Introduced land snails in the Fiji Islands - IUCN Invasive Species ...

Island invasives: eradication and management 

Brodie, G. and G.M. Barker. Introduced land snails in the Fiji Islands: are there risks involved? 

Introduced land snails in the Fiji Islands: are there risks involved? 

G. Brodie 1 and G. M. Barker 2 

1 

Biology Division, FSTE, University of the South Pacific, Private Bag, Suva, Fiji Islands. . 

2 

Landcare Research, Hamilton, New Zealand. 

Abstract Fiji’s land snail fauna is highly diverse. There are over 230 species of which about 90% are native and 78% 

are endemic to the archipelago. There are 18 introduced species and four that are of uncertain origin within the Pacific. 

Information to allow easy identification of these species is lacking, as is related information about the risks involved 

with the introduced species in respect to trade, crop production or human and livestock health. To address this latter 

information gap, existing and new data on Fiji’s introduced land snail fauna were collated. This information is urgently 

required to identify and manage introduced and potentially invasive species and if possible to prevent their spread to noninfected 

islands. Other Pacific Island countries and territories have suffered substantial endemic land snail biodiversity 

loss, particularly because of invasive snail species that are not yet present in Fiji. Except for one of these latter species, the 

giant African snail (Achatina (Lissachatina) fulica), the Fiji government authorities have no baseline reference material 

that allows them to quickly and accurately identify and understand the biology of even the most common introduced 

snails. If not addressed this lack of information may have major long-term implications for agriculture, quarantine, trade 

and human health. The alien species already introduced to Fiji are spreading unacknowledged despite several of them 

being known disease vectors and agricultural pests elsewhere. This paper provides collated land snail information to 

government departments such as agriculture, quarantine, forestry and environment, and in turn provides a platform on 

which to build a stronger understanding of how introduced snail species may be impacting trade, agricultural production 

and human and livestock health in Fiji. 

Keywords: Mollusc, gastropod, slug, Pacific Islands, Parmarion martensi, invasive 

INTRODUCTION 

The land snail fauna of the south Pacific islands of Fiji is 

unique and highly diverse. Over 230 species are recorded, 

of which 22 are non-native. About 90% of the fauna is 

native and 78% are endemic to the archipelago (Barker 

et al. 2005). Information to allow easy identification of 

species is lacking, as is collated information about the risks 

non-native species pose to trade, crop production or human 

and livestock health (Brodie 2009a). Many of the nonnative 

species are known agricultural pests and parasite 

vectors elsewhere in the world. Collated information is 

urgently required to detect and adequately manage nonnative 

species, and if possible to prevent the spread of 

invasive species to non-infected islands. 

Pacific Island countries and territories such as Samoa, 

New Caledonia, French Polynesia and Hawaii (Fig. 1) 

have lost much of their endemic land snail biodiversity 

(Bouchet and Abdou 2003; Brescia et al. 2008; Cowie and 

Robinson 2003; Hadfield 1986), in some cases following 

the introduction of invasive snail species that are not yet 

established in Fiji. Two such examples are the “rosy 

wolf snail” (Euglandina rosea) and the giant African 

snail (Achatina (Lissachatina) fulica). Except for the 

latter species, Fijian government agencies have very little 

baseline reference material that allows quick and accurate 

identification of snails. This even applies to the most 

common introduced terrestrial snails located close to the 

well established port area of the capital Suva, on the largest 

island, Viti Levu (Fig. 2). Fijian government agencies also 

have relatively little collated biological information which 

could be used to make management decisions or implement 

monitoring programmes in relation to any of the currently 

introduced land snail species. If not addressed this lack of 

information may have major long-term implications for 

agriculture, quarantine, international trade, and livestock 

and human health in Fiji. 

