Chapter I Intro & Objectives - SPREP

The Phoenix Islands 

Protected Area 

Management Plan 

-2007- 

BACKGROUND 

(CHAPTERS I, II, and III) 

First Draft 3-5-07 

By: 

K. Roger Uwate 

Consultant 

New England Aquarium 

And 

Tukabu Teroroko 

Director, 

Phoenix Islands Protected Area 

Phoenix Islands Protected Area 

Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development 

Government of Kiribati 

[March 2007]

Dear Reviewer: 

5 March 2007 

Draft #1 of Chapters I (Introduction), II (Methods), and III (Background) of the management 

plan are now completed. These files are in PDF format. A limited number of hard copies are 

also available at the PIPA office. 

Your review of these chapters is greatly appreciated. 

Please write down (or type up) your comments, insights, and editorial findings on a separate 

sheet. Please indicate the chapter, section, page number, and line number for each comment. 

This is so that the appropriate place in the text for your comment can be identified. 

We apologize for the length of the draft, but there was so much previous information that it 

was impossible to trim this down without losing the colorful, complex and varied history of 

the Phoenix Islands. We encourage you all to spend the time to read through this background 

information. We are confident that you will, as we did, find the journal most interesting. The 

knowledge you will gain will most certainly be extremely useful as we formulate 

management approaches for this very important protected area. 

There are still more than 100 reports that have been identified relating to the Phoenix Islands. 

We are sure that there are other reports that we are not aware of. If you uncover reports not 

cited here, please provide this office with a copy. 

We would appreciate if you could have your review comments back to the PIPA office by the 

1 st of May 2007. 

Your timely review of this material is greatly appreciated. We look forward to receiving your 

review comments. 

Sincerely, 

K. Roger Uwate, Ph.D. 

NEAq Consultant 

Tukabu Teroroko 

PIPA Director

Table of Contents 

Chapter Title Page 

No. 

Table of Contents 

List of Acronyms 

I. INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE 

1. INTRODUCTION 

A. Settting 

B. Need for Management Plan 

C. Previous Phoenix Islands Management Plans 

2. VISION AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES 

3. MANAGEMENT PLAN OBJECTIVE 

4. REFERENCES CITED 

II. METHODOLOGY 

1. LITERATURE SEARCH 

2. SYNTHESIS OF BACKGROUND MATERIALS 

3. STAKEHOLDER INPUTS 

A. Residents of the Phoenix Islands 

B. Government of Kiribati 

C. Foreign Stakeholders 

4. CRITICAL ISSUES 

5. ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES 

6. SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND APPROACHES 


III. BACKGROUND 

1. PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE ISLANDS 

A. Geological 

B. Oceanographic 

C. Bathymetric 

D. Meteorological 

E. References Cited 

2. HUMAN ACTIVITIES 

A. Archaeological Aspects 

B. Discovery 

C. Guano Era (c1856 to 1887) 

D. Post-Guano Era to the Start of World War II (c1887 to 

1939) 

E. World War II (1940 to 1945) 

F. Post World War II to Independence (1946 to 1979) 

G. Post Independence (1979 to present) 

H. References Cited 

3. TERRESTRIAL RESOURCES 

A. Freshwater 

B. Vegetation and Fungi 

C. Insects 

D. Other Invertebrates

E. Amphibians 

F. Reptiles 

G. Birds 

H. Mammals 

I. References Cited 

4. MARINE RESOURCES 

A. Marine Flora 

B. Corals and Other Coelenterata 

C. Sponges 

D. Echinoderms 

E. Annelids 

F. Molluscs 

G. Arthropods 

H. Fishes 

I. Turtles 

J. Marine Mammals 

K. Other Marine Biota 

L. References Cited 

5. FISHERIES RESOURCES 

A. Offshore Fisheries Resources (Tuna) 

B. Offshore Fisheries (Tuna) 

C. Inshore Fisheries Resources 

D. Inshore Fisheries 

E. References Cited 

6. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, REGULATIONS, AND 

AGREEMENTS 

A. Environmental Issues 

B. National Regulations and Laws 

C. International and Regional Agreements 

D. References Cited

List of Acronyms 

Acronym full name 

AFB Air Force Base 

AUD Australian dollar 

BP before present 

CAA U.S. Civil Aviation Authority 

CCOP/SOPAC SOPAC former name 

CEPF Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 

CI Conservation International 

CITES Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species 

Co Cobalt 

CORAL Coral Reef Alliance 

CPUE catch per unit effort 

Cu Cooper 

CVA cumulative volcano amplitude 

D Dimensional 

DOI U.S. Department of Interior 

ECD Environment and Conservation Department, MELAD 

EEZ exclusive economic zone 

ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation 

ESCAP U.N. Economic and Social Commission for Asian and the Pacific 

FAA U.S. Federal Aviation Agency 

FAO Food and Agriculture Department of the United Nations 

GBRMPA Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 

GCF Global Conservation Fund 

GEF Global Environment Facility 

GEIC Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony 

GOK Government of Kiribati 

IFREMER Institu Francais de Recherche Pour L'exploitation de la Mer 

IUCN World Conservation Union 

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency 

JOGMEC Japan Oil, Gas, and Metals National Corporation 

KSSL Kiribati Shipping Services, Ltd. 

LMS London Missionary Society (now the Kiribati Protestant Church) 

LORAN Long Range Navigation Station 

MARC Micronesia Area Resource Center, University of Guam 

MARPOL Maritime Pollution Convention 

MELAD Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Agricultural Development, Kiribati 

MJO Madden-Julian Oscillation 

MLPID Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands Development, Kiribati 

Mn Manganese 

MOU Memorandum of Understanding 

MPA marine protected area 

NASA U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NEAq New England Aquarium 

Ni Nickel 

NOAA U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

PAA Pan American Airways 

PCBs Polychorinated biphenyl 

PCRF Planetary Coral Reef Foundation 

PI Phoenix Islands 

PIKS Phoenix Islands Kakai Scheme 

PIMRIS Pacific Islands Marine Resources Information System

PIPA Phoenix Islands Protected Area 

PIPA SC Inter-governmental Steering Committee overseeing PIPA 

POBSP Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme 

POFI Pacific Ocean Fishery Investigations 

POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants 

Pt Platinum 

RNZAF Royal New Zealand Air Force 

SAMTEC USAF Space and Missile Test Center 

SOI Southern Oscillation Index 

SOPAC Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission 

SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community 

SPREP Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme 

TBAP Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme of SPC 

TL Total Length 

TOGA Tropical Oceans and Global Atmosphere Program 

U.K. United Kingdom 

UH University of Hawaii 

UNCLOS U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea 

UNDP United Nations Development Programme 

UNESCO U.N. Economic, Social, and Culture Organization 

UOG University of Guam 

USA United States of America 

USAF U.S. Air Force 

USD U.S. dollar 

USP University of the South Pacific 

WWF World Wildlife Foundation 

WWII World War II

PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN 

Chapter I. Introduction and Purpose 

Draft 1 March 2007 

1. INTRODUCTION 

A. SETTING 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE 

The Republic of Kiribati is located at the center of the Pacific Ocean (see Figure 1). The 

Phoenix Islands are in the center of the Republic of Kiribati between the Line Islands to the 

east and the Gilbert Islands to the west. The Phoenix Islands are composed of eight islands 

(see Figure 2). These include: Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, 

Orona, and Rawaki. The Phoenix Islands have been known by a variety of names over the 

years (see Table xx below). 

Figure I-1.1. The Phoenix Islands, Kiribati, located 

in the center of the Pacific Ocean. 

(source: Lawson 2005). 

Figure I-1.2. Map of the Phoenix Islands, Kiribati. 

(source: Langley 2003) 

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Table I-1.1. Various names attributed to the Phoenix Islands over time. 

Current 

Name 

Other Names References 

Abariringa Maude 1937; Garnett 1983a 

Canton Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan 1974; McIntire 1940; 

Hempstead 1871 

Kanton Garnett 1983a; Douglas and Douglas 1994; Neemia and 

Thaman 1993 

Mary Balcout Hydrographic Office 1916; Douglas and Douglas 1994; 

McIntire 1960 

Mary Balcourt Garnett 1983a 

Swallow Hydrographic Office 1916; McIntire 1960; Hempstead 

1871 

Balcout Gardner 1938; Sharp 1960 

Bulcot Gardner 1938 

Balcut Van Zwaluwenburg 1941 

Mary Bryan 1941; Bryan 1942; Hydrographic Office 1916; 

Douglas and Douglas 1994; McIntire 1960; Van 

Zwaluwenburg 1941; Hempstead 1871. 

Barney’s Island Sharp 1960; Maude 1968 

Tinaari Government of Kiribati 1995; Tauati 1997 

Birnie Douglas and Douglas 1994; Hempstead 1871 

Enderbury Bryan 1941, 1942 and 1974; Douglas and Douglas 1994; 

Sharp 1960; Maude 1968; Hempstead 1871 

Enderby Maude 1968 

Rawaki Stone et al 2001; Planetary Coral Reef Foundation 2004 

Manra Maude 1937 

Sydney Maude 1968 

McKean Hydrographic Office 1940; Wilkes 1845; Bryan 1941 and 

1942; Hempstead 1871 

M’Kean Hartlaub and Finsch 1872; Rhodes 1936a 

Drummond’s Douglas and Douglas 1994; Throssell and Specht 1989; 

Island Maude 1968 

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Arthur Island Sharp 1960; did not exist according to Hempstead 1871 

Wigram’s 

Island 

Maude 1968 

Wilkes Hempstead 1871 

Nikumaroro Maude 1937 

Gardner Pompey 1972 and 1974 

Kemins Bryan 1941 and 1942; Hydrographic Office 1916 

Kemin’s Laxton 1951 

Mary Letitia’s 

Island 

Laxton 1951 

Kimins Tudor 1968; Pompey 1972 and 1974 

Kemin Rhodes 1936; Maude 1968 

Orona Maude 1937 

Hull Wilkes 1845; Hydrographer of the Navy 1969 

Halls Hempstead 1871 

Rawaki Republic of Kiribati 1992 

Phoenix Bryan 1941 and 1942; Tudor 1968; Hempstead 1871 

Phenix Sharp 1960 

Thoenix Rickman 1871 

Carondelet 

Reef 

Winslow 

Reef 

Hydrographic Office 1916; Hydrographer of the Navy 

1969 

Mary Reef Kursenstern 1835; Maude 1968 

Hydrographic Office 1940; Degener and Gillaspy 1955; 

Hydrographer of the Navy 1969. 

With the exception of Abariringa (Canton), the Phoenix Islands were among the least 

influenced by human activities of tropical Pacific Islands (Fosberg et al 1973). There were 

two major reasons for maintaining their ecological integrity. 

1) Several of the Phoenix Islands, especially Rawaki (Phoenix), Orona (Hull), 

Birnie, and Enderbury, were breeding grounds for the remnants of the once 

enormous seabird populations in the Pacific Islands. This was evident by the 

vast guano deposits that had been extracted from these islands. 

2) The smaller Phoenix Islands including Rawaki (Phoenix), Birnie, Enderbury, 

and McKean, provide some of the very few remaining examples of fairly 

intact natural small island ecosystems in the Pacific. Studying these relatively 

simple eco-systems almost un-touched by man, could provide clues for 

understanding more complex eco-systems such as found in continental areas. 

The Phoenix Islands were identified as a Key Biodiversity Area in Conservation 

International’s Ecosystem Program for the Polynesia/Micronesia Hotspot under the Critical 

Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) (Pierce 2006). The Phoenix Islands was identified as an 

Important Bird Area by Birdlife International. 

In March 2006, the Government of Kiribati (GOK) declared the Phoenix Islands Protected 

Area (PIPA), making it the third largest marine protected area in the world today. The GOK, 

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New England Aquarium (NEAq), and Conservation International (CI) signed a Memorandum 

of Understanding (MOU) for the development of a management and financial plan to support 

the creation of the PIPA. The Global Conservation Fund (GCF) at CI is financing the 

implementation phase and has committed to begin the capitalization of the endowment to 

support the PIPA. 

The overall purpose of this project is to create a long-term conservation and sustainable 

development program for the Phoenix Islands. This includes natural, cultural and historic 

conservation for the islands of Abariringa (Kanton or Canton), Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki 

(Phoenix), Orona (Hull), Manra (Sydney), Nikumaroro (Gardner) and McKean, known 

collectively as the Phoenix Islands. The marine protected area extends 60 nautical miles out 

from the coastline of each island and including both marine and terrestrial habitats. 

B. NEED FOR MANAGEMENT PLAN 

The Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA) represents the third largest marine protected area 

in the world. The newly designated Northwest Hawaiian Islands National Monument 

(designated in 2006) is the largest MPA in the world. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 

Authority (GBRMPA) is the second largest MPA in the world. 

The history of the Phoenix Islands goes back to prehistoric times. In more recent times, both 

the British and Americans have both claim some if not all of the Phoenix Islands. In 1979, 

the Phoenix Islands became part of the newly independent country of Kiribati. 

Over the years, various researchers have conducted research in the Phoenix Islands. 

However, reports of these studies rarely are provided to the Government of Kiribati and are 

also rarely available locally. 

As such this management plan provides an opportunity to learn the history of the Phoenix 

Islands as well as to reveal the scientific understanding of the area. There are always 

important lessons that can be learned from history. In addition, research findings can provide 

a foundation for improved resource management. 

With such a large protected area as PIPA, it is important to develop plans and strategies for 

effective management of natural resources and anthropogenic influences within the 

constraints of the management resources available. PIPA is a very remote location. Logistics 

and sustainability will be major challenges facing PIPA. 

C. PREVIOUS PHOENIX ISLANDS MANAGEMENT PLANS 

Fosberg et al (1973) provided guidance on management of Phoenix Islands terrestrial and 

marine resources. These included: 

1) Severely restrict visits to Phoenix Islands, except Abariringa (Canton), except 

for scientific or other urgent reasons. Casual visits should not take place. 

2) Helicopters should not operate at an elevation of less than 1,500 ft and one 

half-mile offshore. 

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3) If helicopters need to land, landing sites should be on sand areas, not vegetated 

areas. Areas around landing sites should be cleared of bird nests (up to 300 

m). 

4) Movement of vehicles on islands should be restricted so as not to disturb sea 

bird nesting areas. 

5) Islands should be monitored for evidence of exotic plant species. Ornamental 

plants should not be introduced, especially to Abariringa (Canton). 

6) Domestic animals should be controlled. No additional introductions should be 

allowed (including chickens). 

7) No collection of marine life. Turtle breeding sites should not be disturbed. 

8) New ship grounding should be investigated to ensure that rats are not 

introduced. 

Dahl (1980) reported that there was an IUCN/WWF project based on Christmas Island that 

was developing proper surveillance and enforcement for the following Phoenix Islands 

reserves: Birnie, McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Abariringa (Canton). Dahl (1980) 

recommended that the Phoenix Islands be upgraded from wildlife sanctuaries to a national or 

international reserve. Abariringa (Canton) should be the communications link and 

surveillance centre. The reserve should include: Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Rawaki 

(Phoenix) and Orona (Hull). Nikumaroro (Gardner), Abariringa (Canton) and Manra 

(Sydney) were excluded. According to Dahl (1980), regular enforcement visits could be 

undertaken by the government ships traveling between Kiritimati and Tarawa. 

Garnett (1983b) reviewed and summarized the conservation conclusions of King (1973) and 

Stoddart (1976) for each of the Phoneix Islands (see Table I-1.2 below). 

Table I-1.2. Conservation suggestions and conclusions of each of the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Garnett 1983b). 

Island Priority 

Enderbury Potential or major importance due to its seabird colonies 

Rawaki (Phoenix) Outstanding value for its seabird colonies 

Birnie Outstanding importance for its unaltered state 

McKean Outstanding value for its seabird colonies 

Manra (Sydney) No special importance 

Orona (Hull) No special importance, but worthy of conservation for its 

seabird colonies 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) No special importance. 

Garnett (1983a, b and c) wrote a management plan for nature conservation in the Line and 

Phoenix Islands. The stated policy “recognized the need to integrate conservation with the 

development of the islands’ natural resources …” and that “… the role of conservation could 

only be rationalized in the wider context of the present and future social and economic needs 

of the country.” The stated major aim of that plan was “to identify areas of concern where 

future progress needs to be mad to reach the specified objectives of … the stated policy, … 

and to suggest the methods by which the policy can be implemented.” 

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Garnett (1983b) developed criteria for determining the conservation status of key features and 

species. Summary tables for each major plant and animal species and physio-geographic 

feature (freshwater lake, brackishwater lagoon, mudflats, small islets, etc.) were constructed. 

Each of the Phoenix and Line Islands with that key feature/species was then listed and the 

recommended status was then assigned to each island. Much of Garnett (1983b) was devoted 

to presentation of the results of this rating system, first by key feature, then by island. 

Garnett (1983c) made several recommendations regarding wildlife conservation in the Line 

and Phoenix Islands. These included the following: 

1) Protection of animals; 

2) Protection of plants; 

3) Control of introduced plants and animals; 

4) Control of fires; 

5) Control of vehicles; 

6) Control of soils; and 

7) Control of dumping and littering. 

Under the 1994 Kiribati National Environmental Management Strategy (SPREP 1994), a 

proposal was put forward for the review and improvement of conservation arrangements for 

the Phoenix and Line Islands. 

Bleakley (1995) reported that the following areas had been identified as being a national 

priority for the establishment and management of MPAs: Birnie, McKean, Enderbury, and 

Rawaki (Phoenix). 

In 1995, the Government of Kiribati (1995) recommended that Spam Island on Abariringa 

(Tunaari) be declared a wildlife sanctuary. 

Kepler (2000) noted that the Phoenix Islands were widely scattered and mostly uninhabited. 

This made monitoring of activities which may have detrimental effects such as illegal fishing 

or disturbance from careless yachters extremely difficult. 

Stone et al (2001) provided various recommendations for development of a management plan 

for marine conservation in the Phoenix Islands. They noted that, “full development of an 

integrated management plan may take 5 to 10 years…” Five key issues were identified: (1) 

multiple-use management, (2) fully protected marine-terrestrial sanctuaries, (3) the 

preservation of future options, (4) high seas issues, and (5) financing and economic 

implications. 

