Eleusine indica - ACIAR

84 Biological Control of Weeds: Southeast Asian Prospects 

Eleusine indica 

(after Holm et a/. 1977)

Map 4.8.1 Eleusine indica 

4.8 Eleusine indica 85 

Eleusine indica 

Eleusine indica is of African origin and, except for finger millet, E. coracana, is not 

closely related to graminaceous crop plants. Finger millet is a staple crop in India and 

some parts of Africa, but relatively unimportant or not grown elsewhere. Little is known 

about the insect or other enemies of E. indica in Africa and, elsewhere, almost all records 

are of pests with a wide host range. Because it is a major weed (5th) in Southeast Asia 

and is only distantly related to crop plants a search for specific natural enemies in Africa 

must be regarded as an attractive proposition.


4.8 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 

Poaceae 

crowsfoot grass, goose grass; sin ngo let kya, sin ngo myet (Myanmar), yah 

teenka (Thailand), smao choeung tukke (Cambodia) co miin triiu (Vietnam), 

rumput sambou (Malaysia), rumput belul8ng (Indonesia), sabung sabungan 

(Philippines) 

Rating 

+++ Viet, Msia, Sing, Indo, Phil 

24 ++ Myan, Thai, Laos, Camb 

+ Brun 

Origin 

Africa (Phillips 1972), replacing an alternative view that it was India (Holm et al. 1977, 

Waterhouse 1993a). 

Distribution 

Throughout the tropics, sub-tropics and temperate regions of the world, including Africa, 

Asia, SE Asia, Australia, the Pacific and the Americas. 

Characteristics 

E. indica is a tufted, annual, C4 grass attaining a height of 0.6 m. Its flower spikes mostly 

have 2 to 7 spikelets, producing a characteristic windmill-like appearance. 

Importance 

The genus Eleusine, contains nine annual or perennial grasses all native to Africa except 

for the South American E. tristachya (Hilu and Johnson 1992, Phillips 1972). It belongs 

to the subfamily Chloridoideae, which is but distantly related to all except one of the 

principal grain crops. That exception is finger millet, or ragi, E. coracana (2n = 36), 

which is believed to have arisen from E. indica (2n = 18) (Hilu and de Wet 1976, Hilu 

and Johnson 1992, Hiremath and Salimath 1992) and is an important staple cereal in 

India and some regions of eastern Africa (Rachie and Peters 1977). However, it is worth 

noting that E. coracana is regarded as a minor weed in some Southeast Asian countries 

(Thailand, Vietnam) (Waterhouse 1993a) and that it is nowhere important in this region. 

The genera Eleusine and Dactyloctenium are closely related. 

E. indica is an important weed in more than 60 countries in at least 46 crops and, in 

these, has the status of a serious weed in 30 countries and 27 crops. It was evaluated as 

the fifth worst weed in the world (Holm et al. 1977) and also rated fifth in a recent survey 

in Southeast Asia (Waterhouse 1993a). It was rated 15th in 1992 in the oceanic Pacific 

(Waterhouse, unpublished). It grows well in sunny or somewhat shaded places, in marsh- 

lands,. wastelands, roadsides, along borders of irrigated fields and canals, in lawns and in 

pastures, and prospers and is particularly troublesome on arable land. It ranges from near


the seashore to an altitude of at least 2000 m and is a major problem in almost all forms 

of agriculture between the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer. 

E. indica grows and flowers well in all seasons and a single plant may produce more 

than 50000 small seeds, which move readily by wind, in mud on the feet of animals and in 

the tread of machinery. The seeds are eaten by wild and domestic animals and are occasion- 

ally grown for grain in Africa and India, but Eleusine coracana, finger millet, with some- 

what larger seeds is far better for this purpose. Although sometimes claimed to be palatable 

to grazing animals, crowsfoot grass becomes fibrous too early in the season to be a satis- 

factory pasture grass. The seed heads may contain high levels of cyanogenic glycosides 

and are believed to be responsible for occasional cases of stock poisoning (Everist 1974). 

Natural enemies 

Natural enemies restricted to the genus Eleusine and its close relatives might well be con- 

sidered for biological control of E. indica except in India or other regions where finger 

millet is an important cereal. 

E. indica is reported in the literature to be attacked by more than 50 insects, nema- 

todes, fungi, bacteria and viruses, all except 6 in continents other than Africa (Tables 

4.8.1 to 4.8.4). Further, with few exceptions, all of these organisms are known to have 

wide host ranges and to attack important agricultural crops. Indeed, of those recorded, 

only one cecidomyiid gall fly and possibly one or two fungi could be considered further 

for classical biological control. Figliola et al. (1988) consider that, where they already 

occur, two fungi, Bipolaris setariae and Magnaporthe (=Pyricularia) grisea hold 

promise as bioherbicides for E. indica, although their host range is a little too wide for 

classical biological control. 