This current paper is part of a larger plan by the authors 

to provide direct land snail identification assistance 

to sectors of the Fiji government such as agriculture, 

quarantine, forestry and environment, and to improve 

understanding of how introduced land snail species may 

impact biodiversity, economic costs and human health in 

the Fiji Islands. In turn, collation of this information will 

also allow estimates of the potential impact of these alien 

intruders on Fiji’s established trading partners. In addition, 

the current paper addresses a broader acknowledged 

Fig. 1 Fiji’s location in the Pacific showing neighbouring 

islands. 

Fig. 2 The Fiji Islands showing the location of the capital 

city Suva and the islands of Viti Levu, Taveuni and Rotuma. 

The Lau Group includes all of the small islands in the 

southeast of the archipelago. 

Pages 32 32-36 In: Veitch, C. R.; Clout, M. N. and Towns, D. R. (eds.). 2011. Island invasives: eradication and management. 

IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Brodie & Barker: Introduced land snails Fiji, the risks 

need to fill major information gaps on the distribution of 

introduced land snails in the Pacific Islands region (Sherley 

2000). 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

We compiled a checklist of land snails introduced to 

Fiji using the results of surveys in many forest areas and 

villages throughout the archipelago to 2005 (Barker et al. 

2005; Barker, unpublished data) and in 2008 - 2010 on 

Viti Levu (Brodie 2009b; Brodie and Copeland in press; 

Mila et al. 2010) and Taveuni (Brodie unpublished data). 

By combining the above results with our expert knowledge 

and additional published reports on aspects of distribution, 

biology, ecology, and “pest” status, we added to our 

checklist an estimated risk level for each species. Risk 

level was identified as low, medium or high depending on 

our estimate of their potential to inflict biodiversity loss, 

affect agricultural production, and/or impact on human or 

livestock health in Fiji. 

The term ‘land snail’ as a common name is used in 

preference to distinguishing ‘snails’ and ‘slugs’. 

RESULTS 

Eighteen species of introduced land snails from nine 

families are currently known from the Fiji Islands (Table 1). 

This total excludes the widespread Pacific Achatinellidae 

Elasmias apertum, Lamellidea pusilla, Lamellidea oblonga 

and Helicarionidae Liardetia samoensis for which precise 

origins within the Pacific are uncertain. 

The feeding types and diets of the introduced species 

range from herbivores on fresh plant material, detritivores 

feeding on dead plant material, to carnivorous predators 

(Table 1). Our data suggest that the introduced Streptostele 

musaecola, Bradybaena similaris, and Deroceras laeve 

are restricted to areas of human habitation or disturbance. 

The remaining species are found in both disturbed and 

relatively undisturbed habitats and must be considered 

“invasive”. Of these, nine species are considered here as 

low risk, three low-medium risk and five medium-high 

risk (Table 2). One species, Parmarion martensi (Fig. 3), 

stands out as very high risk and very invasive because of its 

hardy nature, active climbing behaviour, close association 

with local crops and common presence in virtually all 

sheltered habitats investigated, including the significant 

forest conservation areas of Nakauvadra, Nakorotubu 

and Taveuni. While the presence of P. martensi is longknown 

from Fiji’s lowland to mid-altitude areas, recent 

surveys by the first author indicate invasion into relatively 

undisturbed high altitude areas (i.e., Taveuni, > 800 m) that 

are vitally important for overall ecosystem function and the 

conservation of endemic biodiversity. 

Fig. 3 Parmarion martensi on decaying pumpkin in a 

suburban Suva garden. Photo: G. Brodie. 

DISCUSSION 

Although many papers have been published about land 

snails in Fiji over the last 100 years (see review of Barker et 

al. 2005), this is the first to focus on non-native species in 

the archipelago. The 18 species listed here include several 

of the expected widespread tropical “tramp” species that 

are thought to be replacing Pacific Island native/endemic 

mollusc fauna (Cowie 2004). There is also considerable 

overlap with the introduced land snail assemblage reported 

by Cowie (2001) and Cowie and Robinson (2003) in the 

neighbouring Samoan Islands, but a much lower number of 

introduced species than the more than 53 species recorded 

in Hawaii (Cowie 1998; Cowie et al. 2008). 