Anon. (2006) reported that CORAL [a U.S. organization] assisted in the creation of an action 

plan for the long term protection of Kiribati’s reefs, including the Phoenix Islands. Attempts 

by the PIPA office to obtain a copy of this action plan were not successful. 

2. VISION AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES 

The guiding principles for the development of this management plan include the following: 

1) Learn from history and scientific research, so that critical issues are revealed 

and can be accounted for during planning. 

6




2) Develop sustained long term management operations. Short term 

unsustainable management is not an option. 

3) Be flexible and innovative in management approaches for PIPA as traditional 

marine protected area (MPA) management theories may not fit. 

Various documents provide guidance on the issue of marine and coastal conservation in 

Kiribati (Magnubhai 2002). These include the following. 

1) The 1993 National Environmental Management Strategy provides long-term 

strategies and proposals. 

2) The National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan has been drafted in order to 

comply with commitments to the Convention on Biological Diversity. 

3) An Environment and Conservation Act was drafted in 1996 and redrafted in 

2006. Final approval for this draft act is expected in 2007. 

3. MANAGEMENT PLAN OBJECTIVE. 

The overall objective of this plan is: 

to preserve terrestrial and marine resources of the Phoenix Islands 

for the sustained benefit of the people of the Republic of Kiribati and 

the world. 

Under this overall objective, there are several goals including: 

1) preserve of biodiversity; 

2) preserve of natural habitats and endemic species (basically the ecosystem); 

3) identify and fill data gaps with baseline and surveys using standard 

quantitative methods; 

4) designate core wilderness protected areas (Category IB- IUCN), buffer zones, 

and zones for specific activities; 

5) include all Phoenix islands reefs within the proposed management area. 

6) eliminate exotic species; 

7) enhance populations of threatened or endangered species; 

8) develop ecologically sound tourism and economic development; 

9) identify long term resource monitoring needs and develop programs to address 

those needs; 

7




10) identify efficient and cost effective surveillance and enforcement approaches; 

11) develop endowment for sustained management of PIPA; and 

12) educate the public regarding the conservation value of the Phoenix Islands 

through public awareness and education programs at the local, regional, and 

global level. 


Anon. 2006. Kiribati designates new marine protected area. Coral Reef Alliance. Summer 

2006. p. 7. 

Bleakley, C. (ed.). 1995. Marine region 14, South Pacific. Pages 13-53 in G. Kelleher, C. 

Bleakley, and S. Wells (eds.), A global representative system of marine protected areas. 

Volume IV. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank, The World 

Conservation Union (IUCN). 

Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1941. American Polynesia: coral islands of the central Pacific. Honolulu: 

Tongg Publishing Co. 208 pp. 

Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1942. American Polynesia and the Hawaiian chain. Honolulu: Tongg 

Publishing Co. 253 pp. 

Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1974. Panala'au memoirs. Pacific Science Information Center, B.P. Bishop 

Museum. 

Dahl, A.L. 1980. Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific area. SPC/IUCN 

Technical Paper 179, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 

Degener, O., and E. Gillaspy. 1955. Canton Island, South Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin 

41: 1-50. 

Douglas, N., and N. Douglas. 1994. Pacific islands yearbook, 17th Edition. Suva: Fiji 

Times Ltd. 

Fosberg, F.R., D.R. Stoddart, and R.B. Clapp. 1973. Visit to the Phoenix Islands. 29th May 

to 12 June 1973. Preliminary report of ecology review team. Royal Society Southern Zone 

Research Committee. 

Gardner, I.C. 1938. Crusoes of Canton. National Geographic Magazine 73(6): 749-766. 

Garnett, M.C. 1983a. A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix 

Islands. Part 1. Description. Unpublished report prepared for the Ministry of Line and 

Phoenix Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. 318 pp. 

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Garnett, M.C. 1983b. A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix 

Islands. Part 2. Policy. Unpublished report prepared for the Ministry of Line and Phoenix 

Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. 

Garnett, M.C. 1983c. Part 3. Recommendations. Unpublished report prepared for the 

Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. 125 pp. 

Government of Kiribati. 1995. Ana ribooti te tiim n tutuo ibukin, te aono n Rawaki (Report 

of the Survey Team, Phoenix Islands). 

Hartlaub, G. and O. Finsch. 1872. On the fourth collection of birds from Pelew and 

Mackenzie Islands. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1872: 87-114. 

Hempstead, E. 1871. Sailing directions for Phoenix Island. The Friends, Aug. 1871, p. 61. 

(see Ward 1967, p. 531). 

Hydrographer of the Navy. 1969. Pacific Islands pilot. Vol. II, The central group comprising 

New Caledonia and Iles Loyalty; the New Hebrides Group and Santa Cruz Islands; the Fiji 

Islands; and the Tonga, Samoa, Ellice, Gilbert, Marshall, Phoenix, and Tokelau Islands. N.P. 

No. 61. Ninth Edition 1969. 

Hydrographic Office. 1916. Pacific Islands pilot. Vol. II, Eastern Group. Secretary of the 

Navy. Washington, Government Printing Office. 

Hydrographic Office. 1940. Sailing directions for the Pacific islands. Vol. II. (Eastern 

groups). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 166 pp. 

Kepler, A.K.K. 2000. Report: Millenium sunrise, Line and Phoenix Islands Expedition, 

December 15, 1999 - January 28, 2000. 

King, W.B. 1973. Conservation status of birds of central Pacific atolls. Wilson Bulletin 85: 

89-103. 

Krusenstern, A.I. von. 1835. Supplémens au Recueil de Mémories Hydrographiques, pour 

servir d’Analyse et d’Explication a l’Atlas de l’Océan Pacificque. 4 vols. and atlas. St. 

Petersbourg, A. Pluchart. [cited unseen from Maude 1968]. 

Langley, A. 2003. Kiribati national tuna fishery status report no. 2. Oceanic Fisheries 

Programme, Secretariat of the Pacific Community. 

Lawson, T.A. 2005. Tuna fishery yearbook 2004. Western and Central Pacific Fisheries 

Commission, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. 

Laxton, P.B. 1951. Nikumaroro. Journal of the Polynesian Society 60 (2,3): 134-160. 

Mangubhai, S. 2002. Viable long-term options for isolated atolls of the Phoenix Islands, 

Republic of Kiribati. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA. 

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Maude, H.E. 1937. Report on the colonization of the Phoenix Islands by the surplus 

population of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Govt Press, 

Suva. 

Maude, H.E. 1968. Of islands and men; studies in Pacific history. Melbourne: Oxford Univ. 

Press. 397 pp. 

McIntire, E.G. 1960. Canton Island, Phoenix Islands: A library brochure. University of 

California. 42 pp. 

Neemia, U., and R. Thaman. 1993. The environment and sustainable development. Chapter 

27 in Trease, H.V. (ed). Atoll Politics, the Republic of Kiribati, Macmillan Brown Centre for 

Pacific Studies, University of Canterbury, and Institute of Pacific Studies, USP. 

Pierce, R.J., T. Etei, V. Kerr, E. Saul, A. Teatata, M. Thorsen, and G. Wragg. 2006. Phoenix 

Islands conservation survey and assessment of restoration feasibility: Kiribati. Report 

prepared for: Conservation International, Samoa and Pacific Islands Initiative, Auckland 

University, Auckland. 

Planetary Coral Reef Foundation. 2004. Health of the Phoenix Islands reefs. 

http://www.pcrf.org/science/Canton/reefreport.html. 

Pompey, S.L. 1972. A history of Gardner Island in the Phoenix Islands. Kingsbury, 




Republic of Kiribati. 1992. Kiribati 7th National Development Plan 1992-1995. Republic of 

Kiribati. 

Rhodes, F. 1936. The pageant of the Pacific; being the maritime history of Australasia. 

Sidney, N.S.W.: F.J. Thawites (Pty) Ltd. Vol. 1 

Rickman, G.D. 1871. Report of Schooner C.M. Ward. The Friends, Honolulu. May 1, 1871 

(see Ward 1967d, p. 528). 

Sharp, A. 1960. The discovery of the Pacific islands. Westport: Greenwood Press, 

Publishers. 

South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP). 1994. Kiribati national 

environmental management strategy. SPREP, UNDP. 

Stoddart, D.R. 1976. Scientific importance and conservation of central Pacific atolls. 

Typescript report. [cited unseen from Garnett 1983b.] 

Stone, G., D. Obura, S. Bailey, A. Yoshinaga, C. Holloway, R. Barrel, and S. Mangubhai. 

2001. Marine biological surveys of the Phoenix Islands, Summary of expedition conducted 

from June 24 - July 15, 2000. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA. 

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Tauati, T. 1997. Project Proposal for Te Kakai on Orona, Nikumaroro, and Manra. Ministry 

of Home Affairs and Rural Development. 

Throssell, B., and J. Specht. 1989. Stone structures on McKean Island, Phoenix Islands, 

Republic of Kiribati. Australian Archaeology 29: 17-21, Dec. 1, 1989. 

Tudor, J. 1968. Pacific Islands year book and who's who. Tenth Edition. Sydney: Pacific 

Publications. 

Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1941. Canton Island. Hawaiian Planters Record 45: 15-24. 

Ward, R.G. 1967. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history, 

geography, and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the 

Pacific taken from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc. 

Volume 5. 

Wilkes, C. 1845. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 

1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Philadelphia: Lea & Blenchard. Volume III. 

11


Chapter II. Methodology 


CHAPTER II 

METHODOLOGY 

Text in yellow means that it will be developed later. 

1. LITERATURE SEARCH 

Phoenix Islands related reports were searched for at a variety of information resources. 

These included: 

1) Ministry of Fisheries – Tanaea, Tarawa, Kiribati. 

2) National Archives – Bikenibeu, Tarawa, Kiribati. 

3) Department of Agriculture – Tanaea, Tarawa, Kiribati. 

4) Ministry of Line & Phoenix – Bikenibeu, Tarawa, Kiribati. 

5) Ministry of Line & Phoenix – Christmas Island, Kiribati. 

6) Christmas Island Library – Christmas Island, Kiribati. 

7) Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) – Suva, Fiji. 

8) Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) – Noumea, New Caledonia 

9) FFA – Honiara, Solomon Islands 

10) University of Hawaii Hamilton Library – Honolulu, Hawaii. 

11) University of Hawaii Sinclair Library – Honolulu, Hawaii. 

12) Micronesia Area Resource Center (MARC) – University of Guam, Mangilao, 

Guam. 

13) South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP) (on-line) – 

http://www.sprep.org/publication/moana_library.asp 

14) Bishop Museum – Honolulu, Hawaii. 

15) National Marine Fisheries Service – Honolulu, Hawaii. 

16) University of Guam – Mangilao, Guam 

17) University of the South Pacific – Tarawa, Kiribati 

18) University of the South Pacific Main Library – Suva, Fiji 

19) Robert Johannes Special Collection – University of the South Pacific, Suva, 

Fiji. 

20) Pacific Islands Marine Resources Information System (PIMRIS) Library – 

University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 

21) Marshall Islands National Library – Majuro, Marshall Islands 

22) College of the Marshall Islands Library – Majuro, Marshall Islands. 

In addition, a variety of database services were checked for Phoenix Islands related reports. 

These included: 

1) Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstract 

2) BioOne Abstract Series 

3) Abstracts in Anthropology 

4) Google Academic – online. 

In addition, two bibliographies were identified (for the Phoenix Islands see Krause 1973; for 

Kiribati fisheries reports see Gillett et al 1991) and searched for relevant reports. In addition, 

general Micronesia bibliographies were searched (see Sachet and Fosberg 1955 and 1971). 

1




As reports were identified, hardcopy or PDF electronic copy of each report was searched for. 

Many reports were identified, but copies could not be located. Some reports were very old 

(1800s) and copying them was not allowed. 

An Excel database was made of identified reports. This was up-dated each time a Phoenix 

Islands related report was identified, or each time a hard copy of a relevant report was 

obtained. The Excel database is available at the PIPA office in MELAD in Bikenibeu, 

Tarawa. This database is continuously being up-dated as new reports are identified and 

obtained. As of 1 March 2007, there were about 700 reports identified, and about 575 reports 

collected (81 percent). 

Collected documents were the basis for the background section of this plan. All documents 

collected were read and summarized into the appropriate background section. Hard copies of 

all documents collected are on-file at the PIPA office in MELAD in Bikenibeu, Tarawa. 

2. SYNTHESIS OF BACKGROUND MATERIALS 

All documents and reports collected were read and summarized into the Background section 

of this report (Chapter III). 

3. STAKEHOLDER INPUTS 

A. RESIDENTS OF THE PHOENIX ISLANDS 

According to Government of Kiribati officials, there are about 50 people currently living in 

the Phoenix Islands. All of them reside on Abariringa. All of these 50 people are either 

employed by the Government of Kiribati to take care of the Phoenix Islands, or are relatives 

of these government employees. These people are on Abariringa for fixed periods of time 

(years), and then are reassigned elsewhere. There are no permanent residents of the Phoenix 

Islands. 

The standard approach to development of marine protected area is to include early 

discussions with local reef owners. These can include villagers, village chiefs, or island 

councils. However, since the Phoenix Islands do not have permanent residents or villages, 

this approach does not fit. 

B. GOVERNMENT OF KIRIBATI 

The Phoenix Islands are owned by the Government of Kiribati. Therefore the primary 

stakeholder is the Government of Kiribati. The government is composed of a variety of 

ministries and departments. Each has its own mandate and priority. In 2005, the GOK 

established the Intergovernmental Steering Committee to oversee development of the 

Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA). This steering committee is composed of 

representatives from the following agencies: 

1) Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development (MELAD), 

2




2) Environment and Conservation Department (ECD), MELAD, 

3) Attorney General’s Office, 

4) Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Development (MFMRD), 

5) Kiribati National Tourism Office, 

6) USP Research Centre, 

7) Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands Development (MLPID), 

8) Kiribati Police Service, 

9) Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Immigration, 

10) Ministry of Finance and Economic Development. 

A one page questionnaire was developed to solicit opinions from the owner of the Phoenix 

Islands, the Government of Kiribati. The questionnaire was distributed in August 2006 to 

Phoenix Islands Steering Committee members. Follow-up discussions were held with 

relevant ministries and departments. A copy of this questionnaire is attached (see Attachment 

1). Responses from opinion surveys (see Chapter IV) provided part of the basis for 

development of management priorities and proposed actions. 

C. FOREIGN STAKEHOLDERS 

Do we still want to forward a questionnaire to foreign stakeholders? If so, any suggestions 

for format? 

Foreign stakeholder inputs – Many global environmental conservation groups have interest 

in the conservation of pristine natural areas such as the Phoenix Islands. Relevant 

international conservation organizations (CI, IUCN, TNC, TOC, SPREP, etc.) will be briefed 

regarding the PIPA’s development. In addition, they will be approached for their views, 

perspectives, and wants and desires regarding the management of the PIPA. Their insights 

and inputs are important. However, priority or lead agencies for this work are: GOK, NEAq, 

and CI. 

- other stakeholders are users of the resource (dwfn) when to close 60 or 200nm. Would be 

useful to have their concerns noted in order to address them – loss in fishing ground (Govt 

can allocate another site or increase catch quota or fishing days, etc – MFMRD can assist) 

4. CRITICAL ISSUES 

Based on the background summaries and the stakeholder inputs, various critical issues were 

identified and summarized in Chapter V on Critical Issues. 

5. ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES 

The critical issues identified in Chapter V provided the foundation from which alternative 

management approaches were developed (see Chapter VI). 

6. SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND APPROACHES 

3




Based on local conditions and the background history of the Phoenix Islands (see Chapter 

III, Background), alternative management approaches were considered and the most 

appropriate approaches were selected (see Chapter VII). These included: 

1) development of proposed rules and regulations, 

2) identification of possible cooperation and collaboration between PIPA and 

other agencies, 

3) formulation of surveillance and enforcement approaches, 

4) identification of maintenance and administrative requirements, and 

5) development of plans for periodic review of this management plan. 

6) need to mention site(s) and extent of area to manage??? 

7. REFERENCES CITED. 

Gillett, R., M. Pelasio, and E. Kirschner. 1991. Kiribati fisheries bibliography. FAO/UNDP 

Regional Fishery Support Programme, Suva, Fiji. Field Document 91/8. RAS/89/039. 

Krauss, N.L.H. 1970. Bibliography of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. Honolulu: 

University of Hawaii. 13 pp. 

Sachet, M.-H., and F.R. Fosberg. 1955. Island bibliographies. Micronesian botany, land 

environment and ecology of coral atolls, vegetation of tropical Pacific Islands. National 

Academy of Sciences. Contract No. NR 338-001. NAS/NAE/NRC-335. 

Sachet, M.-H., and F.R. Fosberg. 1971. Island bibliographies supplement. Micronesian 

botany, land environment and ecology of coral atolls, vegetation of tropical Pacific Islands. 

National Academy of Sciences. 

4


Chapter III. Background, 1. Physical Setting of the Islands 


CHAPTER III. 

BACKGROUND 

1. PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE ISLANDS 

A. GEOLOGICAL 

Zimmerman (1947) noted that there was a definite cycle of geological metamorphosis that is 

illustrated by atolls such as the Phoenix Islands. Systematic deep core boring of atolls was 

suggested as a priority area in the study of atolls. Zimmerman (1947) speculated that many 

atolls including the Phoenix Islands may have been high islands in the past with more 

complex species communities. 

Table III-1.1. Key physical features and vegetation of the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Pierce et al 2006) 

Island Total Land Lagoon Substrate Vegetation 

area (ha) area (ha) 

Manra - c.500 Closed Not visited Forest, scrub, 

coconut 

Rawaki 73.24 58.14 Closed Rubble, c.50% sand Grass, low scrub 

Enderbury 596.6 500+ Closed Rubble, extensive 

sand 

Grass, low scrub 

Birnie 50.95 48.2 Closed Rubble, limited sand Grass, low scrub 

Kanton - c.900 Open Varied, extensive Forest, scrub, 

sand 

coconut 

McKean 74.32 48.77 Closed Rubble, < 30% sand Grass, low scrub 

Orona - c.600 Open Rubble, sand Forest, scrub, 

coconut 

Nikumaroro - c.400 Open Rubble, sand Forest, scrub, 

coconut 

Note: Land areas are total atoll area minus lagoon area; Rawaki, McKean and Birnie data courtesy of T. 