It is not surprising that the organisms attacking an economic crop, finger millet, 

E. coracana, have been investigated in greater detail than those of a weedy relative. 

Finger millet is believed to have been domesticated in the East African highlands by 

3000 BC or earlier and archaeological data suggests that it may have been introduced to 

India as early as 2000 BC (Hilu et al. 1979). Since E. coracana and E. indica are closely 

related, Wapshere (1 990b) argues, probably correctly, that most or all of the more specific 

organisms infesting finger millet are also likely to attack E. indica. It is very disappoint- 

ing, therefore, that almost all of the natural enemies of finger millet so far recorded (again 

mostly from outside Africa) have wide to very wide host ranges and are not potential bio- 

logical control agents. The very few species that may prove to have a limited host range 

are shown in table 4.8.5. Wapshere (1990b) has listed 40 insects that attack E. coracana 

and at the same time belong to groups known to have species restricted to a single grass 

genus (and there are also many other insects from groups with a wider host range that 

attack E. coracana). In addition to the undescribed Orseolia gall midge attacking E. indi- 

ca in India, only three insects (two cecidomyiid gall midges, one from Uganda and one 

from Nigeria and an aphid from India), a nematode (Heterodera delvii) from India and a 

smut fungus (Melanopsichiurn (= Ustilago) eleusinis) may, if shown to attack E. indica 

also, prove to be sufficiently host specific to be considered for classical biological control. 

It is relevant that cecidomyiid gall flies are believed to have a high degree of specificity to 

their host grass genera (Barnes 1946, K.M. Harris pers. comm. 1993, Wapshere 1990a).


Comment 

It has been pointed out above that the majority of records for natural enemies of both 

E. indica and E. coracana come from outside Africa and that almost all of these organ- 

isms have a wide host range. Indeed, this is to be expected if both Eleusine species are of 

African origin. Except for any specific enemies that may have accompanied them, it is 

inevitable that they will be attacked in new countries by non-specific natural enemies 

that, hitherto, were attacking other plants. Of course, the possibility exists that natural 

enemy species in the new country may have evolved a degree of specificity in the four or 

five thousand years that the Eleusine species have existed outside Africa. 

It is significant that there has not so far been any detailed search in Africa for natur- 

al enemies of E. indica to establish whether or not adequately specific species occur 

there. A two year (or longer) survey of E. indica in several regions of Africa would prob- 

ably be required, together with observations on whether the organisms found attacking 

E. indica also attack E. coracana, nearby grasses or other plants. The relevant regions for 

study in Africa and Madagascar are indicated in map 4.8.2 based on the distribution data 

of Phillips (1 972). 

If (i) the African cecidomyiid gall midges (Contarinia (= Stenodiplosis) spp.) 

(Tables 4.8.1, 4.8.5) do not already occur in Southeast Asia (they are not known in 

Australia), (ii) they prove to be adequately host specific and (iii) the Ugandan species 

attacks E. indica in addition to E. coracana, they would appear to be the most promising 

of known species for introduction elsewhere. The undescribed species from northern 

Nigeria (Table 4.8.1) was collected from E. indica at Zaria in July 1959 and July 1960 

(K.M. Harris, pers. comm. 1993). Larvae of the Indian Orseolia sp. nr. fluviatilis proba- 

bly induce galls on young shoots of E. indica, so would affect vegetative growth rather 

than having a direct impact on seed production. It is as yet known only from India. 

To sum up, for an attempt at classical biological control of a grass weed, E. indica 

would appear to be the one with most positive factors combined except that, so far, few 

adequately specific, natural enemies are known. However, almost nothing is known about 

the natural enemies in Africa, not only its centre of origin but also that of the genus 

Eleusine. It would, indeed, be most surprising if several natural enemies having a restrict- 

ed host range were not discovered during a thorough survey there. 

Table 4.8.1 Natural enemies of Eleusine indica: insects. 

