Motuora Native Species Restoration Plan - Motuora Restoration ...

Motuora Native Species 

Restoration Plan 

JUNE 2007

Motuora 

Native Species 

Restoration Plan 

By Robin Gardner-Gee, Sharen Graham, 

Richard Griffiths, Melinda Habgood, Shelley 

Heiss Dunlop and Helen Lindsay

Foreward 

MOTUORA RESTORATION SOCIETY (INC) 

PO Box 100-132, NSMC, Auckland. 

Deciding to write a Restoration Plan for Motuora was a huge undertaking for a voluntary 

group, especially since most of those whose help we needed already had busy lives. 

The project required surveys on the island to establish what plants and animals were already 

there, followed by much discussion and the writing of the various sections. These sections 

then had to be edited to make a unified whole. 

This document could not have been written without the enthusiasm, knowledge, and 

commitment of a group of keen environmentalists who put in long hours to produce the 

Restoration Plan. 

The Motuora Restoration Society thanks the many people and organizations who have 

provided information, advice and comment on this document. 

Particular thanks to: 

Robin Gardner-Gee for her invertebrate knowledge 

Sharen Graham for her bird knowledge 

Richard Griffiths for pulling the document together to present an overview of the whole 

island ecology 

Melinda Habgood for her reptile knowledge 

Shelley Heiss-Dunlop for her plant knowledge 

Helen Lindsay for her input into the plant section and for co-ordinating the project especially 

in the beginning 

Te Ngahere Native Forest Management for supporting this project 

Department of Conservation staff for support and encouragement. 

The Motuora Restoration Society thanks you all for your generosity in sharing your learning 

and experience. 

Ray Lowe 

Chairman 

Motuora Restoration Society 

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Executive Summary 

Motuora is an 80 hectare island in the Hauraki Gulf to the south of Kawau Island. The island 

was farmed, but in 1990 the Mid-North Branch of the Royal Forest and Bird Protection 

Society initiated a plan to restore the island. Motuora is now jointly managed by the Motuora 

Restoration Society (MRS) and DOC. The restoration goals are to re-establish a thriving 

indigenous ecosystem and to create a sanctuary for endangered fauna and flora. 

For the last fifteen years the restoration effort has been directed at re-afforesting the island’s 

pastures, a process due to be completed by 2010. It is now possible to plan for the 

introduction of fauna and flora that will contribute to the restoration goals. To establish a 

coherent introduction programme, MRS and DOC have commissioned this document: The 

Motuora Native Species Restoration Plan. This plan proposes a series of introductions to take 

place over the next decade (2007-2017) and it extends and updates the chapters of the 

Motuora Restoration Working Plan (Hawley & Buckton, 1997) that focus on the introduction 

of flora and fauna. The plan is intended to be a working document guiding restoration of the 

island’s biological communities and does not encompass other activities such as the 

management of cultural and historic resources. 

In contrast to some other restoration projects, on Motuora the initial focus is on establishing 

the foundations of a sustainable ecosystem which will then develop naturally. Species 

proposed for introduction therefore include species typical of the area (e.g. locally common 

plants that are missing from Motuora), ecologically important species (e.g. seabird species that 

introduce marine nutrients into the island ecosystem), as well as threatened species (e.g. the 

Little Barrier Island giant weta). In order to preserve as much ecological integrity on Motuora 

as possible, priority was given in the plan to species that are likely to have been on Motuora 

prior to forest clearance and farming activity. Although there is little direct evidence of 

Motuora’s early flora and fauna, these species have been inferred from those present on other 

less modified local islands and the adjacent mainland. Particular attention has been given to 

flightless species (e.g. skinks) that are unlikely to re-colonise Motuora without human 

assistance. In addition, species under threat regionally or nationally have also been 

recommended for introduction if the emerging forest ecosystem on Motuora is able to 

provide suitable refuge for them. The plan identifies both the opportunities and the risks 

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inherent in translocating species – opportunities such as scope for public involvement, 

education and research, risks such as inadvertent introduction of weeds, parasites and diseases 

to the island. 

The plan systematically examines the four key groups that need to be considered in the island 

restoration: plants, invertebrates, reptiles and birds. For each group, the current situation on 

Motuora is outlined and contrasted with the situation prior to disturbance. This is followed by 

a discussion of restoration options, with fully argued recommendations as to which species 

should be considered for introduction and when the introductions should take place. Habitat 

requirements, potential interactions with other species, and availability of source populations 

are outlined. Species considered unsuitable for introduction are also discussed. Finally the 

need for and nature of monitoring following the translocations is set out. 

For plants, the plan proposes that 76 locally common plants be introduced to Motuora to 

restore forest diversity. In addition, it is recommended that Motuora should provide refuge 

for 18 threatened and uncommon plants. These species are: 

Cook’s scurvy grass, 

Lepidium oleraceum 

Fireweed, 

Senecio scaberulus 

Green mistletoe, 

Tupeia antarctica 

Green mistletoe, 

Ileostylus micranthus 

Kakabeak, 

Clianthus puniceus 

Large-leaved milk tree, 

Streblus banksii 

Mawhai, 

Sicyos aff. australis 

Native geranium, 

Geranium solanderi “large petals” 

Native oxtongue, 

Picris burbidgeae 

NZ spinach, 

Tetragonia tetragonioides 

NZ watercress, 

Rorippa divaricata 

Sand tussock, 

Austrofestuca littoralis 

Small-flowered white bindweed, 

Calystegia marginata 

Shore spurge, 

Euphorbia glauca 

Parapara, 

Pisonia brunoniana 

Pimelia tomentosa 

Pingao, 

Desmoschoenus spiralis 

Wood rose, 

Dactylanthus taylorii 

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For invertebrates, the recommended species for translocation (3) are: 

Darkling beetle, 

Mimopeus opaculus 

Flax weevil, 

Anagotus fairburni 

Wetapunga, 

Deinacrida heteracantha 

For reptiles, the recommended species for translocation (8) are: 

Common gecko, 

Hoplodactylus maculatus 

Duvaucel’s gecko, 

Hoplodactylus duvaucelii 

Pacific gecko, 

Hoplodactylus pacificus 

Northern tuatara, 

Sphenodon punctatus punctatus 

Marbled skink, 

Cyclodina oliveri 

Robust skink, 

Cyclodina alani 

Whitaker’s skink, 

Cyclodina whitakeri 

Shore skink, 

Oligosoma smithii 

For birds, the recommended species for translocation (11) are: 

Seabirds 

Flesh footed shearwater, 

Puffinus carneipes 

Fluttering shearwater, 

Puffinus gavia 

Northern diving petrel, 

Pelecanoides urinatrix urinatrix 

Pycroft’s petrel, 

Pterodroma pycrofti 

White faced storm petrel, 

Pelagodroma marina 

Sooty shearwater, 

Puffinus griseus 

(after 2017) 

Forest birds 

Long tailed cuckoo, 

Eudynamys taitensis 

North Island robin, 

Petroica australis longipes 

Red crowned parakeet, Cyanoramphus 

novaezelandiae novaezelandiae 

Whitehead, 

Mohoua albicilla 

North Island saddleback, 

Philesturnus carunculatus rufusater 

(after 2017) 

Over time, these introductions have the potential to create a thriving native island ecosystem, 

with a diverse forest and numerous seabirds together sustaining an abundance of 

invertebrates, land birds and reptiles. The proposed introductions would also establish new 

populations of 14 threatened species and 14 species that are sparse or that have suffered 

decline on the mainland. 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1 

OVERVIEW.................................................................................................................................................... 1 

OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKS .......................................................................................................................... 3 

SECTION TWO: RESTORATION OF MOTUORA’S PLANT COMMUNITY .......7 

CURRENT SITUATION.................................................................................................................................... 7 

THE ORIGINAL FLORA OF MOTUORA ......................................................................................................... 10 

RESTORATION OPTIONS ............................................................................................................................. 10 

Non-threatened species................................................................................................................................. 10 

Threatened species....................................................................................................................................... 17 

MONITORING REQUIREMENTS.................................................................................................................... 21 

SECTION THREE: RESTORATION OF MOTUORA’S INVERTEBRATE 

FAUNA ......................................................................................................................... 23 

CURRENT SITUATION.................................................................................................................................. 23 

THE ORIGINAL INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF MOTUORA................................................................................ 24 


Large flightless species.................................................................................................................................. 25 

Ecologically significant species........................................................................................................................ 29 

Threatened species....................................................................................................................................... 33 

Invertebrate Pests........................................................................................................................................ 37 


SECTION FOUR: RESTORATION OF MOTUORA’S REPTILE FAUNA ........... 38 


THE ORIGINAL REPTILE FAUNA OF MOTUORA........................................................................................... 38 


Habitat and food requirements ...................................................................................................................... 40 

Duvaucel's gecko ........................................................................................................................................ 41 

Shore skink .............................................................................................................................................. 42 

Common and Pacific gecko ........................................................................................................................... 43 

Marbled, Robust and Whitaker’s skink......................................................................................................... 43 

Ornate skink ............................................................................................................................................ 44 

Tuatara ................................................................................................................................................... 45 

Reptile species considered unsuitable for translocation to Motuora.......................................................................... 45 


SECTION FIVE: RESTORATION OF MOTUORA’S AVIFAUNA......................... 50 


Species introductions to date.......................................................................................................................... 51 

THE ORIGINAL AVIFAUNA OF MOTUORA ................................................................................................... 52 


Seabirds ................................................................................................................................................... 52 

Forest birds............................................................................................................................................... 57 


SCHEDULE OF BIRD, REPTILE AND INVERTEBRATE SPECIES AND 

THREATENED PLANT SPECIES RECOMMENDED FOR INTRODUCTION 

TO MOTUORA BETWEEN 2007 AND 2017 ............................................................. 61 

REFERENCES............................................................................................................. 62 

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APPENDIX 1. RESEARCH PRIORITIES FOR THE MOTUORA RESTORATION 

PROGRAMME ............................................................................................................. 70 

APPENDIX 2: KEY STAKEHOLDERS AND USEFUL CONTACTS FOR THE 

TRANSLOCATION PROGRAMME .......................................................................... 72 

APPENDIX 3: VASCULAR FLORA OF MOTUORA ISLAND ................................ 73 

APPENDIX 4: MOTUORA PLANTING INVENTORY 1990-2006 .......................... 80 

APPENDIX 5. MAP OF EXISTING PLANTED AREAS ON MOTUORA ............. 81 

APPENDIX 6. VASCULAR PLANTS OF THE INNER HAURAKI GULF............. 82 

APPENDIX 7. LARGE BODIED BEETLES ON MOTUORA................................. 86 

APPENDIX 8. STICK INSECT SPECIES IN THE HAURAKI GULF .................... 87 

APPENDIX 9. CONSERVATION REQUIREMENTS OF AUCKLAND 

THREATENED INVERTEBRATES......................................................................... 88 

APPENDIX 10. INVERTEBRATES RECORDED ON MOTUORA ....................... 93 

APPENDIX 11. BIRDS RECORDED ON OR NEAR MOTUORA .........................101 

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Section One: Introduction 

Overview 

Motuora lies in the Hauraki Gulf near Kawau Island, approximately 3km from the Mahurangi 

Heads and 5km from Wenderholm Regional Park. The 80 ha island is long, narrow and 

relatively flat-topped with coastal cliffs, sandy beaches and an extensive inter-tidal shelf. 

Although its highest point is only 75m above sea level, when viewed from the mainland 

Motuora is a significant landscape feature. The island is composed mostly of a thick bed of 20 

million year old Parnell Grit with associated Waitemata Sandstones similar to that of other 

inner Hauraki Gulf islands such as Tiritiri Matangi and Kawau (Ballance, 1977; Edbrooke, 

2001). 

Much of the original coastal forest and shrub land vegetation was cleared long ago by Maori 

and European occupants, leaving remnant pohutukawa and karo/mahoe scrub growing on 

the coastal cliffs. In 1990 the Mid-North Branch of the Royal Forest and Bird Protection 

Society initiated a plan to restore the island and the island is now jointly managed by the 

Motuora Restoration Society (MRS) and DOC. The predator-free status of the island 

provides a unique opportunity to allow restoration of representative flora and fauna of both 

the Inner Hauraki Gulf Islands and Rodney Ecological Districts (McEwen, 1987). 

The goals of the restoration programme are to restore Motuora to a fully functioning, selfsustaining 

forest ecosystem that is (a) typical of the least modified islands in the region, (b) 

able to provide a safe refuge for compatible threatened species, and (c) able to be enjoyed by 

the many people who visit Motuora for relaxation and recreation. These goals recognize the 

role humans play in shaping Motuora and acknowledge that it is not possible to fully recreate 

the ecosystem that would have existed prior to human disturbance. To date restoration has 

concentrated on planting thousands of pioneer tree and shrub species to convert the retired 

open kikuyu grass pasture to native forest. It is anticipated that this initial planting 

programme will be complete by 2010, after which time the focus will change to the 

introduction and re-introduction of flora and fauna that contribute to the restoration goals. 

This plan proposes a series of introductions to take place over the next decade and extends 

and updates the chapters of the Motuora Restoration Working Plan (Hawley & Buckton, 

1997) that focus on the introduction of flora and fauna. The plan is intended to be a working 

1

document guiding restoration of the island’s biological communities and does not encompass 

other activities such as the management of cultural and historic resources. 

A major focus of the plan is the establishment of a self-sustaining ecosystem and many of the 

species recommended for introduction are expected to contribute to the recovery of species 

already present on Motuora and the establishment of those species yet to be introduced. The 

introduction of seabirds, for example, is expected to benefit a number of the island’s 

invertebrate, reptile and plant species. Intensive ongoing species management is considered 

undesirable and the species recommended for introduction are expected to eventually form 

self-supporting populations. For this reason, the habitat requirements and presence of 

available habitat on Motuora were important factors in deciding when a species should be 

introduced. As a result of these considerations the plan focuses on terrestrial plants, 

invertebrates, reptiles and birds. Freshwater plants, fish, amphibians and bats were considered 

but discounted because no suitable habitat presently exists on Motuora. Habitat suitable for 

bats will not become available within the lifetime of this plan and Motuora is unlikely to ever 

provide sufficient habitat to support native freshwater fish and amphibian populations. 

Unlike many restoration projects that have focused on the introduction of threatened species 

with high public appeal, on Motuora the focus will be on ecosystem restoration. By reestablishing 

the foundations of a coastal forest community, natural succession will be able to 

run its course and the long term prospects for viability and sustainability of the island’s 

ecosystems will be more favourable. The first stage of this process has and continues to be 

the establishment of a range of habitat types and the necessary diversity to allow the assisted 

and self-establishment of ‘keystone’ species. Translocation has only been recommended for 

those species that are clearly unable to re-colonise by other means. For example, bellbird and 

kereru are important as pollinators and seed dispersers. However this plan does not propose 

to introduce these species as both are likely to arrive unassisted once suitable habitat is 

available on Motuora. 

Species that are likely to have been present on Motuora previously are considered the highest 

priority for introduction. Detailed reconstruction of Motuora’s original flora and fauna is not 

possible as paleological investigations have not been carried out on the island. Consequently, 

for the purposes of this plan, the historical presence of species on Motuora was inferred from 

comparisons with other less modified islands off the north east of the North Island, 

2

particularly those from within the Rodney and Inner Gulf Ecological Districts, and 

paleological information collected from the adjacent mainland. Close comparison with 

another unmodified island was impossible due to a lack of unmodified islands within the 

Inner Gulf Ecological District (Atkinson, 1986; McEwen, 1987). 

An ecological district reflects a local environment of interacting climatic, geological, 

topographical, biological features and processes all interrelated to produce a ‘characteristic 

landscape’ and range of biological communities (McEwen, 1987). The framework provides a 

sound approach for the restoration of natural plant and animal communities and a sensible 

platform for selecting suitable candidates for introduction. For restoration purposes native 

species can be sourced from other sites within the district or if this is not possible from an 

adjacent district (Simpson, 1992; WCC, 2001). 

Species that are unlikely to have been present but whose national or regional existence is 

threatened were considered for introduction to Motuora but were not recommended if their 

presence was considered likely to compromise the survival of other species or the long term 

ecological sustainability of the island. A detailed analysis of the suitability of species 

recommended for introduction to Motuora and the timing of their introduction is included. 

Both factors were considered critical to the success of the restoration programme and the 

ecological sustainability of the island. Other factors that were considered were the 

opportunities for education, advocacy and research. 

The plan also outlines the sequence of introductions, the likely source populations for the 

species and the timeframes translocations may take. Many species of plants and animals are 

referred to in the text by their common names. However, scientific names are provided in the 

tables that appear both in the document and in the appendices. 

Opportunities and Risks 

The species introductions outlined in this restoration plan are likely to create significant 

opportunities for both conservation and people. The absence of introduced mammalian 

browsers and predators on Motuora has created an ideal opportunity to restore a coastal 

forest ecosystem representative of the one present prior to human arrival. The island has and 

already is contributing to the recovery of regionally and nationally threatened species but its 

3

ability to do so will continue to increase over time. Establishing populations of threatened 

species on Motuora will not only provide greater security for those species but in time will 

also offer an additional source for establishing populations elsewhere. 

With the introduction of new species, particularly threatened species, the opportunities for 

advocacy are extensive. It is anticipated that the profile of Motuora will be raised and the 

restoration programme will receive more exposure. Securing funding and attracting 

sponsorship is likely to get easier and other opportunities for earning revenue may become 

available. Volunteer involvement in the restoration programme is likely to increase and the 

island’s appeal to volunteers already involved will be enhanced. Introductions of threatened 

species will generate greater public interest in the island as a destination and more visitors to 

the island are expected. 

Increased interest in the island offers significant opportunities for educating the public about 

conservation and restoration ecology. Introductions provide the ability to directly involve the 

public in the more exciting aspects of a restoration programme. Although translocations and 

the ongoing monitoring of establishing populations will require experienced people, 

opportunities for the involvement of volunteers and the public should not be overlooked. 

Interpretation and educational resources on the island have the ability to extend these 

learning opportunities. 

The translocation programme will generate numerous research opportunities and the 

opportunities for learning about ecosystem recovery and threatened species management are 

extensive. A list of some of the possible research topics that will be created is provided in 

Appendix 1. Relationships with research institutions should be developed and enhanced to 

fully capitalize on these opportunities. 

Alongside the opportunities created by the translocation programme come a number of risks 

that must be taken into account to ensure the success of each species introduction. Species 

may fail to establish on Motuora for unforeseen reasons. To give species the best chance of 

establishing, translocation planning should be based on those techniques that have proven 

successful in the past. Best practice techniques for analogous species should be used for those 

species that have never been translocated before. It is essential that all translocations are fully 

documented not only to determine their success but also to develop and improve techniques 

4

for future transfers. 

Ecosystems are complex, and the introduction of some species may have unpredicted impacts 

on resident species or other introduced species. A common problem with translocations 

within New Zealand has been a lack of follow-up monitoring to ascertain the presence of 

competitive interactions. For the species introductions outlined in this plan, post-release 

monitoring is considered to be a key element that needs to be considered and resourced as 

part of translocation planning. The impact of a transfer on the source population also needs 

to taken into account. 

None of the species introductions are expected to require on-going intervention. However, it 

is possible that some species will require some short-lived management such as the provision 

of artificial refuges. The maintenance of suitable successional habitats is expected to occur 

through natural processes or as part of day to day island management (e.g. maintaining areas 

of open space for tracks and view points). 

As Motuora’s forest matures and canopy closure occurs, the ability of weed species to get a 

foot-hold on the island will diminish. However, the introduction of native and exotic plant 

species may increase in frequency as the island becomes more attractive to seed dispersers 

such as kereru and starlings (Heiss-Dunlop, 2004). Early detection and eradication of weeds is 

imperative to ensure negative impacts are minimized and an on-going weed control 

programme will be required. 

The introduction of new parasites and disease is a possibility that is ever present when 

moving a species from one place to another. A risk analysis will need to be completed on a 

case by case basis for each of the proposed species introductions and appropriate disease 

screening and quarantine provisions implemented. Veterinary advice will be required. 

Consultation with key stakeholders will be critical to ensuring the success of the translocation 

programme. Key stakeholders of Motuora and those concerned with source populations need 

to be involved at an early stage in translocation planning, to avoid wasting resources. 

Consulting widely and extensively will not only ensure that translocations are possible but 

may open up other opportunities in the future. 

5

While increased visitation to the island has a number of benefits it also carries many 

associated risks. The greatest threats that visitors bring to the island are fire and the 

introduction of pest animals and plants. There are many examples of seeds of weed species 

being carried in boots and jacket pockets and rodents and invertebrates arriving on islands off 

boats and in personal equipment. The consequences of inadvertent pest introduction can not 

be underestimated and some species have the potential to seriously compromise the 

restoration programme. 

Since the island is an open sanctuary, advocacy and education will be the two most important 

tools in minimising the risks of fire and pest invasion, and the island ranger has a crucial role 

to play in this regard. Highlighting the risks and informing visitors of the simple precautions 

that need to be taken prior to their arrival should be part of day-to-day island management. 

Educational and interpretive material on and off the island can be used to reinforce these 

messages. Setting a good example is everyone’s responsibility. The central tenet behind the 

management of these risks is the principle that prevention is better than cure. 

Tracks and visitor facilities will need to be upgraded over time to handle the growing number 

of visitors. Poaching of threatened plants and animals is considered unlikely but should be 

monitored. 

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Section Two: Restoration of Motuora’s Plant Community 

Current Situation 

Motuora’s long history of human occupation, cultivation and in particular pastoral farming 

removed most of the island’s original forest and left a vegetation cover dominated by exotics 

(Hawley & Buckton, 1997). In 1990 the focus for the island changed and a volunteer-led 

restoration programme began. Restoration efforts gained momentum in 1995 with the 

formation of the Motuora Restoration Society. By 2040 it is expected that the 80 ha island 

will be fully replanted and support around 75 ha of regenerating coastal broadleaf forest (see 

Table 1). Five hectares of the island is to be left in grassland and managed as open space. 

The oldest forests on Motuora total approximately 20 ha and are scattered along the 

perimeter of the island. The east-facing Pohutukawa Bay forest remnant provides the best 

representation of naturally-regenerating coastal forest on the island. Typical coastal species 

dominate, including pohutukawa, karo, houpara, coastal karamu, kawakawa, coastal astelia, 

and rengarenga (see Appendix 3 for botanical names of plants on Motuora). By 2006 

approximately 35 of the 60 ha of retired pasture had been planted in early successional species 

and it is anticipated that a further 20 ha will be planted by 2010 (see Table 1). A planting 

inventory is provided in Appendix 4 in conjunction with a map outlining the areas planted 

(Appendix 5) with species numbers planted between 1999 and 2006. 

At the outset of planting in 1990, seed was sourced from the island where sufficient diversity 

remained. Local seed sources included mahoe, pohutukawa, karo, karamu, hangehange, 

houpara, whau, ngaio, broom, mahoe, akeake, taupata, and puriri. There were few manuka, 

akeake, and flax remaining on the island, with a single kowhai and karaka. Some seed was 

collected from these species; however additional seed came from Tiritiri Matangi. Species 

either non-existent on Motuora or providing insufficient seed included kohekohe, kanuka, 

koromiko, kowhai, cabbage tree, wharangi, and five-finger. These species were also sourced 

from Tiritiri Matangi. Cuttings were taken from a single remaining totara tree as it did not 

produce seed and it is recommended that totara seed be sourced from other nearby 

populations. More recently taraire seed has been sourced from Mahurangi West (H. Lindsay, 

pers. comm.). 

