Chapter 5: Construction - Bryophyte Ecology

CHAPTER 5 

CONSTRUCTION 

Figure 1. A log cabin in Norway illustrates the use of bryophytes for chinking between the logs, and more recently for the 

construction of green roofs. Photo by Michael Lüth. 

Construction 

One would hardly expect the non-lignified mosses to 

be useful in construction (Figure 1), but in fact, they can be 

quite utilitarian, especially in Polar climates and remote 

areas. In the Antarctic, Granite House at Granite Harbour, 

Cape Geology, still has remnants of mosses placed there by 

Scott's last Antarctic Expedition when they built the house 

in 1911. Stuffed into the cracks in the walls are Bryum 

argenteum, B. pseudotriquetrum, and Hennediella heimii 

(R. Seppelt, Pers. Comm.). The Inuktitut Indians used 

Sphagnum for chinking (Wilson 1978). The Shuswap 

Indians use the mosses Aulacomnium and Dicranum for 

chinking by mixing it with clay (Palmer 1975). 

In northern Europe some houses still have chinking of 

Homalothecium sericeum, Isothecium myosuroides, and 

Pleurozium schreberi (Richardson 1981) or Fontinalis 

antipyretica as fire insulation between the chimney and 

walls, hence its name (Thieret 1956). But even in our 

modern technological times, Philippine construction still 

uses them as fillers between wooden posts of walls and 

roof shingles (B. Tan, pers. comm.), Alaskans still use 

Hylocomium splendens, Racomitrium canescens, 

Rhytidiadelphus loreus, and Sphagnum as chinking (Lewis 

1981), and shepherds in the Himalayan highlands use local 

species for chinking in temporary summer homes (Pant & 

Tewari 1989). In the more recent habitation of Isle Royale, 

Michigan, where there are no cars or commercial 

enterprises, mosses have been used for chinking in a 

fishery 

hut ( Figure 2). 

Figure 2. Moss chinking in a fishery hut on the dock near 

the Rock Harbor Light House, Isle Royale National Park, 

Michigan, USA. Photo by Diane Lucas. 

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For chinking, mosses are pressed between the logs 

with the fingers or an instrument and left to dry, where they 

remain compressed and still green. Use of peat for 

construction will be described in the Uses: Technological 

& Commercial chapter. In addition to construction, they 

are used to decorate and insulate buildings. For example, 

the City Hall in Iceland is decorated with mosses (Figure 

3). 

Figure 3. Moss wall decorating the Reykjavik City Hall in 

Iceland. Photos by Steffi Wilberscheid. 

Unfortunately, mosses used on the sides of buildings 

do not always meet the aesthetic goal we would hope for. 

In Munich, Germany, a huge tufa stone wall of an 

insurance building was covered with mosses (J.-P. Frahm, 

personal communication). However, eventually the 

mosses, so carefully cultivated on the rock (Figure 4), were 

washed off. The contractor, Michel Chiaffredo, blamed 

this on the heavy metal pollution and especially the copper 

that mosses accumulated before dying (Michel Chiaffredo, 

personal communication 2007). The water used for the 

irrigation was the water retrieved from roofs, then stored in 

a tank. The quantity of copper and other heavy metals in 

these mosses, indicated by the analysis conducted by the 

Pasteur Institute, killed the Aloina ambigua used for the 

green wall (Figure 5). Unfortunately, nobody wanted to 

assume the responsibility for the copper sulfate and other 

metals. Aloina ambigua is well adapted to a calcareous 

tufa, but it is not a copper moss. A new gardener tried to 

Chapter 5: Construction 

replace the lost mosses with Brachythecium rutabulum, 

installing an expensive system to wet the stone, but this 

water dissolved the carbonates of the tufa rock, which then 

crystallized on the mosses and killed them (J.-P. Frahm, 

personal communication 2007). It appears that the new 

gardener did not understand the ecology of the moss – or 

the rock. 

Paths 

Older walkways around buildings were often 

constructed of bricks. Mosses eventually filled in the 

spaces between the bricks, adding a rustic and restful look. 

Vivian (1996) proclaims the need for such walkways, 

criticizing the sterile, formal appearance of straight 

concrete or blacktop. Such mosses seem to be a frequent 

subject for poets. See the subchapter on Uses: Literature. 

Figure 4. These mosses are being cultured on tufa to be used 

in building construction. Photo by Michel Chiaffredo. 

Figure 5. Aloina ambigua grows here on tufa rock such as 

that used for the insurance building in Munich. Photo by Michel 

Chiaffredo.

