 mm long 

List of suppliers: 

www.goodbugs.org.au 



SPIDER MITES (Family Tetranychidae) 

SPIDER MITES WHICH DO NOT PRODUCE WEBBING 

Brown almond mite, 

bryobia mite 

Bamboo spider mite 

Bryobia rubrioculus 

Schizoteranychus 

bambusae 

Deciduous stone trees, hawthorn 

Bamboo 

European red mite Panonychus ulmi Deciduous fruit trees, especially 

apples, ornamental trees and 

shrubs, eg elm, rose 

Citrus red mite P. citri One of the world’s worst pests of 

citrus, also mulberry, hawthorn, etc 

SPIDER MITES WHICH DO PRODUCE WEBBING 

Twospotted mite, 

red spider 

Bean spider mite 

Carmine spider mite 

Banana spider mite 

Hydrangeaspidermite 

Oriental spider mite 

Red spider mite 

Southern red mite 

Tetranychus urticae 

T. ludeni 

T. cinnabarinus 

T. lambi 

T. hydrangeae 

T. orientalis 

T. piercei 

Oligonychus ilicis (smaller 

than Tetranychus) 

Variety of crops, ornamental plants 

As above, beans, cucurbit 

Wide variety of crops 

ornamental plants 

Banana, weeds 

Hydrangea 

Citrus 

Cotton, banana, groundnut, pawpaw 

Azaleas, camellia, other hosts 

overseas 

(SRM) (eradicated) 

Spruce spider mite O. unungus Conifers, eg fir, juniper, pine, spruce 

Tea red spider mite O. coffeae Citrus 

TARSONEMID MITES (Family Tarsonemidae) 

Broad mite 

Bulb scale mite 

Cyclamen mite 

Polyphagotarsonemus 

latus 

Steneotarsonemus laticeps 

S. pallidus 

FALSE SPIDER MITES (Family Tenuipalpidae) 

Passionvine mite Brevipalpus phoenicus 

Bunch mite 

B. californicus 

Privet mite 

Chilean red spider mite 

B. obovatus 

B. chilensis 

Wide range, ornamentals, fruit, 

vegetables, weeds are a source of 

infestation in orchards 

Amaryllidaceae, eg hippeastrum 

Strawberry, begonia, cyclamen, 

African violet, other ornamentals 

Passionvine 

Grape, citrus, camelia, tea, fuchsia, 

hydrangea, other plants 

Privet, palms, roses, fuchsia, azalea 

Grapevines 

STORED PRODUCT MITES (Family Acaridae) 

Bulb mite Rhizoglyphus echinopus Ornamental and vegetable bulbs 

Flour mite Acarus siro Broken grain, etc, 

PREDATORY MITES (Family Phytoseiidae) 

Chilean predatory Phytoseiulus persimilis Twospotted mite, bean spider mite 

mite 0.7 mm long 

Hypoaspis soil 

dwelling mite 

Predatory mite 


Predatory mites 

Stratiolaelaps miles 

Typhlodromus occidentalis 

T. pyri 

Amblyseius spp. 

Fungus gnat larvae in potting mixes, 

Western flower thrips pupae in soil 



Twospotted mite, broad and 

cyclamen mites, thrips 

Predatory mite Neoseiulus cucumeris Some mites and immature thrips 


(soil-dwelling) 

Hypoaspis 

(=Geolaelaps) aculeifer) 

Bulb mites, thrips and fungus gnats 

OTHER BENEFICIAL MITES 

Mites can be used as indicators of the amount of nitrogen or phosphate in soil or 

the presence of particular minerals. Analysis of the soil mite community could give 

foresters an idea of the soil chemistry of a plantation. 

Fungal-feeding mites feed on sooty mould and other fungi, up to 150 can be found on 

some leaves. In the soil mites, beetles springtails, protozoans, free-living nematodes 

and earthworms feed on fungi, bacteria, decaying leaves. 



Twospotted mite, Red Spider 

An example of a spider mite 

This is a serious pest of a wide range of plants 

during warm weather both indoors and outdoors. 

Plant materials such as fruit carrying more than a 

certain number of mites may be refused entry to 

some countries. The most important pest of 

ornamental plants and cut flowers in Australia. 

Most common spider mite and a severe problem 

wherever it occurs. 


Tetranychus urticae (Class Arachnida, Order 

Acarina). Twospotted mite is a spider mite (Family 

Tetranychidae). Other spider mites include: 

Banana spider mite (T. lambi) 

Bean spider mite (T. ludeni) 

Hydrangea spider mite (T. hydrangea) 


Host range 

This is a world wide pest which feeds on a 

variety of plants, eg 

Ornamentals, eg indoor plants, eg umbrella tree, 

palms; carnation, fuchsia, orchids, roses, violets. 

Fruit, eg deciduous fruit trees, especially apple 

and pear, trailing berries, strawberry. 

Vegetables, eg bean, cucumber, tomato. 

Field crops, eg cotton. 

Weeds, eg various. 


Plant damage is caused by the nymphs and adults 

sucking plant sap from the leaves. 

Adult mites are just large enough to be seen 

without a hand lens (about 0.5 m long). They are 

pale greenish or yellowish, the colour varying 

somewhat on the different host plants, and have 

8 legs. The mites have distinctive dark markings 

on either side of the body. These markings are 

particularly large and prominent in the adult 

female. The females are rather pear-shaped, can 

move actively and spin fine webbing over the 

surface on which they are feeding. The males are 

smaller and narrower. Nymphs initially have 

6 legs but later nymphal stages have 8 legs. 

Leaves. Infestation usually starts on the more 

mature leaves and moves upwards. Mites feed 

mostly on leaf undersurfaces and in heavy 

infestations they also feed on the upper surfaces. 

Feeding mites cause leaf mottling or speckling. 

Often quantities of webbing are seen and adult 

mites are easily seen with a hand lens. Yellowing 

of leaves may occur; leaves may die and finally 

fall. On some hosts, eg apple and beans there may 

be bronzing of leaves and an uprolling of leaf 

margins. Mites can crawl all over the plant and 

envelope it in a mass of webbing. This is used as 

an aid to wind dispersal. 

Fruit. Apples may be undersized and red 

varieties may fail to colour evenly and fully. Fruit 

may also become sunburned due to excessive 

exposure to sun caused by defoliation. Common 

pest of strawberry. 

Limbs may become sunburnt due to defoliation. 

Green twigs of citrus may have yellow spots. 

General. Repeated severe infestations year after 

year can result in weakening of trees and affect 

root growth. Herbaceous plants may die. 

Diagnostics. 

Twospotted mites are identified by the 

distinctive markings on each side of the body 

(pages 199 and 203, Fig.126). 

Do not confuse twospotted injury to leaves with 

that caused by some sap sucking insect pests 

(see Table 40 

below). 

If in doubt contact a diagnostic service. 

Diagnostic tools for mite identification are 

continually being developed including for 

DNA-based technologies. 

Lucid keys, eg Mites of Quarantine Importance, 

Mites in Soil, Invasive Mite Identification are 

available at www.lucidcentral.org/ 

Pest cycle 

There is a gradual metamorphosis - egg, 

nymph (several stages) and adult with as many as 

9 generations during warmer months (Fig. 126). 

Each female lays 70-100 eggs, the life cycle takes 

7-14 days in summer. In coastal areas continues 

throughout the year but in colder areas females 

become inactive. Females change colour from 

greenish to orange in winter and become inactive. 

Table 40. Comparison of damage caused by twospotted mites and some sap sucking insects. 

LEAVES 

UPPER 

SURFACE 

TWOSPOTTED 

MITE 

Sandy speckling 

(leaf stippling) 

VARIOUS 

LEAFHOPPERS 

Speckled feeding 

patterns 

GREENHOUSE 

WHITEFLY 

LACE BUGS 

Azalea, olive 

GREENHOUSE 

THRIPS 

Sandy speckling Sandy speckling Silvering 

UNDER 

SURFACE 

Mites, webbing 

Insects if present, 

fly if disturbed, 

possibly a few 

cast skins, but 

surface may be 

 

Whiteflies, white 

stationary nymphs, 

honeydew, sooty 

mould 

Lace bugs, spiny 

nymphs, black tarry 

drops of excreta 

Adults and 

nymphs often 

dark coloured, 

black tarry 

drops of excreta 




In cold areas, most males die as the temperature 

drops. A few survive and these, with mature 

females, change colour to bright red (‘red 

spider’) and hibernate. 

On deciduous plants, eg roses and apples, mites 

descend from plants and ‘camp’ on the lower 

parts of the main stem, in cracks or damaged 

bark and under debris at the base of main stems. 

Some mites migrate to nearby perennial weeds 

where they may feed and reproduce at a very 

slow rate during winter. 

On evergreen hosts, eg violets, females also 

change colour but often remain on the plants, 

feeding and reproducing at a very slow rate. 

In greenhouses, mites continually reproduce. 

Spread 

By crawling from plant to plant. 

On windblown leaves, clothing, plant debris, 

visiting insects. 

By movement of infested leafy plants in pots. 

Between nurseries on plants. Cuttings. 

By propagation from infected plants (with 

leaves). 


High temperatures during dry or humid 

conditions. Outdoors most damage is caused 

during the warmer summer months. Bodman et 

al (1996) calculated the time required for a 

population to double at particular temperature: 

13 days 16.5 o C 

7 days 21 o C 

4 days 25.5 o C (optimum temperature) 

3 days 29.5 o C 

Heavy falls of rain or good irrigation can 

reduce the effects of infestation. 

Broad spectrum miticides and insecticides 

which eliminate naturally occurring predators, eg 

when carbaryl is used extensively on apples to 

control other pests, populations of the twospotted 

mite's natural enemies are reduced or killed off. 

Synthetic pyrethroids may also cause upsurges 

of mites due to adverse effects on beneficials. 

Application of fruit fly baits too high in the 

tree disrupts predatory mites causing outbreaks 

of twospotted mites especially in Meyer lemons. 

Water-stressed plants. 

House plants are susceptible during winter 

months especially if artificial heating is used. 

Development of resistant mite populations 

due to continued use of one miticide. 

Tiny black mite-eating ladybird 

(Stethorus spp.) about 2mm long, often 

found on the back of mite-infested rose 

leaves. 


Predatory mites, 0.7mm 

long and pear-shaped; Top and 

Right: Twospotted mites. 

Fig. 126. A spider mite 

(Tetranychus sp.). Probably 

bean spider mite, adults 

of which are red and do not 

have 2 distinctive markings 

on either side of their body. 



All magnified about x30 

1. Underside of leaf showing 

eggs 

2. 6-legged larvae and 

8-legged nymphs 

3. Adult mites 

Actual size 

4. Bean plants injured 

by spider mites (0.5 mm long) 





1. Access/prepare a plan that fits your situation. 

Various IPM programs are available, eg for citrus, 

cotton, roses, strawberries and other crops. 


3. Identification can be difficult, ensure damage is 

not caused by other mite species or by sucking insects. 

Consult a diagnostic service if required (page xiv). 

4. Monitor mites, predators and damage regularly (page 

39). Know when, where, what and how to monitor. 

Monitor with a small hand lens or employ a monitoring 

service. Inspection and trapping of 2-spotted should start 

when plants/cuttings first arrive and continue until day of 

plant sale (also for whitefly, aphids etc). This will alert 

you to hot spots or flare-ups so that you can order 

predators or handpick badly affected leaves and help 

prevent other pests, diseases and nutritional issues. 

Different crops require different monitoring procedures. 

Access information for your crop, eg roses, citrus, cotton. 

5. Thresholds have been established for some crops. 

Growers may have to accept some damage, 

providing it is not causing economic loss. 

Citrus pest and predators. Threshold is more 

than 20% fruit or leaves infested. 

6. Action/Control. Take appropriate action when 

any threshold is reached, eg 

Do nothing, use cultural and sanitation controls or 

water sprays. 

Release predators. Do not spray chemicals 

hazardous to predatory mites. It may be necessary 

to apply a corrective selective miticide to assist 

predators if monitoring shows a need. 

just before mite 

population increases to the stage of overcrowding 

when they are likely to ‘escape’. 

to control twospotted mites as 

long as possible. 

7. Evaluation. Review IPM program to see how 


required. Continue monitoring after treatment and 

consult previous year’s records for comparison. 



Appropriate irrigation of outdoor and indoor plants 

can reduce the effects of infestation. Used in 

greenhouse flower-growing sometimes. 

Outdoor container plants can be moved from hot 

sunny positions to cooler, more sheltered sites. 

Plants such as violets in hot sites can be replanted 

in cooler, shaded areas. 

Sanitation. 

Destroy weeds and old crop residues which harbour 

mites and help to buildup mite populations. 

Keep glasshouse clean. Avoid handling infested 

material and brushing clothes by infested plants. 


Natural enemies. 

–Predators include tiny black mite-eating ladybird 

(Stethorus spp.), native mites (Euseius victoriensis, 

E. eliniae), lacewing and fly larvae, thrips 

(Scolothrips sexmaculatus). 

–Fungal diseases (Neozygites spp., Hirsulella 

thompsonii) in coastal areas. Naturalis-O 

(Beauveria bassiana) is available overseas. 

move over 

leaves and other plant parts and prey on eggs, 

nymphs and adults of twospotted mites. Predators are 

also dispersed in wind from cooling fans and on 

workers’ clothing. Two insecticide-resistant 

predatory mites have been released in Australia. 

– to control twospotted 

mite in apple orchards and rose gardens in IPM 

programs. 

– can be purchased from 

several private companies for use in IPM programs. 

Adult Persimilis eat from 5-20 prey (eggs or mites) 

per day but they must have prey to feed on. IPM will 

not eradicate 2-spotted but will manage them at a 

level where there is no economic damage. 

Persimilis move faster than 2 spotted mites, are 

orange and pear shaped are easy to recognize using 

a hand lend or x10 (page 203, Fig. 126). 

– Suppliers provide information on when to release 

predators, how to use them effectively and which 

pesticides may be used. Predators are not resistant to 

all pesticides. Home garden packs of predatory mites 

are available. It is usually recommended that 

predators be released in spring, eg early September. 

Follow release instructions provided by the supplier. 

Regular introductions are more effective in roses and 

ornamentals in glasshouses. 


– Monocultures. It is easier to biologically suppress 

twospotted mites where only one crop is grown, eg in 

apple orchards, orchids, rose gardens and cucurbit 

crops. It is more difficult to use them successfully in a 

home garden situation or in glasshouses where many 

different plants are grown. 

– aid in the development and dispersal 

of predators for control of plant pests, especially 

twospotted mites. They enhance persistence of 

predatory mites and improve. Banker plants in light 

weight containers can be moved to increase longrange 

dispersal of predators and be removed from 

direct harmful pesticide or fertilizer applications. 


Where twospotted mites are a constant problem, 

consider planting less susceptible species or 

varieties if practical. 

Umbrella and cocos palm have some resistance. 


Local quarantine. Avoid re-introducing infested 

plant material to properties. Plants brought into a 

nursery or onto a property should be thoroughly 

inspected and treated if necessary. Avoid 

introducing plants from areas where resistance to 

miticides is a problem. 


Avoid taking cuttings from infested plants or 

introducing/transporting infested plants. 

 

Brushing. 40 strokes twice daily or shaking of 

plant shoots has been shown to consistently 

reduced mites (and thrips) populations on some 

greenhouse plants. 

High volume high pressure can 

temporarily suppress populations by dislodging 

mites but may damage soft foliage. 

Miticides. control/suppress certain mite species. 

Follow Croplife Science Resistance Strategies 

and Resistance Warnings on labels. 

– Twospotted mites have developed resistance to 

most organophosphates and organochlorines. 

– Most serious mite infestations can be traced to 

continued use of one miticide, resulting in 

development of a resistant population. Generally the 

more often a chemical has been applied the greater 

the resistance problem. 

– Use insecticides 

alternate groups to prolong use of and avoid 

development of resistance. 

– Check resistance recommendations on labels. 

Application. Mites generally inhabit leaf undersurfaces 

and are difficult to contact with sprays. In 

orchards, high-pressure, high-volume sprays 

thoroughly drench trees and leaf undersurfaces. If 

dense foliage interferes with mite control, prune 

trees to open up the canopy. Webbing is inclined to 

repel spray droplets. Poor spray coverage and time of 

year can result in poor mite control. 



Timing. Outdoor tree/bush crops. Commence in 

early spring at first sign of mite infestation (from 

September onwards). If this spray can be applied 

before mites have settled on leaves and before 

they have produced webbing, control is better. 

Different life stages. of mites (Table 41). 

– Information on using miticides on some crops is 

available (Learmonth 2008). 

– Some miticides are more effective against eggs 

than motile stages (nymphs and adults) and vice 

versa. The miticide chosen depends on the most 

abundant stage present at a particular time. 

– Ovicides (effective against eggs) and larvicides 

(effective against nymphs) reduce mite populations 

more slowly than those that are effective against 

all motile stages (nymphs and adults). Remember 

this lag time. Ovicides ideally should be applied 

when egg numbers are high and significant 

populations of active stages have developed. 

– Adulticides (effective against adults) quickly 

eliminate the feeding stages of mites and damage 

stops soon after the spray is applied. Their use can 

be delayed right up to the point where economic 

damage is imminent. Some adulticides are sloweracting 

than others and need to be applied earlier 

than more effective products to prevent damage. 

Where predatory mites. are being used 

to control twospotted mites. Suppliers indicate 

which pesticides may be used to control other pests 

and to supplement the control of twospotted mites 

by predatory mites. Avoid spray drift. 

Where only. pesticides are used. Use 

selective pesticides, eg miticides not toxic to 

naturally occurring predators of other pests. Avoid 

indiscriminate use of broad spectrum insecticides, 

eg carbaryl, synthetic pyrethroids. 

Table 41. Some miticides – Stages effective against (not necessarily twospotted mite). 

Insecticide 

ModeofAction 

Group 

TRADE NAME 


1B Folimat (omethoate) 

Malathion (maldsion) 


Benthion (azinphos methyl) 

3A Mavrik (tau-fluvalinate) 

Procide, Talstar (bifenthrin) 

6 Avid, Gremlin, Vertimec 

Agrimec, various (abamectin) 

Ultiflora, MilbeKnock 

(milbemectin) 

10A Apollo (clofentezine) 

Calibre (hexythiazox) 

STAGES OF MITES 

effective against 

Nymphs, adults 




Eggs, larvae, nymphs 

adults 

Eggs, early nymphs 

Eggs, early nymphs 

10B Paramite, Stealth (etoxazole) Eggs, early nymphs 

mite growth regulator 

COMMENTS (Although some are selective 

miticides, some also control other insects) 

All broad spectrum, kill predators 

Mavrik suppresses mite populations. 

Fast knockdown. 

Used where resistance does not occur. 

Twospotted mites on ornamentals, 

strawberries 

Residual. Not toxic to predatory mites, 

beneficials. May control some resistant 

mites. 

Adults lays sterile eggs, stops existing 

eggs and nymphs developing 

12A Pegasus (diafenthiuron) All stages Residual for 14 days, used in IPM. 

12B Torque (fenbutatin oxide) Nymphs, adults Residual. Low toxicity to P. persimilis. 

12C Betamite, Omite (propargite) Nymphs, adults Low toxicity to predatory mites. 

Secure, Intrepid (chlorfenapyr) Nymphs, adults Twospotted mite, no cross resistance has 

(stomach acting, ingested) been recorded. Persistent. 

21A Pyranica (tebufenpyrad) Eggs, nymphs, adults Long lasting control. 

Sanmite (pyridaben) Eggs, nymphs, adults A few adult mites remain for 3-4 weeks, 

a week later most will have disappeared. 

12D/UN Masta-mite (dicofol/tetradifon) Eggs, nymphs, adults Do not use with IPM programs or if mites 

are known to be resistant to dicofol. 

UN 

Acramite, Floramite 

(bifenazate) 

Adults, nymphs, some 

activity against eggs 

Selective miticide, quick knockdown 

thro’ contact activity & good residual 

activity, relatively inactive against 

predacious mites and beneficial insects 

UN Azamax, Eco-neem, 

Nymphs, adults (insect Twospotted mite, consistent applications 

Neemazal (azadirachtin) growth regulator, must be necessary, toxic to bees, do not use on 

ingested or contacted) plants that produce food for human 

or animal consumption 

UN Kelthane, Miti-Fol (dicofol) Nymphs, adults More effective against broad mite and 

Fungicide 

Group M2 

Lime sulphur , Wettable sulphur , 

Sulphur Dusts 

Spray oils Petroleum oils 

Winter Oil , Stifle Dormant Oil 

Summer Spray Oil, White Oil , 

Pest oil 

Paraffinic oils 

BioPest Oil, BioClear , 

Eco-Pest Oil, EnSpray 99, 

Trump Spray Oil 

Botanical oils 

Eco-Oil 

Other sprays Soap sprays, eg Natrasoap , 

various (potassium salts) 

Home garden sprays, eg Rose 

Spray and Insect Killer (taufluvalinate/myclobutanil) 

Nymphs, adults, prevents 

buildup of mite populations 

Eggs, nymphs 

Spray oils are not selective and 

may harm predatory mites and 

other beneficials but they leave 

no residues and their effect is 

short-lived. New predators can 

colonize treated surfaces. Oils 

can damage plants, if used 

judicially they can be useful. 


cyclamen mite. Long residual. 

Contact, fumigant and smothering 

effects on mites 

Winter spray oils (dormant, semidormant) 

do not significantly reduce 

numbers of twospotted mites which 

‘overwinter’ as adult females on herbage. 

Summer and other spray oils 

smother eggs, nymphs. Also predators. 

Spray oils may be used on hot spots 

where 2-spotted has built up to damaging 

numbers, well ahead of perennial buildup. 

Soaps dissolve waxy covers, may kill 

beneficials but only when first applied; 

new predators can safely colonize treated 

surfaces. Soap can damage some plants, if 

used judicially they can be useful. 




Example of an eriophyid mite 

Generally speaking, this mite is not considered to 

be a serious pest, but if most of the leaves are 

attacked, the cropping of vines may be affected 

and sunburn of berries may occur. This only 

occurs in localized and limited areas where there 

are extremely heavy infestations on some vines 

and not others. Eriophyid mite damage in 

grapevine in Australia is considered to be the 

common cause of the widespread “Restricted 

Spring Growth” syndrome (Bernard et al 2005). 


Colomerus vitis (Class Arachnida, Order Acarina, 

Family Eriophyidae). There are two forms of this 

mite, one which infests leaves and another which 

infests growth buds. They look identical. 

Host range 

Grapevines (Vitis vinifera). 


Adult eriophyid mites are 0.2 mm long 

and less than half the size of spider mites. Under 

a x10 hand lens eriophyid mites will only look like 

specks of dust. You will need at least a x40 

magnification to see their shape. They are white or 

creamy in colour and worm-like with 2 pairs of 

legs situated near the head end. They may be 

found in the felt-like areas on the undersurface of 

the blistered areas of the leaves during the growing 

season and in the buds during winter. 

Blister mite form. 

– Leaf undersurfaces. Mites suck plant sap from 

leaf undersurfaces in spring. Initially small yellow 

areas up to 6 mm or more across develop on the leaf 

undersurface. These areas have a felt-like appearance 

(erinose) due to the production by the host plant of 

densely packed fine hairs. This mat of hairs becomes 

darker and rusty brown with age. Mites may be seen 

in amongst the hairs with the aid of a microscope. 

– Leaf upper surfaces. The upper surfaces of the 

felty areas develop blisters (page 207, Fig. 127). In 

severe infestations the raised blisters may run together 

and most of the leaf surface may be covered. 

– Fruit. If leaves are severely damaged bunches may 

be sunburnt. 

Bud mite form. 

– Buds, shoots and canes. There is stunting of 

the canes, shortened internodes at the base, zigzagged 

shoots, dead ‘overwintering’ buds and 

abnormal development of buds. Failure of buds to 

develop normally causes some reduction in yield. In 

severe infestations buds may fail to burst. Bud mites 

spend most of their lives in the buds. Feeding in the 

bud results in a bubbling or wart-like appearance of 

plant tissue. The amount of shoot damage apparent 

in spring depends on the level of infestation of new 

buds during the previous season(s). Shoots that 

develop from infested buds may have distorted 

basal leaves, shortened internodes and more 

extensive ‘bubbling’ of the tissue around the base of 

shoots. If bunch primordials are attacked clusters 

will be deformed. 

Diagnostics. 

Morphology of the mites. Bud mite and 

blister mite are identical in appearance so it is 

difficult to distinguish blister and bud mite forms. 

Mites are difficult to see, you need a compound 

microscope and even then can be hard to find. 

Placing affected leaves in a paper in a plastic bag 

for day or so at room temperature can make them 

more active, bring them out of the erinose and 

easier to see. 

Damage. 

– Blister mite damage. During the growing 

season the blister-like distortion (Table 42) on 

young foliage may misdiagnosed as: 

Downy mildew. 

Pubescence (having fine short hairs). 

Powdery mildew. 

– Bud mite damage can be determined in winter 

by examining dormant winter buds for mites or 

‘bubbling’ of the tissue inside the outer bud scales 

using a microscope. Bud mites tend to infest basal 

buds so sampling should focus on these. Soon after 

budburst, at the leaf rosette stage bud mites may be 

found in leaf axils and internodes of growing 

shoots. Small newly developing buds can contain 

mites almost as soon as they begin to develop when 

2-3 leaves are separated. Often misdiagnosed as: 

Boron deficiency or toxicity. 

Bud mite damage is generally patchy, rust mite 

damage is commonly spread across a whole 

block or vineyard). 

Phomopsis damage. 

Cold damage. 

Restricted spring growth (RSG). 

Symptoms of fan leaf virus. 

Herbicide injury. 

Table 42. Comparing blister mite damage to leaves with fungal diseases and pubescence. 

LEAVES 

BLISTER MITE 

DAMAGE 

NATURAL 

PUBSCENCE 

(on some varieties) 

DOWNY MILDEW 

SYMPTOMS 

UPPER SURFACE Blisters Healthy appearance Flat oily areas, 

leaves may wither 

UNDER SURFACE 

White or reddish 

patches of 

 

White hairs dispersed 

evenly all over leaf. 

Many varieties 

smooth/glossy, not 

pubescent 

White patches of 

fungal spores in 

humid weather 

POWDERY MILDEW 

SYMPTOMS 

White powdery patches 

Occasionally white 

powdery patches 



Pest cycle 


nymph, adult) with many generations each year. 

Blister mites in spring move from bud scales 

to undersurfaces of emerging leaves. Males and 

females multiply in the protection of the felty 

areas during spring, summer and autumn. In late 

autumn mites move back to buds for protection. 

Damage begins at budswell in spring with the 

first generation produced by the ‘overwintering’ 

female mites. Usually the first 3-5 leaves on the 

cane are blistered and then the auxiliary leaves 

are damaged by the next generation. All 

remaining leaves on the developing canes will be 

affected. 

Bud mites. Similar life cycle except that mites 

spend most of their life in buds. 


As non-feeding adults under outer bud scales in 

dormant buds, also in cracks on canes and under 

rough bark at bases of canes. 

Spread 

By mites crawling over a plant or crop (they 

have limited ability to crawl). 

By wind or on insects, birds, etc. 

Infested canes, cuttings, nursery stock. 


Warm moist weather, wet springs. 



1.Obtain/prepare a plan that fits your situation.. 

Where mite damage is suspected, sampling and 

identifying the mites is necessary to the 

implementation of a successful control program. 

2.Crop, region. Most states and viticulture 

organizations have management plans for pests and 

diseases of grapevines. 

3.Identification. Mites can be found in dormant 

buds but they can be difficult to find and 

differentiate one from the other. Using a diagnostic 

service if necessary (page xiv) confirm that the 

problem is eriophyid mites. Misdiagnosis often leads 

to inappropriate chemical applications which can have 

a negative effect on mite predators. 

4.Monitor mites and damage in areas of the vineyard 

where mites have been a problem in previous seasons 

and record results (page 39). Accurate monitoring 

methods have been developed which involve washing 

leaves and collecting mites and predators in a series of 

fine mesh sieves. 

Blister mite. Monitor at regular intervals before 

making a decision to apply an insecticide, eg 

examine 5 terminals of 6 widely spaced locations 

throughout the grape crop. 

Bud mites are found in greater numbers in the 

basal 2-3 buds. Bud mite presence can be 

determined in winter by examining dormant winter 

buds for mite or ‘bubbling’ of the tissue inside the 

outer bud scales using a dissecting microscope 

(x30). Given that bud mites tend to infest basal buds 

sampling should focus on these buds. Soon after 

budburst at the leaf rosette stage bud mites may be 

found in leaf axils and internodes of growing 

shoots. Small newly-developing buds can contain 

mites almost as soon as they begin to develop when 

2-3 leaves are separated. 

Fig. 127. Grapeleaf blister 

mite (Colomerus vitis). 



Enlarged about x70 

1. Mites on undersurface of leaf; 

note erinose development 

Actual size 

2. Undersurfaces of leaves 

showing hairy development of 

erinose condition caused by 

the mites feeding; early 

erinose is yellowish, old 

erinose is reddish 

3. Upper surface of leaf showing 

blister-like formations caused 

by the mites feeding below 



Management (contd) 

5.Thresholds. Have any thresholds been 

established? If so, what are they, eg economic, 

aesthetic? How much damage can you accept? 

Blister mite. Control for Waltham Cross is 

required if any blistering (or cane malformations) 

occurs on 5% of young spring growth. 


threshold is reached. Research tentatively indicates 

that most effective management for bud mite may be 

the protection and/or introduction of mite predators. 

The preferred pesticide treatment for blister mite is 

a dormant spray of lime sulphur after pruning and 

before budswell. After vines have broken into leaf 

control is more difficult. 



required. Monitor trees after treatment during growing 

season. Next year spray lime sulphur before leaf buds 

burst if records indicate a need. 


Mild infestations do not affect yield. 

Sanitation. Where only a few shoots or leaves 

are affected, these may be pruned out when they 

appear during the growing season. 


Natural controls include predatory mites, 

thrips, hover fly larvae and lacewings. 

Predatory mite (Galendromus occidentalis) 

feeds on bud mites inside buds in early spring. 

Introduction and protection of predatory mites 

from harmful chemicals may be the best 

treatment option for bud mite in the future. 

For purchase. A general mite predator (Euseius 

victoriensis) is available for control of eriophyid 

mites (rust mites, bud mites) and broad mites in 

vines and citrus. 


Resistant varieties. Muscats are generally 

regarded as being particularly susceptible. 

Blister mite form. More susceptible 

varieties include European varieties (Vitis 

vinifera), Gordo Blanco, Black Hamburg, Black 

Muscat, White Shiraz and Rutherglen Tokay. It 

also occurs on Zante currant. More resistant 

varieties include American varieties (Vitis 

labrusca), Isabella and Golden Muscat and the 

European variety, Sultana. Currants and sultanas 

(rarely attacked) are relatively resistant. 

Bud mite form appears to be present on most 

varieties but seems to do no harm except on 

Ohanez and Waltham Cross. 

Pest-tested planting materials. 

Do not introduce mites on cuttings. 

Only plant mite-free cuttings. 

Miticides. 

Viticulture Spray Guides are available. 

Blister mites. See Table 43 below. 

Bud mites. 

– Bud mites are protected inside the buds and not 

accessible to sprays except for a very short time 

when they begin to move into newly developing 

buds at the base of new leaves. This is when the 

first new leaves of new shoots are unfolding. 

– Preliminary work suggests that bud mites might 

only be vulnerable to sprays when 2-3 leaves 

are separated, just before most mites have moved 

into the newly-developing buds in the leaf axils 

when they become inaccessible. The length of the 

spray window is not yet clear. Where mites are a 

problem spray at budswell the following season. 

Control may be required during summer. Omit 

sprays harmful to predators. 

– Recent research in Victoria has shown that lime 

sulphur applied with a knapsack sprayer at woolly 

bud stage had no impact on bud mite numbers, nor 

did wettable sulphur at budburst or greening. 

Table 43. Grapeleaf blister mite – Some miticides. 

What to use? 

DORMANT SPRAYS 

Group M2 (fungicides), eg Lime sulphur (sulphur 

polysulphides). Just before bud burst. 

Spray oils, eg Winter Dormant Oil, Winter Spray Oil, 

Stifle Dormant Spray Oil (petroleum oil) 

Apply mid-winter after pruning to ensure vines 

are fully dormant. 

GROWING SEASON SPRAYS 

Group M2 (fungicides), eg wettable sulphur 

formulations (during budburst/growing session) 

Group 1A (insecticide), eg carbaryl (stimulates egg 

production in spruce spider mites but is 

generally very effective against eriophyid 

mites) 

Group UN (insecticide), eg Kelthane (dicofol) 

FUNGICIDE SPRAYS 

Group M3 (fungicides), eg thiram, ziram, zineb - note 

they are not registered for grapeleaf 

blister mite 


Mites ‘overwinter’ under bud scales. 

Where severe mite injury has occurred the previous 

season, lime sulphur may be applied after pruning and 

just before budswell during the dormant season (as close 

to budswell as possible). This will give complete control 

during the following growing season. Thorough spraying 

is essential. 

Lime sulphur can stain trellises etc. Do not use after new 

leaves have appeared. 

Do not apply sulphur if temperature is >30 o C (on some 

crops not if >24 o C), or within 1 month of an oil spray. 

Control is more difficult to achieve during the growing 

season. These sprays will not eliminate existing damage 

but will help to prevent further damage. 

Check label for precise timing, eg when shoots are about 

7 cm long. 

During summer build up of mites is checked by sulphur 

sprays for powdery mildew. 

Do not use any sulphur if > 30 o C (also see above). 

These protectant fungicides used to control certain 

fungal diseases during late spring and autumn have given 

some protection against blister mites. 



ALLIED PESTS - Spiders 

Class Arachnida, Order Araneida 

NO. SPECIES IN 

AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

LIFE CYCLE 

Scientists estimate that there are more than 10,000 species in Australia, only 

about 2,500 have been described. Only a few spiders are poisonous. Most are 

beneficial and could be used as indicators of environmental health because 

they respond to disturbance, are abundant and easily sampled. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/allies/araneae.html 

Lucid Key: Spiders of Australia www.lucidcentral.org/ 

ADULT Body 1. Two main body regions (cephalothorax (fused head 

and thorax) and abdomen). 

2. No antennae or wings. 

3. No compound eyes, 8 simple eyes (some only have 3). 

No true jaws. Fangs and chelicerae. 

4. Lung ‘books’ and/or spiracles for breathing. 

5. All spiders spin silk from various types of silk glands. 

Many spin webs to climb on and to catch insects for 

food, others form nets, triplines, etc. Females of most 

species enclose their eggs in a silk egg sac. Spiderlings 

use silk for dispersion after hatching. 

Legs 1. Four (4) pairs of walking legs. 

2. Limb regeneration. When a limb is lost, there is no 

bleeding, a thin membrane grows over the stump. After 

1-2 moults a new limb grows from the stump but it never 

quite reaches the same length as its predecessor. 

There is a gradual metamorphosis - egg, nymph (several stages) and 

adult. Some spiders take several years to reach maturity. 

Redback 

Females 

are about 

10 mm long 

The red colour 

warns of poison 

METHODS OF 

FEEDING 

Large spiders 

may feed on 

birds in Qld 

ADULT 

NYMPH 

Spiders have a liquid diet and do not eat solid food. They feed on other 

spiders, insects, slaters, native snails and frogs, caught either directly by 

ground dwelling spiders or in webs of web spinners. Spiders kill their 

prey by means of a poison (venom) which is pumped through sharp 

hollow fangs located near the mouth and injected into the victim. The 

spider then squeezes out juice from its prey and sucks it up into its 

stomach. Most spiders are nocturnal, hunting for prey at night. 

Cannibalism occurs amongst spiders especially where there is 

overcrowding, females may eat males. 

Insects and allied pests - Spiders (Arachnida, Araneida) 209



DAMAGE 


Spiders are carnivorous and rarely eat plants. However, the jumping 

spider (Plexippus validus) has been seen eating Euryopis splendens. 

LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Tree funnel web spider 

(Hadronche formidabilis) 

usually lives in trees, is 

very toxic but is not often 

encountered. 

Gerozisis,J., Hadlington,P. & 

Staunton,I. 2008. Urban Pest 

Management in Australia. 

UNSW Press, Sydney. 

 

Garden 


Spiders web foliage on citrus and other plants, which interferes with 

the normal development of foliage and fruit and protect pests such as 

mealybugs and scale. They can annoy pickers harvesting the fruit. 

They inhabit flowers, leaves and bark where they catch insects and 

other prey. However, their presence may be a quarantine problem. Spiders 

hitch rides on second hand cars. 

Some species are venomous. Spiders may arouse strong negative feelings, 

eg arachnophobia (a fear of spiders). 

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME HABITS 

TOXICITY 

GROUND-DWELLING SPIDERS (various families) 

Sydney funnelweb Atrax robustus Favours moist dark situations. 

Aggressive. Very toxic. Adopts a threatening Long silken tube through litter 

Male more toxic position if threatened in ground. Active during late 

than female. 

summer and autumn 

Sydney brown trapdoor 

Not aggressive. Not toxic. 

Bites usually painful. 

Mouse spiders 

Not aggressive. Toxic. 

Strong fangs, 

bite may be painful. 

Misgolas rapax 

Missulena spp. 

Wolf spiders 

Lycosa spp. 

Not aggressive. Some toxic. 

Bite may be painful 

for a short while. 

ORB WEAVING SPIDERS (Family Araneidae) 

orbweaving spider Eriophora spp. 


Seldom bites. 

St Andrew’s cross spider Argiope keyserlingii 


Leaf-curling spider Phonognatha graeffei 


OTHER SPIDERS (various families) 

Redback spider 

Lacrodectus hasselti 

Not aggressive. Very toxic. 

Females bite, male does not. 

Very painful. 

Daddy-longlegs spider Pholcus phalangioides 

Not aggressive. Very toxic 

venom, but fangs too short to 

penetrate human skin. 

Black house spider Badumna insignis 

Not aggressive. Toxic. Bite 

produces pain, nausea, 

sweating. No fatalities. 

Brown house spider 

Probably as for 

black house spider 

Flower spiders 

Harmless. 

Whitetailed spider 

Not aggressive. 

Bites cause local pain and 

blisters, tissue necrosis. 

Huntsman spider 


Bites can be painful but rare 

210 Insects and allied pests - Spiders (Arachnida, Araneida) 

Inhabits drier situations in 

exposed areas. Lid not usually 

over hole but leaves or litter 

may cover it 

Females live in holes (with 

double doors) in the ground. 

Holes may be extensive. Adult 

male roams looking for female 

Inhabits gardens, making holes 

in ground covered with litter. 

Moves rapidly when disturbed. 

Orb-web, hides on foliage 

during day and constructs orbweb 

at night 

Orb-web, hangs in web with 

legs in shape of cross 

Orb-web, hides in curled leaf 

or paper at centre of the web 

Makes a loose web in protected 

sites, rubbish, tin cans, bricks, 

unsewered toilets, under houses. 

Dark corners of buildings, 

houses, eaves 

Felted webs at the centre of 

which is a tunnel, sheds, toilets, 

windows, under guttering 

B. longinqua Foliage of fruit trees in boundary 

rows near scrub webbed together 

to catch insects 

Diaea spp., others 

Lampona cylindrata 

Isopeda immanis 

Live among flowers and leaves 

of native shrubs, eg grevillea 

Found under bark of trees, 

often inside bathrooms, houses 

Lives under bark, emerges at 

night, often enters houses 

Endangered Intertidal trapdoor spider Idioctis yerlata Mangroves, Cape Tribulation, Qld 

Not known 

in Australia 

Goliath birdeater tarantula Theraphosa blondi Frogs, mice, insects, but is not 

known to eat birds


A FEW HINTS 

.Emergency. 

FIRST AID. 

A Quick Guide 

Always seek 

medical advice 

if bitten 

Poison 

Information 

Centre 

13 1126 

FIRST AID 

Venomous qualities. Some species can pose a threat especially to the 

safety of children. Many spiders are so small that their fangs will not 

penetrate human skin; others have only a low toxicity which causes little 

more than local swelling and irritation. However, there are a few which 

cause nausea, vomiting and even death. 

Have reliable up-to-date FIRST AID advice on hand. Obtain a copy of the 

St John Ambulance’s Emergency FIRST AID : A Quick Guide. 

IN THE HOME GARDEN 

Wear gloves when gardening and handling containers, soil or rubbish and 

sensible shoes when walking outside, particularly at night when most 

ground-dwelling spider are active. 

During excavations, landscaping, digging or gardening, be alert for 

disturbed ground-dwelling spiders which may enter buildings. Clean up 

piles of rocks, old tyres, etc, which may harbour redback spiders. 

Do not leave toys, clothes or other such articles on the ground particularly 

overnight. Wandering spiders may use them as a temporary resting site. 

Be aware that ground-dwelling spiders may wander: 

– After long periods of very wet weather. 

– During the warmer months (January to March) when spiders are mating, 

males may wander into yards and buildings in search of a female. 

– After widespread application of insecticides, spiders which are not 

directly contacted and killed may be disturbed and wander more than usual. 

Check camping gear, sleeping bags, etc after storage. 

REMEMBER. 

Most spiders are beneficial but some are poisonous. Spiders play a key role 

in controlling insect populations, avoid eradicating harmless species. 

Spiders are food for birds and lizards, wasps feed spiders to their young. 

Insecticides are registered for domestic and/or commercial use. Spot 

spraying by hand can be successful after breaking up thick webs with a stick. 

Identify spiders which are a problem in your area. Seek advice if necessary. 

Action will depend on the situation or crop, eg garden, house, commercial 

premises, pots in greenhouses, fruit trees. Seek advice for your situation. 

Where some species have been a problem keep look out for webbing, etc. 

Garden orbweaving spiders (various species) 

build a new web each evening, tearing it down in the 

morning before hiding under a branch or elsewhere. 

St Andrews’ cross spider (Agriope keyserlingii) 

hangs head downward usually with legs spread out 

on a cross. May decorate their webs to attract prey. 

Leafcurling spider (Phonognatha sp.) curls 

a dead leaf with silk to form a hiding place. 

Flower spider (Diaea sp.) are mostly quite small, 

harmless, display a variety of forms and colors and 

are common on grevillea and other flowering shrubs. 

Fig. 128. Spiders commonly found in the garden (all approx x 1). 

Insects and allied pests - Spiders (Arachnida, Araneida) 211


ALLIED PESTS - Slaters, pillbugs, woodlice 

Class Malacostraca, Order Isopoda 


Slaters and pillbugs belong to the Class Malacostraca, 

in the Phylum Arthropoda. Crabs, prawns and lobsters 

which are seas dwellers also belong to this Class. 

Slaters and pillbugs live on land, but breathe by 

means of gills which must be kept moist. Pillbugs 

are roughly similar in shape to slaters, but are able to 

roll up into a tight ball when disturbed. 

Common slater (Porcellio scaber) exotic 

Common pillbug (Armadillidium vulgare) 

Pest species are introduced, some native species are 

considered to be endangered. 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/allies/isopoda.html 

Host range 

Slaters and pillbugs are important in recycling 

natural forests and vegetation. They mainly feed on 

decaying organic matter, but may attack 

seedlings, young tender plants, soft fruit like 

tomatoes, ferns, young roots of orchids and other 

plants in glasshouses, conservatories, old shaded 

gardens and cause considerable damage. 

Staghorns, in particular, are very susceptible to 

attack as, in addition to providing food and shelter, 

they provide attractive breeding places. 


Adult slaters are gray-brown, oval, semiflattened 

and commonly 9-15 mm long. They 

have 2 prominent tail-like appendages. Slaters 

have: 


An exoskeleton (outer hard covering). 

A segmented body, most 8 thorax and 6 

abdominal segments. 

Four or more pairs of jointed legs. 

Two pairs antennae but 1 pair may be hard to 

see. 

Eyes usually on stalks. 

Plant damage. Slaters are usually found 

hiding during the day about the bases of plants, 

under flower pots and stones, under damp leaves, 

in compost heaps and in similar damp places. They 

feed by chewing and may do considerable damage 

to roots and tender growth near the ground of any 

plant. May chew on soft leaves and strawberries in 

contact with the ground. Because they come out to 

feed at night, when the risk of dehydration is less, 

they are not usually observed feeding. Pillbugs 

damage plants in a similar manner to slaters but 

mainly feed below ground. Mostly feed on organic 

matter but give the perception that they feed on 

roots. 

Remember many slaters in a particular place are 

not generally a cause for concern. Overall they 

are more beneficial than harmful. 

Slater 

Pillbug 

Diagnostics. 

Slaters and pillbugs are easy to recognize, but 

damage is more difficult to pinpoint. 

Do not confuse the name pillbug with billbug. 

Billbugs are weevils, the larvae of which feed on 

rhizomes, stolons and crowns of turf grasses. 

Slaters cannot roll up into a tight ball like 

pillbugs. 

A group of slaters. 

Pillbugs can roll into a ball for defense. 

Slaters cannot roll up into a tight ball. 

Fig. 129. Slaters (various species) commonly 9-15 mm long. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment 

212 Insects and allied pests - Slaters (Isopoda)


Pest cycle 

Slaters have no metamorphosis, the young 

resemble the adults except that they are smaller 

and paler in colour. It takes about a year for the 

young slaters to reach maturity. The adults live for 

about 2 years and each female can produce 60 or 

more young in one season, usually in 1-3 broods of 

6-40 young during late winter, spring, summer and 

autumn. The young are carried in a pouch beneath 

the body of the female until they are ready to feed. 


All stages in sheltered places. 

Spread 

By crawling. 

By transport of infested plants, containers, soil, 

compost, wood chips, bark and other materials. 


Cool, damp dark places (slaters breath through 

gills). 

Australia is fairly dry so there are not so many 

species. 

Plants damaged by other agents are susceptible 

to attack. 

Pillbugs are more tolerant of dry conditions than 

slaters and often live in open, well-drained areas. 

Activity is mostly at night on dark wet days and 

warmer months in cooler parts of Australia. 

Lots of organic matter, mulch, compost and 

regular watering. 


Limited need in this case. Are you a commercial 

grower or home gardener? 

1.Plan. If slaters are an ongoing problem, prepare a 

control plan that fits your situation. 

2.Crop, area. Locate plants or areas where control 

may be required. 

3.Confirm identification, locate main breeding 

areas, be familiar with its life cycle, etc. Consult a 


4.Monitor pest and/or damage to indicate when peak 

populations are likely to occur. Remember slaters are 

nocturnal so not seen during the day. Know when, 

where, what and how to monitor. 

5.Thresholds only need to be determined for crops 

at risk. Occasionally slaters pose an aesthetic problem 

in nurseries. 

6.Action/control. Slaters are a good example of 

where cultural and sanitation methods are most 

effective. Baits or dusts are only useful in protecting 

specific plants in unusual problem situations. 

7.Evaluation. Review program to see how well it 



Cultural methods. Reduce moisture and 

increase air circulation by raising plants off the 

ground. 

Sanitation. This is the best control method in a 

home garden situation, eg 

Remove rubbish, rock piles, other hiding and 

breeding places, eg piles of rotting timber, 

decaying vegetable matter. 

Remove decaying low fallen fruit. 

Clean up old plant debris, remove old leaves. 

Keep mulch away from seedlings and cuttings. 


agents are available, though there are a range of 

natural enemies, eg birds, chooks. 


Slaters shelter in scraped out potatoes or orange 

peel. Inspect traps daily and destroy slaters. 

Insecticides. 


Table 44. Slaters – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

BAITS 

Group 1A, eg Baysol (methiocarb) 

Others, eg Multiguard (iron-EDTA complex) 


Only after damage has been confirmed in commercial 

crops. 

Distribute bait as directed. 

SPRAYS, GRANULES, AEROSOLS 

Group 1B, eg chlorpyrifos (commercial use only) 

Various outdoor garden products, eg 

pyrethrum/eucalyptus, cyfluthrin/pyrethrin 

Insects and allied pests - Slaters (Isopoda) 213



Millipedes belong the Superclass Myriapoda, 

Class Diplopoda in the Phylum Arthropoda. 

Species include: 

Black Portuguese millipede (Ommatoiulus moreletii), 

a major pest in South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and 

Western Australia. 

Flat brown millipede (Brachydesmus superus) 

White millipede (Blaniulus guttulatus) 

Numerous native species, eg Dimerogonus 

orophilus, Oncocladosoma clavigerum 

Some species are not known in Australia, eg the 

American giant millipede (Narceus americanus). The 

giant African millipede (Archispirostreptus gigas) is 

one of the largest millipedes, is up to 28cm long, lives 

for 7-10 years and is often kept as a pet. 

Most state departments of agriculture/primary industry 

have fact sheets on Portuguese Millipedes. 

www.csiro.au/resources/BlackPortugueseMillipedes.html 

www.ento.csiro.au/education/allies/diplopoda.html ok 

Host range 

Black Portuguese millipede are not harmful to 

humans but can occur in plague numbers, invading 

houses, contaminating food and infesting carpet and 

bedding. It is one of the few millipede species that 

are attracted to lights at night. Once inside they 

usually die, they do not breed inside. 

Millipedes feed on decaying organic matter but 

may attack crops growing in damp soil and are 

occasional pests of greenhouses. 

Plagues may occur and destroy seedlings and 

fruit and vegetable crops Millipedes are 

important in soil formation, breaking down leaf 

litter and enriching the soil. 

. 

ALLIED PESTS - Millipedes 

Class Diplopoda 

Table 45. Distinguishing millipedes from centipedes. 


Adult millipedes are elongated, dark brown 

in colour and up to 30 mm long. They possess: 


An exoskeleton (outer hard covering to body 

and legs). 

A segmented body (at least 11 body segments) 

which is round in cross section. 

10 or more pairs of tiny legs (2 pairs per 

segment), no poison fangs. 

1 pair of short antennae. 

May give off an offensive odour. 

Plant damage. Millipedes may chew roots of 

plants in containers and pots under damp conditions. 

They may also feed on soft leaves, fruit and other 

plant material close to the surface of damp soil. 

Diagnostics. 

Millipedes have 2 pairs of legs per body segment. 

The smooth cylindrical body of the Portuguese 

millipede distinguishes it from the native variety 

common around Adelaide. The latter’s body 

segments give it a bumpy look. 

Millipedes are often confused with centipedes 

(Table 45 below) and occasionally with 

wireworms or false wireworms which are the 

larvae of beetles which have only 3 pairs of 

short legs on the thorax. 

Pest cycle 

There is no metamorphosis, the young look like 

the adults except that they are smaller in size, have 

fewer segments and only 3 pairs of legs initially. 

There is probably only 1 generation each year. Eggs 

are laid singly or in groups in soil, under logs or on 

leaf litter. Adults of Portuguese millipedes that 

invade houses are probably about 2 years old but 

some species of millipedes live much longer. 

Millipedes 

(Class Diplopoda) 

At least 11 body segments. 

Round body (in cross section). 

‘Thousands’ of legs, two pairs legs per segment, 

no poison fangs. 

One pair of short, segmented antennae. 

Mainly vegetarian. 

May have an offensive odour. 

Centipedes 

(Class Chilopoda) 

At least 19 body segments. 

Flattened body (in cross section). 

‘Hundreds’ of legs (15-181 pairs of legs), 

one pair legs per segment, first pair modified to 

form poison fangs. Most fast moving and 

aggressive. 

One pair of antennae. 

Almost exclusively predatory. 

Millipede 

Centipede 

214 Insects and allied pests - Millipedes (Diplopoda)



Millipedes ‘overwinter’ as adults outdoors in soil, 

under logs and under leaf litter in sheltered places. 

Spread 

By crawling, adult millipedes can probably walk 

a maximum of several hundred meters each year. 

Transportation of soil, pots or container plants 

from infested areas. 

Transportation of wood chips and compost from 

infested areas. 

On/in tyre treads of vehicles. 


Damp undisturbed organic mulch, leaf litter. 

Areas where winter weeds such as soursob form 

a more or less continuous ground cover. 

Millipedes are generally not numerous in lawns, 

cultivated areas or bare ground. 



1.Plan. If millipedes are an ongoing problem, then 

prepare a management plan. 

2.Crop, region. Recognize variations. Locate plants 

or main breeding areas where control is required. 

3.Confirm identification and be familiar with 

their life cycle, conditions which favour their 

development and where they ‘overwinter’ when they 

are not a problem, etc. Consult a diagnostic service if 

necessary (page xiv). 

4.Monitoring millipede numbers and damage will 

indicate when peak populations are likely to occur 

(page 39). Millipedes are observed at night. Record 

results. 

5.Thresholds should be determined for crops at risk. 

How much damage can you accept, eg economic, 

aesthetic, environmental? 


is reached. Remember, only if seeds or seedlings are 

being injured should treatment be considered. 




Sanitation. 

These pests are best controlled by cleaning up 

the areas where they breed, so that the supply of 

food and shelter is reduced as much as possible. 

This is the best way of controlling them in a 

home garden situation. 

Biological control. Several biological 

control agents are being research including: 

A parasitic fly which is a natural enemy of the 

black Portuguese millipede overseas, is being 

researched and quarantined in Australia prior to 

its possible release. It is important to be sure that 

the parasitic fly does not attack native 

millipedes. 

A nematode (Rhabditis necromena) has been 

released in SA to control the Portuguese 

millipede. It attacks only millipedes and not 

other animals or plants. The millipedes ingest 

numerous nematodes which then perforate the 

gut of the millipede. The nematodes are active 

during late autumn and winter After introduction, 

they take several years to reduce millipede 

numbers. Householders living next door to areas 

of bushland report that nematodes do not reduce 

the numbers of millipedes invading houses 

probably because of the many millipedes living 

in the bushland nearby. 


These are mainly used to control the black 

Portuguese millipede which invades houses and 

include barriers of various types and light traps. 

Insecticides. 


Remember that although millipedes 

(and earwigs) invade houses, they do 

not breed inside the house. They can 

be swept up and disposed. 

Table 46. Millipedes – Some insecticides. 

What to use? 

HORTICULTURE SITUATIONS 

Baits, eg 

Group 1A, eg Baysol Snail & Slug Bait (methiocarb) 

Sprays, eg 

Group 1A, eg various 

Group 1B, eg various 

Group 3A, eg various 

Garden surface sprays, eg various 


Insecticides should only be applied after plant 

damage had been confirmed. 

Insects and allied pests - Millipedes (Diplopoda) 215

c 


REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES 

By the end of this topic, you should be able to do 

the following: 

1. List the parasitic and non-parasitic causes 

of plant problems. 

2. List distinctive features of the Phylum 

Arthropoda (Insects & Allied Pests). 

3. List the distinctive features of the following 

members of the Phylum Arthropoda: 

Insects Spiders Slaters 

Mites Millipedes 

Springtails Centipedes 

4. Be able to identify, draw and know the 

function of the following external parts of an 

adult insect: 

Head Thorax Abdomen 

5. Draw diagrammatically the 3 types of insect 

life cycles. Name 1 example of each. 

6. Describe how insects grow. 

7. Recognize by sight, 4 common types of 

larvae. Name 1 example of each. 

8. Explain 3 common types of host range. 

Name 1 example of each. 

9. Describe 3 ways that insects may feed on 

plants and cause damage. Name 1 example 

of each. 

10. Recognize by observation, 3 examples of 

direct and indirect damage to plants. 

11. Describe 5 ways by which insects overwinter/ 

oversummer. Name 1 example of each. 

12. Describe 4 ways in which insects may spread. 


13. Describe 3 conditions favouring insect 

development. Name 1 example of each. 

14. List and describe the 7 steps in IPM. 

15. List 8 control methods for insect pests of 

plants. Describe 1 example of each. 

16. Name the 3 main requirements of the Organic 

and Biodynamic Products domestic standard 

to be met by growers wishing to label their 

products ‘organic’ or ‘biodynamic’. 

17. Explain the meaning of the following terms as 

they apply to the mode of action of 

insecticides and name 1 example of each: 

Non-systemic and systemic 

Selective and non-selective 

Contact, stomach and fumigant action 

18. Explain why insecticides must be applied at 

the correct time. Describe 2 examples. 

19. Provide the active constituent, some trade 

names, mode of action and some uses for 

selected insecticides/miticides in the 

following groups: 

Mode of action groups: 

Group 1A 

Group 1B 

Group 3A 

Group 4A 

Group 11 

Others: 

Spray oils 

Soap sprays 

Pheromones 

Food attractants 

Bio-insecticides 

One of your own choice 

20. Select 2 commercial insecticide/miticides, 

indicate how you know which resistance group 

they belong to and how you would use them to 

prevent the development of resistance. 

21. Classification. List the main features of 

insects used to classify them into orders. 

21.1. List the 10 most important pest and 

beneficial insect orders from a 

horticultural point of view. 

21.2. List those with a complete 

metamorphosis and those with an 

incomplete (gradual) metamorphosis. 

21.3. Fill in the following summary pages for 

Insects & Allied Pests (pages 217-223). 

22. For each order. of insects and allied pests 

(springtails, mites, spiders, slaters and 

millipedes), be able to do the following: 

22.1. List the key distinctive features of 

adults and larvae/nymphs. 

22.2. Draw the life cycle diagrammatically. 

22.3. Name the stage(s) which cause(s) plant 

damage, how they feed and the types of 

direct and indirect damage caused. 

Name 1 example of each type of damage. 

22.4. Recognize by sight, local pest species 

(if applicable). 

22.5. Recognize by sight, local beneficial 

species (if applicable). 

22.6. Recognize by sight, damage caused by 

local pest species. 

22.7. Describe State/Territory/Commonwealth 

legislation providing for the control of 

local pest species. 

22.8. Provide the following information for 

selected local pest species: 

Common name 

Host range 


Diagnostics 

Pest cycle 


Spread 


IPM and Control 

22.9. Prepare/access an IPM. program for an 

insect or mite pest at your work or in your 

region. 

23. Diagnostics. 

23.1. Distinguish between damage caused to 

leaves by selected chewing insects, eg 

caterpillars, leafeating beetles and 

weevils, and sawflies on selected plants. 

23.2. Distinguish between damage caused to 

leaves by selected sucking insects, eg 

lace bugs, leafhoppers, mites, thrips and 

whiteflies on selected plants. 

23.3.Where would you obtain advice and 

information on the identification of 

insects and allied pests. 

24. Locate resource material. and know 

where to obtain advice on how to control local 

pest species. 

216 Insects and allied pests - Review questions and activities


REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES (contd) 

SUMMARY OF INSECT ORDERS 

INSECT ORDER 

Common names of members 

DIPTERA 

Flies 

LEPIDOPTERA 

Butterflies 

Moths 

COLEOPTERA 

Beetles 

Weevils 

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES 

Life cycle 

Damaging stages & method of feeding 

ADULT 

Wings 

Eyes 

Mouth 

LARVA 

Names 

Legs 

Other 

LIFE CYCLE 

DAMAGING STAGES & 

METHOD OF FEEDING 

ADULT 

Flight 

Colour 

Antennae 

Wings 

Mouth 

LARVA 

Names 

Legs 

Mouth 

LIFE CYCLE 



ADULT 

Flight 

Body 

Head 

Antennae 

Mouth 

LARVA 

Names 

Body 

Legs 

Head 

Mouth 

LIFE CYCLE 






Leaves Galls eg 

Leafmining eg 

Fruit Maggot damage eg 

Stems Borers eg 

Galls eg 

Bulbs Maggot damage eg 


Introduction of decay organisms eg 

Disfigurement eg 

BENEFICIAL DIPTERA 


Leaves Leaves eaten eg 

Leafmining eg 

Skeletonization eg 

Flowers, Chewing damage eg 

buds 

Fruit ‘Worm’ damage eg 

Surface chewing eg 

Stems, Borers eg 

bark 

Seedlings, Chewing damage eg 

shoots 


Frass eg 

Formation of structures eg 

Introduction of decay organisms eg 


Leaves Eaten eg 

Leafmining eg 


Flowers, Chewing damage eg 

buds 

Fruit, Chewing damage eg 

seed 

Stems, Bark eg 

bark Borers eg 

Surface chewers eg 

Roots, Gouging eg 

tubers 


Transmit diseases eg 

BENEFICIAL COLEOPTERA 

Insects and allied pests - Review questions and activities 217


INSECT ORDER 


HYMENOPTERA 

Ants 

Bees 

Wasps 

Sawflies 

NEUROPTERA 

Lacewings 

THYSANOPTERA 

Thrips 


Life cycle 


ADULT 

Wings 

Body 

Waist 

LARVA 

Names 

Legs 

Mouth 

LIFE CYCLE 



ADULT 

Body 

Head 

Wings 

Abdomen 

LARVA 

Names 

Legs 

Mouth 

LIFE CYCLE 


ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Mouth 

Legs 

NYMPH 

Names 

Legs 

Mouth 

LIFE CYCLE 






Leaves Eaten eg 

Leafmining eg 


Galls eg 

Stems Galls eg 

Trunks Borers eg 

Fruit General pest eg 


Unsightly eg 

May sting eg 

BENEFICIAL 

ANTS, BEES, WASPS 

BENEFICIAL 


Leaves Distortion eg 

Galls eg 

Leafrolling eg 

Silvering eg 

Flowers Dead areas eg 

Distortion eg 

Buds Distortion eg 

Fruit Prevent fruit set eg 

Corms Rotting eg 


1. Excreta eg 

2. Transmission of virus diseases eg 

BENEFICIAL THRIPS 

HEMIPTERA – BUGS 

Summary 

How can you 

distinguish a bug 

from a beetle? 

ADULT 

Wings 

Antennae 

Mouth 

1. Heteroptera (different wing) - true bugs, eg crusader bug. 

2. Hoppers (same wing), eg leaf hoppers, plant hoppers. 

3. Aphids, lerps, mealybugs, scales, whiteflies. Soft bodies 

and usually no wings, although some may have forewings 

only, adult whiteflies have 2 pairs. 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 

DAMAGING STAGES & METHOD OF FEEDING 



INSECT ORDER 

Common names of 

members 

HEMIPTERA 

Bugs 


Life cycle 


ADULT 

Wings 

Antennae 

Mouth 

Odour 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 






Leaves Mottling eg 

Spots eg 

Wilting eg 

Flowers Distortion eg 

Fruit Marking eg 

Shoots Wilting eg 


Disfigurement with excreta eg 

BENEFICIAL BUGS 

HEMIPTERA 

Hoppers 

ADULT 

Wings 

Antennae 

Mouth 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 




Leaves Mottled eg 

Wilting eg 

Stems, Egg laying eg 

buds 


Honeydew (sooty mould) 

May transmit virus diseases eg 

BENEFICIAL LEAFHOPPERS 

HEMIPTERA 

Aphids 

ADULT 

Wings 

Cornicles 

Antennae 

Mouth 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 




Leaves Death eg 

Distortion eg 

Galls eg 

Flowers, Distortion eg 

buds 

Fruit Distortion eg 

Reduction in size eg 

Stems, Death of shoots (dieback) eg 

trunks Distortion eg 

Galls eg 

Roots Death eg 

Distortion eg 

Galls eg 


Honeydew (sooty mould) eg 

May transmit virus diseases eg 

BENEFICIAL APHIDS 

HEMIPTERA 

Lerp insects 

ADULT 

Wings 

Antennae 

Mouth 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 




Leaves Dead areas eg 

Defoliation eg 

Mottling eg 


Honeydew (sooty mould) eg 

BENEFICIAL LERP INSECTS 



INSECT ORDER 


HEMIPTERA 

Mealybugs 


Life cycle 


ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Antennae 

Mouth 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 






Leaves Wilting, eg 

Death, eg 

Roots, Death, eg 

buds 


Honeydew (sooty mould), eg 

Disfigurement, eg 

BENEFICIAL MEALYBUGS 

HEMIPTERA 

Armoured scales 

Soft scales 

HEMIPTERA 

Whitefly 

ISOPTERA 

Termites 

‘White ants’ 

ADULT 

Wings 

Antennae 

Mouth 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 



ADULT 

Wings 

Antennae 

Mouth 

Size 

Other 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 



ADULT 

Worker 

Soldier 

King & Queen 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 




Leaves Yellowing, eg 

Defoliation, eg 

Fruit Disfigurement, eg 

Stems, Leaf fall, eg 

trunks Dieback, eg 


Honeydew (soft scales), eg 

Loss of market, eg 

BENEFICIAL SCALE 


Leaves Mottling, eg 

General May not cause much 

Damage, eg 

Death of seedlings, eg 

Reduced vigour, eg 


Honeydew (sooty mould), eg 

BENEFICIAL WHITEFLY 


Tubers Tunnels, eg 

Trunks, Tunnels, eg 

branches, 

roots 


Weakening of structures, eg 

BENEFICIAL TERMITES 



INSECT ORDER 


ORTHOPTERA 

Crickets 

Grasshoppers 

Katydids 

Locusts 

DERMAPTERA 

Earwigs 

BLATTODEA 

Cockroaches 

PHASMATODEA 

Leaf insects 

Phasmatids 

Stick insects 


Life cycle 


ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Legs 

Thorax 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 



ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Abdomen 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 



ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Legs 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 



ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Legs 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 




Leaves Eaten, eg 

Stems Eaten, eg 

Fruit, 

seed 

Eaten, eg 

Roots Eaten, eg 


BENEFICIAL ORTHOPTERA 


Flowers Eaten, eg 

Fruit Eaten, eg 

clusters 


Seedlings Eaten, eg 

Roots Eaten, eg 


BENEFICIAL EARWIGS 


Leaves Nibbled, eg 

New roots, Nibbled, eg 

shoots 


Excreta and odour, eg 

Spread disease, eg 

Annoyance, allergies, etc, eg 

BENEFICIAL COCKROACHES 




May bite if handled 

BENEFICIAL 





INSECT ORDER 


MANTODEA 

Mantids 

Praying mantids 


Life cycle 


ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Legs 

Head 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 





May bite if handled, eg 

BENEFICIAL 

ODONATA 

Dragon flies 

Damselflies 

ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Legs 

Thorax 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 



BENEFICIAL 

CLASS COLLEMBOLA 

Springtails 

ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Antennae 

Mouth 

Legs 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 




Seeds, Chewing, eg 

seedlings, 

soft foliage 


BENEFICIAL SPRINGTAILS 

CLASS ARACHNIDA 

Order Acarina 

Mites 

Ticks 

ADULT 

Body 

Legs 

Eriophyid mites 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 




Leaves, Blisters, eg 

shoots Chlorosis, eg 

Defoliation, eg 

Leafrolling, eg 

Pigmentation, eg 

Silvering, eg 

Witches' broom, eg 

Fruit Malformation, eg 

Russetting, eg 

Stems Bronzing, eg 

Galls, eg 

Bulbs, Rotting, eg 

roots 


Webbing, eg 

Transmit virus diseases, eg 

BENEFICIAL MITES 



INSECT ORDER 


CLASS ARACHNIDA 

Spiders 


Life cycle 


ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Legs 

Mouth 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 






Rarely eats plants 


Quarantine problem, eg 

Some have venomous bites, eg 

Web foliage together, eg 

Annoy fruit pickers, eg 

BENEFICIAL SPIDERS 

CLASS MALACOSTRATA 

Slaters 

CLASS DIPLOPODA 

Millipedes 

ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Legs 

Mouth 

Antennae 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 



ADULT 

Body 

Wings 

Legs 

Antennae 

Odour 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 


Seedlings, Nibbled, eg 

stems, 

tender foliage, 

fruit 


BENEFICIAL SLATERS 


Soft roots, Chewed, eg 

leaves, 

fruit 


BENEFICIAL MILLIPEDES 



CLASS CHILOPODA 

Centipedes 

ADULT 

Body 

Legs 

Antennae 

Wings 

NYMPH 

LIFE CYCLE 


Fast moving and aggressive, can 

be frightening, eg 



BENEFICIAL CENTIPEDES 

Almost exclusively predatory, eg 




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Insects and allied pests - Selected references 225


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226 Insects and allied pests - Selected references


Snails and Slugs 

Snail damage to broccoli leaves. 

BIOLOGY & IDENTIFICATION 228 




Feeding and plant damage 229 

Classification, identification, diagnostics 229 


Pest cycle 231 


Spread 232 












Molluscicides 235 

Molluscicides (Table 47) 236 

Molluscicide safety (Table 48) 237 



Snails and slugs 227


BIOLOGY & IDENTIFICATION 

Phylum Mollusca, Class Gastropoda 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

About 10 of the 50 introduced species have become serious pests of 

agricultural and horticultural crops in Australia. There are more than 

1000 native species, none are important pest species. Many Australian land 

molluscs are endangered and some Australian species are already extinct. 

There is no evidence that exotic species have affected the survival of Australian 

native species, as most introduced pest species invade places only after humans 

have destroyed the habitat of native snails. Museums are identifying and databasing 

virtually all the available collections of Australian Land Snails. 

Land Snails of Australia – Museum Collections 

www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abif/bat/snails.html 

Slugs and snails are many-celled animals with a true digestive cavity. 

SHELL 

1. Unsegmented soft bodies of snails and slugs are covered with 

a mantle (layer of tissue) that usually secretes a limey shell. 

2. Snails have an external, spirally-coiled shell carried on the 

back, into which the snail withdraws when alarmed or at rest. 

3. Slugs resemble snails in general appearance but the shell is 

either absent or reduced to a shield-like structure borne on 

the forehead of the back. In some slugs the back has a 

leathery covering. 

If betting on snail races 

put your money on the 

least slimy snail, 

making slime 

uses energy 

BODY 

MOVEMENT 

1. Snails and slugs have similar bodies. 

2. Bodies are broad and elongate, usually light or dark grey 

and of variable length depending on the species. They bear 

2 pairs of retractile tentacles on the head. 

3. Eyes are at the tips of the 2 nd and longer pair of tentacles. 

4. Mouth, below the tentacles, contains a file-like organ or 

radula which is used for rasping off portions of food. 

Snails and slugs glide along by undulating the muscles of the 

foot over a slippery track of mucous secreted by glands in the 

foot. The mucous solidifies on exposure to air, this is the 

silvery trail left by snails. 

Shell 

Eyes 

Foot 

Diagram of a snail 

Tentacle 

Mantle 

Eyes 

Foot 

Diagram of a slug 

Tentacle 

METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

Snails and slugs feed by rasping the surfaces of a wide range of plants. They 

feed at night and return to hide under debris, stones and plants during the day. 

They only feed during the day during prolonged wet weather. Slugs can 

eat their body weight in a day and eat large areas of newly emerging crops. 

228 Snails and slugs


FEEDING AND 


Slugs are an 

increasing problem 

worldwide, Some 

species are known to 

eat 1/3rd of their body 

weight each day 

Snail and slug numbers 

can be fantastic - up to 

7 million snails/hectare 

have been recorded in 

Australia! 

Skeletonisation 

of gazania leaves 

by snails 

CLASSIFICATION, 

IDENTIFICATION, 

DIAGNOSTICS 

Do not confuse pest 

with beneficial species 


Slugs are primarily pests of ground crops, eg annuals, vegetables, potato tubers, 

seedling crops, weeds. Snails and slugs may damage emerging crops so much 

that re-sowing is necessary and can cost growers million of dollars each year in 

lost production. Snails and slugs are minor pests of ornamental crops but 

infrequent control may lead to persistent problems. 

SEEDLINGS Completely consumed, eg emerging seedlings, cuttings, 

new growth can be extensively damaged. The cotyledons are 

eaten, killing the young plant before its roots can be established. 

LEAVES 

Holes chewed (older snails), eg begonia, cabbage 

Skeletonization (young snails), eg gazania 

FLOWER BUDS 

Eaten around edges of petals, eg daffodils, iris 

Holes chewed, eg orchids 

PASTURE, CROPS Chewing damage, slime 

FRUIT, BULBS 

TUBERS 

TRUNKS, 

ROOTS 

Holes, eg strawberry 

Tunnels bored, eg potato 

Chewed bark, eg citrus 

Chewing damage, eg roots exposed in soil cracks 


Slimey trails and coiled threads of spaghetti-like excreta make plants look 

unsightly and unsaleable; stock will not eat slime covered grass. 

Contaminated stored grain is downgraded because of snail infestation or 

increased moisture content because of the crushed snails. May contaminate 

harvested citrus fruit. Crushed snails may damage harvesting machinery. 

Transmission of plant diseases Overseas, snails and slugs are known to 

have transmitted tobacco mosaic virus and various fungal diseases, eg 

Phytophthora, Fusarium and rusts of European plants. 

Transmission of animal and human diseases 

– Introduced helicid snails, eg Cochlicella, Helix, Theba, in SA are commonly 

infected with a flatworm that can infect humans. 

– Snails may eat rat faeces contaminated with parasitic worms (Angiostrongylus 

cantonensis) and may then contaminate vegetation depositing the parasitic worm 

in its mucous trails. Rats can be re-infested by eating infested snails (May 1998). 

– Snails (Lymnaea spp.), 4-10 mm, long are the intermediate hosts for liver fluke 

(Fasciola hepatica) which is a major parasite of sheep, cattle, goats, pigs and 

wildlife in south-eastern Australia. 

Introduction of decay organisms. 

CLASSFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION 

Snails and slugs belong to the Phylum Mollusca, Class Gastropoda. 

Snail identification is based on the features of the shell and size, shape, 

colour and culture of the snail itself. Slug identification is based on size, 

shape, colour and culture of slugs. 

Identification tools include: 

– Pocket Guides are available for both snails and slugs. 

– Fact Sheets for local species by State Depts. of Primary Industries. 

– Web sites include: Land snails of Australia – Museum Collections 

www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abif/bat/snails.html 

– Lucid key A Key to the Families Non-Marine Molluscs of Quarantine Concern 

in Australia www.lucidcentral.org/ 

DIAGNOSTICS. 

Damage by adult snails and slugs is easy to recognize on most plants. 

Look for silvery slimy trails and excrement casts which are long and curly 

and adhere to feeding sites. 

Young snails may skeletonise surface of leaves of plants such as gazania. 

Damaged leaves then shrivel up and are then difficult to recognize as snail 

damage. Snails and slugs may eat from the edge of the leaf as well as from 

within the leaf margins. 

Do not confuse snail or slug damage with that caused by chewing insects, 

eg caterpillars, beetles, cutworms, or birds on certain plants, eg 

Cucurbits 

- Snails, leafeating ladybirds, pumpkin beetle 

Geraniums - Snails, caterpillars of various moths 

Spinach seedlings - Snails and slugs, cutworms, birds 

Snails and slugs are not usually seen during the day. Where damage is 

unexplained, inspect area after say 10 pm on a mild calm night, or put out 

traps (sacks, etc) or baits, to monitor population densities (page 233). 



LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Not known 

in Australia 

Often intercepted in 

quarantine 

Not known 

in Australia 

Endangered 

Many native species 

are endangered 



SNAILS 

Brown garden snail, 

common garden snail 

(up to 25 mm long) 

Green snail (WA) 

(up to 25 mm across) 

Pointed or conical snail 


Small pointed snail 

(8-10 mm long) 

Sand dune snail, white 

Italian snail 


Vineyard snail, 

common white snail 


White bradybaena 

snails 

Giant African snail 

(about 80-200 mm long) 

Helix aspersa 

syn. Cantareus aspersus 

Wide range of all types of 

plants. Brought to Australia 

because people wanted to eat it. 

Commercial snail farms could be 

established in Australia 

H. aperta (WA only) Ornamentals, vegetables, crops 

Cochlicella acuta Improved pastures and legume 

crops, citrus, seedling crops, 

cereal grains at harvest 

C. barbara Pastures with perennial clovers, 

seeding crops cereal grains at 

Theba pisana 

probably the best known pest 

of agriculture in Australia 

Cernuella virgata 

Bradybaena similaris 

(up to 15.5 mm across) 

Achatina fulica 

harvest, young vines, lucerne 

Emerging seedling crops, climbs 

cereal stalks, clogs machinery, 

contaminates grain, dried fruit, 

clover, beans, oil seeds, vines 

Emerging seedling crops, 

especially barley, field peas, 

contaminate grain, clog 

machinery, organic matter 

Pest of hanging fruit such as 

citrus 

Major pest of vegetable & 

horticultural crops 

Golden apple snail Pomacea caniculata Mainly an agricultural pest, 

especially of rice. 

NATIVE SNAILS 

Various species 

Placostylus bivaricosus 

Thersiles mitchellae 

Many Australian land snails feed 

on fungi. Native snails are mostly 

restricted to natural habitats 

Cumberland land snail Meridolum corneovirens Like many other native land 

snails it feeds on fungi 

PREDATORY SNAILS 

Many native species Strangesta capillacea A common garden snail 

SLUGS 

Black-keeled slug Milax gagates Ornamentals, fruit, vegetables 

Keeled slug M. budopeskensis Ornamentals, fruit, vegetables 

Brown slug Deroceras parnormitanum Ornamentals, fruit, vegetables, 

pasture 

Reticulated slug 


Great striped garden slug 

(up to 20 cm long) 

D. reticulatum 

The most important pest slug 

Limax maximus 

Wide range of leafy plants, 

seedlings, crops, pastures. 

Rotting plant material, also 

garden plants, rotting pet food 

Great yellow slug Lehmannia flava Decaying plant and other material 

PREDATORY SLUGS 

Native spp. mostly in 

natural habitats 

Atopos australe 

Thought to prey on other slugs 

Introduced species Testacella haliotidea Preys on earthworms 

Fig. 130. Common garden snail 

(Helix aspersa). Left: Adult snails on the 

trunk of a citrus tree. Photo NSW Dept. of 

Industry and Investment. Centre & Right: 

Damage to cabbage and kangaroo paw. 




PEST CYCLE 

SNAILS. 

During cold weather, snails hibernate in the topsoil. The life cycle of the 

common garden snail: 

Snails are 

hermaphrodite 

(individuals have both 

male and female sex 

organs) and can 

fertilise each other 

Garden snails are 

up to 25 mm across 

SLUGS. 

The life cycle of slugs is similar to that of snails. But there are some slight 

differences. 

Slugs take 1-2 years to mature to adults and may live for a few months or 

a few years, depending on the species. 

Adult slugs are mostly hermaphrodite and egg laying, like snails. Selffertilization 

may occur in some species. 

Adults lay white or pale yellow spherical eggs, 2-6 mm across, in masses of 

about 30 in decaying organic matter, under stones, boards or clods or in 

moist soil. Many egg masses may be laid by each slug in warmer weather. 

Egg laying may also occur during warm spells in winter in warm climates. 

Under favorable conditions the eggs hatch in 2-4 weeks and the newly 

emerged slugs, which are dull white, resemble the adults. Young slugs 

initially feed on humus and grow slowly, assuming the adult coloration 

when about 1 month old. 

Unlike snails, slugs do not enter a resting stage during dry or cold 

weather, instead during adverse cold, hot and dry weather, they may 

congregate in damp sheltered situations under stones, logs and pots or in 

cracks in the soil. 

Slugs are greatly underestimated as pests. They shelter in cracks in 

the ground and under litter where the relative humidity is 100%. They may 

cause damage before and after snails have been feeding. 

OVERWINTERING, 

OVERSUMMERING 

 

 

As adults (either feeding or in a non-feeding dormant state). 

As eggs in the ground. 



SPREAD 

CONDITIONS 

FAVOURING 

Snails are most active in 

moist, cool conditions 

so a good time to look 

for them is after heavy 

dew or irrigation 

Slugs are likely 

to be greatly 

underestimated 

as pests as they 

shelter in cracks 

in the ground, under 

litter and are not 

usually visible 

during the day 

SNAILS HAVE CAPACITY TO SPREAD 

By their own movement over smooth surfaces, depending on the species 

they can travel up to 1 metre a day. 

Snails may migrate from scrubby areas in search of food during autumn and 

winter to pastures and crops, and can travel from 20-55 metres per month. 

Snails move in droves in autumn and winter from roadside vegetation into 

more exposed pasture where they feed and reproduce before returning to the 

roadside in spring and early summer. They have a good sense of smell and 

can travel substantial distances to find choice food. 

Hitch-hiking on cars, trucks, containers, pallets, bailed hay, nursery stock, 

long distances may be covered. This is how exotic snails arrive in Australia. 

Eggs or newly hatched snails may be transported on empty bags or 

containers, in soil in deliveries and in pots. 

Pointed or conical snails gradually spread north through Vic and NSW. 

Shell souvenirs, food carried by airline passengers. 

EXACT CONDITIONS VARY ACCORDING TO SPECIES 

Wet weather especially during autumn, winter and spring, Big spring 

rains followed by a mild damp summer and autumn; but not heavy rain or 

wind. Mediterranean climates. Only a problem in higher rainfall districts. 

Cool climate areas. Cool moist shady places such as under mulches, 

boards, stones, benches, in pots, debris, leafy weeds, broadleaved plants 

growing close to the ground as shelter on hot sunny days. Cloudy or foggy 

days. Mild temperatures (15-25 o C) and calm periods. 

Limey soils increase the fertility of both snails and slugs; population 

densities are greatest with a soil pH of 6.3-6.7. White Italian snail (Theba 

pisana) only thrives in areas of alkaline sandy soil with a high calcium 

content mainly near the coast. Slugs are favoured by heavier soils and do 

not survive well in fine, light or compacted soil. 

Smooth surfaces on which to move. 

Ground cover plants and weeds provide ideal moisture levels and shelter. 

Perennial and cover crops between trees and vines allow large populations 

of slugs to develop. Often a problem occurs on the edges of crops adjacent 

to weedy fence lines and around uncultivated islands within crops. 

Preceding crops are important. Damage to crops is usually heavier after 

peas, clovers and some Brassicas. 

Pet food left unattended in gardens attracts great striped garden slugs. 

Large amounts of organic matter, eg dug-in vegetation, remains of 

straw or manure, help increase soil moisture and are a source of food. 

Conservation Tillage (CT) with minimum/no tillage, stubble retention and 

direct drilling practices help slugs survive (increased shelter, moisture, food). 

Slugs are listed as one of the major pests that benefit from these practices. 

Reduced burning of crop stubble. 

Most pest snails and slugs are introduced so few natural enemies. 

ENVIRONMENT 

Does it favour the crop or the snails? 

SUSCEPTIBLE 


PEST SNAIL 

PRESENT 

Fig. 131. Pest triangle. 




MAIN STEPS 

Early detection 

of invasion is 

important 

CONTROL METHODS 

Legislation 


Sanitation 

Biological 



Pest-tested material 

Physical/mechanical 

Pesticides 

Organic, BMP, etc 

Combinations 

CONTROL 

METHODS 

1. Plan well in advance to use an IPM program that fits your situation. Keep records 

of the crop, eg source of planting material, planting/sowing dates, temperature, 

irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides. 

2. Crop/region. IPM programs are available for different species of snails and slugs on 

a range of crops in particular regions. List the crop problems in your region. 

3. Identification can be difficult. Be familiar with local species. Consult a diagnostic 

service if necessary (page xiv). Identification is important because certain baits 

are more effective against some species than others and rates of bait depend on 

the species, eg for conical snails use bait with smaller pellet size. Obtain fact sheets 

to understand life cycles, conditions favouring, etc. 

4. Monitor populations before planting, sowing, harvesting, spraying or baiting, etc, 

as there is a relation between snail and slug numbers and plant damage. Know 

when, where, what and how to monitor. Monitor damage to plants. Although it 

may seem that the best time to ‘catch the pests in action’ is to look for them at night, 

their colour makes them difficult to locate. Detect slugs early in the season using 

shelter traps, eg moist hessian bags laid on soil. Slugs invade from the crop edges. 

5. Thresholds are important and will depend on your crop, economics and any legal 

requirements, eg quarantine. It might be 20/m 2 white snails/m in cereals and 5/m 2 in 

canola. Some baits are more effective than others if snail numbers are high. 

6. Action. Compliance with quarantine, snail-freedom, organic standards, etc may be 

required. Many control methods will be preventative, eg sanitation, rough mulches. 

Choose appropriate control measures strategically and early to avoid potential 

major pest problems. Move fast if numbers large. Baiting or spraying may work 

better in some combinations in commercial crops while hand control may be 

sufficient for home gardeners, combined with traps and baits. Toxicity of chemicals 

to children and pets must be a consideration. Populations of some snails, eg common 

garden snail, need to be excessively large and pasture availability limiting before 

control is warranted. Chemical control is more effective when used in combination 

with other control methods. 

7. Evaluate your current program. Recommend improvements if required. Differences 

in success depend on the snail species, the crop and the cropping system. 

LEGISLATION, STANDARDS, ETC 

Seed Acts may prohibit the presence of snails in seed. 

Plant Quarantine prohibits entry of exotic snail and slug species and regulates 

compliance with importing countries regulations (page 234). 

Pesticide and Safety Acts regulate molluscicides (baits and sprays). Permits may 

be required for minor crops, eg herbs. 

Threatened Species and Conservation Act 1995 in NSW provides for 

conservation and recovery of threatened species. 

AS 6000-2009.Organic and Biodynamic Products outlines minimum requirements 

be met by growers wishing to label their products ‘organic’ or ‘biodynamic. 

CULTURAL METHODS. 

Use trickle irrigation instead of sprinklers where possible to reduce moisture and 

breeding and sheltering, especially of slugs. 

Cultivation kills eggs and adults providing a sterile habitat from which survivors 

migrate. A short fallow period can improve this effect. Cultivation in spring can 

drive snails from cover crops or weeds into young foliage. 

Slashing, grazing and cultivation during summer can reduce snail numbers by 

exposing them to increased soil surface temperatures, killing them. 

Water early in the day to minimize moist areas. 

It can be beneficial to change crop sequences. 

Skirt trees to provide fewer access points for snails and minimize risk of snails 

climbing trees. Raise plants off the ground. 

Coco mulch is an inbuilt snail repellent. 

SANITATION. 

Good sanitation increases the effectiveness of treatments especially baits. 

Remove/control weeds. Eliminate places they can hide during the day and breeding 

sites, eg rubbish, pallets, boards and rocks, old plant pots and flats. 

Collecting snails by hand is suitable for small areas in home gardens, but not so 

easy for slugs. Collect immediately after rain, or irrigation which draws out snails 

and slugs for collection at night with a torch. Crush, drown in water, or putt them in 

a plastic bag and placing in the freezer for several hours then tipping into garbage or 

compost. Stomp on them in situ. Start daily and continue weekly until the population 

has decreased. Aestivating snails can be dislodged from fence posts, etc. 

Place fruit bins in snail-free areas to prevent snails from climbing onto field bins 

and being transported into packing sheds. 

Inspect inside and outside of all containers that enter or leave the property. 



Snail baits may kill 

natural predators 

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL. 

Predators. 

– Naturally occurring predators of snails and slugs include birds, rats, frogs, nematodes 

and lizards but none provide much control. Some extinction of land snails on Lord 

Howe Island is possibly due to rats and possibly pigs. Poultry scratch the ground. 

– Ducks are used to control snails and slugs in citrus orchards. About 5-8 ducks/ha 

are sufficient if run continually. Use only active breeds such as Khaki Campbell or 

Indian Runner. Have only 1 drake per flock of about 12 ducks. House ducks in or 

near the orchards and lock them up at night. Feed ducks only in the evenings and at 

their quarters. Do not allow ducks access to water in which they can swim. Do not 

use poison baits where ducks are run. In a small orchards and urban gardens, ducks 

may be messy, a nuisance and damage many herbaceous plants. 

– The decollate snail (Rumina decollata) is a voracious predator of snails and slugs 

and their eggs; also feeds on plant matter. 

– Several native species of snails and slugs are also predators. 

Predators. 

– Nemaslug (Phasmarhabditis sp.) parasitizes snails and is available overseas for 

high value protected crops. Newly hatched snails are very susceptible to nematodes 

some of which occur naturally. Practices which increase the number of bacteriasnails. 

Other species are researched in Australia. 

feeding soil nematodes, eg soil organic matter, may increase mortality of young 

– A parasitic female fly (Sarcophaga penicillata) places larvae (maggots) in the 

opening of shells of the pointed or conical snail (Cochlicella acuta) which is a 

major pest cereal crops in SA. Fly larvae feed on resting snails, pupate and emerge 

as adult flies from the dying snail after about 128 days. It is hoped that the fly can 

regulate pointed snail numbers below the level of economic concern, that it will 

become established in infested areas and eliminate the need for molluscicides. 

– A blowfly (Amenia imperialis) parasitizes the garden snail (Helix aspersa). 

RESISTANT, TOLERANT VARIETIES. 

Where desired plant species are not as important as in home gardens, avoid plants 

very attractive to snails and slugs, eg honesty (Lunaria sp.), hosta. 

PLANT QUARANTINE. 

Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service (AQIS). 

– The giant African snail (GAS) has already reached Australia several times and is 

regularly seized during quarantine inspections on cargo and containers from East 

Timor and north of Australia. The European edible snail (Helix pomatia) is also 

a prohibited import to Australia. Copper-based repellents on containers can 

discourage snails from entry to Australia. 

– To be approved as a citrus exporter to the US, citrus growers in Australia must 

go through a snail approved and accreditation program to ensure fruit is not 

contaminated with a small brown snail (Microxeromagna vestita). 

– Soil which might carry snail eggs, etc is a prohibited import. 

– Lucid key - A key to the Families Non-Marine Molluscs of Quarantine Concern in 

Australia. www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Interstate and Regional Quarantine. The green snail was introduced into 

WA from Southern Europe and North Africa and eradication has been 

unsuccessful. It is hoped that it will not spread to the eastern states. Cut flowers in 

WA must be inspected and certified free from green snails before sale to the eastern 

states. If you suspect green snail in WA has moved into you garden or property 

contact your local Dept. of Agriculture office. 

‘Local’ quarantine. Snails can be carried on plants or they may hitch a lift on 

containers purchased from nurseries and especially fetes. Check material being 

brought into your property. Control movement of machinery and produce to reduce 

further spread of snails on property. 

PEST-TESTED PLANTING MATERIAL. 

Specially developed screens float snails off during wheat harvest operations. 

A maximum limit of 1 snail/200g Australian lupin seed is allowed at present. 

Beer trap 

PHYSICAL & MECHANICAL METHODS. 

Traps 

– Food traps. Beer (fermented malt) can trap, poison and drown nearby slugs and 

snails. Check traps daily and maintain regularly to ensure beer is fresh and deep 

enough for drowning. A little brown sugar or treacle and a small amount of flour 

increases its efficiency. Other attractants include milk, solutions of Marmite or 

Vegemite , small heaps of fresh bran sweetened with a minimum amount of castor 

sugar. Snails or slugs may recover from their drunken stupor and climb out so the 

sunken beer traps must be vertical to prevent them from crawling out. 

– Shelter traps include upturned pots, sacks, boards, orange skins. The hiding 

places must be inspected daily and sheltering snails and slugs destroyed. Check 

traps daily and remove accumulated pests. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

Burning before rolling 

can greatly reduce the 

populations of snails 

and slugs 

 

 

 

 

Barriers 

– Rough mulches around plants act as a barrier to snails and slugs which require a 

moist smooth surface on which to move. This has limited practicality as snails and 

slugs (and eggs) must be outside the barriers when these rough mulches are put in 

place and there must be no bridges across them. Suitable mulches include coarse 

wood chips, coco mulch, bark, sawdust, sand or wood ash (2-3 cm deep), crushed 

egg shells (keep in frig or microwave a couple of days before using). 

– Mosquito netting can be placed over young seedlings. 

– Copper repellent barriers, eg bands, tape, copper-coated pot feet, and rings and 

paint strips 10 cm wide, can be used to band planter boxes and tree trunks. 

Copper tape can be partially buried in the ground and copper can be spread around 

legs of benches. When snails and slugs make contact there is a toxic reaction which 

repels them. Do before warm weather when snails become active. Lines of lime, 

copper sulphate are repellent and used to prevent migrations into crops. 

– Tiny electric fences (10 cm above soil) are effective but extremely expensive. 

– Do not use salt to destroy snails and slugs as it will increase media salinity. 

Treating standing stubble 

– Rolling, harrowing or slashing stubble kills resting snails by dislodging them 

o 

from vegetation onto the ground on a hot day (temperature > 32 C below 50% 

humidity) forces them to move over hot ground, they die by desiccation. Best - soil 

o 

o 

surface is > 40 C, day temp > 35 C, low humidity, nights warm and dry. 

– Burning infested stubble or herbicide-killed pasture, precipitates wind erosion and 

interferes with stubble retention methods of farming. There must be a sufficient fuel 

load and few rocks for snails to hide under. 

– Rakes on the front of harvesters could reduce contamination of harvested grain. 

Robot-type machines are being researched overseas which sweep over the 

ground identifying slugs by their shape, picking them up, dropping them in a hopper 

at the rear of the machine. There bacteria digest the slugs at the same time as 

releasing a gas to power the machine. 

Keep pots off ground (about 3 cm) using easy-to-handle boards (30 cm x 

30 cm) to allow snails and slugs to crawl underneath. 

Home made baits. 

Just because a 

pesticide is a natural 

botanical extract it 

should not be assumed 

 

improperly handled and 

prepared, it can be just 

as hazardous, if not 

 

 

MOLLUSCICIDES. 

Chemical control is most effective when used in combination with sanitation. 

The main molluscicides are metaldehyde, methiocarb, iron-edta, iron 

phosphate and copper. They can be expensive and their effectiveness is 

influenced by soil and weather conditions. 

Resistance. Exposure to prolonged periods of metaldehyde can induce resistance 

in white bradybaena snails (B. similaris) overseas (Salmijah et al 2000). Some slug 

species may be naturally tolerant to methiocarb. 

On edible crops, check current registration status. 

Barriers. Copper can be spread around the legs of benches. 

Baits (page 236, Table 47). 

– Taste deterrents. Some types of baits must be formulated with taste deterrents. 

– Some types of baits are mould resistant. Decaying pellets on plants such as 

lettuce can promote mould development. 

– Pellets and granules are more weather resistant than powders. 

– Defender (metaldehyde) breaks down rapidly in direct sunlight. It kills snails and 

slugs by dehydration, as a snail's body is 90% water, when dead there is only an 

empty shell! Do not water heavily for at least 3-4 days after application, as they may 

rehydrate and recover. Toxic to non-target animals. Do not allow contact with any 

edible portions of any food or feed crop. Phytotoxic to some plants, eg daylilies, 

clematis, don’t apply to dry soil. Metaldehyde baits are less effective during damp, 

overcast weather than those containing methiocarb, but are cheaper to purchase. 

– Baysol (methiocarb) is an anticholinesterase compound, affecting the nervous 

system of snails and slugs. Toxic to non-target animals. 

– Multiguard (iron-edta) contains iron which is toxic to snails and slugs but has low 

toxicity to non-target animals. 

– Enviroguard (iron phosphate) contains iron which is toxic to snails and slugs but 

has low toxicity to non-target animals. 

– Socusil (buffered copper complex). 

– To improve performance of baits mow, cultivate or spray weeds along tree and 

fence lines prior to baiting. As snails congregate along crop edges, fencelines, 

etc. It can be cost effective to apply baits in these regions, before they invade large 

areas especially if numbers are large. 

– Home gardeners would mostly use baits as snails and slugs are mostly hiding 

underneath bricks and pots, where aerosols and sprays would not be effective. 



Table 47. Molluscicides. 

MAIN MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 



Action 

1 

Acetylcholinester 

ase inhibitors 

INSECTICIDES 

CHEMICAL 

SUBGROUP or 

Exemplifying 

Active 

constituent 

1A. 

Carbamates 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


BAYSOL, MESUROL 

SNAIL AND SLUG BAIT 

methiocarb 

BLUE BAIT 

Formulated with Bitrex TM Pet 

Taste Deterrent. Blue is 

attractive to snails and slugs 

but unattractive to birds. 

Stands up well to wet weather 

and is suitable for use in 

glasshouses 

Mesurol is available as a bait 

or spray but not for home 

garden use 




Has to be eaten, 

affects their 

nervous system. 

Non-systemic in 

plants, toxic to fish, 

bees, earth worms, 

poultry, pets. 

Snails do not 

recover 

SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Non-crop, 

certain 

seedlings, 

garden beds, 

fruit, 

ornamentals, 

vegetables, 

field crops, 

pastures, 

cereals, long 

residual control 


SUPPRESSED 

Snails & slugs 

certain species 

Insecticide 

fungus gnats, slaters, 

millipedes 

Others 

1B 

Organo 

phosphates 

Miscellaneous 

Inorganic 

metals 

SUPRACIDE 

methidathion 

Extremely hazardous 

DANGEROUS 

POISON S7 

DEFENDER, SLUGGER, 

SLUGOUT, VARIOUS 

metaldehyde 

GREEN BAIT, granules, 

pellets, powder, aerosol, 

emulsifiable concentrate 

Some products formulated 

with Bitrex TM Pet Taste 

Deterrent and/or Petrepel TM 

MULTIGUARD SNAIL 

AND SLUG PELLETS 

iron-edta complex 

RED BAIT, colour change to 

YELLOW is proposed 

Formulated with a taste 

deterrent to discourage 

children. 

ENVIROGUARD 

FERRAMOL, 

NEUDORFF'S SLUG 

AND SNAIL BAIT 

iron as iron phosphate 

BAIT 

Non-systemic 



Long residual 

effectiveness 

Dehydration 


Kills snails & slugs 

by dehydration, 

more effective if dry, 

sunny or windy 

weather follows 

baiting. If damp 

over-cast weather 

follows baiting, 

snails may recover. 

Iron toxicity 


Snails and slugs are 

very susceptible to 

iron in their blood, 

snails crawl back to 

shelter to die 


No contact action 

Apply bait in 

evening, reapply as 

it is consumed 

Commercial 

orchids, used 

on some 

other plants to 

control many 

insects & mite 

pests 

Non-crop. 

ornamentals, 

garden beds, 

vegetables, 

seedlings, 

do not apply to 

edible parts of 

plants 

Non crop, 

garden beds, 

field crops 

Harmless to 

domestic & mos 

wild animals, & 

environment. 

Not a 

scheduled 

poison 

Home gardens, 

safe for pets 

animals, 

birds, 

earthworms & 

other nontarget 

spp. 

Molluscicide 

slugs and snails 


insecticide 

especially sucking 

insects, eg aphids, 

thrips, scales, also 

mites 




certain species, 

persists about 

2 weeks depending 

on weather, less in 

wet weather, longer in 

dry weather. Breaks 

down to add iron to 

the soil 


stop feeding 

immediately & go back 

to their resting place to 

die in 3-6 days 

SLUGIT, VARIOUS 

copper as buffered 

complex copper 

Surface barrier 

Repellent activity 

Home gardens 



VARIOUS 

copper sulphate 

Controls & destroys 

snails 

Fresh water 

aquariums 

Snails 


Garlic 

GARLIC SPRAYS 

garlic oil/extract 

Creates a snail 

proof barrier 

around plants, pots, 

paths and garden 

furniture 

Certain 

ornamentals, 

fruit, 

vegetables 

Slugs & snails 


Insecticide 

aphids, thrips, etc 



contd 

When is best 

for the snail 

species in 

your area 

If using sprays of any 

kind when you want to 

bait, apply the spray 

first, wait for it to dry 

then apply the baits so 

they are not tainted by 

the spray. 

 

– Timing. is the critical and will depend on the region/crop. Considerations include: 

Aim to have a reduced snail and slug populations at beginning of the growing 

season before planting seedlings or crops emerge. Seek advice on the most 

effective time, eg spring or autumn etc, and understand why. 

Bait when snails and slugs are likely to be hungry, before they get a chance to lay 

their eggs, when there is little feed to compete with baits, when rainfall is unlikely 

to reduce the life of baits. 

Apply baits when snails or slugs are active during cool, damp weather, 

thunder storms in summer, or after irrigation; when damage is first appears. 

Sprays. May be used if snails or slugs are feeding on tree foliage or high above 

ground, and if pest species do not consume baits, eg white bradybaena snail 

(Bradybaena similaris) in areas of NSW and SA. 

– Timing. Sprays are most effective if applied when snails and slugs are active, ie 

early in the morning. 

– Mesurol sprays are restricted pesticides. They have a long withholding period 

when used on fruit crops. Follow label directions for use. 

– Copper products registered for snail control act primarily as repellents but may 

kill young snails and slugs if they are actively feeding at the time of spraying. 

Copper sprays can burn fruit and cause fruit drop especially in hot weather. 

– Various home made sprays may repel snails but some, eg wormwood, are not 

recommended for vegetables that are going to be eaten soon after. 

Table 48. Molluscicide safety. 

SPRAYS. 

BAITS. 

Baits are hazardous 

to children and domestic 

pets. Use commercial 

bait traps to reduce 

hazards and protect 

baits from moisture 

Poison 

Information 

Centre 

131126 

or seek 

Medical Advice 

SIGNAL 

HEADINGS 

Observe 

withholding periods, 

rates, store away from 

children and pets 

USE SPRAYS OR AEROSOLS. 

Where there is a danger to children, dogs and other animals from baits. 

IF USING BAITS. 

Apply and scatter pellets, granules and powders according to label 

directions. Packet ‘openings’ can make this difficult. Do not overtreat or pile 

baits into heaps. Granules can be easier to scatter than pellets. Scatter any 

accidentally spilled heaps. Apply bait in evening and reapply as it is consumed. 

Pellets can be placed inside a pet-safe pellet holder. 

Bittering agents. Certain baits must be formulated with a bittering agent, eg 

Bitrex TM which acts as a taste deterrent to discourage children and pets from 

eating it, but some pets may still find the bait attractive and eat it. The bittering 

agent does not affect their attractiveness to snails and slugs. 

Smell repellents. Baits may also contain a smell repellent, eg PetRepel TM . 

Children, dogs and other pets can be accidentally poisoned by eating baits. Snail 

and slug baits contain cereal, eg wheat, bran, protein materials, casein, which is 

attractive to snails, slugs, dogs and other pets. Dogs particularly seem to be attracted 

to these materials and so can consume large quantities of bait if it is left around in 

heaps. Watch pets carefully after pellets are spread if there is any sign of eating 

pellets remove pellets and clean up. If in doubt contact your vet. Toxic to bluetongue 

lizards. 

Oral toxicity to children. Snail baits, depending on their active constituent, 

vary in toxicity. If bait has been eaten by a child, immediately contact the Poison 

Information Centre or seek medical advice. 

Some molluscicides may be absorbed through the skin and so must not be 

handled with the bare hands. 

Brown/beige metaldehyde pellets, the colour of fowl feed may be available. 

Lock packets of snail baits securely away from children and pets. 

Prevent access to treated area. 

Pellets, granules and powders of these products registered for use usually 

have the following signal headings (in order of decreasing hazard): 






1. List the distinctive features of snails and 

slugs (Phylum Mollusca). 

2. Draw diagrammatically the life cycle of a 

snail or slug. 

3. Recognize by sight local pest and 

beneficial species. 

4. Recognize by sight, snail and slug damage 

to the leaves, flowers, buds, stems and tubers 

of a range of local species of ornamental, fruit, 

vegetable and other plants. 

5. Locate typical slug and snail hiding places on 

your property. 

6. Distinguish snail and slug damage from 

similar damage caused by other agents 

including caterpillars, various leafeating beetles 

and birds. 

7. Provide the following information for local 

pest species of snails/slugs: 

Common name 

Host rang 


Pest cycle 


Spread 


IPM & Control 

8. Prepare/access an IPM. program for a snail or 

slug pest at your work or in your region. 

9. Locate reference material and know where 

to obtain advice on the identification and 

control of snails and slugs. 


Land Snails of Australia – Museum Collections. 

www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abif/bat/snails. 

html 

Helix Consulting. The Full-cycle Snail Farming: A 

multimedia course on farming Helix Aspersa and 

Helix Pomatia (CD-ROM) 

www.helixconsulting.com/en/cdrom.htm 

Snails Bon Appetite has developed commercial Snail 

Farming Kits. www.snailsbonappetite.com.au/ 


Industries are available online, eg 

Commercial Snail Farming 

Organic Snail Control 

Snails and Slugs 

Control of Snails & Slugs 

Pocket Guides 

GRDC Pocket Guides & Publications 

Bash ‘em, Burn ‘em, Bait ‘em. - Integrated Snail 

Management in Crops and Pastures. 

Snail Identification and Control 

Slugs in crops 

Keys 


A Key to the Families Non-Marine Molluscs of Quarantine 

Concern in Australia 

Organic standards 




Quarantine 

Commonwealth quarantine www.daff.gov.au/aqis 

PaDIL - Pests and Diseases Image Library of diagnostic 

photographs and information on more than 1000 pests 

and more than 100 diseases www.padil.gov.au 



State websites have information of snails and quarantine 

restrictions in their states, eg 

Quarantine WA. 2009. Protocol for the Movement of 

Green Snail (Helix aperta) Host Material to other 

States and Territories of Australia. Version 3.5 – 

June. 

Molluscicides 





Company websites provide MSDSs and Labels 

General 

Baker, G. and Charwat, S. 2000. Release of Fly Spells 

Disaster for Snails. Farming Ahead No. 105. Sept. 


Ailments of Australian Plants. Lothian, Melbourne. 

Lush, A. 2005. Field and Post harvest Control of Snails 

in Citrus. Horticultural Australia, Sydney. 

Lush, A.L. (2008) Snail Monitoring in Vineyards - 

Getting Started. The Australian and New Zealand 

Grapegrower and Winemaker, June. 

May, P. 1998. Parasite Highlights Need for Effective 

Control of Snails, Rats. Prof. Pest Manager June- 

July. 


that? Lansdowne Pub., Sydney. 

Micic, S., et al. 2007. Identification and Control of Pest 

Slugs and Snails for Broadcare Crops in Western 

Australia. W.A. Dept. of Agriculture and Food, 2007. 

Naumann, I. (ed.). 1993. CSIRO Handbook of Australian 

Insect Names : Common and Scientific Names for 

Insects and Allied Organisms of Economic and 

Environmental Importance. 6th edn. CSIRO, East 

Melbourne. new edn. avail online www.ento.csiro.au 

RIRDC publications: 

Farming Edible Snails – Lessons from Italy 

Free Range Snail Farming in Australia 

Breeding and Growing Snails 

Nematodes as Biocontrol Agents of Helicid snails 

Salmijah, S., Chan, M. K., Kong, B. H., Maimon, A. and 

Ismail, B. S. 2000. Development of Resistance in 

Achatina fulica Fer. and Bradybaena similaris Fer 

towards Metaldehyde. Plant Prot Quart. Vol.15(1). 

Zborowski, P. 2007. Spiders, Snails and other 

Minibeasts of Australia. Young Reed, Sydney. 



Vertebrate Pests 

Fruit bat 

BIOLOGY 240 


Damage 240 

List of some vertebrate pests 241 

Spread, conditions favouring 242 








Animal quarantine 245 

Pest-damaged planting material 245 



Repellents, avicides (Table 49) 248 

Rodenticides (Table 50) 249 

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES 250 


Vertebrate pests 239


BIOLOGY 

Phylum Chordata 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

Feral animals together 

with environmental weeds 

and salinity, are 

considered to , be one of 

s 

environmental threats. 

DAMAGE 

Cockatoo damage to 

soft rose canes in spring 

The loss of flying 

foxes in some Pacific 

islands could lead to 

widespread extinctions 

of mammals that 

depend on the 

fruit of trees that the 

flying foxes pollinate. 

Many vertebrate pests are native to Australia, eg kangaroos, cockatoos, and find 

introduced crops, forest trees and ornamental and fruiting plants, a welcome addition to 

their diet especially when the bush dries off. There are more than 1000 native 

species, but none (?) are as important pests as the introduced rodents and 

rabbits. Some vertebrate pests have a dedicated website, eg cane toads. 

Invasive Animals CRC www.invasiveanimals.com/ 

Feral animals www.daff.gov.au/brs/land/feral-animals 

Animal welfare www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/ 

DIRECT DAMAGE. 

FLOWERS Eaten/ripped off, eg cockatoos 

FRUIT, NUTS Eaten, eg birds, fruit bats, possums, rats 

STEMS, Tip prune new shoots, eg cockatoos, rosellas 

TRUNKS Tear open stems, eg cockatoos 

Eat bark, eg horses 

SEEDLINGS Eaten, eg birds 

SEEDS Eaten, eg cockatoos, rosella, emus, geese, rats, mice 

ROOTS Eaten, eg feral pigs 

GRASS Eaten, eg rabbits, kangaroos, wallabies 

CROPS Eaten, eg birds, mice 

STORED GRAIN Eaten and contaminated, eg mice, rats 


Rabbits, pigs and goats compete with stock for scarce pasture and water. Trees may be 

ring-barked. Donkeys, horses, camels and deer damage trees because of their reach. 

Flatten crops, eg duck, emus, geese, in their quest for food. 

Birds damage the playing surface of turf seeking scarab grubs. 

Habitat degradation, eg water buffalo in northern Australia, feral pigs. Loosen roots by 

scratching, eg birds, dogs; feral pigs in crops, pasture and the bush. 

Feral pigs feed on plant roots, spread weeds, contaminate water, and ruin pasture. 

Roosting by some may damage trees, eg Indian Mynahs, fruit bats. 

Spread weeds, eg birds, feral pigs. 

Affect biodiversity, eg cats and foxes feed on native animals. Predators of native animals, 

eg cane toads eat native frogs; pigs eat snake eggs, bandicoots. 

Some are toxic, eg cane toads. 

Cattle manure smothers pasture; pigeons soil buildings; people slip on bird poo. 

Parts of Victoria and Kangaroo Island have too many koalas. 

Rats and mice eat vast quantities of food in field and in store throughout the world, and 

contaminate the remainder with faeces causing food poisoning (Salmonella bacteria). 

Cost of lost production, repairing damage, eg electric cables damaged by rats, 

fences damaged by kangaroos and wombats, cleaning buildings to remove bird faeces. 

Harbour diseases already in Australia and exotic diseases should they enter, eg 

– Dogs, cats, bats or foxes may spread rabies virus via a bite of an infected animal to 

other warm blooded animals including humans, with fatal consequences. 

– Rats transmit the Black Death (bubonic plague) to humans via in the Oriental rat flea. 

– Feral pigs are wild hosts for foot and mouth virus disease, if it should enter Australia. 

– Bats and flying foxes may be affected by viruses which can be transmitted to humans, 

other bats and possibly other mammals. Bacteria may contaminate their droppings. 

– Bird lice is spread by starlings. 

– Psittacosis is a contagious disease of birds, especially parrots which when communicated 

to humans causing bronchial pneumonia. 

– Birds may spread avian influenza which mostly affects birds, but can also affect humans 

and animals such as cats and pigs. Swine flu can also spread to humans. 

BENEFICIAL ASPECTS. 

Birds and some species of fruit bats feed on insects and pollinate plants. 

Some are used for food and commodities, eg rabbits, camels, crocodiles, 

kangaroos, goats, buffalo. Rats are eaten in some countries. 

Dogs and cats as pets. 

Some have been trialed for weed control, eg goats, camels. 

Cattle and sheep are used to graze weeds, etc. 

240 Vertebrate pests


LIST OF SOME 

VERTEBRATE 

PESTS 

 

Fruit bat 

Rodents have 

chisel-like front 

teeth for gnawing 

BIRDS. 

Cockatoos, rosellas 

– Fruit and nuts, eg almonds, pome fruits, walnuts. 

– Flowers, eg daffodils, roses. Parrots and other birds tear open the canes of new 

spring growth of roses and other flowers seeking to eat soft green tissue. 

– Shoots, stems, eg eucalypts, wattles, especially pistachio. They tip prune new 

shoots during their quest for seed and tear open stems of young trees 

in plantations to prey on larvae of various borers. 

– Conifer leaders are damaged by their efforts to obtain cones. 

Sparrow, starlings, silver eyes, wattle birds, currawongs 

– Vegetable seedlings after planting out, eg lettuce, spinach, beet. 

– Strawberry fruit and soft-skinned fruit, eg stone fruit, grapes. 

– Currawongs eat whole berries on grapevines. 

Ducks, emus, geese eat seed and flatten crops, leaving messy droppings. 

Magpies swoop people during spring to protect their young in nests. 

Bell miners have been associated with the psyllid infestations on eucalypts in some 

plantations resulting in tree decline, to the extent that the association has been listed 

as a key threatening process under the Threatened Species Conservation Act. 

Silver gulls have profited from access to unlimited food at rubbish tips and are a 

hazard to aircraft at airports. Pigeons leave droppings in urban parks and buildings. 

Seagulls in coastal towns. 

Birds with sharp beaks seeking scarab grub larvae damage turf and lawns. 

Birds may spread diseases such as avian flu and psittacosis. 

The Australasian Pest Bird Network was developed to encourage discussion 

on pest birds, keep up-to-date with current research and provide an avenue for 

requesting information. Global Flyway Network (GFN) in Broome check long 

distance migrating shorebirds, eg magpie geese. 

Noise complaints, customer complaints. 

Tracey et al (2007) has written a comprehensive treatise on managing bird damage 

to fruit and other horticultural crops. 

FRUIT BATS, FLYING FOXES. 

Fruit bats, flying foxes (Dobsonia spp., Pteropus spp.) are protected wildlife. 

They live in colonies in trees during the day. At night they leave to feed on mostly 

native fruits but will also feed on soft cultivated fruit and attack orchards for 

mangoes, nectarines and peaches, etc. Bats can travel over great distances. Some 

fruit bats are important pollinators of native plants. Some native animals feed on the 

fruit of trees pollinated by fruit bats. 

Insectivorous bats eat up to half their body weight in insects, eg moths, beetles, 

flies, flying ants, each night. It is not possible yet to establish the effect of bats on 

reducing plant pests. May be seen at night in urban areas around street lights. 

Bats may carry viruses, eg Australian bat lyssavirus (ABL) and the equine 

morbillivirus (affects horses), both of which can infect humans. Bats and flying 

foxes constitute a particularly fertile source of virus. 

Bat droppings may contaminate swimming pools, drinking water. 

RATS AND MICE. 

Prodigious rate of reproduction. A single pair of mice under optimum 

conditions can produce >300 mice in 21 weeks (5 months). A mouse plague in 

SA (1993) cost an estimated A$100 million in crop, stored grain and other losses, 

in SE Asia it is common for villagers to lose half their rice crop to rats. 

Rats and mice are serious agricultural and horticultural pests. 

– Both introduced and native species can be pests. 

– They damage crops, pastures, stored grain, vegetables in storage, etc. and contaminate 

it with their faeces. They also eat bulbs, rhizomes, seeds, macadamia nuts and other 

plant materials. Rats also eat young chickens, eggs etc. 

– Rats harbour diseases and pose a serious threat to human health, eg bubonic 

plague bacteria is spread to humans by the Oriental rat flea. 

– Rats in sugarcane in north NSW and Qld spread typhus and other diseases. 

– Toxoplasmosis which causes huge losses of life in livestock is a serious problem in 

humans in the USA and other countries. The parasite (a protozoan) passes from rats 

to cats to humans. 

Rodents are, in general, increasing in numbers. 

– Evolution scientists warn of damage to the global environment with animals and 

plants such as rats, cockroaches, nettles and thistles flourishing at the expense of 

more specialized wild organisms. 

– Factors contributing to the rise in rat numbers in the UK include global warming, 

privatized water authorities and associated continuing decay of urban sewerage 

systems, use of plastic building materials which can be more easily eaten by rats, fast 

food outlets contributing to increased levels of rubbish, reduced pest control funding 

by local authorities, pesticide-resistant rats and an unwillingness of some people 

to use rodenticides. 



LIST OF SOME 

VERTEBRATE 

PESTS 

(contd) 

There has probably 

been more written 

about the rabbit than 

any other vertebrate 

pest in Australia 

.RABBITS. 

Rabbits because of their prodigious rate of reproduction are probably the best 

known vertebrate pest in Australia. They: 

– Cause millions of dollars damage to agriculture in Australia each year. 

– Eat vast quantities of pasture, crops; damage trunks of young trees, newly planted 

nursery stock and native vegetation that provide food and shelter for native animals. 

– Change pasture composition, compete with livestock. 

– Erode soil by digging their burrows and have been responsible for more ecological 

damage in the history of Australia than any other single factor to date. 

Rabbits are a good example, how difficult vertebrate pests are to manage. 

Despite the rabbit-proof fence, metal trapping, harbor destruction by burning and 

warren destruction by ripping, fumigating warrens, poison baiting and the use of 

virus diseases, we still have rabbits!!!! 

Rabbits and rats pose a severe threat to World Heritage values on Macquarie 

Island. Impacts include devastating effects upon native fauna, flora, geomorphology, 

natural landscape values and nutrient recycling systems. A Draft Plan for the 

Eradication of Rabbits and Rodents on Macquarie Island has been developed which 

includes baiting and other options such as using dogs to find any remaining rabbits, 

as necessary. Rabbits will need to be monitored for several years after eradication to 

ensure that no rabbits escaped the program. 

The Rabbit Scan Website is designed for farmers and landowners to plot the 

spread and distribution of rabbits and warrens on their land. A map of rabbit 

populations Australia-wide from there they can work to eradicate problem areas. The 

Australian Wildlife Conservancy (AWC) controls 6.2 millions of Australian bushland 

which has been fenced off from feral animals allowing return of native animals and 

plants in these areas. 

Rabbits in bushland may be monitored by counting small clumps of pellets, 

scoring seedling abundance, regeneration and overall rabbit impact, before and after 

rabbit removal. An Australian Government, Bureau of Rural Resources website 

provides an overview of rabbits in Australia. 

Rabbits: A Threat to Conservation & Natural Resource Management. 

www.feral.org.au/content/speces/rabbit.cfm 

.KANGAROOS, WALLABIES, POSSUMS. 

Kangaroos and wallabies consume grass in pasture and native areas, cereal 

and other crops when available, and newly planted nursery stock. 

Possums in urban areas feed on new buds on grapevines, pistachio and other 

plants, also on fruit, eg pome and stone fruit, and nuts, eg walnuts. Major pest in 

New Zealand. 

.DOGS, FOXES, DINGOES, CATS. 

Dogs and cats are not parasitic on plants but can damage lawns, dig up plants. 

Cats may soil gardens and scratch the bark of trees. Eat a range of wildlife, 

including wrens, parrots, frogs, native mice . 

Wild dogs in Nature Reserves adjacent to agricultural areas attack sheep. 

Dogs may attack people, especially children. 

SPREAD, 

CONDITIONS 

FAVOURING 

Know why pests 

are attracted to 

an area 

1 pair of rabbits 

can produce 

more than 

180 offspring 

in 18 months 

The source of vertebrate pests in Australia are from many sources, including: 

Many were brought into Australia in the early days of settlement for food, 

recreation, etc. 

Others entered Australia accidentally, eg on containers, refugee boats. 

Some were deliberately and legally brought in for various reasons, eg cane toads 

for the biological control of sugarcane grubs. 

Some have been brought in deliberately and illegally, eg by air travelers. 

Within Australia by natural spread, and deliberately, eg Indian Myna. Camels, 

horses, goats were let loose after their farming needs were met. 

Numerous conditions favour both exotic and native vertebrate pests, eg 

– Lack of predators for introduced feral species. 

– Australia farming is extensive and often inadequately fenced. 

– Environmental. Mouse plagues after mild winters so that females survive to breed 

in spring and autumn. Above average rainfall may trigger a mouse plague. 

– Breed prolifically. The expression ‘breed like rabbits’ is well known. Most 

vertebrate pests breed prolifically when conditions are favourable. 

– Some are long lived, eg bats live for 20 years. 

– Plentiful food for mice from higher yields, continuous cropping, irrigated crops, 

increased stubble retention in minimum tillage. 

– Shelter. Mice look for warmth and shelter in burrows in the soil, raised beds, 

storage areas, minimum tillage farming. Rabbits retreat to their burrows in weed 

thickets. Indian mynahs nest in garden conifers. 




MAIN STEPS 

Efforts to keep 

them in check 

cause conflict in 

both rural and 

urban areas 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

? 


Legislation 


Sanitation 

Biological 





Pesticides 

CONTROL 

METHODS 

X 

Control programs for certain vertebrate pests are ongoing and require diligence year after 

year by growers, approved commercial operators and members of the community. Many 

pest control companies offer a complete management package. Principles and strategies 

of pest management are outlined on the following website: 

www.daff.gov.au/brs/land/feral-animals/management/strategies 

1. Plan well in advance. Keep records of the crop, eg weather, planting/sowing/ 

harvesting dates. Define the problem. Determine management objectives and 

options, some may be considered unacceptable by the community. 

2. Crop, region. Be aware of specific local vertebrate pest problems which may occur 

on your own and neighbouring properties, eg 

Contacting your local council or shire about the pest problem. Local 

community groups may deal with a local problem, eg Indian mynas. 

 

 

Various Threat Abatement plans, eg rodents, foxes, feral dogs and goats. 

The ‘National Rabbit Control Training and Extension Package’ promotes 

effective and consistent long term rabbit control by the use of IPM. 

3. Correctly identify the pest species. Vertebrate pests themselves are easy to 

identify but their damage might not be so easy. You need to know the exact breed of 

dog, species of bird etc. Damage caused by possums and rats may appear similar. 

Droppings and collections of dead snails may indicate the proximity of rats. You 

may need to seek advice (page xiv) or contact a licensed pest controller. Understand 

the pest life cycle, how it moves around, what local conditions attract it (food, 

shelter, roosting sites, etc), bird behaviour, etc. Obtain a Local Fact Sheet. 

4. Monitor the presence of the pest. Monitoring accessories are available from some 

pest control companies. Know when, where, what and how to monitor. Monitor 

pest numbers or impact? Is the pest protected, noxious, beneficial, new to area, 

seasonal or constant, etc. Monitoring and observation of mice numbers early can 

provide sufficient warning to prevent much mouse damage. Map the problem. 

5. Thresholds will depend on whether treatment is mandatory under State/Territory/ 

local regulations. Do you need to calculate your own threshold based on economic, 

aesthetic or environmental requirements? 

6. Action/Control/Decision making. Many control methods will be preventative, 

eg minimizing food sources, bird netting. Steps should be taken to prevent pest 

numbers exploding. Take appropriate action at the correct time when a prescribed 

threshold is reached. There may be legal and/or organic standard requirements. 

Pest numbers found may not constitute enough potential damage to warrant any 

action. Often area-wide management is necessary to coordinate effects. 

For pests not yet in Australia or in a state/territory – entry can be prevented 

 

by quarantine. 

For new arrivals spread can be minimized by early detection. Response Programs 

assist control of specified pest outbreaks. Noxious pest legislation and other 

regulations are most effective during these early stages of invasion, when 

eradication could be attempted. Available pest control methods do not eradicate 

pests unless they have been selected for a national or state eradication program. 

For established pests the best we can hope for is containment using appropriate 

control methods, for most eradication is probably impossible. Commercial 

harvesting is an option for kangaroo, goats, etc. 

7. Evaluation. Review IPM program. Recommend any necessary improvements, 

based on information about pest population movements and numbers. 

.COMMONWEALTH LEGISLATION, REGULATIONS. 

The Australian Government plays a role in coordinating pest animal management 

through the Vertebrate Pest Committee, Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre 

(IACRC) and the Australian Pest Animal Management Program (APAMP): 

www.agriculture.gov.au/browse/health/pests/vertebrate 

APAMP collaborates with state, territory and local governments, to reduce the 

damage to agriculture caused by pest animals: 

www.daff.gov.au/brs/land/feral-animals 

The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (the EPBC 

Act) provides a legal framework to protect and manage nationally and 

internationally important flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places. 

Threat Abatement Plans must conform to the requirements specified: 

www.environment.gov.au/ 

The Invasive Animal Cooperative Research Centre (IACRC) is Australia’s largest 

integrated invasive animal research program. 

www.invasiveanimals.com/. 

Guidelines for the control and appropriate treatment of pest animals have been 

developed by the National Consultative Committee on Animal Welfare (NCCAW): 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

Each State/ 

Territory/Council has 

Information Sheets on 

Vertebrate Pest Control 

.STATES/TERRITORIES/REGIONAL LEGISLATION, REGULATIONS. 

State/Territories have their legislation relating to vertebrate pests which can be 

accessed online via their environment or primary industry websites. 

Domestic ‘pets’, in order to protect the environment, humans and reduce noise 

levels and are coming under more regulation. 

Rural Lands Protection Boards have a responsibility to enforce 

the Act which says landholders under the Act must suppress and control declared 

noxious animals on their properties (private or public). 

All native animals are protected by legislation and permits to destroy them 

must be obtained from the appropriate government department, eg 

– Birds, eg parrots, honeyeaters. 

– Kangaroos, wallabies, possums, fruit bats. 

Recent invasions by vertebrate pests, eg the cane toad may require that 

sightings be notified. 

Noxious animals are proclaimed under legislation, and include rabbits, feral 

pigs, dingoes. 

– Animals declared noxious, vary according to location within Australia. A pest in 

one area can be an endangered species in another. 

– Contact the local responsible authority for control information and your 

responsibilities. 

– Control measures of noxious animals are usually prescribed by legislation. 

– Supply and use of pesticides to control vertebrate pests is often restricted. 

– Federal Government may financially assist farmers to carry out pest control 

especially after drought. 

.CULTURAL METHODS. 

Modifying habitats. Bush areas adjacent to cultivated fields often increase pest 

problems in agriculture. Many types of vertebrate problems have been minimized by 

modifying the habitat of these surrounding areas, eg ‘clean’ farming that eliminates 

cover along fence rows and field margins, however, it is generally frowned upon by 

conservationists. 

Alternate food sources. Troublesome vertebrates such as ducks and geese, can 

be controlled to some extent by providing them with alternate food and water 

sources preventing damage. About one third of the birds that attack grapes are 

thirsty so provision of drinking water may save some fruit. Overseas diversionary 

crops keep rats from wanted crops. In some countries early crop lures are 

used to attract rats for destruction before the main crop is planted. 