7

By late 2006 over 205,000 plants had been planted since the revegetation programme began 

in 1990 (Appendix 4). During the period from 1990 to1998 nearly 44,000 pioneering plant 

species were planted, and from 1999 to late 2006 a further 162,000 plants were planted. More 

comprehensive planting records have been kept since 1999 (Appendix 4) detailing species and 

their numbers. Between 1999 and 2006 late successional species have been planted including 

kohekohe (531), karaka (1094), puriri (248), and taraire (80). 

A vascular flora survey completed on Motuora in 1987 found 14 ferns and more than 125 

higher plants but plants growing around the houses at Home Bay that were either deliberately 

planted or have escaped were not recorded (Dowding 1988). A further investigation of the 

island’s vascular flora completed in 2006 resulted in a significant increase in the number of 

species recorded on the island, adding a further 138 species (Appendix 3). 

A total of 288 taxa have been recorded on Motuora of which 123 (43%) species are native, 

and 165 (57%) are naturalised exotics including garden relicts and escapes (Appendix 3). 

During the 2006 survey, 22 taxa recorded by Dowding (1988) and Hawley and Buxton (1997) 

were not located. Of these, eleven were native species including a coprosma hybrid, Geranium 

solanderi “large petals”, hebe, native fireweed, nertera and true maidenhair. More time spent 

searching may yet reveal their location. The remaining five native species (dwarf cabbage tree, 

Glen Murray tussock, pigweed, tawapou and thin-leaved coprosma) are most likely to be 

extinct on Motuora and should be considered for future re-introduction. 

Ten introduced species noted in previous listings (Dowding, 1988, Hawley & Buckton, 1997) 

can also be considered extinct from Motuora. These include juniper, cotoneaster, California 

privet, false acacia, hemlock, ivy, lemon scented jasmine, purple nut sedge and tamarisk. Two 

new exotic species have recently self-introduced to the island. These species were the invasive 

holly fern and Chinese privet and both have been controlled (Lindsay, 2006). 

Based on the 2006 botanical survey it appears that few native higher plants have selfintroduced 

to the island. A well-established lancewood hybrid (Pseudopanax crassifolius x P. 

lessonii) was found above Still Bay. There are no known lancewoods present on the island, 

although there is a possibility a population exists in an inaccessible location unaccounted for. 

Sixteen new ferns were identified in the recent survey. However it is difficult to positively 

confirm their arrival status. There have been few natural introductions of woody plant species 

8

(native or exotic) since the outset of the project suggesting there is very little bird movement 

between Motuora, the mainland and surrounding islands. In order to attract more native seed 

dispersers such as kereru and tui it may be necessary to establish increased species diversity so 

that seasonal food resources become more attractive. 

Intensive weed control has been an integral component of the restoration programme on 

Motuora since 1998, resulting in a significant reduction of weed numbers (Lindsay, 2006). An 

on-going weed control programme has ensured weed species are kept to a minimum and are 

not a threat to existing or future restoration plantings. Concerted efforts have largely reduced 

the boneseed infestation to the northern and north-western cliffs of the island, and boxthorn 

populations are now limited to a few isolated infestations (Lindsay, 2006). A mature stand of 

macrocarpa remains, reminiscent of European farming practices, but most of the pine has 

now been removed. Other exotic species such as madeira vine, climbing asparagus and 

pampas are also targeted and continued vigilance to prevent new introductions is necessary. 

Table 1: The Current And Predicted Area (In Hectares) Of Potential Vegetation Cover 

From 2005 To 2040 On Motuora 

Vegetation type 

Present 

2005 

Predicted 

2010 

Predicted 

2020 

Predicted 

2030 

Predicted 

2040 

Naturally regenerating coastal forest 

(pohutukawa/broadleaf canopy) 

20 ha 20 ha 20 ha 20 ha 20 ha 

Grass (retired pasture) 25 ha 5 ha 5 ha 5 ha 5 ha 

New plantings 

(open canopy; rank grass/herbs/young 

natives;

The Original Flora of Motuora 

There are few records of the past vegetation of Motuora. The Inner Gulf islands including 

Tiritiri Matangi (220 ha), Kawau Island (2058 ha), Moturekareka (19 ha), Motuihe Island (179 

ha), Noises Islands group (24.5 ha), and the adjacent forest remnants of Mahurangi (East and 

West) and Wenderholm offer suitable modern day analogues to Motuora due to their similar 

ecological characteristics and geological makeup (Atkinson, 1960a; Ballance, 1977; Ballance 

and Smith, 1982; Grant-Mackie, 1960). However, their current vegetation composition 

requires further interpretation to remove the sources of human induced influences (Wright, 

1988). An understanding of remnant vegetation composition in conjunction with 

palynological investigations (Elliot, 1995; Heiss-Dunlop, Deng, Craig & Nichol, in press) of 

ecologically similar islands is the key to identifying general species assemblages appropriate 

for restoration purposes. 

Based on historical information and literature, the island’s bioclimatic profile, and existing 

intact forest remnants within the same ecological district (and the adjacent mainland), it can 

be assumed that Motuora was most likely covered in a coastal broadleaf forest (with a minor 

component of mixed conifer forest species) similar to that of comparable Inner Gulf islands 

and the adjacent mainland with similar palaeoenvironmental histories. 

Restoration Options 

The past restoration efforts on Motuora have created suitable habitat to introduce plants that 

were known to have been present in the past (e.g. Coprosma areolata, Cordyline pumilio, Einadia 

triandra, Geranium solanderi “large petals”, Nertera and Pouteria costata), and the introduction of 

species we can assume would have grown there based on historical literature (Buchanan, 

1876,:Kirk, 1868; Kirk, 1878), pollen records from islands within the Inner Hauraki Gulf 

Ecological District (Elliot, 1995; Heiss-Dunlop et al., in press), from contemporary Inner 

Gulf island models (Cameron and Taylor, 1992; de Lange & Crowcroft, 1996; de Lange & 

Crowcroft, 1999; Esler, 1978; Esler, 1980; Tennyson, Cameron & Taylor, 1997) and examples 

of remnant coastal broadleaf forest on the adjacent mainland (Young, 2005; Young, in press). 

Non-threatened species 

Appendix 6 provides a typical range of plants occurring either currently or historically on a 

number of islands similar to Motuora (within the Inner Hauraki Gulf Islands Ecological 

District and the Rodney Ecological District). It highlights the current species on Motuora 

10

(including planted species) and identifies species suitable for re-introduction and where there 

are known populations. This information forms the basis of species selection for reintroduction 

to Motuora, listed in Table 2. It is recommended that Mahurangi East, 

Mahurangi West, Wenderholm, Tiritiri Matangi, and Kawau Island be the main seed sourcing 

sites due to their ecological similarities with Motuora and accessibility. In particular, 

Mahurangi East (80 ha), Mahurangi West (100 ha), and Wenderholm (75 ha) provide a 

representative range of species that most likely existed on Motuora, due to the wide variety of 

habitat types they support. Suitable habitat is currently available on Motuora to introduce any 

of the species recommended in Table 2 and seed sources are readily available for common 

species. Limiting factors will be locating seeding trees of the less common species and 

propagation success. The Auckland Botanical Society may be able to assist in identifying 

suitable trees as seed sources from Mahurangi (East and West) and Wenderholm. Tiritiri 

Matangi may also be able to provide seed when required. 

Management of the ecological processes on Motuora is essential to ensure a fully functioning 

ecosystem develops. Without intervention it is likely the forest would become dominated by 

karo and pohutukawa. It is envisaged to recreate a coastal broadleaf forest, including a minor 

component of mixed conifers. The canopy of a typical coastal broadleaf forest comprises 

taraire, tawa, kohekohe, pohutukawa and puriri. Also present but in fewer numbers would be 

titoki, tawapou, rewarewa, kowhai, mangeao and milk tree species (Streblus banksii and Streblus 

heterophyllus). Emergent trees would include kahikatea and northern rata. Typical understorey 

species would include nikau, rangiora, hangehange, mahoe, lacebark, coprosma species (e.g. 

Coprosma arborea, C. areolata, C. grandifolia and C. rhamnoides), putaputaweta, and silver fern. 

Common lianes include rata vines (Metrosideros diffusa, M. fulgens and M. perforata) and 

supplejack, with the epiphyte Collospermum hastatum abundant in mature canopy trees. The 

ground cover would typically consist of fern species (e.g. Adiantum spp., Asplenium spp., and 

Polystichum neozelandicum subsp. neozelandicum), sedges (e.g. Carex flagellifera), cutty grass (Gahnia 

lacera), and hook grass (Uncinia uncinata). 

It is recommended a mix of conifers is established (e.g. kauri and podocarp species including 

kahikatea, miro, rimu, tanekaha and totara) to provide greater species diversity, increase 

seasonal food sources, and additional interest on the island. However, it is envisaged they will 

be planted in low numbers with the main purpose of establishing a seed source on the island. 

Kauri forests are not exclusive forests but are mixed-type forests in which kauri may occur as 

11

isolated specimens or in groves. Often kauri forests consist of kauri in association with trees 

such as taraire, tawaroa and northern rata with numerous other species of shrubs, epiphytes 

and ferns. Taraire found in association with kauri appear to take their place and may form the 

final climax community of the manuka-kauri-taraire sequence (Salmon, 1978). It is envisaged 

to plant a small kauri grove with tanekaha on a drier ridge line (e.g. areas I or F; see map in 

Appendix 5). Miro can be scattered throughout the forest in low numbers, and totara should 

be planted in drier areas. Taraire prefer moister situations and could be planted on the slopes 

in areas K and J for example. 

In addition to pioneer species and late successional woody plants, other species are required 

to restore wetland seepage areas. It is recommended to monitor existing habitats for selfintroductions 

and continue supplement plantings of sedges (e.g. Carex secta) around dams. 

Hook grass and the sedge (Carex flagellifera) were not found in the 2006 survey although they 

are a typical species of coastal forests. It is recommended they be planted in low numbers 

throughout existing forest remnants to establish permanent populations. 

Once the wet areas such as Coromandel Gully and the valley above Pohutukawa Bay have an 

established cover they will be suitable for future plantings of nikau (Rhopalostylis sapida), 

kahikatea, kiekie and pukatea in low numbers. Nikau could be planted immediately into 

existing moist areas alongside streams in Pohutukawa Bay, Coromandel Gully and 

Macrocarpa Bay. Since nikau take many years before they reach fruiting maturity it is 

recommended seed is sourced (e.g. from Mahurangi East) as early as possible. 

Open areas adjacent to tracks should be planted in Muehlenbeckia complexa and M. australis to 

improve reptile habitat, enhance reptile viewing opportunities, and to suppress weeds. 

Additional areas should be planted in low-growing non-woody species such as flax, shrubby 

haloragis and coastal toetoe, and areas of bracken should be left to naturally regenerate. 

Native ground covers should also be used in managed view spaces and recreational areas. 

The numbers of specific pioneer species planted should be increased to support future fauna 

introductions. These include coprosma species (Coprosma areolata, C. arborea, C. grandifolia and 

C. rhamnoides), five-finger, hangehange, kowhai, mahoe (both Melicytus novae-zelandiae and M. 

ramiflorus), mingimingi, and ngaio. 

12

Based on past planting numbers approximately 25,000-30,000 plants are planted each year 

covering an area of 5-6 ha (Appendix 4). Over the next ten years it is envisaged a greater 

percentage of the plants will comprise late successional species (in-fill planting in well- 

established revegetated areas) and a range of mid-canopy forest species will be introduced. 

The coastal species recommended for introduction (listed in Table 2) are to be planted in low 

numbers at a number of suitable coastal locations in order to establish self-sustaining 

populations. 

13

Table 2: Species Recommended For Introduction To Motuora (2007-2017) Including 

Suggested Planting Numbers. 

Key: 

Low numbers = 10-100 

Medium = 100-1000 

High = 1000-5000 

+ = insufficient numbers on Motuora, additional 

seed sources required 

C = Casnell Island (Maunganui) 

K = Kawau Island 

KH = Kohatutara Island 

ME = Mahurangi East Regional Park 

MR = Moturekareka Island 

MT = Motutara Island 

MW = Mahurangi West Regional Park 

NG = Noises Islands group 

TM = Tiritiri Matangi 

W = Wenderholm 

Forest and Coastal Shrub Species 

Botanical name Common name Potential source 

populations 

Numbers to be planted 

Agathis australis kauri MW, W, K Low 

Alectryon excelsus titoki MW, ME, W Medium 

Alseuosmia macrophylla toropapa W, K Low 

Aristotelia serrata wineberry K Low 

Astelia solandri perching lily W, K Low 

Beilschmiedia tarairi taraire MW, ME, W, TM, K Medium 

Beilschmiedia tawaroa tawaroa ME, MW, W, K, TM Medium 

Carpodetus serratus putaputaweta W, K Low 

Ozothamnus leptophyllus tauhinu TM, K Low 

Clematis paniculata + clematis MW, MR, W, TM Low 

Coprosma arborea tree coprosma MW, W, TM, K Medium 

Coprosma areolata thin-leaved coprosma MW, ME, W, TM Medium 

Coprosma grandiflora large-leaved coprosma ME, W, TM, K Medium 

Coprosma lucida shining karamu TM, K Medium 

Coprosma propinqua mingimingi W, TM Low 

Coprosma spathulata W Low 

Cordyline pumilio dwarf cabbage tree MW, TM, K Low 

Corynocarpus laevigatus karaka MW, ME, W Medium 

Cyathodes juniperina prickly mingimingi TM, NG Low 

Dacrycarpus dacrydioides kahikatea MW, ME, W Low 

14

Dacrydium cupressinum rimu MW, W Low 

Dicksonia squarrosa wheki, rough tree fern MW, ME Low 

Dysoxylum spectabile kohekohe MW, ME, W, TM Medium 

Freycinetia banksii kiekie MW, ME, W Low 

Fuchsia excorticate tree fuchsia W, TM Medium 

Gahnia setifolia MW, W Low 

Griselinia lucida puka W Low 

Hedycarya arborea pigeonwood MW, ME, W, TM Medium 

Knightia excelsa rewarewa MW, ME, W, TM Medium 

Laurelia novae-zelandiae pukatea W Low 

Leucopogon fasciculatus + mingimingi MW, MR, W Medium 

Litsea calicaris mangeao ME, W, TM Low 

Melicytus novae-zelandiae + coastal mahoe MT, TM, NG Medium 

Melicytus ramiflorus mahoe MW, ME, W Medium 

Metrosideros diffusa white climbing rata Low 

Metrosideros fulgens orange rata vine K Low 

Metrosideros perforate small-leaved rata ME, MW, W, K Low 

Muehlenbeckia australis MW, T Low 

Nestegis apetala coastal maire Mokohinau Low 

Nestegis lanceolata white maire MW, W, K Low 

Olearia rani heketara W, K Low 

Parsonsia heterophylla NZ jasmine MW, ME, W, TM Low 

Passiflora tetrandra native passion vine W Low 

Peperomia urvilleana MW, ME, MR, MT Low 

Phyllocladus trichomanoides tanekaha MW, W Low 

Pittosporum cornifolium perching pittosporum W Low 

Pittosporum tenuifolium kohuhu K Low 

Pouteria costata tawapou W, ME, TM Medium 

Podocarpus totara + totara ME, MW Low 

Pomaderris kumeraho kumaraho T Low 

Prumnopitys ferruginea miro MW, W Low 

Prumnopitys taxifolia matai MW, W Low 

Pseudopanax arboreus + five-finger MW, W, TM, K Medium 

Pseudopanax crassifolius lancewood MW, W, K Low 

Rhabdothamnus solandri NZ gloxinia MW, W, TM, K Medium 

Rhopalostylis sapida nikau ME, MW, W, TM Medium 

Ripogonum scandens supplejack ME, MW, W, TM Low 

Rubus cissoids bush lawyer MW, W Low 

15

Schefflera digitata seven-finger, pate W, TM Low 

Solanum aviculare poroporo MW, TM Low 

Sophora chathamica coastal kowhai ME, W Medium 

Streblus banksii large-leaved milk tree MW, N (ME & W?) Low 

Streblus heterophyllus small-leaved milk tree MW, ME, W, TM Low 

Vitex lucens + puriri MW, ME, W, TM, K Medium 

Forest and Coastal Shrub Species 

Botanical name Common name Potential source 

populations 

Location to be planted 

Einadia triandra pigweed MR Splash zone. 

Einadia trigonos subsp. 

Trigonos 

pigweed MR, KH Splash zone. 

Linum monogynum NZ linen flax, rauhuia NG, Motuhoropapa, 

Coastal cliffs, rocky areas and sand 

(Cameron, 1998; 

Mason, Knowlton & 

Atkinson, 1960) 

dunes. 

Selliera radicans selliera ME, TM (bay east of Coastal sands and rocky places, 

Fishermans Bay), stream margins. 

Tetragonia trigyna 

beach spinach, NZ TM, NG Coastal sands, dunes and rocky 

(syn. Tetragonia 

climbing spinach 

places, hangs where support 

implexicoma) 

available. 

Tetragonia tetragonioides NZ spinach C Shaded sea cliffs, coastal sands, 

dunes and stony beaches. 

Sedges, tussocks and grasses 

Austrostipa stipoides coastal needle tussock, MR, ME, MW, T Coastal rocks, cliffs, mud flats salt 

coastal immortality 

grass 

marsh fringes. 

Carex flagellifera MR, MT, ME, MW, 

TM 

Damp areas, open or forest margin. 

Carex lambertiana MR, W, TM Coastal forest, scrub and swamp. 

Cortaderia splendens + coastal toetoe TM, NG, ME? Coastal cliff faces and associated 

shrubland. 

Elymus multiflora blue wheat grass C, NG Coastal cliffs. 

Confirm if already present first. 

Uncinia uncinata hook grass MW, ME, W, MR, 

MT, TM 

Forest and scrub, swamp margins. 

16

Threatened species 

The Auckland region has at least 170 threatened plants, of which 70 species are recognised 

as a national conservation concern (Stanley, 1998). The decline in plant populations may be 

due to a combination of factors including animal browse, habitat loss, weed invasion, and 

the loss of native species which act as pollinators and seed-dispersers impairing regeneration. 

For many threatened plant species active management on pest-free islands is essential to 

increase the number of wild populations to ensure their long-term survival. 

Threatened plants most at risk from weeds are found in coastal habitats (foreshore and dune 

systems), damp habitats (wetlands and lakes), and seral plant habitats (disturbed and coastal 

areas) (Reid, 1998). These habitat types are particularly vulnerable to the invasion of weed 

species on the mainland, inhibiting germination and the establishment of native plant 

species. Motuora supports a range of representative habitats (coastal, damp and seral) 

suitable for the establishment of a range of endangered plants local to the Auckland Region. 

However these habitats are not weed free on Motuora, and weed management will be 

necessary in areas. 

In addition, there are a number of recognised risks associated with establishing some 

threatened plants in a modified environment not completely free of introduced pests. For 

example, coastal cresses (Lepidium oleraceum and Rorippa divaricata) are prone to attack by 

garden and crop Brassicaceae pests, being particularly affected by white rust. Other potential 

pests include cabbage white butterfly (Pieris repae), cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae), 

diamond-backed moth (Plutella xylostella), snails, slugs and various leaf miners (Norton & de 

Lange, 1999). Mawhai (Sicyos aff. australis) is susceptible to cucumber and zucchini mosaic 

virus. Risks associated with establishment of the threatened plants can be minimised through 

appropriate management as documented in the Department of Conservation individual 

species recovery plans (e.g. coastal cresses and pikao), and by liaising with specialist recovery 

groups including the Department of Conservation. 

Some of the threatened plants listed for introduction are reliant on disturbance events to 

maintain suitable stages of seral vegetation (e.g. shifting sand dunes, storm damage, and 

petrel burrowing disturbance) (Cameron, 2003). For example Pimelea tomentosa will require 

17

active management to maintain open sites with seral vegetation free of invasive species such 

as kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) in order to establish self-sustaining populations. In 

contrast, New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia tetragonioides) is threatened by disturbance of 

coastal sands and stony beaches, requiring a more stable environment (NZPCN, 2003). 

Other potential risk factors include competition from invasive plants, loss of associated 

animals (e.g. seabirds), and substrate nutrient levels. 

On Motuora the aim will be to establish wild self-sustaining populations of threatened plants 

listed in Table 3. It is recognized that plant translocations are fraught with uncertainty and 

difficulties. An experimental approach will be used but even so it is possible that some of the 

species will not be established within the timeframe of this plan. The plants proposed for 

introduction have been recommended based on their vulnerability status (de Lange et al., 

2004), habitat suitability and availability, their ecological, conservation and educational value, 

research potential, and management requirements (minimal with most species). It is 

recommended that the introductions are guided by individual species specific recovery plans 

developed by the Department of Conservation (Stanley, 1998). 

18

Table 3: Recommended Threatened And Uncommon Vascular Plants Suitable For 

Introduction Or Re-Introduction To The Following Habitats On Motuora. 

Key to species status (de Lange et al., 2004; Stanley, de Lange & Cameron, 2005): 

nc = Nationally critical (≤ 250 mature individuals) (47 spp.) 

ne = Nationally endangered (250-1000 mature individuals) (54 spp.) 

nv = Nationally vulnerable (1000-5000 mature individuals) (21 spp.) 

sd = Chronically threatened - serious decline (26 spp.) 

gd = Chronically threatened - gradual decline (70 spp.) 

sp = At risk - sparse (126 spp.) 

rr = At risk - range restricted (373 spp.) 

dd = Data deficient 

nt = Not threatened 

Botanical Common Status Potential source populations Habitat requirements and 

name name 

suitable planting sites 

Austrofestuca 

littoralis 

Recovery Plan 

(Bergin, 2000) 

Calystegia 

marginata 

Clianthus 

puniceus 


(Shaw, 1993) 

Dactylanthus 

taylorii 

Reovery Plan 

(DoC, 2005) 

Desmoschoenus 

spiralis 


(Bergin & 

Herbert, 1998) 

Euphorbia 

glauca 

sand 

tussock, 

beach 

fescue, 

hinarepe 

smallflowered 

white 

bindweed 

kowhai 

ngutukak, 

kakabeak 

pua 

reinga, 

wood 

rose 

pikao, 

pingao, 

golden 

sand 

sedge 

shore 

spurge, 

waiuatua 

gd Pakiri Beach (Stanley, 2001) 

(Contact Christine Baines for 

permission to collect seed), 

Palmers Beach, Great Barrier 

Island (Cameron, 1999b) 

sp Ti Point (contact Maureen Young 

for site location) (grows easily from 

seed) 

nc Moturemu, Kaipara Harbour, 

Tiritiri Matangi 

Stable sand dunes under 

pohutukawa amongst Calystegia 

soldanella and Spinifex sericeus. 

Still Bay and Home Bay 

Open shrublands, coastal 

headlands, rough pasture and 

adjacent track margins. 