Conaghan, NZ Department of Conservation, others from Garnett (1983). Note that some land area estimates are 

significantly greater than previously reported, notably Birnie (48.2 ha, c.f. 20 ha in Garnett 1983). 

ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON) 

Dimensions - Abariringa is the largest coral atoll in the Phoenix Islands (Hydrographic Office 

1940). It is 7.2 km (4.5 miles) wide on the west and 14.5 km (9 miles) from the northern 

point to the southeastern point (Bryan 1941 and 1942). It is shaped like a pork chop. 

The maximum island height is 6.1 m (20 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also 

Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). The width of the land is between 91 to 457 m (100 to 500 

yards) (Hydrographic Office 1940; 46 to 549 m (50 to 600 yards) according to Bryan 1941 

and 1942; not wider than 975 m (3,200 ft) according to Hatheway 1955). The beach is 

composed of coral sand or broken fragments of reef rock (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The beach 

1




on the lagoon side was sand. There were a few sandy beaches primarily on the northeast 

coast. 

A satellite image of Abariringa (Kanton) is provided in Figure III-1.1 below. 

Figure III-1.1. Abariringa (Kanton), 

A – Satellite image (source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanton_Island); 

B- Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1946). 

A B 

Lagoon – The lagoon was up to 18 m (60 ft) deep (Bunker 1951; 18 to 22 m (3 to 12 

fathoms) according to Hydrographic Office 1916). Large coral heads and reefs inside the 

lagoon limited navigation within the lagoon. The lagoon was navigable only by boats with 

very shallow drafts 0.3 to 0.5 m (1 to 1.5 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1940). The lagoon was 

about 52 square km (20 square miles) (Bryan 1974). It was about 6.4 by 14.5 km (4 miles by 

9 miles) (Freeman 1951). 

During 1938 to 1939, much of the southwestern portion of the lagoon was dredged in 

preparation for the seaplane landings (Bryan 1974). 

The water in the lagoon had higher salinity than in the ocean (Van Zwaluwenburg 1941; see 

also Wiens 1962). Open ocean water was 20,300 mg chlorine per liter (Degener and 

Gillaspy 1955), while the lagoon backwater was 90,000 mg chlorine per litter. 

In 1973, the U.S. Naval Undersea Research and Development Center commissioned an 

environmental survey of Abariringa’s (Canton) lagoon (Smith and Henderson (1976 and 

1978). Water exchange was by tidal flushing that was most efficient near the single pass. In 

other parts of the lagoon, flushing was by tidal and wind mixing. Evaporation in the back 

lagoon exceeded rainfall producing salinities of 40 ppt, 4 ppt over oceanic values. 

Water entering Abariringa’s (Canton) lagoon) was nutrient rich (Smith and Henderson 1976 

and 1978). By the time water reached the back lagoon, nutrients had been depleted to almost 

2




zero. Most of the carbon produced remained in the lagoon. Phosphorus utilization in 

Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon was estimated at 0.027 m moles m -2 day -1 (Smith and Jokiel 

1978). Nitrogen utilization was 8.5 higher. Net excess organic carbon production was 

estimated to be about 3 m moles m -2 day -1 , or 35 mg C m -2 day -1 . Gross carbon production 

was estimated to be 6 g C m -2 day -1 . CaCO3 production was estimated to be 13 m moles m -2 

day -1 , or 1.4 g CaCO3 m -2 day -1 . 

Jokiel and Maragos (1978) analyzed sediment composition and water quality in Abariringa’s 

(Canton’s) lagoon, based on distance from the lagoon passage. Results are provided here in 

Tables III-1.2 and III-1.3. Sediment closer to the lagoon passage had hard substrata or larger 

median grain size, while sediments far from the lagoon passage consisted of calcareous mud 

(smaller median grain size). 

Table III-1.2. Sediment composition in Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon 

(source: Jokiel and Maragos 1978). 

Table III-1.3. Water quality in Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon. 


3




Henderson et al (1978) reported that the predominant aspects of lagoon circulation on 

Abariringa (Canton) were wind drift and tidal flow. Lagoon tide showed a pronounced lag 

compared to ocean tides. However, there was no measurable amplitude attenuation from the 

ocean to the back lagoon. 

Guinther (1978) reported that salinity was moderate (13 to 18 ppt) in channel bid ponds. 

Lower salinities (less than 8 ppt) were measured in potholes and water filled burrows in the 

surrounding flats. High salinities (greater than 24 ppt and up to 152 ppt) were measured in 

two larger ponds in the lagoon tidal channels and in the saltern [saltworks building]. There 

was wide variation in nutrient levels and chlorophyll a between sites surveyed. 

Smith and Jokiel (1975a and b and 1978) developed a salt and water budget for Abariringa’s 

(Canton) lagoon. They estimated that the oldest lagoon water was about 95 days old, the 

average residence time was 50 days. They concluded that eddy diffusion was the major 

process by which water entered the lagoon on the incoming tide. Lagoon water evaporation 

rate at Abariringa (Canton) was about twice that of the open ocean in the vicinity of 

Abariringa (Canton). 

In the last 8,000 years about 20 m of sediment has been deposited in the lagoon on Abariringa 

(Canton) (Smith and Jokiel 1978). Smith and Jokiel (1978) speculated that the entire reef 

was not more than 8,000 years old and that it grew from a based maximum depth of about 25 

m. 

Garnett (1983) reported that the slightly supersaline lagoon was seldom more than 2 m deep 

with extensive mudflats and coral patches. 

Lagoon Openings - The western side of the island had several openings (Hydrographic Office 

1916; two openings according to Hydrographic Office 1940; four openings according to 

Bryan 1941 and 1942). One opening was dry during low tide, and two were blocked by coral 

heads (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also Bryan 1974). 

A deepwater entrance was dredged through the western rim to allow shall ships to anchor 

within the lagoon (Bryan 1974). This was done in 1943 (Degener and Gillaspy 1955). In the 

1950s the secondary channel north of the western side was blocked by construction (Obura in 

press). Neemia and Thaman (1993) reported that Abariringa (Kanton “in the Line Islands”) 

had navigable channel access to the lagoon. 

McIntire (1960) noted that there were three channels to the lagoon on Abariringa (Canton), 

but causeways were built across the two northernmost channels. The southern channel was 

dredged so that vessels could enter the lagoon. 

A comparison was made of the changes in lagoon entrances of Abariringa (Canton) by 

Henderson et al (1978). Entrances from 1938 and 1973 are compared in Figure III-1.2 below. 

Figure III-1.2. Comparison of changes in the lagoon entrances of 

Abariringa (Canton) between 1938 and 1973. 

(source: Henderson et al 1978). 

4




Henderson et al (1978) provided detailed background information on the characteristics of 

each of the lagoon entrances and the history of dredging of Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon 

entrance. 

Stoddar and Fosberg (1994) described the channels from the lagoon to the sea, called by their 

Poloynesian name, hoa. They reported that Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) 

had no hoa. Abariringa (Canton) had paleohoa (ancient hoa). 

In the lagoon entrance, tidal current can run over 11.1 km per hour (6 knots) (Hydrographic 

Office 1940; 7.4 to 11.1 km per hour (4 to 6 knots) according to Hydrographic Office 1916; 

11.1 to 14.8 km per hour (6 to 8 knots) according to McIntire 1960; Degener and Gillaspy 

1955). The Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that tidal current was up to 14.8 km 

per hour (8 knots). 

Reef Shelf - The reef shelf extended about 183 to 366 m (200 to 400 yards) from the shore 

line (Hydrographic Office 1940; 91 to 732 m (100 to 800 yards) according to Bunker 1951). 

Depth outside of the reef dropped off from 183 m (100 fathoms) to more than 549 m (300 

fathoms) within a few hundred meters (yards). 

Soil - Maude (1937) reported that the soil on Abariringa (Canton) was brownish sand, with 

the exception of the middle portion of the south coast where soil was much lighter. Soil was 

not as rich as that on Nikumaroro (Gardner), but richer than that on Orona (Hull), and 

superior to any in the Gilbert Islands. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported that there was primarily clay or silt along the lagoon. 

Foraminifera shells of Baculogypsina sp., Spaerulata lessoni and Heterostegina sp. were 

common along the beach among the coral fragments, shells and rubble (see also Garnett 

5




1983a). Degener and Gillaspy (1955) provided details on soil mirco-habitats on Abariringa 

(Canton). 

Degener and Gillapsy (1955) noted that there were extensive areas of thin porous hardened 

guano. In 1958, an expert from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service could not find a speck of 

guano on Abariringa (Canton) (Degener and Degener 1959). In 1995, the Government of 

Kiribati (1995) reported finding guano on Abariringa (Tuunaari) at Tebaronga, Uamari, 

Tirieta, and Bikentabakea. 

Soil analysis was completed at various sites including rapid rock analysis and quantitative 

spectrographic analysis (see Degener and Degener 1959 for result details). Hatheway (1955) 

reported that Abariringa (Canton) was derived from coral rock and calcareous sand. In all 

places investigated there was a dark brown layer 18 to 38 cm (7 to 15 inches) thick under 

either sand or coral rock. This dark layer contained a large proportion of guano. 

McIntire (1960) provided a detailed description of the soils of Abariringa (Canton). Soil 

samples were collected and analyses. Results were presented in Appendix 1 in McIntire 

(1960). McIntire (1960) noted that many parts of the island had a hardpan found at various 

depths. Plant taproots were not able to penetrate this layer. 

McIntire (1960) noted that all materials on Abariringa (Canton) were derived from coral and 

coralline algae, except for minor amounts of soil attached to plants brought in from Hawaii or 

from trees that drifted to Abariringa (Canton). McIntire (1960) noted that on the windward 

side of Abariringa (Canton), there were fragments of pumice up to 0.3 m (1 ft) diameter (see 

also Degener and Gillaspy 1955). These presumably floated across the ocean to Abariringa 

(Canton). 

Guinther (1978) noted that the surface of inland flats was composed of a continuous sheet of 

detrital limestone, commonly less than 1 cm thick. In the channel bed, the hardpan surface 

was covered by a thin crumbly crust (dried cyanophytes). 

Garnett (1983) noted that the soils on Abariringa (Canton) were composed of coral sand and 

larger fragments of dead corals and other biogenic materials. Little or no humic material was 

in the soil. Soil samples at most sites around Abariringa (Canton) were primarily sand 

(Government of Kiribati 1995). 

BIRNIE 

Dimensions - Birnie is less than 1.2 km (0.75 mile) long (northwest and southeast) by 549 m 

(600 yards) at its greatest width (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

The east side of the island was rocky with slabs of coral sandstone and broken coral (Bryan 

1941 and 1942). The maximum elevation of the island was 6.1 m (20 ft). 

A satellite image of Birnie is provided in Figure III-1.3 below. 

Figure III-1.3. Birnie: 

6




A 

A – Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/birnie.htm); 

B – Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943). 

B 

Lagoon - Birnie has a small shallow brackish pond (274 x 46 m (300 yards x 50 yards)) in its 

center (Hydrographic Office 1940; brackish lagoon according to Pompey 1972a). Dahl 

(1980) reported that the lagoon was brackish (see also Hydrographic Office 1916; supersaline 

according to Garnett 1983). The depth of the lagoon was 1.8 m (Hydrographer of the Navy 

1969). Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that in some accounts the lagoon was nearly dry, but in 

other accounts the lagoon had a depth of 1.8 m (6 ft). 

Wester et al (1992) citing Bryan (1942) noted that the lagoon on Birnie had limited subsurface 

exchange with ocean waters. The size and salinity of the lagoon depended on 

rainfall. Maude (1937) reported that the lagoon on Birnie was fed by a small stream that first 

went through a curious artificial pond formed by coral slabs cemented together. 

Reef Shelf - The shelf dried at low tide and extends about 46 m (50 yards) offshore 

(Hydrographic Office 1940). On the southern point of the island, a shoal extends out 1.2 km 

(1,300 yards) southward. The depth of this bank is less than 5.5 m (Hydrographer of the 

Navy 1969). 

Soil - There may be some phosphate deposits on Birnie, but only in small amounts since it 

was never worthwhile to exploit them (Garnett 1983). 

ENDERBURY 

Enderbury emerged about 2,400 years before present (BP) with an average emergence 

magnitude of about 1.0 m (Tracy 1972; see also Nunn 1994). 

Dimensions - Enderbury is a nearly solid island with a small shallow pond a few hundred 

meters (yards) across which was the remains of the lagoon (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). 

The island is almost 4.8 km (3 miles long) (north and south) and about 1.6 km (1 mile) wide 

(Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). 

7




Enderbury has an elevation of 3.96 m (13 ft) along the rim and an elevation of about 1.2 m (4 

ft) in the middle (Hydrographic Office 1940). The Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) 

reported that the island was 10.1 m in elevation. Bryan (1941, 1942, and 1974) reported the 

elevation to be 4.6 to 6.7 m (15 to 22 ft). 

A satellite image of Enderbury is provided in Figure III-1.4 below. 

A 

Figure III-1.4. Enderbury: 

A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/enderbury.htm); 


B 

Lagoon - In the middle was a small sunken lagoon (Hydrographic Office 1940). Waesche 

(1938) reported that in the center of the island was a depression that was partially filled with 

soft muddy materials that was principally bird guano. The big pond in the middle of the 

island was identified as a fish pond (Government of Kiribati 1995). Dead clam shells were 

found inside of the big pond. 

Lagoon Openings - Stoddar and Fosberg (1994) described the channels from the lagoon to the 

sea, called by their Poloynesian name, hoa. They reported that Enderbury had paleohoa 

(ancient hoa) that were associated with lagoonal emergent reefs of the Holocene. Tracey et al 

(1972) noted that the small islets in the lagoon were relict reefs 0.8 to 0.9 m (2.5 to 3.0 ft) 

above the lagoon surfaced. Carbon-14 dating of Tridacna shells and coral from an islet 

indicated that the reef was living 2,000 to 3,000 years ago. At that time, the lagoon was open 

to the sea. 

Reef Shelf - The shelf was about 69 m (75 yards) wide, the shelf then dropped off rapidly 

(Hydrographic Office 1940, 55 to 183 m (60 to 200 yards) according to Bryan 1941, 1942, 

and 1974). The northeast corner has a shoal that extends out about 1,097 m (1,200 yards). 

On the southeastern corner, the shoal extends out about 594 m (650 yards). 

Soil – The soil on Enderbury was primarily large slabs of compact coral rock interspersed 

with sandy soil (Maude 1937). The soil appeared to be more fertile than Abariringa 

8




(Canton). The coastline was composed of sandstone slabs and coral rubble, with short 

stretches of sand (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). 

In 1971, the phosphate resources of Enderbury were investigated (Tracey et al 1972). This 

included the taking of core samples and the construction of a geologic map of Enderbury (see 

Figure III-1.5. 

Figure III-1.5. Geologic map of Enderbury 

(source: Tracey et al 1972). 

There were three forms of phosphate on Enderbury (Tracey et al 1972): (1) powdery crust 

(primarily harvested in the 1800’s); (2) finely particulate phosphate in dark organic soil; and 

(3) phosphorite or phosphate rock. There remains only about 6.35 cm (2.5 inches) of the 

powdery curst (from an original 0.3 m (1 foot). Phosphate types 2 and 3 were not collected in 

the 1800s. Test drilling results indicated that phosphatic sand was present 3.7 to 13.8 m (12 

to 45 ft) below the surface (at 3 of 4 sites) and were a few feet to 2.4 m (8 ft) thick. Tracey et 

al (1972) concluded that phosphates on Enderbury were of no economic interest for the 

foreseeable future. 

9




Gulbrandsen (1975) reported that whitlockite and apatite were the principal phosphate 

minerals in surface deposits on Enderbury. Monetite and brushite were also present in small 

amounts. All were derived from bird guano. Whitlockite appeared to have been formed 

directly from guano, but it changed over time into apatite. 

Burnett and Lee (1980) citing Tracey (1979) reported that there was about 9,072 metric tons 

(10,000 tons) of phosphate left on Enderbury and that more than 90,072 metric tons (100,000 

tons) had been mined. In 1995, Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that guano was 

found on Enderbury. Black rich soil was also found under bushes and trees there. 

MANRA (SYDNEY) 

Dimensions - Manra (Sydney) is shaped like a triangle with rounded corners (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). It is about 3.2 km (2 miles) (east to west) with 2.8 km (1 ¾ mile) long sides. The 

beach is covered with sand, sandstone slabs, and coral rubble. 

Manra (Sydney) had an elevation of 4.6 m (15 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

A satellite image of Manra is provided in Figure III-1.6 below. 

A 

Figure III-1.6. Manra: 

A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/manra.htm); 


B 

Lagoon - It has an enclosed, very salty lagoon with a depth of 5.5 m (3 fathoms) 

(Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Bryan 1941 and 1942). The lagoon has numerous islets 

and shoal patches. 

The salty lagoon will no longer support marine life (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Fish and 

mollusks were formerly abundant in the lagoon. Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that the 

depth of the lagoon had dropped 60 cm (2 ft) in the last 50 years. 

Wester et al (1992) citing Bryan (1942) noted that the lagoon on Manra (Sydney) had limited 

sub-surface exchange with ocean waters. Garnett (1983) noted that the water level of the 

10




lagoon was 30 cm lower than sea level. The size and salinity of the lagoon depended on 

rainfall. Manra (Sydney) had one large lagoon and several smaller ones which were mostly 

dry (Arundel 1890; see also Wiens 1962). The large lagoon was not connected to the sea. 

There were no fish as the salinity was too high. 

Bigelow (1939) reported that on the north side of the lagoon, there were two locations and 

numerous points around there edges that showed evidence of seepage above normal water 

levels. There was evidence that the lagoon water level was at least 60 cm (2 ft) higher during 

the guano work (1860 to 1890). 