In certain areas of Australia damage to eucalypt stems may be reduced 

by preventing parrots and other birds from flying through the surrounding vegetation 

by planting areas with wattles which may act as a physical barrier to the birds. 

Destroy shelter for pests, eg controlling blackberries which harbour rabbits. 

Culling and relocating bats in Melbourne Botanic Gardens. 

Some plants attract animals, eg cats to catnip (Nepata cataria). 

SANITATION. 

Slash and burn/destroy blackberry thickets which act as a refuge for pests. 

Compost heaps attract rats and some exotic birds, eg blackbirds, so contain 

compost heaps and do not leave food around. 

Farm hygiene, eg minimize spilt stock food. 

.BIOLOGICAL CONTROL. 

Biological control aims to regulate populations rather than eradicate them. 

The use of predators to control vertebrate pests has generally not been very 

successful as the predator may itself become a pest, eg if rabbits are controlled then 

foxes have to look elsewhere for food. 

– Dogs and cats. Probably the best known use of predators to control vertebrate 

animals in a localized situation is the use of cats and dogs, eg Jack Russells, to 

control mice and rat populations. 

– The intentional introduction of predators to control troublesome species of 

vertebrates should not be undertaken until all potential ecological consequences 

have been carefully scrutinized. Examples of instances where this has not been 

carried out include the introduction of the: 

Fox into Australia to control the rabbit. 

Cane toad to control cane grubs in sugarcane in Qld. 

Weasels, stoats and ferrets into NZ to control the rabbit. 

All of these introduced predators not only failed to accomplish their task, but 

themselves became pests. 

– Native predators. 

Dingoes prey and exert some control of kangaroos in certain areas. 

Owls in sugarcane field in Queensland eat an average of 5 rats per night. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

.BIOLOGICAL CONTROL. (contd) 

Disease organisms 

– Rabbits. Myxomatosis, caused by the myxoma virus of the South American 

forest rabbit is spread from rabbit to rabbit by mosquitoes and rabbit fleas. It 

was introduced into Australia in the early 1950s and was spectacularly 

successful in controlling rabbits, but over many years the rabbit has developed 

resistance to the virus. Rabbit Calicivirus Disease (RCD) was accidentally 

released in 1997. At least 10 species of insects are vectors including 5 species of 

blowflies, a carrion fly, 2 species of mosquitoes and the European rabbit flea. 

Myxamatosis and RCD occur seasonally throughout southern Australia. 

Genetic changes in the RCD virus are already apparent. New strains of the 

calicivirus are to be introduced to Australia in a bid to halt rapidly spiraling 

rabbit numbers. Domestic rabbits can be vaccinated against the virus. 

– Pigs. Overseas, there have been many unofficial attempts to control wildlife 

populations with diseases, eg the 100% successful project to eliminate wild pig 

populations on an island off California by introducing the hog cholera virus. 

– Birds. There is much published data on the occurrence of potential diseasecausing 

organisms in wild birds but as yet no practical application has been 

made of them, possibly because few, if any, are host specific. 

– Cats. In Australia, it has been suggested that feral cats could be controlled by a 

virus disease, registered domestic cats could be immunized against the disease. 

 

Controlled breeding Many techniques are still experimental. 

Invasive Animals CRC www.invasiveanimals.com/ 

– Genetic engineering 

Virally-vectored immune contraception. In the future rabbits could be 

vaccinated with a myxoma virus which has been genetically engineered to 

carry a gene which would make rabbits infertile. This technique could also be 

used to control breeding of mice, foxes and other vertebrates. 

Mice. Focus is on using either a mouse-specific virus or bait as a vehicle to 

vaccinate mice and induce infertility which would be long enough to prevent 

mouse populations building up into plagues. 

Cane toads. Attempts to use a viral vector to transfer a gene which would 

prevent tadpoles of the cane toad metamorphosing into adults. 

– Chemosterilants 

Regulating birth rates. Chemosterilants, eg birth control, spermatocidal and 

immunological drugs, artificially regulate the birth rate of populations of wild 

vertebrates that live in semi-naturalistic situations and are troublesome to 

humans and the environment. 

FeralMone Spray Attractant ('Synthetic Fermented Egg' ('SFE')) is an 

aerosol spray used to attract foxes and wild dogs to bait stations. 

Animal Control Technologies www.animalcontrol.com.au 

– Desexing 

 

More and more local councils are moving towards the compulsory de-sexing 

and chipping of domestic dogs and cats in urban areas. 

.RESISTANT, TOLERANT VARIETIES. 

Overseas, the search for bird-resistant varieties of cereal grains continues and aims 

to yield long lasting results; however, early results have been disappointing. 

.ANIMAL QUARANTINE. 

AQIS (Australian Quarantine Service). Like many plant pests, vertebrate 

pests have been introduced from abroad, eg cane toads, rabbits, starlings, sparrows. 

Many still occur overseas that would be unwelcome in Australia, eg certain species 

of rats. 


 

 

State/Regional Quarantine. Within Australia, both introduced and native 

vertebrate pests may occur in certain areas and not in others, eg starlings which do 

not occur in WA, are trapped on the Nullarbor Plain. 

Local Quarantine. Indian mynahs are inadvertently encouraged into gardens by 

plantings of dense conifers which provide ideal nesting sites. Some new suburbs 

adjacent to bushland have been designated ‘no free-roaming cats’. Night curfews 

have been suggested for cats. 

.PEST-DAMAGED PLANTING MATERIAL. 

Seed, grain, bulbs, tubers and other vegetative propagation material may be eaten and 

contaminated with faeces. Damaged seed may not germinate, or may geminate but 

seedling may not develop normally, eg French bean seedlings with no growing tips, the 

stem above the cotyledons is a bare stump, seedlings may die or shoots develop in the 

axils of the cotyledons. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL METHODS. 

These are the most common, best known and often the most effective means of 

controlling some vertebrate pests. 

Physical methods. 

Frightening devices. Where times of protection are short or where methods can 

be varied continually, as in a home garden, these devices may keep pests, chiefly 

birds, from crops. Frightening devices include: 

– Visual scaring devices include: 

Scarecrows. 

Flying kites of hawks, owls, flattened cats, balloon eyes. 

Displays of dead birds, fish or other animals. 

Flashing mirrors, such as Eagle Eye, aluminum foil, flags. Strings and bottle tops 

over roses and seedlings will provide some protection to seedlings. 

– Acoustic devices include: 

 

 

 

Widely used in country areas to disperse birds, eg rotating gas guns, which 

produce loud explosions at variable intervals. Maximum sound levels have to be 

observed. 

Humming lines, chimes, holograph tape. 

Rustling plastic shopping bags, etc. 

– Others include: 

Iridescent metallic tape with patterns of eyes of an owl or snake. As light hits the 

tape a scary 3D effect occurs, the tape rattles in the breeze. 

Electric grids. 

Communication signals may be: 

– Attractive, eg food-finding, courtship calls. These have so far not been used as a 

method of vertebrate pest control. 

– Repellent, eg distress or alarm calls, can control vertebrate pests, especially 

birds. Animals avoid protected areas. Units can be expensive. 

Bird-repelling systems for commercial crops include Bird Gard, eg Bird and 

Bat Control, Flower Fruit Scarer, and Crop Gard. Bird-call recognition software 

might solve bird problems in orchards. 

Electronic Garden Pest Repellers beam ultrasonic sound into a small area 

keeping dogs, cats, rabbits, some rodents and possums away. 

Habituation seems to be less of a problem with communication signals than 

with frightening devices. 

– Where habituation does occur, changing the signal usually restores effectiveness. 

Since most species have a variety of alarm signals, this is usually easy to do. 

– Distress and alarm calls move the pests, but do not destroy them. Usually the 

birds find alternative food that is not economically important. 

.Mechanical methods. 

Fences 

Prickly shrubs 

 

 

Operations. 

– Shooting to control their numbers, eg geese, kangaroos, wild dogs. Assisted with 

night vision, thermal imaging, helicopters. Not suitable for urban areas. 

– Neck dislocation of pest birds caught in traps. 

Barriers are a humane method for excluding vertebrate pests. 

– Fences control the movement of rabbits, dingoes and kangaroos; The most famous 

one being the rabbit proof fence to stop rabbits spreading to WA from the eastern 

states. Dingo fences protect sheep flocks from dingoes which also regulate kangaroo 

and emu numbers. 

– Sealed containers/packets protect seed and other foods from rats and mice. 

– Flying pests. Netting, bags and stockings protect fruit from birds and other pests. 

Individual bunches of bananas, grapes, may be bagged. 

Bird netting. Entire fruit crops may be covered with netting (complying with 

ISO 9002 and other Standards) to protect them from birds and hail, enable better use 

of chemicals, reduce drift, break rain into fine mist, reduce evapo-transpiration, 

wind and sunburn damage, increase temperature and prevent frost damage. 'Vinenet' 

(for vines) also protects tropical fruit, eg lychees, from birds and insects, eg 

fruit-piercing moths. Bird netting excludes birds from stadiums. A canopy of 

foliage can act as a barrier against birds, as they fear ambush. Prune to provide leaf 

cover and concealment. netting protects tree trunks. 

Bat netting is used for fruit bats and larger birds. Growers in some areas can 

apply for low interest loans to erect exclusion netting for fruit bats as part of a 

Special Conservation Scheme. 

Wires, lines protect roses from birds, netting over seedlings of vegetables. 

Roost inhibitors include bird coils and spikes. Electrified ledge landing sites 

on buildings (Bird-shock Flexi-Track) prevent birds settling on buildings and can be 

incorporated into the design of buildings. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

.Mechanical methods. (contd) 

Traps 

– Track traps. Metal traps are in breach of Prevention of Cruelty to Animal acts. 

Sticky traps have been used to catch mice. Both methods involve a degree of cruelty 

in that the animals are left to struggle (often in pain) until traps are inspected. 

Animal welfare www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/welfare/nccaw/guidelines/pest 

– Food traps. The familiar household mouse or rat trap is basically a food trap with 

a device for killing the animal after it has been attracted. A modification of this trap 

is used for dealing with large numbers of mice. 

Possums in urban areas can be trapped and relocated in another area. 

. Bird traps have been used to catch starlings flying into WA across the Nullarbor 

Plain. Indian Myna birds are trapped in the ACT and euthanized. 

Capture and relocation 

– Greyheaded flying foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) Royal Botanic Gardens 

Melbourne, tried noise, smoke, trapping and some culling caused public controversy 

and limited success. Capturing and relocation may not completely rid the garden of 

bats but should reduce the colony to a more manageable level. 

– Koalas have been relocated to Kangaroo Island (where they are now a pest). 

.PESTICIDES. (Repellents, rodenticides) 

Almost all pesticides that are registered for controlling vertebrate pests are also highly 

toxic to humans and their domestic animals. State/Territory Pesticide Acts regulate 

their use and many are available only to authorized and licensed persons (pages 

244, 249). Seek advice from your local Council/State/Territory authority. 

Even with generally poisonous materials, danger can be lessened by careful use; 

many are refused by humans and domestic animals. Some contain a taste deterrent. 

Pesticides for controlling rodents are generally applied as baits (solid or liquid) or 

fumigants. 

Overseas animal repellents for home garden use are available for almost any animal, 

eg snakes. 

RATS AND MICE. 

Rodent bait stations are available which are lockable and tamper-resistant. 

Some rodenticides (page 249) contain Bitrex - a human taste deterrent. 

Anticoagulants interfere with the action of Vitamin K and reduce coagulating 

powers of blood. Mice and rats eventually die from internal haemorrhage. 

Advantages include: 

Non-development of bait shyness in rats 

Lack of danger to birds and other mammals 

Existence of a good antidote (vitamin K) 

Disadvantages include: 

Resistance develops 

Toxic to humans 

 

 

RABBITS 

Rabbits are easily killed by using rodenticides, eg pindone or fumigants. Most of 

these compounds are highly toxic and their use is restricted. 

Units designed to inject liquid LPG into rabbit warrens are available for hire from 

local boards. 

For several reasons, poison baiting may not always be effective. In WA during dry 

summers both 1080 and pindone were equally effective but in wet seasons, 1080 was 

not so effective, possibly due to its solubility in water. Also over a period of years in 

there has been a marked decline in the effectiveness of poison baiting, thought to be 

due to selection for neophobia (tendency to avoid the new) in rabbit populations 

(Oliver et al, 1982). 

BIRDS 

Various bird repellents are used by home gardeners. 

Although there is a reluctance to use chemicals to kill birds, some are registered for 

use by trained professionals. 

Repellent sprays are no longer registered for use on fruit crops. New repellents 

are being researched and may be available in the foreseeable future. 

Small numbers of trapped birds may be euthanased with carbon monoxide. 

Tracey et al (2007) has written a comprehensive treatise on managing bird damage to 

fruit and other horticultural crops. 

DOG AND CAT REPELLENTS, BAITING WILD DOGS 

Dogs and cats are not parasitic on plants but can damage lawns, dig up plants, etc. 

Their control is dealt with here for convenience (page 248, Table 49). 

Most dog and cat repellents for use in the home garden are not pesticides, do not 

require to be registered and are exempt from poison scheduling. 

There are many home made remedies, eg ammonia, pepper. 



Table 49. Repellents. (dogs, cats, possums, rabbits) and Avicides. 

Many pesticides, especially insecticides, are very toxic to birds. 

Some pesticides used to control birds are restricted and available only to trained/licensed persons. 

Some dog and cat repellents do not require to be registered as pesticides and are exempt from 

poison scheduling. They are included here for convenience. 

Although there is a reluctance to use chemicals to kill birds, many bird repellents are very toxic. 

CHEMICAL TYPES/GROUPS 

REPELLENTS 

D-TER . 

Botanical 

oils 

Others 

1A 

Acetylcholin 

esterase 

inhibitors 

INSECTICIDE 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


SKEDADDLE DOG & 

CAT DETERRENT, 

DETOUR, VARIOUS 

citronella oil 

eucalyptus oil 

POSS OFF 

garlic, citronella 

capsicum oleoresin 

D-TER ANIMAL & 

BIRD DETERRENT 

aluminium ammonium 

sulphate 

+ sucrose octa-acetate 

+ denatonium benzoate 

GET OFF, KEEP OFF 

DOG & CAT 

REPELLENT SPRAY 


sulphate 

SCAT BIRD & ANIMAL 

REPELLENT 


sulphate 

GET OFF MY GARDEN, 

KEEP OFF DOG & 

CAT REPELLENT 

methyl nonyl ketone 

SEN-TREE 

whole egg solids/ 

acrylic polymer 

adhesive/silicon 

carbide grit 

SCARECROW BIRD 

REPELLENT, 

CYNDAN 

polybutene 

MESUROL BIRD 

REPELLENT & SNAIL 

& SLUG SPRAY 

methiocarb 



Repellent, 

smell pleasant to 

humans, but 

disliked by dogs 

Natural possum 

repellent 

Bitter tasting 

Repellent, 

repels animals. 

Acts on the 

senses of taste 

and smell, animals 

entering treated 

areas are warned 

of repulsive food 

and smells 

Repellent smell to 

dogs and cats. 

Non-toxic to 

plants. 

Repellent smell 

Non-toxic to 

plants. 

Repellent smell 

Dogs and cats find 

it offensive. 

Odour and grit 

deterrent 

Perching & 

roosting repellent 

Slow drying sticky 

jelly, treated 

perches become 

messy & must be 

cleaned 

Bird repellent 

spray, nonsystemic, 

also 

kills snails & 

slugs, certain 

insect pests 

SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES, 

TREATED 

Garden areas, 

lawns, paths, 

verandahs 

Plants 

Garden areas, 

around homes, 

buildings, plants, 

seeds, bulbs, 

vegetables, fruit, 

ornamentals 

Non-crop, eg 

fences, gates; 

around plants, 

lawns 

Non-crop, eg 

fences, gates, 

around 

ornamental plants, 

vegetables, 

seedlings, lawns 

Assists in training 

dogs and cats 

avoid your garden 

Certain tree 

seedlings 

Urban roosts, 

ledges etc. 

Commercial & 

industrial buildings 

Ornamentals 


SUPPRESSED 

Dog & cat repellent 

useful as a training 

aid for dogs & cats 

Possum repellent 

possums 

Animal & bird 

repellent 

dogs, cats, rats, mice, 

rabbits, possums, 

wallabies, parrots, 

effectiveness varies from 

species to species, repels 

for up to 8 weeks, 

depends on weather 


dogs, cats; may be 

used as a training aid 

Bird & animal 

repellent 

birds, pets, wildlife 

rabbits, rats & mice 


dogs & cats; may be 

used as a training aid 

Browsing deterrent 

certain wallabies, 

rabbits & Tasmanian 

paddymelons 


pigeons, sparrows, 

starlings etc; birds 

feel insecure on the 

jelly, fly to other sites, 

discourages roosting 


black-birds, sparrows, 

starlings, Indian 

Mynas, 



AVICIDES 

1B 

Acetylcholin 

esterase 

inhibitors 

INSECTICIDE 

AVIGEL, CONTROL-A- 

BIRD AGENT 

fenthion 

Only to be used 

supplied to & used 

by licensed pest 


Industrial & 

commercial 

premises 

Unwanted pest birds 

pigeons, starlings, 

Indian mynas, 

sparrows 

SCATTERBIRD 

 


ALPHA-CHLORALOSE 

alphachloralose 


Bait 





Narcotic, renders 

birds easier to kill 

by other means, 

birds may fall and 

die from exposure 

Commercial & 

industrial areas, 

domestic, public 

service areas, 

agric buildings, 

farm situations 

Buildings. 





Birds 

pigeons, sparrows, 

starlings, Indian 

mynas 

Birds 

Pigeons 

PERMIT ONLY 



Table 50. Rodenticides. (mice, rats, rabbits, foxes) 

 

 

Most rodenticides are highly toxic to children, pets, domestic animals and wildlife. Some are only to be 

used in a lockable bait station. Some contain Bitrex 

Some are restricted pesticides and only to be supplied to and used by licensed pest control 

operators. Consult local council or shire for information on vertebrate pests. 

CHEMICAL TYPES/GROUPS 

ANTI-COAG 

ULANTS 

Coumarin 

Non-crop use 

Indandione 

Non-crop use 

OTHERS 

These products are all 

extremely hazardous and 

must only be supplied to 

and used by licensed pest 


FUMIGANTS 

All chemical fumigants are 

extremely hazardous and must 

only be supplied to and used 

by licensed pest control 

operators (see pages 58, 60 & 

267 for mode of action groups) 

VIRUSES 

Trade name 


KLERAT, RODEX, 

TALON 

brodafacoum 

BROMAKIL, 

BROMARD 

bromadiolone 

RACUMIN 

coumatetralyl 

RATSAK, VARIOUS 

warfarin 

STORM, 

STRATAGEM 

flocoumafen 

SOREXA PRO 

RODENTICIDE 

difenacoum 


alpha-cypermethrin 

PINDONE, VARIOUS 

pindone-sodium 

RESTRICTED PESTICIDE 

POISON 

RAMIK GREEN 

BAIT BITS 

diphacinone 

POISON 

RAMPAGE 

cholecalciferol 

(Vit D3) 


VARIOUS 

zinc phosphide 


1080, VARIOUS 

sodium 

fluoroacetate 


CHLORFUME, 

LARVACIDE 

chloropicrin 

(tear gas) 

FUMITOXIN, 

VARIOUS 

aluminium phosphide 

CSSP PHOSPHORUS 

PIG POISON 

carbon disulphide + 

phosphorus 

DEN-CO-FUME 

CARBON MONOXIDE 

FUMIGANT CARTRIDGE 

sodium nitrate + 

charcoal + 

MYXOMA VIRUS 

myxomatosis virus 

CALICI VIRUS 

rabbit haemorrhagic 

disease virus 

CYLAP RCD 

VACCINE 

rabbit calici virus 

THE PRODUCT 

Method of control 

Bait 

One dose is effective. 

Eliminate alternate food 

Bait 

1-2 feedings will control 

a population 

Bait 

Continuous feeding is 

necessary for control 

Bait 

Repeated ingestion 

needed 

Bait 

Lethal in a single dose, 

non-food blue colouring, 

human taste deterrent 

Bait 

blocks, wax, paste, 

pellets 

Bait (usually carrots, 

dyed green), less likely 

to be eaten by birds. 

Degrades in soil and 

water. 

Ready to use nugget 

baits 

Bait Mobilises store of 

calcium from bones to 

plasma in the body of 

rodents 

Bait (sterilized wheat 

seed coated with zinc 

phosphide). One grain is 

lethal to mice. 

Bait Lethal to domestic 

dogs & some wildlife, 

native animals have 

some tolerance. 

Soil fumigant 

Often used as a 

warning agent with 

other fumigants 

Fumigant 

Bait 

Fumigant cartridge 

Very toxic, explosive 

For the initiation of 

myxomatosis in rabbits 

Injection & baits 

Injection to control calici 

virus in European 

rabbits 

SOME USES 


CROPS,/SITES 

TREATED 

Non-crop, buildings, 

crop edges 

Within & around 

buildings or in 

enclosed spaces 

Non-crop, buildings. 

Young pigs are very 

sensitive 

Non-crop, buildings. 

Hazardous to wildlife, 

domestic animals, 

In & around industrial, 

domestic and 

agricultural buildings 

In & around 

buildings 

Professional pest 

control product 

Non-crop, 

very small risk of 

secondary poisoning 

(domestic dogs) 

Commercial, agric & 

domestic buildings 

In & around domestic, 

commercial and agric 

buildings. 

Only to be used in 

lockable bait stations 

Agricultural situations, 

sugarcane 

Must not be used 

around farm buildings 

Non-crop. 

DANGEROUS POISON, 

RESTRICTED PESTICIDE 

Pre-planting soil 

fumigation, soil heaps, 

rabbit warrens 

Non-crop, buildings, 

seed, stored grain, 

pasture 

Restriction on where 

it may be used. 

Natal fox dens 

For prevention of 

calicivirus in cats, 

rabbits 


SUPPRESSED 

Rats & mice 

various species 

Rats & mice 

various species, poultry 

are very sensitive 

Rats & mice 

various species 

Rats & mice 

various species, 

Rats & mice 

controls rats and mice 

resistant to warfarin 

Rats & mice 

including those resistant 

to other anticoagulants 

Rabbits 

Consult state authority 

on vertebrate pests 

Mice 

Rats & mice 

including anticoagulant 

resistant species 

Mice, rats 

large scale plagues, 

minimal risk to non-target 

native animals, birds or 

reptiles 

Wild dogs & foxes, 

vermin 

consult state authority 

on vertebrate pests, 

Fumigant 

rabbits, soil fungal & 

bacterial diseases, 

nematodes, weed seeds 

Commodity fumigant 

storage pests & mice, 

rabbits 

Feral pigs 

Foxes 

humane asphyxiation of 

foxes in natal dens 

Wild European rabbits 

Wild European rabbits 

Domestic rabbits & 

cats 






1. List local pest vertebrates. 

2. Describe identifying features of vertebrate 

pest damage to selected crops. 

3. Recognize by sight, damage to ornamental 

plants, fruit, vegetables and other crops by 

local pest vertebrates. 

4. Compare bird damage to fruit with 

environmental damage, hail damage. 

5. Name vertebrate pests in Australia which are 

controlled to some extent by biological 

control agents. 

6. Explain why physical & mechanical 

methods of control are widely used to control 

vertebrate pests. 

.7. Describe State/Territory/Commonwealth 

legislation for the control of a local pest 

species. 

8. Provide the active constituent, some trade names, 

mode of action and some uses for selected 

rodenticides, bird repellents, dog and cat 

repellents belonging to the following groups: 

Rodenticides 

Anticoagulant 

Bird repellents Dog & cat 

repellents 

Taste repellent Taste repellent 

Smell repellent Smell repellent 

Perch treatment 

9. Provide options for controlling local pest 

vertebrates including: 

Mice and rats in a greenhouse 

Mice damaging stored seed 

Birds damaging cherry crops 

Possums eating walnuts 

Fruit bats damaging ornamental trees 

Cockatoos damaging ornamental trees 

Birds nesting in urban street trees 

10. Prepare/access an IPM. program for a 

vertebrate pest at your work or in your region. 


to obtain advice on the control of rats, mice and 

other local pest vertebrates. 


IACRC (The Invasive Animal Cooperative Research 

Centre) www.invasiveanimals.com/ 

Vertebrate pests www.agriculture.gov.au/ 

Controlling pest animals www.daff.gov.au/animalplant-health/welfare/nccaw/guidelines/pest 

Animal welfare www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/ 

Threat abatement plans 

www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/tap.html 

Feral animals www.daff.gov.au/brs/land/feral-animals 

and search for: 

APAMP (Australian Pest Animal Management Program) which 

replaces the National Feral Animal Control Program 

(NFACP) 

PESTPLAN (A guide to setting priorities and developing a 

management plan for pest animals), 

NCCAW (National Consultative Committee on Animal 

Welfare) 

Fact Sheets and Vertebrate Pest control manuals by 

State/Territory Depts of Primary Industries are 

available online, eg 

Rabbits, Mice, Feral Goats, Mice, Foxes, etc. 

Legislation 

Legislation - State/Territory and Council websites 

EPBC Act (Environment Protection and Biodiversity 

Conservation Act 1999) www.environment.gov.au/ 

Keys 

Lucid keys www.cbit.uq.edu.au/ 

Key to the Pest Rodents of Southeast Asia and the Pacific 

Quarantine 




Rodenticides, 

Local Councils/Shires 





Company websites make labels and MSDSs available 

General 

Breed, B. & Ford, F. 2007. Native Mice and Rats. 

CSIRO Pub., Melbourne. 

Caughley, J., Bomford, M., Parker, B., Sinclair. R., 

Griffiths, J. and Kelly, D. 1998. Managing 

Vertebrate Pests : Rodents. BRS, Canberra. 

Gerozisis, J. & Hadlington, P. 2008. Urban Pest 

Management in Australia. 5 th revised edn. UNSW 

Press, Sydney. 

Hall, L. & Richards, G. 2000. Flying Foxes : Fruit and 

Blossom Bats of Australia. UNSW Press, Sydney. 

Hone, J. 2007. Wildlife Damage Control. CSIRO Pub., 

Melbourne. 

McCarthy, P. & Bache, S. 2010. Managing Pest Birds. 


Oliver, K.J. Wheeler, S. H. & Gooding, CD. 1982. Field 

Evaluation of 1080 and Pindone Oat Bait, and the 

Possible Decline in Effectiveness of Poison Baiting 

for the Control of the Rabbit, Oryctolagus 

Cuniculus. Aust. Wildlife Research 9(1) 125-134. 

Olsen, P. 1998. Australia’s Pest Animals : New 

Solutions to Old Problems. Kangaroo Press, Sydney. 

Singleton, G. R., Hinds, L. A., Leirs, H. & Zhang, Z. 

2000. Ecologically-based Rodent Management. 

ACIAR, Canberra. 

Tracey, J., Bomford, M., Hart, Q., Saunders, G. & 

Sinclair, R. 2007. Managing Bird Damage to Fruit 

and Other Horticultural Crops. Bureau of Rural 

Resources, Canberra. 



Nematode Diseases 

Root knot nematode galls (up to 25 mm across). 






Symptoms 253 


Identification and sampling 256 


Distribution within plants 259 



Spread 260 


INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT IDM) 262 






Resistant, tolerant varieties and rootstocks 264 




Nematicides 265 

Non-fumigant nematicides (Table 51) 266 

Fumigants (Table 52) 267 

EXAMPLE OF A NEMATODE DISEASE 268 

Root knot 268 



Nematode diseases 251


BIOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION 


NO. DISEASES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

Nematodes occur in soil, plants, animals and humans. More than 300 species are 

known to be parasitic on plants and it is considered there may be up to 1 million 

species worldwide. Nematode populations are related to soil properties and so 

are useful indicators of soil conditions (Hodda et al 1999). Nematode plant 

pests cost about 10 per cent of world food production (Hodda 2008). 

Nematoda www.ento.csiro.au/science/nematode.html 

CBIT Nemasys www.cbit.uq.edu.au/software/nemasys/ 

Biological Crop Protection www.biolcrop.com.au/ 

Australasian Association of Nematologists nematologists.org.au/ 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 


nematodes with 

earthworms 

or some fly larvae, eg 

fungus gnats, both of 

which are larger 

BODY 

MOVEMENT 

1. Many celled animals with a true digestive cavity. 

2. Mainly microscopic (x 10), some visible to the naked eye. 

3. Generally 0.5 - 3.0 mm long, a few species are longer. 

4. Generally ‘eel-like’, adult females of some species are 

spherical or pear-shaped. More or less transparent. 

5. Body is unsegmented with no legs or other appendages. 

They move by means of special muscles in water films 

between and around soil particles. 

Do not confuse nematodes (Phylum Nematoda) with earthworms (Phylum 

Annelida) or some fly larvae, eg fungus gnats, both of which are larger. 

LIFE CYCLE 

Root knot 

nematode 

Life cycles of most plant parasitic nematodes are similar, eg eggs, 

juveniles (which look like adults) and adults (males and females). The sexes 

are usually separate, however, males may be missing. Also females may 

reproduce parthenogenically. At optimum temperature and moisture a life 

cycle may take from 2-4 weeks. 


eg foliar nematodes, 

stem and bulb 

nematodes 

252 Nematode diseases


METHOD OF 

FEEDING 

NEMATODE HEAD 

The digestive system is 

developed for handling 

a liquid diet. 

Most plant parasitic 

nematodes have a hollow 

stylet or spear which can be 

thrust forward (like a tongue) 

from its mouth to puncture 

holes in plant cells. It then 

withdraws or “sucks out” 

the contents, including the 

nutrients, from the plant cell. 

Nematode head. A hollow digestive 

tube extends from the mouth to the anus 

(adapted from Agrios, 1997). 

SYMPTOMS 

Above 

ground 

symptoms 

Below 

ground 

symptoms 

Disease 

complexes 

Nematodes also feed 

on algae, lichens and 

are often found on 

healthy trees 


The mechanical injury caused by nematodes feeding causes only slight injury to 

plants. Most plant damage is caused by the nematodes secreting saliva which 

they inject into plants during feeding. This may result in: 

Tissue breakdown, eg rotting 

Abnormal cell enlargement and cell multiplication, eg galls 

Abnormal cell division, eg large number of lateral roots 

General stunting of tomatoes, turf, etc 

5-10% of crop production is lost to nematodes in developed countries 

LEAVES 

ROOTS 

Chlorosis (non-specific water stress/deficiency type symptoms 

due to nematodes feeding on or in the root), eg root knot and root 

lesion nematodes 

Dead areas, scorches, blotches, eg foliar nematodes 

Leaf distortion, eg stem and bulb nematode 

Spicules (tiny lumps), eg stem and bulb nematode 

Excessive root branching, eg beet nematode 

Galls, eg root knot nematodes 

Injured root tips, eg root lesion nematodes 

Rotting, eg stem and bulb nematode in bulbs 


Transmission of virus diseases. In Australia, only a few species of nematodes 

can transmit virus diseases of plants, eg the dagger nematode (Xiphinema sp.) can 

transmit the grapevine fanleaf virus, stubby root nematodes (Paratrichodorus spp.) 

can transmit at least 6 plant viruses. The nepoviruses (nematode-transmitted, 

polyhedral particles) are a group of about 46 viruses that infect many plant families 

that cause probably the most serious viral diseases of horticultural crops, particularly 

perennial woody and bulb crops. Many have not been recorded in Australia. 

Nematode-bacterial disease complexes. Annual ryegrass toxicity 

(ARGT) is the poisoning of livestock by toxins contained in bacterially-infected 

annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum). The toxins are produced by bacteria 

(Rathayibacter toxicus, formerly Clavibacter toxicus) which are carried into the 

ryegrass by a seed-gall nematode (Anguina funesta). 

Nematode-fungal disease complexes. The fungus is not transmitted by the 

nematode. Plant varieties susceptible to a particular soil fungus are damaged even 

more when the plants are infected with nematodes, the damage being considerably 

more than the sum of the damage caused by the nematode, eg root knot, or the fungus, 

alone, eg Fusarium and Verticillium wilts, Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia root rots. 

BENEFICIAL. 

Breakdown organic matter. Bacterial-feeding nematodes in the soil increase 

the turnover of plant nutrients (specifically nitrogen); fungi also feed on nematodes 

and nematodes can feed on fungi and organic matter, etc. 

Some species are used as biological control agents. 

Numbers and species of nematodes in soil can act as indicators of biodiversity. 



SYMPTOMS 

(contd) 

ABOVE GROUND 

NON-SPECIFIC. SYMPTOMS 

Root knot nematodes. 

Root lesion nematodes, etc. 

Damage is largely the result of nematodes 

feeding on or in roots. Symptoms are 

similar to those of water stress, nutrient 

deficiencies, etc. Plants may wilt on hot 

days, show poor or stunted growth and 

poor yields. For a positive diagnosis, 

plants must be removed from soil and 

roots examined. 

Non-specific symptoms make diagnosis 

difficult for the average horticulturist. 

ABOVE GROUND 

SPECIFIC. SYMPTOMS 

Foliar nematodes. 

Stem and bulb nematode. 

Damage is largely the result of nematodes 

feeding on or in aerial parts. Symptoms 

have a distinctive appearance. 

LEAVES. 

Above 

ground 

symptoms 

ROOTS. 

Below 

ground 

symptoms 



Fig. 132. Foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides spp. 

Foliar nematodes swim up stems and across leaves in films 

of water and enter leaves and stems through stomates. 

Upper left: Infested chrysanthemum leaves. Note wedgeshaped 

area bordered by leaf veins in early stages of 

infection. These are red, yellow or purple at first, turning 

brown with age. Upper right: Portion of infested fern frond. 

The dark areas between the veins are the infested areas. 

Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. Lower left: Symptoms may 

be confused with overwatering and other environmental 

problems. All symptoms suspected of being caused by 

nematodes must be confirmed by laboratory investigation. 


Fig. 133. Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci). Left: Bulbs cut longitudinally 

to show browning of scales due to the nematodes feeding on the fleshy leaf bases. Do not 

confuse with fungal rots. Cross section at neck of bulb shows rings of brown scales. 

Right: Leaves showing raised blister-like streaks which are full of nematodes. Nematodes 

move into new leaves causing blisters. Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 




IDENTIFICATION, 

SAMPLING 

Symptoms 

Soil 

Plant material 

Indicator plant 

All plant parasitic nematodes belong to the Phylum Nematoda. There are several 

orders, sub-orders and families into which they are classified mainly according to their 

morphology, eg 

Presence or absence of stylet, size and structure of the style itself. 

Position of the oesophageal glands. 

Structure of the female reproductive system, number of annules in the lip region. 

Tail shape can be used to identify nematodes at a species level. 

Also occasionally, the plant organ attacked, symptoms and mode of parasitism. 

VISUAL EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS. 

Below ground symptoms can be quite distinctive, eg root knot on carrots, but 

they do not indicate which species of root knot nematode. Also, root knot galls 

could be confused with nitrogen-fixing nodules on some hosts. 

Foliage symptoms. 

– Foliage nematodes. Similar symptoms can be caused by various non-parasitic 

agencies, so get to know your crop. 

– Root nematodes. The presence of nematodes can be suspected if crops/turf lack 

vigour and do not respond to fungicides, irrigation or fertilizers. 

MORPHOLOGY/MICROSCOPY. 

Simple nematodes can be seen with a dissecting microscope (x 10). 

Not all nematodes seen under microscope are pests, eg on rotting bulbs, 

saprophytic nematodes may be feeding on and biodegrading organic matter. 

Various keys based on morphology have been developed to help identify plantparasitic 

nematodes but identification to species requires a specialist 

nematologist in a diagnostic laboratory. Sometimes nematodes cannot be 

identified using morphological features alone. 

While tools such as DNA bar-coding may provide rapid identification, studies of all 

nematodes in soils must embrace their morphology, biology, soil structure and 

moisture, available nutrients, microbial populations, ecological relationships, eg 

pathogenicity to plants, invertebrates, etc. 

NEMATODE DIAGNOSTIC SERVICES provide information on: 

Sampling and/or extraction procedures. 

Handling and storage of samples prior to dispatch. 

Planning IDM programs. 

IDENTIFICATION BY SPECIALISTS. 

Soil and plant analysis. 

– Soil sampling. Obtain information from the diagnostic laboratory on when and how 

to collect samples and dispatch them. Generally, collect soil samples before planting, 

store at 10-15 o C until dispatch. They will extract, identify and count nematodes 

present and interpret results. Traditional extraction techniques may fail if populations 

are low or in the dormant stage. 

– Plant material, eg roots, leaves (above ground parts). 

Bio-assays. 

– Variations in host range can occur within a species and these can only be 

detected by testing the nematode against a range of plant species. 

– Indicator plants. In root knot nematodes the juvenile is the only stage found in the 

soil. Since all species have morphologically similar juveniles a bioassay on selected 

indicator plants may be used to distinguish species. 

– Detecting low populations of root knot nematodes. Susceptible plants, eg 

tomato seedlings, are grown in soil samples for about 1 month and then the root 

system is removed and examined for galls. Their occurrence indicates the presence 

of root knot nematodes. Large samples can be processed, also eggs in soil can hatch 

and infect the plant. Samples must be collected at least 1 month before planting. 

– A nematode count is the only way to quantify their presence and determine whether 

the numbers present will be detrimental to plant health. 

Other diagnostic tools. 

– Rapid and reliable diagnostic procedures for major pest nematodes are 

continually being developed; including computer based analytical tools and DNA 

technologies for identifying and quantifying nematodes. 

– Field tests are being researched using immunochemical devices to identify 

nematode species, eg Anguina tritici, A. funesta, Meloidogyne javanica. 

– Molecular assays for soil-borne pathogens in cropping soils PreDICTA B by 

SARDI, eg pathogenic oomycetes, fungi and nematodes, beneficial fungi. 

– Keys, eg Plant Parasitic Nematodes (Lucid key) www.lucidcentral.org/ 

Key to the Nematodes of Australia www.ento.csiro.au/science/nematode.html 

– Nepo viruses are transmitted by nematodes and a generic test is being developed 

for the whole nepovirus group. 

Routine DNA-based testing service for soilborne diseases in Australia so 

that likely losses can be predicted well before the crop is planted. Growers can 

change cultivars, crops, modify cropping programs where risk of crop loss is high. 

Many soil pests and diseases can be identified from a single soil sample. 

Training programs are available so that results of testing can interpreted 

accurately at the farm level. 



LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Not known in 

Australia 

Limited 

distribution 

Not known 

in Australia 

Nematode-disease 

complexes 

Humans 

and animals 



Root knot 

nematodes 

Meloidogyne spp. 

Wide host range, more than 

2000 plant species 

Root lesion 

nematodes 

Pratylenchus spp. 

Wide host range, cereals, fruit 

trees, roses, turf 

Celery eelworm Pratylenchus hamatus Celery and parsley in the USA, 

Stem and bulb 

nematodes 

Foliar nematodes 

(leaf nematodes) 

not known to occur in Australia 

Ditylenchus dipsaci Bulbs, phlox, oats, medics, 

clovers, Vicia faba 

D. myceliophagus Mushroom mycelium in 

Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi 

A. fragariae 

mushroom crops 

Chrysanthemum, Coleus, others 

Strawberry, anemone, kangaroo 

paw, others 

A. composticola Mushroom mycelium in 

mushroom crops 

Citrus nematode Tylenchulus semipenetrans Citrus, other Rutaceae, 

grapevines, olives, other plants 

Dagger nematode Xiphinema index Fig, grapevine, stone fruit, turf, 

may transmit plant viruses 

Cereal cyst 

nematode 

Potato cyst 

nematode (PCN) 

Stubby root 

nematodes 

Heterodera avenae 

Globodera rostochiensis 

Trichodorus spp. 

Paratrichodorus spp. 

Wheat, oat, barley, wild oats, 

barley grass, ryegrass, triticale. 

Important and damaging 

Potato, other Solanaceae, eg 

capsicum, eggplant, tomato, 

nightshade 

Fruit, vegetables, annuals, turf 

Mostly horticultural crop plants, 

turf, occasionally bush soils. May 

transmit plant viruses. 

Annuals, turf, etc 

Spiral nematodes Rotylenchus spp. 

Helicotylenchus spp. 

Pinewood wilt 

nematode 

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus Pines. 

Burrowing Radopholus spp. 

Banana, sugarcane, fruit, 

nematodes 


Beet nematode Heterodera schachtii Beets, some Brassica spp., 

radish, rhubarb, spinach, dock 

Nematode-bacterial disease complexes (page 253) 

Nematode-fungal disease complexes (page 253) 

Some nematodes are human and animal parasites, including: 

Hookworms in humans, dogs and cats. 

Heartworms in dogs. 

Filiariae in humans and animals. 

Threadworms, pinworms especially in children. 

Trichinae in humans from eating contaminated pig meat. 

Some strains of Paecilomyces lilacinus, a common fungus associated with 

Meloidogyne egg masses, has potential to be a threat to human health 

(Walker 2006). 

Indicators of 

soil conditions 

Nematodes as 

natural enemies 

Free-living, soil-dwelling nematodes are useful as indicators of soil conditions 

because of their high abundance, widespread occurrence and rapid response to change 

(Hodda et al 1999, Stirling et al 1999). 

Fungal-feeding nematodes are more abundant under conventional tillage. 

Bacterial-feeding nematodes are more abundant under direct drilling. 

Predatory nematodes Many genera Prey on plant parasitic nematodes 

in soil, possible commercial use 

Predatory nematodes Many genera Prey on plant parasitic fungi in 

soil, possible commercial use 

Saprophytic nematodes Many genera Feed on organic matter in the soil 



LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES (contd) 

Biological 

control 

agents 

Nematodes seeking out 

openings in a larva of 

the black vine weevil. 



Some beneficial nematodes are symbiotically associated with bacteria 

which they carry within their intestinal tract, often within a specialised vesicle. The 

nematodes seek out natural openings on insects, eg mouth, anus, spiracles, and 

move into the bloodstream, where they release the bacteria causing septicaemia. Most 

insects are susceptible and given enough nematodes they will die. 

ENs are now so widely used in the world, they are second only to Bacillus 

thuringiensis (Bt) in biopesticide sales. 

The best species and strain for a particular pest can be selected. 

Sold as the 3 rd stage larvae which is the only stage that can survive outside the host. 

3 rd stage larvae enter the body openings via the anus or spiracles (Steinernema) or 

through the skin (Heterorhabditis). 

Once inside the nematodes release the bacteria causing septicemia. 

Nematodes in larva increase in numbers, eventually they leave to look for new hosts. 

Infected larvae become yellow to reddish brown and cease to feed before dying. 

Nematodes can be applied via trickle irrigation, or by conventional equipment. 

Apply at dusk because they are sensitive to drying and UV radiation. 

Barrier to developing nematodes as biocontrol agents has been technical difficulties 

involved in culturing and storing them and applying them to target pests in the 

field. Emphasis is now on strategies for improving field efficacy: 

– Beneficial nematodes do not have an extended shelf-life 

– Make sure nematodes are alive when applied. 

– Pre-water area prior to application (they require moisture to move through soil 

effectively. 

– Apply immediately at temperatures less than 32 o C. Temperatures greater than 

this reduce survival rate of infective juveniles, apply in evening. 

Not in 

available 

in Australia 

Beddingia siricidicola Sirex wasp in Pinus radiata 

plantations 

. Steinernama feltiae Currant borer moth. Used to disinfest 

currant cuttings of currant borer moth 

larvae in Tasmania. Kills 99.8% 

caterpillars in cuttings, may need to be 

re-introduced at regular intervals. 

S. feltiae Mushroom fly, fungus gnat 

S. feltiae Fungus gnats, sciarids and Western 

flower thrips in greenhouse 

horticulture production. 

S. carpocapsae Banana weevil borer, cutworm, 

armyworm, house termites, cat flea 

S. carpocapsae Ground-dwelling insects and 

certain borers 



Argentine stem weevil, African 

black beetle, Argentinian scarab, 

black-headed cockchafer, redheaded 

cockchafer, bill bug weevil 

H. bacteriophaga Black vine weevil larvae 

Nemaslug Phasmarhabditis sp. Parasitizes snails in high value 

protected crops. Newly hatched 

snails are susceptible to nematodes 

some of which occur naturally. 

NEMATODES 

50 MILLION 

(50 MILLION INFECTIVE JUVENILES) 

Ecogrow 

www.ecogrow.com.au/ 

BeckerUnderwood 

www.beckerunderwood.com/ 

258 Nematode diseases 

Fig, 134. Nematode bio-insecticides


DISTRIBUTION 

WITHIN PLANTS 

Female nematodes 

on gall 

Foliar nematode 

damage 

In terms of habitat, plant parasitic nematodes are either endoparasitic or 

ectoparasitic. 

ENDOPARASITIC NEMATODES 

Species that enter the host and feed from within the host. 

Sedentary. Species which do not move around extensively once inside the plant, 

eg root knot nematodes. 

Migratory. Species which do move around extensively inside the plant, eg foliar 

nematodes and stem and bulb nematode, root lesion and citrus nematodes. 

ECTOPARASITIC NEMATODES 

Species that do not normally penetrate root tissue but feed only on the cells near the 

surface. 

Sedentary. Species do not move around on the outside of the plant, they find a 

place to feed and stay there, eg ring nematode. 

Migratory. Species feed on the cells on the root surface but do not become 

attached and move around from place to place, eg dagger nematode. 

EGG HATCHING 

Most nematode eggs hatch freely in water. 

However, the eggs of some species are stimulated to hatch by substances produced 

by the roots of the surrounding host plant, which diffuses into the surrounding soil. 

OBLIGATE PARASITES 

Plant parasitic nematodes are obligate parasites - they can only complete their 

life cycles on living plants. This can be a weakness and exploited in control. 

DISEASE 

CYCLE 

Host 

Host, host debris 

Host, host debris, soil 

Although all plant parasitic nematodes are obligate parasites and so 

only attack and complete their life cycle on living plants, many stages of their life 

cycle may be found in soil, plant debris, corms, tubers, bulbs, seed, etc. 

HOST ONLY 

In some plant parasitic species, all stages (eggs, larvae and adults) may be found in 

or on the host plant, while in other species only one or two stages may be found 

in or on the host plant. 

Depending on the species, various stages (eggs, larvae and adults) may be found in 

or on roots, stems, leaves, seed, corms and other plant parts. 

HOST AND HOST DEBRIS 

Plant debris from infected plants may carry various stages of nematodes (eggs, 

larvae and adults). 

HOST, HOST DEBRIS AND SOIL 

Most plant parasitic nematodes live part of their lives in soil. 

Large numbers are usually also found around the roots of host plants so that the 

depth at which nematodes can be found and should be sampled, will depend on the 

type of crop being grown, previous crops, soil type and the method of growing the 

crop. 

In vegetables crops nematodes will be concentrated in the surface layers, eg 

20-30 cm for carrot crops, while in other crops nematodes may be found as deep as 

150 cm. 

Seek advice on the depth and methods of sampling soil for nematode 

testing for your crop. 




OVERSUMMERING 

In warm climates on perennial hosts, generations will overlap and so there is often no 

‘overwintering’ as such. 

Hosts, weeds 

HOST PLANTS 

Nematodes may ‘overwinter’ as dormant infections in the roots of perennial hosts, eg 

bulbs, weeds. Stem and bulb nematodes may survive quite well in bulbs either in the 

soil or in storage. In some instances the nematodes clump together to form ‘nematode 

wool’ on the outside of bulbs in storage. The nematode wool looks like cotton wool 

and in this form the nematodes are highly resistant to adverse conditions, eg drought. 

SEED 

Nematodes may survive for years in seed, eg seed-gall nematode of wheat. 

Seeds 

Root debris/soil 

SPREAD 

Infested soil 

Infested manure 

H 2 O 

ALTERNATE HOSTS 

Nematodes with a wide host range can survive on alternate hosts or weed hosts, eg root 

knot nematode. 

ROOT DEBRIS AND SOIL 

Nearly all nematodes can survive as egg masses in infested plant debris and in soil 

for years in the absence of a suitable host. The population of surviving eggs will 

decline steadily over a period of months, so that at the end of a prolonged absence of 

hosts the population may be very low. 

In soils where annual crops are grown, eg vegetables and flowers, soil-inhabiting 

nematodes with a wide host range, eg root knot nematodes, have no difficulty 

surviving until the next crop. 

 

 

Leaf nematodes can survive in leaf debris in the soil. 

Wheat seed gall nematode (Anguina tritici) as 2 nd stage juveniles can survive for 

decades in a dry dormant state. 

INFESTED SOIL 

Infested soil may be spread on tools, machinery, containers, footwear and in soil 

deliveries. If healthy plants are planted into infested soil, nematodes move from the soil 

into the healthy plants. Soil eroded by water or in mud. Soil-inhabiting nematodes and 

fungi may be transported in dust. 

INFESTED MANURE 

Infested manure may be spread on animal's feet and in manure deliveries. Nematodes 

in infected produce, eg potatoes, if fed to stock can pass through their digestive system 

and be eliminated in their excreta. 

WATER 

Irrigation water or rain can splash foliar nematodes onto adjacent plants and facilitate 

spread from plant to plant if leaves are touching. Flood or water in drainage channels 

can carry nematodes to areas distant from the site of the original infestation. 

Nematodes can spread from pot to pot via drainage water; this can be prevented by 

placing pots on wire mesh. Foliar or leaf nematodes move easily up stems and across 

leaves in a thin film of water, spread by water splash, on tools and by staff. 

INFESTED SEEDLINGS, PLANTS, TUBERS 

Nematodes are introduced into new areas by planting infested seedlings, plants, 

nursery stock, tubers and bulbs. Golden nematode of potato spreads on infected tubers. 

Seedlings, plants, etc 

INFESTED CROP DEBRIS, WEEDS 

Root knot may spread in debris from 

infected crops and weeds. 

Infested crop debris 

MOVEMENT OF NEMATODES THROUGH SOIL 

Under optimum conditions this may only be a few centimetres, certainly no more than 

1 metre. 



CONDITIONS 

FAVOURING 

Symptoms of root 

knot on tomato 

Symptoms of foliar 

nematode on 

chrysanthemum 

Nematodes are well suited to living in the soil because it is well insulated 

against sudden or large temperature changes and affords protection from the 

direct lethal rays of the sun. 

SOIL-INHABITING. NEMATODES 

Most plant parasitic nematodes spend all or part of their lives in the soil. Soil structure 

determines the distribution of nematode species more than anything else (exceptions 

may be those with moderate host ranges). 

Soil moisture. Young and adult nematodes require adequate soil moisture, 

preferably as a film of moisture around the soil particles. This allows them to move 

freely and provides adequate aeration for their survival. 

Aeration. Nematodes require an adequate oxygen supply for respiration, so that 

soils should have pore spaces with a diameter of about 20 m. Smaller pore spaces 

inhibit plant parasitic nematodes. 

Temperature. Nematodes dislike extremes of temperature and sudden or large 

temperature changes, and generally require temperatures greater than 15 o C to 

increase their numbers. 

Nematodes prefer a well-buffered soil where there is unlikely to be sudden 

changes in acidity or alkalinity. 

Soils high in organic matter are thought to be unfavourable for 

development of plant parasitic nematodes because they have large populations of 

predatory nematodes. 

Distribution. Nematodes occur in greatest abundance in the surface layers 

(15-30 cm). Some nematodes may be found at much greater depths. 

Continuous cropping. Many crops which are relatively tolerant of nematode 

damage, eg squash and zucchini, may only suffer losses if the area is replanted 

immediately after a susceptible host has been grown. 

Stage of crop development. A well grown crop can withstand significant root 

infection with nematodes but a 2 nd planting of the same crop in the same ground 

will certainly develop a damaging nematode infection while it is young and will not 

produce a good crop. 

Type of tillage practices. There can be substantial differences in the 

nematode fauna under tillage practices and probably in the rest of the soil biota as 

well (pages 257, 263). 

NEMATODES AFFECTING ABOVE-GROUND. PLANT PARTS 

These nematodes spend part of their lives in the soil and so are affected by the 

conditions discussed above. 

Additionally, leaf and stem and bulb nematodes are spread more rapidly when 

plants are wet. They escape from the soil and swim up on the outside of plants 

in a thin film of water. Leaf nematodes are favoured by free water on leaf and 

stem surfaces. 

ENVIRONMENT 

Does it favour the crop or root knot? 

SUSCEPTIBLE 


ROOT KNOT 

PRESENT 

Fig. 135. Nematode-disease triangle. 



2 

INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT (IDM) 

MAIN STEPS 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

Emphasis today is 

on diagnostics, 

especially of 

soil diseases 

An exotic nematode 

may be in Australia for 

years before being 

detected and identified 

In turf, thresholds 

depend on grass spp., 

mowing height, 

soil compaction, 

soil type, and 

presence of other 

root pathogens 

? 


Legislation 


Sanitation 

Biological 



Disease-tested material 


Pesticides 


X 

IDM avoids broad spectrum chemicals. Use control measures strategically and early be 

it chemical or biological or both and potential major pest problems may be avoided. 

Use control methods which maintain pest populations at acceptable levels 

1. Plan well in advance of planting the crop. Keep records, eg variety planted, source 

of planting material, planting/sowing dates, temperature, irrigation, fertilizers and 

pesticides. Training courses are available for consultants and pest managers which 

include how to sample, monitor, interpret results and apply IDM. 

2. Crop, region List nematode and other plant problems your crop is susceptible to in 

your region. The IDM program will depend on the crop, region. Management 

programs for nematodes are available for turfgrass, vegetables, etc. 

3. Identification Confirm identity of the nematode alleged to be causing damage, 

it will probably be necessary to consult a diagnostic service to identify the genus 

and species (page xiv). Obtain a Fact Sheet on the nematode problem so you 

understand the life cycle, how to prepare soil and plant samples for extraction, etc. 

 

 

 


NemaSYS (CBIT, Uni of Queensland) is a multimedia package containing 

information on nematodes commonly found in crops and pastures around 

Australia. It provides a greater understanding of the biology of nematodes, and 

a sound background for monitoring and control. 

What can specialist nematode advisory services do? 

– Provide information on sampling. 

– Identify nematode species. 

– Monitor pest species and natural enemies, keep records of damage thresholds. 

– Interpret results of analysis, evaluate treatments. 

– Provide advice on control options to maintain pest populations at acceptable 

levels. Results indicate some unnecessary use of nematicides. 

4. Monitoring Know when, where, what and how to monitor. 

When to monitor? Pre-plant nematode soil analysis is necessary where root 

knot and other nematodes have been a problem in previous seasons. Monitor 

crop when growth is generally unthrifty, wash potting media from roots and 

examine under a microscope for evidence of galls. Assess galling on roots in 

the field at the end of season to indicate the degree of infestation for the 

following crop. 

Where, what and how? Seek advice before collecting soil samples, as you will 

need a professional interpretation of the results. 

Why monitor? Most nematicides are highly toxic and some are being phased 

out. Use of most substitutes requires continuing monitoring of nematodes 

and more knowledge as they are not equally effective against all nematodes and 

other diseases organisms. Use should then be limited to situations where a need 

for the chemical has been demonstrated and the lowest rates required for normal 

plant growth and yield used, rather than applications on a routine or calendar 

basis. Record and interpret results professionally. Monitoring also indicates 

the effectiveness of earlier control measures. 

5. Threshold. 

There is usually a consistent relationship between nematode populations and 

the level of crop damage observed (Stirling 1999). 

Very low densities of nematodes can cause economic damage in some crops 

while others can tolerate much higher nematode populations (Stirling 2000). 

Establish damage thresholds for a particular species on a particular crop in a 

particular region. Economic thresholds can be difficult to determine and 

market values cannot always be predicted. 

Thresholds vary depending on the nematode, life cycle, rate of reproduction, 

survival, crop tolerance and environment. Conditions are important because 

plants can tolerate more nematodes under good conditions than under stress. 

A competent nematologist should examine the affected plants and/or do a soilplant 

root test to determine whether threshold levels of damaging plant parasitic 

nematodes are present and whether a nematicide application is advisable. 

6. Action/control will depend on monitoring and thresholds and applying 

preventative controls at the correct time. Reduction in use of nematicides can be 

achieved by integrating chemical with non-chemical means of control, eg crop 

rotations, resistant/tolerant cultivars and rootstocks, quarantine measures, 

nematode-tested planting material, biocontrol and chemical control. Nematode 

populations can be managed. Control methods, other than nematicides, are 

becoming more important and include precision agriculture, improved nematode 

identification, assessment of nematode populations, genetic engineering of crops 

and host resistance. Advisory services (extension or private crop consultants) 

provide effective management of nematodes. 

7. Evaluation Review IDM program to see how well it worked. Recommend 

improvements if required. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

Control methods aim to maintain pest populations at acceptable levels. It is 

hard to quantify some of the non-chemical controls. Expense and type of crop 

being grown, limit the actual method employed. 

LEGISLATION, STANDARDS, ETC 

These include Plant Quarantine Acts, Seed Acts. Pesticides Acts, Organic Standards. 


Cultural practices that promote root growth will enhance tolerance to nematodes. 

Crop rotation is difficult as many nematodes have a wide host range. However, 

effective rotations, where practical, are an essential part of nematode management. 

During fallowing, soil is cultivated once a week and after each period of rain. 

Nematode eggs hatch during the fallow but without food plants the larvae die. The 

area is kept free of weeds and other plants (possible hosts for the nematodes), for 

one whole season. Today fallowing is regarded as environmentally unsound. 

Soils rich in organic matter support high populations of predatory fungi and 

nematodes which feed on plant parasitic nematodes. Although effective, large 

quantities of compost are not practical for large areas. 

Conservation tillage (CT) is considered to promote large numbers of microbial 

competitors or antagonists of soilborne disease organisms. 

Avoid overhead irrigation which spreads foliar and other nematodes which 

attack the above ground parts of susceptible plants, if nematodes are present. 

Toxic secretions of some plants are reputed to diffuse into the surrounding soil 

and kill some species of nematodes (page 270). 

Some crops, starting from transplants, may be more tolerant of nematodes 

than direct-seeded crops. 

SANITATION. 

Maintain good general hygiene. Keep floors and benches clean of plant 

debris to prevent cross infection. Wash infested soil from boots, containers, tools 

and machinery to prevent spread of nematodes to clean areas. 

Prune out and destroy plant parts infested with foliar nematodes. Remove 

badly infected plants. Dig up, together with a spadeful of the surrounding soil, 

infested bulbs and other infected root parts. This is only suitable for small areas. 

Burn or destroy by some other means nematode-infested plant material. Do not 

placed on compost heaps or feed to stock. 

Use wire mesh bench tops to support containers, preventing nematodes 

swimming in drainage water from infested pots to uninfested pots. 

Do not use recycled potting media unless it has been adequately treated. 

Suppressive soils 

are soils in which certain 

diseases are suppressed 

because of the presence 

in the soil of microorganisms 

antagonistic 

to the pathogen. 


A bacterium, BioNem (Bacillus firmus), a naturally occurring soil bacterium, is 

used overseas as a seed treatment to reduce nematode populations and root 

infestations in soil while stimulating increased yield in vegetables, stone fruit, herbs 

and flowers. Another bacterium, Pasteuria (Bacillus) penetrans) parasitizes some 

species of root knot nematodes. 

A fungus, Paecilomyces lilacinus is being researched in Australia for biocontrol of 

root knot and cyst nematodes (Holland and Williams 1998). P. lilacinus is primarily 

an egg parasite, hyphae grow on the egg surface prior to invading it. Other fungi 

being researched include Dactylella oviparasitica (an egg parasite) and some 

mycorrhizal fungi, eg Gugaspora, Glomus. 

Trap plants are sometimes considered to be a form of biological control. Root 

knot nematodes enter roots of the French marigold (Tagetes patula), but cannot 

complete their life cycle (page 270). A thick cover of marigolds is needed, the 

marigolds are turned in at end of the season. 

Bacterial and fungal endophytes for the biological control of plant parasitic 

nematodes, eg root knot (Meloidogyne incognita), are being researched for tomato, 

potato and turf. Endophytic fungi may suppress plant parasitic nematiodes. 

Suppressive soils. There is a range of natural enemies, eg predatory nematodes, 

nematode-trapping fungi, parasitic bacteria and fungi, in the soil which assist in 

controlling plant parasitic nematodes. These organisms could be genetically 

engineered or enhanced and agronomic practices adopted to improve the physical, 

chemical and biological properties of soil. This would improve the suppressive 

nature of the soil and the capacity of plants to withstand nematode attack. 

Bio-stimulants (derived from plant extracts and fatty acids) reduce the feeding 

vigour of plant parasitic nematodes, stimulate certain predatory nematode species 

and improve a plant’s ability to tolerate many pathogens and environmental stresses. 

– DiTera ® (a natural product from the hyphomycete fungus Myrothecium spp., 

composed primarily of proteins, sugars, and lipids) effectively kills plant parasitic 

nematodes in the soil by contact. 

– Furfural (an industrial chemical derived from a variety of agricultural by-products, 

eg sugarcane bagasse, corn cobs, oat and wheat bran, sawdust). 

– Agri-Terra ® (colloidal suspension of potassium mono-phosphate, polysaccharides 

and surfactants) smothers some species of nematodes and disorientates others, 

causing them to loose the ability to parasitize plant roots and reproduce. 

– Sincocin, Agrispon contain extracts from plants (sesame, wintergreen, citrus oils, 

neem, Brassica meal and mustard bran). 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

For many plants, 

resistant to root knot 

nematodes are yet to 

be found or only partial 

resistance is available, eg 

no turfgrass is known 

to be resistant to the 

feeding of all nematodes 

Exotic nematodes 

have probably been in 

Australia for many 

years before being 

detected and 

identified, eg potato 

cyst nematode 

To minimize grapevine 

losses due to 

nematodes, current 

management practices 

include hot water 

treatment of grapevine 

planting material, 

nematode-resistant 

rootstocks and 

nematicides 

RESISTANT, TOLERANT VARIETIES AND ROOTSTOCKS. 

When varieties with desired horticultural qualities of resistance or tolerance and suited to 

local conditions, are available, their cultivation is the most effective and convenient way 

of reducing losses from nematodes, especially when used with effective rotation crops. 

Some newer varieties are not only resistant to nematodes, but may be resistant 

to other diseases or pests and be available as disease-tested planting material. The 

search is on now for varieties of bananas and other crops with resistance to several 

nematode species and soil diseases. 

Cereal cyst nematodes (Heterodera spp.) and root lesion nematodes 

(Pratylenchus spp.) cause significant losses around the world. Screening programs 

can assess resistance to each of these species. 

Sugarcane is subject to more serious nematode infestations than any other crop 

in Australia, at least 8 genera are reasonably common in most sugar growing 

countries so crop rotation, minimum tillage residue retention, etc. 

Crops can be genetically engineered to be either resistant or at least have 

some tolerance to a particular species of nematode. Transgenic grapevines and root 

stocks with resistance to several nematode species could be developed. 

Synthetic plant resistance is a new approach to control of plant parasitic 

 

nematodes. Plant activators can stimulate the plant’s resistance mechanisms. 

Nematode-resistant rootstocks. 

– Some tomato varieties show some resistance to certain nematodes (and other soil 

diseases). Their inclusion in a crop rotation can be as useful as growing a non-host. 

– Grapevine ‘Harmony’ has some resistance to the dagger nematode and the grape 

phylloxera (a gall aphid). 

– Peaches, nectarine, plums and apricots are generally propagated on peach 

seedling rootstocks. Seed is usually obtained from cannery seed. Only the seed from 

a true-to-type Nemaguard parent tree can be guaranteed to have resistance to root 

knot nematode, not seed from a Nemaguard seedling. 


Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS). Many plant 

parasitic nematodes have not as yet reached Australia, eg soya bean nematode, or if 

they have, their distribution is restricted, eg potato cyst nematode. 

For target lists of insects, plant and animal pests and diseases and weeds, visit: 


PaDIL (Pests and Diseases Image Library) www.padil.gov.au/ 

Interstate and Regional Plant Quarantine. Health certificates are required 

for rye seed and hay produced in SA and moving into NSW and Victoria to limit risk 

of spreading annual rye grass toxicity (ARGT) (page 253). Potato cyst nematode in 

WA has restricted the movement of potatoes to other States/Territories. 

‘Local’ quarantine. Nematodes can be introduced to nurseries, orchards via: 

– Infested plant material (plants, bulbs, seedlings, tubers, nursery stock). 

Suspect plants should be kept isolated until non-infection is confirmed. 

– Soil (in containers, pots, soil deliveries). The roots of all purchases should be 

inspected and plants kept separate until proven healthy. 

DISEASE-TESTED PLANTING MATERIAL. 

Only use nematode-tested planting material and only take propagation material from 

healthy plants and only plant in nematode-free soil (treatment may be required). 

Infested vegetative planting material (runners, bulbs, rooted nursery stock, 

tubers, seedlings) can be effectively treated. Treatments include: 

– Hot water treatments (bulbs, strawberry runners, rose/grapevine nursery stock). 

– Chemical dips (banana corms). 

Inspect/test all new purchases (cuttings, seedlings, tubers etc) if appropriate, 

for nematode infestation, as their introduction by this means often results in rapid 

spread. Remember they may have been shipped before symptoms were visible. 

Grow one's own seedlings and other propagating material as far as possible, 

and plant in soil or media free from nematodes or in soil which has been 

pasteurized, fumigated or treated with a nematicide. 


Heat is the only physical method used to control nematodes. Usually limited to high 

value crops and/or small areas. 

Hot water treatment (HWT) is used to treat daffodil bulbs, strawberry runners 

and rose nursery stock; also grape cuttings to rid them of phylloxera, nematodes, 

root rotting fungi and bacteria. Seek expert advice on treatment. 

Soil pasteurization. Heating soil to 60 o C for half an hour will rid soil of parasitic 

nematodes and fungal diseases. Only suitable for small quantities of soil such as in 

glasshouses and cutting beds. 

Soil solarization. Clear plastic stretched over moistened soil, traps solar energy 

to heat the soil and suppress soil fungi and nematodes. The soil to the depth of 

15cm must be consistently heated for at least 3-4 weeks in the hottest conditions 

(may reach 52 o C in the top 5 cm) and for several months in the cooler months. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

Nematicides should 

only be applied 

when a nematode 

infestation has been 

confirmed 

NEMATICIDES. 

Nematicides are used almost exclusively on high value crops, eg nurseries, 

flowers, vegetables, strawberries and turf. The number of nematicides available 

continue to decline due to their toxicity, costs and environmental issues. Some 

are being phased out, eg the fumigant methyl bromide. Substitutes for methyl 

bromide are not equally effective against all nematodes so that there is a need for 

continual monitoring to ensure that their use is limited to situations where a need 

has been demonstrated and the lowest rates required for normal plant growth and 

yield used rather than applications on a routine or calendar basis. Nematicide 

applications can be scheduled to get optimum control. 

Toxicity. 

Chemicals used to control nematodes are highly toxic, often they were developed as 

insecticides but nematicidal dosages are much higher than insecticidal ones. They 

are hazardous, their signal heading being either: 

DANGEROUS POISON or POISON 

Many products require permits for use and can only be supplied to and applied by 

appropriately trained operators or those working under their direct supervision. 

Most are persistent and some have a long withholding period. 

Some can be used as pre-plant applications only on some crops. 

Some may require special application equipment. 

Care must be taken to avoid environmental problems to fish and wild life, bees 

and birds, stock. Organophosphates and carbamates are toxic to birds grazing on 

treated areas. Many nematicides can contaminate ground water. 

Residual nematicides applications may damage later crops. 

There are no nematicides registered for control of foliar nematodes. 

Nematicides are used for soil treatments. 

Nematicides tend to be nematostatic rather than nematicidal. Nematode activity 

resumes when the concentration of chemical declines below a critical level. 

Control with is generally maintained for only a relatively short period. 

NON-FUMIGANT 

NEMATICIDES 

NON- SYSTEMIC - FOLIAGE 

None currently registered 

SYSTEMIC – FOLIAGE, eg 


NON- SYSTEMIC - SOIL, eg 

Rugby (cadusafos) 

Vydate (oxamyl) 

SYSTEMIC - SOIL, eg 


Temik (aldicarb) 



CONTROL 

METHODS (contd) 

This is a guide only, 

it is not a substitute 

for reading all of the 

label and the MSDS 

and obtaining 

up-to-date advice 

NEMATICIDES. (contd) 

Nemacur -accelerated biodegradation. (NAB). Nemacur (fenamiphos) and 

other pesticides degrade in the environment at varying rates due to various processes, eg 

– The environment, eg light, temperature, moisture. 

– Microorganisms in soil, eg fungi, bacteria, obtain their food from Nemacur . 

– Addition of more Nemacur allows the microorganisms to proliferate, but at the same 

time the effective life of Nemacur may be shortened considerably. 

– Repeated applications of Nemacur makes the problem worse. 

– A free soil testing service established by Bayer ensures that the Nemacur non-use 

period is sufficient to reduce numbers of biodegradation microorganisms. 

– To maximize life of Nemacur use the right rate (underdosing will lead to shorter 

term control and overdosing may lead to more pronounced biodegradation) and rotate or 

alternate nematicides. 

Nematicides are generally divided into Non-fumigants (Table 51) and Fumigants 

(Table 52). 

Mark nematicides you use at work, Contact Croplife Australia for updates of the 

including surfactants. 

classifications and further information 

This is a summary guide only, and not a 

www.croplife.org.au 

substitute for reading a currently registered 

label, MSDS and obtaining up-to-date advice Checkcurrent registration status www.apvma.gov.au/ 

Insecticides are classified by Croplife Infopest can be purchased www.dpi.qld.gov.au/ 

Australia into mode of action groups. 

Table 51. Non-fumigant. Insecticides/Nematicides (2009) examples only 

 

 

Non-fumigant pre- and post-plant contact soil nematicides move through the soil as liquids in 

soil solutions and act as contact poisons. They may be applied as liquids or granules to: 

– The soil in bands, in planting furrows or broadcast. 

– Established commercial turf and other plants as a drench. 

– Seed and bare plant roots as a dip. 

– Usually applied at planting time or when nematode populations are increasing early in the season. 

Non-fumigant nematicides are not for home garden use. 

MAIN MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 



Action 

1 

Acetylcholinester 

ase inhibitors 

INSECTICIDES 

CHEMICAL 

SUBGROUP or 

Exemplifying 

Active 

constituent 

1A 

Carbamates 

1B 

Organo 

Phosphates 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


FURADAN 

carbofuran 


ELECTRA, NUDRIN, 

LANNATE, VARIOUS 

methomyl 


TEMIK 

aldicarb 


VYDATE 

oxamyl 


RUGBY 

cadusafos 


COUNTER, HUNTER 

terbufos 


FENAMIPHOS, 

NEMACUR, 

VARIOUS 

fenamiphos 


and POISON 


Systemic 



Systemic 



ovicide, larvicide 

Systemic 

absorbed by root 

system, upwards 

movement only 

in the plant 

Systemic 


moves up and 

down in plant 

Systemic 




Systemic 

Systemic 


often only preplant 

application 

SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Rice, 

sugarcane, 

tobacco, 

wheat, barley 

Non-crop, 

sheds, certain 

field crops, 

pasture, cotton, 

fruit, vegetables 

Citrus fruit, 

cotton, 

sugarcane 

Bananas, 

capsicum, 

tomatoes 

Banana, ginger, 

sugarcane, 

tobacco, tomato 

Banana, 

wheat, barley, 

maize, peanut, 

sorghum, 

sunflower, 

sweetcorn 

Certain fruit, 

field crops, 

vegetables, 

ornamentals, 

mushrooms, 

turf 

DISEASES, PESTS, WEEDS 

CONTROLLED/SUPPRESSED 

Nematicide 

cereal cyst, other nematodes 

Insecticide 

leaf hoppers, white rice stem 

borers, Helicoverpa 

Nematicide 

slight activity only not on labels 

Insecticide 

wide range of insects 

Nematicide 

burrowing, citrus, root knot, root 

lesion and spiral nematodes 

Insecticide 

aphids, scale, mealybugs, citrus 

leafminer, mites, thrips, mirids, 

wireworm 

Nematicide 

burrowing, root knot and spiral 

nematodes 

Insecticide 

banana weevil borer larvae 

Soil nematicide 

burrowing, root knot, root lesion, 

spiral and stubby root nematodes 

Soil insecticide 

banana weevil borer, canegrubs 


burrowing, cereal cyst nematodes 

Soil insecticide 

banana weevil borer, white grubs, 

whitefringed weevil, wireworms 


soil-borne plant parasitic 

nematodes, foliar nematode 

Insecticide 

soil insects, eg African black 

beetle larvae, sucking insects 



Table 52. Fumigant. Insecticides/Nematicides (2009) examples only 

 

 

 

 

All chemical fumigants are extremely hazardous, and must only be supplied to and used by licensed 

persons. 

Most fumigants are used to control insect pests of stored grain, etc. 

Fumigants are also used in many other situations, including for quarantine requirements. 

Soil fumigation is mostly used to control soil-borne diseases and nematodes that buildup in soil where 

susceptible crops are grown continuously. Soil fumigants are applied before planting. 

– Soil temperature at time of application is important. 

– Fumigants may be applied as a liquid, granule, wettable powder or gas, but move through soil as a gas. 

– 'sealed in’ for a certain length of time for them to be effective (fumigation time). 

– Generally an aeration period is necessary between application and planting to allow the fumigant to 

escape from soil before planting. It may take 10-40 days for gases to disappear from soil. 

MAIN MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 



Action 

8 

Miscellaneous 

non-specific 

(multi-site) 

inhibitors 

INSECTICIDE 

24 

Mitochondrial 

complex IV 

electron 

transport 

inhibitors 

INSECTICIDE 

Other 

fumigants 

CHEMICAL 

SUBGROUP or 

Exemplifying 

Active 

constituent 

8A 

Alkyl halides 

BEING 

PHASED OUT 

Produces 

ozonedepleting 

gases 

8B 

Chloropicrin 

24A 

Phosphine- 

Bio-fumigant 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


AGRIGAS, METHYL 

BROMIDE 

methyl bromide 

often formulated with 

chloropicrin 


CHLOROFUME SOIL 

FUMIGANT 

chloropicrin (tear gas) 


methyl bromide or 1,3- 

dichloropropene, below 


VARIOUS 

aluminium phosphide 


VARIOUS 

magnesium phosphide 


BASAMID GRANULAR 

SOIL FUMIGANT 

dazomet 

POISON 

METHAM SOIL 

FUMIGANT 

metham-sodium 


or POISON 

MILSPOT FUMIGANT 

ethylene dichloride + 

trichloroethylene 

POISON 

TELONE 

1,3-dichloropropene, 

may be formulated 

with chloropicrin 


ENVIROFUME SOIL 

FUMIGANT 

potassium monomethyl 

dithiocarbamate 

POISON 

FUMAFERT 

glucosinolates 

(mustard seed meal, 

Brassica juncea) 

+ 

neem kernels 

(azadirachtin from 

Azadirachia indica) 

(page 60) 


Fumigant 

Fumigant 

also used as a 

warning agent 

with other 

fumigants 

Pre-plant 

Fumigant 

Fumigant 

Fumigant 

Fumigant 

Fumigant 

Fumigant 

Fumigant 

SOME USES 


CROPS, PLANTS, 

SITES TREATED 

Non-crop, 

buildings, 

equipment 

compost, turf, 

manure, cane 

products, straw, 

timber, plant beds, 

certain plant 

products dried fruit, 

stored grain 

Non-crop, tobacco, 

crop land, pasture, 

soil treatments, soil 

heaps, rabbit 

burrows 

Non-crop, 

buildings, seed, 

stored grain 

Non-crop, stored 

grain, food 

commodities, 

stock feed 

Seedbeds, 

broadacre, bulk 

soil treatments 

Certain seedbeds, 

potting mixes, 

ornamentals, field 

and fibre crops, 

lawns, tobacco, 

Brassicas, 

Flour mill 

machinery, food 

processing plants 

Certain vegetable, 

field, fruit and nut 

crops, ginger, 

nursery crops 

Certain 

ornamental, food 

and fibre crops, 

tobacco 

Biofumigant Intensive 

glucosinolates 

decompose 

releasing volatile 

gases toxic to 

many organisms. 

Indian mustard as 

a rotation crop has 

a similar effect 

agriculture, turf, 

nursery and 

covered crops, 

long-lasting 


CONTROLLED/SUPPRESSED 

Pre-plant soil fumigant 

bacteria, nematodes, 

insects, weed seeds, fungi 

(not Verticillium), rodents 


insects, mites, mills, ships, 

warehouses 


various, postharvest, 

buildings, permits 


certain soil insect pests, 

nematodes, fungal and 

bacterial diseases, weed 

seeds. 

Rabbits 


storage pests, rabbits 


storage pests 


nematodes, soil-borne 

insects, soil fungi and 

germinating weed seeds 


certain soil-borne pests, 

symphalids, nematodes, 

fungi, germinating weed 

seeds 


flour beetles, moths, weevils 


plant parasitic nematodes 


soil-borne pests and 

certain weeds, nematodes, 

symphalids and fungal 

diseases. 

Suppresses soilborne 

insects, diseases, 

nematodes 

does not control weeds 

Slow release fertiliser 

nitrogen, phosphorus, 

potassium and trace 

minerals 



EXAMPLE OF A NEMATODE DISEASE 


Soil-inhabiting nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). 

Root knot occurs widely in Australia especially in 

warmer climates causing serious damage to many 

plants. It is the world’s most damaging 

nematode genus and can be serious in 

glasshouses and is common even in virgin land. 

Host range 

More than 2000 species of plants, including: 

Vegetables, eg bean, carrot, parsnip, potato, 

tomato (major nematode pest of vegetable crops). 

Ornamentals, eg cut flowers, carnation, roses, 

chrysanthemum, dahlia, gerbera, nursery stock. 

Fruit, eg Chinese gooseberries, papaw, stone fruits, 

grapevines. Field crops, eg clover, lucerne, lupin, 

peanut. Weeds, eg many species, eg fat hen. 

Different strains have different host ranges. 

Symptoms 

Above ground symptoms. Affected plants 

often grow slowly, are stunted, paler green or more 

yellow than normal and wilt readily during hot 

weather. Plants may die prematurely, reducing yield. 

Symptoms are similar to those of nutrient deficiencies. 

Affected roots are unable to supply the aboveground 

parts of the plant with sufficient water and nutrients. 

Confirmation of root knot is only possible by 

removing the plant and examining the roots. 

Below ground. Nematodes about 0.5 mm 

long, enter roots stimulating the surrounding tissue 

to enlarge and produce swellings or galls on the 

roots. These galls vary in size from small to large 

knots up to 25 mm in diameter. Galls caused by 

Meloidogyne hapla are much smaller than those 

caused by other species. In plants with fleshy 

underground parts such as potatoes, galls look like 

pimple-like outgrowths, the surface of the tuber 

may become warty, roughened and discoloured. If 

one of the outgrowths is cut across, nematodes 

may be seen as small glistening bodies embedded 

in the tissue of the tuber. 

Root knot 

Root gall, eelworm 

General. In severe infestations, seedlings and 

older plants may be killed. 

Affected roots commonly become infected by a 

range of secondary bacteria and fungi which enter 

through the roots, eg Fusarium wilt, Pythium, 

Rhizoctinia, hastening root breakdown. 

Infection of older crops may or may not reduce yield 

significantly. Affected plants are not usually killed. 

There is an association between carrot defects 

and nematodes. The proportions of forked, 

galled, constricted and split carrots and the 

weight of unmarketable carrots were correlated 

with population densities of Meloidogyne. 

javanica in the soil. 

Diagnostics. 

Do not confuse root knot: 

– In leguminous plants, eg peas, beans, clover and 

lucerne, with galls caused by beneficial nitrogenfixing 

bacteria. Root galls caused by nematodes 

are not easily detachable, galls resulting 

from nitrogen-fixing bacteria are. 

– In Brassicas, with galls caused by club root 

which are spindle-shaped, larger and less evenly 

distributed on the lateral feeding roots. 

– In pome fruit, with galls caused by woolly aphid. 

– Generally, galls caused by crown gall (a bacterial 

disease) are larger and may be up to the size of a 

large football. 

– Misshapen roots in carrots may also be caused by 

soil structure, number of passes with a rotary 

hoe, and other root diseases. 

Aids to diagnosis 

– Some can be seen with a hand lens or dissecting 

microscope (x10 magnification). Specialized 

knowledge is needed to tell one type of nematode 

from another. Many nematodes are beneficial. 

– You can detect root knot nematode infestation of 

soil by growing a susceptible host, eg certain 

tomato varieties, for several weeks and then 

washing the soil from roots and examining them 

for evidence of galling. Cut up galls in water and 

worm-like nematodes should be easy to see with 

a dissecting microscope. Mature forms of root 

knot are shaped like a sac. 

– Confirm diagnosis as above, identification to 

genus requires professional expertise. 

Fig. 136. Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) galls on: 

Left: Tomato roots. Right: Potatoes and carrots. 




Disease cycle 

Root knot nematode is a sedentary and endoparasitic 

nematode (Fig. 137 below). Most nematodes are 

found in the root zone from 5-25cm below the soil 

surface. Only 2 nd stage juveniles can infect a 

susceptible host. Life cycle in 25 days at 27 o C, 

longer at higher or lower temperatures. 


Egg masses in soil, infected root debris, etc. 

Dormant infections in roots of perennial hosts. 

Spread 

By infested flood or drainage water, infested 

soil (on tools, machinery, containers, footwear, 

soil deliveries), manures. Potting media. 

Nematodes are often introduced into soil by 

planting seedlings, cuttings, tubers or young 

plants already infected with root knot. 

Purchased plants. 

By movement of nematodes through soil, 

under optimum conditions this may not be more 

than a few centimetres each season. 

Infested crop and weed debris. 


Warm moist conditions, but strains occurs 

which prefer cool moist weather. 

Sandy soils (contain air spaces for respiration). 

Infested annuals may survive and produce 

flowers if they never suffer from moisture stress. 

Root knot can be a serious greenhouse pest. 

Crops grown in soil. Should not be a problem 

where soil-less media is used. 

Continuous cropping with susceptible hosts. 

Infested soil not treated in some way prior to 

planting. 

Depends on the stage of development of the crop 

or its place in a cropping sequence. A well 

grown crop can withstand a significant root 

infection with nematodes, but a following similar 

crop in the same ground will certainly develop a 

damaging nematode infection while young and 

will not produce a good crop. 

Dormant stages or nematodes are stimulated into 

growth when roots of a susceptible host plant are 

close by. 

Fig. 137. Disease cycle of root knot (Meloidogyne spp.). Males are 1.0-1.5mm 

long and threadlike, females are pear-shaped and about 0.4-1.3mm long (adapted from Agrios, 1997). 




For commercial growers IDM is essential. 

1.Planning is essential and may start 12 months 

before planting, eg after previous final harvest ploughout 

affected crops to expose roots to wind and sun. In 

greenhouses root knot should not be a problem where 

routine hygiene and soil-less media are used. Plan the 

new crop to include appropriate non-chemical methods: 

Carry out a pre-plant nematode analysis. 

Use resistant varieties and cover crops as part of 

your IDM program if available 

Treat affected areas with a recommended nematicide 

before planting only if monitoring indicates that it 

can be justified. 

Fumigation by appropriately trained and licensed 

operators may be appropriate for seedbeds. 

Utilize soil conditions suppressive to nematodes, eg 

minimum tillage, crop rotation, green manuring 

organic amendments and mulches to enhance 

biological activity of organisms against nematodes. 

2.Crop, region. Obtain information from local 

departments of agriculture on root knot on your crop 

in your region. Recognize variations. 

3.Identification must be confirmed. Galls caused 

by root knot nematodes are easy to identify (page 

268). Species identification is difficult and is only 

important when resistant varieties and crop rotation 

are being used as control methods. Check to see if a 

test for growers has been developed. If not consult a 


4.Monitoring strategies include: 

Pre-plant nematode soil analysis, including 

nematode counts of the top 15cm of soil is 

necessary where root knot has been a problem. 

Monitoring when growth is generally unthrifty, 

examine washed roots under the microscope for 

evidence of galls. Record results of monitoring. 

Checking if conditions favour root knot. 

Assessing end-of-season galling in the field to 

indicate infestation liability for the following crop. 

Remember know when, where, what and 

how to monitor. 

5.Specific thresholds are available for some 

crops, especially tomatoes. For other crops, how 

much damage can you accept? 

6.Action. Interpret monitoring. Only apply nematicides 

if monitoring has shown that numbers would cause 

economic damage unless it was applied. 

7.Evaluation. Review IDM program to see how 



Once the presence of root knot nematodes in the 

field is confirmed, it is almost impossible to 

eradicate them. Chemical control is not practical for 

home gardeners or persons with few resources, 

non-chemical control methods including 

sanitation are their preferred options. 


Cultural care. Affects of root knot can be 

offset to some degree by protecting plants from 

stress. Regular water and fertilizer, the use of 

mulch and the control of other diseases and pests 

tend to reduce damage caused by nematodes. 

Summer fallow. Keep all vegetation, including 

weeds, off the infested area for one growing 

season. This is a cheap and effective means of 

reducing numbers. Cultivate soil after each period 

of rain to prevent weed growth. Fallowing does 

not stop nematode eggs from hatching but without 

food plants, the young nematodes die. Fallowing 

may lead to wind and rain erosion. 

Apply organic amendments and adequate 

fertilizer to minimize losses. 

Crop rotation. Where root knot nematodes 

are a problem, avoid planting susceptible crops 

continuously in the same area. Rotate crops 

with resistant, immune or non-host crops such as 

some grasses, cereal, cabbage, cauliflower, 

maize, sorghum and sweetcorn and onions which 

may have some resistance to some root knot 

species. Rotation crops must have a high level 

of resistance otherwise sufficient nematodes 

may carry over to damage the next susceptible 

crop. Crop rotation is useful in management but 

the difficulty is in determination of host range. 

– Nemfix is a cultivar of mustard selected for its 

glucosilinates (which interfere with the breeding 

cycle of nematodes) and its potential as a biofumigant. 

Nemfix can be a useful green manure 

crop used in rotation with Coolabah or Swan oats 

if root knot suppression is desired. 

– Some growers use rotation in combination with a 

weed-free fallow to reduce nematode numbers. 

– Cover crops such as sorghum have proven 

effective in some vegetable growing regions due to 

its resistance to the common nematode species of 

root knot nematode. 

Repellent plants. Asparagus roots secrete an 

exudate which is toxic to root knot nematodes. 

Trap plants. French marigold (Tagetes patula) 

cultivars, produce exudates that stimulate hatching 

of nematode eggs. The larvae then enter marigold 

roots but die shortly afterwards before completing 

their life cycle. Plant marigolds in 15 cm wide 

rows about 15 cm apart and grow for about 90-120 

days (a whole growing season) to sufficiently 

reduce the nematode population to grow annuals 

without further treatment. Often not practical. 

Providing peat and other components of 

potting mixes are obtained from sources free of 

root knot and are not contaminated prior to use, 

treatment before use is unnecessary. 

Sanitation. 

Burn all diseased plants. Do not throw infected 

crop refuse onto compost heaps or manure heaps. 

Do not feed infected potatoes, carrots and other 

plant material to stock unless it has been boiled 

first to kill the nematodes as they can pass 

through the digestive tract of animals unharmed. 

Stand pots and other containers on wire mesh 

rather than solid benches to prevent nematodes 

swimming from pot to pot in drainage water. 

Wash and disinfect equipment prior to using. 

Boots and other footwear worn in contaminated 

areas should also be cleaned thoroughly after use. 

Immediately after final harvest plough-out 

affected crops to expose roots to wind and sun. 

Maintain high levels of hygiene at all times to 

prevent introduction of contaminated cuttings, 

personnel, potting media, water and roots. 

Control volunteer crop regrowth and weeds . 


Many bacteria, predatory fungi and nematodes, 

exert some control of root knot nematodes, 

and are being researched for commercial use 

(page 263. 

Suppressive soils prevent nematodes from 

establishing and from causing disease, and they 

diminish disease severity after initial nematode 

damage when hosts are continuously grown 

(page 263). 



 

Resistant/tolerant cultivars, rootstocks. 

Grasses are affected less often than broadleaved 

plants and show little obvious galling. 

Avoid planting susceptible crops in field 

contaminated with root knot nematodes. 

For many plant species, resistant 

varieties have been developed, eg 

– Tomatoes, the hybrids 'Red Supreme' and 'Rich 

Reward' are tolerant to root knot nematodes. 

– Rootstocks with resistance to root knot have been 

used in the grape and stone fruits industries. 

– Many pasture legumes, eg white clover are very 

susceptible to root knot nematode. 

– As new varieties of many crops are continually 

being marketed, eg strawberries, they need to be 

evaluated for their resistance to the various strains 

of root knot nematode. Some varieties may be more 

susceptible than others. 

Plant activators activate a plant’s natural 

resistance mechanisms. Certain amino acids 

mixed into soil or sprayed onto plants may 

increase local and systemic-induced resistance 

to root knot. 


Australian Quarantine and Inspection 

Service (AQIS). Many species and strains 

of root knot nematodes occur overseas which do 

not as yet occur in Australia. 

Interstate and Regional Plant Quarantine. 

There are no restrictions on the movement of 

plants or plant material infested with root knot 

nematodes within Australia. 

Local quarantine. Inspect tubers, rooted 

seedlings and other plants if they are obtained 

from a nursery or some outside source. Destroy 

all plants in a batch if even of a few plants only 

are infected. Preferably grow your own 

seedlings and other propagating material. 

Nematodes may be introduced in soil or manure 

deliveries. Avoid spreading infested soil to clean 

areas or planting infested plants in clean areas. 

Disease-tested planting material. 

If available, use it. If not it may be necessary to 

treat propagation material (next column). 

It is available for crops such as potatoes, seed 

tubers being guaranteed free from virus and 

other diseases, including root knot nematodes. 

Disease-tested planting material must be planted 

in nematode-free soil/media. 

If disease-tested planting material is unavailable 

only use propagation material preferably from 

aerial plant parts of plants or from tissue culture. 

Strawberries may become infected with one of 

the 4 common species of root knot, M. hapla, 

M. incognita, M. japonica and M. arenaria; the 

formation of galls on strawberry roots does not 

indicate M. hapla it may be a different species. 

Ensure runners you plant are free from all these 

species to prevent their introduction and spread. 


Propagation material like bulbs and corms 

can be treated with hot water, eg standard 

treatment for Narcissus stocks is 3 hours at 

44.4 o C. Some tulip cultivars can be successfully 

treated but others are susceptible to damage. 

Plants such as young rose plants with infected 

roots can be freed, during dormancy, from 

infection by washing off soil and dipping roots 

in hot water for a prescribed period of time. 

Soil can be pasteurized with aerated steam at 

60 o C for 30 minutes to destroy plant parasitic 

organisms but not beneficial ones. Avoid reinfestation 

by planting nematode-free plant 

material only in nematode-free soil/media. Most 

potting mixes today do not contain soil. 

Soil solarization. Root knot can be controlled 

effectively in greenhouses with steam sterilizarion 

of the soil or soil fumigation with nematicides. 

Nematicides. 

Few effective nematicides are available, Nemacur 

(fenamiphos) will soon not be available for use in 

turf in Australia (page 266). 

One treatment provides satisfactory control for 

one season only. 

Nematicides are persistent and have a long withholding 

period. Residues of Nemacur would be 

detected above permissible levels in certain 

vegetables during spot checks. 

Chemical may be applied through the irrigation 

system but with drip irrigation, especially on 

sandy soil only the drip zone will be treated. So 

nematodes beyond the drip zone will become 

active when soil is moist. The whole area must be 

thoroughly wet to a depth of 30-45cm. This is 

difficult for growers with only drip irrigation and 

with boom spraying it is difficult to put on the 

volumes required. 

Table 53. Root knot nematodes – Some nematicides. 

What to use? 

NON-FUMIGANTS - PRE- AND POST-PLANT 

See page 266, Table 55 

Group 1A, eg Temik (aldicarb); Vydate (oxamyl) 

Group 1B, eg Nemacur (fenamiphos); Rugby (cadufos) 

DANGEROUS POISON and POISON 

FUMIGANTS - PRE-PLANT 

See page 267, Table 56 

DANGEROUS POISON and POISON 

OTHERS 


For use by appropriately trained operators only. 

Mainly used on ornamentals 

Ornamental, fruit, seed, tuber and vegetable treatments, 

Only treat if monitoring indicates a need. 

For use only by appropriately trained operators 

prior to planting field areas. Could be used in greenhouses. 

Fumigants which can be applied after planting are being 

researched. 

Only treat if monitoring indicates a need. 

Many products are being researched overseas for controlling 

nematodes in certain situations (Agrios 2005), eg 

Mixing essential plant oils from plant spices into 

nematode-infested soil before planting. 

Abamectin, azadirachtin, methylene bisthiocyanate. 






1. List the distinguishing features of plant 

parasitic nematodes. 

2. Draw diagrammatically the life cycle of an 

nematode. 

3. Name the stages which damage plants, how 

they feed on plants and the types of 

symptoms which may develop on above and 

below ground plant parts. Name 1 example of 

each type of symptom. 

4. Recognize by sight, symptoms produced on 

plants by local nematode diseases. 

5. Distinguish between galls caused by root 

knot nematode infestation from those caused 

by nitrogen-fixing bacteria and crown gall. 

6. Distinguish between foliage symptoms 

caused by root knot nematode infestation 

from those caused by water stress, nutrient 

deficiencies and excesses and poor vigour. 

7. Describe 4 places where plant parasitic 

nematodes might ‘overwinter’. Name 

1 example of each. 

8. Describe 4 ways by which plant parasitic 

nematodes spread. Name 1 example of each. 

9. Describe conditions favouring soil-inhabiting 

nematodes and foliar nematodes which attack 

above ground plant parts. 

10. Describe State/Territory/Commonwealth 

legislation which provides for the control of 

nematode diseases. 

11. List control methods for nematode diseases. 

Describe 1 example of each. 

Cultural 

Sanitation 

Biological 

Resistance/tolerance 


Nematode-tested 

Physical and mechanical 

Pesticides 


names, mode of action and some uses, for one 

non-fumigant nematicide. 

13. Describe how nematodes are used to control 

insect pests of plants. Name 1 example. 

14. Provide the following information for root 

knot nematode or other local nematode pest: 

Common name 

Scientific name/Cause 

Host range 

Symptoms 

Disease cycle 


Spread 


IDM and Control 

15. Prepare/access an IDM. program for a nematode 

disease at your work or in your region. 



control of nematode diseases. 

272 Nematode diseases 


Nematoda (Nematodes or Roundworms) 

www.ento.csiro.au/science/nematode.html 


Australasian Association of Nematologists (AAN) 

http://nematologists.org.au/ 



includes a special section on Soil Diseases 

Many publications are available on nematode species 

present on particular crops, eg bananas, grain crops, 

sugar cane, pineapple, roses, vegetables. 

Fact Sheets by State/Territory Depts of Primary 


Root Knot Nematode 

Keys 

CSIRO Nematoda and Key to the Nematodes of Australia 

www.ento.csiro.au/science/nematode.html 

Nemasys www.cbit.uq.edu.au/software/nemasys/ 


Health and Invasive Species. avail online 




photographs and information www.padil.gov,au 



State websites have information of nematodes and quarantine 

restrictions in their states 

Organic products, standards 




for organic certifiers, products etc 

Becker Underwood Australia www.beckerunderwood.com 

Ecogrow www.ecogrow.com.au 

Nematicides 






Company websites provide labels and MSDSs 

General 


Press, NY. also 4 th edn 1997. 

Bedding, R., Akhurst, R. and Kaya, H. (eds), 1993. 

Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insect Pests. 

CSIRO Pub. 

Bridge, J. and Starr, J. M. 2007. Plant Nematodes of 

Agricultural Importance. (colour). Manson Pub. UK. 

Brown, J. F. and Ogle, H. J. 1997. Plant Pathogens and 

Plant Diseases. Rockvale Pubs., Armidale, NSW. 

Carson, C. 2000. Testing Your Own Rice Flower Planting 

Sites for Nematodes. DPI Note. Qld DPI, Brisbane. 


Connellan, G., Keskula, E., Cowper, B., Medhurst, A. 

and Rodriguez, C. 2000. Integrated Pest Management 

in Ornamentals : Information Guide. NSW DPI. 

Heinz, K. M., Driesche, R. G., Parella, M. P. 2004. 

BioControl in Protected Culture. 2 nd edn. Ball Pub. 

Hodda, M. (2000). Nematodes of the Murray-Darling 

River System and Coastal Fresh Waters of Southeastern 

Australia. CSIRO, Canberra. avail online. 

Hodda, M. 2008 International Spotlight on Tiny Worms. 

CSIRO Media Release. 14 July 2008. 

Hodda, M., Stewart, E., Fitzgibbon, F., Reid, I., Longstaff. 

B. C. and Packer, I. 1999. Nematodes : Useful 

Indicators of Soil Conditions. No.98/141,RIRDC, ACT. 

Holland, R. J. and Williams, K. L. 1998. Fixing Nematodes 

with Microbes. Micro. Aust., May. 

Jones, D. L. and Elliot, W. R. 1986. Pests, Diseases and 

Ailments of Australian Plants. Lothian Pub., Melbourne. 

McMaugh, J. 1994. What Garden Pest or Disease is That? 

Lansdowne Press, Sydney. 

Nobbs, J. M. 2004. Plant Parasitic Nematodes of 

Australia [electronic resource]. SARDI, 2004. 

O'Brien, P. C. and Stirling, G. R. 1991. Plant Nematology 

for Practical Agriculturalists. 3 rd edn. Qld DPI, 

Brisbane. 

Shurtleff, M. C. and Averre III, C. W. 2000. Diagnosing 

Plant Diseases Caused by Nematodes. APS Press. MN. 

Stirling, G. R. 2000. Nematodes Monitoring Strategies 

for Vegetable Crops. No.00/25. RIRDC, ACT. 

Stirling, G. R., Harrower, K. and Webb, L. E. (eds). 

2008. Plant and Soil Nematolody in Australia and 

New Zealand. Australasian Plant Pathology, 37,3. 

van Someren Graver, J. E. 2004. Guide to Fumigation 

Under Gas-proof Sheets. ACIAR. 

Walker, G. 2006. Biocontrol Organisms and Human 

Health. Aust. Nem Nos Vol.17. No.1. Jan 2006. 

Grewal, P. S., Ehlers, R-U., Shapiro-Ilan, D. I. 2005. 

Nematodes as Biological Control Agents. CABI Pub.


Virus and 

Virus-like Diseases 

 

 




274 

Symptoms 275 

How viruses infect host plants 276 


Detection and identification 276 

Virus names and classification 277 

List of some virus & virus-like diseases 278 



Spread 282 


INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT (IDM) 283 










Pesticides (viricides, insecticides) 285 

EXAMPLES OF VIRUS AND VIRUS-LIKE DISEASES 286 


Tomato big bud (greening, virescence) 289 

Virus diseases of roses (rose "mosaic") 291 



Virus and virus-like diseases 273



Viruses, viroids, phytoplasmas 

NO. DISEASES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

One nanometer (nm) 

= one billionth of a metre 

= 0.000,000,001 metres 

= 0.000,001 millimetre (mm) 

Viruses are a significant and growing threat to crop production worldwide. 

There are many hundred virus and virus-like diseases of plants. Most plants are 

susceptible to viruses although trees and Australian native plants seem to have 

fewer recorded virus disease problems. This may be due to lack of research. 

New viruses and phytoplasmas are constantly being detected and identified. 



The American Phytopathology Society (APSnet) www.apsnet.org/ 

VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PHYTOPLASMAS 

1. Can only multiply in living cells, however, a few phytoplasmas have 

been cultured on complex media. 

2. Are infectious and can spread from one plant to another. 

3. Can only be seen with the aid of an electron microscope. They are too 

small to be seen with a light microscope. 

4. Vary in structure and size. 

VIROIDS 1. About 10-50 times smaller than viruses (require a 

magnification of x 100,000 or more to be seen). 

2. Consist of free ribonucleic acid (RNA) with no protein 

coat. 

VIRUSES 1. Require a magnification of x 10,000 or more to be seen. 

Some are rigid rods about 15 by 300 nm; many appear as 

thin threads usually about 10-13 nm wide and range in 

length from 480 to 2,000 nm long; most spherical viruses 

range from 17-60 nm in diameter (Agrios 2005). 

2. Consist of RNA or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) with a 

protein coat. 

PHYTOPLASMAS 1. Are larger than viruses but smaller than bacteria (require 

a magnification of x 5,000 or more to be seen). 

2. Have a cell membrane, but no cell wall, cytoplasm and 

strands of nuclear material. They colonise plant phloem. 

3. Phytoplasmas are a group of organisms that cause 

symptoms similar to viruses and may be spread by insects, 

but they are structurally different and are more closely 

related to bacteria. They have been included here because 

they are spread by insects and symptoms generally are 

more virus-like than bacterial-like. 

Viroids Viruses Phytoplasmas and 

(x 100,000) (x 10,000) spiroplasmas (x 5,000) 

(various shapes) 

‘LIFE CYCLE’ 

They are obligate 

parasites because 

they can only 

multiply in 

living plants 

Unlike fungi and bacteria, viruses cannot reproduce by themselves but can only 

multiply inside a living plant or animal. 

Once inside the plant cell, viruses multiply by inducing the host cells to 

make more virus (Agrios 2005). 

This interferes with photosynthesis and respiration in plant cells so the plant 

cannot grow properly resulting in stunting, reduced yield, etc. 

An analogy can be made between virus multiplication in a cell and the 

photocopying of a written page by a photocopier. The virus, like the 

written page, contains information, and just as the reproduction of the 

written page is done entirely by the photocopier so the multiplication of the 

virus is the work of the infected plant cell. 

274 Virus and virus-like diseases


SYMPTOMS 

Symptoms are not 

related to virus 

concentration in the 

host but depend on: 

Strain of virus 

Environment, climate 

Duration of infection 

Type, variety, age, 

physiology, stage of 

development of host 

Presence of other 

viruses and disease 

organisms 

. GENERAL SYMPTOMS. 

The interference in photosynthesis, respiration and other cell processes results in 

a range of symptoms including those described below. Often they cannot be 

easily observed or quantified. Sometimes a virus disease does not show 

symptoms in an infected host, eg tobacco mosaic virus infection in African 

violet and is called a latent virus; apple stem pitting virus, apple chlorotic leaf 

spot virus and apple stem grooving virus are common, economically important, 

and symptomless in commercial pear and apple cultivars. Other viruses only 

produce symptoms under certain conditions of light and temperature and are 

called masked viruses. Although virus may infect all parts of the plant, 

symptoms generally are most obvious in young foliage. Leaf symptoms can 

easily be confused with other plants problems (Table 54 below). 

STUNTING 

YIELD 

PLANT LIFE 

May be so slight that it is often unnoticeable, especially in 

the initial stages, or so severe that the disease is called 

‘stunt’, affected plants being unproductive. 

Yield may be slightly or severely reduced. 

Life is usually shortened, probably only important for 

perennial plants. Seedlings can be killed. 

. SPECIFIC SYMPTOMS. 

Some symptoms are 

easier to see and 

identify than others, 

some are more subtle 

Some viruses, eg 

cucumber mosaic virus 

(CMV) tend to produce 

the same type of 

symptoms on all plants 

they infect regardless 

of the host species 

Others such as tomato 

spotted wilt virus 

(TSWV) may produce 

different symptoms on 

different hosts 

Ringspots on watermelon 


LEAVES 

FLOWERS 

FRUIT 

STEMS 

OTHERS 

COLOUR CHANGES, eg yellowing and reddening 

Bronzing, eg tomato spotted wilt virus 

Line patterns, eg plum line pattern virus 

Mosaics, eg poinsettia mosaic virus 

Mottling, eg camellia yellow mottle virus 

Ringspots, eg tomato spotted wilt virus 

Streaks, eg garlic yellow streak virus 

Veinbanding, eg strawberry veinbanding virus 

Veinclearing, eg malva veinclearing virus 

MALFORMATIONS, eg potato leafroll virus (rolled leaves) 

WILTING, eg tomato spotted wilt virus 

Breaking, eg tulip breaking virus (stripes, intensifies colour) 

Greening, eg tomato big bud phytoplasma (greening) 

Malformation, eg iris severe mosaic virus 

Malformation, eg stony pit virus of pear 

Ringspots, eg tomato spotted wilt virus 

Russet. eg russet ring virus of apple 

Malformation, eg apple flat limb virus 

Streaking, eg tomato spotted wilt virus 

Death of plants (not common) 

Table 54. Comparison of virus diseases with other plant problems (typical generalizations). 

LEAVES, 

DISTRIBUTION 

VIRUS 

DISEASES 

NUTRIENT & TOXICITY 

DEFICIENCIES 

HERBICIDE 

INJURY 

GENETIC 

ABNORMALITIES 

Distribution of 

affected leaves 

on plant 


symptoms on 

leaves 

Other 

features 


affected plants 

in the field 

Usually uneven, patchy, 

often only a few leaves 

show symptoms on the 

plant, often seen on new 

growth in spring 

Usually uneven pattern 

on leaf 

Some plants are 

susceptible to specific 

viruses 

Symptoms on a few 

randomly scattered 

patches of plants which 

may gradually spread 

Usually either all over plant, 

only on young leaves, or only 

on older leaves 

Usually even, bilateral 

symmetry, often specific 

pattern 

Some plants are susceptible 

to specific deficiencies 

Sudden appearance of 

symptoms on all plants in a 

crop, or evenly in an area 

within the crop 

Often on new growth, 

may be on windward 

side of plant or crop 

May be even, a 

specific pattern 

Leaves may be 

distorted. History of 

chemical applications 

Sudden appearance of 

symptoms on all plants 

Usually all over plant, 

or on one branch or 

shoot (a "sport") 

Often even over leaf, 

tendency to bilateral 

symmetry 

Pattern on leaf or fruit 

 

 

Rare, 1-2 in a 

population of plants 



HOW VIRUSES 

INFECT HOST 

PLANTS 

DISTRIBUTION 

WITHIN A PLANT 

It may be 

assumed that 

for all practical 

purposes, 

even though 

symptoms only 

appear on parts 

of the plant, all 

living cells within 

the plant are 

infected 

THROUGH WOUNDS MADE 

By vectors which are the most common and economically serious method of 

spread. The most important vectors are insects. 

Mechanically by plants rubbing against each other during handling or pruning. 

This is not so common or important (exceptions). 

DEPOSITION IN HOST PLANT MATERIAL 

Viruses may be deposited in plants via pollen. 

Scions may become infected when grafted onto infected rootstocks. 

MOVEMENT THROUGH PLANTS 

Viruses may move through plants in many ways including: 

Direct cell-to-cell invasion, eg in leaves viruses may move through 

8-10 cells (about 1 mm) per day. 

Transportation through the phloem may occur rapidly, eg 15 cm in 

6 minutes. Most viruses take 2-5 days to move from inoculated leaves. 

DISTRIBUTION WITHIN A PLANT 

Some viruses are fully systemic while others leave some tissues virus-free, eg the 

growing points. 

Infected plants usually remain infected for a lifetime (page 283). Plants propagated 

from such material are usually infected. 

Direction and rate of translocation of a virus in a plant (adapted from Agrios 1997). 

DETECTION AND 

IDENTIFICATION 

Symptoms of 

rose mosaic 

Virus particles 

Diseased 

bud to 

healthy 

plant 

New 

growth 

develops 

symptoms 

Virus protein 

injected into rabbit 

ELISA Testing 

DNA tests 

SYMPTOMS EXHIBITED BY THE HOST PLANT 

Some viruses cause distinctive symptoms in their hosts and so the disease and the 

virus can be identified from symptoms. However, frequently this is not possible. 

Some virus symptoms can be confused with nutrient deficiencies or 

excesses, herbicide or insect injury (page 275, Table 54). 

DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION BY EXPERTS 

Experts test for the presence of virus in plants, parent stock and certification 

schemes, eg strawberry, cut flowers, potato, pome and stone fruit, grape. Testing is 

difficult, slow and expensive. 

Electron microscopy identifies the shape of viruses particles (rods, bullets or 

spheres), in plant sap or ultra-thin plant segments. For some viruses, though, the 

shape of particles is not a reliable means of identification. 

Indicator plants. Some herbaceous plants, eg tobacco, petunia, readily show 

symptoms when infected with many different plant viruses. A virus can be 

transferred by budding, grafting, mechanically rubbing the plant with sap, or by a 

vector, from a diseased host plant which does not show obvious symptoms, to a 

healthy indicator species, which does show characteristic symptoms. 

Serology. Virus protein is injected into a mammal, eg a rabbit, resulting in 

antibodies in the blood system which react specifically with the virus antigen 

injected. 

– ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) is a serological test in which one 

antibody carries with it an enzyme that releases a colored compound if virus is 

present. Kits identify some viruses in some hosts, and are a quick, sensitive and 

specific method of testing large numbers of plant samples. 

– More sensitive tests are being developed for viruses that accumulate in low 

amounts in their natural hosts and escape detection, eg carnation. 

DNA technology. 

– DNA can be used to detect unknown viruses for which there is no antiserum or 

information available. Can also be used for detecting woody plant viruses. 

– PCR (polymerase chain reaction) multiplies over a million times, a short 

segment of DNA, so that can be seen as a gel. 

A quick, simple, inexpensive generic test is being developed for the 

whole nepovirus (nematode-transmitted) group of viruses. They are a group of 

about 46 viruses that infect many plant families that cause probably the most 

serious viral diseases of horticultural crops, particularly perennial woody and bulb 

crops. Many have not been recorded in Australia so quarantine tests are important. 



VIRUS NAMES 

AND 


Plant viruses were originally named after the first host on which they 

were studied followed by the most obvious symptom caused by the virus on that 

particular host, eg apple mosaic virus. The disease was called apple mosaic. 

Because many viruses were first studied on fruit, vegetable and field crops, many 

viruses affecting ornamental plants have names with fruit, vegetable and field crop 

connotations, eg turnip mosaic virus may infect stock. To further complicate matters 

the same virus may cause different symptoms: 

On the same host under different environmental conditions. 

On the same host if a different strain of the same virus is present. 

 

 

On a different host. 

Also on an individual plant, some ‘mosaics’ and other ‘viral symptoms’ may be 

caused by more than one virus. 

Symptoms of apple 

mosaic virus. PhotoCIT, 


A virus causing 

apple mosaic symptoms 

on apple is called apple 

mosaic virus and the 

disease is called apple 

mosaic 

Some virus genera 

Genus names end in virus, eg 

Potexviruses, eg 

Cymbidium mosaic 

potexvirus 

Potyviruses, eg 

Potato potyvirus Y 

Sugancane mosaic 

potyvirus 

Turnip mosaic potyvirus 

Tulip breaking potyvirus 

Tospiviruses, eg 

Tomato spotted wilt 

tospivirus 

Ilarviruses, eg 

Apple mosic ilarvirus 

Rose mosaic ilarvirus 

Prunus necrotic ringspot 

ilarvirus 

Name of virus Name of disease Symptoms 

Tomato big bud 

phytoplasma 


Tomato – vertical shoots, hard 

green fruit, split stems 

Petunia – greening of flower 

parts 

Apple mosaic virus Apple mosaic Mosaics are more pronounced in 

spring, new growth in summer on 

infected trees may only show mild 

symptoms or be symptom-free. 

First host on which 

the virus was studied 

Most obvious symptom caused 

by the virus on a particular host 

The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) oversees 

the naming and classification of viruses which now shares many features 

with the classification system used for other biological organisms, eg kingdoms, 

orders, families, genera and species. Note, however, that some aspects of the naming 

and classification of viruses differ from that of other biological organisms, eg the 

genus (ending in virus) comes after the species. 

All viruses belong to the Kingdom Viruses (Agrios 2005) within which they are 

divided: 

Into RNA viruses and DNA viruses then further divided on whether they contain 

1 or 2 strands of DNA or RNA and the type of DNA and RNA. 

Other characteristics used in virus classification include type of protein units, 

size, and many physical, chemical or biological properties, eg host range, method 

of transmission, etc. 

Virus genera (like plant and animal genera) share some significant properties, eg 

structure, and composition, symptoms, and method of spread. 

Virus & virus-like organisms 

Common 

name of virus 

Turnip mosaic 

virus 

Tomato spotted 

wilt virus 

.SCIENTIFIC NAME. 

Genus & species 

Turnip mosaic 

potyvirus 


tospivirus 

Larger organisms belonging to 

the plant or animal kingdom 

Common name 

Humans 


SCIENTIFIC NAME. 

Genus & species 

Homo sapiens 

Tetranychus urtica 

species genus genus species 

Animals and plants are generally 

classified according to their DNA, 

structural characteristics etc into classes, 

orders, families, genera and species 

Scientific names indicate the relationship of 

one plant or animal to other plants and animals 

Symptoms of tomato spotted 

wilt virus. PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 



LIST OF SOME COMMON NAME HOST RANGE 

VIRUS & VIRUS- 

OF VIRUS 


LIKE DISEASES Apple mosaic virus Rosaceae (apple, Prunus, 

rose), hop, horse 

chestnut 

Host range. 

Some viruses only infect 

1 species or group of 

closely related plants, 

eg orchid fleck 

Others attack a wide 

range of plants 

including weeds, eg 

tomato spotted 

wilt virus 

Barley yellow dwarf 

virus (BYDV) 

Beet western yellows 

virus 

Bean yellow mosaic 

virus (BYMV) 

Camellia yellow 

mottle virus 

Cucumber mosaic virus 

(various strains) 

Cymbidium mosaic 

virus 

Iris severe mosaic virus 

. Kennedya yellow 

mosaic virus 

Ringspots on cymbidium. 

PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and 

Investment (M.Senior). 

Not known 

in Australia 

Tulip breaking. Photo 

CIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Emerging 

diseases 

Phytoplasmas 

Greening, 

virescence 

Prunus necrotic ringspot 

virus 

Tobacco mosaic virus 

Most grasses, especially 

wheat, barley, oats, also 

maize, rise 

Beet, lettuce, spinach, 

sunflower, etc, native 

Cardamine spp. 

Ornamentals, eg 

gladiolus, sweet pea, 

violet; crops, eg 

legumes, bean; weeds. 

Camellia 

Mainly Cucurbitaceae, 

Solanaceae, wide range 

of ornamentals, crops, 

weeds 

Orchidaceae (most 

commercially grown 

orchids, eg cattelya, 

cymbidium) 

Iris (overseas also 

crocus) 

Kennedya, Desmodium, 

Indigofera 

Prunus, rose, hop 

Overseas, apple 

Wide host range, 

vegetables (especially 

tomato), ornamentals, 

weeds 

Plumpox virus, Sharka Prunus spp. 

disease 

Tomato spotted wilt virus Wide host range, 

vegetables, ornamentals, 

field crops, weeds 

Tulip breaking virus 

(note that some varieties 

have variegated flowers) 

Turnip mosaic virus 

Wheat streak mosaic 

virus 

Tomato leaf curl viruses 

Tulip, lilies 

Mainly Brassicaceae, 

other families, 

vegetables, ornamentals, 

weeds 

Wheat, and other cereals, 

grasses and grassy weeds 

Mainly Solanaceae, 

weeds, vegetables, 

ornamentals 

Candidatus phytoplasma Strawberry, papaya, grapevine, 

Citrus paradisi, red 

australiense has been 

associated with Australian clover, paddy melon, 

grapevine yellows, papaya pumpkin, French bean, 

dieback, yellows, chickpea, Cordyline 

strawberry green petal, etc australis. 


phytoplasma (greening. 

viresence 

Wide host range, weeds. 

ornamentals, vegetables 

METHOD OF SPREAD 

No insect vector, vegetative 

propagation, mechanical inoculation, 

contact between plants, probably by 

pollen to the pollinated plant 

By many species of aphids, by 

grafting, not by mechanical 

inoculation, not by seed, not by 

pollen. Lost wheat production is 

estimated at > $8 million/year 

By many species of aphids, not by 

mechanical inoculation, not by 

contact between plants, not by seed, 

not by pollen 

By aphids, mechanically 

Vegetative propagation, grafting 

By more than 60 species of aphids 

(non-persistent), vegetative 

propagation, mechanical inoculation 

(hands, tools), sometimes seedborne 



handling, tools, contact between 

plants 

By several species of aphid (nonpersistent), 

mechanical inoculation, 

not by plant contact 



not by plant contact, not by seed or 

pollen 

No vector, vegetative propagation, 

mechanical inoculation, by grafting, 

contact between plants, by seed 

(variable), by pollen to seed, by 

pollen to pollinated plant 

No insect vector, by vegetative 

propagation, by grafting, by 

mechanical inoculation (handling, 

tools, contact between plants, 

cigarettes), sometimes by seed 

By several species of aphids, by 

grafting, by other means (?) 

By several thrips species eg onion, 

tomato and Western flower thrips; 

persistent, mechanical inoculation, by 

grafting, vegetative propagation, not 

by seed or by pollen 

By various species of aphids, 

mechanical inoculation, grafting, not 

by contact between plants, not by 

seed, not by pollen 

More than 40-50 species aphids 

especially cabbage and green peach 

aphid (non- persistent), mechanical 

inoculation, not by seed 

By the wheat curl mite (eriophyid), 

seed transmission is considered to be 

extremely low, others? 

By silverleaf white fly. Not by seed, 

soil or from plant to plant byhandling 

By leafhoppers, by vegetative 

propagation, grafting, other (?) 

By the common brown leafhopper, 

vegetative propagation 


. 


LIST OF SOME 

VIRUS & VIRUS- 

LIKE DISEASES 

(contd) 

Over 16 virus 

and virus-like diseases 

can infect 

chrysanthemum 

worldwide, not all 

occur in Australia 

Viroids 

In practice, it is not always 

necessary to know the names 

of all the viruses which can 

infect a plant, but it is 

important to be able 

recognize virus symptoms, 

know how the viruses are 

spread and how losses may 

be minimized 

COMMON NAME 

OF VIRUS 

HOST RANGE 


METHOD OF SPREAD 

COMMENTS 

. VIRUSES AFFECTING CHRYSANTHEMUM 

Many annual and herbaceous plants may become infected with one to several virus 

diseases in the same way that they might be attacked by several insect pests or fungal 

diseases. Viruses affecting chrysanthemum include: 

Chrysanthemum B 

virus 

Tomato aspermy 

virus 


virus 

Chrysanthemum 

chlorotic mottle 

viroid 

Chrysanthemum 

stunt viroid 

Chrysanthemum 

Chrysanthemum, tree tobacco 

Wide host range, ornamentals, 


Chrysanthemum 

Chrysanthemum 

Vegetative propagation, many 

species of aphids, not by contact 

or seed 

Vegetative propagation, by 

aphids, not by contact 

Vegetative propagation, various 

species of thrips 

Vegetative propagation, vector 

(if there is one) is not known 

Vegetative propagation, contact, 

(transfer of infected sap from 

infected plants contacting 

healthy plants), contaminated 

knives, staff moving from 

diseased plants to healthy plants. 

A virus must be 

registered before 

it can be sold 

commercially 

in Australia 

Viruses can be 

genetically 

engineered 

. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS 

Gemstar ® (nuclear Corn earworm (Helicoverpa 

polyhedrosis virus) armigera), native budworm 

(Helicoverpa NPV) (H. punctigera) on various 

crops 

ViVusMax, VivusGold 

(nuclear polyhedrosis 

virus) (NPV) 

EPVs 

(entomopoxyviruses) 

Cabbage white 

butterfly virus 

Corn earworm (Helicoverpa 

armigera) on various crops 

Locusts, grasshoppers, cane 

beetles, caterpillars, cockchafers 


to increase the Codling moth virus Codling moth 

speed at which 

they kill infected Lightbrown apple Lightbrown apple moth 

insects moth virus 

Potato moth virus Potato moth 

Bacteriophage Bacterial blight of geranium 

(a virus which attacks (Xanthomonas campestris) 

bacteria) 

. VIRUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS & HUMANS 

Foot and mouth Mostly cloven-hoofed animals, 

disease virus eg cattle, water buffalo, sheep, 

goats, pigs, antelope, bison, deer 

Many, eg HIV (human 

immunodeficiency virus), 

influenza, measles 

rarely humans 

Humans 

Fig. 138. Left: Grapevine fanleaf virus symptoms. 

Right: Camellia yellow mottle virus symptoms. 


Fig. 139. Left: Yellow net vein virus symptoms on 

geranium. Right: Flat limb virus symptoms on apple 

(both unconfirmed). PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



DISEASE 

CYCLE 

HOST ONLY 

Host plant. Because viruses can only multiply in living tissue, the host plant is of 

primary importance in the disease cycle. 

Weed hosts. Many viruses can persist in cultivated or weed hosts. 

Vegetative propagation material. All vegetative propagules such as cuttings, 

bulbs, stolons taken from infected plants will carry the virus. 

Seed. Many of the known plant viruses may infect the seed of infected plants. 

Sometimes a virus may be seedborne only on particular hosts. 

Host plant Vegetative propagation material Seeds 


A few viruses, although unable to multiply on host plant debris, can survive for 

varying periods of time in it, eg tobacco mosaic virus in tobacco leaves. 

Host plant 

Host debris 


It is unusual for a virus disease to be soilborne, but some are known to be transmitted 

by soilborne organisms, eg nematodes and fungi. 

Host plant Host debris Soil 

Persistent viruses 

are acquired from an 

infected plant during 

feeding and circulated 

internally. After passage 

through insect tissues 

the virus is introduced 

into healthy plants again 

during feeding. These 

viruses persist in the 

vector for long periods. 

Some insects will 

spread virus all their 

lives and some will 

persist through moults 

and/or egg stages. 

HOST AND VECTOR. 

For viruses transmitted by a vector, part of the cycle may take place in the vector. In 

insects, which are the most common and economically important vectors of virus 

diseases, viruses may be: 

Non-persistent. Virus is acquired by the insect (usually aphids) from an 

infected plant in a few seconds or minutes and can be transmitted almost 

immediately during feeding to a new host. Aphids only retain the virus for few 

minutes and must acquire the virus again to transmit it again. 

Insecticides can control aphids, but cannot prevent spread because transmission 

occurs too quickly. 

Persistent. Vector has a much longer feeding time, eg hours, followed by a 

period, also many hours, during which it is unable to infect plants on which it feeds. 

Persistent viruses may be: 

– Circulative. The virus is retained for weeks or for the life of the insect (aphid, 

leafhoppers and whiteflies). Insecticides can reduce spread of virus disease 

within a crop. If only a few plants in the field are infected by early aphid flights 

into the crop, it might be possible to control later generations of vectors before 

they can acquire and transmit the disease. 

– Propagative. Some viruses multiply in vectors (aphids, leafhoppers and 

thrips) passing to the salivary glands. Insecticides are effective in reducing 

virus spread, eg tomato spotted wilt virus. 

Semi-persistent. These viruses have some characteristics of both non-persistent 

and persistent viruses. 

Host plant Aphids Leafhoppers Thrips 




OVERSUMMERING 

"Overwintering" 

may in reality be 

oversummering, 

perhaps a better 

term might by 

overseasoning 

IN THE HOST PLANT 

Once a plant is infected with virus it remains infected for the rest of its life. Viruses 

with a wide host range, eg tomato spotted wilt, may ‘overwinter’ in weeds or 

perennial hosts which are then a potential source of infection for many future 

ornamental, vegetable and other crops. 

Host plant 

IN SEED 

Probably more than 20% of virus diseases are seedborne, some on certain hosts only. 

Not all seed from an infected plant may carry the virus. Crops grown from virus-free 

seeds may escape later infection if they are kept away from insect vectors that have 

access to infected plants. 

Seed 

IN VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION MATERIAL 

All virus diseases are carried over into new plantings if the new bulbs, corms, tubers, 

stolons, cuttings and nursery stock are taken from parent plants which are already 

infected with virus. 

Grafting Cuttings Runners Bulb, tubers 

IN VECTORS 

Persistent circulatory viruses can ‘overwinter’ in certain insect vectors, eg 

leafhoppers. Perennial parasitic flowering plants such as Devil's twine (Cassytha 

spp.) could also carry virus. 

Aphids Leaf Thrips 

hoppers 

IN PLANT DEBRIS & SOIL (not common?) 

Tobacco mosaic virus is spread by mechanical inoculation, by grafting, by seed and 

by contact between plants. It can survive in dead infected tobacco leaves in 

cigarettes for years and may be passed from them to healthy plants during smoking. 

It is considered that some viruses, eg tobacco mosaic virus, which infect orchids, 

could survive in infected leaves in the soil for limited periods of time. 

Plant debris 

Soil 



SPREAD 

Aphids are 

the most 

important 

insect 

vectors 

Knowing how a 

virus is spread is 

essential for 

effective 

management 

INSECTS AND OTHER VECTORS 

Insects, especially sucking species such as aphids, leafhoppers, whiteflies and 

thrips, are common vectors of virus diseases. Viruses may be persistent or nonvirus 

diseases. 

persistent in insects (page 280). Other insects and mites may occasionally transmit 

Nematodes. Viruses spread by nematodes are called nepoviruses, eg grapevine 

fanleaf virus is spread by the dagger nematode. This is presently an uncommon 

method of spread in Australia but these viruses cause probably the most serious 

viral diseases of horticultural crops, particularly perennial woody and bulb crops in 

many plant families, and are of serious concern to quarantine authorities 

worldwide. Attempts are being made develop a suitable generic test for the whole 

nepovirus group. www.daff.gov.au/ba/publications/nepoviruses 

Fungi. This is a rare method of spread, eg lettuce big vein virus is spread by a soilinhabiting 

fungus (Olpidium sp.). 