Ecocity 

Use of mosses to control erosion (Conard 1935; Figure 

6), muffle traffic noise, and retain cooling moisture forms 

the basis of a modern philosophy that may be labelled 

"ecocity." It follows the premise that mosses form a 

natural part of the ecosystem and that they have an 

important role in that ecosystem that can make life more 

pleasant for the human species, as well as maintaining a 

healthier ecosystem. 

At Ilsong (Ilsong 2004), in Korea, mosses are being 

touted for their ability to stabilize and beautify the 

environment in an environmentally friendly way. The 

Codra system starts with a soil embankment, such as one 

would find along a highway, and covers it with a layer of 

concrete formed like a rock outcrop, i.e., not flat, but with 

undulations like rocks. To this, mosses are added and 

eventually make a soothing green mat that catches water 

and helps to stabilize the bank. Presumably, even if the 

concrete develops cracks, the mosses will be able to fill in 

and maintain the stability. Mosses such as Hyophila 

(Figure 7) readily grow on such concrete coverings in 

Japan and presumably elsewhere that this moss occurs 

naturally. The moss catch system consists of blocks 

forming vertical walls that are covered with mosses. These 

systems require early maintenance that assures sufficient 

water until the moss system becomes established. 

Figure 6. Soil bank where mosses such as Polytrichum help 

to maintain stability. Photo by Janice Glime. 

Figure 7. The drought-tolerant, calciphilic moss, Hyophila 

involuta, grows easily on concrete. Photo by Michael Lüth. 


Green Roofs 

I am a little disappointed when my friends risk life or 

limb on their roof, trying to remove mosses from the 

shingles. Although mosses have traditionally been 

considered a nuisance on roofs, with people spending 

hundreds of dollars to remove them, more recently they 

have made a new debut in Germany, the United States, and 

other places. Their new acclaim offers the advantage of 

cleaning the atmosphere of pollution while buffering the 

temperature, fireproofing, and creating a sound barrier. For 

more southern locations where slate roofs are common, 

they offer a lighter and cheaper alternative (Posth 1993). 

They are now being produced commercially in Germany 

(Behrens Systemtechnik) for roofing (Frahm 2004; Figure 

8). Interestingly, it is this German company that is 

installing moss roofs in Michigan, USA. However, most 

people still consider mosses on roofs a nuisance because 

they add weight and increase the growth of fungi, and 

many 

consider the roof to look dirty. 

Figure 8. Jan-Peter Frahm demonstrates a sheet of moss that 

is ready to be used in "green roof" construction. Photo by Jan- 

Peter Frahm. 

Michel Chiaffredo and Franck-Olivier Denayer (2004) 

treat the mosses as both aesthetically beautiful and 

ecologically sound additions to urban roofs (Figure 9; 

Figure 10). And they are getting customers in the "green 

roof revolution" who agree with them (Chiaffredo 2004). 

To quote them, "It is thus possible to set up on roofs, in one 

go, a combination of all the living elements that nature 

would introduce spontaneously over a far longer period of 

time: veil of micro-organisms associated with mosses, and 

wild seeds of dependent xerophilous plants. The natural 

environment thus reconstituted will evolve very slowly 

according to the ecological conditions of the site, requiring 

neither maintenance nor the introduction of fertilizers. This 

innovative phytoecological engineering makes it truly 

possible to maintain biodiversity, unlike all the agronomic 

or horticultural processes, even within the very heart of 

towns and cities." (Chiaffredo & Denayer 2004; Figure 

11). 

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Figure 9. This modern building has a green roof. Photo by 

Michel Chiaffredo. 

Figure 10. This green roof has bryophytes with skylights. 

Photo by Michel Chiaffredo. 

Figure 11. This bryophyte plantation prepares bryophytes 

for green roof construction. Photo by Jan-Peter Frahm. 

Chiaffredo and Denayer point out the advantages of 

using such vegetation on one's roof: 

• Regulate rainwater: Collection of water by 

rooftop vegetation, especially bryophytes, will 

prevent the movement of water from large 

surfaces onto a small area of ground below and 

permit the return of water slowly to the 

atmosphere by evapotranspiration. 

• Increase biodiversity: Opportunities for diversity 

in urban areas is limited, and rooftops add an 

opportunity for additional flora and fauna. 


• Decrease the greenhouse effect: Bryophytes are 

heat sinks that will cool by evapotranspiration on 

the one hand and retain heat by insulation in 

winter on the other, reducing the heat flux in and 

out of the building. 