Bryan (1934) reported that on the southeast side was a low area with a slightly brackish pond. 

These were the remains of guano collection (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

Lagoon Openings - The lagoon has no openings to the sea (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; 

see also Maude 1937). 

Reef Shelf - The island was surrounded by a platform reef from 46 to 183 m (50 to 200 

yards) wide (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Soil - Maude (1937) reported that the soils were lighter and sandier than on other Phoenix 

Islands and richer than that found in the Gilbert Islands (see also Garnett 1983). 

Guano was found on the island (Government of Kiribati 1995). The soil was fertile. 

Knudsen (1965) reported that the soil on Manra (Sydney) was better than Abariringa 

(Canton), but poorer than on Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

MCKEAN 

Dimensions - McKean is less than 805 m (half a mile) long (north to south) by 732 m (800 

yards) wide (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The beach was primarily beach rock and coral shingles. 

The maximum elevation was 4.6 to 5.2 m (15 to 17 ft) (see also Hydrographic Office 1940) 

A map of McKean is provided in Figure III-1.7 below [no satellite image could be located]. 

Figure III-1.7. McKean Chart 

(source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943). 

11




Lagoon - There was a very shallow lagoon in the center of the island (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 

see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; Maude 1937). Dahl (1980) reported that the lagoon 

on McKean was closed. Bryan (1934) reported that the dry lagoon was a source of guano. 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that the lagoon was salty that varied in size. Timeon (2001) 

noted that there were no fish in the lagoon. Sometimes the lagoon was dry. Lagoon size also 

varied with tide, despite not having an opening to the sea. The lagoon includes areas where 

guano was dug. Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that the basin within the rim of land had been 

increased in depth due to guano digging (1859 to 1870) (see also Garnett 1983a). 

Maude (1937) reported that the lagoon water was almost pure salt water. The lagoon 

contained deposits of gypsum and guano. 

Reef Shelf - The reef area was about 1,372 by 1,143 m (1,500 by 1,250 yards) (Hydrographic 

Office 1940). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that the fringe reef was 91 to 183 m (100 to 

200 yards) wide, with the inner 27 m (30 yards) or so drying during low tide. 

Soil - There was no information on the soils on McKean (Garnett 1983). They were probably 

mainly coral sand and rubble with little humus. 

NIKUMARORO (GARDNER) 

Dimensions - Nikumaroro (Gardner) is 6.0 km (3.75 miles) long (north northwest by south 

southeast) and about 1.6 km (1 mile) wide at the widest (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The rim was 

less than 0.4 km (¼ mile) wide, except at the two furthest ends. 

The land was about 3.7 m (12 ft) above sea level (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

A satellite image of Nikumaroro is provided in Figure III-1.8 below. 

Figure III-1.8. Nikumaroro: 

A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/nikumaroro.htm); 


12




A. 

Lagoon - According to Wilkes (1845), the lagoon was shallow and there were no navigable 

passages, but on western side, the tide could flow into the lagoon. Maude (1937) reported 

that there was no daily tidal rise and fall in the lagoon due to the nature of the two passages to 

the sea. 

The lagoon was between 5.5 to 7.3 m (3 to 4 fathoms) deep (Hydrographic Office 1940). It 

was surveyed by the New Zealand Navy in 1938. The lagoon was filled with coral heads 

(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). There were two small ponds with milkfish fingerlings that 

were closed to the lagoon (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

Lagoon Openings - There were two breaks from the lagoon to the sea (Hydrographic Office 

1940). Dahl (1980) reported that the lagoon on Nikumaroro (Nikumarora, Gardner) was 

open. There was no navigable passage from the lagoon to the sea (Hydrographer of the Navy 

1969). However, the passages into the lagoon could be navigated by canoe, but local 

knowledge was required. 


Poloynesian name, hoa. They reported that Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) 

had no hoa. 

Reef Shelf - Nikumaroro (Gardner) was surrounded by an unbroken fringe reef that dries 

during low tide (Hydrographic Office 1940; about 91 m (100 yards) dries according to Bryan 

1941 and 1942). The fringe reef was 91 to 274 m (100 to 300 yards) wide (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). Arrundel (1885) reported observing enormous masses of rock that had been uplifted 

on the flat fringing reef. 

Soil - Maude (1937) reported that the soil included a dark brown mould that extended down 

to 1.2 m (4 ft). This was composed of guano and white coral fragments. In the 1978 survey 

of Nikumaroro (Gilbert Islands 1978), soil profiles were taken. Details of these soil profiles 

were provided in Gilbert Islands 1978). 

In 1995, Government of Kiribati (1995) reported guano on Nikumaroro. Some of the soils 

were rich in humus. In some areas, there was rich black topsoil. The soil profile was topsoil, 

sand, gravel and sand, hard rock, small gravel, then water. Knudsen (1965) reported that the 

soil on Nikumaroro (Gardner) was relatively rich (see also Garnett 1983). 

B. 

13




The soil on Nikumaroro was reasonably developed (Neilson 2002). 

ORONA (HULL) 

Dimensions - Orona (Hull) is about 7.2 by 4.0 km (4.5 by 2.5 miles) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

The greatest length is about 8.9 km (5.5 miles). 

A satellite image of Orona is provided in Figure III-1.9 below. 

Figure III-1.9. Orona: 

A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/orona.htm); 


A. B. 

Lagoon - There were 4 ponds on Orona (Government of Kiribati 1995). Milkfish were 

observed in some of these ponds. 

Lagoon Openings - In 1887, there were more than 15 openings, but none were navigable 

(Ellis 1937). Hydrographic Office (1916) noted that there was a boat passage on the 

northwest side. 

The north and south sides were cut by narrow, shallow channels to the lagoon (Bryan 1941 

and 1942). The number and position of these channels varies with storms and shifting sand. 

In 1924, there were 17 channels on the north and 4 on the south (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see 

also Maude 1937). In 1941, there were 20 channels on the north. According to the 

Hydrographic Office (1940), the lagoon had two openings to the ocean. 

Hobbs (1945) noted that the only opening could accommodate a small boat had been blasted 

through. The lagoon had a depth of 15.2 to 18.3 m (50 to 60 ft) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). It 

contained several coral heads, some come close to the surface. 

Dahl (1980) reported that the lagoon on Orona (Hull) was open. Tioti et al (2001) noted that 

the channels had a depth of 1 m. 

According to Neemia and Thaman (1993), Orona has navigable channel access to the lagoon. 

14





Poloynesian name, hoa, in coral atolls such as Orona (Hull). Orona (Hull) hoa were confined 

to the northern rim of the atoll. The origin Orona (Hull) hoa was attributed to overtopping 

storm water associated with hurricanes. 

Reef Shelf - Orona (Hull) is a coral atoll with a 91 m (100 yard) wide fringing reef which 

dries in patches (Hydrographic Office 1940; 73 to 229 m (80 to 250 yards) wide according to 

Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

Soil - In 1995, Government of Kiribati (1995) noted guano on Orona. Knudsen (1965) 

reported that the soil on Orona (Hull) was better than Abariringa (Canton), but poorer than on 

Nikumaroro (Gardner). Maude (1937) reported that the soil was light and sandy (see also 

Garnett 1983a). 

The soil on Orona was reasonably developed (Neilson 2002). Orona’s foreshore and substata 

had high amounts of pyroclastic ash and pumice. This added to the soil that was dominated 

by alkaline carbonaceous materials. 

RAWAKI (PHOENIX) 

Diminsions - Rawaki (Phoenix) was a little less than 1.2 km (¾ mile) long and less than 0.8 

km (½ mile) wide (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

The highest elevation on Rawaki (Phoenix) was about 4.9 m (16 ft) (Hydrographic Office 

1940; 5.5 m (18 ft) according to Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

A satellite image of Rawaki is provided in Figure III-1.10 below. 

A. 

Figure III-1.10. Rawaki: 

A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/rawaki.htm); 

B – Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943) 

B. 

Lagoon - Bryan (1934) reported that in the middle of Rawaki (Phoenix) there was a puddle of 

a lagoon that may dry at times (see also Hydrographic Office 1916). In 1924, the lagoon was 

brackish and only a few cm (inches) deep. Maude (1937) reported that the lagoon was very 

15




salty, but might become fresh after heavy rains. Hydrographic Office (1940) reported that 

there was a dried up lagoon in the center. Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that the 

shallow lagoon was brackish and may sometimes dry. Anon. (1940) reported that there was a 

large freshwater lake at the center of Rawaki (Phoenix). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported a 

very shallow salty lagoon that fluctuated greatly in size. Dahl (1980) report freshwater pools 

on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Reef Shelf - Rawaki (Phoenix) was surrounded by a wide platform reef (Hydrographic Office 

1940). The narrow reef was 27 to 91 m (30 to 100 yards) wide (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

On the western side there is a break through the reef (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that the small break was apparently blasted. 

CARONDELET REEF 

Carondelet reef was 1.2 km (¾ mile) north-northeast and south-southwest in the shape of a 

horse shoe (Hydrographic Office 1916; about 732 m (800 yards) long (north-south) and 640 

m (700 yards) wide (east-west) according to Hydrographic Office 1940). It did not bare at 

any stage (Hydrographic Office 1940). The maximum depth was 3.7 m (2 fathoms). Depth 

just off the reef was 9.1 to 18 m (5 to 10 fathoms). 

According to Hydrographer of the Navy (1969), has a depth of less than 1.8 m. There was an 

occasional wave break over it. This reef was confirmed by the H.M.S. Wellington in 1937. It 

is about 0.8 km (0.5 mile) in a northerly and southerly direction in a horse-shoe shape 

(concave westward). 

WINSLOW REEF 

Winslow reef extended about 1.6 km (1 mile) in a northwesterly and southeasterly direction 

and was about 1.2 km (¾ mile) wide with two rocks awash (Hydrographic Office 1940; see 

also Hydrographic Office 1916). Hydrographic Office (1916) noted that at that time, the 

position was doubtful. 

The exact location of Winslow reef was confirmed in 1944 (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

The depth was 11.0 m. It was 1.6 km (1 mile) long in an east to west direction, and 0.8 km 

(0.5 miles) wide. 

Apparently, there was a small area of breaking water about 4.8 km (3 miles) east of Winslow 

reef that was reported in 1945 (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

B. OCEANOGRAPHIC 

The Phoenix Islands were in the path of the westerly drift (Wiens 1962). Offshore currents 

were generally westward. The strength of the currents varied with the wind. Usual speed 

was 1.9 km per hour (1 knot), with a maximum of 3.7 km per hour (2 knots). 

16




In the 1980s, four German cruises (Midpac 1 to IV) were undertaken in the Pacific (Line 

Islands, Gilbert Islands, Phoenix Islands, and Marshall Islands) (Glasby 2002). 

The Phoenix Islands were oriented along the equator and was predominantly influenced by 

the westward-flowing Equatorial Current (northern equatorial branch of the South Equatorial 

Current (BEN) and south equatorial branch of the South Equatorial Current (BES)) (Tuna and 

Billfish Assessment Program 1993). The Phoenix Islands were subject to the El Niño 

Southern Oscillation (ENSO) that occurs every two to seven years and lasts for 18 to 24 

months. During ENSO events, the westward tradewinds were reduced and variations and 

even reversal of the main currents. This deepens the eastern Pacific thermocline. 

The Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme (1993) provided diagrams of the seasonal 

changes in major equatorial surface currents around the Phoenix Islands. These are provided 

in Figures III-1.11 to III-1.18 below. 

Figure III-1.11. Major currents around the Phoenix Islands in MARCH 

Including below the surface temperature and current profiles. 

(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993). 

17




Figure III-1.12. Major currents around the Phoenix Islands in JUNE 



Figure III-1.13. Major currents around the Phoenix Islands in SEPTEMBER 



18




Figure III-1.14. Major currents around the Phoenix Islands in DECEMBER 



Figure III-1.15. Vertical sections of the central Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands, 

Showing mean temperature, and current profiles for 

MARCH between the surface and 400 m 

(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993) 

19






JUNE between the surface and 400 m 




SEPTEMBER between the surface and 400 m 


20






DECEMBER between the surface and 400 m 


Lehodey et al (1997) examined the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in relationship to 

the western equatorial Pacific warm pool. During ENSO events this warm water pool shifts 

to the east and skipjack catches also shift to the east extending to the Phoenix Islands. 

Water temperatures measured in 2002 averaged 29.4 0 C, with a maximum over 30 0 C recorded 

in shallows and when snorkleing (Obura and Stone 2003). 

Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported that water temperature at 2 m below the surface all survey 

sites (around all Phoenix Islands, except Abariringa (Canton)) was 28 o C. The surface 

temperature varied from 28 to 30 o C. There was no significant thermocline down to 50 m 

depth. 


Current – The ocean current near Abariringa (Canton) was about 255 0 at about 1.5 km per 

hour (0.8 knots) (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also McIntire 1960). However, the current 

can be stronger at the northwest and southeast points of the island. The Hydrographer of the 

Navy (1969) noted that the west current can be at least 2.8 km per hour (1.5 knots) (see also 

Hydrographic Office 1916). 

Kamachi and O’Brien (1995) examined drift buoy trajectory models for the equatorial Pacific 

Ocean. One site tested in their models was Abariringa (Canton). Simulated upper layer 

21




thickness (ULT) estimates improved through iterations and were eventually similar to true 

upper layer thickness readings for the time series examined. 

Tides – Spring tide was about 1.2 m (4 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1916). Tidal variation was 

1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 ft) during the full moon (Bunker 1951; ranged 1 m (3.3 ft) and spring 

range was 1.2 m (4 ft) according to McIntire 1960). At other times it was 0.6 m (2 ft) 

(Bunker 1951). Mean high-water interval was exactly 5 hours (McIntire 1960). McIntire 

(1960) noted that slack tide was frequently only 10 minutes. 

Groves (1956) reported that sea-level observations on Abariringa (Canton) showed regular 

four-day oscillations that were related to equatorial waves in the easterly winds over the 

island. Similar results were observed on Ocean Island. Tide gages on Butaritari and Tarawa 

did not show such a regular record. 

The tidal station at Abariringa (Canton) recorded unaccountable change in sea levels of 15 to 

18 cm (6 or 7 inches) at 3.8 day intervals (Wiens 1962). 

Using sea level records of various central Pacific islands, including Abariringa (Canton), 

Wunsch and Gill (1976) calculated the spectral energy density and demonstrated that there 

were higher energy levels associated with inertia-gravity wave frequencies. In Abariringa 

(Canton), there was a 4 day oscillation that dominated the energy spectrum. This was not 

found in higher latitudes. Wunsch and Gill (1976) compared the wind and sea level data and 

found them to be statistically significantly, particularly at the 0.25 day -1 (4 day oscillation). 

They suggested that the oscillation was due to oceanic resonance rather than atmospheric 

resonance since oceanic resonance had higher energy. 

Henderson et al (1978) installed tidal monitors in Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon to monitor 

and compare ocean and lagoonal tides. Results were similar. Drift cards and dye tracks were 

also used to study Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon. Wind-driven cards moved down-wind, 

but in a complicated pattern. Some cards became entrained in small eddies. 

Sea-level data from Abariringa (Canton) indicated that there was an anomalous rise in sea 

level during the latter half of the 1965 El Niño year (Busalacchi et al 1983). There were great 

difficulties in interpreting sea-level data at Abariringa (Canton) because of the interplay 

between equatorially trapped Kelvin waves and long Rossby waves. 

Khandekar et al (2005) reported that for 28 years there was no detectable change in sea level 

on Abariringa (Kanton). This example was provided in the global warming debate context. 

Waves/Swells - Banner and Banner (1964) noted that strong winds and surf at times rendered 

collection on the outer side of the ocean reef too hazardous on Abariringa (Canton). 

Environmental Data Services (1966) reported that at long intervals high sea swells occurred 

several times in the past. An event was recorded in January 1958 when swells 4.6 to 6.1 m 

(15 to 20 ft) high lasted over a period of several days. 

Gilbert (2000) examined equatorial inertia-gravity waves for various locations in the central 

Pacific, including Abariringa (Kanton). Christmas, Abariringa (Kanton), and Tarawa had 

significant peaks at frequencies corresponding to first and second meridional mode inertia- 

22




gravity waves. Between September to late January, temporal structures with high energies 

were confined to the central Pacific (including Abariringa). 

Water Characteristics - Open ocean water was 20,300 mg chlorine per liter (Degener and 

Gillaspy 1955). 

Smith and Jokiel (1978) noted that Abariringa (Canton) was exposed to some of the highest 

major inorganic nutrient levels to be found in open ocean surface waters. As such, neither 

phosporus nor nitrogen would limit reef metabolism. Micronutrients, such as trace metals, 

may also be important is the distribution of some reef algae. 

In 2002, seawater temperature loggers were deployed at Abariringa (Kanton) (3 sites); Orona 

(2 sites); Nikumaroro (2 sites); Manra (1 site); Enderbury (1 site); Rawaki (Phoenix) (1 site) 

(Obura and Stone 2003). 

BIRNIE 

Current - Close to the western shore the current is northward (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Farther offshore, the current is 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots) in a westerly direction (see also 

Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

ENDERBURY 

Current - On the west side of the island, the current was about 1.9 km per hour (1 knot) in a 

southward direction (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

Clear of the island, the current is about 1.5 km per hour (0.8 knots) in a 255 0 direction (1.6 to 

3.2 km/hour) (1 to 2 miles per hour) westward according to Hydrographic Office 1916). 

Tides - Spring tides were 1.8 m (6 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1916). Neap tides were 0.9 to 1.2 

m (3 to 4 ft). 

Water Characteristics - In 2002, seawater temperature loggers were deployed at Abariringa 

(Kanton) (3 sites); Orona (2 sites); Nikumaroro (2 sites); Manra (1 site); Enderbury (1 site); 

Rawaki (Phoenix) (1 site) (Obura and Stone 2003). 


Current - The current was about 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots) in a westerly direction 

(Hydrographic Office 1940; 1.9 to 2.8 km per hour (1 to 1.5 knots) in a westerly direction 

according to Hydrographic Office 1916). Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that the 

current can vary between 0.9 to 2.8 km per hour (0.5 to 1.5 knots) and ran westward. 