Protozoa. This is also an uncommon method of spread, eg Polymyxa graminis 

can transmit virus diseases in cereal crops. 

Flowering plants. Plants such as dodder (Cuscuta spp.) which parasitize stems 

of plants may transfer virus diseases from one plant to another. 

Leaf Thrips Nematodes Dodder 

hopper 

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION 

Budding, grafting, cuttings, rootstock, scions, tubers etc. For crops 

propagated in this manner, this is the most important method of spread. 

Tissue cultures may also transfer virus particles. 

Grafting Cuttings Runners Bulb, tubers Tissue 

culture 

Infected 

pollen 

Healthy 

plant 

Some virus 

diseases 

are spread by only 

one method, 

others may be 

spread by several 

means 

SEED AND POLLEN 

More than 100 viruses are transmitted by 

seed. Usually only 1-30% of seed may be 

infected but 100% of seed can carry virus. 

Some are only seedborne on some hosts, eg 

tomato spotted wilt virus is seedborne in 

beans. 

Prunus necrotic ringspot virus is spread by 

pollen. 

Infected Seed carrying 

plant virus 

MECHANICAL TRANSMISSION IN SAP 

A few plant viruses and viroids are spread 

in plant sap adhering to fingers, secateurs. 

budding knives, cigarettes, etc, eg tobacco 

mosaic virus. Some orchid viruses spread 

when healthy plants contact diseased ones. 

NATURAL ROOT GRAFTS 

Natural root grafts may occur in orchards 

and other tree plantings. 

Infected Healthy plant 

EPIDEMIOLOGY. 

Vegetative plant parts and seed primarily spread viruses between 

generations resulting in primary infection of plants. 

Insects not only bring the virus into the crop but also spread it from infected to 

healthy plants and during the same growing season (secondary infections). Such virus 

diseases may have many disease cycles per season (10-20 cycles for aphid 

transmitted viruses). 

If spread by vegetative parts, seed and also by insects there may be an 

early and total infection of the crop with subsequent severe damage. 



CONDITIONS 

FAVOURING 

EXPRESSION OF SYMPTOMS 

Severity symptoms of individual plant viruses may vary with the crop variety, locality 

and from one season to another. 

Temperature. Viruses producing yellow or leaf roll symptoms are most severe in 

the summer whereas mosaics or ringspots are most pronounced in the spring. New 

growth produced during summer on mosaic- or ringspot-infected plants usually 

shows only mild symptoms or are completely free from symptoms, eg apple mosaic 

virus infection causes more pronounced symptoms during cool springs. 

Masked virus diseases produce symptoms only under certain conditions of light 

or temperature. Latent virus diseases do not show any symptoms in some 

infected hosts, eg tobacco mosaic virus infection in African violet. 

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION 

Because virus diseases in host plants are transmitted in vegetative propagative material 

such as bulbs, corms, cuttings, root stock and scions, plants propagated by this means are 

prone to carry virus diseases, eg carnations, daffodil, potato. Viral infection builds up 

over generations eventually making some cultivars unproductive. 

VECTORS AND AVAILABLE HOSTS 

If spread by vectors, large populations of vectors and hosts favour infection. 

HANDLING 

Virus diseases spread by sap transmission are spread during handling, eg cucumber 

mosaic virus is usually spread through a crop of cucumbers during the first picking. 

ENVIRONMENT 

Vegetative propagation 

Vector 

Handling 

Light/temperature 

SUSCEPTIBLE 


VIRUS DISEASE 

PRESENT IN AREA 

Fig. 140. Virus disease triangle. 


MAIN STEPS 

You need to know how 

the virus is spread to 

carry out the right 

control measures 

at the right time 


Legislation 


Sanitation 

Biological 





Pesticides 

Organic, BMP etc 

X 

1. Plan in advance an IDM program that fits your situation. Keep records of the crop, 

eg source of planting material, planting/sowing dates, temperature, irrigation, 

fertilizers and pesticides. 

2. Crop/region. List the problems your crop/region gets. IDM programs are available 

for different species of viruses on a range of crops. 

3. Identification can be difficult. Be familiar with local virus diseases. Consult a 

diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv). Be aware that virus symptoms may mimic 

those of other diseases, eg nutrient or spray injury (page 275). Understand the life 

cycle, spread, etc of the virus. Obtain Fact Sheets on your virus. 

4. Monitoring. Know when, where, what and how to monitor. Growers of 

susceptible crops should regularly monitor crops or indicator plants for symptoms 

of virus. There are specific tests for some viruses. Vectors which spread the virus 

can be monitored using sticky traps. 

5. Threshold. This depends on the virus, the crop and the region and any legal 

requirements. You may need to calculate your own threshold, domestic or 

commercial for economic or aesthetic damage tolerance. There may be nil tolerance 

for quarantine or other situations. 

6. Action/control. For all practical purposes infected plants in the field cannot be 

freed of virus after infection. Commercial growers can prevent initial infection by 

selecting resistant/tolerant varieties and planting virus-tested material when ever 

possible. Commercial growers can control insect vectors and weed hosts. Parent 

stock must be tested regularly and kept virus-free and measures taken to prevent 

subsequent spread. Home gardeners can purchase good quality stock/seed (usually 

free of virus) and tolerate any subsequent virus or rogue out seriously affected plants. 

7. Evaluation. Just how effective was virus control? Commercial growers should 

test parent stock plants for virus every year. Recommend improvements if required. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

Sanitation may 

assist in controlling 

certain virus diseases, 

eg if plum pox virus 

arrived in Australia 

protocols would probably 

include destruction of 

infected trees and 

constant monitoring 

for disease 

Virus-resistant 

plants reduce 

the use of 

insecticides 

to control 

vectors 

. 

LEGISLATION 

Relevant legislation includes Plant Quarantine Acts, Seed Acts, etc. 


Overplanting and later thinning can be useful for home gardeners to assist in 

controlling tomato spotted wilt in tomatoes (see roguing below). 

Proper fertilizing and watering can often offset the adverse effects of infection, 

eg daphne plants infected with virus diseases. 

Planting at times when vectors are absent or low. 

SANITATION. 

Insect-transmitted viruses. Do not plant young crops near virus-infected crops or 

crop residues. Destroy surrounding weeds hosts and infected dying crop plants 

as soon as practical after harvest as vectors may migrate to healthy crops. Clean out 

all autumn crops grown in greenhouses where spring crops will be grown. 

Rogueing. As there is no cure for virus-infected plants, rogue infected crops, especially 

herbaceous crops, eg ornamental flowers, bulbs and vegetables. Because symptoms 

caused by virus diseases are often more obvious in the cooler months, rogueing 

should be carried out during spring and autumn. For viruses that 'overwinter' in host 

debris in the soil, remove diseased plants. 

Handling plants. Some virus diseases are spread during handling, eg tobacco 

mosaic and cucumber mosaic. Handle plants as little as possible. Wash hands when 

moving between sections of a collection of plants. 

Sterilize pruning implements by heating to red heat or dipping in 10% trisodium 

phosphate solutions for 10 minutes after every plant or plant group (check that this 

is appropriate for your situation). Thoroughly clean tools first. 

Personnel hygiene. Wash hands, clean clothes, foot baths with disinfectant can be 

placed at the entrance to greenhouses. Do not smoke when handling Solonaceous 

plants (page 282). 


To date it is not possible to control virus diseases biologically. 

Vectors, eg thrips, have potential for biological control (page 139). 

Trap plants, eg rows of tall plants around fields of beans. Incoming aphids which 

carry virus diseases that attack beans, will first stop and feed on tall ryegrass. Most 

aphid-borne viruses are non-persistent in the aphid so many of the aphids will lose 

the bean-infecting virus by the time they move to feed on the beans (Agrios, 2005) 


Resistant varieties provide a long-term approach for control of virus diseases, eg 

Traditional plant breeding programs whereby hybrids are produced which have 

resistance to a specified virus disease. 

Genetic engineering (GE) allows the transfer of genes for resistance into 

susceptible crop varieties, eg grapevine fanleaf virus. Genes can also be silenced. 

Vaccination with attenuated strains of the problem virus can protect some plants 

from virulent strains and extends their commercial life. This may be inherited, eg 

barley yellow dwarf virus. 

Cross protection describes the protection of a plant by infecting it with a mild 

strain of a virus, which prevents later infection by more severe strains of the same 

virus, eg citrus tristeza virus, papaya ringspot virus. 

Systemic acquired resistance (SAR). Plants may be treated with chemicals which 

activate the plant’s natural resistance mechanisms, eg tobacco mosaic virus. 


Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service (AQIS). Recent arrivals include Iris 

yellow spot virus (IYSV) which infects onions and leeks and Capsicum chlorosis 

virus (CaCV) which infects capsicum, peanut and Hoya. For the many virus 

diseases and their vectors which occur overseas, contingency plans are in place 

should they enter Australia. 

Target list of diseases which might enter Australia 


PaDIL - Pests and Diseases Image Library www.padil.gov,au 

Interstate and Regional Plant Quarantine. Some virus diseases (or strains of), 

occur only in certain regions. NSW legislation aims to prevent the introduction of 

Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV) and its vector, silverleaf whitefly, into 

NSW because diseases caused by similar strains of TYLCV in other states, cause 

severe economic losses in tomato crops overseas. 

Local quarantine. Virus diseases may be introduced into gardens and nurseries by 

the purchase of infected plants, eg roses. 


As virus-infected plants usually remain infected for a lifetime, plants propagated 

vegetatively from such material are infected. 

Certification schemes provide propagation material, conforming to cultivar 

characteristics and guaranteed free from the diseases for which it has been tested 

and found to be free from. Periodic testing of parent plants producing such 

propagation plants is necessary to ensure their continuous freedom from viruses. 



CONTROL 

METHODS (contd) 

The use of virus-tested 

seed, tubers, budwood, 

etc, is the most 

important measure 

for managing virus 

diseases of many crops 

especially those 

lacking insect vectors 

Foliar applications 

of insecticides 

are particularly 

ineffective against 

aphid vectors 

 

 

Certification schemes contd 

– Advantages of disease-tested planting material include increased crop yields 

and uniformity, improved flower or fruit quality, improved scion and rootstock 

compatibility and fewer budding failures. 

– Seed certification schemes must comply with the minimum legislative 

requirements, eg various State/Territory Seed Acts. Tolerance limits are set, eg a 

Certified French bean seed scheme operates and there is a 1% tolerance of peanut 

mottle virus and bean common mosaic virus. 

– Vegetative propagation schemes. Many plants are propagated vegetatively 

because seeds do not reliably produce plants which are true-to-type. Most 

certification schemes for vegetative propagation material are directed towards 

controlling virus and virus-like diseases of ornamentals such as carnation and roses, 

most fruit and some vegetable crops, eg seed potatoes. Examples of such schemes 

include the Strawberry Runner scheme, a national Vine Accreditation Scheme, 

citrus bud certification scheme, the Almond Improvement program. 

Management of disease-tested planting material. 

– Use disease-tested planting material if available, to ensure the crop starts free of 

specified viruses, diseases and pests. 

– Purchase from reputable suppliers who guarantee the material is insect, virus and 

disease-free. 

– Manage disease-tested planting material to reduce the risk of it becoming infected 

with virus disease which can lead to significant crop loss. 

– Isolate elite parent stock from diseased plants to avoid contamination. 

– Replace parent stock each year to guarantee continuing disease-freedom. 

– Handling plants must be kept to a minimum to ensure there is no crosscontamination 

between varieties. 

– Disinfect secateurs or scalpels and never use them on more than 1 plant at a time 

before disinfecting them again. 


All plant material treated to eliminate virus must be tested after treatment to ensure 

that it really is free from virus disease for which it has been treated. Effective 

treatments of plant material to eliminate virus diseases include: 

Heat (by experts using specialist equipment) 

– Hot water treatments (HWT) are used in certification schemes to inactivate 

phytoplasma and other disease organisms within dormant propagation material, eg 

dipping in hot water at 35-45 o C for a few minutes or hours. 

– Dry heat treatments. 5 days at 70 o C or 1 day at 80 o C inactivate some seedborne 

viruses, eg tomato mosaic virus. 

– Prolonged dry heat. Actively growing plants in greenhouses kept at 

o 

35- 40 C for several days, weeks or months depending on the host, may 

inactivate the virus in some plants or produce buds which are free of specified 

viruses. The buds can be removed and tested for presence of virus. 

Tip culture. Many disease organisms including viruses, do not invade the 

growing tissue of plants, so that culture of short tips (0.1 mm to 1cm or more) of 

apical or root meristems especially at elevated temperatures (28 -30 o C) may 

produce plant material which is virus-free. All plants produced from tissue 

cultures must still be tested for freedom from virus. 

Insect-proof greenhouses if properly constructed and managed, keep insects 

out of greenhouses. They are expensive and generally only routinely used for plant 

quarantine purposes and valuable crops derived from virus-tested planting material, 

which may later become infected with viruses spread by insects. 

– Insect-proof screens with prescribed mesh sizes covering vents prevent entry of 

vectors of virus diseases, eg aphids, thrips, whiteflies. 

– Overseas ultraviolet-absorbing (UV) screens serve as optical barriers to 

protect crops from insect pests (and virus). The elimination of a portion of the UV 

range of the light spectrum interferes with the UV vision of insects which affects 

their ability to orient onto the crop. 

PESTICIDES. (viricides, insecticides) 

There are presently no chemicals (viricides) which will protect plants from 

viruses or kill viruses once they have invaded the host. Ribovirin, applied as a 

spray or injected into plants may reduce symptoms drastically. Gibberellic acid 

(a growth regulator) applied to the foliage, may overcome the stunting, induced 

by some viruses and may stimulate the growth of virus-suppressed auxiliary buds in 

virus infected plants (page 404). Plant resistance activators and other methods 

are being researched. 

Insect vectors can be controlled to a limited extent with insecticides in 

commercial crops. Home gardeners should not attempt to control vectors. 

– Foliar sprays often are not very effective. Follow Resistance Management 

Strategies to help conserve effectiveness of existing products. 

– Oil sprays, in addition to killing insects by smothering, inhibit spread of viruses by 

aphids (non-persistent viruses) and some that are mechanically transmitted by people. 

 

– Seed treatments. Picus Seed Treatment Insecticide (imidacloprid) assists 

prevention and spread of barley yellow dwarf virus by aphids in cereal crops. 

– Soil fumigation can reduce losses caused by nematode transmitted viruses. 



EXAMPLES OF VIRUS & VIRUS-LIKE DISEASES 


Cause 

Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), spotted or 

bronze wilt. TSWV occurs wherever its vectors 

occur. Losses can be serious and are likely to 

increase because the exotic Western flower thrips 

(WFT) is a very efficient vector of TSWV, has a 

very wide host range, readily develops resistance 

to insecticides and can reach very high numbers on 

host plants. There are different strains of the virus. 

Host range 

Has the widest host range of any plant virus. It 

can attack over 900 species of plant, including: 

Vegetables, eg tomato, potato, capsicum, 

lettuce, celery, eggplant, spinach. 

Ornamentals, eg aster, chrysanthemum, dahlia, 

Iceland poppy, nasturtium, petunia, zinnia. 

Fruit & nuts, eg peanut. 

Field crops, eg cowpea, lupin, tobacco. 

Weeds, eg dandelion, lamb's tongue, nightshade. 

Symptoms 

TSWV may be symptomless on some plants. 

On other hosts a variety of symptoms may be 

produced which are dependent on plant species, 

cultivar, growing environment and virus strain. 

Symptoms start to show 14-21 days after infection 

and may occur on leaves, stems and fruit. 

Plants may be distorted, stunted and show reduced 

vigour. In some cases leaves and/or whole plants 

may die. 

Vegetables. 

Tomato. Small areas of bronzing develop on the 

upper side of young leaves in the terminal 

growth and spread over the whole leaf (bronze 

wilt). Older leaves have bronze spots, rings or 

crescents up to 3 mm long between the veins. 

These spots may extend and join up. Affected 

leaves may wither and die and tissues blacken and 

shrivel until the shoots look as if they have been 

scorched by flame. Leaf stalks and stems may 

develop dark streaks. Young vigorous plants 

may be killed in a few days but in older plants 

disease may take several weeks to develop. Fruit 

on more mature plants may show irregular or 

circular blotches as they ripen (Fig. 141). 

Symptoms are usually obvious. Taste is not 

affected. Young fruits shrivel and fall. 

Broad bean. Tips of main shoots blacken and 

may die, dark streaks may develop on stems and 

black sunken lesions on pods. 

Capsicum. Leaves show yellowish parallel lines 

or concentric rings, the fruit is marked with yellow 

rings and blotches up to 10 mm across which may 

not show up until the fruit ripens. Rings and 

blotches may darken. 

Ornamentals. 

Chrysanthemum leaves are marked with 

irregular wavy lines, one inside the other. Leaves 

in very susceptible varieties go brown and die. 

Dahlia. Leaves develop yellow spots or rings. 

Later concentric yellow or brown rings or wavy 

lines appear. Symptoms are clearest on the first 

formed foliage, especially in early-planted dahlias. 

As the plant grows, new leaves formed during 

summer may only show slight mottling or no 

symptoms at all. Young stems may have brown to 

purplish streaks (Fig.143). 

Arum lily. Leaves develop yellow spots or streaks 

parallel to the veins (Fig. 144). The stunted and 

yellow appearance is distinctive. 

Nasturtium. Leaves develop straw-colored spots, 

become cupped, distorted, enlarged (Fig. 145). 

Diagnostics. Diagnosis of TSWV can be quite 

difficult. Symptoms are similar to, and can be 

confused with, nutritional disorders, pesticide 

injury, genetic patterns, etc, depending on the host 

(page 275, Table 54). 

Leaf symptoms usually occur initially on a few 

scattered patches of plants which gradually spread 

as thrips transmit TSWV to healthy adjacent plants. 

Knowledge of typical leaf symptoms on a specific 

host is required. Considerable experience is needed 

for a confident diagnosis. 

Fruit symptoms are usually easier to recognize. 

Plant tests. Confirm diagnosis with an on-site 

test, or send a plant sample to a diagnostic service 

(page xiv). Nepo viruses and their diagnosis 

www.daff.gov.au/ba/publications/nepoviruses 


In infected weeds, diseased stock plants, other 

host plants, eg volunteer crop plants, cuttings. 

TSWV is not seedborne, except for broad bean. 

PP1-4 TSW final 

Fig. 141. Tomato spotted wilt. Left: Circular 

blotching of tomato fruit. Right: Ringspots and other 

dark streaks on capsicum. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 


. 


WFT nymph 

WFT adult, 

feathery wings 

usually lie flat 

along the back 

Natural 

size about 

1 mm 

long 

Thrips in dahlia flowers. 

Fig. 142. Various species of thrips transmit the tomato spotted wilt virus. 

Western flower thrips (WFT) (Frankliniella occidentalis) is the most efficient vector, it feeds on 

flowers, new leaves and buds and other plant parts. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 143. Tomato spotted wilt - symptoms on dahlia. 

Left and centre: Concentric yellow or brown rings or wavy lines on leaves. 

Right: Brown or purplish streaking on young dahlia stems. PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 144. Tomato spotted wilt 

symptoms. Yellow spots on leaves 

of arum lily. PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry 


Fig. 145. Tomato spotted wilt symptoms. 

Irregular whitish blotches or green and yellow 

mosaic on leaves of nasturtium. PhotoNSW 




Spread 

By thrips. which are poor fliers and spread by 

wind, on plants, people or on equipment, eg 

Western flower thrips (WFT) (Frankliniella 

occidentalis), onion thrips (Thrips tabaci), common 

blossom thrips (F. fusca) and tomato thrips (F. 

schultzei). More species overseas. 

– WFT is the most efficient vector of TSWV 

and can feed on a many ornamentals, vegetables and 

weeds (pages 138, 139). 

– Only nymphal stages of WFT can acquire the 

TSWV, while only adults can transmit it. WFT 

nymphs must feed on an infected plant for as little 

as 15 minutes to become a carrier. Having picked 

up the virus, the virus moves through the gut and 

into the salivary glands, after 5 days of incubation 

they can transmit it during feeding to healthy plants 

for the rest of their adult life (30-45 days). Adult 

WFTs cannot transmit the virus to their offspring 

(other thrips species may vary slightly). 

– Not all WFT are infected with TSWV. 

By vegetative propagation from infected 

plants. 

Rarely by seed, except broad bean. 

Not by contact between plants. 

Not by pollen. 

Movement of infested plants, seedlings. 


After hot dry weather, thrips migrate to ornamental 

and vegetable crops when the weed hosts on which 

they have been breeding and feeding have matured 

and dried out. 

High thrips numbers. 

Overlapping crops, the carrying over of long term 

plants and parent stock plants that might act as 

reservoirs for thrips and/or the virus. 



Management guides are available for some viruses 

(Persley et al 2008). 

1.Obtain/prepare a plan that incorporates 

information from the National Strategy for Management 

of WFT and TSWV and/or State/Territory brochures. 

2.Crop, region, season, life cycle. Be aware of all 

these and the extensive host range. 

3.Identification may be difficult and complicated. 

Expert help may be needed so consult a 


4.Monitor. Know when, where, what and how 

to monitor, early detection is vital. 

Check sticky traps for signs of thrips. 

Symptoms of abnormal leaves and growing points. 

Flag indicator plants, eg petunias, with blue or 

yellow non-sticky cards to attract thrips. 

5.Threshold. There may be a nil threshold in some 

commercial crops and the vector may be a targeted 

pest in WFT-free zones. Growers may have to set 

their own economic threshold on some crops. 

6.Action/control depends on thresholds and includes 

weed control, etc. Home gardeners may rogue affected 

plants and not use infected plants for propagation, they 

should not attempt to control thrips by spraying. 

7.Evaluation. Review program and recommend 

improvements if required. Continue to monitor thrips 

in the crop and surrounding areas. 


There is no cure. for infected plants in the field. 

Minimize losses from TSWV by eliminating TSWVinfected 

plants and controlling thrips vectors. 


Do not grow tomatoes near flowers crops or weeds 

which act as alternative hosts for vectors. 

Early plantings of tomato are affected more 

seriously than later plantings. 

Avoid overlapping or sequential planting of 

susceptible crops. 

Use a fallow break or plant a crop that is not 

TSWV-susceptible between regular crops. 

Home gardeners can plant excess tomato seedlings 

to allow for losses due to TSWV. 

Sanitation. 

Rogue or spray and destroy TSWV-infected crops 

as soon as observed, especially if young crops are 

growing nearby. Symptomless hosts cannot be 

rogued and so act as a source of virus. 

Dispose by burning or burying (maybe spray 

first to ensure that any thrips infected are killed). 

Destroy infected stock plants. 

Destroy weeds harbouring thrips and TSWV 

around crops (at least a 10-25m strip), eg 

sowthistle. Most weeds are symptomless. 

Plant new susceptible crops as far away from a 

source of infection as possible. 

Keep property free of crop residues and volunteer 

crop plants, eg corms, tubers, bulbs. 

Clean and sterilize greenhouses between crops. 

Place sticky traps in the empty greenhouse to detect 

any remaining adults. 


Thrips vectors have many natural controls including a 

predatory mite (Typhlodromis montdorensis) and 

lacewings (Mallada spp.) which are general predators. 

(page 139). List of suppliers www.goodbugs.org.au 


Use TSWV-resistant varieties when possible, these 

may be available for tomato and capsicum. 

If possible avoid planting varieties of crops that are 

most likely to carryover TSWV. 

Most tomato varieties are susceptible to TSWV. 

Resistant varieties are being bred. 

Resistance to thrips may assist. 


WFT, a vector of TSWV, is a targeted pest in some 

districts, eg the Toolangi Plant Protection District. 

Check all incoming plants, eg cut flowers for thrips 

and TSWV, quarantine in an insect-proof area to 

determine thrips and TSWV status. 


TSWV is not seedborne, seed from diseased crops 

can be saved (except broad bean). You can grow 

your own seedlings which will remain free if kept 

away from thrips with access to infected plants. 

Plant only certified virus-tested planting material 

(seed, propagation material) if available. 

Only propagate from disease-tested stock plants. 

Keep stock plants separate from crop plants. 

If buying check that plants are free of thrips. 


Exclude thrips from greenhouse crops by screening 

with a fine thrips-proof mesh (may reduce airflow). 

Viricides, insecticides. 

There are no registered pesticides which will 

cure a plant of virus infection in the field. 

Use sticky traps to measure vector activity and 

apply insecticide when populations are above the 

recognized action threshold (page 140). 

Because TSWV is more serious in young plants, it 

may be worthwhile spraying commercial seed or 

cutting beds to control thrips. 

Regular insecticide applications to field crops and 

surrounding crops and weeds to control thrips 

during periods of thrips activity (as determined by 

monitoring), will reduce numbers of infected plants. 

Anti-transpirants and spray oils may repel thrips. 

Follow Insecticide Resistance Management 

Strategies on labels (page 140). 



Tomato big bud (greening) 

An example of a phytoplasma disease 

Also called greening, rosette or virescence 

Cause 

Candidatus Phytoplasma aurantifolia. 

Note that although phytoplasmas are more closely 

related to bacteria, they are dealt with here because 

they behave more like viruses. 

Host range 

Very wide. Species affected include: 

Ornamentals, eg aster, chrysanthemum, dahlia, 

geranium, larkspur, marigold, petunia, phlox, 

snapdragon, shasta daisy, zinnia. 

Vegetables, eg tomato, potato, eggplant, 

capsicum, lettuce. 

Field crops, eg clovers, lucerne, tobacco. 

Weeds, eg crowsfoot, dock, lamb's tongue, 

nightshade, spear thistle, sowthistle, thornapple. 

Symptoms 

Different symptoms develop on different hosts. 

Phytoplasmas infect plants systemically. 

Vegetables. 

Tomato Symptoms may not develop for 

6 weeks or longer after infection. Stems become 

thick and the plant has a stiff upright appearance 

(Fig. 146). Plants branch prolifically to produce 

many stiff shoots, with shortened internodes, 

giving the plant a bushy appearance. Root initials 

may develop high on the stem and splitting may 

occur. Flower buds are greatly enlarged and 

imperfectly developed. The sepals often fail to 

separate and the whole bud is green. Abnormal 

flowers do not set fruit. Fruit, immature at the 

time of infection, becomes distorted with a large 

woody core. Fruit production is greatly reduced. 

Slightly raised white surface areas may develop in 

an irregular pattern. 

Potato (purple top wilt). A rolling and 

pigmentation of upper leaves and erect leaf 

stalks. Leaves of white flowered varieties turn 

yellow, leaves of pigmented varieties turn red or 

purplish depending on the variety. Leaf 

pigmentation intensifies and stems also become 

pigmented. Crops grown under high moisture 

develop a bunched appearance. Stems eventually 

yellow and collapse, the lower stems showing 

internal browning. Flowers. There is no 

greening. Tubers may be flabby and may show 

discoloration at the stem end. Tubers from 

infected plants may form spindly shoots. 

Ornamentals, other hosts. 

Some or all the petals are green instead of their 

usual colour, hence the name ‘virescence’ which is 

often used (Figs. 146, 147). There may be a 

proliferation of shoots, plants look bushy. There is 

no bud enlargement. Plants may be stunted. 

Diagnostics. 

Where tomato big bud is suspected commercial 

growers can submit samples to a diagnostic 

service for confirmation (page xiv). 

The greening symptoms and bushiness may be 

mistaken for herbicide injury or genetic causes. 

‘Greening’ usually only infects herbaceous plants. 

A few species of flowers are naturally green, eg 

green rose (Rosa chinensis viridiflora, Bells of 

Ireland (Molucella sp.). 

Some senescing flowers are greenish, eg 

hydrangea, arum lily (Zantedeschia sp.). 

Some diseases called ‘greening’ are not 

necessarily caused by virus diseases, eg citrus 

greening is a bacterial disease. 

Other phytoplasmas produce different 

symptoms, eg witches broom, aster yellows. 

Stiff upright stems. Split stems. Small, distorted green woody fruit. 

Fig. 146. Tomato big bud - symptoms on tomato. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 




In infected host plants, eg weeds, perennial 

ornamentals and field crops. It is not seed-borne 

and does not survive in soil. 

Spread 

By the common brown leafhopper 

(Orosius argentatus) which is brown 

speckled and about 3 mm long. It 

breeds on weeds which can be infected 

with tomato big bud. Overseas other leafhopper 

species may also transmit it. Tomato big bud is 

transmitted in a persistent manner. Leafhoppers 

acquire tomato big bud after feeding on infected 

hosts for several hours or days but cannot transmit 

big bud immediately. During this latent period the 

phytoplasma multiplies and circulates within the 

vector finally accumulating in the salivary glands. 

Leafhoppers are infective for the rest of their 

lives, through several moults but tomato big bud is 

not passed from adults to eggs. 

By vegetative propagation from infected 

plants. 

Not seedborne. 


Crops surrounded by weeds where leafhoppers 

breed. 

Plants which are vegetatively propagated. 

Leafhoppers build up rapidly at temperatures 

> 16 o C. 

At certain times of the year, particularly after hot 

and dry weather, leafhoppers migrate from 

drying weeds where they breed, to ornamental 

plants, vegetables and other herbaceous plants. 

Migration most commonly occurs in Oct/Nov. 



1.Prepare a plan that suits your situation. 

2.Crop, region. Know the variations, wide host range 

and vector. 

3.Identification. This must be accurate, so consult a 

diagnostic service (page xiv) to ensure correct 

diagnosis and correct control measures are used, ie 

that the problem really is caused by tomato big bud 

and not herbicides, etc. 

4.Monitor crops regularly for diseased plants and 

vectors and record your findings. Know when, 


5.Threshold. Nil thresholds for some commercial 

crops. Home gardeners tolerate some diseased plants. 

6.Action/control involves roguing infected plants, 

not propagating from infected plants. Home gardeners 

should not attempt to control the vector by spraying. 

7.Evaluation. Review the success of your plan. 

Recommend any necessary improvements. Continue 

regular crop inspections. 


Control is difficult. To minimize losses: 

Sanitation. 

There is no cure for infected plants so they 

should be removed and destroyed. 

Weeds known to harbour the leafhopper vector 

should be destroyed. 


No tomato varieties are resistant to big bud, the 

resistance of different varieties of ornamental 

plants is not known. 


Seed can be saved from infected plants (disease 

is not seed-borne). 

Do not propagate vegetatively from infected 

plants. 

Insecticides. 

There are currently no registered pesticides 

which will cure a plant of phytoplasma 

infection in the field. 

Where tomato big bud is a problem in commercial 

seedbeds, surrounding vegetation which may 

harbour leafhoppers, may be sprayed with an 

appropriate insecticide to control the leafhoppers. 

Regular insecticide applications to field crops in 

spring and early summer will, at the most, only 

reduce the number of infected plants. 

Home gardeners should not attempt to control 

the insect vector. 

Fig. 147. Tomato big bud (greening). 

Above: Gazania. Left: Greening of floral parts. Right: Healthy plant. 

Right: Parsnip. Left: Healthy plant. Right: Greening of floral parts. 




Cause 

A number of viruses have been associated with 

roses in Australia including Apple mosaic virus, 

Potato Y virus, Prunus necrotic ringspot virus, 

Strawberry latent ringspot virus. About 40 viruses 

and virus-like diseases affect roses worldwide 

including aster yellows phytoplasma. 

VIRUS DISEASES OF ROSES 

Host range 

The host range of each virus is different. 

Apple mosaic virus and Prunus necrotic ringspot 

virus, the commonest viruses which affect roses, 

are mainly confined to Rosaceae, eg apple, Prunus, 

rose, strawberry. 

Symptoms 

The disease is characterized by yellow patterns on 

many or only a few leaves (Fig. 148). These 

detract from the overall appearance. 

Leaves. Symptoms are variable, eg 

Chlorotic mottling. A yellow mottle 

involving the minor veins of the leaflet which 

may gradually spread to a general chlorosis. 

Line patterns. Many lines or broad bands of 

pale green or creamy tissue, ‘oak leaf’ patterns. 

Veinbanding. A narrow band of yellow along 

the entire vein network of the leaflet, an isolated 

area of the leaflet or only around the margins. 

Flowers usually appear normal. 

General. Although it has long been thought that 

‘mosaic’ has no general deleterious effect on rose 

plants, recent work has shown that infection can 

lead to a reduction in vigour and flowering. 

Diagnostics. Different symptoms associated 

with rose mosaic, and can often be mistaken for: 

Herbicides injury, the chlorophyll has been 

destroyed. 

Nutrient deficiencies or toxicities, eg 

iron deficiency on new leaves or magnesium 

deficiency on old leaves (page 275, Table 54). 


In the canes, buds and roots of infected rose and 

other host plants. 

Rose ‘mosaic’ 

Spread 

All viruses are spread by propagation 

(budding and grafting) from infected plants or by 

the use of infected rootstocks. 

Apple mosaic virus is also spread by contact 

between plants and possibly by pollen, its spread 

in nature is not known. 

Prunus necrotic ringspot virus is also 

spread by pollen to seed and by pollen to the 

pollinated plant, and may be by seed in some 

species, but not by contact between plants. 

Not by insects. 


Vegetative propagation from infected plants. 

Symptoms are often more pronounced during 

spring and may disappear during summer. 




Rose mosaic is not considered a serious disease and is 

usually introduced to a plant during grafting by the use 

of infected rootstock, budding or grafting material. 

2.Crop, region. Control measures will vary 

depending on the crop, region or situation. 

3.Identification, if there is any doubt, must be 

confirmed by diagnostic tests in a laboratory (page xiv). 

4.Monitor. Inspect crops regularly for diseased plants. 

5.Threshold. There is a nil threshold for commercial 

propagators and growers. Home gardeners generally 

accept the disease. 

6.Action/Control. Commercial growers should 

remove infected rose bushes and plan to only use 

disease-tested propagation material. 

7.Evaluation. Review your program to see how well 

it worked and recommend improvements if needed. 

Continue regular crop inspections. 


To minimize losses in commercial plantings: 


Plant virus-tested and healthy plants some 

distance away from older infected bushes to 

reduce likelihood of virus infection via pollen. 

Sanitation. 

Commercial rose propagators, growers and 

nurseries should remove infected rose bushes. 


Only use virus-tested budwood and rootstock for 

propagation, purchase virus-tested nursery stock. 

Do not use virus-infected plants as a source of 

budwood or rootstock. 

Fig. 148. Rose ‘mosaic’ – symptoms on rose. 

Left: Line patterns. Centre: Chlorotic mottles. Right: Veinbanding. PhotoDavid Olsen 






1. List the distinctive features of viroids, 

viruses and phytoplasmas and describe the 

features they have in common as well as those 

that are different. 

2. Explain how viruses are named. 

3. Describe symptoms on leaves, flowers, 

fruit and stems produced by local virus and 

virus-like diseases. Name 1 example of each. 

4. Describe how viruses infect host plants and are 

distributed within a plant. 

5. Explain the following terms: Name 1 example 

of each. 

Chlorosis 

Mosaic 

Latent virus 

Masked virus 

6. Recognize by sight, local virus & virus-like 

diseases. 

7. Distinguish between leaf symptoms 

caused by virus and virus-like diseases from 

symptoms caused by other agents on selected 

plants, including: 

Insect attack 


Lace bugs 

Leafhoppers 

Thrips 


Non-parasitic agents 

Deficiencies 

Genetic variegation 

Pesticide injury 

Senescence 

8. Describe the following procedures used to 

determine the presence of virus in a plant: 

Electron microscopy ELISA 

Indexing 

DNA 

9. Describe 4 ways by which viruses ‘overwinter’. 


10. Describe 4 ways by which viruses spread. 


11. Explain the importance of insects in 

spreading virus diseases. 

12. Why should one not smoke when handling 

young tomato plants? 

13. Pesticides have limited use in the control of 

some virus and virus-like diseases. Explain. 

14. Describe conditions which favour some 

virus diseases. Name 1 example of each. 



virus & virus-like diseases. 

16. List control methods for virus & virus-like 

disease. Describe 1 example of each. 

17. Explain the term ‘disease-tested’. 

18. Provide the following information for 

tomato spotted wilt virus, virus diseases of 

roses and other local virus diseases: 

Common name 

Cause 

Host range 

Symptoms 

Disease cycle 


Spread 


IDM & Control 

19. Describe how viruses may be used to control 

insect pests. Name 1 example. 

20. Prepare/access an IDM. program for a virus or 

virus-like disease at your work or in your region. 

21. Locate resource material and know where to 

obtain advice on the identification and control 

of virus and virus-like diseases. 



includes the Plant Virology Working Group 




Nepoviruses and Their Diagnosis in Plants - 

www.daff.gov.au/ba/publications/nepoviruses 

Qld DPIF 2007.Thrips and Tospovirus: A Management 

Guide. avail online 

Plant Virus Newsletter, Export controls for pathogens 



Virus Diseases of Carnations 

Virus Diseases of Daphne 

Quarantine 



photographs and information on more than 1000 

pests and more than 100 diseases www.padil.gov,au 



State websites have information of viruses and quarantine 

restrictions in their states 

General 






Barnett, O. W. and Sherwood, J. L. 2009. (eds). Virus 

Diseases of Plants : Image Database Collection CD. 

APS Press www.shopapspress.org 

Brown, J. F. and Ogle, H. J. (eds). 1997. Plant 

Pathogens and Plant Diseases. Rockvale Pub., 

Armidale, NSW. 

Brunt, A. A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M. J. and Gibbs, A. 

J. 1996. Viruses of Plants. CABI, UK. 

Buchen-Osmond, C., Crabtree, K., Gibbs, A. and 

McLean, G. (eds). 1988. Viruses of Plants in 

Australia. RSBS, ANU, Canberra. 

Buczacki, S. and Harris, K. 2005. Pests, Diseases & 

Disorders of Garden Plants. 3 rd edn. HarperCollins, 

London. 

Cooke, T., Persley, D and House, S. (eds). 2009. 

Diseases of Fruit Crops in Australia. CSIRO Pub. 

Cooper, J. I. 1994. Virus Diseases of Trees and Shrubs. 

Chapman & Hall, NY. 

Hadidi etc al. 2002. Viroids. USDA. CSIRO Pub. 




Hull, R. 2002. Matthews’ Plant Virology. Academic 

Press, NY. 


That? Lansdowne Press, Sydney. 

Persley, D. M.,Sharman, M.Thomas, T., Kay, I. 

Heisswolf, S. and McMichael, L. 2008. Thrips and 

Tospovirus: A Management Guide. Qld DPI, 

Brisbane. avail online 

Persley, D., Cooke, T. and House, S. 2010. Diseases of 

Vegetable Crops in Australia. CSIRO Pub. 

Streton, C. and Gibb, K. 2006. Phytoplasma Diseases in 

Sub-tropical and Tropical Australia. Australasian Plant 

Pathology 35, 129-146. 



Bacterial Diseases 

Bacterial gall of oleander. 

Galls may develop on all aboveground 

parts of the plant, including the flowers. 







Symptoms 295 

List of some bacterial diseases 297 


How bacteria infect host plants 299 




Spread 300 













EXAMPLES OF BACTERIAL DISEASES 304 






Bacterial diseases 293




NO. DISEASES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

Bacteria are the most numerous living organisms on earth. For about 2 billion 

years bacteria were the only life on earth. More than 100 species of bacteria 

cause plant diseases. There are always some bacteria on the surfaces of plants, 

but some of these never harm these plants. About 400 species live in our 

intestines. Others cause tuberculosis, pneumonia, typhoid fever; anthrax in 

humans and animals. 

The Australasian Plant Pathology Society (APPSnet) Pathogen of the Month 



Bacteria are very simple organisms. Phytoplasmas which are closely related to 

bacteria but have been included with virus diseases as they generally are more 

virus-like than bacterial-like in their behaviour. 

SINGLE-CELLED Bacteria are small single-celled organisms which 

can only be seen under high magnification (x 1,000). 

Some are thread-like in form. The bacteria which 

cause diseases of plants are mostly short, rod-shaped 

organisms with one or more flagella which enable them 

to move through a film of water. Some exceptions, eg 

Streptomyces which is filamentaous. 

CELL WALL 

CHLOROPHYLL 

They have a cell wall surrounding the cytoplasm 

but do not have the nucleus found in higher plants. 

They have no chlorophyll and therefore cannot manufacture 

their own food like green plants and so must obtain it from 

external sources. 

LIFE CYCLE 

; 

Multiplication is by simple fission. Under favorable conditions, it can take as 

little as 20 minutes so that the rate of increase can be tremendous! Potentially 

millions of bacteria within 24 hours. 

Bacteria, parasitic on plants, generally do not form spores but they can remain 

viable for long periods of time even under dry conditions. This property 

enables some of them to remain alive for years on plants, in stored seed and 

other plant products and in the soil. 

294 Bacterial diseases

1 




Symptoms 

Bacteria are 

identified by what 

they do rather than 

what they look like, 

(Brown & Ogle 1997) 

ELISA Testing 

Service 

DNA 

SYMPTOMS 

Many bacterial 

diseases produce 

more than 1 symptom, 

eg crown gall may 

cause dieback, 

galls and wilting 

Symptoms caused 

by bacterial diseases 

may be confused with 

those caused by 

fungal and 

non-parasitic 

diseases and 

other causes 

BACTERIA ARE CLASSIFIED BY VARIOUS FEATURES including colony 

characteristics, pigments, stain reactions and morphology, eg shape of cells, motility, 

flagellation and a range of chemical tests (Fahy and Persley 1983, Agrios 2005). 

Bacteria causing diseases of plants include: 

Agrobacterium Erwinia Ralstonia Streptomyces 

Clavibacter Pseudomonas Xanthomonas Xylella 

Phytoplasmas are classified with bacteria but in this book are studied with virus 

diseases because of similarities in symptoms, methods of spread, etc. 

Some organisms with mycelium-like forms, eg Streptomyces scabies (common scab 

of potatoes), are classified with bacteria rather than with fungi. 


For those without access to specialized facilities this is often the main 

method of identification but considerable expertise is needed. 

Other disease organisms, environmental extremes and chemical toxicities may 

cause similar symptoms. Bacterial leaf spots may be confused with fungal leaf spots, 

bacterial wilts with fungal wilts, senescence, other agents. 

Secondary bacterial infections may be associated with above conditions. 

Bacterial ooze may be observed using a high-powered compound microscope when 

suspect stems or leaf lesions are cut transversely with a razor blade and placed on a 

microscope slide in water. Similarly when kept in a moist chamber, creamy bacterial 

ooze may ooze from the vascular system, eg bacterial wilt of tomato. However, this 

does not identify the bacterial species. 


Experts test for the presence of bacteria in seeds, food supplies and in parent stock and 

certification schemes, eg strawberry, cut flowers, potato, grape. 

 

 

 

 

 

Microscopic morphology is of little value in identifying bacteria. 

Pure bacterial cultures can be isolated on selective media and identified. 

Continuous culture-indexing includes regular checks of plant material for bacterial 

infection over a 2-year period. Pathogenicity tests can be carried out. 

Biochemical tests and molecular techniques are precise, species and 

subspecies can be identified. Some test kits have been developed. 

– ELISA tests are relatively low cost, give a quick specific answer (a color change 

indicates a positive test result) but are not as sensitive as some other methods. An 

ELISA test is available for bacterial leaf & stem rot of pelargonium 

(X. campestris pv. pelargonii) and is useful when scouting in IDM programs. 

– Other techniques include gram staining reaction, substances used by bacteria for 

food, the fatty acid composition of cells. Serological tests which produce a colour 

change can be used for quick and fairly accurate identification of bacteria. 

Sensitive DNA tests, eg PCR (polymerase chain reaction) enable researchers to 

distinguish one bacteriium from another by comparing segments of DNA. 

For some bacterial organisms on some hosts there are specific tests. 


LEAVES Blights, eg bacterial blight (cotton, pea, stock, walnut, etc) 

Defoliation, eg bacterial canker (stone fruit) 

Galls, eg bacterial gall of oleander 

Leaf spots, eg bacterial leaf spots (begonia, hibiscus), 

bacterial canker (stone fruit), bacterial blight (mulberry) 

BUDS, Blights, eg bacterial canker of stone fruit 

FLOWERS 

FRUIT Sunken black areas, eg bacterial blight (walnut) 

Rots, eg bacterial soft rot (stored fruit and vegetables) 

STEMS, Cankers, eg bacterial canker (stone fruit) 

TRUNKS Dieback, eg bacterial canker (stone fruit), bacterial blight (walnut) 

Gumming, eg bacterial canker (stone fruit) 

Rots, eg bacterial leaf and stem rot (pelargonium) 

Wilts, eg bacterial wilt (tomatoes, internal staining of vascular tissue) 

CROWNS, Galls, eg crown gall 

TUBERS, Rots, eg soft rots 

ROOTS Scabs, eg leaf spot/corm scab (gladiolus), common scab (potato) 


Secondary bacterial infections may be associated with injury caused by other 

disease organisms, environmental effects, injuries and toxicities. 

Nematode-bacterial disease complexes may occur (page 253). 

Bacteria may clog screens in pumps and reticulation systems. 



Fig. 149. Symptoms of bacterial diseases (examples only) 

Blight. A disease which produces 

a general and rapid killing of 

leaves, flowers and stems; may 

be caused by bacteria, eg 

bacterial blight of peas. Also 

caused by insects, fungal 

diseases, and many nonparasitic 

problems, eg frost. 

Canker. A dead or discoloured 

area/spot on a stem, branch, or 

twig of a plant, eg bacterial 

canker of stone fruit. Also caused 

by fungal diseases. 

Defoliation. Leaves fall off 

prematurely, eg bacterial canker 

of stone fruit. Also caused by 

many fungal diseases, 

twospotted mites, senescence. 

Dieback. Progressive death of 

shoots, branches, and roots 

generally starting at the tip, eg 

bacterial canker of stone fruit. 

Also caused by fungi, eg 

Phytophthora, borers, drought, 

etc. 

Galls. Bacteria stimulate 

plant cells to multiply and 

enlarge abnormally causing 

lumps to appear on plant 

parts, eg crown gall. Also 

caused by nitrogen-fixing 

bacteria (see below), fungal 

diseases, eg gall rust on 

wattles, insects, eg gall 

wasps. 

Gumming/gummosis. 

Production of gum by, or in 

plant tissue, eg bacterial 

canker of stone fruit 

(gummosis). Also caused by 

fungal diseases, eg shot 

hole, injury, eg apricots. 

Leaf spots. A self-limiting 

lesion on a leaf, eg bacterial 

leaf spot of mulberry (see 

below). Also caused by fungi 

and other agents. 

Scab. A roughened cracked 

diseased area on the surface of 

plant tissues, eg bacterial scab of 

gladiolus (below). Also caused by 

fungal diseases, eg apple scab, 

non-parasitic problems, eg oedema. 

Soft rot. The material holding plant 

cells together is destroyed by the 

disease organism so that plant cells 

collapse causing tubers and bulbs to 

rot. May have an unpleasant smell, 

eg bacterial soft rot of potatoes. May 

also be caused by some fungal 

diseases. 

Wilts. Disease organisms multiply in 

and block water-conducting cells 

causing wilting of plant parts above 

the blockage, eg bacterial wilt of 

tomato; bacterial cells spread 

quickly and may end up in fruits 

and seeds. If these are used to 

produce a new crop, the bacteria 

will quickly produce diseased 

seedlings which will probably die. 

Also caused by fungal diseases, eg 

Fusarium wilt of tomatoes. 

Fig. 150. Bacterial leaf and corm scab of gladiolus 

(Pseudomonas gladioli pv. gladioli). Scab lesions occur on corms, 

leaf bases may rot. PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 151. Nitrogen-fixing nodules 

on legumes, eg clovers. On legumes do 

not confuse with root knot nematode 

galls (Meloidogyne spp.). 

Fig. 152. Mulberry leaves. Left: Bacterial leaf spots (bacterial blight) of mulberry 

(Pseudomonas syringae subsp. mori) with small, black, angular spots. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Right: Fungal leaf spots of mulberry with larger round spots with dark margins and light-centres. 




LIST OF SOME 

BACTERIAL 

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME 

(alphabetical order) 

DISEASES Crown gall Agrobacterium spp. 

(used to transfer genes into 

plants, insects etc) 

Synonym 

Pectobacterium 

carotovorum subsp. 

carotorum 

Not known 

in Australia 

Rots may also be 

caused by fungi and 

environmental agents 

Not known 

in Australia 

Eradicated 

from Australia 

Not known 

in Australia 

Not known 

in Australia 

HOST RANGE 


Wide range especially stone 

fruits, roses. Not all strains 

infect all hosts 

Bacterial canker Clavibacter michiganense 

subsp. michiganense 

Tomato, capsicum, blackberry 

nightshade 

Bacterial soft rot Ewinia carotovora pv. 

carotovora 

Field and postharvest rots of 

carrot, potato, iris 

Bacterial soft rot E. carotovora pv. 

atroseptica 

As above but mostly restricted 

to potato 

Fireblight (in NZ) Erwinia amylovora Apple, pear, related plants, eg 

hawthorn, pyracantha, Sorbus, 

quince, loquat, cotoneaster 

Soft rot 

Erwinia chrysanthemi and 

Foz (Fusarium oxysporum 

f.sp. zingiberi) 

Ginger seed after planting. 

Many soil diseases may involve 

one or several agents. 

Bacterial wilts (S*), Ralstonia solanacearum Asteraceae, Solanaceae (tomato, 

moko, bugtok and complex 

potato), Fabaceae (legumes), 

blood disease 

Musaceae (bananas) 

Leaf spots, streaks Pseudomonas andropogonis Carnation, clover, vetch, others 

Soft rot of onion 

Leaf spot & corm 

scab of gladioli 

Seedling blight of 

snapdragon 

Black spot of 

delphinium 

P. gladioli pv. alliicola 

P. gladioli pv. gladioli 

P. syringae pv. antirrhini Snapdragon 

P. syringae pv. delphinii Delphinium 

Onion 

Gladiolus, freesia, crocus, other 

Iridaceae 

Bud rot of loquat P. syringae pv. eriobotryae Loquat 

Bacterial leaf spot of 

sunflower 

P. syringae pv. helianthi Sunflower 

Angular leaf spot of 

cucurbits (S) 

P. syringae pv. lachrymans Cucurbits 

Peppery leaf of 

crucifers (S) 

P. syringae pv. maculicola Cucurbits 

Bacterial blight of 

mulberry 

P. syringae pv. mori Mulberry 

Grease-spot of 

passionfruit 

P. syringae pv. passiflorae Passionfruit 

Halo blight of bean 

(S) 

P syringae pv. phaseolicola Bean, other Phaseolus spp., 

related legumes 

Bacterial blight of 

pea (S) 

P. syringae pv. pisi Field and garden peas 

Bacterial leaf spot of P. syringae pv. primulae 

primula, polyanthus (S) 

Primula spp. 

Bacterial canker of 

stone fruit, gummosis 

P. syringae pv. syringae Wide range, eg stone fruits, 

citrus, hibiscus 

Bacterial canker of P. syringae pv. 

Cherry, plum 

stone fruit, gummosis morsprunorum 

Bacterial gall of 

oleander 

P. savastanoi pv. nerii Oleander 

Olive knot P. savastanoi pv.savastonoi Olives, possibly plants in the 

same family 

Common scab Streptomyces scabies Potato 

Citrus greening, 

huanglongbing, 

yellow dragon 

Citrus canker 

Candidatus Liberobacter spp 

Xanthomonas axonopodis 

pv. citri 

Xylella bacterium 

All citrus. Spread by a psyllid (not 

in Australia), budding, grafting 

Citrus, other Rutaceae. Spread by 

rain, wind, people, plant parts 

Citrus, other woody plants 

Citrus variegated 

chlorosis (CVC) 

Pierce’s disease X. fastidiosa Grapes, fruit and ornamental 

trees and shrubs, etc. Spread by 

glassy-winged sharpshooter 

(S) Indicates that the disease is seedborne 



LIST OF SOME 

BACTERIAL 

DISEASES 

(contd) 

Nematode-disease 

complexes 

Free-living nitrogenfixing 

bacteria include 

endophytes, plant growth 

promoting Rhizobacteria 

and saprophytes. They find 

their own energy source to 

convert into nitrogen 

Nemacur biodegradation. 

These bacteria also 

impact on the winter 

survival of certain insects 

and on weather systems 

COMMON NAME 

298 Bacterial diseases 

SCIENTIFIC NAME 

(alphabetical order) 

Xanthomonas campestris 

pv. begoniae 

HOST RANGE 


Begonia 

Bacterial wilt and leaf spot 

of begonia 

Black rot of crucifers (S*) X. campestris pv. campestris Crucifers 

Bacterial blight of stock 

(S) 

X. campestris pv. incanae Stock 

Bacterial blight of walnut X. campestris pv. juglandis Walnut 

Bacterial leaf & stem rot 

of pelargonium 

X. campestris pv. 

pelargonii 

Pelargonium. 

Common blight of bean X. campestris pv. phaseoli French bean, navy bean, 

(S) 

some other beans 

Bacterial spot of stone fruit X. campestris pv. pruni Prunus spp. especially plum 

Bacterial leaf spot of zinnia 

(S) 

X. campestris pv. zinniae Zinnia elegans 

Angular leaf spot of 

strawberry 

X. fragariae Strawberry 

Annual ryegrass toxicity (ARGT) (nematodes page 253) 

BENEFICIAL BACTERIA 

Nogall Agrobacterium sp. Crown gall bacteria 

Formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are available to control some species of 

leafeating caterpillars. The caterpillars eat the bacterial spores which contain a toxin 

that causes septicaemia and death. Caterpillars with a high gut pH are susceptible. 

Novodor® 

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) 

var. tenebrionis 

Chrysomelid and tenebrionid 

beetles in eucalypt plantations 

Cybate®, Vectobac® Bt var. israelensis Mosquitoes 

Dipel® Bt var. kurstaki Some leafeating caterpillars, 

mosquitoes 

XenTari® Bt var. aizawai Caterpillars, eg corn earworm, 

diamondback moth 

Cybate®, Vectobac® Bt var. israelensis Mosquitoes 

Bt crops, eg cotton Cotton Helicoverpa caterpillars 

Bt bringai India Brinjai (eggplant) Fruit and shoot borer in India 

Being researched in Australia 

to control dengue fever 

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria 

Researchers aim to transfer 

the same traits to cereals, eg 

International Rice Nodulation Group 

Endophytic bacteria 

Some strains can fix large 

quantities of N in a crop 

cycle 

Plant Growth Promoting 

Rhizobacteria (PGPR) 

Promote root growth, enabling 

greater nutrient uptake, 

superior plant growth and 

higher yields, and in legumes, 

optimal N fixation 

Bio-Stacked Companion. 

Soil inoculant in horticulture 

and agriculture 

Saprophytic bacteria 

Biodegradation, 

bioremediation 

Epiphytic bacteria on the 

foliage of plants reduce frost 

damage. May increase growth 

and disease resistance 

Wolbachia bacteria 

Rhizobia spp. 

Azospirillum spp., 

in wheat roots, turf 

Azobacter spp. 

Pseudomonas spp 

Bacillus subtilis (various 

strains have been studied for 

use as bio-control agents) 

Bacillus subtilis (various 

strains), may be formulated 

with fungi, eg Trichoderma 

Bacteria (also fungi, 

nematodes, flies, etc) 

Naturally-occurring bacteria 

(various species) 

Various bacteria, eg strains 

of Pseudomonas fluorescens 

h BACTERIA THAT CAN AFFECT HUMANS 

Do not confuse with Legionella, 

Legionella longbeachae 

L. pneumophila Legionnaire’s disease 

associated with inhalation of 

water droplets from Salmonella 

Escherichia coli 

contaminated cooling towers Whooping cough 

Bordetella pertussis 

(S) Indicates that the disease is seedborne 

Kills the dengue fever mosquito 

(Aedes aegypti) before it can pass 

the dengue fever virus to humans 

Legumes convert N in the air (not 

accessible to plants) into a form 

(ammonia) that plants can use to 

make proteins 

Live in the intracellular spaces in 

plant vascular systems and take 

dissolved gas from the sap flow 

and covert it into amines and 

ammonium nitrogen for plant use 

Live on the surface of plant roots 

in the soil, consuming sugary 

exudates from the plant; they use 

this energy source to fuel the 

conversion of N gas into plant 

available N. 

Suppresses Fusarium, Pythum, 

Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, in 

protected environments 

Breakdown plant residues, 

stubble, organic matter, compost 

Break down pesticides, eg 

Nemacur (fenamiphos), sulfur, 

pollutants, nutrient residues 

Bacteria lower the temperature at 

which ice forms by several 

degrees, does not provide against 

a dramatic drop in temperature. 

Pneumonia in humans, potting 

mixes, water fogging systems 

Food spoilage, food poisoning 

Highly contagious


NUTRITION 

AND 

PARASITISM 

HOW BACTERIA 

INFECT HOST 


Bacteria cannot 

physically penetrate 

protective barriers of 

plants 

Most bacteria parasitic on plants develop on host plants as parasites on the plant 

surface, especially on buds as epiphytes and partly in plant debris or in the soil as 

saprophytes (Agrios 2005). Under suitable conditions, they can become parasitic. Most 

plant pathogens are facultative saprophytes and can be grown artificially on nutrient 

media (page 324). 

NATURAL OPENINGS 

There are always some bacteria on plant surfaces. Some never harm the plant; others 

which cause disease can infect the plant through natural openings (leaf stomates, leaf 

scars, lenticels, small pores at the margins of leaves (hydathodes), or through relatively 

fresh wounds (hail, pruning wounds, etc). 

Bacteria that cause 

leaf spots randomly 

on the leaf surface are 

likely to have invaded 

leaves through 

stomates 

WOUNDS 

Damaging the intact surface of a plant can facilitate the entry of bacteria. 

DISTRIBUTION 

WITHIN A PLANT 

 

 

 

Some bacteria destroy the material holding plant cells together, plant cells 

collapse causing sunken areas on stems, tubers or bulbs, eg soft rots which may be 

accompanied by unpleasant smells, eg soft rot of potato. 

Some remain mostly on the surface of plant tissue, eg galls, and tend to 

decrease in numbers as they invade the gall tissue, eg crown gall bacteria. 

Bacterial cells may invade water and food-conducting tubes of plants: 

– Spreading quickly to fruits and seeds. If these are used to produce a new crop, 

bacteria will quickly produce diseased seedlings which may die. 

– Bacteria also multiply in, and block, water-conducting cells causing wilting of 

plants parts above the blockage (page 296, Fig. 149). 

DISEASE 

CYCLE 

Many bacteria parasitic on plants develop partly on the host as parasites and partly in 

the soil, or on plant debris in the soil, as saprophytes. 

HOST ONLY 

These diseases produce their populations on the host plant. If the bacteria do reach the 

soil, eg via fallen leaves or fruit, their populations rapidly decline and they do not play 

a part in the spread of the disease, eg bacterial blight of walnut, bacterial canker of 

stone fruit. These bacteria have developed sustained plant to plant infection cycles. 


These diseases build up large populations on the host. If the bacteria reach the soil, 

through decaying parts of the plant, they can remain there for many years, populations 

only gradually declining over years. Susceptible plants in contaminated soil will soon 

become infected, eg crown gall. 

HOST, HOST DEBRIS, BUT MAINLY SOIL. 

These diseases produce most of their populations by growing on plant matter in the 

soil. They only attack plants incidentally. Plants are not essential for their continued 

existence, eg bacterial soft rot of iris or potato. 




OVERSUMMERING 

BACTERIAL DISEASES MAY ‘OVERWINTER’ IN SEVERAL WAYS 

Crown gall may overwinter on the host, in soil or in or on seed. 

HOST 

Parasitic bacteria which attack trees or shrubs overwinter in bacterial lesions, galls or 

cankers on the host plant, eg bacterial gall of oleander. They may also exist on the 

surface of a plant or plant organ without causing infection. 

SOIL 

Some parasitic bacteria can accumulate and survive in the soil on or in debris from 

infected plants, seeds or insects. Remaining alive for varying periods of time they are 

then able to infect a future susceptible crop, eg crown gall. Some like those causing 

bacterial soft rot can live in the soil indefinitely while others will decrease in numbers 

unless plants they are able to attack are grown. 

SEED 

Many bacterial diseases are seedborne, which means that the bacteria are present either 

in, on or in association with the seed. Plants produced from such infected seed will 

automatically produce infected plants, eg bacterial blight (black rot) of Brassicas (stock, 

cabbage, cauliflower), bacterial blight and halo blight of beans. 

SPREAD 

WATER, WATER SPLASH 

Flagella enable bacteria to move only very short distances on their own. 

Rain and irrigation water can wash bacteria from one part of a plant to another, from 

plant to plant and from soil to the lower leaves of plants. 

Wind may assist spread of rain and irrigation water. 

Drainage water or any other running water, in or on soil, can wash bacteria downhill 

to where susceptible plants are growing. 

Pruning or other activities within a wet crop can assist spread. 

WIND, AIR CURRENTS 

Airborne dispersal of bacteria may occur in tomato and pepper transplant fields. 

SEED 

Many bacterial diseases are seedborne, eg bacterial wilt of tomato. Bacteria can 

therefore be spread by any of the agents which aid seed dispersal. 

Bacterial cells which get into the water and food-conducting tubes of plants spread 

quickly to fruits and seeds. If these are used to produce a new crop, the bacteria will 

quickly produce diseased seedlings which will probably die. 

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION MATERIAL 

Bacterial diseases can be transferred to new plants on or in buds, cuttings, cormlets and 

similar vegetative propagation material, eg bacterial canker of stone fruit is spread in 

infected budwood. 

INSECTS 

MITES 

INSECTS 

Insects and mites do not commonly spread bacterial diseases but they may: 

Carry bacteria from one part of a plant to another or to other plants. 

Inoculate plants with bacteria during feeding, eg the walnut blister mite is thought to 

aid in the spread of bacterial blight of walnut. 

HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND ANIMALS 

Pruning activities. Bacteria can be carried on pruning tools and cause infection 

through pruning cuts, especially during cool wet conditions, eg bacterial canker of 

stone fruit. 

Handling plants. Bacteria can be spread on hands, shoes etc. 

Bird and other animals may carry bacteria on their bodies when moving among 

plants. 

Movement of soil. Bacteria may be spread in soil on machinery and vehicles, in 

containers and in soil deliveries when these are moved from one place to another. 

Movement of plant material. Bacterial diseases can be transferred in infected 

plants, nursery stock, bulbs, seed, cuttings and other vegetative propagation 

material. 



CONDITIONS 

FAVORING 

Conditions favoring development of bacterial diseases may be complex, eg 

WEATHER REQUIREMENTS 

Different bacterial diseases require different conditions for host plant infection and 

disease development, eg bacterial canker infection of stone fruit is favoured by cool, 

wet and windy weather. Bacteria thrive in moist conditions and can build up into larger 

populations in a short time. 

SOIL CONDITIONS 

Soil temperatures, moisture and alkalinity may affect the development of soilborne 

bacterial diseases. 

High soil moisture and temperatures favour bacterial wilt of tomato and capsicum. 

 

 

Poor drainage may favour some bacterial diseases. 

Planting susceptible crops in soil containing infected plant residues. 

VENTILATION 

Crowded, shady plantings increase disease levels due to poor air circulation around 

plants. 

PLANT INJURY 

Injury to plants by hail, wind-driven rain, irrigation, pruning or pesticide applications 

will favour infection. Avoid pruning trees during wet weather. 

It is recommended that stone fruit trees be pruned during spring or autumn to allow 

pruning cuts to heal rapidly and so lessen the chance of infection by bacterial 

canker. 

NUTRITION OF HOST 

Host nutrition will also affect the development of disease, eg bacteria may more easily 

infect and cause damage to succulent shoots. 

CONTINUOUS CROPPING 

Soilborne bacterial diseases build up in soils if susceptible corps are grown 

continually. 

ENVIRONMENT 

Does it favour the crop or crown gall? 

SUSCEPTIBLE 


Crown gall 

BACTERIAL DISEASE 

PRESENT 

Fig. 153. Bacterial disease triangle. 




MAIN STEPS 


Legislation 


Sanitation 

Biological 





Pesticides 


CONTROL 

METHODS 

1. Plan well in advance to use an IDM program that fits your situation. Keep records 



2. Crop/region. IDM programs are available for some bacterial diseases on a range of 

crops in particular regions. 

3. Identification of disease must be confirmed, consult a diagnostic service if 

necessary (page xiv). Have an understanding of the life cycle and of conditions 

favouring the disease. Obtain a Fact Sheet on the bacterial disease. 

4. Monitoring. Know when, where, what and how to monitor. Early detection, 

together with appropriate control measures, can halt spread of disease. Monitoring 

can also indicate the effectiveness of earlier control measures. 

5. Threshold. How much damage can you accept? Have any thresholds been 

established? There is a nil threshold for some diseases under an eradication 

program, eg citrus canker. 

6. Action/Control may include rogueing, strategic spraying, etc. and should be 

carried out at the right time. Institute preventative controls, eg sanitation, diseasetested 

planting material. There may be legal requirements. There are contingency 

plans etc for some diseases on some commercial crops, eg citrus canker. 

7. Evaluation. Review your program to see how well it worked. Recommend 

improvements if necessary, eg use of disease-tested seed. 

Once established bacterial diseases are usually difficult to manage. 

LEGISATION 

Relevant legislation includes Plant Quarantine Acts, Seed Acts, Certification and 

Accreditation Schemes, etc. 


Rotate crops if the disease has a limited host range, eg bacterial blight of bean. 

Space plants to allow good air circulation to reduce disease levels. 

Do not wet foliage unnecessarily. Avoid overhead irrigation and working in 

wet crops if practical. Water with as little splashing as possible. 

Adjust cultural practices, eg fertilizing and watering, to avoid lush growth. 

Ensure seedbeds are well drained. 

Avoid windy sites or protect plants from wind to reduce plant injury and 

minimize bacterial aerosol formation. 

Monitor and adjust environment around crops to reduce disease pressure. 

Lower humidity in greenhouses and optimize soil pH and moisture levels 

consistent with plant needs, not those of the disease organism. 

Sanitation is especially 

important if plants cannot 

be treated effectively with 

chemicals, eg bacterial 

blight of pelargonium 

(Xanthomonas campestris 

pv. pelargonii) 

SANITATION. 

Sanitation practices reduce the inoculum in the field and in greenhouses. 

Rogue infected crops, dispose of diseased plants and those immediately adjacent 

before disease spreads throughout the crop. It may be necessary to discard all plants 

belonging to one cultivar especially if it appears that only that cultivar is 

susceptible. Dispose of infected crop residues. 

Prune out and destroy infected plant parts as soon as observed, if practical, to 

assist control on woody plants, eg bacterial gall of oleander. 

Sterilize pruning tools before each cut and/or between plants to prevent the 

transfer of bacteria on secateurs, eg bacterial canker of stone fruit. 

Disinfect benches, used containers. 

Clean trash from machinery before disinfecting it after working in diseased 

crops and before working in disease-free crops. 

Sanitize soil or media, water and soil. 

Do not handle diseased material before handling healthy seed or moving 

through the crop. Avoid movement of machinery and workers from infected to 

disease-free crops especially when crops are wet. 


Soil bacteria. 

– Crown gall is controlled in commercial plantings by the ‘bio-pesticide’, 

Agrobacterium sp. (Nogall ). The bacteria grow on the outside of susceptible 

nursery stock, cuttings or seed and are antagonistic to crown gall bacteria. 

– Beneficial bacteria are incorporated into soil and seed treatments (page 298). 

Bacteriophages are viruses that attack bacteria. They are being researched as a 

means of controlling bacterial diseases such as bacterial leaf and stem rot of 

pelargonium (Xanthomonas campestris pv. pelargonii). 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 


Use disease-resistant or tolerant cultivars suited to local conditions if available. Some 

walnut varieties show some resistance to bacterial blight (X. campestris pv. juglandis). 


Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service (AQIS). Some exotic 

bacterial diseases which have entered Australia have been eradicated, eg ryegrass 

bacterial wilt (Xanthomonas translucent pv. graminis) from Victoria and citrus 

canker (Ralstonia solanacearum) from Qld. There are many bacterial diseases 

overseas which are not as yet in Australia, eg 

– Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum race 1) of Eucalyptus. 

– Moko disease (R. solanacearum race 2 biovar 1) of bananas. 

– Fire blight (Erwinia amylovora) of apples and pears which occurs in NZ. 

– Sumatra disease (Pseudomonas syzygii) of eucalypts, syzygiums 

– Target list of diseases which might enter Australia 


Padil - Pests and Diseases Image Library www.padil.gov,au 

Interstate and Regional Plant Quarantine. Some bacterial diseases occur 

only in certain regions, eg halo blight of beans. Check state websites. 

Local quarantine. Bacterial diseases may be introduced into nurseries and 

gardens by the purchase of infected plants, eg bacterial diseases of carnation, 

bacterial gall of oleander. 


Seed. Many bacterial diseases are seedborne. 

– Bacterial cells which get into the water and food-conducting tubes of plants 

spread quickly to fruits and seeds. 

– Certified bean seed guaranteed free from halo blight and certain other specified 

diseases is available for beans and other crops. Certified seed of some crops does 

not necessarily mean it is 100% free from a specified disease, a designated amount 

may be tolerated. 

– Do not save seed from infected crops unless it is treated with hot water, aerated 

steam or fumigated. Seek advice. 

Vegetative propagation. Do not propagate from infected plants. For some 

crops disease-tested planting material is available which is guaranteed free from 

certain bacterial diseases. 

Only plant disease-tested planting material in disease-free seedbeds, or in soil 

which does not contain infected plant residues. 


Seeds may be treated with hot water (HW) or aerated steam to kill internal 

bacteria. Prescribed HW treatment can penetrate seeds sufficiently to eradicate 

bacterial infections inside some of the seed only. Careful temperature regulation is 

required but some seeds, eg fleshy seeds such as beans and peas, cannot be treated 

with aerated steam or HW. 

Soil pasteurization (60 o C for 30 minutes) kills disease-causing bacteria in soil 

(page 330). Practical only for raising seedlings in greenhouses and frames. 

Irradiation destroys microorganisms, eg bacteria, fungi, and insects). Some nonedible 

items are irradiated in Australia (page 330). 

Pulsed UV light kills bacterial and fungi on the skin of many kinds of fruit, also 

improves fruit quality and extends shelf life up to 80 days. 

Note - many biocontrol 

agents are registered 

as pesticides 

BACTERICIDES. 

The use of chemicals to control bacterial diseases has not been very successful. 

In Australia only a few fungicides, eg copper and mancozeb, are registered as foliar 

sprays. These are non-systemic and only prevent infection; they have no effect on 

established infections inside seeds or other plant parts, so that control is often 

unsatisfactory. Copper is used when conditions favour infection, development and 

spread; mancozeb may be used on young plants which may be damaged by copper. 

Formulations of copper are now available which are ‘flowable’ and easier to apply 

(pages 341). Note that copper fungicides have a ‘POISON’ signal heading. 

There is a low risk that bacteria will develop a resistance to copper (page 341). 

Excess copper can harm plant growth, persist in the environment over a long time, 

may accumulate in some soils and be toxic to earthworms and some soil microbes. 

Disinfectants such as sodium hypochlorite also do not reach inside seed. 

Overseas systemic antibiotics such as streptomycin are available, but resistance 

may develop and they are not allowed on edible plant produce. 

Biological pesticides such as Agrobacterium sp. (Nogall ) are used to control 

crown gall (pages 302, 306). 

Pre-plant soil treatments with fumigants (or pasteurization) are suitable only for 

treating small quantities of infested soil, eg cutting beds. Only plant disease-tested 

seeds, cuttings and bare-rooted nursery stock into treated soil. 



EXAMPLES OF BACTERIAL DISEASES 

Crown gall 

This disease is serious on nursery stock but occurs 

sporadically. The same piece of ground may yield 

badly infected plants one year and completely 

healthy plants the following year. 


Common soilborne bacteria (Agrobacterium spp., 

tumor state). Not all strains can infect all hosts. 

Agrobacterium sp. is considered to be a natural 

genetic engineer. The gall-inducing genes 

causing crown gall can be removed, but the 

infective ability retained to transfer genes, so that 

DNA is inserted into another plant cell. 

Host range 

Wide host range, mainly Rosaceous plants but 

other plants as well. Economic damage is largely 

confined to Prunus spp., rose and beetroot. 

Ornamentals, eg chrysanthemum, Prunus spp., 

rose, also dahlia, geranium. 

Fruit & nuts, eg pome and stone fruits (especially 

peach), bush fruits, grapevine, rhubarb, walnut. 

Vegetables, eg beetroot. 

Agrobacterium rhizogenes and A. tumefaciens (less 

frequently) affect Rosaceae plants such as stone 

fruit and roses. A. vitis infects grapevines and lives 

systemically in the vascular tissue of the host. 

Symptoms 

Below ground/crowns. Galls ranging in 

size from a pea to the size of a football develop at 

ground level or on the roots (Fig. 154). Galls often 

arise from root lenticels and are irregular in shape 

and their texture depends on the host species. Galls 

are the result of bacteria multiplying inside the 

host, producing hormones which stimulate the host 

to increase cell division and cell size resulting in 

the formation of galls. The vascular system is 

damaged, plants grow poorly and wilt readily. 

Galls may also develop on side roots but they 

probably do not do much damage. Other strains 

cause excessive root proliferation. 

Above ground. Aerial galls have been recorded 

more than 100cm from the ground on grapevines 

and on the branches of trees overseas. There is 

some evidence that in these hosts, the bacteria can 

move through the vascular system and that gall 

formation may be associated with frost damage. 

General. The effect of the disease is variable. 

Infected plants may lack vigour, become stunted 

and produce few flowers, however. Young plants 

which are infected when planting out or which 

become infected soon afterwards usually make 

unthrifty growth and may eventually die. Older 

plants which become infected may remain 

vigorous for many years. It is not uncommon to 

find established vigorous plants with large galls on 

roots and crowns showing no apparent reduction in 

vigour or other effects. Crown gall usually only 

affects the vigour of older plants in the field if they 

suffer moisture stress. Affected plants may die. 

Grapevine. A. vitis unlike the gall-forming 

species, lives systemically in the vascular tissue of 

its host. Galls may develop where frost damage to 

canes and trunks has occurred or at the bases of 

cuttings used for propagation, or to major graft 

wounds in warmer areas. 

Diagnostics. Do not confuse crown gall with: 

Natural adventitious ‘burr’ knots on Prunus sp. 

which occur at the base of the trunk in some 

species (page 397, Fig. 243). 

With natural lignotubers on eucalypts. 

Beneficial mycorrhizal roots on trees, eg alder. 

With forked roots in crops such as carrots which 

may be due to over-fertilization, unsuitable soil 

structure, transplanting seedlings, etc. 

With root knot nematode infections. 

With clubroot disease in brassicas. 

Expert diagnosis is necessary. As it is 

difficult to isolate bacteria from galls, DNA 

fingerprinting identifies strains on grapes. 

Remember galls are often only seen when roots 

or plants are dug up. 

Fig. 154. Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.). 

Left: A large gall on rhubarb. Right: Galls on loganberry 

canes. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Disease cycle 

The disease cycle is quite simple (see Fig. 155 

below). Susceptible healthy plants become infected 

when planted into infested soil. 


In galls on host plants (especially nursery stock) 

and in soil. 

The bacteria can live as saprophytes in the soil 

for years, but in the absence of hosts, the 

population gradually declines. A. vitis can be 

detected in plant debris in soil for at least 2 years. 

Main source of infection is planting material. 

If healthy vines are planted in old vineyard soils 

containing contaminated debris the new plants 

will be become infected. 

Spread 

By movement of infested soil on machinery, in 

soil deliveries and containers, infected plants and 

contaminated soil water. 

By propagating from infected plants. 

On pruning, budding and grafting tools. Nursery 

plants may become infected through budding and 

grafting scars. 


Wounding of roots, crowns, stems or seeds by 

cultivation, insects or animals. On grapevines 

and Rubus spp. aerial galls are formed, thought 

to be associated with frost damage to the stems 

and canes. 

The repeated planting of susceptible species into 

infested soil. 

Fig. 155. Disease cycle of crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) (adapted from Agrios, 1997). 







3.Identification of disease must be confirmed. 

Consult a diagnostic service if needed (page xiv). 

4.Monitor disease and/or damage and record results 

as recommended. Check sources of all planting 

material and inspect all new stock. Remember know 

when, where, what and how to monitor. 

5.Threshold. How much damage can you accept? Do 

you need to calculate a threshold for your particular 

crop? This will depend on whether you are a 

commercial grower or a home gardener. 

6.Action. Take action when any threshold is reached. 

Remember crown gall is a sporadic disease and is 

mainly a serious problem on nursery stock. If the 

disease is a regular problem commercial growers should 

treat susceptible planting material (Table 55). 



required. Monitor treated nursery stock, etc for the 

next few years after treatment where practical. 


Once a plant is infected with crown gall there is no 

reliable effective eradication treatment. 


Avoid wounding roots of trees and nursery stock 

when planting and during subsequent cultivation, 

crown gall enters only via relatively fresh wounds. 

Make sure graft union is above ground level. 

There is a greater incidence of crown gall on 

grafted nursery stock rather than on bud unions. 

Do not unnecessarily lime soil or add wood ash. 

Avoid repeatedly planting susceptible crops into 

infested soil unless roots, etc are treated with 

Nogall. Some crops, eg corn or other grain 

crops, are resistant and would reduce the amount 

of inoculum in the soil. 

Sanitation. 

Destroy young plants with galls at the graft 

union or near soil level. Remember older plants 

may tolerate infection. 

Infected plants should be dug up and burnt, 

and if practical, eg in a home garden, also dig up 

surrounding soil and burn, sterilize or replace. 

Contaminated containers, seed boxes and 

benches must be disinfected so that treated soil 

or healthy seed, cuttings and other nursery stock 

do not become infected. 

Budding and grafting tools must be 

disinfected to stop bacteria from spreading via 

budding and grafting (page 309). 

Table. 55. Crown gall – Biocontrol agent. 

What to use? 

PRE-PLANT DIPS 

Seeds, roots of seedlings and cuttings 

Nogall (Agrobacterium radiobacter var. radiobacter strain 

K102.) 


Nogall . Where crown gall is a recurring 

problem, protect new plantings from attack by 

dipping planting material (seeds, cuttings or 

roots of young plants) in Nogall . This a nonpathogenic 

strain of Agrobacterium sp. which 

produces an antibiotic, that inhibits the growth 

of the gall-forming strain of Agrobacterium. The 

non-pathogenic bacteria grow on wound sites 

produced during striking, root pruning, repotting, 

digging, planting, weeding, and frost. 

Susceptible plants are protected during their 

initial growth stage when they are likely to suffer 

severe damage if infected with crown gall. 

Very occasionally, strains of crown gall, eg 

those that infect grapevines, are not controlled by 

this method. Research is under way to use nonpathogenic 

strain of A. vitis. 


Within the known host groups there are no known 

resistant cultivars. Overseas research is attempting 

to develop resistant rootstock. 

Plant quarantine. Avoid introducing crown 

gall to disease-free areas by purchasing from 

reliable suppliers of disease-tested planting 

material and avoiding introductions of infested 

soil. Make an effort to keep crown gall out of 

nurseries and gardens by inspecting all new stock 

and rejecting infected plants. 


Main source of infection is planting material. 

Do not propagate from infected plant material. 

unless treated with a biological pesticide. 

Treated planting material must be planted in 

disease-free soil. 

Disease-free soil must only be planted up with 

disease-tested planting material, eg diseasetested 

nursery stock. Growers should purchase 

and plant only crown gall-free trees. 


Where crown gall is a problem in small areas 

such as seedbeds and cutting beds, soil can be 

pasteurized (60 o C for 30 minutes). 

Bactericides. 

There are no non-fumigants that will kill 

crown gall bacteria in soil. 

Gall paints have been researched for decades to 

eradicate gall from established woody plants. The 

usual method is to remove the gall and then apply 

paint to the raw surface. Gallex (2,4-xylenol 

plus meta-cresol) is still being researched for the 

eradication of crown gall in established roses in 

the USA (Anyango and Odhiambo 2000). 

Controlling root chewing insect on grapevine stems 

in nurseries reduce wounds which are entry points 

for crown gall. 


On stone fruit, almonds, pecans, walnuts, roses... 

Seeds, cuttings, bare plant roots may be dipped in a 

prepared suspension prior to planting in contaminated soil. 

Trim damaged roots before dipping. 

Used to protect propagation material before planting. 

Very effective on Rosaceous plants but not as useful on 

other plants such as chrysanthemum and grapevines. 

Treatment is ineffective once infection has occurred. 



Bacterial canker of stone fruit 

Gummosis, Blast 

This is a serious disease of ornamental and 

fruiting stone fruits. Infection of young trees is 

particularly severe often killing them. 


A bacterium (Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae). 

P. syringae pv. morsprunorum may also occur on 

cherry and plum in some areas. 

Host range 

Wide range of plants including: 

Fruit & ornamentals, eg all fruiting and 

ornamental stone fruit, especially apricot, sweet 

cherry; also citrus, rose, lilac, poplar. 

Vegetables, eg beans and peas. 

A particular strain of bacteria may be restricted to 

a particular host or group of related hosts, so that 

the organism causing citrus blast may not be able 

to attack cherry and vice versa. 

Symptoms 

The disease is most serious on young trees. 

Buds. Dormant buds may be blighted, resulting 

in the death of the bud and the formation of small 

cankers at the base. Flowers. Blossom blight 

may develop in favourable weather and this may 

develop into twig blight. Leaves. Water soaked 

spots develop which rapidly become brown and 

drop out giving a ‘shot-hole’ effect. Infection may 

result in thin yellow leaves which may be rolled. 

In moist conditions, young sappy shoots may wilt 

as a result of infection. There may be prolific 

defoliation in spring. Fruit of apricot and cherry 

trees develop sunken black lesions with underlying 

gum pockets. However, lesions on fruit are 

variable. Severe fruit infection is most common 

in cherry. 

Branches and trunks. The most destructive 

damage is caused by the development of cankers 

on branches and trunks. Cankers extend more 

rapidly along a branch than round it, and may be 

more than 100 cm long before the branch is girdled 

and killed. Stem infection of young trees is usually 

fatal. There are 2 types of canker: 

Gummosis canker. Water soluble gum 

exudes from elongated dead areas of bark. The 

underlying wood shows extensive browning. 

Soursap canker. First noticed as a slightly 

sunken zone but if the bark is cut away dead 

tissue is found underneath. Later the bark is 

brown, moist or gummy and sour smelling, little 

or no gum is exuded. These cankers may not be 

noticed until spring when growth begins and 

limbs and even whole trees may collapse and 

die. Where a branch has been killed by girdling 

there is often prolific new growth below the 

canker. 

Roots are seldom attacked. 

General. Infection of young trees is particularly 

severe and often results in their death. 

Diagnostics. On stone fruit. 

State Fact Sheets are available online. 

Do not confuse bacterial canker with: 

– Bacterial spot of stone fruit (Xanthomonas 

arboricola pv. pruni. 

– Phytophthora trunk, collar and root rots 

(Phytophthora spp.). 

– Fireblight (if established in Australia). 

Seek expert advice from a diagnostic service. 

Various stages of fruit infection 

Gumming on stem 

Bark removed, brown 

dead tissue beneath 

Cherry leaves with brown 

 

Dieback of leaders and 

bud failure due to leaf 

scar infections 

Fig. 156. Bacterial canker of stone fruit (Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae). 

Left: PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). Centre and Right: PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment... 



Disease cycle 

See Fig. 157 below. 


P. syringae bacteria are always present on leaves 

of all stone fruits (healthy and diseased). 

Bacteria can also overwinter as actively growing 

bacteria in cankers, in infected buds on stone 

fruit and other deciduous hosts, and in lesions on 

other hosts. Systemically in some hosts. 

The disease is not soilborne. 


Cankers are first noticed in early spring when 

gum is produced in most cankers. 

Woody tissue of actively growing trees is 

generally resistant to canker infection, and that 

of dormant trees, susceptible. 

Autumn, winter and early spring are the danger 

periods for infection. 

Wounds, eg pruning scars, hail damage, leaf 

scars, stomates and other natural openings during 

wet windy conditions in autumn just before and 

during leaf fall. Frost injury. 

Spread 

Movement of infected nursery stock. 

By water splash, wind-blown leaves, irrigation 

water, insects and pruning tools. Bacteria are 

spread from cankers, infected buds, leaf spots 

and other lesions on the host to healthy parts. 

Fig. 157. Disease cycle of bacterial canker of stone fruit 

(Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae) (adapted from Agrios, 1997). 






There are management programs for this disease in 

commercial growing areas, otherwise seek advice for 

this disease on your crop in your region. 


3.Identification of disease must be confirmed, by a 


4.Monitor symptoms. Seek advice on when, where, 

what and how to monitor. Record results. 

5.Threshold. How much damage can you accept? Do 

you need to calculate your own threshold for a 

particular crop and region? 

6.Action. Take appropriate action when any 

predetermined threshold is reached. 




Generally young trees are affected more seriously 

than older trees. Once bacteria are established in 

bark or leaf tissue there is little chance of killing 

them so control measures aim to protect leaf scars, 

pruning and other wounds from infection. 


There is evidence that bacterial canker 

infections in young trees can be reduced by 

orchard practices which discourage vigorous 

growth. 

Do not locate susceptible orchards in areas 

where trees are subject to frost damage, 

waterlogged soils or prolonged drought. 

Prevention of frost damage before bud 

movement is also important in stopping entry 

through frosted buds. 

Pruning generally should be completed as soon 

as possible after leaf fall. Pruning cuts are one 

of the main points of entry and a large proportion 

of infection occurs through winter pruning cuts. 

Prune susceptible varieties of young nonbearing 

trees after bud burst when they are 

actively growing, older trees just before leaf 

fall. Prune apricots in late summer or autumn 

when warm and dry, or even when leaves are 

still on the tree, wounds heal and seal quickly. 

Any pruning of cherry trees required should be 

done before early autumn. 

Trees should be protected from wind driven 

rain and overhead irrigation. Irrigate when leaf 

surfaces can dry quickly. 

Sanitation. . 

Remove and destroy infected young trees 

less than 4 years old. Sites can be replanted. 

Sterilize pruning tools between cuts and between 

trees, eg either by dipping in 70% methylated spirit 

or wiping with a rag moistened with methylated 

spirit. 

In older trees, cut out diseased wood. Scrape 

away large cankers, burn scrapings. Paint area 

with Bordeaux or similar paint. Alternatively 

large cankers may be cauterized with a blow 

lamp in spring and if necessary, again 2-3 weeks 

later. Neither treatments are guaranteed 100%. 

Resistant varieties. While all stone fruits 

may become infected; apricot and cherry are more 

susceptible than others. For cherries: 

Highly susceptible - Florence, Napoleon, 

St. Margaret. 

More tolerant - Merton, Ron's Seedlings, 

Williams Favourite. Other imported resistant 

cherry cultivars are undergoing testing. 

Susceptible varieties should be propagated on 

rootstocks resistant to bacterial canker and 

should be grafted as high as possible. 

Plant quarantine. Bacterial canker of stone 

fruit may be introduced into an area by the 

purchase of infected nursery stock and possibly by 

the use of contaminated secateurs. 


Only purchase trees from reliable suppliers. 

New trees which are ‘suspect’ should not be 

planted but destroyed. 

Propagate only from trees with no symptoms. 

Only healthy budwood and rootstocks should 

be used for propagation. 


Cankers on trunks and large branches can be 

controlled by cauterization with a handheld 

propane burner (Agrios 2005) in early to midspring. 

If considered necessary it can be repeated 

3 weeks later. 

Bactericides. Copper fungicides which are 

non-systemic and protectant only, are the main 

products currently available for controlling 

bacterial canker. Overseas streptomycin, which is 

systemic, is available for use. 

Table 56. Bacterial canker of stone fruit – Some fungicides. 

What to use? 

NON-SYSTEMIC PROTECTANTS 

Group M1, eg various (copper oxychloride) 

Group M1/M3, eg Mankocide (cupric hydroxide/mancozeb) 


Copper sprays can only be used as dormant sprays on 

stone fruit otherwise leaf and fruit burn may occur. Keep 

accurate records of spray programs from year to year. 

The number of sprays and timing of sprays will depend 

on: 

The particular species of stone fruit, eg cherry, etc. 

The region of Australia. 

Whether the disease is of minor importance, 

moderately severe or severe. 

Whether the trees are nursery stock, non-bearing, or 

bearing. 



Bacterial leaf spots 


Almost all bacterial spots and blights of leaves, 

stems and fruits are caused by bacteria in the 

genera Pseudomonas and Xanthomonas (see also 

page 297). 

Host range 

Wide range of plants, eg 

Ornamentals, eg begonia, carnation, 

chrysanthemum, ferns, geraniums, gladiolus, 

hibiscus, poinsettia, Prunus, statice, stock, zinnia. 

Fruit & nuts, eg mulberry, strawberry, walnut. 

Vegetables, eg.cucurbits, lettuce. 

Field crops, eg lucerne. Although some species 

of bacterial leaf spots can infect several species of 

plants, specific strains may be restricted to one 

host, or group of related hosts, eg one species may 

attacks lettuce another geranium and so on. 

Symptoms 

Spots (and blights) are the most common type of 

bacterial disease. Symptoms vary depending on 

the host and the specific disease organism. 

Leaves. 

Leaf spots usually start as small lesions 1 mm 

in diameter on the leaf surfaces. The brownish 

spots enlarge to 2-10 mm across, have irregular 

borders and translucent or yellow halos. 

– Shape is usually affected by the leaf veins which 

may make the spots more angular. 

– On some hosts the center of the leaf spot falls out 

giving the leaf a shot hole appearance. 

– Fungal structures are absent. 

Blight infections. Spots can begin on leaf 

edges leaf dieback or the spots can join together 

killing the leaf. 

– Tissue is water soaked and slimy when newly 

rotted but dries out with age becoming brown 

and papery. 

Systemic infection. Bacteria may extend 

along leaf veins and establish in the vascular 

system which is blocked inhibiting the flow of 

water and nutrients to the foliage. 

– Young foliage or whole plants may wilt and die. 

– Older leaves may turn yellow and eventually die. 

– Discolored vascular bundles are visible when 

stems and petioles are cut. 

Fruit. Leaf spot bacteria may also attack fruit, eg 

bacterial leaf spot of cucurbits 

Stems. Black section may develop on stems. 

Disease cycle 

The disease cycle varies with the particular leaf 

spot disease. 


Bacteria exist at very low levels: 

In or on plant parts and seed. 

Infected crop debris in soil. 

On contaminated tools, containers, or in the soil. 

Spread 

Water splashed from infected to healthy plants. 

Recycled and untreated irrigation water, surface 

water. Wind blown rain, direct contact with host, 

insects such as flies, bees and ants, handling of 

plants, tools. 

Infected propagation material, eg cuttings, seed. 

Contaminated tools during pruning and 

cultivation. 

Clothes when brushed against diseased foliage, 

especially during wet weather. 

Infected soil in pots, on vehicles and footwear. 

Diagnostics. 

Do not confuse with fungal leaf spots, chemical 

toxicities, environmental problems, etc. 

Bacterial leaf spots are generally angular with a 

yellow halo. Fungal leaf spots are generally 

round with fungal structures present (often can 

only be seen with a hand lens or microscope). 

Sometimes bacteria invade already damaged 

plant tissue, ie they are secondary infections. 

Can test for bacterial ooze (page 295). 

Need an expert to confirm diagnosis (page 295). 

Fig. 158. Bacterial leaf and stem rot of pelargonium 

(Xanthomonas campestris pv. pelargonii). Upper: Leaf spots 

on ivy-leafed geranium appear sunken and water-soaked. 

Lower left: Stem rot, the brown withering and rotting 

progresses from the stem tips downwards. PhotoNSW Dept. of 

Industry and Investment. Lower right: Black sections on stems. 




Bacterial leaf spots are more common in warm, 

wet or humid climates, rather than dry, hot or 

cold climates. However, some bacterial diseases 

are common in wet cool winter, eg bacterial leaf 

spot of lettuce. 

Bacteria require free water for spread and 

infection. 

Plants can be infected through wounds. 

Generally lush growth favours leaf spots but on 

some hosts high fertilizer rates may reduce them. 



1.Obtain/prepare plan that fits your situation. 

2.Crop, region. Recognize variations in management 

plans depending on the region. 

3.Identification. Accurate and early detection is 

essential for control and prevention of spread. Check 

leaves and suspect spots carefully for bacterial ooze to 

avoid confusion with other causes (page 310). If 

unsure consult a diagnostic service (page xiv). 

4.Monitor. Find out if a monitoring system is 

available for your particular disease and crop. 

Remember know when, where, what and 

how to monitor. 

5. Threshold. How much damage can you accept? Do 

you need to calculate your own threshold, eg damage 

threshold for your particular crop and region or are 

there prescribed threshold? 

6.Action. Take appropriate action when required, 

including reduced irrigation, sanitation, etc. 

7.Evaluation. Review IDM program to see how well 



Disease outbreaks can be extremely destructive 

and difficult to control. 


Avoid wounding. 

Avoid excessive nitrogenous fertilizer. 

Practice crop rotation as bacteria can survive on 

plant debris in the soil. 

Provide adequate ventilation between plants, 

avoid overcrowding nursery stock. Avoid 

overwatering. Increased spacings between plants 

may lower humidity. 

Keep foliage dry. Control the growing 

environment to reduce leaf wetness. 

Avoid walking through, or working in, 

susceptible crops while foliage is wet due to 

irrigation or wet weather. 

Sanitation. 

Remove and destroy infected plants or leaves as 

soon as they are observed. 

Prune off affected branches at least 30-40 mm 

below the damaged area and destroy. 

If base of main stem is rotted remove and 

destroy the whole plant as soon as detected. 

Destroy systemically-infected plants. 

Destroy self-sown plants. 

Implement strict hygiene when growing highly 

susceptible crops. 

Staff must be trained in hygienic practices such 

as washing hands after handling diseased plants 

or soil, sterilization of tools, and wearing clean 

uniforms. 

Disinfect tools frequently when pruning. 

Sterilize benches used for preparing cuttings 

between batches to avoid chance contamination. 

All debris must be removed between crops to 

eliminate the risk of contamination. 


Grow if available and practical, varieties with 

some resistance to bacterial leaf spots. 

Grow highly susceptible crops in greenhouses 

which keep out rain. 


If new planting material is suspected of being 

infected grow separately from disease-free areas. 

Keep stock plants separate. 

Introduction of even one diseased cutting can 

result in rapid spread if conditions are favorable. 


Only plant disease-tested seed, cuttings, 

nursery stock. 

Obtain planting material from a reputable source. 

Do not take cuttings or save seeds from infected 

plants. 

Bactericides. 

Copper-based fungicides are moderately effective 

in reducing some bacterial diseases. However they 

may be phytotoxic to some plants. 

Table 57. Bacterial leaf spots – Some bactericides. 

What to use? 

NON-SYSTEMIC PROTECTANTS 

Group M1, eg copper oxychloride; cupric hydroxide; cuprous 

oxide; Liquicop (copper ammonium acetate); Tribase 

Blue (tribasic copper sulphate) (page 341) - 

copper fungicides are non-systemic 

Group M1/M3, eg Mankocide (cupric hydroxide/mancozeb) 

- both are non-systemic 


Copper-based and mancozeb fungicide sprays can 

suppress bacteria on surfaces but will not eradicate 

established infections or prevent re-infection if 

conditions are favorable. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



1. List the distinctive features of bacteria. 

2. Explain how bacteria reproduce and infect 

host plants. 

3. Describe symptoms on leaves, flowers, fruit, 

seed, seedlings, branches, trunks, crowns, roots, 

bulbs, corms and tubers produced by local 

bacterial diseases. Name 1 example of each. 

4. Recognize by sight, crown gall, bacterial 

soft rot and other local bacterial diseases. 

5. Distinguish between galls caused by 

crown gall from those caused by other agents: 

Root knot nematodes Nitrogen-fixing nodules 

Lignotubers 

Burr knots 

Gall wasps 

Rust fungi 

6. Distinguish between bacterial and fungal 

leaf spots. 



bacterial diseases. 

8. List control methods for bacterial diseases. 


9. Describe how bacteria may be used to control 

insect pests of plants. 

10. Describe bacterial diseases for which it is 

important to sterilize pruning tools 

between each cut during pruning operations. 

11. Explain how bacterial seedborne diseases 

may be controlled. 


names and some uses for 1 bactericide. 


crown gall and other local bacterial diseases: 

Common name ‘Overwintering’ 

Cause 

Spread 

Host range 


Symptoms 

IDM & control methods 

Disease cycle 

14. Prepare/access an IDM. program for a bacterial 




control of bacterial diseases. 






Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/ 



Crown gall 

Bacterial Canker of Stone fruit 

Bacterial Spot of Stone fruit 





For organic certifiers, products etc 

Quarantine 




pests and more than 100 diseases www.padil.gov,au 



State websites have information of certain bacterial diseases 

and quarantine restrictions in their states 

Bactericides 





Company websites make labels and MSDSs available 


General 






Anyango, J. J. and Odhiambo, B. O. 2000. Eradicating 

Crown Gall in Rosa hybrida Cultivars. American 

Nurseryman May 15. 






Pathogens and Plant Diseases. Rockvale Pubs., 


Cooke, T., Persley, D and House, S. (eds) 2009. 

Diseases of Fruit Crops in Australia. CSIRO Pub., 

Melbourne. 

Fahy, P. C. and Persley, G. J. 1983. Plant Bacterial 

Diseases : A Diagnostic Guide. Academic Press, 

North Ryde, NSW. 

Goodwin, S., Steiner, M., Parker, R., Tesoriero, L., et al. 

2000. Integrated Pest Management in Ornamentals : 

Information Guide. Agrilink. QAL0004, NSW Agric. 

Sydney. 



– Field Identification Guide. DPI. Will be available 

as an electronic device for use in the field. 




Janse, J. D. 2005. Phytobacteriology: Principles and 

Practice. CABI Pub., Wallingford. 


Ailments of Australian Plants. Lothian Pub., 

Melbourne. 


that? Lansdowne Press, Sydney. 


Vegetable Crops in Australia. CSIRO Pub., Melbourne. 

Ryder, M. H., Stephens, P., Bowen, G. D. (eds). 1994. 

Improving Plant Production with Rhizosphere 

Bacteria. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Stephens, R. (ed.). 2001. Water Fogging and Misting 

Systems : Are they a Risk to Human Health. The 

Nursery Papers 2001/5, Melbourne. 

Streton, C. and Gibb, K. 2006. Phytoplasma Diseases in 

Sub-tropical and Tropical Australia. Australasian Plant 

Pathology 35, 129-146. 

Vadakattu, G. and Paterson, J. 2006. Free-living Bacteria 

Lift Soil Nitrogen Supply. Farming Ahead, Feb. 

Walker, G. 2006. Biocontrol Organisms and Human 

Health. Australasian Nematology Newsletter, Vol.7,1. 



Fungal Diseases 

Wood rot fungus, spores are spread by wind. 

BIOLOGY, IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION 314 




Symptoms, damage 315 


Classification of fungi 319 

List of some fungal diseases 320 


How fungi infect host plants 324 

Distribution within host plants 324 



Spread 326 












Fungicides 331 


Fungicide Activity Groups (Table 58) 

Disinfectants (Table 59) 343 

338 

Bio-fungicides, soaps, bicarbonates, milk, etc (Table 60) 344 

EXAMPLES OF FUNGAL DISEASES 345 

Powdery mildews 345 

Downy mildews 348 

Rusts 351 



Wood rots 361 

Phytophthora root rot 364 




Fungal diseases - Biology, identification and classification 313


BIOLOGY, IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION 


NO. DISEASES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

Hyphae produce 

enzymes which 

change the plant 

tissues into 

substances the 

fungus can use 

for nourishment 

Several thousand species of fungi can cause diseases of plants in Australia. 

Some fungal diseases are considered to have altered the course of history, eg 

the devastating effect of coffee rust in Ceylon in the 19 th century is given as the 

main reason for the British being now mainly tea drinkers. 

Fungimap www.rbg.vic.gov.au/fungimap_/fungi_down_under 

The Australasian Plant Pathology Society (APPSnet) Pathogen of the Month 



Australasian Mycological Society www.australasianmycology.com/ 

Fungi were originally considered to be very simple members of the plant 

kingdom but are now in a separate kingdom of their own: 

MYCELIUM 

Fungi have a very simple plant body called a 

mycelium which is made up of thread-like filaments 

called hyphae which usually can only be seen under a 

microscope (x 100). Hyphae obtain food from the host which 

makes them similar to plant roots, sometimes forming 

structures which help the fungus survive and spread. 

CHLOROPHYLL They contain no chlorophyll and so cannot 

manufacture their own food. 

REPRODUCTION They reproduce by spores which are important 

in the spread and ‘overwintering’ of disease. 

Mycelium and spores 

Mycelium (x 100) of powdery mildew (x 100) 

LIFE CYCLE 

THE MAIN METHOD OF REPRODUCTION IS BY SPORES. 

Spores may be single-celled or multi-celled. 

Although single spores can be seen only with the aid of a microscope, 

larger masses of spores can be seen with the naked eye, eg the fine blue or 

green powder on a mouldy orange or lemon is in fact, billions of tiny spores. 

Generally 2 types of spores are produced, ie asexual repeating spores 

produced during the growing season and sexual ‘overwintering’ spores. 

Spores are produced near the outside of the plant or on the soil surface 

so they can be easily spread by wind, etc. 

Spores may or may not be produced in fruiting bodies which may be as 

large as mushrooms. However, the fruiting bodies of fungi that attack plants 

are usually much smaller and may appear as pinhead-size black dots on an 

area of damaged leaf eg Septoria. 

Fungi obviously produce millions of spores. While most spores never 

reach a site suitable for their germination, those that do only germinate and 

successfully cause infection if some moisture is present. 

At germination 

fungal spores 

produce a small tube 

which begins to 

elongate and branch 

forming hyphae 

. 

Spores not in fruiting bodies (x 100) 

Spores in fruiting bodies 

314 Fungal diseases - Biology, identification and classification


SYMPTOMS, 

DAMAGE 

Many fungal diseases 

cause several 

symptoms to 

develop, eg 

Shothole of stone fruit 

may cause 

shotholes on leaves, 

cankers, gumming and 

dieback of stems; 

gumming and scabs 

may develop on fruit 

DIRECT SYMPTOMS/DAMAGE. 

LEAVES Anthracnose*, eg anthracnose of rose 

Defoliation, eg black spot of rose 

Galls, eg azalea leaf gall 

Leaf curls, eg peach leaf curl 

Leaf rolls, eg powdery mildew of rose, apple 

Leaf spots, eg leaf spot of celery 

Pigmentation, eg leaf spot of azalea 

Spores present, eg 

Red, orange or black, eg rust 

White (on upper & lower surface), eg powdery mildew 

White (on under surface only), eg downy mildew 

Scabs, eg apple scab, shothole of stone fruit 

Witches' broom*, eg shothole of apricot 

Wilt, eg Verticillium wilt of chrysanthemum 

FLOWERS Blights*, eg blossom blight of azalea 

Grey spores, eg blossom blight (Botrytis sp.), brown rot 

of stone fruits, some powdery mildews look grey 

Pink spots, eg early stages of blossom blight (Botrytis sp.) on 

white flowered varieties 

FRUIT Freckle*, eg freckle of stone fruit 

Gumming, eg shothole of almond 

Rots, eg storage rots of fruit and vegetables 

Russet*, eg powdery mildew of apple 

Scabs, eg apple scab, citrus scab 

Spots, eg black spot of grape 

Spores present, eg blue mould of citrus, brown rot of peach 

STEMS, Cankers*, eg shothole of stone fruit 

TRUNK Dieback, eg Phytophthora root rot of eucalypts 

Galls, eg gall rust of wattle 

Gumming, eg shothole 

Rot, eg wood rot, basal stem rots 

SEEDS Ergots, eg rye ergot, paspalum ergot 

Smuts, eg loose smut 

SEEDLINGS Damping-off*, eg seedlings, cuttings 

BULBS, Rots, eg Fusarium rots 

CORMS Scabs, warts, eg powdery scab of potato 

CROWNS Rot, eg Rhizoctonia stem rot, Sclerotium stem rot 

ROOTS Galls, eg clubroot of crucifers 

Rot, eg Phytophthora root rot 


Nematode-fungal disease complexes are described on page 253. 

Aflatoxins. Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin when growing on certain crops 

eg peanuts. As it is poisonous to animals and humans in minute concentrations, there 

is a legal maximum permitted concentration of aflatoxin in peanuts in Australia. 

Mushroom poisonings. 

– Yellow stainer (Agaricus xanthodermus) mushroom causes most mushroom 

poisonings in southern Australia (looks similar to field mushrooms). 

– Death cap (Amanita phalloides) has a mycorrhizal relationship with exotic oak 

trees and came from its native Europe on one of the first oak seedlings to arrive 

in Australia. Extending root systems of older trees in Australia means that 

fruiting bodies could be found up to 200 metres away from any given oak tree. 

Mycologists are now concerned that it could naturalize onto eucalypts and 

spread into native forest reserves and suburban backyards around Australia. 

Allergic responses, breathing difficulties and hay fever may be caused 

by the spores of some fungi. 

Diseases of animals and humans, eg ringworm, tinia; also thrush (Candida 

albicans) and Sauna-taker’s disease (Aurobasidium pallulans). Cryptococcisus 

(Cryptococcus neoformans var. gatti) occurs in the tropics and sub-tropics in 

association with some eucalypt species, eg Corymbia camaldulensis, causing a range 

of diseases in susceptible individuals. Sporotrichosis (Sporothrix schenckii) occurs 

worldwide in tropical and temperate regions and is commonly found in soil and 

decaying vegetation and is well known to infect humans and animals. 

* Terms marked with an asterisk have a special meaning and are described in the glossary. 



Symptoms on leaves 

Fig. 159. Shothole 

(Stigmina carpophila) 

of cherry. Leaf spots 

break away from the 

leaf tissue. PhotoCIT, 


Fig. 160. Fungal leaf spot 

of strawberry. PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 161. Powdery 

mildew (Oidium sp.) 

of euonymus. PhotoCIT, 


Fig. 162. Rust (Puccinia 

anthirrhini) of snapdragon. 

Raised pustules containing 

spores develop on leaves 

and stems. PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

Symptoms on flowers 

Fig. 164. Azalea petal blight (Ovulinia 

azaleae) disfiguring petals on azalea in wet 

weather. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 163. Left: Petal blight, grey mould 

(Botrytis cinerea) on rose petals. Left: White 

spots on pink petals. Centre: Pink spots on 

white petals. Right: Brownish 

spots on white 

petals.PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Symptoms on seeds, seedlings, cuttings 

Fig. 165. Loose smut (Ustilago avenae) 

of oats. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment 

(M.S.Senior). 

Fig. 166. Damping-off 

symptoms on seeds before 

they germinate, caused by 

various fungi and bacteria. 


Investment. 

Fig. 167. Damping-off 

symptoms on cuttings 

caused by various fungi. 

PhotoNSW Dept of Industry 


Symptoms on fruit 

Fig. 168. Lemon scab (Sphaceloma 

fawcettii var. scabiosa). Left: On rough 

lemon. Right: On Eureka lemon. Photos 

NSW Dept of Industry and Investment (M.S.Senior). 

Fig. 169. Black spot (Elsinoe 

ampelina) on grape berries. PhotoNSW 

Dept of Industry and Investment (M.S.Senior). 

Fig. 170. Brown rot (Monilinia fructicola) 

infection of peach fruit causing fruit rots and 

twig blight. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment 

(M.S.Senior). 

Fig. 171. Freckle (Cladosporium 

carpophilum) on nectarine fruit. Photo 




Symptoms on crowns, stems, roots 

Fig. 172. Collar rot (Phytophthora 

sp.) on citrus. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry 


. 

. 

Fig. 173. Red wood rot fungus 

(Pycnoporus coccineus). Brackets at 

the base of the main leader of a peach 

tree. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment 

(M.S.Senior). 

Fig. 174. Stem canker 

(Coniothyrium fuckelii) on rose 

canes. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry 


Fig. 176. Rhizoctonia stem rot 

(Rhizoctonia solani) on beans. Photo 


Fig. 177. Damping off (various 

 

seedling trays. PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 175. Phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora citrophthora) on a 2-year 

old rough lemon showing the absence 

of root hairs. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and 

Investment. 

Non-specific symptoms 

Fig. 178. Peach leaf 

curl (Taphrina deformans). 

Severe defoliation of a peach 

tree affected by peach leaf 

curl causing smaller crops 

and seriously weakening 

the tree. PhotoNSW Dept 





Fruiting body of a wood 

rot fungus, a “conk” 

Powdery mildew 

Culture 

ALERT 

TESTING KIT 

DNA 


Knowledge of 

classification 

helps in 

in understanding 

the biology of 

fungi and 

their control 


Foliage fungal diseases are possibly easier to diagnose in the field than other diseases 

but can still be difficult, expert help is often needed and nearly always needed for soil 

diseases. The presence of signs and symptoms may be sufficient for a preliminary 

diagnosis of some fungal diseases, eg signs of grey powdery coating on leaves 

(powdery mildew) or symptoms, eg leaf spots. 


Microscopy detects and identifies some diseases which cannot be cultured, eg 

powdery mildew, or when fungicides have been previously applied. Examine affected 

tissue directly, under a low powered (dissecting) or high powered (compound) 

microscope for mycelium, fruiting structures and spores which may be sufficient for a 

useful diagnosis. If spores are lacking, diseased tissue can be kept in a high humidity 

chamber for a few days or cultured to promote spore development. Spores of some 

species of Phytophthora, Pythium and Cylindrocladium, or the characteristic hyphae of 

Rhizoctonia, can be identified this way. Lucid keys www.lucidcentral.org/ 

Interactive Key to the Fungi of Australia 

Key to Common Microscopic Fungi (for schools) 

Fungi of Australia 

Key to 101 Forest Fungi of Eastern Australia 

Isolation and culture from infected material obtains pure cultures of fungi which 

can be identified from the spores produced. Suspect plant tissue or seeds are placed on 

agar media and the organisms that grow from it identified. Others need to be incubated 

under certain temperature, aeration or light conditions to produce spores. Baiting for 

disease organisms, eg Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, involves floating plant 

material (carrot, lupin baits) on the surface of a representative sample of soil, media or 

water and observing the baits for signs of fungal invasion and rotting. 

Biochemical tests are used for accreditation schemes. Commercial growers use 

Alert Fungal Disease Kits to detect soil fungi, eg Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia. 

ELISA tests are quick, efficient and mostly laboratory-based, some can be used on-site. 

The fungus reacts with chemical reagents to cause a detectable color change. 

DNA techniques are used to identify fungi, eg Phytophthora, black sigatoka smut of 

banana. The Phytophthora – IDENTIKIT has been marketed. An in-field clubroot 

diagnostic test is in the process of development. 

Wide range of soil pests and diseases can be identified from a single soil 

sample. 

CLASSIFICATION is mainly according to types of mycelium (with or without 

cross walls, etc) and sexual spores produced and can be complicated (Agrios 

2005). Fungi and fungal-like organisms are grouped into various Phyla, eg 

Fungal-like organisms (various Kingdoms) which include the following phyla: 

– Myxomycota (slime moulds) on lowlying plants (not parasitic on plants). 

– Plasmodiophoromycota (endoparasitic slime moulds), eg powdery scab of 

potato tubers. 

– Oomycota (water moulds), eg Pythium, Phytophthora, downy mildews. 

True fungi belong to the Kingdom Fungi which include the following phyla: 

– Chytridiomycota (zoospores), eg Olpidium (can transmit virus diseases). 

– Zygomycota (spores in sporangia), eg bread moulds (Rhizopus, Mucor). 

– Ascomycota (ascospores in a sac), eg powdery mildews, peach leaf curl, yeast. 

Imperfect Fungi produce asexual spores, not known to produce sexual spores, 

eg some powdery mildews (Oidium sp.). 

– Basidiomycota (basidiospores in a club), eg mushrooms, wood rots, rusts, smuts. 

Sterile Fungi are not known to produce any kind of spores, eg Rhizoctonia. 

WHAT IS IT'S PROPER NAME? 

When the sexual state of an Imperfect or Sterile Fungus is found, it is usually given 

the name of the sexual stage. However, if the name of the asexual or sterile stage is 

common and well known, it may continue to be used in preference to the new name. 

Powdery mildew of pea 

Imperfect Fungi - Oidium sp. 

Ascomycota - Erisyphe pisi 

Rhizoctonia root rot 

Sterile Fungi - Rhizoctonia solani 

Basidiomycota - Thanatephorus cucumeris 

WHY IS KNOWLEDGE OF THE FUNGAL GROUP IMPORTANT? 

Most fungicides are selective, ie they are effective against one group of fungi but not 

another. Fungicides belonging to the same chemical groups tend to be effective 

against similar groups of fungi. There are exceptions and some of the newer 

fungicides are effective against both downy and powdery mildews. 



LIST OF SOME 

FUNGAL DISEASES 

Plasmodium 

Thick-walled 



PHYLUM MYXOMYCOTA (slime moulds) 

1. No mycelium. Body is a plasmodium (naked slimy mass of protoplasm) which grows 

on low-lying parts of plants, does not infect them. Various colours, gray to yellow. 

2. Sexual spores are thick-walled resting spores, which may survive for years in soil. 

3. Asexual spores are thin-walled zoospores with flagella, which can swim in water. 

Spores Slime moulds Fuligo, Physarum, 

Diachea 

Motile zoospores 

Hyphae 

Thick-walled 

spores 

Not known 

in Australia 

Zoospores 

released from 

sporangia 

downy mildew 

Zygospore 

Cleistothecium 

Hyphae 

320 Fungal diseases - Biology, identification and classification 

Non-parasitic, grows on turf, 

onions, mulch material 

PHYLUM PLASMODIOPHOROMYCOTA (endoparasitic slime moulds) 

1. The body is a plasmodium within the cells of root and stems of plants. 

2. Asexual spores are thin-walled zoospores. 

Clubroot 

Plasmodiophora brassicae Brassicas, eg cabbage, stock 

Powdery scab 

Spongospora subterranea Potato 

PHYLUM OOMYCOTA (algal fungi, water moulds) 

1. Mycelium present, hyphae well developed with few cross walls. 

2. Sexual spores are thick walled resting spores called oospores. 

3. Asexual spores may be: 

Thin-walled zoospores with flagella which can swim in water and are produced in 

sporangia. In some species conidia are produced. 

Thick walled resting chlamydospores adapted to withstand adverse conditions. 

ROOT ROTS 

Crown and collar rots, 

root rots 

Phytophthora spp. 

Some have a wide host range, 

others are host specific 

Damping-off 

Pythium spp. 

Seedlings. Other fungi can 

Phytophthora spp. 

also cause damping-off 

Phytophthora root rot Phytophthora cinnamomi Wide range of plants 

Sudden oak death P. ramorum Oak, over 40 plant genera 

DOWNY MILDEWS 

Downy mildews 

Many genera, eg 

Bremia lactucae 

Peronospora destructor 

P. parasitica 

P. sparsa 

P. violae 

Pseudoperonospora cubensis 

Plasmopara viticola 

Usually host specific, eg 

Lettuce 

Onion 

Brassicas, eg stock 

Rose 

Pansy 

Cucurbits, eg pumpkin 

Grape 

MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 

Late blight, Irish blight Phytophthora infestans Potato, tomato, Solanaceae 

Soft rot Rhizopus spp. Stored fruit & vegetables 

White blister Albugo candida Brassicas 

Anthracnose 

Celery leaf curl 

Colletotrichum fragariae 

C. acutatum. 

Strawberry 

Celery 

PHYLUM CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA (water moulds) 

Water moulds Olpidium spp. Can transmit virus diseases 

PHYLUM ZYGOMYCOTA (bread moulds) 

1. Sexual thick-walled resting zygospores. 

2. Non-motile asexual spores in sporangia, no motile zoospores. 

Bread moulds Mucor, Rhizopus Stored fruit, vegetables 

PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA, IMPERFECT FUNGI 

1. Mycelium present, well developed with cross walls. 

2. Sexual spores: 

Ascospores produced in groups of 8 in a sac-like ascus directly on the surface of 

plant material or in special fruiting bodies, eg cleistothecia, perithecia, apothecia. 

3. Asexual spores: 

Thin-walled conidia which may be produced on the surface of the host or in 

fruiting bodies eg pycnidia, acervuli, etc 

Thick walled chlamydospores adapted to withstand adverse conditions. 

ANTHRACNOSE DISEASES 

Anthracnose 

Sphaceloma rosarum Rose 

Anthracnose 

Gnomonia errabunda Plane trees 

BLIGHTS 

Blossom, flower, petal Botrytis cinerea 

Wide range, eg flowers, fruit 

blights, grey mould 

Petal blight 

Early blight of tomato 

Ovulinia azaleae 

Alternaria solani 

geraniums, roses 

Azalea 

Potato, tomato, related weeds


LIST OF SOME 




(contd) PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA, IMPERFECT FUNGI (contd) 

Conidia in an acervulus 

Powdery mildew 

mycelium sending 

haustoria into cells of 

Powdery mildew, 

spores in perithecium 

Not known 

in Australia 

CANKERS 

Botryosphaeria 

canker, bunch rot, etc 

Cypress canker 

LEAF CURLS 

Leaf blister 


LEAF SPOTS 

Leaf spots 

Black spot 

Black spot 

Black spot (scab) 

Black spot (scab) 

POWDERY MILDEWS 

Powdery mildews 

Botryosphaeria spp. 

Seiridium spp. 

Taphrina aurea 

T. deformans 

Many species, eg 

Cercospora beticola 

C. handelii 

Mycosphaerella fragariae 

Mycosphaerella (> 60 spp.) 

M. pinodes 

Septoria apiicola 

Marssonina rosae 

Elsinoe ampelina 

Venturia inaequalis 

V. pyrina 


Erisyphe graminis 

E. pisi 

Podosphaera leucotricha 

Sphaerotheca pannosa 

Erisyphe necator 

FRUIT/ POSTHARVEST DISEASES 

Many trees, grapevines, stone 

and pome fruits 

Chamaecyparis, Cupressus 

Poplar 

Stone fruit 


Beet 

Azalea 

Strawberry 

Eucalypts 

Pea 

Celery 

Rose 

Grapevine 

Apple 

Pear 


Cereals, grasses 

Pea 

Apple 

Rose 

Grapevines 

Bitter rot, stem canker 

Brown rot 

Glomerella cingulata 

Monilinia fructicola 

Apple, other trees and shrubs 

Stone fruit 

Fleck Diplocarpon mespli Quince, pear, hawthorn 

Freckle Cladosporium carpophilum Stone fruit 

Storage rots Aspergillus, Botrytis, Mucor, 

Penicillium, Alternaria, etc 

Stored fruit, vegetables 

ROOT ROTS 

Fusarium root/stem rot Fusarium solani Vegetables 

Brown patch Bipolaris, Drechslera, etc Turf grasses 

Corm rot 

Sclerotinia rot 

Spring dead spot 

Penicillium gladioli 

Sclerotinia spp. 

Leptosphaeria spp. 

Gladiolus 

Wide host range 

Intensively managed couch 

Black root rot Thievaliopsis basicola Damping off, vegetables, etc, 

cotton, other hosts 

Ashy stem blight, Macrophomina phaseolina Beans, peas, other plants 

charcoal rot 

Aphanomyces root rot Aphanomyces cochlioides Young plants, eg beet 

Take-all 

Gaeumannomyces graminis Cereals, various grasses 

var. avenae 

SCABS 

Apple scab 

Pear scab 

Citrus scab 

Venturia inaequalis 

V. pyrina 

Sphaceloma fawcetti var. 

scabiosa 

Apple 

Pear 

Citrus 

WILTS 

Fusarium wilt Fusarium spp. Wide host range (strains) 

Verticillium wilt Verticillium dahliae Wide host range 

V. albo-atrum Potato 

Dutch elm disease (DED) Ophiostoma ulmi 

Elms 

MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 

Dollar spot Sclerotinia homeocarpa Turf grasses 

Ergot Claviceps spp. Paspalum, rye, cereals, grasses 

Eutypa dieback, Eutypa lata 

Apricot, grapevine, other 

dying arm = E. armeniacea 

woody plants 

Ink spot Several species Kangaroo paw 

Shothole Stigmina carpophila Stone fruit 

Sooty mould Capnodium spp. 

(non-parasitic) 

Yeast sugar rot 

Geotrichum candida 

Grows on honeydew secreted 

by aphids, lerp, mealybugs, 

soft scales, whiteflies 

Gerbera, others 



LIST OF SOME 


(contd) 

Hyphae 

Not known 

in Australia 

Not known 

in Australia 

Not known 

in Australia 

Not known 

in Australia 

Other moulds (white, 

yellow green or orange) 

may also grow on surface 

of potting mixes 

containing sawdust or 

bark; the fungus may 

grow into the mix 

Wood rot 

fruiting bodies 



PHYLUM BASIDIOMYCOTA (Basidiomycetes) 

1. Mycelium is well developed, hyphae with cross walls. 

2. Sexual spores are thin walled basidiospores produced externally on clublike, 

1-4 celled basidium., eg azalea leaf gall or in special fruiting bodies, eg 

mushrooms, or in a variety of other ways, eg rusts and smuts. Some produce 

additional sexual spores, eg rusts. 

3. Asexual spores (conidia and oidia) similar to the Ascomycota are 

sometimes produced. The rusts produce a variety of additional asexual spores, 

eg urediniospores. 

COLLAR, ROOT AND STEM ROTS 

Armillaria root rot Armillaria spp. Wide range of trees and shrubs 

Rhizoctonia rot, 

damping off 

Rhizoctonia solani 

= Thanatephorus 

Wide range of weeds, 

vegetables, ornamentals 

Sclerotium stem rot, 

damping off 

Sclerotium rolfsii 

= Athelia 

Wide range of weeds, 

vegetables, ornamentals 

GALLS 

Azalea leaf gall 

Camellia leaf gall 

RUSTS 

Exobasidium japonicum 

E. gracile 


Phragmidium mucronatum 

Puccinia antirrhini 

P. chrysanthemi 

P. horiana (white rust) 

P. malvacearum 

Azalea 

Camellia sasanqua 

Usually host specific 

Rose 

Antirrhinum 

Chrysanthemum 

Chrysanthemum 

Hollyhock, other Malvaceae 

P. haemodori Kangaroo paw, Conostylis, 

Haemodorum, Macropidia 

Sunflower rust P. helianthi Sunflower 

Wheat stem rust P. graminis f. sp. tritici Wheat 

Guava rust 

P. psidii (threat to Australian Myrtaceae, eg guava, eucalypt, 

environment and economy) Callistemon, Melaleuca, Syzygium, etc; 

Heteropyxideae eg Heteropyxis 

Myrtle rust Uredo rangelii) Myrtaceae, eg Agonis flexuosa, 

Syncarpia, Callistemon 

Prune rust 

Tranzschelia discolor, 

P. pruni 

Stone fruits, especially 

prunes 

Coffee rust Hemileia vastatrix Coffee 

Bean rust Uromyces appendiculatus Beans 

Gall rusts 

Uromycladium spp. 

Acacia spp. 

Western gall rust Endocronartium harknessii 5-needle pines, eg radiata pine 

(Pinus radiata) 

White pine blister rust Cronartium ribicola 3-needle pines, eg eastern 

white pine (P. strobus) 

SAPROPHYTIC FUNGI 

Cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus Non-parasitic, grows on soil 

organic matter, compost. 

Mushrooms/toadstools Various species Potting mixes, the fungus 

Fairy rings 

SMUTS 

Marasmius oreades 

Many other genera 

grow on sawdust or bark. 

Grow on organic matter in 

the soil in turf, pasture 

Many genera 

Usually host specific 

Anther smut Ustilago violacea Carnation 'Mandy' 

Boil smut 

Covered smut 

Loose smut 

Smut 

Onion smut 

White smut 

U. zeae 

U. segentum var. hordei 

U. avenae 

U. cynodontis 

Urocystis cepulae 

Entyloma dahliae 

Corn, maize 

Oats 

Oats 

Couch 

Onions 

Dahlia 

WOOD ROTS 

Heart rot 

Yellowish wood rot 

Pink limb blight 

Red wood rot 

Many other species, 

Schizophyllum commune 

Trametes versicolor 

Corticium salmonicolor 

Pycnoporus coccineus 

Fomes, Phellinus, Poria, 

Ganoderma, Peniophora 

Most have a wide host range 



LIST OF SOME 


(contd) 

Many more 

biocontrol products 

available overseas 

(Agrios 2005) 

Mycoherbicides 



BENEFICIAL FUNGI 

FOOD 

French black truffle Tuber melanosporum Truffles grow on roots of 

hazel and oak trees in Tas in 

a mycorrhizal symbiosis 

Cultivated mushrooms Agaricus bisporus Grow on organic matter 

PHARMACEUTICAL DRUGS 

Pencillin antibiotics Penicillium spp. Bacterial diseases in humans 

and animals 

MYCORRHIZAS 

Beneficial association between fungi from all groups and the roots of most plants. 

Symbiosis 

Boletus spp., Endogone spp. 

Glomus spp. 

Many more species 

Make certain nutrients more 

available to the plant, see also 

truffles above 

ENDOPHYTES 

An endophyte is a fungus or bacterium that grows within a plant in a mutually 

beneficial relationship; it may protect the plant from insects, disease, heat or drought. 

Endophyte fungi Acremonium lolii in perennial Protects perennial ryegrass 

ryegrass 

from Argentine stem weevil 

BIO-CONTROL OF INSECTS 

Greenguard 

BioCane 

Other fungi 

Metarhizium spp. 