Species Country Portion Comments: References 

attacked other hosts 

Hemiptera 

APHlDlDAE 

Chaetogeoica India 

graminiphaga 

Geoica lucijiuga India 

beans and a Raychaudhuri 1983 

number of 

grasses 

also on rice, Eleusine Raychaudhuri et al. 

coracana and many 1978 

weeds including 

Cynodon dactylon, 

Cyperus rotundus 

I (continued on next page)




Hysteroneura setariae Hawaii rice, maize, wheat 

Schizaphis (= Toxoptera) 

graminum 

Sitobion avenae 

(= Macrosiphum 

granarium) 

Sitobion (= Macrosiphum) 

miscanthi 

Sregophylla (= Anoecia) 

querci 

Tetraneura basui 

Tetraneura 

nigriabdominalis 

(= T. hirsuta) 

CERCOPIDAE 

Prosapia (= Monecphora) 

bicincta fraterna 

CICADELLIDAE 

Nephotettix malayanus 

Nephotettix 

nigromaculatus 

(= N. nigropictus) 

Nephotettix virescens 

Recilia dorsalis 

DELPHACIDAE 

Laodelphax striatellus 

sorghum, sugar cane 

rice, sorghum, maize 

and a very wide 

host range 

rice, wheat, a very 

wide host range 

India on a very wide range 

of crop plants and 

weeds 

maize and several 

weeds 

India 

on rice, Echinochloa 

colona, Paspalum 

conjugatum and 

other weeds 

India 

rice, maize, sugarcane 

Eleusine coracana 

and a very wide 

range of weeds 

Cuba also on Paspalum 

notatum, Brachiaria 

subquadripara, 

Andropogon annulatus, 

Cynodon dactylon 

Philippines 

Philippines 

Philippines 

Philippines 

rice, many weeds 




Beardsley 1962 

Patch 1939 

Patch 1939 

Raychaudhuri 1983 

Patch 1939 


Patch 1939, 


Plana et al. 1986 

Khan et al. 1991 




China wheat, barley, oats, 

sorghum etc 

Zhang et al. 1981 

Peregrinus maidis India transmitter of 

Cherian and Kylasam 

Eleusine mosaic 1937, Patch 1939, Rao 

virus (see table 4.8.4); 

very wide host range 

et al. 1965 

Sogatella furcijera China can complete 

development also on 

17 other species of 

crops and weeds 

including rice, barley, 

wheat, Echinochloa 

crus-galli 

Huang et al. 1985 

(continued on next page)


Table 4.8.1 (continued) 



LYGAEIDAE 

Blissus leucopterus 

Thysanoptera 

PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE 

Haplothrips ganglbaueri 

Diptera 

AGROMYZIDAE 

Liriomyza marginalis 

Pseudonapomyza spicata 

CEClDOMYllDAE 

Orseolia sp. nrjluviatilis 

Stenodiplosis sp. 

Lepidoptera 

ARCTllDAE 

Cnaphalocrocis medinalis 

Cnaphalocrocis 

(= Marasmia) patnalis 

Creatonotos (= Amsacta) 

gangis 

NOCTUI DAE 

Spodoptera ffugiperda 

PYRALI DAE 

Ostrinia furnacalis 

USA lower damages sorghum and Ahmad et al. 1984, 

stem many grasses including Lynch et al. 1987 

Cynodon dactylon and 

Dactyloctenium 

aegyptium, but 

particularly damaging 

to E. indica 

India rice, wheat, sorghum Ananthakrishnan & 

Thangavelu 1976 

N&S Panicum miliaceum, 

America Digitaria, Paspalum 

(primary host), 

Euchlaena 

Australia leaf maize, sugarcane, 

grasses 

India stem undescribed gall midge 

resembling (but not) 

the rice stem gall midge 

Orseolia 

(= Pachydiplosis) 

oryzae; no host other 

than E. indica known 

Nigeria seed undescribed species 

heads 

Spencer 1990, 

Spencer & Steyskal 

1986 

Kleinschmidt 1970 

Barnes 1954a,b, 1956, 

Gagnt 1985, 

Hegdekatti 1927, 

Rachie and Peters, 

1977 

K.M. Harris pers. 

comm. 1993 

Philippines leaf rice, many weeds Abenes & Khan 1990 

folder 

Philippines leaf rice, many weeds Abenes & Khan 1990 

folder 

Philippines leaves rice, many weeds Catindig et al. 1993 

USA 

Guam 

wide range of crops Pencoe and Martin 

and weeds 1982 

wide range of crops Schreiner et al. 1990 

and weeds

Table 4.8.2 Natural enemies of Eleusine indica: nematodes. 

Species 

Ditylenchus destructor 

Hirschrnaniella spinicaudata 

Meloidogyne sp. 