Tides - Spring tides were about 1.2 m (4 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1916). 

Waves/Swell - In 1914, Manra (Sydney) was swept by a tidal wave (Hydrographic Office 

1940). 

23







MCKEAN 

Current - The current is strong past the northern and southern points and converge on the 

west side of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

Offshore current velocity is about 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots). 

Water Characteristics - In 2000, McKean water temperature was slightly cooler than that of 

Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). This suggested up-welling and mixing of deeper water on 

McKean. 


Current - The current is westerly (Hydrographic Office 1940). Inshore, the current follows 

the land to the west. Near the western reef, the current is northward (Hydrographer of the 

Navy 1969). 

Tides - Tidal fluctuation was 1.4 m (4.5 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1916). 




The minimum water temperature recorded was 26.7 0 C at Nikumaroro (Obura and Stone 

2003). 

ORONA (HULL) 

Current - Inshore currents have a velocity of 1.9 km per hour (1 knot) and run westward 

(Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). Offshore, currents 

run westward at about 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots). 





The current was strong on the northern and southern points of the island (Hydrographic 

Office 1940). Offshore, the current was about 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots). A 3.7 km per 

hour (2 knot) west current has been observed (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969) setting 

westward past the island (Hydrographic Office 1916). 

24




In 2002, seawater temperature loggers were deployed at Abariringa (Kanton) (3 sites); Orona 

(2 sites); Nikumaroro (2 sites); Manra (1 site); Enderbury (1 site); Rawaki (Phoenix) (1 site) 

(Obura and Stone 2003). No temperature loggers were deployed at Birnie. 

C. BATHYMETRIC 

In 1974, the Committee for Co-ordination of Joint Prospecting for marine resources in the 

South Pacific (CCOP/SOPAC) noted that Nauru through the Phoenix Islands to the Line 

Islands had the greatest potential for offshore phosphate at depths of 400 m (Teiwaki 1988). 

It was recommended that surveys for the phosphate be initiated. 

Tiffin (1981) summarized findings of KI-81(3) survey of Kiribati waters for manganese 

nodules that were completed from 7 to 17 May 1981. Tiffin (1981) noted that Cruise No. 37 

included an area east of the Phoenix Islands. For KI-81(3), four stations were surveyed. 

However, based on the cruise track, none appeared to be within the EEZ of the Phoenix 

Islands, even though the cruise was titled, “Kiribati Phoenix Islands manganese nodule 

survey”. 

Teiwaki (1988) noted that there have been several seabed surveys for manganese resources. 

These have included surveys by CCOP/SOPAC, Minex, Japan, West German, and the U.S.A. 

Teiwaki (1988) noted that only the CCOP/SOPA and Minex surveys were officially 

recognized by the Government of Kiribati. 

Aslanian et al (1988b) examined cumulative volcano amplitude (CVA) and CVA maxima 

related to seamounts in the central Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands. There is a CVA 

maximum underlined by flowlines from the Phoenix Islands. The Mid-Cretaceous ridges of 

the Phoenix fracture zone intersect flowlines at the biggest and brightest CVA maxima in the 

vicinity of Rarotonga and Rurutu. In addition, Phoenix Islands crustal flowlines appeared to 

have a role in both the Mehetia and MacDonald CVA maxima, however, cannot be linked to 

both hot-spots. Aslanian et al (1988b) concluded that hot-spotting was flawed by errors and 

that its application was not age independent. 

Cronan et al (1991) reported on manganese (Mn) nodules in the EEZ around the Phoenix 

Islands (see also Cronan 1987; Kinoshita and Tiffin 1993; JICA et al 2005; see Figure III- 

1.19). These were based on Japanese cruises (Glasby 2002). The highest abundance (>25 

kg/m 2 ) was in a small area around 5 0 S, 170 0 W (Cronan et al 1991; on the southern Phoenix 

Islands area according to Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and 1991). On the northern area, 

abundance was less than 5 kg/m 2 (Cronan 1987), but nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu) content was 

high in the north and decreased towards the south (see also Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and 

1991). Cobalt (Co) grades were generally low overall. Average Co content was 0.83 percent 

(Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and 1991). 

Figure III-1.19. The abundance of nodules in the EEZ around the Phoenix Islands 

(Source: Cronan et al 1991 and Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and 1991). 

25




The highest manganese nodule abundance was at depths between 5,100 to 5,400 m (Cronan 

et al 1991; 5,000 to 5,600 m according to Cronan and Hodkinson 1991; 5,200 to 5,300 m 

according to Kinoshita and Tiffin 1993). Kinoshita and Tiffin (1993) estimated that there 

were about 571 million tonnes (630 million tons) of manganese nodules in the Phoenix Island 

EEZ. More than 272 million tonnes (300 million tons) of nodules may exist in the southeast 

part of the Phoenix Islands EEZ. 

The highest Ni and Cu concentrations were also at this depth range (Cronan et al 1991 and 

Cronan and Hodkinson 1991; see Figure III-1.20). The total amount of Ni in nodules within 

the EEZ around the Phoenix Islands was about 11.8 million tonnes (see also Cronan and 

Hodkinson 1989 and 1991) According to Kinoshita and Tiffin (1993), the manganese nodule 

nickel content needed to be more than 2.67 percent for mining to be cost effective. Phoenix 

Islands manganese nodules had an average of 1.35 percent nickel content. Therefore these 

nodules (and nodules from all of Kiribati’s EEZs) are of low grade and have no economic 

value for commercial harvest in the foreseeable future. 

Figure III-1.20. Metal quantity distribution in the EEZ around the Phoenix Islands 

(Source: Cronan et al 1991 and Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and 1991). 

26




There was more combined Ni + Cu + Co in the nodules than in the crust (Cronan and 

Hodkinson 1989 and 1991). Crust resource potential was estimated at 1,970,000 tonnes Mn, 

69,000 tonnes Co, 55,800 tonnes Ni, and 3.7 tonnes platinum (Pt) (Cronan and Hodkinson 

1989 and 1991). 

Kinoshita and Tiffin (1993) identified the benthic sediment composition around the Phoenix 

Islands. The three main types of sediments included: brown clay, siliceous-calcareous clay, 

and calcareous ooze. The distribution of these benthic materials is illustrated in Figure III- 

1.21 below. 

Figure III-1.21. Benthic composition around the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Kinoshita and Tiffin 1993). 

Aslanian et al (1998a) analyze cumulative volcano amplitude (CVA) in the central Pacific. 

They note that the Phoenix Islands crustal flowlines have a strong role in both Mehetia and 

MacDonald CVA maxima. However, the Phoenix Islands flowline cannot be linked with 

both hot-spots. 

JICA et al (2005) provided a 2 and 3-D bathymetry of the Phoenix Islands based on 1987 

survey results. The 2 and 3-D images are presented in Figures III-1.22 and III-1.23 below. 

Figure III-1.22. Two dimensional view of the bathymetry of the Phoenix Islands. 

(source: JICA et al 2005) 

27




Figure III-1.23. Three dimensional view of the bathymetry of the Phoenix Islands. 

(source: JICA 2005) 

28




JICA et al (2005) also presented results of surveys of five seamounts within the Phoenix 

Islands EEZ. Their locations are identified in Figure III-1.24 below. Figure III-1.25 provides 

details of seamount survey findings. 

Figure III-1.24. Location of the five seamounts within the EEZ around 

the Phoenix Islands that were surveyed. 


Figure III-1.25. Detailed results of seamount surveys 


29




Allain et al (2006) noted that Greg Stone conducted a fine-scale analysis of the Phoenix 

Islands. They also reported that an exploratory cruise will be conducted in the Phoenix 

Islands by the RV Alucia that belongs to Deep-Ocean Quest. This will be in conjunction with 

the New England Aquarium and Conservation International. The primary objective of this 

cruise will be to obtain information on seamounts in the Phoenix Islands area. 

30




New England Aquarium (2006) completed a report on the bathymetry around the Phoenix 

Islands. The report was limited to figures (with no titles) and there was no text or reference 

citations in this report. Existing and predicted seamounts (including the 8 Phoenix Islands) 

are presented in Figure III-1.26. 

Figure III-1.26. Existing and predicted seamounts in the Phoenix Islands area. 

(source: New England Aquarium 2006). 

Known and shallow seamounts in the Phoenix Islands area were also illustrated by New 

England Aquarium (2006) (see Table III-1.27 below). 

Figure III-1.27. Known and shallow seamounts in the Phoenix Islands. 


31




On May 3, 2006, Wragg observed the scar from a 100 m length of reef that had broken away 

and slipped down the reef slope out of sight (Kerr and Wragg 2006). This may have been 

related to the 6.5 Richter scale earthquake in the Tonga Trench that morning. The subsidence 

appeared to have occurred just hours prior to the survey dive. 


Jenks and Crawford (1970) modified a two dimensional hydrographic map of Abariringa 

(Canton) into a three dimensional map using 3-D mapping techniques. This is presented in 

Figure III-1.28 below. 

Figure III-1.28. 3-D image of Abariringa (Canton) based on a two dimensional 

hydrographic map (source: Jenks and Crawford 1970). 

32





Side-scan sonar was used to search the reef face to a depth of 610 m (2,000 ft) (King et al 

2001). A remotely operated vehicle was available to examine anything found by the sidescan 

sonar. The side-scan sonar fish hit the reef and broke halting the side-scan sonar survey. 

New England Aquarium (2006) presented a predicted bathymetric map of Nikumaroro 

(Gardner) (Figure III-1.29). 

Figure III-1.29. Predicted bathymetric map of Nikumaroro (Gardner). 


33





New England Aquarium (2006) presented a contour map of Carondelet Reef (seamount) that 

was based on multi-beam surveys (Figure III-1.30). 

Figure III-1.30. Contour Map of Carondelet Reef (seamount). 

(source: New England Aquarium 2006) 

34




UNNAMED SEAMOUNT (NW of Carondelet Reef). 

New England Aquarium (2006) presented a multibeam bathymetric map of an unnamed 

seamount just northwest of Carondelet Reef (Figure III-1.31). 

Figure III-1.31. Unnamed seamount just northwest of Carondelet Reef. 


35




D. METEOROLOGICAL 

There was a severe drought from 1890 to 1894 throughout the Phoenix Islands (Knudsen 

1965). 

Ellis (1937) noted that there were periods of bad weather that could last for months. These 

were set off by easterly weather and the current setting to the west for several years in 

succession. 

In the last months of 1940, severe gales hit the Phoenix Islands (Knudsen 1965). All islands 

had damage to housing, coconut trees, and new plantings. 

In 1947, another drought hit the Phoenix Islands (Knudsen 1965). 

Maude (1953) noted that it appeared that the strong heat radiation from bare Phoenix islands 

split approaching rain clouds. This resulted in precipitation lower on the island than in the 

surrounding seas. Maude (1953) suggested that if reflection of heat could be reduced, then 

rainfall could be increased. 

36




The wind rose (force and direction of winds) for the Phoenix Islands was presented by Wiens 

(1962), see Figure III-1.32 below. South of the equator (between 0 to 10 0 including the 

Phoenix Islands), northeast winds appeared more prevalent than southeast winds (Wiens 

1962). 

Figure III-1.32. Wind rose for the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Wiens 1962). 

Rainfall in the Phoenix Islands was probably the lowest in the central Pacific (Wiens 1962). 

Isohyets of annual rainfall are presented below in Figure III-1.33. The northern most islands 

in the Phoenix were the driest, Abariringa and Enderbury. Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix), and 

McKean were wetter. Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) were the wettest. 

Figure III-1.33. Oceanic isohyets showing annual rainfall (in inches) 

(source: Wiens 1962). 

*note: dashed lines indicate speculative construction. Underlining indicates high 

island. 

37




Quinn and Burt (1970) developed a method for predicting abnormally heavy rainfall in the 

Pacific equatorial dry zone (including the Phoenix Islands). This was partially based on 

Abrariringa (Canton) rainfall data. The method was 76 percent effective in predicting heavy 

rainfall between 1 to 8 months in advance based on pressure changes over time. 

Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme (1993) provided 40 years of SOI in figure form 

(see Figure III-1.34 below). When the SOI is positive, it is a La Niña event. When SOI is 

negative, it is an El Niño events. 

Figure III-1.34. Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), 1950 to 1990. Dots are actual 

index values and lines are 5 month average. Positive values are 

La Niña events, negative values are El Niño events. 


38




39




Stoddar and Fosberg (1994) noting the number of paleohoa (ancient lagoon passages) in 

Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) speculated that hurricanes must have been 

more frequent in the Central Pacific in the mid-Holocene period. 

The Southern Oscillation refers to variations in air pressure between Indonesia and the South 

Pacific (Nunn 1994). When air pressure was anomalously high in one area, it was 

anomalously low in the other. The measure for this variation is called the Southern 

Oscillation Index (SOI). Extremes of SOI values are associated with extreme weather 

conditions such as droughts in the central Pacific (including the Phoenix Islands), and 

changes in ocean currents and temperatures. 

Nunn (1994) illustrated average annual pressure (mbar) at sea level in January and July based 

on observations between 1900 and 1939 (see Figure III-1.35 below). The Phoenix Islands 

atmospheric pressure of between 1006 mbars in January to 1009 mbars in July. 

Figure III-1.35. Average annual atmospheric pressure (mbar) at sea level in January 

and July for the central Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands. 

(source: Nunn 1994) 

40




Nunn (1994) noted that the intertropical convergence zone remains relatively stationary 

during the year over the central Pacific Ocean. However, the South Pacific convergence zone 

moves north from January to July (see Figure III-1.36 below). The Phoenix Islands are 

between the two zones throughout the year. 

Figure III-1.36. Locations of the intertropical convergence zone and South Pacific 

convergence zone in the central Pacific, with the Phoenix Islands between the two zones. 

(source: Nunn 1994) 

41




Nunn (1994) noted that between 5 0 N to 5 0 S particularly in the central Pacific Ocean (where 

the Phoenix Islands are located), there was persistent high pressure preventing the 

development of tropical cyclones (hurricanes). 



to the east and skipjack catches also shift to the east extending to the Phoenix Islands. 

Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998) presented a climate diagram map with climate zones in 

the central Pacific (including the Phoenix Islands) with rainfall isohyets (see Figure III-1.37 

below). 

Figure III-1.37. Climate diagram map with climate zones in the central Pacific 

(including the Phoenix Islands) with rainfall isohyets 

(source: Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998). 

42




Mueller-Dombois (1999) noted that there was a precarious dry zone centered on the Phoenix 

Islands (see Figure III-1.38). It was precarious because of the unpredictable fluctuations 

including occasional wet years (Stoddard and Walsch 1992). 

Figure III-1.38. Central Pacific atolls including the Phoenix Islands, 

plotted by latitude and by mean annual rainfall 

(source: Mueller-Dombois 1999). 

43




Anderson (2002) noted that the Line and Phoenix Islands were in an area of low rainfall and 

were settled and abandoned prehistorically (see Figure III-1.39 below). 

Figure III-1.39. The Distribution of Islands with Anomalous settlement histories 

(+ = population declines, ● = settled and abandoned prehistorically), 

In relation to annual rain fall (in mm) (source: Anderson 2002). 

44




Thomas (2003) noted that prolonged droughts were common in many of the Phoenix Islands. 


Meteorological data for Abariringa (Canton) for 1937 to 1950 was reported in Fellgren 

(1950). Detailed data on rainfall, temperature, humidity, and wind from 1951 to 1965 for 

Abariringa (Canton) were reported in Weather Bureau (1951 to 1965). Meteorological data 

for Abariringa (Canton) for 1966 was reported in Environmental Data Service (1966). 

There was a NOAA meteorological station on Abariringa (Kanton) (Kaufmann 2000). 

Winds - Prevailing winds are easterly from the east or east-northeast (Hydrographic Office 

1940). Westerly winds are practically unknown on Abariringa (Canton). Wind velocity 

was 22 to 26 km per hour (12 to 14 knots) (McIntire 1960). Over 90 percent of the wind was 

from east-northeast to east-southeast, with east winds predominating. 

Between December 1940 and February 1941, there were several weeks of strong westerly 

winds on Abariringa (Canton) (Van Zwaluwenburg 1942). Wind speeds up to 102 km per 

hour (55 knots) were attained. 

45




Buxton (1952) reported that since 1990 the monsoonal westerlies periodically surge easterly 

and can reach Abariringa (Canton). The most recent case was in December 1940. 

Prevailing winds were from ENE to ESE at a steady 22 to 26 km per hour (12 to 14 knots) 

(Degener and Gillaspy 1955). West winds were rare. 

Wunsch and Gill (1976) examined wind velocity spectra. There were no statistically 

significant energy peaks in the appropriate frequency band. They noted wind and sea level 

data were found to be statistically significantly, particularly at the 0.25 day -1 (4 day 

oscillation). 

Garnett (1983) reported that the prevailing wind on Abariringa (Canton) was from the east 

with average wind speed of about 20 km per hour. 

Rain - Maude (1937) noted that heat radiation from Abariringa (Canton) split rain clouds and 

resulted in higher rain fall in adjacent waters than on the atoll. This might be minimized with 

additional plant ground cover. 

There are frequent rain squalls around the island, but rain rarely falls on the island itself 

(Hydrographic Office 1940). This was attributed to the heat rising from the warm waters of 

the lagoon (see also Bryan 1940). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including Abariringa 

(Canton)) as dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches). 

Rainfall from 1937 to 1949 was provided by Luomala (1951). Rainfall data for Abariringa 

for 1938 to 2002 was obtained from the Meteorological Division. A summary graph is 

provided in Figure III-1.40 below. 

Figure III-1.40. Rainfall data for Abariringa (Canton), 1938 to 2002 (in mm). 

(Kiribati Meteorological Division data). 

46




rainfall (mm) 

4,000.0 

3,500.0 

3,000.0 

2,500.0 

2,000.0 

1,500.0 

1,000.0 

500.0 

0.0 

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 

year 

1980 1990 2000 2010 

In 1947, rainfall was only 21 cm (8.46 inches) on Abariringa (Canton) (Knudsen 1965). 