Metarhizium spp. 

Beauvaria bassiana 


Greyback canegrub 

Thrips, aphids, whiteflies, 

mealybugs, etc 

Various insects 


Entomophthora spp. 

Verticillium lecanii 

BI0-CONTROL OF SOIL FUNGI 

Trich-A-Soil Trichoderma spp. Suppresses soilborne fungal 

diseases, eg Phytophthora, 

Pythium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia; 

in NZ possibly Botrytis on kiwi 

fruit 

Nutri-Life 

TrichoShield TM 

Others (possibility of 

commercialization) 

BIO-CONTROL OF WEEDS 

Fungi (Trichoderma spp., 

Gliocladium) and a 

bacterium (Bacillus subtilis) 

Clonostachys rosea 

Coniothyrium mintans 

Disease suppressant for seeds, 

seedlings, transplants, bulbs, 

cuttings, grafts and established 

crops 

Seed and soilborne diseases 

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 

Potential Mycoherbicide Alternaria zinniae Noogoora burr complex 

Possibility Mycoherbicide (NZ) Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Ranunculus acris in pastures 

Rust s Blackberry rust Phragmidium violacearum Blackberry 

Rust 

Puccinia myrsiphylli Bridal creeper 

Prospodium tuberculatum Lantana 

OTHERS 

Kombuchea fungus A yeast fungus Kombacha is a symbiotic 

relationship of a number of 

Saprophytic fungi 

(decomposers) 

Fungi (also bacteria, 

nematodes, insects, mites, etc) 

bacterial and yeast cultures 

Plant residues, releasing 

nutrients for plants, etc 

Nitrogen-fixing nodules Actinorhizae (bacteria) Mycorrhizal roots Proteoid roots form on most 

(bacteria) on legumes, eg on Alnus. (fungus roots). Proteaceae, eg banksia, grevillea. 

clovers 

Fig. 179. Beneficial structures on roots of plants greatly improve plant 

growth by increasing the absorbing surface of the root system. Mycorrhizal and 

proteoid roots exploit nutrients especially in soils low in phosphorus. 



NUTRITION 

AND 

PARASITISM 

Fungi and bacteria are alike in one respect, they have no chlorophyll. Fungi 

obtain their food either by: 

Infecting living organisms such as plants as parasites, or 

Attacking dead organic matter as saprophytes. 

OBLIGATE PARASITES 

Fungi which can only attack and complete their life cycle in nature on living host 

plants as parasites, eg downy mildews, powdery mildews, rusts (few exceptions). 

Host specificity in some cases is extreme. 

FACULTATIVE PARASITES 

Fungi which can live for an indefinite period on dead organic matter as saprophytes. 

When host plants are available and environmental conditions are favourable, they 

become parasites, eg damping-off fungi, Phytophthora root rot, Botrytis, 

Verticillium. Some fungi can grow actively only on debris from the host plant. 

Others can live for long periods by obtaining nourishment from dead leaves and other 

plant material, only attacking living plants when they are available. 

OBLIGATE SAPROPHYTES 

Fungi which can live and complete their life cycle only on dead organic matter as 

saprophytes,eg mushrooms, wood rot fungi. Wood rot fungi attack the dead parts 

of a tree. 

FACULTATIVE SAPROPHYTES 

Fungi which spend most of their life cycle on living plants as parasites and may 

survive as saprophytes for short periods of their life cycle, eg smuts. 

HOW FUNGI 

INFECT HOST 


Fungi enter host plants by several means including: 

NATURAL OPENINGS 

The germ tubes of some fungi, 

eg downy mildews, usually only 

penetrate host plants through 

natural openings such as stomates 

and lenticels. 

Germ tubes grow through open 

stomates and lenticels 

MECHANICAL PRESSURE 

The hyphae of some fungi, eg storage 

moulds and root rots, penetrate host 

plants by using mechanical pressure. 

WOUNDS 

Some fungi can enter plants 

through damaged surfaces. 

Bruised oranges 

are susceptible to 

Penicillium rots. 

Damage to trees by lawn 

mowers facilitates infection by 

wood rotting fungi. 

DISTRIBUTION 

WITHIN HOST 


Hyphae produce 

enzymes which 

change plant tissue 

into a food source 

HYPHAE 

Hyphae of some fungi, eg powdery mildews, grow on the plant surface, 

sending haustoria into surface cells to obtain nourishment. The furry or powdery 

growth on the surface of plants is composed of hyphae and spores. 

Hyphae of other fungi grow inside plants, eg Fusarium wilts grow inside xylem 

vessels of infected plants. Some downy mildews grow systemically within plants. 

Endophytic fungi also grow systemically within plants but cause no disease 

symptoms; they may improve resistance to certain pests, diseases, drought and heat. 

Regardless where mycelium grows in the host, spores are produced at or 

near the surface of the host ensuring their prompt dispersal. Many mycorrhizal 

fungi produce their spores underground and rely on fungal-feeding animals, eg 

marsupials and insects (‘earth boring’ beetles) for their spread. 



DISEASE 

CYCLE 

ALMOST ALL FUNGI WHICH INFECT PLANTS spend part of their lives on host 

plants and part in the soil, or in or on plant debris in the soil. 

HOST ONLY 

These fungi spend all their vegetative life cycle on the host plant. Spores may land on 

soil or plant debris where they remain until carried to a host where they can germinate, 

grow and complete their life cycle, eg powdery mildews. 


These fungi grow parasitically on their hosts and continue to grow on the dead tissues 

of their hosts as saprophytes to complete their life cycle. They can only grow on the 

organic matter of their host, eg apple and pear scab. 

HOST, HOST DEBRIS, OTHER DEBRIS AND SOIL 

These fungi grow parasitically on their hosts but continue to grow on the dead tissues 

of the host after it has died. These fungi also grow out of the host plant into the soil or 

other decaying plant material, where they can grow and multiply as a saprophyte, eg 

Sclerotinia, Sclerotium. 

WHY IS KNOWLEDGE OF THE DISEASE CYCLE IMPORTANT? 

Knowledge of the disease cycle is essential for the implementation of effective 

control measures, including: 

Timing of pesticide applications. 

Application of preventative protectant treatments. 

Whether leaves should be gathered and destroyed. 

Whether seed from diseased plants should be used. 


OVERSUMMERING 

Resistant spore 

Rhizomorphs 

Sclerotia 

CARRYING OVER THE FUNGUS FROM ONE SEASON TO THE NEXT 

Fungal structures. Hyphae may grow into different structures which ensure 

survival and spread of the fungus but which make control difficult. Dormant 

stages are stimulated into growth when the roots of a susceptible host plant is in 

close proximity and conditions are favourable, eg 

– Thick-walled spores, eg chlamydospores, oospores of Phytophthora. 

– Sclerotia consist of a mass of hyphae bunched together formed by some fungi, 

eg Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Sclerotinia. Sclerotia are pale at first but they 

darken as the hyphae on the outside dry out forming a hard skin that protects the 

hyphae inside, enabling them to start growing again sometimes years later when 

conditions are favourable. They are formed either inside or on outside of plants. 

– Rhizomorphs are bundles of parallel hyphae (about the thickness of a shoelace) 

formed by some fungi, eg Armillaria, that can grow through the soil to new 

hosts. However, Armillaria does not appear to readily for m rhizomorphs in 

Australia. 

ON OR IN THE HOST PLANT 

Bud scales 

- Peach leaf curl of stone fruit 

 

 

Twigs, branches 

Trunks 

- Brown rot of stone fruit, powdery mildews 

- Wood rots 

Roots - Phytophthora root rot, Rhizoctonia stem rot 

ON OR IN PLANT DEBRIS 

 

 

Leaves 

Fruit 

- Apple scab 

- Brown rot of stone fruit 

Trunks - Wood rot 

Roots - Phytophthora root rot 

SOIL 

As mycelium, sclerotia or thick walled resting spores, eg Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, 

Fusarium and Verticillium. 

SEED 

Many fungal diseases are seedborne. They are either within or on the surface seed, eg 

rust spores adhere to the outside of seed of infected plants. 

‘OVERWINTERING’ IN SEVERAL WAYS 

Some fungi can overwinter in several ways, eg 

Phytophthora root rot on host plants, in plant debris, soil and as thick-walled spores. 

Botrytis blight as spores on leaves of rooted cuttings, discarded plant debris, etc. 



SPREAD 

Air has many fungal 

spores floating in it 

CONDITIONS 

FAVOURING 

H 2 O 

Weather 

monitoring 

WIND 

Fungal spores are produced at or near the surface of the host ensuring prompt spread 

by wind and air currents. Spores of wheat rust can be carried 500 km. Some even 

further, poplar rust is thought to have spread by wind to NZ. 

WATER 

Rain and irrigation water splash spores from leaf to leaf and from plant to plant, eg 

black spot of rose. Drainage water washes spores and other fungal bodies of soilborne 

fungi downhill, eg Sclerotium stem rot, Phytophthora. Phytophthora zoospores have 

flagella and can ‘swim’ a few mm or cm. 

SOIL, POTTING MIXES, DUST 

Soilborne fungi may be transported in dust, soil eroded by water, mud on implements, 

vehicles, footwear, soil in deliveries and containers, eg Fusarium. 

SEED 

If a fungal disease is seed-borne, then any agency that spreads seeds of infected plants, 

eg humans, wind, water, will also spread the fungal disease. 

INFECTED PLANTS, NURSERY STOCK 

Infected susceptible plants, plant parts, nursery stock, eg peach leaf curl, shothole of 

stone fruits, Phytophthora root rot. 

OTHER METHODS 

Insects are not a common method of spread. Driedfruit beetles and caterpillars of 

the oriental fruit moth spread brown rot in stone fruits. Fungus gnat larvae spread 

Pythium. Overseas, Dutch elm disease is spread by the European elm bark beetle. 

Birds and other animals are not an important method of spread. 

Pruning wounds, eg Eutypa dieback of apricots and grapevines. 

Hyphal growth, eg during postharvest storage of fruit. 

Infected germplasm. In SE Asia, leaf blight and stem cankers (Kirramyces 

spp.) of eucalypts may have spread around the region on infected germplasm. 

EACH DISEASE IS DIFFERENT 

Each fungal disease has its own optimum environmental needs for spore 

formation and germination, host plant infection, disease development, eg 

– Moisture. Downy mildew spores germinate in a thin film of rain or dew on the 

plant surface, powdery mildew spores on a dry surface in humid conditions. 

– Temperature. Most fungal spores germinate at 15-30 o C. Free mycelium survive 

from -5 o C to 45 o C when in contact with moist surfaces, inside or outside the host. 

Most spores can survive broader ranges of temperature. 

– Weather monitoring. Knowledge of temperature, rain, humidity, etc necessary for 

spore germination, host plant infection and disease development, means that 

epidemics can be forecast with fewer but more effective pesticide applications. 

– Others, eg poor light; deficiencies or toxicities can increase disease risk. 

Stage of crop development affects seriousness of disease outbreaks, eg leaf 

disease at the end of harvest of a tomato crop is not serious – unless the disease can 

spread to new plantings. 

Lack of crop rotation. A mature susceptible crop may withstand a disease but 

a following planting of the same susceptible crop in the same ground will certainly 

develop a damaging infection while still young. 

Injury to produce during harvesting favours infection by disease organisms 

causing postharvest rots. 

Vegetatively propagated plants have greater uniformity. The severity of a 

disease outbreak is greatest when the uniformity of the host is increased. 

Lush new growth favours certain diseases, eg powdery mildews. 

ENVIRONMENT 

Does it favour the host or leaf spot fungus? 

 

SUSCEPTIBLE 

LEAF SPOT SPORES 

HOST PLANT PRESENT 

PRESENT 

Fig. 180. Disease triangle. 




MAIN STEPS 

IDM is not a specific set 



PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

? 

X 

IDM attempts to manage diseases systematically. The crop is managed as a whole and the 

management of diseases is part of producing the crop. IDM maximizes the use of nonchemical 

controls and optimizes/minimizes the use of chemical methods while taking 

into account all environmental factors, economics, etc, for long term control. May 

control diseases more slowly. Training programs are available. 

1. Plan well in advance to use an IDM program that fits your situation. Keep records 



2. Crop, region. List the problems which occur in your crop/region. Check if an IDM 

program is available for your crop, eg 

Soilborne diseases, eg for clubroot 

Crops such as roses, citrus, grapes, vegetables. 

The Nursery Industry Accreditation Scheme, Australia (NIASA). 

3. Identification. Early detection and accurate diagnosis ensure effective control 

measures. This may be difficult and professional advice is often necessary (page xiv). 

A good knowledge of the host range, life cycles, types of spores produced, 

spread and conditions favouring the disease is necessary. Obtain a fact sheet for each 

problem affecting your crop. 

4. Monitor early to minimize disease spread, facilitate control by early detection and 

determine the effectiveness of earlier control measures. Record findings. 

Know when to monitor, eg before sowing, before flowering. Weather warning 

systems indicate when some diseases may develop on some crops, eg brown rot of 

stone fruits, apple scab, downy and powdery mildews and Botrytis of grapevines, rust 

on prunes, eg Prune Rust Infection Prediction (PRIP). 

Check where to look, eg leaves, flowers. 

 

 

Decide what has to be monitored, eg symptoms, presence of spores, soil tests. 

Know how to monitor, eg preplant soil tests using a DNA extraction process can 

quantify a range of fungal and nematode pathogens from a single soil sample and 

predict the likely extent of the losses well before the crop is planted, eg Fusarium, 

Rhizoctonia. Results have to be interpreted accurately. Methods include counting leaf 

spots, walking the crop in a predetermined pattern, GPS systems. 

5. Threshold. Damage thresholds vary with the particular crop and region and may 

be determined by legislation. There may be a nil threshold. Otherwise, how much 

damage can you accept? Have any thresholds been established? 

6. Action/Control. Take preventative measures when possible, eg planting resistant 

varieties, appropriate culture. Take appropriate action at the correct time when a 

prescribed threshold is reached. There may be legal or organic requirements. Disease 

figures may not indicate enough potential damage to warrant action. 

 

 

For diseases not yet in Australia or in certain states, entry can be prevented 

by quarantine measures. 

For new arrivals Response Programs control specified disease outbreaks. Noxious 

pest/disease legislation and other regulations are most effective during early stages of 

invasion. Available disease control methods do not eradicate pests unless they have 

been selected for a national or state eradication program. 

Most established diseases in Australia can only be contained using appropriate 

control methods at the correct time, they cannot be eradicated. Use non-chemical 

controls if and when effective. Avoid broad spectrum chemicals. 

7. Evaluation. Compare current results with those of previous seasons. Make 

improvements if necessary, eg planting disease-tested planting material or resistant 

varieties. Monitoring or application methods may need to be improved. 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

CROP 

REGION 

Each crop has 

its own 

disease 

complex. 

List diseases 

(and pests 

and weeds) 

that affect 

your crop 

IDENTIFY 

PROBLEM 

Enquiry 


Examine plant 

Check history 

References 

Expert advice 

Diagnosis 


each problem 

MONITOR 




spots, soil tests, 

temperature, 

moisture? 

How to count? 

Keep records 

THRESHOLD 

Economic? 

Environmental? 

Aesthetic? 

Complaints? 


for this disease 

above which 


implemented? 


ACTION 

CONTROL 


? 

Legislation 

Cultural 

Sanitation 

Biological 

Resistance 

Quarantine 

Disease-tested 

Physical etc 

Pesticides 

Organic, BMP 

Combinations 

EVALUATION 

 

Was the IDM 

program 

successful? 



wanted? 

Can IDM be 

improved? 

YES/NO? 

 

 

 

Fig. 181. Steps in IDM. 

Fungal diseases - Integrated disease management 327


CONTROL 

METHODS 

Fungal diseases are probably easier to control than any other group of diseases, but they 

are still costly and losses can be great. Most fungal diseases require an integrated 

approach, no one method is sufficient. 

LEGISLATION 

Relevant Acts regulating the control of fungal diseases include Seed Acts, Plant 

Quarantine Acts and Pesticides Acts. Food Acts regulate food, eg the maximum amount 

of aflatoxin permitted in peanuts (produced when peanuts are infected with particular 

species of fungi). 


Provide optimum conditions for crop growth and unfavourable conditions for disease. 

Generally a healthy plant withstands diseases better 

Favourable conditions for plant growth. 

– Choose a geographic location suited to the crop. 

– Crop rotation is only useful for fungal diseases that do not survive for long in the 

soil or in plant residues. Brassica rotation crops, eg mustard, canola, release 

volatile gases toxic to many organisms, eg take-all fungus on wheat (page 321). 

Check whether diseases may be carried over when continuously cropping. 

– Planting site. Do not plant susceptible crops in soils known to be infested with 

diseases, eg Sclerotium stem rot, or in poorly drained, eg Phytophthora spp. 

Parsnip planted in alkaline soils encourages Rhizoctonia scab. 

– Sowing/planting dates. Keep up-to-date with new research, eg short season 

sunflower crops sown into in soil infested with Sclerotinia minor before mid- 

November in north Victoria yielded more than later sown crops. 

– Maintain recommended day and night temperatures, humidity and light for 

optimum crop growth. 

– Maintain recommended fertilizer programs. High nitrogen levels which lead to 

excessive growth of vines make them susceptible to certain foliar diseases, eg 

powdery mildews. 

Unfavourable conditions for disease. 

– Most spores of fungi that cause leaf, flower and stem diseases need water to 

germinate. Space plants and use drippers rather than misters, to reduce humidity 

and discourage spore production and germination. Sprinkler irrigation increase 

Sclerotinia and Pythium on peanuts. 

– Fruit trees and vines can be trellised and pruned appropriately to provide aeration. 

– Keep plant surfaces dry in greenhouses. Minimize duration of leaf wetness. 

– Adjust temperature and humidity in greenhouses to minimize risk of grey mould 

(Botrytis cinerea). The use of exhaust fans to circulate air in greenhouses reduces 

dependence on fungicide sprays. 

– Handle fruit and flowers gently during harvesting and packing to prevent bruising 

which provide entry points for post harvest fungal diseases. 

SANITATION. 

Sanitation includes all activities aimed at reducing or eliminating the amount of 

inoculum present on a plant, in a nursery, glasshouse or other situation to prevent the 

spread of disease to healthy plants. 

Destruction of diseased plant material. 

– Many fungi overwinter on the shoots of host plants, pruning out infected parts is 

essential for control, eg powdery mildew of apple. 

– Damping-off fungi grow on dead seedlings and cuttings in propagation areas, 

remove such materials promptly. 

– Some fungi, eg brown rot of stone fruit, overwinter on fallen fruit; one of the 

recommended sanitation procedures for the control of brown rot is to destroy all 

fallen fruit as soon as possible. 

– Tree surgery techniques are used to assist in control of wood rotting fungi. 

– Produce rejected during harvest and packing should be removed and destroyed 

each day to prevent the spread of spores by wind and water splash. 

Cleaning and disinfecting surfaces in nurseries is important in the control of 

soilborne and other diseases. 

– Remove all dirt and organic matter (roots, sap, etc), from floors, benches, tools, 

equipment, trays, pots, etc. 

– Then thoroughly wash them all. 

– Treat surfaces with a disinfectant at the concentration and for the recommended 

time. Check that the disinfectant you want to use is effective against the problem you 

have, eg Phytophthora. Use only freshly prepared disinfectant (used disinfectant 

solutions may not work).and whether the surfaces are steel or plastic. 

– Keep all all treated surfaces/objects in a clean area away from dirt and other 

contamination until required. 

Remember to treat water and media/potting mixes as necessary. 

328 Fungal diseases - Integrated disease management


CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

Biocontrol agents 

can be affected by 

fungicides and 

environmental factors 

such as moisture 

and temperature 

Vegetatively propagated 

plants have greater 

uniformity. Severity of 

disease outbreaks 

increase as genetic 

uniformity of the host 

crop increases. 

Blights/Cankers 

In SE Asia, leaf blight 

(Kirramyces destructans) 

and stem cankers 

(K. zuluensis) causes 

diseases of eucalypts 

and may have spread 

around the region on 

infected germplasm. 

These diseases could , 

 

endemic eucalypts and 

the productivity of 

commercial plantations 


Antagonistic fungi and bacteria are naturally present in crop soils and exert 

some control over fungal disease organisms. They do this by either by parasitizing 

disease organisms, competing for food or producing antibiotic or volatile substances 

such as ethylene. Some have been commercialized (page 344, Table 60). 

– In suppressive soils, antagonistic microorganisms (mostly bacterial, fungi and 

actinomycetes) suppress soilborne diseases. Most beneficial effects of compost 

are due to the activities of antagonistic microorganisms. 

– Trichopel , others (Trichoderma spp.) suppress soilborne fungal diseases 

including Fusarium, Phytophthora, Pythium and Rhizoctonia. 

– Companion (Bacillus subtilis) as a soil drench suppresses Fusarium, Pythum, 

Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, in protected environments. Fulzyme Plus (B. subtilis + 

amino acids) may suppress Phytophthora and Pythium in certain situations. 

– Nutri-Life TrichoShield TM (B. subtilis, Trichoderma spp., Gliocladium virens) for 

seed, seedlings, transplants, bulbs, cuttings, grafts and established crops. 

Mycorrhizal fungi belong to all fungal groups and are essential for establishment 

and growth of many plant species. Plants with mycorrhizal roots can exploit a much 

greater volume of soil than non-mycorrhizal plants. Mycorrhiza activators, eg 

Mycorrcin, boost indigenous mycorrhizal populations increasing root colonization. 

Endophytes (fungi or bacteria growing systemically in living plants), cause few or 

no symptoms, but protects them from diseases and pests, while improving growth 

and drought tolerance. The best known are probably the grass endophytes. 

Hyperparasites. A fungus (Ampelomyces quisqualis) is a hyperasite of powdery 

mildew (natural control). 

Fungal-feeding insects and mites. Mites, springtails, protozoans, free-living 

nematodes and earthworms in soil feed on parasitic fungi and may assist their 

suppression. Up to 150 fungal-feeding mites can be found on some leaves. Some 

beneficial ladybirds may eat powdery mildew fungi. 

Others, eg a plant protein (finotin) has been extracted from the tropical forage 

legume Clitoria ternatea and found to have broad bio-pesticide properties against 

insect pests, a range of fungi and some bacterial disease organisms. A biofungicide 

extracted from Swinglea glutinosa against powdery mildew on beans and 

roses is currently marketed to flower growers overseas. 


For many fungal diseases, eg rusts, this is the only practical method of control. 

Provenances of Eucalyptus nitens vary in resistance to Mycosphaerella leaf spot 

(Mycosphaerella nubilosa). 

Rootstocks. Susceptible tomato scions are grafted onto tomato rootstocks with 

some resistance to Verticillium and Fusarium wilt diseases. 

Traditional cross-breeding has been successful for centuries in producing 

hybrids with a mix of characteristics. Interspecific crosses can be used to transfer 

genes from one species to another closely related species. 

Genetic engineering (GE) allows for quick transfer of individual genes or 

combination of genes for resistance into susceptible crop varieties, reducing the time 

required to develop new resistant varieties. Rust resistant genes in flax and maize 

may be transferred into wheat. 

Cross protection (mild strain protection). Dutch elm disease (DED) 

(Ophiostoma ulmi) is carried from tree to tree overseas by the elm bark beetle 

(Scolytus multistriatus). Trees possibly could be protected from DED by inoculating 

them every year with a mild strain of DED. 

Systemic acquired resistance (SAR). Plant activators stimulate the natural 

SAR response mechanisms found in most plant species, to certain virus, bacterial and 

fungal diseases and increase crop yield. They have no direct effect against the target 

pathogens. Downy and powdery mildews, postharvest diseases and bacterial leaf 

spots of certain vegetables are being researched. Bion Plant Activator Seed 

Treatment (acibenzolar-s-methyl) suppresses Fusarium wilt and black root rot of 

cotton in IDM programs. 


Quarantine treatments can prevent introduction or establishment of a disease 

into an area, eg fumigation, hot water, fungicides, seed fungicidal dust, etc. 

Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service. Many fungal diseases are 

not as yet in Australia, eg many rust diseases, strains of brown rot of stone fruits. 

Target list of diseases www.daff.gov.au/aqis/quarantine/naqs/target-lists 

 

 


Interstate and Regional Plant Quarantine. Many fungal diseases already in 

Australia have a restricted distribution, eg black spot of apple does not occur in 

WA. Area/property freedom certification certifies that an area or property is free 

from a specified disease, eg WA will accept gladioli from an area in Qld which is 

certified to be free from gladiolus rust (Uromyces transversalis). 

Local quarantine. Protocols have been developed for production nurseries to 

prevent contaminated seed, plants and soil being brought into a nursery and to 

prevent contaminated plants, soil, etc being supplied to growers, landscapers, fruit 

growers, vegetable growers, cut flower producers, etc (BioSecure HACCP). 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

Select the right 

disinfestation 

system for your 

situation 


Seed. Many fungal diseases are carried on, in, or in association with, seed. 

Using disease-tested seed is an effective way of controlling these diseases, eg loose smut 

of cereals, various seedborne diseases of annuals and vegetables. 

Vegetative propagation material eg bulbs, corms, cuttings, rootstocks, may 

carry fungal diseases from the parent plant and are often treated with heat or chemicals 

to free them from disease. Special techniques are used to obtain disease-freedom, eg 

– Tip cuttings from chrysanthemums infected with Verticillium wilt, often escape 

carrying the disease. 

– Continuous culture-indexing includes regular checks of plant material for fungal 

infection, eg Verticillium (and other diseases) over a 2-year period. Accurate records 

mean that contaminated plant lines can be destroyed. 

Certification Schemes provide the grower with seed or vegetative propagation 

material, which is “guaranteed free” from the diseases for which it has been tested and 

found to be free from. The planting material conforms to certain standards and certain 

tolerances for a disease. Zero tolerances may apply to a disease (or pest) that if detected 

on a property, would result in severe quarantine restrictions. 


Temperature 

– Hot water treatment (HWT) of rootstocks, rootlings and cuttings. Surface 

treatments, eg 55 o C for 5 minutes, eliminate root rotting fungi, bacteria, 

phylloxera and nematodes from grapevine propagation material. 

– Aerated steam is used to rid seeds of fungal and other diseases. Soil 

pasteurization (60 o C for 30 minutes) will kill Thielaviopsis (Chalara) in soil. 

– Composting, properly carried out (60 o C for 30 minutes or longer will kill most soil 

disease organisms, while leaving some beneficial ones. 

– Sterilizing recycled water by heat. 

10 seconds at 95 o C - Kill 100% disease organisms 

30 seconds at 95 o C - Kills nearly everything 

Lower temperatures may be used for longer periods. 

– Solarization prior to planting traps energy from the sun under clear plastic 

sheeting laid on soil beds for at least 4-6 weeks when there is adequate sun. Soil 

may be heated to a depth of 30-25cm and summer soil temperatures can rise to 60 o C 

which may assist control of some soil fungal diseases; acts a bit like pasteurization 

with steam. Water beds before solarization to improve control. Home gardeners can 

put media in plastic bags and leave in sun for 2-3 weeks. Solarization is not possible 

in mixed or perennial plantings, difficult in large areas and depth of treatment is 

limited (pages 373, 438). 

– Flame burners can be used to burn crop stubble after harvest, eg wheat. But this 

causes loss of nutrients and increased wind erosion (page 438). 

– Cooling and freezing is used extensively to control bacterial and fungal diseases 

of fruit, vegetables, cheese, milk and other food products. 

– Pasteurization of soil/media can be used to treat potting and propagation media in 

nurseries to kill most plant disease organisms that cause damping off, leaving some 

beneficial microflora (aerated steam at 60 o C for 30 minutes). Prevent infested soil 

from re-contaminating pots, potting mixes, cuttings, germinating seeds and seedlings 

on benches. Because soilless mixes are used today, pasteurization has mostly been 

abandoned or used for treating pots and trays. Principal substitutes are bark and 

sawdust which when composted provides conditions for a huge growth of 

microorganisms several of which suppress plant disease organisms. 

– ‘Smart films’ either block or allow through different wavelengths of light which 

biologically affect the plants, pests and diseases growing beneath them. They have 

been used overseas to eliminate bacteria, fungi and viruses. Flora-Fresh is a 

protective packaging film which absorbs ethylene to minimize moisture loss and 

damage in transportation and optimizes shelf-life and natural colour of each bunch. 

Irradiation destroys microorganisms, eg bacteria and fungi, and insects, eg weevil, 

fruit flies, and therefore can reduce the incidence of food-borne diseases and extend the 

refrigerated shelf life of foodstuffs. Some non-edible items are irradiated in Australia. 

Microwaves can be used to disinfest small quantities of media or soil. 

Pulsed UV light kills bacteria and fungi on the skin of many kinds of fruit improving 

fruit quality and extends shelf life. Also effective in hydroponic units against Pythium, 

Fusarium and Thielaviopsis. 

Heat treatment and UV light are currently the most popular methods of disinfecting 

recirculating nutrient solutions in the Netherlands. UV light is well-known in nursery 

circles for its ability to eradicate water-borne micro-organisms, eg Phytophthora, 

Pythium, Fusarium (Rolfe et al 2002). 

Filters are used to remove disease organisms from water. 

– Membranous filters remove the disease organisms which are causing the 

problem. Correct filters must be used. 

– Slow sand filtration (SSF) is used to disinfest recycled water or irrigation water 

from on-site dams to eliminate disease organisms, eg Phytophthora and Pythium. 

SSF is only partially effective at filtering Fusarium, viruses and nematodes. 

– Biofilters are used to treat run-off, rain and industrial waste water overseas. They 

consist of a medium of heavy scoria and a rotation system. Bacteria are added and 

multiply on the scoria grains and eliminate all fine organic matter including Fusarium, 

Phytophthora, Pythium and tomato mosaic virus. Non-harmful flora is retained. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

FUNGICIDES. 

LEGISLATION. 



Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA). 

APVMA 



AS 6000—2009. 




outlines the minimum 

requirements to be met 

by growers and 

manufacturers wishing to 

label their products 

 

 

 










FUNGICIDE APPLICATIONS. 

Fungal diseases are generally more difficult to control/suppress with fungicides than 

insects, other animal pests and weeds, this is because the fungus itself is a very simple 

plant living in close quarters with another plant. Root, crown and stem rots and wilt 

diseases, are also more difficult to control with fungicides than foliage diseases, eg 

powdery mildews. Fungicides often just suppress root diseases; they do not eradicate 

them. 

Repeated application of fungicides may kill some beneficial microorganisms and so 

change the composition flora on leaves and soil to some extent. Some such as 

Trichoderma spp. are considered to have some tolerance to a variety of fungicides 

Fungicide applications (page 332). 

Non-systemic & systemic fungicides (movement plants, page 333). 

Summary and examples (page 335). 

Non-selective & selective fungicides (page 336). 

When should fungicides be applied? (page 336). 

Resistance (page337). 

Fungicide Activity Groups (page 338, Table 58). 

Disinfectants (page 340 (Table 58) and page 343 (Table 59). 

Bio-fungicides, soaps, bicarbonates, milk, etc (page 344, Table 60). 


Contact CropLife Australia for updates of Fungicide Activity Groups 


Fig. 182. Some fungicide labels. 



FUNGICIDE APPLICATIONS. 

WHAT ARE 

FUNGICIDES 

USED TO TREAT? 

Bulbs, corns 

ALL PLANT PARTS, eg 

Foliage 

Stems, trunks, limbs, branches 

Flowers, fruit and seed 

Roots, bulbs, corms, tubers 

Seedlings, cuttings 

Stored fruit, vegetables, grain 

Soil, potting mixes 

Tools, benches 

Water 

Seeds 

Cuttings 

Nursery stock 

FORMULATIONS 

APPLICATION 

EQUIPMENT* 

Trolleypak 

Knapsack 

LIQUIDS, eg 

Emulsifiable concentrates 

Suspension concentrates 

Aqueous concentrates 

Liquid concentrate 

Liquid 

SOLIDS, eg 

Dust 

Granules 

Soluble powder 

Wettable powder 

OTHERS, eg 

Aerosol 

Fumigant 

 

 

Fungicide amended fertilizers 

Wetting agents, eg powdery mildews. 

The formulation is 

the product purchased 

Application equipment ranges from expensive large units to small ready-to-use 

convenient container-applicators. 

SPRAY EQUIPMENT, eg 

Hydraulic sprayers, eg 

knapsacks, trolleypaks, 

trailer sprayers, booms 

 

 

Air blast sprayers 

Mist blowers 

Truck sprayer 

Trailer sprayer 

Rotary atomizers 

Electrostatic sprayers 

Fog generators 

Aircraft 

OTHER EQUIPMENT, eg 

Dusters 

Granule dispensers/spreaders 

Tree injection, tree implants 

Soil injectors 

Vaporizers 

Boom sprayer 



APPLICATORS, eg 

Dusters 

Guns 

Aerosols 

Duster Gun Aerosol 



NON-SYSTEMIC & SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES 

Protectant & eradicant fungicides - Movement in plants 

NON-SYSTEMIC 

FUNGICIDES 

Protectant 

fungicides 

PROTECTANTS. 

Non-systemic fungicides are not absorbed by plant tissue and are 

only active at the site of application (contact between the fungicide and the 

fungus). They are often called protectant fungicides because they protect the 

host plant from initial infection and further infections. 

Most fungal spores infect the host during wet weather, the wet surface of the 

plant providing a suitable ‘seed-bed’ in which spores can germinate. When the 

plant is coated with a fungicide, some of the chemical will dissolve in the water on 

the surface of the host and the spores are killed before they can enter the host. 

Coverage must be thorough, make sure there is time for it to dry on the foliage. 

Because protectant fungicides are non-systemic, they only kill fungi on 

the outside of the host, they will not kill the fungus once it is inside the host plant! 

The fungicide must be applied before the spores land on leaves! 

Cross section 

of leaf 

No spray. Spores 

germinate and germ 

tubes penetrate leaf 

Spray applied after 

spores have germinated. 

Germ tubes and mycelium 

already within the leaf are 

not killed 

Spray applied before 

spores land on leaf. 

Spores are killed on the 

outside before germ 

tubes penetrate leaf. 

NON-SYSTEMIC. - FOLAGE, eg 

copper hydroxide 

copper oxychloride 

mancozeb 

sulphur 

NON-SYSTEMIC. - SOIL, eg 

Previcur , various (propamocarb) 

Terrazole (etridiazole) 

TMTD , various (thiram) 

 

 

. Advantages. of non-systemic fungicides include: 

– Often cheaper than systemic fungicides. 

– Less toxic (there are some exceptions). 

– Limited fungicide resistance. 

– Usually affect a number of metabolic pathways in the fungus, and tend to have 

a broad spectrum of activity. 

Disadvantages. of non-systemic fungicides include: 

– They must be applied before the arrival of the disease organisms, before 

symptoms are apparent or when the first symptoms appear. It must be applied 

before the fungus has actually been found but where it is expected. 

– All the foliage must be treated. 

– Rain or very windy weather may prevent fungicides being applied at the right 

time, so control may be difficult to achieve even with an effective fungicide. 

– The fungicide remains on the outside of the plant and so may be toxic to 

beneficial or other harmless organisms. 

– Regular applications may be necessary when plants are growing actively to 

protect new growth and because rain may wash protectant fungicides off the 

plant or they may deteriorate due to heat, light and rain. 



NON-SYSTEMIC & SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES (contd) 

Protectant & eradicant fungicides - Movement in plants 

SYSTEMIC 

FUNGICIDES 

Eradicant 

fungicides 

Curative 

fungicides 

ERADICANTS, CHEMO-THERAPEUTANTS. 

Systemic fungicides enter a plant and are active at sites remote from where they are 

applied; they are carried through the sap stream. They are often called eradicants 

or chemo-therapeutants because they not only protect the host from infection 

while they are on the outside, some may suppress or kill fungal organisms after 

they are within the host. 

Cross section of leaf 

Translocated 

fungicides 

No spray. Spores germinate and 

germ tubes penetrate leaf. 

SYSTEMIC. - FOLIAGE, eg 

Baycor (bitertanol) 

Bayleton , various (triadimefon) 

Saprol , various (triforine) 

Tilt , various (propiconazole) 

Spray applied after germ tubes and 

mycelium are inside the host. Mycelium 

already inside the leaf is killed. 

SYSTEMIC. – SOIL, eg 

Fongarid (furalaxyl) 

Ridomil , various (metalaxyl) 

Systemic fungicides and applied to the 

foliage do not generally move downwards 

into the roots. Their distribution within the 

above ground parts of the plant is variable. 

Systemic fungicides applied to the roots do 

not generally move upwards to control 

foliage diseases, there are exceptions. When 

applied to the soil, they dissolve in soil 

water and are taken up by the roots and 

translocated upwards to varying degrees 

within the plant. The soil must be kept moist 

for continued uptake 


of activity. 

Some new systemic 

have a very narrow 

spectrum of activity but 

they work better than 

the older ones 

Translaminar 

movement. 

Some fungicides, eg 

Stroby (kresoximmethyl), 

are nonsystemic 

but can move 

into, and may to a 

limited extent move 

within the leaf blade. 

Excessive residues 

may still occur unless 

withholding periods are 

observed. Washing the 

outside does not 

remove internal 

residues. 

 

 

Advantages. of systemic fungicides include: 

– They can reach diseases already in the host, eradicate established infections. 

They can be applied after any infection period determined by environmental 

monitoring stations. 

– Timing is not so critical. New developing foliage may be protected without 

further applications being necessary immediately. 

– The whole plant surface need not be treated, eg systemic pesticides may be 

applied as foliage, root and soil or tree injection treatments. 

– After the fungicide has been absorbed by the plant, it is not washed off by rain. 

– Surface residues disappear rapidly which minimizes risk to non-target organisms. 

– Some also have quite good protectant qualities. 

– Can be used to target periods when conditions are favourable for disease. 

Disadvantages. of systemic fungicides include: 

– Many are selective fungicides, not broad spectrum, and are usually only 

effective against a particular group of fungi. There are exceptions. 

– Fungal diseases may develop resistance to systemic fungicides and their 

overuse is the most common way for resistant strains to be generated. 

– Some systemic fungicides are not evenly distributed inside a plant but remain in 

the general area of entry to the plant. Penetration into certain tissues such as 

fruit and stems can be very limited. The degree of systemic activity varies but 

most are absorbed by the leaves or roots and transported upwards through the 

xylem (water-conducting system) and phloem. Thorough coverage is often still 

necessary for control. 

– They may control the disease, pest or weed more slowly than contact nonsystemic 

pesticides. 




Fig. 183. FUNGICIDES & BACTERICIDES (page 338) 

Foliage 

Soil 

Roots 

Trees 

Seed 

dressing 

Cuttings, 

seedlings 

Bulb dip 

Fruit 

dip 

Postharvest 

NON- 

SYSTEMIC 

Protectant 

SYSTEMIC 

Eradicant 

NON- 

SYSTEMIC 

Protectant 

SYSTEMIC 

Eradicant 

 

Captan (captan) 

copper 

 

Daconil 

(chlorothalonil) 

 

Dithane 

(mancozeb) 

sulphur 

 

 

Antirot, Phospot, 

 

Aus-phoz 

(phosphorous acid) 

 

Amistar 

(azoxyztrobin) 

 

Baycor (bitertanol) 

 

Bayleton 

(triadimefon) 

 

Rovral (iprodione) 

 

Saprol (triiforine) 

 

Stroby (kresoximmethyl) 

 

Terrazole 

(etridiazole) 

 

Thiram 

 

Aliette (fosetyl) copper 

Banol, Previcur lime 

(promamocarb) sulphur 

 

Fongarid phosphor 

(furalaxyl) ous acid 

 

Ridomil 

(metalaxyl) 

thiophanatemethyl 

copper 

Thiram 

 

Rovral 

(iprodione) 

 

 

Tecto 

(thiabendazole) 

 

Bavistin 

(carbendazim) 

MIXTURES 

Fig. 184. DISINFECTANTS (page 343) 

Secateurs Containers Benches, 

floors, 

mats 

Cuttings, 

seed 

Hands 

Respirators 

methylated spirit 

Biogram 

Bleach (sodium 

hypochlorite) 

Biogram 

Phytoclean 

(benzalkonium 

chloride) 

calcium 

hypochlorite 

various 

 

recommendation 



NON-SELECTIVE & SELECTIVE FUNGICIDES 

Broad & narrow spectrum fungicides 

NON-SELECTIVE WIDE 

FUNGICIDES 

 


SELECTIVE 

FUNGICIDES 


 

RANGE OF ACTIVITY 

Many fungicides have some activity against 

a wide range of fungal diseases, eg 

– Copper and sulphur 

– Mancozeb , Thiram and Zineb 

 

– Zyban (mancozeb/thiophanate-methyl) 

Many fungicides, especially the new systemic ones, may only be effective against 

particular groups of fungi (some exceptions). 

Phycomycota fungi only. These fungicides are only effective against 

Phycomycota, eg 

– Fongarid (furalaxyl) - Phytophthora, Pythium 

– Ridomil (metalaxyl) - Phytophthora, Pythium 

Not. Phycomycota fungi. Some 

fungicides are not effective against 

Phycomycota fungal diseases but are 

affective against powdery mildews, 

leaf spots, rusts and some soil diseases, eg 

– Bavistin (carbendazim) - Powdery mildews, leaf spots 

– Bayleton (triadimefon) - Powdery mildews, rusts 

– Tilt (propiconazole) - Powdery mildews, leaf spots, rusts 

– Saprol (triforine) - Powdery mildews, leaf spots, rusts, brown rot 

WHEN SHOULD FUNGICIDES BE APPLIED? 

GROWTH STAGE 

OF HOST 

Depending on the disease and fungicide type, fungicides can be applied to different parts 

of the host plant. Some diseases only affect new foliage, eg peach leaf curl. 

Foliage Flowers Dormant Seeds, cuttings Bulbs, corms Roots, soil 

SUSCEPTIBLE 

STAGE IN FUNGUS 

LIFE CYCLE 

Spores of peach leaf curl 

’overwinter’ on buds 

NUMBER AND 

INTERVAL 

BETWEEN 

APPLICATIONS 

Choose a susceptible stage in the life cycle of the fungus, eg peach leaf curl spores 

'overwinter' in the buds and infect new leaves in spring (page 359). 

Timing. The disease cycle determines where and when a fungicide is applied. 

– Peach leaf curl can be controlled with a single application to dormant buds 

before new leaves are infected. 

– Some diseases may be controlled by starting applications at the very first 

sign of disease, eg powdery mildews. 

Early warning systems. Once conditions favouring a particular disease are 

known, weather can be monitored and spore germination and infection predicted with 

some certainty. 

– Early warning systems are available for many crops, including downy mildew 

of grapes, prune rust. 

– Sometimes it is difficult to apply fungicides at the correct time, eg weather is 

unsuitable for application. Inability to recognize the problem. 

PEACH LEAF CURL (an example) 

Follow resistance strategies on fungicide labels. 

Correct number of applications is necessary to obtain satisfactory control of 

many diseases. There are exceptions, eg peach leaf curl of stone fruit may be 

controlled by only one preventative application of copper to susceptible trees at 

early budswell and no later than mid-budswell or control will be unsatisfactory and 

new leaves may be damaged. Weather may prevent this. 

Correct interval between applications. For some diseases applications may 

need to be made at regular intervals, which may vary according to weather, the 

particular fungus and persistence of the fungicide, eg black spot of rose. Warning 

systems may indicate when applications are necessary. 

Preventative applications may be necessary for ‘key’ diseases that occur 

every year, eg seeds, cuttings and soil are frequently treated with fungicides to 

provide some control of damping off diseases. 



RESISTANCE. 

WHAT IS 

RESISTANCE? 

RESISTANCE 

MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGIES 



according to how 

the pesticides kill 

the insect, fungi 

and weeds and is 

used for resistance 

management 


toxicity, 

 






page 237). 

Resistance is the ability of disease organisms to survive doses of fungicide that 

would normally provide control. Resistance is so extensive it is difficult to find 

effective fungicides. Fungi which produce large numbers of spores with many 

infection cycles per season, eg powdery mildews, grey mould, brown rot, develop 

resistance more quickly. Continuous use of systemic fungicides with only one mode 

of action can lead to resistance problems after less than 20 applications due to the 

continual selection of resistant spores. 

Reduced yields. Prolonged use of some systemic fungicides has led to reduced 

yields due to increased disease in some fruit crops. 

In Australia, fungal diseases of ornamentals, turf, fruit and vegetables which 

have developed resistance to a range of chemicals include: 

– Downy and powdery mildews 

– Grey mould (Botrytis) and other postharvest diseases of fruit 

– Brown rot of stone fruit, apple and pear scab 

– Late and early blights of potato and tomato 

The application of fungicides must be part of an IDM program which include nonchemical 

control methods to preserve beneficial fungi and other micro-organisms and 

delay resistance development. IDM strategies should be in place before resistance 

becomes a problem. 

Fungicide Resistance Management Strategies. 

– CropLife Australia has classified fungicides into Fungicide Activity Groups 

which indicate how the fungicide kills or suppresses the fungus (page 338, 

Table 58). Some disinfectants and biological fungicides are not classified by 

CropLife Australia (page 343, Table 59, page 344, Table 60). Contact Croplife 

Australia for updates on classification and click on Resistance 

Management: 



fungicides, observe 1 2 3…. groups on commercial fungicide labels. 

Follow resistance warnings. Rotate fungicides between different groups as 

recommended. Remember, persons using commercial fungicides must undergo 

training. Home garden products available from garden centres are not 

required to have fungicide activity groups on their labels. 

– CropLife Australia has prepared management strategies for some diseases on 

some crops, to minimize the development of resistance. 

Crop-Disease Resistance Management Strategies have been developed, eg 

grey mould (Botrytis) on grapevine, lettuce, ornamentals, pulse crops, 

strawberry; powdery mildew of cucurbits, grapevine, strawberry; downy 

mildew on cucurbits, grapevine, lettuce, onion, poppies. 

Follow label instructions and warnings. which include resistance 

strategies. Application of some fungicides for control of some diseases is 

restricted in order to prevent or delay the likelihood of resistance developing. 

Do not exceed recommended rates of application if a specific fungicide is no 

longer giving control of a disease. “Example” and “Company” are used in the 

following general instructions to avoid using specific insecticide or company 

names. 



other than 


Incorrect identification 

of the disease. 

Wrong fungicide may 

have been used. Many 

fungicides control only 

1 or 2 types of fungal 

diseases. 

Equipment not 

calibrated properly. 

Applied at wrong time 

Weather unsuitable for 

application. 

FUNGICIDE RESISTANCE WARNING 

GROUP 3 FUNGICIDE 

Example is a member of the DMI froup of fungicides. For fungicide 

resistance management, Example is a Group 3 fungicide. Some naturally 

occurring individual fungi resistant to Example and other Group 3 

fungicides may exist through normal genetic variability in any fungal 

population. The resistant individuals can eventually dominate the fungal 

population if these fungicides are used repeatedly. Example and other 

Group 3 fungicides will not control these resistant fungi, thus resulting in a 

reduction in efficacy and possible yield loss. Since occurrence of resistant 

individuals is difficult to detect prior to use. Company accepts no liability 

for any losses that may result from the failure of Example to control 

resistant fungi. 

Some labels may include: Refer to specific Croplife Resistance 

Management Strategies on the label 



FUNGICIDE ACTIVITY GROUPS 

Fungicides are classified by Croplife Australia into fungicide 

activity groups which assist in resistance management. 




They also provide an overall picture of the types of fungicides 

available for crop protection. 

Mark fungicides you use at work. 

Contact Croplife Australia for a full list of fungicides, 






Table 58. Fungicide Activity Groups. (2009) some examples 

ACTIVITY GROUP THE PRODUCT SOME USES 


CHEMICAL 

FAMILY 

Trade name Mode of action CROPS, SITES 


TREATED 

ACTIVITY 

GROUP CODE 

Activity group 

1 

Methyl 

Benzimidazole 

Carbamates 

2 

Dicarboximide 

3 

DMIs 

(often called 

sterol inhibitors) 

Benzimidazole 

Thiophanates 

Dicarboximide 

Imidazole 

Piperazine 

BAVISTIN, VARIOUS 

carbendazim 

BANROT 

thiophanate-methyl + 

etridiazole (Grp 14) 

ROVRAL, VARIOUS 

iprodione 

FORTRESS, VARIOUS 

procymidone 


FUNGAFLOR, VARIOUS 

imazalil 

PROTAK, VARIOUS 

prochloraz 

SAPROL, VARIOUS 

triforine 

Eradicant (systemic) 

also post-harvest 

dips, seed pieces 

(sugar cane, ginger) 


Protectant 

thiophanate-methyl – 

Phytophthora, Pythium 

etridiazole – Rhizoctonia, 

Thielvaliopsis (Chalara) 

Mainly protectant 


Also seed treatments 


Protectant 


Protectant 

Protectant 


Protectant 


Certain 

ornamentals, fruit, 

vegetables & field 

crops, turf 

Ornamentals 

Certain vegetables, 

ornamentals and 

fruit, turf 

Potatoes, onions 


citrus, also stored 

potato tubers 

Certain fruits, turf 

Rose, 

chrysanthemum, 

stonefruit, apples 

DISEASES CONTROLLED, 

SUPPRESSED 


Botrytis, brown rot, 

leaf spot, powdery 

mildew, Rhizoctonia, 

others, not Oomycota 


Damping off, root & 

stem rots caused by 

Phytophthora, Pythium, 

Rhizoctonia, 

Thielvaliopsis (Chalara) 


Botrytis, brown rot, 

Sclerotinia, Sclerotium, 

turf diseases, but not 

Oomycota 


target spot (potato), 

white rot (onion) 


Postharvest diseases 

& storage diseases 


postharvest diseases, 

dollar spot, not 

Oomycota 


black spot, powdery 

mildew, rust, brown rot, 

post harvest diseases; 

not Oomycota 

There are 

currently 

17 triazole 

products (2009) 

registered; many 

are seed 

dressings for 

wheat, barley, 

oats, stored 

grain 

Pyrimidine 

Triazole 

RUBIIGAN 

fenarimol 

BAYCOR, VARIOUS 

bitertanol 

NUSTAR, CANE STRIKE 

flusilazole 

BANNER, TILT, 

THROTTLE, VARIOUS 

propiconazole 


azoxystrobin (Grp 11) 

BAYLETON, VARIOUS 

triadimefon 

BAYFIDAN, VARIOUS 

triadimenol 


an insecticide for 

seed dressings 

Protectant 


Protectant 


Protectant 


Protectant 



ornamentals, 

vegetables 

Ornamentals, turf 

Apple, pear, 

grapevine; dip for 

sugarcane setts for 

pineapple disease 

Certain fruit, field 

crops, turf, boronia, 

sugarcane 

Eradicant (systemic) Azalea, cucurbits, 

grapevines, peas, 

sugarcane, barley, 

wheat, turf 


taken up through 

roots and foliage 

Brassicas, papaws 

grapevines, turf 


powdery mildews, 

black spot, not 

Oomycota 



rusts, black spot of 

rose, turf diseases,; 

not Oomycota 


black spot of apple & 

pear, powdery mildew 

of apple & grapevine, 

etc not Oomycota 



rusts, leaf spots, brown 

rot, turf diseases, not 

Oomycota 



rusts, azalea petal 

blight, turf diseases 



ringspot, sugarcane 

(pineapple disease) 



Table 58. Fungicide Activity Groups. 

(2009) some examples (contd) 



CHEMICAL Trade name 

FAMILY Active constituent Mode of action CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

ACTIVITY 

GROUP CODE 


4 

Phenylamide 

5 

Amines 

(Morpholines) 

7 

Carboxamides 

8 

Hydroxy- (2- 

amino-) 

pyramidine 

9 

Anilino 

pyrimidine 

11 

Quinone 

outside 

Inhibitor 

(Qols) 

Strobilurin 

fungicides 

originated from 

small mushrooms 

(Strobilurus sp.) 

in pine forests in 

Europe 

Acylalanine 

Oxazoli 

dinone 

(only avail in 

combination) 

Spiroketalamine 

Oxathiin 

carboxamides 

Phenyl 

benxamides 

Pyridine 

carboxamides 

Hydroxy- (2- 

amino-) 

pyramidine 

Anilino 

pyrimidine 

Methoxy 

acrylate 

Oximino 

acetates 

Methoxy 

carbamate 

12 Phenyl 

Phenylpyrroles 

pyrroles 

13 

Quinolines 

Quinolines 

FONGARID 

furalaxyl 

RIDOMIL, VARIOUS 

metalaxyl 


other fungicides 

REBOUND 

oxadixyl + 

propineb (group M3) 

PROSPER 

spiroxamine 

VITAVAX, VARIOUS 

carboxin 


other fungicides or 

insecticides 

PLANTVAX 

oxycarboxin 

MONCUT 

flutolanil 

FILAN 

boscalid 

may formulated with other 

fungicides 

NIMROD 

bupirimate 

Inhibits appressoria 

formation and so 

prevents infections 

CHORUS 

cyprodinil 

may formulated with 

other fungicides, eg 

Switch (cyprodinil + 

fludioxonil) 

PYRUS, SCALA, 

SIGANEX 

pyrimethanil 



AMISTAR, 

HERITAGE MAXX 

azoxystrobin 


other fungicides, eg 

Amistar Xtra 

(azoxystrobin + 

cyproconazole 

STROBY 

kresoxim-methyl 

CABRIO 

pyraclostrobin 

MAXIM 

fludioxonil 



LEGEND 

quinoxyfen 


Protectant 


also seed treatments 

for downy mildews, 

damping off, 

Phytophthora 

Eradicant - oxadixyl 

Protectant - propineb 

Ornamentals, seed 

& cutting beds, 

shrubs, glasshouse 

beds, soil for potted 

plants 

Certain fruit and 

vegetables 

Cucurbits, grapes, 

lettuce, onions 


SUPPRESSED 


damping of & root rot 

diseases (Pythium, 

Phytophthora), 

Oomycota fungi 


root & trunk rots 

(Phytophthora, 

damping off, Oomycota 

fungi 

Fungicide 

downy mildews; 

gummy stem blight 

and anthracnose on 

cucurbits only 

Eradicant (systemic) Grapevines Narrow spectrum 

powdery mildew 




absorbed by foliage & 

roots 

Barley, oats, 

wheat, triticale 

Ornamentals, 

green beans 


smut diseases 

Insecticide 

stored grain pests 


rusts 

Protectant mainly Potato Narrow spectrum 

black scurf 

Protectant 

and translaminar 

activity in individual 

leaves 

Protectant 



Protectant 

some eradicant 

properties, penetrates 

developing fruitlets 

Eradicant (systemic) It 

is absorbed through 

the roots and 

translocated in the 

xylem to the stems 

and leaves, or 

Protectant 

(non-systemic) 

trans-laminar activity 

Protectant 

provide some locally 

systemic movement 

in plant tissue 

Protectant 

Seed treatment nonsystemic 

in the plant 

system. However, its 

penetrative 

Protectant 


Grapevines, Narrow spectrum 

inhibits spore bunch rot, grey mould 

germination and (Botrytis cinerea) 

germ tube elongation 

Apples, melons 

(except 

watermelons), some 

ornamentals 

Apple, pear, 

apricot, peach, 

plum, nectarine 

Grapevines, 

strawberries & 

tolerant 

ornamentals 


vegetables, 

poppies, turf 

Apple, pear 

Grapevine, banana 

Maize, sweetcorn, 

potato 

Grapevines 


powdery mildews 


scab of apple, pear, 

blossom blight & brown 

rot of apricot, peach, 

plum, nectarine 


bunch rot (Botrytis 

cinerea) including 

fungal strains resistant 

to dicarboximides and 

benzimidazoles 


both downy mildew & 

powdery mildew, 

suppresses bunch rot 

(Botrytis) & other 

specified diseases, 

some turf diseases 


black spot and powdery 

mildew in apples, scab 

in pears 


downy & powdery 

mildews of grape-vines, 

leaf spot & leaf speckle 

of banana 


damping off (Fusarium, 

Penicillium); also 

black scurf, silver surf 

& common scab 









CHEMICAL Trade name Mode of action CROPS, SITES 

FAMILY Active constituent 

TREATED 

ACTIVITY 

GROUP CODE 


14 

Aromatic 

hydrocarbons 

(chlorophenyls 

nitroanilines) 

Hetero 

aromatics 

17 

Hydroxyanilide 

20 

Phenylureas 

28 

Carbamate 

29 

Unspecified 

33 

Phosphanates 

(stimulate 

defense 

mechanisms in 

the host plant 

(phytoalexins) 

and so increase 

host resistance) 

40 

Carboxylic 

acid amides 

M 

Multi-site 

activity 

Group M 

fungicides 

have an 

inherently low 

risk of fungicide 

resistance 

developing 

More 

disinfectants 

are listed on 

pages 343, 284 

Aromatic 

hydrocarbons 

1,2,4- 

thiadiazole 

Hydroxyanilide 

Phenylureas 

Carbamate 

2,6-dinitroanilines 

Ethyl 

phosphonate 

Cinnamic acid 

derivative 

Inorganic 

Hydroxy 

quinoline 

TERRACLOR, 

VARIOUS 

quintozene 

APVMA has suspended 

the supply or use of 

material/ products 

containing quintozene 

until 12 April 2011 

RIZOLEX, VARIOUS 

tolclofos-methyl 

Different formulations for 

different crops 

TERRAZOLE 

etridiazole 

may be formulated with other 

fungicides, eg Banrot 

(etridiazole/ thiophanate) 

TELDOR 

fenhexamid 

MONCEREN 

pencycuron 

PREVICUR, BANOL, 

PROPLANT 

propamocarb 

SHIRLAN, GEM 

fluazinam 

ALIETTE, SIGNATURE 

fosetyl (as thealuminum 

salt) 

ANTI ROT, PHOSPOT, 

VARIOUS 

phosphorous acid 

apply as tree injection 

or foliar spray (check 

label) 

ACROBAT 

dimethomorph 

VIBREX HORTICARE 

SANITISER, VARIOUS 

chlorine dioxide 

PERATEC, TSUNAMI, 

VARIOUS 

hydrogen peroxide + 

peroxyacetic acid 

See TerraClean Broad 

Spectrum Fungicide below* 

BIOMAXA IODINE 

GRANULE POST- 

HARVEST SANITISER 

Iodine 

used with the Isan system: 

Iodoclean system 

SHIRTAN 

mercury present as 

methoxy ethyl 

mercuric chloride 

OSKU-VID GRAPE 

GUARDS 

sodium metabisulphite 

anhydrous 

STAEHLER 

GRAFTING WAX 

hydroxyquinoline 

Protectant 


Soil treatment 

Seed treatment for 

rhizoctinia in cotton 

Protectant 


seed & seed tuber 

treatments 

Protectant 

(slightly systemic) 

Soil fungicide 

Protectant 

non-systemic) 

Locosystemic 

Protectant 



Residual qualities 

Protectant 


Little systemic 

activity, good 

residual effect 


long persistent 

control 

Protectant 


moves in phloem 

and xylem, moves 

up & down in plants 

Foliar sprays may 

cause leaf burn esp. 

to new growth 

Ornamentals, 

vegetables, peanuts, 

turf, cotton 

Cotton, potatoes. 

Ornamentals, turf 

Grapevines, 

strawberries 

Potato (at planting) 

Seed tuber at planting 

Ornamentals, 

recreational turf 

Brassicas, 

grapevines, apple 

Some miticide 

acitivity 

Apple, avocado, 

ornamentals, peach, 

turf, pineapple 

Avocado, citrus, 

ornamentals, 

pineapple, 

subterranean clover 

Eradicant (systemic) Certain vegetables 

(lettuce, cucurbits, 

onion, potatoes), 

Sanitizer 

Sanitizes and kills 

all aerobic bacteria, 

anaerobic bacteria 

& their spores, and 

fungi & their spores 

Sanitizer. Aids in 

preventing spread of 

citrus canker 

Ioteq www.ioteq.com 

Fungicidal dip for 

sugarcane setts 


Fumigant action 


SUPPRESSED 


soilborne diseases, eg 

Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium 

rofsii (not Fusarium. 


Verticillium) 


Rhizoctonia 

(not Pythium, 


Phytophthora, Pythium 

Narrow spectrm 

bunch rot, gray mould 

(Botrytis) 

Fungicide 

Seedborne black scurf 

(Rhizoctonia) 


damping-off (Pythium 

spp.) 


club root, white root rot 

(Rosellinia necatrix) on 

apple; suppression of 

Phomopsis blight 

(grapevines) 


some Phytophthora 

rots, Pythium spp. 


Phytophthora rots; 

downy mildews of 

grapes, poppies & 

cucurbits 

Fungicides 

downy mildews, 

late & early blights of 

grapes, oil seed poppies potatoes 

Mushroom growing Sanitizer 

facilities, fruit & bacteria 

vegetable rinses 

Process water for postharvest 

processing fruit 

& vegetables, eg bunch 

rot on grapes. Cleans 

hard non-porous 

surfaces on vegetable 

and other farms 

Agriculture, 

horticulture, nurseries, 

hydroponics, fruit & 

vegetables 

Sugar cane setts 

Grape guard pads 

applied to packaged 

grapes emit sulphur 

dioxide gas 

Grapevines 

* TerraClean Broad Spectrum Fungicide (activated peroxygen liquid concentrate) overseas, 

eliminates serious root and stem diseases including Phytophthora, Pythium, Fusarium, 

Rhizoctonia, Verticillium, Thielaviopsis (Chalara www.biosafesystems.com. 

Disinfectant 

bacteria, viruses; also 

suppresses grey mould 

(bunch rot) Botrytis 

cinerea) close to 

harvest 

Sanitizer 

Pythium, Phytophthora, 

Fusarium, Rhizoconia, 

Chalara & certain 

bacteria 

Fungicide 

pineapple disease 

(Ceratocystis paradoxa) 

Fungicide 

Botrytis rots during 

cool storage 

Fungicide 

improved healing of 

grapevine grafts 








ACTIVITY 

GROUP CODE 


M1 

Multi-site 

activity 

(contd) 

Group M 

fungicides 

have an 

inherently low 

risk of fungicide 

resistance 

developing 

Copper is 

residual in soil 

for decades, 

and can be toxic 

to earthworms 

and other 

organisms, 

including fungi 

and plants 

Bluestone 

(copper sulphate) 

controls algae on 

paths and in 

ponds, and 

corrects copper 

deficiency in fruit 

trees and 

vegetables 

M2 

Multi-site 

activity 

Sulphur can be 

toxic to many 

organisms and 

may kill some 

parasites and 

predators 

Eco-fungicide 

is a 

BFA CERTIFIED 

PRODUCT FOR 

ORGANIC 

GARDENS 

. 

CHEMICAL 

FAMILY 

Inorganic 

(copper 

compounds) 

Bordeaux 

mixture refers to 

the freshly made 

up mixture of 

mixture of copper 

sulphate, 

hydrated lime 

and water. This 

mixture is no 

longer a 

registered 

treatment and 

has been 

replaced by other 

copper products. 

Inorganic 

Trade name 


NORSHIELD, VARIOUS 

cuprous oxide 

BLUE SHIELD, KOCIDE, 

VARIOUS 

cupric hydroxide 


mancozeb (ManKocide) 

Group M fungicides have an 

inherently low risk of fungicide 

resistance developing 

BRYCOP, OXYDUL, 

VARIOUS 

copper oxychloride 


metalaxyl (Axiom Plus) 

LIQUICOP, VARIOUS 

copper ammonium acetate 

copper ammonium complex 

TRI-BASE BLUE, 

BORDEAX, CUPROFIX, 

VARIOUS 

tribasic copper sulpate 


mancozeb (Cuprofix Plus) 

TRICOP 

copper octanoate 

DUSTING SULPHUR 

sulphur 

KUMULUS, THIOVIT JET, 

WETTABLE SULPHUR, 

VARIOUS 

wettable or dispersible 

sulphur 

LIME SULFUR 

sulphur (S) as 

polysulphide sulphur 

Disagreeable to handle, do not 

apply if air temperature is > 

32 o C, if freezing weather is 

predicted or within 2 weeks of 

oil sprays unless label 

indicates otherwise 

ECO-FUNGICIDE, ECO- 

ROSE, ECO-CARB 

potassium bicarbonate 

(page 344) 

Protectant 


Preventative 

Protectant 


Preventative 

copper stops roots 

growing outside 

containers. May 

help to reduce root 

diseases 

Protectant 


Preventative 

Protectant 


Preventative 

Protectant 


Preventative 

Protectant 


Preventative 

Protectant 


Protectant 


Protectant 


Contact, some 

fumigant action 

Contact fungicide 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Various diseases 

of stone & pome 

fruit trees, other 

fruits, vegetables 

Various diseases 

of stone & pome 

fruits, other fruits, 

vegetables, 

ornamentals 

Stone & pome 

fruits, other fruits, 

grapevines, 

vegetables, roses, 

ornamentals 


SUPPRESSED 

Fungicide 

peach leaf curl, shothole, 

freckle, scab, melanose, 

leaf spots, downy mildew 

(not powdery mildew), 

Bactericide 

bacterial cankers, leaf 

spots, etc 

Fungicide 

as for copper 

oxychloride, also 

Phytophthopra 

Bactericide 

bacterial cankers, leaf 

spots 

Root pruning 

has been used for treating 

containers for growing 

trees and shrubs 

Fungicide 


leaf spots, downy 

mildews, Phytophthora 

trunk canker & root rot 

Bactericide 

bacterial canker, spots 

Fruit & vegetables Fungicide 


leaf spots, scab, 

Phyophthora stem rot, 

cankers, downy mildews, 


(grapevines) 

Bactericide 

bacterial soft rots, leaf 

pots, bacterial canker 

Fruit, nuts, 

vegetables & 

ornamentals 

Nectarine, 

peaches, vines, 

vegatables 

Citrus, grapes, 

pawpaws, 

pumpkins, 

marrows 

Some fruit and 

vegetables, 

ornamentals, eg 

roses. Causes 

less plant injury 

than lime sulphur 


stone fruit, grapes, 

citrus, tomato & 

ornamentals may 

stain trellises, 

often used as 

dormant spray 

Roses, grapevines, 

strawberries, 

vegetables (tomato, 

capsicum, 

cucumber, zucchini) 

Fungicide 

peach leaf curl, freckle, 

shothole, spot diseases, 

melanose, downy mildew 

Bactericide 

bacterial canker, bacterial 

spot diseases 

Fungicide 

peach leaf curl, downy & 

powdery mildew, leaf 

spots etc. 

Fungicide 

powdery mildews 

Miticide 

citrus rust mite 

Fungicide 

black spot, rust, 


Insecticide 

scales 

Miticide 


Insecticide. 

scales 

Miticide. 

blister mites, others 

Fungicide 

powdery mildews, black 

spot, peach leaf curl, rust 

Fungicide 

powdery mildews, also 

black spot of rose. Mix 

with Eco-oil for increased 

effectiveness 




ManKocide (cupric hydroxide + mancozeb) both Group Y 





ACTIVITY 

GROUP CODE 


M3 

Multi-site 

activity 

M4 

Multi-site 

activity 

CHEMICAL 

FAMILY 

Dithio 

carbamate 

Phthalimide 

Trade name 


MANCOZEB, DITHANE, 

PENNCOZEB, VARIOUS 

mancozeb 


fungicides, eg with cupric 

hydroxide (Mankocide DF 

with sulphur (Mancozeb 

Plus) 

THIRAM, VARIOUS 

thiram 

maye be formulated with 

carboxin (Vitavax) 

ZINEB 

zineb 


fungicides. 

CAPTAN, VARIOUS 

captan 


other fungacides. 

Protectant 


Protectant 


Seed treatments, 

soil drenches 

Protectant 


Protectant 

(non-systemic), 

very slight 

systemic activity, 

CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Ornamentals, 

vegetables, fruit, 

turf, field crops 

Ornamentals, 

fruit, flowers, 

vegetable, turf, 

seeds 

Ornamentals, 

fruit trees, 

vegetables, turf 

Ornamentals, 

grape, turf, pome 

& stone fruits, 

strawberries, 

peanuts 

DISEASES, CONTROLLED, 

SUPPRESSED 


leaf spots, rusts, brown 

rot, turf diseases, 

Botrytis, downy mildews, 

not powdery mildews 


damping off, turf 

diseases, leaf spots, 


downy mildews, leaf 

spots, rusts, damping off, 

etc 


black spot, grey mould 

(Botrytis), fruit rots, brown 

patch, damping off 

(Pythium),downy mildew, 

blossom blight/brown rot; 

seedling blight (Rhizopus, 

Aspergillus) of peanuts 

M5 

Multi-site 

activity 

Chloronitriles 

BRAVO, DACONIL, 

VARIOUS 

chlorothalonil 

Protectant 

(non-systemic), 

long residual 

activity 

Ornamentals, turf, 

fruit, vegetables, 

crops 


Botrytis, leaf spots, brown 

patch, dollar spot, rusts, 

downy mildews 

M6 

Multi-site 

activity 

M7 

Multi-site 

activity 

Sulfamide 

Quanidine 

EUPAREN MULTI 

tolylfluanid 

SYLLIT 

dodine 

PANOCTINE, 

ZANOCTINE 

guazatine 

Protectant 


Protectant 


local systemic 

activity 

Protectant 


Strawberry 

Pome fruit, stone 

fruit 

Citrus, tomatoes, 

rockmelons 


black spot, grey mould 

(Botrytis); suppresses 



black spot in apples, 

pears; peach leaf curl & 

blossom blight 


postharvest diseases 

M9 

Multi-site 

activity 

Quinone 

(anthraquinone) 

DELAN, VARIOUS 

dithianon 

Protectant 


Some pome and 

stone fruits, 

vines 


black spot, bitter rot, 

shothole, brown rot, 

freckle downy mildew 

Fumigants. (page 267) 



Table 59. Disinfectants. some examples 

The term ‘disinfectant’ commonly refers to chemicals used to surface-sterilize inanimate objects, some are 

used to surface-sterilize plant surfaces. The term ‘disinfection’ is used to describe using a chemical or other 

agent to kill or inactivate disease-producing microorganisms inside seeds or other plant parts. 

There is no general disinfectant which will eradicate all disease organisms. So that identification of the 

disease problem is essential, followed by careful selection of a disinfectant/fungicide/bactericide that will be 

effective. Permits may be required. Heat is still one of the most effective disinfectants. 

Certain situations may specifiy particular disinfectants and rates, eg viruses, quarantine (pages 340, 284). 

Seek advice for your particular situation. 

Some disinfectants are not registered as pesticides but are included here for convenience. 

Some disinfectants may damage plants and some may contaminate the environment. 

Prior to treating tools, benches and other items, remove all dirt or soil. 

Sodium hypochlorite is the most common form of chlorine used in horticulture and is often used as a disinfectant. Its 

effectiveness is influenced by concentration, exposure time, light and temperature, etc. 

Common treatments for contaminated water include chlorination or a combination of chlorination and 

filtration. Chlorination is hazardous, improper use of chemicals and higher than recommended concentrations 

may corrode the irrigation system, damage soil and plants. 

Some disinfectants are hazardous to the operator, eg they may cause skin and bronchial irritation. Consult the 

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), available standards, wear recommended personal protective equipment (PPE). 

CHEMICAL TYPE 

See page 340 

for more 

disinfectants 

Alcohols 

Halogens 

Phenols & 

substituted 

phenols 

Quaternary 

ammonium 

compounds 

(quats) 

Others 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


ETHANOL, 

METHYLATED SPIRITS 

ethyl alcohol 

BLEACH 

sodium hypochlorite 

calcium hypochlorite 

(use calcium hypochlorite for 

disinfecting plant material) 

PYTHOFF 

chlorine compounds 

BIOGRAM 

ethanol 

o-Phenylphenol 

Clorofene 

KENDOCIDE 

dichlorophen 

VARIOUS 

quaternary ammonium 

compound 

Solution of 70% in 

cold water, at this 

concentration it 

evaporates less 

quickly and is less 

flammable 

Recommended 

concentration and 

dip time must be 

adhered to, can 

damage clothing, 

degrades rapidly 

in light 

Nonsystemic 

Recommended 

dip times must 

be adhered to 

VARIOUS, 

Fast acting, with 

PHYTOCLEAN CANE a moderately 

KNIFE STERILIZER long duration of 

benzalkonium chloride action. 

Inactivated by 

140 products registered, organic matter 

eg Zero Moss & Algae Gun 

SOME USES 


CROPS, PLANTS, SITES 

TREATED 

Secateurs, personal use 

CAUTION 

Australia Standard 

Refer AS 2508 3.017 

Cuttings, floors, benches, 

containers. 

Do not contaminate food, 

inactivated by organic 

matter 

Hydroponic nutrient 

conditioner 

Container dip, floors, 

benches, floor pad 

entrance to glass-houses, 

tools, tyres, machinery, 

items in contact with soil 

Floors & benches in green 

houses, pots, paths, 

brickwork; lawns, turf. 

Tools, hands, foot baths, 

seed trays, cuttings, 

growing media, etc 

Containers, used for blue 

metal under containers. 

May damage some plants 

Footwear, tools, tyres, 

machinery washdown, 

vehicles and other items in 

contact with soil, vehicle, 

glasshouses, work areas, 

walls, pots, tools, cane 

knives, packing sheds. 

Paths, roofs, hard 

surfaces, greens & lawns 


CONTROLLED 

Disinfectant 

ethanol plus flaming 

does not adequately 

inactivate viruses 

Disinfectant 

household, dairy, food 

processing areas, 

containers, plant 

material 

Disinfectant 

used from seed to harvest 

Disinfectant 

broad spectrum 

disinfectant, Botrytis, 

Fusarium, Phytophthora, 

Pythium 

Algae, mosses, 

liverworts 

Disinfectant 

broad spectrum 

bactericide, algacide 

and fungicide especially 


Sclerotium 

Disinfectant 

Only some bacteria, 

viruses, protozoa; 

fungi (Phytophthora) 

Algae, mosses, 

lichens, liverworts 

FLORALIFE 

Extend the life of cut Disinfectant 

Food sugar 

flowers 

bacteria & fungi 

Biocide - to inhibit growth 

of bacteria & fungi 

Acidifier to lower pH 

DETTOL 

General antiseptic 

chloroxylenol 

(phenol or cresol compd) 

MICROKILL 

Nonsystemic Seedlings, plants Disinfectant 

citrus pulp + 

herbs to buffer and 

stabilize shelf life 

COOLACIDE 

Recirculating waters, Disinfectant 

poly(oxyethylene 

cooling towers etc. algae, bacteria and fungi 

(dimethyliminio) ethylene 

Footwear, tools, tyres, 

(dimethylyliminio) ethylene 

machinery and other items 

dichloride) 

in contact with soil 

- 

- 

) 



Table 60. Bio-fungicides, soaps, bicarbonates, milk, etc. (agricultural biological 

products) 

THE PRODUCT 

BIO-FUNGICIDES, 

BIO-INOCULANT 

MICROBIAL AGENTS 

Mostly for soilborne diseases 

Trich-A-Soil 

Trichodry 

Trichoflow 

Trichospray 

TrichoShield 

Trichodex 

Vinevax 

MYCORRHIZA 

Companion 

Fulzyme-Plus 

PLANT ACTIVATORS 

SPRAY OILS 

MILK 

SOAPS 

BICARBONATES 

FUMAFERT 

OTHERS 

SOME USES 


Trichoderma harzianum. is naturally occurring fungus which has been developed as a 

bio-fungicide for soilborne diseases and foliar pathogens. In soil, it colonises the 

root zone, establishing a strong beneficial population which stimulates root initiation, 

promoting vigorous root growth and utilization of micro-nutrients giving plants a faster 

start with more resistance to adverse conditions. The environment is less favourable 

for soil disease organisms, suppressing some damping off and root rot diseases, eg 

Fusarium, Phytophthora, Pythium and Rhizoctonia. Used in IDM programs. It is 

marketed in different formulations depending on the situation, eg glasshouses, organic 

media, hydroponics, field crops, seed plantings, seed plugs, ornamental plantings, 

orchards, vineyards, turf. May be formulated with other organisms, eg mycorrhiza. 

Trich-A-Soil , Trichodry Nursery, Trichoflow Nursery, Trichospray Nursery, Unite 

Natural Protectant Bio-Fungicide WP (T. harzianum). 

Trichodex TM Bio-fungicide (T. harzianum) for the control of grey mould (Botrytis cinerea ) 

on grapevines. Sentinel Bio-fungicide protects against grey mould (Botrytis cinerea on 

grapes and tomatoes (not available in Australia) as yet. 

Vinevax TM Biological Wound Dressing, Vinevax TM Biological Fungicide Bio-implants, 

Vinevax TM Bio-injection Biological Fungicide (T. harzianum) may assist control of 

Eutypa dieback in grapevines. Has potential for development as a pruning wound 

protectant against Botryosphaeria in grapevines. 

Bacillus subtilis. is a naturally occurring bacterium which has been developed as a biofungicide. 

It colonizes soil, attaches to the 

organisms, preventing them from becoming further established, aids in decomposing 

organic matter. Solubizes various nutrient elements, so they are readily available to roots. 

Used in IDM programs to suppress Pythium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Phytophthora. 

Companion, Fulzyme Plus (Bacillus subtilis) used in IDM in disease management of 

Phytophthora and Pythium. 

Mixtures eg 

Nutri-Life TrichoShield (Trichoderma spp., Gliocladium virens, Bacillus subtilis) for 

treatments of seeds, seedlings, transplants, cuttings, bulbs, grafts, established crops. 

Improves balance between desired & undesirable micro-organisms on leaves & in soil. 

Noculate Liquid (Bacillus, Trichoderma, vitamins, humic acid, kelp) for use on professionally 

maintained turf. 

Other possible bio-fungicides being researched or under development. 

AQ10 (Ampelomyces quisqualis) may provide some control of powdery mildews. 

Mycostop (Streptomyces griseoviridis). Seed treatment, dip, soil spray or drench to minimize 

root diseases, eg Fusarium, Alternaria, Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia. 

Streptomycin (Streptomyces sp.) is a systemic bactericide used for foliage, & seed 

treatments, eg bacterial blight of walnut, bacterial canker of stone fruit, seed treatment for 

halo blight of bean. May cause yellowing on some crops. 

Soilgard (Gliocladium virens) is a soil-applied fungus used pre-plant as a media additive 

to control Rhizoctonia, Pythium of greenhouse ornamentals & food crops. 

Other fungi include Conostachys rosea, Coniothyrium minitans. Anti-fungal proteins 

isolated from Australian flora inhibit a range of fungal pathogens. 

Mycorrhizal fungi can be purchased for use in nurseries to inoculate a range of plants 

including conifer seedlings for reforestation outplanting. Mycorrhizal activators are 

being researched. 

Bion (acibenzolar-S-methyl) induces host resistance in cotton to suppress Fusarium wilt 

and black root rot. 

Some petroleum oils are registered for powdery mildew on pome fruit, greenhouse roses 

and some other fungal diseases of banana, citrus & passion fruit (page 61). 

Some paraffinic oils are registered for powdery mildew of pome fruit & some other diseases 

of banana & citrus (page 61). 

Milk must be full cream - the cream causes the milk to stick. Powdered full-cream milk is 

particularly effective because it is not homogenized and helps retard black spot on 

roses. Spray once per week in bad seasons when mildew is constant or when you see 

it. It is not a preventative as it works directly on the spores causing the fine hairs of the 

fungi to shrivel up within hours of the milk application (page 347). 

Soaps are usually used as insecticides, but can suppress certain foliar diseases such as 

powdery mildews under some conditions. Note that soap sprays marketed through 

garden centres are only registered for the control of certain insect pests. 

Eco-fungicide, Eco-carb, Eco-rose (potassium bicarbonate) are registered for powdery 

mildew, also black spot of rose (page 341); They are contact fungicides. Potassium 

bicarbonate is more effective than sodium bicarbonate (Moore 1996). 

Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) combined with horticultural oil (a surfactant) provides 

some control of powdery mildew & some other diseases of ornamentals, vegetables & 

fruit crops. The oil allows the bicarbonate to better adhere and spread evenly over the 

target leaf area. 

Fumafert (mustard seed meal (Brassica juncea) plus neem kernel (Azadirachtin indica) 

has soil bio-fumigant properties which aid in the control of some soil, insects, diseases 

& nematodes (page 267). 

Acti-dione (cycloheximide) overseas controls powdery mildews & rusts on ornamentals 

and turf. May cause leaf injury to roses. Highly toxic to fish & wildlife. 

Anti-transpirants, eg Envy can provide some protection against fungal diseases, eg rusts, 

powdery mildews by forming a physical barriet to disease organisms. 



EXAMPLES OF FUNGAL DISEASES 

Powdery mildews 

Powdery mildews are considered to cause more 

financial losses worldwide than any other plant 

disease. Historically the most famous powdery 

mildew disease is the one that devastated the vine 

crops in Europe during the l9th century and is still 

costly to the wine industry. It was the same fungus 

which led to the discovery of lime sulphur - sheer 

necessity! This fungicide is still used today for 

powdery mildews and to a lesser extent rusts, other 

fungal diseases and mites. 


Powdery mildews (Order Erysiphales, Phylum 

Ascomycota). However, when the sexual stages 

(cleistothecia) of powdery mildews are not known, 

they are placed in the Imperfect Fungi and called 

Oidium spp. Common powdery mildews include: 

Phylum Ascomycota, Order Erysiphales 

Blumeria graminis Cereals, grasses 

Podosphaeria leucotricha Apple 

Sphaerotheca fuligina Cucurbits 

S. pannosa Rose 

Uncinula necator Grapevines 

Imperfect Fungi (sexual stage not known, 

when found the fungus is given a genus and species). 

Oidium spp. – Aster, azalea, begonia, calendula, 

chrysanthemum, dahlia, euonymus, eucalypt, oak, 

pansy, plane tree, primula, other plants. 


Host range 

Ornamentals, azalea, begonia, hebe, eucalypt, 

wisteria, hardenbergia, oak, rose. 

Fruit, eg apple, grape, papaya, strawberry. 

Vegetables, eg cucurbits, pea, tomato. 

Field crops, eg cereals, clover, lupins. 

Turf, eg grasses, clover. 

Parasitic plants, eg mistletoe. Weeds. 

Although all powdery mildews look the same, 

usually a particular species is restricted to one host, 

or group of related hosts, eg one species attacks 

roses another azaleas and so on. 

Fig. 185. Powdery mildew of euonymus 

(Oidium spp.). PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Symptoms 

Leaves, stems, buds, petals. The first sign 

of disease is usually small white circular patches on 

the surface of leaves or stems. These increase in 

size, often running together to cover large areas of 

both upper and lower leaf surfaces, becoming 

powdery due to the production of masses of conidia. 

Young leaves on some species seem to be 

very susceptible and may yellow, shrivel and 

curl, eventually they may die, eg apple. 

However, in most cases, younger leaves of 

bedding plants do not show infection. 

Petals and buds may also become distorted. 

Flowers are downgraded. 

Infected leaves on some hosts redden in 

colour on the uppersurface opposite a powdery 

mildew colony on the undersurface and may 

be confused with chemical toxicity. Leaves may 

wither and fall. Infected soft leaves of some 

hosts, eg roses, may “bubble” with spores 

developing on the deformed areas. 

Old powdery mildew infections on some 

leaves, eg Photinia, hebe, may appear grayish. 

Dormant shoots of apple are covered with 

dense white mycelium. Infected shoots on 

perennials may die back. Dormant rose and 

grapevine shoots may turn reddish so it is easy to 

see where the infected shoots from last season are. 

Small fruiting bodies (cleistothecia) may 

develop on plant tissues killed by powdery 

mildew. They look like small black specks. 

Fruit. Mango fruit develops purplish brown 

blotches and immature fruit may fall. Apples may 

russet and be downgraded. Grape bunches with 

as little as 5% disease may be rejected by wineries 

as they cause ‘off flavor’ in wine. Table grapes are 

unmarketable if berries or stalks are infected. 

General. Important seedling disease in nurseries. 

Plants may be stunted and crops lost. Can be a late 

season, end-of-crop disease. 

Diagnostics. 

Fresh powdery mildews are generally easy to 

identify, exceptions include hebe, hydrangea. 

Do not confuse with down mildews (page 348). 

A few hosts may become infected with both 

powdery mildew and downy mildew, eg rose, 

grape, hebe, cucurbits. 

Microscopic examination - a x10 eyepiece 

and x10 objective (student compound microscope) 

is needed to see spores in ‘chains’ (page 346, 

Fig.186) rather than ‘trees’ (page 349, Fig.189). 

Expert advice may be needed to confirm the exact 

species although very few plants host more than 

one species of powdery mildew. 

Active infections appear powdery and fluffy, 

while inactive infections appear flattened and 

may be brownish. 

The purplish discolorations of some powdery 

mildews may be confused with chemical toxicity. 

On some hosts, eg cucurbits, spots may appear 

first on leaf undersurfaces but later cover both 

surfaces and growers may not be aware of disease 

until it is well established and difficult to control. 

Fungal diseases - Examples of fungal diseases 345


Disease cycle 

Powdery mildew of rose is one example (Fig. 186). 

Powdery mildews are obligate parasites and can 

only multiply on living plants. The fungus grows 

almost entirely externally on the surface and tiny 

suckers called haustoria penetrate the outer cells of 

the leaf to obtain food. Small black spots 

(cleistothecia) form with cool weather in autumn. 


As mycelium and spores on buds, twigs, canes, 

fruit and other plant parts, especially on perennials 

such as roses and apples. 

As active infections on host plants (in warm 

climates and glasshouses). Infection of annuals 

probably originates from out-of-season plants, held 

over stock, etc. Infected volunteer plants. 

Spores in fruiting bodies on infected crop debris. 

Seedborne on some hosts, eg pea. 

Spread 

Spores spread by wind, air currents water splash. 

By movement of infected plant material, seed. 

‘Conditions favoring’ 

Night temperatures of about 15 o C and relative 

humidity of 90-95% and day temperatures of 

above 26 o C and relative humidity of 40-70%. 

Epidemics are prompted by high humidity. 

Most severe in spring and autumn during hot humid 

weather. Many powdery mildews flourish in hot 

dry conditions, dews at night provide sufficient 

moisture for spore germination. Unlike downy 

mildews, powdery mildews can flourish in fairly 

dry weather. 

Spores germinate and infect hosts without free 

water and will not germinate in rainy weather. 

3 

Late crops may be severely affected, eg pea, 

gerbera, days are warm and dry and nights cool 

enough for dew to form and spores to germinate. 

Shade, high plant densities and luxurious plant 

growth due to high nitrogen levels provide plenty 

green young tissue for powdery establishment. 



1. Access/prepare a plan in advance. 

2. Crop, region. Know if your crop is susceptible to 

powdery mildew. Management programs are 

available, eg AUSVEG, Ausvit, Cropwatch (Vic), 

Rose Growers Assoc. 

3. Identification. List the diseases the crop is 

susceptible to. On some crops you may need expert 

advice to confirm that it is powdery mildew and not 

downy mildew as the fungicides used to control them 

are often quite different. Consult a diagnostic service 

if necessary (page xiv). 

4. Monitor & detect disease especially in low light 

sites, record results (page 327). You may need a x10 

magnifying lens. Remember you need to know 

when, where, what and how to monitor. 

Monitor apple trees during winter and growing 

seasons for small areas of white powdery growth. 

Weekly inspections of glasshouses (1 plant in 30) 

where mildew has not been found. If detected, scout 

1 plant in 10 every week until plants are disease-free 

for at least 3 weeks then go back to 1 plant in 30. 

Disease warning services may be available. 

Roses planted along the edge of vineyards in France 

served as an early warning system for powdery 

mildew of grapevines. 

5. Threshold. How much damage is acceptable? Have 

any thresholds been established? If so, what are they, 

eg economic, aesthetic, environmental? 

6. Action/Control. Take appropriate action when any 

threshold is reached, eg cultural improvement, sprays. 

7. Evaluation. Review program. Within a few days of 

spraying check whether powdery mildew colonies are 

active. Recommend improvements if required. 

Fig. 186. Disease cycle of powdery mildew of rose 

(Podosphaera pannosa) (adapted from Agrios, 1997). 

346 Fungal diseases - Examples of fungal diseases



Keep relative humidity low at < 85%. Avoid 

overhead irrigation to assist control. Use drippers. 

Space/trellis/prune plants to allow good air 

circulation and penetration of sunlight. 

Avoid heavy nitrogen applications since young 

succulent tissue is more susceptible to infection. 

Ventilate and or heat glasshouses in the evening to 

reduce humidity levels by removing moist air 

which builds up during the day. Prevent 

condensation of moisture on leaf surfaces. 

Hosing down plants over 2-3 days in the morning 

may limit spread but favour Botrytis. 

Avoid clipping hedges of susceptible varieties of 

Photinia or Euonymus if disease is a problem. 

Rotate crops every 3-4 years to reduce incidence 

and severity in subsequent crops. 

Sanitation. 

Destroy diseased crop residues, prunings and 

infected held over plants, volunteer plants. 

Prune out and destroy during winter all infected 

shoots on woody hosts, eg roses, apples. On apple, 

also prune off and destroy mildewed shoots as they 

appear during the growing season. 

Pick off and destroy first infected leaves regularly 

and immediately seal in a bag. Could delay an 

epidemic. Do not compost. 

Discard heavily infected transplants before they 

reach the main greenhouse. 


Not very practical, but natural controls include: 

Fungi, eg Sporothrix flocculosa, Ampelomyces 

quisqualis (BC AQ10) and Tilletiopsis spp., provide 

some control of powdery mildew of roses overseas 

under certain conditions. 

Fungus-eating ladybirds/larvae (Illeis galbula) 

feed on powdery mildew of cucurbits. Some Stethorus 

beetles feed on fungal spores. Tydeid mites, living 

in tiny hair-like structures on undersides of wild grape 

leaves, feed on powdery mildew. 

Table 61. Powdery mildews – Some fungicides... 

What to use? 

BIO-FUNGICIDES (non-systemic) 

The following reduce the severity of powdery mildews: 

Group M2, eg Eco-fungicide , Eco-carb ,Eco-rose 

(potassium bicarbonate) 

Whey (waste cheese), dilute to one-third of normal strength 

Full cream milk - dilute to one tenth of normal strength 

Milk products may not be permitted on some crops as 

lactose intolerant consumers may have an allergic 

reaction to plants sprayed with milk products. 

Products being researched include azaradachtin (neem), 

jojoba oil, garlic extracts 

NON SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES (protectant) 

Group 13, eg Legend (quinoxyfen) 

Group M1, eg copper compounds (limited use if disease 

pressure is high (residual) 

Group M2, eg Sulphur Dust (elemental sulphur); 

Wettable Sulphur (dispersible sulphur); 

Lime Sulphur (polysulphides) 

Group M3/M2, eg Mancozeb Plus (mancozeb + sulphur) 

Summer spray oils, eg D-C-Tron Plus (petroleum oil) 

SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES (eradicant) 

Wide range of systemic fungicides but only a few 

are registered for use on any particular crop. 

Group 1, eg Bavistin , Spin (carbendazim) 

Group 3, eg Anvil (hexaconazole); Baycor (bitertanol); 

Nustar (flusilazole); Tilt (propiconazole); 

Saprol (triforine); Systhane (myclobutanil) 

Group 5, eg Prosper (spiroxamine) 

Group 11, eg Amistar (azoxystrobin); 

Flint (trifloxystrobin) 

SEED DRESSINGS 

Fungicides to control powdery mildew on some crops, eg 

cereals, may be formulated with insecticides. 



If possible, grow varieties with some resistance, eg 

Photinia. Varieties with some resistance include 

P. glabra robusta. Very susceptible species include 

P. serrulata. 

Apple. Varieties with some resistance include Granny 

Smith and Delicious. Very susceptible varieties include 

Jonathon and Rome Beauty. 

Grapevines. Most susceptible wine varieties 

include Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Chenin 

Blanc, Muller Thurgau, Muscadelle, Riesling, 

Semillon. Most susceptible table varieties 

include Cardinal, Flame Seedless, Red Globe. 

Defense-activating compounds are being 

researched. 

Plant quarantine. AQIS periodically may 

reassess the quarantine status of some powdery 

mildews to see if treatment is still required. 


Only plant disease-tested seed, or treat seed. 

Fungicides. 

Fungicides which control powdery mildew, often do not 

control many other diseases. Exceptions. 

In some vineyards, powdery mildew may be controlled 

mainly by regular applications of sulfur and synthetic 

fungicides and in organic agriculture by sulfur and 

botanical and mineral oils. Milk, whey and mixtures of 

botanical oil plus bicarbonate are potential replacements 

for synthetic fungicides and sulfur for powdery mildew. 

Apply at the first signs of disease as infection spreads 

rapidly. On susceptible varieties you may need to 

spray regularly at intervals depending on weather. 

Thoroughly cover both leaf surfaces. 

Powdery mildew mycelium is ‘hard-to-wet’, a wetting 

agent may be necessary. Use a fine mist. 

Treating seed of some crops, eg barley, delays onset 

and reduces severity of disease. 

Risk of resistance. Powdery mildew of cucurbit is 

accepted as having a high risk of developing 

resistance to fungicides, while powdery mildews of 

apple and grapevine have a medium risk. Resistance 

management strategies are available for some crops and 

powdery mildews on the CropLife Australia website 


Check label Resistance Management Strategies. 


Some bio-fungicides may cause leaf spotting on some 

cultivars if applied at higher than recommended rates, too 

often, or at high temperatures. Must be good coverage. 

Mix Eco-fungicide with Eco-oil to increase effectiveness. 

Bicarbonate, oil, milk and whey are not preventative as they 

work directly on the spores and mycelium, causing them to 

shrivel up (they are contact fungicides). They often have to 

be applied at 7-14 day intervals. Too much milk encourages 

sooty mould. 

Sulphur may damage some plants > 30 o C, especially flower 

petals of some ornamentals. Can be volatilized from hot plates 

in greenhouses. May leave unacceptable residues on foliage. 

Sulphur can also kill of beneficial insects and mites. 

Lime sulphur may be applied during dormancy after pruning 

Products purchased by home gardeners often include 

sulphur, eg rose or vegetable sprays and dusts. 

See spray oils page 61. 

Follow Croplife Australia Resistance Management 

Strategies and any label instructions. 

At harvest when most protection is needed it is preferable 

to rely on the newest and most effective systemic fungicide. 

Keep other fungicides for less risky stages. 

Amistar (azoxystrobin) is effective against both powdery 

and downy mildews. 

Some fungicides only registered for useon only one crop, 

eg Domark (tetraconazole) for powdery mildew on 

grapevines. 




Downy mildews 

The most famous downy mildew disease is that 

caused by a fungus (Plasmopara viticola) on grape 

vines which devastated French vineyards in the 

l890s. The trouble started when, to control a gall 

aphid, the grape phylloxera (Daktulosphaira 

vitifolii); resistant rootstocks were imported from 

North America. Downy mildew was apparently 

introduced on these, and although this disease was 

not destructive in North America, it was on the 

varieties grown in France. The disease was not 

without some compensation, for it led to the 

development of Bordeaux Mixture, arguably one 

of the most important fungicides of all time. Check 

current registration status in your State/Territory. 


Downy mildews (Order Peronosporales, Phylum 

Oomycota). Common downy mildews include: 

Bremia lactucae 

Lettuce 

Hyaloperonospora parasitica 

(formerly Peronospora parasitica) 

Brassicas, eg cabbage, 

stock 

Peronospora antirrhini Antirrhinum 

P. destructor Onion 

P. sparsa Rose 

P. tabacina Tobacco (blue mould) 

Plasmopara viticola 

Grape 

Pseudoperonospora cubensis Cucurbits 

Sclerophthora macrospora Grasses, cereals 


Host range 

Ornamentals, eg bedding plants, eg stock, sweet 

pea, poppy, ranunculus, roses, etc. 

Fruit, eg grape. Vegetables, eg cucurbits, 

lettuce. Field crops, eg wheat. Weeds. 

Generally a particular species of downy mildew is 

restricted to one host, or group of related hosts, eg 

one species attacks roses and another cucurbits, 

and so on. Strains of some downy mildews exist 

and new strains may be continually evolving so 

that new resistant varieties and fungicides may be 

continually required. Races of Peronospora 

parasitica f.sp. matthiola will only infect stock 

and not other Brassica spp. 

Symptoms 

Leaves, stems, petals, flower stalks, buds, fruit and 

pods may be attacked. Seedlings may be killed. 

Leaves, shoots. Most obvious symptoms appear 

on leaves but vary with the host. Leaves may fall. 

As lesions dry out during dry weather, they shrivel 

and die and entire plants may be killed if attacked 

early in the season. Systemic infection may occur 

in some hosts, eg antirrhinum, cereals, rose, causing 

yellowing of growing tissues, distortion, leaf 

russetting and stunting (impatiens). 

Upper surface. Pale green to yellow irregular 

shaped areas/spots, usually delineated by veins 

develop on the leaf upper surface, they may 

enlarge, coalesce and cover large areas of the 

leaf. Depending on the host, these spots vary from 

light green to red to brown dead areas, eg on 

roses purple areas are evident while on stock and 

pansies, yellow areas are prominent. 

Lower surface. Under high humidity a typical 

white or gray downy/fluffy fungal growth may 

form on the underside of infected tissue. Sometimes 

there is insufficient fungal mass to be seen 

even with a magnifying glass, eg pansies (spores 

mauve), snapdragon, Brassicas (spores white). 

Roses develop red-black spots on leaves, petals 

and stems in advance of obvious mildew. Purple 

areas on leaves turn pale brown. Leaves may fall, 

even when other symptoms are not obvious. 

Infection of young apical shoots causes 

distortion, stunting and stem cracking. 

Fruit. Downy mildew spores may develop on 

fruit, eg grapes which later shrivel. 

Secondary infections. Downy mildews are 

less common than powdery mildews, but secondary 

infections may follow, eg Botrytis, bacterial slime 

and rotting (lettuce). 

General. Downy mildew can be common and 

destructive in favourable conditions leading to total 

crop loss. Some downy mildews are more 

aggressive than others, eg downy mildew on 

snapdragon seems to spread faster than on pansy. 

Nursery seedlings can be seriously affected. 

Fig. 187. Downy mildew of lettuce 

(Bremia lactucae). White angular patches 

of fluffy fungal growth on undersurface 

of leaf. Photo NSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 188. Downy mildew of grapes (Plasmopara viticola). 

Left: Fungal spores on undersurface of leaf. Right: Lesions on 

uppersurface of leaf and on fruit. Photo NSW Dept of Industry and 

Investment (M.Senior). 



Diagnostics. 

Symptoms on Impatiens are easily confused with 

nutritional deficiencies or mite damage 

Many hosts are not susceptible to downy mildews. 

With a hand lens check for the characteristic downy 

growth usually on underside of leaves, it may 

escape notice until spores form. See page 345 for 

comparison with powdery mildews. 

If still unsure incubate suspect tissue in moist 

chambers for about 48 hrs to encourage 

development of downy growth on leaf undersides. 

Microscopic examination by experts will identify 

characteristic tree-like spore structures (which varies 

for each species of downy mildew) and distinguish it 

from powdery mildew and gray mould. 

Systemic infection characterized by discolouration 

and stunting of growing points. 

DNA is not commonly used to identify downy 

mildews. 

Disease cycle 

For downy mildew of grape (see Fig. 189). Shortlived 

zoospores are produced at night and released the 

following morning as air dries out. Spores germinate 

within 4 hours in water and can produce more spores 

in 3 days. Many downy mildews can only reproduce 

on living plants. 


As systemic infections in some plants, eg roses. 

Infections on perennial crops, eg grape, roses 

infected buds and stems. Infected regrowth. 

Fallen leaves, etc in soil, growing media, compost, 

crop debris. Some spores remain viable for years 

(oospores), others (zoospores) for only a few days. 

Alternate or weed hosts, volunteer plants. 

Old infected seedlings in nurseries, stock plants. 

Contaminated seed, propagation material, cuttings. 

Spread 

‘Overwintering’ spores may wash from infected 

plant debris into soil. Short-lived zoospores spread 

by wind, water, sprinkler or rain splash. 

By movement of infected plants, seeds, cuttings, 

bulbs, etc. before symptoms are apparent. 

Infected crop debris returned to soil and distributed 

with irrigation or flood water. 

There is some evidence that downy mildew 

could be seedborne on some hosts. 


Leaves wet for long periods. Spores require free 

moisture on the leaf surface to establish infection. 

Cool nights, wet warm days, extended periods of 

cool, wet weather during spring and autumn. 

Can be devastating on seedlings in crowded seedbeds 

during cool, moist, dull weather in unheated, 

poorly ventilated glasshouses. Only checked when 

weather becomes hot and dry. 

Temperature requirements vary with the species, eg 

Brassicas 8-24 o C, pansies 13-18 o C. 

Weather warning systems predict when outbreaks 

may occur, eg downy mildew of grapevine. 

Fig. 189. Disease cycle of downy mildew of grapes 

(Plasmopara viticola) (adapted from Agrios, 1997). 





1. Access/prepare a plan that fits your situation. IDM 

programs are available for downy mildews of many 

crops, eg lettuce via AUSVEG. Also check Ausvit, 

Cropwatch, State Depts. of Primary Industry. 


3. Identification can be difficult without a microscope. 

Consult a diagnostic service (page xiv). 

4. Monitor and detect disease and/or damage on 

susceptible species/ varieties from spring onwards, record 

results (page 327). Do you know when, where, what 

and how to monitor for your situation. 

Inspect upper and lower surfaces of new leaves at least 

once per week for spotting or discolouration of the most 

susceptible cultivars. Will need a magnifying glass. Also 

check fruit if necessary. 

Warning services/Disease predictive models are 

available for some crops, eg onions, grapes, lettuce, nursery 

seedlings. As each downy mildew species has specific 

weather requirements for successful sporulation and 

infection, eg leaf wetness, temperature and rainfall, disease 

forecasts can be made reducing fungicide use. Some also 

provide management advice. 

5. Threshold. How much damage can you accept? Have 

any thresholds been established? If so, what are they, eg 

economic or aesthetic? Do you need to calculate your 

own threshold for your crop in your region? 

6. Action. For some crops, property freedom and 

prescribed treatments may apply. Check your situation. 

7. Evaluation. Review your program compare current 

records with earlier ones. If required, put improvements 

in place, eg using resistant varieties, different fungicides. 


Downy mildews can be difficult to control. 

Cultural methods can reduce the incidence by 

80-100%. In glasshouses regulate temperature and 

humidity to reduce night-time humidity by ventilation, 

heating, air movement. 

Irrigation. Keep crop as dry as possible. Spores need 

water to germinate on the leaf surfaces to infect plants. 

Do not overwater and avoid overhead irrigation. Irrigate 

late in afternoon allowing time for leaves to dry before 

dew forms on leaves. Do not water seedlings in 

morning when spores are released and infect plants. 

Consider capillary watering which does not wet foliage. 

Maintain good ventilation to lower humidity, 

minimize spore production on infected plants and 

spore germination on new plants. Space and plant 

rows along direction of prevailing winds to reduce 

infection. Space seedling trays to improve ventilation 

and dry the leaf surfaces quickly. 

Maintain even temperatures. 

Nutrition. Adequate potash (K) reduces seedling 

susceptibility to downy mildew, eg on cauliflowers. 

Controlled mostly in production with balanced nutrients. 

Use a crop rotation of 2-3 years for susceptible 

field crops where practical. Rotate propagation areas. 

Sanitation. 

Rogue and burn/deep bury diseased seedlings to 

eliminate sources of infection. Remove heaviliy 

infested seedling trays, old seedlings, weeds. 

Plough in field crop debris immediately after harvest. 

Before planting new crops remove crop debris, 

destroy self-sown volunteer plants and regrowth of 

annuals and weeds from previous crops and bury or 

incinerate it. Disinfect propagation areas and 

equipment with a short persistent disinfectant. Keep 

production areas clean. Fallow glasshouses. 

Prune out/destroy diseased branches on woody hosts. 


If downy mildew is a problem select varieties with 

some resistance to new strains of downy mildews, eg 

lettuce. 


Property freedom, prescribed treatments. 

Isolate stock plants especially when first introduced 

into the nursery, eg petunia. 


Do not propagate from infected perennial plants. 

Only purchase and plant disease-tested seeds or select 

seed only from healthy plants or treat seed, diseasefree 

seedlings or bare-rooted nursery stock. 


Pasteurization of soil in seedbeds is recommended but 

is not economical for larger areas. 

Research indicates that blue wave lengths of light can 

help in reduction of downy mildew of cucurbits 

Fungicides. 

Fungicide-resistant strains of downy mildews 

are present in many districts, eg downy mildew of 

peas has developed resistance to metalaxyl. 

Risk of resistance. The downy mildews of grapes 

and cucurbits are accepted as having a high risk of 

development of resistance to fungicides, while the 

downy mildews of lettuce and certain other plants have 

a medium risk. Resistance management strategies are 

available for control of downy mildew of cucurbits, 

grape, lettuce and onion on the CropLife Australia 

website www.croplifeaustralia.org.au/ 

Spray programs for the control of downy mildew 

of grape vines is also available for commercial 

growers from Cropwatch in Riverland, Hort Hotline in 

Sunraysia. 

Check label Resistance Management Strategies. 

Use Disease Prediction Services which allow 

fungicide applications to be better timed, reducing 

fungicide use in low risk seasons. 

Thoroughly spray lower and upper leaf surfaces. 

Soil fumigation for production areas of potting soil 

will eliminate soilborne infection which could be 

significant where the same crop is grown repeatedly. 

Some plants, eg lettuce, are difficult to spray 

effectively. 

Table 62. Downy mildews – Some fungicides (check on particular DM 

What to use? 

NON-SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES (protectants) 

Group M1, eg copper hydroxide; copper oxychloride; 

copper ammonium acetate 

Group M3, eg zineb; mancozeb (often formulated with 

systemic fungicides); Phytan , Banvel Polyram 

(metiram) 

Group M5, eg Alert , Bravo , various (chlorothalonil) 

SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES (eradicants) 

Group 4, eg Fongarid (furalaxyl); Ridomil (metalaxyl) 

Group 11, eg Amistar (azoxystrobin) (controls both 

downy and powdery mildews) 

Group 40, eg Acrobat (dimethomorph) - locally systemic 

Group 33, eg Alliette (fosetyl-al); Fol-R-Fos , Phospot , 

various (phosphorous acid) 


Group 4, eg Fongarid (furalaxyl); Rampart , Mantle 

(metalaxyl); Apron (metalaxyl-M) 


Apply before infection occurs for best results. 

Make sure undersurfaces of leaves are wetted. 

M3 and M5 fungicides are often used on seedlings 

which might be damaged by copper sprays. 

Adjuvants such as Synetrol, Codacide, Agridex or 

DCTron can provide strong activity. 

Follow Resistance Management Strategies on 

labels. 

Keep systemic fungicides for conditions that are 

particularly favourable for disease. 

Systemic and contact fungicides may be combined. 

Many new products being developed 

Many new seed treatments are being developed (page 374). 



Rusts 

Rust diseases derive their name from the orangebrown 

spore masses which many rust fungi produce 

on their hosts. The cereal rusts occur universally 

wherever susceptible hosts grow. The Romans 

considered the cereal rusts so important that they 

believed that the Gods Robigo and the Robigus were 

responsible for them and planned annual festivals to 

please them. GRDC Rustlinks is the main online 

source of information for cereals rusts. 

www.grdc.com.au/rustlinks 


Rusts (Order Uredinales, Phylum Basidiomycota) 

are a specialized group of fungi which produce a 

range of spore states (Table 63). 

Host range 

Ornamentals, fruit, vegetables, field 

crops and weeds may be attacked. Generally a 

particular species of rust can attack only certain 

host species or only certain varieties. Rust fungi 

that are morphologically identical but attack 

different host genera or species are called form 

species (f.sp.), eg Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici. 

Native rust fungi are continually being detected. 

Rose rust (Phragmidium mucronatum) 

Sunflower rust (Puccinia helianthi) 

Stripe rust (P. striiformis) 

Wheat leaf rust (P. recondita f.sp. tritici) 

Rust (P.grevilleae) on Proteaceae 


Symptoms 

Leaves, stems and fruit may be attacked. Sepals, 

and occasionally other flower parts, glumes in 

cereals and grasses. After infection it may be some 

time before symptoms appear – plants can be 

dispatched infected but without symptoms. 

Leaves, stems 

The leaf upper surface becomes speckled due to 

a yellow zone which forms around infection 

zones. The small yellow patches may run together. 

On leaf under surface, corresponding yellow, 

orange or rusty-brown spores masses 

(urediniospores) develop. Later in the season, dark 

or black spores may form in pustules (teliospores). 

White rust of chrysanthemum produces pinkishwhite 

waxy pustules. Some rusts produce spores 

on both leaf surfaces. 

When infection is heavy, premature and 

repeated leaf fall seriously weakens the plant. If 

stem infections are heavy, stems may be ringbarked 

causing dieback of the upper portion. 

– Wattles. Rust galls (Uromycladium spp.) develop 

on flowers, stems and foliage (Fig. 192). 

– Young poplar trees in nurseries may die. 

– French bean (Phaseolaris vulgaris). Spore masses 

on leaves may be black rather than red. 

Fruit 

Lesions may develop on peach fruit, bean pods, etc. 

Diagnostics. Presence of rust spores 

The powdery rust spores can be removed by 

running the thumbnail across mature lesions, this 

indicates the presence of characteristic rust spores. 

May be confused on leaves with various leaf 

spotting diseases on some hosts. 

Rust on fruit and twigs can be difficult to recognize 

without microscopic examination and experience. 

Microscopic examination of spores by an expert 

may be required to confirm identification (se page xiv). 

Observation of the intricate structure of the spores is 

often needed to enable accurate identification. 

In the early stages of infection only pin point spots 

may be present on leaf under sides. Experience is 

needed to detect the early stages of infection. 

For some rusts, there are keys and DNA tests. 

Fig. 190. Geranium rust (Puccinia pelargoniizonalis). 

Rust pustules on leaf undersurfaces. 

PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment.. 

Fig. 191. Bean rust (Uromyces appendiculatus). 

Under surface of bean leaflet with reddish-brown pustules 

surrounded by a pale border. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 192. Gall rust (Uromycladium spp.) 

on wattle stems. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 193. Rose rust (Phragmidium mucronatum). Left: Upper 

surface of leaf with yellow areas. Right: Undersurface of leaf 

showing orange urediniospores and black teliospores. 




Table 63. Some rust diseases, types of life cycles and spore state numbers. 

SOME RUST 

DISEASES 

Melampsora medusae 

M. epitea 

M. coleosporioides 

HOST 

RANGE 

Poplar 

Pussy willow 

Weeping willow 

RUST LIFE CYCLE. 

Autoecious All spore states 

on one host 

Heteroecious Life cycle split 

between two unrelated hosts 

with 0,1 spore states on one 

host and 11,111 on the other 

May not be known if rust is 

autoecious or heteroecious 

Heteroecious 

Heteroecious 

Heteroecious 

KEY - SPORE STATE NUMBERS. 

(in brackets are those not yet found in Australia) 

0 Pycnium (pl. pycnia) produce pycniospores, 

spermogonium (pl. spermogonia) produce spermatia 

1 Aecium (pl. aecia) producing aeciospores 

11 Uredinium (pl. uredinia) producing urediniospores, 

this is the REPEATING STAGE. 

111 Telium (pl. telia) producing teliospores 

1V Basidium (pl. basidia) producing basdiospores, 

spore state 1V occurs in all rusts 

(0,1 on larch) 11,111 on poplar 

(0,1 on several hosts) 11,111 on pussy willow 

(0,1 unknown),11,111 on weeping willow 

Phragmidium mucronatum Rose Autoecious 0,1,11,111 on rose 

Puccinia graminis f.sp. triticii 

(wheat stem rust) 

P. horiana (white rust) 

P. lagenophorae 

P. malvacearum 

Wheat, barley, oats, 

rye 

Chrysanthemum 

Asteraceae, ie 

natives eg Senecio; 

exotics, eg calendula; 

weeds eg groundsel 

Malvaceae, eg 

mallow, hollyhock 

Heteroecious 

Autoecious 

Autoecious 

Autoecious 

(0,1 on barberry), 11,111, 1V grasses, cereals 

111 on chrysanthemum 

0,1,111 on Asteraceae 

111 on Malvaceae 

Uromycladium spp. Wattle Autoecious 0,1,11,111 on wattle 

Not known in Australia Myrtaceae, eg Autoecious 

0,11,111,1V on eucalypt, gauva etc 

Puccinia psidii (eucalypt rust, 

guava rust) 

eucalypts, melaleuca, 

callistemon, guava 

Heteropyxidaceae, 

eg lavender tree 

(Heteropyxis 

natalensis) 

Beneficial rusts 

Phragmidium violaceum European blackberry Autoecious 0,1,11,111,1V on blackberry correct 

Fig. 194. Disease cycle of wheat rust (Puccinia graminis) (adapted from Agrios, 1997). 



Disease cycle 

In Australia, many rust diseases appear to produce 

only urediniospores (stage 11 - asexual repeating 

stage), eg chrysanthemum rust (Puccinia 

chrysanthemi) (Fig.195 below). 


As infections on perennial hosts, old 

diseased crops left standing after harvest. 

As thick walled spores (urediniospores and 

teliospores) on infected crop debris, in the soil 

and on seed and crop regrowth volunteers. 

Many heteroecious rusts can survive from 

season to season in countries with mild winters, 

such as most parts of Australia, in the repeating 

stage (urediniospores), which can lodge in bark 

crevices, on buds or on plant debris until the 

following season when the wind will blow them 

onto new host leaves and other plant parts. 

Poplar rust, stone fruit rust and the cereal rusts 

are examples of heteroecious rusts which can 

successfully ‘overwinter’ by this means. 

In heteroecious rusts, the fungus can be 

going through further spore stages on the 

alternate host. In Australia these rusts seem to be 

able to ‘overwinter’ as urediniopsores. 

Oversummers on volunteer plants. 

Spread 

Spores are spread by wind and water splash from 

infected host plants and infected host plant 

debris to other susceptible host plants. 

Spores may adhere to the surface of seed from 

infected host plants and infected leaves. The 

inoculum can survive in the soil and is often 

spread via splashing water. 

Overseas, barley stripe rust on susceptible 

varieties may spread via unwashed clothes or 

shoes worn in infected crops. 

Movement of infected host plants. 


Most problems occur in field plantings. 

A film of water on leaves for a period of 

about 4-5 hrs is necessary for downy mildew 

spores to germinate and infect a plant but 

symptoms may not develop until much later so 

that plants which appear healthy and are 

dispatched can subsequently develop rust. 

For each species of rust or even each race 

there is a particular regime of temperature and 

humidity which determines infection, it is not 

possible to generalize, eg 

– Poplar rust – High humidity. high temperatures. 

– Stem rust (cereals) - High humidity and moderate 

temperatures. 

– Bean rust - Cool, damp weather, fogs, mists. 

– Sorghum rust - Warm humid weather favours leaf 

infection, disease development, spore production. 

Fig. 195. Disease cycle of chrysanthemum rust (Puccinia chrysanthemi). 





1. Obtain/prepare a plan in advance for your crop. 

2. Crop, region. Recognize variations. Rusts may be 

more severe in some areas than others. 

3. Identification of disease must be confirmed. If 

necessary consult a diagnostic service (page xiv). 

4. Monitor and detect disease on the most 

susceptible varieties, seedlings, earliest sown crops 

and sentinel crops along certain walking patterns as 

they are most likely to develop early rust. Inspect leaf 

undersurfaces for pinpoint spots but experience is 

needed to detect this early stage of infection, also look 

for spores. Record findings. Early warning systems 

are available for some rusts, eg Prune Rust Infection 

Predictors, Stripe Rust Alert Services. 

5. Threshold. Quarantine regulations may require a nil 

threshold in some crops. How much damage can you 

accept? What is your threshold, eg economic, aesthetic, 

environmental? 

6. Action/control. Take appropriate action when any 

threshold is reached. This may involve removing/ 

destroying affected plant parts, spraying it may be 

following some prescribed control measures. 

7. Evaluation. Review IDM program to see how well 


planting more resistant cultivars, rust-tested seed. 



Avoid high rust hazard zones. 

Avoid planting seed or cutting beds too thickly. 

Keep foliage as dry as possible. Avoid overhead 

irrigation, or water early in the day to allow crop to 

dry. Sub-irrigation helps prevent rust outbreaks. 

Provide adequate ventilation, reduce humidity, 

maintain even temperature to reduce infection. 

Where rust causes severe losses and no resistant 

varieties are available it may be possible to plant 

early in the season so that plants can make good 

growth before development of an epidemic. 

Sanitation. 

Remove and destroy severely infected plants, fallen 

leaves, crop regrowth, volunteer seedlings, crop 

debris and prunings as soon as practical to reduce 

the amount of inoculum available for next season. 

Remove infected leaves or whole plants in cutting 

or seedbeds, as soon as they are observed. 

Susceptible tree species generally should not be 

removed, rust may be minimal during dry seasons and 

trees may survive for years despite rust. 

With rust diseases which produce galls, infected 

branches can be pruned out and burnt. 

Susceptible weeds should be controlled. 

Do not plant susceptible crops near older diseased 

crops. Plough in crops immediately after harvest. 


Some fungi are parasitic on rusts but provide no 

economic control, eg Verticillium lecanii on coffee 

rust, Cladosporium sp. on poplar rust. 


Use of resistant varieties is the most common, 

effective method of rust control www.grdc.com.au/ 

The National Wheat Rust Control Program 

screens wheat lines for resistance. As rust fungi 

regularly develop new virulent strains, ongoing 

screening and selection is necessary to maintain 

resistant varieties for wheat growers. Rust genes 

from plants other than wheat could potentially be 

transferred to wheat. ‘Designer’ genes providing 

more durable resistance could be developed. 

Combining two or more resistance genes in 

sunflowers is expected to produce robust protection. 

Even cultivars with partial resistance to rust are 

useful because they reduce the amount of fungicide 

used, eg antirrhinum and carnation rust. 


New rusts enter Australia all the time; recent arrivals 

include grape leaf rust (Phakopsora euvitis). A 

National Grapevine Eradication Program was put in 

place and the disease has since been eradicated. 

Although eradication of other recent entries may not 

really be possible, eg myrtle rust (Uredo rangelii), 

chrysanthemum white rust (Puccinia horiana), daylily 

rust (P. hemerocallidis) and its alternate hosts, eg 

Hosta, Patrinia, they are subject to regulations and 

local protocols. Check. 

An Asian-Pacific Strategy manages the threat of 

Eucalytpus Rust (Puccinia psidii). 


Avoid propagating vegetatively from infected plants. 

Do not save seed from infected plants, if such seed 

is to be used it must be treated. 

Fungicides. 

Rusts are suppressed by fungicides, not eradicated. 

Some rusts occur in crops such as wheat which 

cannot be economically sprayed or on plants such 

as poplars which are too tall to spray. 

Foliage sprays and dusts are only practical for 

small areas, eg orchards, nurseries, gardens. 

Begin treatment at an early stage of infection as 

advanced rust outbreaks are difficult to control. 

And thoroughly spray all plant surfaces. 

Risk of resistance. The rusts of wheat and 

barley are accepted as having a medium risk of 

developing 

resistance to fungicides. Follow 

Resistance management strategies available for 

some crops and rusts on the CropLife Australia 

website www.croplifeaustralia.org.au/ 

Follow label Resistance Management Strategies. 

Overseas soil drenches and tree injection are used to 

control rust diseases with systemic fungicides. 

Table 64. Rusts – Some fungicides. 

What to use? 


Group M1, eg copper hydroxide; copper oxychloride 

Group M2, eg Dusting Sulphur; Kumulus , Lansul , 

Sulfine (dispersible sulphur); Lime Sulphur 

(polysulphides) 

Groul M3, eg mancozeb 

SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES (eradicants) 

Group 3, eg Baycor (bitertanol); Saprol (triforine); 

Tilt (propiconazole) 

Impact (flutriafol) may be applied as a foliar 

sprays or as in furrow as a fertilizer treatment 

Group 7, eg Plantvax (oxycarboxin) 


Wide range of seed dressing are available 


BIO-FUNGICIDES (non-systemic) 

Some products are being researched. 


Sulphur has long been a specific remedy for rust. 

Sulphur may scorch some species at > 30 o C, eg begonia, softfoliaged 

plants. Flower petals may be very susceptible 

Sulphur is often included in all-purpose garden sprays or 

dusts, eg rose or vegetable sprays and dusts. 

Mancozeb is probably the most widely used fungicide for 

rust diseases. 

Apply systemic fungicides at the first sign of rust. 

Frequency of further applications depends on weather. 

Generally if you can see the rust pustules then systemic 

fungicides are usually required. 

If disease is well established do not try to spray, remove/ 

destroy severely affected plants and self-sown seedlings. 

Most rust diseases are seedborne. 

Sulphur is used occasionally as a dust or dip to kill the rust 

spores which adhere to the outside of seed. 



Black spot of rose 

Example of a fungal leaf spot 

The most common and serious disease of roses. 


Black spot (Marssonina rosae, Imperfect Fungi = 

Diplocarpon rosa, Phylum Ascomycota). 

Host range 

Roses. Some cultivars are more susceptible than 

others. Most fungal leaf spots are host specific – 

see page 321 for more species 

Symptoms 

Leaves. 

More or less circular black spots with fringed 

margins up to 12 mm across develop usually on 

leaf uppersurfaces (Fig. 196). 

Leaf spots vary in number from 1-20 per leaf 

and may coalesce to produce large, irregular 

black areas. 

During damp weather, examination of the 

feathery spots with a hand lens shows small 

black blisters (fruiting bodies or acervuli) which 

contain spores (conidia). 

In susceptible varieties, the appearance of black 

spots is soon followed by a yellowing of portion 

or the entire leaflet and then by defoliation. The 

leaf tissue around the lesions turns yellow and 

often entire leaves become yellow and fall 

prematurely. 

Sometimes new leaves are produced which also 

become infected. 

Flowers. Continual defoliation results in a 

reduction in the size and number of flowers. 

Young canes of susceptible varieties may also 

develop spots. Lesions are indistinct black areas, 

slightly blistered without fringed margins and as 

raised, purple-red blotches on immature wood of 

1 st year canes. There will be a reduction in size and 

number of flowers as well as dieback of stems. 

General. Repeated defoliation weakens the plant 

and may lead to dieback of stems and reduction in 

size and number of flowers. If the plant is 

continually defoliated in this way dieback and 

death may follow. 

Diagnostics. 

Do not confuse the feathery black spots on roses 

with anthracnose (Sphaceloma rosarum) or other 

minor leaf spotting fungi, eg Mycosphaerella 

which have smooth margins. 

Small dark fruiting bodies can be seen with a 

hand lens or under a compound microscope. 

Some fungal leaf spotting fungi can be identified 

by DNA analysis, eg Mycosphaerella nubiloa on 

Eucalyptus globulus. 

Fig. 196. Black spot (Marssonina rosae) on rose. 

Rose leaves showing typical symptoms of black spot. 

The large black spots have a feathery margin. Severely 

affected leaves yellow and fall prematurely. PhotoCIT, 


Fig. 197. Anthracnose (Sphaceloma rosarum) on rose. 

Rose leaves showing typical symptoms of anthracnose. 

Spots are ash-gray with well defined margins. Leaves may 

become tattered at the tips. Defoliation does not occur to the 

same extent as with black spot. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Disease cycle 

The sexual Ascomycota state, ie apothecia and 

ascospores, has not yet been found in Australia and 

only rarely overseas. Spore germ tubes penetrate 

and infect leaves in spring, the fungus grows in the 

mesophyll and within 2 weeks forms more spores 

on upper leaf surfaces. Conidia are produced 

throughout the growing season and cause repeated 

infections during warm, wet weather. 


In susceptible varieties, in lesions on canes, fallen 

leaves, and prunings from infected plants. 

Spread 

Spores (conidia) are spread by wind, rain or 

water splash from infected plants and fallen 

leaves and prunings from infected plants. 

Over long distances, by movement of infected 

plants. By the introduction of infected plants 


Warm (13-24 o C), wet weather especially in spring. 




2. Crop, region. Recognize variations, some varieties 

are more susceptible than others. 

3. Identification may be difficult to confirm. 

Consult a diagnostic service if necessary (page 

xiv). Do not confuse with anthracnose. 

4. Monitor leaves of susceptible rose varieties during 

damp weather in more shaded areas for the first 

signs of leaf spots (page 327). Record results as 

recommended. Defoliation caused by leaf diseases 

of eucalypts in plantations is monitored. Remember 

know when, where, what and how to monitor. 


Reduction in flower size and numbers may be an 

economic issue for commercial growers. Is your 

threshold economic or aesthetic? 


threshold is reached, eg reduce overhead irrigation, 

remove affected leaves, and spray only if a need 

has been demonstrated. 

7. Evaluation. Review IDM program to see how 


required, eg change irrigation practices, replace 

some very susceptible varieties. 

Fig. 198. Disease cycle of black spot of rose (Marssonina rosae). 





Cultural practices will not control black spot 

entirely but may reduce its incidence. They may 

be only practical in greenhouses. 

Keep humidity low 

– By not planting bushes too close together. 

– Avoid growing smaller plants such as 

flowering annuals underneath rose bushes. 

– Do not plant roses in shady situations or very 

sheltered areas where air circulation is 

minimal. 

– Do not water plants late in the day so that 

leaves remain wet for a long period of time. 

Avoid overhead irrigation, eg use drip or 

hydroponic systems. If overhead irrigating, do 

so early in the day so foliage is dry before 

evening. 