Unlike the neighbouring islands of New Caledonia, 

Vanuatu and Samoa, but like Tonga, Niue and the Cook 

Islands, Fiji lacks two of the world’s worst invasive 

land snail species: Achatina (Lissachatina) fulica and 

Euglandina rosea. Achatina fulica is a direct economic 

threat to agricultural production and human and livestock 

health (Boray 1998; Lowe et al. 2004; Raut and Barker 

2002), while E. rosea poses severe ecological threat by its 

potential voracious predation on native land snails (Cowie 

2001, 2004; Lowe et al. 2004). 

The risks posed by these two invasive species to Fiji 

emphasize the need for biosecurity measures to conserve 

the country’s distinctive and diverse endemic land snail 

fauna. Lydeard et al. (2004) highlighted the global and 

regional importance of Pacific Island land snail fauna, 

while Sherley (2000) stressed that “prevention of entry, 

rather than later control, is the most important means of 

stopping the spread [and therefore effect] of pest snails”. 

In a Fijian context, discussion of the exceptional need 

for high-level quarantine vigilance is timely, primarily 

because of the recent nomination of the island of Rotuma 

(Fig. 2 inset) as a “Port of Entry” for Fijian shipping and 

trade, but especially agricultural crops. Like many remote 

islands in the Fijian archipelago, Rotuma has a distinctive 

land snail fauna (Barker et al. 2005; Brodie et al. 2010). To 

the best of our knowledge, no recent survey of introduced 

land snails has been undertaken either in Rotuma or its 

intended primarily agricultural trading partner, Tuvalu. In 

this context the presence or absence of high-risk Parmarion 

martensi in Rotuma and/or Tuvalu is of great interest, not 

only because of human health concerns and the invasive 

nature of P. martensi in other parts of Fiji, but because the 

species is also not yet recorded in several countries with 

which Fiji currently trades, such as Australia, New Zealand 

and the mainland USA. 

Our reporting of P. martensi from at least three of the 

13 priority forest conservation areas identified on the Fijian 

islands of Viti Levu and Taveuni (see Olson et al. 2009) 

makes protection of the smaller, more isolated, priority 

conservation areas like Rotuma an even higher priority. 

At least seven of the introduced land snail species found 

in Fiji act as vectors for parasitic helminthes (Table 2), such 

as the rat lung worm Angiostrongylus cantonensis, which is 

associated with eosinophilic meningitis in humans (Boray 

1998; Hollyer et al. 2010). Angiostrongylus cantonensis 

and eosinophilic meningitis are already established in Fiji 

(Alicata 1962; Sano et al. 1987; Paine et al. 1994; Uchikawa 

et al. 1984). A recent study of Parmarion cf. martensi in 

Hawaii (Hollingsworth et al. 2007) identified its role in 

spreading A. cantonensis through an association with 

poorly washed home-grown crops, such as lettuce. The 

parasite has a high infection rate and the vigorous climbing 

behaviour of P. martensi makes it much more likely to 

come into contact with humans (and their food or water 

sources) than any of the other known vectors. However, 

the presence of A. cantonensis in Fijian P. martensi has not 

yet been confirmed. 

33


Table 1 List of Fiji’s introduced land snail species with feeding type and habitat. 

Feeding ecology, secondary/minor trophic relations indicated in parentheses. 

Species Feeding ecology Habitat References 

Agriolimacidae 

Deroceras laeve 

Herbivore, detrit. Highland interior, in modified areas, 

(carnivore) including gardens, and forest margins. 