Scrambler 

Bluffs, coastal cliffs, lake 

margins and successional 

habitats. Short coastal scrub, 

open or partially open. Twin 

dams and coastal cliffs. 

sd Little Barrier Root parasite of mahoe, fivefinger, 

kapuka, karamu, 

mapou, hangehange and 

putaputaweta 

gd Mahurangi West, historically 

present Kawau Is (Buchanan, 

1876) 

sd Browns Island (Gardner, 1996), 

Little Barrier Island, 

Motuhoropapa, Noises Island 

group (Atkinson, 1960b) 

Coastal sand dunes, sloping 

unstable surfaces, Home Bay 

Coastal cliffs, rocky bluffs, 

mudstone slopes and sand 

dunes, Still Bay 

19

Geranium 

solanderi “large 

petals” 

Ileostylus 

micranthus 

National 


(Cameron, 

2000) 

Lepidium 

flexicaule 

Lepidium 

oleraceum 


(Norton & de 

Lange, 1999) 

Historically 

present on 

Kawau, 

Rangitoto 

Island 

native 

geranium, 

turniprooted 

geranium 

green 

mistletoe 

coastal 

cress 

Cooks’s 

scurvy 

grass 

Picris burbidgeae native 

oxtongue 

Pimelia 

tomentosa 

Pisonia 

brunoniana 

Rorippa 

divaricata 


(Norton & de 

Lange, 1999) 

status? Casnell Island (de Lange & 

Crowcroft, 1996), Tiritiri Matangi 

(Cameron & West, 1985-86) , 

Pudding Island (Cameron & 

Taylor, 1992), Motuihe Island (de 

Lange & Crowcroft, 1999), Noises 

Islands group (Cameron, 1998) 

nt Mahurangi West roadside, 

proposed bypass, Warkworth 

nv South Taranaki coast (2003), 

historical records Auckland, 

Recovery Plan (Norton & de 

Lange, 1999) 

ne Little Barrier, Great Barrier islets, 

Mahuki Is GB (contact Hilary 

McGregor DoC and Steve Benham 

ARC), northern offshore islands, 

(grows easily from seed and semihardwood 

cuttings) 

ne Casnell (Maunganui) Island (de 

Lange & Crowcroft, 1996), 

Mokohinau and Hen & Chicken 

Islands, Great Barrier (western 

side), (seed available from Oratia 

Native Plant Nursery) 

sd Goat Island, Waiheke, Great 

Barrier (Cameron, 2003), Woodhill 

forest 

parapara sp Mangawhai (Stanley & de Lange, 

2005) (grows easily from seed) 

NZ 

watercress 

ne Fanal Island, Mokohinau group, 

seed available from Oratia Native 

Plant Nursery 

Dry open lowland 

Coastal and lowland forest 

Hosts totara, kanuka, Coprosma 

propinqua, manuka, mapou 

Coastal turfs, rock stacks, 

outcrops, headlands, cliff faces 

and boulders 

Seabird roosts and nesting 

sites, fertile soils on coastal 

slopes, rocky shorelines and 

gravel beaches. Between Rocky 

Bay and Still Bay around petrel 

burrows. Home Bay and 

Macrocarpa Bay (non-sea birds 

sites). 

Scrub and cliff margins. 

Eastern cliffs of the island. 

Coastal and semi-coastal 

forest. Open grassy cliff tops, 

in scrub and seral habitats. On 

the slopes around the Kiwi 

track. 

Sheltered understorey of 

mixed-broadleaf forest. 

Tolerant of exposed sunny 

conditions. 

A coloniser of disturbed 

ground, petrel burrows, recent 

slips, track margins. Plants 

often grow around burrow 

entrances. Grows best in 

dappled light, and is often 

found in forested habitats 

20

Senecio 

scaberulus 

Sicyos aff. 

australis 

Streblus 

banksii 

Tetragonia 

tetragonioides 

Tupeia 

antarctica 

fireweed ne Goat Island (DoC), 

Noises Islands group (Cameron, 

1998) 

native 

cucumber, 

mawhai 

large-leaved 

milk tree 

NZ spinach 

kokihi 

green 

mistletoe 

taapia 

dd Great Barrier islets, Motuhaku 

Wellington Head, Historically 

present Kawau Is (Buchanan, 

1876), Moutihe Is (Kirk, 1878), 

Noises Islands group (Cameron, 

1998, Mason & Trevarthen, 

1950) 

sp Mahurangi East and 

Wenderholm? Tawharanui, 

Waiwera, Great Barrier Island 

sp Casnell Island, Mahurangi 

Harbour (de Lange & Crowcroft, 

1996). Recommended to collect 

seed from adjacent mainland (B. 

Stanley, pers. comm.) 

gd Fanal Island, Mokohinau Islands 

(Stanley, 2004), Kawau Is 

(Buchanan, 1876) 

Cliffs, coastal scrub, forest margins 

and clearings. Shaded sites amongst 

short grasses under coastal 

pohutukawa forest or short scrub, 

cliffs and banks near the sea, rocky 

outcrops and inland in canopy gaps. 

Pohutukawa Bay. 

Coastal and lowland forest, scrub and 

amongst bracken fern in shade. 

Coastal forest. Requires male and 

female 

Open coastal sites, sand dunes and 

stony beaches. 

High light, regenerating shrubland, 

forest edges and roadsides. Hosts 

include Pittosporum species, 

putaputaweta (Carpodetus serrata), 

Coprosma species, five-finger 

(Pseudopanax arboreus), white maire 

(Nestegis lanceolata) and coastal maire 

(Nestegis apetala) 

Monitoring Requirements 

It is recommended that long-term monitoring plots representative of each area planted 

annually are set up to measure successional changes in the composition and abundance of 

plants and the recruitment of invertebrates and lizards. Indicator species could be used to 

measure change wherever possible. Additional photo points for new plantings should be 

identified. A flora survey should be conducted in 2017 to identify species abundance, 

distribution and recruitment. Specialist interest groups that could facilitate monitoring 

programmes in conjunction with the Motuora Restoration Society include threatened plant 

recovery groups, Auckland Botanical Society, Auckland Botanical Gardens, Department of 

Conservation, universities and Forest and Bird. 

21

The establishment of threatened plant populations should be monitored. Monitoring plans 

for threatened species are outlined in individual species Recovery Plans. It is also 

recommended that support is sought from the Department of Conservation’s threatened 

plant specialist to develop site specific monitoring plans for each species. 

22

Section Three: Restoration of Motuora’s Invertebrate Fauna 


Most information available on the Motuora invertebrate fauna comes from a survey carried 

out during the summer of 2003/4 (see Appendix 10 for details). In numerical terms, the 

survey sample was dominated by two orders: mites (Class Arachnida; Order Acarina) and 

springtails (Class Insecta; Order Collembola). However as mites and springtails are all very 

small they contributed little in terms of biomass. The dominant orders in terms of biomass 

were landhoppers (Class Malacostraca; Order Amphipoda), slaters (Class Malacostraca; 

Order Isopoda), and three insect orders; beetles (Order Coleoptera), bees/ants/wasps 

(Order Hymenoptera) and weta/crickets (Order Orthoptera). The orders recorded were 

typical for the type of trapping utilized and no major orders were absent from Motuora. 

The survey results suggested that invertebrate abundance in naturally regenerating forest was 

higher on Motuora than on other modified offshore islands, due mainly to the high number 

of beetles recorded on Motuora (R.Gardner-Gee, unpub. data, Moeed & Meads 1984; 1987). 

There are several possible explanations for the differences between Motuora and the other 

offshore islands. Reduced predation on Motuora (due to the lack of mammalian predators 

and reduced diversity and abundance of native predators such as reptiles) may result in 

increased numbers of invertebrates, and especially increased numbers of larger bodied 

invertebrates such as ground weta and carabid beetles (Hutcheson, 2000; Ramsay, 1978). 

Alternatively, differences may be due to other factors, such as climate variation, variation in 

seabird abundances between islands (areas with nesting seabirds often have high invertebrate 

abundances) or variation in disturbance histories between islands. 

The survey also indicated that invertebrate abundance and composition varied between 

vegetation types within Motuora. The invertebrate fauna in planted areas on Motuora 

differed markedly from the invertebrate fauna in older areas of naturally regenerating forest 

on the island and also differed from the invertebrate fauna in pasture. Most of the difference 

is due to the high numbers of landhoppers and slaters in the planted areas. It is likely that 

these differences are due to the disturbance associated with planting and the young age of 

the planted forest (D. Ward unpub. data; Jansen, 1997). 

23

Beetles deserve special mention because on Motuora they have been studied in more detail 

than any other group. The 2003/4 survey collected a total of 153 beetle species. Of these, 96 

species (63%) are native to New Zealand, 45 species (29%) are introduced and 12 species 

(8%) are of unknown origin (Gardner-Gee, 2004). Many of the beetle species that occur on 

Motuora also occur at other modified coastal forest sites (Clarke, 2003; Kuschel, 1990) and 

none of the Motuora species are endemic to the island or listed as endangered (McGuinness, 

2001). The naturally regenerating forest areas on Motuora have a reasonably diverse beetle 

fauna with a high proportion of native beetle species and some flightless and specialist 

species (Gardner-Gee, 2004). A mobile, generalist subset of this forest fauna has established 

in the planted areas, creating an early succession beetle assemblage (Gardner-Gee, 2004). 

The Original Invertebrate Fauna of Motuora 

Detailed reconstruction of the original Motuora invertebrate fauna is not possible due to a 

lack of both paleological information and suitable benchmark islands. Motuora has 

experienced considerable human disturbance and it is likely that some invertebrate species 

have been lost from the island. The absence of introduced mammalian predators may 

however have enabled at least some of the original invertebrate fauna to survive the forest 

clearance. For example, two beetle species Ctenognathus novaevelandiae (Carabidae) and 

Mimopeus elongatus (Tenebrionidae) are vulnerable to rat predation and have been lost from 

many rat-infested northern offshore islands (Watt, 1986). Both species persist on Motuora 

(Gardner-Gee, 2004). Velvet worms (Phylum Onychophora) also still survive on Motuora: 

an undescribed species of Ooperipatellus was collected on the island in 2005 (R. Gardner-Gee, 

unpub. data). Velvet worms are generally regarded as positive indicators of ecosystem health, 

as they are vulnerable to habitat disturbance and only occur in habitats with abundant 

invertebrate life (Gleeson, 1996). 


Given that sampling to date indicates a reasonably wide range of native invertebrates have 

survived on Motuora, and given the absence of any information about the original 

invertebrate fauna, only three groups of invertebrates have been considered for possible 

introduction to Motuora: large flightless species, ecologically significant species (i.e. species 

24

likely to have important roles in the restored island ecosystem) and regionally threatened 

species. 

Large flightless species 

Offshore islands are (or were) characterised by high invertebrate abundance and by the 

presence of large bodied invertebrates (Daugherty, Towns, Atkinson & Gibbs, 1990). The 

invertebrate fauna of unmodified northern offshore islands typically includes the following 

large bodied taxa: giant centipedes, weta, large flightless beetles and giant land snails (Towns, 

Parrish & NWTBRMU, 2003). As these invertebrate taxa are flightless they are unlikely to 

re-establish unaided if they have been lost from Motuora. Most are threatened, some have 

important ecological roles, and others are “icons” of invertebrate conservation. Hence 

restoring this group of invertebrates will be an important part of the restoration process 

from both an ecological and social perspective. The large-bodied taxa are considered in more 

detail below. 

Weta 

Either herbivorous or omnivorous large weta species are typical, with very large-bodied 

species occurring on some islands (Towns et al., 2003). Several medium bodied weta species 

still occur on Motuora. Ground weta (Hemiandrus pallitarsus: adult body length 30+ mm) are 

abundant in coastal forest on the eastern margins of the island, and tree weta (Hemideina 

thoracica: adult body length 40+ mm) are also present. Three very large weta species occur on 

other islands in northern New Zealand: the Middle Island tusked weta (Motuweta isolata) and 

two giant weta species, the Poor Knights giant weta (Deinacrida fallii) and the wetapunga (D. 

heteracantha). All three species are threatened (Categories A, C & B respectively) and their 

management is covered under the Threatened Weta Recovery Plan (Sherley, 1998). All have 

restricted distributions, with the Middle Island tusked weta found only in the Mercury Island 

group, the Poor Knights giant weta occurring only on the Poor Knights Islands, and 

wetapunga occurring only on Little Barrier Island. Currently there is no evidence that the 

Middle Island tusked weta and the Poor Knights giant weta ever had a wider distribution 

(Sherley, 1998). The recovery plan recommends that additional populations of these two 

species are established at other locations, but Motuora is unlikely to be a preferred location 

25

for new populations as it is highly modified and some distance from both the Poor Knights 

group and the Mercury group. 

Wetapunga introduction to Motuora however is strongly recommended as historical records 

indicate that wetapunga did occur in forests immediately north of Auckland and on islands 

in the Hauraki Gulf (McGuinness, 2001; Sherley, 1998). Moreover, the Threatened Weta 

Recovery Plan recommends that new wetapunga populations are established on one or more 

mammal-free islands. The wetapunga is arboreal and primarily herbivorous. Although on 

Little Barrier wetapunga tend to be associated with large convoluted trees which provide 

retreats and cover, it is thought that they can also utilize young forest environments if 

predation pressures are low and artificial refuges are provided (C. Green, pers.comm., 

McGuinness, 2001; Sherley, 1998). Motuora can provide a mammal free environment with 

suitable habitat available (both young planted forest and coastal forest with large 

pohutukawa). 

Surveys are currently underway on Little Barrier to determine the rate of wetapunga 

population recovery since kiore removal (C. Green, pers.comm.). If the Little Barrier 

population shows strong recovery then direct translocation to Motuora could be considered. 

If population numbers are lower, then translocation from a captive breeding population 

would be the preferred approach (C. Green, pers. comm.). Captive bred wetapunga would 

not be available for release on Motuora until at least spring 2009 (C. Green, pers. comm.). If 

translocation is delayed until 2009 or later, then habitat enhancement could be undertaken by 

establishing more tree ferns in the oldest planted areas to increase habitat complexity and the 

number of refuges available for the wetapunga (C. Green, pers. comm.). Saddleback 

(Philesturnus carunculatus) are regarded as potentially significant predators of wetapunga, and 

hence saddleback introduction to Motuora is not recommended until wetapunga are well 

established on Motuora (Sherley, 1998). 

Large flightless beetles 

Island assemblages typically include a number of large flightless beetles such as weevils and 

darkling beetles (Mimopeus spp.) (Towns & Atkinson, 2004). The beetle fauna on Motuora 

includes at least 44 native flightless beetle species, but only four of these species are 10 mm 

26

or more in length (see Appendix 7). Large darkling beetles are discussed further below in the 

section on invertebrate prey as these beetles are a preferred food item for tuatara on some 

islands (Walls, 1981; Watt, 1986). Large weevils are absent from Motuora, and at least three 

species could be introduced to Motuora: the flax weevil (Anagotus fairburni), Turbott’s weevil 

(Anagotus turbotti) and the karo weevil (Hadramphus pittospori). 

The flax weevil has a wide distribution, occurring on many offshore islands from Poor 

Knights Islands to Stewart Island (McGuinness, 2001). These nocturnal weevils feed only on 

flax (Phormium tenax and P. cookianum) and hide amongst dead leaves at the base of the flax 

plant during the day (McGuinness, 2001). At least three new populations of the weevil have 

been established on other islands around New Zealand through translocation. Motuora has 

numerous stands of planted flax (10,000+ planted) that would provide adequate habitat for 

the flax weevil. Further research into potential source populations is required. The flax 

weevil has been recorded at Little Barrier and the Marotere Group but current population 

numbers are unknown (C. Green, pers. comm.). 

The other two large weevils that occur on northern offshore islands are threatened species. 

Turbott’s weevil was originally thought to be endemic to the Poor Knights Islands but has 

subsequently been found on the Three Kings group to the north and Muriwhenua Island in 

the Marotere group to the south (Watt, 1986). This distribution pattern suggests it may have 

been widespread on northern islands (and the mainland) prior to human induced disturbance 

(Watt, 1986). Turbott’s weevil bores in live wood of ngaio (Myoporum laetum) and karaka 

(Corynocarpus laevigatus), and has also been collected from a hebe species (Hebe bollonsii) (Watt, 

1986). Hebe bollonsii is absent from Motuora, but both karaka and ngaio are present. Turbott’s 

weevil is considered at risk because of its restricted range and a transfer of weevils from 

Muriwhenua Islet to other islands in the Marotere group has been proposed (Hitchmough, 

2002; Towns et al., 2003). 

The karo weevil is the only northern member of the New Zealand molytine weevil group. 

The larvae of this species bore into the live branches, trunks and root crowns of karo 

(Pittosporum crassifolium), a tree that is abundant on Motuora (Craw, 1999). At present, the 

karo weevil is only known from the Poor Knights Islands, but Craw (1999) suggests that it 

27

may also occur in other coastal forests around New Zealand (mainland and islands). The 

karo weevil, like Turbott’s weevil, is regarded as at risk because of the restricted range of its 

known distribution (Hitchmough, 2002). If further research establishes that either of these 

species were or are in the Hauraki Gulf region, then introductions to Motuora should be 

considered, as this would re-establish a characteristic part of island fauna on Motuora and 

create additional populations of these at-risk species. 

Large land snails 

Two groups of giant land snails occur in northern New Zealand: the herbivorous genus 

Placostylus (three species, 14 sub-species; commonly known as flax snails) and the carnivorous 

genus Paryphanta (one species, two sub-species; commonly known as kauri snails). There are 

also other medium-large carnivorous snail species in the Rhytida genus that occur in northern 

New Zealand. Towns et al. (2003) suggest that numerous small species and a least one large 

carnivorous species of land snail are generally present on offshore islands, and on more 

northern islands large herbivourous snails (pupuharakeke, Placostylus hongii) are also present. 

Sampling on Motuora to date has not detected any large native land snails (R. Gardner-Gee, 

unpub. data), and hence introductions should be considered to restore this portion of the 

invertebrate fauna. 

All Placostylus and Paryphanta taxa are under considerable threat from mammalian predation 

and habitat loss, all are protected species, and the management of all these species is guided 

by the Giant Land Snail Recovery Plan (Parrish, Sherley & Aviss, 1995). Placostylus ambagiosus 

and P. bollonsi are both restricted to the far north of Northland but P. hongii extends further 

south, with populations on the Noises Islands in the Hauraki Gulf, the Marotere Islands and 

on Great Barrier Island (Parrish et al., 1995). However, the Noises population results from 

an introduction in the 1950s, and the Marotere and Great Barrier populations may be the 

result of earlier Maori introductions (Parrish et al., 1995). As the evolution of the snails is 

thought to be closely linked to the physical properties of their habitats (soil properties, 

vegetation types etc.) the recovery plan specifies that further translocations outside their 

ecological range should be avoided (Parrish et al., 1995). Hence, on the basis of current 

distribution data and management policy, introducing flax snail (P. hongii) to Motuora is not 

recommended. 

28

Kauri snail distributions have also been altered by past human introductions. Subspecies 

Paryphanta busbyi watti is restricted to the far north and the natural southern limit of 

subspecies Paryphanta busbyi busbyi is probably at Warkworth (McGuinness, 2001) More 

southern populations of P. busbyi busbyi in the Kaimai Ranges, Waitakere Ranges, and at 

Waiuku on the Awhitu Penninsula are all introduced (Parrish et al., 1995). Motuora therefore 

lies at the southern limit for this species, but as there is insufficient wet forest habitat on 

Motuora to sustain a population, introduction of P. busbyi busbyi to Motuora is not 

recommended (R. Parrish, pers. comm.). 

Motuora lies within the natural range of two other carnivorous land snails: Amborhytida 

greenwoodi and A. dunniae (Efford, 1998). These medium sized snails could be introduced, as 

long as adequate prey (mainly smaller snail species) is available on Motuora (R. Parrish, pers. 

comm.). Further research is recommended on the current snail fauna on Motuora and on 

source populations of Amborhytida greenwoodi and A. dunniae. 

Ecologically significant species 

The ecosystems of offshore islands are complex, with invertebrates playing roles as 

predators, herbivores, detritivores, pollinators, and as prey (Towns, 2002; Towns & 

Atkinson, 2004). Invertebrate pollinators are mainly winged species and as they can 

potentially self-introduce to Motuora they will not be considered further here. The remaining 

four functional groups and the main taxa in each group are considered in more detail below. 

Invertebrate predators 

The giant centipede (Cormocephalus rubriceps) is typically the largest invertebrate predator 

present on New Zealand offshore islands, and predatory land snails and omnivorous weta 

are also usually present (Towns et al., 2003). Other common predatory invertebrate groups 

include spiders (Aranae), harvestmen (Opilionida), and some beetles families (e.g. ground 

beetles; Carabidae). Almost all of these groups are known to be present on Motuora: juvenile 

giant centipede have been collected indicating a breeding population still exists on the island; 

the predatory ground weta (Hemiandrus pallitarsus) is abundant in coastal forest on the island; 

spiders and harvestmen appear to be abundant and diverse (although this section of the 

invertebrate fauna has not been studied in detail yet); six native ground beetle species occur 

29

on the island, with one (Ctenognathous novaezelandiae) being extremely abundant in some forest 

patches. Only the land snail group shows obvious signs of depletion on Motuora. Although 

the snail fauna has not been examined in detail, no medium or large sized native snails have 

been collected to date on Motuora. As discussed above, Amborhytida greenwoodi and A. dunnae 

are two medium sized snails that could be introduced to Motuora to restore the carnivorous 

land snail fauna. 

Invertebrate herbivores 

Many invertebrates feed on plants, either by chewing parts of the plant (e.g. herbivorous 

beetles, stick insects) or sucking plant sap (e.g. scale insects and other Hemiptera). The 

herbivorous beetle fauna on Motuora is relatively diverse, with some thirty native 

herbivorous beetle species known from the island, including two flightless species that have 

specialist feeding requirements (Gardner-Gee, 2004). Few of these beetles are large bodied 

however and introduction of three large herbivorous weevil species has been recommended 

in the section above. 

Stick insects (Phasmatodea) are an exclusively herbivourous group, and four species are 

known to occur on Hauraki Gulf islands (Appendix 8). Only Clitarchus hookeri is known to be 

on Motuora, and other Hauraki Gulf species could be considered for introduction once 

adequate food plant numbers have been established. However, as the absent food plants are 

relatively slow growing, stick insect introductions are not recommended within the 

timeframe of this plan. 

The Hemiptera fauna on Matuora has not been fully analysed, but some information is 

available about giant scale insects (Coelostomidiidae) on the island. This group is of 

particular interest as Towns (2002) has proposed that, prior to disturbance, giant scale 

insects may have been an important component in northern offshore island ecosystems 

because of the sugary exudate (honeydew) they produce. The giant scales should be 

considered in island restoration programmes because they have limited dispersal ability (the 

adult females are flightless) and may be unable to re-colonise islands once lost through 

disturbance (e.g. forest clearance). A survey of honeydew producing scale insects was carried 

out on Motuora in 2006 (K. Booth, unpub. data). Several species of felted scales 

30

(Eriococcidae) and mealy bugs (Pseudococcidae) were detected on Motuora. However giant 

scales were not detected on the island. As Towns et al. (2003) has suggested that northern 

offshore island assemblages typically contain one or more species of the giant scales, this 

group is considered in more detail below. 

There are four native giant scale species that occur in northern New Zealand: Ultracoelostoma 

assimile, Coelostomidia pilosa, C. zealandica and C. wairoensis (Morales, 1991). Of these, U. assimile 

feeds mainly on beech (Nothofagus spp.) and hence is not likely to have been on Motuora as 

beech is sparse on northern off-shore islands. Coelostomidia pilosa is podocarp associated, and 

although podocarp introductions are planned on Motuora, podocarps will not be abundant 

on Motuora for many decades. The main host of C. zealandica in the Auckland region is karo 

and this is plentiful on Motuora. Furthermore, there is strong evidence that C. zealandica 

would have been on Motuora prior to forest clearance, as C. zealandica is abundant on karo 

on the adjacent Te Haupa and Moturekareka islands (K. Booth, unpub. data). The fourth 

giant scale species, C. wairoensis, feeds mainly on kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) and is very 

widespread in the Auckland region, often forming heavy infestations on individual trees. 

Kanuka is common in planted areas on Motuora and, although an early succession species, it 

is long lived and will be an important component of the forest canopy on Motuora for 

another 50-100 years (Atkinson, 2004). 