Avoid overfertilizing which causes soft 

growth which is very susceptible to black spot. 

Mulching early in spring can serve as a 

mechanical barrier between the spores formed on 

old leaves on the ground and the developing 

leaves overhead. However, in susceptible 

varieties the fungus may overwinter on canes. 

Other fungal leaf spots, eg Mycosphaerella 

cryptica in Eucalyptus globulus, have been 

shown to be more severe when phosphorus 

levels were low. 

Sanitation. 

Fallen leaves. Although the fungus grows as a 

saprophyte on fallen leaves and prunings, the 

importance of collecting them has probably been 

over-stressed. Also it is impossible to collect all 

fallen leaves and in susceptible varieties, the 

fungus may overwinter on the canes. 

Prune out infected canes during winter pruning, 

and destroy fallen leaves and prunings. Prune so 

that the center of the bush is not overgrown. 

In gardens, first infected leaves in spring can 

be removed by hand providing foliage is dry. 

Remove and destroy infected leaves, 

cutting back canes of diseased rose plants. Pick 

up and burn diseased fallen leaves. 


In the USA, Rose Flora TM (Bacillus laterosporus) 

has been found to inhibit the growth of the black 

spot fungus and a number of soilborne fungi 

including Rhizoctonia, Verticillium, 

Phytophthora and Pythium in the laboratory. 

To make it more effective it can be mixed with 

an anti-transpirant foliar spray. 


Varieties vary in their susceptibility. 

Discard very susceptible varieties if practical. 

Varieties with some resistance include: 

– Hybrid teas, eg 'Electron', 'First Prize', 'Peace', 

'Tiffany'. 

– Grandifloras and floribundas, eg 'Angel Face', 

'Carousel', 'First Edition', 'Gene Boerner', 'Queen 

Elizabeth', Sonia'. 

Fungicides. 

Fungicides may be applied to susceptible 

varieties when warm, humid conditions start. 

Make sure that both leaf surfaces are wetted 

with fungicide. 

Fungicides that control black spot will also 

control anthracnose. 

Excess copper applications may cause leaf 

yellowing. 

If predatory mites are used to control 

twospotted mite then only fungicides non-toxic 

to the predators should be selected. 

Risk of resistance. Leaf spotting fungi of some 

other crops, eg wheat, are accepted as having a 

medium risk of development of resistance to 

fungicides. Resistance management strategies are 

available for some crops and leaf spots on the 

CropLife Australia website 


Check label resistance Management Strategies. 

Table 65. Black spot – Some fungicides. 

What to use? 

Nearly all garden sprays and dusts for roses contain a fungicide 

which will control black spot on roses. 

POTASSIUM BICARBONATE & OILS (non-systemic) 

Eco-Rose (potassium bicarbonate) 

Baking soda + horticultural oil 

Spray oils, eg petroleum oils 

NON-SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES (protectant) 

Group M fungicides carry an inherently low risk of fungicide 

resistance developing 

Group M1, eg copper compounds, eg copper hydroxide, 

oxychloride 

Group M3, eg mancozeb; thiram; zineb, 

Group M4, eg Captan , Merpan (captan) 

Group M5, eg Bravo (chlorothanonil) 

SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES (eradicant) 

Group 1, eg Various (carbendazim) 

Group 3, eg Baycor (bitertanol), Saprol (triforine) 


On susceptible varieties, the more humid the weather, the 

more often it is likely that spraying will be necessary. 

These sprays have little residual effect 

Some of these fungicides also control rust on roses. 

As soon as humid weather commences in spring 

susceptible varieties may be sprayed with a suitable 

fungicide at various intervals depending on the 

weather, eg after each rain. 

Ensure both upper and lower leaf surfaces are covered 

with the fungicide. 

Follow Resistance Management Strategies. 

Some of these fungicides also control powdery mildew 

and/or rust on roses. 

Fungicide applications may begin in spring at the first 

appearance of black spot on the foliage of susceptible 

varieties. Repeat applications may be required after rain 

(check label). 




Peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans, Phylum 

Ascomycota). 

Host range 

Ornamental and flowering stone fruits. 

Mainly peaches and nectarines, but almonds, 

apricots and plum may also be attacked. 

Symptoms 

Leaves. 

In spring, spores germinate and the spore 

tubes penetrate directly through the cuticle or 

stomata of leaves. The mycelium then grows 

between the cells and invades tissue increasing 

cell enlargement and cell division causing 

abnormal growth and distortion of leaves. 

Leaves infected throughout lose most of 

their green colour and become very thick and 

pale. Partially infected leaves become 

distorted because growth is more rapid in the 

infected parts than in the healthy sections. 

Affected leaf areas are pale green 

initially but develop a deep pink or purplish 

colour. Later a white bloom appears on the 

surface and leaves shrivel, brown, die and fall. 

Severe attack can completely defoliate a tree. 

Trees usually produce new leaves that 

remain healthy as the season advances. However, 

if cool, wet weather persists during spring, 

infections may continue to appear on new leaves 

for several months. 


Curly leaf, leaf curl 

Shoots. 

Infected peach shoots are less obvious than 

infected leaves. Shoots become swollen, stunted, 

pale green to yellow, gum may ooze from them. 

In apricot trees a witches' broom 

develops (densely bunched curled growth). 

Infected shoots usually die. This is the common 

symptom of peach leaf curl on apricot trees; it is 

rare to find an isolated infected leaf. 

Flowers and fruit. 

Infected flowers usually fall from the tree. 

Partial or complete defoliation after leaf 

infection usually results in heavy shedding of 

developing fruit. 

Infected peach fruits show raised, 

irregularly-shaped areas which may develop a 

pinkish or reddish color long before normal fruit 

show any colour change. 

Small infected fruits usually die and fall. 

General. 

Defoliation in consecutive seasons seriously 

weakens tree growth. 

Nursery stock which has suffered severe 

defoliation rarely develops satisfactorily after 

such a setback. 

Diagnostics. 

Do not confuse symptoms of peach leaf curl, with 

those caused by green peach aphids (page 152). 

This can be a common mistake. 

Peaches and some other stone fruits may be 

affected by both peach leaf curl and green peach 

aphid injury at the same time. 

Fig. 199. Peach leaf curl 

(Taphrina deformans). Affected 

parts of the fruit are blistered. 


Fig. 200. Peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans). Affected 

parts of leaves are thickened distorted and covered with a white 

bloom of spores. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment (M.Senior). 



Disease cycle 

The ‘conidia’ produced are not really conidia but 

bud spores produced when previous ascospores 

proliferate by budding (Fig. 201 below) and the 

fungus survives summer as ascospores. These 

germinate in autumn rains and form yeast-like 

spores that can ‘overwinter’ in bud scales and on 

twigs. These spores infect the newly developing 

leaves in spring if the following weather is warm 

and humid during early blossoming. It appears that 

the expanding leaves are only susceptible when 

they are young; they become resistant to infection 

as they age. 


Spores (‘conidia’ and ascospores) of the fungus 

mainly ‘overwinter’ on bud scales. 

Spread 

Spores are spread by wind and water splash onto 

emerging leaves. As nearly all susceptible varieties 

are infected, peach leaf curl is spread by the 

movement of infected nursery stock. 


Cold, wet weather during leaf emergence in 

spring followed by warm, humid weather during 

early blossoming in spring. 

Disease ceases with high summer temperatures. 

However, if weather again becomes favourable 

further disease may develop on new leaves. 

Tissue is only susceptible when young. Tissue 

becomes resistant to infection as it ages. 

Fig. 201. Disease cycle of peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans). 




1. Prepare a plan that fits your situation, as a 

commercial orchardist or home gardener. 

2. Crop, region. Obtain local information sheets on 

peach leaf curl. 

3. Identification of disease must be confirmed. Do 

not confuse with aphid injury. Consult a diagnostic 

service if symptoms are confusing (page xiv). 

4. Monitor disease and/or damage during spring to 

determine which trees/varieties will require 

treatment the following spring and to determine 

the effectiveness of any treatments already carried 

out. Mark affected varieties if necessary. Record 

results. 


Have any thresholds been established? If so, what 

are they, eg economic, aesthetic, environmental? 

Do you need to calculate your own threshold? 

Remember know when, where, what and how 

to monitor. 


threshold is reached. During the growing season, 

fertilize severely affected trees, etc. 

7. Evaluation. Review IDM program to see how 


required, eg replacing susceptible varieties. Note: 

An occasional curly leaf on an otherwise healthy 

tree is not important. 


Peach leaf curl may be controlled more efficiently 

and more easily than any other major disease of 

stone fruits. 


If trees have been severely defoliated by the 

disease through failure to spray at the correct time, 

a light application of a quickly-acting fertilizer 

such as sulphate of ammonia, may help them to 

produce new foliage. 

Sanitation. 

Prune out all infected shoots at pruning time to 

reduce infection sources for the following season. 

Infected shoots can be difficult to see. 


Some varieties of peaches are very susceptible, eg 

Elberta and Blackburn. 

Fungicides. 

Peach leaf curl can be controlled satisfactorily with 

a single spray of a registered fungicide just before 

budswell. Some fungicides are not suitable for 

some stone fruits, eg peach or apricots. Follow 

label instructions. 

Table 66. Peach leaf curl – Some fungicides. 

What to use? 


Group M fungicides carry an inherently low risk of 

fungicide resistance developing. 

Group M1, Copper compounds, eg copper hydroxide, 

copper oxychloride, cupric hydroxide, cuprous 

oxide, copper ammonium acetate, tribasic copper 

sulphate, copper octanoate, buffered copper 

complex 

Group M2, Sulphur compounds, eg Kumulus , 

Lansul , Sulfine , Wettable sulphur (dispersible 

sulphur); Lime Sulphur (polysulphide sulfur) 

Group M3, eg Ziram (ziram) 

Group M1/M3, eg Mankozeb DF (cupric hydroxide/ 

mancozeb) 

Group M5, eg Bravo , Rover , various (chlorothalonil) 

Group M7, eg, Syllit (dodine) 

Group M9, eg Delan (dithianon) 


Correct timing is critical for effective control. 

For effective control spray when buds are swelling but 

before they have opened. It is not possible to 

satisfactorily control peach leaf curl once the fungus has 

entered the leaf. 

As initial infection occurs during a short period 

when leaves are emerging from buds, 1 application of a 

copper fungicide (or lime sulphur) just before buds start 

to swell (when buds are beginning to get plumper) in 

spring may give satisfactory control. 

To ensure correct timing and complete coverage, 

sometimes 2 sprays, the 1st at the very first sign of bud 

movement and a 2nd spray a week later are applied. It is 

better to apply the 1st spray too early rather than too late. 

Do not apply after mid-budswell or control will be 

unsatisfactory and sprays may burn young leaves. 

Where disease has been difficult to control in 

previous seasons the following 3 sprays is suggested: 

1 st spray in autumn at leaf fall. 

2 nd spray immediately before budswell. 

3 rd spray about 1 week later at budswell. 

Failure to control peach leaf curl adequately 

with 1-2 copper sprays is usually due to incorrect timing, 

usually too late due to difficulty in recognizing the 

1st sign of budswell or wet weather (spraying 

impossible). In a planting containing peach and nectarine 

cultivars, sprays must be timed for the cultivar which 

shows the earliest movement of buds. 

Copper fungicides are more effective than sulphur 

when conditions favour disease. Whichever spray is 

used, the whole tree must be thoroughly sprayed, 

taking care not to miss limb and twig extremities. 

After budswell. Some protectant fungicides are 

registered for use just after budswell, these can be useful 

where the disease has been a problem in previous 

seasons. 

Some of these fungicides will also control other diseases 

of stone fruits. 



Wood rots 


Several orders of the Phylum Basidiomycota, eg 

Heart rot (Schizophyllum commune) 

Pink limb blight (Corticium salmonicolor) 

Red wood rot (Pycnoporus coccineus) 

Yellowish wood rot (Trametes versicolor) 

Many other species, eg Fomes, Phellinus, Poria, 

Ganoderma, Peniophora, Lenzites 

Keane et al (2000) described comprehensively wood, 

stem and butt rots of eucalypts. 

Host range 

Most have a wide host range and can attack ageing 

ornamental, native, forest and fruit trees, sometimes 

found on younger trees. Many can also attack and 

reproduce on dead branches, fallen logs. 

Symptoms/Damage 

General. Infected trees may live for many years but 

eventually they die or blow over during storms and 

temperature extremes due to internal rotting wood 

which structurally weakens the tree. Check that the tree 

will not cause any physical damage if it falls. 

Trunks. 

Older decaying trees may drop branches, break or 

shatter without warning in gales or storms endangering 

life and property. Inspection may indicate wood rot. 

External symptoms include: 

– Die-back of twigs, branches or the whole tree. 

defoliation, lack of vigour (which could also be 

caused by root rot, insect attack or mismanagement). 

– Fungal fruiting bodies may develop on outside of 

affected limbs and trunks, usually during autumn or 

winter, one to many years after infection. They may 

be the only indication that there is a well established 

wood rot infection (Fig. 202). They vary in colour 

and size depending on the species. Common names of 

wood rot fungi often describe the type and colour of 

fruiting body (or rot) produced, eg white rot, pink 

limb blight. Fruiting bodies may be annual or 

perennial and ‘mushrooms’ or ‘toadstools’. 

White 

yellowish 

wood rot 

(Polyporus 

versicolor) 

Some fruiting bodies 

Internal decay 

Fig. 202. Fruiting bodies and internal 

decay of some wood rotting fungi. 

Internal symptoms. Soft wood, no structural 

strength, when dry is extremely light in weight. 

– Rotted wood when dry is soft and very light in 

weight. Any exposed woody tissue is readily 

attacked by wood rot fungi and, once infection 

becomes established, a tree has no protective 

mechanism to stop the rot. Wood decay generally 

spreads longitudinally within the trunk mainly 

because this is the way of ‘least resistance’. The 

extent and exact location of the decay within a trunk 

depends on the species of wood rot fungus and the 

species of tree attacked. 

– Some wood rotting fungi, eg Schizophyllum, 

are weak pathogens and are usually only important 

in older neglected trees. 

– In living trees most wood rots are confined to 

older central dead wood (heartwood). Depending 

on the part of the tree attacked, wood rots are also 

called root, butt or stem rots. 

– Brown rots decompose cellulose causing a brown 

rot with a cubical pattern of cracking and crumbly 

texture. They preferably attack softwoods, eg 

conifers. White rots decompose cellulose and 

lignin, reducing wood to a pale spongy mass. They 

preferably attack hardwoods normally resistant to 

brown rot fungi. 

– Termite damage often follows fungal decay on old 

living trees (page 178). There are exceptions. 

Potting mixes/lawns. 

Wood rot fungi may grow on improperly composted 

material in potting mixes (page 391, Fig. 212). The 

fungi are not parasitic on the plants in the pots. 

Similarly fungi growing on chips and bark used for 

mulches, feed on organic matter in the soil and are not 

parasitic on plants. 

Diagnostics. 

All assessments of large trees should be carried 

out by a professional arborist to avoid confusion with 

possible borer or termite damage (page 178, Table 35). 

As a generalization an arborist can get some indication 

of the health of a tree from external symptoms and 

‘sounding’ the tree, eg 

– External signs of decay may include dieback and 

fruiting bodies which may be easier to see during 

winter on deciduous trees. 

– A composite hammer is used to ‘sound’ trees as 

this can indicate if there is a hollow and some idea of 

how big the hollow is. 

– As a generalization, if a problem cannot be seen 

or sounded then it is not an important factor in tree 

failure. If it can be seen or sounded then the 

principle of Visual Tree Assessment (VTA) must be 

engaged to see if hollows are likely to cause failure. 

Visual Tree Assessment (VTA) is the method of 

evaluating structural defects and stability in trees 

including the detection and extent of decay in older trees 

(Matheny et al. 1994). 

Many tools are available to assist with tree assessment 

in certain situations, eg 

– Internal diagnosis of decay. Resistographs are 

invasive and involve drilling a small hole into the 

trunk. The drill hole may pass through both sound and 

decayed wood. The small drill holes with remaining 

sawdust create a highway for spread of fungal decay. 

Older types of drilling equipment were better because 

the holes were large and not full of sawdust. Not 

commonly used to diagnose internal diagnosis of 

decay. Some arborists refuse to use it on trees that are 

not definitely being removed. 

– Picus sonic tomography is non-invasive and 

measures the structural integrity of trees and extent of 

fungal invasion. Variations in the velocity of sound in 

the tree’s wood measure density and elasticity. 

– Electronic fracture meters can conduct accurate 

wood strength testing of trees on site. 

– Ground penetrating radar technology scans tree 

roots 3-5m deep in soil which can used in saving trees 

on construction sites by locating roots before design. 

– Chlorophyll Fluorescence Analyzers are suitable 

for large scale screening of trees in the field for 

diagnostic research and teaching applications. 

– GPS and GIS computer equipment can map assets. 

Enspec www.enspec.com/ 



Disease cycle 

See Fig. 203 below. 


As mycelium in diseased or dead trees, logs and 

stumps, and sometimes as perennial fruiting 

bodies. Infected trees, plant debris, stumps. 

Spread 

Fruiting bodies release spores (basidiospores) 

during or soon after rain and are spread by wind, 

rain, animals, pruning and harvesting tools to 

other trees. Spores lodge on crevices in dead 

bark, borer damage, pruning and natural wounds, 

germinate, invade the plant and the mycelium 

grows slowly through the woody tissue. A tree 

has no protective mechanism to stop infection 

progressing. 

Some wood rotting fungi, eg Fomes can also 

enter through roots, others, eg Rigidoporus 

muroporus, important in some tropical and 

subtropical areas, spread as mycelium in the soil. 


Any exposed woody tissue is readily attacked by 

wood rotting fungi. Wood rot fungi commonly 

infect trees through wounds and large dead or 

dying branches. 

Wounds, eg 

– Mechanical injury, wind, stress fractures due to 

drought. broken branches in storms, heavy winter 

pruning, dead projecting stubs (poor pruning 

techniques), re-worked trees, root damage, lawn 

mower or whipper-snipper injury. 

– Borer damage. 

– Butt and stem rots may be associated with termite 

tunnels in eucalypts. 

– Excavations causing tree root damage, change in 

soil moisture. 

Environment, eg 

– Frost or spray injury may kill twigs. 

– Hail may damage limbs. 

– Sunburn scalds exposed surfaces, bark is killed and 

is an entry point for wood rot fungi. Small trunks 

and branches facing west may be scalded by heat 

reflection from chip bark. Larger limbs and butts 

especially are at risk if they are exposed to the sun 

by premature leaf fall following diseases or pests, 

drought or unsuitable pruning. 

Stress due to drought, poor nutrition and 

ventilation, overcropping, waterlogging. Some 

wood rot fungi will only attack trees weakened 

by root injury or drought. 

Ageing trees, eg Ganoderma is mainly a 

problem on ageing trees. 

Fig. 203. Disease cycle of a wood rot fungus (adapted from Agrios, 1997). 





1. Access/prepare a plan that fits your situation. If 

large or protected trees are involved, check 

environmental legislation, tree preservation orders, 

health and safety regulations, etc. Obtain advice from a 

qualified arborist as trees may fall over and there may be 

public and personal safety issues. 


3. Identification of wood rot and its extent must be 

confirmed. In the absence of obvious fruiting bodies, 

consult an arborist or diagnostic service (page xiv). 

4. Monitor or have a qualified arborist monitor all 

suspect trees regularly trees for fruiting bodies, 

evidence of canker diseases, insect borers, termite 

damage, pruning wounds, especially after stormy 

weather or prolonged drought. Keep accurate records of 

soft dry wood in fallen branches, etc. 

5. Threshold. For large trees where there is a risk that 

they may fall, there is a nil threshold. What is you 

threshold, eg economic, aesthetic, environmental? 

6. Action. Follow recommended safety regulations 

for trees at risk. For other trees perform 

recommended cultural and sanitation measures. All 

trees should receive regular maintenance. 

7. Evaluation. Review your program to see how well 

it worked. Compare records from year to year; make 

improvements or seeking advice when necessary. 


Control in living trees can be difficult. Seek advice 

for your particular tree. Wood rot takes a large annual 

toll of trees, much of which could be prevented. 

Legislation 

Safety. If the tree is large and the trunk decayed to 

the extent that the tree may possibly blow over and 

damage personnel or property, or fruiting bodies are 

present on the trunk, it should be removed. 

If there is any doubt. about a tree’s safety, 

seek advice from a professional arborist. 

If the tree is small (less than 3 metres tall) and the 

trunk has extensive decay, eg Prunus spp., fruit 

trees, wattles, it is often not possible to save them and 

they can be removed. 

Control of wood rot is often impractical except if 

identified at an early stage, badly infected trees are 

best removed before it infects others. 

Cultural methods. The best treatment for all 

tree problems is to ensure that the trees are as healthy 

as possible (Alan Mann, Canopy Tree Experts, ACT). 

Maintain/improve tree vigour to reduce stress 

by mulching, fertilizing and watering. Avoid stress 

and ensure trees are established properly. 

– After tree surgery fertilizing and watering will 

assist new bark to quickly cover the wound. 

– Aerate compacted soil around trees by digging lightly 

with a fork. protect root zone from compaction. 

Avoid parking underneath trees, dripping oil, etc 

– Avoid injury to trunks and roots and mulching 

around trunk bases. 

– Correctly space of groups of trees in amenity 

plantings. In forestry stocking density is used to 

manipulate branch size; minimize wounding during 

forestry operations. Forestry operations can be timed 

to coincide with low levels of inoculum. 

Minimize sunburn injury to trunks/branches by: 

Avoiding reflective mulches. 

Pruning appropriately to shade limbs and trunk. 

– Controlling diseases and pests (if applicable) to 

prevent leaf fall in summer. 

– Applying flat white plastic paint reflects the sun. 

Have a plan to replace ageing trees because like 

us they do not live forever. 

Sanitation 

Remove old tree stumps and roots before 

replanting a site or orchards in bushland. 

Avoid wounding bark with lawn mowers and 

whipper-snippers. 

Decayed trees near houses should be pruned or 

cut down. Remove sick or dying trees and dead 

stumps to reduce food sources. 

Pruning. 

– Prune when weather is to be dry for more than 24 

hours, avoiding periods of rapid vegetative growth. 

For silver leaf prune in late summer or early autumn 

as trees are less susceptible at this time. 

– Avoid leaving long pruning stubs without buds. 

– Prune deciduous plants while dormant. 

– Prune storm-damaged trees to remove badly 

damaged branches. Branch pruning removes stress 

on the root system of trees and shrubs on poor sites 

and favours rehabilitation. 

– Cut off and burn all dead wood and rotted limbs to 

prevent wood rot fungi growing on dead wood. 

– Trim all wounds including pruning wounds 

carefully using a clean sharp implement. Cut wound 

cleanly at an angle to encourage bud development 

and favour healing. 

– Prune trees carefully at collars and shape young 

trees carefully to avoid large pruning cuts. 

Limbs. Cut off affected branches well below the 

decay, preferably just beyond the ridges or shoulder 

of bark where the branch meets the trunk or another 

large branch, leaving as small a scar as possible, so 

that callus tissue will grow quickly over the 

exposed wood. 

Trunk. Attempts to save severely affected trees 

can be made by careful tree surgery, eg 

– Chisel back to healthy wood and bark and burn 

excavated material. Clean wounds by cutting off 

torn bark so there is a neat smooth surface for 

callusing. Avoid large pruning cuts if possible. 

– Drain hollows in stems which hold water. 


Overseas, Rotstop (Phlebia gigantea) targets 

Heterobasidion annosum in trees and BINAB T 

(Trichoderma harzianum and T. polysporum) targets 

wood decay fungi (Agrios 2005). 


Species vary in susceptibility. Match species to site. 

Avoid using susceptible trees as windbreaks. 


Many wood rot fungi occur overseas, eg inocutis stem 

rot (Inocutis spp.) which attacks many species 

including grapevines, eucalypts and wattles. 


Use only properly composted potting mixes from 

reputable sources for potted plants. The fruiting bodies 

in potting mixes will disappear when all food sources 

in the mix has been used by the fungus. 

Fungicides 

Disinfect tools when moving from plant to plant. 

Wound treatments. Tar-based pruning paints are 

available but not commonly used as water may 

collect underneath the painted surface. However, 

where wood rot is prevalent on susceptible trees in 

commercial orchards, cuts larger than a 50c piece, 

prescribed wound treatments within hours of 

pruning, may reduce incidence in some species, eg 

– Garrison Pruning Wound Dressing Fungicide 

(cyproconazole + iodocarb) for the prevention of 

silverleaf fungus (Chondrostereum purpureum) on 

pruning wounds and wind damaged limbs of apples, 

apricots, peaches, plums and ornamentals. 

– Seek advice regarding wound treatments for your 

situation. 



‘Phytophthora’ root rot 

An example of a soilborne fungal disease 

Phytophthora, one of the world’s most 

damaging disease organisms affects a broad 

range of plant species costing millions of dollars each 

year in Australia. This introduced soilborne fungus 

became important initially because of its occurrence in 

the jarrah forest in WA (Keane et al. 2000, Shearer et al 

2009) and the seriousness of the disease on many 

ornamental plants and fruit crops. Threatened species 

may be at high risk of extinction. Many Phytophthora 

species and other root rotting fungi cause major yield 

losses in Australia annually. Many investigative and 

information groups have been formed, eg 

Dieback Information Group www.dieback.org.au/ 

Centre for Phytophthora Science and 

Management www.cpsm.murdoch.edu.au/ 


Soilborne Diseases Symposia held regularly by the 

Australasian Plant Pathology Society www.apps.net.au/ 

Phytophthora Online Course: Training for Nursery 

Growers (Oregon State University, currently. available 

at http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/dce/phytophthora/ 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi (Pc), 

Phylum Oomycota) is often called ‘dieback’ but do not 

confuse ‘Phytophthora root rot’ caused by Pc with 

dieback caused by other agents, eg Armillaria root rot, 

Christmas beetles and other foliage-feeding insects, 

drought, etc. Additionally, diseases called ‘Phytophthora 

root rot’ may be caused by species of Phytophthora 

other than P. cinnamomi, eg Phytophthora root rot of 

lucerne is caused by P. megasperma. There are more 

than 60 described species of Phytophthora, many of 

which have been imported into Australia. 

Host range 

Wide host range, including ornamentals, eg azalea, 

native plants, eg Proteaceae, Epacridcaeae, Myrtaceae 

especially eucalypts (jarrah), susceptible commercial 

floriculture taxa include waxflower, banksia, boronia, 

crowea, rice flower, waratah, thryptomene; fruit, eg 

apple, avocado. peas, orange, grape, vegetables, field 

crops and weeds. Most states have host ranges for 

their state, eg Reid (2006) has provided a list of the 

main species of importance to horticulture in WA. 

Symptoms and impacts 

Soil diseases affecting roots and crowns are often unnoticed 

for years. In addition to attacking mature plants, 

this fungus can attack seeds and seedlings (page 371). 

Above ground symptoms (on shrubs, trees). 

Leaves may develop brown tips and margins. 

Generally a wilting, yellowing or dying back of 

foliage and a general unthrifty appearance prior to 

death of the plant, may be present on only one side 

of the plant. Damage to roots and water conducting 

vessels prevent plants from taking up enough water 

from the soil. Many of these symptoms may be 

caused or exacerbated by other soil diseases, nutrient 

deficiencies or toxicities and a range of 

environmental stresses, which may be operating 

at the same time. 

Plant may die during the dry summer months as 

diseased root systems cannot supply adequate water 

for plant survival. 

Large trees may take years to die. 

Collar rots and stem cankers. If the 

bark is removed at ground level or from stem 

cankers, underlying tissues are often brownish due 

to the fungus attacking these areas. 

Below ground symptoms. 

On removing plants from soil, affected roots are 

black or brown, rotted and outer areas may come 

away leaving a thread-like vascular system. 

Root system is reduced preventing uptake of water 

and nutrients. Tip out pots to assess root health, 

examine the collar region, wash roots from potting 

medium and examine under a dissecting microscope 

against a white background. 

Impacts. 

Phytophthora has been listed as a key threatening 

process to native vegetation in parts of Australia, 

whole ecosystems being affected. Many crops are 

seriously affected. 

Phytophthora spp. Many species cause damping-off of 

seeds, seedlings, cuttings, also root, 

collar and trunk rots of a wide range of 

plants, nursery plants. A few species 

attack fruit, leaves, etc. Nursery plants. 

P. cinnamomi Wide range of plants (native, exotic) 

P. cactorum Apples, pears, certain native plants 

P. citricola Citrus, some genera of native plants 

P. citrophthora Citrus, causing collar, crown, stem, 

root and fruit rots, also some other 

fruits, some vegetables, etc 

P. cryptogea Apples, some genera of native plants, 

gerbera 

P. drechsleri Proteaceae, many genera of native 

plants, nursery plants 

P. megasperma Wide range of plants, eg lucerne, 

Brassicas and other vegetables, etc 

P. nicotianae Many genera native plants, stone fruit, 

strawberry, tomato, nursery plants 

P. palmivora Wide range of exotic species, durian, 

P. infestans Late blight (Irish blight) of potatoes, 

tomatoes and other Solanaceae occurs 

in some states and some strains are 

still a serious disease in some parts of 

the world. Not discussed in this text. 

Fig. 204. Some of the many symptoms 

and diseases caused by Phytophthora spp. 

Combinations of causes: 

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. zingiberi (Foz) and soft 

rot bacterium (Erwinia chrysanthemi) have played a 

part in the poor crop establishment of ginger in Qld. 

Macrophomina phaseolina and root knot nematode 

( Meloidogyne incognita) play a part in root disease 

of chick pea. 

Root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi 

also increases in the presence of Pseudomosas putida. 



Fig. 205. Fungal. root, crown, collar rots. 

MOST ROOT DISEASES ARE DIFFICULT 

TO RECOGNIZE FROM SYMPTOMS 

But there are a few that are relatively easy. Get to 

know which root diseases your crop is susceptible to. 

EASY TO 

IDENTIFY? 

Those fungi that 

produce readily 

identifiable structures 

are relatively easy to 

identify, eg 

Sclerotium stem rot 

Sclerotinia rot 

Armillaria root rot 

Gray mould (Botrytis spp.) 

However in many 

situations, eg nurseries, 

these are not usually 

the commonest root rot 

fungi. 

ARE SOME MORE DIFFICULT 

TO IDENTIFY? 

Unless you have some experience with the diseases 

which affect your crop you will probably need to have 

the disease isolated and identified by an expert. 

Potting mixes, irrigation water and in-ground mixes 

may also have to be tested. 

Some kits are available for growers, but they are not 

commonly used and can be expensive. 

The diagnostic service will tell you how to send 

samples to the laboratory to prevent cross 

contamination of samples and spread of disease. 

They will identify the disease or confirm diagnosis and 

assist with control measures (see pages xiv, G 53). 

Examples of difficult to identify fungi include: 

Aphanomyces black root rot (Aphanomyces sp.) 

Ashy stem blight, charcoal rot (Macrophomina 

phaseolina) 

Chalara black root rot (Chalara sp. = Thielaviopsis sp.) 

Cylindrocladium root rots (Cylindrocladium spp.) 

Fusarium root rots (Fusarium spp.) 

Phytophthora root/collar rots (Phytophthora spp.) 

Pythium rots (Pythium spp.) 

Rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 

Summer decline (associated with Pythium, Rhizoctonia, 

Drechslera, Curvularia and Fusarium) in turf 

Take-all (Gaeumannomyces graminis var. avenae) 

Vascular wilts, eg Fusarium wilts (Fusarium oxysporum), 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium sp.) 

Other root diseases include those caused by nematodes, 

bacteria, and nematode-disease complexes (page 253). 

SYMPTOMS CAUSED 

BY OTHER AGENTS? 

Above ground, eg foliage 

Too little/too much water 

Salinity 

Environmental 

Bacterial vascular wilts 

Etc 

Below ground, eg roots. 

Lack of oxygen, eg due to too 

much water, poor drainage. 

Soil disturbance 

Etc 

Fruiting bodies 

Rhizomorphs 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.). 

Top: Clusters of mushrooms on rotting 

wood at base of tree trunks. Do not 

confuse with fruiting bodies of other 

fungi. Lower: Dark rhizomorphs (like 

 

on roots of infected trees are produced 

by some Armillaria spp. 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). 

Left: Tiny brown resting bodies (sclerotia) about 

2-3 mm in diameter (the size of cabbage seed) 

on French bean. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and 

Investment (M.S.Senior). 

Sclerotinia stem rot (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum). Left: Irregularlyshaped 

black sclerotia up to 12 cm 

long on the outside of a carrot. 

Right: Sclerotia formed inside 

infected stems. PhotoNSW Dept of 




Diagnostics. Current focus is on detection and 

diagnostics of soilborne diseases (nematodes, bacteria, 

fungi, etc) before planting the crop. Pscheidt (2009) 

provides a good summary of the Diagnosis and Control 

of Phytophthora Diseases (avail online). 

Symptoms. Phytophthora infection may be present 

but not observed because root replacement may keep 

up with the rate of root death. 

– Pc cannot be easily distinguished by growers from 

symptoms alone and the disease is often misdiagnosed. 

Laboratory analysis necessary. However, growers of 

crops which Pc commonly infects and which produce 

reliable visible symptoms, eg azalea, jarrah, avocado, 

quickly become familiar with symptoms of disease. 

– Other soilborne disease on some plants, eg 

Pythium, Fusarium, Cylindrocladium, Rhizoctonia 

and Thielaviopsis (Chalara) are difficult to distinguish 

from Pc as the cause of root rot on initial examination. 

– Diseases and pests of the upper part of the 

plant, eg trunks, etc, can be difficult to determine. 

– Non-pathogenic causes such as anaerobic 

conditions in the root zone caused by excessive 

watering, poor quality potting mix, or herbicide 

injury can cause similar breakdown of roots. 

– Indicator species, eg grass trees (Xanthorrhoea) 

found dead or dying indicate that Pc is in the area. 

– Identification of unknown fungi in the soil can be 

difficult if there are insufficient fungal hyphae for 

proper identification. 

The detection and identification of Phytophthora, 

and other root rots in plants, soils, potting mix, sand 

and other materials is a major part of the work of 

laboratories diagnosing plant diseases. However, no 

one piece of information is enough to conclusively 

diagnose a Phytophthora disease, the presence of the 

fungus may only be part of a broader or deeper 

problem or not related at all. Evidence from the field, 

sick plants and identification in a laboratory must all 

indicate the same problem. 

Consult a diagnostic service to confirm or reject 

a preliminary diagnosis. Association of a fungus with 

symptoms does not prove that it is the primary cause 

of the symptoms, it may be a secondary invader of 

tissue damaged by one or several other agent. Several 

diagnostic tests have developed to diagnose PC. 

– Soil. Baiting for disease organisms, eg Pc, involves 

placing a soil sample in a container, flooding it with 

water and adding susceptible plant parts as bait, eg 

lupin roots, cotyledons of Eucalyptus sieberi). If 

zoospores are present they will infect the bait which is 

then placed onto agar, spores are produced and 

identified by either microscopic examination or more 

recently by DNA tests. A negative result from baiting 

indicates freedom from Pc. Sometimes this may be a 

false negative when populations of Pc are low. 

– Roots of infected plants may be directly placed onto 

selective agars, spores produced similarly identified. 

– Microscopic examination to distinguish spore 

structures in infected tissue, on agar cultures or baits. 

Taxonomic keys identify species. If spores are lacking, 

diseased tissue can be kept in a high humidity chamber 

for a few days or cultured to promote spore formation. 

Spores of some species of Phytophthora, Pythium and 

Cylindrocladium, or the characteristic hyphae of 

Rhizoctonia, can be identified this way. 

– Non-DNA test kits for some soilborne 

diseases. Alert Fungal Disease Detection Kits 

have been used by commercial growers to detect some 

soil fungi including Pc, Pythium and Rhizoctonia. 

These kits allow early detection and confirmation of 

disease avoiding unnecessary chemical applications 

while maintaining good crop quality. Test kits can be 

expensive. ELISA tests are quick and efficient and 

mostly laboratory-based, some can be used on-site. 

The fungus reacts with chemical reagents to cause a 

detectable color change. 

– DNA-based tests. Phytophthora IDENTIKIT TM is a 

DNA-based diagnostic test that accurately and identifies 

the pathogen from infected plant material, baited soils 

and water. It overcomes the limitations of the traditional 

baiting method in that failed negatives are eliminated 

and large numbers of samples can be processed in a 

short time. Such tests will benefit management of 

eucalypt dieback. 

A single soil sample, using a DNA extraction 

process, can now identify and quantify a range of 

fungal and nematode disease organisms and predict 

the likely extent of the losses well before a crop is 

even planted, eg Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Mycospherella, 

Guaeumannomyces graminis, Phoma, nematodes, etc. 

Results have to be interpreted accurately at field level. 

Growers can change cultivars, crops, modify cropping 

programs where risk of crop loss is high. 

Nonspecific 

symptoms 

Baiting 

followed 

by 

spore Microscopic 

production 

DNA-based 

examination 

on agar 

diagnostic 

of spores tests 

Some methods used to diagnose Phytophthora spp. 

Disease cycle 

See Fig. 206, page 367. 


Pc as spores (up to 9-10 years) and/or mycelium in 

the soil or media up to 20 years. 

Pc can be recovered from tap roots 1-2 m deep. 

As spores and/or mycelium in infected plants, on 

root and stem debris from infected plants. 

Other soilborne fungi can 'overwinter' as sclerotia, etc. 

Spread 

Water. Zoospores spread in surface drainage water 

from contaminated areas, in recycled irrigation water 

and from infected to healthy plants in running or 

splashing water. Run off and subsoil seepage may 

carry spores onto a site. Rate of spread in bushland 

downhill may be 0.7-3.6 m/yr but more after fires etc. 

Aerial spread. Contaminated wind-blown dust 

may contaminate stored media. Other species, eg P. 

infestans, may be spread by irrigation splash and 

wind blown driven rain. 

In soil in containers, on tools, machinery, vehicles, 

bicycles, boots, other equipment; re-using infected 

soil as a potting mix; in gravel from surrounding 

forest areas. Pc readily contaminates pots and potting 

mixes allowed to contact soil, and in the past has been 

detected in some brands of imported peat. 

Plants. Movement of infected nursery plants, plant 

material, tube stock, seedlings. P. ramorum was 

spread widely in the USA through the shipping of 

infected stock from nurseries. 

Infected propagation material, eg tube stock, 

tubers, plugs, seeds. Cuttings can be a source of 

infection if taken too close to ground level. 

Possibly by soil animals. Fungus gnats present in 

moist organic matter may spread Chalara. 

Bush regenerators may unwittingly contribute to 

the spread of disease through soil disturbance and 

planting stock from infected nurseries. 

Vertebrate pests, eg feral pigs, horses. 

Many plants become infected in garden or bush via 

a nursery (like weeds) and then may spread in 

water run off into neighbouring bushland and 

through dumping plants in the bush. 

Pod-boring beetles overseas are attracted to 

disease lesions and rapidly generate and spread 

secondary inoculum in epidemics of pod rot. 


. 



Continuous cropping of susceptible crops. 

Fire. Jarrah dieback (Pc) in WA appears to be related 

to a change from hot uncontrolled bush fires to less 

hot controlled burning programs. This has led to a 

change from an Acacia understory to one of Banksias 

which is very susceptible to Pc relative to Acacia, 

providing much inoculum that can infect jarrah. 

Each soilborne disease is favoured by different 

conditions. 

Stress. Rate of disease development increases as 

stress increases, eg avocado plants stressed by root 

pruning develop cankers more readily than nonstressed 

plants. 

Water management. 

– Prolonged periods of rain or excessive irrigation 

over a long period of time. 

– Poorly drained, waterlogged soils and drought will 

stress plants. Tensiometers measure soil moisture and 

improve irrigation management by accurately 

determining when water should be applied to a crop to 

maintain optimum growth and how much water should 

be applied to avoid over-irrigating. 

– Warm, wet winters followed by dry summers stress 

plants. In WA areas with rainfall above 400mm are 

most affected. Symptoms appear more rapidly when 

plants are stressed by periodic drought, fluctuating 

water tables and higher temperatures associated with 

wet conditions. 

– Warm moist aerated soils at >12 o C (optimum 25- 

27 o C) with temporary flooding. 

– Wet soil conditions and slow infiltration favour 

many root pathogens, ie temporary flooding and 

prolonged period of saturation that can occur following 

heavy rainfall or overhead irrigation in soils with 

structural decline. 

– Planting azaleas with ‘balled’ roots in soil 

different to the one into which it has been growing 

favours Phytophthora root rot. Where 2 soil types 

meet there is a natural water course, new roots 

growing into it are readily infected with Pc. 

Soils low in organic matter and micro-organisms. 

Poor soil structure, chemical and physical 

properties. 

Nutrients deficiencies & toxicities. Highly 

soluble salts can kill rootlets providing sites for 

infection with Pc. The level of calcium carbonate 

in soil can increase the level of Rhizoctonia disease. 

Phosphorous and zinc deficiencies can be an issue in 

some soils. Salinity will exacerbate Phytophthora. 

Other infections, eg root-knot nematode damage 

to roots allows the entry of Phytophthora spp., and 

other fungal diseases of rice flower. These diseases, 

along with other common problems such as stem or 

root damage due to wind, root congestion and 

longicorn borer damage, contribute to the early decline 

and death of rice flower plantings. 

Herbicides may have some affect but the situation is 

unclear. Glyphosate is a broad spectrum inhibitor and 

potent inhibitor of EPSPS, a key enzyme in the 

synthesis of amino acids present in plants, fungi and 

bacteria. So fungi and bacteria with glyphosatesensitive 

EPSPS may be susceptible to the action of 

glyphosate. Laboratory and field reports indicate that 

glyphosate can cause temporary increases in Pythium 

and other damping-off fungi in the soil but decreases 

in Sclerotium and Fusarium. 

Fig. 206. Disease cycle of Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi). 


PLANT POTECTION 1 – Pests, Diseases and Weeds 


1.Planning. Soilborne diseases generally are 

widespread and like other diseases, their control 

requires appropriate planning and management. 

Most states and territories have management 

plans for Phytophthora to reduce its impact 

and prevent further spread. Select a program for 

managing Phytophthora for your situation, eg 

Biodiversity conservation in forests, bush 

areas, etc (Management of Phytophthora 

cinnamomi for Biodiversity Conservation in 

Australia) www.cpsm.murdoch.edu.au/ 

Nursery Industry Accreditation Scheme 

Australia (NIASA) is a national scheme for 

production nursery (growers) and growing-media 

(potting mix) supplier businesses. 

Australian Garden Centre Accreditation 

Scheme. 

Cutflowers (Phytophthora diseases of cutflower 

crops). 

Key Avocado Management Issues. 

Most states provide information on Phytophthora 

management in their region or on certain crops. 

Management plans are available for many other 

soilborne diseases, eg Total Crop Management - 

Clubroot (of Brassicas), Management of Soilborne 

Diseases in Vegetable crops (Biological Crop 

Protection www.biolcrop.com.au/ ). 

Horseriders, bushwalkers, landcare groups. 

2.Crop, region. The wide host range of Pc in many 

regions means that you must know your crop history 

and susceptibility, and your local climatic variations 

favouring Pc. 

3.Identification by laboratory analysis is essential 

to ensure effective control and prevent spread (page 

xiv). Pre-plant soil tests can now be carried out 

months prior to planting. Any water supplies in 

contact with the ground must be suspect, eg dams, 

streams, soaks must be tested. 

4.Monitor symptoms and, hygiene procedures and 

chain of production. Also monitor for the presence of 

Phytophthora in water, soil, roots and other plant 

material. Record all results. Remember know when, 


Symptoms. First look at plants closely for evidence 

of wilting. Examine indicator plants in bush 

areas, eg grass trees (Xanthorrheae sp.). Assess 

root health of potted plants, eg closely examine 

the collar region and cut into the internal tissue with a 

knife to detect evidence of infection, also wash potting 

mix/soil from roots and examine them under a 

dissecting microscope against a white background, 

comparing them with a known specimen of healthy 

root material. 

If diseased, seek expert testing, as there is 

increased detection of new Phytophthora spp. 

5.Threshold. This will be determined by relevant 

regulations. Beyond that you will have to decide your 

own economic, aesthetic or environmental threshold. 


is reached. In practice, this usually includes cultural 

methods, sanitation (hygiene), quarantine, use of 

tolerant rootstock, Pc-free planting material and 

media and the application of fungicides. 

7.Evaluation. Review the program, compare methods 

and results with previous years. Make improvements if 

needed, eg ensure planting material is disease-tested, 

varieties have some resistance, improve culture and 

sanitation, preplant soil treatments, eg solarization, bio 

fumigants, water treatments, etc. 


Control of root diseases is difficult both in the 

field and in intensive crop production systems - there is 

often a combination of ‘causes’ and therefore a 

combination of control methods are required. 

Methods used depends on the situation, eg forest, 

bushland, cutflowers, nurseries, hydroponic systems, 

containers, soil/media, water sources, etc. The aim 

being not only to control disease on current crops but 

also prevent further spread. It is difficult to eradicate 

Phytophthora and other soil diseases from an infested 

site especially when perennial crops are grown. 

LEGISLATION, REGULATIONS. 

The Commonwealth‘s Environment Protection and 

Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 seeks to promote 

the recovery of species and ecological communities 

that are endangered or vulnerable and to prevent other 

species and ecological communities from becoming 

endangered. An off shoot of this law is: 

A Threat Abatement Plan enables a national 

management approach for Dieback caused by the 

root-rot fungus (Pc). 

Lists of threatened species and ecological 

communities have been prepared. Some states have 

developed priorities and coordinate management 

to limit spread of Pc into area which is Pc-free. 

Certification schemes for the production of 

Pc –tested planting material and media. 


Large scale remediation can protect rare taxa and 

communities of high conservation value threatened by 

nearby Pc infestations. It may involve long term in situ 

seed conservation and prioritization of certain species. 

Select sites unfavourable to Pc and avoid conditions 

favouring disease (page 365). Prepare soil appropriately. 

Grow plants in soilless media or hydroponics. 

Suppressive compost and mulches are suitable 

only for small areas. Marri, karri and other hardwood 

bark can be highly suppressive of Phytophthora after 

composting. It suppresses weeds and aids soil moisture 

retention during summer. Take care not to import 

contamination. Add organic manures. 

Maintain crop vigour. Plant when temperatures are 

favourable for crop growth, not Pc. Seek advice 

regarding nutrient requirements for your crop. 

Irrigation and drainage 

– Design, maintain and monitor irrigation systems 

to avoid overwatering throughout the year and 

minimize the time soil is saturated. In infected 

blocks of trees, adjust irrigation to suit smaller trees. 

In greenhouses reduce excess water lying in bays. 

– Sub-irrigation may result in spread of motile 

zoospores from infected to healthy plant. 

– Most serious problem associated with zero runoff 

involves Pc. Regulations require zero run-off 

for some nursery growers resulting in rapid change 

to closed systems of production. 

– Use free-draining potting mixes and avoid overwatering. 

Improve surface and sub-soil drainage in 

poorly drained sites by various means including 

planting into raised beds. 

– Avoid exposure of susceptible trunks to infection, 

eg avoid irrigation spray directly contacting trunks. 

– Maintain plantings under sod rather then bare soil; 

keep areas at base of trees free from weeds. 

Surface water management and drying of sites. 

– Avoid ‘balling roots’ in old potting mix during 

repotting (page 367). 

– Compacted soil could be ripped, mounded beds. 

Crop rotation and fallowing. 

– Avoid continuous cropping with susceptible hosts. 

– Where different species are being planted undertake 

risk assessment. 

– When replanting understand ‘sick soil syndrome’. 

– Consider including a bio-fumigation crop in a rotation 

(page 267). Green manure cropping reduces soil 

crusting, improves filtration, increases soil organic 

matter and reduces subsoil compaction. Brassica 

green manure crops produce high concentrations of 

bio-fumigants and may improve soilborne disease 

management. The native legume (Acacia pulchella) 

protects Banksia grandis from infection, suppressing 

the fungus in the soil. 

Reduced tillage. 

– Can encourage some soilborne diseases, eg Fusarium 

graminearum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum of wheat 

and Cephalosporium gramineum, Pythium and 

Rhizoctonia. Crop residues can maintain the 

inoculum of these fungi while fields are left fallow or 

sown with a non-host break crop. 

– However, long periods (10 years or more growing 

seasons) of stubble retention can induce disease 

suppression of pathogens such as Rhizoctonia. The 

induced disease suppression is thought to be due to 

the proliferation of indigenous micro-organisms in the 

soil, some of which are antibiotic and antifungal that 

prevent the outbreak of pathogenic fungi. 



Sanitation. Hygiene 

As fungicides often only suppress and do not 

eradicate Phytophthora, they are not a substitute for 

good hygiene and cultural practice. Maintain 

cleanliness in propagation and growing-on areas in 

accordance with measures prescribed by prevent 

Nursery Accreditation Schemes. 

Avoid spread of disease by: 

Destroying all diseased nursery stock, etc. 

– Either using soil-free media or treat all soil 

routinely either by pasteurization or other means. 

– Foot baths of Biogram at the entrances to clean 

nursery areas and glasshouses and moving from 

unsurfaced to surfaced areas. 

– Cleaning, and then sterilizing footwear, tools, 

containers, machinery, vehicles, and trolleys using 

proven procedures, before entering an area (page 343). 

– Disturbing soil as little as possible in the bush. 

Always walk or drive on roads, if involved in off-road 

activities then clean shoes, camping equipment, tent 

pegs, etc. Weeders should work in areas free of the 

pathogen before working in areas known to be infected. 

Minimize activity when soil is very wet, put weeds in 

bags for removal from the site. 


Natural controls. Many antagonists occur 

naturally in soils. 

– Fungal-feeding insects and mites, eg mites, 

springtails, protozoans, free-living nematodes and 

earthworms in soil, feed on fungal organisms and 

may contribute to their biological suppression. 

– The role of mycorrhizae in controlling Pc 

infection is not yet clear but on some hosts, eg 

Nothofagus in NZ lack of mycorrhizae may prevent 

establishment of seedlings. 

– Mechanisms by which antagonistic microorganisms 

effect pathogen populations are not always clear but 

are generally attributed to one of the following effects: 

1. Direct parasitism (penetrating host hyphae) and 

killing them. 

2. Competition with the pathogen for food. 

3. Direct toxic effects on the pathogen by 

antibiotics substances released by the antagonist. 

4. Indirect toxic effects on the pathogen by 

volatile substances, such as ethylene, released by 

the metabolic activities of the antagonist. 

– Suppressive soils with high organic matter content 

support antagonistic micro-organisms (mostly 

bacterial, other fungi and actinomycetes) which 

generally suppress soilborne diseases including Pc. 

Suppressive soils may also involve non-living factors 

and may vary with the disease organism and the crop. 

In most cases there are one or more micro-organism 

antagonists. They do not allow the disease 

organisms to reach high enough populations to cause 

severe disease. 

Biocontrol agents for certain seed and 

soil-borne plant diseases. Effectiveness of 

antagonistic micro-organisms can be increased by: 

– Introducing new or larger populations of fungal or 

bacterial antagonists, eg 

Fungal biocontrol agents based on Trichoderma 

harzianum, Clonostachys rosea and Coniothyrium 

minitans. C. rosea is near commercialization and 

has been proved effective in several crops against 

certain seed and soilborne diseases. Other fungi 

include Gleocladium, Coniothryium, Myrothedium. 

Candida. Trials of Trichoderma on Phytophthora 

seem to be variable, ie mycelium may be suppressed 

but oospore production stimulated. 

Bacterial biocontrol agents based on Bacillus, 

Agrobacteriaum, Pseudomonas and Streptomyces. 

Paenibacillus polymyxa. Also Burkholdia. 

The use of several bio-control agents at once 

may reduce the effects of root rot disease complexes. 

– Adding soil amendments that serve as nutrients for, 

or otherwise stimulate growth of the antagonists and 

increase their inhibiting effects on disease organisms. 

However, these organisms cannot maintain themselves 

very long and organic amendments are not selective 

enough to select and buildup up populations of the 

introduced or existing antagonists. Chitin in fertilizer is 

thought to stimulate antagonistic fungi in soil. 

Commercially available bio-control agents. 

There is an increasing number being marketed 

(page 344, Table 60). These include: 

– Trichoderma harzianum suppresses many 

soilborne fungal diseases, eg for Fusarium, 

Phytophthora, Pythium and Rhizoctonia. 

– Bacillus subtilis as a plant growth promoting, 

bio-balancing agent, eg for Pythium, Fusarium, 

Rhizoctonia and Phytophthora. 

– Mixtures of antagonists. There is often a 

combination of causes (several root rotting fungi, 

nematodes, etc) so it is logical that several 

antagonists or suppressive agents may be more 

successful than one. Nutri-Life TrichoShield TM 

(Trichoderma spp., Gliocladium virens, Bacillus 

subtilis) for seed, seedlings, transplants, bulbs, cuttings, 

grafts and established crops. Noculate Liquid 

(Bacillus, Trichoderma, vitamins, humic acid, kelp) 

is used on professionally maintained turf. Fulzyme 

Plus (B. subtilis + amino acids) may suppress 

Phytophthora and Pythium in certain situations. 

– Biofumigation. Fumafert (mustard seed meal 

(Brassica juncea) and neem kernel (Azadirachtin 

indica)) is a soil amendment with biofumigant 

properties which may aid in the control of certain 

soilborne insects, diseases and nematodes. 

Resistant/tolerant varieties. 

Although there is a continual development of resistant 

varieties, little is known about resistance or tolerance 

to soilborne diseases. Genetic resistance to root 

diseases is arguably, uncommon. Younger plants may be 

more susceptible than older plants. . Address issues by: 

Increasing the density of tolerant native species. 

Plant tolerant cultivars or species when available. 

Obtain information from relevant authorities. 

Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) stimulates 

the natural SAR response mechanisms found in 

most plant species. Bion Plant Activator Seed 

Treatment (acibenzolar-s-methyl) suppresses 

certain soilborne diseases, eg Fusarium wilt and 

black root rot of cotton in IDM programs (page 329). 

GE crops have been developed with resistance to 

some soilborne diseases, eg cotton has been 

genetically engineered to be resistant to Verticillium 

wilt a major disease of that crop. 

Resistant rootstocks are useful for some crops, 

eg avocado, macadamia, pineapple. 

– Seedling and M9 rootstocks of apple appear to be 

most resistant to Pc, others are very or moderately 

susceptible to Pc. 

– Tomatoes may be grafted onto rootstocks with 

some resistance to root knot nematodes, Verticillium 

and Fusarium wilts. 

– The Phytophthora-resistant Westringia 

fructicosa has been found to be compatible with 

over 40 Prostanthera spp. 

Replacement crops have been investigated for 

the jarrah forest area of WA, and it is now known 

which groups of eucalypts are most susceptible to 

Pc. Lists of native plants which are tolerant or 

highly susceptible, under some conditions are 

available (Phytophthora Science and Management). 

www.cpsm.murdoch.edu.au/ 


The following notice is not uncommon in some areas: 

PROHIBITED AREA 

NO ACCESS BEYOND THIS POINT 

Phytophthora Infested Area 



Plant quarantine. contd 

Australian quarantine. Many Phytophthora spp. 

and other root rots pose a threat to Australia, eg 

– Sudden oak death (P. ramorum) has a broad host 

range of conifers, shrubs, herbaceous plants and ferns. 

The Californian Oak Mortality Taskforce (COMTF) 

aims to research the management of P. ramorum. 

– Texas root rot (Phymatrochium onmivora) is a 

destructive soilborne disease of >200 plants 

including cotton, grains, fruit, eg apple and pear, 

citrus, nuts, vegetables, nursery and garden plants. 

– Biosecurity targets various crops and particular 

diseases, including Phytophthora spp. 

State/Regional. 500,000 hectares in WA are 

under quarantine restrictions by the Forestry Dept. 

in WA to prevent entry of infested soil on vehicles 

coming from Pc-infected areas. 

Local quarantine. Protocols developed for 

production nurseries prevent contaminated seed, 

plants and soil being brought into a nursery and 

prevent contaminated plants, soil, etc being 

supplied to growers, landscapers, fruit growers, 

vegetable growers and cut flower producers 

(BioSecure HACCP). 

– Restrict movement of people, animals, vehicles 

from contaminated areas to areas of highly 

susceptible plants or in-ground production areas 

maintained Pc-free. 

– Avoid introducing Pc-infected plants, cuttings 

etc to disease-free areas. Keep new plants separate 

until their disease-freedom is established. This is 

practical with container plants but difficult for 

plants which are to be planted directly into soil. 

– Movement of soil, either as deliveries, in 

containers, adhering to tools, machinery. Footwear is 

one of the commonest methods of introducing Pc 

and other Pc to previously healthy areas. 

. Disease-tested planting material. 

Plant certified Pc-tested planting material 

nursery stock and tube stock, into Pc-tested soil or 

treated soil and irrigate with Pc-tested water and 

keep it Pc–free. Monitor parent stock used for 

propagation for infection and identify unwitting 

introductions. Although Pc is not generally 

seedborne, some other Phytophthora species may be 

seedborne on some hosts. 

Table 67. Phytophthora spp. – Some fungicides. 

What to use? 

Foliage sprays. 

Group 33, eg Anti-Rot , Aus-Phoz , Phospot , various 

(phosphorous as acid) – systemic 

Soil applications (drenches, granules). 

Group 4, eg Ridomil Gold, various (metalaxyl-m); 

Fongarid (furalaxyl) – both systemic 

Group 14, eg Terrazole (etridiazole) - non-systemic 

Group 33, eg Aliette , Signature (fosetyl present as the 

aluminium salt); Phospot (phosphorous acid) – 

both systemic 

Mixed formulations, eg 

Group 1/14, eg Banrot (thiophanate-methyl/etridiazole) 

which is effective against Phytopthora, Pythium, 

Rhizoctonia & Chalara (Thielvaliopsis) – 

systemic/non-systemic 

Group 14/14, eg Terraclor Super X EC (etridiazole/ 

quintozene) – non-systemic for seedlings 

Trunk injections. 

Group 33, eg Phospot , various (phosphorous acid). 

Stem canker topical applications. 

Group M1, eg certain copper fungicides 

Fruit rots. 

Group M4, eg captan 

Disinfectants 

Seek advice regarding disinfectants for your situation (page 343) 

370 Fungal diseases - Examples of fungal diseases 

Nursery accreditations schemes in some states, 

eg WA, ensure Pc–freedom in products sold. 

When purchasing land for production of plants 

susceptible to Pc, check it is Pc-free. 


Disinfest irrigation water especially when it is 

drawn from surface water or is recycled (page 373). 

Pre-plant pasteurization of contaminated soil/media 

is described on page 330. 

Pre-plant soil solarization, correctly implemented, 

prior to planting, may assist control of some disease 

organisms (pages 330, 438). 

Fungicides. 

Remove/destroy infected plants before treatment. 

If replanting an infected area seek advice. 

Fungicides do not substitute for good cultural 

practice and hygiene. Although some fungicides 

(Table 67 below) are registered to control Pc, in 

reality they mostly suppress and do not eradicate 

Pc in soil or water. Even during foliar sprays, 

sporangia and zoospores may still be produced from 

some infected plants. So although sprays slow down 

disease development, disease may still spread. 

Longevity and the depths at which Pc occurs in soil, 

precludes any attempt at chemical eradication, 

although some fungicides can be used to contain 

highly contagious sites and systemic fungicides can 

be used to save slightly inured plants. 

Fungicides such as phosphonate can protect trees 

against infection, limit spread within the plant and 

increase tree survival and yield. Phosphonate boosts 

the plants immune system to cure and prevent new 

infections. 

Application. Depending on the situation, fungicides 

may be applied by foliar sprays, soil drenches or 

granules and stem injections. It is possible to treat 

root rot disease by leaf applications but in some cases 

equal or better control may be achieved by soil 

applications or a combination of both soil and foliage. 

Suckers have been dipped in fungicides. In WA 

fungicides have been sprayed on foliage by mist 

blowers and aerially from aircraft and helicopters. 

Follow Croplife Science Resistance Management 

strategies and label directions. Permits may be 

required. 



Some plants injured by foliar sprays in hot weather. 

Note that APVMA has suspended the supply or use of material and 

products containing quintozene until 12 April 2011 

Stem injection may provide rapid recovery in high value 

crops and sites. Stem injections of phosphate protect 

Banksia spp., E. marginata from Pc for at least 4 years 

Apply to stems only whenever cankers appear after 

removing dead tissue. Stem cankers are more difficult to 

control than root rots. 

Disinfect hands and footwear, and vehicles.


Damping off 


Common and serious disease of seedlings and cuttings. 

Caused mainly by soilborne fungi, eg 

Oomycota 

Ascomycota 

Basidiomycota 

Pythium, Phytophthora 

Botrytis, Colletotrichum, Cylindrocladium 

Rhizoctonia - sterile (Thanatephorus), 

Sclerotium - sterile (Athelia) 

Occasionally other fungi, eg Fusarium spp. cause 

damping-off. Bacteria, eg Erwinia spp., may also be 

involved in pre-emergence damping-off. 

Host range 

Most damping-off fungi have a wide host range 

and most can also grow on plant debris. Almost all 

seedlings or cuttings are susceptible. 

Symptoms 

General. Damping-off, the death of seeds, seedlings 

or cuttings when they are attacked by certain fungi, 

may take several forms. Affected seedlings may 

collapse in circles up to 1 m across (page 372). The 

extent of root infection determines the appearance of 

symptoms above ground. 

Pre-emergence. damping-off. Seeds may rot 

before germinating or seedlings may rot before 

emerging (Fig.207). It is usually caused by several 

different fungi and by bacteria. 

Post-emergence. damping-off occurs after 

seedlings have appeared and may take various forms 

(Fig. 207): 

Stem rot. Seedlings develop a stem rot near the 

soil surface and fall over. This is the most common 

form of damping-off and usually caused by 

Phytophthora, Pythium and Rhizoctonia. 

Wire-stem or sore-shin. Some seedlings, such 

as cabbages, have rather woody stems. The fungus 

kills tissues at ground level but the plants remain 

standing. Seedlings eventually die. Commonest 

cause is Rhizoctonia. 

Root and stem rot. Damping-off fungi rot 

rootlets, and then travel up in stems, killing plants. 

Commonest cause is Phytophthora and Pythium. 

Top damping-off. Under damp conditions, 

fungi such as Botrytis, Phytophthora and 

Rhizoctonia may spread from leaf to leaf or from 

stem to stem through the tops of the seedlings or 

cuttings. The fungus rots the top of the plant down 

to soil level often leaving the crown and roots 

uninjured. Depending on the fungus, infection may 

be air-borne or originate from the soil, spreading up 

the first few plants and then remaining aerial. 

Cuttings may rot progressively from cut ends, 

from root bases or wounds made by the removal of 

buds or leaves, and even from dead leaf bases. 

Cuttings are infected through wounds and before 

they callus over, a wet rot develops. 

Older plants. Rootlets, crown and even fruits of 

plants older than seedlings may occasionally be 

attacked by some damping-off fungi. Extensive 

infection of the root system of older plants by 

Pythium may cause slow growth, stunting and 

yellowing. Pythium attacks young roots and soft 

stems which become water-soaked, darkening with 

age. Rhizoctonia causes root and stem rots often 

initially at soil level, but under extremely moist 

conditions can grow on above ground parts webbing 

the seedlings together. 

Diagnostics. Causes of damping-off like root rots 

generally, are difficult to identify and/or confirm 

(page 366). 

Confusion. It can be difficult to distinguish one 

damping-off fungus from another. It can also be 

difficult to distinguish damping-off symptoms from 

those caused by waterlogging (anaerobic conditions 

in the root zone); excess soluble salts which can 

burn roots, etc. 

Observe seedlings for wilting and rotting 

around the collar region. Different types of 

damping off are shown in Fig.207. below. 

Carefully remove and wash soil/media from 

affected plants and examine under a dissecting 

microscope. Compare with the root system of a 

healthy plant. Shrunken lower stem tissue may 

indicate infection with Pythium. Death of fine roots 

from the tip may indicate Pythium but is not 

conclusive evidence. 

Potting mix can be sown with susceptible 

species, eg lettuce. Developing seedlings are 

examined for evidence of infection. 

Check if a Pythium or other identification kits are 

available for your situation. An electronic ‘Pest, 

Disease, Beneficial & Weed Identification’ tool 

available from NGIA may assist www.ngia.com.au/ 

Laboratory tests. 

– Microscopic examination enables spore 

structures to be identified. Taxonomic keys are used 

by experts to identify species. 

– Lupin baiting in laboratories can identify Pc and 

Pythium, but microscopic examination is needed to 

tell which species it is. Cultures made from roots into 

selective media enable identification. 

– If damping off is a problem, laboratory tests 

can identify the causal fungi (page xiv). 

Pre-emergence 

damping-off (fungi 

and bacteria). 

Root and 

stem rot 


Pythium, 

Thielaviopsis) 

Stem rot 


Pythium, 

Rhizoctonia, 

Thielaviopsis) 

Top damping-off 

(Botrytis, 

Phytophthora, 

Rhizoctonia) 

Wire-stem or 

sore-shin 

(commonly 

Rhizoctonia) 

Fig. 207. Symptoms of damping-off. 


Basal rot of 

cuttings 

(various fungi) 




The disease cycle varies with the fungus (see 

page for the diseases cycle of Phytophthora. 

These pathogens are common soil and potting 

mix inhabitants. They grow on undecomposed 

organic matter and survive in soil for years. 

In plant debris or soil, sometimes as resistant 

spores or as sclerotia (black resistant fungal 

bodies), depending on the fungus. Mycelium can 

grow on plant debris in the soil as a saprophyte. 

Seeds of some plants with Rhizoctonia. 

Spread 

Spores of some damping of fungi, eg Pc and 

Pythium, are spread by water, eg rain, irrigation, 

drainage and recycled untreated drainage water. 

Movement of infested soil on machinery, 

containers and tools; plant debris. 

Movement of infected plants, cuttings. 

Spores of some damping-off fungi, eg Botrytis 

cinerea are spread by wind and air currents. 

Botrytis spores are airborne, also spread by dust. 

Seedborne on some hosts, eg Rhizoctonia. 

Staff may carry spores on shoes, clothes, hands. 

Pythium spores can be spread throughout the 

greenhouse by fungus gnats and shore flies. 

Pythium spores can be present in the growing 

medium of plugs or prefinished plants arriving 

from another greenhouse, or in soil clinging to 

benches and used containers. 


Damping off may be endemic in a nursery 

without causing damage until conditions favour 

it, eg high soil moisture, dense seedlings, etc. 

Each species of fungus is favoured certain 

temperatures, moisture, light, etc. 

Seedlings and cuttings are most susceptible 

during establishment. 

Conditions unfavourable for growth of the seeds 

or seedlings, and root development, eg 

temperatures which are too low or too high. 

Wet soils with poor drainage favour Pythium 

and Phytophthora while dry soils favour 

Rhizoctonia and Fusarium. Drainage water 

running beneath pots. Under extremely moist 

conditions Rhizoctonia can grow on above 

ground parts webbing the seedlings together. 

Overcrowding, seedbeds sown too thickly: 

Acid soils with a pH of 5.2 or below. 

Soils low in organic matter (such soils have low 

populations of micro-organisms which might be 

antagonistic to damping-off organisms). 

Excessive amounts of nitrate fertilizers during 

establishment favours Pythium. 

Lack of crop rotation which can result in a 

build-up in damping-off organisms in soil. 

By undecomposed organic matter. 

Pythium prefers young newly established plants. 

Older established plants may become susceptible 

when incorrect fertilization causes excessive salt 

buildup in the root zone. 


The Nursery Industry Accreditation Scheme Australia 

(NIASA) is a national scheme for production nurseries 

and grower media supplier businesses. NIASA Best 

Management Practice Guidelines can be 

purchased. The guidelines are regularly reviewed, 

ensuring they cover relevant and current production 

and environmental issues. Other publications on 

managing with water, pesticide applications, the 

environment and biosecurity (quarantine), are also 

available from: 

NGIA www.ngia.com.au/ 

1. Access/prepare a plan that fits your situation 

including the management history of plants purchased. 

Plan to implement preventative cultural and sanitation 

measures to minimize the possibility of disease. 

2. Crop, region. Recognize variations. Know which 

damping-off diseases your crop is susceptible to. 

3. Identification of the precise cause of damping-off is 

difficult and it may be necessary to consult a diagnostic 

service (page xiv). Identification of the fungus must be 

carried out in a diagnostic lab by a pathologist. 

4. Monitor. Remember know when, where, what 

and how to monitor. If damping-off is a major 

problem look for symptoms in seedlings. Test water 

and media as well, record findings. A general 

monitoring survey should be carried out on a regular 

basis in small nurseries. In a large nursery about 10% 

of the newly sewn nursery beds in the nursery could 

be surveyed about 1 week after sewing just as 

seedlings are emerging, using a visual assessment, eg 

Scores 

Nil 

Low - up to 25% seedlings affected 

Medium - 25-50% affected 

Severe - More than 50% of seedlings affected 

5. Threshold. How much damage can you accept? Do 

you need to calculate your own threshold? 

6. Action/control. Preventative measures should be in 

place in all nurseries. If seedlings have not been 

treated within the last month consider treating them or 

transplanting them into larger containers, treat 

afterwards. Take appropriate action when any 

threshold is reached. Manage fungus gnats and shore 

flies (page 75). 

7. Evaluation. Review your program to see how well 

it worked. Recommend improvements if required. If 

necessary seek further advice. 


Pythium occurs in virtually all cultivated soils, so 

eradicate is not really possible. Control fungus 

gnats and shore flies in greenhouses. 


Do not sow seedbeds or plant cutting beds too 

thickly as this can encourage spread of disease. 

Maintain optimum conditions for plant 

growth, eg do not plant seeds or seedlings when 

temperatures are too low for optimum growth. 

Avoid overwatering. Water in the morning but 

not late afternoon. Creating a humid atmosphere is a 

fundamental technique of propagation. Provide 

adequate moisture in the media (but not too much) to 

prevent tops from drying out. 

Provide good drainage and good air 

circulation. Improve irrigation management and 

surface drainage to reduce excess water lying in 

bays. Use free draining mixes. Subirrigation may 

result in spread of motile spores from infected to 

healthy plants. 

Avoid overfertilizing, especially with 

nitrogenous fertilizers to avoid lush growth. 



Practice crop rotation in the field, strains of 

damping-off fungi can develop. Rotate crops every 5 

years or as recommended to reduce build-up of root 

rot fungi in soil. Maintain good soil fertility. 

Added organic matter can stimulate growth of 

antagonistic soil micro-organisms. 

Soil-less mixtures and hydroponic mixtures 

are unfavourable to damping-off diseases spread 

mainly by soil, eg Phytophthora, Pythium, 

Rhizoctonia. 

Osmopriming (controlled hydration of seeds) is 

promising, as is replacing most of the peat in 

mixtures with composted tree bark. Both reduce 

root rot caused by Pythium and other root pathogens. 

Do not mow or traffic wet turf surfaces, reduce 

thatch by scarifying and tyning, carefully control 

moisture on any newly seeded areas. 

Sanitation. 

Practice hygiene to prevent introduction in 

potting media, cuttings, tools, personnel, water. 

Prevent soil on floors contaminating benches 

and growing containers. 

Use only freshly made disinfectant solutions, 

when required (used solutions may not work). 

Store all treated equipment, containers etc in a 

clean area or away from dirt and contamination 

until required. 

Discard and destroy any batches of badly 

affected seedlings, cuttings (and soil), in an area 

away from other plants. 

Where hoses are used for irrigation keep 

nozzles off the ground to prevent contamination. 

Remove all dirt and organic matter (including 

roots and sap) from surfaces, then thoroughly wash 

surfaces (benches, tools, equipment, trays, pots), 

prior to treating them with a disinfectant at the 

concentration and time recommended. 


Natural controls include: 

– Binucleate Rhizoctonia, Pythium. 

– Soil bacteria and other micro-organisms. 


– Trichopel (Trichoderma sp.) may be a hyperparasite. 

Trichoderma atroviride can help prevent Phytphthora, 

Rhiozctonia, Pythium, Fusarium. 

– Companion (Bacillus subtilis) may suppress 

development of Pc, Pythium, Rhizoctonia and 

Fusarium on some seedlings. 

– Mycostop (Streptomyces griseoviridis) overseas is 

used against Fusarium, Pythium, Pc, Botrytis, etc. 

– See pages 329, 344 (Table 60), 369, 374 (Table 68). 

Disease-free media. 

Use soilless media in nurseries or treat it. 


Take cuttings from vigorous disease-free stock plants. 

Some damping-off fungi, eg Rhizoctonia, may be 

seedborne on some hosts. Where damping-off is 

seedborne and a problem on susceptible plants, eg 

beans, tomatoes, etc: 

– Use high quality disease-tested seeds. 

– Collect seed from vigorous disease-free stock plants. 

– Treat suspect seed with hot water or chemicals. 


Soil pasteurization is a pre-plant treatment 

for container-grown plants, eg seedling trays, not 

for open beds in the field. Standard treatment is 

60 o C for 30 minutes which kills most fungi that 

cause damping-off. Prevent infested soil from 

re-contaminating pots, potting mixes, cuttings, 

germinating seeds and seedlings on benches 

(page 330). 

Soil solarization prior to establishing seedbeds, 

correctly implemented, kills a range of disease 

organisms but leaves many beneficial’s intact, like soil 

pasteurization (pages 330, 438). 

Hot water seed treatments. Damping-off 

fungi may occur on, or in seed. If suspected, seek 

advice on treatment as accurate temperature control 

is essential. 

Water treatments are usually only needed for 

surface run-off water, eg from streams or dams and 

for recycled water. Bore water, roof run-off water 

and town water is usually free from damping-off 

organisms and suitable for use without treatment. 

Choose the right method of disinfesting water for 

your situation. The following are examples of some 

treatments may be used singly or in combination: 

– Chlorination is a cheap and effective means of 

treating water to kill damping-off organisms. Most 

town water supplies are chlorinated and so free of 

disease organisms. The 3 main sources of chlorine 

used are calcium hypochlorite, sodium hypochlorite 

and chlorine gas. 

– Filtration to remove disease organisms is effective 

if the mesh size is of the recommended microbiological 

standard. Inclusion of a pre-filter in the 

system may be an advantage (Handreck and Black 

1994). Slow sand filters are still being researched 

in Australia. 

– Ultra-violet (UV) lights are available to sterilize 

water by flowing the water around a UV tube. The 

UV machines must be calibrated to produce the 

dose required to kill off all damping-off fungi. 

– Disinfectants (pages 340, 343). 

Fungicides. 

Fungicides only suppress damping-off 

especially if plants are weakened by high soluble 

salts and a saturated environment. The fungus is not 

eradicated. Phytotoxicity may be a problem. 

Identify the fungus causing the problem. 

In past times, the species of fungus causing dampingoff 

was often not known. This meant that fungicides 

were alternated or mixed in successive treatments. 

Many nurseries have regular fungicide treatments, eg 

weekly or fortnightly, depending on plant species, the 

specific damping-off fungi and available fungicides. 

Seed treatments. 

– Protective seed treatments. Many seeds, eg 

peas, are coated with fungicide (and insecticide) 

before being sold to prevent attack by damping-off 

fungi (and insect pests) in the field (page 374, 

Table 68). 

– Systemic seed treatments include metalaxyl and 

fludioxonil (page 374, Table 68). 

– Combinations. Often several fungicides are 

formulated to provide good control of damping off. 

– Seed treatment is sometimes followed by 

spraying seedlings with the same or different 

effective fungicides than those used for seed 

treatment (Agrios 2005). 

Water treatments 

– See Physical & Mechanical methods above. 

Media/soil treatments 

– Fungicides may be incorporated into potting mixes. 

– Fumigation (page 267, Table 52. 

Follow CropScience Australia Resistance 

Management Strategies (pages 331, 337) 

If purchasing seedlings, check their management 

history before buying - if not treated for damping off 

within the last month then consider treatment. 



Table 68. Some damping off fungicides and bio-inoculants. 

Identify the fungus or complex of organisms (fungi, bacteria, nematodes etc) causing the problem. 

Read the label for plants/situations and diseases/pests for which the product may be used. 

Read the label for rates, get the MSDS. 

Botrytis causes aerial damping off and spraying is therefore more effective than soil drenching. 

Although it is necessary for a fungicide to persist for short periods to provide effective control/prevention, 

some fungicides persist for too long for use in a glasshouse/polytunnel. 

Some fungicides, applied as a foliage spray will move into the root system to suppress Pythium. 

Many now available as seed treatments. 

Individual fungicides are usually effective against either oomycota (water moulds, eg Pythium, 

Phytophthora, downy mildews, or Ascomycota and Imperfect Fungi (powdery mildews, rusts, leaf spots, soil 

ascomycetes). Some exceptions. Products often formulated as mixtures. 

What to use? 

Group 3, eg Octave , Protack , Sportak (prochloraz) 

Group 4, eg Fongarid (furalaxyl); Ridomil (metalaxyl) 

Group 14, eg Terrazole (etridiazole), 

Chloroturf , Terraclor (quintozene) Note that APVMA has 

suspended the supply or use of material and products containing 

quintozene until 12 April 2011 

Group 28, eg Previcur , Proplant (propamocarb) 

Group M3, eg Thiram , TMTD (thiram) 

Group M4, eg Captan , Merpan (captan) 


Seed treatments continue to offer the best control measures for 

most seedling pathogens. However, there is currently no 

adequate control measure for black root rot (Chalara). Seed 

treatments are also available for insect pests (see below). 

Fungicides, eg 

Group 2, eg Rovral Liquid Seed Dressing, various (iprodione) 

Group 4, eg ApronXL Fungicide Seed Treatment (metalaxyl-M) 

Group 12, eg Maxim Fungicide Seed Treatment (fludioxonil) 

Group M3, eg thiram 

Fungicide mixtures, eg 

Groups 11/12/4, eg Dynasty Fungicide Seed Treatment 

(azoxystrobin/fludioxonil/metalaxyl-M) 

Groups 3/4, eg Dividend Fungicide Seed Treatment 

(difenoconazole/metalaxyl-M) 

Groups 12/4, eg Maxymyl Fungicide Seed Treatment 

(fludioxonil/metalaxyl-M) 

Groups 1/M3, eg Fairgo Liquid Fungicidal Seed Dressing 

(thiabendazole/thiram) 

Insecticide/Fungicide mixtures, eg 

Group 4A Insecticide/Group 3 Fungicide., eg Hombre 

(imidacloprid + tebuconazole) 

Insecticides, eg 

Group 4A, eg Cruiser Insecticide Seed Treatment (thiamethoxam) 

See page 57 (general), page 140 (thrips), page 189 

(earwigs), page 285 (preventing virus spread) 

Potato tuber treatments 

Group 20, eg Monceren (pencycuron) 

Bio-inoculants 

Trichopel P. G and R, Trichodry , Trichopel Turf, 

Trichoflow Turf, Trichodex , Unite Natural 

Protectant Bio-Fungicide (Trichoderma sp.) 

TrichoShield (Trichoderma spp., Gliocladium virens, Bacillus 

subtilis) 

Companion, Fulzyme Plus (Bacillus subitilis) 

Fumigants 

page 267, Table 52. 

Disinfectants 

page 343, Table 59. 

Some diseases effective against 

Many diseases, but not downy mildews, Pythium, 

Phytophthora. 

Damping off (Pythium, Phytophthora), also downy 

mildews. 

etridiazole Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia 

quintozene Sclerotia-forming fungi eg Botrytis, 

Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Sclerotium. 

Phytophthora, damping off (Pythium), downy 

mildews, not powdery mildews. 

Damping off, eg Pythium; also turf diseases. 

Damping off (Pythium), black spot, grey mould 

(Botrytis), many other fungal diseases. 

Seeds are mostly treated prior to purchase. 

Do not use treated seed for food, feed or oil. 

Suppresses Rhizoctonia in lupin seedlings, potato tubers. 

Seedling diseases caused by Pythium and Phytophthora 

in cotton, peas and other crops. 

Damping off caused by Fusarium spp., Pencillium spp. 

in maize and sweetcorn and Rhizoctonia solani (black 

scurf) and Helminthosporium solani (silver scurf) and 

the suppression of seed-borne Streptomyces spp. 

(common scab) in potatoes. 

Damping off diseases of chickpeas, lupins, sorghum, eg 

Pythium, Botrytis, Ascochyta. 

For the control of certain seedborne and seedling root 

diseases of certain crops. 

For control of aphids and prevention of spread of barley 

yellow dwarf virus in cereal crops. Also for control of 

bunt, flag smut and loose smut of wheat. For control of 

covered and loose smuts of barley and oats 

Treatment of cotton, sorghum and sunflower seed to 

control various early season soil and sucking insect 

pests. 

Seed-borne infection of R. solani in potato tubers. 

Trichoderma suppresses damping off of seedlings 

caused by Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp. and 

root rots cause by Cylindrocladium destructans, 

Phytophthora spp. (page 344, Table 60). 

Suppresses soilborne diseases, eg Fusarium, 

Phytophthora, Pythium (page 344, Table 60). 






1. List the distinctive features of fungi. 

2. Explain how fungi reproduce and infect 

host plants. 

3. Describe symptoms on leaves, flowers, fruit, 

seeds and seedlings, stems, branches and 

trunks, bulbs, corms and tubers, roots, crowns 

and collars, produced by local fungal diseases. 


4. Recognize by sight, powdery mildews, 

downy mildews, rusts, fungal leaf spots, 

damping off and other local fungal diseases. 

5. Distinguish between powdery and downy 

mildew diseases on the leaves of selected host 

plants and plants which get both. 

6. Distinguish between symptoms caused 

by peach leaf curl and green peach aphid on 

peach leaves. 


by plague thrips and Botrytis petal 

blight on flower petals. 

8. Differentiate between the symptoms/damage 

caused by the following to the trunks of trees: 

Wood rot Borers Termites 

9. Describe how you would distinguish between 

symptoms caused by Phytophthora root rot 

from those caused by other factors such as too 

much water, too little water and salt toxicity on 

the foliage and roots of selected plants. 


by Armillaria root rot, Phytophthora root rot 

and other local soil fungal diseases. 

11. Describe the first sign(s) that there is wood 

rot in a tree 

12. Describe the part of the wood rotting fungus 

that causes the wood to rot. 

13. Distinguish between fungal leaf spots 

and those caused by bacterial and other agents. 

14. Recognize by sight, local beneficial fungi 

including: 

Fungal diseases of insects 

Mycorrhizae 

Saprophytic fungi 

15. Describe 3 types of disease cycles. Name 

1 example of each. 

16. Describe 4 ways by which fungal diseases may 

‘overwinter’. Name 1 example of each. 

17. Describe 5 ways by which fungal diseases may 

spread. Name 1 example of each. 

18. Describe conditions favouring any 

2 common fungal diseases. 

19. Why is knowledge of the disease cycle 

important in determining control measures? 

Use peach leaf curl as an example. 


legislation which provides for the control 

of some local fungal diseases. 

21. List control methods for fungal diseases. 


22. Explain the meaning of the following terms as 

they apply to the mode of action of 

fungicides. Explain the advantages and 

disadvantages of each type and how it may be 

used to control foliage fungal diseases: 

Non-systemic and systemic 

Protectant and eradicant 


names, mode of action and some uses for 

1 fungicide belonging to each of the 

following groups/types: 

Group 3 

Bio-fungicides and 

Group 4 

similar products 

Group 14 

Disinfectants 

Group 33 

Group M1 

Group M2 

Group M3 

24. List the fungal characteristics used to classify 

fungi into Phyla. 

25. Name the Phyla of fungi to which the 

following fungi belong: 

Downy mildews Phytophthora 

Powdery mildews Wood rots 

Rusts 

Damping-off 

26. Explain why it is necessary to know which 

Phylum a fungal disease belongs to. 


powdery and downy mildews, rusts, dampingoff 

and other local fungal diseases: 

Common name 

Cause 

Host range 

Symptoms 

Disease cycle 


Spread 


IDM & Control 

28. Prepare/access an IDM. program for a fungal 




control of local fungal diseases. 




University of Sydney http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/ 

Australasian Plant Pathology Society 


American Phytopathological Society www.apsnet.org/ 

The Australasian Mycological Society 

www.australasianmycology.com/ 

Mycorrhizas www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/mycorrhiza.html 

GRDC Rust links www.grdc.com.au/ 

Nursery & Garden Industry Australia (publications and 

resources are listed on www.ngia.com.au/ eg 

Australian Garden Centre Accreditation Scheme (AGCAS) 

Major Pests and Diseases of Nursery Plants 

Nursery Industry Accreditation Scheme Australia (NIASA Best 

Management Practice Guidelines 

Water management EcoHort Guidelines 

Biosecurity HACCP (quarantine risks) 


Industries, Nursery Papers, etc are available online, eg 

Powdery mildews Downy mildews Rusts 

Disease and Pest Guides for Fruit, Vegetables, etc 

Disease Awareness in the Nursery 

Ute/Pocket Guides 

NSW DPI. Field Identification Guide : Pests, Diseases, 

Disorders and Beneficials in Ornamentals. 

Wallwork, H. 2000. SARDI/CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Cereal Diseases : The Ute Guide (TOPCROP/GRDC). 

Cereal Root and Crown Diseases (SARDI/CSIRO) 

Cereal Leaf and Stem Diseases (SARDI/CSIRO) 

IDM 

AUSVEG www.vgavic.org.au/vegetables-victoriaresearchers.htm 

Crop monitoring 

www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/18606.html 



Becker Underwood www.beckerunderwood.com 

Keys 

Lucid keys www.cbit.uq.edu.au/ 

Interactive Key to the Fungi of Australia 

Key to Common Microscopic Fungi (for schools) 

Fungi of Australia 

Key to 101 Forest Fungi of Eastern Australia 

Lucid keys of DIRECT Relevance to Quarantine, 

Plant Health and Invasive Species 





for organic certifiers, products etc 

Caldwell, B., Rosen, EB., Sideman, E. a, Shelton, A.M. 

and Smart, C. D. 2000. Resource Guide for Organic 

Insect and Disease Management. 

Quarantine 




pests and more than 100 diseases www.padil.gov.au 



Fungicides 



HerbiGuide, WA www.herbiguide.com.au/ 



Kondinin Group: Field Crop Fungicide & Insecticide 

Guide www.kondinin.com.au/ 

MSDS www.msds.com.au/ Company websites 

Company websites labels and MSDSs 

Best Practice Manual for Pesticide Application in the 

Nursery & Garden Industry (CD) 

General 

Agrios, G. N. 2005. Plant P. 5 th edn. Academic Press, NY. 

also 4 th edn 1997. 

Atkinson, I. (ed.). 2000. Hygiene and Sanitation of 

Working Surfaces in the Nursery. The Nursery 

Papers 2000/03. 




Bodman, K., et al. 1996. Ornamental Plants : Pests, 

Diseases & Disorders. Q196001. Qld DPI, Brisbane. 

Brown, J. F. and Ogle, H. J. (eds). 1997. Plant Pathogens 

and Plant Diseases. Rockvale Pub., Armidale, NSW. 

Cooke, T., Persley, D. and House, S. 2009. Diseases of 

Fruit Crops in Australia. CSIRO Pub. 

Drenth, A., et al. 2006. Development of a DNA-based 

Method for Detection and Identification of 

Phytophthora species. Australasian Plant Pathology. 

35. 147-159. 

Environment Australia. 2001. Threat Abatement Plan 

for Dieback caused by the Root-rot Fungus 

Phytophthora cinnamomi. Environment 

Australia/Natural Heritage Trust, Canberra. 

Fungi of Australia. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Funhrer, B. 2005. A Field Guide to Australian Fungi. 

Bloomings Books, Melbourne. 

Grey, P. and E. 2005. Fungi Down Under: The 

Fungimap Guide to Australian Fungi. ed. Leon 

Costermans. Fungimap, RBGM. Royal Soc. Vic. 

www.rbg.vic.gov.au/fungimap_/welcome/ 

Goodwin, S., et al. 2000. Integrated Pest Management 

in Ornamentals : Information Guide. Agrilink. 

QAL0004, NSW Agric. Sydney. 



– Field Identification Guide. DPI. will be avail as 

electronic pocket for use in the field. 

Hall, R. (ed.). 1997. Principles and Practice of Managing 

Soil-borne Plant Pathogens. APS Press, MN. 

Handreck, K. and Black, N. 1994. Growing Media for 

Ornamental Plants & Turf. UNSW Press, NSW. 

Horne, P. de Boer, R. and Crawford, D. 2002. A Field 

Guide to Insects and Diseases of Australian Potato 

Crops. Melbourne University Press. 





Ailments of Australian Plants. Lothian, Melbourne. 

Keane, P. J., Kile, G. A., Podger, F. D. and Brown, B. N. 

(eds). 2000. Diseases and Pathogens of Eucalypts. 

CSIRO Pub., Vic. 

Kita, N., et al. 2003. Guide to the Common Diseases and 

Disorders of Bunching Vegetables. DPI 

Marks, G. C., Fuhrer, B. A. and Walters, N. E. M. 1982. 

Tree Diseases in Victoria. Forests Com., Vic. 

Matheny, N. P. and Clark, J. R. 1994. A Photographic 

Guide to the Evaluation of Hazard Trees in Urban 

Areas. 2nd edn. Inter. Soc. of Arboriculture, Illinois. 

Mattheck, C. and Breloer, H. 1994. The Body Language 

of Trees. HMSO, London. 

McMcMaugh, J. 1994. What Garden Pest or Disease is 


McCracken, A. R. 2005. Rust Diseases of Willow and 

Poplar. CABI, Pub., UK. 

Moore, S. R. 1996. Bicarbonates Offer Effective Disease 

Control. GrowerTalks, Feb. 

Parke, J., Pscheidt, J.W., Regan, R., Hedberg, J. and 

Grunwald, N. 2008. Phytophthora Online Course: 

Training for Nursery Growers. Oregon State 

University. currently available at 

http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/dce/phytophthora/ 


Vegetable Crops in Australia. CSIRO Pub. 

Pscheidt, J. W. 2009. Diagnosis and Control of 

Phytophthora Diseases. Oregon State University 

Stephens, R. (ed.). 2005. Nursery Industry Accreditation 

Scheme, Australia (NIASA). Best Management 

Practice Guidelines. www.ngia.com.au 

Reid, A. 2006. Phytophthora Diseases of Cutflower 

Crops. Bull 4682. State of WA. avail online 

Rolfe, C., Yiasoumi. W. and Keskula, E. 2000. Managing 

Water in Plant Nurseries. NSW DPI. 

Shearer, B. L., Crane, C. E., Fairman, R. G. and Dunne, C. 

P. 2009. Ecosystem Dynamics Altered byPathogenmediated 

Changes Following Invasion of Banksia 

Woodland and Eucalyptus marginata Forest Bionemes 

of South-western Australia by Phytophthora cinnamoni. 

Australasian Plant Pathology, Vol.38.4. 

Stephenson, S. L. 2010. The Kingdom Fungi : The Biology 

of Mushrooms, Molds & Lichens. Timber Press, OR. 

Strouts, R, G. and Winter. 1994. Diagnosis of Ill-health 

in Trees. 2 nd edn. DTER, UK. 

Tesoriero L, Forsyth L and Carrus R (2008) Biocontrol 

of Phytophthora RootRot of Lettuce Growing in 

Hydroponic Systems. The Australian and New 

Zealand Biocontrol Conference, Sydney, Australia 

Vegetable Industry Centre Newsletter. Dec 2007. 2007. 

Improved Management for Root Disease of 

Hydroponic Lettuce. HAH/AUSVEG. 

Young, T. and Smith, K. 2004. A Field Guide to the 

Fungi of Australia. UNSW Press. 



Parasitic 

Flowering Plants 

Dodder (Cuscuta sp.) sends haustoria 

(projections) into the host stem to absorb 

nutrients and water. 




Weed status of parasitic plants 378 

Beneficial values 378 


Hemi-parasites 379 

Native cherries 379 

Western Australia Christmas tree 379 

Witchweeds 380 

Mistletoes 380 

, 381 

True parasites 381 

Dodders 381 

Broomrapes 382 

INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT (IWM) 382 













Parasitic flowering plants 377




NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

SOME 

DISTINCTIVE 

FEATURES 

WEED STATUS 

OF PARASITIC 


BENEFICIAL 

VALUES 


There are more than 100 species in Australia, but only a few are important weeds. 

PARASITIC FLOWERING PLANTS PRODUCE FLOWERS AND SEEDS 

similar to those produced by the plants they parasitize. 

They belong to several widely separated botanical families. 

Their parasitism is generally regarded as a degenerative process whereby plant 

species became dependent for their existence on the host plant. 

They have developed specialized organs which penetrate the vascular tissue of the 

host plant, and absorb nutrients and/or moisture from it. 

PARASITIC PLANTS VARY IN DEPENDENCE ON THEIR HOST PLANTS. 

However, there are, in general, 2 groups: 

Hemi-parasites possess chlorophyll and can carry out photosynthesis, some 

possess roots while others do not, eg 

– Native cherry (Exocarpos cupressiformis) - root parasite 

– Western Australia Christmas tree (Nuytsia floribunda) - root parasite 

– Witchweeds (Striga spp.) - root parasites 

– Mistletoes (Amyema spp., Dendrophthoe spp., Notothixos spp.) - stem parasites 

– Quandong, sandalwood (Santalum spp.) - root parasites 

– Devil’s twine, dodder laurel (Cassytha spp.) - stem parasites 

True parasites lack chlorophyll and have no true roots, eg 

– Dodder (Cuscuta spp.) 

– Broomrape (Orobanche spp.). 

THE EFFECT OF A PARASITIC PLANT ON ITS HOST IS VARIABLE, eg 

Relatively few of the known parasitic higher plants cause important diseases of 

agricultural crops or forest trees. 

Some, eg dodders, branched broomrape, witchweed, are declared noxious weeds in 

some areas of Australia (pages 412, 417). 

Large infestations of mistletoe can kill trees. 

Broomrape and dodder infestations can dramatically reduce crop yields. 

FOOD POTENTIAL, OIL, CEREMONIAL, BIO-CONTROL AGENTS, eg 

In Australia some parasitic plants produce edible fruits, eg mistletoes, quandong 

(Santalum acuminatum) and yellow plum (Opilia amentacea). 

Sandalwood oil from Santalum spp. (root parasite of trees). 

Some have ceremonial use, eg mistletoe and love. 

Devil’s twine (Cassytha pubescens) has potential to reduce gorse infestations. 

Some, eg mistletoes, provide habitat and food for many birds and mammals. 

Honeyeaters feed on nectar in mistletoe flowers. 

IDENTIFYING THE PARASITIC PLANT 

This is an essential 1 st step in understanding its biology, impact and control. 

To the average gardener and grower some parasitic plants, eg dodder and devils 

twine, can look alike, and the actual species of a parasitic plant can be even more 

difficult to identify (weed identification, page 412). 

HELP WITH IDENTIFICATION 

Most botanic gardens and State diagnostic services can assist (page xiv). 

There are free specialist diagnostic services in some areas for some species, eg 

broomrape in WA (Grain Guard or AGWEST Plant Laboratories). 

Check with the diagnostic service on how to submit the specimen, eg leave 

broomrape attached to the host if possible, to aid identification. 

CONFUSION 

Do not confuse stem parasites with non-parasitic plants which may: 

Just twist their way around plants, strangler-type plants, eg jasmine. 

Produce suckers on their stems and attach themselves to fences, buildings, other 

plants, eg some ivies. 

Produce tendrils which twine around other plants, fences etc, eg Sollya. 

Be epiphytes, which are plants which grow on other plants and use them mostly 

for physical support and protection. They are not parasites and cause no harm 

to the plants on which they grow, eg most orchids in tropical areas which have both 

chlorophyll and aerial roots. 

378 Parasitic flowering plants


HEMI- 

PARASITES 

Hemi-parasites possess chlorophyll and can carry out photosynthesis. Some 

hemi-parasites possess roots while others do not. 

NATIVE CHERRIES (Exocarpos spp., Santalaceae) 

Have chlorophyll. 

Have normal roots. Depend on their hosts for water and some nutrients. 

Woody shrubs to 5 meters or small trees to 10 meters, parasitic on roots 

of host plants, eg eucalypts, wattles. Foliage resembles cypress, casuarina. 

Propagated by seed, stem or root cuttings. 

Native cherries are not generally a problem in forest, bushland or remnant 

vegetation, an exception is Exocarpos strictus which parasitizes Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis forests on the central Murray River Valley. 

Every 3-4 years 

there may be a 

big seed set on 

native cherry 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA CHRISTMAS TREE (Nuytsia floribunda, 

Loranthaceae) also known as the Swan River blaze tree. Endemic to WA. 

Has chlorophyll. 

Has roots. Secures water and certain nutrients by tapping the roots of 

adjacent plants. 

Small woody tree, may grow up to 10 meters high often in apparent 

isolation. Brilliant orange flowers. Parasitic on the roots of grasses and 

other plants. Its favored host appears to be Banksia spp. 

Reproduces in the wild by suckers, can be propagated by seed, cuttings. 



HEMI- 

PARASITES 

(contd) 

Generally 

not important 

parasites in 

Australia 

WITCHWEEDS (Striga spp., Scrophulariaceae) 

Have chlorophyll. 

No true roots. Depends on their hosts for water, minerals and probably 

some organic substances. 

Stiff upright annual herbs up to 30 cm high (S. asiatica), flowers red, 

yellowish or whitish, parasitic on the roots of many monocotyledons, 

eg maize, sorghum, sugarcane, rice. Heavily infested hosts wilt. 

Reproduces by seed. As many as 90,000 seed can be produced per plant. 

Seeds need a resting period of 15-18 months before they germinate but can 

remain viable for up to 14 years. Life cycle of 90-120 days. 

Spread by contaminated crop (host) seed, forage, bags, containers, vehicles, 

machinery. 

The exotic witchweeds 

are among the worst 

weeds of the world, 

causing up to 40 per 

cent yield losses in 

severely-affected 

crops. Australia is the 

only country in south 

east Asia that is free 

from the witchweeds 

S. asiatica and 

S.angustifolia. 

Australia has native 

witchweed species, 

one of them has proved 

a problem on Qld 

sugarcane. 

Mistletoes have a life 

span of 20-30 years, 

eucalypts may live 

for >150 years 

MISTLETOES (Loranthaceae, Viscaceae). There are about 70 species in 

Australia but most do little harm. All species in Australia are native plants and 

include include Amyema (commonly A. miguelii, A. pendula), Dendrophthoe spp. and 

Notothixos spp. 

Have chlorophyll. Mistletoes are more apparent on isolated trees or at the 

edges of forests and in the higher branches of trees, and on stressed trees. 

No roots. Depend on their hosts for water and all minerals. 

Perennial shrubs, often pendulous, parasitic on upper stems of native 

and exotic plants, eg eucalypts, conifers, wattles, birch. 

Many species have attractive red flowers, leaves may mimic their hosts. 

Spread by birds, eg mistletoe bird (Dicaeum hirundinaceum), and animals 

which eat the seed and deposit them in their droppings. Seeds stick to the 

host. 

Damage. Can be serious pests of natural forests, plantations, orchards and 

ornamental trees. A single mistletoe usually has little effect on a healthy 

tree but if many mistletoes grow on one host, the tree may die as a result of 

environmental stress and the mistletoe. 

Mistletoe attachments on 

a branch of silver birch. 




HEMI- 

PARASITES 

(contd) 

Not usually economically 

important but smothers 

smaller native plants in 

bush areas, mainly a 

problem in bushland 

DEVIL'S TWINE, DODDER LAUREL (Cassytha spp., Lauraceae) 

Has chlorophyll. 

No true roots. Depend on their hosts for water and some nutrients. 

Straggly perennial climber, stems generally green, or yellowish- green. 

Leaves scale-like. Flowers small and white. Parasitic on stems of mainly 

woody plants, eg wattles. Do not confuse with dodder (Cuscuta spp.). 

Spread. Seed is spread by birds. Seedlings climb up nearby hosts, roots die 

after contact is made with the host, severing connection with the soil. 

Smothers hosts and causes general debilitation. In exceptional 

circumstances kills the host. Infestations are rarely economic in crop plants. 

 

PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

TRUE 

PARASITES 


 

True parasites lack chlorophyll and have no true roots, depend entirely on 

their host plants for food and water. Some are native, others are introduced. 

DODDERS (Cuscuta spp., Convolvulaceae) 

Have no chlorophyll. 

No true roots. 

Straggly annual climber. Distinctive fine leafless, yellow or brown, wiry 

stems, can twine around herbaceous plants completely covering the host. 

Flowers are small cream or white clusters produced in summer. Host crops 

include lucerne, red clover, vegetables, eg carrots, onion, annual ornamentals, 

eg aster, weeds, eg skeleton weed. Host range can vary depending on species. 

 

 

 

One dodder plant can spread up to 2 meters in diameter. 

Spread by contaminated seed, hay, harvesting machinery, running water or 

in manure. As many as 3000 seeds may be produced by a single plant. Seeds 

can germinate in the soil immediately or remain dormant for 20 years. 

Seedlings climbs up any nearby host, then sever their connection with soil. 

Infestations reduce yield and may kill crops. 

May spread virus diseases of the host plants. 

Thin yellowish dodder 

stems on calendula 

seedlings in a punnet. 


(P.W.Unger). 



TRUE 

PARASITES 

(contd) 

Branched broomrape 

is distinguished from 

the common variety 

by its typically 

branched flowering 

stems and often 

bright blue flowers. 

BROOMRAPES (Orobanche spp., Orobanchaceae). In Australia three species 

are known to be present. O. cernua var. australiana, a native species that does 

not attack crops, lesser broomrape (O. minor) which is a common minor weed 

and branched broomrape (O. ramosa) which is under an eradication program. 

Have no chlorophyll. Difficult to control 

 

 

 

 

No true roots. 

Annual flowering plant (occasionally biennial). Stems are erect, brownish, 

and grow to about 20-40 cm high. Scale-like leaves, flowers inconspicuous. 

By the time flowering stems emerge it is usually too late to save the crop. 

Parasitic on the roots of broadleaved vegetable and field crops, eg clover, 

legumes, ornamentals, eg gazania and some weeds, eg skeleton weed. 

Spread interstate by travellers, via transport or other material. Seed is spread by 

soil on machinery, contaminated soil, sand, animal manures, livestock through 

the gut, wool, fur and in soil, manure attached to animals. To a lesser extent 

by wind and flooding. Seeds are small, like dust. One broomrape plant can 

produce up to 500,000 seeds with a dormancy of 10 years or more! 

Broomrapes are serious weed pests of certain crops affecting yields, eg 

canola, and can stain crops such as celery and cabbage. Ornamentals often 

appear to be unaffected when only a few broomrape plants are present. 

Broomrape stems range 

from 20-40cm in height. 


(P.W.Unger). 

INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT (IWM) 

MAIN STEPS 

The National Branched 

Broomrape Eradication 

Program commenced 

in 2000 to eradicate 

branched broomrape 

(Orobanche ramosa) 

from South Australia. 


Legislation 


Sanitation 

Biological 





Pesticides 

1. Plan ahead. Commercial growers should contact their local authority for 

information on quarantine status and protocols for management of the parasitic plant 

in question. Keep records of the crop, eg source of planting material, planting/sowing 

dates, temperature, irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides. National Eradication 

Programs are in place for some parasitic weeds, eg branched broomrape. 

2. Crop, region. List parasitic plants which are likely to occur in your crop or region. 

Some parasitic plants are declared noxious weeds only in some areas. Management 

plans are available for some parasitic plants, eg broomrape, mistletoes. 

3. Identification must be confirmed. Send specimens to a diagnostic service if 

necessary (page xiv). Once identified obtain information on its life cycle, population 

dynamics and likely impact on the crop and control. Obtain Fact Sheets. 

4. Monitor. Know when, where, what and how to monitor. Early detection of a 

parasitic plant in a crop assists control (page 429). Record results as recommended. 

5. Threshold may be determined by legislation which may impose a nil tolerance or 

specific threshold through Noxious Weed Acts, Seed Acts and Quarantine Acts. If 

not you may need to work out your own threshold. 

6. Action/control. There may be legislative requirements. Protocols are available 

for the control of Orobanche ramosa in SA. Certified seed is available for some 

crops. Use control measures strategically and early be it chemical or biological or 

both and potential major weed problems may be avoided. 

7. Evaluation. Continue monitoring after treatment. Review IWM program to see 

how well it worked. Recommend improvements if required. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

Code for the 

Control of 

Branched 

Broomrape 

Some parasitic flowering plants can be difficult to control once established so early 

detection should be followed by prescribed control measures. Some produce seeds 

prolifically with a long dormancy period and viability, eg broomrapes. As crop 

cultivation intensifies, parasitic plants are gaining significance as weeds. Also it may 

be that only a certain species requires control. 

For all these reasons, it is essential that parasitic plants be accurately identified 

(pages 378, 412). For example, in states where branched broomrape (Orobanche 

ramosa) is under eradication, suspect broomrape plants should be dug up with the host 

still attached, and sent to the nearest office of Agriculture or one of the diagnostic 

services set up to identify broom rape plants. 

LEGISLATION 

Native Vegetation Acts. Approval must be obtained before taking any activity 

against native species, eg mistletoes (South New England Landcare, 2008). 

Noxious Weed Acts (or their equivalent). Some parasitic plants are declared 

noxious weeds, eg some dodders (Cuscuta spp.) in NSW, Vic., SA, WA and 

Tasmania, witchweed (Striga sp.) in Qld, and branched broomrape (Orobanche 

ramosa) in SA and are subject to obligatory control measures. Failure of 

landowners to follow Codes and Protocols in some regions can lead to prosecution. 

Quarantine Acts, eg all Orobanche spp. are prohibited imports. 

Seeds Acts. Several States/Territories have regulations against the importation 

and/or sale of crop seed infested with seeds of parasitic plants, eg dodder (page 386). 

The Branched Broomrape Eradication Program is underway in some 

states. Farmers want compensation for quarantine and a Quality Assurance scheme 

to ensure the integrity of the eradication scheme. 


Deep ploughing to bury seeds to a depth where they could no longer germinate 

and infect their hosts and minimum tillage which exposes seeds to extremes of 

temperature and moisture reducing crop infections, are not usually recommended 

today. Dodder seeds can survive for 20 years. 

Planting time. Higher density plantings can reduce witchweed plants perhaps due 

to extra shading. Later plantings of some crops can reduce witchweeds and 

broomrapes, due to lower soil temperatures but may also reduce potential crop yield. 

Trap crops. 

– Catch crops are susceptible plants grown on land kown to be 

infested. They stimulate germination of witchweed seed and become infested 

themselves. The crop must then be destroyed either by ploughing under or 

applying herbicides before the parasite matures and sets seed. 

– False hosts (decoy crops), eg non-host legumes, stimulate germination of 

witchweed seeds which, however, cannot infect the false host and in the absence of a 

true host starve to death. False hosts have been used in crop rotations to reduce 

seed populations in soil but results have been disappointing. 

– Variations. Flax can serve as a catch crop for broomrape. The flax root exudates 

stimulate broomrape seed to germinate and these then infect the flax but broomrape 

cannot flower on it. 

– In the long term, the only option for severe infestations may be to switch to nonhost 

plants. 

Broomrape (Orobanche spp.) 

– Heavy grazing by sheep if there is a history of infestation before planting crop. 

– Cultivation of some, eg broomrape, can give some control if deeply buried. 

– Flooding as for rice growing reduced infestation of broomrape (O. cernua) in 

following tobacco crops. Seeds lose their viability after one month’s under water. 

– Change of crop. In severe infestations of broomrape, the only options may be to 

switch to non-host plants such as cereals, orchards or vines. 

Dodder (Cuscuta spp.) 

– Crop rotation. Use a non-susceptible rotational crop and control susceptible weeds. 

When planting new areas, especially river flats, plant crops other than summer 

growing legumes for 2-3 years before sowing lucerne to clean up possible dodder 

and general weeds. Note that that it takes 10-20 years of fallow needed to deplete 

dodder seed in soil. This is completely impractical. 

Witchweeds (Striga spp.) 

– Fertilizers. Witchweeds are frequently associated with infertile soils, especially those 

deficient in nitrogen. Nitrogenous fertilizers are sometimes used to suppress 

witchweeds but the precise process is not understood. 

Allelopathy. Overseas Orobanche crenata causes huge damage to legume crops. 

Field trials indicate that O. crenata infection of faba beans and peas is reduced 

when these host crops are intercropped with oats. It has been suggested that this is 

due to allelochemicals released by cereal oats inhibiting the germination of O. crenata 

seeds, thus reducing infection of faba beans and oats. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

In Israel, some carrot 

and tomato cropping 

lands have been 

abandoned due to 

Egyptian broomrape 

(O. aegyptiaca) 

infestations 

SANITATION. 

In urban gardens diligent pruning or removal of all traces of the parasite may mean 

sacrificing plants. This coupled with regular inspections can be very slow and not 

practical for large areas. 

Broomrape can be pulled up by hand or hoeing before seed is set to reduce damage 

to the current crop and future infestations. Minimize weed hosts, eg skeleton weed. 

Tangled masses of devil’s twine can be pulled off host stems as early as 

possible before seed is set. Prune off badly affected sections of host. It may be 

necessary to sacrifice whole plants. 

Dodder. Prune off infested plant parts. If this is done before the dodder produces 

seed this may eradicate it from a small area. Destroy patches of dodder and host 

plants as soon as noticed, by mowing, and burning the cut material where it lies or 

killing the standing crop plants by spraying with a herbicide and then burning. 

Infested crops can also be grazed by sheep and residual clumps of dodder later 

slashed. Control weeds between crop rows. 

Prune out large mistletoes early on isolated plants well below the point of 

attachment to the host branch to prevent regeneration. It may be necessary to 

remove the whole branch if damage is severe, cutting off the mistletoe where it joins 

the host branch is not sufficient. After removing the mistletoe improve tree vigor by 

fertilizing and watering. Cherry pickers have been used in large areas. Occasionally 

whole trees, eg silver birches, may have to be removed. 

Clean equipment before moving from infested to dodder-free areas. Similarly 

limit movement of domestic animals. 


Like other plants, parasitic flowering plants have natural enemies, eg 

Broomrape (Orobanche spp.) has been controlled overseas to some extent, in some 

crops by a fly (Phytomyza orobanchiae), myco-herbicides, eg Fusarium spp., and by 

the fungus Trichoderma when combined with a herbicide spray. 

Dodder (Cuscuta spp.) has been controlled in soybeans in China by the fungus 

(Colletotrichum gloeosporioides). Fusarium spp. have been used overseas to control 

dodder in cranberry crops (Brown and Ogle 1997). 

Mistletoe (various species). 

– Mistletoe browntail moth (Euproctis edwardsii) larvae are banded light and dark 

grey, up to 40 cm long and have irritation hairs. Other moth larva and beetles can 

infest mistletoe wood but none of these offer any control. 

– Long term mistletoe management strategies should encourage formerly 

abundant predators such as possums and gliders, or hyperparasites, such as harlequin 

mistletoe (Lysiana exocarpi), to help control some mistletoe species. 


Although resistance has been bred into some crops, there are few examples of success, 

and it has been overcome. 

Broomrape. Sunflowers resistant to broomrapes are grown in Russia. 

Witchweeds. Cowpea in West Africa and sorghum in India have shown high 

levels of resistance to witchweeds (Brown and Ogle 1997). 

Mistletoes. Eucalyptus nova-anglica and E. viminalis appear to have some 

resistance to some species of mistletoe in some localities. 

Dodder. Wheat, barley, oats and cereal rye crops are poor hosts. Summer grain 

crops, eg maize and sorghum are resistant to golden dodder (Cuscuta campestris). 


AQIS (Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service). Because of 

difficulty in controlling parasitic plants after establishment, all broomrapes, 

witchweeds and dodder are prohibited imports (page 383). If some become 

established even in small areas, Australian export markets could be affected as many 

of our trading partners prohibit their import. Although seeds of these plants are a 

prohibited import, seeds could enter undetected via contaminated soil, machinery 

livestock clothing. Northern Australian Quarantine Strategy (NAQS) monitors for 

exotic witchweeds and other target weeds during regular surveys of land across 

northern Australia and in neighbouring countries. 


Target lists www.daff.gov.au www.daff.gov.au/aqis 

State/Territory quarantine. 

– The recently introduced branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa) is a prohibited 

species in WA and SA. There are protocols for the movement of horticultural 

produce, grain, straw, soil, conservation fodder, machinery and livestock in the 

quarantine area. There is a Code for the Control of Branched Broomrape on the 

GRDC website with prescribed treatments to eradicate infestations and prevent 

spread and seed set. www.grdc.com.au/ 

– Pest-free status for dodder weed (Cuscuta sp.) must be demonstrated for henbane 

(Hyoscyamus niger) seed grown in the Ord River Irrigation Area in North WA for 

export to the US without need for treatment. 

Local quarantine. Prevent spread of seed to areas where temperature and other 

environmental conditions favour the parasitic plant in question. 



CONTROL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

WEED-TESTED PLANTING MATERIAL. 

Do not plant crop seed, use hay contaminated with broomrape, dodder or 

witchweed seed, or strip seed or cut hay from contaminated crops. 

Certified seed. For some crops certified seed is available and crops grown for 

seed or hay, eg lucerne, must be inspected for signs of infestation before harvest. 

Dodder (Cuscuta). Some states and the federal government have Seeds Acts and 

regulations against the importation and/or sale of infested seed and weed seed limits 

(max. no. seeds per kg) are in place for castor oil plant seed (nil dodder seeds). 

Seed treatments with herbicides of differing toxicity are being researched. 


Pre-plant solarization controls broomrape, also nematodes, weeds and soil 

fungi, but its high cost precludes its use in most situations. 

Burning (fire) is used to destroy small isolated patches of dodder in lucerne crops 

to reduce the amount of seed which is set and seed already shed. Mistletoe could be 

scalded rather than burnt with flame throwers. 

Rifle shooting branches with mistletoe that are beyond the reach of other 

methods may be useful in certain circumstances. 

Heat treatments have been used to devitalize niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) 

contaminated with dodder imported into the USA for feeding of wild birds. 

HERBICIDES. 

Obtain recommendations for registered herbicides for specific parasitic 

weeds from your local Department of Primary Industries. Table 69 below indicates a 

few of the problems associated with the use of herbicides to manage parasitic plants. 

Broomrape has developed resistance to some herbicides. 

Germination stimulants promote suicidal germination of seeds, ie in the 

absence of hosts the germinating seeds die, reducing the seed bank. Overseas a 

synthetic germinating agent for broomrapes is being researched. 

Pre-emergence herbicides (for preventing attachment) can be used to 

control dodder seedlings. Fumigants may also be used to kill seed in soil. 

Post-emergence herbicides (treatment after attachment). 

– May be applied selectively, non-selectively and as a directed spray. 

– Anti-transpirants. Most parasitic flowering plants have high transpiration rates 

associated with the stomates that remain open under most, if not all conditions. 

This cools the plant under hot conditions. Anti-transpirants which mechanically 

impede water loss cause leaf temperatures to rise and rapidly kill emerged 

witchweed plants during hot dry conditions. 

Southern New England Landcare (2008) has published comparisons of the 

use of various herbicides and other treatment for mistletoe control (avail. online). 

Table 69. Parasitic flowering plants Permits are often required 

What to use? 

SOIL 

Pre-emergent herbicides (seeds) 

Group D, eg Dacthal (chlorthal-dimethyl) 

Fumigation 

POST-EMERGENT HERBICIDES 

Non-selective directed 

Selective 

Group B, eg metsulfuron-methyl is registered for control of 

brush and broad leaved weeds including 

golden dodder (Cuscuta australis) as a spot 

spray in native pasture, rights of way, 

commercial, industrial areas. 

Group I, eg various 2,4-D sprays in experimental work 

in spring or summer have killed more than 50% 

of the mistletoes with little injury to the hosts. 

Tree injection, frill and daub, painting 


Dacthal is registered for dodder control in various crops. 

Not really an option 

Non-selective sprays kill the parasite and the crop. 

Glyphosate has been used as a directed spray to control 

broomrape in some crops. 

No truly selective herbicides are available to control 

parasitic plants in broadleaved crops. Some are available 

for certain types of pasture and as spot spray. 

2,4-D herbicides are not registered for mistletoe control 

and broad scale spraying of these herbicides is not 

permitted today. 

Tree injection for mistletoe control has had varied 

success. Mistletoe has been painted with glyphosate when 

it emerges from ‘roots’ within stems but this is generally 

impractical. 






1. Distinguish between an epiphyte, a hemiparasite 

and a true parasite. Name 1 example of 

each. 

2. Describe how parasitic plants may cause 

disease. 

3. Recognize by sight, mistletoe and other 

local parasitic plants. 


selected local pest species of parasitic plants: 

Common name 



Spread 

Host range 


Effect and impact 

IWM & Control 

Life cycle 

5. How does knowledge of the life cycle of a 

parasitic plant assist with making decisions 

about control? 

6. Describe non-chemical methods of 

controlling pest parasitic plants. 

7. List 2 difficulties with using herbicides to 

control pest parasitic plants. 

8. Prepare/access an IWM. program for a parasitic 

flowering plant at your work or in your region. 



control (if applicable) of parasitic plants. 


Australian Bushfood & Native Medicine Forum 

www.bushfood.net/ and 

Australian Native Plants Society (Australia) ANPSA 

(formerly ASGAP) http://asgap.org.au/ link to 

photo gallery 

Botanic Gardens www.anbg.gov.au/ and follow the links 

to other Botanic Gardens and Arboreta 

Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria (CHAH). 

Australian Plant Census www.anbg.gov.au/chah/apc/ 

Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS Online 

Resources) 

www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/ 

Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the 

Arts www.environment.gov.au/ 


Industries, GRDC, Grain-Guard, Hort-Guard, RIRDC, 

Wild Life Notes, Farmer Alert and Landcare Groups 

are available online, eg 

Broomrape 

Dodder 

Mistletoes 

Keys 


Declared Plants of Australia 

Quarantine 




pests and more than 100 diseases www.padil.gov.au 



State websites have information of certain parasitic weeds 

quarantine restrictions in their states 

Herbicides 



HerbiGuide, WA www.herbiguide.com.au/ 



Company websites have labels and MSDSs 

State/Territory authorities 

General 


Press, CA. 

Auld, B. A. and Medd, E. W. 1987. Weeds : An 

Illustrated Botanical Guide to the Weeds of 



Pathogens and Plant Diseases. Rockvale Pubs, 


Commonwealth of Australia. Flora of Australia. AGPS, 

Canberra. 

Vol.1 - List of State/Territory/Regional Floras and 

Censuses. 

Vol.2 - Lauraceae, eg devil's twine. 

Vol.22 - Loranthaceae, eg mistletoe. 

Vol.30 - Convolvulaceae, eg dodder. 

Vol.32 - Scrophulariaceae, eg Western Australian Christmas 

tree, witchweed. 

Vol.33 - Orobanchaceae, eg broomrape. Santalaceae, eg 

native cherries. Viscaceae, eg mistletoe. 

Vol.47 – Orchidaceae, eg orchids. 

Costermans, L. 2000. Native Trees and Shrubs of South- 

Eastern Australia. Reprinted from 1983, revised edn. 

Reed New Holland. 

Hadlington, P. W. and Johnston, J. A. 1988. Australian 

Trees : Their Care and Repair. NSW University 

Press, Sydney. 

Hasem, A. 2005. A FinalReport Prepared for the Grains 

Research and Development Corporation : 

Management of Dodder : a New Parasitic Weed in 

WA cropping systems. Dept. of Agriculture, WA. 

Heide-Jorgensen, H. S. 2008. Parasitic Flowering 

Plants. Brill, Leiden. The Netherlands. 

Keane, P. J., Kile, G. A., Podge, F. D. and Brown, B. N. 


CSIRO Pub., Collingwood, Vic. 


That? Lansdowne Pub., Sydney. 


Weeds of Australia. 2 nd edn. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Press, C. and Graves, J. 1995. Parasitic Plants. Kluwer 

Academic Pub., MA, USA. 

South New England Landcare. 2008. Methods to 

Manage Mistletoe: A Landholder’s Guide. 


Thomas, A. 2001. Misunderstood Mistletoe. Science 

Online, 11 Jun 2001. 

Wrigley, J. W. and Fagg, M. 2003. Australian Native 

Plants. 5 th ed. Reed New Holland, Sydney. 



NON-PARASITIC 

PESTS 

AND 

DISEASES 

LIVING AGENTS. 

Fairy rings in turf grow on organic matter in soil. 

NON-LIVING AGENTS. 

Environment 

Seedling on right is 

elongated due to 

lack of light 

CAUSES & DIAGNOSTICS 388 

What are non-parasitic pests and diseases? 388 

Symptoms and damage 389 

Diagnostics 389 

Examples of non-parasitic problems 390 



Environment 392 

Climate change, Salinity 394 

Nutrient deficiencies and toxicities, pesticide injury, acid soil 395 

Pollutants, mechanical injuries 396 


Delayed effects, spread, conditions favouring 398 





Tolerant varieties 401 


Problem-tested planting material 402 


Pesticides and other chemicals 402 

Plant growth regulators (Table 70) 403 

Leaf anti-transpirants, soil wetting agents, water storage (Table 71) 405 



NON-PARASITIC pests and diseases 387


CAUSES & DIAGNOSTICS 

WHAT ARE NON- 

PARASITIC 

PESTS AND 

DISEASES 

THOSE CAUSED BY LIVING AGENTS 

These living agents (plants and animals) which damage plants mechanically, or 

in some way other than by obtaining their food from the plants. They are not 

parasitic on plants. Examples include: 

Insects , eg leafcutting bees, soldier beetles, fungus gnat larvae. 

Fungi, eg fairy rings, lichens, slime moulds. 

Lichens, liverworts, moss, algae. 

 

 

Animals, eg cats, dogs, earthworms, and humans, eg children, adults. 

Weeds, also come within this group, but because of their economic 

importance and number, are studied as a separate group (page 409). 

Fig. 208. Leafy and bushy lichens on a dead limb. Each lichen consists of an alga 

and a fungus which are mutually beneficial (symbiosis). The green alga manufactures 

the food and the fungus absorbs and stores moisture. They do not obtain their food from 

the tree. Lichens commonly grow on cooler southern shady sides of trees in the southern 

hemisphere, and on rocks, fences and sheds. They can be used to monitor atmospheric 

pollution especially sulphur and hydrogen fluoride. PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

THOSE CAUSED BY NON-LIVING AGENTS 

Non-living agents are by far the largest group and are almost infinite in number 

and type, and include: 

Environment agents, eg heat/cold, drought/waterlogging, etc. 

Nutrient deficiencies and toxicities. 

Acid soils. 

Salinity. 

Pollution, eg pesticide injury. 

Mechanical injuries. 

Genetic abnormalities. 

Fig. 209. Wind damage. Very young citrus fruits showing the 

effect of abrasion during wind. Windbreaks filter wind, reducing the 

velocity of wind in protected areas. They reduce plant stress and 

physical damage. PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

388 Non-parasitic pests and diseases


SYMPTOMS 

AND DAMAGE 

Some symptoms that 

appear to be 

abnormalities are 

normal plant structures, 

eg ‘burr’ knots’ and 

lignotubers which 

can produce shoots 

if the upper parts of 

the tree is damaged 

Symptoms are often 

indistinct and closely 

resemble those caused 

by fungi, bacteria, 

viruses, root pathogens 

Symptoms and damage caused by non-parasitic pests and diseases are literally 

infinite and include: 


LEAVES 

Blights, eg frost, pesticide injury 

Chlorosis, eg nutrient deficiencies and excesses, pesticide injury, 

senescence, natural variegated varieties 

Dead areas within the leaf margin, eg sunscorch 

Dead tips and edges, eg too little/too much water, salt toxicity 

Distortion, eg hormone herbicide injury 

Galls, eg oedema 

Leaf spots, eg contact herbicide injury, senescence 

Stunting, eg herbicide injury, deficiencies, sports 

FLOWERS Blights, eg frost 

Mechanical damage, eg wind, rain 

FRUIT 

STEMS 

CROWNS 

ROOTS 

Distortion, eg boron deficiencies (pome fruit) 

Colour changes, eg sunscorch, lack of light 

Mechanical injury, eg rain, hail 

Russet, eg pesticide injury, frost 

Rotting, eg calcium deficiency (blossom end-rot of tomatoes) 

Splitting, eg rain, hail, uneven watering 

Etiolation, eg lack of light 

Dieback, eg senescence 

Distortion, eg fasciation 

Mechanical injury, eg lawn mowers, cars, stakes, sprinklers 

Dead areas, peeling bark, eg sunscorch damage 

Galls, eg ‘burr’ knots (Prunus spp.) 

Galls, eg lignotubers in eucalypts 

Dead areas, peeling bark, eg waterlogging, sunscorch 

Forking, eg poor soil structure, excess fertiliser 

Distortion, eg pot bound plants 

Rotting, eg waterlogging 

Splitting, eg overmaturity (carrots, parsnips, etc) 


Environmental effects on development of pests, diseases and weeds. Nutritional 

imbalances, high and low temperatures, high humidity, over or under-watering 

and other factors, can predispose plants to diseases or pests. 

DIAGNOSTICS 

SOME NON-PARASITIC PROBLEMS CAN BE DIFFICULT TO IDENTIFY 

Some are easily recognized by distinct symptoms the cause of which is known. 

Often, though symptoms are indistinct and closely resemble those of some parasitic 

pests and diseases. Some are misleading, eg the cause of wind blown trees may be 

wood rot, borer attack or wet soils. 