Ariophantidae 

Parmarion 

martensi 

Herbivore, 

detritivore 

Quantula striata Herbivore, 

Bradybaenidae 

Bradybaena 

similaris 

Pupillidae 

Gastrocopta 

pediculus 

Gastrocopta 

servilis 

Subulinidae 

Allopeas 

clavulinum 

Allopeas gracile 

Opeas hannense 

Opeas 

mauritianum 

Paropeas 

achatinaceum 

Subulina octona 

Streptaxidae 

Gulella bicolor 

Streptostele 

musaecola 

Veronicellidae 

Laevicaulis alte 

Sarasinula 

plebeia 

Zonitidae 

Hawaiia 

minuscula 

Valloniidae 

Ptychopatula 

orcula 

detritivore 

Herbivore, 

detritivore 

Detritivore 

Detritivore 

Detritivore 

(herbivore) 

Detritivore 

(herbivore) 

Detritivore 

(herbivore) 

Detritivore 

Detritivore 

(herb., carn., 

predator) 

Detritivore 

(herbivore) 

Carnivorous 

predator 

Carnivorous 

predator 

Herbivore, 

detritivore 

Herbivore, 

detritivore 

Smith and Stanisic 1998; Barker 1999; 

Barker and Efford 2004 

Terrestrial, and arboreal on low vegetation. 

Lowland to high-elevation forests. 

pers. obs., Hollingsworth et al. 2007 

Leaf litter. Lowland to mid-elevation forests; 

gardens. 

pers. obs., Councilman and Ong 1988. 

Terrestrial, arboreal on low veg. Low to 

highlands, disturbed areas, incl. gardens. 

Pers. obs., Smith and Stanisic 1998; 

Chang 2002 

Under stones or logs, in leaf litter. Lowland, 

in forests and modified areas. 

Smith and Stanisic 1998 

Under stones or logs, in leaf litter. Lowland 

forests. 


Leaf litter. Forests and disturbed areas, most 

prevalent in mid-elevation forests. 


Leaf litter. Lowlands to highlands, in forest 


and modified habitats. 

Leaf litter. Lowlands to mid-elevation forest 

and disturbed habitat. 

Barker et al. 2005 

Leaf litter. Lowland to high-elevation forests 

and distributed area. 

Barker et al. 2005 

Leaf litter. Lowland to mid-elevation forests 

and disturbed habitat. 

Naggs 1994; Barker and Efford 2004 

de Almeida Bessa and de Barros 

Under stones, logs and other debris. Leaf Araujo 1996; Smith and Stanisic 1998; 

litter. Lowland to mid-elevations forests and d’Avila and de Almeida Bessa 2005; 

disturbed habitat 

Juřičková 2006; Hollingsworth et al. 

2007. 

Under stones, logs and other debris. Leaf 

litter. Lowlands, in forests and modified 

areas, including gardens. 

Leaf litter, under stones and logs. Lowland 

disturbed forests. 

Under stones, grass, decaying wood, leaf 

litter & ground crevices. Lowland to highelevation 

forests, plantations and moist tall 

grasslands. 

Under stones, grass, decaying wood, leaf 

litter and ground crevices. Arboreal on 

low vegetation. Lowland to mid-elevation 

forests, plantations, grasslands and gardens. 

Annandale and Prashad 1920; Dundee 

and Baerwald 1984; Naggs 1989; 

Smith and Stanisic 1998, Solem 1988; 

Barker and Efford 2004 

Smith and Stanisic 1998; Hausdorf 

and Medina Bermúdez 2003 

pers. obs., Bishop 1977; Raut and 

Panigrahi 1990; Smith and Stanisic 

1998; Gomes and Thomé 2004 

pers. obs., Bishop 1977; Smith and 

Stanisic 1998; Rueda et al. 2002; 

Gomes and Thomé 2004 

Prob. carnivorous 

predator 

Leaf litter. Lowland, disturbed areas. Kano 1996; Smith and Stanisic 1998 

Detritivore 

Arboreal, on tree trunks and branches. 

Lowland forests. 

Solem 1964, 1988; Smith and Stanisic 

1998 

34

Brodie & Barker: Introduced land snails Fiji, the risks 

Table 2 Currently known status of introduced land snail species considered to be present in the Fiji Islands archipelago. 