However, research shows that exotic wasps dominate honeydew reseources in modified 

environments on the mainland (Beggs, 2001; R. Gardner-Gee, unpub. data). The exotic 

wasps prey on native animals for their protein supplies and can deplete invertebrate 

communities (Beggs 2001). Hence honeydew may actually impoverish native biodiversity by 

fuelling wasp populations. Motuora already has low numbers of exotic wasps and is 

vulnerable to invasion from the mainland. Giant scales should not be introduced to Motuora 

until further research into potential wasp impacts has been carried out. 

Invertebrate detritivores 

Many invertebrates consume dead and decaying organic matter, and the maceration and 

digestion processes involved facilitate nutrient recycling within ecosystems. Key detritivore 

groups include worms (Annelida), slaters (Isopoda), landhoppers (Amphipoda), springtails 

31

(Collembola) and mites (Acarina). Springtails and mites were collected in abundance from all 

habitats on Motuora. Slaters and landhoppers were also common, especially in planted areas 

(R. Gardner-Gee, unpub. data). There are no major detritivore groups missing from 

Motuora, but at present there is insufficient information available to identify individual 

species that may have been lost from the island or that could be introduced. 

Invertebrate prey 

Invertebrates are a crucial food resource in ecosystems. In New Zealand, native reptiles and 

most native birds take insects and other invertebrates as part of their diet. On Motuora a 

number of bird species are present that feed predominantly on invertebrates (including a 

thriving population of kiwi), and two species of skink are also present (Hawley & Buckton, 

1997). Some groups of predatory invertebrate are also abundant (e.g. the predatory ground 

beetles and ground weta). It appears therefore that the composition and abundance of 

invertebrates on Motuora is adequate to sustain a range of predatory consumers. 

The only species that may be required to be introduced as a prey item is the large darkling 

beetle (Mimopeus opaculus) as these beetles are often the preferred prey of tuatara (Cree & 

Butler, 1993; Parrish & Anderson, 1999; Walls, 1981). Although a related smaller darkling 

beetle (M. elongatus) is present on Motuora, M. opaculus is absent. Mimopeus opaculus occurs on 

islands and in mainland forests south of the Marotere Islands (Atkinson & Towns, 2001; 

Watt, 1992). Introductions of M. opaculus have been attempted on Korapuki Island in the 

Mercury group but breeding populations on Korapuki have not yet been detected (Towns & 

Atkinson, 2004). This may be because the long larval stage can make detection difficult, or 

because predation of adults by Duvaucel’s geckos (Hoplodactylus duvauceli) has prevented 

establishment (Towns & Atkinson, 2004). At present, Motuora has low reptile diversity and 

abundance, and hence introductions may have a higher chance of success. Source 

populations need to be researched: the closest known populations are on the Marotere 

Islands and on Red Mercury but it is unclear whether these populations can supply the 50- 

150 individuals required for Motuora (C. Green, pers. comm.). The beetles should be 

released into forest with plentiful leaf litter and woody debris (e.g. Pohutukawa Bay). 

Duvaucel’s geckos should not be released into the same area (C. Green, pers. comm.). 

32

Threatened species 

It is difficult to assess the conservation status of many invertebrate species because of 

incomplete abundance and distribution data. The most comprehensive source of 

information on at-risk invertebrate species is “The conservation requirements of New 

Zealand’s nationally threatened invertebrates” (McGuinness, 2001). Nineteen invertebrate 

species that occur in the Auckland Department of Conservation conservancy are listed in 

this document. As it is envisaged that Motuora will act as a refuge for compatible threatened 

species, the conservation requirements of all 19 species are summarized in Appendix 9. Most 

of these species require further research to clarify their taxonomy and/or distributions and 

abundance. Others require habitats that are not available on Motuora. However, Motuora 

can provide suitable refuge for two threatened species: the wetapunga and the flax weevil. 

Both should be introduced, as discussed in the large-bodied section above. Two further 

threatened species (Turbott’s weevil, discussed in flightless beetle section; and Brullea 

antarctica, a shore and dune associated ground beetle) could be introduced if future research 

establishes Motuora would be a suitable refuge (see Table 5). 

33

Table 4: Invertebrate Species Recommended For Introduction To Motuora 2007-2017. 

Species Status Habitat 

requirements 


Flax weevil 

Threatened 

(Category C: 

third highest 

priority 

threatened 

species) 

Mimopeus opaculus Not 

threatened 

Deinacrida 

heteracantha 

Wetapunga, Little 

Barrier giant weta 

Threatened 

(Category B: 

second 

highest 

priority 

threatened 

species) 

Feeds on flax; 

hides at flax base 

through day 

Forest with woody 

debris and fungal/ 

algal growth; 

adults feed on 

algae and fungi, 

larvae associated 

with soil, rotten 

woody debris & 

litter material, (C. 

Green, pers. 

comm.) 

Associated with 

large convoluted 

trees on Little 

Barrier; young 

forest suitable if 

predation pressure 

low and refuges 

available (C. 

Green, pers. 

comm.); primarily 

herbivorous 

Habitat 

availability on 


10,000+ planted 

flax and one area 

of naturally 

established flax at 

the southern end 

of the island 

South facing areas 

and gullies in 

older coastal 

forest (c.5 ha) 

Large remnant 

coastal 

pohutukawa 

present; 30 ha 

shrublands/ 

regenerating forest 

currently available, 

75 ha available by 

2020 

Capable of 

self-sustaining 

populations on 

Motuora? 

Significant 

interactions 

with other 

species likely? 

Yes No 

(main threat 

thought to be rat 

predation; no 

major impacts on 

flax plants 

recorded) 

Yes 

(occurs on 

islands all 

around New 

Zealand) 

Yes 

(records indicate 

wetapunga did 

occur on islands 

in the Hauraki 

Gulf) 

Yes 

(preferred prey 

item for tuatara, 

also eaten by 

Duvaucel’s 

gecko) 

No 

(major threats 


and saddleback 

predation) 

Source 

populations? 

Research required 

(closest populations 

are Little Barrier and 

Marotere Islands; 

unknown if these 

can supply 50-150 

individuals required) 


(closest known 

populations 

Marotere Islands and 

Red Mercury but 

unclear whether 

populations large 

enough to supply 

50-150 individuals 

required) 


(Little Barrier 

population currently 

being surveyed, 

captive reared 

individuals not 

available for release 

until 2009 at earliest 

(C. Green, pers. 

comm.) 

Recommended 

time frame for 

translocation 

As soon as source 

populations 

identified 


populations 

identified 


populations available

Table 5. Invertebrate Species That Could Be Considered For Introduction To Motuora, But That Require Further Research To 

Establish Distributions Or Habitat Requirements. 


requirements 

Amborhytida 

greenwoodi 

A rhytidid 

snail 

Amborhytida 

dunniae 

A rhytidid 

snail 

Brullea 

antarctica 

A ground 

beetle 

Not 

threatened 

Not 

threatened 

Little 

information 

available but 

some 

indication of 

threat 

Predatory on other 

snails, forest 

dwelling 

Predatory on other 

snails, forest 

dwelling 

Lives above high 

water mark on 

sandy shores; 

generally 

associated with 

extensive dune 

systems 

Habitat 

availability on 


30 ha 

shrublands/ 

regenerating 

forest currently 

available, 

75 ha available 

by 2020; analysis 

of snail fauna 

required 

30 ha 

shrublands/ 

regenerating 

forest currently 

available, 

75 ha available 

by 2020; analysis 

of snail fauna 

required 

Several sandy 

beaches (Home 

Bay to 

Macrocarpa Bay, 

Still Bay, plus 

smaller coves), 

but no dunes 

Capable of selfsustaining 

populations on 

Motuora? 

Research 

required 

(habitat 

requirements 

unclear) 

Research 

required 

(habitat 

requirements 

unclear) 

Research 

required 

(habitat 

requirements 

unclear: not 

known if it can 

servive on 

beaches without 

dune systems) 

Significant 

interactions with 

other species 

likely? 

Yes 

(requires prey 

species) 

Yes 


species) 



species; potentially 

threatened by 

competition from 

introduced spider 

Steatoda capensis; 

spider fauna on 

Motuora not 

known) 

Source populations? Recommended 


translocation 


(occurs in Auckland 

area, population numbers 

not known) 


(occurs in Auckland 

area, population numbers 

not known) 


(occurs on Auckland 

coast including Kaipara 

Harbour and 

Tawharanui, not known 

if these populations 

could supply the 50-150 

beetles required for 

introduction to Motuora 


(analysis of snail 

fauna on Motuora; 

source populations; 

habitat requirements) 


(analysis of snail 

fauna on Motuora; 

source populations; 

habitat requirements) 


(beach search of 

Motuora to check if 

present, habitat 

requirements and 

source populations, 

dispersal ability)

Anagotus 

turbotti 

Turbott’s 

weevil 

Hadramphus 

pittospori 

Karo weevil 

Coelostomidia 

wairoensis 

Coelostomidia 

zealandica 

Threatened 

(Category B: 

second 

highest 

priority 

threatened 

species) 

Range 

restricted 

Not 

threatened 

Not 

threatened 

Bores in live wood 

of ngaio and 

karaka, has also 

been collected 

from a hebe 

species (Hebe 

bollonsii) 

Larvae bore into 

the live branches, 

trunks and root 

crowns of karo 

Main host is 

kanuka 

Main hosts are 

karo and ngaio 

c.5 mature wild 

karaka and 

numerous 

seedlings (Still 

Bay), 800+ 

planted 

Ngaio scattered; 

c. 20 wild ngaio 

at pah site, 300+ 

planted 

Karo abundant; 

c. 5 ha of wild 

karo-dominated 

forest on coastal 

margin, 10,000+ 

karo planted. 

5000+ planted 

kanuka, more 

plantings 

planned 

Karo abundant; 

c.5 ha wild karo, 

10,000+ 

planted 

Ngaio scattered; 

c. 20 wild ngaio 

at pah site, 300+ 

planted 

Research 

required 

(specific habitat 

requirements not 

known) 

Yes 

(specific habitat 


known but only 

known host 

available in 

abundance) 

Yes 

(kanuka will be 

present 50-100 

years, patches 

may persist 

indefinitely) 

Yes 

(occurs in similar 

habitat on 

adjacent small 

islands; karo and 

ngaio persistent 

part of coastal 

forest) 

No 

(main threat 


predation; no 


host plants 

recorded) 


(threats not 

known; no major 

impacts on host 

plants recorded) 

Yes 

(honeydew used by 

native species & 

exotic wasps; not 


host deaths) 

Yes 

(honeydew used by 

native species & 

exotic wasps; not 


host deaths) 


(southern distribution 

limits unclear, known 

from Three Kings Is., 

Poor Knights Is & 

Marotere Is.; distribution 

pattern suggests may 

have been widespread on 

northern islands & the 

mainland) 


At present known only 

from the Poor Knights 

Islands, but may occur in 

other coastal forests 

where host present 

Yes 

(abundant Tawharanui, 

Wendeholm, Mahurangi) 

Yes 

(abundant on 

Saddle Is. and 

Moturekareaka) 

Further research 

required 

(distribution not 

clear, specific habitat 


known; source 

populations not 

known) 


required 

(distribution not 

clear; source 


known) 


required (impact of 

exotic wasps may 

outweigh advantages 

of honeydew) 


required (impact of 

exotic wasps may 

outweigh advantages 

of honeydew)

Invertebrate Pests 

The major invertebrate pests that need to be considered on Motuora are exotic wasp species 

(Vespula spp.) and exotic ant species, especially Argentine ants (Linepithema humile) and bigheaded 

ants (Pheidole megacephala). Monitoring of wasp densities should be carried out if scale 

insects are introducted as wasps feed on scale honeydew. Baiting could be used to reduce 

wasp numbers if they increase, but re-invasion risks are probably high (J. Beggs, 

pers.comm.). Eight exotic ant species occur on Motuora, but Argentine and big-headed ants 

have not been detected (R. Gardner-Gee, unpub. data). An ant monitoring programme on 

Motuora should be considered in order to increase the chance of early detection and 

successful eradication. 


All invertebrate introductions should be fully documented, and monitoring should be carried 

out to assess introduction success. As many of the invertebrate species proposed for 

introduction have not been translocated before, monitoring techniques will need to be 

developed and trialed. Equally important is ongoing monitoring of the development of the 

invertebrate fauna in planted areas. At present, the invertebrate fauna in the planted forest 

on Motuora differs markedly from the fauna that occurs in the older naturally regenerating 

forest on the island (R. Gardner-Gee, unpub. data). While it is possible that the differences 

are due to the young age of the planted forest and will decrease over time, overseas studies 

have shown that native revegetation does not guarantee the development of a mature native 

invertebrate fauna (Longcore, 2003). Future surveys will be required to monitor the 

development of the planted forest invertebrate fauna and to assess whether additional 

interventions are necessary (e.g. transfer of insects from naturally regenerating areas to 

planted areas to assist colonization). The patches of naturally regenerating forest on the 

margins of Motuora will need to be managed with particular care, as they contain much of 

the native invertebrate diversity on the island and many of the native invertebrate species 

colonizing planted areas are likely to be spreading from these forest patches (Gardner-Gee, 

2004). 

37

Section Four: Restoration of Motuora’s Reptile Fauna 


On completion of the Motuora Restoration Working Plan (Hawley & Buckton, 1997), moko 

skink (Oligosoma moco) was the only resident lizard confirmed as being present on the island. 

A subsequent survey during summer and early autumn of 2005 confirmed the presence of 

moko skink but also discovered resident copper skinks (Cyclodina aenea) (M. Habgood, 

unpub. data.). It is possible that small populations of other lizard species persist on the 

island. Common geckos (Hoplodactylus maculatus) remained undiscovered on Tiritiri Matangi 

for a number of years before the discovery of a remnant population in 2004. Extensive 

searching should be continued on Motuora to gain further confidence that other reptile 

species are not present. 

The Original Reptile Fauna of Motuora 

It is likely that the reptile fauna of Motuora was once much more diverse than it is today. 

The extensive modification of the island and clearance of forest would have led to the 

disappearance of many species. No sub-fossil evidence is available for Motuora. However 

evidence from Northland, Motutapu Island and the current composition of similar island 

ecosystems suggests that as many as 13 species could have been present on Motuora prior to 

modification. 

Sub-fossil remains of reptiles from caves, sand-dunes and middens around Northland have 

revealed an extraordinary fauna including tuatara (Sphenodon puctatus) and at least 17 species 

of lizards (Towns & Daugherty, 1994). Tuatara were once widespread on the mainland 

(Whitaker, 1987) and are likely to have been abundant on Motuora prior to human 

settlement. On islands free of rats, tuatara commonly reach densities of more than 100/ha, 

and in localised areas with dense seabird populations, may exceed 1000/ ha (Newman, 

1987). 

Suter’s and shore skinks (Oligosoma suteri and O. smithii) are widely distributed on northeastern 

islands, where they forage in coastal habitats. No confirmed records of these two 

skink species on Motuora exist, but it is possible that at one stage both were present. The 

38

ornate skink (Cyclodina ornata) is another likely candidate. Still widespread on the mainland 

and offshore islands, ornate skinks are forest dwellers and would have disappeared from 

Motuora with the clearance of the island’s forest. Motuora may have been home to one of 

New Zealand’s largest skinks, the robust skink (C. alani). Robust skinks are nocturnal and 

forest dwelling and often occupy seabird burrows. Evidence of their widespread distribution 

on the North Island is provided by scattered remains as sub-fossils from Northland to 

Wellington. The nearest local population is on Tatapihi (Groper) Island (Mokohinau 

Islands), but there are sub-fossil remains from caves and sand dunes in Northland and from 

Motutapu Island (inner Hauraki Gulf) (Worthy, 1987). Three other large skinks may also 

have been present. These species are the marbled skink (C. oliveri), Whitaker’s skink (C. 

whitakeri) and McGregor’s skinks (C. macgregori) Like robust skinks, there are few living 

populations of these species, but sub-fossil deposits indicate they were formerly widespread. 

Chevron and striped skink (Oligosoma homalonotum and O. striatum) are unlikely to have been 

present on Motuora. Both species are generally found in wet, moist habitat (Whitaker, 1998; 

Fingland, Leimbach & Thompson, 1988; Gill & Whitaker, 1996). Motuora is dry throughout 

most of the year and suitable habitat for these species may never have been available. 

Although not currently found on Motuora, Duvaucel’s, common and pacific geckos 

(Hoplodactylus duvaucelii, H. maculatus and H. pacificus) are all likely to have been present on the 

island. All three species are widely distributed on north-eastern islands. The historical 

presence of green and forest geckos (Naultinus elegans and H. granulatus) on Motuora is not as 

definite. There have been no confirmed sightings of forest or green geckos on small offshore 

islands (D. Towns & G. Ussher, pers. comm.) and it may be that processes of forest 

succession limit the available opportunities for these species to establish. Forest and green 

geckos have not been found in broadleaf forests and seem to prefer eco-tonal patches and 

manuka/kanuka dominated scrub (Gill & Whitaker, 1996). 


Before any reptile species are introduced to Motuora it is recommended that further survey 

work be completed. The 2005 survey did not cover the entire island and it is possible that a 

39

small population of a cryptic species may have been missed. Assuming no further discoveries 

are made, Table 6 outlines the reptile species recommended for introduction to Motuora. 

The introductions outlined in Table 6 support the objective of determining the impact of 

ground feeding birds on establishing populations outlined in the Cyclodina Skink Recovery 

Plan (Towns, 1999a). The Oligosoma Skink Recovery Plan does not single out Motuora as a 

priority for the conservation of threatened species, but the introduction of the Oligosoma 

species listed will support the Plan’s objective to “restore Oligosoma populations within their 

natural range” (Towns, Neilson & Whitaker, 2002). The Tuatara Recovery Plan also makes 

no specific mention of Motuora, however the introduction of tuatara will support the 

objective of the Recovery Plan to introduce tuatara as components of a healthy ecosystem 

throughout their pre-human range (Gaze, 2001). 

Table 6 indicates the number of reptiles that should be translocated to establish new 

populations on Motuora. However research is currently underway at Victoria University (K. 

Miller, unpub. data) investigating the resulting genetic diversity in translocated reptile 

populations of differing founder population size. This study will essentially test the 

assumption that a translocated population of 20 individuals or more should retain 

approximately 80% heterozygosity of the source population (Lambert, King, Shepherd, 

Livingston, Anderson & Craig, 2005). On completion of this research the minimum number 

of individuals proposed for transfer for each species should be reassessed. 

Habitat and food requirements 

Plant species that provide ideal habitat and food resources for native lizard species proposed 

for translocation to Motuora include flax, ngaio, taupata, kawakawa, mahoe and toetoe. To 

increase the resources available to resident lizard species, these plants should continue to be 

utilised in plantings throughout the island. Flax, ngaio, taupata and kawakawa provide nectar 

and berries for gecko species in particular. The growth form of these plants along with 

toetoe, also provide adequate cover from avian predators while increasing ground moisture 

levels of the local environment. Such broadleaf species also create a deep leaf litter that 

unlike kanuka and manuka dominated vegetation can sustain diverse and abundant 

invertebrate communities while maintaining high moisture levels (pers. obs.; R. Gardner- 

40

Gee, unpub. data). Such high moisture levels are essential for those native reptilian species 

with high rates of cutaneous water loss (Towns, 1999). 

In addition to the areas set aside to be managed as open space, it is recommended that areas 

are set aside for growing short, non-woody species to assist in keeping open habitats for 

reptile species such as moko skink. These species are found in their highest densities within 

open sites (Habgood, 2003). Flax, toetoe, pohuehue (Muehlenbeckia australis) and other 

structurally similar species are recommended for these areas, while areas currently in bracken 

should be left to naturally regenerate. Such low growing species will also provide protection 

from avian predators and increase moisture levels in the soil while maintaining the area 

relatively open in the short term. Low growing vegetation such as Muehlenbeckia is also 

ideal habitat for a range of prey species including copper butterflies, stick insects and beetles. 

Areas where this management approach could be adopted include the strip of kikuyu above 

the ‘kiwi track’ and areas either side of the road southwest of the potting shed. 

Large invertebrates (e.g. ground weta, tree weta, large vagrant spiders, large beetles and 

centipedes) form an important component of the diet of the larger reptiles proposed for 

introduction. The larger reptiles therefore have the potential to detrimentally impact on 

Motuora’s recovering invertebrate communities. The invertebrate population in the vicinity 

of Pohutukawa Bay and surrounding area is currently the only site where a number of larger 

invertebrates are located and for this reason should not be considered as a release location 

for Duvaucel’s gecko, Whitaker’s skink, robust skink, marbled skink and tuatara. Tuatara and 

the larger skink species above are also not recommended for transfer until 2014. The 

abundant small amphipods and isopods should in the meantime sustain the smaller reptile 

species. 

Duvaucel's gecko 

Duvaucel’s geckos are habitat generalists and the availability of day time refuges is probably 

the biggest factor influencing population density. The species is found throughout mature 

forest, scrublands and coastal areas and individuals are often found in stony banks on 

beaches. Large invertebrates and small reptiles compose a component of this species’ diet 

41

(Barwick, 1982) and it is recommended that release sites be some distance away from those 

areas targeted for invertebrate recovery or releases of other reptile species. 

It has been suggested that the introduction of Duvaucel’s gecko may negatively impact on 

the recovery of resident beetle species such as Ctenognathus novaevelandiae (Carabidae) and 

Mimopeus elongatus (Tenebrionidae). However, releasing geckos several hundred metres away 

from Pohutukawa Bay, known to be the best site for these beetle species, will mitigate this 

impact. The reproductive rate of Duvaucel’s gecko is slow and although the species is 

extremely mobile, dispersal will be limited by the lack of continuous forest. It is likely to be 

many years before geckos will detrimentally impact on these beetle species. Given the slow 

breeding and maturity rate of Duvaucel’s geckos, island-born geckos are not expected to 

breed until at least six years after release (Barwick, 1982). 

To further reduce the likelihood of predation or competition in the short term, a smaller 

number of individuals is recommended (see Table 6). The number will still be adequate to 

investigate the impact of ground nesting birds on translocation success and the population 

can be augmented once invertebrate communities have had time to recover. Duvaucel’s 

geckos coexist with common geckos on Korapuki Island so it is unlikely there will be 

negative interactions between these two species. 

Stanley Island is recommended as the best source population because of the naturally high 

abundance of Duvaucel’s geckos there. A female-biased sex ratio is preferred within the 

translocated populations, as more females than males will ensure productivity is maximised. 

Female biased populations are common amongst reptiles. 

Shore skink 

Shore skinks are habitat specialists, inhabiting the area between low tide and approximately 

20m beyond MHWS. They are found on sand, pebble and boulder substrates and appear to 

reach their highest densities within north-facing deep pebble or stone banks that have a 

regular input of seaweed onto the beach. Beaches with scattered clumps of seaweed, 

driftwood and dune vegetation are also preferred. Motuora appears to have plenty of suitable 

habitat for shore skinks. 

42

The wide range of invertebrates, carrion and flowering and fruiting coastal plant species 

present on Motuora is expected to provide abundant food resources for shore skink (Robb, 

1986; Whitaker, 1987). No other species found on the shorelines at release sites are 

considered at risk from the proposed transfer. Competition with existing reptile species (e.g. 

copper skink) in coastal habitats is expected to be minimal. If possible shore skink should be 

introduced to more northern facing slopes because the greater sunlight and warmth will 

maximise the chances of population establishment and assist the population to reach higher 

densities. 