Know what a healthy or normal plant looks like, eg 

– Leaves of many deciduous trees and shrubs at the end of the season (autumn) look 

tatty before finally falling. 

– Evergreens such as camellia loose their older leaves after flowering as new leaves 

are emerging in spring. 

– Frost damage in field peas can be difficult to recognize; flowers are most vulnerable 

to frost, developing seeds shriveled or absent, blackening inside, pods blister. 

Be able to recognize symptoms of common non-parasitic problems, eg 

iron deficiency symptoms which are common on your crop. 

– A magnifying glass or small stereo microscope can assist identification and 

eliminate certain parasitic problems. Identification is often complicated because 

proof of absence of a parasitic pest or disease may be required. 

– Tools which assist with the diagnosis of non-parasitic problems include pH and 

conductivity meters, maximum and minimum thermometers, soil and water tests, 

light meters. Grow-on tests may confirm certain non-parasitic problems where plants 

recover after initial exposure whereas pathogen-related problems persist into new 

growth. 

– Seek expert help. They can perform specialist media and plant tissue analysis 

and other tests, and confirm the absence of a parasitic problem (page xiv). 

Know the problems that affect your crop in your area. Obtain a Fact 

Sheet for each problem. 

Know potential local problems. Some problems may be widespread in 

some areas, eg phosphorus sensitivity of Proteaceae plants. 

Manage the crop as recommended and record its history, eg irrigation, 

fertilizer, herbicide, insecticide, fungicide applications, salinity problems. 

Non-parasitic pests and diseases 389


EXAMPLES OF 

NON-PARASITIC 

PROBLEMS 

Mushroom 

Agrios 2005 

Bodman 1996 

Brown & Ogle 1997 


deficiencies or 

toxicities with 

pesticide injury 

Symptoms of 

chemical damage 

vary from sluggish 

growth to severe leaf 

burn or yellowing (leaf 

burn at too high dose) 

TYPE EXAMPLES PLANTS AFFECTED 


LIVING AGENTS 

Animals (trampling, etc) 

Birds 

Crops 

Flowers 

Dog and cat urine 

Fairy rings 

Lawns, turf 

Lawns, turf, pasture 

Leafcutting bees 

Lilac, rose 

Lichens 

Mycorrhoza (lack of) 

Older trees 

Most plants 

Slime moulds 

Turfgrass, vegetables 


Sooty mould 

Flowers 

Native plants, citrus 

Vandalism (children, adults) Wide range 

NON-LIVING AGENTS 

ENVIRONMENT 

Temperature 

(low & high 

temperatures) 

Moisture 

(low & high soil moisture 

low relative humidity) 

Inadequate 

oxygen 

Insufficient 

light 

Soil 

structure 

Wind 

NUTRIENT 

DEFICIENCIES & 

TOXICITIES 

Major nutrients 

trace elements 

Frost 

Cool temperatures 

Sunscorch 

Drought injury 

Fruit cracking 

Oedema 

Waterlogging, poor drainage 

Lawn compaction 

Black heart 

Etiolation 

Lack of flowering 

Forked roots 

Shallow roots 

Compaction 

Soil gradient changes 

Stressed plants 

Mechanical injury 

Wind erosion, sandblasting 

Iron deficiency 

Magnesium deficiency/excess 

Nitrogen deficiency 

Nitrogen drawdown 

Phosphorus toxicity 

Salt toxicity, Mn & Zn toxicity 

Over-fertilizing 

Cadmium/Zinc toxicities 

Leaves, flowers, fruit, seeds 

Tomato not ripening 

Leaves, flowers, fruit, trunks 

and limbs of trees 

Almost any plant 

Tomato, grape, plum 

Camellia 


Turf, roots under paths 

Potato (high temperatures) 

Seedlings 

Many plants 

Carrots 

Trees 

Turf 

Many species 

Trees blown over 

Emerging crops, esp. dicots 

Azalea, citrus 

Shrubs, citrus, rose 

Citrus, daphne 

Some native plants 

Native trees, shrubs, turf 

Especially young plants 

Many plant species 

Contamination of vegetables 

ACIDITY 

Acid mat, 50% of the grains 

cropping area affected 

Turf, grasses, crops and 

other acid-sensitive plants 

SALINITY Widespread across Australia Trees, shrubs, grasses, crops 

SODICITY Widespread across Australia Trees, shrubs, grasses, crops 

POLLUTANTS 

Fertilizers 


Herbicide injury, eg 2,4-D, MCPA Broadleaved plants 

Fertilizers 

Herbicides in pots 

Pesticides 

Some plants always sensitive 

others 

Insecticide injury, eg sulphur Many plants 

Plant growth regulators Fruit trees, flower crops 

Formulations 

May damage some species 

Disinfectants 

Solvents in liquid concentrates 

Soil pollutants 

Pesticides 

Atmospheric pollutants, eg Some plants more sensitive, 

gases, acid rain, smog, eg lichens 

ozone 

Water pollutants 

MECHANICAL 

INJURIES 

GENETIC 

ABNORMALITIES 

Chlorine 

Ethylene (ripening fruit) 

Rain, hail and snow 

Root binding 

Car damage 

Machinery damage, digging 

Inappropriate pruning 

Lawn mowers 

Support wires 

Cultivation 

Fasciation (mutation) 

Sports (mutation) 

Rootstock/scion 

incompatibility 

Seed variation 

Varietal degeneration 

Pesticides, fertilizers in 

hydroponic systems 

Plants around pools 

Flowers, fruit, vegetables 

Trees, shrubs, fruit 

Container plants 

Trunks of trees 

Trunks/roots of trees, irrigation 

Trees and shrubs 

Turf, base of tree trunks 

Trees, shrubs, vines 

Crop preparation, weeding 

Daphne, euonymus 

Euonymus 

Lilac (on privet rootstock to 

minimize suckering) 

Pea (albino seed) 

Some rhododendron varieties 



Living agents 

Fig. 210. Leafcutting bee damage 

to rose leaves. Bees cut out pieces of 

leaves with their jaws to make nests. 

Fig. 211. Sooty mould on an orange leaf. Black 

fungal hyphae grow on the honeydew secreted by some sap 

sucking Hemipterous insects, eg aphids, leafhoppers, lerps, soft 

scales and whiteflies. Sooty mould disfigures plants. If the 

insects producing the honeydew are controlled the sooty mould 

will eventually dry out and fall off or can be hosed off leaves. 


Fig. 212. Wood rotting fungus in a 

container. The mycelium which produces 

the mushroom grows on uncomposted 

material in the soil. PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 213. Fairy rings in a lawn. The mycelium of the fungus 

growing on the organic matter in the soil grows in all directions from 

a central point to form a large invisible circle. Fruiting bodies or 

 

form a ring, usually in autumn after the first heavy rains. In addition 

 

and height. Bare patches may develop. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fruiting bodies 

containing spores 

(x 10) on leaves. 

Slime moulds on 

grass leaves 

(natural size). 

Female plant 

Male plant 

Fig. 214. Slime moulds (Myxomycota). Commonly 

blackish fruiting bodies (1-2 mm high) appear in late 

spring or autumn after prolonged wet weather. Slime 

moulds exist as jelly-like blobs up to several centimeters 

across which move very slowly feeding on 

microorganisms and small pieces of plant material in 

shady damp places. They are only noticed when they 

move up onto grass or other low lying plants such as 

strawberries or onions, to produce spores which usually 

disappear after 2-3 weeks depending on the weather. 

Fig. 215. Liverworts (Bryophyta) can be a 

major weed problem in nurseries especially in 

cool shady areas. They reproduce by both spores 

and vegetative reproduction. 



Non-living agents 

ENVIRONMENT. 

Fig. 216. Water stress. If the problem is too little water, 

tips and margins become brown and brittle. If the problem it 

too much water, tips and margins become brown and soft; 

also caused by excessively high concentrations of salts, or by 

chemical injury. The whole leaf may be affected and die. 

Fig. 217. Sunscorch. Camellia leaf 

showing symptoms of sunscorch injury. 

Brown scorched areas often start within 

the leaf margin but not always so. The whole 

leaf may become scorched. 

Fig. 218. Sunscald injury. Left: Capsicum, affected 

areas are bleached and sunken. Right: Affected area on 

the shoulder of an immature tomato is grayish-white and 

has a paper-like surface. Compare with blossom-end rot 

(see Fig. 232). PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 219. Sunburn 

injury on a tree 

branch. Cracking of 

bark and discoloration 

of the wood beneath 

the dead bark where it 

was peeled back. 

Sunburnt areas are entry 

points for wood rot fungi. 

Photo NSW Dept. of Industry 


Fig. 220. Rind splitting in orange. Some strains of 

Washington Navel orange are prone to split due to the 

internal pressure of the pulp. It often occurs after a drop in 

average maximum day temperature with the approach of 

winter and an increase in relative humidity when the 

rate of fruit growth is decreasing. PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and 

Investment. 

Fig. 221. Cracking in tomato fruit is due to rapid 

growth following favorable weather conditions of high 

temperatures and good soil moisture just prior to harvest. 




Non-living agents (contd) 

ENVIRONMENT. 

Fig. 222. Cold weather injury to 

carnations. Twisted leaves on carnation 

caused by unseasonable cold weather. 


Fig. 223. Flowers of many 

plant species are more 

sensitive to frost than the 

leaves, eg chrysanthemum. 

Fig. 224. Etiolation. 

Left: Healthy seedling 

Right: Spindly growth 

due to insufficient light. 

Fig. 225. Oedema on umbrella (Schefflera actinophylla) leaf. Oedema occurs when plants 

absorb more water through the roots than they can transpire through the leaves, so the surface 

cells of the plant burst. Small masses of tissue may expand and break out on the surface of the 

leaf (or other plant part) causing watery swellings, small galls or rings which later becomes 

corky brown or gray and scabby. Oedema often appears on the under surface of leaves near 

the ground, eg camellia, geranium. Restricting water supplies during cloudy weather may 

lessen the problem but control is not really necessary. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 226. Enlarged lenticels on a potato 

tuber due to the excessive soil moisture before 

harvest. Photo NSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 

Fig. 227. Leafrolling may be due to a range of environmental causes. 

Left: Tightly rolled rhododendron leaves. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Right: Rolled tomato leaves due to high soil moisture or excessive 

pruning. Plants absorb more moisture through their roots than they can 

transpire through their leaves. Rolling usually begins on the mature foliage 

at the base of the plant; affected leaves are leathery, firm and thickened. In 

most cases yield is not affected. Leaf rolling on potato is caused by the 

potato leaf roll virus. PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 




CLIMATE CHANGE, SALINITY. 

CLIMATE 

CHANGE 

‘global warming’ 

‘greenhouse 

effect’ 

Although the term ‘climate change’ can refer to any variation in climate or atmospheric 

conditions which has taken place over millions of years, in recent times, the term is taken 

to mean changes in climate that are the direct result of human activity. 

The most important greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and 

ozone. Increases in these gases over recent decades are considered to be due to human 

activity, eg transportation, agriculture, etc. The effect on sea levels, water and food 

supplies, pests, weeds, social conflict and the migration of peoples is being researched. 

Dept. of Climate Change www.climatechange.gov.au/ 

Left: Sun and Earth Under Normal Conditions The greenhouse effect is a natural process - 

 

redistributed around the globe through atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns (winds, ocean 

currents, etc). Energy is then radiated back from the earth into the atmosphere as long-wave radiation. 

Over time long and short wave radiation should balance. Right: Increasing energy radiated back to 

earth. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the energy radiated back into the atmosphere as long wave 

radiation. Increasing concentrations of these gases mean that more is absorbed and less released into 

space - radiation is trapped in the atmosphere and reflected back to earth causing a heating of the 

www.ecn.ac.uk) 

SALINITY 


salinity with 

acid soils or 

sodicity: 

Sodicity refers to soil 

containing levels of 

sodium that affects its 

physical properties, 

when they become wet, 

clay particles lose their 

tendency to stick 

together, become 

unstable, erode and 

impermeable to water 

and roots 

Acid soils are a 

condition in which the 

surface soil pH has 

declined to less than 

pH 5.5 as a result of 

human activity, such as 

agriculture (page 395 

Fig. 228) 

Saline soils are defined as those in which the concentration of soluble salts in soil 

and water is sufficient to restrict plant growth, increase soil erosion and salt pollution of 

rivers, water supplies, irrigation systems, damage roads, fences and buildings. 

Department of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry www.daff.gov.au/ 

Primary or natural salinity has developed in former marine areas or on rocks which 

contained trapped marine salts that break down to form soils. 

Secondary or induced salinity occurs when surplus water percolates into the water 

table making it rise. Naturally occurring salts found in the soil and rock are dissolved 

and brought to the surface, coming into contact with vegetation. 

– Irrigation salinity results from poor irrigation practices. More water is applied than can be 

used by the crop, excess water causes water to rise bringing the salts into contact with plants. 

– Dryland salinity is typically caused by extensive clearing of vegetation (mainly trees) for 

agricultural and grazing land. 

CSIRO Land & Water www.clw.csiro.au/issues/salinity/ 

Effects on soils and plants. Soils crust on the surface, soil clays swell and fine soil 

particles disperse. Salt in soil reduces the availability of water to plants and at high 

enough concentrations can kill plants, it may also result in toxicity of certain ions 

namely sodium and calcium, nutritional imbalances and deficiencies, and favour some 

diseases, eg Phytophthora root rot of some tomato cultivars. Salt-affected sites are 

complex and are influenced by interaction between soil, water, plant species and climate. 

Salt may occur in the soil/media, fertilizer or irrigation water. Some forms of fertilizers are 

more prone to result in salinity problems, eg potassium as potassium chloride (potassium as 

potassium sulphate less likely) 

Plants continually remove water from soil via evapo-transpiration. Left: Trees have deeper and more 

extensive roots systems and extract more water from the ground than do grasses and shallow-rooted crops. 

Right: When trees are removed and replaced with shallow-rooted grasses and crops, surplus water 

percolates into the water table causing it to rise bringing dissolved salts with it (adapted from Wakefield 1994). 




NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES & TOXICITIES, PESTICIDE INJURY, ACID SOIL. 

Fig. 228. 

Soil acidity. ACID ALKALINE 

 

PH. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Aim for a pH of about 6.5 

Soil acidity is a major agricultural and turf problem in Australia. Soil acidification is a 

gradual lowering of soil pH. It is a natural process which can be accelerated by 

agricultural practices, especially: 

When large quantities of biomass are harvested and removed from the land. 

Where recycling of nutrients is inefficient and nitrate is allowed to leach into soil. 

Where ammonium-based fertilizers are used. 

Soil acidification results in increased availability of aluminum and manganese 

which become toxic. Phosphates and molybdenum become less available while 

leaching may deplete cations such as calcium, magnesium and potassium. 

More than 70% of the continent is covered with soils that have either a pH < 5.5 

(acidic) or > 8.5 (alkaline) in which chemical toxicities and deficiencies abound. 

Soil alkalinity may occur if soil is naturally alkaline or if there is prolonged irrigation 

with alkaline bore water, recycled household water, etc. Trace elements may be 

unavailable in alkaline soils, eg iron, zinc and manganese. 

Fig. 229. Magnesium deficiency 

on Valencia orange leaves, note yellow 

V-shaped pattern on leaves. PhotoNSW Dept. 

of Industry and Investment. (M.Senior). 

Fig. 230. Iron deficiency 

on citrus leaf, note yellowing 

between green veins. PhotoCIT, 


Fig. 231. Whiptail (molybdenum 

deficiency) on small heart leaves of 

cauliflower. PhotoNSW Dept. of Industry and 

Investment. 

Fig. 232. Blossom-end rot of tomato 

due to a calcium deficiency in the blossom 

end of the developing fruit, favored by 

inadequate calcium in the soil, high salt 

concentrations in the soil, dry soil, hot windy 

conditions, vigorous vegetative growth, 

uneven watering, etc. Do not confuse with 

sunscald injury (Fig. 218). PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 233. Simazine injury to Prunus sp. Leaves 

yellowed but veins remained green. New growth the 

following spring was normal. A heavy thunderstorm 

after application washed the simazine down hill. Do 

not confuse with deficiencies. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 




POLLUTANTS, MECHANICAL INJURIES. 

High concentrations of pollutants cause dead or discoloured areas to develop on plants. At low levels, growth 

and productivity may be reduced, prolonged exposure may make them more susceptible to pests and diseases. 

Fig. 234. Acid rain injury to plants usually occurs in the vicinity of heavy metals industries, eg Queenstown, Tasmania. 

Sulphur dioxide pollution from power stations, cars and lorries is the main source of acidity in rain. Sulphur dioxide reacts 

which is injurious to plants. Decline in sulphur dioxide pollution 

in air in Britain has seen many species of lichens become more common. Nitrogen oxide pollution from cars and lorries 

also creates acid rain when it is oxidized to form nitric aci acid rain 

becomes even more acid during thunder-storms. 

Fig. 235. Smog is a condition caused by the action of sunlight on the exhaust gases from cars, homes and factories. NO 2 

and PAN are the most common components of smog. 

SOLID WASTE PARTICLES 

Motor vehicle emissions 

Emissions from backyard incinerators 

Waste from industrial furnaces/incinerators 

Burning vegetation 

Dust 

Sea salt 

COME TO REST ON PLANTS 

Carbon 

Chloride 

Sulphates 

Silica 

Sodium 

Lead 

Nitrates 

Etc 

Fig. 236. Smog waste particles in the atmosphere may settle on plants, reducing their capacity to photosynthesis, 

and in some situations, having a toxic effect. This is especially serious on evergreen plants which do not shed all their leaves 

every year so that leaves tend to accumulate wastes over several years. Norfolk Island pines on the coast in Sydney in the 

past, were thought to have been damaged by salt, detergent and other wastes blown in from the sea 

Fig. 239. Hail injury to fruit. PhotoCIT, 


Fig. 237. Lawn mower injury. 


Fig. 238. Pot bound roots. 





GENETIC ABNORMALITIES. 

A mutation is an abrupt appearance of a new characteristic as the result of an accidental change in a 

gene or chromosome. Some mutations may be beneficial, eg Washington Leng navel oranges which 

have no seed originated from such a mutation. 

Fig. 240. A chimera is a tissue segment with a different , genetic , makeup from adjacent , cells. In Greek mythology 

 

species or varieties commonly produce chimeras. Left: Normal yellow tulip on left, one with a 50% red chimera on 

right. Right: An apple showing a mutant section of more deeply colored skin. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 241. Linear fasciation in a rose cane. 

clusters of leaves at the end of the fasciated area. 

Fasciation is common in many plants, eg daphne, 

euonymus, cucumber. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 242. A variegated lemon leaf 

(genetic makeup). 

Fig. 243. ‘Burr knots’ on Prunus spp. are tissue 

which can produce adventitious shoots if necessary, eg 

if the top of the tree was lopped off. They have a similar 

function to the lignotubers of eucalypts. PhotoCIT, Canberra 

(P.W.Unger). 

Fig. 244. Mutant orange with a 

very thick rind. Rind thickness can 

also vary with the variety, eg the rind 

of Meyer lemons is much thinner 

than that of Eureka or Lisbon. Photo 

NSW Dept. of Industry and Investment. 



Delayed effects, Spread, Conditions favouring 

DELAYED 

EFFECTS 

The number is infinite. 

Symptoms of non-target drift from glyphosate applications to control weeds 

in autumn around deciduous shrubs and climbers only become apparent when new 

spring growth commences in spring. 

Too many oil sprays may affect fruiting in citrus. 

Alkalinity problems associated with certain improperly aged or composted 

materials may only slowly become apparent over months or years. Mushroom 

compost is usually alkaline. 

Frost damage to early flowering fruit trees in colder areas may only be obvious 

in spring when fewer fruit develop. In plums, flowers not totally killed by frost 

develop russet patches as damaged areas enlarge. 

Years of below average rainfall which deplete soil moisture cause a gradual 

decline of established trees and shrubs over many years. 

Lack of flowering in bulbs due to prolonged water stress, flowers laid 

down the previous season. 

Wind damage to young leaves and developing fruit becomes more obvious as 

they grow in size. 

Pollutants. 

SPREAD Herbicides may leach through the soil or be washed over the surface of soil on 

sloping areas, to sensitive sites. 

Seed sources may not be reliable; varieties may not be suitable for the particular 

season. 

Soil deliveries which include mushroom compost, etc. 

Soil deliveries which are hygroscopic. 

CONDITIONS 

FAVOURING 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

New varieties may not live up to their promise, eg may not grow so well under 

certain conditions. 

Planting the wrong variety for the district or season, planting too early or too late. 

Rootstocks which are incompatible with scions, understand why rootstocks may 

flourish at the expense of the scion. 

Poor culture, eg incorrect pruning may lead to lack of flowers or fruit, excess 

applications of phosphorus and nitrogen contribute to development of algal blooms. 

Lack of appropriate environmental monitoring, eg the degree of frost injury may 

depend on the suddenness in the drop in temperature rather than the absolute 

temperature. 

Applying certain pesticides when conditions favour pesticide injury to crops and 

o 

non-target plants, eg sulphur sprays at temperatures >30 C, excessive wind. 

Application of pesticides in enclosed areas with poor ventilation and high humidity. 

CROPS 

PESTS 

DISEASES 

WEEDS 

BENEFICIALS 

NON-PARASITIC 

Temperature, moisture 

Climate change 

Deficiencies, toxicities 

Salinity, genetic, etc 

Fig. 245. Non-parasitic disease triangle 




MAIN STEPS 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

? 

X 

1. Plan an IDM program in advance. One that fits your situation and the particular 

type of problem. Keep records of the crop, eg source of planting material, planting 

and sowing dates, temperature, irrigation, fertilizer and pesticide records. 

2. Crop, region. IDM programs are available for problems on a range of crops in 

many regions. Check if an IDM program is available for your problem(s) on your 

crop or in your region, eg 

Best Management Practice Guidelines are available for a range of crops. 

Nursery Industry Accreditation Scheme www.nasaa.com.au 

Australian government publications and websites www.nrm.gov.au/ 

Water management strategies for commercial crops, eg peanuts. Home 

gardeners can access various waterwise programs (Walsh 2004). 


Organic Federation of Australia www.ofa.org.au/ 


3. Identification of non-parasitic problems can be difficult. Understanding 

conditions favouring the problem is necessary for solving the problem. Identify frostprone 

or poorly drained areas or pockets, physically map or mark areas. Obtain 

relevant Fact Sheets. Sophisticated programs such Plant Efficiency Analysis 

measure and interpret chlorophyll fluorescence emissions from leaves of plants 

before visible symptoms of stress appear. Consult a diagnostic service if necessary 

that can perform various tests and provide advice (page xiv). 

4. Monitoring. Know when, where, what and how to monitor. Know what you 

can regularly monitor and record, eg symptoms on leaves or fruits, impact of 

problem, distribution in the field. Arrange regular soil, plant and water tests if 

necessary and have the results interpreted correctly. 

Early warning systems used by commercial growers to predict frost, etc. 

Microclimate and soil maps may help predict problems in your area. Probes 

are available for soil moisture and compaction. 

Global positioning systems (GPS) and foot slog mapping can indicate spread 

of a problem, eg salinity. 

5. Threshold. This may be decided for you by legislative requirements. Your own 

threshold will depend on economic, aesthetic and/or environmental factors. Do you 


6. Action/control. Many non-parasitic problems are preventable, so avoid overfertilization, 

planting poor quality seed, etc. Apply pesticides and other chemicals 

according to label directions for use. It may be necessary to cease certain activities, 

or modify fertilizer and irrigation regimes, drainage methods or pesticide use. 

Australian government publications and websites provide vast amounts of 

information on sustainable agriculture and horticulture, controlling salinity, 

conserving biodiversity etc. Record your actions. 

7. Evaluation. Review the IDM program. Make improvements if necessary which 

may involve continued monitoring. 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

CROP, 

REGION 

Each crop 

has its own 

disease 

complex. 

List diseases 

(and pests 

and weeds) 

that affect 

your crop 

IDENTIFY 

PROBLEM 

Enquiry 


Examine plant 

Check history 

References 

Expert advice 

Diagnosis 


each problem 

MONITOR 




soil tests, moisture, 

temperature? 

How to count? 

Keep records 

THRESHOLD 

Economic? 

Aesthetic? 

Complaints? 


for this problem 

above which 


implemented? 


ACTION 

CONTROL 


? 

Legislation 

Cultural 

Sanitation 

Biological 

Tolerance 

Quarantine 

Physical etc 

Pesticides 

Organic, BMP 

Combinations 

EVALUATION 

 


the disease 

control you 

wanted? 

Can the IDM be 

improved? 

YES/NO? 

 

 

 

Fig. 246. Steps in IDM. 




CONTROL 

REMINDER 

Relative humidity, 

wind and high 

temperatures. 

Lack of moisture in 

the atmosphere (low 

RH) is usually 

temporary and seldom 

causes damage but 

when combined with 

high wind velocity and 

high temperatures 

may lead to excessive 

loss of water from the 

foliage and may result 

in leaf scorching or 

burning, shriveled fruit 

and temporary or 

permanent wilting of 

plants (Agrios 2005). 

LEGISLATION, REGULATIONS, ETC 

Various Food Acts, Pesticide Acts, Pollution Acts, Environment Protection Acts, etc 

prescribe and regulate residues in food, and in food and feed products. Restrictions 

apply to the application of hormone herbicides, eg 2,4-D, MCPA, within a 

prescribed distance of grapevines which are extremely sensitive to such herbicides. 

Quarantine Acts reduce the risk of introducing exotic non-parasitic living agents, eg 

algae and mosses. 

Standards are available for pruning certain plants, quality of tomatoes, etc. 


Environmental factors. Temperature and moisture are the most important 

environmental factors affecting plants, pests, diseases and weeds. Environmental 

factors are used to control growth and flowering. Always be aware of the weather 

conditions prevailing before or during the appearance of symptoms. 

– Weather warning programs provide information on weather events, for 

particular crops/different regions, eg temperature ranges, rain, hail and dew points, 

etc. During transport and storage of temperature-sensitive goods such as flowers 

and plants, various systems monitor temperature, sounding a warning alarm when 

conditions stray outside a predetermined range. 

– Plant Efficiency Analysis measures and interprets chlorophyll fluorescence 

emissions from leaves of plants before visible symptoms of stress appear. Trees 

showing symptoms of dead branches in the canopy, sparse leaf cover, curling 

browning or drooping leaves, earlier than normal autumn colours, deep bark cracking, 

need watering long before these symptoms are visible. Many young trees newly 

planted need special attention by watering. Public tree plantings may need watering. 

– Temperature requirements influence planting dates, eg varieties of pome and 

stone fruits that flower later may miss late spring frosts. High temperatures may 

slow ripening of tomato and increase a plant’s need for water, etc. 

– Water management programs and initiatives. Most states/territories and crops/ 

situations have water management progams. Use computerized systems if available. 

The National Water Initiative (NWI) is Australia's enduring blueprint for 

water reform. Through it, governments across Australia have agreed on actions 

to achieve a more cohesive national approach to the way Australia manages, 

measures, plans for, prices, and trades water. 

AQUAMAN, AQUA SPY takes the guess work out of irrigating; details are set 

up for each paddock, including location and soil type. Reports can be 

generated instantly for each paddock taking into account the holding capacity 

and other features of the soil as well as recent rainfall and weather conditions. 

A major cause of lower yield in peanut crops is a lack of timely and adequate 

irrigation 2007. 

'Global drying' describes three types of water (Ridout, Landline 

16/8/2009). Green water is the rainwater that hydrates food crops. Blue 

water comes from surface or underground resources; it's the rivers and 

reservoirs on which the irrigated regions rely. Esoteric grey water, which 

could be called diluted water; it's the amount needed to dilute waste water from 

industry and crops. 

Australia Golf Course Environmental and Water Initiatives, AGCSA 

Water/irrigation provides advice on irrigation regimes and drainage. 

Waterwise programs are available for home gardeners (Walsh, 2004). 

Six vital principles include reduce areas of lawn, group plants according to 

water needs, use drought tolerant plants, maintain the garden, use mulch, water 

efficiently. Know the aspect of your garden, eg winter sunshine, etc. Identify the 

plants with high water needs and group them in an area where they can receive 

the extra water. Place plants in groups of 3 or more for maximum effect. 

Soil moisture probes and sensors connected to irrigation controllers assist 

with scheduling of irrigation in shallow rooted crops. 

Water quality. All water sources should be analyzed. Water testing of 

recycled is readily available, eg www.lanfaxlabs.com.au/ 

Follow water restrictions guidelines and consult with water authority or 

industry specialists about efficient irrigation products and how to use them, 

‘More crop for the drop’ (Landline 21/9/2008) 

 

Soil mulch Know your soil how it drains or holds water, adding composted 

organic matter is one of the best ways to increase water retention plus there are 

commercial water saving products available. 

– Light, eg primary factors regulating flowering are daylight (photoperiod) and 

temperature. Many shrubs and other plants require a certain amount of sun to grow 

and flourish. However, many plants require shade - make a shade map of you 

garden and utilize shade of surrounding plants, grow trees to increase shaded areas. 

Indoor plants may suffer from insufficient light. 

– Other environmental factors include wind, mechanical injuries, and soil 

structure. 



CULTURAL 

METHODS contd 

Prognostic 

rather than 

diagnostic 

 

 

Nutrient deficiencies & toxicities. Maintain appropriate fertilizing, some 

nutrient deficiencies and toxicities are common, eg 

– Guard against over-fertilization which is common when plants are young. 

Overuse of some fertilizers can cause environmental, agronomic, management 

and economic problems for many growers. Nitrogen runs out first in nurseries. 

– Nutrient charting is a means of obtaining early warning signs of nutritional 

disorders and is used to anticipate deficiencies and toxicities so they can be 

corrected before they become chronic. It is also used to check on the adequacy 

of fertilizer programs and perhaps a guide to a new one and indicate when a 

crop needs top dressing. The procedure is prognostic rather than diagnostic. 

NGIA Nursery paper www.ngia.com.au 

– Identify micronutrient deficiencies with plant tissue, soil and water tests. 

– Know your fertilizer source well, eg the pros and cons of them. Is it from 

poultry, horses, lofted cattle, pigs or bio-solids which might include human 

waste? 

– Organic fertilizers programs may provide long-term soil benefits but are not 

the answer to immediate crop nutrition needs (Norwood 2010). 

– Specific toxicities might apply, eg phosphorus toxicity in certain proteaceous 

plants. Cadmium in monitored in fresh vegetables. 

– Specific deficiencies may occur in certain areas, eg boron in the southern 

tablelands of NSW. 

– Understand conditions favouring nutrient deficiencies and toxicities, eg 

soil pH, lack of mycorrhiza, nitrogen drawdown in mulches, irrigation practices. 

– Tree implants provide phosphate to promote healthy growth/root development, 

potassium for cell strength rigidity and other nutrients. 

Others cultural controls are infinite. 

Postharvest life of 

certain fruits could be 

extended significantly by 

silencing the genes that 

make fruit go soft after 

ripening. This does not 

require the introduction 

of foreign genes. 

TOLERANT VARIETIES. 

Some plant varieties now available have some tolerance to drought, temperature 

extremes, saline soil, etc. Many crops have been bred to have multiple resistances. 

Possibilities are endless. 

Ornamentals, eg purple-leaf cherry plum (Prunus cerasifera 'Nigra') has some 

tolerance to warm dry conditions. 

Fruit, eg rootstocks of apple (Malling Merton 104 (MM104)) have some resistance 

to drought. 

Vegetables, eg some varieties of broad bean, eg 'Coles Dwarf Prolific' are less 

susceptible to wind damage than others. 

Indoor foliage plants can be grouped according to tolerance of low light. 

Trees, eg varieties of casuarina, eucalypt, wattle have tolerance to salt. Eucalypts 

are bred for salt and stress tolerance. 

Turf seed is selected for heat, wear, shade, salt tolerance, grey leaf spot and 

brown patch resistance. DNA analysis is used to examine the differences within 

the natural selections of kikuyu, DNA can also be used to distinguish genetic 

diversity among a wide range of turfgrass, eg perennial ryegrass, buffalograss, 

and couchgrass, Kentucky bluegrass. Future work in kikuyu will focus on 

resistance to kikuyu yellows and tolerance to a range of environmental stresses. 

Salt tolerant plants and crops. There is much ongoing research on how 

native and exotic plants and animals cope with different levels of salinity. Some 

plants are naturally salt tolerant but they can also be bred or genetically 

engineered. Halophytes are salt tolerant plants that grow naturally in salt affected 

soil, eg saltbush. The development of salt tolerant crops, eg grass and wheat 

hybrids and saltbushes that will tolerate high levels of salt and soil waterlogging, 

 

 

offer hope to salt-affected land. 

Irrigating salt tolerant grasses using saline ground water. 

Salt water can be used when fresh water resources are limited. But requires a 

well integrated management program to prevent off site impacts etc. 

Genetically modified (GE) crops, eg 

– Some transgenic cotton has some tolerance to waterlogging, various herbicides 

and Helicoverpa caterpillars. Tolerance to drought is also under development. 

– Recently a gene involved in the proliferation of roots of certain crop plants 

has been identified enabling in crops plants growing in low fertility soils to 

develop more extensive root systems. 

– Research continues on sugarcane to alter plant growth, enhance drought 

tolerance and nitrogen use efficiency, to alter sucrose accumulation or to 

improve cellulose ethanol production from sugarcane biomass. 

– Genetic approaches and environmental factors may be used to control growth 

and flowering. 



TOLERANT 

VARIETIES contd 

 

Plant selection for drought tolerance. Many plants survive on little water but: 

– All plants need some water especially when first planted until establishment or 

when in a hot sunny position. Carefully monitor till established. 

– Some are naturally tolerant to drought, eg cacti and succulents, grey foliage plants, 

some culinary herbs, grasses. 

– Try not to plant new plant out in the hottest months or if you do, plant at night and 

consider a temporary shade structure. 

– Select plants that come from parts of the world that are similar to the area to be 

planted. 

– Do not assume that Australian native plants are drought tolerant; many come from 

high rainfall zones or cool mountain zones. 

– Look for plants with adaptations to enable them to withstand drought, eg small 

narrow leaves, grey or silver foliage, furry texture, water retaining succulent leaves, 

modified or absent leaves, summer dormancy. 

– Are some of these plants likely to become future weeds? 


Quarantine prevents the import or export of food or feed products containing 

excessive pesticide residues. 

PROBLEM-TESTED PLANTING MATERIAL. 

Certification schemes ensure that seed of good genetic quality, physically undamaged, 

stored correctly and free of weed seed is available to growers. 


Wind machines or helicopters may protect crops from frost. 

Shade clothes can protect crops from damage due to suncorch, frost, hail, 

wind. UV resistant fabrics can provide climate control, temperature reduction, 

energy savings, light spectrum management and protection from insects and birds 

which comply with ISO 9002 and EQNet Standards and increase yields. Insectproof 

greenhouses prevent aphids from attacking plants and spreading virus 

diseases and are used routinely for plant quarantine purposes. 

Minimize overhead irrigation and wind damage to trees and flowers, 

prevent and repair wounds to trees and shrubs caused by cars and machinery. 

Genetic defects, eg fasciation can be pruned out. 

AVOID SPRAY DRIFT 

Follow label directions 

PESTICIDES & OTHER CHEMICALS. 

Occasionally registered pesticides may be used for non-parasitic living 

problems, eg liverworts, algae, mosses, but there are few problems of this type, eg 

– Kendocide (dichlorophen) is currently registered to remove liverwort and algae 

and moss from synthetic courts, pavements, lawns and pots. 

– Insecticides are used to rid plants of insects that produce non-parasitic honeydew 

on which sooty mould grows. 

 

 

 

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are widely used in the horticulture and may be 

applied as soil applications or foliar sprays (page 403, Table 70). 

– Many are used to modify plant form and development, improve crop quality 

and/or reduce production time. Some are rooting powders. 

– Others are naturally occurring plant hormones that control development in 

plants, others are synthetic chemicals that either mimic the action of a plant hormone 

or interfere with the action of natural hormones. 

– Some are regulated by pesticide legislation. They vary in shelf life, from at 

least 2 years to indefinite. Some may injure some plants, bees and wild life. Others 

may have long withholding periods, eg months. 

Leaf anti-transpirants, soil wetting agents, water storage gels. 

– Foliage anti-transpirants reduce water loss by up to 50% from leaves and protect 

plants from extremes of drought, heat, sun, wind and frost and improves survival rate 

of cuttings (page 405, Table 71). 

– Soil wetting agents improve water retention properties of certain hydrophobic soil 

types (page 405, Table 71). 

– Water storage agents absorb and store water applied to soil or potting media for 

release to plant roots when needed. When mixed with water, crystals swell up to 

many times their weight in water, store water near plant roots (page 406, Table 71). 

Pesticide and other chemical injury, excess residues. 

– Avoid spray drift. Symptoms of chemical damage vary from sluggish growth to 

severe leaf burn or yellowing. Upgrade training in pesticide applications. 

– Damage from chemicals and chemical applications is not uncommon, eg in 

enclosed spaces as in greenhouses, herbicides when applied to pots (some plant 

species are always sensitive), disinfectants, gas leakage from heaters. 

– Wettable powder formulations are less likely to cause plant damage than some 

solvents in some liquid formulations, eg emulsifiable concentrates. 



Table 70. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) some examples 

TYPE 

STIMULATES 

ROOTS ON 

CUTTINGS 

THE PRODUCT 

SOME USES 


Trade name 

Active constituent CROPS TREATED EFFECTS 

AUXINONE, VARIOUS Ornamentals, vegetables, Rooting powders 

IAA (indole acetic acid) turf. Cuttings, sugarcane production on cuttings (stimulates cell 

+ 

(setts), tissue culture, in enlargement, plant growth and feeder 

NAA (naphthalene acetic budding and grafting to root production), also prolongs life of cut 

acid) 

stimulate callus 

flowers, stimulate root 

VARIOUS 

NAA (naphthalene acetic 

acid) 

VARIOUS 

IBA (indole butyric acid) 

Ornamentals, apples, 

pears, olives, 

pineapples, cuttings. 

Ornamentals, cuttings. 

Thins apples 

controls preharvest drop, preventing 

fruit fall, promotes rooting of 

herbaceous plants. 

Cutting & rooting powders, gels, liquids 

promotes the development of feeder 

roots 

SMOKE 

SMOKE 

aerosol, smoke water, 

bushland soil, applied 

directly to seeds, active 

principle is unclear 

Certain Australian native 

seed 

Breaks seed dormancy 

more uniform and earlier germination, 

more robust seedlings of difficult-togerminate 

species 

GERMINATION 

STIMULANT 

BEDDING 

PLANTS, ETC 

KARRIKINOLOIDE 

naturally occurring 

germination stimulant 

ALAR, DAZIDE 

daminozide 

Broadacre weed control 


vegetables, all 

dicotyledons, not 

monocotyledons 

Seeds in the dormant seed bank 

to reduce the extent to which cultivation 

is used to stimulate weed emergence 

and improve the sustainability of 

minimum tillage. 

Dwarfs plants, reduces internode 

elongation 

controls height and promotes flowering 

of ornamental plants 

TREES, SHRUBS, 

TURF, ETC 

CUT FLOWERS 

VEGETABLES 

CONDENSE, CLIPPER, 

GRO-SLOW, SHORTSTOP, 

VARIOUS 

paclobutrazol 


fertilizer 

CLUPLESS, PRIMO MAXX 

TURF, LAWN TAMER 

trinexapac-ethyl 

METHYLCYCLOPROPENE, 

SMARTFRESH SMARTTABS 

1-methylcyclopropene 

POTATO STOP-SPROUT 

TATO-VAPO, VARIOUS 

chlorpropham 

(carbamate) 

ROYAL MH, SLOW GROW 

maleic hydrazide 

Container ornamentals, 

fruit, turf, amenity trees 

(along street, under 

power lines, near 

buildings and in open 

spaces) 

Reduces leaf and stem 

growth of grass species, 

reduces need for mowing 

by up to 50%. Grass is 

healthier, stronger, 

thicker, tougher and can 

better withstand heat, 

drought, cold and disease 

Certain cut flowers, 

fruits, vegetables 

Potatoes 

Onions, potatoes, 

tobacco 

Reduces vegetative growth 

reduces vegetative growth in vigorous 

young trees, permits denser plants, 

promotes early production and 

increased fruit size, turf 

Clipper - Application by injection into the 

base of the tree trunk by specially 

designed injection equipment. Clipper 

reduces annual vegetative growth by up to 

40%. Moves upwards and outwards in the 

tree, accumulates within the shoots and 

leaves of the crown, controlling growth for 

up to 3 years or more (depending on the 

species). SHORTstop – for the suppression 

of winter grass & growth regulation in turf 

Turf growth inhibitor 

inhibits the formation of gibberellic acid 

within grasses; only works on grasses 

which then rarely flower or produce seed 

heads helping to control weedy annuals 

like winter grass, reduces the amount of 

pollen in springtime, reducing problems 

for asthma and allergy sufferers 

Anti-ethylene treatment 

post-harvest treatment for improved 

quality after shipping, storage or 

handling 

Prevents potatoes sprouting 

do not use on or near seed potatoes. 

Controls sprouting, sucker development 

prevents of premature sprouting in 

potato tubers, onions and garlic, 

tobacco sucker control 



Table 70. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) some examples (contd) 

FRUIT 

TYPE 

THE PRODUCT 

Ethylene 

generator 

SOME USES 


Trade name 

Active constituent CROPS TREATED EFFECTS 

ETHEPHON, GALLEON. Cotton, certain fruits, 

VARIOUS 

grapevines, sugarcane, 

ethephon 

tomato 

an anti-cholinesterase 

compound, increases ethylene 

production in plants 

Plant growth regulator 

for crop thinning, loosening or ripening, 

stimulate flowering, accelerating boll 

opening, defoliation & pre-conditioning, 

control mistletoe, anti-lodging in barley 

Gibberellins 

(many functions, isolated 

from higher plants and the 

fungus Gibberella fujikurai) 

CYTOLIN 

gibberellins A4 & A7 

+ benzyladenine 

GA, GALA, PROGIBB GA, 

RALEX, STRETCH, VARIOUS 

gibberellic acid 

Red Delicious and Gala 

apples, cherries 

Certain varieties of fruit , 

eg currants, wine grapes, 

lemons, mandarins, 

oranges, stone fruits 

Improves fruit typiness 

stimulates cell division, enlargement 

and elongation enhanced, more 

pronounced calyx lobes, selectively 

thins some apple varieties, promotes 

lateral growth 


promote desirable harvest effects 

(stretch bunches, reduce bundle 

density) in wine grapes. Reduction of 

flowering & fruiting (thinning) in the next 

cropping season of some fruits. 

Cytokinins 

MAXCEL, CYCLEX, VARIOUS 

benzyladenine 

often mixed with Gibberlins A4 

and A7 (Cytolin) 

Certain varieties of 

apples 


reduces fruit set, increases fruit size, & 

improves firmness of harvested apples 

Naturally 

occurring 

plant growth 

regulator 

RETAIN 

aminoethoxyvinylglycine 

A BFA REGISTERED 

PRODUCT 

certain apple & stone fruit 

varieties (not cherry) 


can improve harvest management, fruit 

quality and enhance storage potential 

Hormone herbicide 

(phenoxy herbicides 

COMMERCIAL CITRUS 

STOP DROP 

2,4-D amine 

Citrus (grapefruit, 

mandarin, orange). 


reduction of pre-harvest drop and 

control of colouring of citrus fruit 

WILLIAM PEAR STOP DROP 

2,4-D sodium salt 

Pears 


reduces premature falling of William 

pears 

COTTON 

OIL SEED 

POPPIES 

Quaternary 

ammonium 

compound 

Miscellaneous 

CYCOCEL, VARIOUS 

chlormequat chloride 

CYAN, DORMEX, DUOMAX, 

VARIOUS 

cyanamide 

DPA 310 SCALD 

INHIBITOR, VARIOUS 

diphenylamine 

BIOTHIN, THIN-IT, VARIOUS 

ammonium thiosulphate 

ARM0THIN BLOSSOM 

THINNER 

alkoxylated fatty 

alkylamine polymer 

MEPIQUAT, REWARD 

mepiquat 

HARVADE 

dimethipin 

SUMAGIC, SUNNY 

uniconazole-P 

Currants, wine grapes, 

wheat 

Grapefruit, kiwi fruit 

Apples and pears 


plums, & of low chill 

peaches 


plums & peaches 

Cotton 

Cotton 

Oil seed poppies 


increases berry set and yield in wine 

grapes, increases setting of currants, 

increase grain yield and prevention of 

lodging in wheat 

Promotes uniform bud break in spring 

increased and earlier than normal bud 

break 


retards storage scald, in the USA , 

treated fruit must be labeled 


desiccation of blossoms and reduction 

in fruit set 


desiccation of blossoms & reduction of 

fruit set 

Shortens plant 

lessens shedding of flowers and bolls 

which mature earlier and more uniformly 

Defoliation 

apply at correct time prior to harvest 

Reduction in plant height; also the 

potential increase in crop yield 



Table. 71. Leaf anti-transpirants, soil wetting agents, water storage some examples 

TYPE THE PRODUCT SOME USES 

Trade name 



FOLIAGE ANTI- 

TRANSPIRANTS 

Foliage anti-transpirants may reduce water loss from leaves by up to 50% and protect plants from 

extremes of drought, heat, sun, frost, wind and salt damage. Often used when transplanting 

seedlings to allow time for roots to recover. Improves survival rate of cuttings by up to 90 days. 

As the plant expands the film becomes thinner (fast growing plants may require more frequent 

applications). Follow label directions for use as some anti-transpirants can be phytotoxic depending 

on the temperature, plant species, etc. Anti-transpirants have been used as weed control agents. 

ANTI-STRESS 

blend of non-toxic soluble 

polymers suspended in water 

ENVY 

carboxylated hydrophilic polymer 

THERMOMAX 

composted valerian, dandelion 

and chamomile herbs 

Foliar spray on grapes designed to reduce damage to crops 

when exposed to frost, wind and excessive heat. 

Used for relief of wilt and water stress, improvement of water 

use efficiency and protection against fungal diseases, eg rusts, 

powdery mildews. Sprayed on leaves to prevent water loss, 

improve survival of transplants and reduce water use while 

rooting ornamental cuttings. 

Has provided a better than 50% increase in fruit set (on apples) 

o 

over the control at -2 C of frost in NZ. An organic frost spray 

can increase fruit set on various fruit crops, including 

o 

grapes in frosts down to -2 C (Rebbeck and Knell, 2007). 

DROUGHTSHIELD, 

STRESSGUARD 

blend of acrylic polymers 

 

 

plastic). This clear, flexible and biodegradable ’plastic’ film coats 

the leaves and will expand to some degree with leaf growth and 

expansion, to reduce transpiration, UV light and frost damage. 

May be used to extend the life of cut Christmas trees. 

SOIL WETTING 

AGENTS 

Some are called 

soil penetrants 

Soil wetting agents may be applied to the surface or mixed into the top few centimeters of soil or 

potting mixes which have become water repellent. Soil wetting agents overcome the waxy coating of 

soil particles and allow water to penetrate into the pore spaces between them. They help water 

penetrate into hard soils. Soil wetting agents decreases surface tension and aids the successful 

rewetting of soils (Leeson 2009). Wetting agents affect fish and tadpoles so do not use near water. 

 

 

Attributes of a soil wetting agent. 

Ability to provide good even wetting of the soil both laterally and vertically to prevent 

preferential flow. Usually impact on water repellency to a depth of 1-2 cm, a very few to 5 cm. 

Persist in the soil for the maximum time (several years) while being non-toxic and finally 

breaking down into non-toxic residues, biodegradable. They allow water to rewet soil 

effectively. 

– 

– 

– 

Should not cause run off or leaching of nutrients and pesticides from the root zone. 

– Wetting agents must be designed for use in soil, must be safe to use on plants (some may 

damage some plants; inhibit seed germination, leaf burn). 

Soil wetting agents. 

Does your soil need a soil wetting agent? Is it hydrophobic? Put some soil in a dish, make 

– 

a well and pour on some water, if hydrophic it will sit there, if not, the water is quickly absorbed. 

– Soil wetting agents are not the wetting agents used when applying certain pesticides. 

– May be applied as liquids or as granules of clay or other inert material impregnated with 

surfactant. Granules have low burn potential, are expensive, but are easy to apply to garden 

beds and surrounds, or at turf renovation. 

– Active constituents. Soil wetting agents are typically polymers, ie most are co-polymers 

(long lasting but more phytotoxic than some newer types), lubricant poly-oxyalkylene 

glycols (shorter lasting but less phytotoxic, good soil wetting properties, applied more 

frequently). 

– Eco-friendly wetting agents are highly biodegradable so they are short-lived and rewetting is 

severely diminished so need to be applied more frequently. They are non-phytotoxic. 

Use one for your situation, eg Aquaforce for turf. 

ECOWET 

Mixture of ingredients determined not to be 

 

 

according to the NOHSC 

(National Occupational Health and Safety 

Commission). 

SACOA PERSIST SOIL WETTER 

polyether modified polysiloxane 

SEASOL SUPER SOIL WETTER & 

CONDITIONER 

active ingredients not stated on label 

YATES SOIL SATURATOR 

surfactants, seaweed, acrylic copolymer, trace 

elements 

A non-ionic wetter, spreader and penetrant for use with 

agricultural pesticides. 

Seasol is an organic plant conditioner. Taken up by 

the plant, helps improve drought and frost tolerance, 

improves plant establishment and disease resistance. 



Table. 71. Leaf anti-transpirants, soil wetting agents, water storage some examples 

contd 

TYPE THE PRODUCT SOME USES 

Trade name 



SOIL WATER 

STORAGE 

Water-storing crystals, granules or gels are designed to increase/improve the water-holding capacity 

of the soil, so that more water is held for plant use. They are biodegradable. 

Water storage crystals are made of polymers that are designed to absorb up to 

400-500 times their weight in water and nutrients, slowly releasing these to the root system 

when needed by the plant. 

They increase the water holding capacity of the soil, reduce watering frequency by 

up to 50%, reduce water evaporation from soil, limit the leaching of nutrients and fertilizers, 

enhance plant growth and survival and improve soil porosity and aeration. 

During rain or irrigation, water is absorbed by the crystals, so water is prevented 

from draining away and being lost. As water is needed the plants will tap into the hydrated 

crystals and is used over time. Some brands can remain active for 3-5 years and the cycle of 

water absorption and release can be repeated many times with only a very slight loss in 

efficiency. 

They can be applied in planting holes and water added before planting, can also be dug into 

surrounding soil. They can be put in a bucket and pre-swelled then placed in the planting hole 

beneath the root ball. More effective than applying crystals directly (Nichols 2007). 

Rechargeable solid water are 

names. In forestry they can be used when planting trees, bushes and saplings reducing their 

mortality rate due to transplant shock and enhance root development, resulting in more rapid 

growth etc. http://www.rechargeablesolidwater.com/introduction.htm 

Soil humectant compounds attract and/or retain moisture in soil, they work by reducing 

moisture loss and attracting water vapour back. These compounds are very hydrophobic, this 

makes them suited for reducing water losses from sandy soils. Humectants have soil wetting 

properties but do not perform as well as soil surfactants in this role. They tend to move slowly in 

the soil and so concentrate in the first few centometres of soil profile. Addition of surfactants to 

the formulation helps overcome this problem. Advantages they have over soil wetting agents is 

their very low burn potential and ability to convert water into water that the plant can use (Leeson 

2009). 

Formulations of water crystals and fertilizers are now available. 

YATES WATER STORAGE 

CRYSTALS 

acrylic polymer 

When added to potting mix or garden soil, crystals absorb up to 

400 times their own weight in water. This water is then released 

back to the plants over time as they require it. The crystals 

reduce water wastage, increase the time between waterings and 

promote improved plant survival during dry times. The crystals are 

effective for up to 5 years, then biodegrade harmlessly. 

SANOPLANT GRANULES 

Silicate-based natural stone 

powders to which is added high 

resistible carbon compounds 

and special cellulose. Not a 

"polymer", or "water crystal". 

www.sanoway.co.au/ 

A granular soil amendment/conditioner which stores water and 

nutrients and promotes healthy plant growth. 

It improves the storage of water and nutrients in any type of soil 

but is most effective in sandy soils, particularly for use in arid 

regions. 

It can rapidly absorb and hold rainfall, can hold 16 times its own 

weight of water which is plant available (held under moderate 

tension). 

Can be installed into existing playing fields using specially 

modified machines. 

About 50% of irrigation water can be saved! 

Renders any fertilizer use more effective. 

OTHER SYSTEMS 

Solid water 






1. Describe non-parasitic pests and diseases. 

Name examples of each type. 

2. Describe symptoms produced on leaves, 

flowers, buds, fruit, seeds and seedlings, 

branches, trunks, bulbs, corms and tubers, 

roots, crowns and collars by non-parasitic pests 

and diseases. Name 1 example of each. 

3. Tissues damaged by non-parasitic pests and 

diseases are often the entry point for fungal 

and bacterial rots and occasionally provide 

shelter for insects and allied pests. Describe 

2 examples. 

4. Distinguish between leaf symptoms on 

selected plants caused by: 

PARASITIC 

PESTS & 

DISEASES 

NON- 

PARASITIC 

AGENTS 

INSECTS & ALLIED PESTS: 

Lace bugs 

Leafhoppers 

Mites 

Thrips 

DISEASES: 

Root knot nematode 

Fungal root/wilt diseases 

Virus diseases 

Senescence 

Herbicide injury 

Genetic variegation 

Deficiencies 

5. Distinguish between leaf symptoms on 

selected plants caused by: 

Salt toxicity 

Excess water 

Insufficient water 

Sunscorch 

6. Describe the effects of ‘climate change’ on 

2 commonly grown crops/plants in your 

area. 

7. Describe the effects of ‘climate change’ on 

2 common plant pests or diseases in your 

area. 

8. Describe 5 tests that could be performed to 

determine the cause of certain symptoms on 

plants. 

9. Describe 3 ‘prognostic’ tests that could 

be performed. 

10. Recognize by sight, symptoms and damage 

caused by 5 of the following non-parasitic 

agents: 

LIVING 

AGENTS 

NON- 

LIVING 

AGENTS 

Black scum (algae) 

Dogs & cats 

Fairy rings 

Leafcutting bees 

Lichens 

Slime moulds 


Sooty mould 

ENVIRONMENTAL 

Temperature, eg 

Sunscorch injury to leaves, fruit, 

trunks 

Frost 

Moisture, eg 

Excess water, too little water, 

oedema 

Light, eg 

Etiolation 

Wind 

SOIL STRUCTURE, ETC 

Shallow soil 

Stony soil 

Type of soil 

DEFICIENCIES & TOXICITIES, ETC 

Iron, magnesium, nitrogen, other 

local deficiencies, pH 

Salinity 

Sodicity 

Acidity 

POLLUTANTS 

Herbicide injury 

Fertilizer damage 

Insecticide injury 

Pollution 

MECHANICAL INJURIES: 

Hail damage 

Vandalism 

GENETIC ABNORMALITIES 

Fasciation 

Variegated flowers and leaves 

Sports 

Graft incompatibility 

Varietal gumming. 

MISCELLANEOUS: 

Bud drop, cat face, 

Failure to set fruit, fruit splitting 

11. List control methods for non-parasitic pests 

and diseases. Name 2 examples of each. 

12. Locate examples of non-parasitic problems 

for your business, home garden or nominated 

crop or area. 

13. Prepare/access an IDM. program for a nonparasitic 




control of non-parasitic pests and diseases. 






Nutrient deficiencies on specific crops 

Interpretation manuals 

Keys 

Lucid problem solver 

Climate change 

Dept. of Climate Change www.climatechange.gov.au 

Each state has its own climate change website, eg 

www.lgat.tas.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=540 

The United Kingdom Environmental Change Network 

www.ecn.ac.uk/Education/climate_change.htm 

IPCC (2007). "Summary for Policymakers" Climate 

Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. 

Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth 

Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel 

on Climate Change. 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 

Salinity 

Future Farm Industries CRC www.futurefarmcrc.com.au/ 

GRDC. www.grdc.com.au/ 

Productive Soils to Dryland Salinity: Mapping, Measuring, 

Monitoring, Plant Improvements. 

Environment Friendly Management Systems for Grain & 

Livestock Producers 

Productive Solutions to Dryland Salinity 2001 

Land and Water Australia (LWA) www.lwa.gov.au 

National Dryland Salinity Program www.ndsp.gov.au 



to find organic certifiers, the draft national standard 

and publications, etc/ 


Caldwell, B., Rosen, EB., Sideman, E. a, Shelton, A.M. 

and Smart, C. D. 2000. Resource Guide for 

Organic Insect and Disease Management. 

Plant growth regulators, spray injury 




MSDS www.msds.com.au/. 

Nufarm Spraywise program reduces the incidence and 

risk of spray drift damage to a diversity of crops 

without compromising spraying efficacy. 

www.nufarm.com/au 

Company websites provide labels and MSDSs 


Dean, N. (ed). 2005. Field Crop Fungicide and 

Insecticide Guide 2 (includes Plant Growth 

Regulators). 2 nd edn. Kondinin Group. 

General 

Agrios, G. N. 2005. Plant Pathology. 4th edn. Academic 

Press, CA. 




Peate, N., MacDonald, G. and Talbot, A. 2006. Grow 

What Where. 3 rd edn. Blooming Books. 





Bodman, K., McDonald. J. and Hunter, M. 1997. Plant 

Growth Regulators in Nursery Crops. Qld DPI, 

Brisbane). QNIA, Salisbury, Qld. 


Pathogens and Plant Diseases. Rockvale Pubs., 


Chen, D. M. 1999a. Tackling Salinity with Trees. Aust. 

Hort., April. 

Chen, D. M. 1999b. Tackling Salinity with Trees. Aust. 

Hort., May. 

Fitzpatrick, R. W. 2002. Land Degradation Processes. 

avail online. In: McVicar, T. R. et al. 2002. Regional 

Water and Soil Assessment for Managing 

Sustainable Agriculture in China and Australia. 

ACIAR Monograph No. 84, 119-129. 

Garner, J. 2007. Dryland Gardening Australia: 

Sustainable Drought-Proof Gardening from the Soil 

Up. Murdoch Books. 

Goodwin, S., Steiner, M., Parker, R., Tesoriero, L., 




NSW Agric. Sydney. Also a Field Guide. 

Handreck, K. 2001. Gardening Down-Under : A Guide 

to Healthier Soils and Plants. 2 nd edn., CSIRO, 

Melbourne. 

Handreck, K. and Black, N. 2002. Growing Media for 

Ornamental Plants and Turf. NSW University Press, 

Kensington, NSW. 





Ailments of Australian Plants. Lothian Pub., Sydney. 

Keane, P. J., Kile, G. A., Podger, F. D. and Brown, B. N. 


CSIRO Pub., Collingwood, Vic. 

Kerruish, R. M. 2007. Plant Protection 4: How to 

Diagnose Plant Problems. RootRot Press, ACT. 

Leeson, G. 2009. Wetting Agents. Golf & Sports. 

Ground Magazine. avail online. 

Marcar, N., Crawford, D., Leppert, P., Jovanovic, T., 

Floyd. R. and Farrow, R. 1995. Trees for Saltland : 

A Guide to Selecting Native Species for Australia. 

CSIRO, Melbourne. 



Nichols, D. 2007. Wetting Agents or Water-storing 

Gels? Aust. Hort... Jan. 

Norwood, C. 2010. Organic Manures Need Time to 

Supplement Soil Nutrition. GRDC. Jan-Feb. 

Pigram, J. 2007. Australia’s Water Resources: From 

Use to Management. CSIRO Pub. 

Rebbeck, M. A. and Knell, G. R. 2007. Managing Frost 

Risk: A Guide for Southern Australian Grains. 

SARDI/GRDC. 

Rengasamy, P. and Bourne, J. 1997. Managing Sodic, 

Acidic and Saline Soil. CRC for Soil & Land 

Management. avail. online 

Reuter, D. and Robinson, J. B. (eds). 1997. Plant Analysis: 

An Interpretation Manual. 2 nd edn. CSIRO Pub. 

Rolfe, C. 2000. Managing Water in Plant Nurseries. 

NSW Agric. 

Spennemann, D. H. R. 1997. Urban Salinity as a Threat 

to Cultural Heritage Places. The Johnstone Centre, 

CSU, Wagga Wagga, NSW. 

Tan, B. 1997. A Close Look at Chimeras of the Plant 

World. Aust. Hort., March. 

Wakefield S. M. 1994. Farm Trees 1 : Why You Need 

Trees on Farms. NSW Agric., Sydney. 

Walsh, K. 2004. Waterwise Gardening. 3 rd edn. Reed 

New Holland, 

Nutrient Deficiencies and Toxicities 

Bennett, W. F. (ed.). 1993. Nutrient Deficiencies & 

Toxicities in Crop Plants. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 

Foster, E. F. 2000. Nutrient Deficiencies and Toxicities 

of Plants. CD-ROM. APS Press, 3340 Pilot Knob 

Road, St. Paul, MN 55121-2097. 

The books in the following series each have sections on: 

1. Gathering the facts. 

2. Diagnosis from visible symptoms. 

3. Confirming the diagnosis – trial treatment of a portion 

of crop, plant tissue analysis, and soil and water 

analysis. 

4. Correcting the problem. 

5. Following up, has the crop responded to treatment? 

Cresswell, G. C. and Weir, R. G. 1998. Plant Nutrient 

Disorders 5 : Ornamental Plants and Shrubs. Inkata Press, 

Melbourne. 

Weir, R. G. and Cresswell, G. C. 1992a. Plant Nutrient 

Disorders 1 : Temperate and Subtropical Fruit and Nut 

Crops. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Weir, R. G. and Cresswell, G. C. 1992b Plant Nutrient 

Disorders 3: Vegetable Crops. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Weir, R. G. and Cresswell, G. C. 1994 Plant Nutrient Disorders 

4 : Pastures and Field Crops. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Weir, R. G. and Cresswell, G. C. 1995. Plant Nutrient 

Disorders 2 : Tropical Fruit and Nut Crops. Inkata Press, 

Melbourne. 



WEEDS 

BIOLOGY, CLASSIFICATION & IDENTIFICATION 410 


What are weeds? 410 

Why are some plants likely to become weeds? 410 

Harmful effects of weeds 411 

Beneficial effects of weeds 411 

Weed identification 412 

Classifying weeds 413 

Habitat 413 

Land use management systems 413 

Annuals, biennials, perennials 413 

Growth habit, etc 413 

Introduced and indigenous weeds 413 

Invasive species, naturalized weeds 414 

Definitive weed lists 414 

Target weeds 414 

Emerging or sleeper weeds 414 

Noxious weeds 414 

Weeds of National Significance (WONS) 415 


Garden escapes 415 

Botanical groups 415 


Description of some weed species 419 

Dicotyledons (broadleaved weeds) 419 

Rosettes 419 Bittercress, cardamine, 

Not rosettes 420 flick weed (Cardamine hirsuta) 

Small or fine leaves 421 

Woody weeds 422 

Monocotyledons (narrowleaved weeds) 423 


Sedges 425 


Overwintering, oversummering, the seed bank 426 

Spread (dispersal) 427 


INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT (IPM) 429 






Tolerant, well adapted plant varieties 436 


Weed-tested planting material, soil 437 




Herbicide Mode of Action Groups (Table 72) 450 

Other products, plant extracts (Table 73) 454 

EXAMPLES OF WEED SITUATIONS 455 

Adjuvants (spray additives) 455 

Marking systems 456 

Post-emergent, pre-emergent, soil residual herbicides 457 

Broadleaved weeds 460 






Brush and woody weeds 467 

Unwanted individual trees 469 




Weeds - Biology, classification and identification 409


BIOLOGY, CLASSIFICATION & IDENTIFICATION 

Flowering plants, ferns, etc 

NO. SPECIES 

IN AUSTRALIA 

WHAT ARE 

WEEDS? 

(pest plants) 

WHY ARE SOME 

PLANTS LIKELY 

TO BECOME 

WEEDS? 

Noogoora 

burr 

Some consider that 

rats, cockroaches, 

nettles and thistles 

will flourish at the 

expense of more 

specialized wild 

organisms 

CO2 

+ 

H2O 

+ 

chlorophyll 

= plant tissue. 

Australia has more than 3000 species of ‘weeds’ but probably only a few hundred have 

major impacts on food production and ecosystems. Main websites include: 

Weeds in Australia www.weeds.gov.au/ 

Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au/ 

The Australian National Weeds Strategy of 1999 defines a weed as 

‘a plant that has or has the potential to have, a detrimental effect 

on economic, social or conservation values’ 

A common definition is: 

‘a plant growing where it is not desirable or wanted’ 

Most plants, including those usually considered beneficial, may be weeds at times. 

The 3 most important factors influencing plant weediness are their ability to 

colonize areas, impact on crop yields, bush areas and their potential for wide distribution. 

EFFICIENT AND SUCCESSFUL REPRODUCTION AND SPREAD 

Weeds produce large numbers of seeds, fruits and vegetative propagules, eg stem 

fragments, leaf propagules, tubers, corms and cormlets, bulbs, suckers, stolons, 

rhizomes and root layers. Weeds also spread efficiently, eg 

Wind can spread light seeds of many weeds, eg dandelion, serrated tussock. 

Running water. Other weed seeds, eg docks are adapted to float on water or are 

moved by the force of running water, willow parts are washed down stream. 

People and animals. Some seeds have adaptations which enable them to 

attach themselves to clothes and wool, eg Noogoora burr. 

– Soil. Seeds, stolons, bulbs, may be carried in soil in containers, soil or gravel 

deliveries and on contaminated machinery. 

– Vehicles and machinery can spread soil, weed seeds and plants. 

– Birds and other animals pass seed in their dropping, manure deliveries. 

SURVIVE UNDER UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS 

Weeds are persistent, mechanisms of survival include: 

Invasiveness. Weeds are able to rapidly invade, establish and dominate 

disturbed or new sites and consequently extend their distribution and their impact. 

Seed dormancy/seed banks. Some seeds can survive long periods in 

conditions unfavorable for germination, eg chickweed and lamb's tongue can 

germinate after surviving for 10 years in the soil. Hence the saying: 

‘1 year's seed, 7 years' weeds’ 

Seeds have a wide germination range, short life cycle, quick maturity, quick 

production of seed, and rapid early growth after seed germination. 

Strongly competitive with rapid root growth; flourish in disturbed environments. 

Able to self-pollinate or pollination not required. 

Can enter dormancy, eg bulbs, corms; possession of deep roots or tap roots. 

Wide ecological adaptation, eg waterways to deserts. They can tolerate drought, 

frost, salt, low nutrient levels. 

Weeds are generally fast growing, hardy and highly adaptable. 

Often unpalatable to stock. 

TYPE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS 

Photosynthesis is the combination of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) with water (H 2 O) in the 

presence of chlorophyll to produce plant tissue (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001). 

Plants use one of 3 different chemical pathways to achieve this reaction. 

– C 3 or Calvin cycle plants. Most crops cultivated by humans belong to this group, 

eg wheat, apples, sunflower, soybean, most vegetables were originally developed 

in temperate regions of the world. Weeds in this group include fat hen, wild oats. 

– C 4 or dicarboxylic acid plants. Crops in this group include sorghum, sugarcane 

and maize. Weeds in this group include couch grass, Johnson grass, summer grass. 

– CAM (crassulacean acid cycle) plants, eg prickly pear. 

While only a small proportion of all plants are either C4 or CAM, many plants in 

these 2 groups are weeds. The competitive advantages of C4 or CAM plants 

include reduced transpiration rates, increased high light-intensity and temperature 

tolerance and more efficient photosynthesis which make them more suited to semiarid 

subtropical and tropical areas, and more efficient as weeds than most C3 plants 

(Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001). 

410 Weeds - Biology, classification and identification


HARMFUL 

EFFECTS 

OF WEEDS 

(weed impacts) 

Lantana alone threatens 

1246 plant species and 

41 animal species 

, 

 

 

is toxic to stock, 

especially 

toxic to horses 

Seeds are 

often the 

most toxic part 

Control methods, eg 

cultivation, burning, 

herbicides may have 

adverse effects on 

soil, crops, and the 

environment. 

DIRECT EFFECTS. 

Weeds cost Australia around $4 billion per year (2008) in cost of control, lost 

production and contamination and rank with salinity as one of Australia’s most serious 

problems environmentally. In 2006-2007 farmers spent more than $1.6 billion on weed 

control alone. Weeds degrade our environment and ecosystems, threaten native flora and 

fauna and reduce amenity for humans. 

Weeds compete strongly with crop plants for moisture, nutrients and light, reducing 

yields and/or quality to the extent that an operation may no longer be profitable. 

Weeds occupy potentially useful space. 

Presence of weeds can devalue land in rural areas. A history of cape 

tulip or Paterson’s curse may result in additional management costs. 

Appearance. Customer tolerance of weeds in containers in nurseries is low. Weeds 

are offensive to look at, interrupt views and crowd out desirable species. 

Biodiversity. Introduced weeds (and animals) are second only to habitat clearing as the 

greatest threat to biodiversity in bush land. Weeds displace plants found naturally in a 

particular area and cause habitat loss. 

Waterways. Riparian weeds, eg willows, impede water flows and reduce access by 

stock and humans. Aquatic weeds, eg, salvinia blocks waterways and impede recreation 

activities. Herbicides in drainage water from treated areas may contaminate water ways. 

Contaminate produce, eg weed seeds lower the value of cereal grain for sowing in 

clean areas. It is illegal to sell contaminated grain or fodder. Weed seeds are often found 

in coarse grains used for feeding pigs, some are harmful to pigs, eg potato weed 

(Heliotropium europaeum), Mexican poppy (Argemore ochroleuca and A. Mexicana). 

Some weeds have an offensive odour, eg some thornapples (Datura spp.). Milk and meat 

of animals grazing on certain plants may be tainted. Wild garlic will flavour milk within 

4-5 minutes of feeding. 

Interfere with agricultural operations, eg burry seeds are problems for 

shearers and pickers. Skeleton weed and wild melons become tangled in machinery. 

Weeds interfere with transport and recreation. Weeds under power lines, on railways and 

obscuring road signs must be suppressed. Blackberries are impenetrable to live-stock, 

vehicles and bush walkers. Boneseed and bridal creeper impede beach users. 

Domestic animal losses are not uncommon. Cape tulip can cause losses in 

stock newly introduced to it. Annual rye grass toxicity (ARGT) affects cattle grazing on 

Wimmera rye grass infected by nematode-carrying bacteria which produce a toxin. 

Animals with light colored skins feeding on St John's wort or lantana become more 

sensitive to sunlight which may lead to skin diseases and eventual death. 

.SOME OTHER EFFECTS. Almost infinite 

Human fatalities are rare. Few plants have been known to cause human death, eg 

angel’s trumpet, Datura (Brugmansia spp.), arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiooica), lantana 

(Lantana camara), oleander (Nerium oleander), poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), 

white cedar (Melia azerdarach), yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana). 

Hay fever and dermatitis. Pollen of many grasses and weeds cause hay fever in 

susceptible people, eg annual ryegrass, plantain, privet, capeweed. The majority of plants 

producing pollen which trigger hay fever were introduced from the northern hemisphere. 

Rashes, swellings, dermatitis, pain, localized burning or infections may occur in 

susceptible people when some weeds are handled or brushed against, eg St John’s wort, 

Bathurst Burr, scarlet rhus, some Grevillea spp., poison ivy. 

Mechanical injury. Spiny leaves, stems and seed heads of thistles, galvanized burr, 

etc, may injure feet, legs, mouthparts, ears and eyes and other parts of animals. Burry 

or corksrew seeds may adhere to the wool, hair and feathers of animals and trouser 

legs/socks of humans. Nettles sting animals and humans. 

Harbour diseases, pests and vermin. Prickly lettuce is a host of powdery 

mildew of cucurbits, brassica weeds for cabbage aphids, common sowthistle for 

cineraria leafminer, white clover for western flower thrips (WFT) and tomato spotted 

wilt virus (TSWV). Thickets of blackberry harbour rabbits. 

A fire hazard when bulky perennial grass weeds dry off in spring/summer, eg 

mission grass (Pennistemon polystachion). 

Genetic pollution. Pollen disperses more widely than seed. Garden and crop 

plants can be improved by genetic engineering for drought hardiness, however, this may 

also increase their chances of becoming weeds. 

Some weeds release chemicals into the soil that retards crop growth 

(allelopathy), eg aqueous extracts of the pasture weed, lippia (Phyla canescens), can 

inhibit seed germination of certain pasture and crop species. 

BENEFICIAL 

EFFECTS 

OF WEEDS 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Leguminous weeds add nitrogen to the soil, eg white clover. 

Provide fodder for animals, eg weed grasses, Salvation Jane, during hard times. 

Provide pollen and nectar for bees, eg Salvation Jane. 

Source of food for beneficial insects, encourage a diversity of beneficial insects. 

Prevent or reduce soil erosion and rain compaction where there is no other vegetation, 

eg bitou bush. 

May be a source of food for humans, eg chicory. 

Some weeds are reputed to produce beneficial exudates. 

May improve drainage, soil structures, add organic matter. Deep rooted species may 

retrieve scarce nutrients from the subsoil. 

Certain weeds act as indicators of nutrient imbalances or soil problems, eg sorrel 

indicates acidity. 



WEED 


WHY IDENTIFY THE PLANT/WEED CORRECTLY? 

Weed ID is the 3 rd step in effective weed management (page 429), 

Before recommendations for control can be made, both the weed and the 

surrounding plants must be correctly identified. As some herbicides are applied to 

weed seedlings, it is also necessary to recognize different stages of weed growth. 

The plant species may not be a weed, it might just be a nuisance weed. 

Some weeds are difficult to identify at certain stages of growth. 

Having identified the weed you can access information about the weed, eg 

likely impact on your crop, etc, and controls, if required, will be more effective. 

– The recognized common name(s) of the weed and/or, if necessary, the 

botanical name. Only some species of cotoneaster are weeds in some areas. 

– Whether it is a grass or broadleaved weed. 

– Its biology and ecology, eg life cycle, annual or perennial, habitat, etc. 

– If it is a noxious or other type of weed... 

– Obtain/prepare a Fact Sheet: 

Common name of weed 

Scientific name, weed type, eg 

Crop, situation, other habitat 

Weed damage (impact, etc) 

Weed cycle (annual, perennial, etc) 

Overwintering, oversummering (seed banks, etc) 

Spread 


Integrated Weed Management (IWM) 


Legislation (noxious, WONS, garden escape, etc?) 


Sanitation 

Tolerant crops 



Weed-tested planting material 

Physical & mechanical methods 

Herbicides 

STEPS IN IDENTIFICATION OF PLANTS/WEEDS. 

 

 

 

Weeds in Australia has 

a Weed Identification 

Tool on their website 

www.weeds.gov.au 

 

1. Identify the crop/site, where the plant is growing, and/or other plants 

growing near, or around or under the weeds to be treated, eg whether they are 

broadleaved plants or grasses and whether they are annual or perennial plants, etc. 

2. Examine. flowers, seeds, leaves, roots etc. A hand lens may be needed to 

examine plant parts, especially grasses. 

3. During an on-site visit vou can ask about the history of weed infestation in 

your crop or local area. GPS can assist with distribution. What is the habitat, eg 

riparian, and land use management system, eg crop, amenity, environmental, turf? 

If you can’t visit the site you can ask questions instead. 

4. Consult a reference 

– Consult a reference to: 

Assist with identification of the plant. 

Confirm the identification of the plant. Plants can also be distinguished by 

their leaf type, root system, flowering times and methods of reproduction. 

Obtain information on biology and ecology of the plant, eg its life cycle, 

spread, etc. 

Options for prevention and control, eg cultural, sanitation, biological. 

– What references to use? 

A colleague may be able to help. 

State/Territory Department of Agriculture leaflets are excellent. 

Books, pressed specimens, collections. 

Computing programs, web sites, photo libraries. 

Botanical keys, Floras of particular regions/states. 

5. Seek expert advice. (page xiv). 

– Obtain plant recording sheet forms, etc. 

– Find out how to send plant specimens. Samples should be fresh. 

– Collect flowers and seeds, leaves, and roots if weed is small. 

– Do not wrap specimens in plastic or wet them, use clean dry paper. 

– The diagnostic service will identify the plant to species level and, if a weed, 

provide recommendations on Integrated Weed Management (IWM). Industry 

groups may provide IWM information for specific crops, eg grapevines. 



CLASSIFYING 

WEEDS 

HABITAT. eg 

Terrestrial, eg lantana 

Parasitic, eg broomrape 

Aquatics weeds, eg salvinia 

Riparian (creeks, rivers), eg willow 

Turf, pasture, eg oxalis 

Agricultural weeds, eg wild oats 

Cultivated land, eg barnyard grass 

Garden weeds, eg chickweed 

Stockyards, eg fat hen 

Waste places, eg wireweed 

LAND-USE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS. 

In nine land management systems associated with cropping in Australia, weeds were 

ranked as the worst problem by over 90% of farmers. Annual ryegrass, wild oats and 

wild radish rated highest (Sindel 2000). 

Crop weeds, eg annual ryegrass Lawns and sports turf, eg paspalum 

Pasture weeds, eg serrated tussock Plantation forests, eg lantana 

Environmental, eg bitou bush Australian rangelands, eg rubber vine 

Vegetables, eg barnyard grass Aquatics, eg water hyacinth 

Tree crops, viticulture, eg cape weed 

Annual weeds are 

mostly opportunists that 

germinate when the soil 

is at least partially bared 

through seasonal 

conditions following 

overgrazing, mowing, 

cultivation, burning 

or other site disturbance. 

Perennial weeds are 

difficult to control due 

to their underground 

vegetative structures, eg 

rhizomes, bulbs, etc. 

Most roots can grow as 

deep as 45 cm below 

ground sometimes as 

deep as 3-4 meters 

(see inside back cover). 

In their native country 

these weeds are kept in 

check by climate, soils, 

associated vegetation, 

insects and diseases 

ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, PERENNIALS. Life history 

Annuals. Plants which flower, produce seeds and die in 1 year or less, eg 

chickweed. Control should aim to prevent further seeding. Roots are usually shallow 

and plants easily hoed, hand pulled or controlled with herbicide. 

– Seed production commences after a short period of vegetative growth, with 

flowering and seed production high in good seasons, but low in poor seasons. 

– Seed persistence, long period of seed survival, size of the seed bank. 

– Germination, seedling growth and establishment is rapid. 

Biennials. Plants which live for 2 years/seasons may produce seeds within 

12 months or in the 2 nd year. Not many weeds are true biennials; Paterson's curse is 

sometimes biennial. Control in the 1 st year of a biennial plant’s life before it sets seed. 

Perennials live for 3 years or more, may be short or long lived, they may be 

herbaceous or woody species. Plants have rhizomes, corms, lignotubers, deep roots or 

similar structures and so can regrow year after year. Most reproduce also by seed. 

Control aims to deplete root reserves so that no new shoots can develop. For some, 

cultivation should be avoided, as this can lead to further spread. Those with shallow 

roots and not prone to sucker can be dug out. Systemic herbicide applications may be 

required for control of deep roots, bulbs and other underground structures. 

GROWTH HABIT, TISSUE STRUCTURE, HERBACEOUS, WOODY. 

Growth habit, eg 

– Grasses, herbs 

– Trees and shrubs 

– Climbers, creepers, scramblers, vines 

Tissue structure, eg 

– Rosette, eg dandelion, capeweed 

– Stolons, eg couch grass 

– Rhizomes, eg Mullumbimby couch 

– Suckers, eg poplar 

– Tubers, eg nutgrass 

– Corms, eg onion grass (Guildford grass) 

– Bulbs, eg wild onion 

Herbaceous, woody, eg 

– Herbaceous weeds, eg ryegrass 

– Woody weeds, eg some species of willow, hawthorn, camphor laurel 

INTRODUCED AND INDIGENOUS WEEDS. 

Introduced (alien, exotic) weeds are plants growing in an area where they are 

not native, eg those native to a region outside Australia. The great majority of weeds in 

Australia are introduced plants, some of which are also desirable crop, pasture, forestry 

and ornamental plants. 

– Pioneer species quickly colonize disturbed and denuded land, so many are 

weeds of cultivation, pastures, roadsides, waste places, bush land and park land. 

– Casuals or casual aliens are those that only survive for a short time because they 

cannot establish self-sustaining populations and only persist by new introductions. 

Australian native plants are plants that have evolved in Australia or migrated by 

long distance dispersal before European settlement. 

– Indigenous plants are found naturally in a particular area in Australia, but not 

in Australia generally, eg sweet pittosporum is indigenous to east Victoria. 

– Indigenous weeds. Many plants native to Australia can themselves become 

environmental weeds within Australia, eg sweet pittosporum from east Victoria is 

an environmental weed in SA and NSW and coastal Victoria. Golden wreath 

wattle (Acacia saligna) from WA is now found along the NSW coast. 



CLASSIFYING INVASIVE SPECIES, NATURALISED WEEDS. 

WEEDS (contd) Invasive species colonize and persist in an ecosystem where they did not occur 

previously. CSIRO Australia www.csiro.au/science/InvasivePlants.html 

 

, 

(Acacia pycnantha) is WWF-Australia www.wwf.org.au/ourwork/invasives/ 

indigenous to NSW, Vic and Invasiveness is one of the 3 most important factors influencing plant weediness, 

SA ,but is widely 

naturalized in WA. the other two are impacts and potential distribution. 

Naturalized weeds are invading species that can become established and reproduce 

Not all naturalized weeds for are environmental weeds, 

some are restricted to 

are several also naturalized generations plants. in the Invasive wild without species human that are assistance. naturalized Most and serious widespread weeds 

pose a 

farmland, roadsides major threat to the environment or agriculture, their containment or control will protect 

values of national environmental significance. They are mostly: 

– Introduced weeds, but some are indigenous weeds, eg A. baileyana. They have 

been cultivated outside their limited native range, adapted to the conditions there, 

escaped cultivation and become naturalized. It is estimated that about 

10 new species escape and become naturalized in the environment each year. 

– New naturalizations are listed on the website www.weeds.gov.au/ 

WEED LISTS DEFINITIVE WEED LISTS. are based on a Weed Risk Assessment (WRA) process 

and directed at different levels of the ecological hierarchy – global, national, state, 

regional or local for management action. There is now a multitude of weed lists and the 

number of plants considered ‘weedy’ is increasing. Only a few lists are legally binding, 

or have government or scientific authority. The degree of risk posed by any plant will 

depend on where it is growing. A weed may be on several ‘lists’. 

National Weeds Lists www.weeds.gov.au/ 

TARGET WEEDS. Weeds not yet in Australia 

NAQS Target List for Weeds (NAQS) is a list of 41 species regarded as serious 

threats to Australia’s productivity, export markets and the environment. It focuses on 

the potential for weeds to enter Australia from Timor Lestse, Indonesia or Papua New 

Guinea via the Australian northern border by natural or non-conventional pathways 

including wind currents, migratory animals, traditional vessel movements and illegal 

fishing activity. 

AQIS Targeted Lists of Weeds can be found on the following Department of 

Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF) website 


Barker, etc al. 2006. 

Weeds of the future: 

Threats to Australia’s 

Grazing industry by 

Garden Plants. Meat & 

Livestock Australia/CRC 

WMS. avail online 

Blood, K. 1999. Future 

and Expanding Weeds. 

Plant Protection 

Quarterly Vol.14(3). 

State/ 

Territory 

Some plants 

n 

in one State 

or Shire but 

not in another 

EMERGING or SLEEPER WEEDS. Weeds already in Australia. 

Naturalized Invasive and Potentially Invasive Garden Plants is a database 

which identifies many sleeper weeds that have not yet increased their distribution 

significantly and could be controlled before numbers explode. Weeds on this list are 

naturalized invasive species currently with a restricted range and whole eradication is 

feasible and cost-effective. 

National Environmental Alert List is an important subgroup of emerging or 

sleeper weeds. These are plant species in the early stages of establishment with the 

potential to become a significant threat to Australian Biodiversity. This list consists 

of 28 non-native plants that have established naturalized populations in the wild and 

threaten biodiversity and cause other environmental damage across Australia. 

National Environmental Alert List and Alert list for Environmental Weeds: 

Weed Management Guides www.weeds.gov.au/ 

Eradication and Containment Lists (currently none have official status) 

– An Eradication and Containment list impacting natural ecosystems has 

34 naturalized species compiled by scientists to include species that pose a direct 

threat to natural ecosystems because of their potential impact on native species. 

– An Eradiation of and Containment List impacting agricultural ecosystems has 

27 naturalized species compiled by scientists to include species that pose a 

potential threat to agricultural ecosystems should they ever spread further. 

– An Eradication Candidate List of 17 sleeper agricultural weeds compiled by 

scientists for cost-effective eradication before they become major agricultural weeds. 

NOXIOUS WEEDS. Mostly agricultural/horticultural crop weeds 

A ’noxious’ weed is a plant that has been legally declared under State/Territory 

legislation (page 432). These weeds have a negative impact on crop (or animal) 

production and are variously referred to as noxious weeds, declared weeds or 

proclaimed weeds. In Australia, about 200 weeds are classified as noxious, and 

there are legal provisions requiring landowners (public and private) to control them. 

Most are agricultural weeds which are difficult to control. 

Most are perennial plants, many spread by rhizomes and similar structures. 

Different noxious weed lists exist for each region; get your local list which is 

available from local council or shire offices. 

Lucid keys, eg Identifying Declared Plants of Australia www.lucidcentral.com/ 

The Australian Weeds Committee provides an intergovernmental 

mechanism for identifying and resolving weed issues at a national level, eg 

updates the ‘Noxious Weed Lists for Australian States and Territories. The entire 

noxious weed list (in table form) can be accessed on the Weeds in Australia website. 



CLASSIFYING 

WEEDS (contd) 

Australia’s 20 

worst weeds 

Local 

areas 

Inaugural list 

of 52 species 

Understanding 

the different 

types of weeds 

will help you 

control them 

effectively, eg 

selective herbicides 

are used to control 

broadleaved weeds 

in grass crops 

Auld, B. A. and Medd, R. 

W. 1986. Weeds : An 

Illustrated Botanical Guide 

to the Weeds of Australia. 


WEEDS OF NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE. WONS 

WONS is a list of Australia’s worst weeds which have been legally declared by the 

Federal government with restrictions on their propagation, trade or sale applying to all 

states/territories. State cooperation should ensure a nationally effective program of 

prevention, eradication and control. WONS threaten tourism, cropping, forestry, plant 

communities, recreation (sailing), human safety (spines), pastoral industries (horses), water 

quality, cultural values (water birds), endangered species (competition), community (fire), 

infrastructure (roads). None of the WONS have reached their full range. 

An inaugural list of 20 WONS (page 416-418) were selected from more than 

3,000 non-native naturalized plants in Australia. Criteria used to prepare the WONS 

list included invasiveness, economic, environmental and social impacts, distribution, 

potential for spread, cost of control. Best Practice Manuals are available. 

Weeds Australia www.weeds.gov.au/ 

Global Compendium of Weeds http://www.hear.org/gcw/ 

Lucid key Weeds of National Significance www.lucidcentral.com/ 

ENVIRONMENTAL WEEDS. Many definitions 

Environmental weeds are mostly cultivated plants which invade natural 

ecosystems and threaten survival of local plants and animals. They: 

Can invade natural communities without need for disturbance. 

Smother slower growing native plants and threaten the existence of already 

endangered or vulnerable species of flora and fauna. 

Are mainly introduced plants but there are some native species which have 

spread outside their natural range. 

Check the National Environmental Alert List (page 414). 

Most States/Territories produce brochures on environmental weeds. 

Lucid , keys, eg Suburban and Environmental Weeds of South East Queensland, 

Environmental Weeds of Australia, Environmental Weeds of South-east Queensland, 

International Environmental Weed Foundation-Keys to Local Area Weeds 

www.lucidcentral.com/ 

GARDEN ESCAPES, GARDEN PLANTS UNDER THE SPOTLIGHT. (GPUTS) 

Some invasive garden plants become weeds of bush and farming areas, hence the names 

garden escapes, garden thugs, eg Paterson’s curse (Echium plantagineum). Of the roughly 

2780 weed species currently in Australia about 1800 are introduced garden plants. 

Most States/Territories produce brochures relating to garden escapes which will 

help you identify plants that can escape from your garden area. Victoria has produced 

a list of invasive weedy garden plants that may be restricted and removed from sale. 

A voluntary list of 52 plants has been agreed upon. 

A Code of Practice to be developed will include preventing nurseries from 

selling or displaying ornamental plants that may become environmental weeds. 

The Nursery & Garden Industry (NGIA) has a Grow Me Instead program. 

Lucid key Common Suburban Weeds www.lucidcentral.com/. 

Information on future environmental weeds and their sale are documented (Moss 

& Walmsley 2005, Barker et al 2006, Blood 1999). Check also www.weeds.gov.au/ 

BOTANICAL GROUPS. 

Class Angiosperms (flowering plants). Weeds occur in > 50 families of 

flowering plants. Some families have a known weed history. 

– Subclass Dicotyledons (broadleaved weeds). Two cotyledons or 

seed leaves; network of veins in leaves; flower petals usually in multiples of 

4 or 5; often have a tap root, eg 

Family Asteraceae (daisy family), eg capeweed, daisies, thistles. The Asteraceae 

constitute about 40% of all agricultural weeds. 

Family Brassicaceae (mustard family), eg wild turnip. 

Family Fabaceae (legume family, pea family), eg burr medic, white clover. 

Family Malvaceae (mallow family), eg marshmallow. 

Family Polygonaceae (dock family), eg curled dock. 

Family Rosaceae (rose family), eg blackberry. 

Family Solanaceae (nightshades, potato family), eg blackberry nightshade. 

– Subclass Monocotyledons (narrowleaved weeds). One 

cotyledon or seed leaf; parallel veins in leaves; flower petals in multiples 

of 3; usually fibrous root system, eg 

Family Poaceae (grass family), eg summer grass, paspalum (about 1/3 rd of 

Australia’s grasses are introduced). 

Family Iridaceae (iris family), eg cape tulip (many South African species have 

known weed potential). 

Pteridophytes (ferns). 

Family Dennstaedtiaceae, eg bracken fern. 

Family Salviniaceae, eg salvinia. 

Detailed information on botanical groups may be found in many texts. 



LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES 

Annual & 

herbaceous 

weeds 

Many weeds are just 

nuisance weeds, 

(not declared noxious, 

or of national or 

environmental 

significance); 

but they can still 

cause problems in 

some areas 

Woody weeds 

COMMON NAME 

DICOTYLEDONS (broadleaved weeds) 

Annual & herbaceous weeds 

1. Some have broad leaves. 

Some are rosettes at certain stages of growth 

Capeweed (Arctotheca calendula) 

Catsear (Hypochoeris radicata) 

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) 

Lamb's tongue (Plantago lanceolata) 

Some are not rosettes 

Bittercress, flickweed (Cardamine hirsutus) 

Common sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus) 

Curled dock (Rumex crispus) 

Indian hedge mustard (Sisymbrium orientale) 

Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) 

Paterson's curse (Echium spp.) 

Prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola) 

Scotch thistle (Onopordum acanthium) 

Soursob (Oxalis pes-caprae) 

Spiny emex (Emex australis) 

Turnip weed (Rapistrum rugosum) 

Variegated thistle (Silybum marianum) 

Wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) 

2. Some have small or fine leaves. 

Many are flat or mat forming 

TYPE OF WEED 

Check current status of weeds 

NOXIOUS 

(in some 

areas) 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

WONS 

20 

WONS 

ENV 

(in some 

areas) 

Garden 

escapes 

Chickweed (Stellaria media) 

Mouse ear chickweed (Cerastium glomeratum) 

Petty spurge (Euphorbia peplus) 

Sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella) 

Skeleton weed (Chondrilla juncea) 

Noxious 

Wire weed (Polygonum aviculare) 

Woody weeds 

Bitou bush, bone seed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera spp.) Noxious WONS ENV 

Blackberries, brambles (Rubus spp.) 

Noxious WONS ENV 

Camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora) 

Noxious 

ENV 

Candle bush, Ringworm shrub (Senna alata) Noxious 

ENV 

Cape or Montpellier broom (Genista monspessulana) Noxious ENV 

Chinese apple, Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana) Noxious ENV 

Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster spp.) 

Noxious 

ENV 

English broom, broom (Cytisus scoparius) 

Noxious 

ENV 

Gorse (Ulex europaeus) 


Lantana (Lantana camara) 


Mesquites (Prosopis spp.) 


Mimosa, giant sensitive tree (Mimosa pigra) Noxious WONS ENV 

Privet (Ligustrum spp.) 

Noxious 

ENV 

St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) 

Noxious 

ENV 

Sweet briar (Rosa rubiginosa) 

Noxious 

ENV 

Sweet pittosporum (Pittosporum undulatum) Noxious 

ENV 

Tamarisk, Athel tree (Tamarix aphylla) 


WEED PROBLEMS ARE EVER-CHANGING. 

Shifts in weed flora have taken place throughout history, the status of weeds is continually changing. 

Obtain up-to-date local information on noxious weeds, WONS, environmental weeds (ENV) and 

garden escapes either from your State/Territory Dept of Agriculture or an appropriate website. 

Noxious weed lists for Australian states and Territories are regularly updated www.weeds.gov.au/ 



LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES(contd) 

Woody weeds 

COMMON NAME 

TYPE OF WEED 


DICOTYLEDONS (broadleaved weeds) (contd) 

Woody weeds (contd) 

Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) 

(one of the few trees that are noxious weeds) 

NOXIOUS WONS ENV Garden 

(in some 

areas) 20 (in some escapes 

areas) 

Noxious ENV 

Monterey pine, radiata pine (Pinus radiata) Noxious ENV 

Parkinsonia (Parkinsonia aculeata) Noxious WONS ENV 

Polygala, purple broom (Polygala virgata) ENV 

Prickly acacia (Acacia nilotica) Noxious WONS ENV 

Spanish heath (Erica lusitanica) Noxious ENV 

Willow (Salix spp. except weeping willow, 

pussy willow and sterile pussy willow) 


Vines and creepers 

Cape ivy, ivy groundsel (Delairea odorata) Noxious ENV 

Dolichos pea (Dipogon lignosus) ENV 

Himalayan honeysuckle (Leycesteria formosa) 

English ivy (Hedera helix) 

Madeira vine (Anredera cordifolia) 

Purple morning glory (Ipomoea indica) 

Rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora) 

Wandering jew (Tradescantia fluminensis) 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

WONS 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

 

 

 

 

 

 

OTHER DICOTYLEDONS 

Cacti (Cactaceae) 

Harrrisia cactus (Eriocereus martinii) 

Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) (some spp. only; 

introduced as a living hedge in Qld) 

Noxious 

Noxious 

ENV 

ENV 

 

Parasitic plants 

Broomrapes (Orobanche spp.) (page 382) 

Dodders (Cuscuta spp.) (page 381) 

Witchweeds (Striga spp.) (page 380) 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

MISCELLANEOUS GROUPS 

Ferns (Pteridophytes) 

Bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum) 

Horsetails (Equisetum spp.) Noxious WONS 

Water weeds (aquatic weeds) 

Alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) 

Cabomba (Cabomba caroliniana) 

Elodea (Elodea canadensis) 

Hydrocotyle (Hydrocotyle ranunculoides) 

Lagarosiphon (Lagarosiphon major) 

Parrots feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum) 

Pond apple (Annona glabra) 

Salvinia (Salvinia molesta) 

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) 

Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

WONS 

WONS 

WONS 

WONS 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Riparian weeds 

Riparian weeds include grasses and bulbs, eg 

kikuyu; herbaceous plants, eg docks; 

shrubs, eg blackberry; trees, eg willows and 

vines, eg cape ivy (Ede and Hunt 2008) 



LIST OF SOME 

SPECIES(contd) 

There are many 

potentially serious 

grass weeds not yet 

in Australia, eg 

Asian strangletop 

Japanese lovegrass 

COMMON NAME 

MONOCOTYLEDONS (narrowleaved weeds) 

Grass family (Poaceae) 

Annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) 

Rhizomatous bamboo (Phyllostachys spp.) 

Barley grasses (Hordeum spp.) 

Blady grass (Imperata cylindrica) 

Blue couch grass (Cynodon incompletus) 

Couchgrass (Cynodon dactylon) 

Brome grasses (Bromus spp.) 

Giant reed (Arundo donax) 

TYPE OF WEED 


NOXIOUS 

(in some 

areas) 

Noxious 

WONS 

20 

ENV 

(in some 

areas) 

ENV 

Noxious 

ENV 

Olive Hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicoulis) Noxious WONS ENV 

Pampas grass (Cortaderia selloana) 

Noxious 

ENV 

Parramatta grass (Sphaerobolus fertilio) 

ENV 

Paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum) 

Noxious 

ENV 

Summer grass (Digitaria sanguinalis) 

Wild oats (Avena fatua, A. ludoviciana) 

Winter grass (Poa annua) 

African love grass (Eragrostis curvula) 

Chillean needlegrass (Nassella neesiana) 

Lobed needle grass (N. charruana) 

Mexican feather grass (N. tenuissima) 

Serrated tussock (N. trichotoma) 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

WONS 

WONS 

Asparagus family (Asparagaceae) 

Asparagus fern (Asparagus scandens) 

Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides) Noxious WONS 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

Garden 

escapes 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Iris family (Iridaceae) 

Cape tulips (Moraea spp.) 

Harlequin flower (Sparaxis bulbifera) 

Monbretia (Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora) 

Onion grass (Romulea spp.) 

Watsonia (Watsonia meriana var. bulbillifera) 

Lily family (Family Liliaceae) 

Onion weed (Asphodelus fistulosus) 

Three-corner garlic (Allium triquetrum) 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

Noxious 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

ENV 

 

 

 

Noxious 

Noxious ENV 

Sedges (Cyperaceae) 

Mullumbimby couch (Cyperus brevifolius) 

Nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus) 

Tall spikerush (Eleocharis sphacelata) 

Noxious 

ENV 

ENV 

Rushes (Juncaceae) 

Toad rush (Juncus bufonius) 

 

Family Araceae 

Arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica) Noxious 

Family Typhaceae 

Cumbungis (Typha spp.) 

Noxious 

WEED PROBLEMS ARE EVER-CHANGING. 

Shifts in weed flora have taken place throughout history, the status of weeds is continually changing. 

Obtain up-to-date local information on noxious weeds, WONS, environmental weeds (ENV) and 

garden escapes either from your State/Territory Dept of Agriculture or an appropriate website. 

Noxious weed lists for Australian states and Territories are regularly updated www.weeds.gov.au/ 



Description of some weeds species 

Dicotyledons (broadleaved weeds) – .ROSETTES. 

(some weeds are only rosettes at certain stages of growth) 

CAPEWEED (Arctotheca calendula) 

Type Annual or biennial herb. Declared 

noxious weed in Tasmania. Agricultural 

weed, can be abundant in waste places, 

pasture, taints milk. Host for redlegged 

earth mites. 

Leaves Deeply lobed to the midrib. Thick, fleshy, 

very hairy, silvery gray-green above, 

silvery white down beneath. Rosetted 

with no milky sap. 

Flowers Solitary, single yellow with black or 

orange center, on singular stems. 

Seeds Small nutlets enclosed in a woolly ball. 

Roots Strong fibrous roots. 

Spread By seed. 

Asteraceae 

Flowering plant, yellow flowers 

DANDELION (Taraxacum officinale) 

Type Persistent but shortlived, herbaceous 

perennial herb. Garden weed, waste 

places, invades lawns. Often confused 

with catsear (Hypchaeris radicata) which 

has thinly branched flower stems (see 

front cover). 

Leaves Irregularly toothed, smooth shiny light 

green with milky sap (latex), rosette. 

Flowers Solitary double yellow daisy on single 

hollow stem. 

Seeds With a pappus. Widespread in temperate 

Australia. 

Roots Thick, deep fleshy tap root. 

Spread By seed and by cut-up pieces of root; 

spread by cultivation. 

Asteraceae 

Flowering plant, yellow flowers, tap root 



Description of some weeds species (contd) 

Dicotyledons - broadleaved weeds – .NOT ROSETTES. 

FAT HEN (Chenopodium album) 

Type Annual herb with an erect, angular stem 

which can grow up to 1 meter. 

Agricultural weed, weed of cultivated 

land, can be toxic to pigs. 

Leaves Upper leaves are entire and lance-shaped, 

but lower leaves may be lanceolate or the 

wider ones may be rhomboid. Leaf edges 

usually slightly toothed. Leaves may have 

a mealy appearance, particularly on the 

undersurface. 

Flowers Small green-white flowers occur in 

hanging clusters, placed either terminally 

or in the axils of the upper leaves. Each 

flower has an inconspicuous floral 

envelop of 5 lobes and 5 stamens. The 

inflorescence has an overall mealy 

appearance. 

Seeds Generally black and shiny. 

Roots Fibrous. 

Spread By seeds. 

Chenopodiaceae 

Flowering stem, greenish flowers 

VARIEGATED THISTLE (Silybum marianum) 

Type Stout erect bushy annual or biennial 

herbaceous weed, can grow to 2.5 meters. 

Weed of disturbed areas, waste ground, 

near creeks and rivers old stockyards, may 

cause nitrate poisoning in stock. Noxious 

weed in SA, Tas. & Vic. Can take over 

pastures or crops. Many other thistle 

species are weeds in Australia. 

Leaves Strong spiny bracts surround the base of 

the flower and stem. 

Flowers Single and terminal on branches. Flower 

heads are large (up to 60 mm across) and 

showy with clusters of bright purple 

florets surrounded by long stiff spiny 

bracts. 

Seeds Are about the size of a grain of wheat. 

Roots Fibrous. 

Spread By seeds via uncleaned cereal seed, feet of 

humans and livestock, fleece of sheep, 

wheels of vehicles, run off water. 

Asteraceae 

Flowering stem, purple flowers 


. 



Dicotyledons - Broadleaved weeds – .SMALL OR FINE LEAVES. 

(many flat or mat forming) 

CHICKWEED (Stellaria media) 

Type 

Leaves 

Flowers 

Seeds 

Roots 

Spread 

Overwintering delicate herbaceous annual 

weed. Occurs universally in cultivated 

ground in high rainfall areas. Garden 

weed, competes with desired annual 

plants, eg flowers, vegetables. Do not 

confuse with petty spurge. Mainly 

vigorous in spring. 

Small, light green, shiny and soft, on 

scrambling angular stems. Elliptical and 

opposite. 

Very small, white, star-like, solitary on 

thin axillary stems. 

Red-brown in colour. 

Fine and fibrous. Not stoloniferous. Does 

not resist close mowing. Can be hand 

weeded. 

By seed. 

Caryphyllaceae 

Leaves on young plant 

PETTY SPURGE, RADIUM WEED (Euphorbia peplus) 

Type Often a persistent small annual widespread 

herbaceous weed of cultivation. Occurs in 

gardens and surrounds. Been associated 

with poisoning of livestock, loss of 

appetite, reduced egg laying in fowls. Do 

not confuse with chickweed. 

Leaves Small, light green, opposite, oval on many 

finely branched stems. Reddish stems 

with milky sap. Leaves often infected with 

rust. 

Flowers Small inconspicuous yellow-green on flattopped 

clusters of stems. 

Seeds Pale gray, pitted. Can reproduce all the 

year round. 

Roots Fine fibrous or tap root, stems break at the 

crown allowing the root to regrow. 


Euphorbiacese 

Leaves and flowers 




Dicotyledons - broadleaved weeds – .WOODY WEEDS. 

BLACKBERRY (Rubus fructicosa) 

Type Introduced perennial deciduous shrub for 

berry jams, etc. Dense thicket-forming shrub 

from 2-6 m. Noxious weed in ACT, NSW, 

Vic, Qld, SA, Tas and WA. WONS, ENV, 

Garden Escape. Often common along 

waterways. 

Leaves Usually dark green on the upper side and 

lighter green, often with whitish hairs on the 

underside; alternate; 3 or 5 toothed, oval to 

ovate leaflets with short prickles on leaf 

stalks or undersides of veins. 

Flowers White or pink, 2-3 cm in diameter formed in 

clusters at the end of short branches, 5 petals. 

Fruit A berry changing colour from green to red to 

black as it ripens, 1-3 cm in diameter 

consisting of an aggregate of juicy segments 

each containing 1 seed. 

Seeds Light to dark brown, sometimes triangular, 

2-3 cm long, deeply and irregularly pitted. 

Roots Most roots occur in the top 20 cm of soil but 

a few to 1 m deep. There is a well defined 

crown at ground level. 

Spread By seed spread by birds, foxes, creeks and 

rivers. Dislodged stem-tip rooting and root 

suckering, crowns, root pieces and stem 

fragments, by machinery, slashing and during 

removal. 

Rosaceae 

Flower, berry clusters 

and leaves 

BITOU BUSH, BONESEED (Chrysanthemoides monilifera) Asteraceae 

Type Perennial erect woody shrub up to 3 meters 

tall. Noxious weed in NSW, Vic, Qld, SA 

and WA. WONS, ENV, Garden Escape. 

Stems woody much branched, upper stems 

often purplish. 

Leaves Alternate, 3-8 cm long, ovate to spoonshaped, 

tapering at base, smooth-edged or 

slightly toothed. Shortly stalked, practically 

hairless, except for a cottony growth on 

young leaves. 

Flowers Florets, bright yellow on shortly stalked 

heads, 2-3 cm in diameter clustered at the 

ends of branches, petals 5 or 6 occasionally 

8 per head. Chrysanthemum-like hence 

botanical name Chrysanthemoides. 

Fruit Berries are round, green, 5-7 mm in diameter 

and hang in clusters at the end of branches, 

during ripening they become black. 

Seeds Seeds are globular or ovoid, 5-7 mm long 

and 3-4 mm in diameter, very hard and 

bonelike in color (boneseed). One mature 

bush can produce 50,000 seeds in 1 season. 

Most seeds remain viable for 2-5 years. 

Roots Shallow, no distinct tap root. Rotundata roots 

on prostrate stems in contact with soil. 

Spread By seed, was introduced as a sand dune 

Leaves and flower cluster 

stabilizer, dumped with rubbish. Birds, 

rabbits, foxes and cattle spread seed in their 

dropping. Contaminated gravel. Seed and 

ripening fruits by running water. 




Monocotyledons (narrowleaved weeds) – GRASS WEEDS. 

(Family Poaceae) 

COUCH, BERMUDA GRASS (Cynodon dactylon) 

Type 

Leaves 

Sometimes sown as lawn grass, recreational 

turf. Perennial grass weed common in all 

states. Known to cause cyanic acid poisoning 

under some conditions but generally can be 

eaten without damage. Various turfgrass 

cultivars are used in the turf industry. 

Prostrate rhizomes and stolons, perennial grass 

with hairs arranged in 2 rows on opposite sides 

of the stem. Commonly some specimens have 

sparse hairs on the top of the sheath and 

blades. 

Flowers The inflorescence is finger-like. Spikelets are 

single-flowered and small. They occur 

in 2 rows on the under side of flattened main 

axis of the spike. 

Seeds 

Roots 

Spread 

Only produces seed heads in neglected areas. 

Seed heads often infected with a smut disease 

(Ustilago sp.). 

Stolons root readily at nodes. 

By seed, rhizomes and stolons and by cut-up 

pieces of rhizomes and stolons during 

cultivation. 

Leaves, inflorescences, stolons, 

rhizomes and roots 

 

PASPALUM (Paspalum dilatatum) 

Type Perennial summer growing grass which can 

grow up to 1 meter in favorable conditions. 

Can be a useful pasture plant. Naturalized in 

all states, often troublesome in gardens 

especially in lawns. Will crowd out clover and 

become dominant. 

Leaves Rolled in bud leaf, medium texture, gray 

green, long parchment ligule. 

Flowers Spikelets of 3-7 arms. Inflorescence is sticky 

to touch. 

Seeds Seed heads may be infected with paspalum 

ergot (Claviceps paspali). 

Roots Deep, fibrous from strong short woody stolons 

and rhizomes. 

Spread By seed, by the growing of stolons and 

rhizomes and by cut-up pieces of stolons or 

rhizomes spread during cultivation. 

Leaves, flowers and roots 

Major world weed especially in perennial 

crops. 




Monocotyledons (narrowleaved weeds) – GRASS WEEDS. (contd) 

(Family Poaceae) 

SUMMER GRASS (Digitaria sanguinalis) 

Type Annual summer grass weed.. May disappear 

with the onset of winter. Do not confuse 

with paspalum. Sometimes called 

crabgrass. Very common in temperate areas 

occurs in all states especially where summer 

water is available, as in suburban gardens. 

Leaves Rolled in bud leaf, medium texture. Soft, 

gray-green. Ligule very long, parchment, 

white, pink, tipped. Hairy sheath and 

reddish-brown stems. 

Flowers Fine widely branched spikelets. Whorled 

stems. 

Seeds Seeds profusely. 

Roots Fine, vigorous, fibrous from extensive 

stolons. 

Spread By seed. Plant more-or-less lies on the 

ground and tends to root at the stem nodes. 

Leaves, inflorescences, stolons 

and roots 

WINTER GRASS (Poa annua) 

Type Annual grass weed, but can be a short-lived 

perennial depending on the situation. 

Cosmopolitan, occurs widely in temperate 

areas of Australia. On paths and similar 

situations it is very small or almost prostrate 

but can grow up to 30 cm high. Mainly a 

winter and spring weed which disappears 

with the onset of summer. Can withstand 

close mowing in lawns and turf. Weed of 

cultivation, lawns and wasteland. 

Leaves Folded in bud leaf, light green, fine texture 

with crimped blades. Long parchment ligule. 

Flowers Short panicles or spikelets. 

Seeds Seeds small and flattened. 

Roots Fine, short, fibrous from tillers. 


Leaves, flowers and roots 




Monocotyledons (narrowleaved weeds) – SEDGES. (contd) 

(Family Cyperaceae) 

MULLUMBIMBY COUCH (Cyperus brevifolius) 

Type Persistent herbaceous perennial up to 15 cm 

high. Resists close mowing. A true sedge not 

a grass. Pest in lawns and occasionally 

pasture. 

Leaves Grass-like, shiny light green, linear, in three's. 

Triangular stems. Pungent odour when 

bruised. 

Flowers Terminal, globular or cone-shaped knobs, 

green to white when mature. 

Seeds Seeds freely. 

Roots Masses of fibrous roots developing from 

creeping stolons with extensive shallow 

rhizomes. 

Spread By seed and by stolons and rhizomes. 

Leaves, inflorescence and stolons 

NUTGRASS (Cyperus rotundus) 

Type Persistent perennial herb usually 20-50 cm 

high, troublesome weed of cultivation., 

gardens and surrounds. Does not resist close 

mowing as in golf and bowling greens. 

Probably indigenous to Australia. A true 

sedge not a grass. Noxious weed in SA; is 

said to be the world's worst weed; it occurs as 

a weed in at least 100 countries and is possibly 

the gardener’s worst nightmare. 

Leaves Grass-like, shiny dark green, linear, in three's. 

Triangular stems. 

Flowers Terminal umbels of feathery, grass-like, 

brown flowers. 

Seeds The ‘seed’ is three-angled and less than half 

the length of the enclosing glume. 

Roots A mass of deep rhizomes with underground 

tubers up to 25 mm long attached which give 

rise to shoots and rhizomes. Chains of up to 

15 tubers develop. 

Spread By seed and by rhizome roots with tubers 

readily spread by cultivation, is the basis of its 

troublesome nature. 

Flowers, rhizomes and tubers 

 


. 


REPRODUCTION 

Know when 

weed seeds will 

germinate and 

the length of the 

germination period 

Caltrops 

means many-pointed 

Stipa 

means stem-like 

Weeds mainly reproduce by seeds. However, they may reproduce by other means, 

eg stolons. Some weeds reproduce by more than one method. It is important to know 

all the methods by which your weed reproduces. 

SEEDS 

RHIZOMES 

STOLONS, RUNNERS 

TUBERS, BULBS, CORMS 

SUCKERS 


OVERSUMMERING, 

THE SEED BANK 

SEED BANK 

With poorly 

competitive crops, 

seedbank levels 

can reach 

10000 ryegrass seed/m 2 

There can be 

75000 seed/m 2 of 

perennial veldt grass 

after fire 

ROOT PIECES 

Skeleton weed is troublesome because it can reproduce freely from both seed and 

pieces of underground stems. Tools and machinery used in cultivation cut up 

underground stems encouraging development of more plants. 

WEEDS ‘OVERWINTER’ IN MANY WAYS, eg 

Contaminated produce and planting materials, eg stored grain, seed, bulbs, tubers. 

As biennial and perennial weeds. 

Weed seed and vegetative propagules, eg cuttings, bulbs, tubers. 

Soil acts as the primary storage bank for vegetative propagules and seeds, eg 

– Rhizomes, stolons, runners, tubers, bulbs, corms, suckers, root pieces. 

– Roots may grow to a depth of more than 2 metres (inside back cover). 

– Seed banks. refer to the existing seeds in soil. The weed seed bank is a reservoir of 

weed seed in the soil or on the soil surface. Seed content of soil can be determined 

and used to predict future weed problems in the field and aid in the development of 

effective weed management systems. One broom plant can produce thousands of 

seeds that remain viable for many years. Up to 15,000 seeds/square meter of Chilean 

needle grass are found beneath infestations. New weed seeds are continually added 

to the soil so weeds are never eliminated. The seed bank largely determines the 

species composition and potential densities of weeds that subsequently develop with 

crops during the growing season. Annual grasses are an exception as seeds of few 

grass species persist for longer than 4 years. Poppy seeds persist for decades. 

– Reducing the weed seedbank assists in the fight against herbicide resistance. 

Researchers are focusing on ways to lower the numbers of seed in the soil, in an 

effort to lessen dependence on herbicides. 

Weed Seeds – Breaking the Bank www.grdc.com.au/ 



SPREAD 

(dispersal) 


generally 

spread very 

efficiently and 

are spreading 

faster across 

Australia than 

they can be 

contained 

H 2 O 

Weeds spread very efficiently by: 

RHIZOMES, STOLONS, TUBERS, SUCKERS (page 426) 

Climbing weeds, eg bridal creeper, will climb over adjacent plants. 

WIND AND AIR CURRENTS 

Some weed seeds are very light and have attachments of silky hairs, parachute-like 

structure or downy coverings which may travel for many miles on air currents. Wind 

can blow seeds. Pampas grass can produce 100,000 seeds per plume which can be 

carried more than 39 km to invade the bush. 

EXPLOSIVE MECHANISMS 

Seed capsules of oxalis and flickweed (Cardamine hirsutus) 

open explosively and spread to adjacent pots. 

WATER 

Some weeds, eg Noogoora burr, are adapted to float on water or to be moved by the 

force of running water. Generally seeds, fruit, bulbils and other plant parts can wash 

down drains into waterways where they grow and spread. Irrigation water can be a 

source of weed entry. Floods spread seed of Mimosa pigra and willow parts. 

ANIMALS 

In manure. Some weed seeds may pass undigested through animals, eg birds, feral 

pigs, possums, stock, foxes, so that their manure may carry viable weed seeds some 

weeds. Manure deliveries may contain weed seeds, eg nettle seed in sheep manure. 

Birds eat fruits and seeds of weeds, eg blackberry, cotoneaster, lantana, mistletoe, 

privet, spreading seed through bush where the seed germinates. The seeds of 

cotoneaster can be carried for many kilometers in the digestive tract of animals. 

Flying foxes eat fruit and seed and carry it to nearby bushland. 

Adherence to animals. Seeds with burrs may attach to wool, fur, feathers and 

feet of animals and may even penetrate hides, eg corkscrew grass (Aristida sp.). 

Pets carry seeds from garden to bush land on fur. 

HUMANS. 

Quarantine. Up to 70% of weeds were intentionally introduced to Australia in 

the early days of settlement for crops, pasture or as ornamental plants. Seeds and 

other plants have been brought in unintentionally in agricultural products aboard 

ships and air craft, importing contaminated seed from overseas. Many plants 

previously used as crops or ornamentals are today's weeds. 

Crop seed unintentionally sown after harvesting from weed-infested crops. 

Sale of invasive or potentially invasive plants. 

Nursery containers may contain weeds, weed seeds or stolons of weeds, eg 

creeping oxalis, flick weed. Weeds spread to gardens, parkland, etc. 

Movement of contaminated fodder hay, chaff, or mulch, agricultural 

produce can result in weed outbreaks in new areas, eg dodder, thistles. 

Seeds with burrs which attach to clothing, socks, trouser legs, shoes. 

Garden plants which have spread from where they were originally planted in 

gardens and urban parks, eg Scotch broom, lantana, hawthorn, gorse. 

Dumping of garden waste, eg rhizomes, bulbs, cuttings and prunings which may 

produce new plants, over back fences or into bushland or forests. Emptying 

aquarium plants into drains, waterways, eg water hyacinth, salvinia, equisetum. 

Direct invasion from neighbouring properties, eg ivy may creep 

vegetatively from gardens into parkland. 

Moving soil and plant material through the landscape, eg soil deliveries, soil 

and gravel removed from river banks, etc. 

Machinery and vehicles. Seeds, bulbs, and other plant parts are carried on 

slashers, graders, mowers, vehicle tyres, tools, boats, trailers, camping equipment. 

Unfiltered or recycled water, recycled potting mix. 

Fortuitously, eg vehicles parked under trees which are seeding, eg alder trees. 



CONDITIONS 

FAVOURING 

 

Global proliferation of 

environmental weeds 

has coincided with the 

huge population 

explosion and led to an 

increasing similarity of 

plant species in regions 

with similar climates. 

 

Evolutionscientists 

warn that the spread of 

 

environment, where less 

specialized animals and 

plants such as 

cockroaches, rats, 

nettles & thistles will 

flourish at the expense 

of more specialized wild 

organisms. 

Weed Wizard warns of 

potential weed problems 

while they are still 

avoidable. Wizard 

simulates the interaction 

between weather, 

paddock management 

and seed biology and so 

tracks and predicts the 

number, ages and soil 

depths, dormancy levels, 

viability and germination 

of seeds in soil. 

CONDITIONS FAVOURING WEED INFESTATIONS 

The three most important factors influencing weediness of a plant are 

invasiveness, impacts and potential distribution. 

Poor crop planning, limited IWM (Integrated Weed Management). 

Management practices, eg 

– Weed floras change with changes in agricultural and horticultural practices. 

Recent emphasis on crop diversification and reduced tillage has created new weed 

problems, weed species which were previously controlled by tillage, including 

perennial weeds and some annual grasses, are controlled by changes in chemical use 

and possibly by periodic cultivation every few years. 

– Reduced crop diversity. Many growers have moved away from crop rotations to 

growing a single crop continuously. 

– Grazing intensity and timing is often a major contributor to pasture decline and 

weed invasion, which may result in more acid soil, water leakage, reduced organic 

matter, reduced biodiversity above and below the surface, increased dryland salinity 

and lower water quality all causing reduced productivity and profitability, droughts 

exacerbate the weed problem. 

– Disturbance is a precursor to invasion by some weeds, eg thin turf, over-grazing, 

agriculture, fertilizers, erosion, trampling, clearing, landscaping, road making. 

– Properties with uncropped areas always have greater weed problems than where 

weeds are well controlled throughout. Weeds may first grow in wasteland around 

buildings, paddocks and on fallow land, then produce seed or rhizomes which 

spread to adjacent crops. 

– Incorrect timing of weed control, eg cultivation, mowing, herbicide applications. 

Temperature and moisture are critical for weed seed germination; weather 

forecasting systems can help pin down when weeds will emerge. 

Climate change. Simulation models predict future distribution of weeds. Weeds 

may be favoured over native flora. Tropical weeds may extend their range, fewer 

frosts mean some weeds will spread to new areas, alpine plants will decline, and 

unpalatable grasses will grow more densely, creating a greater fire fuel load. 

Bumble bees are efficient pollinators and if exotic species are introduced they may 

better pollinate existing weed species. 

Lack of knowledge of weed problems, eg large seed banks, which exist and 

may increase, in present and future crops. 

Herbicide resistance. Repeated use of many herbicides has lead to resistance 

problems. so that many weeds are hard to control, eg annual ryegrass. 

Empty niches, eg many grass weeds establish in sunny pockets in the bush. Sites 

such as shady areas under trees, burnt out areas after fires. 

Continuous cropping, resulting in volunteer crop plants regarded as weeds. 

Fertilizer. Exotic weeds thrive in soils enriched by run-off from lawns, gardens, 

crops, nurseries and where fertilizers are used in excess. High phosphorus content of 

many fertilizers may kill or weaken native vegetation which competes with weeds. 

In their natural habitat plants are often controlled by climate, predators, etc. In 

regions with very cold winters many plants are killed each winter and do not have 

time to become pests. When introduced to warmer climates such plants can grow 

throughout the year or have only very short periods of dormancy with no natural 

means of control, eg no imported pests and diseases. 

Many garden plants still being purchased plants from hardware and garden 

suppliers and nurseries, have the potential to become weeds, eg ornamental grasses. 

ENVIRONMENT 

Does it favour the crop or the weed? 

CROP or SITE 

Crop bed preparation right? 

Crop seeding just right? 

Crop vigor just right? 

WEED 

What is the weed in your crop? 

Fig. 247. Weed triangle. 



INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT (IWM) 

MAIN STEPS 

IWM is not a specific set 



PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

? 

X 

IWM aims to achieve long term, sustainable weed management, including the 

management and minimization of herbicide resistance. 

1. Plan well in advance to use an IWM program that fits your situation. Some expertise 

is needed to use an IWM plan. Plan to keep records of the crop, eg pre-plant weed 

control, source of planting material, planting/sowing dates, temperature, irrigation, 

fertilizers and pesticides, cultivation, minimum tillage. 

2. Crop/region. IWM programs are available for weeds in a range of crops, regions 

and situations. Check if one is available for your weeds, eg 

Most commercial crops have weed management programs. 

Weed Management in Woody Cut Flower Plantations. 

Integrated Weed Management Manual www.weeds.gov.au/ 

GRDC Weedlinks www.grdc.com.au/ 

Management Guides are available for all WONS www.weeds.org.au/ 

3. Identify and collect information on weeds in your crop/region. Grass weeds can be 

difficult to identify. Consult a diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv). Successful 

IWM depends on sound knowledge of weeds, their life cycles, spread, conditions 

favouring, population distribution, and possible control measures. Obtain a fact sheet 

for each weed. Early detection and identification of weed species is essential for 

effective management of weed problems before they escalate. 

4. Monitor, record and map presence of weeds early to assess their impact, rate of 

spread and effectiveness of earlier control measures. National classification systems 

of weed mapping are available for some weeds. Keep accurate and consistent records. 

For crop areas, know when to monitor, eg weather warning systems can indicate 

when temperature and moisture are critical for weed seed germination - the Weed Seed 

Wizard simulates interactions between weather and agronomic practices to predict likely 

weed seed germination. Know where and what to monitor, eg existing weeds, stages of 

weed/crop growth, seeds/rhizomes in the surface layers of the soil, seedbank. Know 

how to monitor, eg map existing weeds, visual assessments can be made on foot with 

GPS. Serrated tussock and scotch thistle infestations have been mapped by airborne and 

satellite imagery. Conduct soil germination tests for weed seeds and rhizomes in the 

surface layers. Overseas equipment has been developed to estimate the density of weeds 

in the soil seedbank from soil cores. 

For environmental areas, you also need to know when, eg during autumn, where, eg 

bush areas, what, eg autumn colours of certain weeds, and how to monitor, eg on foot, 

by vehicle or canoe, by aerial photography or satellite imagery. 

5. Thresholds for selected weeds in a particular crop/region should be set then 

efforts made to achieve them. Has a threshold been established? If so, what is it, 

economic, aesthetic, environmental? What level of weed control is necessary? Set 

targets; will these weeds affect my yield? Do they affect biodiversity, etc? 

6. Action/Control. Requirements of legislation, organic or other standards must 

be met, otherwise try to implement preventative measures strategically and early 

to avoid potential major weed problems. Available weed control methods do not 

eradicate weeds unless they have been selected for a national or state eradication 

program. Actual methods used will also depend on the situation, crop and the weed. 

For weeds not yet in Australia, or a State/Territory, quarantine can prevent entry. 

For new arrivals or those of limited distribution, spread can be minimized by early 

detection and Weed Incursion Rapid Response Programs. Noxious weed legislation 

and other regulations are most effective during early stages of invasion. Eradication could 

be attempted and their availability restricted/banned. 

 

For established weeds eradication is not usually possible, and the aim is to 

control existing weeds, prevent spread, reduce seed set and the seedbank. 

7. Evaluate the program. Performance standards for weed management are being 

developed. Record findings and adapt the program from year to year as weed 

problems change and new control methods, herbicides and equipment become 

available, eg if weeds had already formed seeds, begin control earlier next year. 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

PLAN 

 

CROP 

REGION 

Each crop has 

its own weed 

complex. 

List the weeds 

in your crop 

IDENTIFY 

WEED 

Enquiry 

Which crop 

Examine weed 

Check history 

References 

Expert advice 

Diagnosis 


each weed 

MONITOR, 

RECORD 




seeds, seedlings? 

How to count? 

Keep records 

THRESHOLD 

Economic? 

Aesthetic? 

Complaints? 


for the weeds above 

which controls must 

be implemented? 

Are they compulsory? 

 

CONTROL 

ACTION 

Decision-making 

? 