Meloidogyne arenaria 

Meloidogyne grarninicola 

Meloidogyne incognita 

Meloidogyne javanica 

Pratylenchus pratensis 

Pratylenchus zeae 

Rotylenchulus reniformis 


Country Comments References 

South Africa 

Cuba 

China 

Cuba, 

Philippines, 

USA 

India 

Cuba, USA 

Brazil 

Hawaii 

S. Africa, 

Cuba 

Hawaii 

groundnut, several weeds 

has other weed hosts 

including Cyperus iria 

rice root knot nematode 

(damage up to 50%); also 

attacks wheat, and 

Echinochloa colona 

Echinochloa crus-galli, 

Portulaca oleracea, 

tobacco 

wheat, Panicum spp, tomato, 

capsicum, etc 

Ageratum conyzoides, Croton 

lobatus, Cynodon dactylon, 

tobacco 

attacks tomato and weeds 

including Bidens pilosa, 

Euphorbia heterophylla, 

Galinsoga parviflora 

also attacks Cynodon dactylon 

E. indica is a moderately good 

host of the maize nematode; 

has other weed hosts, including 

Cyperus iria 

Table 4.8.3 Natural enemies of Eleusine indica: fungi and bacteria. 

De Waele et al. 1990 

Femandez and Ortega 

1982 

Guo et al. 1984, Holm 

et al. 1977 

Tedford and Fortnum 

1988, Valdez 1968 

Rao et al. 1970 

Acosta et al. 1986 

Lordello et al. 1988 

Holm et al. 1977 

Femandez and Ortega 

1982, Jordaan et al. 

1988 

Linford and Yap 1940 

Species Country Comments References 

FUNGI 

Bipolaris setariae 

(as Drechslera setariae) 

Corticium sasakii 

Drechslera gigantea 

Helminthosporium sp. 

Helminthosporium holrnii 

Helrninthosporiurn maydis 

e 

USA (not 

recorded in 

Australia) 

India 

Brazil 

Thailand 

India 

China 

heavy attack on E. indica, 

light on maize, sorghum, 

none on dicotyledons 

rice, many weeds including 

Commelina benghalensis, 

Cynodon dactylon, 

Firnbristylis miliacea 

no hosts other than E. indica 

mentioned 

also on Echinochloa colona, 

Chloris gayana 

attacks 2 1 other weeds 

including Irnperata cylindrica, 

Digitaria ciliaris and 

Echinochloa crus-galli 

Figliola et al. 1988 

Hiremath and 

Sulladmath 1985 

Roy 1973 

Muchovej 1987 

Chandrasrikul 1962 

Singh and Misra 1978 

Wu and Liang 1984 




Species Country Comments References 

Helminthosporium nodulosum 

(as Bipolaris nodulosa or 

Cochliobolus nodulosus) 

Magnaporthe (= Pyricularia) 

grisea 

Pellicularia rolfsii 

Phyllachora eleusines 

Pyricularia oryzae 

Sclerophthora macrospora 

Sclerotiurn rolfsii 

Ustilago sp. 

Ustilago eleusinis (as 

Melanopsichiurn eleusinis) 

BACTERIA 

Pseudornonas glumae 

Pseudornonas plantarii 

Africa, 

Australia, 

India, Japan, 

Philippines, 

USA 

Africa, 

Australia, 

India, USA, 

Georgia 

Australia, 

India 

Africa, 

Australia 

Brazil, China 

India 

Australia, 

India 

China 

Africa, Asia 

Japan 

Japan 

also infests maize, Eleusine 

coracana, wheat, barley, oats 

and weeds including 

Dactyloctenium aegyptium; 

causes seedling blight leaf 

stripe and sooty heads in 

E. indica 

heavy attack on E. coracana, 

Rottboellia cochinchinensis, 

light attack on maize 

causes wilt disease of E. 

coracana and infests many 

grasses and dicotyledonous 

plants 

only recorded on Eleusine and 

Eragrostis in Africa; in 

Australia only on Eragrostis 

attacks rice 

attacks maize, wheat, oats, 

rice: attacks E. coracana and 

many grasses, but not E. indica 

in Australia; there may be host 

specific strains 

attacks many dicotyledonous 

crop plants and a wide range 

of grasses 

smut fungus of Eleusine and 

Dactyloctenium, but only on 

D. radulans in Australia 

an important rice pathogen: 

attacks a wide range of weeds 

attacks rice, wheat, sorghum, 

maize and many weeds 

Rachie and Peters 

1977, Wapshere 

1990b 

Chauhan & Verma 

198 1, Figliola et al. 

1988, Heath et al. 

1990, 1992, Shetty et 

al. 1985, Valent et al. 

1986, Vodianaia et al. 