Anon. (1952) noted that annual rainfall at Abariringa (Canton) ranged from 229 cm (90 

inches) to less than 22 cm (8.5 inches). 

Hatheway (1955) noted that rainfall was extremely variable. In 1947, rainfall was 21 cm 

(8.46 inches), while in 1941, rainfall exceeded 229 cm (90 inches). 

Knudsen (1965) note that there appeared to be a periodicity to rainfall cycles in the Phoenix 

Islands of between 7 and 8 years (see also Knudsen 1977). For years 1938, 1947, 1954, 

annual rainfall on Abariringa (Canton) was less than 10 inches (Knudsen 1965). 1961 and 

1962 were also drought years. Knudsen (1977) noted that after the settlement of Gilbertese to 

the Phoenix Islands, it was discovered that these islands were subject to repeated and lengthy 

droughts. 

Austin (1954) compared rainfall at Abariringa (Canton) with rainfall from some of the Line 

Islands. Abariringa (Canton) annual rainfall was lower than Palmyra, Washington, Fanning, 

Christmas, and Malden Islands. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that there was a current of warm air that rises from 

Abariringa (Canton). This warm air current can split passing large rain clouds that pass over 

the island, resulting in reduced rainfall on the island itself. 

Abariringa (Canton) was virtually a desert island with annual rainfall of 43 cm (17 inches) 

(Wiens 1962). 

47




On Abariringa (Canton), rainfall ranged from less than 20 cm (8 inches) in 1954, to almost 

178 cm (70 inches) in 1958, and 284 cm (112 inches) in 1941 (Bryan 1974). Rainfall varied 

considerably between years and between months (McIntire 1960). 

In 1973, Abariringa (Canton) had 250 cm (98.42 inches) of rain (Mueller-Dombois and 

Fosberg 1998). In 1994, there was no rainfall at all. 

A summary of monthly Abariringa (Kanton) rainfall was presented in Department of 

Agriculture (1987). In that year, 125 cm (49.53 inches) of rain fell. 

In January 1994, Canton Island had 3 mm rainfall, just 4 percent of average (Anon. 1994a). 

In February 1994, Canton Island again had 3 mm rainfall. In March 1994, no rainfall was 

measured on Canton Island. Record high rainfall (31.5 cm; 12.40 inches) was recorded for 

Canton in August 1994 (Anon. 1994b). This was six times the average monthly rainfall. 

Banner and Banner (1964) reported that rainfall on Abariringa (Canton) was slight. Knudsen 

(1965) reported the average annual rainfall between 1938 and 1954 was 48 cm (18.77 

inches). 

In 1972, NOAA shut down the upper-air and sea-level stations at Abariringa (Canton) 

(TOGA Panel 1996). This closed down occurred right at the beginning of the 1972-1973 El 

Niño event and ended the 20 years time series data set. TOGA Panel (1996) reported that the 

U.S. entered into a bilateral agreement with New Zealand for the maintenance of the upperair 

station at Abariringa (Canton) which was subsequently closed. 

Garnett (1983) reported that the mean rainfall for Abariringa (Canton) was 70 cm (0.7 m) (23 

year average; 27.56 inches) with maximum of 160 cm (1.6 m; 62.99 inches) and minimum of 

20 cm (0.2 m; 7.87 inches). 

Abariringa (Canton) had a mean annual rainfall of 71.0 cm (27.95 inches) between 1942 and 

1967 and 1972 to 1975) (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994). 

In August 1994, Abariringa (Canton) experienced record high rainfalls of 31.5 cm (12.40 

inches) just over six times average (Anon. 1994b). This was related to the continuation of the 

1991 to 1994 ENSO episode. 

Oates (2003) noted that rain water collection was usually adequate from March to August, 

but after that freshwater stills were needed. 

Temperature and Humidity - McIntire (1960) reported that since Abariringa (Canton) was 

low (less than 6.1 m (20 ft) in elevation), it had no impact on climate. There were no 

noticeable seasonal changes, however, temperatures were slightly lower during December to 

February (averaged 28.3 ° C (83 0 F) compared with 28.7°C (83.7 0 F) during the rest of the year). 

Hatheway (1955) reported average temperatures of 28.9°C (84 0 F) and ranged from 21.7 to 

36.7°C (71 0 to 98 0 F). Relative humidity ranged from 57 to 85 percent. 

Air temperatures were constant at 25.6°C (78 0 F) at night and 31.1°C (88 0 F) during the day 

(Degener and Gillaspy 1955). In 1955, the maximum temperature on Abariringa (Canton) 

was 32.2°C (90 0 F) and the lowest temperature was 22.8°C (73 0 F) (Wiens 1962). 

48




Humidity ranged from 64 to 80 percent (McIntire 1960). 

Garnett (1983) reported that air temperature reached 31 0 C and dropped to 25 0 C at night. 

Relative humidity was about 75 percent. 

Storms - Lighting and thunder on Abariringa (Canton) were rare (Degener and Gillaspy 

1955). Hurricanes were unknown. 

McIntire (1960) noted that typhoons were unknown on Abariringa (Canton). Thunder and 

lightning storms were also rare. 

According to McIntire (1960), most days were partly cloudy (202 days a year), some days 

were cloudy (87 days a year), while only 76 days were clear. 

Garnett (1983a) reported that lightening and thunder were rare on Abariringa (Canton) and 

cyclones were unknown. 

Air Quality - There was periodically a haze caused by salt particles cast into the air by waves 

breaking on the reef (Degener and Gillaspy 1955). This was termed, “ehukai” in Hawaiian. 

This periodically caused difficulties to air operations. 

Solar Radiation – Quinn and Burt (1968) reported that incoming solar radiation over the 

tropical Pacific was much larger than previously thought. This was based on solar radiation 

readings on Wake and Abariringa (Canton). Abariringa (Canton) had recorded average solar 

radiation of 218 kLangleys based on 12 years of records. Even during rainy years, 

Abariringa (Canton) received 195 kLangleys. Even with a 43 percent increase in annual sky 

cover, there was only an 11 percent decrease in solar radiation for Abariringa (Canton). 

ENSO - Morris (1975) analyzed the sequence of meteorological events on Abariringa 

(Canton) during the 1972-1973 El Niño cycle. There was a strong correlation of heavy 

rainfall with positive sea surface temperature anomaly and positive sea surface minus air 

temperature difference (see Figure III-1.41 below). This did not indicate a causative 

relationship. During rainy periods, easterlies were weak, or became westerlies. The 

temperature in the upper troposphere was significantly warmer during El Niño months than 

during dry periods. 

Figure III-1.41. (a) Central Pacific rainfall in mm (12 month mean 1949 to 1969); 

(b) sea surface temperature anomalies 5°N-5°S, 80°W-180°W 

(12 month mean 1949 to 1969) (source: Morris 1975). 

49




Mock (1981) reviewed the history of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). In early studies 

by Bjerknes (1969 and 1972; see also Mock 1981), Abariringa (Canton) was identified as a 

focal point of SOI activities. Bjerknes (1969) noted that the warming of the surrounding sea 

surface temperature around Abariringa (Canton) above ambient air temperature correlated 

with excessive rainfall. During this period, the northeast trades and mid-latitude westerlies 

were strong compared with the very weak equatorial easterlies. Bjerknes (1972) also 

examined winds and sea surface temperatures for Abariringa (Canton) between 1962 to 1967. 

There was good correlation between the slackening of the equatorial easterlies and the 

warming of the surface waters. 

Fairbanks et al (1997) reported that Abariringa (Kanton) was located nearest to the maximum 

thermal signal associated with the El Niño/La Niña phenomena. It experienced both the sea 

surface temperature and precipitation effects of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). 

Fairbanks et al (1997) suggested that Abariringa (Kanton) be included in the network to 

monitor for the ENSO. Fairbanks (1997) noted that Abariringa (Kanton) was in the middle of 

an area of the central Pacific with sea surface temperature anomalies of more than 3 0 C. 

Climate Research Committee (1995) investigated the decade-to-century time scale in terms of 

bio-chemical-physical systems. As part of that study, the El Niño Southern Oscillation 

(ENSO) was reviewed. The two main phases of ENSO were diagrammed (including 

Abariringa (Kanton) see Figure III-1.42 below). 

Figure III-1.42. Equatorial Pacific showing major features of the warm and cool 

Phase of ENSO in relationship to sites where coral paleoclimatic reconstruction of 

ENSO were being studied: Bali, Wulawesi, Tarawa, 

Abaririrnga (Kanton), and the Galapagos. 

(source: Climate Research Committee 1995, after Cole 1992). 

50




Climate Research Committee (1995) reported that studies were on-going to examine highresolution 

δ 18 O records and records of other trace elements at key locations in the Pacific, 

including Abariringa (Kanton). This included collection of old coral (hundreds of years old) 

from key sites. Climate Research Committee (1995) reported that old corals had already 

been collected from Abariringa (Kanton). 

Xavier (2002) noted that the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) had the strongest signal in 

the eastern and central tropical Pacific. Intraseasonal variability was characterized by a 40 to 

50 day oscillation referred to as the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO). Available data from 

Abariringa (Canton) and other stations were analyzed. Spectral peaks were observed in 41 to 

53 day intervals. In addition, large coherence between variables was noticed such as surface 

pressure at Abariringa (Canton) following that of Balboa in Panama by 5 to 6 days. Xavier 

(2002) noted that the MJO affected the entire tropical troposphere and interacts with El Niño. 

The various models that have been proposed to model MJO were not yet adequate (Xavier 

2002). 

Clarke and Van Gorder (2003) used Abariringa (Kanton) sea level data to test their model for 

improving El Nino predictions. They integrated Indo-Pacific winds and equatorial Pacific 

upper ocean heat content data in their model. 

BIRNIE 

Rain - Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including Birnie) as 

dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches). 

51




The inferred mean annual rainfall on Birnie was 60 to 80 cm (0.6 to 0.8 m) per year (Garnett 

1983a). The prevailing winds were the easterly trades. 

ENDERBURY 

Wind - The prevailing winds vary from northeast to southeast (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Rain - Very little rain falls on Enderbury, however, it rained heavily in the immediate vicinity 

of the island (Hydrographic Office 1916). 

Enderbury experiences frequent, but brief rain squalls (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including Enderbury) as 

dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches). 

Mean annual rainfall on Enderbury was inferred at 60 cm (0.6 m) per year (Stoddart 1976; 

see also Garnett 1983a). 


Wind - The winds are primarily easterly (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Garnett 1983). 

Rain - Wiens (1962) reported that Manra (Sydney) annual rainfall was 105 cm (41.41 inches) 

per year. 

Average annual rainfall for Manra (Sydney) was about 102 cm (40 inches) per year (Knudsen 

1965). 

There was a severe drought in 1938 when settlers first came to Manra (Sydney) (Knudsen 

1965). 

Manra (Sydney) had a mean annual rainfall of 98.5 cm (38.8 inches) (based on data from 

1948 to 1949, and 1952 to 1961) with the highest annual rainfall of 184.6 cm (72.7 inches), 

and lowest annual rainfall of 46.3 cm (18.2 inches) (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994). 

Garnett (1983) reported that the inferred mean annual rainfall on Manra (Sydney) was 100 

cm (39.4 inches) (see also Stoddart 1976). Garnett (1983a) noted that Manra (Sydney) 

suffered from period and severe droughts. 

MCKEAN 

Wind - The winds are easterly (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Garnett 1983). 

Rainfall - Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including 

McKean) as dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches). 

52




Garnett (1983a) reported that the inferred mean annual rainfall of McKean was 80 cm (0.8 m) 

(see also Stoddart 1976). 


Winds – The prevailing winds were easterly trades (Garnett 1983a). 

Rain - Wiens (1962) reported that the annual rainfall on Nikumaroro (Gardner) was 117 cm 

(46.06 inches). 

Average annual rainfall for Nikumaroro (Gardner) was estimated to be 152 cm (60 inches) 

per year (Knudsen 1965). 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) had a mean annual rainfall of 131.9 cm (51.9 inches) (based on 1951 

to 1961 data) with the highest annual rainfall of 272.2 cm (107.2 inches), and the lowest 

annual rainfall of 27.5 cm (10.8 inches) (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994). 

Garnett (1983a) reported that inferred mean annual rainfall on Nikumaror (Gardner) was 130 

cm (51.2 inches) (see also Stoddart 1976). Nikumaroro (Gardner) was subject to periodic and 

severe droughts. 

Storms - In about 1990, there was a large storm that hit Nikumaroro (King et al 2001). The 

only thing left of the landing monument was the foundation. The storm wash was 46 m (150 

ft) back in the trees. 

ORONA (HULL) 

Rain - The rainy season was primarily from January to March and June (Bryan 1934). 

Wiens (1962) reported that the annual rainfall on Orona (Hull) was 83 cm (32.68 inches). 

Between 1952 and 1963), the mean annual rainfall at Orona (Hull) was 117.1 cm (46.1 

inches), with a highest recorded annual total of 259.9 cm (102.3 inches) and a lowest of 56.5 

cm (22.3 inches) (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994). 

Garnett (1983) reported that the inferred mean annual rainfall on Orona (Hull) was 120 cm 

(1.2 m) (see also Stoddart 1976). Orona (Hull) suffered from periodic and severe droughts. 

Temperture - The average daily temperature was 27 0 C (Garnett 1983). The prevailing winds 

were easterly trades (see also Maude 1937). 


Wind - Winds are easterly, varying from east-northeast to east-southeast (Hydrographic 

Office 1940; easterly trades according to Garnett 1983). 

53




Rain - Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including Rawaki 

(Phoenix)) as dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches). 

Garnett (1983) noted that the inferred mean annual rainfall for Rawaki (Phoenix) was 80 cm 

(31.5 inches) (see also Stoddart 1976). 

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Volume1. (reissued 2001). 

62


Chapter III. Background, 2. Human Activities 


2. HUMAN ACTIVITIES 

CHAPTER III. 

BACKGROUND 

A. ARCHAELOGICAL ASPECTS 

Te Rangi Hiroa (1938) noted that early Society Islands habitation was by the manahune who 

may be related to the menehune of Hawaii. They could pass from the Gilberts through the 

Phoenix to the Society Islands. The coral limestone temples in the Phoenix Islands were the 

sole witness of previous occupation. 

The entire Phoenix group, especially Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull) had ruins that 

suggested that they had been visited from both the east and west (Bryan 1941). Clune (1951) 

noted that migratory Polynesians had resided in the Phoenix Islands during their sea 

explorations. Hilder (1959) noted that ruins on the Phoenix Islands show that groups of 

Polynesians and Micronesians had lived there during pre-historic times. 

Sharp(1964) noted that west to east settlements were infrequent partially due to the west 

setting equatorial currents and the predominant westerly winds. Sharp (1964) reported that 

these would have made the west to east Micronesian voyages to Tahiti through the Phoenix 

Islands improbable. 

Anderson (2002) noted that no pre-historic faunal extinctions have been recorded yet for the 

Phoenix Islands. The Line and Phoenix Islands were in an area of low rainfall and were 

settled and abandoned prehistorically (see Figure III-2.1 below). 

Figure III-2.1. The Distribution of Islands with Anomalous settlement histories 

(+ = population declines, ● = settled and abandoned prehistorically), 

In relation to annual rain fall (source: Anderson 2002). 

1




Carson (1998) noted that Phoenix architecture had close affinity with prehistoric Polynesian 

culture, especially that of eastern Polynesia (the Society Islands) (see also Rainbird 2004). 

Human occupation in the Phoenix Islands may not have been a long-term, or large-scale 

endeavour. Human occupation was dependent on the scarcity and unpredictable supply of 

freshwater. Carson (1998) concluded that structures in the Phoenix Islands were made 

between AD 950 to 1500. 

During the Little Ice Age (about 1400 AD), there were more storms, thus making sailing 

difficult (Crocombe 2001). McCall (1993) suggested that the great Polynesian sweep around 

the Pacific declined due to the Little Ice Age not unlike the Vikings voyages in the Northern 

Hemisphere. Crocombe (2001) noted that the Little Ice Age was cooler and dryer and could 

have made many central Pacific Islands (like the Phoenix Islands) uninhabitable due to severe 

droughts. Polynesian settlers either died out or abandoned them long before European 

contact (Crocombe 2001). 

Pierce et al (2006) noted that Maude (1937) and Garnett (1983a, b, or c not specified) both 

reported that the Phoenix Islands were visited and/or settled by Melanesian and/or Polynesia 

peoples. 


2




The coral block ruins on Abariringa (Canton) were considered to be ancient temples by 

Meinicke (1888). 

In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition found ancient stone structures on Orona (Hull), 

Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.). No ruins were discovered 

on the other Phoenix Islands. 

Bryan (1934) reported finding archaeological structures on Abariringa (Canton). Two gravelike 

platforms were found at the middle of the northeast part of the island. They were parallel 

to the lagoon and about 27.4 m (30 yards) apart. Each had an upright slab near the middle. 

These structures were not excavated to determine if they were graves. According to Bryan 

(1939) Polynesian graves were not usually marked in this manner. About 4.8 to 6.4 km (3 to 

4 miles) east of these two platforms, there was a single slab upright about 0.8 m (2.5 ft) 

(Bryan 1934). Seven or eight small slabs lie against the base. Bryan (1939) considered these 

monuments as comparatively modern as they were in open unprotected parts of the island. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported quadrangular ruins of large coral blocks on Abariringa 

(Canton). 

Ward (1967a) noted that the island discovered by the Agate (Anon. 1850) with the ancient 

stone pyramid (Anon. 1850 and 1860b) was possibly Abariringa (Canton), not Orona (Hull). 

Garnett (1983a) reported no direct archaeological evidence had been found on Abariringa 

(Canton). Garnett (1983a) speculated that the Polynesia rat was an indication that the island 

was visited by Polynesian or Micronesian voyagers. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that the sites described by Bryan during the 1924 

visit were probably bulldozed during the construction of the airport. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) surveyed most of Abariringa (Kanton) for prehistoric 

structures. Only guano mining structures dating from the mid to late 19 th century were 

identified. 

BIRNIE 


Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney), but none on other Phoenix Islands 

(MacGregor n.d.). 