Common and Pacific gecko 

Both common and Pacific geckos are recommended for introduction to Motuora. As with all 

New Zealand gecko species, common and Pacific geckos have a maximum reproductive 

ability of two young per year. Translocated populations will therefore expand from release 

sites at a relatively slow rate. The extent of available habitat (i.e. coastal forest and scrub) 

along the coastline of Motuora will also limit the distribution of geckos until plantings 

mature. This will allow the island’s invertebrate populations plenty of time to recover in the 

absence of predators. 

Threats to the establishment of geckos on Motuora are ground feeding birds including 

kingfisher and possibly pukeko during the day and morepork at night. Common geckos 

coexist on offshore islands with pacific gecko, which have slight differences in habitat 

preferences. 

Marbled, Robust and Whitaker’s skink 

New Zealand’s large native skinks have a high rate of cutaneous (through the skin) water 

loss (Towns, 1999). As a consequence large skinks require habitat with good moisture levels 

such as vegetation with a deep litter layer and sea bird burrows. The quality of habitat 

available on Motuora is currently sub-optimal for these species although this is expected to 

change over time. Increased leaf litter and a higher density of seabird burrows especially 

those of the smaller seabirds e.g. diving petrels would greatly improve the chance of 

43

population establishment. Smaller seabird burrows offer increased humidity and moisture 

levels. The areas of planted flax will also add to the areas of available habitat over time. 

In a translocation to Motuopao Island from Matapia Island robust skinks were released into 

disused grey-faced petrel burrows (Parrish & Anderson, 1999). A similar methodology could 

be adapted for the transfer of marbled, robust and Whitaker’s skinks to Motuora. Juveniles 

and sub adults are recommended as the preferred age class for transfer to reduce impacts on 

source populations. 

Robust and marbled skinks are restricted to islands off the north-eastern parts of the North 

Island and Whitaker’s skink is also present on several of the Mercury Islands. The Mercury 

Islands (particularly Korapuki) offer the best opportunities for sourcing individuals for 

transfer because of the presence of large populations of these species. Genetic work has 

recently seperated marbled skink from Mokohinau skinks (D. Chapple, unpub. data). 

As with the gecko species, robust, marbled and Whitaker’s skink will take a substantial 

amount of time to colonise the habitat available on Motuora, and the impact on recovering 

invertebrate communities is likely to be negligible. The rate of increase calculated for a 

translocated population of Whitaker’s skink on Korapuki Island, Mercury Group was 5 – 9% 

per annum (Towns, 1999a). 

Ornate skink 

Ornate skinks do not currently coexist with Whitaker’s or marbled skinks and it is unclear 

whether these species were sympatric historically. Ornate skinks can reach relatively high 

densities and have the potential to negatively impact on the other species. It is therefore 

recommended that further research is completed to assess the likely levels of competition 

between these three species. If no negative impacts are recorded it is recommended that 

ornate skinks be introduced at least three years after the endangered species, at a different 

location on the island as a precautionary measure. 

44

As with most diurnal lizard species pukekos and kingfishers pose a threat to establishing 

populations. Australasian harriers may also have a detrimental impact. 

Tuatara 

Tuatara prefer forest or regenerating forest habitat with friable soil for digging burrows 

although during the nesting season they often migrate to open, grassland sites to lay eggs 

(Gaze, 2001). Tuatara will utilise tracks and managed open areas for this purpose (e.g. tuatara 

are often observed along the ridge track on Tiritiri Matangi Island (G. Ussher, pers. comm.). 

It is important to ensure that some areas are planted in low growing species to help maintain 

relatively open areas before natural succession converts the island to forest. 

Tiritiri Matangi Island was considered as a source population but it is unlikely that this 

recently translocated population will be viable for the Motuora translocation in ten years 

time. Juveniles would have to be selected and it is unlikely that they will be at a high enough 

density to easily locate (Ruffell, 2005). A more appropriate source population would be well 

established populations such as those within the Hen and Chickens islands. 

Reptile species considered unsuitable for translocation to Motuora 

Forest geckos, green geckos, Suter’s skinks, McGregor's skinks, chevron skinks and striped 

skinks were considered for translocation to Motuora, but they are considered unlikely 

candidates because of a lack of suitable habitat, uncertainty regarding the long term viability 

of introduced populations and/or potentially adverse competition between species. Habitat 

may not be available in the long term on Motuora for forest and green geckos and their 

existence on similar sized islands has yet to be confirmed. However, the possibility of 

introducing these two species should be reassessed in light of new research and monitoring 

of other small island lizard communities. 

Suter’s skinks utilise rocky platforms and crevices within cliffs and forage amongst rock 

pools and commonly lay eggs amongst rocky substrates. The area of rocky shoreline on 

Motuora is small and south facing, and does not provide sufficient habitat for the Suter’s 

skink. Both chevron and striped skinks are associated with damp, moist habitats (Fingland et 

al., 1988; Gill & Whitaker, 1996). Motuora is dry throughout most of the year and suitable 

45

habitat for the introduction of chevron and striped skinks is considered unavailable at least 

within the lifetime of this plan. McGregor’s skinks are not recommended for introduction 

within the lifetime of this plan because they have the potential to out compete other native 

lizard species. 

46

Table 6. Reptile Species Recommended For Introduction To Motuora 

Species Scientific name Status and 

distribution 

Duvaucel’s 

gecko 

Shore 

skink 

Common 

gecko 

Pacific 

gecko 

Hoplodactylus duvaucelii Sparse. Restricted 

to islands along 

the northeast 

coast of the North 

Island and in 

Cook Strait. 

Oligosoma smithii Not threatened. 

Wide spread on 

north-eastern 

islands and 

mainland coasts 

north of 

Gisborne. 

Hoplodactylus 

maculatus 

Not threatened. 

Widespread in the 

North Island but 

not common 

around mainland 

Auckland. 

(Genetic work 

required to 

distinguish cryptic 

species). 

Hoplodactylus pacificus Gradual decline. 

Widespread on 

North Island 

mainland and 

offshore islands. 

Preferred release site/s Potential source 

populations 

Regenerating coastal 

forest along the pa site. 

S end of the island 

preferably on N or W 

facing slopes or along the 

NE coastline below the 

planting areas B, K1 and 

J1 (i.e. from Snake Gully 

north). 

N end of the island, 

coastal bush remnants, 

away from established 

invertebrate communities 

within Pohutukawa Bay. 

N end island, coastal 

bush remnants away 

from invertebrate 

communities within 

Pohutukawa Bay. 

Number of individuals Recommended 


Stanley Island. An experimental group of 20 

animals to be introduced 

initially, supplemented by 

another introduction of at 

least 20 individuals. Preferred 

sex ratio 2:1 female: male. 

Tawharanui sites not 

currently incorporated in 

long-term monitoring OR 

Rangitoto Island, Hauraki 

Gulf OR Stanley Island (if 

carried out simultaneously 

with the Duvaucel’s gecko 

transfer). 

Mainland populations 

threatened by 

development OR Mercury 

Island group (e.g. 

Korapuki or Middle 

Islands). 

Mainland sites threatened 

by development OR 

Mercury Island group (e.g. 

Korapuki or Middle 

Islands). 

translocation 

Spring/early 

summer 2007. 

Augment 5 

years after 

original 

introduction. 

Minimum of 30 individuals. Spring/early 

summer 2007. 


summer 2008, 

after lizard 

survey of the 

entire island. 


summer 2008, 

after lizard 

survey of the 

entire island.

Robust 

skinks 

Marbled 

skink 

Whitakers 

skink 

Northern 

Tuatara 

Ornate 

skink 

Cyclodina alani Range restricted. 

Restricted to 

north-eastern 


Cyclodina oliveri Range restricted. 

Restricted to 

north-eastern 


Cyclodina whitakeri Range restricted. 

Mercury Islands, 

Castle Island and 

Pukerua Bay, 

Wellington. 

Sphenodon punctatus 

punctatus 

Sparse. Restricted 

to north-eastern 


Cyclodina ornata Not threatened. 

Widespread on 

North Island 

mainland and 


E. facing slopes on E 

coast with abundant 

seabird burrows (e.g. 

above Pohutukawa Bay 

or Still Bay). Keep 500m+ 

between simultaneous 

release sites. 

N/W facing slopes near 

Snake Gully and the N 

end of Home Bay. Check 

seabird burrow density in 

these areas at time of 

release: reassess release 

sites if necessary. 

E facing slopes on E 

coast with abundant 

seabird burrows (e.g. 

above Pohutukawa Bay 

or Still Bay). Keep 500m+ 

between simultaneous 

release sites. 

S end of the island near 

pa site/Rocky Bay/ Still 

Bay where seabird 

burrows are abundant. 

Keep 500m+ between 

simultaneous release 

sites. 

Macrocarpa Bay or the N 

end of the island, coastal 

bush remnants. 

A breeding population 

within the Mercury 

Islands group excluding 

Middle island (e.g. 

Korapuki or Green Island 

(Towns, 1994)). 




Middle Island (e.g. 

Korapuki or Green Island 

(Towns, 1994)). 




Middle Island (e.g. 

Korapuki (Towns, 1994)). 

Islands of the Hen and 

Chickens group (e.g. 

Whatupuke or 

Coppermine Island). 

Mainland populations 

threatened by 

development (e.g. 

Whangaparaoa Peninsula) 

OR Shakespear Park. 

Min. of 30 individuals. 

Reassess once Kim Miller’s 

research on founder 

population sizes complete 

(Victoria University). 

Preferably juveniles and subadults. 


















Preferably juveniles and sub 

adults. 

Spring/early 

summer 2015 

once deep leaf 

litter is 

established. 

Spring/early 

summer 2015 


litter is 

established. 

Spring/early 

summer 2016 


litter is 

established. 

Spring/early 

summer 2016 

once larger 

bodied 

invertebrates are 

established. 

Minimum of 30 individuals. Not 

recommended 

until research 

clarifies interactions 

between ornate, 

Whitaker’s and 

marbled skinks.


A common problem with translocation within New Zealand is a lack of follow-up 

monitoring to determine the success of translocations (Towns, 1994). It is essential that all 

reptile introductions on Motuora are fully documented and monitored, not only to 

determine success but to ascertain any presence of competitive interactions and possible 

improvements in methodologies, including the number transferred, and habitat selected. 

Monitoring should also include an analysis of the impact of introductions on the resident 

fauna. This information should then be available for any future translocations planned. It is 

essential to plan to monitor impacts on source populations during all transfers. 

49

Section Five: Restoration of Motuora’s Avifauna 


The forest bird community of Motuora is depauperate and missing those species dependent 

on the diversity of resources provided by a mature and unmodified coastal forest ecosystem. 

Native forest bird species resident year round on the island comprise just five species: tui 

(Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae), fantail (Rhipidura fuliginosa), morepork (Ninox novaeseelandiae), 

grey warbler (Gerygone igata) and red crowned kakariki (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae 

novaezelandiae). Many of the resident tui also probably venture across to the mainland at times 

of the year when resources on Motuora are limited. Similarly Motuora’s seabird community 

is lacking many of the species that would have been present prior to the arrival of humans. 

The only pelagic seabird species recorded breeding on Motuora in recent times is the greyfaced 

petrel (Pterodroma macroptera) that occupies burrows scattered along the island’s coastal 

cliffs between June and January. Native coastal bird species are more common and include 

New Zealand dotterels (Charadrius obscurus), red-billed gulls (Larus novaehollandiae scopulinus), 

black-backed gulls (L. dominicanus), pied shags (Phalacrocorax varius), white fronted terns (Sterna 

striata) and variable oystercatchers (Haemotopus unicolor). 

Volunteers from the New Zealand Ornithological Society (OSNZ) have conducted periodic 

bird surveys on the island since 1987. While OSNZ general bird counts have not been 

conducted at regular intervals, they have sampled habitats that are changing as a result of 

natural and managed restoration processes and during different seasons. These counts 

provide useful baseline data on species presence and gross changes in bird populations on 

Motuora. An annotated list of bird species recorded on or around Motuora compiled from 

Dowding (1988) and recent OSNZ records is provided in Appendix 11. 

The island’s grey faced petrel population appears to be increasing, most likely as a result of 

the retirement of pasture and removal of stock. Survey of active grey faced petrel burrows in 

2005 and 2006 indicated that approximately 280 breeding pairs were present (R. Gardner- 

Gee, pers. comm.). A previous survey in 1995 estimated only 127 breeding pairs. 

50

Species introductions to date 

Since 1999, Motuora has operated as a ‘kiwi creche’ for the Operation Nest Egg (ONE) 

programme. Eggs of the brown kiwi (Apteryx australis) are removed from burrows in 

Northland, incubated at Auckland Zoo and the hatched chicks released on Motuora. Once 

chicks have reached an optimal weight, they are transferred back to their mainland natal area. 

Some birds have eluded recapture and in 2005 five island born chicks were captured, 

indicating that breeding is now occurring on Motuora (D. Jenkins, pers. comm.). A resident 

breeding population is seen as advantageous as juveniles produced on the island will 

supplement the stream of ONE bred juveniles being returned to Northland forests 

(Colbourne et al., 2005). 

Forest succession is likely to improve habitat on the island available for kiwi by increasing 

the availability of preferred food types. Earthworms, cicada nymphs and scarabid larvae 

contribute significantly to kiwi diet in North Island forests, together with some surfacedwelling 

invertebrate species and some fruit. Territory size in some Northland populations 

can be as little as 2.3 ha per pair of adults and it is possible that kiwi will reach these densities 

on Motuora (Colbourne et al., 2005). 

Between 1994 and 2000, 75 shore plover (Thinornis novaeseelandiae) were released on Motuora 

after it was considered the rock platform habitat would be suitable (Davis & Aikman, 1997). 

Dispersal to the mainland and other island sites coupled with predation by morepork on 

Motuora resulted in population collapse and only four birds remained in 1998. One pair 

fledged two offspring but by the conclusion of the 1999/2000 breeding season just one pair 

remained. A decision was then made to abandon Motuora and find another island site for 

the species (Miskelly, 2001). No shore plover now remain on Motuora and there are no 

current plans to attempt further introductions. However further introductions may be worth 

considering in the future if other islands in the vicinity of Motuora (such as Kawau) are 

made predator free. 

Four to five pairs of red crowned kakariki have been present on the island for many years 

and the population does not appear to be increasing. Anecdotal evidence hints at a captive 

origin for these birds, however this is yet to be confirmed. 

51

The Original Avifauna of Motuora 

Prior to the arrival of humans, it is likely that extensive colonies of sooty shearwater (Puffinus 

griseus), flesh-footed shearwater (Puffinus carneipes), fluttering shearwater (Puffinus gavia), 

Northern diving petrel (Pelecanoides urinatrix urinatrix), Cook’s petrel (Pterodroma cookii), 

Pycroft’s petrel (Pterodroma pycrofti), grey-faced petrel (Pterodroma macroptera) and white-faced 

storm petrel (Pelagodroma marina) existed on the island (G. Taylor, pers. comm.). All of these 

species are present on islands off the north east of the North Island and only Cook’s and 

Pycroft’s petrels and flesh footed shearwaters are listed as threatened (see Table 7). 

Burrowing seabirds would have had an enormous influence on Motuora inducing friable, 

aerated, fertile soils high in phosphorus and nitrogen and with low pH and C:N ratio 

(Towns, Daugherty & Atkinson, 1990). The increased fertility would have in turn benefited 

many of the island’s plant, invertebrate, reptile and terrestrial bird species. Tuatara densities 

in excess of 500/ ha have been recorded around dense seabird colonies, and a great variety 

of coastal and burrow-inhabiting lizards can also be present. 

A comparison with other North Island offshore islands of similar size and forest composition to 

Motuora provides a guide to the island’s original terrestrial avifauna. Species no longer breeding on 

Motuora are likely to have included kaka (Nestor meridionalis), yellow-crowned parakeet 

(Cyanoramphus auriceps auriceps), long-tailed cuckoo (Eudynamys taitensis), rifleman (Acanthisitta chloris), 

whitehead (Mohoua albicilla), North Island tomtit (Petroica macrocephala toitoi), North Island robin 

(Petroica australis longipes), kereru (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae), bellbird (Athornis melanura) 

and North Island saddleback (Philesturnis carunculatus rufusater). 


Seabirds 

It is recommended that the initial focus for restoration on Motuora be the establishment of 

the island’s pre-existing seabird populations because of the beneficial influence they will 

bring to all aspects of the island’s ecosystems. Forest succession, soil quality and invertebrate 

and reptile abundance are all likely beneficiaries of this approach (Towns, 2002). Islands of a 

similar size and with similar habitat to Motuora are capable of supporting up to seven 

species of burrowing seabird (G. Taylor, pers. comm.). 

52

Introductions are required because the likelihood of a species self-introducing is very low (G. 

Taylor, pers. comm.). For all seabird introductions chicks will be captured from a nesting 

colony, transferred to artificial burrows on Motuora and hand raised until fledging. Chick 

transfer is necessary as seabirds return to the site they imprint on. Imprinting occurs when 

chicks emerge from burrows shortly before fledging (Gummer, 2003). Seabird populations 

will take as long as four to five years to establish (G. Taylor, pers. comm.). 

Employment of experienced personnel is considered critical to ensuring the success of the 

proposed introductions (G. Taylor, pers. comm.). Translocations of seabirds to Motuora are 

likely to cost in the order of $5,000-$10,000 each. However, efficiencies could be gained if 

more than one species are introduced together. Equipment will also be able to be re-used for 

future translocations. Planning for beyond 2016 is not covered by this plan but the possible 

introduction of white-faced storm petrel and flesh-footed shearwater is briefly discussed. 

Northern diving petrels and fluttering shearwaters were successfully transferred to Mana 

Island and it is recommended that the same technique be applied to establish populations of 

both species on Motuora. A transfer would involve collecting chicks from nearby Little 

Wooded Island in late November, a transfer by boat and placing the chicks in specially 

constructed burrows on Motuora where they would be fed up until fledging. Because the 

source location is so close and accessible, the transfer will be a relatively inexpensive 

exercise. Diving petrels nest on readily accessible sites such as cliffs whereas fluttering 

shearwaters breed in relatively open forest on steep slopes. 

Because of their different habitat preferences, adverse competition between diving and grey 

faced petrels and fluttering shearwaters is not anticipated. Available habitat on Motuora for 

both diving petrels and fluttering shearwaters is extensive and considered ideal. The western 

Marotere islands are considered the best site for sourcing fluttering shearwaters. However 

gaining permission to take birds from these islands may be difficult. A similar transfer 

technique to that described above for diving petrels would be employed. Flesh footed 

shearwaters may disturb diving petrel burrows and their introduction should be considered 

carefully following the introduction of the aforementioned species. 

53

Both Cooks and Pycroft’s petrels are potential candidates for introduction to Motuora and 

available habitat on the island is considered suitable. However, there is potential for 

competition between the two species so in the short term only Pycroft’s petrels are 

recommended for transfer. Pycroft’s petrels prefer breeding at low altitude amongst 

pohutukawa and coastal hardwoods whereas Cook’s petrels nest at a range of altitudes from 

the coast to 700m above sea level on Little Barrier Island (G. Taylor, pers. comm.). Although 

most Cook’s petrel burrows on Little Barrier Island are above 300m it is likely they once 

bred on the coast. On Codfish Island they nest in sandy soils under forest just at the back of 

the dunes behind Sealers Bay (G. Taylor, pers. comm.). Pycroft’s petrel is a rare endemic and 

establishment of a new population would assist the recovery of the species. As with diving 

petrels, chicks would be collected from burrows, transferred to Motuora and fed in burrows 

before fledging. 

White-faced storm petrels have never been translocated before but the application of similar 

techniques to those described above is expected to be successful (G. Taylor, pers. comm.). 

White-faced storm petrels breed on relatively level ground in forest, but it is possible they 

may nest in rank grass and Motuora offers plenty of suitable habitat. White faced storm 

petrels are threatened and their establishment on Motuora would benefit the species’ long 

term survival. 

Sooty shearwaters are the last species considered for introduction as it is likely they would 

have once bred on Motuora. However while they are still recommended for introduction, 

potential sources of birds are distant from Motuora, and it is unlikely that a transfer could be 

achieved within the lifetime of this plan. Their introduction should be considered after 

populations of the above species have been established. 

Bullers shearwaters (Puffinus bulleri) and little shearwaters (Puffinus assimilis) were also 

considered although whether they once bred on Motuora is uncertain. The only major 

breeding ground of Buller’s shearwaters is the Poor Knights Islands. Little shearwaters feed 

on the edge of the continental shelf and chicks are fed every night so the distance for birds 

54

to return to Motuora may be too great. Little shearwaters may also compete with Pycroft’s 

and fluttering shearwaters for burrows. 

55

Table 7. Seabird Species Recommended For Introduction To Motuora. 

Species 

Northern 

diving petrel 

Fluttering 

shearwater 

Pycroft’s 

petrel 

White faced 

storm petrel 

Flesh footed 

shearwater 

Sooty 

shearwater 

Scientific 

name 

Pelecanoides 

urinatrix 

urinatrix 

Status Preferred release site/s 

Not 

threatened. 

Puffinus gavia Not 

threatened. 

Pterodroma 

pycrofti 

Pelagodroma 

marina 

Puffinus 

carneipes 

Range 

restricted 

Not 

threatened 

Gradual 

decline. 

Puffinus griseus Not 

threatened 

Eastern cliff edge. In 

vicinity of present greyfaced 

petrel colonies. 

Potential source 

populations 

Eastern side. Little Wooded Island 

(small number). Also 

West Marotere Islands 

Eastern side. Still Bay. Pa 

site. 

Any flat areas on the top 

of the island. 

Eastern side. Pa site, Still 

Bay. 

Eastern cliff edge. In 

vicinity of present greyfaced 

petrel colonies. 

Number of individuals 

Little Wooded Island Each year for 3-5 years to reach a 

total of approx 200 birds. Approx 40 

birds initially then higher numbers. 

Each year for 3-5 years to reach a 



Red Mercury Island Each year for 3-5 years to reach a 



Maria Island Each year for 3-5 years to reach a 



Mercury group Each year for 3-5 years to reach a 



To be determined Each year for 3-5 years to reach a 


birds initially then higher numbers 

Recommended time 

frame for 

translocation 

23-25 November 

2007, 2008, 2009, 

2010 

10-15 January 2008, 

2009, 2010, 2011 

Late March to mid 

April 2010, 2011, 

2012, 2013 

Mid February 2014, 

2015, 2016, 2017 

Late April/Early May 

2015, 2016, 2017, 

2018 

Beyond the timeframe 

of this plan.

Forest birds 

The restoration project aims to recreate a diverse coastal broadleaf forest ecosystem and the 

terrestrial birds proposed for introduction are appropriate for this type of ecosystem. They 

are also ecological generalists and will not require plantings of particular plant species or the 

provision of artificial resources to ensure their survival. The species introductions 

recommended are all within the lifetime of this plan but North Island saddleback are 

included as an example of a possible introduction after 2017. 

Whiteheads have been successfully transferred to a range of sites including nearby Tiritiri 

Matangi and it is recommended that similar translocation techniques be used to establish 

whiteheads on Motuora. Whiteheads are insectivorous and widespread in a wide range of 

forest types throughout much of the North Island and there is little doubt that they would 

be successful on Motuora (T. Lovegrove, pers. comm.). Establishment of another 

population would increase the range of the species, which disappeared from Northland in 

the late 1800s, and would facilitate the eventual introduction of long-tailed cuckoo proposed 

below. 

North Island tomtits and North Island robins are both potential candidates for introduction 

to Motuora but evidence suggests that in modified habitats they may be mutually exclusive. 

Of the two species, robins are recommended as the higher priority because of their more 

threatened status and tomtits may eventually naturally introduce themselves. The 

establishment of another island population of robins would be of conservation benefit. The 

successful translocations of robins to Tiritiri Matangi and Wenderholm Regional Park should 

be used as a model for translocation planning. 