1986, Wapshere 

1990b,c 

Wapshere 1990b 

Parbery 1967, 

Ramakrishran 1963 

Prabhu et al. 1992, 

Teng 1932, Valent et 

al. 1986 

Rachie and Peters 

1977, Ullstrup 1955, 

Wapshere 1990b 

Reddy 1983, Safeeulla 

1976 

Mundkur 1939 

Simmonds 1966, 

Zundel 1953 

Miyagawa et al. 1988 

Miyagawa et al. 1988

Table 4.8.4 Natural enemies of Ebusine indica: viruses. 

Virus Country Other hosts 

cereal chlorotic mottle 

corn leaf gall 

corn stunt 

Eleusine mosaic 

groundnut rosette 

maize dwarf mosaic 

maize streak 

rice leaf gall 

rice orange leaf 

rice ragged stunt 

rice tungro bacilliform 

rice tungro spherical 

rice yellow mottle 

sugarcane mosaic 

sugarcane streak 

tungro 

wheat rosette 

Australia 

Philippines 

USA 

India 

Malawi 

USA 

Nigeria 

Philippines 

Philippines 

China 

Philippines 

Philippines 

Philippines 

Kenya 

India 

Hawaii 

Philippines 

China 

oats, barley, wheat, maize, 

E. coracana, Digitaria ciliaris, 

Echinochloa colona; 

transmitted by Nesoclutha 

pallida 

maize 

several other weeds 

maize, sorghum, E. coracana 

and many other hosts 

groundnut 

maize 

maize, but not all cultivars 

Cicadulina triangula is 

the vector 

rice 

rice 

rice, E. indica and 4 other 

weeds 

rice, Echinochloa 

glabrescens, Monochoria 

vaginalis, Paspalum distichum 



rice, two grasses 

sugarcane 

sugarcane 

rice 

oats, barley, sorghum, 

wheat etc. Laodelphax 

striatellus is the vector 


References 

Greber 1979 

Agati and Calica 1950 

Pitre and Boyd 1970 

Rao et al. 1965 

Adams 1967 

Lee 1964 

Ekukole et al. 1989, 

Rossel et al. 1984 

Agati and Calica 1950 

Watanakul 1964 

Xie et al. 1984 

Salamat et al. 1987 



Okioma et al. 1983 

Chona and Rafay 1950 

Holm et al. 1977 

Watanakul 1964 

Zhang et al. 1981 

Table 4.8.5 Natural enemies of Eleusine coracana which may prove to have 

a limited host range. 

Species Country Portion Comments References 

attacked 

INSECTS 

Diptera 

CEClDOMYllDAE 

Contarinia sp. Uganda inflores- not the same as the 

cence sorghum midge Barnes 1946, 1954a,b, 

Contarinia sorghicola: 1956, Geering 1953, 

the same or a similar Rachie & Peters 1977 

species attacks the 

common fallow weed 

Sorghum verticilliflorum 




Species Country Portion Comments References 

attacked 

Hemiptera 

APHlDlDAE 

Sitobion 

(= Macrosiphum) 

leelarnaniae 

NEMATODES 

Heterodera delvii 

FUNGI 

Melanopsichium 

eleusinis(= Ustilago 

eleusinis) 

India attacks several millets Raychaudhuri 1983 

(not in in India including pearl 

Australia) millet Pennisetum 

glaucum (=P. typhoideum), 

also Andropogon vulgare 

India root no other hosts Jairajpuri et al. 1979 

cysts mentioned 

Asia, Africa a smut fungus: only Simmonds, 1966, 

from Eleusine and Wapshere 1990c, 

Dactylocteniurn: Zundel 1953 

tentatively identified 

from D. radulans in 

Queensland, but not 

from E. indica

4.8 Eleusine indica 

Map 4.8.2 Distribution of Eleusine indica in Africa (after Phillips 1972)


Euphorbia heterophylla 

(after Barnes and Chan, 1990)

Map 4.9 Euphorbia heterophylla 

4.9 Euphorbia heterophylla 97 

Euphorbia heterophylla 

There are very few records of natural enemies other than fungi attacking Euphorbia 

heterophylla and no study has been made in tropical America where it evolved. However, 

from the sparse records of insects attacking species of Euphorbia in Brazil it is likely that 

adequately host specific insects do occur. Nevertheless E. heterophylla is regarded as an 

important weed in southern Brazil.


4.9 E uphorbia heterophylla L. 

(= E. geniculata = E. prunifolia) 

Euphorbiaceae 

painted spurge, Mexican fire plant; yaa yaang (Thailand) 

Rating 

+++ Thai 

10 ++ Msia 

+ Myan, Laos, Camb, Viet, Phil 

Indo 

Origin 

Tropical and sub-tropical America. 