Legislation 

Cultural 

Sanitation 

Biological 

Tolerance 

Quarantine 

Weed-tested 

Physical etc 

Pesticides 

Organic, BMP 

Combinations 

EVALUATION 

 

Fig. 248. Steps in IWM. 

 

Was the IWM 

program 

successful? 



wanted? 

Can IWM be 

improved? 

YES/NO? 

Weeds - Integrated Weed Management 429


EFFECTIVE 

WEED 

MANAGEMENT 

A coordinated approach to weed management is necessary. In Australia, effective weed 

management is hampered by: 

Extensive nature of Australia’s agriculture, bushland, etc. 

Some of the ‘worst’ weeds may be so well adapted to the niches they exploit, 

that measures taken to control them may have only limited effectiveness. 

Multiplicity of landholders, both private and public together with the many 

additional organizations that have indirect influence over land. People who influence 

the weed flora in Australia are the agricultural and horticultural industries, nurseries, 

parks, catchments authorities, and so on. 

Multiple lists of different types of weeds, eg WONS, Alert lists (pages 414-415). 

Large bureaucracy and websites which seem to be becoming even larger 

and more complex, even duplicating each other. 

Prevalence of herbicide resistance and large seed banks. 

Because many other countries have lost their natural biodiversity and most floras 

have come from naturalized species from other areas, Australia is one of the very 

few countries of the world trying to manage invasive plant species (Thorp 2008). 


TRAINING 

National Competencies for Weed Management: 

www.weeds.org.au/ 

Training Schemes are available for specific groups of people, eg 

– Weed Control Assistants 

– Weed Spray Operators 

– Weed Control Officers (Local Government) 

– Weed Control Contractors 

– Parks Rangers 

– Bush Regenerators 

– Landholder Government Advisors 

– Labour Market Programs 

– Managers of Weed Management programs at all levels 

– Volunteers, eg Landcare, Conservation volunteers, Greencorp 

Special courses/guidelines/best management practice are available for 

managing specific weeds and crops, etc, including 

– Specific weeds, eg bitou bush, cape ivy, Paterson’s curse, willows, serrated 

tussock (WEEDNet), managing wild radish. 

– Specific crops, eg agricultural crops, turf, fruit trees, vegetables, viticulture, 

containers, cut flowers. 

– Riparian weeds in waterways. 

– Best Management Practice for 20 WONS, National Weed Strategy 

– Nurseries, eg Bush Friendly Nursery Schemes. 

– Weed Seeds–Breaking the seedbank, eg GRDC www.grdc.com.au/ 

– Management Guides for wild radish, wild oats, pasture, Paterson’s curse, ragwort. 

– Environmental Weed Best Practice Management Guides, eg Scotch broom, 

bitou bush, boneseed, blackberry, bridal creeper, St John’s wort, horehound. 

– Workshop proceedings, eg thistle, bitou bush, wild radish, arum lily, survey 

workshop, spiny emex, St John’s Wort, broom. 

– Weed Seed Wizard (treat the seeds not the weeds) is a management tool for farmers 

to assess weed populations, reduce viable seed in the soil seed bank. 

– Introductory Weed Management Manual www.weeds.gov.au/ 

– Integrated Weed Management Manual www.weeds.gov.au/ 

– What Does Your Garden grow? Available online. 

Weed courses include the following segments. 

– Legislation. 

– Licensing of operators. 

– Identification of weeds, including weed seeds, weed seedlings, mown weeds, 

but especially grass species. 

– Type of weed, life cycle, overseasoning, spread, conditions favouring. Fact 

sheets for each weed. 

– Weed mapping, weed tests for soils by germination. 

– Integrated weed management (IWM) 

– Methods of non-chemical and chemical weed control 

– Apply herbicides safely and effectively. 

430 Weeds - Integrated Weed Management



LEGISLATION 

) 

GLOBAL 

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a global agreement to conserve 

biodiversity, to sustainably use the components of biodiversity and to share the benefits 

arising for the commercial and other use of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way. 

Convention on Global Diversity www.cbd.int/ 

The Global Invasive Species Information Network (GISIN) is a web-based network 

of data providers, eg government, non-government, non-profit, educational, and other 

organizations that have agreed to work together to provide increased access to data and 

information on Invasive Alien Species (IAS) around the world. 

GISIN www.gisinetwork.org/ 

These 

publications 

are available 

online 

Bureau of 

Rural Sciences 

COMMONWEALTH LEGISLATION, REGULATIONS, ETC 

Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act1999 (the 

EPBC Act) is the Australian Governments central piece of legislation of 

environmental legislation. The EPBC Amendment (Invasive Species) Bill 2002, 

prohibits the trade in invasive plant species of national importance, combined with 

state and territory commitments to prohibit these same species under their respective 

laws. The Senate Committee Report, Turning Back the Tide: The Invasive Species 

Challenge, describes the regulation, control and management of invasive species. 

Legally-binding weed lists include WONS, National Environmental Weed 

Alert List (page 414). 

Quarantine Act 1908 (Cwlth) which includes lists of prohibited weeds, eg 

search for Target List for Weeds and Permitted Seeds on www.daffa.gov.au/aqis/ 

Australian Standards, eg www.standards.com.au/ 

– Composts, Soil Conditioners and Mulches 

– Potting Mixes, Composts and other Matrices - Examination for Legionella species. 

– Synthetic Weed Blocking Fabric. 

– Organic and Biodynamic Products Draft for public comment 

Advisors and policy makers include: 

– The Weeds in Australia web site provides information on weeds and weeds management 

at the national level. It links to information and services on Australian Government and 

selected state and territory web sites. www.weeds.gov.au 

– National Weeds Management Facilitator and the network 

– The National Weed Strategy: A Strategic Approach to Weed Programs of 

National Significance 1999, charges the Australian Weeds Committee to ensure an 

effective integrated approach to all aspects of weed management through cooperation 

with environmental agencies, land managers, landcare and nursery groups, landscaping 

and turf industries, botanic gardens, local government, community groups. 

– The World Wildlife Fund (WFF) has examined the effectiveness of National and State 

legislation in dealing with weeds, especially those emanating from horticulture. 

www.wwf.org.au/ourwork/invasives/ 

– The BRS advises policy makers in the management of weeds in Australia (currently 

WONS and agricultural sleeper weeds) based on ecological modeling and risk assessment, 

eradication studies and managing weed information www.daff.gov.au/brs/land/weeds 

Accreditation schemes, Best Practice Management Guidelines, Codes of 

Practice, etc, exist for businesses. The Nursery Industry (NGIA) aims to: 

– Implement a mandatory national plant labeling scheme at point of sale identifying 

potentially invasive species in certain areas of Australia, their means of disposal, 

poisonous nature, etc (Spencer 2006). It means that all plants sold through association 

nurseries would be labeled with correct botanical names, intellectual property such as 

Plant Breeder’s Rights and trademarks, plant growth requirements and indicate whether 

they are potentially hazardous to health and the environment. 

 

 

– 

Advise against the production of plants for sale or trade if they are on the 

WONS list in all jurisdictions of Australia and if they are on the Alert List and Noxious 

Weeds List. This list will be jurisdiction-specific and will affect what may be sold in 

various regions. The label should state any restrictions to where the plant is grown. It also 

recommends plant management guidelines if a plant shows invasive tendencies such as 

“remove seedlings after flowering, and dispose of plant or fruit via burial or at an 

approved composting facility. 

The Australian Weeds Research Centre, funded by the government, aims to 

“ 

reduce the impact of weeds on farm and forest productivity and biodiversity. 

The National Weed Detection Network (NWDN) detects new incursions at a 

stage when eradication or containment is possible, minimizing control costs and 

impacts. Volunteers are called weed spotters who employ fortuitous surveillance 

(spotting weeds while engaging in other activities). Specimens are identified by 

botanists, fully documented and recorded, the government notified of any new 

naturalizations, new occurrences of declared weeds and any new and emerging weeds. 



LEGISLATION 

contd 

Obtain a summary 

of local weed 

legislation 

which will have current 

lists of declared weed 

species and your 

responsibilities 

Councils often 

have designated 

Weeds Officers 

CULTURAL 

METHODS 

A seed bank 

is supplemented 

by incoming weed 

seeds transported 

via wind, etc. 

It is important to 

regulate seed 

populations 

Grow Me 

Instead 

Programs 

. 

STATE/TERRITORY/REGIONAL/LOCAL COUNCIL LEGISLATION 

Noxious weed legislation exists in all States/Territories and varies slightly 

from state to state and between local council areas. Noxious weeds are grouped into 

classes which can vary from a few to many, depending on the state/territory. 

However, in all cases the legislation aims to reduce the negative impact of 

significant weeds on the economy, community and environment, by establishing 

control measures to prevent the introduction and establishment of new weeds, 

restricting the spread of existing weeds and eradicating specified weeds. Control 

measures are prescribed by legislation and depend on the weed in question. The 

Australian Weeds Committee prepares and updates the ‘Noxious Weed Lists for 

Australian States and Territories. Individual weeds, State and Territory lists or the 

entire noxious weed list (in table form) can be accessed via the following website: 


– ‘Prohibited’ weeds pose a serious threat and have potential to spread, notification 

of their presence is required; they may need to be continually suppressed, contained 

or eradicated and it is illegal to keep, sell or move them. 

– ‘Restricted’ weeds have potential to spread, trade in these weeds and materials 

containing them is prohibited. 

– Eradication of pest plants from the state or parts of the state may be required. 

– Contain, suppress, and control certain weeds in only parts of the state/territory. 

– Weeds not to be introduced into the state/territory. 

– Penalties. Control of noxious weeds is legally the responsibility of the private 

landholder, local authority (councils etc) or State/Territory government 

– Others, eg compulsory control of certain weeds on public or government land. 

Specific Acts/Tree orders/Taskforces, etc 

– Various taskforces have been set up, eg NSW Lantana Taskforce, Prickly Pear Act. 

– Seed Acts make it illegal to sell grain, fodder or crop seed which contains seeds or 

any other parts of a noxious weed capable of growing. 

– Quarantine legislation. 

– Tree Preservation Orders may conflict with weed legislation. If a 40 meter tall 

‘protected’ tree is found to be an environmental weed, how do you prevent seeding. 

Many voluntary schemes, eg Weed Swaps for less invasive species. Spencer 

(2006) suggested ‘retro-fitting’ gardens, eg a property could be certified weed-free, 

issued with a voucher to purchase alternative plants from the nearest garden centre. 

States/Territories/Shires/Councils have weed information on their websites. 

An Exotic Weeds Watch List is available online. 

CROP COMPETITION. 

Many crops compete strongly with weeds when established but need protection during 

their early growth. Some crops, eg onions which germinate and grow slowly, have narrow 

erect leaves and wide row spacings, compete poorly with weeds. 

Control weeds prior to planting, eg tillage, herbicides, slashing, greenmanuring, 

grazing. 

Increase and maintain ‘crop’ vigor to compete effectively with weeds 

during germination, establishment and maintenance, to reduce the need for weed 

control and reduce flowering and seed set on surviving weeds. 

– Cultivar selection, smothering out weed competition early. 

Select varieties adapted to site, soil, water availability and season. 

Select perennial pasture species to reduce weed establishment and assist in 

reducing existing weed infestations. 

Choose wheat varieties with leafy and strong early growth. 

Trees dominate site and shade out weeds. Mass plantings or dense prostrate 

species control weeds by early canopy closure, crowding and shading. Useful 

for rockeries and general plantings between trees and shrubs, vegetable gardens. 

Crops can be genetically engineered to more effectively compete with weeds, 

resulting in increased production and reduced need for herbicides (page 436). 

Legume pasture can substantially reduce a ryegrass seedbank. 

– Sowing dates should coincide with optimum soil temperature, moisture, etc for 

the crop, to encourage rapid establishment and growth. Fertilisers are more 

efficient when weeds are controlled at planting. 

– Sow at rates so that crops rapidly occupy all space above and below ground. 

Narrow row spacing with high sowing rates can quickly shade areas between 

plants in some cases. 

Control pests and diseases, gaps and weakened plants can reduce yields and 

provide space for weeds to grow. 

Replacement vegetation. Accompany weed removal with a planting program, 

eg planting a crop, re-vegetation of bush areas by seed or tube stock, replacing 

invasive plants with safer alternatives. Local councils have lists of alternatives 

suitable for their regions. NGIA is expanding the Grow Me Instead program. 



CULTURAL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

Know conditions 

and practices 

which encourage 

weed seed 

germination 

CROP ROTATION. 

Crop rotations are designed to control weeds, some pests and diseases, 

and to retain and build up soil fertility and structure. 

Appropriate crop bed preparation after a rotation, prior to planting. 

Intercropping, eg companion crop, undersowing, hedges, brassicas crops, wind 

breaks, permaculture systems. 

Green manure crops, living mulch, grazing, cash crop sequence, fallowing. 

Organic matter or green manure crops must be allowed to decay and organisms can 

destroy weeds seedlings. Brassicas can suppress weeds. 

Crop rotations, seedbank monitoring and careful management have 

allowed farmers to contain the seedbank of herbicide-resistant ryegrass to 

manageable levels, ie to less than 1000/m 2 (from highs of 10000/m 2 ) (page 426). 

Why reduce the weed seed bank in the target area over time? 

By maintaining a falling trend in the size of the seedbank (page 426), there are fewer 

weeds to be sprayed, weed control methods are more effective and there is reduced 

the risk of developing herbicide resistance (page 450). 

What can you do? 

Prevent introduction of viable weed seed from external sources, eg control weeds in 

surrounding areas before they set seed, do not introduce infested soil, seed, etc. 

Prevent established weeds in the target area from setting seed, eg control weed 

seedlings, eg rogue, mow, spray, when weed populations are low and before seed set. 

Practice recommended crop competition, crop rotation, etc. 

Practice seedbank monitoring. 

Follow specific guidelines produced by CropLife Australia and GRDC and follow 

resistance management strategies on herbicide labels. 

CropLife Australia www.croplifeaustralia.org.au/ 

Weed Seeds – Breaking the Bank www.grdc.com.au/ 

CULTIVATION. 

Reasons for cultivation – weed control 

– ‘Tickle’ or shallow cultivation promotes earlier and more uniform germination 

of certain weed seeds by placing seed in a better physical position in the soil, eg 

contact with moisture, protection from drying out, prior to sowing the crop. These 

germinating weeds can then be controlled either by further cultivation, herbicides, 

etc. However, some weeds, eg radish, germinate sporadically so that late 

germinations flushes can be difficult to control. 

– A naturally occurring germination stimulant, karrikinolide is being trialed to 

reduce the extent to which cultivation is used to stimulate weed emergence and 

improve the sustainability of minimum tillage farming systems. Karrikinolide 

promotes weed seed germination so they can be controlled by fewer herbicide or 

other treatments. 

– Pre-sowing cultivation (or herbicide application) effectively controls young weed 

seedlings and annual weeds that have been allowed to develop (see above), reducing 

weed infestations in new plantings. The smaller the weeds at cultivation the more 

rapidly, efficiently and cheaply, they are destroyed. Cultivation kills weeds by 

burying shoots to prevent re-growth, roots and shoots exposed to air dry out and die. 

More effective if carried out on warm days. 

– Cultivation can be used to control weeds during a fallow, ie the non-crop 

period. Traditionally fallow management is based on clean cultivation. 

– Cultivation at the correct time prevents existing weeds from seeding and 

exhausts food reserves of perennial weeds through repeated disturbance. 

– Cultivate only as needed to limit soil disturbance and to keep weeds from 

competing with the crop or from setting seed. Soil disturbance can dramatically 

reduce the effectiveness of pre-emergents. 

– Cultivation also aids moisture and nutrition retention. 

Disadvantages of cultivation. 

– If soil is too wet or too dry, cultivation can exacerbate rain and wind erosion. 

– Frequent cultivation reduces organic matter, adversely affecting soil structure. 

– Cultivation can damage crop roots and must be > 30 cm from tree stems. 

– Weeds with hard underground parts or deep roots may form more shoots. 

– Perennial weeds may remain alive buried in soil for some time and may be redistributed, 

eg corms, cut up root pieces. Roots of perennial weeds which produce 

suckers may require herbicide treatment to stop regrowth from their roots. 

CONSERVATION TILLAGE (CT). 

CT is aimed primarily at soil conservation and the need to conserve moisture to 

sustain productivity. CT eliminates some or all operations involving soil disturbance. 

In CT systems, post-emergent herbicides have largely replaced cultivation for 

weed control; modified implements allow sowing into stubble/uncultivated soil and 

more compacted seedbeds. In conventional crop production systems herbicides 

supplement tillage. As tillage is reduced the diversity of weeds may decrease but 

the numbers of these weeds surviving may increase. 

In no-till systems up to 70% of weed seed is on the soil surface and may be 

taken by ants and other predators, some will be decayed by fungi and other microorganisms 

but some still remains. If stubble remains on the surface then conditions 

remain favourable for germination. These can be controlled with herbicides or 

suppressed by mowing, slashing or heavy grazing (page 438). 



CULTURAL 

METHODS 

(contd) 

MULCHES. 

Suppress annual weeds by excluding light needed for growth. 

Are not very effective against perennial weeds, eg tap rooted dandelion, 

stolons of couch grass. Nutgrass may grow through polythene film < 0.2 mm thick. 

Weed mat may be laid beneath mulches to prevent roots of perennial weeds which do 

develop in the mulch, from penetrating deep into the soil, making removal easier. 

Must be porous to allow water to seep through and air to circulate, of the correct 

depth, and aged and/or composted before use. Preferably lay when soil is moist. 

Before applying mulch, remove or spot spray weeds, especially perennials 

weeds. 

Mulches protect soil from wind and sun, reducing losses from evaporation. 

– Reduces soil temperature fluctuation, eg by up to 5 o C in summer, in winter mulches 

shade soil from spring sunshine, slowing spring crop growth. 

– Protect surface and shallow feeder roots, increase beneficial soil microbes. 

– Coarse mulches control windblown weed seeds better than fine mulches. 

– Provide cleaner and easier harvesting of strawberries and ginger roots, etc. 

Mulches may be: 

– Inorganic, eg woven plastic weed mats, blue metal, crushed brick, river gravel 

mostly need to be applied to a depth of 9-10 cm to provide adequate weed control. 

– Organic, eg bark, wood chips, sawdust, straw, hay, compost, pine needles, leaf 

litter. Pre-cut disks of breathable durable recyclable polypropylene can be placed 

around new or existing tress and shrubs, posts and in planters. Paper (pellets, sheets, 

rolls), cardboard, seaweed, wool, etc. 

– Mulches provide shelter for termites, slaters, etc. They can be a fire hazard. 

SANITATION 

, 

. 

CAREFUL MANAGEMENT. 

Sanitation may overlap with Physical and Mechanical Methods (page 438). 

Sanitation is important at all levels of quarantine to prevent spread of weeds, eg 

washdown facilities in the NT for barges going to the Tiwi Islands. Cleaning 

mowers, slashers, vehicles and earthmoving equipment after use in weedy areas 

before using in clean areas to reduce spread of weeds such as Chilean needlegrass. 

Suppress weeds by persistently preventing seed set and spread when weed 

populations are low as well as suppressing outbreaks of new weeds as soon as they 

occur by cultivation, mowing or herbicides, etc. 

For greenhouses maintaining a 3–6 meter weed-free barrier outside the 

greenhouse helps to minimize weed seeds entering via vents and doors. 

– Screening vents prevent windblown seeds. Porous concrete walkways and geotextile 

fibre mats under benches help prevent establishment of weeds. 

– Keep potting mixes and ingredients covered. 

– Pots may be isolated from direct soil contact by use of screenings (8–10 cm of 

18–20 mm gravel or blue metal) and concrete paths. 

– Nursery accreditation schemes specify weed control measures. 

Disposal of garden waste, weeds. 

– There are still many species in gardens that could naturalize in Australia. 

– Do not dump garden waste in bushland, over fences or cliffs or into creeks. 

– Recycle waste through local council or take it to the local tip. 

– Cover trailers when taking garden waste to the tip so seeds and cuttings do not fall 

off and invade roadside bushland. Double bag garden waste (place in one bag, knot, 

then place in another bag to stop seeds being spread en route, compost garden waste 

at home or take to a recycling site. 

– Composting garden waste at 60 o C for 30 minutes will not kill most weed seeds. 

Properly carried out composting of bark will kill most weed seeds and plant parts. 

Hand pulling and digging out annual or herbaceous perennial weeds before 

they set seed, is suited for small shallow rooted weeds and small infestations. 

Easiest when soil is soft and moist. A mattock is useful for digging out many weed 

species. Hand weeding is laborious and can be an ineffective means of selectively 

removing weeds in large areas. Remember the soil disturbance will move more 

weed seeds into the germination zone. 

Cutting woody weeds. Use secateurs, hand saw or chainsaw is often used for 

controlling woody weeds and for some species that do not re-shoot, can be done 

without need for herbicides, eg wattles, pines (pages 467-468). 

Control weeds on non-crop areas around the nursery, farm, etc before they 

set seed. Immediate removal of undesirable weeds or strategic spot spraying can 

halt spread of weeds and reduce or eliminate use of herbicides. 

Prevent spread especially when moving soil and plant material through the 

landscape. 

Some systems allow for the collection of weed seeds at harvest. 



BIOLOGICAL 

CONTROL 

Also called 

microbial 

agents 

Mycoherbicides 

require a moist 

environment 

CLASSICAL BIOLOGICAL CONTROL. is the deliberate release of a pest or disease 

after careful screening, to control a particular weed. Successful biological control is 

the most effective way to control most weeds in the long term. 

Weeds targeted for biological control are listed on the website below: 

Target species for biological control www.weeds.org.au/target.htm 

Biological Control Act 1984 (Cwlth) provides for the control of persons 

releasing agents, choice and declaration of target organisms and biological control 

agents, and approval for release. 

The introduction of a potential biological control agent is separately 

assessed under the Quarantine Act 1908 and the Environment Protection and 

Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. The assessment involves comprehensive host 

testing (testing what plants the biological control agent will attack) before release. 

Releases of biological control agents are made by a range of organizations, eg 

– Division of Entomology, CSIRO, Canberra. 

– Cooperative Research Centre for Weeds Management Systems. 

– Various task forces, eg NSW Lantana Biological Taskforce. 

– State Departments, eg Qld Dept. of Natural Resources. 

– Private companies. 

Self-sustaining. Classical control offers the only possibility for controlling many 

environmental weeds. Once established the pest or disease can spread naturally and 

reach long term equilibrium with its weed host, eg 

– Prickly pear by caterpillars of the Cactoblastis moth. 

– Skeleton weed by several insects and mites, and a rust disease. 

– Paterson’s curse by several beetles and a leafmining moth. 

– Blackberry by a rust disease. 

– Bitou bush by various insects and a rust disease. Bitou bush is rated as the worst 

pest plant in the Australian coastal environment. Control has been hampered by 

drought during which leaves lose nutritional value making it difficult for young 

larvae to get a niche among the growth tips (Tortrix leafrollers) but other biological 

control agents such as the bitou tip moth (Comostolopsis germana) and the seed fly 

(Mesoclanis polana) are doing better. 

– St John’s wort by a leaf beetle, various other insects and a rust disease. 

– Giant sensitive plant (Mimosa pigra) by more than 5 biocontrol agents. 

– Bellyache bush (Jatropha gossypifolia) by insects in Qld. 

– Bridal creeper by the bridal creeper leafhopper (Zygina spp.). 

– Salvinia by a weevil (Cyrtobagous salviniae). 

– Parkinsonia seed pods are eaten by camels reducing the plants ability to reproduce. 

– Lucid Keys Identification Tool for Weevil Biological Control Agents of Aquatic 

and Terrestrial Weeds in the United States and Canada. 

BY BIO-HERBICIDES. (mostly myco-herbicides) 

Bio-herbicides are fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms, applied as a spray 

to weeds, causing an immediate epidemic resulting in death or reduced vigour. 

Effects tend to be short term in much the same way as chemical herbicides, eg 

– Overseas a fungus (Ascochyta caulina) can kill the main weeds affecting 

10 major crops in Europe. It must be applied early otherwise weeds outgrow the 

fungus. It will not be available commercially for many years. Mycoherbicides 

including a fungus (Phytophthora spp.), are being researched to control the strangler 

weed in citrus orchards in Florida. 

– In Australia, Colletotrichum orbicular is being researched to control Bathurst burr 

(Xanthium spinosum) and Drechslera avenacea to control wild oats. 

Main constraint to the development of commercial mycoherbicides is the 

requirement of fungi for high moisture or free water environment. Formulations 

have been developed to overcome these constraints. 

Contraceptive sprays. Self-incompatibility (SI) is a biological system that 

prevents certain plants from fertilising themselves with their own pollen thus 

reducing the production of fertile seed. Research is proposed to apply non-toxic 

sprays that mimic chemicals produced by certain plants to prevent self fertilization, 

allowing the plant to detect and ignore its own pollen. Wild radish (Raphanus 

raphanistrum) is one of the weeds to be trialled. 

Allelopathy is a release of a chemical by one plant species into the environment, 

which interferes with weed seed germination and growth of surrounding plants. 

– Massive reductions of fat hen has occurred in sunflower crops, sown no-till 

into desiccated green rye cover crops. 

– However the use of white mustard green manure (Sinapis alba) to control 

weeds in spinach and pea was more toxic to these crops than to weeds. 

– Several rice strains that apparently exude a chemical keep weeds at bay. 

www.regional.org.au/au/allelopathy/2005/2/1/index.htm 



TOLERANT, 

WELL ADAPTED 

PLANT VARIETIES 


QUARANTINE 

WRA 

Some Australian native 

plants have become weed 

species overseas, eg 

Melaleuca in Florida, 

eucalypts, wattles and 

melaleucas have spread 

across tracts of the 

African countryside. 

SELECT PLANT VARIETIES WELL ADAPTED TO SOIL, CLIMATE, SEASON. 

Plant selection. 

– Choose species that tolerate the proposed growing conditions well. 

– Do not select, grow or sell plant species known to become bush weeds in gardens, 

parks, roadsides. Plant alternative species. Hardy plants can become hardy weeds! 

Genetic engineering (GE). 

– Herbicide Resistant Crops by Biotechnology (HRCB) aims to permit more 

effective control of weeds in particular crops, eg Roundup-Ready cotton seed. 

Clearfield Production Systems for canola, wheat and maize, eg the canola crop is 

tolerant to Intervix (imazamox/imazapyr) which provides early post emergence 

control of certain grass and broadleaved weeds in canola crops. 

Cotton with tolerance to Basta (glufosinate-ammonium), bromoxynil, 2,4-D. 

Tomato plants tolerant to paraquat. 

TT canola (Triazine Tolerant canola ). 

RoundupReady canola and cotton systems. 

Herbicides are recommended to control Roundup Ready Canola Volunteers. 

– Improving crop competition with weeds. 

With herbicide resistance a significant issue, improving wheat's ability to compete 

better with weeds will take the pressure of herbicides and probably reduce weed costs 

Competition. Rice strains with early rapid growth and spreading leaves which cast 

wide shadows, can beat the weeds and deliver higher yields. 

– Genetically modified organisms are not permitted in the growing and processing 

of Certified Organic products (AS 6000—2009. Organic and Biodynamic Products). 

AUSTRALIAN QUARANTINE & INSPECTION SERVICE. (AQIS) 

AQIS Import Conditions database (ICON) offers up-to-date information on 

plants which are denied entry to Australia or may be imported upon the granting of 

an import permit from AQIS. There is a long list of prohibited weeds which occur 

overseas but not in Australia. 

– Exotic weeds watch list. If you find a weed on this list or one that you haven’t 

seen before, report it immediately as this is the key to successful eradication or 

containment. It can also prevent or minimize the costs associated with an incursion 

such as market losses, eradication, and ongoing control and monitoring. 


Weed Risk Assessment (WRA). 

– All soil and some plants are prohibited. 

– There is a Permitted Seeds List which is reviewed at intervals. 

– All plants imported to Australia are assessed by AQIS for their potential to become 

weeds. WRA assesses information and scores plant invasiveness, reproductive 

capacity, impact, potential distribution, etc, to determine how likely it is to behave 

as a weed. Weed control can be prioritized, contingency plans prepared on a large 

scale in a short time. It can still be difficult to be confident that a plant is noninvasive. 

Plants are assessed for this weediness by being given a score for their 

weedy characteristics, the larger the score the weedier it is. 

– Recording standards of weed control, eg weed mapping. 

How do weeds enter Australia? 

– More than 70% weeds have been introduced deliberately to Australia. 

– As accidental seed or vegetative material contaminants: 

Of crop or pasture seeds, eg giant sensitive plant. 

Of packing material, eg seeds in straw. 

Adhering to clothes and shoes of people visiting farms, rural areas, and markets. 

Of soil on used vehicles, agricultural machinery, barges and boats. 

Incorrectly named plants. 

Quarantine inspections intercept illegal entries: 

– Make sure plants, bulbs and seed ordered via the internet or mail order are cleared by 

quarantine before coming into the country. 

– Thorough cleaning and inspection of equipment, personal belongings, boots and 

webbing from East Timor prevents entry of seeds of Siam weed into Australia. The 

seeds are so small they can survive washdown. 

– Bulb collectors may acquire them, often in ignorance through the internet, etc; they 

may then escape detection by customs. 

Some of our worst environmental weeds have originated from South Africa 

which has a climate similar to parts of Australia. Unfortunately they do not bring the 

pests and diseases which kept them in check in their place of origin. Other countries 

with climates similar to ours include California and Mediterranean regions. 

Rapid response programs are in place to coordinate resources and deal with 

certain weed species should they enter. 




QUARANTINE 

(contd) 

 

Individuals 

may informally 

"quarantine" their 

properties 

to reduce 

weed inputs 

WEED-TESTED 

PLANTING 

MATERIAL, SOIL, 

ETC 

Buy 

weed-free 

inputs, products, 

seed, etc 

INTERSTATE AND REGIONAL PLANT QUARANTINE. 

Containment of weeds already in Australia is difficult because weeds which are classified 

as noxious in one state/region, may pose no threat in another, and, may even be for sale in 

another, etc. Paterson's curse (Salvation Jane). The nursery industry has a problem 

knowing which plants are weeds and which lists should be referred to (page 414). 

Weeds in Australia has an excellent website providing information on weed 

management in each state/territory. www.weeds.gov.au/ 

All states/regions, have legislation to control entry of certain weeds, eg 

inspection of seeds from interstate, transport of fodder, plants, soil, etc, eg 

– Tiwi Islands in the NT have quarantine procedures in place to prevent weeds 

spreading from the mainland to the Tiwi Islands via barges, machinery, hay, etc. 

– Roper River, Control of Devils’Claw at Gregory National Park. 

– Rubber vines buffer zone (100km within Qld border. WONS Strategic Plan. 

Many weeds have entered Australia and spread throughout Australian states/ 

territories, new weeds are continually being detected in individual states either from 

overseas or from other states within Australia. Needle burr (Amaranthus spinosus) 

was detected in WA pasture seed sourced from Qld. Mexican feathergrass in the 

ACT Some of which are under national eradication, eg mile-a-minute (Mikania 

micrantha). 

Once in a state/territory their spread, distribution and level of infestation are 

monitored, eg skeleton weed found on 53 new properties during 2005. 

Weed Alert Programs operate in some states to prevent serious new weeds 

establishing in particular areas, eg Victorian Volunteer Weed Spotters look out for 

and report certain serious uncommon weeds. 

‘LOCAL’ QUARANTINE. 

Prevent viable weed seeds from being added to the soil seedbank, prevent 

introduction of viable weed seed from external sources. 

There is no legislation covering ‘local’ quarantine. Weed seeds, rhizomes, root 

pieces, weeds themselves may be introduced to gardens, nurseries and orchards via: 

– Organic mulches, manures, fodder. 

– Soil in pots, containers, deliveries and on uncleaned machinery. 

– Crop seed. Use certified weed-free seed. 

– Plants disposed over garden fences, waterways. 

– Uncovered trailers, vehicles. 

Wear clothes that don’t catch weed seeds, keep boots, vehicles, tools soil-free. 

Minimize stock movement from infested to clean areas. Confine new stock to 

a small area to allow viable weeds seeds in their digestive tract to be expelled. 

Purchase shorn sheep as there is less chance of transporting weed seeds in their 

fleece. Check feed brought into a confined area. 

Don't gift garden plants as cuttings etc which may be easy to grow but invasive, take 

care not to import weeds with new plantings. 

SEED, BULBS, CUTTINGS, SOIL, ETC MAY BE CONTAMINATED. 

Legislation. Various Seed Acts regulate the sale of seed, grain or fodder. It is 

illegal to sell specified seed, grain or fodder which contains seeds or any other parts 

of a noxious weed which are capable of growing. Seeds of thistles, cape tulip and 

ragwort are often found in hay. There are limits on dodder seeds in WA. 

Contaminated crop or pasture seed. 

– Certification schemes provide seed or vegetative propagation material guaranteed 

free from specified weeds, diseases and pests to the grower. 

– Buy locally produced seed, if certified seed is not available. 

Bulbs, etc may be contaminated with weed seeds or rhizomes, etc. 

Hay, fodder. Ideally weeds should be controlled before harvesting, if not, then hay 

should not leave the farm. Purchasers of hay should check to ensure produce if free 

of weed contaminants. Agents who purchase, sell or transport fodder or grain should 

also ensure that the produce is clean. 

Soil, potting media, mulches and improperly prepared compost and 

other products can all contain weed seeds, weed rhizomes, and other plant parts. 

This applies to large deliveries or the purchased of potted plants at a retail outlet. 



PHYSICAL & 

MECHANICAL 

METHODS 

Knowledge of how 

plants respond to 

damage can be applied 

to develop more 

effective physical 

control methods for 

weeds. 

Blade ploughing 

Mimosa pigra cuts off 

plants about 10 cm 

below ground level 

and is more effective 

than cutting them at 

ground level or 15cm 

above ground level 

which results in most 

plants resprouting 

Plastic irrigation 

equipment does 

not respond well 

to being flamed 

LIGHT & SEED 

GERMINATION 

Seed germination of 

some weed seeds, eg 

sowthistle, is favoured 

by light, however, some 

germination occurs in 

the dark as well. 

PROBABLY THE OLDEST METHODS OF WEED CONTROL. 

Barriers. Garden beds can be edged to prevent weeds entering from lawns. Weed 

Gunnel is a permeable and degradable weed barrier which can be placed around trees 

and shrubs, also used for fence lines and various sizes of pots. 

Hand weeding, chipping, hoeing, before flowering or seed set, controls scattered 

weeds and small patches of annual weeds in garden beds and landcare areas. Some 

woody weeds are easy to pull out. Can be labor intensive and costly for large areas, 

and not suitable for median strips, parking areas where pebbles might be disturbed. 

Various tools have been developed to remove broadleaved weeds in lawns, tractormounted 

mechanical weeders work around fruit trees and vines. 

Mowing, slashing, grazing weeds before seed set prevents viable weed seeds from being 

added to the soil seedbank and is useful for controlling annual and biennial weeds. 

– Some weeds tolerate close mowing, eg winter grass in turf. May encourage 

growth and flowering of prostrate plants such as white clover and wireweed. 

– Repeated mowing, slashing and grazing will restrict some perennial weeds by 

weakening food reserves, by defoliation and preventing flowering and seed set. 

– Used to reduce fire risks associated with grass and other weeds. 

– Cheaper than cultivation and it preserves the ground cover reducing erosion and 

improving access in wet weather. 

– Mowing may be used in conjunction with herbicide applications. 

– Selective grazing by stock can cause unpalatable ungrazed species to become 

dominant and troublesome. Pastures and grazing management includes grazing regimes, 

prudent fertilizers, heavy grazing forces stock to eat the less palatable weeds. Sheep 

graze closer to the ground than cattle so do more damage to weeds. Avoid overgrazing, 

use appropriate stocking rates, rotational grazing to avoid overgrazing, bare ground and 

subsequent weed invasion. Goats graze on thistles, bracken and gorse. 

– Protect trees from lawnmower, whipper-snipper (and herbicide) damage. 

Equipment trailed behind harvesters, which destroys any weed seeds in harvester 

chaff and re-spreads the chaff over the field, is currently being researched. 

Rolling weeds and cover crops with special machinery, flattens them; they then break 

down slowly into mulch. 

Scalping is used in forestry for plantation establishment, and involves the removal 

of the weeds and topsoil with a tractor or bulldozer on flat sites, but there are costs 

and tree nutrition problems, resulting from removal of topsoil. 

Some implements bury seeds (rotovators), while others lift them up to the surface 

(spring tines) where they can be removed mechanically as they germinate. 

Aquatic weed harvesters cut, load and dump weeds out of waterways. 

Flooding is timed in rice fields so that weed seed germination is suppressed and 

growing weeds drowned meanwhile the more water tolerant rice is unharmed. 

HEAT. 

Burning weeds and crops using flame throwers (low pressure gas burning torches), 

are occasionally used by trained personnel, but may be prohibited by local legislation 

or at certain times of the year. Flames or superheated steam (searing) boils 

moisture in weeds which die back to the crown. They may be hand-held or tractormounted. 

Most effective on weeds with unprotected growth points and/or thin 

leaves, eg chickweed, and weeds with a low capacity for root suckering, thin bark, 

etc. Degree of control of woody weeds depends on the species. 

– Does not kill perennial weeds the effect on weeds being similar to that of 

mowing or slashing except that burning is more complete. 

– Many natural ecosystems are adapted to regular fires and species diversity 

may decline unless they are burnt. Burning may stimulate germination of some 

soil-stored weed seeds such as some legume seeds. The intensity of fire determines 

which seeds are stimulated. Too frequent burning can lead to fire-resistant weeds, 

loss of surface organic matter, poor soil stability, loss of the desirable species in 

pasture, erosion and depletes reserves of phosphorus. Can kill seed present on the 

soil surface of natural bushland, eg boneseed. 

– Ideal for suppressing weeds where chemical use is not appropriate or where 

machines cannot access, eg paths, lawns and gardens against fences, and around trees. 

Selectively controls weed seedlings in established cotton and maize crops. 

– Stubble burning, followed by a post-emergent herbicide, can reduce weed seeds. 

– Does not disturb the soil and the technique is accepted by organic groups. 

Infrared weedkillers of various types are being developed overseas; some of which 

look like mowers, can be wheeled down greenhouse/nursery rows to clean up crop 

debris, kill weeds, weed seeds and spores. Hand held types are also available. 

Pasteurization. Aerated steam (60 o C for 30 minutes) is used to treat potting and 

propagation media in nurseries to kill most plant disease organisms, leaving some 

beneficial microflora. Some weed seeds are killed, but higher temperatures are 

needed to kill many species of weed seeds. 

Solarization prior to planting, properly implemented can cause soil temperatures to 

increase to such an extent that some young weeds, many seeds and some plant disease 

organisms are destroyed (page 330). Solarization is not possible in mixed or perennial 

plantings. Often not very effective against weeds with deep roots and rhizomes. Water 

beds before solarization to improve control. Moisture under the plastic helps conduct 

heat and stimulates weed seeds to germinate prior to killing them. 



HERBICIDES 

LEGISLATION. 



Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA). 

APVMA 



AS 6000—2009. 




outlines minimum 

requirement to be met by 

growers and 

manufacturers wishing to 

label their products 

 

 










HERBICIDE APPLICATIONS. 

Herbicide application (page 440). 

Herbicide application equipment (page 441). 

Non-systemic & systemic herbicides (movement in weeds) (page 442). 

Non-selective & selective herbicides (page 443) 

When can herbicides be applied – stage of crop growth? (page 446). 

When can herbicides be applied – stage of weed growth? (page 447). 

Summary & examples (page 448). 

Resistance (page 449) 

Herbicide Mode of Action Groups (Table 72, page 450). 

Other products, plant extracts, etc (Table 72, page 454) 


Contact CropLife Australia for updates of Herbicide Mode of Action Resistance Groups 


Wipe-Out Plus. WEEDMASTER DUO . 

Fig. 249. Some glyphosate labels (more than 100 formulations). 



HERBICIDE APPLICATION. 

HERBICIDES 

MAY BE USED TO 

TREAT 

TREATMENTS 

FORMULATIONS 

SURFACTANTS 

Adjuvants 

PLANTS AND SOIL 

The foliage. These herbicides are commonly applied to leaves, stems, apical 

shoots, etc as sprays, aerosols and wipe-ons. They may have contact action, eg 

Shirquat (paraquat) or be systemic, eg Roundup (glyphosate). 

The soil. Herbicides may be applied as sprays or granules. They are usually 

systemic, persist for long periods, are taken up from the soil by germinating seeds 

and established weeds. Some have pre-emergent selective activity at low rates, 

but provide total vegetation control at higher rates, eg simazine. 

The trunks of trees, etc. These herbicides are commonly applied as liquids in 

holes or cuts in stems. They must be systemic to be taken up in the sap stream, eg 

Roundup (glyphosate), Garlon (triclopyr). 

TREATMENTS include: 

Broadcast treatment. Cover an entire area (plants and/or soil surface) evenly, 

either by spraying a liquid or spreading a granular herbicide. 

Band treatment. A relatively narrow band is treated with herbicide, eg a crop 

row, along the edge of paths. Weeds between crop rows can also be controlled by 

cultivation, mowing, etc. 

Directed spraying. Herbicide is applied directly to the area between plants, or 

inter-row area, care being taken to avoid any contact with the crop plants. 

Spot treatments are directed to the foliage of weed clumps in weed-free areas, 

eg orchards or wiped on the foliage of individual weeds in lawns or garden beds. 

Containers may be spot treated. Also used in pastures, non-crop situations to reduce 

the amount of herbicide used. 

COMMON FORMULATIONS which 

can be purchased include: 

Liquids, eg liquid carriers: 

– Dry flowable concentration 

– Water dispersable granules 

– Emulsifiable concentrates 

– Suspension concentrates 

– Liquid concentrates 

Solids, eg solid carriers: 

– Soluble powders, water soluble 

granules, some are pre-packaged 

The formulation is the 

– Wettable powders 

product purchased 

– Dusts 

– Granules 

Others, eg aerosols, gels. Herbicide-coated fertilizers have been found to be 

effective in controlling weeds while reducing runoff. 

SURFACTANTS include wetters and stickers which may be added to herbicide 

formulations either during manufacture or just before application when needed. 

Make water-based herbicides ‘wetter’ so that they stick to and spread over waxy 

or hairy leaf surfaces rather than forming into drops and rolling off like rain drops 

(pages 444, 445). 

Increase the rate of absorption of the herbicide through leaf surfaces thereby 

reducing selectivity. A change in droplet size can have the same effect. Surfactants 

may affect the final site of action in the plant. 

Only add surfactants if the label recommends it, and only use recommended ones, 

otherwise crops may be damaged and weed control ineffective. 

Carriers (materials used to dilute the herbicide prior to application) such as diesel 

enable better penetration of herbicides, used for basal bark treatments. 

MARKER DYES Marker dyes are used to indicate spray coverage (page 456). 



HERBICIDE APPLICATION EQUIPMENT. 

Like formulations, application equipment is improving all the time, eg digital controls can keep equipment 

in line and improve application of chemicals and fertilizers, causing less plant damage. 

SPRAY 

APPLICATIONS 

HERBICIDES ARE DILUTED mostly with water to aid even distribution over 

the area to be sprayed. The volume of water carrier can affect both the 

efficiency of weed control and the selectivity of the herbicide. 

High volume (HV) applications are usually greater than 1,000 litre spray/ha. 

 

 

Low volume (LV) applications usually range from 100 – 400 litre spray/ha. 

Ultra-low volume (ULV) applications are usually less than 5 litre spray/ha, small 

volumes of spray to treat large areas. Spray domes prevent drift. 

SPRAY APPLICATION EQUIPMENT, eg 

Hydraulic sprayers, eg knapsacks, power sprayers, trailer sprayers, booms. 

ULV (ultra-low volume). 

– Ground applications of various types, eg Micron Herbi. 

– Aerial applications which are used for large areas or situations which are 

inaccessible to ground equipment, eg field crops, pastures, forest areas, 

firebreaks, electricity lines, mountainous areas, etc. 

GRANULE 

DISPENSERS 

WIPERS 

DISPOSABLE 


APPLICATORS 

HAND-HELD, LARGER TYPES 

A few residual soil-active herbicides, eg pre-emergents, are formulated as 

small granules which are spread over moist soil at an even rate. 

A spreader or shaker is usually required to obtain uniformity and it must be 

carefully calibrated before application starts. Herbicides are applied dry not mixed 

with water. 

Incorporation. Sometimes the granules have to be worked mechanically into the 

upper few centimetres of soil while others are moved into the top centimeters of 

soil by rain or irrigation. 

Activation. The herbicide must be dissolved by water in the soil, by rain or 

irrigation and taken up by the roots of the germinating seeds. 

SELECTIVE WIPERS 

Application is a means of selectively wiping tall weeds with glyphosate, a 

non-selective herbicide. Shorter crop plants are unaffected. 

Hand-held units used in home gardens while larger tractor units are used in turf and 

broadacre farming. 

Ropewick applicators wipe a very small amount of concentrated translocated 

herbicide onto shoots of the weeds to be killed. 

– Product is diluted as per label directions for use with a very small amount of 

water and is carried from the reservoir to the ropewick by gravity and capillary 

action so that there is a uniform flow of herbicide along the rope-wick. 

– The ropewick is moved along just above or beside the crop so that it 

contacts the foliage of the weeds but not the crop. By only wiping the 

herbicide onto the weeds a high degree of selectivity is achieved. 

– Home garden wipers may have a brush instead of a wick. 

LARGE RANGE OF APPLICATORS including: 

Hose-connected spray packs 

 

 

Gun 

Aerosols 

Hose-on Gun Weeding brush 

STEM 

TREATMENTS 

RANGE OF EQUIPMENT FOR TREATING STEMS 

Frill treatment 

Cut stump (hack and squirt) 

Stem injection of woody growth with 

translocated herbicides in liquid form 

Spot gun 

Also pages 467, 468 



NON-SYSTEMIC & SYSTEMIC HERBICIDES 

Contact & translocated herbicides – Movement in weeds 

NON-SYSTEMIC 

HERBICIDES 

Contact 

NON-SYSTEMIC HERBICIDES are only active at the point of application 

(leaves, stems, roots); they are not absorbed by the plant. 

They are mostly applied to leaves and stems. 

They often have no action through the soil. 

Normally act rapidly, good coverage is necessary for maximum effectiveness. 

Useful for controlling annual weeds and perennial weed seedlings with no 

underground reserves of food or buds from which to regrow after treatment. 

Contact herbicides may be either non-selective or selective. 

NON-SYSTEMIC FOLIAGE, eg 

Sprayseed , Tryquat (diquat + paraquat) 

Basta , various (glufosinate-ammonium) - 

slightly systemic 

Contact action, perennial weeds may 

regrow from tap roots, etc 

SYSTEMIC 

HERBICIDES 

Translocated 

SYSTEMIC HERBICIDES are applied to the leaves and stems of weeds, they 

then enter the plant and move through the stems to the roots, eventually killing 

the weed. Systemic herbicides may also be applied to the soil to control 

germinating weed seeds (pre-emergent herbicides) or taken up by roots. 

May either be non-selective or selective at normal dose rates. 

Herbicides enter leaves through upper or lower leaf surfaces (lower surface is 

more permeable). Entry is mostly via the cuticle but also occurs via the stomates. 

Most effective against actively growing weeds which can circulate the 

herbicide through the plant effectively. 

Dosage rates must be low enough for absorption and maximum translocation 

by the plant to take place. At excessively high dosage rates many systemic 

herbicides are least effective, merely acting like a contact herbicide. 

 

 

 

Mainly act slowly often taking several weeks for maximum effect. 

Advantages of systemics. 

– Whole plant surface need not be treated, eg may be applied as foliage, root and soil 

or tree injection treatments. Active at sites remote from where they are applied. 

– When applied to the soil, systemic herbicides dissolve in soil water and are taken 

up by the roots. The soil must be kept moist for continued uptake. 

– Once systemic herbicides have been absorbed by the foliage they cannot be washed 

off by rain or irrigation. Allow sufficient time for absorption. 

Disadvantages of systemics. 

– Excessive residues may still occur unless withholding periods are observed or there 

is excessive application. 

– May control weeds more slowly than contact non-systemic contact pesticides. 

SYSTEMIC FOLIAGE, eg 

Roundup , Zero , various (glyphosate) 

SYSTEMIC ROOTS, SOIL, eg 

Diuron , various (diuron) 

For perennial weeds 

the aim is to kill the 

 

parts. 



NON-SELECTIVE & SELECTIVE HERBICIDES 

Broad & narrow spectrum herbicides 

SOIL 

STERILANTS 

NON-SELECTIVE These 

HERBICIDES 

 


These herbicides are toxic to all plant and animal organisms in the soil, eg 

diuron, many fumigants. 

herbicides are toxic to most plants. 

Non-selective herbicides kill or suppress all vegetation to which it is applied, eg 

Some foliage herbicides are systemic herbicides, eg Roundup (glyphosate) which 

is absorbed through the foliage and green stems and is translocated to the roots, 

killing many species of annual and perennial weeds. 

Some foliage herbicides are contact herbicides, eg Tryquat ® (paraquat + diquat), 

which kill foliage of weeds but not root systems, so perennial weeds may regrow. 

Non-selective herbicides can be applied selectively (page 445). 

Soil residual herbicides are applied to soil where they remain active for some time 

after application. The extent to which a herbicide has a residual affect in the soil will 

vary depending upon several factors, eg soil pH and solubility of the herbicide. Soil 

residual herbicides are used to control: 

– Germinating weed seeds (pre-emergent herbicides) or 

– Roots of brush etc 

– For total vegetation control (soil sterilants) 

NON-SELECTIVE FOLIAGE, eg 

Roundup , Zero , various (glyphosate) 

NON-SELECTIVE ROOT, eg 

Diuron , various (diuron) 

SELECTIVE 

HERBICIDES 


 

SELECTIVE FOLIAGE,eg 

2,4-D, dicamba and MCPA 

Broadleaved weeds 

Selective herbicides are more damaging to some plants (certain weeds) than to other 

plants (desired plants or crops), eg MCPA is used to control broadleaved weeds in turf. 

SELECTIVE FOLIAGE, eg 

Fusilade , various (fluazifop-pbutyl) 

Grass weeds 

SELECTIVE FOLIAGE,eg 

Garlon , various (triclopyr) 

Woody plants, broad 

leaved weeds, legumes 

SELECTIVE FOLIAGE 

& ROOT, eg 

Propon , Atlapon (2,2-DPA) 

Most annual & perennial 

grasses 

Some herbicides can be 

taken up by both foliage and 

roots. 



NON-SELECTIVE & SELECTIVE HERBICIDES (contd) 


WHY ARE SOME 

HERBICIDES 

SELECTIVE? 

Selectivity may be achieved in many different ways, eg 

Physiological differences between weeds and desired plants., eg 

– Rate of herbicide uptake by roots. 

– Rate of herbicide movement in the phloem (food conducting) or xylem (water 

conducting). 

– Different rate of herbicide breakdown in the plant. 

– Different degree of herbicide tolerance, eg this may be due to the physical 

characteristics of the leaves such as cuticle penetration. Other herbicides may 

interfere with photosynthesis or respiration in certain plants. 

– Some herbicides affect chemical processes within the weed but not the crop. 

– Breakdown of herbicide by some plants and not others, eg maize, but not some 

weeds, can metabolize atrazine to a non-toxic compound so that maize is not 

killed but the weeds are. 

– Much of their selectivity depends on their rate of absorption through the leaf 

surface. They generally are more likely to injure plants if they are absorbed 

rapidly. Selectivity is determined by the ability of the plant to either tolerate 

the herbicide or break it down to harmless substances as it is absorbed. 

Leaf structure., eg 

– Leaf area (narrow or broad leaf), eg rosette broad leafed weeds catch and hold 

more spray than grasses. 

– Leaf arrangement (open or closed). 

– Nature of leaf structure (hairy, waxy, etc). 

– Location of growing point (exposed, protected). 

Large leaves catch 

hold more chemical 

Small leaves catch 

and hold less chemical 

Open arrangement 

of leaves, good 

leaf contact 

Restricted 

arrangement, 

of leaves, poor 

leaf contact 

Smooth leaf, 

herbicide 

runs off 

Rough leaf, 

herbicide 

retained 

Multi-channel leaf, 

herbicide caught 

in hollows 

Growing point 

protected 

Growing point 

exposed 



NON-SELECTIVE & SELECTIVE HERBICIDES (contd) 


WHY ARE SOME 

HERBICIDES 

SELECTIVE 

(contd) 

Stage of crop growth. Some crops are only tolerant of recommended rates of 

a herbicide at certain stages of growth. Herbicides must be applied at the 

appropriate stage of the crop, eg before the crop has been planted, after the crop 

has been planted but before emergence of the crop, or after the crop has 

emerged (page 446). 

Stage of weed growth. Many herbicides are effective only against certain 

growth stages of the weed, eg roots, foliage, germinating seeds (page 447). 

– Many are more effective when weeds are young and actively growing rather 

than older and growing slowly. 

– Those herbicides active against germinating seeds can be used amongst 

established plants in orchards, arboreta and containers. 

– Spray topping is the application of a sub-lethal dose of non-selective 

herbicides to pastures at flowering. It is used to prevent the formation of viable 

weed seeds without inducing a winter feed shortage. Spray topping can be very 

effective in reducing the weed seed bank. 

Herbicide application techniques., eg 

– Non-selective herbicides, eg Roundup (glyphosate) may be applied as a 

directed spray, spot spray or wiper application to avoid contact with desired plants. 

– Placement of herbicide in the soil. Selectivity of herbicides absorbed by the 

roots may be influenced by the depth of the plant root system. Herbicides may 

be fixed in the top few layers of soil so that tree or shrub roots are not 

damaged. Seed may be placed below a treated soil zone. 

– Type of formulation. Granular herbicides may be used which bounce off the 

crop onto the soil, thereby killing germinating weed seeds only. 

– Addition of wetting agents (surfactants or spray oils) increases herbicide 

uptake by plants, reducing selectivity resulting in reduced crop tolerance. In 

general, the smaller the droplet size the greater the number of spray droplets 

retained by the leaf. Wetting agents lower the surface tension of the leaf, 

increase the droplet number retained on the leaf and reducing run-off. 

Some herbicides are selective at low rates only. Such herbicides may 

become non-selective when applied at higher rates. Generally the higher the rate a 

herbicide is applied the less selective it is. 

Environmental conditions. affect herbicide selectivity, eg soil moisture 

and air temperature. Some are less effective at low temperatures but too effective at 

high temperatures damaging crops in glasshouses. Many herbicides only work when 

weeds are young and actively growing. 



WHEN CAN HERBICIDES BE APPLIED – STAGE OF CROP GROWTH. 

Timing is all important, otherwise significant crop damage may occur and weeds may not 

be controlled (check keys and books describing the growth stages of crops). 

FALLOW PERIOD 

WEEDS IN THE FALLOW PERIODS between crops may decrease stored soil 

moisture, carry over diseases and insect pests to affect subsequent crops and increase 

the viable weed seed content of the soil. These weeds may be controlled mechanically 

or chemically after the weeds had germinated. 

PRE-PLANT, 

PRE-SOWING 

If residuals are 

used ensure they 

do not affect the 

subsequent crop, 

emerging crops 

must be tolerant 

AT PLANTING 

POST-PLANT 

HERBICIDES 

Specific examples 

have been given but 

always follow label 

instructions before 

using herbicides in 

any particular 

setting 

PRE-SOWING APPLICATIONS are made to assist seed bed preparation or to kill 

weeds that would otherwise have germinated with the crop. 

Non-selective systemic foliage herbicides can be applied prior to 

planting or sowing the crop, eg Roundup (glyphosate). 

Herbicides that require deep physical incorporation into soil can only be applied 

before the crop is sown, later incorporation would damage the crop. 

Herbicides that are incorporated into the soil by rainfall or irrigation may be 

applied either before or after the crop is planted. 

PRE-EMERGENCE HERBICIDES may be applied at planting, eg Dacthal 

(chlorthal). 

Herbicides are applied after the crop has been planted. The crop must be tolerant, but 

it may be only tolerant at certain stages. 

PRE-EMERGENCE CROP AND 

PRE- EMERGENCE WEED 

The herbicide is applied before either the 

crop or weeds have emerged from the soil. 

Examples include: 

Dacthal (chlorthal) 

simazine (in lupins) 

PRE - EMERGENCE CROP AND 

POST- EMERGENCE WEED 

Non-selective contact or translocated 

herbicides are applied before the crop has 

emerged but after weed seedlings have 

emerged from the soil, eg 

atrazine 

POST - EMERGENCE CROP AND 

PRE - EMERGENCE WEED 

The herbicide is applied after the crop has 

emerged but before the weeds have 

emerged. Examples include: 

Tramat (ethofumesate) 

POST- EMERGENCE CROP AND 

POST- EMERGENCE WEED 

A selective herbicide is applied after both 

the crop and the weeds have emerged through 

the soil. Crop is unharmed. Examples include: 

Fusilade (fluazifop-p) 

MCPA 

PERENNIAL CROPS 

Non-selective post-emergent herbicides 

must be applied as directed sprays, eg 

amongst trees and shrubs, roses, fruit trees 

and vines, where weeds to be controlled have 

emerged. Pre-emergent herbicides can 

be applied as directed sprays before weeds 

have emerged. 

FOLLOW UP 

TREATMENTS 

This is critical when controlling many perennial weeds, eg 

Nutgrass has underground nutlets, onion weed and three-cornered garlic have 

underground bulbs. Couchgrass produces stolons and rhizomes. Months after 

treatment with glyphosate, small leaves will emerge and follow up applications are 

needed. It is important not to let these plants flower and seed. 

Woody weeds such as gorse may require further treatments to control regrowth 

and seedlings. 



WHEN CAN HERBICIDES BE APPLIED – STAGE OF WEED GROWTH. 

Again timing is important, otherwise significant crop damage may occur and weeds may 

not be controlled (check keys and books describing the growth stages of weeds). 

POST-EMERGENT 

HERBICIDES 

Knockdown herbicides 

PRE-EMERGENT 

HERBICIDES 

Do you know when your 

weeds emerge? 

No pre-emergent kills 

all weed seeds 

The crop or the 

emerging crop must 

be tolerant 

Soil residual up to 6 

months kills 

germinating weed 

seeds 

Many herbicides 

show more than one 

type of activity, eg 

post-emergent and 

some pre-emergent. 

RESIDUAL 

ACTIVITY 

IN SOIL 

If residuals are 

used ensure they 

do not affect 

subsequent crops. 

Some are only 

effective against 

germinating seeds 

(pre-emergent 

herbicides), while 

others control 

established weeds. 

Examples of soil 

residual herbicides 

which kill established 

weeds include diuron, 

Casoron (dichlobenil 

Applied to the foliage of emerged existing weeds. Young actively growing weeds are 

more easily controlled than older well established plants. They may need to be applied 

at a certain stage, eg seedling 2-leaf stage. They may be: 

Contact herbicides (non-systemic), eg Basta (glufosinate-ammonium), affect only 

the part of the plant they touch; they have short duration, fairly rapid action. 

Translocated (systemic), eg Glypho , Roundup , Zero (glyphosate) and are taken up 

by the foliage/stems and translocated into the root system. They may be: 

– Non-selective, eg Roundup (glyphosate) which kills annual and perennial weeds. 

– Selective, eg MCPA controls broadleaved weeds in grass crops. 

Weed seeds usually germinate in the upper 

centimeter (small seeds) to 10cm (large 

seeds) of soil depending on the availability 

of moisture near the surface. Pre-emergents 

aim to kill germinating weed seeds before 

they emerge from the soil (page 458). 

Dacthal Goal Surflan 

Ronstar Simazine Rout 

For effective application: 

Pre-emergent herbicides are formulated to remain near the soil surface where 

weed seeds germinate and not to move deeper where they could affect roots of 

established plants. Soil compaction, solubility of herbicide, soil organic matter or clay 

also affects their activity. Seedbeds must be clump-free, apply to weed-free soil. 

Even incorporation ensures that pre-emergent herbicides are applied at the correct 

depth to contact the roots or shoots of germinating weed seedlings. Some pre-emergents 

break down in sunlight or are volatile (rapidly evaporate damaging nearby crops) and 

must be incorporated within a few hours of application or will lose their effectiveness. 

– Irrigation/rain incorporation can be pre-or post-plant. Some pre-emergents are 

fairly soluble in soil moisture and are sufficiently mobile by themselves, or with only a 

little rain or irrigation to move into the upper few centimeters of soil where they will 

actively control weeds. Furrow irrigation or drippers are not suitable. Check weather, 

rainfall, temperature, wind, volatilization, and photo-degradation. 

– Mechanical incorporation into the soil surface of some herbicides is pre-plant only, 

to avoid damaging crop seeds. They are either less soluble/mobile in the soil or must be 

carried to greater depths to control larger seeded and deeper germinating weeds. 

Mechanical incorporation is a major cause of damage to soil structure, not suitable for 

conservation tillage (CT) systems. 

Activation. Soil moisture is essential for activating and dissolving pre-emergents. 

Roots or shoots of germinating weeds then take up the herbicide. 

Soil disturbance can have a dramatic effect on the effectiveness of pre-emergents. 

Pre-emergents may generally be: 

– Non-selective, eg Surflan ® (oryzalin), Ronstar ® (oxadiazon). 

– Selective, eg Goal ® (oxyfluorfen), Dual ® (metolachlor), Casoron ® (dichlobenil). 

NON-RESIDUAL. HERBICIDES break down quickly in soil, eg Tryquat (diquat + 

paraquat) allowing a crop to be planted soon afterwards. 

RESIDUAL. HERBICIDES persist in the soil for long periods and are taken up by 

the roots and shoots of germinating seedlings and roots of established weeds. They can 

be selective or non-selective. 

 

 

 

Pre-emergent herbicides at selective rates provide long term control of 

weed seedlings, protecting the crop during its early growth stages when it is most 

sensitive to weed competition, during high growth seasons of spring and autumn. 

– Select pre-emergents and adjust application rates to leave no damaging residues in the 

soil after the crop is harvested to interfere with growth of subsequent crop. 

– At higher application rates some soil residual pre-emergent herbicides are non-selective 

and kill all plant growth, eg simazine. 

Soil sterilants used non-selectively at high rates give long-term control of all 

plant growth, usually in non-crop situations, eg fire breaks and around buildings and 

industrial installations. Herbicide remains in soil for a considerable time, eg 

– simazine (6 months to more than 12 months) 

– diuron (years) 

Factors affecting residual activity in the soil include: 

– Residual activity can vary from a few weeks to a year or more. 

– Concentration, generally the higher the rate the longer the residual effects. 

– High temperatures favour the breakdown of herbicide. 

– Leaching by soil water, which will depend on rainfall, soil type, herbicide solubility. 

– Ultra-violet light, which can breakdown some herbicides, eg simazine. 

– Volatilization may occur under high soil temperatures and dry conditions. 

– Microbial breakdown in the soil. 

– Adsorption by humus and clay may render a herbicide unavailable to the plant. 

– Some post-emergent herbicides may fall on soil and be active for a short time against 

subsequent crops, eg glyphosate. Check label for plant-back time. 




Fig. 250. HERBICIDES (page 450) 

POST-EMERGENT 

Foliage - Knockdown 

SOIL RESIDUALS 

NON- 

SELECTIVE 

SELECTIVE 

PRE-EMERGENT 

SOIL STERILANTS 

NON- 

SYSTEMIC 

Contact 

burns foliage 

SYSTEMIC 

Translocated 

to roots 

NON- 

SYSTEMIC 

Contact 

SYSTEMIC 

Translocated 

to roots 

NON- 

SELECTIVE 

SELECTIVE 

Basta 

(glufosinateammonium) 

 

Bioweed (pine oil) 

Sprayseed 

(diquat+paraquat) 

Shirquat 

(paraquat) 

Glyphosate 

(kills roots of 

annuals & 

perennial 

grasses & 

broadleaved 

weeds) 

 

DSMA 

Broadleaved 

weeds in 

grass crops 

Hormone 

herbicides, eg 

2,4-D, dicamba 

MCPA 

Casoron 

 

Sierraron 

(dichlobenil) 

Dacthal 

(chlorthal-dimethyl) 

Ronstar 

(oxadiazon) 

Surflan 

(oryzalin) 

 

Simazine 

Exporsan 

(bensulide) 

 

Gallery 

(isoxaben) 

Diuron 

(diuron) 

Simazine 

(simazine) 

Grass weeds in 

broadleaved 

crops 

Fusilade 

(fluazifop-P) 



RESISTANCE. 

WHAT IS 

RESISTANCE? 

Australia has a 

very high level of 

herbicide resistance 

Glyphosate resistant 

weeds have been 

confirmed in Australia, 

eg ARG, awnless 

ryegrass and 

liverseed grass. 

When growing 

herbicide-resistant 

crops take care that 

weeds in the crop do 

not become resistant 

to the herbicide being 

used. 

RESISTANCE 

MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGIES 



according to how 

the pesticides kill 

the insect, fungi 

and weeds and is 

used for resistance 

management. 


toxicity, 






page 237). 



other than 


Incorrect identification of 

the weed. 

Wrong herbicide may 

have been used. 

Applied at wrong time. 

Weather is unsuitable for 

application. 

Equipment not calibrated 

properly. 

Application errors, wrong 

rates, nozzles, etc. 

If resistance is 

suspected, resistance 

testing can be arranged. 

Herbicide resistance is the ability of a weed to survive a herbicide rate that would 

normally control it. If resistance develops, other herbicides, or more expensive, or less 

effective control methods, may have to be used. Once developed, herbicide resistance 

can persist for many years. Keep accurate records of herbicide usage. 

In 2005, in 40 countries, there were at least 178 documented cases of grass and 

broadleaf species of weeds resistant to herbicides belonging to most mode of action 

groups, including glyphosate. In Australia, weeds which are resistant to at least one 

mode of action group of herbicides include annual ryegrass (ARG, Lolium rigidum), 

wild oats (Avena spp.), barley grass (Hordeum leporinum), wild radish (Raphanus 

raphanistrum), Indian hedge mustard (Sisymbrium orientale), common sowthistle 

(Sonchus oleraceus), prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola) www.weedscience.org 

Cross-resistance. ARG shows what is known as cross-resistance which means that 

ryegrass which develops resistance to one herbicide will develop resistance to 

herbicides with similar modes of action. 

Conditions favouring herbicide resistance. 

– Most weed populations contain a small number of resistant plants able to survive 

an application of a particular herbicide. Repeated use/over-use of one herbicide, or 

other herbicides with the same mode of action, will kill susceptible weeds, but allow 

survivors to grow and multiply, these surviving resistant weeds become common. 

– Levels of resistant weeds depend on whether the grower uses non-chemical 

methods, as these influence herbicide group selection and application frequency. 

– In Australia ARG resistance is the world’s worst case of herbicide resistance. There 

are many reasons for this. Arguably ARG was once regarded as a valuable pasture 

grass (60 million acres of it). When these pastures were converted to crops, ARG 

became a weed of crops grown under minimum tillage and a reliance on herbicides 

for weed control. Also farming in Australia is extensive, with lower yields, no 

subsidies, and so lower rates of certain herbicides are applied than in other countries. 

Commercial herbicide resistance testing services operate for a range of 

grass and broadleafed weeds. Weed seed is collected at certain times of the year and 

screened for resistance to herbicides using various techniques. The number of resistant 

seeds per square meter can be monitored over a period of time to determine whether the 

resistant seed bank is increasing or decreasing. The effect of various cropping systems on 

the replenishment of resistant seed can also be determined. 

The application of herbicides must be part of an IWM program (page 429) which 

includes non-chemical methods, eg maximizing crop competition (pages 432, 433). 

Herbicide Resistance Management Strategies. 

– CropLife Australia has classified herbicides into mode of action resistance 

groups which indicate the mode of action of the herbicide on a metabolic process 

in the weed, ie how it kills or suppresses the weed (page 450, Table 72). 

Contact Croplife Australia for updates on classification and click on Resistance 

Management: 



herbicides, observe ABC…. groups on commercial herbicide labels. Follow 

resistance warnings. Rotate herbicides between different modes of action as 

recommended. Home garden products available from garden centres are 

not required to have herbicide mode of action groups on them. 

– CropLife Australia has also prepared Specific Guidelines for particular groups of 

herbicides and a List of Herbicide Resistant Weeds in Australia and Protection 

Guides for some crops, eg rice. There are links to the Glyphosate Sustainability 

Working Group, the Integrated Weed Management Manual and the Monsanto 

Australia’s Roundup Ready Flex® Cotton Technical Manual. 

 

Follow label instructions and warnings. which include resistance strategies. 

Application of some herbicides for control of some weeds is restricted in order to 

prevent or delay the likelihood of resistance developing. “Example” and “Company” 

are used in the following resistant weeds warning notice to avoid using specific 

herbicide or company names. 

RESISTANT WEEDS WARNING 

GROUP M HERBICIDE 

Example is a member of the Glycines group of herbicides. Example has the inhibition of 

EPSP synthase mode of action. For weed resistance management Example is a Group M 

herbicide. Some naturally occurring individual weed biotypes resistant to Example and 

other Group M herbicides may exist through normal genetic variability in any weed 

population. The resistant individuals can eventually dominate the weed population if these 

herbicides are used repeatedly. These resistant weeds will not be controlled by Example 

or other Group M herbicides. Since occurrence of resistant weeds is difficult to detect prior 

to use, Company accepts no liability for any losses that may result from the failure of 

Example to control resistant weeds. 

Growers must practice preventative resistance management strategies……… 



HERBICIDE MODE OF ACTION GROUPS 

Herbicides are classified by Croplife Australia into mode of 

action groups which assist in resistance management. 




The tables also provide an overall picture of the types of 

insecticides available for crop protection. 

Mark herbicides you use at work. 

Contact Croplife Australia for a full list of herbicides, 






Table 72. Herbicide Mode of Action Groups (2009) some examples 

CHEMICAL FAMILY 

MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 

A 

Inhibitors of acetyl 

coA carboxylase 

(inhibitors of fat 

synthesis/ACC’ase 

inhibitors 

B 

Inhibitora of acetolactate 

synthase 

(ALS inhibtors 

C 

Inhibitors of photosynthesis 

at 

photosystem 11 

SUBGROUP 

Aryloxyphenoxypropionates 

(Fops) 

Cyclohexane 

diones 

(Dims) 

Phenyl-- 

Pyrazoles 

(Dens) 

Sulfonylureas 

(SUs) 

Imidazolinones 

(Imis) 

Triazolopyrimidines 

(Sulfonamides) 

Pyrimidinylthiobenzoates 

Triazines 

includes TT 

canola(Triazine 

Tolerant canola) 

Triazinones 

Uracils 

Trade name 


FUSILADE, VARIOUS 

fluazifop-p 


other herbicides 

THE PRODUCT 

HALOXYFOP, VARIOUS 

haloxyfop 

SERTIN, VARIOUS 

sethoxydim 


herbicides 

AXIAL 

pinoxaden (+cloquintocetmexyl, 

a herbicide safener) 

BUSHWACKER, 

BRUSH-OFF, VARIOUS 

metsulfuron-methyl 


glyphosate p 

OUST, VARIOUS 

sulfometuron -methyl 



ARSENAL, VARIOUS 

imazapyr 


herbicides, eg MCPA, 

glyphosate, imazapic 

ECLIPSE, VARIOUS 

metosulam 

STAPLE 

pyrithiobac-sodium 

SIMAZINE, VARIOUS 

simazine 

may be tank mixed with 

post-emergents, eg 

glyphosate 

ATRAZINE, VARIOUS 

atrazine 

May be mixed with other 

herbicides 

HEXAZINONE, VELPAR 

hexazinone 


diuron Used selectively 

SENCOR, VARIOUS 

metribuzin 

HYVAR, VARIOUS 

bromacil 



SINBAR 

terbacil 




Post-emergence 

Translocated 

(systemic) 

spot spraying 


Translocated 

(systemic) 


(systemic) 


Translocated 

(systemic) 


Translocated 

(systemic) soil 

active but may be 

foliage absorbed, 

persists in soil 


Pre-emergence 

soil residual 


Pre-emergence 

absorbed through 

foliage & roots, 

translocated to roots 

persists up to 1 yr. 


Control/suppression 

SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Certain broadleaved 

crops, field, forage & 

seed crops, fruit, 

vegetables, bush 

land, ornamentals 

Certain broad 

leaved crops, field 

& seed crops, 

forestry, fruit 

Ornamentals, 


crops & pasture 

Wheat, barley 

Non-crop, commercia 

& industrial areas, 

rights-of-way, some 

cereal crops, 

pastures, forests 

Commercial & 


buildings, rights of 

way 

Non-crop 

situations, conifers 

may be tolerant, 

Clearfield production 

system for canola & 

wheat 

Winter cereals, 

lupins, certain tree 

plantations 

WEEDS CONTROLLED, 

SUPPRESSED 

Selective 

certain annual & 

perennial grasses, 

including couch, 

paspalum 

Selective 


perennial grasses 

Selective 

certain annual 

grasses, most 


Selective 

key grass weeds 

Selective 

broadleaves, bracken, 

certain brush species, 

gorse, blackberry 

Non-selective 


perennial grass & 


Non-selective 


perennial grass & 


Selective 

certain broadleaved 

weeds 

Post-emergence Cotton Selective 


weeds 

Pre-emergence 

Root absorbed 

Soil residual 

Control for 3-6 months 

at low rates; 6-12 

months at high rates 

Pre & post emergence 

Root absorbed 

soil residual, 

some foliage action, 

used selectively 

Pre-emergent 

Post-emergent 

Soil residual (1-2 yrs) 

root absorbed, stem 

injection, spotgun 

Pre-emergent 

Post-emergent 

absorbed by roots, 

shoots & leaves 


Pre-emergence 

Mainly root absorbed 

long term soil sterilan 

Pre-emergence 


Non-crop, fruit & field 

crops, TT canola, 

vineyards, forestry, 

ornamentals, around 

shrubs & trees at 

specified rates 

Sorghum, maize 

sugarcane, 

lucerne, TT canola, 

forestry plantations, 

rights of way 

Non-crop, industrial 

& commercial sites, 

rights of way. Pinus 

radiata plantations, 

some pastures 

Broadacre & 

vegetable crops, 

sugarcane 

Used selectively 

Non-crop industrial 

areas, rights of way, 

crops, eg asparagus, 

citrus, pineapple 

Apples, peaches, 

seed lucerne, 

peppermint 


certain annual grasses 

& broadleaved weeds, 

perennial species 



perennial broadleaved 

& grass weeds 



weeds, annual & 


woody weeds 


Broadleaved weeds & 

some grasses 


annual broadleaved 

weeds & grasses, 

especially perennial 


most annual grasses & 




Table 72. Herbicide Mode of Action Groups (2009) some examples (contd) 


MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 

C 

contd 

D 

Inhibitors of microtubule 

assembly 

E 

Inhibitors of mitosis/ 

microtubule organi-) 

zation 

F 

Bleachers: Inhibitors 

of carotenoid 

biosynthesis at the 

phytoene desaturase 

step (PDS inhibitors) 

SUBGROUP 

Pyridazinones 

Phenylcarbamates 

Ureas 

Amides 

Nitriles 

Benzothiadiazinones 

Dinitroanilines 

(DNAs) 

Benzoic 

acids 

Benzamides 

Pyridines 

Carbamates 

Nicotin 

anilides 

Picolinamides 

Pyrida 

zinones 

Trade name 


PYRAMIN 

chloridazon 

BETANAL 

phenmedipham 

DIURON, DIUREX, 

VARIOUS 

diuron 

often formulated with other 

herbicides 

PROPANIL, VARIOUS 

propanil 

BROMICIDE, VARIOUS 

bromoxynil 



BASAGRAN 

bentazone 


MCPA, dicamba 

THE PRODUCT 

ORYZALIN, SURFLAN, 

VARIOUS 

oryzalin 


oxyfluorfen (Rout), or 

trifluralin (Yield) 

TRIFLURALIN, 

TREFLAN, VARIOUS 

trifluralin 


oryzalin (Yield) 

DACTHAL, VARIOUS 

chlorthal-dimethyl 

KERB, WINTER 

GRASS KILLER 

propyzamide 

DIMENSION 

dithiopyr 

VISOR 

thiazopyr 

POTATO STOP SPROUT, 

VARIOUS 

chlorpropham 

BRODAL, VARIOUS 

diflufenican 


MCPA, bromoxynil, 

clopyralid 

SNIPER 

picolinafen 


MCPA (Paragon) 

ZOLIAR 

norflurazon 


Pre-emergence 


Absorbed mainly by 

roots 


absorbed by 

foliage, apply to 

young weeds 


Pre-emergence 

Soil residual 

(1-2 years) 

Mainly root absorbed 

Translocated (systemic) 


Contact herbicide 


Contact herbicide 


Pre-emergence 

Systemic, soil 

active 

Pre-plant 

Pre-emergence 

Must be incorporated 

into soil (exceptions) 

Persists in soil 

Pre-emergence 

Active for several 

months in soil 

Pre-emergence 


Early post-emergence 

Pre-emergence 


Absorbed by both roots 

& shoots of weeds; more 

effective on grasses than 

broadleaves 

Pre-emergence 

Plant growth 

regulator 

Pre-emergence 



foliage absorbed, 

some pre-emergence 

activity 

Pre-emergence 

SOME USES 


Beets 

CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Young beet crops, 

mangolds, nonfruiting 

strawberries 

Non-crop, commercia 

areas, road medians, 

selective weed 

control in certain 

fruits, field crops, 

vegetables, cotton, 

bulbs 

Rice 

Certain cereals, 

linseed, clover, 

lucerne pastures, 

turf, non-crop, roadsides, 

rights of way 

certain bean crops, 

eg dwarf French 

beans, Haricot 

beans, peanuts, 

soybean 

Ornamentals, fruit & 

nuts, vineyards, field 

grown nursery trees, 

shrubs, amenity 

plantings 

Certain field crops, 

vegetables, 

orchards, vineyards,; 

impregnated into drippers 

(Rootguard R ( technology) 

Certain ornamentals, 

strawberries, 

vegetable, field 

crops, lawns 

Sports turf & home 

lawns, lettuce, 

legume seed crops 

& pastures 

Turf 

Non-crop 

situations, when 

planting Pinus 

radiata and certain 

Eucalyptus spp. 

Stored potatoes 

Field peas, lentils, 

lupins, oilseed 

poppies, cloverbased 

pasture 

Field peas, narrow 

leaf lupins 

Cotton, asparagus, 

citrus, grapes, nuts, 

pome & stone fruits 


SUPPRESSED 

Selective 

annual broadleaves, 

some grasses 

Selective 

broadleaves, some 

grasses 

Non-selective 

annual grass & 

broadleaves, not some 

hard-to-kill deep rooted 

perennial weeds 

Selective (low rates) 

pre- & post-emergence 

(some crops) 

Selective 

barnyard grass 

Selective 

broadleaves, not 

established perennial 

weeds 

Selective 

certain broadleaves 

Selective 

certain annual grass 

& broadleaves, not 

established weeds 

Selective 

annual grasses & 

certain broadleaves 

Selective 


& broad leaves, 

summer & winter grass 

Selective 

certain grass weeds, 

(especially winter grass) 

& broad leaves 

Selective 

summer grass, certain 

other annual grasses & 

broad leaves 

Selective 

annual grasses and 

certain broadleaf 

weeds 

Plant growth 

regulator 

prevents sprouting in 

storage 

Selective 


weeds 

Selective 

wild radish, suppresses 

capeweed 

Selective 

nutgrass & other grass 

& broad-leaved weeds 





MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 

G 

Inhibitors of protoporphyrinogen 

oxidase (PPOs) 

N-phenylphthalimides 

H 

Bleachers: 

Inhibitors of 4- 

hydroxyphenolpyruvate 

dioxygenase 

(HPPDs) 

I 

Disruption of plant 

cell growth (distorts 

new growth) 

More than 90 

registered 

herbicides contain 

dicamba 

SUBGROUP 

Diphenyl 

ethers 

Oxadiazoles 

Triazoli 

nones 

Pyrimidindio 

nes 

Phenylpyraz 

ole 

Pyrazoles 

Isoxazoles 

Phenoxys 

(hormone 

herbicides) 

Spray drift can 

cause severe 

damage to 

cotton, grapes, 

tomatoes, oil 

seed crops, 

ornamentals 

(page 460) 

Benzoic 

acids 

(similar mode 

of action to the 

phenoxys) 

Pyridine 

carboxylic 

acids 

(pyridines) 

Quinoline 

carboxylic 

acids 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


OXYFLUORFEN, GOAL 

oxyfluorfen 


oryzalin (Rout) 

PLEDGE, VALOR 

flumioxazin when mixed 

with certain glyphosate or 

paraquat/diqat herbicides 

OXADIARGYL 

oxadiargyl 

RONSTAR 

oxadiazon 


fertilizer 

AFFINITY, VARIOUS 

carfentrazone-ethyl 

LOGRAN B-POWER 

butafenacil 

ECOPAR 

pyraflufen-ethyl 



TAIPAN 

benzofenap 

BALANCE 

isoxaflutole 

MCPA, VARIOUS 

MCPA 

often formulated with other 

herbicides, eg dicamba 

198 products containing 

MCPA, also fertilizers 

2,4-D, VARIOUS 

2,4-D 

181 products may be mixed 

with other herbicides 

DICAMBA, VARIOUS 

dicamba 

often formulated with MCPA 

to improve activity against 

broad-leaved weeds 

BLACK BERRY & TREE 

KILLER, VARIOUS 

triclopyr 


picloram, also other 

herbicides 

TORDON, VIGILANT 

HERBICIDE GEL 

picloram 


triclopyr, MCPA 

CLOPYRALID, 

CLOMAC FORESTRY, 

VARIOUS 

clopyralid 


2,4-D, dicamba 

DRIVE 

quinclorac 


Pre-emergence 


Non-systemic 

(contact) 


Rapid knockdown 

SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Tree fruit, nuts & 

vines, vegetables, 

forestry trees, 

cotton, coffee. 

prior to sowing 

some crops 

Prior to sowing 

certain crops 


SUPPRESSED 

Selective 

broadleaves & some 

grasses 

Non-selective 

various grass & 


Pre-emergence Couch turfgrass Selective 

summer & winter grass 

Pre-emergence 



Pre-plant 

Pre-emergence 

Knockdown 


Residual control 



also defoliation & boll 

opening in cotton 

Pre-emergence 

Early postemergence 

Pre-emergence 

Early postemergence 


Systemic. Some 

formulations can be 

very volatile and 

damage non-target 

species 


Systemics 


Pre-emergence 

Systemic remains 

in soil 2-3 months 


Systemic 

Foliage, stem & root 

absorbed, 


Systemic, foliar and 

root absorption soil 

residual 


absorbed by 

leaves & roots 


Systemic 

Woody 

ornamental 

shrubs, trees in 

nurseries; turf 

Winter cereals, 

pyrethrum; 

rice 

Wheat 

Winter cereals; 

Rice 

Sugarcane, 

chickpeas 

Non crop, 

commercial & 


turf, pasture, 

cereal crops, 

linseed rice, peas, 

spot spraying 

Non-crop, fallow, 

turf, cereal 

crops, pastures, 

sugarcane, spot 

spraying 

Non-crop, turf, 

pasture, cereal 

crops, maize, rice, 

Pinus radiata, 

conservation 

tillage 

Non-crop, 

industrial, fallow, 

fencelines, fire 

breaks, industrial, 

forests, pasture 

Non-crop, rights 

of way, grazing 

pastures, forestry 


pastures, fallow 

land, forests, 

industrial sites 

Certain established 

turf species 

Selective 


mainly, but some 

grasses 

Selective 

certain annual 

broadleaved weeds; 

aquatic weeds (in rice) 

Non-selective 

Certain broadleaf weeds 

& grasses 

Selective 

annual broadleaved 

weeds 

Selective 


weeds 

Selective 

control & suppression of 

certain broadleaf weeds & 

grasses 

Selective 


weeds 

Selective 


weeds 

Selective 


weeds 

Selective 

certain woody & 


Selective 

certain woody weeds 

and some other species 

Selective 


weeds 

Selective 

summer grass, white 

clover, suppresses kikuyu 





MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 

J 

Inhibitors of fat 

synthesis (not 

ACCase inhibitors) 

K 

Inhibitors of cell 

division/Inhibitors 

of very long chain 

fatty acids (VLCFA 

inhibitors) 

L 

Inhibitors of 

photosynthesis at 

photosystem 1 (PSI 

inhibitors) 

M 

Inhibitors of EPSP 

synthase 

More than 352 

registered 

herbicides contain 

glyphosate 

Revolutionized 

control of many 

hard-to-kill 

perennial weeds 

N 

Inhibitors of 

glutamine 

synthetase 

SUBGROUP 

Chlorocarbonic 

acids 

Thio 

carbamates 

Phosphoro 

dithioates 

Benzofurans 

Acetamides 

Chloroacetamides 

Bipyridils 

More than 70 

registered 

products contain 

paraquat 

Glycines 

includes 

Roundup 

Ready crops, 

eg soybean, 

cotton, alfalfa, 

corn 

Dual Salt 

Technology 

Phosphinic 

acids 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


ATLAPON, PROPON 

2,2-DPA 

SATURN 

thiobencarb 

TRI-ALLATE, AVADEX, 

VARIOUS 

triallate 

EXPORSAN 

bensulide 

OBLIX, MATRIX, 

TRAMAT, VARIOUS 

ethofumesate 

DEVRINOL 

napropamide 

DUAL GOLD 

s-metolachlor 

PARAQUAT, 

GRAMOXONE, VARIOUS 

paraquat 


often formulated with diquat 

(SpraySeed, Tryquat)) 

GLYPHOSATE, GLYFOS, 

ROUNDUP, WIPE-OUT 

VARIOUS 

glyphosate present as the 

isopropylamine salt 

May be formulated with: 

with several other 

herbicides 

May be tank mixed with 

other post- or preemergence 

herbicides, or 

soil residuals 

Bioactive has no 

surfactants & may also be 

used in aquatic areas 

WEEDMASTER DUO, 

RAZOR, VARIOUS 


isopropylamine & 

mono-ammonium salts 

ERADICATOR, VARIOUS 


monoethanolamine salt 

TOUCHDOWN 

glyphosate-trimesium 

BASTA, FINALE, 

LIBERTY, VARIOUS 

glufosinate-ammonium 



Systemic also root 

absorbed 

SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Non-crop, irrigation 

channels, certain 

field crops, fruits, 

pasture, cotton 


SUPPRESSED 

Selective 



vines, tea tree 

Pre-emergence Rice Selective 

grass weeds & certain 

annual sedges 

Pre-emergence 

Pre-emergence 

Pre-emergence 


Pre-emergence 

Pre-emergence 

short residual 



Rapidly desiccates 

plant tissue. 

Rapidly inactivated in 

soil. No residual weed 

control 


Systemic 

absorbed by foliage, 

green stems and 

bark in actively 

growing plants, 

translocation from 

foliage to roots. 

Little soil activity, but 

check plant back times 

Withering & yellowing 

of foliage not visible 

for several days to 

several weeks. Do not 

disturb perennials 

weeds for 2 weeks 

after treatment. 


Systemic 

ammonium improves 

the performance of 

glyphosate 


Systemic 


Systemic 


eg barley, wheat, 

faba beans, peas, 

canola, lupins, 

safflower 

Certain turf species 

in bowling green & 

greens 

Certain non-crop 

sites, onions, oil 

seed poppies, beet 

crops, some 

pastures & seed 

crops, established 

turf 

Almonds, 

grapevines, stone 

fruit, tomatoes 

(direct seeded, & 

transplants) 

certain crops, eg 

barley oats, 

wheat, canola, 

broccoli, green 

beans, sweet 

potato, sorghum, 

sugarcane, 

maize, canola 

Non-crop, 


row crops, certain 

other crops, seedbed 

preparation, 

preplant herbicide, 

directed spray, 

spray topping, etc 

Non-crop, paths, 

fencelines, fruit, 

ornamentals, 

vegetables field 

crops, forests, in 

shrub beds and 

around trees; 

to control weeds 

prior to planting 

crops, turfgrasses, 

vegetables, etc; 

tree poisoning, 

woody weeds 

Wide range of 

situations 

Wide range of 

situations 

Wide range of 

situations 

Post-emergence Non-crop, 

Contact action commercial and 

Knockdown, burns industrial areas, 

off green plant bananas, grapes, 

parts contacted by pome & stone fruits 

spray 

weeds in bulb beds 

Non-residual control before bulbs emerge 

Fast effective control around trees, paths 

Selective 

wild oats 

Selective 

winter grass 

Selective 

certain grass and 


especially winter grass 

Selective 

mostly grass weeds, 

some broadleaved weeds 

Non-selective 


and broadleaved weed 

Non-selective 

annual broadleaved & 

grass weeds, perennial 

weeds may regrow 

Non-selective 

annual & perennial 

broad leaved weeds & 

grasses 

Selectivity 

can be achieved by 

using as directed spray 

or wipe-on applicators 

for grasses & sedges, 

deep rooted perennial 

weeds, etc 

Non-selective 

wide range of annual 

and perennial weeds 

Non-selective 



Non-selective 



Non-selective 

annual and perennial 

broadleaved & grass 

weeds, perennial weeds 

may regrow from roots 

Non-residual control of certain 

broadleaf weeds in Liberty 

Link cotton varieties 


. 




MODE OF 

ACTION GROUP 

O 

Inhibitors of cell 

wall (cellulose) 

synthesis 

P 

Inhibitors of auxin 

transport 

SUBGROUP 

Nitriles 

Benzamides 

Phthalamates 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


CASORON, SIERRARON, 

ROOTFOAM, VARIOUS 

dichlobenil 

FLEXIDOR, GALLERY 

isoxaben 

May be formulated with 

Florasulam (X-Pand) 

ALANAP-L 

naptalam 

This product is no longer 

being manufactured 


Pre-emergence 

Soil residual 

Season long control. 

Absorbed through 

roots, upwardly 

translocated 

Pre-emergence 

Persistent 

will accumulate in 

soils 

Pre-emergence 

Incorporation into 

soil 

SOME USES 


CROPS, SITES 

TREATED 

Commercial and 


orchards, vineyards, 

ornamentals, 

around trees/shrubs 

nursery stock 

aquatic areas 

Fruit & nut 

orchards, vineyards, 

nursery & 

amenity trees, 

pyrethrum crops 

Cucurbits 


SUPPRESSED 

Selective 

certain annual & perennial 

weeds. 

Also registered for prevention of 

tree root regrowth & entry into 

sanitary, septic and storm water 

sewers after mechanical clearance 

(only to be sold to and used by 

trained plumbers & other operators) 

Selective 

certain broadleaf weeds 

Selective 


Q 

Bleachers:Inhibitors 

of carotenoid 

biosynthesis 

unknown target 

R 

Inhibitors of dihydro 

pteroate synthase 

(DHP inhibitors) 

Z 

Herbicides with 

unknown and 

probably diverse 

sites of action 

Triazoles 

AMITROLE T 

amitrole + ammonium 

thiocyanate 

amitrole may be formulated 

with other herbicides 

Isoxazolidinones COMMAND, MAGISTER 

clomazone 



Carbamates 

Arylaminopropionic 

acids 

Dicarboxylic 

acids 

Organoarsenicals 

ASULAM, ASULOX, 

RATTLER 

asulam 

MATAVEN L, VARIOUS 

flamprop-m-methyl 

WINTER GRASS 

KILLER. POACHEK 

endothal 

DSMA, VARIOUS 

disodium methylarsonate 

(DSMA) 


Systemic, absorbed 

by roots & leaves 

Pre-plant treatments 

Pre-emergence 

Uptake through roots 

& foliage, moves 

upwards in plant 


Systemic, taken up 

by both roots and 

leaves 






Industrial situations, Non-selective 

orchards, vineyards annual & perennial grass 

irrigation ditches, & broadleaf weeds 

roadsides, some 

field crops, certain 

tree plantations 

Rice, certain Selective 

vegetable crops, certain annual broadleaf 

poppies, tobacco & grass weeds 

Apples, hops, 

onions, potato, 

pasture, lucerne, 

ryegrass seed 

production, 

sugarcane 

Selective 

especially established 


bracken 

wheat, triticale, Selective 

selective spray wild oats (black oats) 

topping of wild oats 

in wheat 

Certain turf and 

lawn species 

Certain sports turf 

& lawns, cotton, 

non- agricultural 

areas, cotton 

Selective 

winter grass 

Selective 

certain broadleaf weeds & 

grasses & sedges 

Table 73. Other products, plant extracts, etc. some agricultural biological products 

. 

TYPE 

Aquatic 

herbicide 

Hydrocarbon 

oils 

Inorganic 

metals 

Plant extracts, 

other products 

Trade name 


MAGNACIDE H 

acrolein 

DIESEL FUEL 

petroleum oil 

(may be mixed with certain 

herbicides) 

Arsenic, boron 

copper sulphate 

iron sulphate 

sodium chlorate 

sodium chloride 

ammonium sulfamate 

LAWN SAND 

Wear gloves, using a plastic 

measuring cup, place equal 

parts of dry washed sand, 

sulphate of potash and iron 

sulphate in a plastic bucket 

BIOWEED, INTERCEPTOR 

pine oil 

CALLISTO 

mesotrione 

(from roots of the bottlebush 

plant (Callistemon citrinus) 

BEAT-A-WEED 

NATURAL WEEDKILLER 

acetic acid + sodium 

chloride 

SOME USES 

For use in water to control submerged & floating weeds and algae in irrigation 

systems. Only to be supplied to and used by a an authorized person 

Pre-emergence Non-crop, lines in Non-selective 

Post-emergence playing fields, use general weeds 

Contact action, as a directed spray 


Inorganic metals do not contain carbon, generally derived from mineral ores. When 

used as herbicides they directly poison plants, ie kill parts of plants with which they 

come in contact 

Bluestone (copper sulphate) controls algae in paths and ponds, copper deficiency 

Sulphate of iron (ferrous sulphate) contact effect, mosses in lawns 

Mix immediately and sprinkle directly onto weeds, not Selective 

the whole lawn. Apply in the evening so any dew can certain broadleaved 

activate the process or lightly sprinkle. To control all weeds in turf 

weeds every 2 nd week. Wear gloves (check 

Gardening Australia for details). Doesn’t store. 



Rapidly desiccates weeds 

Pre and Post 

emergent control 

Allelochemical 



Repeated applications 

need for long term control 

of perennial weeds 

Paths, driveways, 

around sheds, spot 

spraying in lawns 

Maize 

Non-selective 

seedling weeds & grasses, 

suppresses established weeds 

Selective 


Gardens, paths, Non-selective 

spot spray in lawns annual broadleaf weeds, 

with care 

algae, lichens, liverworts, 

moss 

Ammoniated soap of fatty acid, vinegar, lemon juices, pelargonic acid, etc. are nonselective, they suppress 

annuals weeds and kill the tops of perennial weeds which regenerate after a one application. 



EXAMPLES OF WEED SITUATIONS 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Adjuvants (spray additives) 

An adjuvant is broadly defined by the APVMA as ‘any substance (other than water) that is added to an 

agricultural chemical product to alter its physico-chemical properties and/or improve its efficacy’. 

They are added to pesticides prior to application mainly to improve their effectiveness, eg spreaders and stickers 

to improve spray coverage, and/or plant safety, eg compatibility or to reduce drift. 

Most spray additives are of low hazard but some may damage the environment, eg fish; others may damage 

crops under some conditions. 

Always check sequence of sprays and their compatibility with pesticide(s) being applied. 

Many are for use with particular products only, eg Nufarm Bonus (alkyl ethoxy phosphate trolamine salt) for 

use with Nufarm Credit Broadacre herbicide; Trilogy (octyl phenol ethoxylate) to enhance glyphosate 

performance on grasses in cold environments; Hydrogel spray additive for diquat which causes the mix to 

submerge and attach to the target submerged aquatic weeds. 

Guides available online include Understanding Spray Oils and Adjuvants, Herbicide Adjuvant Guides. 

Companies may specialize in adjuvants, eg SACOA www.sacoa.com.au/, SST Australia www.sstaustralia.com 

Adjuvants are listed under product type on PubCris on the APVMA website www.apvma.gov.au/ 

Table 74. Adjuvants, spray additives. - some examples. 

TYPE 

GENERAL SPREADERS 

AND STICKERS 

Petroleum oils 

Paraffinic oils 

Botanical oils, 

vegetable oils 

STICKING AGENTS 

ANTI-DRIFT AGENTS 

ANTI-EVAPORANTS 

BUFFERING AGENTS 

SPREADING AGENTS 

CLEANING AGENTS 

COMPATIBILITY 

DEFOAMERS 

PENETRANTS 

SYNERGISTS 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


AGRAL spray surfactant, VARIOUS 

nonylphenol ethylene oxide non-ionic 

organic surfactant 

WETTER TX 

octyl phenol ethoxylate 

SACOA WETTA 1000 

non-ionic ethoxylates 

D-C-TRATE, TRYCOL, VARIOUS 

petroleum oil 

TALISMAN, TRIBUTE, 

SOME USES 


For use with horticultural insecticides, fungicides and 

herbicides 

A special purpose non-ionic surfactant for use with the 

Roundup family of herbicides. 

For use as a bio-degradable wetting and spreading agent. A 

spray for use with knockdown and residual herbicides. 

Used on a range of crops with insecticides and herbicides. 

To enhance the performance of certain herbicides. 

petroleum oil/non-ionic polyethylated surfactants 

BIOPEST 

May be used with certain fungicides, insecticides, 

paraffinic oils 

herbicides to improve wetting and penetration. 

SYNERTROL OILS 

botanical oils/vegetable oils 

CODACIDE 

rape seed oil (canola) 

SPRAYFAST 

di-1-p-menthane 

DRIFTEX, VARIOUS 

refined canola oil 

ANTIEVAP, RULVAPRON 

petroleum oil 

SPRAYBUFF, PROBUFF 

soyal phospholipids acid/propionic acid 

HYGRO-STIC STICKER SPREADER 

di-1-p-menthene 

KOMPLETE KLEEN 

4% available chlorine 

TANK & EQUIPMENT CLEANER 

sodium triolyphosate + detergents 

STEADFAST 

alkylaryl polyoxyethylene glycol phosphate ester 

FLOWRIGHT COMPATIBILITY AGENT 

blend of fatty acid triglycerides 

ACTIVATOR 

non-ionic surfactants 

PULSE, BREAK-THRU GOLD PENETRANT 

polyether modified polysiloxane 

LIASE, VARIOUS 

ammonium sulphate 

For addition to most agrochemical, horticultural, foliar 

fertilizer and micro-nutrient sprays to increase chemical 

wetting, spread, penetration and rainfastness and to reduce 

spray drift and leaching of soil chemicals. 

Can maximize the performance of many plant protection 

products; enhances the activity of some insecticides. 

For use as a tank mix with some agricultural chemicals to 

improve their performance, ie penetration, wetting and 

adhesion, can also be used as an anti-transpirant. 

For addition to turf pesticides sprays to reduce spray drift and 

improve rainfastness. An adjuvant added to a spray mixture to 

reduce drift. 

Anti-evaporant and winter spray oil. Used 

with insecticides, fungicides, herbicides. 

Acidifying and penetrating surfactant, reduces alkaline 

hydrolysis of dimethoate, assists with uptake of foliar fertilizers, 

assist in management of spray droplet size. 

Used as a sticker/spreader for agricultural chemicals. 

Multipurpose cleaning concentrate for spray equipment. 

For cleaning spraying equipment, for decontamination 

when changing from one agricultural chemical group to 

another, for end of season cleaning before storage. 

A compatibility, acidifying and surfactant agent . 

Used when tank mixing certain herbicides. 

Rainfast wetting agent with low foaming qualities, reduces 

drift by producing a thick foam. Used to reduce foaming of a 

spray mixture due to agitation. 

Spray additive for improved penetration of glyphosate and/or 

metsulfuron methyl herbicides when treating certain brush 

and woody weeds, eg bracken. 

For use with glyphosate-based herbicides to minimize 

antagonism when tank mixing with flowable herbicides and 

improve performance under adverse environmental conditions. 

Weeds - Examples of weed situations 455


Marking systems 

To ensure uniform pesticide coverage over target areas, some system of temporarily marking the treated area is 

needed to prevent/indicate overlapping, unsprayed areas, spray drift onto non-target areas, blocked nozzles. etc. 

Overlapping increases pesticide usage, time taken, cost of spraying operations and may hasten development of 

herbicide resistance in overlapped areas or cause environmental contamination. 

Unsprayed areas can decrease crop yields, increase seed set of weeds, increasing the future weed burden. 

May indicate blocked nozzles, equipment malfunction. 

Different colours, eg blue is regarded as being more aesthetically acceptable on sportsgrounds/turf. 

Some are not for use on edible crops. 

Some are formulated for use on turf only, others for horticulture and turf. 

Some are for use only with herbicides, others with insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, PGRs, fertilizers. 

Some only for herbicides and smaller areas, eg rhodamine Kendocide 

Some breakdown in hours, eg Blazon , others remain for several days; foam remains for several hours. 

They contain a range of ingredients, eg rhodamine, etc. 

Plants accidentally sprayed can be immediately treated to minimize damage. Some do not stain fingers. 

Markers are listed under product type on PubCris on the APVMA website www.apvma.gov.au/ 

Table 75. Marking systems – some examples. 

THE PRODUCT 

Trade name 


DYES 

RED 

BLUE 

GREEN 

SOME USES 


REDYE Liquid Marking Dye (rhodamine B) use with herbicides (high water 

volume applications) for marking sprayed areas in horticulture, turf. 

Use with both liquid and powder herbicide spray products, foam colouring agent. 

Colour on sprayed areas remains for several days. 

Use in areas which are not too large, shrub beds, spot spraying, boom spraying 

small areas where other markers cannot be used. 

Use where stock are grazing, as a warning to owners. 

Indicates contamination of operator’s personal protective equipment. Can be 

difficult to wash out. 

Use low rates on light coloured vegetation situations, eg concrete edges, kerbs 

and gutters, granite areas and pine mulch. Use high rates on dark vegetation. 

ENVIRODYE Red Liquid marking Dye can be used with pesticide sprays; good 

compatibility with glyphosate, 2,4-D, MCPA and dicamba. 

BIG FOOT liquid (sulphonated aromatic acid dye) is a highly concentrated blue 

spray pattern indicator in horticulture and turf. 

BLAZON Blue Spray Pattern Indicator (proprietary colorant) for use with 

pesticide, fertilizer and PGR solutions, to temporarily identify treated areas. Not 

intended for use on edible corps. 

ENVIRODYE Blue Liquid Marking Dye (sulphonated ar 

for turf and a marker for use with pesticides and marking foam. 

TurfMark Blue (blue colorant) is a spray marker for turf use. 

RE-GREEN is used on dormant turf, pale coloured grasses or dying turf. 

FOAM MARKERS 

MECHANICAL SCRATCHERS 

TRAMLINES 

HUMAN MARKERS 

FIXED SIGHT MARKERS 

GPS (Global Positioning Systems) 

TREE MARKING PAINTS 

SPRAY DEPOSITS ON PLANTS 

various dyes 

SPRAY OPERATORS 

various dyes 

Foam generators on the end of the spray boom drop blobs of foam to mark the edge 

of the treated area. Foam may be white, pink or blue. Uses. Broadacre agriculture. 

Mechanical scratchers, eg plough shares or discs, trailed from the end of a spray 

boom will leave a mark for the next spray. Not recommended for areas with stumps or 

large stones, hard soil, dust may inactivate chemical. Uses. Broadacre agriculture. 

Very accurate. Strips of paddock/crop are left unsown and "tramlines" are used to 

guide the sprayer. Seeder width is matched so that the sprayer is a multiple of the 

seeder widths. Uses. Broadacre agriculture. 

The Aerial Agricultural Association of Australia has prepared a list of procedures for 

human markers to follow to ensure operational safety and uniform application. 

Uses. Broadacre agriculture, aerial applications. 

Fixed sight markers, preferably colour-coded to prevent confusion, are placed on 

fences. Some are radio-controlled that move themselves along fence lines. 

Uses. Broadacre agriculture, aerial applications 

Satellite navigation on aircraft, and within tractors, are becoming common with spray 

contractors. They enable accurate spraying limited only by the accuracy of the 

particular GPS equipment in use and the ability of the tractor driver or steering 

equipment to follow navigational lines. Uses. Broadacre agriculture, aerial applic. 

Special paints available as aerosols are used to mark individual trees for treatment. 

Resists weathering. 

Various dyes and systems are used to check droplet coverage and spray patterns 

on leaves. 

Various dyes, some of which can only be seen under fluorescent lights are available 

for checking spray deposits on personal protective equipment of operators. 

456 Weeds - Examples of weed situations


Post-emergent, pre-emergent, 

soil residual herbicides 

Weed types 

Annual and perennial herbaceous grass and broad 

leaved weeds. 

Herbicides 

For effective herbicide application and to avoid poor 

herbicide performance: 

Select a registered herbicide to control the 

weeds in the crop or situation in which the weeds 

occur. Apply at right stage of crop and weed. 

Apply the herbicide at the correct time, eg 

– To control winter annual weeds apply March/April. 

– To control summer annual weeds apply Sept/Oct. 

Length of time between treatments can be 

manipulated by careful attention to herbicide 

selection for weed spectrum, application rates, weed 

populations, uniform coverage and use of various 

non-chemical methods, eg hand weeding. 

Use appropriate application equipment, 

techniques and rates, eg correct nozzles, distance 

between nozzles, boom height, pressure and speed, 

calibrate application equipment. 

Add a wetting agent or other spray additive if 

label recommendations indicate. 

Apply during the correct weather before, during 

and after application. 

– Apply during favourable temperature and 

moisture conditions that enable the herbicide to work. 

– Temperature must not be too hot or too cold. Avoid 

applications when weeds are stressed, eg hot weather. 

– Irrigation and rainfall affects both post and preand 

so reduces post-emergence herbicide 

emergents. Drought reduces weed growth 

performance. Rain following application results in 

herbicide being washed of treated target weeds. 

– Moist leaves absorb herbicide better than dry ones 

so good soil moisture which leads to moist leaves 

is paramount. If the foliage is not moist the product 

fails to penetrate leaf hairs. 

Plant injury (phytotoxicity). 

– Many young plantings and new crops are very 

sensitive to herbicides, eg new turf and roses < 2-3 

years of age. 

– With hormone herbicides select least volatile 

formulations, ie sodium salts or amines of 2,4-D 

instead of esters (page 460). 

– Observe plant back times on the label. 

Do not mow, graze or cultivate until after the 

recommended time on the label. Allow time for postemergent 

herbicides to be absorbed by the plant. 

Table 76. Near desired plants. Some examples, the following is a guide only. 

What to use? 

NO RESIDUAL WEED CONTROL 

Post-emergents are used for controlling emerged 

weeds only, often described as knockdown herbicides. 

Can be used around trees and shrubs, domestic paths 

and fencelines. Follow label directions for application 

around newly planted trees and shrubs. 

Can be used as a directed spray. 

Post-emergent (foliage-applied) 

Non-selective post-emergents, eg 

Group M, eg Glypho , Roundup (glyphosate) 

Group N, eg Basta , Finale (glufosinate-ammonium) 

Group L, eg SpraySeed , Tryquat (diquat + paraquat) 



Apply most post-emergents when weeds are young, weeds 

are easier to kill and landscapes look better. For perennial 

weeds the aim is to kill the plant’s underground parts. 

Systemic herbicides move from foliage to roots. 

Systemic foliage absorbed. Kills emerged weeds only, kills 

roots. Do not disturb treated weeds by cultivation, grazing or 

sowing for at least 1 day after treatment of annual weeds and 

7 days for perennial weeds (check label for variations). 

Contact (minor translocation) foliage herbicide. Burns 

off parts of green plants contacted by spray. Many annual and 

perennial broadleaved weeds and grasses, some perennial 

weeds may regrow from roots. 

Contact foliage herbicide. Kills emerged weeds only, does 

not kill roots. Do not sow or cultivate for 1 hour after spraying 

(check label for variations). 

Fig. 251. Examples of herbicide damage. Left: Glyphosate injury to honeysuckle. 

Centre: Glyphosate injury to roses. Right: Tryquat injury to tulip leaves. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



1 

Table 76. Near desired plants. (contd) 

What to use? 


RESIDUAL WEED CONTROL---------- 3-6 MONTHS 

Shrub beds, around trees, roses, along domestic fencelines. Care should be taken when spraying around 

newly planted trees and shrubs. 

Annual beds, containers (pages 463, 464). 

PRE-EMERGENT RESIDUAL HERBICIDES 

Existing emerged weeds should be controlled either 

by hand weeding, spot spraying or combining a preemergent 

with a post-emergent knockdown herbicide, 

eg Glypho , Roundup (glyphosate) (pages 453, 457). 

Residual activity is the length of time a herbicide 

provides control. Most pre-emergent herbicides are 

effective for 3-4 months (some up to 6 months), 

depending on the uniformity of coverage, weed 

pressure, reintroduction of seed to the area and amount 

of hand weeding carried out. 

Pre-emergent herbicides kill germinating seeds 

of both target weeds and non-target plants (herbicide 

must contact germinating seeds; seedlings may emerge 

before they die). 

Registered uses. The pre-emergent must be 

registered for the particular weed in the crop to which 

it is to be applied otherwise apply for a permit. 

Weed type. Most pre-emergents are more effective 

against the germinating seeds of some weed species 

than others, eg broadleaved weeds or grass weeds. 

Spectrum of activity. Formulations combining 

herbicides, eg Rout (oryzalin + oxyfluorfen), are 

useful as they can increase the weed control spectrum 

and the residual activity of a herbicide application, 

thereby reducing the number of applications required. 

Timing of application. Apply pre-emergents before 

time of maximum weed seed germination or very soon 

after, eg Surflan (oryzalin), simazine (low rates). 

Apply at correct rate and at the correct frequency. 

Even application, incorporation and activation 

are essential: 

– Evenness of application. Uniform coverage of soil 

surfaces outdoors and in containers, ensures that the 

effectiveness of pre-emergent herbicides is maximized 

and cost savings achieved. 

– Incorporation into the soil may be required to prevent 

loss of activity through volatility or prevent later crop 

damage. Many pre-emergents need rainfall or irrigation 

for incorporation but too much causes them to 

decompose too rapidly, with too little rain the herbicide 

stays on the surface and volatilizes, degraded by 

sunlight. Poor soil moisture conditions probably 

cause more failures with soil-applied herbicides than 

anything else. A few pre-emergents are incorporated by 

mechanical means (page 447). Later cultivation may 

enhance or decrease herbicide activity. 

– Activation. Pre-emergents, need to be activated by 

rain or irrigation. Pre-emergent herbicides act when 

weed seeds germinate as a result of moisture. 

– Soil disturbance can dramatically reduce the 

effectiveness of pre-emergents. 

COMBINING PRE-EMERGENTS AND POST-EMERGENTS 

Always check mixtures are compatible 

Post-emergent (knockdown) eg 

Group M, eg Roundup (glyphosate) 

 

Pre-emergent (kills germinating weed seeds), eg 

Group D, eg Surflan (oryzalin) 

OR 

Group C, eg Gesatop (simazine) (low rate only) 

Post-emergent (knockdown), eg 

Group L, eg Spray.Seed , Tryquat (diquat + paraquat) 

 


Pre-emergent (kills germinating weed seeds), eg 

Group G, eg Goal (oxyfluorfen) 

For effective application of pre-emergents: 

Weather. Check weather, rainfall, temperature, wind, 

volatilization, photo-degradation. 

Seedbeds should be clump-free, ie free of weeds, 

trash and clods at time of application. 

Formulations. Pre-emergent herbicides may be 

applied as a directed spray or as granules and either 

before or after planting the crop. 

Plant injury (phytotoxicity). All pre-emergents may 

damage some species of plants. Some pre-emergent 

herbicides at higher concentrations damage established 

plants, eg simazine at low concentrations is a preemergent 

while at high concentrations it can kill 

established plants. Others, eg Surflan (oryzalin) have a 

much wider margin of plant safety. Pre-emergents may 

be sprayed over the top, or as a directed spray before or 

after planting, so there is scope for injury. 

The crop or the emerging crop must be tolerant. 

Know which species may be injured, check label. 

– Injury can occur with woody plants but is more likely 

with soft-foliaged annuals and herbaceous perennials. 

– The use of pre-emergent herbicides on annual and 

herbaceous perennial flower crops has been 

slower to develop and are frequently not quite as 

effective as those used around woody trees and shrubs, 

fruit trees, vines and in turf areas. This is mainly 

because annual and herbaceous perennial crops are 

more susceptible to injury due to: 

Roots being more superficial in the soil. 

– Foliage is softer and closer to the ground and more 

easily damaged by herbicides. 

– Application in polytunnels where the 

atmosphere is enclosed and temperature is higher, 

vapour may injure non-tolerant species. 

– Being grown in closed recycling systems. 

More applications than label recommendations. 

Season when applied affects effectiveness. 

Many pre-emergents are more effective against the 

same weed species during summer than during winter. 

Cost of herbicide. Some pre-emergent herbicides, eg 

Ronstar (oxadiazon) are much more expensive than 

others, eg simazine. 

Labels supply compatibility information. 

Systemic, foliage absorbed, non-selective herbicide 

translocated down into roots, kills emerged weeds. 

Soil residuals 

Some broadleaved and grass weeds. 

Some broadleaved and grass weeds. 

Non-systemic, contact, non-selective foliage 

herbicide, kills foliage on contact, does not kill roots. 

Soil residual 

Grasses and some broadleaved weeds 



Table 77. Total vegetation control. 

What to use? 


RESIDUAL WEED CONTROL---------- 6-12 MONTHS 

Not for use near desired plants or on areas where For long term weed control there are “once-a-year 

their roots may extend, or water catchments areas. They pathweeders” registered for home gardeners, which 

are only suitable for relatively flat areas where there is no 

chance the chemicals can wash down slopes to garden 

beds or lawns and leave lasting damage. 

These chemicals are suitable for use along log barriers, 

crash rails, drain headwalls and fencelines, generally not 

in domestic or residential areas. 

Soil residuals must be used at recommended rates to 

obtain the desired length of control. Many of these 

herbicides at higher concentrations provide control for a 

much longer time so that the area of land to which they 

are applied is not available for other uses for that period 

of time. 

Post-emergent (knockdown) eg 


 

Soil residual, eg 

Group C, eg Gesatop (simazine) 

have a residual effect for up to 12 months and 

prevent weeds growing in paths, driveways and 

paved areas. 

Some may be mixed with a post-emergent 

(knockdown) herbicide, eg Roundup , Tryquat . 

Always check the label to see that mixtures 

are compatible. 

Remember no pre-emergent herbicide will control all 

germinating weeds. 

Systemic, foliage absorbed, non-selective herbicide 

translocated down into roots, kills emerged weeds. 


Residual weed control for 6-12 months. 

RESIDUAL WEED CONTROL---------- 1 YEAR OR LONGER 

Not for use near desired plants or on areas where 

their roots may extend. 

The herbicide must be used at the recommended rate 

to obtain control for this period of time. 

May be used in parking areas (not domestic or 

residential). 

Soil residuals, eg 

Group C, eg Diuron (diuron) 

Weed control can be obtained for about 1-2 years. 

OR 

Group C, eg Gesatop (simazine) 

OR 

Group O, eg Casoron , Sierraron (dichlobenil) 

Weed control can be obtained for several years. 

Weed control can be obtained for several years. 

Fig. 252. Example of herbicide injury. Left: Soil residual applied to path washed down slope onto turf. Centre: Preemergent 

simazine injury to Prunus, applied just before heavy rain, interveinal yellowing can range from relatively mild to 

severe depending on the amount of herbicide absorbed. Right: Leaf veins of citrus turn yellow or white (vein clearing), 

possibly bromacil or diuron injury; note that vein clearing may also be caused by other agents, eg virus disease, root injury or 

girdling, or arguably, if normally well fertilized trees are suddenly deprived of nitrogen. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Broadleaved weeds 

Weed types 

Annual and perennial broadleaved weeds, eg 

Annual, eg capeweed (Arctotheca calendula) and 

Perennial, eg sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella). 

Spread 

Depending on the species, methods of spread include: 

By wind and water, eg seed, broken plant parts. 

By cultivation, eg oxalis bulbs, root parts. 

By growth of stolons on the soil surface. 

In soil deliveries, manures, compost, containers as 

seed, rhizomes, cut up root pieces, bulbs etc. 

Management (IWM) 

1. Access a plan that fits your situation. 

2. Crop, region. There will be variations in activity 

depending on the situation. 

3. Identification of the weed(s) must be confirmed. Be 

able to identify different growth stages of the weeds. 

Consult a diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv). 

Know their life cycle, method of spread, etc. 

4. Monitor weeds and/or their impact, record results 

(page 429). Know when seeds are going to germinate. 

5. Threshold. How much weed infestation is acceptable? 

Have any economic, environmental aesthetic? Do you 

need to calculate your own threshold? There may be a 

nil tolerance, eg turf playing fields. 


is reached and follow through a maintenance program. 

7. Evaluation. Review IWM program. Recommend 

improvements if required. 


Cultural methods. After ‘eradication’ from a bed, 

maintain suitable groundcover of plants, or mulch, to 

prevent re-establishment of weeds. Consider edging 

beds to keep out any stolons. 

‘Tolerant crops’. Some crops have been genetically 

engineered (GE), eg ornamentals (petunia), vegetables 

(potato), field crops (canola, cotton, soybean) for 

tolerance to non-selective herbicides, eg Roundup 

Ready Cotton. 

Plant quarantine. After removal from an area 

avoid re-infestation by not introducing soil, compost 

or containers infested with broadleaved weed seeds, 

stolons or rhizomes, corms. 

Weed-tested seeds, soil etc. Ensure crop seed is 

certified weed-free; tubestock and containers should 

not contain weed seeds, rhizomes, etc. 

Physical & mechanical methods. Annual 

broadleaved weeds may be hand pulled before seed is 

set. Perennial broadleaved weeds may be dug out 

diligently over time to remove most stolons and roots. 

Cultivation can spread bulbs and root pieces, etc and 

there is still a seed bank of weeds seeds in the soil. 

Herbicides. Depending on the situation, annual 

weeds can be controlled before they flower and set 

seed, by foliar sprays of selective herbicides, or 

directed sprays of non-selective herbicides. Preemergents 

must be applied before seeds germinate 

(page 458, Table 76). Many broadleaved weeds have 

developed resistance to certain herbicides (page 449). 

Table 78. Broadleaved weeds. - Selective control (mostly for commercial growers). 

What to use? 

BROADLEAVED WEEDS IN GRASS CROPS. 

Post-emergents 

Selective post-emergent hormone herbicides which do not 

kill grasses have been available for years to control a wide range 

of broadleaved weeds in turf, pastures and cereal crops. Some 

are more effective at controlling some broad-leaved weeds than 

others. Check label directions for the weeds in your crop. 

Hormone-type herbicides 

Group I, eg 2,4-D, MCPA, dicamba, clopyralid, mecoprop; 

often formulated as mixtures, eg dicamba and MCPA 

Pre-emergents, eg 

Group B, eg Glean (chlorsulfuron) 


Hormone herbicide injury to crops eg cotton and grapes, 

is not uncommon (Fig. 253). There are restrictions on 

their use near grapevines. Some formulations are volatile 

and may damage non-target plants. Hose jar applications to 

garden lawns may damage surrounding broadleaved plants. 

Systemic, foliage applied 

Soil residual, mainly broadleaved weeds in cereal crops 

(see also broadleaved weeds in turf, page 462). 

BROADLEAVED WEEDS IN BROADLEAVED CROPS 

Post-emergents, 

Are available for a few crops. 


Group D, eg Dacthal (chlorthal), Surflan (oryzalin) 

Group G, eg Ronstar (oxadiazon) 

SPOT SPRAYING (DIRECTED FOLIAGE SPRAY) 

Post emergent 

Systemic. 

Group M, eg Roundup (glyphosate) – Non-selective 


Certain broadleaved weeds (and grasses) in ornamentals, 

eg roses, fruit, vegetables, nursery stock. 

Fig. 253. Hormone herbicide injury. Left: Spindly tomato leaves. Centre and 

right: Parallel leaf veins in plane tree and grape vine. Cotton and grapevines can be 

severely damaged each year. PhotoNSW Dept of Industry and Investment. PhotoCIT, Canberra (P.W.Unger). 



Weed types 

Annuals, eg annual ryegrass in field crops and winter 

grass (Poa annua) in turf are arguably the most written 

about annual grass weeds. Perennial grasses are 

endless, eg couchgrass (Cynodon dactylon), various 

tussock grasses in pasture and bushland. 

Impacts 

Water and nutrients are used up. Crop yields are 

reduced, playing surfaces affected and native bushland 

invaded by perennial grass weeds. Landscapes may be 

affected aesthetically. Old clumps of unmown grass 

weeds are a fire hazard in some areas. 

Weed biology 

‘Overwintering’ in seed banks, eg 10000 ryegrass 

seed/m 2 and 75000 perennial veldt grass seed/m 2 

have been found in WA after fire; perennial grasses also 

as underground roots and other structures. It should be 

possible to disrupt seed cycles of grass weeds, especially 

for annual grasses, since seeds are not well adapted 

for long term storage in the soil (up to 4 years). The 

problem is there are so many seeds. 

Methods of spread. Depending on the species, seed 

may be spread by wind and water. Stolons and rhizomes 

grow into adjacent areas. Seed, rhizomes, cut up root 

pieces, bulbs, are spread by cultivation, in soil deliveries, 

manure, compost, containers, road building materials. 

Conditions favouring, depend on species, but seed 

of some species in some areas will germinate at any 

time of the year following rainfall. Poor pasture, bare turf. 

Many grasses prefer open sunny sites and do not 

establish or compete successfully in shade. 




Assess sites for weed control and soil type; plan a 

possible program of control and maintenance. 

2. Crop, region. Recognize variations. List the grass 

weeds which are a problem. 

3. Identification. Grasses are more difficult to identify 

than broadleaved plants, there are many native grasses. 

Be able to identify different growth stages of grass 

weeds. Identifying and treating grasses at the correct 

growth stage is essential for successful control. Consult a 


Grass weeds 

4. Monitor/map weeds and/or their impact and record 

results of any weed management programs (page 429). 

5. Threshold. Have any thresholds been established? If 

so, are they economic, fire, aesthetic, environmental? 


is reached. 

7. Evaluation. Review IWM program to see how well 

it worked. Recommend improvements if needed. 


Correct timing is fundamental to successful grass weed 

control - prevent seed set, reduce seed bank and kill 

emerged weeds. In bush areas have enough resources 

to control grass weeds following fire. 

Cultural methods. After eradication from a flower 

bed, maintain a suitable groundcover of plants or 

mulch to prevent re-establishment of grass weeds. 

Select couchgrass cultivars that do not ‘run’. 

‘Tolerant crops’. Some ornamental crops, eg petunia, 

have been genetically engineered (GE) to be resistant to 

non-selective herbicides, eg glyphosate. 

Plant quarantine. After eradication from a bed 

minimize re-infestation by not introducing soil, 

compost or containers infested with grass weed seeds, 

stolons or rhizomes, bulbs. 

Weed-tested seeds, soil etc. Ensure crop seed is 

certified weed-free; tubestock and containers should 

not contain weed seeds, rhizomes, etc. 

Physical & mechanical methods. In small areas, 

annual grass weeds may be pulled out before seed is 

set. Perennial grass weeds may be dug out over a long 

period of time to remove stolons and roots. Garden 

beds may have an edging to keep out the stolons. A 

ditch a few centimetres wide may be used in place of 

an edging. Grass weeds may also be mown, slashed, 

rolled or grazed before seed set. 

Herbicides. Many herbicides are available to 

control grass weeds, however, some grasses have 

developed significant resistance to herbicides, eg 

annual ryegrass (page 449). Slashing without followup 

herbicide treatment may increase seed production 

of some grasses, eg love grass. Herbicides must be 

applied at the correct stage of weed growth. Selective 

control of grass weeds is difficult (Table 79 below). 

Table. 79. Grass weeds. - Selective control (commercial growers). 

What to use? 


GRASS WEEDS IN BROADLEAVED CROPS eg perennial borders, vegetable & field crops 

Post-emergents, eg 

Group A, eg Fusilade (fluazifop-p) 

Systemic, foliage-applied. Grass weeds in broadleaved 

crops, garden beds. Soil residual for up to 4 months or longer. 


Soil residual 

Group K, eg Devrinol (napropamide) 

Most grasses, some broadleaved weeds in tomato, other crops. 

GRASS WEEDS IN GRASS CROPS, eg cereal crops, pasture, turf 


Group C, eg Tupersan (siduron) 

Group I, eg Drive (quinclorac) 

Plant growth regulator, eg SHORTstop Turf Growth 

Regulator (paclobutrazol) 


Group D, eg Pre-M (pendimethalin + fertilizer), 

Dimension (dithiopyr) 

Group J, eg Tri-allate (tri-allate) 

Group J, eg Exporsan (bensulide). 

SPOT SPRAYING (DIRECTED SPRAY) 


Group M, eg Roundup (glyphosate) - non-selective 

Couch, kikuyu and summer grass in bent turf. 

Summer grass, white clover, suppresses kikuyu in turf. 

Suppression of winter grass and growth regulation in turf. 


Winter grass in many turf species. 

Winter and summer grass in turf. 

Wild oats and some broadleaved weeds in wheat, barley, 

triticale and some broadleaved field crops. 

Winter grass in certain turf species. 

Systemic, foliage-applied. 



Weeds in turf 

Commercial turf is an industry in itself. 