Bryan (1934) reported that there was no sign of former inhabitation on Birnie (see also Bryan 

1941). 

Maude (1937) reported that the lagoon on Birnie was fed by a small stream that first went 

through a curious artificial pond formed by coral slabs cemented together. 

Garnett (1983a) reported that there were no archaeological remains or artifacts on Birnie. 

However, the presence of the Polynesian rat suggested that Birnie had been visited by 

Polynesian or Micronesian voyagers. 

3




ENDERBURY 




Byran (1934) noted three man-made structures on Enderbury and suggested that some may 

rest on platforms similar to such as Polynesians built. 

Bryan (1941) reported that Enderbury was certainly known to the Polynesians. 

Garnett (1983a) noted that there was no evidence that Enderbury was inhabited during 

prehistoric times. The presence of the Polynesian rat suggested that the island was visited by 

either Polynesian or Micronesian voyagers. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) conducted archaeological surveys on Enderbury. They 

mapped prehistoric features (see Figure III-2.2). Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that 

19 th century guano mining focused on the north and south ends of Enderbury. The west side 

was relatively undisturbed (the location of archaeological sites). 

Figure III-2.2. Archaeological sites on Enderbury Island 

(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004). 

4




Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that there were 10 possible habitation features on 

Enderbury. In addition, there were 2 rectangular enclosures, 2 low mounds, and numberous 

probably agricultural pits on Enderbury. Detailed descriptions of each were provided. In 

addition, a diagram was provided of the 2 rectangular enclosures at the north landing site 

(Figure III-2.3). 

Figure III-2.3. Two rectangular enclosures at the north landing site on Enderbury. 


5




Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that the south guano camp on Enderbury was probably 

partially built over an archaeological site (see Figure III-2.4). Slab remnants of prehistoric 

pavements were identified within the guano camp enclosure. Detailed descriptions of the site 

and slabs were provided. This was considered East Polynesian architecture. 

Figure III-2.4. Diagram of the south guano camp on Enderbury, with 

prehistoric slabs in grey, and upright slabs in black with height in cm. 


6




Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) also noted numerous stepping stone trails on Enderbury. 

Detailed descriptions of these trails were provided. Paved courts and pit gardens were also 

located along the trails. 


Maude (1952 and 1968) noted that Manra (Sydney) had at one time supported a considerable 

populaton. 

Expeditions – The first expedition to Manra (Sydney) that included archaeology was the 1889 

British Admiralty Survey (mentioned in MacGregor n.d.;Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004). 

The second expedition to Manra (Sydney) that included archaeology was Bryan’s 1924 visit 

as part of the Whitney expedition (documented in Bryan 1942; see also Di Piazza and 

Pearthree 2004), 

7




The third Manra (Sydney) archaeological visit was the 1933 MacGregor and Stuart survey 

using the yacht Zaca (MacGregor n.d., Emory 1939; Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004). 

The fourth Manra (Sydney) archaeological visit was the 1939 Bigelow visit (Bigelow 1939, 

see also Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004). 

The most recent archaeological visit to Manra (Sydney) was the 1997 Di Piazza and 

Pearthree visit (Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004). 

Fish Pond & Weir – Arundel (1885) reported a fish pond on Manra (Sydney) (see also Bryan 

1941; Ellis 1937; Garnett 1983a). The fish pond was located on the western side of the 

lagoon and was about 8.8 m (29 ft) in diameter ringed by flat coral blocks piled on to of each 

other (Arundel 1885). 

The 1889 British survey of Manra (Sydney) reported an ancient fish pond and an ancient 

stone weir by the lagoon (MacGregor n.d.). 

In 1933, fish cairns were located on Manra (Sydney) (Macgregor n.d.). 

Bryan (1934) could not locate the fish pond reported by Arundel (1885). 

Douglas and Douglas (1994) indicated that the fish traps in the lagoon indicated that the 

lagoon was once open to the sea (see also Maude 1937). 

Dahl (1980) reported the saline lagoon on Manra had been partly modified for aquaculture. 

No fish were found in the fish pond (Government of Kiribati 1995). The area of the pond 

was estimated to be 4 km 2 . 

Structures - Anon. (1860c) noted that there were an extensive enclosure and a pyramid of 

stone on a newly discovered island near the Phoenix group (Manra (Sydney) according to 

Ward 1967b). 

Arundel (1885) reported a large collection of graves and mounds. Arundel (1885) noted long 

lines of flat plates of coral that form roads over 0.8 km (0.5 miles) in length (see also Ellis 

1937). Mr. Arundel had one of the maraes opened, but could not determine if they were 

places of burial or of sacrifice (Ellis 1937). 

The 1889 British survey of Manra (Sydney) reported ancient stone sites (MacGregor n.d.). 


Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.). No ruins were discovered 

on the other Phoenix Islands. 

MacGregor (1934) reported that 31 stone structures were found on Orona (Hull) and Manra 

(Sydney) in three days. 

Bryan (1934) reported finding archaeological structures on Manra (Sydney). Eight to ten 

were observed along the northwest curve of the island, 91 km (100 yards) or more from the 

beach. More may be hidden in the thick woods in that area. A larger one measured 8.8 x 4.6 

8




m (29 x 15 ft) and 76 cm (2.5 ft) in height. There were also stone trails between these sites. 

More than 20 structures were documented by the 1933 Zaca party (Macgregor n.d.). 

However, documentation for nine sites was lost in an accident on the reef. 

Another platform was located 55 m (60 yards) northwest of the first site (Bryan 1934). This 

platform was identical to another platform near the southeast point of Manra (Sydney). 

Additional platforms were along the guano tramway. 

Ellis (1937) noted that on Manra (Sydney) there were numerous traces of prehistoric natives 

who once lived there. 

Bigelow (1939) investigated the various archaeological sites on Manra (Sydney) and 

provided brief descriptions of each. Bigelow (1939) discovered a circular paved pathway on 

the southwest side of Manra (Sydney). Bigelow’s (1939) observations of archaeological sites 

on Manra (Sydney) differed from those of Emory (citation not provided in Bigelow 1939). 

Some of Emory’s sites were found, but others could not be located. 

In 1939, H.W. Bigelow investigated all archaeological sites on Manra (Sydney) and was able 

to provide detailed measurements and documentation for all sites (Macgregor n.d.). Bigelow 

also found three shallow pits about 0.9 m (3 ft) diameter and 46 cm (1.5 ft) deep between 

sites H and I. It was speculated that they were pit ovens. Ten other pits were found south of 

a line between platforms C to G. 

On the southwest side of Manra (Sydney), Bigelow (1939) observed two large holes 

surrounded by an irregular ring of slabs set on edge. These may be related to Emory’s J and 

K sites (Bigelow 1939). 

On the northwest and northeast sides of Manra (Sydney) there were several ruins of ancient 

altar platforms and house foundations (Hydrographic Office 1940). Bryan (1941) reported 

that there were a dozen or more platforms and closures of sandstone slabs. 

Luke (1962) reported that Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Garnder) had 

archaeological evidence that they were occupied before the coming of Europeans (see also 

Sharp 1956). 

UN Department of Political Affairs, Trusteeship and Decolonization (1979) noted evidence 

of pre-European habitation on Manra (Sydney). 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided a map of Manra archaeological sites (see Figure III- 

2.5). 

Figure III-2.5. Map of Manra archaeological sites. 


9




During their 1997 visit, Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) surveyed the entire perimeter of 

Manra. They compared sites they located with those identified in MacGregor (n.d.) and 

provided detailed descriptions of each of 16 sites investigated. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that there were three concentrations of prehistoric 

sites on Manra. The most important sites were on the west shore. This appeared to be the 

main are for prehistoric habitation. In addition, there were two marae on the west shore. Di 

Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that these two marae had been significantly disturbed 

since the 1933 visit by MacGreagor (as reported in MacGregor n.d., see Figure III-2.6 

below). 

Figure III-2.6. Marae (Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004 sites Syd-1, 2) on Manra 

showing disturbance between 1933 (B) and 1997 (A) 


10




*note: upright slabs in black, heights in cm. 

In addition to the marae, Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided illustrations of several 

other prehistoric structures on Manra (see Figure III-2.7 below). 

Figure III-2.7. Raised rectangluar platform (Di Piazza and Pearthree 

2004 sites Syd-3 (A), Syd-6 & 7 (B), Syd-11 (C), and Syd-12(D)) on Manra. 

Slabs set on edge in grey, heights in cm. 

(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004) 

11




12




Other Findings - An old water hole was located near the fish pond with excellent freshwater 

(Arundel 1885; see also Ellis 1937). In addition, a collection of 1.8 m (6 ft) deep holes about 

2.4 m (8 ft) diameter were noted (Arundel 1885). 

Bigelow (1939) reported that Jack Pedro, a former employee of Captain Allen as well as the 

Burns-Philp Co., had visted Manra (Sydney) several times in the past. Pedro reported finding 

a canoe in the lagoon. The canoe’s outrigger was broken, but Pedro noted that the 

construction was not Gilbertese nor was it Tokelan. 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there were several wells. In addition, there were several 

pits that might have been used for cooking. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) excavated a trash pit on Manra. A variety of materials were 

uncovered including: basalt flakes, basal cores, fish hooks, pear shell debitage (worked pieces 

of pearl shell), bird bones, and charcoal assemblage. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2001) identified basalt rocks on Manra that were derived from the 

Tataga Matau quarry on Tutuila in American Samoa. These had to have been transported to 

Manra, a distance of 1,075 km. 

Origin of Inhabitants – MacGregor (1934) reported that the stone structures on Orona (Hull) 

and Manra (Sydney) were closely related to maraes and house foundations in Polynesia but 

have not been recorded in uninhabited islands of western Polynesia. 

13




Bryan (1934) noted that platforms found on Manra (Sydney) were identified as Polynesian in 

origin and resembled a marae or shrine. 


suggested that they had been visited from both the east and west (Bryan 1941). 

According to Emory (1939), Macgregor found marae on Manra (Sydney) that were similar to 

those in Tahiti and the Tuamotus. These types of marae were long absent from western 

Polynesia (MacGregor n.d.). The conclusion may be that the stone structures were built by 

people from eastern Polynesia. 

Other structures on Manra (Sydney) were not similar to marae structures in Tahiti or 

Tuamotus (Emory 1939). Emory (1939) speculated that people other than Tahitians or 

Tuamotuans settled for a time on both Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull). Emory (1939) 

noted that these structures were strongly reminiscent of Caroline Islands structures. Sharp 

(1956) noted that in the early 1800’s, there was no knowledge of the Marshall Islands in the 

Gilbert Islands and that Marshallese were not visited by people outside the Marshall Islands. 

Emory (1939) suggested that the eastern Polynesian structures were constructed after the 

other structures. 

Bryan (1941) reported that K.P. Emory, Bishop Museum ethnologist, concluded that there 

were at least two groups of early visitors (see also Garnett 1983a). One group built the marae 

or shrines typical of eastern Polynesia. The other built platforms and probably came from 

Micronesia. 

Carson (1998) re-examined the archeological evidence from Manra (Sydney) (26 sites) and 

concluded that these sites, especially sites A and B, were related to Eastern Polynesian marae 

(see Figure III-2.8). The other structures on Manra (Sydney) also shared some affinities with 

the ancestral East Polynesian marae complex. Carson (1998) suggested that colonization 

probably occurred between A.D. 950 to A.D. 1500. 

Figure III-2.8. Map of Manra (Sydney) with Archaeological Sites A to W 

(Source: Carson 1998) 

14




Pearthree and Di Piazza (2003) examined archaeological items (fish hooks, basalt flakes, 

basalt cores, chisels, and abraders) from Manra and compared them with similar items from 

the Pacific. They concluded that the Manra items were similar to those found in eastern 

Polynesia. Charcoal samples from ancient fires were carbon dated to the 12 th and 13 th 

century A.D. These finding suggested a period of explosive migration in eastern Polynesia. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that Orona and Manra were examples of Polynesian 

colonisation in the 13 th century. The reasons for abandonment were examined by Di Piazza 

and Pearthree (2004). They speculate that initially the population flourished with virgin 

resources. As local resources were depleted, resources were obtained from adjacent islands. 

Once these resources were depleted, coupled with the effects of drought, settlements had to 

be abandoned. 

MCKEAN 




Bryan (1934) reported that there was no sign of human occupation of McKean. 

On the western side of the island was the ruin of a large building with a coral slab wall 2.1 m 

(7 ft) high (Hydrographic Office 1940; Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that there was a trough-like depression on the north side of 

McKean. It was about 146 m (160 yards) long with steep sides. It appeared to have been dug 

and faced by human hands. No insights were provided regarding the origin of this walled 

depression. 

15




Garnett (1983a) reported that no archaeological evidence had been found on McKean. The 

existence of the Polynesian rat suggested that McKean had been visited earlier. 

In 1985, as part of Australia’s assistance to Kiribati in setting up its Exclusive Economic 

Zone, a team visited McKean and documented several stone structures there (Throssell and 

Specht 1989; see Figure III-2.9 below). Stone structures were primarily on the west side of 

the island. There was one structure each on the north and south side of McKean. These 

structures were of uniform construction of coral limestone boulders placed on top of each 

other with no mortar. Walls were 40 to 50 cm thick. All walls have partially collapsed, 

except one that stands 2.1 m high. Throssell and Specht (1989) described three different 

types of structures: (1) six with three or four straight walls (see Figure III-2.10 below), (2) 

two with irregular walls and sizes, and (3) two boulder trails across the lagoon forming a v 

shape. 

Figure III-2.9. Locations of stone structures on McKean 

(source: Throssell and Specht 1989). 

A. Map of McKean with stone lined trails in 

lagoon and archaeological sites on the west side 

B. Enlargement of west side of 

McKean with archaeological sites 

Figure III-2.10. Structure of group A, standing 2.1 m high, on McKean 

(source: Throssell and Specht 1989). 

16




Throssell and Specht (1989) speculated that the two boulder trails may be the remains of a 

fish trap. But they noted that now there were no fish in McKean’s lagoon as it was no longer 

open to the sea. 

No metal or foreign objects were found at these sites which would have indicated that they 

were used by the guano collectors (Throssell and Specht 1989). However, Throssell and 

Specht (1989) noted that some of these structures may have been constructed or used by 

guano collectors in the late 1800s. 

Since these structures required a substantial amount of labor, Throssell and Specht (1989) 

postulate that these were not constructed by short or infrequent visitors to McKean. The 

resources of McKean could not support human settlement. 





Bryan (1934) did not visit Nikumaroro (Gardner), but provided a summary of Wilkes’ visit in 

1840. Wilkes did not mention finding any evidence of human occupation. 

Maude (1952 and 1968) noted that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had been occupied for only a short 

period in its history. 



Sharp 1956). 

Garnett (1983a) noted that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had no ruins or artefacts from prehistoric 

times. The presence of the Polynesian rat suggested that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had been 

visited earlier by either Polynesian or Micronesian voyagers. 

17




ORONA (HULL) 

Maude (1952 and 1968) noted that Orona (Hull) had been occupied for only a short period in 

its history. 

Expeditions – Orona (Hull) was discovered by the Agate in 1859 and it reported signs of 

previous inhabitation on the island (Pompey 1970). 

In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition visited Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton) as well 

as Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.). 

In 1933, the yacht Zaca, stopped at Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) and allowed Gordon 

Macgregor to survey archaeological remains there (Emory 1939). 

The most recent archaeological visit to Orona was the 1997 Di Piazza and Pearthree visit (Di 

Piazza and Pearthree 2004). 

Structures – There was a large stone pyramid on the east side of Orona’s (Hull) lagoon 

(Anon. 1860a and 1860d; 1850). No recent signs of habitation were found. 

In 1887, Ellis (1937) stayed on Orona (Hull) and found a burial ground on the far northeastern 

end of the island (eastern end according to Tudor 1968). About 100 maraes were 

observed in this area. They were built from coral slabs about 1.8 m (6 ft) long and 1.2 m (4 

ft) high. In addition, a much smaller graveyard was found elsewhere on Orona (Hull). 


Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.). 

Bryan (1934) reported finding archaeological structures on Orona (Hull). A number of small 

stone platforms were reported. The largest was at the eastern end of the island (see also 

Bryan 1941 and 1942). It was surrounded by three stone shelters along a wall in the form of 

a semi-circle. On the northwest side, west of the lagoon entrances, there were structures that 

resembled graves (see Bryan 1941 and 1942). These were excavated, but nothing was found. 



Sharp 1956). 

Ward (1967a) noted that the island discovered by the Agate (Anon. 1850) with the ancient 

stone pyramid (Anon. 1850 and 1860b) was possibly Abariringa (Canton), not Orona (Hull). 

Pompey (1972b) reported that on the west side of the lagoon, there was a large stone square 

built enclosure. 

Pompey (1972b) reported that there was a large pyramid built of stone on the east side of 

Orona’s (Hull) lagoon entrance. It appeared that the pyramid was very old. 

18




UN Department of Political Affairs, Trusteeship and Decolonization (1979) noted evidence 

of pre-European habitation on Orona (Hull). 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided an up-dated map of archaelogical sites on Orona 

(see Figure III-2.11). They also reviewed site descriptions from MacGregor (n.d.) and 

provided detailed descriptions of prehistoric sites on Orona. 

Figure III-2.11. Map of Orona archaeological sites 

(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004) 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) presented a detailed diagram of Orona site Hull-1 (see Figure 

III-2.12), and a profile of the prehistoric artifical mound (Hull-2) (see Figure III-2.13). 

Figure III-2.12. Marae diagram of Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) Hull-1 site. 

Grey slabs set on edge, black slabs upright, height in cm. 


19




Figure III-2.13. Prehistoric artificial mound diagram of 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) Hull-2 site. 


20




Other Findings – Bryan (1934) reported that plantation workers had dug up human skulls. 

One had been presented to Bishop Museum. 

On the extreme west end of the lagoon was a large artificial mound (Bryan 1934). The 

mound contained bird and turtle bones. Bryan (1934) reported that a shell adze made from 

Tridacna shell and baslt adz had been found in the mound. Emory (1939) noted that the shell 

adze was found by Bryan during a 1924 visit to Orona (Hull). The adze was brought back by 

Bryan. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that they excavated two trenches and a square pit. 