Distribution 

Widespread as a weed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, notably in 

Southeast Asia, but apparently not in Kalimantan or Sulawesi (Indonesia) (Soerjani et al. 

1986). 


An erect annual, up to about 1 m tall; stem cylindrical, hairy; lower leaves alternate; 

stems and leaves with milky latex. The simple or lobed leaves are crowded towards the 

top of the stem, with a flat, dichotomously-branched, terminal inflorescence of small yel- 

low flowers and large leafy bracts, often with a bright red or cream patch at the base. The 

inflorescence consists of many small, short-stalked flowers lacking petals but with con- 

spicuous glands (Wilson 1981). Reproduction is by seeds which are shed with an explo- 

sive mechanism. 

Importance 

A weed of increasing importance in upland fields of rice and many other crops; also in 

wastelands, roadsides, boundaries of coffee plantations; very abundant locally. Seeds per- 

sist in the soil until favourable conditions allow germination and rapid growth, giving 

rise to large populations of the weed. It is an important weed in 23 tropical countries and 

present in at least 37 others. Its rapid growth enables it to compete successfully with 

crops, quickly forming a dense canopy over young crop plants. Dense populations of the 

weed, with its white sticky latex, may make it impossible to harvest the crop. 

The young leaves are sometimes used as a vegetable, but are laxative if too much is 

eaten. The plant is said to have caused poisoning in livestock (Wilson 1981). 


Except possibly for Alternaria sp. and Helminthosporium sp. which have not been shown 

to be pathogenic to crop plants (Yorinori 1985), there are no records of apparently host


specific organisms attacking Euphorbia heterophylla (Table 4.9.1). However, it is known 

that a number of insects do attack it in Brazil, but this observation was incidental to a 

study of fungi and none of the insects were identified (E.G. Fontes, pers. comm. 1992). 

Although periodic collections were made in Trinidad in the early 1970's, no promising 

insects were encountered (Yaseen 1972). 

There are few records (19 only) of insects attacking members of the genus 

Euphorbia in Brazil (Table 4.9.2) (d'Araujo e Silva et al. 1968a,b), indicating that little 

attention has so far been paid to Euphorbia spp. in this region. Six of the insects are 

polyphagous and too little is known about the others to arrive at a conclusion. Even if 

some are restricted to the Euphorbiaceae, it remains to be determined whether any will 

attack either Euphorbia heterophylla or E. hirta. 

E. heterophylla is resistant to most herbicides and, in recent years, has become pro- 

gressively more important in Brazil, particularly in the southern, soybean-producing 

states (Yorinori 1985), which suggests that its insect enemies, if any, may be heavily par- 

asitised. 

A biological control program has been in progress in Canada since the late 1960's 

against Euphorbia cyparissias and E. pseudovirgata, involving the introduction of some 

twenty species of insects from Europe. Several species have become established, with 

rather localised effects (Julien 1992). It is said that insects are generally unable to attack 

Euphorbia species because of the latex that flows freely from any wound and clogs the 

mouthparts (Best et al. 1980), but clearly some insects are adapted to deal with this prob- 

lem. 

The best known economic plant in the Euphorbiaceae is cassava, Manihot esculenta 

of South American origin. The insects attacking it there are comparatively well known, a 

factor that will aid the evaluation of the specificity of insects attacking Euphorbia spp. 

Another species of horticultural importance is poinsettia, Euphorbia pulcherrima. 

Table 4.9.1 Natural enemies of Euphorbia heterophylla. 

Species Location Other hosts References 

INSECTS 

Orthoptera 

ACRlDlDAE 

Poekilocerus 

hieroglyphicus 

Hemiptera 

ALEYRODIDAE 

Bemisia tabaci 

ALYDIDAE 

Leptocorisa acuta 

Leptocorisa oratorius 

Leptocorisa 

solomonensis 

Sudan beans, melons Ba-Angood 1977, 

Ba-Angood & 

Khidir 1975 

Thailand, cotton, polyphagous Debrot & Centeno 1985, 

Venezuela Nachapong & Mabbett 1979 

PNG 

PNG 

PNG 

F. Dori pers. comm. 1993 






MITES 

FUNGI 


TETRANYCHIDAE 

Tetranychus urticae Cuba polyphagous Perez et al. 1987 

Alternaria sp. 

Amphobotrys ricini 

Elsinoe sp. 

Helminthosporium sp. 

Macrophornina 

phaseolinu 

Phytophthora 

palmivora 

Puccinia sp. 