Weed types 

Annual and perennial broadleaved and grass weeds 

need to be controlled during turf preparation, 

establishment and maintenance. Winter grass (Poa 

annua) is the most written about weed affecting 

commercial turf. 

Impacts 

Weed impacts in turf are well known. In commercial 

turf water and nutrients are used up. Playing surfaces 

become uneven. In home gardens, flowering heads 

tower above the turf, flat growing weeds smother 

surrounding turf, etc. 

Weed biology 

‘Overwintering’. Weed seed, some of which is in 

the seedbank in the soil, rhizomes, etc. 

Spread. Seed by wind and water. By growth of 

stolons on the surface of the soil. Bulbs, stem pieces 

by cultivation. In soil deliveries, manure, compost, 

containers as seed, rhizomes, cut-up root pieces, 

bulbs, top dressing products. 

Conditions favouring. Weeds may colonize bare 

areas in turf due to heavy traffic, environmental stress 

or chemical applications to existing weeds. 

Commercial contractors in low maintenance areas 

have a tendency to ‘scalp’ grassed areas. Poor 

drainage, hollow coring and scarifying at a time 



1. Prepare a plan. Access a weed management plan for 

your turf species involving site preparation, turf 

establishment and maintenance. 


3. Identification of existing or likely future weed(s) 

must be confirmed. Recognize mown weeds, consult a 

diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv). Understand 

life cycles, spread, etc. habitat conditions, etc. 

4. Monitor weed(s) and/or impacts and record results 

(page 429). 

5. Threshold. Have any thresholds been established? If 

so, are they, playing requirements and/or aesthetic? 

6. Action. Take appropriate action when any threshold is 

reached. 

7. Evaluation. Review IWM program to see how well it 

worked. Recommend improvements if needed. 


Do not introduce weed seeds, rhizomes or cut up root 

pieces in soil deliveries for turf establishment or top 

dressing. If using herbicides always check the 

label for the type of turf they can be used on. 

Site preparation. Perennial weeds should be 

controlled either by hand weeding or by spraying, 

when weeds are actively growing, with Roundup 

(glyphosate), at least 2 weeks prior to cultivation to 

prepare the seed or turf bed. Once the soil is prepared 

for sowing or turfing, if any weeds germinate during 

this period they should be destroyed either by hand 

weeding, shallow cultivation or with herbicides. In 

commercial turf, sterilization of the seedbed may be 

warranted, or complete removal of infested soil. 

Turf maintenance. Weeds should not be a problem 

in dense well managed commercial turf or home 

garden lawn as the competition from grass should not 

allow weeds to gain a foothold. In a home garden, 

weeds can be removed by hand or dug out; many 

broad leaved weeds can be controlled to some extent 

by ‘Lawn Sand’ (page 454) or herbicides. Some 

weeds in turf may be mowed out, eg chickweed. 

Table 80. Weeds in turf – Some herbicides (mostly for commercial growers). 

What to use? 

SITE PREPARATION & TURF ESTABLISHMENT 

Site preparation 


Newly established turf is sensitive to recommended rates of 

herbicides. Do not apply herbicides to turf < 3 months of age, do not 

mow for 3 days before or after spraying, or fertilize for 2 weeks before or 

after spraying, unless label directions state otherwise. 

TURF MAINTENANCE 

Broadleaved weeds in turf 


Group I, eg Kleenlawn , various (dicamba + MCPA) – hormone 

herbicides 


Group D, eg Dacthal (chlorthal) 

Group G, eg Ronstar Turf & Ornamental Herbicide (oxadiazon) 

Grass weeds in turf. Commercial turf only 


Group A, eg Hoelawn (diclofop-methyl) 

Group I, eg Drive (quinclorac) 


Group D, eg Dacthal (chlorthal), Pre-M (pendimethalin/ 

fertilizer), Dimension (dithiopyr) 

Group G, eg Ronstar Turf & Ornamental Herbicide (oxadiazon) 

Group J, eg Tramat (ethofumesate) 

SPOT SPRAYING, ROPE-WICK, WEEDING BRUSH 

Group M, eg Roundup (glyphosate) Non-selective 


At least 2 weeks prior to cultivation to prepare the seed or 

turf bed, annual and perennial weeds should be controlled 

either by hand weeding or by spraying when weeds are 

actively growing, with glyphosate. Once the soil is prepared 

for sowing or turfing, if any weeds germinate during this 

period they can be destroyed either by hand weeding, 

shallow cultivation or herbicide. 

Hormone herbicide injury to ash tree due to drift 

from a hose-jar application to a home garden lawn 

Treat weed clumps with a weeding-brush or spot spray. 



Weeds in flower plantings 

Weed types 

Many weed problems in flower beds are the result of 

poor weed control in seed, seedling or cutting beds 

prior to planting the crop. A wide range of annual and 

perennial herbaceous grass and broadleaved weeds 

must be identified to ensure that any herbicides 

used will provide effective control. For example, 

weeds poorly controlled by pre-emergent herbicides 

such as clover and wireweed need to hand weeded to 

prevent competition with annuals. 

Impacts 

Weeds reduce the aesthetic value of a display and 

compete for water, light and nutrients and thereby 

reduce plant vigour. Weeds look unsightly and 

increase the incidence of disease and pests 

(Forster 2008). 



1. Prepare a management plan that fits your 

situation and includes site assessment, source of 

planting material (plant species selections), site 

preparation and construction, planting and maintenance, 

cleaning up the site. 

2.Crop, region. Recognize variations depending on the 

site, plants being grown etc. Select plant species suited 

to site, season and climate, etc. 

3. Identify likely weed problems - annual grasses, eg 

annual rye grass (ARG), winter grass, wild oats, and 

perennial grasses, eg couchgrass; annual 

broadleaves, eg bitter cress, chickweeds, common 

cotula, fat hen, perennial broadleaves, eg thistles, 

wireweed, clover, and mustard weed. Obtain a Fact 

Sheets for each one. Seek advice if unsure (page xiv). 

4. Monitor weeds and their impact and record results (page 

429). Begin by carrying out a weed risk assessment by 

performing a weed seed germination test on the soil after 

site preparation. After planting up, monitor flower beds 

weekly for presence of weeds. 

5. Threshold. How many weeds are acceptable? Have any 

thresholds been established? If so, what are they, 

economic, aesthetic, environmental? Do you need to 

calculate your own threshold? 

6. Action/Control. Take appropriate action when any 

threshold is reached. Be careful in the selection of 

herbicides. 

7. Evaluation. Review IWM program and flower 

species selection to see how well it worked. 

Recommend improvements if needed. 


Cultural & Physical. Choose areas free of 

perennial weeds. Beds must be properly prepared, 

weed seeds allowed to germinate and any weeds which 

develop must be controlled either by hand weeding, 

cultivation or by herbicides (see below). 

Weed mats or weed-free mulches of various types 

prevent moisture loss, keep roots cool and discourage 

annual weeds. 

Resistant/tolerant varieties. Some crops have 

been genetically engineered (GE), ie ornamentals, eg 

petunia; to tolerate non-selective herbicides, eg 

glyphosate. 

Plant quarantine. Avoid introducing weedinfested 

soil, mulch, planting material in tubes, pots, 

etc. Try to prevent keep weeds in surrounding areas 

from setting seed. 

Disease-test planting material. Use if 

available and considered necessary. 

Physical & mechanical. 

Hand weeding during flowering may disturb plantings 

and damage roots. 

Herbicides. 

Post-emergents. Existing weeds can be sprayed 

out with glyphosate after the weed seed germination 

test has been done. Pedestrian paths can also be 

sprayed with glyphosate, garden bed edges with 

glufosinate-ammonium to keep weed free. Continue 

weekly monitoring for weeds in flower beds – 

weekly hand weed as required. 

Pre-emergent herbicides. Select carefully to 

ensure their effectiveness and least likelihood of 

causing damage to plants. No pre-emergent 

herbicide will control all weeds (page 458, 

Table 76, Table 81 below). 

Table 81. Weeds in flower plantings – Some herbicides 

What to use? 

NON-SELECTIVE PRE-PLANT POST-EMERGENTS 

Group M, eg Roundup , Zero (glyphosate) 

(systemic) 

Group N, eg Basta (glufosinate-ammonium) 

(partially systemic) 

PRE-EMERGENTS 

Group D, eg Dacthal (chlorthal-dimethyl), 

Surflan (oryzalin) 

Others 


Non-selective post-emergent herbicides may be used to kill 

young emerged annual and perennial weeds in prepared planting 

sites prior to planting. Check planting times. Where applicable 

glufosinate-ammonium may be applied as a directed or shielded 

spray along edges of garden beds and for inter-row weed control 

after planting. 

Treat immediately after planting out (page 458). Wide range of 

weeds. Main use is over bulbs and annuals to control broadleaved 

weeds such as chickweed, capeweed, wireweed, creeping oxalis 

and fat hen. 



Weeds in containers 

Weed types 

Annual and perennial broadleaved and 

grass weeds, eg creeping hairy bittercress 

(Cardamine hirsutus), common groundsel 

(Senecio vulgaris), oxalis (Oxalis corniculata), 

winter grass (Poa annua), liverwort 

(Marchantia polymorpha), chickweed 

(Stellaria media), willow herb (Epilobium sp.). 

Some weeds are difficult to control in 

containers. 

Impact 

Weeds in containers may compete for light, 

water and nutrients, detract from appearance and 

value of plants, be an unknown purchase in pots 

which spread to gardens, landscapes, bush areas. 

They physically hinder workers and are a source of 

insects such as aphids, thrips, whiteflies and mites 

and be symptomless reservoirs of virus diseases. 

Weed biology 

‘Overwintering’. Soil acts a primary storage bank 

for weed seeds and vegetative propagules. Nursery 

property fence lines and adjacent properties can act as 

large sources of weed seeds that are blown in by wind. 

Spread. Infested crop seed, propagation material, 

containers. Seed is spread by wind, water, animals, 

and people. Weed infestations close to a nursery and 

in the immediate area around containers. Many 

manufacturers avoid using uncomposted material and 

soil in potting mixes but they can become contaminated 

during transport, and by untreated recycled water. 

Conditions favouring. Weedy surrounds, poor 

weed management. 


Good weed management is important for any nursery 

business and is one of the most difficult. 

1. Plan the weed control program well in advance. Have 

a calendar so you will know what to do when. Include 

site assessment, source of planting material (plant 

species selections), potting up, maintenance and 

preparation for sale. Cleanup between batchs. 

2. Crop, region. The container species you are growing 

will determine your weed control options. What 

information is already available? 

3. Identify present and predicted weed problems. If 

necessary seek advice (page xiv). Identify problem 

weeds, eg bittercress, know source of weed seed, 

weed life cycles, etc. 

4.Monitor weeds in the nursery and/or impact and 

record your findings (page 429). Early detection of weed 

problems is essential and regular scouting can begin as a 

first assessment on foot, walking the perimeter of the 

nursery and then across sections. Create a working 

system to allow workers to report weed infestations. 

5. Threshold. How much weed infestation is 

acceptable? Have any thresholds been established? If 

so, what are they, eg economic, aesthetic? Do your 

customers have nil tolerance? 

6. Action/control. Some weed control options do not 

apply to container plants. Last minute hand weeding 

can be used to remove weeds that escape herbicide or 

other treatments prior to sale. Pre-emergent herbicides 

will remain economical for the present as a necessary 

part of many IWM programs. However, their use 

should be minimized. 

7. Evaluation. How effective was the weed control 

program? Evaluate a selection of plants 6 weeks 

after they have been sold and planted out 

whether in a garden, bushland, or in a commercial 

planting. Recommend improvements if required. 


Weed control is one of the largest cost issues for 

growers and is the No.1. issue for organic growers. 

Cultural methods prevention 

Use weed-free potting mixes. Soil-less 

mixes should be weed-free. Organic materials, if 

used, may contain large amounts of seed, and must 

be adequately composted. 

Pot toppers (fabric discs) are suited for larger 

container stock, eg 2-litre size upwards. Weeds 

readily grow in any gaps, eg around edges, and 

along any cuts made to assist fitting. 

– Non-damaging to plants, stable and resistant to 

wind, protected situations, control weeds for at 

least 1 year. Price competitive and easy to fit or 

apply. Commercially attractive at point of sale. 

– Disks must be UV resistant and permeable to 

fertilizers. Wool material deteriorates too rapidly. 

– Some pot toppers are coated with copper. Others 

contain herbicides and slow-release fertilizers and 

control weeds longer and better than standard 

herbicide applications. 

Loose fill mulches are suited to perennials grown 

in small pots. Mulches must be permeable to water 

and air but exclude light. Seed may germinate on top. 

– Mulches are best applied immediately after 

potting. 

– Surface must be weed-free. A weed mat could be 

used in containers with a weed-free mulch on top. 

– Recycled paper pellets applied at 25mm may not 

be cost effective but may have merit in certain places, 

enclosed structures where herbicide use is restricted, 

environmentally sensitive areas, eg water, some plants 

difficult to weed, eg thorny plants, plants grown in 

large container where between container loss is great. 

– Mulches treated with pre-emergent herbicides 

are used overseas. They could be added as top layers 

during pot-filling in assembly-line plantings in 

commercial production or in landscapes of 

commercial and non-commercial plantings. 

– Pre-emergent treated bark nuggets results in 

increased and extended herbicide efficacy. 

Sanitation prevention 

Crop-free fallow. Growers, who have a break in 

their production cycle, can empty these areas and 

control weeds. Remove debris well before another 

cropping cycle, could put down new screenings. 

In enclosed areas, eg in greenhouses and propagating 

sheds, wash and disinfect containers for re-use. 

Propagation areas should have concrete floors 

which can be regularly hosed down and disinfected. 

Well-draining blue metal or gravel aggregate in 

areas where container plants are grown or held for 

sale prevents water puddling and contact with soil. 

Sources of weed seed include: 

– Control weeds in surrounding areas to prevent seeding 

by mowing, etc and maintain at least 6 metre weedfree 

area around greenhouses to eliminate weeds 

near vents which can be screened to limit introduction 

of wind-blown seed. 

Sandbeds must be kept weed-free at all times. 

– Remove weeds before they set seed, place in bag, 

dispose of outside greenhouse or production area. 

– Dispose of unwanted plants promptly before they 

become a weed seed bank for clean stock. 

Handle weedy pots before weed-free pots. 

– Do not use the same buckets to dispose of handpulled 

weeds and for transporting cuttings. 

Store mixes in covered bins to keep out wind blown seed. 

Do not re-use potting mixes. 

– Check overhead baskets, a source of weed seeds. 

– Remove weeds in containers before they flower and 

produce seed. One prostate petty spurge weed 

may produce up to 50,000 seeds per plant. 


Rarely used in nurseries or container stock. 




Inspect tube stock at the time of purchase or delivery. 

Do not accept weed-infested plants, tube stock. 

Isolate new stock from existing stock until its weed 

status is determined. 

Weed-tested planting material/soil? 

Only purchase tubes from suppliers which produce 

‘clean’ tube and nursery stock in weed-free 

production areas. Do not accept weed-infested tube 

stock or other plants in containers. 

Use only certified weed-free seed. 

Soil-less mixes reduce incidence of weeds. Plant 

in potting mixes which comply with Australian 

standards to ensure containers are, at least 

initially, free of weed seeds. 


Hand weeding when weeds are small and before 

seed is set, can be difficult (Fig. 254) and time 

consuming. When weeds are larger it may disturb 

roots of established plants during hot dry weather. 

Pasteurization (60 o C for 30 minutes) of soil or 

contaminated potting mix kills some weed seeds. 

Pasteurised mixes should be kept covered to avoid 

contamination from windborne seeds (page 438). 

Solarisation. Involves stretching a sheet of clear 

plastic over soil. The trapped heat raises the soil 

temperature by several degrees and destroys young 

weeds (page 438). 

Control weeds under containers. Isolate pots from 

direct contact with soil by concrete paths, gravel or 

blue metal screenings, weed mat over sand. Control 

weeds in screenings, weed mats and mulches. 

Fig. 254. Hand weeding cacti in containers or in 

closely planted cacti beds is almost impossible. 

Herbicides. 

Herbicides are still the most economic and quickest. 

For organic growers where herbicides are not 

allowed, weed control is a major issue. 

The cost of herbicide applications plus hand 

weeding is already the highest cost that growers have 

and far surpasses any other form of pest control. 

Correct application rate, uniform coverage. 

With the use of combination herbicides, the time 

between treatments can be at least 6 months. 

Follow strategies for minimizing resistance. 

Pre-emergents. 

– Pre-emergents only kill certain germinating weed seed, 

check label. They will not kill vegetative growth. 

– In an optimized weed control program you choose 

the most effective pre-emergent herbicide for each 

species. This provides the best, most cost-effective 

weed control but is only suitable for large nurseries 

which grow greater numbers of each species. Smaller 

nurseries may choose to select a marginally effective 

pre-emergent that is safe on the majority of species 

being grown and supplement with hand weeding. 

– Apply at correct time, ie immediately after 

finishing a quantity of potting up, after plants have 

been watered and the media settled. Most preemergents 

for use in greenhouses are granular but 

should not be applied to wet foliage, there may be 

other restrictions on the label. Further applications 

depend on weed pressure, the herbicide used and its 

effectiveness on weeds. 

– If being applied later, media surface must be weedfree 

prior to applying pre-emergent. 

– Granular herbicides can be broadcast with a 

spreader over the top of stock. Jam pots together to 

avoid non-target herbicide waste, non-target herbicide 

falling between pots can be as high as 80%. 

– Fertilizers may be coated with pre-emergents. 

Post-emergents., eg Fusilade (fluazifop-Pbutyl) 

is registered for the control of certain grass 

weeds in potted and open grown ornamental trees 

and shrubs in nurseries. Post-emergence control of 

broadleaved weeds in containers is limited. 

 

Plant injury. 

– Chemical control of weeds is difficult due to 

the diversity of plant species grown in nurseries. 

– Injury to some nursery stock may result from 

application in enclosed areas, where vapours and high 

temperatures may damage non-tolerant species. Fans 

and spray drift from spray applications. Improper 

calibration. 

– Herbaceous plants generally are more likely to 

suffer damage than others. On some native plants, 

especially Proteaceae and Poaceae, use premergents 

with caution, also some soft-foliaged plants. 

– Non-tolerant species can be isolated into separate 

untreated blocks. 

– If using a new herbicide in containers do a trial 

run first. 

– Herbigation/recycling. Weed control in nurseries 

is becoming an important issue due to increasing 

irrigation restrictions/recycling and necessity for recirculation 

ponds. The biggest potential 

contamination in re-circulation ponds is herbicides. 

If recycling water seek advice. Water solubility 

should be a strong factor in choosing a herbicide. 

Table. 82. Container plants – Some herbicides (commercial growers). 

What to use? 

PRE-PLANT FUMIGANTS 

Basamid (dazomet) (page 267) 

PRE-EMERGENTS 

Group G, eg Ronstar (oxadiazon) 

Group O, eg Casoron (dichlobenil), 

Group D, eg Dacthal (chlorthal-dimethyl), Surflan (oryzalin) 

Groups D/G, eg Rout (oryzalin + oxyfluorfen) 

POST-EMERGENTS 

Group A, eg Fusilade (fluazifop-P-butyl) - selective grass 


Pre-emergents are soil residuals and provide control for 

varying lengths of time. 



Tree suckers 

A sucker is a shoot growing from adventitious buds at 

the base of stems or rootstocks of some grafted trees 

and shrubs, below ground stems, roots of trees, 

shrubs, climbers, etc. Some trees produce suckers 

from buds on the tree trunks, eg Prunus. 

Tree types 

Some species are prone to produce suckers from 

underground roots, eg elm, eucalypt, poplar, black 

locust, wattles, willow, wisteria. 

Impact 

Unsightly, may grow into garden beds, turf areas, rose 

gardens. 


Roots of some trees, eg cherry (Prunus spp.) may 

sucker after injury, eg by digging, cultivation. 

Some trees and shrubs sucker after heavy pruning, eg 

citrus, lilac. 

Drought may cause dieing back of upper portions and 

suckering at the base and on trunks and branches. 

Fire from control burning or which kills the upper 

part of the tree. 





3. Identification of suckers must be confirmed. Know 

what species of tree you are dealing with. Consult a 

diagnostic service if unsure (page xiv). 

4. Monitor development of suckers during the growing 

season and their impact (page 429). Record results as 

recommended. 



they, economic, aesthetic, environmental? Do you 



is reached. 





Tree suckers in a home garden or small orchard 

can be diligently dug out over a period of time. Cut 

of cleanly where the base of the sucker arises from 

the root. Note suckering on the trunks due to 

drought, etc should also be cut off cleanly allowing 

sap to go up the stem. 

Herbicide treatments. 

Herbicides used depends on whether the suckers 

are still attached to the parent tree or not (Table 83 

below). 

Table 83. Tree suckers – Some herbicides. 

What to use? 

SUCKERS NOT ATTACHED TO PARENT TREE 

Surrounded by turf, eg 

Group I, eg Blackberry &Tree Killer , Garlon (triclopyr) 

Not surrounded by turf, eg 

Group I, eg Blackberry &Tree Killer , Garlon (triclopyr) 

Group M, eg Roundup , various (glyphosate) 

SUCKERS STILL ATTACHED TO PARENT TREE 

Usually label rates apply to the control of suckers not attached 

to the parent tree. Rates used to control suckers still attached 

may be lower than label rates 

Surrounded by turf or desired plants 


General procedures. 

Suckers up to 1 metre high may be sprayed directly. 

Larger suckers or those growing in close proximity to 

desired species may be cut off at ground level and the 

freshly cut surface treated with herbicide. 

Care should be taken when spraying with either triclopyr 

or glyphosate to avoid causing damage to nearby desired 

broadleaved plants from spray drift. 

Triclopyr will damage broadleaved plants during the 

growing and dormant periods; grasses are normally 

unaffected and establish quickly after treatment. 

Systemic herbicides may be translocated 

through the roots to the parent tree or shrub 

causing injury. 

A permit may be required for an off-label use. 

Not surrounded by turf or desired plants, eg 

Group N, eg Basta (glufosinate-ammonium) (partially 

systemic) is registered for application as a directed 

spray for sucker control in blackberry, boysenberry, 

loganberry and raspberry plantations. Contact with 

non-target plant parts will cause damage. 

Seek professional advice. 



Brush and woody weeds 

Types 

Trees and shrubs, introduced and native species have 

increased to undesirable densities in some areas of 

Australia. They may be agricultural, noxious weeds or 

environmental weeds, garden escapes, Weeds of 

National Significance (WONS) or other types of weed. 

Impact 

In central Australia brush and woody weeds can 

impact on biodiversity, cause mustering difficulties, 

harbour vermin, added expense either maintaining or 

relocating fences, roads and waterways, industrial 

sites, suppress pasture growth and lower nutritional 

levels, hence carrying capacity and production. 


Are you a commercial grower or home gardener? If 

wood weeds are > 3 metres tall, seek advice. 

1. Prepare a plan that fits your situation. Weed 

Management Systems are available for some woody 

weeds, eg bitou bush, and for some situations, eg 

plantation forestry (Sindel 2000). Special Taskforces 

deal with some woody weeds, eg Aleppo Pine 

Management Group in SA, Lantana Taskforce in NSW. 


3. Identification of weed(s) must be confirmed. 

Consult a diagnostic service if unsure (page xiv). 

4. Monitor weed(s) and impact and record results (page 

429). 

5. Threshold. How much infestation is acceptable? 


they, economic, aesthetic, environmental? 


is reached. 


it worked. Recommend improvements if needed. 


Legislation. Some woody weeds are declared 

noxious weeds, control may be compulsory and the 

method of control prescribed by legislation. 

Biological control. For some, biological 

control agents have been released, eg the blackberry 

rust fungus (Phragmidium violaceum). It is hoped 

that it will provide some economic control of 

blackberry infestations, avoiding the need for 

herbicide applications. 

Plant quarantine. All plant introductions 

should be assessed for their potential to be become 

weeds (Weed Risk Assessment) (page 436). 


Small infestations of brush or woody weeds can 

be dug out diligently over time. Many such weeds 

may have large seed banks in the soil. 

Fire may be economical and provide effective 

control of some seeds, seedling trees and shrubs, 

but can only be used occasionally when seasonal 

conditions have resulted in buildup of sufficient 

fuel. Local Fire Services must be consulted. 

Chaining or blade ploughing may increase 

production but does not justify cost and may not 

be sound environmentally. 

Grazing management, eg by goats. 

Herbicides. 

Local Shires/Administrations have leaflets and 

bulletins with recommendations for control. The 

following should be regarded as a guide only. 

Not all herbicides work against all woody 

weeds. Confirm that the herbicide selected is 

registered and effective against the problem weed 

in your situation. 

Depending on the weed species and herbicide 

being used, sprays may be applied using knapsacks 

or handguns to foliage of young woody weeds evenly 

wetting all foliage. Sprays are also applied as basal 

bark or soil treatments using spot guns (page 468). 

Hack and squirt and stem injection techniques are 

also used. 

Timing of application is critical, follow label 

Directions For Use. Some deciduous woody vines 

and rhizomatous perennial weeds are controlled by 

late summer or early fall applications – spring 

applications may only burn the top of the plants. 

Fig. 84. Brush and woody weeds – Some herbicides. 

What to use? 

HERBICIDES 


Soil residuals – for use in certain situations only, 

check label Directions For Use: 

Group B, eg Brush-Off (metsulfuron-methyl) 

Group C, eg Velpar (hexazinone) 

Groups I/I, eg Garlon (triclopyr), Grazon (triclopyr + 

picloram), Tordon Herbicide Gel, Vigilant 

Herbicide Gel (picloram) 


Apply when plants are growing actively, moist soil. 

Use a white or other herbicide marker dye. 

Many are soil residuals and should not be applied 

near desired plants or in areas where their roots 

might extend, or where chemical may be washed 

to their roots. Do not use if rain is likely to fall with 

12 hours of application. Follow label Directions For Use. 

For stem injection to be successful, the herbicide must be 

injected into the sapwood (see diagram) immediately after 

the cut is made. 

Penetrants may aid uptake by woody weeds. 



Fig 255. Brush and woody weeds - Stem injection equipment, etc. 

AXE AND DRENCH GUN 

DRILLING 

Used for killing trees and shrubs. An axe is used to make a 

cut into the sapwood and the herbicide is delivered with a 

drench gun. Frills or notches are cut around the base of the 

tree by making downward axe cuts through the bark and into 

the sapwood. 

WOODYWEEDER 

Used for insect control and killing unwanted trees. Holes 

about 10 cm in diameter are drilled into the sapwood and the 

pesticide placed in the drilled hole. Generally used when only 

a few trees require treatment. 

SIDE WINDER 

This axe has been used extensively for thinning young forests 

and controlling woody weeds. A simple single-handed tool that 

combines cutting and injection, delivering the herbicide 

directly and immediately into the sap stream in one action. 

BASAL SPEAR 

Used for disease and pest control in avocadoes, eucalypts 

and other species and for controlling unwanted trees. A tool 

that delivers varying amounts of pesticide under a range of 

pressures directly into the sap stream. 

SOIL & BASAL BARK APPLICATIONS 

Used for killing trees to improve grazing lands. A 2-handed 

tool cuts and delivers the herbicide directly into the sapwood 

at the base of the tree. 

CUT & PAINT 

Used to kill trees and shrubs. Herbicide is applied to the 

sapwood immediately after cutting the stem off. 

Used to kill suckers and small seedling trees. 

Left : The spotgun is directed onto the soil around the stem 

within the drip line. The herbicide is moved into the 

soil by rainfall where it is taken up by the roots. Clear 

away all vegetative litter from area to be treated. 

Right : Often referred to as basal bark treatment. The 

spotgun is directed towards the base of young stems 

and the herbicide is absorbed through the young bark. 

The drip line is the area covered by the spread of the crown. 

Splatter guns deliver a measured dose of herbicide from 

units which resemble drench guns. The total volume applied 

is about 1/10th that of a handgun rate. They are used for 

foliage, basal bark, cut stump treatments 



Unwanted individual trees 

Management 

Seek advice and engage a qualified arborist for 

trees taller than 3 metres. 

Safety is the No. 1 issue. Is the tree defective? 

Be familiar with relevent legislation. 

Identification of the tree must be confirmed. 

Know its height, diameter and whether it suckers. 


Legislation. 

Be aware that there may be conflicting legislation 

and opinions influencing unwanted trees. 

Tree Preservation Orders or other legislation may 

apply. Seek advice if in doubt. 

Weed legislation. Contact your State/Territory 

authority for a copy of the current list of declared 

weed species which change from time to time as 

more research is carried out. When a species is 

discovered to be an environmental weed, what can be 

done? Such a tree does not necessarily have to be 

removed it, it may merely have to be prevented from 

seeding (propagating itself). 

How do you prevent a tree with a 20m diameter canopy 

covered in seed from propagating itself is not usually 

defined. Problem arises when local council may not 

allow removal and owners don’t want to pay the cost 

of annual pruning to remove seeds. Negotiate annual 

pruning? Who pays? 

Although it is preferable to kill trees prior to removal, 

in an urban situation this is not usually acceptable. 


Plants which do not sucker, eg conifers, can be 

removed by cutting them off at ground level. 

Trees or shrubs which do sucker, eg elm, 

eucalypt, poplar, black locust, honey locust, tree of 

heaven, wattles, willow and wisteria can be 

eradicated by cutting down the tree or shrub and by 

diligently removing the suckers over a period of 

time, especially in a home garden situation. 

However, suckers of some species, eg elm, poplar 

and wisteria, may continue to appear for years after 

the parent tree or climber has been removed. 

Tree remains may be chipped and applied as 

mulch, occasionally non-parasitic mushroom fungi 

may grow on them, bio-degrading them. 

Stumps adjacent to domestic buildings 

should be removed as they may attract termites, or 

wood rotting fungi which may later lift pavers, etc. 

Herbicides. 

Trees such as conifers which do not sucker after 

removal do not require application of herbicide. 

Cut stumps of trees that do sucker can be treated 

with herbicide immediately after felling. 

Great care must be exercised in the use of 

herbicides to kill woody plants. Some have a long 

residual life in the soil and so represent a hazard to 

surrounding plants. Strictly observe label 

recommendations for application methods. 

Heavy rain soon after application may cause 

herbicide to wash from treated stumps onto 

surrounding plants and areas. 

Although triclopyr is highly toxic to broadleaved 

plants during growing and dormant periods, grasses 

are normally unaffected and could establish quickly 

after treatment. Roundup , Zero (glyphosate) will 

kill both broadleaved and grass plants. 

Table 85. Unwanted individual trees – Some herbicides. 

What to use? 

ALL TYPES OF TREE POISONING 

Group M, eg Roundup ) (glyphosate) 

OR 

Group I, eg Garlon (triclopyr), Tordon Herbicide 

Gel, Vigilant Herbicide Gel (picloram) 

is applied directly from a container onto 

cut stumps. 


BEFORE TREE REMOVAL 

Preferably apply the herbicide prior to tree removal, but this may 

not be practical (page 468, Fig. 255). 

Follow label Directions For Use. 

Trees must be actively growing and not under stress (drought, 

waterlogging, cold). 

Apply herbicide to the freshly cut surface as soon as possible 

after frilling or notching. 

In tree injection, the herbicide is immediately delivered into the 

sap stream. 

Do not remove the treated tree for at least 4 weeks after treatment. 

to allow good translocation to the roots. 

AFTER TREE REMOVAL 

Cut and paint stump treatments (for trees which sucker). 

Use when circumstances make it impractical to use frilling, 

notching, tree injection. 

Paint sapwood area of the freshly cut stump. 

May not be as effective as frilling, notching or tree injection. 



Environmental weeds 

Weed Types 

Environmental weeds, unlike other weeds 

invade natural plant communities without the 

need for disturbance by human activity, fire, 

altered drainage, added nutrients, cultivation, 

grazing, etc (page 415). They are mainly introduced 

species but some native species have spread 

outside their natural range, eg golden wreath wattle 

(Acacia saligna) from WA is now found in bushland 

along the NSW coast. 

Occur as a range of trees, shrubs, herbs, 

grasses, creepers or climbers, aquatic plants, but are 

mostly garden escapes, eg privet (Ligustrum 

spp.), lantana (Lantana camara), English ivy 

(Hedera helix), pampas grass (Cortaderia sp.), 

periwinkle (Vinca major). There are nearly 1,000 

species of environmental weeds in Australia, but 

only 52 species have been selected for the national 

list (page 415). Many are still being grown and 

promoted by the industry. Each state/territory/region 

has its own lists of environmental weeds. 

Environmental weeds may also be: 

– Noxious weeds, eg some willows (page 417). 

– Agricultural weeds, eg blackberry (Rubus 

fructicosus) and St John’s wort (Hypericum 

perforatum) (page 413). 

– Weeds of National Significance (WONS), eg 

bitou bush (page 415). 

– Sleeper weeds that have not yet increased their 

distribution significantly and could be controlled 

before numbers explode (page 414). 

Impacts 

Weeds threaten indigenous plant and animal biodiversity 

by affecting their natural regeneration and 

survival, ie food sources, shelter and habitat. 

They threaten the existence of already endangered or 

vulnerable species of flora and fauna. Plants may 

become extinct (Sindel 2000). 

They are of particular concern in areas dedicated for 

conservation purposes. 

They impact on public lands, State Forests, National 

Parks, Botanic Gardens recreational areas, and 

remnants of native vegetation on private land. 

They can impede water flow in wetlands and river 

systems, alter the habitat for wetland fauna, deplete 

available nutrients, and alter soil fertility. Impede 

tourism. 

Some are poisonous or unpalatable to stock. 

Annuals are considered to do less long term 

ecological damage than woody species. 

Exotic grasses moving into native grassland in poor 

condition contribute to their decreasing biodiversity, 

sustainability and are a fire hazard. 

Fig. 256. Environmental weeds. 

Left: Blackberry (Rubus spp.). Right: 

Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) controlled 

by cactoblastis caterpillars in Qld. 

Weed biology 

Reproduction. Weeds reach maturity quickly. 

They produce large amounts of seed or vegetative 

propagules, and may be able to self–pollinate or 

pollination is not required. 

Overseasoning. Large seed banks, eg 75000 seed/m 2 

of perennial veldt grass have been found in WA after 

fire; also as tubers, rhizomes, deep roots, etc. 

Spread efficiently. Birds and flying foxes eat fruit 

and seed which is carried to nearby bushland. Livestock, 

pets and people carry seeds from gardens to bush on fur, 

clothing and shoes. Garden waste is dumped over back 

fences or in waterways. Wind can blow seeds many 

kilometers. Seeds and plant parts can wash down drains 

into waterways where they grow and spread. Some have 

branches which can break off easily and are washed 

downstream and take root forming new infestations. 

Seeds and plants are carried in soil on vehicle tyres, 

tools, machinery. Floral arrangements. Plants for sale. 

Conditions favouring. Rainfall is the most 

important factor determining the possibility and extent 

of woody species. Each environmental weed has its own 

conditions which favor its spread and development. 

Environmental weeds do not need disturbance but may 

need several favorable seasons to establish. They 

tolerate drought, frost, salt, low nutrients. Predicted 

climate change may favor new weed species, but others 

may become less important. Plants being bred for 

drought tolerance may be the next generation of 

environmental weeds. Tussock grasses invade 

areas damaged by fire and loss of canopy cover. 


Many countries have lost their natural biodiversity and 

most of their flora has come from naturalized species from 

other areas, and so do not attempt to manage invasive species. 

Australia is one of the very few countries of the world that 

try to do so (Thorp 2008) and aims to prevent incursions 

of new weeds, detect new incursions quickly (making 

eradication possible), contain spread of existing weeds and 

re-habilitate disturbed ecosystems. 

1. Planning ahead and site assessment is essential. 

There are many programs in which you can participate 

(page 471), training programs are available (page 430). 

2. Crop, region. Obtain information on environmental 

weeds and their management in your local area. 

Contact your local council. 

3. Identify those present at various stages of development, 

eg seedlings, flowers, seeds, etc. Some environmental 

weeds especially grasses, can be difficult to identify. You 

must be sure it is a weed, many grasses are native to their 

area. Consult a diagnostic service if necessary (page xiv). 

4. Monitor environmental weeds to determine their 

distribution, spread and later the effectiveness of 

control programs (page 429). Methods include using the 

National Classification System of Mapping for WONS, 

satellite imagery, low altitude aerial photography and 

hard slog, ie utes, canoes by Weed Warriors, Landcare 

groups. Willows have been mapped by all these methods. 

5. Threshold. There may be a nil legal threshold for 

certain weeds in your area, otherwise construct your 

own, deciding how much invasion you can tolerate, 

aesthetically, economically or environmentally. 

6. Action. Environmental weeds are difficult to control. 

Address the causes of weed invasion. 

Prioritise weeds for control. Eradication of most 

environmental weeds is not possible. New arrivals 

stand some chance of being eradicated, 

eg Koster’s curse in the NT. Be aware of potential 

sleeper weeds, eg lobed needlegrass. 

Prioritize vegetation areas, eg sensitive areas 

dominated by native vegetation may be maintained 

weed-free, in others areas their spread prevented, 

etc. Lightly infested areas may be treated prior to 

areas with heavier infestations. 

Re-vegetation of sites is challenging but essential. 

Act co-operatively with local government, landowners, 

suburban householders to control and 

eradicate environmental weeds in local bushlands. 

Resources are required. 

7. Evaluation. Review your IWM program to see how 

well it worked. Recommend improvements. 




Weed Management Guides are available for all WONS 

and many other weeds. Most states/territories have Weed 

Control Handbooks for invasive species plans, eg NSW 

Invasive Species Plan 2008-2015, UMCCC 2010. 

Legislation. 

Few regulations for environmental weeds are 

compulsory. Unlike weeds of crops, eg cereals, flowers, 

turf, environmental weeds occur in all habitats and land 

use systems, making their management extremely 

difficult, there is no one body (with commercial 

interests) to pay for their management. There is pressure 

for all tiers of government and various public 

stakeholders to commit to management programs for 

weeds of national significance and all locally significant 

invasive species within their formal plantings via the 

National Weeds Action plan. Overseas there are 

Voluntary Codes of Conduct for government, home 

gardeners, landscape architects, nursery professionals, 

botanic gardens and arboreta, eg 

www.centerforplantconservation.org/invasives/codesN.html 

Also UK Codes of Practice www.defra.gov.uk 

Government 

– Commonwealth government (Weeds Australia) 

provides access to key weed policies, regulations, extension, 

and training. Best Practice Management Guides are 

available for WONS and other weeds. 

www.weeds.org.au 

– State governments provide information on 

invasive plants but their responsibility is mostly for 

noxious weeds (some which are environmental weeds). 

– Regional/Local Councils/Shires have weed 

information packs for environmental weeds in their area. 

– Australian Botanic Garden network of 70 public 

gardens, zoos, arboreta has been established to develop/ 

improve weed management policies and risk assessment 

www.rbg.vic.gov.au/horticulture/weeds 

Public Weed programs include: 

– Weed Busters aim to increase public involvement in 

weed management, education and awareness projects. 

– Weed warriors involves children in schools and 

parents in managing local weed infestations. 

– Weed Swap gives you a free Australian Native plant for 

you local environmental weed. 

– Weed Spotter Networks are groups of people who look 

out for new and emerging weeds in the field, nurseries and 

garden centres, the media, email discussions groups and the 

internet. In Northern Australia, AQIS officers supported by a 

network of landholders and government agencies, look for 

new plant invaders, staff in botanic gardens and others, 

identify them. 

– Weed Stop programs reduce the transport of weeds 

by contractors, service providers and government agencies. 

– Landcare, Bushcare, Park Care and Greening 

Australia have weed control programs. 

– Weed Alert Rapid Response Plans identify new 

and emerging weeds in a region and have in place a plan 

for their eradication when detected. Enviroweed lists are 

published on state websites. 

– World Wetland Day. WWF www.wwf.org.au 

Horticultural industries, Media 

– Gardening/Lifestyle TV/radio programs, magazines, etc, 

could be encouraged to recommend appropriate plants 

www.,ngia.com.au www.lifeisagarden.com.au 

– NGIA (Nursery & Garden Industry Association) promote 

the Grow me instead program which suggests 

alternatives based on similar hardiness, flowering 

characteristics and height, eg replace English ivy. Hedera 

helix) with false sasparilla (Hardenbergia sp.) 

Sustainable Gardening Australia (SGA) with the 

support of the NGIA aim to remove from sale, 10 of the 

worst weed invaders in an area and are encouraged to target 

other potentially invasive plants. 

– Other proposals under consideration include voluntary 

removal of the garden escape list of 52 garden plants 

from trade around Australia and examination by the 

National Weeds Action Plan of the merits of a 

mandatory labeling scheme on invasive plants being sold. 

Bushland Friendly Nursery Schemes (BFNS) could 

establish weed lists for a local area, specifying plants that 

should not be sold, propagated or knowingly distributed. 


After environmental weeds have been removed, local 

native plants can be re-established. Most councils have 

regeneration and maintenance programs. 

Problems during re-vegetation. Native bushland 

may be invaded by new weed species or re-invaded 

by pre-existing weed species. 

Re-vegetation techniques vary, eg nurseryraised 

seedlings, direct seeding. The Bradley 

method relies on natural re-vegetation but can 

only used in sites with a good pre-existing native 

soil seed bank (Bradley 1988). Repairing riparian 

zones, cleared of willows is a challenge. 

Sanitation. 

Remove environmental weeds from bushland. 

Clean equipment before using in other areas. 

Cover trailers so seeds and cuttings do not escape 

and invade roadside bushland. Compost garden 

waste at home or recycle through local collection 

services or take to local tip. 

Do not dump garden waste in bushland or tip 

aquarium/pond water into drains, ponds, waterways. 

Prevent weeds from flowering to slowly deplete 

soil seed reserves. 


This is the only practical long term control of existing 

environmental weeds in Australia, eg prickly pear by 

the cactoblastis moth in Qld. However, biological 

control programs are not easy. Goats and other 

vertebrate pests eat blackberries and other weeds but 

damage native plants as well. 


Commonwealth. AQIS applies a WRA (Weed Risk 

Assessment) process to all proposed plant imports. 

This screens out plants with the worst weed potential 

but is not entirely foolproof. New plants must also be 

thoroughly trialed and assessed by the importer prior 

to release. Imported plants, bulbs, seeds including 

those ordered over the internet or by mail order must 

be cleared before coming into the country. Rapid 

response programs are in place. 

State/Territory quarantine. Legislation 

regulates some environmental weeds (page 437). 

Local quarantine might aim to remove the worst 

weeds from horticultural production each year. 


Fire reduces seed banks of weeds such as bitou bush 

but must only be applied to sites where monitoring 

indicates that there is a substantial native seed bank. 

Burning stimulates germination of some native seeds. 

Consult local Fire Service. 

Slashing or cutting may be followed by 

appropriately timed herbicide applications, eg 

blackberry. 

Hand pulling, grubbing with mattock reduces 

weeds that do not sucker. 

Herbicides. 

Glyphosate is widely used to control environmental 

weeds because of its low hazard and short persistence. 

Biactive (glyphosate) is a formulation registered for 

use near waterways. 

Small isolated patches of lowlying weeds could be 

spots sprayed. 

A small number of other products are registered for 

some situations where conditions are such that 

contamination can be avoided. Some products are 

selective and selectivity may be improved when cutstem, 

stem injection, or wiping equipment is used in 

preference to foliar sprays (page 468). 






1. List the distinctive features of weeds. 

2. Describe 4 harmful and 4 beneficial effects 

of weeds. Name examples of each. 

3. Explain how weeds may be classified to 

facilitate control using 1 local example 

from the following list: 

Annual, biennial, perennial 

Growth habit, herbaceous, woody 

Habitat 

Land-use 

Invasive, naturalized 

Introduced, indigenous 

Noxious 

Garden escapes 

WONS 

Environmental weeds 

Botanical groups, eg Asteraceae 

Weed lists 

Target weeds 

Sleeper weeds 

4. Recognize by sight, local weed species 

belonging to the following weed groups and 

complete the following: 

DICOTYLEDONS (broadleaved weeds) 

ANNUAL & HERBACEOUS WEEDS, eg 

Rosette (some only at certain stages of growth) 

Those with SMALL OR FINE leaves (many are 

flat or mat forming), eg 

WOODY WEEDS, eg 

MONOCOTYLEDONS (narrowleaved weeds) 

Grasses (Poaceae), eg 

Iris family (Iridaceae), eg 

Lily family (Liliaceae), eg 

Sedges (Cyperaceae), eg 

Rushes (Juncaceae), eg 

MISCELLANEOUS WEEDS 

Aquatic weeds, eg 

Cacti, eg 

Conifers, eg 

Cycads, eg 

Ferns, eg 

Parasitic plants, eg 

Riparian weeds, eg 

5. Describe 6 ways by which weeds may 

reproduce. Name 1 example of each. 

6. Describe 6 ways by which weeds may 


overwinter. 

7. Describe 5 ways by which weeds may spread. 


8. Describe local/Commonwealth legislation 

providing for the control of noxious weeds. 

9. Describe conditions that favour selected 

weeds in you area. 

10. List control methods available for weeds. 

Name 2 examples of each. 

11. Describe the steps in IWM (Integrated Weed 

Management) 

12. Explain why weed control can be difficult for 

certified organic growers. 

13. Explain WRA (Weed Risk Assessment) and 

how is it used in weed control. 

14. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of 

red herbicide marking dye. 

15. Explain how you would use herbicides to 

prevent the development of resistance. 

16. Name 2 weeds in Australia that are 

resistant to some herbicides. 

17. Explain how the following types of herbicides 

control weeds, name 1 example of each: 

POST-EMERGENT HERBICIDES 

HORMONE HERBICIDES 

PRE-EMERGENT HERBICIDES 

SOIL RESIDUAL HERBICIDES 

FUMIGANTS 

18. Provide the following information for glyphosate: 

Herbicide mode of action group 

How it effectively controls weeds 

19. Explain the meaning of the following terms 

and give 1 example of each. 

Selective, eg 

Non-selective , eg 

Systemic, eg 

Non-systemic, eg 

Contact, eg 

Knockdown, eg 

Translocated, eg 

20. Give 3 reasons why herbicides may not 

work. 


selective control of broadleaved weeds and 

grass weeds; weeds in containers and annual 

beds; tree suckers, brush and woody weeds; 

environmental weeds, and other local weed 

problems and situations: 

Types of weeds 

‘Overwintering' 

Common names of weeds Spread 

Description 


Weed cycle 

IWM & Control methods 

22. Prepare/access an IWM. program for a weed or 

weed situation at your work or in your region. 



control of weeds. 





(official website of the Dept of Forests and Fisheries), eg 

Alert List for Environmental Weeds and Weed Management 

Guide 

Australian Weeds Strategy, Strategic Plans 

Potential Environmental Weeds in Australia : Candidate 

Species for Preventative Control 

Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au/ 

(this website is run by a consultant on behalf of the 

Commonwealth Government and mostly relates to WONS 

weeds but includes other weeds related matters in detail), eg 

Australian Weeds Committee 

Best Practice Manuals 

National Weed Strategy 

CRC for AWM (avail online) 

Glyphosate sustainability working group 

Herbicides: guidelines for use in and around water (2005) 

Riparian weeds 

Killing us softly - Australia's green stalkers – 2020 vision 

BRS (advisory) www.daff.gov.au/brs/land/weeds eg 

A field manual for surveying and mapping nationally 

significant weeds 

Current practice in applying CLIMATE for weed risk 

assessment in Australia 

Development of a manual for mapping Weeds of National 

Significance 

Managing green waste to reduce weed spread - for home 

gardeners 

Managing green waste to reduce weed spread - for local 

councils 

Some priority agricultural sleeper weeds for eradication 

Science for Decision Makers: Managing the Menace of 

Agricultural Sleeper Weeds 

GRDC Weedlinks www.grdc.com.au/ 

CSIRO Australia www.csiro.au/science/InvasivePlants.html 

Environment www.environment.gov.au 

Weed Societies (Australian and state). avail online 

Council of Australasian Weed Socs. www.caws.org.au/ 

Global Compendium of Weeds www.hear.org/gcw 

Greening Australia www.greeningaustralia.org.au 

Nursery Industry Assoc. of Australia (NIAA) 

www.niaa.org.au 

Nursery Industry Accreditation Scheme of Australia 

(NIASA) www.ngia.com.au/niasa 

Standards Australia www.standards.com.au 

Weed Information www.weedinfo.com.au/ 


Industries/Councils etc are available online, eg 

Hormone herbicide injury, woody weeds 

Specific weeds – identification & control 

Weed Control Handbooks 

Grow Me Instead 

Specific Weeds - Identification 

Ute & Field & Pocket Guides, eg 

TOPCROP www.nre.vic.gov.au/farming/topcrop 

WEEDeck National Pocket Guides (Sainty & Associates) 

The Ute Guide – The Northern Grain Belt. 

Keys www.lucidcentral.com/ 

Ausgrass 

Blackberry: An Identification Tool to Introduced and 

Native Rubus in Australia 

Crop Weeds of Australia (educational version) 

Declared Plants of Australia 

Environmental Weeds of Australia 

Families of Flowering Plants of Australia 

International Environmental Weed Foundation - Keys to 

Local Area Weeds 

Key to Common Suburban Weeds 

Key to Species of Weeds in Turf 

Seed Identification Key 

Species of Weeds in Turf 

Suburban and Environmental Weeds of South East 

Queensland v1 and v2. 

Weed Biocontrol 

Weeds of National Significance 

A Lucid Key to Common weeds of New Zealand 

Weed Management in Woody Cut Flower Plantations 

www.uq.edu.au/lcafs/documents/plantationweeds.pdf 

Training Courses & Resources 

National Competencies for Weed Management 

www.weeds.org.au/training.htm 

CRC for AWM (avail online) 

Australian Weed Management:Biocontrol 

Northern Australia Quarantine Strategy 

Weed and Plant Collection Manual 

Introductory Weed Management Manual 

Integrated Weed Control Manual 

Weed Collectors Manual: Collect, prepare and 

preserve weed specimens 

Various school resources (Misbehaving plants, 

Ghastly Guests, Weed Wipeout) 

Bushfriendly Gardens 

What does your garden grow? (Australian Weed 

Management 2007 for the Nursery Industry). 

Also Post grad scholarship 

GRDC Weedlinks www.grdc.com.au/ follow links to 

events and publications, education, training 

TAFES, Universities 

Weedbuster Week www.weedbusterweek.info.au 

Biological control/Organic standards/IPM 

AS 6000—2009. Organic and Biodynamic Products 

www.standards.org.au/ 

CSIRO. Managing Invasive Plants 

www.csiro.au/science/InvasivePlants.html 

Integrated Plant Protection Center www.ipmnet.org/ 

Organic Federation of Australia www.ofa.org.au/ 

Davies, G., Turner, B. and Bond, B. 2008. Weed 

Management for Organic Farmers, Growers and 

Smallholders : A Complete Guide. Crowood Press, UK. 

Quarantine 




pests and more than 100 diseases 

www.padil.gov,au 



State websites have information on quarantine restrictions 

for their states 


Health and Invasive Species 

Herbicides 





Company websites provide label and MSDS information 

Kondinin Group : Field Crop Herbicide Guide 

www.kondinin.com.au/ 

HerbiGuide www.herbiguide.com.au/ 

GRDC www.grdc.com.au/ 

WA Herbicide Resistance Initiative (WAHRI) 

http://wahri.uwa.edu.au/ 

International Survey of Herbicide Resistant weeds 

www.weedscience.org/In.asp 

Regional Herbicide Guides for particular crops 

Ainsworth, N. and Bowcher, A. 2005. Herbicide 

Guidelines for Use In and Around Water. CRC for 

Australian Weed Management. avail online. 

Preston, C. et al. 2010, Room for Improvement in 

Herbicide Management. GRDC. Jan-Feb. 

General 

Adler, M., Adland Horticultural and Stephens, R. 2001. 

The Facts on Hazardous Plants. The Nursery Papers 

2001/14. 

Ainsworth, N. and Ede, F. J. 2005. Understanding and 

Managing Weed Effects on Establishment of Native 

Tree Seedlings in Riparian Zones. Procs. of the 2 nd Vic. 

Weed Conf. Weed Soc. of Vic, Melbourne pp 52-54. 

Armitage, A. M. and Laushman, J. M. 2003. Specialty Cut 

Flowers: The Production of Annuals, Perennials, 

Bulbs, and Woody Plants for Fresh and Dried Cut 

Flowers. 2 nd ed. Timber Press, Portland. 

Auld, B. A. and Medd, R. W. 1986. Weeds : An Illustrated 

Botanical Guide to the Weeds of Australia. Inkata 

Press, Melbourne. 

Barker, et al. 2006. Weeds of the Future: Threats to 

Australia’s Grazing Industry by Garden Plants. Meat & 

Livestock Australia/CRC WMS. avail. online 

Blood, K. 1999. Future and Expanding Weeds. Plant 

Protection Quarterly Vol.14(3). 



Blood, K. 2001. Environmental Weeds : A Field Guide for 

South-eastern Australia. ANCA/NRE, Melbourne. 

Bradley, J. 1988. Bringing Back the Bush. Lansdowne 

Pub., Sydney. 

Brown, K. and Paczkowska, G. 2005. The Perennial 

Tussock Forming Grass Weeds. CALM, WA. 

Csurches, S. and Edwards, R. 1998. Potential 

Environmental Weeds in Australia : Candidate Species 

for Preventative Control. Environment Australia, GPO 

Box 636, Canberra. 

Dahler, J. 2001. Non-chemical Weed Control in Container 

Nurseries : A Literature Review. Ornamentals Update 

Vol.16(3), Aug. 

Day, M. D., Wiley, C. J.., Playford, J. and Zalucki. M. P. 

2003. Lantana: Current Management Status and 

Future Prospects. ACIAR. 

Delfosse, E. S. and Scott, R. R. (eds). 1996. Biological 

Control of Weeds. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Dept of Agric. and Food. 2009. Harmful Garden Plants in 

Western Australia. Dept of Agriculture and Food. 

Ede, F, J., Ainsworth, N. and Hunt, T. D. 2004. Assessing 

Weed Impacts on the Recruitment of Overstory 

Species. Proc. of the 14 th Aust. Weeds Conf. (eds. B. 

M. Sindel and S. B. Johnson). Weed Soc. of NSW, 

Sydney. pp 218-221. 

Ede, F. J. and Hunt, T. D. 2008. Habitat Management 

Guide – Riparian Weed Management in Riparian 

Areas : south-eastern Australia. CRC for Australian 

Weed Management, Adelaide. avail online 

Emaus, D., Hatton, T, Cook, P and Colvin. 2006. 

Ecohydrology: Vegetation Function, Water and 

Resource Management. CSIRO Pub. 

Emert, S. 2001. Gardener's Companion to Weeds. 2 nd edn. 

New Holland. 

Ensbey, R. and Johnson, A. 2007. Noxious and 

Environmental Weed Control Handbook.: A Guide to 

Weed Control in Non-crop, Aquatic and Bushland 

Situations. cur edn. NSW DPI. avail online. 

Forster, A. 2008. Weed Management Programs. Personnel 

communication. 

Harley, K. L. S. and I. W. Forno, 1992. Biological Control 

of Weeds : A Handbook for Practitioners and Students. 


Holm, L. G., Doll., E. Holm, J. Pancho, and J. Herberger. 

1997. World Weeds: Natural Histories and 

Distribution. John Wiley and Sons, NY. 

Holm, L. G., Plucknett, D.L., Pancho, J.V., Herberger, J.P. 

1977. The World's Worst Weeds: Distribution and 

Biology. East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii (USA) 

Univ. Press of Hawaii. 

Hussey, B. M. J., Keighery, G. J., et al. 1997. Western 

Weeds : A Guide to the Weeds of Western Australia. 

Plant Protection Soc. of WA, Perth. 

Groves, R. C. H., Shepherd, R. G. and Richardson, R. G. 

(eds). 1995. The Biology of Australian Weeds Vol. 1. 

RG & FJ Richardson. Vic. 

Groves, R. C. H., Shepherd, R. G. & Paretta, F. D. (eds). 

1997. The Biology of Australian Weeds Vol.2. R. G and 

F. J Richardson, Vic. 

Groves, R. H. 1999a. Environmental Weeds : Past, Present 

and Future. Plant Protection Quarterly. Vol.14(3). 

Groves, R. H. 1999b. Environmental Weed Forum. Plant 

Protection Quarterly Vol.14(3). 

Groves, R. H., Panetta, F. D. and Virtue, J. G. 2001. Weed 

Risk Assessment. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Jacobs, S. W. L., Whalley, R. D. B. and Wheeler, D. J. B. 

2008. Grasses of New South Wales. 4th edn. University 

of New England (Botany). 

Jessop, J. 2006. Grasses of South Australia: An Illustrated 

Guide to the Native and Naturalised Species. 

Wakefield Press. 

Julien, M and White, G. 1997. Biological Control of 

Weeds. No, 49, ACIAR, Canberra. 

Julien, M. H. (ed.) 1998. A World Catalogue of Agents and 

their Target Weeds. CAB International. 

Kleinschmidt, H. E. & Johnson, R. W. 1987. Weeds of 

Queensland. Qld DPI, Brisbane. 

Lamp, C. A., Forbes, S. J. and Cade, J. W. 1990. Grasses 

of Temperate Australia : A Field Guide. Inkata Press, 

Melbourne. 

Lamp, C. & Collet, F. 1999. A Field Guide to Weeds in 


Lazarides, M., Cowley, K. and Hohnen, P. 1997. CSIRO 

Handbook of Australian Weeds. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Lewis, P. and Stephens, R. (eds). 2001. Discovering 

Alternatives to Garden Escapes. Proc 3 rd Symposium 

on the Control of Environmental Weeds. The Nursery 

Papers 2001/12 

Lonsdale, G. 2000. Weeds Threaten Australia’s Economy 

and Biodiversity. Media Release. CSIRO Entomology 

17 August 2000. 

Loughrar, A. 2006. Native Plant or Weed? Pick the 

Difference. NSW Department of Primary Industries 

Loughrar, A. 2007. Native Plant or Weed 2. Pick the 

Difference. NSW Department of Primary Industries. 

Mathers, H. 2000. Controlling Weeds in Containers. 

NMPRO July. 

Mathers, H. and Ozkan, E., 2001. Herbicide-Treated 

Mulches. NMPRO Jan. 

McNaught, I., Thackway, R., Brown, L. and Parsons, M. 

2008. A Field Manual for Surveying and Mapping 

Nationally Significant Weeds. 2 nd ed., Bureau of Rural 

Sciences, Canberra. 

Moerkerk, M. and Barret, A. G. 1998. More Crop Weeds. 

R. G and F. J Richardson, Meredith, Vic. 

Moss, W. and Walmsley, R. 2005. Controlling the Sale of 

Invasive Plants: Why Voluntary Measures Alone Fail. 

WWF-Australia, Sydney. Avail online 

Muyt, A.C. 2001. Bush Invaders of South-East Australia : 

A Guide to the Identification and Control of 

Environmental Weeds Found in South-East Australia. 

R. G. and F. J. Richardson, Meredith, Vic. 

Neal, J. C. and Gordon, I. 2004. Weed Management in 

Woody Cut Flower Plantations. The Centre for Native 

Floriculture, Uni of Qld. avail online 

Neylan, J. 2009. Supers speak out on Poa control. 

Australian Turfgrass Management Mar/April. 

NIASA (Nursery Industry Assoc. Scheme of Australia). 

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Panetta, F. D., Groves, R. H. and Shepherd, R.C.H. (eds). 

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F.J. Richardson, Vic. 

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H. 2006. Weeds of the South-East: An Identification 

Guide for Australia. RG and FJ Richardson Pub. Vic 

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Spencer, R. 2006. Environental Weeds, Agricultural Weeds 

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Weeds of Northern Australia. Qld DPI, Brisbane. 



GLOSSARY & ACRONYMS 

Abiotic Non-living. 

Acaricide See Miticide. 

Action In relation to IPM (Integrated Pest 

Management), decision-making, control. 

Adjuvant A substance added to a pesticide to 

improve effectiveness or safety, eg wetting agent. 

Adventitious Buds and roots arising from unusual 

places in normal plants. 

Aerobic A microorganism that lives, or a process 

that occurs, in the presence of molecular oxygen. 

Aflatoxin A toxin produced by some fungi which is 

toxic to humans and livestock, eg by Aspergillus 

flavus when it infects peanuts. 

Algacide A substance active against algae. 

Agricultural biological products 

Biological chemicals, eg pheromones, hormones. 

Plant and other extracts, eg plant extracts, plant oils. 

Microbial agents, eg bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa. 

Other living organisms, eg microscopic insects, plants 

and animals plus some organisms that have been 

genetically modified. 

Alien weed An introduced weed. 

Allelopathy The beneficial or harmful effects of one 

plant on another plant by the release of chemicals 

from plant parts by leaching, root exudation, 

volatilization, residue decomposition and other 

processes in both natural and agricultural systems. 

Anaerobic A microorganism that lives, or a process 

that occurs, in the absence of molecular oxygen. 

Annual Completes its life cycle in one year. 

Ant An insect belonging to the Order Hymenoptera 

(ants, bees, wasps and sawflies). 

Anthracnose A leaf or fruit spot with a sharply 

defined margin, caused by a group of fungi, eg 

Colletotrichum spp. 

Anti-transpirant 1. A substance applied to a plant 

to slow transpiration. 2. Oils that do not evaporate 

readily maintaining droplet size longer. 

Aphid An insect belonging to the Order Hemiptera 

(bugs; hoppers; aphids, lerps, scales, mealybugs, 

whiteflies). 

APVMA Australian Pesticides and Veterinary 

Medicines Authority. 

AQIS Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service. 

Arachnid A Class within the Phylum Arthropoda 

(Insects and Allied Pests), eg spiders, ticks and mites. 

Armyworm The larva of some moths (Family 

Noctuidae, Order Lepidoptera). 

Arthropoda (Insects and Allied Pests) A Phylum 

in the Animal Kingdom. 

AS Australian standard. 

Ascomycota A Phylum of Fungi producing their 

sexual spores (ascospores) within asci (sac fungi), eg 

powdery mildews. 

Ascospore A sexually produced fungal spore in an 

ascus. 

Ascus A sack-like cell of a hyphae in which meiosis 

occurs and which contains ascospores, usually 8. 

Asexual reproduction Non-sexual reproduction, 

vegetative reproduction. 

Autoecious fungus A parasitic fungus that can 

complete its entire life cycle on the same host. 

Avicide A substance active against birds. 

Bactericide. Any agent active against bacteria. 

Bacterium (pl. bacteria) A single-celled microscopic 

organism lacking chlorophyll and which multiplies by 

cell division. 

Bag shelter Leaves of plants bound together by silk 

produced by insects which shelter within (usually 

moth caterpillars (Order Lepidoptera). 

Bait A food or other substance that attracts a pest to 

a chemical or trap where it is destroyed or captured. 

Basidiomycota A Phylum of Fungi producing their 

sexual spores (basidiospores) on basidia (club fungi), 

eg rusts, smuts, mushrooms, wood rots. 

Basidiospore A sexually produced fungal spore on 

a basidium. 

Basidium A fungal club-shaped reproductive 

structure on which basidiospores are borne. 

Bee An insect belonging to the Order Hymenoptera 

(ants, bees, wasps, sawflies). 

Beetle An insect belonging to the Order Coleoptera 

(beetles, weevils). 

Beneficial insect An insect that is useful or 

helpful to humans, eg pollinators, parasites and 

predators of pests. 

BFA (Biological Farmers of Australia) The preeminent 

organization for the organic industry and 

movement (education, trade, promotion, advocacy). 

Biennial A plant that completes its life cycle in 

2 years. It grows vegetatively for 1 year then flowers, 

seeds and dies in the 2 nd year. 

Biochemistry The study of chemical processes that 

take place in all living things. 

Biodegradable Can be broken down by living 

organisms, eg by bacteria, fungi, nematodes, etc. 

Biological control Classical biological control is 

the deliberate use of a pest, disease or plant’s natural 

enemies to control a particular pest, disease or weed. 

Biosecurity Australia Provides science-based 

quarantine assessments and policy advice that 

protects Australia's favourable pest and disease status 

and enhances Australia's access to international 

animal and plant related markets. 

Biotype A race of a species that is genetically 

different from the rest of the species often caused by 

geographical isolation, often look the same, only 

genetic analysis in a laboratory can tell the difference. 

Blight A general and extremely rapid browning of 

leaves, flowers, branches or twigs resulting in their 

death, caused by fungi, insects, frost or other agents. 

Blister Raised area on leaves or fruit, eg grapeleaf 

blister mite, peach leaf curl (fungus). 

Blotch Dead areas on leaves and fruit which may 

cover most of the plant, be irregular in shape or form 

patterns other than spots, caused by fungi, bacteria, 

leafmining insects, sunscorch, or other agents. 

BMP (Best Management Practice) Management 

practices which are environmentally conscious. 

Borers Insects usually belonging to the Order 

Coleoptera, eg longicorn beetles; or the Order 

Lepidoptera, eg wood moths, which feed internally in 

trunks, limbs, branches, stems and roots of trees and 

shrubs. Some feed in fruit. 

Breaking Loss of flower color resulting in a 

variegated flower, usually caused by virus diseases, 

eg tulip breaking virus, rasping and sucking insects, 

eg thrips, genetic variegation, or sunscald. 

Bud drop A mass dropping of buds before they 

open, not necessarily a symptom of disease as some 

plants always drop some buds. 

Bug An insect belonging to the Order Hemiptera 

(bugs; hoppers; aphids, lerp insects, mealybugs, 

scales, whiteflies). 

Butterfly An insect belonging to the Order 

Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths). 

Cambium Thin layer of longitudinal cells between 

the xylem and phloem that gives rise to growth. 

Canker A localized diseased area resulting in an 

open wound usually on a woody structure caused by 

stubs, sunburn, fungi and bacteria), etc. 

Capillary action The physical process by which 

fluid material is drawn upwards from a fluid surface 

through narrow tube-like structures, either natural (in 

roots, stems, fibres) or manufactured, eg glass tubing. 

Carbon dioxide A significant greenhouse gas which 

come from natural sources and human activity, eg 

burning fossil fuels for energy, cattle, etc. 

Case moths Caterpillars of moths which live in a 

case made of silk and leaves/sticks and feed on leaves. 

Caterpillar Larva of a moth or butterfly (Order 

Lepidoptera), has 3 pairs of legs on the thorax and 

2-5 pairs of legs on the abdomen. 

Glossary & Acronyms 475


Certification Scheme Provides seed or vegetative 

propagation material conforming to cultural 

characteristics and guaranteed-free from specified 

pests, diseases and weeds, to the grower. 

Chemical group (pesticide) The chemical group to 

which the active constituent(s) belongs, eg carbamate. 

Chewing damage Caused by animals, eg insects or 

snails, feeding externally or internally on leaves, 

stems, shoots, fruit, flowers and other plant parts. 

Chitin A hard substance forming the outer coat of 

Insects and Allied Pests. 

Chlorosis Yellowing of normal green tissue of the 

host plant due to partial failure of chlorophyll to 

develop. Can occur on all parts of the plant, but 

commonly associated with leaf colour. Caused by 

virus diseases, natural variegation, deficiencies and 

toxicities, etc. Chlorosis may precede death of a plant. 

Class A division of a plant or animal Order. 

Cleistothecium (pl. cleistothecia) Closed fruiting 

body of Ascomycota Fungi, eg powdery mildews. 

CLIMEX is a computer software package that 

predicts the spread of pests, diseases, weeds and 

beneficial organisms. 

Cockroach An insect belonging to the Order 

Blattodea (Cockroaches). 

Cocoon A protective sac, spun by the larvae of 

many insects in which they pass the pupal stage, eg 

butterflies (Order Lepidoptera). 

Conditions favouring Certain conditions which 

favour development of a pest, disease or weed. 

Conidia Sexual fungal spores. 

Conservation tillage (CT) Minimum or reduced 

tillage, sustainable crop production based on soil 

preservation. 

Contact herbicide A compound active at the point 

of application (leaves, stems, roots), does not move 

into plants. 

Contact insecticide A compound that causes 

death or injury to insects upon contact, it does not 

need to be ingested to kill the insect. 

Cornicles Tube-like structures on the dorsal side of 

the 5 th and 6 th abdominal segments of aphids. 

Crawler The 1 st stage nymph of a scale insect, 

mealybug or whitefly which can crawl a short 

distance before settling and becoming non-motile. 

CRC WMS Co-operative Research Centre for Weed 

Management Systems 

Cricket An insect belonging to the Order Orthoptera 

(crickets, grasshoppers, locusts). 

Critical weed density The minimum number of 

weeds worth spraying in a crop which will give a 

return to cover the costs of sprays and application. 

CropLife Australia The industry body in Australia, 

which, through its Resistance Management Strategies, 

provides a guide for product rotation in crops. 

Cross-resistance. A pest, disease or weed which 

develops resistance to one pesticide will develop 

resistance to pesticides with similar modes of action. 

CT Conservation tillage (see above). 

Cultural control The use of ordinary day-to-day 

horticultural practices and equipment to control pest, 

diseases and weeds. 

Curd The solid part of milk in cheese making. 

Cutworm The larva of some moths belonging to the 

Family Noctuidae, Order Lepidoptera. 

Damage. Generally refers to plant damage clearly 

visible to the naked eye, eg chewing, leafmining, 

tearing, skeletonizing. 

Damping-off A fungal disease that rots seeds and 

seedlings before or after emergence from the soil. 

May be caused by fungi, bacteria or other agents. 

Damselfly An insect belonging to the Order 

Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies). 

Defoliation The premature fall of leaves caused by 

many agents. 

Desiccant A chemical that promotes drying or loss 

of moisture from leaves or other plant parts. 

Diapause A state of arrested development. 

Dicotyledons (dicots) Flowers that have 2 seed 

leaves (cotyledons). 

Dieback Progressive death of shoots and branches 

beginning at the top of the plant which may be caused 

by insects, bacteria, fungi, drought or other agents. 

Direct drilling Sowing into uncultivated soil after 

weed control, eg by herbicides or heavy grazing. 

Disease Any condition of a plant that interferes 

with its normal structure, functions, or value. 

Disease cycle Describes each stage of the life 

cycle of a disease (spore, symptom, etc) and where it 

occurs (on leaves, soil, etc). 

Disease-tested planting material Plant material 

free from specified diseases and pests for which it has 

been tested. 

Disinfectant A substance freeing the surface of 

plants, organs or tissues from disease organisms. 

Distortion Misshapen plant parts including buds, 

flowers, fruit and trunks. 

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, a component of the 

nucleus of all cells. 

Downy mildew A fungus belonging to the Phylum 

Oomycota in which spores appear as white or gray 

downy growth on leaf undersurfaces, stems, fruit, etc. 

Dragonfly An insect belonging to the Order Odonata 

(damselflies, dragonflies). 

Earwig. An insect belonging to the Order Dermaptera 

(earwigs). 

Ectoparasite A parasite living on the outside of the 

host. 

EDTA Ethylene diamine tetra acetate. 

ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) A 

serological test in which one antibody carries with it 

an enzyme that releases a coloured compound. 

Endoparasite A parasite that lives inside the host. 

Endophyte A fungus or a bacterium growing 

systemically in living plants, causing few or no 

symptoms, but protecting them from diseases and 

pests, while improving growth and drought tolerance. 

Entomopathogen A disease organism that kills 

insects and mites, eg entopathogenic nematodes (ENs) 

kill insects. 

Environmental weed A cultivated plant which 

invades natural ecosystems threatening indigenous 

biodiversity. 

Etiolation A yellowing of tissue and elongation of 

stems, usually caused by reduced light or darkness. 

Excretion Waste material which is ejected from any 

living body. 

Exotic weed An introduced weed. 

Fasciation. A plant abnormality on any part of the 

plant characterized by a change in the stem of the 

plant from normal round or bundle-like shape to a 

flattened, ribbon-shaped organ. 

FFEZ Fruit Fly Exclusion Zone. 

Filament Thread-like structure. 

Fleck A fungal disease of apples, pears (Rosaceae). 

Fly An insect belonging to the Order Diptera (flies). 

Forbs Wildflowers. 

Formulation The technical grade active constituent 

(TGAC) processed by the addition of other materials 

into a form which is usable by the operator. 

Frass The wet or dry sawdust-like excreta of borers, 

usually evident at their exit holes on trunks, fruit or 

other plant parts; often used to describe any insect 

remains, eg pellets of caterpillar excreta, black drops 

of excreta from thrips feeding on the undersides of 

leaves, nymph skins of aphids. 

Freckle A fungal disease of stone fruit. 

Fruiting body A complex fungal structure 

containing spores, eg a mushroom. Sometimes too 

small to be seen with the naked eye. 

f.sp. (Forma specialis) A group of races or biotypes 

of a pathogen species that can only infect plants within 

a certain genus or species. 

Fumigant A chemical that forms gases which are 

toxic to plants, animals and micro-organisms. 

Fungicide Any agent active against fungi. 

476 Glossary & Acronyms


Fungus (pl. fungi) A simple plant with a mycelium 

as a body, possesses no chlorophyll and reproduces 

by spores; in a separate kingdom of their own. 

Gall. A swelling, more or less spherical, of 

unorganized plant cells occurring on any part of the 

plant, as a result of infection by fungi, other disease 

organisms or infestation by insects. 

Genetic engineering (GE) Various experimental 

techniques that manipulate the genes of an organism, 

eg transfer of genes for drought resistance from wild 

plants to crop plants. 

GPUTS Garden Plants Under The Spotlight. 

Grasshopper An insect belonging to the Order 

Orthoptera (crickets, grasshoppers, locusts). 

GRDC (Grain Research & Development Corporation). 

Greenhouse effect A process by which 

carbon dioxide (CO 2) and other gases such as 

chloro-fluorocarbons (CFCs), methane and 

nitrous oxide in the atmosphere, prevent some of 

the heat radiation produced by the action of the 

sun's energy on earth from returning to space. 

Greening Floral parts are green, usually caused by a 

phytoplasma disease (tomato big bud, virescence). 

‘Grubs’ Thick-bodied larvae of beetles and weevils 

(Coleoptera), butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera). 

Gumming, gummosis An obvious secretion of 

gum which may be caused by bacterial or fungal 

diseases, insect pests or other agents. 

HACCP. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point. 

Haustorium (pl. haustoria) A simple or branched 

projection of fungal hyphae or cells into host cells 

which act as food-absorbing organs. 

Herbicide A substance active against weeds or 

unwanted vegetation. 

Heteroecious Requiring 2 different kinds of hosts 

to complete its life cycle, eg some rust fungi. 

Honeydew An excretion of some Hemipterous 

insects (aphids, lerp insects, mealybugs, scales, 

whiteflies), with a high carbohydrate, sugar and 

nitrogen content attractive to ants. Black sooty mould 

fungi grow on it. 

Hormone herbicide Belonging to the phenoxy 

aliphatic acid group of herbicides, eg 2,4-D, MCPA, 

active against broadleaved weeds. Act in a similar 

manner to the natural plant hormone auxin. Benzoic 

acids, eg dicamba, act in a similar way. 

Host A plant on, or in which, a pest or parasite lives. 

Host range Plants attacked by a pest or disease. 

Hydathodes Small pores at the margins of leaves 

that release small droplets of plant fluid when turgor 

pressure is high. 

Humectant A soil humectant is a compound that 

attracts and/or retains moisture in the soil. 

Hydroponics Growing plants in aerated water 

containing all the essential nutrients. 

Hygiene The practice of keeping a greenhouse or 

planting area clean by removal of weeds and plant 

debris, sterilization of growing media and pots, and 

disinfection procedures. See Sanitation. 

Hyperparasite A parasite parasitic on another 

parasite. 

Hyphae Single branches of a fungal mycelium. 

Immune. Ability of a plant to remain completely 

free from attack by specified diseases and pests. 

Imperfect Fungi A fungus that is not known to 

produce sexual spores. 

Indexing The transmission of a virus from a 

diseased to a healthy plant (a variety on which 

symptoms can be easily seen) by budding, grafting. 

Indigenous Plants found naturally in a particular 

area. 

Infection Establishment of a parasite within a host. 

Infestation When pests arrive and multiply to a 

large number causing plant damage. It can also refer 

to established pest populations. 

Insect Arthropod with 3 body segments, 3 pairs of 

legs on thorax,1pair antennae,with or withoutwings. 

Insect growth regulator (IGR) Specific insecticides 

such as growth hormones that disrupt the normal 

development of insects. 

Insecticide Any agent active against insects and 

mites, includes pheromones, lures, baits, repellents, 

biological pesticides. 

Insects & allied pests Insects and related animals, 

eg springtails, mites, spiders, slaters and millipedes, 

belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda. 

Instar One stage of growth between moults from 

egg to adult. 

Integrated pest management (IPM) Systematic 

management of pests with consideration for the 

environment. Part of managing crops as a whole, 

includes Integrated Disease Management (IDM) and 

Integrated Weed Management (IWM). 

ISO International Standards Organization. 

Invasive A pest or plant which colonizes and persists 

in an ecosystem in which it did not occur before. 

Knockdown spray. 1. An insecticide spray used 

against flying insects that acts quickly causing 

sprayed insects to fall. 2. A contact herbicide that is 

rapid in action. 

Lacewing. A predaceous insect belonging to the 

Order Neuroptera (antlions, aphidlions, lacewings). 

Larva (pl. larvae) The growing worm-like stage of 

insects with a complete metamorphosis, eg 

butterflies, moths, flies, beetles, sawflies. 

Latent infection A virus that infects but does not 

induce symptoms in its host. 

Leaf blister Raised surface of a leaf caused by many 

agents, eg blister mites, peach leaf curl (fungal disease). 

Leaf curl Distortion and malformation of leaves and 

shoots caused by insects, eg aphids, peach leaf curl 

(fungal disease), herbicide injury, other agents. 

Leafhopper An insect belonging to the Order 

Hemiptera (bugs; hoppers; aphids, lerps, scales, 

mealybugs, whiteflies). 

Leaf insect An insect belonging to the Order 

Phasmatodea (stick insects, leaf insects, phasmatids). 

Leafmining Damage caused by the larvae of insects 

feeding internally between the lower and upper leaf 

surfaces, including moths (Lepidoptera), eg wattle 

leafminer; sawflies (Hymenoptera), eg leafblister 

sawfly); flies (Diptera), eg cineraria leafminer; 

sometimes beetles (Coleoptera), eg lantana leafminer. 

Leaf rolling Any obvious rolling of leaves, may be 

caused by a range of agents, eg insects, mites, cold 

weather, lack of water. 

Leaf scorch Dead areas of various shapes on 

leaves, which may be caused by heat, lack of water or 

other agents, eg insects, fungal and bacterial diseases. 

Leaf spot A self-limiting lesion on a leaf, commonly 

caused by fungal diseases but also caused by virus 

and virus-like diseases, bacterial diseases, insects 

feeding and by a range of non-parasitic problems, eg 

senescence or contact herbicide injury. 

Lenticel A opening on the stem of woody plants, 

tubers, etc, that allows for the exchange of gases 

between the plant and the atmosphere. 

Lerp An insect belonging to the Order Hemiptera 


whiteflies). 

Lesion A local spot of diseased tissue on a leaf, 

fruit, trunk or other plant part. 

Lichen A symbiotic relationship of a fungus and an 

alga in which the two components are interwoven to 

form what appears to be a single individual. 

Life cycle The stages in the growth and development 

of an organism that occur between the appearance and 

the re-appearance of the same stage, eg spore, egg. 

Line pattern Lines of light coloured tissue on 

normal coloured leaves caused by some virus diseases. 

Locust An insect belonging to the Order Orthoptera 

(crickets, grasshoppers, locusts). 

Looper A caterpillar that loops its body as it moves. 

Lure A chemical that attracts a pest to a trap, bait or 

to a lethal deposit of pesticide. 



Maggot. Legless larva of flies (Order Diptera). 

Mantid A predaceous insect belonging to the Order 

Mantodea (mantids, praying mantids). 

Marking agent A coloured substance used to ensure 

uniform coverage of a pesticide over a particular area. 

Masked symptoms Absence of symptoms on 

virus-infected plants under certain environmental 

conditions, but which appear when the plant is 

exposed to certain conditions of light and temperature. 

Mealybug An insect belonging to the Order 

Hemiptera (bugs; hoppers; aphids, lerps, scales, 

mealybugs, whiteflies). 

Mechanical control Use of barriers, traps and 

operations to control pests, diseases and weeds. 

Mechanical injury Physical injury due to insects, 

wind, vehicles, other agents. 

Metamorphosis The process of change from egg to 

adult. 

Microorganism A small organism that cannot be 

seen without the aid of a microscope, eg bacteria. 

Mildew A fungal disease in which the fungus is seen 

as a growth of mycelium and spores on the host plant 

surface, eg downy mildews, powdery mildews, sooty 

mould, rusts. See Mould. 

Millipede An animal belonging to the Class 

Diplopoda, Phylum Arthropoda. 

Mite An animal belonging to the Order Acarina, 

Class Arachnida, Phylum Arthropoda with 8 legs, a 

body divided into 2 parts, no antennae. 

Miticide A substance active against mites, ticks, 

spiders. 

Mode of action group (of a pesticide). The 

metabolic process in the pest (insect, fungus, weed, 

etc) affected by the pesticide. 

Molluscicide A substance active against snails and 

slugs. 

Monocotyledons (monocots) Flowering plants that 

have only a single seed leaf (1 cotyledon). 

Mosaic Irregular light and dark areas in leaves 

(mottling effect) caused by many virus and virus-like 

diseases, eg turnip mosaic virus. 

Moth An insect belonging to the Order Lepidoptera 

(butterflies, moths). 

Mottle Irregular light and dark areas in leaves, 

generally caused by virus and virus-like diseases, eg 

camellia yellow mottle virus. 

Mould A fungus with a conspicuous mycelium or 

spore mass, eg powdery mildews. See Mildew. 

Moult The shedding of skin by insects and mites as 

they grow. 

MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet. 

Mutation An abrupt appearance of a new 

characteristic as the result of an accidental change in 

a gene or chromosome. 

Mycelium The hyphae or mass of hyphae that make 

up the body of a fungus. 

Myco-insecticides Fungi used to control insects. 

Mycorrhiza A symbiotic association of a fungus 

with the roots of a plant. 

Myxomycota A Phylum of Fungi which form 

plasmodia, eg slime moulds. 

Nanometer. (nm) One billionth of a meter. 

Nanoparticle. Usually considered to be particles 

with a radius of 100 nm. 

Natural enemy. A naturally occurring beneficial 

organism which controls or suppresses a pest. 

Naturalised weeds Invading species that have 

become established and reproduce for several 

generations in the wild without human assistance. 

Necrosis, necrotic Death of plant cells, tissue 

turns brown, dark colored, and appears sunken. 

Needle cast Certain fungal diseases of conifers 

which result in the copious shedding of needles, eg 

Lophodermium spp. on pines. 

Nematicide Any agent active against nematodes. 

Nematode An unsegmented generally microscopic 

round worm belonging to the Class Nematoda. 

Non-target organisms Plants and animals directly 

or indirectly affected accidentally by control measures. 

Noxious weed A plant defined by law as being 

particularly troublesome, undesirable and difficult to 

control. Also called a declared or proclaimed weed. 

NSOBP National Standard for Organic and Bio- 

Dynamic Produce. 

Nutrient charting A means of getting early warning 

signs of nutritional disorders, a prognosis. 

Nymph The growing stage of insects with a gradual 

metamorphosis, eg grasshoppers. 

Obligate parasite. A parasite that in nature can 

only grow and multiply on or in living organisms. 

Oedema Small masses of tissue expand and break 

out on plant parts (mostly leaf undersurfaces) causing 

watery swellings or small galls, which may become 

rusty or scabby. The plant absorbs more water through 

the roots than it can transpire through the leaves. 

Oil sprays Used as spray additives, soil wetting 

agents and spray oils to control pests and diseases. 

Botanical/vegetable oil Derived from the seeds of 

oil seeds, eg soybean, canola, cottonseed. 

Paraffin oil High quality petroleum oil, containing at 

least 62% paraffinic chains. 

Spray oil Oils mixed with water and applied to plants 

as a spray to manage certain pests and diseases. 

Dormant/winter oil Used on woody plants during 

dormancy (trees without foliage) to control pests. 

Summer/white oil Used on plants when foliage is 

present to control pests and some diseases. 

Superior oil Used year-round without phytotoxicity. 

Oomycota A Phylum of Fungi which produce thickwalled 

resting spores called oospores/zygospores, eg 

downy mildews, Pythium, Phytophthora. 

Oospore A fungal sexual spore in the Oomycota. 

Ooze Liquid discharge from diseased or injured 

tissue. May occur with bacterial or fungal diseases, 

some insect infestations, pruning or other injury. 

Organic standards Growing crops without synthetic 

fertilizers and pesticides, and not genetically modified. 

There are legal obligations (AS 6000–2009). 

‘Overwintering’ How the pest, disease or weed 

carries over from one season to another. 

Ovicide A chemical that destroys eggs. 

Ozone A gas within a layer of the upper atmosphere 

which is spread fairly evenly around the entire globe. 

It absorbs dangerous UV rays from the sun preventing 

injury to plant, animal and human life. 

Parasite. A plant, animal or micro-organism living 

in, on, or with another living organism for the 

purpose of obtaining all or part of its food. 

Parasitoid A form of parasitism in which the larval 

stage is specially adapted to live inside the host, 

eventually killing the host, eg the whitefly parasitoid 

Encarsia formosa. 

Parthenogenesis Reproduction takes place 

without fertilization of the eggs. 

Pasteurisation Partial sterilization of foods at a 

temperature that destroys harmful microorganisms 

without major changes in the chemistry of the food. 

Pathogen An organism that causes disease. 

Pathogenicity The capability of a pathogen to 

cause disease. 

Pathovar (p.v.) In bacteria, a subspecies or group 

of strains that can infect only plants within a certain 

genus or species. 

PCR (polymerase chain reaction) A technique that 

allows almost infinite multiplications of a segment of 

DNA for which only a short piece of DNA is available. . 

PDA Personal Data Assistant. 

Perennial A plant which lives for 3 years or more 

and may be short-lived or long-lived. Some may be 

classified as woody species or herbaceous. 

Pest An undesirable organism (bacterium, insect, 

fungus, nematode, weed, virus, rodent) which is 

injurious to desirable plants and animals. 

Pest cycle Describes each stage of the life cycle 

(egg, adult, etc) of the pest and where it occurs (on 

leaves, soil, etc). 

Pesticide A chemical or other agent used to kill, 

control or suppress pests, diseases and weeds. 



Pest management See Integrated Pest Management. 

Phasmatid An insect belonging to the Order 

Phasmatodea (stick insects, leaf insects). 

Pheromone A substance emitted by an animal that 

influences the behaviour of other animals of the same 

species, may be synthetically produced for insect traps. 

Phloem Tissues which transport nutrients from 

leaves which produce them to other plant parts. 

Phylum A division of the plant and animal Kingdom. 

Physical control Use of certain physical properties 

of the environment, eg temperature, to control pests, 

diseases and weeds. 

Phytoplasma See Virus & virus-like organism. 

Phytotoxity Toxicity of a pesticide or a pesticide 

component to desired plants 

Pigmentation Development of pigments other than 

chlorophyll in leaves, flowers and fruit. Can occur as 

a result of insect infestations, disease, weather 

conditions or other agents. 

Plant growth regulator A substance which 

accelerates, retards or alters the natural development 

of any vegetation. 

Plant quarantine Legislative regulatory control 

against introduction and dissemination of weeds and 

pests and diseases of plants into new areas. 

Plasmodiophoromycota A Phylum in the Fungi 

which are obligate endoparasites of plants, eg club 

root of brassicas (Plasmodiophora brassicae). 

Poisoning A toxic reaction when touched or eaten. 

Post-emergent herbicide A herbicide applied 

after weeds have appeared through the soil. 

Powdery mildew A fungus in the Phylum 

Ascomycota which produces white, powdery spores 

on mostly upper leaf surfaces, stems, flowers, fruit. 

Praying mantid A predaceous insect belonging to 

the Order Mantodea (mantids, praying mantids). 

Predator An animal that attacks, kills and feeds on 

other animals, eg assassin bugs. 

Pre-emergent herbicide A herbicide applied 

before the weeds have appeared through the soil. 

Protectant A fungicide applied to a plant prior to 

infection by a disease organism in order to prevent 

infection of the host plant. 

Protocol A negotiated formal procedure drawn up 

and recorded. 

Provenance(s) Populations of a species from 

different regions, individual trees within regions, and 

even different branches of one tree. 

Pubcris The registered product database of the 

Australian Pesticide & Veterinary Medicines 

Authority (APVMA). 

Pupa (pl. pupae) The stage during which an insect 

with a complete metamorphosis transforms from the 

larval to the adult stage. 

Pustule A small blister-like elevation of epidermis 

created as spores from underneath push outwards. 

pv.. See Pathovar. 

Quarantine. See Plant Quarantine. 

Race. 1. A genetically and often geographically 

distinct mating group within a species. 2. A group of 

pathogens that infect a given set of plant varieties. 

Relative humidity The amount of water vapour in 

the air compared to the amount required for 

saturation, stated as a percentage. If air contains only 

half the amount of water vapour that it can hold when 

saturated, relative humidity is 50%. 

Repellent A compound that keeps insects, rodents, 

birds or other pests away from plants, domestic 

animals, buildings or other treated areas. 

Resistance 1. The ability of a host plant to suppress 

or retard the activities of one or more specified 

disease organisms. 2. Populations of pests, diseases 

or weeds that are unaffected by a certain dosage of 

chemical used to control other populations of the 

same organisms successfully. 

Resistance mode of action groups (of a pesticide) 

The classification of pesticides by Croplife Australia 

which is displayed on commercial pesticide labels. 

Rhizomorph A root-like strand of fungal hyphae, 

used to spread for long distances through soil or along 

or under bark of woody plants, eg Armillaria spp. 

Ringspot Yellowish or chlorotic rings with green 

tissue in the centre, caused by many virus & viruslike 

diseases, eg peony ringspot virus. 

Risk assessment The process of assessing whether a 

pest, disease or weed is likely to become a major pest. 

Rodenticide A agent active against rodents (vermin). 

Roguing The removal of an infested or diseased 

plant from an otherwise healthy crop to prevent 

spread to neighbouring plants or through its seeds to 

future generations. Weeds may also be rogued. 

Rot A decay or decomposition of plant tissue which 

can affect any plant part, eg roots, trunks, fruit, bulbs, 

seed. It may be caused by bacteria or fungi, waterlogging 

or by other agents. 

Russet Development of brown, roughened areas on 

the skin of fruit due to the formation of cork, caused 

by mites, virus diseases, powdery mildew, frost, etc. 

Rust A fungus in the Phylum Basidiomycota which 

causes a disease characterized by orange brown spore 

masses, eg chrysanthemum rust. 

Salinity. A concentration of soluble salts in water 

between soil particles sufficient to restrict plant growth. 

Sanitation The elimination or reduction of pest and 

disease organisms and weeds in a nursery, 

glasshouse, storage facility or other horticultural 

situation, to reduce spread to other healthy plants or 

produce, especially at the beginning of a new season. 

Saprophyte An organism using dead plant matter as 

food. 

Sawfly An insect belonging to the Order 

Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps, sawflies). 

Scab Localized lesion on plant parts, eg leaves, fruit, 

corms, usually slightly raised, giving a scabby 

appearance. It may be caused by bacterial or fungal 

diseases, eg apple scab or by environmental agents, 

eg oedema. See Oedema. 

Scale An insect belonging to the Order Hemiptera 


whiteflies). 

Sclerotium (pl. sclerotia) A hard compact mass of 

fungal threads, when dry dark on the outside, can 

survive unfavourable conditions, eg Sclerotinia rot. 

Scorch Dead, ‘burnt’ areas on leaves and fruit, 

which may cover nearly the entire plant, irregular in 

shape, or form patterns (other than spots). May be 

caused by insects, disease, environmental conditions. 

Secretions. Substances extracted from plant sap by 

insects for their use or to be excreted as waste. 

Seed banks Existing seed in soil. 

Semio-chemical A chemical that modifies pest 

behaviour. 

Shothole Small spots on leaves which fall away to 

leave small holes. Used to describe types of fungal 

diseases, eg shothole of stone fruit; bacterial diseases, 

eg bacterial canker of stone fruit. Insects, eg metallic 

flea beetles, chew tiny irregular holes in leaves, which 

enlarge to give the leaves a ‘shotholed’ appearance. 

Sick soil syndrome Often referred to as ‘replant 

disease’. Disease microorganisms are thought to build 

up in soil during the life time of certain plants, eg 

roses; when planting roses into old rose beds soil is 

replaced. 

Sign The presence of actual insects, fungi, snails or 

other agents causing the problem. If signs are present 

the problem can usually be readily identified. 

Signal heading Indicates the hazard level of the 

product, eg a pesticide. 

Silk Produced by caterpillars of butterflies and 

moths (Order Lepidoptera) from special glands in the 

mouth, used for constructing cocoons, binding leaves 

together or lowering themselves for dispersal. 

Silvering Leaves become silvery in appearance 

instead of the normal green colour, most commonly 

caused by thrips rasping and sucking leaf surfaces, 

but also caused by senescence and other agents. 



Skeletonization Caused by chewing insects 

feeding externally on the surface of leaves, leaving 

only veins, eg autumn gum moth and gumleaf 

skeletonizer (Lepidoptera); elm leaf beetle 

(Coleoptera); pear and cherry slug and callistemon 

sawfly (Hymenoptera) and young snails. 

Slater An animal belonging to the Class 

Malacostraca, Phylum Arthropoda. 

Sleeper weeds Weeds that appear benign for many 

years then suddenly spread rapidly. 

Slime mould A very simple fungus belonging to the 

Phylum Myxomycota 

Smut A fungus in the Phylum Basidiomycota which 

causes a disease characterized by the presence of 

black sooty spore masses in seeds and leaves. 

Snail An animal belonging to the Phylum Mollusca, 

Class Gastropoda. 

Sodicity Soil containing levels of sodium that 

affects its physical properties (stability). Applies to 

soils rather than media, 

Solarisation A process in which heat from the sun 

may raise the temperature near the surface of soil or 

potting media to levels high enough to kill or reduce 

populations of some pests, eg mites, most soilborne 

disease organisms (bacteria, fungi, nematodes), and 

some weeds and weed seeds. 

Sooty mould The dark hyphae of fungi growing on 

the honeydew secreted by some Hemipterous insects, 

eg aphids, lerps, scales, mealybugs, whiteflies. 

Speckles, stippling Patterns of dots (feeding sites 

of sap sucking insects) on leaves and fruits. 

Spider An 8-legged animal belonging to the Order 

Acarina, Class Arachnida, Phylum Arthropoda. 

Spittle bug An insect belonging to the Order 

Hemiptera (bugs) the nymph of which produces a 

wet, frothy material for protection. 

Splitting The cracking of fruit commonly due to 

rain/too much water and too rapid growth. 

Spore The reproductive unit of a fungus consisting 

of one or more cells. 

Spray adjuvant A substance added to a pesticide to 

improve effectiveness or safety, eg wetting agent. 

Springtail An insect belonging to the Class 

Collembola, Phylum Arthropoda. 

Sterile fungi A group of fungi not known to 

produce any kind of spores. 

Stick insect An insect belonging to the Order 

Phasmatodea (leaf insects, phasmatids). 

Stomach poison A pesticide that must be eaten by 

an animal in order to be effective. 

Stomates Small openings on leaves, twigs and 

other plant parts which regulate the flow of water 

from the plant into the atmosphere and admit carbon 

dioxide from the atmosphere for photosynthesis. 

Strain Descendants of a single isolate in pure 

culture, an isolate, a race. 

Streaking Dark longitudinal streaks on stems 

infected with virus diseases, eg symptoms of tomato 

spotted wilt virus on stems of broad bean. 

Stunting Failure of a plant to reach normal size, 

caused by insect pests, virus diseases, other agents. 

Suppressive soils Soils in which certain diseases 

are suppressed because of the presence in the soil of 

microorganisms antagonistic to the pathogen. 

Surfactant A spray supplement which lowers the 

surface tension of a pesticide spray enabling it to 

spread evenly over, and adhere to, the surface of an 

insect, diseased plant surface or weed, overcoming 

the repellent nature of the pest, disease or weed. 

Susceptible Being prone to attack by a given 

disease or pest organism. 

Symbiosis Mutually beneficial association of 

2 or more different kinds of organisms. 

Symptom The visible response of the host plant to a 

disease or pest, eg chlorosis, leaf curl, scab. 

Systemic 1. A chemical that is absorbed and 

translocated within a plant or animal. 2. A disease 

that spreads within a plant. 

Target organism. The pest, disease or weed to be 

controlled. 

Termite An insect belonging to the Order Isoptera 

(termites, ‘white ants’). 

Threshold Levels of pest or damage at which 

treatment is necessary to manage a pest problem. May 

be economic, aesthetic or environmental. 

Thrips An insect belonging to the Order 

Thysanoptera (thrips). 

Tolerant The property of organisms (including 

plants), to withstand a certain degree of stress, pest 

attack, unfavourable weather and other agents. 

Toxin A compound produced by plants, animals or 

microorganisms which is toxic to another. 

Translocation A substance taken in through the 

plant surface and moved throughout the plant. 

Uredospores. Rust spores produced by a fruiting 

structure called a uredium. 

Vector. 1. An insect, nematode, parasitic plant or 

other parasite which can carry and transmit a disease 

organism from one host to another. 2. In genetic 

engineering the transmission of DNA into a host cell. 

Vegetative Asexual reproduction of plants. 

Veinbanding Regions along the veins of leaves 

darker or lighter in colour than the tissue between the 

veins, caused by some virus diseases. 

Veinclearing Veins of leaves become translucent, 

caused by some virus diseases, herbicide injury, etc. 

Virescence See Greening. 

Virus & virus-like ‘organism’ A submicroscopic 

parasite consisting of nucleic acid and protein. A group 

of related ‘organisms’, eg phytoplasmas and viroids, 

have similar properties, ie can only multiply in living 

cells, can spread from one plant to another and can 

only be seen with aid of an electron microscope. 

Wasp. An insect belonging to the Order 

Hymenoptera (ants, bees, sawflies, wasps). 

Wax A normal secretion of the epidermal glands in 

insects, eg woolly aphid. 

Webbing Fine silk produced from glands in 

the mouth of ‘spider’ mites, eg twospotted mites 

crawl over it and fasten their eggs to it. 

Weed A plant that has or has the potential to have, 

a detrimental effect on economic, social or 

conservation values. 

Weevil An insect belonging to the Order Coleoptera 

(beetles and weevils). 

Wetting agents A substance that reduces the 

surface tension of a liquid, so it can spread across or 

penetrate more easily the surface of a plant. May be 

added to pesticide sprays to allow easier spreading on 

leaves, or to the soil to aid the rewetting of soils. 

Whey Liquid waste from cheese products. 

White ant An insect belonging to the Order Isoptera 

(termites). 

Whitefly An insect belonging to the Order 

Hemiptera, (bugs; hoppers; aphids, lerps, mealybugs, 

scales, whiteflies). 

Wilt A drooping of plants due to an inadequate 

water supply, excessive transpiration, or a variety of 

agents. True ‘wilt ‘ diseases are caused by fungi or 

bacteria blocking the xylem vessels of the host plant, 

eg Fusarium wilt and Verticillium wilt of various 

plants and bacterial wilt of tomato. 

Wireworm Larvae of click beetles (Elateridae, 

Coleoptera). 

Witches' broom Broom-like growth or massed 

proliferation of shoots, caused by insects or mites, 

other agents, and occasionally by fungal diseases. 

‘Worm’, ‘weevil’ damage Damage caused 

internally to fruit, nuts, seeds by larvae of various 

insects with a complete metamorphosis, eg 

caterpillars of moths (Lepidoptera), maggots of flies 

(Diptera), larvae of beetles and weevils (Coleoptera) 

and wasps (Hymenoptera). 

Xylem. Water conducting tissue in plants. 

Zoospore. A fungal spore with flagella capable of 

moving in water. 

Zygomycota A Phylum of Fungi with thick-walled 

resting zygospores, eg bread moulds (Mucor, Rhizopus). 



Abrasive & absorptive dusts 48 

Acacia-spotting bug injury 31 

Acaricides, miticides 205, 208 

Acarina 199-208 

Acid rain 396 

Acid soil 395 

Actinorhizal roots 323 

Adjuvants 455 

African black beetle 109 

Antennae 10, 11, 13 

Anthracnose 315, 320, 355 

Anti-transpirants 402, 405 

Antlions 129 

Ants 115, 119 

Aphidlions 129 

Aphids 141, 143, 145 

black peach aphid 32 

cabbage aphid 150 

green peach aphid 152 

woolly aphid 155 

Apple dimpling bug 32 

Apple mosaic virus 277 

Arachnida 9, 199 

Araneida (spiders) 209 

Argentine ant 119 

Argentinian scarab 108 

Agricultural biological products 61, 

344, 454 

Armoured scales 167, 168 

Arthropoda see Insects & Allied Pests 

Ascomycota (fungal diseases) 320, 321 


Azadarachtin 60, 205 

Azalea leafminer 29 

Bacillus thuringiensis see Dipel 

Bacterial blight of mulberry 296 


Bacterial diseases 293-312 

Bacterial gall of oleander 293, 297 

Bacterial leaf & corm scab of gladiolus 

296 

Bacterial leaf & stem rot of 

pelargonium 310 



Bacteriophage 302 

Baits 

insects & allied pests 44, 72 

snails 235 

vertebrate pests 247, 249 

Barriers 

insects 48 

snails & slugs 235 

vertebrate pests 246 

weeds 438 

Basidiomycota 322 


Bees 115, 117 

leafcutting bee damage 34, 115 

Beetles 98 

Beneficial organisms 

bacteria 43, 298 

fungi 43, 323 

insects, mites 42-44, 144, 147 

nematodes 43, 61, 103, 107, 110, 258 

weeds (beneficial effects) 411 

viruses 43, 279 

Big bud 289 

Bicarbonates 344 

BioCane 43, 61, 103, 323 

Bio-fungicides, soaps, bicarbonates, 

milk, etc 344 

Bio-herbicides 435 

Bio-insecticides, spray oils, soaps, 

pheromones 61-62 

Biological control of 

bacterial diseases 302, 306 

fungal diseases 329, 344, 369, 373 

insects & allied pests 42 

nematode diseases 263 



virus & virus-like diseases 284 

weeds 435 

INDEX 

Biological control agents 

bio-bactericides 302, 306 

bio-fungicides 323, 329, 344, 374 

bio-herbicides 435 

bio-insecticides 43-44 

bacteria (Bt) 59, 85, 88, 298 

fungi (Metarhizium) 323 

locusts 184, 185 

scarab grubs 61, 110, 323 

termites 179 

nematodes 258 

black vine weevil 107, 258 

scarab grubs 110 

viruses 

corn earworm 43, 88, 279 

insects for release 42 

mites for release 42 

rabbits 245 

Bird repellents 248 

Birds & damage (roses) 240, 241 

Bitou bush 416, 422, 470 

Blackberry 411, 416, 470 

Black peach aphid 32 

Black scale 163, 164 

Black spot (of grape) 317 



Blattodea (cockroaches) 190 

Blights 

bacteria 296-298 

fungal 316, 320 

Blood system (insects) 26 

Blossom-end rot of tomato 395 

Borers 

elephant weevil 102 

fruit-tree borer 30, 96 

longicorn beetles 111 

Botrytis cinerea (gray mould) 316, 

320, 371 

Broadleaved weeds 415-417, 419-422, 

460 

Broomrape 382-385 

Brown rot 317, 321 

Brush & woody weeds 467, 470 

Bugs 141-149 

acacia-spotting bug 31 

apple dimpling bug 32 

azalea lace bug 147 

beneficial bugs 144, 147 

bronze orange bug 147 

crusader bug 148 

fruitspotting bug 149 

green vegetable bug 147 

harlequin bug 147 

passionvine bug 149 

Rutherglen bug 147 

spined citrus bug 147 

Burr knots 397 

Butterflies 78 



Callistemon leafminer 83 

Callistemon sawfly 118 

Callistemon leafrolling thrips 33, 132 

Camellia yellow mottle 279 

Cankers 307 (stone fruit), 318 (rose) 

Capeweed 416, 419 

Case moth cases 28, 34 

Cassytha 381 

Caterpillars see Lepidoptera 

Cat repellents 247, 248 

Cats 242 

Centipedes 9, 214 

Cerci 16 

Chemical groups see Resistance 

Chewing insect damage 29 

Chickweed 416, 421 

Chilopoda (centipedes) 9, 214 

Chimera 397 

Chordates see Vertebrate Pests 

Christmas beetle 98, 100, 108 


Citrus butterfly 8, 29 

Citrus gall wasp 29, 121 

Clasping organs 16 

Classification (pests, diseases weeds) 

bacterial diseases 295 

fungal diseases 319 

insects & allied pests 9, 63 




weeds 413-418 

Climate change 394 

Cockroaches 190 

Cold injury 393 


Coleoptera (beetles, weevils) 98-113 

African black beetle 109 

bean weevil 113 

black vine weevil 106 

Christmas beetle 98, 100, 108 

elephant weevil 102 

jewel beetle larvae 99, 103 

ladybirds (predatory) 100, 104 

leaf beetles 100, 103 

leafeating ladybirds 104 

longicorn beetles 111 

scarab beetles, scarab grubs 108 

vegetable weevil 30 

Collections (Prelims) xii 

Collembola (springtails) 197 




insects & allied pests 38-62 





weeds 428 

Contact herbicides 442, 448 

Contact insecticides 51, 52 

Container plants (weeds) 464 


bacterial diseases 302-303 

fungal diseases 327-344 


nematode diseases 262-267 

non-parasitic diseases 399-406 

parasitic flowering plants 382-385 

snails & slugs 233-237 

vertebrate pests 243-249 

virus & virus-like diseases 283-285 

weeds 429-454 


Cornicles 17 

Cottonycushion scale 32, 163 

Couchgrass 418, 423, 461 

Cracking of citrus, tomato 392 

Crickets 180, 181 








non-parasitic pests & diseases 400 

parasitic flowering plants 383 




weeds 432 

Cup moth caterpillar 82 

Cuscuta spp. (dodders) 381, 383-385 

Cuticle (insect) 12, 22 

Cypress pine sawfly 118 

Damage see also Symptoms 


damaged seed (effects of) 113, 116, 

402 

snails & slugs 229-230 


weeds (effects of) 411 


Damselflies 196 

Dandelion 416, 419, 460 

Declared weeds 414 

Index 481


Deficiencies 

blossom-end rot 395 

iron deficiency 395 

magnesium deficiency 395 

molybdenum deficiency 395 

Dermaptera (earwigs) 186-189 


Detection 

bacteria 295 

fungi 319 

insects 63 

nematodes 256 

viruses & virus-like organisms 276 

Devil's twine (Cassytha) 381, 383, 385 

Diagnostics & Information Services xiv 

Diapause (insects) 21 

Dicotyledons (weeds) 415-417, 419-422, 

460 

Dipel 43, 59, 85, 88, 298 

Diplopoda (millipedes) 9, 214 

Diptera (flies) 65- 77 

cineraria leafminer 73 

fruit flies 66, 68 

fungus gnats 75 

garden maggots 77 

garden soldier fly 77 

Disease cycle 





Disease-tested planting material 





see pest-tested planting material 

see weed-tested planting material 

Disinfectants 343 

Distinctive features 

bacteria 294 

fungi 314 


nematodes 252 

parasitic plants 378 



Distribution in host plants 

bacteria 299 

fungi 324 

insects 28-34 

nematodes 259 

virus & virus-like organisms 276 

Dodder 381-385 

Dog repellents 248 

Dogs 242 

Downy mildews 320, 348 

Dragonflies 196 

Earwigs 186 

Eelworms see Nematode diseases 

Elephant weevil 102 

Environment 392-394 

Environmental weeds 415-418, 422, 470 

Epiphytes 378 

Etiolation 393 


European wasp 118 

Excretions (insects) 18 

Exocarpus (native cherry) 379 

Exoskeleton (insects) 12 

Eyes (insects) 13 

Fact Sheets xi 

Fairy rings 387, 391 

Fasciation 397 

Fat hen 420, 460 

Fireblight 297 

Flat limb 279 

Flies 65 

Foliar nematode 254, 255, 257 

Flower plantings (weeds in) 463 

Food lures 44, 62 

Frass 18 

Freckle 317, 321 

Frost/cold damage 390. 393 

Frosted scale 163 

Fruit bats 241 

482 Index 

Fruit flies 66, 68 

Fruit splitting 392 

Fruit-tree borer 30, 96 

Fumafert 62, 267 

Fumigants 267 

Fungal diseases 313-376 

Fungicides 331-344 

bio-fungicides, soaps, bicarbonates, 

milk, etc 344 

broad spectrum (non-selective) 336 

disinfectants 343 

eradicants (systemic) 334 

legislation 331` 

narrow spectrum (selective) 336 

protectants (non-systemic) 333 

resistance 337 

fungicide activity groups 338-342 


Gall wasps 118, 121 


Garden escapes 415 

Garden Plants Under The Spotlight 415 

Garden soldier fly 77 

Gastropoda (snails & slugs ) 228 

Gemstar 43, 88, 279 


Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 

45, 88, 436 

Genetic engineering (GE) 45, 88, 436 


Glossary 475 

GPUTS 415 


Grapevine fanleaf 279 

Grasshoppers 180, 181 

Grass weeds 415, 418, 423-425, 461 

Greenhouse thrips 131 

Greenhouse whitefly 171 

Greening 289 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) 316, 

320, 371 

Growth (insects) 22 

Gumtree scale 163 

Hail damage 396 

Helicoverpa spp. 86 

Hemi-parasites (plants) 378, 379 

Hemiptera (aphids etc) 141-173 

aphids 143, 145, 150-157 

black peach aphid 32 

cabbage aphid 150 

green peach aphid 152 

woolly aphid 155 

bugs 142, 145, 147-149 

crusader bug 148 

lerp insects 158 

mealybugs 144, 146 

longtailed mealybug 160 

scales 144, 146 

armoured scales 167-170 

black scale 164 

San jose scale 168 

soft scales 163-166 

whiteflies 144, 146 

greenhouse whitefly 171 

Herbicide injury 457-460, 462 

hormone herbicides 4, 452, 460, 462 

simazine 395, 459 

Herbicides 439-454 

adjuvants, spray additives 455 

application 440, 441 

bio-herbicides 435 

broadleaved weeds 460 

broad spectrum (non-selective) 

443-445, 448 

contact (non-systemic) 442, 448 

genetic engineering (of crops) 436 

grass weeds 461 

herbicide-resistant crops 436 

post-emergents 446-448, 457 

pre-emergents 446-458, 457 

herbicide mode of action groups 

450-454 

legislation 439 

marking systems 456 

narrow spectrum (selective) 443-445, 

448 


Herbicides (contd) 

resistance (to herbicides) 449 

translocated (systemic) 442, 448 

herbicide resistance 449 

herbicide resistant crops 436 

residual herbicides 447, 448 

Herbicide marking dyes 456 

Hermaphrodite 23 

Honeydew 18 

Hormone herbicides 4, 452, 460 

Host ranges 




nematode diseases 257, 258 

parasitic plants 379-382 



Hydrangea mosaic 273 

Hymenoptera (ants, etc) 114-128 

ants 119 

bees 115, 117, 118 

callistemon sawfly 118 

citrus gall wasp 121 

cypress pine sawfly 118 


gall wasps 118, 121 

leafblister sawfly 127 

leafcutting bee damage 118 

paper wasps 118 

parasitic wasps 118 

pear and cherry slug 123 

predatory wasps 118 

sawflies 116-118 

steelblue sawfly 125 

teatree sawfly 118 

wasps 116-118 

Identification xiv 

bacteria 295 

fungi 319 

insects 63 


non-parasitic problems 389 




weeds 412 

IDM see Integrated Disease Management 

Imperfect Fungi 320, 321 

Infection of host plants 





Insect anatomy (adult insects) 10 

abdomen 10, 11, 16 

head 10, 11, 13 

thorax 10, 21, 15 

Insecticides & miticides 49-62 

Insect orders 64 

Insects & allied pests 5-226 

damage to plants 28-34 

chewing damage 29, 30 

piercing & sucking 31, 32 

rasping & sucking 33 

indirect damage 34 

Insecticides, miticides 49-62 

absorption by insects 53 

acaricides, miticides 205, 208 

applications 50 

bio-insecticides, spray oils, soaps, 

pheromones 61, 62 

broad spectrum (non-selective) 54 

contact action (non-systemic) 51 

fumigant action 53, 267 

insecticide mode of action groups 

57-60 

narrow spectrum (selective) 54 

resistance to insecticides 56 

stomach action 53 

toxicity to beneficial species 114 

translocated (systemic) 51 

when to apply? 55 

Integument 12 

Integrated Disease Management 




non-parasitic diseases 399 



xii


Integrated Pest Management xii 




Integrated Weed Management xii 


weeds 429 

IPM see Integrated Pest Management 

Iron deficiency 395 

Irradiation 48 

Isopoda (slaters) 212 

Isoptera (termites, white ants) 174 

IWM see Integrated Weed management 

Jewel beetles 99, 103 

Kangaroos 242 

Katydids 180, 181 

Lacewings 129 

Ladybirds 42, 100, 104 

Larvae (insects) 24, 25 

Leaf beetles 103 


Leafcutting bee damage 34. 391 


Leafhoppers 143, 145 

leafhopper injury 31 

Leaf insects, stick insects 193 

Leafmining insects 

azalea leafminer 29 

callistemon leafminer 83 

cineraria leafminer 73 

Leaf nematodes 254, 255 

Leafrolling (environmental) 393 

Leafrolling thrips 33, 132 

Leaf spots 


black spot of rose 355 

fungal diseases 316, 321, 355 

Legislation 



insects & allied pests 41, 42, 45-49 


codling moth 91 

fruit fly 70 


non-parasitic problems 400 





weeds 414, 431, 432, 439 

Legs (insects) 10, 11, 16 

broken limbs 22 

Lenticels 299, 324, 393 (enlarged) 

Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths) 78-97 

cabbage white butterfly 84 

citrus butterfly 8, 29 


corn earworm 86 

cup moth 82 

fruit-tree borer 96 

lightbrown apple moth 83 

oriental fruit moth 93 

painted apple moth 82 

prolegs 16 

webbing caterpillar damage 34 

whitestemmed gum moth 82 

Lerp insects 158 

Lichens 388 

Life cycles 








weeds (reproduction) 426 

Lightbrown apple moth 83 

Liverworts 391 

Locusts 180 



Lures 44 


fruit fly 71 


Magnesium deficiency 395 

Malacostraca (slaters) 212 

Mantids (Mantodea) 195 

Mealybugs 141, 144 

longtailed mealybug 160 

Mechanical injury 396 

Mediterranean fruit fly 68 


Metarhizium 43, 61, 103, 179, 184, 323 

Microbial agents see Biological 


Mice 241, 244, 247, 249 

Milk 344 

Millipedes 9, 214 

Mistletoe 378, 380, 383-385 

Mites 9, 199-208 

grapeleaf blister mite 206 

twospotted mite 202 

Miticides 205, 208 

Mode of action pesticide groups 



57-60 


450- 454 

Mollusca (snails) 228 

Molluscicides 235-237 

Molybdenum deficiency 395 

Monocotyledons (weeds) 415, 418, 

423-425, 461 

Moths 78 

Moulting (insects) 22 

Mouth parts 


nematodes 253 


spiders 209 

Mullumbimby couch 418, 425 

Mutations 397 

Mycorrhizae 323 

Myxomycota (slime moulds) 320 

Native cherry 379 

Nematicides 265-267 

fumigant 267 

non-fumigants 265, 266 

Nematode diseases 251-272 

Nervous system (insects) 26 

Neuroptera (lacewings) 129 

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria 298, 323 

Nogall 298, 302, 306 

Non-parasitic pests & diseases 387-408 

Noxious weeds 414, 416-418 

Nutgrass 418, 425 

Nutrition & parasitism 

bacteria 299 

fungi 324 

Nutrient deficiencies 395 

Nutysia floribunda 379 

Odonata (dragonflies) 196 

Odours 19 

Oedema 393 

Onion thrips damage 132 

Organic systems (websites) 49, 331, 439 


Orobanche (broomrape) 382-385 

Orthoptera (locusts, etc) 180 

Oversummering see Overwintering 

Overwintering 







weeds 426 

Oviparity 23 

Ovipositor 16 

Ozone 396 

Painted apple moth 82 

Paper wasps 118 

Parasitic flowering plants 377-386 

Parasitic pests & diseases 3 









Parasitic wasps 116-118 

Parthenogenesis 23 

Paspalum 418, 423, 461 



Pest cycle 


millipedes 215 

mites 202, 203, 207 

slaters 213 


spiders 209 

springtails 198 

Pesticides 

bactericides 303 

fumigants 267 

fungicides 331-344 

herbicides 439-454 

insecticides. miticides 49-62 

molluscicides 235-237 

nematicides 265-267 

repellents (bird, cat, dog) 248 

rodenticides 249 


Pest management see IDM, IPM, IWM 

Pest-tested planting material 

insects, mites 47 



see disease-tested planting material 

see weed-tested planting material 

Petty spurge 416, 421, 460 

Phasmatids 193 

Phasmatodea 193 

Pheromones 44, 62 

codling moth 91, 92 


Physical & mechanical methods 







snails & slugs 234, 235 



weeds 438 

Phytophthora root rot 318, 320, 364 


Plant growth regulators 403, 404 










weeds 436, 437 

Poison glands 19 

spiders 209, 211 

Pollution 396 

Post-emergent herbicides 446-448, 457 

Powdery mildews 316, 345 

Praying mantids 195 

Predators 

assassin bugs 42, 144, 147 

beetles 100, 101, 104 

cats 244, 248 

dragonflies 196 

lacewings 129 

ladybirds 42, 100, 101, 104 

mites 42, 201, 203 

praying mantids 195 

slugs 230 

wasps 42, 118 

Pre-emergent herbicides 446-448, 458 

Proclaimed weed 414 

Proteoid roots 323 

Prolegs 16 

Pruinose scarab 108 

Psyllids 158 

Quarantine see Plant quarantine 

Queensland fruit fly 68 

Index 483


Rabbits 241-247, 249 

Rats 241, 244, 245, 247, 249 

Red herbicide marking dye 456 

Red scale 144, 167 

‘Red spider’ (twospotted mite) 202 

References 












weeds 473 

Repellent plants 40 

Reproduction (insects) 20, 23 

Reproduction (weeds) 426 

Residual herbicides 447, 448, 458, 459 

Resistance (pesticides) 



56-60 


449-454 

Repellents (birds, cats, dogs) 248 

Resistant varieties/tolerant crops 










weeds 472 

Review questions & activities 










weeds 474 

Rodenticides 247, 249 

Root knot, root gall 268 

Root rots (fungal) 320, 321 

damping off 371 

Phytophthora 318, 364 

Rose mosaic 291 

Rose scale 167 

Rots (list) 297, 320-322, 364 

Rusts 322, 351 

Salinity 394 

Sandalwood 378 

Sanitation 









weeds 434 

Sawflies 

callistemon sawfly 118 

cypress pine sawfly 118 

leafblister sawfly 127 

pear and cherry slug 123 

steelblue sawfly 125 

teatree sawfly 118 

Scabs 296, 297, 317, 321 

Scales 144, 163-170 

armoured scales 167-170 

black scale 163, 164 

cottonycushion scale 163 

frosted scale 163 

gumtree scale 163 

red scale 167 

rose scale 167 

San Jose scale 167, 168 

soft brown scale 163 

soft scales 163 

white louse scale 167 

white wax scale 163 

Scarab grubs, scarab beetles 108 

Secretions (insect) 19 

Sedges 418, 425 

Seedbank 426, 433 

Shothole 316, 321 

Slaters 9, 212 

Slime moulds 320, 391 

Slugs 227-238 

Smog 396 

Smuts 317, 322 

Snails & slugs 227-238 

Soft rots (bacteria) 297 

Soap sprays 62, 345 

Soil residual herbicides 447, 448, 458, 459 

Soil wetting agents 402, 405 

Solarization 330, 438 

Sooty mould 18, 34, 391 

Species, List of 


Blattodea (cockroaches) 191 

Coleoptera (beetles, weevils) 98 

Dermaptera (earwigs) 187 

Diptera (flies) 66 


Hemiptera (aphids, etc) 142 

Hymenoptera (ants, etc) 115 

Isoptera (termites) 175 

Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths) 79 

millipedes 214 

mites 200 


Orthoptera (locusts, etc) 181 


Phasmatodea (stick insects) 194 

slaters 212 


spiders 210 

springtails 197 

Thysanoptera (thrips) 131 


weeds 416-418 

Spiders 209 

Spiracles 10, 17 

Spitfires 125 

Spittle 18 

Splitting fruit 392 

Spotted wilt 286 

Spray additives 455 

Spray oils 61, 344 

Spread 








weeds 427 

Springtails 9, 197 


Stem & bulb nematode 254, 255 

Stem canker (rose) 318 

Sterile Insect Release Method 44 

Stick insects 193 

Striga spp. 380, 383-385 

Suckers (tree) 466 

Sucking insect damage 31, 32 

Summer grass 418, 424, 461 

Sunscald, sunscorch (leaves, fruit) 392 

Symptoms see also Damage 



nematode diseases 253-255 

non-parasitic pests & diseases 390-397 



weeds infestations 411 

Teatree sawfly 118 

Termites 174, 177 

Thrips see Thysanoptera below 

Thysanoptera (thrips) 130-140 

gladiolus thrips & damage 133 

greenhouse thrips damage 33, 131 

leafrolling thrips damage 33, 132 

onion thrips damage 132 

plague thrips 136 

western flower thrips (WFT) 138 

Tolerance see Resistant varieties 

Tomato big bud 289 

Tomato grub 86 


Toxicity 390 

Training (weed management) 430 

Trap crops 44 

Traps 

insects 48, 120 

snails 234 


Trees (unwanted) 467-469 


Trichoderma 323, 329, 344 (Table 60), 

363, 369, 373, 374 (Table 68) 

Tricho products 323, 329, 344 

Tulip breaking 278 


Variegated thistle 416, 420, 460 

Vectors 282-283 

Vegetable weevil 30 

Vertebrate pests 239-250 

Virescence 289 

Viricides 285 

Viroids 274 

Virus & virus-like diseases 273-292 

Wasps 116-118 



paper wasps 118 

parasitic wasps 118 

predatory wasps 118 

Water storage products 402, 406 

Water stress symptoms 392 

Wax glands 19 

Webbing caterpillar damage 34 

Webbing (insects) 19 

Weed management see IWM 

Weeds 409-474 

parasitic plants 378, 383, 385 




Weed-tested planting material 

Crops, plants 437 


see disease-tested planting material 

see pest-tested planting material 

Weeds of National Significance (WONS) 

415-418 

Vegetable weevil 30 

Vivus 43, 88, 279 

Water stress symptoms 392 

Weevils 98, 106 

Western Australian Christmas tree 379 


Wetting agents 

soil wetting agents 402, 405 

spray additives (adjuvants) 455 

spray oils (for pest control) 61 

Whiptail 395 

White ants 174 

Whiteflies 144, 146, 171 

ash whitefly 144, 171 

greenhouse whitefly 171 

silverleaf whitefly 144, 171 

spiralling whitefly 144, 171 

White louse scale 167 

Whitestemmed gum moth 82 

White wax scale 163 

Wilts 

bacterial wilts 295, 296, 298 

fungal wilts 321 

Wind damage 388 

Wings 10, 11, 15 

Winter grass 418, 424, 461 

Witchweed 380, 383-385 

WONS see Weeds of National Significanc 

Wood rot 178, 318, 322, 361 

Woody weeds 416, 417, 422, 467-471 


X 

Y 

Yellow net vein 279 

Z 

484 Index

Root structure of dock 

(Rumex spp.). After Parsons 

and Cuthbertson 2001.

The AuThor’s Aim in this series of books is to provide users with the 

systematic understanding of Plant Protection and Plant Management 

required of modern horticulture. The books are used to teach Plant 

Protection throughout Australia and as a reference by people working 

in the horticulture industry. 

ruTh Kerruish’s interest in diseases and pests of plants commenced 

with her post-graduate studies at the University of Western Australia. 

She later worked as a researcher with CSIRO (Forest Products, 

Melbourne and Plant Industry, Canberra) and taught Plant Protection in 

the Department of Horticulture in the Canberra Institute of Technology. 

PhilliP unger was formerly Head of Amenity Horticulture in the 

Canberra Institute of TAFE. He continues to be involved in teaching 

Horticulture and Agriculture, Fruit Culture and Plant Protection. He 

maintains an interest in Plant Protection advisory work. 

Adrienne WAlKingTon trained in architectural drafting in Adelaide 

and in Horticulture in Canberra where she worked as a technician in 

the Department of Horticulture in the Canberra Institute of Technology. 

Plant Protection SerieS: 

1. Pests, Diseases and Weeds 

2. Methods of Control 

3. Selected Ornamentals, Fruit and 

Vegetables 

4. How to Diagnose Plant Problems 

rootrot PreSS 

22 Lynch Street, Hughes, Canberra, ACT, Australia 2605 

(02) 6281 3650 Fax (02) 6285 1657 

ISBN 978-1-875907-07-6

PLANT PROTECTION 1 â Pests, Diseases and Weeds

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PLANT PROTECTION 1 â Pests, Diseases and Weeds