• Improve air quality: Bryophytes produce oxygen, 

use CO2, and trap dust particles, thus helping to 

clean the atmosphere. 

• Reduce sound pollution: Roofs can serve as 

sounding boards to bounce sounds, whereas the 

rough surface of a bryophyte mat absorbs sound, 

thus reducing the sound pollution of traffic or 

noisy equipment. 

When the roof is flat, the moss garden can be 

aesthetically pleasing as well (Figure 12). Mosses for 

green roof gardening can be grown in plantations (Figure 

11) 

where natural diversity develops (Figure 13). 

Figure 12. This completed green roof has a formal design, 

but many are more casual. Photo by Jan-Peter Frahm. 

Figure 13. This mat of mixed mosses is ready for 

transplantation to make a "green roof." Photo by Jan-Peter 

Frahm. 

In 2004, Bryonetters contributed their ideas to the 

species of mosses suitable for roofs. John Christy 

suggested that Ceratodon purpureus was a good candidate 

because of its ability to form sods on concrete, gravel, 

asphalt, and wood. It tolerates nitrogen, so air pollution 

and bird droppings would be less of a problem than for 

some mosses. Use of zinc-plated metal around roof vents, 

chimneys, skylights, and other objects must be avoided 

because they will kill the mosses. Spreading mosses by 

fragments will accelerate their establishment. Other weedy 

species such as the acrocarpous Bryum argenteum,

Tortula/Syntrichia, and Racomitrium will colonize the 

more exposed areas, whereas pleurocarpous taxa such as 

Mniaceae and Brachythecium will colonize shadier sites. 

Henk Greven suggested that Polytrichum formosum is 

easily transplanted and he would expect it to do well on 

roofs. Michel Chiaffredo has shown this to be the case 

(Figure 14; Figure 15). 

Controversies have arisen regarding the best upkeep 

for the green roof. Ideally, these roofs are low or no 

maintenance ecosystems. Thus, we would anticipate no 

need for fertilizers, which generally seem detrimental to 

bryophytes anyway. However, many of the roof gardens 

that have been in existence seem to be deteriorating 

(Koehler 2003), leading the roof gardeners to promoting 

fertilization. Chiaffredo and Denayer (2004) disagree with 

this approach, concluding that it is "contrary to the very 

definition of extensive vegetalization." The International 

Green Roof Association lists the moss-sedum-herbs and 

grasses community as a low maintenance, low cost green 

roof plant community (IGRA). 

Figure 14. These large mats of Polytrichum are ready for 

transplantation to a "green roof" site. Photo by Jan-Peter Frahm. 

The principle of the green roof for some companies 

relies on the well-known ability of mosses to colonize such 

a substrate with no help from us (Figure 16). At this stage, 

they are pioneers and require no watering or fertilizer 

(Figure 17). Diversity develops normally, hence providing 

stability (Figure 18). Their development can be compared 

to that of the cryptogamic crust that is so important in 

anchoring and nurturing the soil of prairies and semideserts 

in the North American Southwest, Israel, and parts of 

China and Australia. These crusts remove CO2 from the 

atmosphere, convert atmospheric N to ammonia and 

nitrates, and generally improve the quality of the habitat for 

invading organisms, while improving the air quality for 

humans. 

Using the studies on bryophytes as pioneers in these 

natural habitats as models, green roof landscapers have 

conducted studies on the best substrates for the roofs. The 


most popular and successful roofing material is a mineral 

one of volcanic origin, having a granulometric variation of 

1-16 mm. Fentiman Consulting advocates a thin layer of 

concrete as a substrate for moss establishment (Grant 

2006). 

Figure 15. Polytrichum displays a marvelous collection of 

capsules with hairy caps in the background and numerous male 

splash cups in the foreground. Photo by Jan-Peter Frahm. 

Figure 16. Buildings in Norway with natural green roofs. 

Photo by Michael Lüth. 

Figure 17. Seashore damaged by tourists shows damaged 

bare sand area and restored area beyond the rope. Photo by 

Michel Chiaffredo. 

In London, England, the CUE Building of the 

Morniman Museum did not begin with bryophytes on its 

green roof (Grant 2006). However, successful 

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establishment of tracheophytes led to natural succession 

and invasion of native species, including bryophytes. 

Mosses became frequent in the more open areas, including 

Bryum capillare, Ceratodon purpureus, Hypnum 

cupressiforme, Pseudoscleropodium purum, and 

Brachythecium rutabulum. The wetter north-facing section 

sported, in addition to a number of grasses, a luxuriant 

growth of mosses made up of Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus, 

Brachythecium rutabulum, B. albicans, Kindbergia 

praelonga, 

and Calliergonella cuspidata. 