The existing red crowned parakeet population does not appear to be increasing and 

introducing new birds to increase the gene pool is recommended. Both Cuvier and Tiritiri 

Matangi are no longer available as source populations as the birds present on these islands 

are of captive origin. Little Barrier Island is the closest possible source. Yellow-crowned 

parakeet could also be considered for introduction in the future. 

57

The introduction of long-tailed cuckoos is recommended to complement the ecological 

restoration of Motuora and restore long-tailed cuckoos to part of their former range. Longtailed 

cuckoos are declining through the loss of their host species, whiteheads, brown 

creeper and yellow heads. Self-introduction is considered very unlikely because adult birds 

always return to their natal territories. The translocation of a parasitic bird is unprecedented 

so their introduction would require an experimental approach. Locating the 10 chicks (or 

eggs) considered necessary for the translocation will be challenging and may require holding 

and feeding chicks. Little Barrier Island is the closest and probably the best source location 

for the species. Research is currently being undertaken by Auckland University on shifting 

shining cuckoo (Chrysococcyx lucidus) eggs and chicks and this information will be useful in 

preparing a translocation plan for Motuora (M. Hauber, pers. comm.). Whitehead will take 

up to five years to become sufficiently abundant for a transfer of long-tailed cuckoo to be 

possible. Long-tailed cuckoo will not pose a threat to the resident whitehead population as 

the cuckoo population will be limited by the number of whitehead present and will take 

many years to build up in numbers. Long-tailed cuckoo may take small passerines, eggs and 

nestlings and also parasitise tomtit and robin nests but these impacts are also considered 

negligible. 

North Island saddlebacks are recommended for introduction in the longer term but are 

outside the timeframe of this plan. An earlier introduction is not recommended because of 

their likely impact on establishing invertebrate and reptile populations. Introduced 

invertebrate and reptile populations are likely to be well established by 2017 after which time 

saddleback could be introduced. Saddlebacks have been successfully introduced to a number 

of island and translocation techniques for the species are well established. Nesting and 

roosting boxes are likely to be required. 

Rifleman may be a possibility for introduction but their introduction to offshore islands has 

not yet been attempted. Their possible introduction to Motuora would be beyond the 

lifetime of this plan. Fernbird may also be considered for introduction at a future date 

beyond the lifetime of this plan. 

58

A number of other forest bird species were considered for introduction, but were not 

included in the plan for various reasons. Kereru, kaka and bellbird were not recommended 

for introduction as they are expected to self-establish populations on Motuora in the long 

term. Takahe (Porphyrio mantelli), fernbird (Bowdleria punctata), brown teal (Anas aucklandica) 

and North Island kokako (Callaeas cinerea wilsoni) were considered but rejected because the 

amount of available habitat on the island is considered insufficient to allow sustainable 

populations of these species to be achieved. Even if these species were able to establish, 

intensive management would be required to ensure genetic variability was maintained. 

Similarly stitchbird (Notiomystis cincta) would require long term intensive management on 

Motuora. North Island weka (Gallirallus australis greyi) were not recommended because of the 

adverse impact this species can have on invertebrates, reptiles and seabirds. 


It is recommended that breeding success be monitored for all species following release. 

Confirmation of productivity over the first two years following translocation will be an 

excellent indicator of success. 

59

Table 8. Forest Bird Species Recommended For Introduction To Motuora 

Species 

Whitehead 

North 

Island robin 

Red 

crowned 

parakeet 

Long tailed 

cuckoo 

North 

Island 

saddleback 

Scientific 

name 

Mohoua 

albicilla 

Petroica 

australis 

longipes 

Cyanoramphus 

novaezelandiae 

novaezelandiae 

Eudynamys 

taitensis 

Philesturnus 

carunculatus 

rufusater 

Status 

Not 

threatened 

Not 

threatened 

Not 

threatened 

Gradual 

decline 

Range 

restricted 

Habitat availability on 


Macrocarpa Bay, Pa site, 

western cliff forest from 

Home Bay north, 

Pohutukawa Bay 

When forest more 

mature, Macrocarpa Bay, 

Area A, D, Pohutukawa 

Bay 

Coastal cliffs with 

pohutukawa canopy 

Potential interactions with 

other species 

Available 

source 

populations 

Number of birds 

No adverse affects anticipated. Tiritiri Matangi 40 of even sex ratio 

and a mix of adults 

and juveniles. 

Possible dominance of tomtit if 

that species is introduced. 

No adverse affects on bird spp. 

anticipated. 

Tiritiri Matangi 40 of even sex ratio, 

and a mix of adults 

and juveniles. 

Recommended 


translocation 

Autumn 

(April/May) 

2008 

Autumn 

(April/May) 

2009 

Tiritiri Matangi 40 Late summer 

(March) 2010 

Whitehead nest sites Little Barrier 10 chicks (or eggs) 

(minimum) 

Area A, D, Macrocarpa 

Bay, Pohutukawa Bay 

Mid November 

to mid 

December 2013 

No adverse affects. Tiritiri Matangi 40 of even sex ratio Beyond the 

timeframe of 

this plan.

Schedule of Bird, Reptile and Invertebrate Species and Threatened Plant 

Species Recommended for Introduction to Motuora between 2007 and 2017 

2007 

• Duvaucel’s gecko, Hoplodactylus duvaucelii 

• Shore skink, Oligosoma smithii 

• Northern diving petrel, Pelecanoides urinatrix 

urinatrix 

2008 

• Shore spurge, Euphorbia glauca 

• NZ spinach, Tetragonia tetragonioides 

• Pingao, Desmoschoenus spiralis 

• Sand tussock, Austrofestuca littoralis 

• Flax weevil, Anagotus fairburni 

• Common gecko, Hoplodactylus maculatus 

• Pacific gecko, Hoplodactylus pacificus 


urinatrix 

• Fluttering shearwater, Puffinus gavia 

• Whitehead, Mohoua albicilla 

2009 

• Pimelia tomentosa 

• Small-flowered white bindweed, Calystegia 

marginata 

• Darkling beetle, Mimopeus opaculus 

• Wetapunga, Deinacrida heteracantha 


urinatrix 


• NI robin, Petroica australis longipes 

2010 

• Large-leaved milk tree, Streblus banksii 

• Parapara, Pisonia brunoniana 

• Wood rose, Dactylanthus taylorii 


urinatrix 


• Pycroft’s petrel, Pterodroma pycrofti 

• Red crowned parakeet, Cyanoramphus 

novaezelandiae novaezelandiae 

2011 

• Green mistletoe, Ileostylus micranthus, 

• Green mistletoe, Tupeia antarctica 



2012 

• Mawhai, Sicyos aff. australis 

• Fireweed, Senecio scaberulus 

• Native geranium, Geranium solanderi “large 

petals” 

• Native oxtongue, Picris burbidgeae 

• Cooks scurvy grass, Lepidium oleraceum 

• NZ watercress, Rorippa divaricata 


2013 


• Long tailed cuckoo, Eudynamys taitensis 

2014 

• White-faced storm petrel, Pelagodroma marina 

2015 

• Marbled skink, Cyclodina oliveri 

• Robust skink, Cyclodina alani 


• Flesh footed shearwater, Puffinus carneipes 

2016 

• Whitaker’s skink, Cyclodina whitakeri 

• Northern tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus punctatus 



2017 



Post 2017 


• North island saddleback, Philesturnus 

carunculatus rufusater 

61

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69

Appendix 1. Research Priorities for the Motuora Restoration Programme 

The restoration of Motuora and the introduction and reintroduction of species to the island 

provides a range of research opportunities to contribute further to our knowledge of species 

translocations and ecological restoration. Research should prioitise the following topics and 

areas of activity: 

Plants 

• Establish long-term vegetation plots in the annually planted areas and in areas of 

naturally regenerating forest to assess seedling recruitment and successional changes 

• Investigate suitable site characteristics for wild kowhai ngutukaka population 

establishment 

• Develop criteria to measure the success of ecological restoration 

• Assess the seasonal food availability for introduced fauna 

• Prevention of impacts and control of pests (e.g. white rust, snails and slugs) on coastal 

cress populations 

• Develop a replicated research programme that quantifies the importance of different 

levels of nutrient enrichment for the growth of coastal cress species (Norton & de 

Lange, 1999) 

• Investigate the role of lizards and insects in pollination of Dactylanthus taylorii in an 

ecosystem without native bats (A. Holzapfel, pers. comm.) 

• Investigate Dactylanthus taylorii translocation methodology, dispersal agents, host 

specificity, pollination and seed bank, effects of parasitism on host health and host 

resistance (DoC, 2005) 

Invertebrates 

• Survival and dispersal of released populations 

• Interactions between species and the impact of introductions on resident fauna 

70

Reptiles 

• The impact of ground predators (e.g. pukeko and kingfisher) on translocated lizard 

populations 

• Reproductive rates of ornate skinks 

• Dispersal and home range behaviour post-release 

• Survival of released populations 

• Interactions between species and the impact of introductions on moko and copper 

skinks 

• Diet of selected species 

• Comparison of habitat types and lizard presence (e.g. plantings vs. naturally regenerating 

bush) 

Birds 

• Breeding success and expansion of all species 

• Long tailed cuckoo translocation success – return of adult birds and subsequent breeding 

• Shining cuckoo return of adult birds and subsequent breeding 

• Seabird competition for burrows. 

• Dynamics of establishing sea bird colonies i.e. age first chicks return to colonies and 

breed, longevity and survival, juveniles recruitment, natal philopatry 

71

Appendix 2: Key Stakeholders and Useful Contacts for the Translocation 

Programme 

Government Agencies 

Department of Conservation, Auckland Regional Council, Rodney District Council, 

Threatened Species Recovery Groups. 

Iwi 

Ngati Manuhiri, Ngati Whatua, Ngatiwai, Ngati Rehua 

Non Governmental Agencies 

Auckland Botanical Society, Forest and Bird, SRARNZ, OSNZ, Supporters of Tiritiri 

Matangi Island, Motuihe Restoration Trust, Little Barrier Island Supporters Trust, Motutapu 

Restoration Trust. 

Educational Institutions 

Auckland University, Massey University, Waikato University, Auckland University of 

Technology, Northland Polytechnic, Conservation Corps 

Business 

Te Ngahere Native Forest Management 

72

Appendix 3: Vascular Flora of Motuora Island 

Compiled by Shelley Heiss-Dunlop and Jo Fillery 

31 January - 4 February 2006 and 30 April 2006 

Key 

* = exotic species (either naturalised or planted) 

p = planted species (either exotic or native) 

# = previously listed but not found in 2006 survey (22 spp. N:10 E:12) 

ζ Addition to Hawley and Buckton (1997) listing (138 spp. N:50 E:88 ) 

N = native (123 spp.) 

E = exotic (165 spp.) 

HB = Home Bay 

MB = Macrocarpa Bay 

PB = Pohutukawa Bay 

RB = Rocky Bay 

SB = Still Bay 

TD = Twin Dams 

Ferns (34) (N:32 E:2 ) 

Botanical name P Common name Location 

# Adiantum aethiopicum true maidenhair 

A. cunninghamii common maidenhair SB/MB 

ζ A. diaphanum small maidenhair SB/MB 

A. hispidulum rosy maidenhair SB/MB 

ζ Asplenium flaccidum subsp. flaccidum hanging spleenwort SB 

A. flaccidum subsp. haurakiense shore spleenwort SB/PB 

A. oblongifolium shining spleenwort PB 

ζ A. polyodon sickle spleenwort MB 

ζ Blechnum chambersii lance fern MB/SB 

ζ B. filiforme climbing hard fern MB 

B. novae-zelandiae (syn. B. “capense”) kiokio MB 

ζ Cyathea dealbata silver fern, ponga MB/SB 

C. medullaris black tree fern, mamaku MB/SB 

*ζ Cyrtomium falcatum holly fern SB 

Deparia petersenii MB/SB 

ζ Dicksonia squarrosa rough tree fern HB/MB 

ζ Diplazium australe MB 

Doodia australis rasp fern MB/SB 

ζ Histiopteris incisa water fern, mata MB/TD 

ζ Hymenophyllum sp. filmy fern SB 

ζ Hypolepis ambigua TD 

ζ H. dicksonioides giant hypolepis MB 

ζ Lastreopsis glabella smooth shield fern MB/SB 

ζ L. microsora 

Microsorum pustulatum hound’s tongue PB 

* Nephrolepis cordifolia p tuber ladder fern HB 

ζ Paesia scaberula lace fern, ring fern MB 

Pellaea rotundifolia button fern, round-leaved fern SB 

73

Pneumatopteris pennigera 

Polystichum neozelandicum subsp. neozelandicum (syn 

gully fern MB/PB 

P. richardii) 

shield fern 

RB/SB 

Pteridium esculentum bracken 

Pteris comans coastal brake RB/SB/PB 

ζ P. macilenta sweet fern MB 

P. tremula shaking brake 

Pyrrosia eleagnifolia leather-leaf fern 

Gymnosperms (5) (N:1 E:4) 


* Araucaria heterophylla p Norfolk Island pine HB 

* Cupressus macrocarpa p macrocarpa, Monterey cypress MB 

# *Juniperus sp. juniper 

* Pinus pinaster p maritime pine 

* P. radiata p radiata pine, Monterey pine 

Podocarpus totara totara 

Dicotyledonous Trees and Shrubs (65) (N:39 E:26 ) 


ζ Avicennia marina subsp. australasica mangrove 

Brachyglottis repanda rangiora 

Carmichaelia australis tree broom 

* Cestrum nocturnum queen of the night HB 

* Chrysanthemoides monilifera boneseed 

ζ Clianthus puniceus p kowhai ngutukaka, kakabeak HB 

# Coprosma areolata thin-leaved coprosma 

C. macrocarpa coastal karamu 

# C. macrocarpa x C. propinqua 

C. macrocarpa x C. robusta coprosma hybrid 

C. repens taupata 

C. rhamnoides twiggy coprosma 

ζ C. rhamnoides x C. repens coprosma hybrid 

C. robusta karamu 

Coriaria arborea tutu 

Corynocarpus laevigatus karaka 

# * Cotoneaster franchetii cotoneaster 

* Cydonia oblonga p quince HB 

Dodonaea viscosa akeake 

Dysoxylum spectabile kohekohe 

ζ Elingamita johnsonii p HB 

Entelea arborescens whau 

* Erythrina crista-galli p Cockspur coral tree HB 

* Erythrina x sykesii p coral tree HB 

* Eucalyptus macarthurii p Camden woollybutt HB 

* Eucalyptus sp. p gum (E. tereticorimus or E. cunuldulanthus) HB 

*ζ Feijoa sellowiana p feijoa HB 

*ζ Ficus benjamina p weeping fig HB 

* F. carica p edible fig HB 

* F. elastica p rubber plant HB 

Geniostoma ligustrifolium hangehange 

Hebe macrocarpa var. macrocarpa hebe 

H. stricta var. stricta koromiko 

*ζ Hibiscus rosa sinensis p hibiscus HB 

Hoheria populnea lacebark 

74

*ζ Hymenosporum flavum p Australian frangipani HB 

ζ Kunzea ericoides p kanuka 

* Lantana camara lantana 

* Laurus nobilis p bay laurel HB 

Leptospermum scoparium manuka, tea tree 

ζ Leucopogon fasciculatus p mingimingi 

*ζ Ligustrum sinense Chinese privet 

# * Ligustrum ovalifolium California privet 

* Lycium ferocissimum boxthorn 

Macropiper excelsum kawakawa 

*ζ Malus x domestica ‘Golden Delicious’ p common apple HB 

ζ Melicope ternata p wharangi 

ζ Melicytus novae-zelandiae coastal mahoe 

M. ramiflorus mahoe 

Metrosideros excelsa pohutukawa 

Myoporum laetum ngaio 

Myrsine australis mapou 

* Nerium oleander p oleander HB 

Olearia furfuracea akepiro 

Pittosporum crassifolium karo 

ζ P. crassifolium x P. ralphii 

# Pouteria costata (syn. Planchonella costata) 

tawapou 

p HB 

*ζ Prunus sp. p plum HB 

ζ Pseudopanax crassifolius x P. lessonii pseudopanax hybrid 

P. lessonii houpara 

ζ P. arboreus p five-finger 

# * Psidium cattleianum 

* Racosperma mearnsii (syn. Acacia mearnsii) 

p purple guava 

p 

black wattle 

*ζ Radermachera sinica p Asian bell-flower HB 

*ζ Ricinus communis p castor oil plant HB 

# * Robinia pseudoacacia false acacia 

* Salix cinerea p grey willow 

* S. fragilis p crack willow 

ζ Sophora chathamica coastal kowhai 

ζ S. microphylla p kowhai 

# *Tamarix ?anglica tamarisk 

* Ulex europaeus p gorse 

Vitex lucens puriri 

Dicotyledonous Lianes and Scrambling Plants (8) (N:3 E:5) 


* Anredera cordifolia p Madeira vine 

* Calystegia sepium pink bindweed 

C. soldanella shore bindweed 

Clematis paniculata clematis, puawhananga 

# *Hedera helix ivy 

# *Jasminum azoricum lemon scented jasmine 

Muehlenbeckia complexa pohuehue 

*ζ Rubus fruticosus agg. blackberry 

* Vinca major p periwinkle HB 

*ζ Vitis vinifera p ornamental grape HB 

Dicotyledonous Herbs (107) (N:21 E:86) 

HB 

75


Acaena novae-zelandiae red bidibid 

*ζ Acetosa acetosella sheep’s sorrel 

ζ Alternanthera sessilis nahui 

*ζ Amaranthus powellii redroot 

* Anagallis arvensis subsp. arvensis scarlet pimpernel 

*ζ Anthemis cotula stinking mayweed 

Apium prostratum NZ celery 

*ζ Aster subulatus sea aster 

* Atriplex prostrata orache 

*ζ Bellis perennis lawn daisy 

* Cakile edentula sea rocket 

* C. maritima sea rocket 

*ζ Callitriche stagnalis starwort 

*ζ Capsella bursa-pastoris shepherd’s purse 

*ζ Cardamine hirsuta bitter cress 

Centella uniflora centella 

*ζ Centaurium erythraea centaury 

*ζ Cerastium fontanum mouse-ear chickweed 

*ζ Chenopodium album fat-hen 

*ζ Cirsium arvense Californian thistle 

* C. vulgare Scotch thistle 

# * Conium maculatum hemlock 

* Conyza albida broad-leaved fleabane 

*ζ Coronopus didymus twin cress 

* Crepis capillaris hawksbeard 

* Daucus carota wild carrot 

Dichondra repens native Mercury Bay weed 

Disphyma australe NZ ice plant 

# Einadia trigonos subsp. trigonos pigweed 

*ζ Epilobium ciliatum tall willow-herb 

*ζ Erigeron karvinskianus Mexican daisy 

*ζ Erechtites hieraciifolia American fireweed 

*ζ E. valerianifolia Brazilian fireweed 

Euchiton sphaericus (syn. Gnaphalium sphaericum) Japanese cudweed 

*ζ Euphorbia peplus milkweed 

* Galium aparine cleavers 

*ζ G. divaricatum slender bedstraw 

*ζ Geranium dissectum cut-leaved geranium 

* G. gardneri (syn. G. solanderi “coarse hairs”) 

G. molle dove’s foot cranesbill 

# G. solanderi “large petals” 

Haloragis erecta shrubby haloragis 

* Helminthotheca echioides oxtongue 

*ζ Hypochoeris radicata catsear 

*ζ Lapsana communis nipplewort 

*ζ Leontodon taraxacoides hawkbit 

*ζ Linum bienne pale flax 

# * L. trigynum yellow flax 

Lobelia anceps NZ lobelia, shore lobelia 

*ζ Lotus angustissimus slender birdsfoot trefoil 

* L. pedunculatus lotus 

*ζ L. suaveolens hairy birdsfoot trefoil 

*ζ Ludwigia palustris water purslane 

*ζ Lythrum hyssopifolia hyssop loosestrife 

* Malva parviflora small-flowered mallow 

* Medicago arabica spotted bur medick 

76

*ζ M. lupulina black medick 

* M. nigra (syn. M. polymorpha) bur medick 

* Melilotus indicus King Island melilot 

*ζ Mentha pulegium pennyroyal 

* Modiola caroliniana creeping mallow 

*ζ Myosotis arvensis field forget-me-not 

* Nasturtium officinale watercress 

# Nertera sp. nertera 

*ζ Nicandra physalodes apple of Peru 

* Orobanche minor broomrape 

*ζ Oxalis corniculata horned oxalis 

ζ O. exilis creeping oxalis 

ζ Pelargonium inodorum native storksbill, kopata 

ζ Persicaria decipiens (syn. P. salicifolium) swamp willow weed 

* Physalis peruviana Cape gooseberry 

* Phytolacca octandra inkweed 

Pimelea prostrata (syn. P. cf. urvilleana) NZ daphne 

* Plantago lanceolata narrow-leaved plantain 

* P. major broad-leaved plantain 

*ζ Polycarpon tetraphyllum allseed 

*ζ Polygonum aviculare wireweed 

*ζ Portulaca oleracea purslane 

* Prunella vulgaris selfheal 

Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum Jersey cudweed 

*ζ Ranunculus parviflorus small-flowered buttercup 

R. reflexus (syn. R. hirtus) native buttercup 

* R. repens creeping buttercup 

*ζ R. sardous hairy buttercup 

# * Rumex brownii hooked dock 

*ζ R. conglomeratus clustered dock 

*ζ R. obtusifolius broad-leaved dock 

*ζ R. pulcher fiddle dock 

Samolus repens sea primrose 

Sarcocornia quinqueflora glasswort 

* Scabiosa atropurpurea annual scabious 

*ζ Senecio bipinnatisectus Australian fireweed 

# S. hispidulus native fireweed 

S. lautus shore groundsel 

*ζ S. skirrhodon gravel groundsel 

* S. vulgaris groundsel 

*ζ Sherardia arvensis field madder 

*ζ Sisymbrium officinale hedge mustard 

Solanum americanum small-flowered nightshade 

*ζ Sonchus asper prickly sow thistle 

* S. oleraceus sow thistle, puha 

*ζ Stachys arvensis staggerweed 

* Taraxacum officinale dandelion 

* Trifolium repens white clover 

* Verbascum creticum cretan mullein 

*ζ V. thapsus woolly mullein 

* Verbena litoralis blue vervain 

*ζ Veronica arvensis field speedwell 

*ζ V. persica scrambling speedwell 

*ζ V. serpyllifolia turf speedwell 

* Vicia hirsuta hairy vetch 

* V. sativa common vetch 

*ζ V. tetrasperma smooth tare 

77

ζ Wahlenbergia violacea NZ harebell 

Monocotyledons (other than Rushes and Sedges) (46) (N:10 E:36) 