Rhizoctonia solani 

Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum 

Sphaceloma sp. 

Uromyces euphorbiae 

NEMATODES 

Meloidogyne exigua 

Meloidogyne javanica 

Rotylenchulus 

reniformis 

Brazil 

USA 

Burundi 

Brazil 

India 

cassava 

Sarawak black pepper Anon 1979 

Brazil 

Brazil 

Brazil 

Brazil, 

Burundi 

Brazil 

Brazil 

Brazil 

Florida 

VIRUSES 

Euphorbia mosaic Brazil, USA, 

Venezuela 

cassava 

Yorinori 1985 

Holcomb et al. 1989 

Zeigler & Lozano 1983 

Fontes et al. 1992, 

Gazziero et al. 1988, 

Yorinori 1985 

Saxena et al. 198 1 

Fontes et al. 1992 

Yorinori 1985 

Yorinori 1985 

Yorinori 1985, 

Zeigler & Lozano 1983 

Yorinori 1985 

coffee, many weeds Luc et al. 1990 

Lordello et al. 1988 

Inserra et al. 1989, 

MacGowan 1989 

Debrot & Centeno 1985, 

Kim & Flores 1979, 

Kim & Fulton 1984, 

Yorinori 1985 

Table 4.9.2 Insects attacking species of Euphorbia in Brazil (d'Araujo e Silva et al. 

1968a,b). 

Insect Hosts Feeding habit 

Hemiptera 

ALEYRODIDAE 


(= B. costa-limai) Euphorbia hirtella, polyphagous 

tomato, Mentha arvensis 

COCCIDAE 

Coccus spp. Euphorbiaceae, Acalypha sp., polyphagous 

Aspidosperma ramiflorum, 

Cassia sp., Citrus spp. 



Insect Hosts Feeding habit 

Eucalymnatus spp. 

Platinglisia noacki 

COREIDAE 

Chariesterus armatus 

TlNGlDAE 

Corythuca pellucida 

Corythuca socia 

Thysanoptera 

PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE 

Haplothrips gowdeyi 

Coleoptera 

CHRYSOMELIDAE 

Caryedes (= Gibbobruchus) 

pickeli 

Disonycha argentiniensis 

Gibbobruchus polycoccus 

CURCULIONIDAE 

Sternocoelus sp. 

Sternocoelus notaticeps 

Lepidoptera 

LYMANTRIIDAE 

Thagona tibialis 

NOCTUIDAE 

Spodoptera eridania 

NYMPHALIDAE 

Didonis biblis 

Dynamine artemisia 

Episcada pascua 

SPHlNGlDAE 

Erinnyis oenotrus 

Euphorbia capansa, Nerium sp., polyphagous 

Caryota sp., Phoenix sp. 

Euphorbiaceae, Begonia sp., polyphagous 

Eugenia sp., Grevillea robusta, 

Ilex sp., kurus sp., Magnolia 

pumila, etc. 

Euphorbia braziliensis 

Euphorbiaceae 

Euphorbiaceae 

Euphorbia sp., coffee, rice, 

Crotolaria sp., PassiJlora sp., 

Buddleia variabilis 

Euphorbiaceae 

Euphorbia pulcherrima 

Euphorbiaceae 

Euphorbiaceae 

Euphorbiaceae 

E. cespitosa, E. ovalifolia, 

E. pulcherrima 

Euphorbiaceae, many crops 

Euphorbiaceae, Tragia volubilis 

Euphorbiaceae 

Euphorbiaceae 

E. ovalifolia 

possibly restricted 



polyphagous 




?restricted to Euphorbiaceae 



polyphagous 




possibly restricted


Euphorbia hirta 

(after Holm st a/. 1977)

Map 4.10 Euphorbia hirta 

4.10 Euphorbia hirta 

Euphorbia hirta 

There is only one record of a natural enemy attacking Euphorbia hirta in tropical 

America where it evolved and only a few of polyphagous species attacking it elsewhere. 

A survey in Central America would be necessary to determine what species attack it 

there that might be potential biological control agents.

104 

Biological Control of Weeds: Southeast Asian Prospects 

4.10 Euphorbia hirta L. 

(= E. pilulifera) 

Euphorbiaceae 

garden spurge, asthma plant; mayo (Myanmar), nam nom raatchasee (Thailand) 

tuk das khla thom (Cambodia), co sua 16ng (Vietnam), ara tanah, hairy spurge 

(Malaysia) gelang susu, gendong ancok (Indonesia), gatas gatas (Philippines) 

Rating 

++ Thai, Sing, Phil 

10 + Laos, Camb, Viet, Msia 

w Myan, Indo 

Origin 

Tropical America. 