Species Place of origin Recorded pest/risk type 

Allopeas 

clavulinum 

Allopeas 

gracile 

Bradybaena 

similaris 

Deroceras 

laeve 

Gastrocopta 

pediculis 

Gastrocopta 

servilis 

Gullella 

bicolor 

Hawaiia 

minuscula 

Laevicaulis 

alte 

Opeas 

hannense 

Opeas 

mauritianum 

Parmarion 

martensi 

Where risk 

recorded 

Estimate of 

risk in Fiji 

Probably tropical 

East Africa 

No known threats n/a low 

Probably 

neotropics 

No known threats n/a low 

Asia 

Crop pest; vector of human 

and livestock parasites 

Fiji, Australia 

medium to 

high 

Holarcic and 

possibly Andean 


South America 


Australia 

Indonesia. 

Probably western Status unknown could 

Pacific-Australian compete with native species n/a 

low 

area. 

West Indies 

Status unknown, could 

compete with native species n/a 

low 

Indian 

subcontinent 

Predator of native fauna 

(micro predator on snails) 

Australia 

Canada to Status unknown, could prey 

northern Mexico on native fauna 

n/a 

low 

Africa 



Australia, 

Hawaii, Samoa high 

Tropical Central 

America 

Status unknown n/a low 

Unknown, 

probably India 

Status unknown n/a low 

low to 

medium 

medium to 

high 

medium to 

References 

Alicata 1965; Godan 1983 

Mackerras and Sandars 1955; 

Alicata 1965; Smith and 

Stanisic 1998 


Alicata 1965; Malek and 

Cheng 1974; Liat et al. 1965 

South-east Asia 

Vector of human and 

livestock parasites, crop pest Hawaii, Japan very high Hollingsworth et al. 2007; 

Hollyer et al. 2010. 

Paropeas South-east Asia, 

Vector of human and 

achatinaceum Indonesia 

livestock parasites, competes 

Hawaii, Pacific low to 

with native species 

Islands medium 

Alicata 1965, Cowie 2000. 

Ptychopatula 

India Status unknown n/a low 

orcula 

Quantula Southern Malay Status unknown, may 

striata Peninsula compete with native species n/a 

low 

Sarasinula 

Central America 


plebeia 


Honduras 

medium to www.invasive.org; Alicata 

high 1965; Rueda et al. 2002 

Streptostele 

West Africa 

Predator of native fauna 

musaecola 

(micro predator on snails) 

Australia 

medium to 

high 


Subulina Caribbean and Crop pest; vector of human 

octona tropical America and livestock parasites 

Brazil, Hawaii 

low to 

de Almeida Bessa and 

medium 

de Barros Araujo 1996; 

Hollingsworth et al. 2007 

CONCLUSION 

Increased collaborative effort is required to collate 

and disseminate available land snail information in a user 

friendly format. Improved access to such information will 

assist with baseline surveys of isolated priority conservation 

areas. Although eradication of pest snail species may not 

be technically possible (Sherley 2000), preventing entry 

or halting the spread of high-risk pest snails into some 

countries and islands is more likely to be achieved when 

local awareness strategies are in place. For the high risk 

species such as Parmarion martensi, these awareness 

strategies should include provision or reinforcement of the 

need for preventative public health measures for both local 

communities and tourist facilities. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

We acknowledge financial support from the University 

of the South Pacific (FSTE LGS) and Conservational 

International (CEPF) plus logistical support from the South 

Pacific Regional Herbarium and the Fiji National Trust. 

We sincerely thank the numerous colleagues that assisted 

with introduced species field work, particularly Lekima 

Copeland, Richard Singh, Elenoa Mila, Alisi Sheehy, 

Visheshni Chandra, Fiu Manueli and Johnson Seeto. Our 

sincere thanks for constructive comments made to an 

earlier version of this manuscript by Robert Cowie, Fred 

Brook and Dick Veitch. 

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