*ζ Aloe arborescens candelabra aloe 

*ζ Agrostis capillaris browntop 

*ζ A. stolonifera creeping bent 

* Allium triquetrum three-cornered garlic, onion weed 

*ζ Anthoxanthum odoratum sweet vernal 

Arthropodium cirratum rengarenga, rock lily 

* Arum italicum p Italian arum HB 

* Asparagus scandens climbing asparagus 

Astelia banksii coastal astelia 

* Bambusa balcooa p borak bamboo HB 

*ζ Bromus diandrus ripgut brome 

*ζ B. willdenowii prairie grass 

*ζ Clivia miniata p clivia, bush lily HB 

Cordyline australis cabbage tree, ti kouka 

# C. pumilio dwarf cabbage tree, ti rauriki 

*ζ C. fruticosa (syn. C. terminalis) p HB 

* Cortaderia selloana pampas grass 

ζ C. splendens coastal toetoe 

*ζ Critesion murinum barley grass 

*ζ Cynodon dactylon Indian doab 

* Dactylis glomerata cocksfoot 

ζ Dianella nigra NZ blueberry 

*ζ Eleusine indica crowsfoot 

*ζ Eucomis comosa p pineapple lily HB 

*ζ Holcus lanatus Yorkshire fog 

* Kniphofia uvaria p red hot poker HB 

* ζ Lagurus ovatus harestail 

* Lolium perenne perennial ryegrass 

ζ Microlaena stipoides rice grass 

* Monstera deliciosa p fruit salad plant HB 

*ζ Musa x paradisiaca ‘Lady Fingers’ p banana HB 

Oplismenus hirtellus subsp. imbecillis bush panic grass 

*ζ Parapholis incurva sickle grass SB 

* Paspalum dilatatum paspalum 

*ζ P. distichum mercer grass 

* Pennisetum clandestinum kikuyu 

* Phyllostachys aurea p walking stick bamboo, fishpole bamboo HB 

Phormium tenax flax, harakeke 

Poa anceps broad-leaved poa 

*ζ P. annua annual poa 

* Pseudosasa japonica p arrow bamboo HB 

* Rytidosperma racemosum danthonia 

ζ Spinifex sericeus hairy spinifex 

* Sporobolus africanus ratstail 

* Stenotaphrum secundatum buffalo grass 

*ζ Vulpia bromoides brome fescue 

* Yucca gloriosa p Spanish dagger HB 

Rushes (11) (N:7 E:4) 


Apodasmia similis 

78

(syn. Leptocarpus similis) oioi, jointed wire rush 

*ζ Juncus articulatus jointed rush 

ζ J. australis leafless rush 

*ζ J. bufonius toad rush 

J. edgariae (syn. J. gregiflorus) wiwi 

*ζ J. effusus soft rush 

*ζ J. flavidus rush 

ζ J. pallidus giant rush, leafless rush 

ζ J. planifolius grass-leaved rush 

ζ J. sarophorus rush 

ζ Triglochin striata arrow-grass 

Sedges (12) (N:10 E:2) 


ζ Carex dissita carex bush sedge 

# C. flagellifera Glen Murray tussock 

ζ C. lambertiana 

ζ C. lessoniana rautahi 

ζ C. pumila sand sedge 

ζ C. virgata swamp sedge 

* Cyperus eragrostis umbrella sedge 

# * C. rotundus purple nut sedge, nut grass 

C. ustulatus giant umbrella sedge, coastal cutty grass 

Ficinia nodosa (syn. Isolepis nodosa) knobby clubrush 

ζ Gahnia lacera cutty grass 

Isolepis cernua slender clubrush 

ζ I. prolifera three square 

*ζ I. sepulcralis 

Summary: Vascular plant species totals recorded on Motuora Island 

Plant groups Native Exotic Total 

Ferns 32 (ζ16) 2 (ζ1) 34 

Gymnosperms 1 4 5 

Dicotyledons 63 (ζ18) 117 (ζ63) 180 

Monocotyledons 27 (ζ16) 42 (ζ24) 69 

Total 123 (43%) 165 (57%) 288 

ζ = additions to previous listings (Hawley and Buckton, 1997; Dowding 1988) 

79

Appendix 4: Motuora Planting Inventory 1990-2006 

Species 1990- 

1998 

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Total 

(including 

2006) 

Pioneer Species 

Akeake 78 530 1616 1076 1210 1000 200 1600 7310 

Broom 0 386 158 0 0 800 50 100 1494 

Cabbage 

Tree 

590 1090 0 4732 0 0 2500 3000 11912 

Five-finger 0 0 0 0 0 140 0 0 140 

Flax 2300 1420 1252 1072 5188 2000 2000 3000 18232 

Hangehange 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 

Houpara 362 480 1026 0 0 0 0 0 1868 

Kanuka 906 2560 0 704 784 2250 5500 650 13354 

Karamu 118 2110 2632 3078 6276 6000 500 5800 26514 

Karo 1914 3080 1088 3084 264 250 200 600 10480 

Kawakawa 0 146 0 2 143 340 0 0 631 

Koromiko 1148 33 1014 906 0 43 150 100 3394 

Kowhai 244 94 232 350 106 258 120 100 1504 

Lacebark 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 0 40 

Mahoe 0 1450 1516 192 0 4210 0 5500 12868 

Manuka 4408 4310 0 781 2685 2250 12250 4250 30934 

Mapou 0 0 0 0 1274 326 0 0 1600 

Mingimingi 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 

Ngaio 0 77 78 169 52 45 100 150 671 

Taupata 0 800 1392 1276 358 2120 300 3000 9246 

Wharangi 0 0 480 380 0 0 50 20 930 

Whau 

Totara 

131 58 0 81 44 22 120 50 506 

Late successional species 

Karaka 136 708 0 0 0 0 150 100 1094 

Kohekohe 0 0 0 0 200 331 0 0 531 

Pohutukawa 427 170 500 50 260 1681 200 150 3438 

Puriri 0 47 44 75 9 73 0 0 248 

Taraire 

Sedges 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 80 80 

Carex 

dissita 

0 0 0 0 0 0 1300 300 1600 

Carex 

virgata 

0 0 0 0 0 0 1000 200 1200 

Cyprus 

ustulatus 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 350 350 

Area Home F & E F & H G G (E & I J K(1/2/3) 

Bay 

D – 

and 

200 

Still 

koheko 

Bay,D 

& E 

he) 

Hectares 3.5 6.5 6.5 5 5.7 5.6 34.5 

Total 43621 12762 19555 13028 18008 18853 24139 26730 29200 205,896 

80

Appendix 5. Map of Existing Planted Areas on Motuora 

81

Appendix 6. Vascular Plants of the inner Hauraki Gulf 

The table identifies vascular plants of the Hauraki Gulf occurring either naturally or 

historically on islands within the Inner Hauraki Gulf Islands Ecological District and 

the Rodney Ecological District. The table indicates the species currently present on 

Motuora Island as well as species currently absent that are likely to have been present 

in the past (*) (based on presence on similar islands within the Inner Hauraki Gulf 

Islands and Rodney Ecological Districts). Species low in abundance on Motuora 

Island (+) should be eco-sourced from other islands or the adjacent mainland to 

maintain genetic diversity. 

This table is based on surveys carried out at Motuora (Dowding, 1988; Hawley & 

Buckton, 1997; Heiss-Dunlop & Fillery, 2006), Mahurangi East and West (Young, 

2005; in press), Wenderholm (Young, 2000), Tiritiri Matangi (Esler, 1978), Kawau 

Island (Buchanan, 1876; Kirk, 1878; Wilcox, Young, Beever & Kooperberg, 2004), 

Maunganui (Casnell Island) (de Lange & Crowcroft, 1996), Moturekareka, Motutara 

and Kohatutara Islands (Cameron, 1999a; Tennyson, Cameron & Taylor, 1997), the 

Noises Islands group (Cameron, 1998), Motuihe (de Lange & Crowcroft, 1999; Esler, 

1980), Saddle Island (Tennyson & Taylor 1999) and Browns Island (Esler 1980; 

Gardner, 1996). 

Key: 

p = planted 

pr = pollen record 

# = listed in earlier surveys but not detected on Motuora in 2006 

+ = insufficient numbers on Motuora seek alternative seed source 

* = potential species for introduction/re-introduction to Motuora 

1 = present 

Location 


Tiritiri 

Matangi 

Kawau 

Moturekareka 

Motutara 

Kohatutara 

Saddle 

Casnell 

(Maunganui ) 

Mahurangi 

East 

Mahurangi 

West 

Size (hectares) 80 220 2058 24.6 6 6.8 80 100 75 179 60 24.5 

Total species number 270 343 204 124 178 335 230 

% of Native / Exotic 58/ 55/4 50/50 58/ 52/ 

46/ 64/ 

42 5 

42 48 

54 36 

Agathis australis * rec 1 1 1 pr 

Alectryon excelsus * p? 1 1 1 

Wenderholm 

Motuihe 

82 

Browns 

Noises 

Islands group

Location 


Tiritiri 

Matangi 

Kawau 

Moturekareka 

Motutara 

Kohatutara 

Saddle 

Casnell 

(Maunganui ) 

Mahurangi 

East 

Mahurangi 

West 

Alseuosmia macrophylla * p LB 1 1 

Aristotelia serrata * 1 

Astelia solandri * 1 

Beilschmiedia tarairi * 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Beilschmiedia tawa * 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Beilschmiedia tawaroa * 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Brachyglottis repanda 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Carex flagellifera #* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Carex lambertiana * 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Carmichaelia australis 1 1? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Carpodetus serratus * 1 1 

Clematis paniculata p 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Collospermum hastatum * 1 1 1 1 1 

Coprosma arborea * 1 1 1? 1 1 1 

Coprosma areolata #* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Coprosma grandifolia * 1 1 1 1 1 

Coprosma lucida * 1 1 1 1 

Coprosma macrocarpa 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Coprosma propinqua * 1? 1 1 1 

Coprosma repens 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Coprosma rhamnoides 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Coprosma robusta 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Coprosma spathulata * 1 1 

Cordyline australis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Cordyline pumilo #* 1 1 1 ? 1 

Coriaria arborea 1 1 1 1? 1 1 1 

Cortaderia splendens 1+ 1 1? 1 

Corynocarpus laevigatus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Cyathodes juniperina * 1 1 1 

Dacrycarpus dacrydioides * seed- 

lings 

Wenderholm 

1 1 1 1 pr 

Dacrydium cupressinum * 1 1 1 pr 

Dicksonia squarrosa * 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Dodonaea viscosa 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Dysoxylum spectabile 1p 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Einadia triandra #* 1 1 1 

Elaeocarpus dentatus * 1 1 1 pr 

Entelea arborescens 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Motuihe 

83 

Browns 

Noises 

Islands group

Location 


Tiritiri 

Matangi 

Kawau 

Moturekareka 

Motutara 

Kohatutara 

Saddle 

Casnell 

(Maunganui ) 

Mahurangi 

East 

Mahurangi 

West 

Fuchsia exorticata * p? 1 

Freycinetia banksii * 1 1 1 1 pr 

Geniostoma rupestre 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Griselinia lucida * 1 1 1 pr 

Hebe macrocarpa #* 1 1 1 1 1 

Hebe stricta 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Hedycarya arborea * 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Hoheria populnea 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Knightia excelsa * 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Kunzea ericoides P 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Laurelia novae-zelandiae * 1 1 pr 

Leptospermum scoparium 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Leucopogon fasciculatus p+ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 pr 1 

Litsea calicaris * 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Macropiper excelsum 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Melicope ternata p 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Melicytus macrophyllus * 1? 

Melicytus novae-zelandiae 1+ 1 1 1 1 1 

Melicytus ramiflorus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Metrosideros excelsa 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Metrosideros diffusa * 

Metrosideros fulgens * 

Metrosideros perforata * 1 1 

Microlaena polynoda * 1 

Muehlenbeckia australis * 1 1 1 1 

Muehlenbeckia complexa 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Myoporum laetum 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Myrsine australis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Nertera dicondrifolia #* 1 

Nestegis apetala * 

Nestegis cunninghamii * 1 1 

Nestegis lanceolata * 1 1 1 1 

Olearia furfuracea 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Olearia rani * 1 1 1 

Ozothamnus leptophylla * 1 1 1 

Parsonsia heterophylla * 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Passiflora tetrandra * 1 1 

Peperomia urvilleana * 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Wenderholm 

Motuihe 

84 

Browns 

Noises 

Islands group

Location 


Tiritiri 

Matangi 

Kawau 

Moturekareka 

Motutara 

Kohatutara 

Saddle 

Casnell 

(Maunganui ) 

Mahurangi 

East 

Mahurangi 

West 

Phyllocladus trichomanoides * 1 1 pr 

Pittosporum cornifolium * 1 1 1 

Pittosporum crassifolium 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Pittosporum tenuifolium * 1 1 1 p 

Pittosporum umbellatum * p LB 1 1 

Podocarpus totara 1+ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 pr1 

Pomaderris kumeraho * 1 1 

Pomaderris phylicifolia * 1 1 1 

Pouteria costata #* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Prumnopitys ferruginea * 1 1 1 pr 

Prumnopitys taxifolia * 1 1 1 pr 

Pseudopanax arboreus p 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Pseudopanax crassifolius * 1 1 1 1 1 

Pseudopanax lessonii 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Rhabdothamnus solandri * p LB 1 1 1 1 

Rhopalostylis sapida * p 1 1 1 1 1 pr 1 

Ripogonum scandens * 1 1 1 1 1 

Rubus cissoides * 1 1 1 1 1 

Schefflera digitata * p? 1 1? 1 1 

Solanum aviculare * p? 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Sophora chathamica *? 1 1 1 

Sophora microphylla p+ p 1 1 1 1 1 

Streblus banksii * 1 1 1? 

Streblus heterophyllus * 1 1 1 1 

Syzygium maire * pr 

Tetragonia tetragonioides * 1 

Tetragonia trigyna * 1 1 

Uncinia banksii * 1 1 1 

Uncinia uncinata * 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Vitex lucens 1+ p 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Wenderholm 

Motuihe 

85 

Browns 

Noises 

Islands group

Appendix 7. Large Bodied Beetles on Motuora 

Collected 23 Dec 2003 - 18 Feb 2004, 15 pitfall traps/vegetation type 

Number collected 

Name 

Flightless/winged Status 

Family 

length (mm) Regenerating forest Planted forest Pasture 

Ctenognathus novaezealandiae flightless native CARABIDAE 13-15 570 1 0 

Rhytisternus miser winged introduced CARABIDAE 13 0 3 15 

Notagonum submetallicum winged native CARABIDAE 10 0 0 7 

Dicrochile maura flightless native CARABIDAE 8-10 4 0 0 

Kupeharpalus barrattae flightless native CARABIDAE 8 3 0 0 

Lecanomerus sharpi flightless native CARABIDAE 7.5 62 9 7 

Sphenophorus brunnipennis winged introduced CURCULIONIDAE 8 0 0 88 

Ochosternus zealandicus winged native ELATERIDAE 17.5 8 2 10 

Conoderus exsul winged native ELATERIDAE 10 17 17 19 

Mitophyllus irroratus winged native LUCANIDAE 9 0 0 2 

Heteronychus arator winged introduced SCARABAEIDAE 14 0 0 38 

Odontria sp. winged native SCARABAEIDAE 13 7 45 0 

Thyreocephalus orthodoxus winged introduced STAPHYLINIDAE 16 2 8 52 

Mimopeus elongatus flightless native TENEBRIONIDAE 15 17 0 2 

Amarygmus tristis winged introduced TENEBRIONIDAE 13 0 0 1 

Xylochus sp. winged native TENEBRIONIDAE 10 2 0 0 

Kaszabadelium aucklandicum flightless native TENEBRIONIDAE 10 2 0 0 

Lepidopteryx sp. flightless native TROGOSSITIDAE 7-10 3 1 0 

Other large bodied beetles known to be on Motuora: 

Cicindela spilleri winged native CARABIDAE 14 collected in regenerating coastal forest 

Chrysopeplus expolitus flightless native TENEBRIONIDAE 12 collected in regenerating coastal forest 

86

Appendix 8. Stick Insect Species in the Hauraki Gulf 

Data from T. Buckley, pers. comm. & Salmon, 1991 

Species Known locations in Hauraki Gulf Food plants 

Clitarchus hookeri Great Barrier, Little Barrier, Taranga & Marotere 

group, Kawau, Motuora 

Spinotechtarchus acornutus Great Barrier, Little Barrier, Taranga & Marotere 

group. 

Kunzea ericoides, Leptospermum 

scoparium 

Metrosideros perforata, also Dracophylum 

spp., Kunzea ericoides and others. 

Current food plant Future food plant 

availablity on Motuora availability 

Abundant in planted areas Further plantings planned 

No climbing rata (Metrosideros 

spp.) or Dracophyllum present 

Acanthoxyla sp. Great Barrier, Little Barrier Podocarps, Rubus spp., and others. 1 mature and c.3 sapling 

totara (Podocarpus totara) 

present, native Rubus spp. 

absent 

Asteiliaphasma jucunda Great Barrier Associated with Astelia spp. and 

Freycinetia spp. 

Some Astelia banksii present, 

A. solandri absent, Freycinetia 

absent. 

Climbing rata (Metrosideros 

spp.) introductions planned 

Podocarp introductions 

planned 

A. banksii plantings 

planned to increase 

abundance, A. solandri 

introductions planned. 

87

Appendix 9. Conservation Requirements of Auckland Threatened Invertebrates 

Includes all species regarded as threatened that occur in the Auckland Department of Conservation Conservancy. Information is drawn from McGuinness 

(2001) unless indicated otherwise. 

Key: 

A-highest priority threatened species 

B-second highest priority threatened species 

C-third priority threatened species 

X-species which have not been sighted for a number of years but may still exist 

I-species for which little information exists, but based on existing evidence are considered to be threatened. 


requirements 

Placostylus (Maoristylus) 

hongii (Lesson, 1830) 

Flax snail 

Paryphanta busbyi busbyi 

(Gray, 1840) 

Kauri snail 

C Coastal (

Zeopsopilio neozealandiae 

Forster, 1948 

A harvestman 

Maoriblatta 

rufoterminata (Brunner 

von Wattenwyl, 1865) 

Black cockroach 

Brullea antarctica 

Castelnau, 1867 

A ground beetle 

Mecodema atrox 

Britton, 1949 


Mecodema pluto Britton, 

1949 


I Found in leaf litter, 

woody debris; 

predatory 

I Associated with 

kauri (Agathis 

australis) forest and 

scrublands that 

follow kauri milling 

I Lives above high 

water mark on 

sandy shores; 

generally associated 

with extensive dune 

systems (C. Green, 

pers. comm. 2006) 

I Wet native forest; 

hides under logs 

during day; 

predatory 

I Wet native forest; 

hides under logs 

during day; 

predatory 

30 ha shrublands/regenerating 

forest currently available, 75 ha 

available by 2020 

Kauri not on Motuora; not 

planned to be major component 

of mature forest 

Several sandy beaches (Home 

Bay to Macrocarpa Bay, Still 

Bay, plus smaller coves), but no 

dunes 

Little wet forest present. 

Planting in gullies may provide 

larger areas of damp forest 

when mature (30+ years) 

Little wet forest present. 

Planting in gullies may provide 

larger areas of damp forest 

when mature (30+ years) 

? (nothing known 

about specific 

habitat 

requirements) 

? (may be able to 

survive in 

scrublands without 

kauri) 

? (habitat 

requirements 

unclear: not known 

if it can servive on 

beaches without 

dune systems) 

? (little known 


habitat 

requirements) 



habitat 

requirements) 

? (nothing known 

about threats or 

interactions) 

? (no significant 

interactions 

known, only 

threatened by 

habitat loss) 

? (potentially 

threatened by 

competition from 

introduced spider 

Steatoda capensis: 

spider fauna on 

Motuora not 

known) 


interactions 

known; threats 

not known) 


interactions 


not known) 

? (abundance and 

distribution unclear) 

Yes (distribution 

patchy but occurs 

numerous places 

around Auckland) 

? (occurs on 

Auckland coast 

including Kaipara 

Harbour and 

Tawharanui, not 

known if these 

populations could 

supply the 50-150 

beetles required for 

introduction to 

Motuora (C. Green, 

pers. comm. 2006)) 

? (taxonomy and 

distribution unclear) 

? (taxonomy, 

distribution and 

abundance unclear) 

Introduction not 

recommended (further 

taxonomic work 

required to determine 

if threatened) 


recommended (lack of 

suitable habitat; new 


required, thought to be 

secure unless further 

habitat loss occurs) 


(Beach search of 

Motuora to check if 

present, habitat 

requirements and 

source populations, 

dispersal ability) 



habitat; taxonomy 

needs clarification to 

establish conservation 

status) 



habitat; taxonomy 

needs clarification to 

establish conservation 

status) 

89

Blosyropus spinosus 

Redtenbacher, 1868 

Spiny longhorn, 

spined blosyropus, 

spiny silver-pine borer 

Nesoptychias simpliceps 

(Broun, 1880) 

A longhorn beetle 


(Brookes, 1932) 

Flax weevil 

Geodorcus ithaginis 

(Broun, 1893) 

Mokohinau stag beetle 

I Collected from 

dead decaying logs 

in beech and 

podocarp-broadleaf 

forest 


woody debris in 

forests, also found 

in pine logs (Pinus 

radiata) 

C Feeds on flax 

(Phorium tenax and 

P. cookianum); hides 

at flax base through 

day 

A Found in leaf litter 

and peat in coastal 

vegetation 

Podocarps rare on Motuora and 

beech absent; more podocarps 

to be planted but mature stands 

will not be present for 30 + 

years 

Approx. 10 large felled pine 

logs are present on Motuora; 

other woody debris resources 

will develop slowly as forest 

matures. 

10,000+ planted flax and one 

area of naturally established flax 

at the southern end of the 

island, more flax will be planted 

over next 5 years 

20 ha naturally regenerating 

coastal forest present 



habitat 

requirements) 



habitat 

requirements) 

No (no 

significant 

interactions 

known; 

potentially 

threatened by 

rodents and 

stoats) 


interactions 


not known) 

Yes No (main threat 


predation; no 


flax plants 

recorded) 

? (occurs only on 

one arid rock stack 

in Mokohinau 

group, specific 


known) 

? (at risk because 

of extremely 

limited 

distribution; rat 

invasion could 

eliminate; preyed 

on by lizards; no 

other significant 

threats or 

interactions 

known) 

? (widely distributed 

but seldom 

encountered) 

? (distribution and 


? (closest 

populations are 

Little Barrier and 

Marotere Islands; 

unknown whether 

these can supply 50- 

150 individuals 

required) 

No (population may 

be limited on 

Mokohinau stack- 

max of 9 individuals 

observed in recent 

times) 



habititat; also probably 

secure and no action 

required unless threats 

substantiated) 


recommended (current 

lack of habitat; 

research required to 

determine if 

threatened) 


populations identified 

(would help restore the 

large-bodied 

component of the 

Motuora beetle fauna) 


recommended 

(research underway to 

establish population 

size & habitat 

requirements; current 

management priorities 

are habitat 

maintenance and 

island security) 

90

Tangarona pensus 

(Broun, 1880) 

A rhysodid beetle 

Pericoptus nitidulus 

Broun, 1880 

A scarab beetle 

Huttia nigrifrons Myers, 

1924 

A planthopper 

Empicoris aculeatus 

(Bergroth, 1927) 

An assassin bug 

Empicoris seorsus 

(Bergroth, 1927) 

An assassin bug 

Deinacrida heteracantha 

White, 1842 

Wetapunga, Little 

barrier giant weta 

I Collected from 

bush and rotting 

wood 

X Not known- only 

specimen collected 

from an unknown 

location on Great 

Barrier Island 


podocarps 

30 ha shrublands/regenerating 

forest currently available, 75 ha 




habitat 

requirements) 

- ? (little known 


habitat 

requirements) 

Podocarps rare on Motuora; 

podocarps not planned to be 

major part of mature forest 



habitat or host 

requirements) 

I Not known - ? (habitat 


known) 

I Not known – has 

been found in leaf 

litter and on a dead 

shrub 

B Associated with 

large convoluted 

trees on Little 

Barrier; young 

forest suitable if 

predation pressure 

low and refuges 

available (C. Green, 

pers. comm. 2006); 

primarily 

herbaceous 

- ? (habitat 


known) 

Large remnant coastal 

pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa) 

present; 30 ha 

shrublands/regenerating forest 

currently available, 75 ha 


Yes (records 

indicate wetapunga 

did occur on islands 

in the Hauraki Gulf) 


interactions 


not known) 


interactions 


not known) 


interactions or 

threats known) 







No (saddlebacks 

forage on 

invertebrates in 

habitat utilized by 

juvenile 

wetapunga; rat 

predation is 

major threat) 





? (widely distributed 

through North 

Island but never 

locally abundant) 


abundance not 

known) 


abundance not 

known) 

? (Little Barrier 

population currently 

being surveyed, 

captive reared 

individuals not 

available for release 

until 2009 at earliest 

(C. Green, pers. 

comm. 2006)) 




determine if 

threatened) 




determine if 

threatened) 



habitat; also thought to 

be sparse rather than 

threatened) 




determine if 

threatened) 




determine if 

threatened) 

Introduction 

recommended as soon 

as possible (would help 

restore large-bodied 

component of 

Motuora fauna) 

91

Isothraulus abditus 

Towns & Peters, 1979 

Fringed gill mayfly 

Ecnomina zealandica 

Wise, 1958 

A caddisfly 

Atrachorema mangu 

McFarlane, 1964 

A caddisfly 

Pseudoeconesus bistirpis 

Wise, 1958 

A caddisfly 


gravel bed forest 

streams 


cobble bed native 

streams 


medium to small 

native forest 

streams 

I Found in seepages 

in bush 

No permanent gravel streams 

on Motuora 

No permanent cobble streams 

on Motuora 

No permanent streams on 


Numerous bush seepages 

present on Motuora 

No (lack of habitat) No (potentially 

threatened by 

trout predation 

and pigs 

muddying 

streams) 

No (lack of habitat) ? (no significant 



No (lack of habitat) ? (no significant 



? (specific habitat 


known) 




? (surveys required 

to determine 

abundance and 

distribution) 


to determine 

abundance and 

distribution) 


to determine 

abundance and 

distribution) 

Yes (very 

widespread species, 

can be locally 

abundant) 



habitat) 



habitat) 



habitat) 


recommended (change 

of conservation 

classification has been 

recommended, not 

thought to be under 

any threat) 

92

Appendix 10. Invertebrates Recorded on Motuora 

Most of the species listed were collected during two months of sampling (23 Dec 2003- 18 Feb 2004) 

with 45 pitfall traps and 27 intercept traps in pasture, planted areas and unmanaged areas of naturally 

regenerating forest. Additional species have been collected through hand searching and further pitfall 

sampling carried out in regenerating forest. The survey sample will be available for further taxonomic 

work (in consultation with Dr Jacqueline Beggs, University of Auckland). 