Figure 18. This restored area shows colonization by pioneer 

plants, including the bryophytes. Photos by Michel Chiaffredo. 

Sadly, it seems that using mosses for green roof 

construction has not become a common practice in the 

USA. Rather, xerophytic tracheophytes dominate 

greenroof landscaping there. But the idea has been planted, 

and ecologically minded green-roofers are considering the 

advantages in heat control vs. the disadvantages in 

introduction of pests, added weight, and moisture damage 

to roofing shingles. 

Grant (2006) sums up the green roof concept, stating 

"Green roofs are arguably the best example of 

multifunctional urban design, whereby elements on, in, and 

around the built environment serve several purposes. A 

roof (or external wall) can and should be more than just a 

weather-proof surface or structural element—it can be part 

of a living, cooling, cleansing skin that not only helps 

reduce flooding, urban heat-island effects, and air and noise 

pollution, but also provides wildlife habitat and 

tranquility." As proof of this utility, w have learned that at 

the Michigan Ford Rouge auto manufacturing plant, the 

green roof reduces power needs (Cesere 2006) through its 

function as a heat sink and evaporative cooling ability 

(Roofscapes 2004)! 

Eliminating Moss 

Unfortunately, not everyone shares the perception of 

the aesthetic appeal of mosses and liverworts. When they 

occur on roofs, and even in the cracks in the sidewalks, 

some people will declare war. I have been asked how to 

eliminate them on a roof, and my answer is "Why do you 

want to?" Of course on roofs they add weight, especially 

when wet, and can get in the way when shovelling heavy 

snow off during six months of winter, but still! 

Several bryocides seem to be successful. The one 

most familiar to me is lime (CaCO3), partly because most 


bryophytes prefer more acid conditions, but perhaps even 

more important are the desiccating properties of lime. 

Bogdanov (1963) describes liming to eliminate mosses in 

forest stands (!) of drained swamps. A recent ad on the 

internet, however, seems to me a slightly better solution, if 

you must. This is a product called Moss Aside TM , an 

herbicidal soap (Gardens Alive). It will let you grow 

thicker lawns! 

Others advocate zinc or copper strips placed near the 

peak of the roof. Rainwater dissolves enough zinc to form 

zinc carbonate, which washes down the roof, killing the 

mosses. Of course, it accumulates on the ground below 

and will ultimately get into the water supply, so the 

solution can be a deadly one if many people begin this 

practice. 

One web site advocates using a standard scrub brush 

on a long handle to remove the moss. I cannot help but 

wonder if the brush doesn't do more damage to the asphalt 

than the moss does. And how practical is it for a roof like 

the one in Figure 20? 

Golf Courses 

In September 2006, Bryonet subscribers were asked to 

recommend the ideal moss for a golf course. Susan Moyle- 

Studlar (Bryonet, 14 September 2006) contributed several 

suggestions. She suggested Polytrichum species because 

they tolerate the high light levels of a golf course and are 

trampling resistant, being firmly anchored to the substrate. 

In fact, the trampling can help to propagate them by 

creating fragments that can produce new plants. They are 

common plants along trails and railroad tracks. However, 

she cautioned that they are a bit tall and will require 

frequent watering. 

A shorter and softer turf, relatively trampling resistant, 

is formed by Dicranella heteromalla (Figure 19) along 

forest trails, but she cautions that it is not well-anchored, 

possibly leading to a "choppy turf" following the activity of 

golfers. But, like Polytrichum species, these would also 

need watering and additionally would need shade. 

Figure 19. Dicranella heteromalla, known as green thread 

moss, grows here on a vertical bank. Photo by Michael Lüth. 

Leucobryum can tolerate trampling, as exhibited by its 

proliferation near a picnic shelter in West Virginia, USA. 

Moyle-Studlar considers this a possible candidate because 

of its tolerance of greater aridity than the former two, its 

retention of its attractiveness when dry, and its ability to 

reproduce from broken leaves. Nevertheless, the chopping

effect of golf clubs would most likely be quite destructive; 

hopefully winter would give it a chance to recover. 

Pleurocarpous mosses such as Hypnum imponens 

(Figure 21) and Thuidium delicatulum likewise seem to 

return from trampling damage, but they also pose the same 

problems of the above mosses and lack a secure anchoring 

system. 