Distribution 

E. hirta is a weed of the tropics and subtropics. 


A small, prostrate, hairy annual, 0.15 to 0.3 m tall, with a tap root; stems much branched 

from the base, often reddish, bearing brownish stiff hairs and having milky sap; leaves, 

hairy, opposite, sometimes purple-blotched and with toothed margins; flowers unisexual; 

reproduction by seeds 0.5 to 1 mm long. 

Importance 

E. hirta grows well in sunny to lightly shaded cultivated lands, gardens, lawns, waste 

areas and run down grasslands. It is an early coloniser of bare ground especially under 

damp or irrigated conditions. It flowers all year round in Southeast Asia producing up to 

3000 seeds per plant. When the seed pods mature they explode to disperse the seeds. Its 

prostrate habit enables it to tolerate mowing and it can be important in lawns. It has been 

reported from 47 countries as a weed in many crops, including citrus, cotton, groundnuts, 

maize, pineapples, rice, sorghum, sugarcane, tea and vegetables. Moody (1 989) records it 

as being more widespread in rice than Euphorbia heterophylla. 

E. hirta is sometimes used in medicines in Fiji, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines 

and Brazil-the leaves and latex against intestinal diseases, ulcers and bronchitis, and the 

latex for conjunctivitis. It may have slightly poisonous properties and is useless as fodder 

for livestock. 


In view of its common occurrence in the tropical and subtropical belt of the world, it is 

surprising that there are so few records of natural enemies attacking it, and those that do 

are highly polyphagous (Table 4.10.1). A survey in Central America would be necessary 

to learn more about its natural enemies that might have potential for biological control.

Table 4.10.1 Natural enemies of Euphorbia hirta. 

4.10 Euphorbia hirta 105 


INSECTS 

Orthoptera 

ACRlDlDAE 

Chrotogonus 

trachypterus 

Hemiptera 

APHlDlDAE 

Aphis craccivora 

Aphis gossypii 

ALEYRODIDAE 


DELPHACIDAE 

Tarophagus proserpina 

LYGAEIDAE 

Nysius inconspicuus 

PSEUDOCOCCIDAE 

Ferrisia virgata 

Thysanoptera 

THRlPlDAE 

Haplothrips euphorbiae 

Diptera 

AGROMYZIDAE 

Liriomyza bryoniae 

Liriomyza strigata 

Lepidoptera 

NOCTUI DAE 

Achaea janata 

FUNGI 

Aecidium tithymali 

Amphobotrys ricini 

Cylindrocladium 

quinqueseptatum 

Phytophthora palmivora 

PROTOZOA 

Phytomonas sp. 

NEMATODES 

Meloidogyne incognita 

India 

Nigeria, 

Uganda 

India 

India 

Philippines 

India 

India 

India 

Europe 

W. Europe, 

USSR 

Indonesia 

Thailand 

USA 

India 

Sarawak 

Venezuela 

Hawaii 

polyphagous Chandra et al. 1983 

poly phagous, Booker 1964, Davies 1972, 

a virus transmitter Ofuya 1988 

polyphagous Jeritta & David 1986 

polyphagous, Jeyarajan et al. 1988 

a virus transmitter 

polyphagous Duatin & Pedro 1986 

polyphagous Thangavelu 1978 

poly phagous Jeritta & David 1986 

possibly host restricted Jeritta & David 1986 

highly polyphagous Spencer 1973, 1990 

highly polyphagous Spencer 1973, 1990 

polyphagous Kalshoven 198 1 

Puckdeedindan 1966 

Holcomb et al. 1989 

Sulochana et al. 1982 

black pepper Anon 1979 

Barreto 1982 

Valdez 1968 





Meloidogyne javanica India Dahiya et al. 1988 

Radopholus sirnilis Zimbabwe polyphagous Martin et al. 1969 

Rotylenchulus reniforrnis Hawaii, USA Linford & Yap 1940, 

Inserra et al. 1989 

VIRUSES 

groundnut rosette Hawaii, Nigeria, Adams 1967, 

Uganda Booker 1964, 

Davies 1972 

hibiscus yellow India Jeyarajan et al. 1988 

vein mosaic 

tapioca mosaic India Jeyarajan et al. 1988 

tobacco leaf curl Hawaii Holm et al. 1977 

tomato leaf curl India Jeyarajan et al. 1988 

urd bean yellow mosaic India Jeyaragan et al. 1988

Eleusine indica - ACIAR

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