Phylum: Annelida 

Class: Oligochaeta (worms) 

Comments: 332 specimens collected in survey sample, no taxonomic work undertaken to date. 

Phylum: Chelicerata 

Class: Arachnida 

Order: Acarina (mites) 

Comments: 19426 specimens collected in survey sample, no taxonomic work undertaken to date. A sub-sample has been 

retained for long term storage. 

Order: Araneae (spiders) 

Family: AMPHINECTIDAE 

Aorangia sp. 

Family: CTENIDAE 

Horioctenoides sp. 

Family: GNAPHOSIDAE 

Anzacia gemmea 

Hypodrassodes courti 

Hypodrassodes dalmasi 

Hypodrassodes maoricus 

Taieria miranda 

Family: LINYPHIIDAE 

Diploplecta sp. 

Eperigone fradeorum 

Erigone prominens 

Laetesia minor 

Tenuiphantes tenuis 

Family: LYCOSIDAE 

Anoteropsis hilaris 

Family: MIMETIDAE 

Mimetus sp. 

Family: PISAURIDAE 

Dolomedes minor 

Family: SALTICIDAE 

Hypoblemum albovittatum 

Trite auricoma 

Family: THERIDIIDAE 

Achaearanea blattea 

Achaearanea veruculata 

Pholcomma sp. 

Theridion ampliatum 

Family: ZOROPSIDAE 

Uliodon sp. (group B) 

Comments: 660 specimens collected in survey sample, mainly juveniles. Identifications by B. M. Fitzgerald. Most of the 

species collected to date from Motuora are characteristic of pasture, grassland and open scrub. Many of them belong to 

families that are well known to disperse by ballooning (especially linyphiids, lycosids and pisaurids) (B. M. Fitzgerald, pers. 

comm.) 

93

Order: Opilionida (harvestmen) 


Order: Pseudoscorpionida (false scorpions) 


Phylum: Crustacea 

Class: Malacostraca 

Order: Amphipoda (landhoppers) 

Comments: 13491 specimens collected in survey sample, taxonomic work incomplete. 

Order: Isopoda (woodlice) 


Phylum: Uniramia 

Class: Chilopoda (millipedes) 


Class: Collembolla (springtails) 

Comments: 15453 specimens collected in survey sample, no taxonomic work undertaken to date. A sub-sample has been 

retained for long term storage. 

Class: Diplopoda (centipedes) 


Class: Insecta (insects) 

Order: Archaeognatha (bristletails) 

Comments: 665 specimens collected in survey sample. Taxonomic work incomplete. 

Order: Blattodea (cockroaches) 

Comments: 10 specimens collected in survey sample. Taxonomic work incomplete. 

Order: Coleoptera (beetles) 

Family: ADERIDAE 

Xylophilus nitidus (Broun, 1893) native 

Xylophilus sp. 1 

Family: ANOBIIDAE 

Methemus griseipilus (Broun, 1881) native 

Xyletobius watti (Espanol, 1982) ?native 

Family: ANTHICIDAE 

Anthicus glaber King, 1869 introduced 

Cotes crispi (Broun, 1880) native 

Sapintus aucklandensis (Werner & Chandler, 1995) native 

Trichananca fulgida (Werner & Chandler, 1995) introduced 

Trichananca sp. 1 introduced 

Family: ANTHRIBIDAE 

Caliobius littoralis Hollowat, 1982 native 

Dysnocryptus inflatus (Sharp, 1876) native 

Euciodes suturalis Pascoe, 1866 introduced 

Notocharagus thoracicus (Broun, 1883) native 

Family: BELIDAE 

Aralius wollastoni (Sharp, 1876) native 

Family: BRENTIDAE 

Neocyba metrosideros (Broun, 1880) native 

Exapion ulicis (Forster, 1771) introduced 

Family: CARABIDAE 

Kupeharpalus barrattae Larochelle & Lariviere, 2005 native 

Anomotarus variegatus Moore, 1967 introduced 

Cicindela spilleri (Brouerius van Nidek, 1965) native 

Clivina vagans Putzeys, 1866 introduced 

Ctenognathus novaezealandiae (Fairmaire, 1843) native 

Demetrida nasuta White, 1846 native 

Dicrochile maura Broun, 1880 native 

Lecanomerus atriceps (Macleay, 1871) introduced 

Lecanomerus sharpi (Csiki, 1932) native 

94

Mecyclothorax ambiguus (Erichson, 1842) introduced 

Notagonum submetallicum (White, 1846) native 

Pericompsus australis (Schaum, 1863) introduced 

Rhytisternus miser (Chaudoir, 1865) introduced 

Family: CERAMBYCIDAE 

Psilocnaeia sp. 1 native 

Ptinosoma sp. 1 native 

Tenebrosoma sp. 1 native 

Family: CERYLONIDAE 

Hypodacnella rubripes (Reiter, 1880) native 

Family: CHRYSOMELIDAE 

Eucolaspis sp. 1 native 




Longitarsis jacobaeae (Waterhouse, 1858) introduced 

Trachytetra rugulosa (Broun, 1880) native 

Family: CIIDAE 

Ciidae sp. 1 native 

Cis sp. 1 native 

Cis sp. 2 native 

Family: CLAMBIDAE 

Clambus domesticus Broun, 1886 introduced 

Family: COCCINELLIDAE 

Coccinella undecimpunctata Linnaeus, 1758introduced 

Diomus sp. 1 introduced 

Rhyzobius fagus (Broun, 1880) introduced 

Rhyzobius rarus (Broun, 1880) native 

Rhyzobius sp. 1 native 

Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant, 1850) introduced 

Family: CORYLOPHIDAE 

Arthrolips oblonga (Broun, 1883) native 

Corylophus sp. 1 native 

Holopsis sp. 1native 

Holopsis sp. 2native 

Orthoperus sp. 1 introduced 

Sericoderus sharpi (Matthews, 1886) native 

Sericoderus sp. 1 introduced 

Family: CRYPTOPHAGIDAE 

Cryptophagidae sp. 1 unknown 

Atomaria lewisi Reitter, 1877 introduced 

Ephistemus globulus (Paykull, 1786)introduced 

Micrambina sp. 1 native 

Salltius ruficeps native 

Family: CURCULIONIDAE 

?Ampagia rudis (Pascoe, 1877) native 

Amasa truncata (Erichson, 1842) introduced 

?Andracalles sp. 1 native 

Asynonychus cervinus (Boheman, 1840) introduced 

Baeosomus sp. 1 native 

Chaetoptelius mundulus (Broun, 1881) native 

Clypeolus sp. 1 native 

Clypeolus sp. 2 native 

Crisius sp. 1 native 

Euophryum sp. 1 native 

Geochus sp. 1 native 

Geochus inequalis (Broun, 1880) native 

Gymnetron pascuorum (Gyllenhal, 1813) introduced 

Hylastes ater Paykull, 1800 introduced 

Mandalotus sp. 1 native 

Microcryptorhynchus sp. 1? native 

Microcryptorhynchus sp. 2? native 

Microtribus sp. nov. native 

Naupactus leucoloma Boheman 1840 introduced 

95

Neomycta rubida Broun, 1880 native 

Novitas sp. 1 native 

Omoeacalles crisioides (Broun, 1880) native 

Pactola sp. 1 native 

Peristoreus sp. 1 native 

Phloeophagosoma sp. 1 native 

Scelodolichus sp. 1 

Sitona lepidus Gyllenhal, 1834 introduced 

Sphenophorus brunnipennis (Germar, 1824) introduced 

Strangylopterus hylobioides (White, 1846) native 

Family: ELATERIDAE 

Amphiplatys lawsoni Sharp, 1877 native 

Conoderus exsul (Sharp, 1877) native 

Ochosternus zealandicus (White, 1846) native 

Family: ENDOMYCHIDAE 

Holoparamecus sp. 1 native 

Family: EROTYLIDAE 

Loberus nitens (Sharp, 1876) native 

Family: HYDROPHILIDAE 

Cercyon sp. 1 introduced 

Enochrus maculiceps Macleay, 1871) introduced 

Family: LATRIDIIDAE 

Latridiidae sp. 1 introduced 

Aridius sp. 1 introduced 

Enicmus sp. 1 native 

Lithostygnus sp. 1 native 

Melanophthalma sp. 1 native 





Family: LEIODIDAE 

Camiarites convexus (Sharp, 1876) native 

Mesocolon sp. 1 native 

Zeadolopus sp. 1 native 

Family: LUCANIDAE 

Mitophyllus irroratus Parry, 1843 native 

Family: MELANDRYIDAE 

Hylobia sp. 1 native 

Family: MELYRIDAE 

?Halyles sp. 1 native 

Melyridae sp. 1 native 

Family: MYCETOPHAGIDAE 

Litargus vestitus (Sharp, 1879) introduced 

Triphyllus sp. 1 native 

Triphyllus sp. 2 native 

Typhaea stercorea (Linnaeus, 1758) unknown 

Family: NITIDULIDAE 

Epuraea imperialis (Reitter, 1877) introduced 

Epuraea sp. 1 unknown 

Family: PHALACRIDAE 

Phalacrus uniformis Thompson, 1980 introduced 

Family: PTILIIDAE 

Ptiliidae sp. 1 unknown 

Ptiliidae sp. 2 native 

Family: SALPINGIDAE 

Salpingus sp. 1 native 

Family: SCARABAEIDAE 

Ataenius picinus Harold, 1867 introduced 

Heteronychus arator (Fabricius, 1775) introduced 

Odontria sp. 1 native 

Family: SCIRTIDAE 

Scirtidae sp. 1 native 

96

Family: SCRAPTIIDAE 

Nothotelus sp. 1 native 

Family: SCYDMAENIDAE 

Scydmaenidae sp. 1 native 

Stenichnaphes sp. 1 native 

Family: SILVANIDAE 

Cryptamorpha desjardinsi (Guerin, 1844) introduced 

Family: STAPHYLINIDAE 

Aleocharinae sp. 1 unknown 



Aleocharinae sp. 4 native 

Aleocharinae sp. 5 native 



Omaliinae sp. 1 native 

Pselaphinae sp. 1 native 

Xantholinini sp. 1 introduced 

?Philiopsis sp. 1 introduced 

Anotylus brunneipennis (Macleay, 1873) introduced 

Anotylus sp. 1 unknown 

Baeocera sp. 1 native 

Brachynopus latus Broun, 1881 unknown 

Carpelimus sp. 1 unknown 

Eupines sp. 1 native 

?Gyrophaena sp. 1 native 

Ischnoderus sp. 1 native 

Ischnoderus sp. 2 native 

Pselaphophus atriventris (Westwood, 1856) introduced 

Scaphisoma funereum Lobl, 1977 introduced 

Sepedophilus sp. 1 native 

?Stenomalium sp. 1 native 

Tachyporus nitidus (Fabricius, 1781) introduced 

Thyreocephalus orthodoxus (Olliff, 1887) introduced 

Zeoleusis virgula (Fauvel, 1889) native 

Family: TENEBRIONIDAE 

Amarygmus tristis sensu Blackburn, 1893 introduced 

Chrysopeplus expolitus (Broun, 1880) native 

Kaszabadelium aucklandicum (Broun, 1880) native 

Mimopeus elongatus (Breme, 1842) native 

Platydema sp. 1 introduced 

Xylochus sp. 1 native 

Family: TROGOSSITIDAE 

Lepidopteryx sp. 1 native 

Family: ZOPHERIDAE 

Bitoma insularis White, 1846 native 

Bitoma rugosa Sharp, 1876 native 

Notocoxelus sp. 1 native 

Pristoderus bakewellii (Pascoe, 1866) native 

Pycnomerus sp. 1 native 

Comments: 5450 Coleoptera specimens collected in 2003/4 survey, identified by Stephen Thorpe. 

Order: Dermaptera (earwigs) 


Order: Diptera (flies) 


Order: Hemiptera (bugs) 

Family: ANTHOCORIDAE 

?Cardiastethus sp. 1 

Family: APHIDAE 

Aphidae sp. 1 

97

Family: ARADIDAE 

Calisius zealandicus 

Family: CERATOCOMBIDAE 

Ceratocombus neozelandicus 

Family: CICADELLIDAE 

Cicadellidae sp. 1 

Family: CICADIDAE 

Amphipsalta cingulata (Fabricius 1775) native 

Family: CIXIIDAE 

Cixius sp. 1 

Family: COREIDAE 

Acantholybas brunneus 

Family: CORIXIDAE 

Sigara arguta (White 1878) native 

Family: CYDNIDAE 

Chilocoris neozealandicus native? 

Macroscytus australis 

Family: DELPHACIDAE 

Ugyops rhadamanthus 

Family: ERIOCCOCIDAE 

Eriococcus leptospermi Maskell, 1891 self-introduced? 

Eriococcus campbelli Hoy, 1959 self-introduced? 

Family: MARGARODIDAE 

Icerya purchasi introduced 

Family: MYERSLOPIIDAE 

Pemmation sp. 1 native 

Family: NABIDAE 

Alleorhynchus myersi 

Family: NOTONECTIDAE 

Anisops assimilis White 1878 native 

Family: PENTATOMIDAE 

Nezara viridula (Linnaeus, 1758) introduced 

Monteithiella humeralis (Walker, 1868) introduced 

Family: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE 

Asaphacoccus agninus 

Family: RHYPAROCHROMIDAE 

Targarema stali 

Tomocoris ornatus native 

Trypetocoris separatus native 

Family: RICANIIDAE 

Scolypopa australis 

Comments: 655 specimens collected in survey sample, taxonomic work incomplete. Identifications by S. Thorpe and R. 

Gardner-Gee 

Order: Hymenoptera (bees/wasps/ants) 

Family: APIDAE 

Apis mellifera introduced 

Bombus sp. 1 introduced 

Family: BETHYLIDAE 

Eupsenella sp. 1 

Goniozus sp. 1 

Sierola sp. 1 

Family: BRACONIDAE 

Aleiodes sp. 1 

?Aphaereta sp. 1 

Asobara ?anipoda 

Aphidiinae sp. 1 

Microgastrinae sp. 1 

Family: CERAPHRONIDAE 

Ceraphronidae sp. 1 

Family: DIAPRIIDAE 

Basalys sp. 1 

Betyla sp. 1 

Belytinae sp. 1 

98

Entomacis sp. 1 

Neurogalesus sp. 1 

Spilamicrus sp. 1 

Stylaclista sp. 1 

Family: EULOPHIDAE 

Eulophidae sp. 1 

Family: FIGITIDAE 

Anacharis sp. 1 

Family: FORMICIDAE 

Amblyopone australis Erichson, 1842 introduced 

Amblyopone saundersi Forel, 1892 native 

Heteroponera brouni (Forel, 1892) native 

Hypoponera eduardi (Forel, 1894) introduced 

Iridomyrmex sp. introduced 

Monomorium antarcticum (F. Smith, 1858) [Don & Jones 1993] native 

Monomorium antipodum Forel 1901, native 

Ochetellus glaber (Mayr, 1862) introduced 

Pachycondyla castanea (Mayr, 1865) native 

Paratrechina sp. introduced 

Strumigenys perplexa (Smith, 1876) introduced 

Technomyrmex albipes (Smith, 1861) introduced 

Tetramorium grassii Emery, 1895 introduced 

Family: ICHNEUMONIDAE 

Ichneumonidae sp. 1 

Family: MEGASPILIDAE 

Megaspilidae sp. 1 

Family: MYMARIDAE 

?Mymar pulchellum 

Family: SCELIONIDAE 

Baeus sp. 1 

?Duta sp. 1 

Gryon sp. 1 

Holoteleia sp. 1 

Odontacolus sp. 1 

?Trimonus sp. 1 

Family: SPHECIDAE 

Sphecidae sp. 1 

Family: VESPIDAE 

Ancistrocerus gazelle 

Vespula sp. 1 

Comments: 2616 Hymentoptera specimens collected in survey sample, taxonomic work incomplete. Ants identified by R. 

Gardner-Gee & D. Ward. Other Hymenoptera identifications by S. Thorpe. 

Order: Lepidoptera (moths/butterflies) 

Family: ARCTIIDAE 

?Nyctemera annulata (Boisduval, 1832) native 

?Utetheisa pulchella (Linnaeus, 1758) migrant 

Family: LYCAENIDAE 

?Lycaena salustius (Fabricius, 1793) native 

?Zizina labradus labradus (Godart, 1824) native? 

Family:OECOPHORIDAE 

Endrosis sarcitrella (Linnaeus, 1758) introduced 

Barea confusella (Walker, 1864) introduced 

Family: TINEIDAE 

Opogona omoscopa (Meyrick, 1893) introduced 

Comments: 110 specimens collected in survey sample, taxonomic work incomplete. Oecophoridae and Tineidae identified 

by R. Hoare (Landcare Research), remainder indentified by R. Gardner-Gee. 

Order: Mantodea (praying mantids) 

Family: MANTIDAE 

Orthodera novaezealandiae (Colenso, 1882) native 

Comments: 1 specimen collected by hand. The introduced South African mantid (Miomantis caffra) has not been observed on 

Motuora. 

99

Order: Neuroptera (lacewings) 


Order: Orthoptera (weta/crickets) 

Family: ANOSTOSTOMATIDAE 

Hemiandrus pallitarsus (Walker, 1969) native 

Hemideina thoracica (White, 1842) native 

Family: RHAPHIDOPHORIDAE 

?Neonetus sp. Native 

Family: GRYLLIDAE 

Bobilla sp. 1 native 

Bobilla sp. 2 native 

Teleogryllus commodus (Walker, 1869) native? 

Family: RHAPHIDOPHORIDAE 

Neonetus sp. 1 native 

Family: TETTIGONIIDAE 

Conocephalus sp. native 

Comments: 406 Orthoptera specimens collected in survey sample, taxonomic work incomplete. Identifications by R. 

Gardner-Gee. 

Order: Phasmatodea (Stick insects) 

Family: PHASMATIDAE 

Clitarchus hookeri (White, 1846) native 

Comments: 3 specimens collected by hand. Identification by T. Buckley (Landcare Research, Auckland). 

Order: Psocoptera (booklice) 


Order: Thysanoptera (thrips) 


Phylum: Mollusca 

Class: Gastropoda (slugs /snails) 


Phylum: Platyhelminthes 

Class: Turbellaria (flatworms) 


Phylum Onychophora 

Class: Onychophora 

Family: PERIPATOPSIDAE 

Ooperipatellus sp. 1 

Comments: 1 specimen collected in naturally regenerating coastal forest. Species is as yet undescribed, known from Tiritiri 

Matangi, Waitakere ranges and scattered locations through North Island (D. Gleeson, pers. comm..). 

100

Appendix 11. Birds Recorded on or Near Motuora 

Key: 

* known to breed regularly on Motuora 

** population on Motuora is managed as part of Operation Nest Egg- see text for details 

Common name Scientific name 

Brown kiwi Apteryx australis** 

Blue penguin Eudyptula minor* 

Grey-faced petrel Pterodroma macroptera* 

Flesh-footed shearwater Puffinius carneipes 

Buller’s shearwater P. bulleri 

Australasian gannet Sula bassana serrator 

Black shag Phalacrocorax carbo 

Pied shag P. varius 

Little shag P. melanoleucos brevirostris 

Spotted shag Stictocarbo punctatus 

Lesser frigatebird Fregata ariel 

White-faced heron Ardea novaehollandiae 

Reef heron Egretta sacra 

Paradise shelduck Tadorna variegate* 

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos* 

Grey duck A. superciliosa* 

Australasian harrier Circus approximans 

Wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo 

Brown quail Synoicus ypsilophorus* 

Spotless crake Porzana tabuensis 

Pukeko Porphyrio porphyrio melanotus* 

Variable oystercatcher Haematopus unicolor* 

Pied stilt Himantopus himantopus 

NZ dotterel Charadrius obscurus* 

Spur-winged plover Vanellus miles* 

Shore plover Thinornis novaeseelandiae 

Southern black-backed gull Larus dominicanus 

Red-billed gull L. novaehollandiae scopulinus 

Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia 

White-fronted tern Sterna striata 

New Zealand pigeon Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae 

Rock pigeon Columba livia 

Eastern rosella Platycercus eximius 

Red-crowned parakeet Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae novaezelandiae 

Shining cuckoo Chrysococcyx lucidus 

Morepork Ninox novaeseelandiae* 

NZ kingfisher Halcyon sancta vegans* 

Skylark Alauda arvensis* 

Welcome swallow Hirundo tahitica neoxena* 

NZ pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae 

Dunnock Prunella modularis 

Grey Warbler Gerygone igata* 

Fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa* 

Song thrush Turdus philomelos* 

Blackbird T. merula* 

Silvereye Zosterops lateralis* 

101

Bellbird Anthornis melanura 

Tui Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae* 

Yellowhammer Emberiza citronella* 

Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs* 

Greenfinch Carduelis chloris* 

Goldfinch C. carduelis* 

Redpoll C. flammea 

House sparrow Passer domesticus* 

Starling Sturnus vulgaris* 

Common myna Acridotheres tristis* 

Australian magpie Gymnorhina tibicen* 

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Motuora Native Species Restoration Plan - Motuora Restoration ...

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