Figure 20. This house in Bretagne has mosses invading the 

roof. Photo by Michael Lüth. 

Figure 21. Hypnum imponens appears here with H. 

jutlandica in the background. Photo by Michael Lüth). 

John Christy (Bryonet, 15 September 2006) reported 

seeing Bryum argenteum forming tightly-packed, extensive 

turfs growing among the closely clipped grass on golf 

greens on the west coast of North America. The moss 

seemed to grow well on the hard but well-drained surface. 

Diana Horton (Bryonet, 15 September 2006) reported the 

same species from a golf course in Arizona, where it 


formed a "beautiful, short and dense sod." Only this time 

the manager wanted advice on how to eliminate it! 

In ruins near Abingdon, Great Britain, mosses were 

tucked between and behind the stones of a Roman well. 

Dickson (1981) concluded that the mosses were placed 

there deliberately because they were not the ones that one 

would expect there naturally. Hence, he suggested they 

might have been used to filter the water. One might expect 

them to help hold the rocks together as well. 

Building Construction 

In the Philippines, one of the tallest mosses known, 

Spiridens reinwardtii, is used as a binding material (B. C. 

Tan, pers. comm.). It also serves as a filler between 

wooden posts and shingles in building the local huts. 

In Japan, mosses are used on walls, embankments, and 

roofs for both aesthetic purposes and practical ones 

(Deguchi, personal communication 2005). Deguchi has 

actually published in the Green Architecture Tribune 22: 8, 

a newsletter among the building industries in Japan, 

encouraging the use of bryophytes. Mosses not only give 

the building an "old" and quiet appearance, but they also 

reduce heat loss in winter and air conditioning needs in 

summer. Typical mosses for these purposes are Hypnum 

plumaeforme (Figure 22) and Racomitrium japonicum. 

Custom Stone Handlers, Squirrel Mountain Stone, in 

Tennessee, will provide choices of boulders with intact 

moss. It appears that most of these are intended for 

gardens, but they could be used in construction as well. A 

die-hard bryologist might even choose them for fireplace 

construction. 

Travertine Rock 

In calcareous waters, certain mosses are tufa formers 

(Crum 1973). The species Didymodon tophaceous makes 

such deposits, forming didymodontoliths! The tufa is 

formed by CaCO3 deposits on the moss surface as 

photosynthesis removes the CO2 from the water. These 

deposits result in a soft limestone that hardens into a porous 

brownish stone known as travertine. This elegantappearing 

travertine was once a common flooring material 

in many public buildings, especially banks. But its use was 

not just modern; the Roman Coliseum was built of 

travertine. This travertine rock, formed by the mosses, is 

not to be confused with the volcanic tufa that was a fragile 

rock also used by the Romans (Michel Chiaffredo, personal 

communication 2007). 

Problems in Construction 

But mosses are not always welcome in construction. 

Not only are they considered a problem on roofs, but their 

moisture and organic acids contribute to the degradation of 

statues, tombstones, and walls (Perry 1987). On my own 

campus, student workers were instructed to spray them 

with herbicides in the cracks in the sidewalks because they 

made the walks look "unsightly." Fortunately, from my 

biased point of view, the mosses usually survive the 

herbicide treatments. And to my eyes, the mosses looked 

much better than the anthills that appeared in their absence! 

But, alas, this year they are being dug out. Obviously, our 

maintenance folks do not agree with Vivian (1996), or me! 

7

8 

Log Dams 

Bryophytes can have advantages in emergencies 

because of their absorptive ability and small size. For 

example, when a temporary log dam developed a leak 

during a timber harvest in Japan, the resourceful workers 

used Hypnum plumaeforme (Figure 22), Loeskeobryum 

brevirostre, Rhytidiadelphus japonicus, and Thuidium 

kanedae to stop the leak (Ando 1957). And forest workers 

in Pennsylvania, USA, deliberately use rocks with 

Fontinalis on them to help stabilize newly constructed 

weirs. The mosses quickly spread to other rocks, 

effectively gluing them together. 

Figure 22. An epiphytic Hypnum plumaeforme is a moss 

among those used to repair a log dam in Japan and is also used on 

walls to give a cooling effect. Photo by Janice Glime. 

Boat Construction 

Use of mosses in boat construction is well 

documented. In the Scottish Highlands, mosses were 

prepared by steeping in tar, then used for caulk (Crum 

1973; Figure 23). As in those used for houses, they were 

usually relatively large, pleurocarpous mosses such as 

Eurhynchium striatum and Neckera complanata (Pant & 

Tewari 1990). Mosses were even imported into Holland 

from Belgium after the 16th Century for caulking the 

carvel-built boats (Dickson 1973). And Polytrichum 

commune served for making the ropes (Figure 24). The 

online Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum (accessed on 20 

March at www.dsm.de/ MA/schlachte.htm) displays a rope 

made 

of this moss and carbon-dated to 1770. 

Figure 23. In this boat, mosses were used as rope caulk. 

Redrawn from Dickson (1973) by Janice Glime. 


The native Yaghan people in Chile used mosses to 

build their canoes in quite a different way (Metzner 

Productions 2006). They buried tree bark in peat for a 

season, allowing the acidity to preserve the bark while the 

moisture made it flexible. They could then form it into a 

canoe. 

Figure 24. Polytrichum was used as rope caulk. Photo by 

Per Hoffmann. 

Summary 

In construction, mosses can provide chinking and 

even building material, as well as ameliorating the 

climate. Green Roof technology uses the process of 

natural succession to vegetate roofs and disturbed areas. 

Caution must be exercised in choosing bryophytes that 

are adapted to the type of substrate being used. On golf 

courses, bryophytes require no mowing and withstand 

at least some trampling. Bryophyte ropes have been 

used to construct boats. 

Acknowledgments 

Thank you to Steffi Wilberscheid for taking pictures of 

the Reykjavik City Hall for me while she was in Iceland, 

and to Jan-Peter Frahm for making contact with Steffi for 

me. 

Literature Cited 

Ando, H. 1957. Notes on useful bryophytes. Bull. Biol. Soc. 

Hiroshima Univ. 7(2): 23-26. 

Bogdanov, P. L. 1963. Liming as a method of combating mosses 

in forest stands on moss-covered felled areas and drained 

swamps. In: The Increase of Productivity of Swamped 

Forests, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 

Jerusalem 49: 116-124. 

Cesere, A. 2006. A blueprint for green roofs. Michigan Daily 

Oct. 23. Accessed 28 May 2007 at 

. 

Chiaffredo, M. K. 2004. When mosses recreate the landscape on 

the roof. Greenroofs.com. In the news, February 2004. 

. 

Chiaffredo, M. K. and Denayer, F.-O. 2004. Mosses, a necessary 

step for perennial plant dynamics. MCK Environnement, 

France.

Conard, H. S. 1935. Mosses and soil erosion. Iowa State Coll. J. 

Sci. 9: 347-351. 

Crum, H. 1973. Mosses of the Great Lakes Forest. 

Contributions from the University of Michigan Herbarium 

10: 404 pp. 

Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum. Accessed on 20 March at 

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Dickson, J. H. 1973. Bryophytes of the Pleistocene. The British 

record and its chorological and ecological implications. 

Cambridge University Press. pp. 192-195. 

Dickson, J. H. 1981. Bryological Notes: Mosses from a Roman 

well at Abingdon. J. Bryol. 11: 559-562. 

Frahm, J.-P. 2004. New frontiers in bryology and lichenology: 

Recent developments of commercial products from 

bryophytes. Bryologist 107: 277-283. 

Gardens Alive. Accessed on 26 May at 

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Grant, G. 2006. Extensive green roofs in London. Urban 

Habitats Dec. 2006, accessed on 28 May 2007 at 

 

Ilsong. 2004. Accessed on 9 June 2007 at 

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IGRA. International Green Roof Association. Accessed on 9 

June 2007 at . 

Koehler, M. 2003. Plant survival research and biodiversity: 

lessons from Europe – Greening Rooftops for Sustainable 

Communities: Chicago 2003. 


Lewis, M. 1981. Human uses of bryophytes I. Use of mosses for 

chinking log structures in Alaska. Bryologist 84: 571-572. 

Metzner Productions. 2006. Pulse of the Planet. Accessed on 26 

May 2007 at 

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Palmer, G. 1975. Shuswap Indian Ethnobotany. Syesis 8: 29-51. 

Pant, G. and S. D. Tewari. 1989. Various human uses of 

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Pant, G. and S. D. Tewari. 1990. Bryophytes and mankind. 

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Smithsonian 17(10): 72-78. 

Posth, M. A. 1993. Put a green engine on the roof. Calif. 

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Richardson, D. H. S. 1981. The Biology of Mosses. John Wiley 

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. 

Thieret, J. W. 1956. Bryophytes as economic plants. Econ. Bot. 

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Chapter 5: Construction - Bryophyte Ecology

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