Findings from these sites were poorly preserved. 

Origin of Inhabitants - MacGregor (1934) reported that 31 stone structures were found on 

Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) in three days. These structures were closely related to 

maraes and house foundations in Polynesia but have not been recorded in uninhabited islands 

of western Polynesia. 

Referring to the shell adze found on Orona (Hull), Bryan (1934) noted that shell adze was 

common to western Polynesia. 

According to Emory (1939), structures on Orona (Hull) were not similar to marae structures 

in Tahiti or Tuamotus. Emory (1939) speculated that people other than Tahitians or 

Tuamotuans settled for a time on both Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull). Emory (1939) 

noted that these structures were strongly reminiscent of Caroline Islands structures. Sharp 

(1956) noted that in the early 1800’s, there was no knowledge of the Marshall Islands in the 

Gilbert Islands and that Marshallese were not visited by people outside the Marshall Islands. 

21





suggested that they had been visited from both the east and west (Bryan 1941). 

Lewis (1974) reported on traditional astronomy as it related to the position of stars and their 

use in navigation. In Arorae, stone patterns for learning astronomy and navigation were 

examined and the “Orona stone” was noted. However, it was not until 1938 that Hull Island 

was renamed Orona. Lewis (1974) noted that these stones may represent an ancient school of 

navigation. 

Carson (1998) re-examined the archeological evidence from Orona (Hull) (13 sites) and 

concluded that these sites shared some affinities with the ancestral East Polynesian marae 

complex (see Figure III-2.14). Carson (1998) suggested that colonization was probably 

between A.D. 950 to A.D. 1500. 

Figure III-2.14. Map of Orona (Hull) with Archaeological Sites 1 to 13 

(Source: Carson 1998) 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that Orona and Manra were examples of Polynesian 

colonisation in the 13 th century. The reasons for abandonment were examined by Di Piazza 

and Pearthree (2004). They speculate that initially the population flourished with virgin 

resources. As local resources were depleted, resources were obtained from adjacent islands. 

Once these resources were depleted, coupled with the effects of drought, settlements had to 

be abandoned. 





22




Bryan (1934) reported that no prehistoric remains were found on Rawaki (Phoenix) (see also 

Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

Garnett (1983a) noted that there were no prehistoric remains or artefacts from Rawaki 

(Phoenix). Rawaki (Phoenix) did not appear to have been visited by prehistoric voyagers. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) surveyed Rawai (Phoenix) for prehistoric structures. During 

their survey, one possible agricultural pit, one small shelter, a well and a stone monument 

were identified. Descriptions of each were provided. They noted that the stone monument 

examined was probably left by guano collectors in the late 19 th century. 

B. DISCOVERY 

During the first voyage of Alvaro de Mendana in 1568, his two ships that passed between the 

Phoenix and Tokelau Islands (Maude 1959). This voyage almost seemed to be designed to 

avoid any contact with Polynesian islands. 

In 1791 maps of the Pacific, there was a large blank area in the middle of the Pacific where 

the Phoenix Islands were located (Boggs 1938). 

In 1794, Captain Barber on the Arthur passed through the northern islands of the Phoenix 

Islands (Stackpole 1935). Arthur Island was Arrowsmith’s 1798 chart. 

Townsend (1935) summarized whale takes based on American whaleship logbooks for the 

period 1800 to 1870 (see also Boggs 1938). The Phoenix Islands were at the center of these 

whale landings. American whalers probably discovered or knew of many of the Phoenix 

Islands in the early 1800s. 

Maude (1952 and 1968) noted that the question of actual discovery was not well documented. 

Maude (1952 and 1968) concluded that the Phoenix Islands were most certainly discovered 

by British or American whaling ships between 1820 and 1830. 

In 1828, plans were made in the U.S. to send an expedition to the Pacific (Skaggs 1994). 

Information was collected from whalers and their maps from the New England area. The 

initial expedition was cancelled by President Jackson. The list of islands collected from 

American whalers was published in 1835. 

In 1836, the U.S. Congress appropriated USD 300,000 to fund the “United States Exploring 

Expedition” in the Pacific (Skaggs 1994). This was popularly known as the Wilkes 

Expedition after Lt. Wilkes who was placed in charge of the expedition. The expedition 

began in 1838 with a six ship squadron. After 4 years, two of the six ships returned. The 

total cost was almost USD 1 million. Detailed information was obtained on about 280 Pacific 

islands (including the Phoenix Islands) (see Wilkes 1845a and b). 

American activities in the Central Pacific (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1790 to 1870 

were documented by Ward (1966, 1967a to g). The documentation was primarily in the form 

of newspaper articles from that period. 

23




In 1845, Captain Netcher found the new guano islands (including the Phoenix Islands) 

(Anon. 1856). He went ashore and found a grave of a sailor buried by Captain Baker of the 

Gideon Howland of New Bedford, who was there 2 to 3 years earlier. 


Abariringa (Canton) was not on maps published in 1791 (Murphy 1954; see also Gardner 

1938). 

In 1816, Kotzebue crossed the equator at 175 0 27’ 55” W and was within 55 miles of both 

Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) (Maude 1968). Great numbers of birds were observed, 

but no land was sighted. 

Abariringa (Canton) was probably discovered prior to 1820 by various ships, primarily 

American whalers (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hobbs 1945; Schuyler 1940). It was 

known by a variety of names such as Mary, Swallow, Mary Balcourt, and Balcout and Bulcot 

Island (see also Gardner 1938). Prior to 1820, Captain Balcourt discovered Abariringa 

(Canton) and named it after his daughter Mary Balcourt (Wright 1951). 

According to Rienzi (1836-1838), Abariringa (Mary) was discovered by a vessel named 

Mary (see also Maude 1968). 

In 1823 to 1824, Captain Joseph Barney, on the whaler Equator, cruised the area of 

Abariringa (Canton), it was speculated that he discovered Abariringa (Maude 1968; see also 


In the 1825 map by English Hydrographer Norie, Mary’s Island was identified (Sharp 1960). 

In his 1828 report to the U.S. Navy Department, Reynolds indicated the position of Mary 

Balcout’s island and Barney’s Island (Sharp 1960). These all appear to be the same island, 

Abariringa (Canton) (Sharp 1960). 

In 1841, Abariringa (Canton) was visited by Captain Wilkes and the U.S. Exploring 

Expedition (Hobbs 1945). 

On March 4, 1954, the whaleship Canton grounded on the reef at Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 

1940c; Cresswell 1939; 1854 and 1872 according to Follett 1943; Searles 1938; March 5, 

1954 according to Nicholas 1946; Pompey 1970; see also Anon. 1854a, b, and c; 1855a to e; 

and 1939g; Degener and Gillaspy 1955). The Canton was a New Bedford whaleship 

according to Murphy et al (1954; see also Oates 2003). The Canton carried 1,300 barrels of 

oil (Anon. 1854a; 1854b; 1,050 barrels according to Anon. 1854c; 1,200 barrels according to 

Anon. 1855e and d). 

All aboard made it ashore (Anon. 1940c; Cresswell 1939). By March 30, after almost a 

month on island with no prospects for rescue, Captain Andrew Johnson Wing and his crew 

left in 4 boats for the Gilbert Islands (31 member crew according to Searles 1938). They 

apparently missed the Gilbert Islands and eventually landed on the Mariana Islands, then 

went to Guam. The voyage was 5,370 km (2,900 nautical miles) and took 49 days. The most 

detailed account of this mishap was provided by Cresswell (1939), Gardner (1938), and Oates 

(2003). 

24




One American ship named Canton was identified by Clune (1951) to have sailed from New 

York to Australia in 1853, then it was offered for sale there. There were no bids. It was then 

sailed to Guam, but ended up in Singapore where it was sold and renamed Santubong. The 

sale was by the ship’s mate, William Henry Hayes, who later was known as “Bully” Hayes, 

the notorious pirate of that time. Clune (1951) speculated that the story of the wreck of the 

Canton on Abariringa (Canton) may have been fabricated to deceive the owner and insurers. 

As a side note, Townsend (1935) reviewed the logs of 744 American whaleships operating in 

the nineteenth century. There were two ships named Canton listed in the appendix of the 

Townsend (1935) report. One operated from 1794 to 1866, the other from 1875 to 1909. The 

Townsend review did not cover all American whaleships of the period. Dates of operation 

for the two ships named Canton suggest that neither could be the whaleship Canton that 

grounded on Abariringa. 

Anon. (1867a) reported that while looking for the wreck of the La Belle on Wake Island, the 

Caroline Mills visited Sibello Island and discovered the wreck of the Canton. The Canton 

left Sitka in 1816 and was never heard from again. In a note to Anon. (1867a), Ward (1967f) 

suggested that it was extremely doubtful that the wreck of the Canton reported in Anon. 

(1867a) here was the same as the Canton that was wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) in 1854. 

In April 1854, Captain Handy on the Bell of Fairhaven, saw the wreck of the Canton on 

Abariringa (Canton), but saw no crew (Pompey 1970). 

During the 1850s, the H.M.S. Curacao under Captain Gibson also visited Abariringa 

(Canton) (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; Murphy et al 1954). According to Anon. (1938e), in 

the 1850s , Abariringa (Canton) was annexed by Captain Gibson of the H.M.S. Curacoa 

when laying of the Pacific cable (Anon. 1938e). 

Captain Eldridge of the Amazon, described an island he found in the Central Pacific (Anon. 

1860g). However, based on detailed descriptions of items on the island, Captain Wing 

reported that it was the same island that he had been ship wrecked on in 1854 (Abariringa 

(Canton)). 

Gardner (1938) noted that details of the wreck of the Canton were largely derived by word of 

mouth from Captain Wing and other crew members to Mrs. Clara Wing Guild of Medford, 

Massachusetts. 

Commander R.W. Meade of the U.S.S. Narrgansett surveyed the island and named it after 

the New Bedford whaleship, Canton, which was wrecked on the island in 1854 (Hobbs 1945; 

Nicholas 1946; Office of Territories 1963). Commander Meade’s survey of Abariringa 

(Canton) was in 1872 during one of his attempts to bring Captain Bully Hayes to justice 

(Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; Murphy et al 1954). 

BIRNIE 

In 1823, Birnie was discovered and named by Captain Emments (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 

Maude 1968; Captain Emment according to Douglas and Douglas 1994; Robson 1956; 

Captain Emmet according to Pompey 1972a; Captain Emmert or Emmett according to Sharp 

25




1960; Captain Emmett according to Garnett 1983a). Emmet captained the Sydney Packet 

that was owned by Birnie and Company (Maude 1968). The island name was that of a well 

known British ship owner (Birnie) at the time (Douglas and Douglas 1994; James Birnie 

according to Garnett 1983a). 

In 1840, the Vincennes and Peacock, part of Wilkes’ fleet, passed Birnie (Te Rangi Hiroa 

1953; sighted the island according to Wilkes 1845a; Bryan 1941). On January 11, 1841, the 

Peacock and Flying Fish landed and surveyed Birnie (Wilkes 1845b; see also Bryan 1941 

and 1942). 

According to Findlay (1851), the Wilkes 1838-1842 expedition was responsible for providing 

the first reliable fixing of the positions of Birnie. 

ENDERBURY 

In 1816, Kotzebue crossed the equator at 175 0 27’ 55” W and was within 55 miles of both 

Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) (Maude 1968). Great numbers of birds were observed, 

but no land was sighted. 

Enderbury was discovered in 1823 by Captain James J. Coffin of Nantucket while in 

command of the British whaling ship Transit (Robson 1956; Sharp 1960; Maude 1968). The 

island name was a misspelling of Enderby, a London whale merchant (Maude 1968). 

Anon. (1835) noted a small group of islands at lat 3 0 S and 171 0 W. This was the approximate 

location of Enderbury. 

In 1840, the Vincennes and Peacock, part of Wilkes’ fleet, surveyed Enderbury (Wilkes 

1845a; Te Rangi Hiroa 1953). Bryan (1941, 1942, and 1974) reported that the Vincennes 

visit Enderbury in 1840, while the Peacock visited Enderbury in 1841. According to Wilkes 

(1845b), the Peacock and Flying-Fish made Enderbury on January 9, 1841. According to 

Schuyler (1940), the Flying Fish visited Enderbury in 1841. 


the first reliable fixing of the positions of Enderbury. 

In 1859, C.A. Williams on the E.L. Frost discovered Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and 

Enderbury (Anon. 1860h). 


In 1787, La Pérouse was at 4 0 17’S and 171 0 21’W next to Manra (Sydney) at 4 0 27’S and 

171 0 16’W (Maude 1968). Despite having a large number of birds flying around his vessel, 

he did not see Manra (Sydney) or any land. 

In 1823, Manra (Sydney) was discovered by Captain Emment (Robson 1956; Tudor 1968; 

Captain Emmert or Captain Emmett according to Sharp 1960; Captain Emmett according to 

Garnett 1983a) of the vessel Sydney Packet that was owned by Birnie and Company (Maude 

1968). Manra (Sydney) was named after the vessel that discovered it. Garnett (1983a) noted 

26




that Manra (Sydney) had already been know by whaling vessels that frequented the Phoenix 

Islands in the early years of the 19 th century. 

In 1823, the French explorer Tromelin also found Manra (Sydney) (Sharp 1960). 

Manra (Sydney) was discovered in 1840 by the U.S. Exploring Expedition (Baarslag 1940). 

When the U.S.S. Vincennes of the U.S. Exploring Expedition discovered Orona (Hull), there 

was a sick Frenchman and 11 Tahitians on the island (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Dickson 1939; 

Douglas and Douglas 1994). They provided directions to Manra (Sydney) some 97 km (60 

miles) to the south (Sharp 1960; east according to Bryan 1941 and 1942; Wilkes 1845a). 

The Vincennes did not visit Manra (Sydney) due to poor weather (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 

Wilkes 1845a). 

MCKEAN 

In 1794, McKean was discovered by Captain Barber of the Arthur (Douglas and Douglas 

1994; Maude 1968; Throsell and Specht 1989). Captain Barber named the island 

Drummond’s Island. Sharp (1960) reported that the island was named Arthur Island and the 

location was 1 3/4 0 west of the actual position of McKean. 

The location of McKean (Dummond’s Island) was on Arrowsmith’s 1798 chart as Arthur 

Island after Captain Barber’s ship (Maude 1968). 

In 1828, the position of an unnamed island with location matching McKean was tabulated by 

J.N. Reynolds (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

In 1830, McKean was visited by the whaler Japan (Maude 1968). In 1832, it was visited by 

Captain Worth. In 1834, it was visited by an unknown whaling captain who called it 

Wigram’s Island. 

McKean was probably visited by several whalers prior to 1840 (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

McKean was discovered by Lieutenant Wilkes, of the U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1840 

(Hydrographic Office 1940; Tudor 1968; Pompey 1972c). The Vincennes and Peacock, part 

of Wilkes’ fleet, discovered and described McKean (Wilkes 1845a; Te Rangi Hiroa 1953). 

The name McKean was after a prominent officer in the U.S. Navy (Te Rangi Hiroa 1953). 

The island was named for the person who first sighted it (Wilkes 1845a; see also Cooley 

1940; Douglas and Douglas 1994; Nicholas 1946). The only crew whose name resembles 

McKean was M’Keen, the ship’s cook (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The surf was too heavy to 

permit a landing (Wilkes 1845a). 


the first reliable fixing of the positions of McKean. 


Enderbury (Anon. 1860h). Williams tried to take credit for the discovery according to 

Pompey (1972c). 

27





Between 1800 and 1825, Nikumaroro (Gardner) was sighted by whalers (Laxton 1951). 

In 1820, Captain Joseph Allen of the American whaler, Maro, discovered Nikumaroro 

(Garder) (Pompey 1974 and 1972d). Captain Allen called the island Gardner, and the reef 

Maro. 

Anon. (1821a, b, and c) noted the discovery of Gardner Island. However, the location given 

was not within the Phoenix Islands, but closer to the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) was probably known to whaling ships of the early 19 th century 

(Garnett 1983a). 

In 1824, Captain Kemins located Nikumaroro (Douglas and Douglas 1994; Maude 1968). 

Captain Kemins named the island Kemin Islands (Maude 1968). Nikumaroro (Gardner) was 

also known as Kimins (Pompey 1974 and 1972d). 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) was discovered by Captain Joshua Coffin, of the American ship 

Ganges, in about 1825 (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Day 1966; 1828 according to 

Bryan 1941 and 1942; Tudor 1968; between 1821 and 1827 according to Nicholas 1946; in 

1825 according to Sharp 1960; in 1828 according to Pompey 1974 and 1972d; 1821 or 1828 

according to Garnett 1982a). It was named Gardner after Gideon Garner, the owner of the 

Ganges (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Laxton 1951). According to Day (1966), 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) was named by Joshua Gardner of the whaler Ganges (see also Sharp 

1960). 

Anon. (1828) reported on islands discovered by Captain John Gardner of the ship, Atlantic. 

In the notes to this article by Ward (1967a), Gardner Island was mentioned. However, the 

location of Gardner Island was in close proximity to Bougainville, not the Phoenix Islands. 

In 1840, the Vincennes and Peacock saw Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Te Rangi Hiroa 1953). The 

crew of the U.S.S. Vincennes landed on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Wilkes 1845a; Bryan 1941). 

Commander Wilkes of the U.S. Exploring Expedition thought that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had 

been discovered by Captain Gardner, so retained his name of the island (Wilkes 1845a; Bryan 

1941 and 1942). 

According to Baarslag (1940) Nikumaroro (Gardiner) was discovered in 1840 by the U.S. 

Exploring Expedition. According to Findlay (1851), the Wilkes 1838-1842 expedition was 

responsible for providing the first reliable fixing of the positions Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

ORONA (HULL) 

Orona (Hull) was sighted prior to 1828, as one of the locations for Manra (Sydney) in 

Reynolds’ report was the exact location of Orona (Hull) (Maude 1968). 

28




In 1838, Abel Du Petit-Thouars, the French explorer, saw the small uninhabited island of 

Orona (Hull) (Te Rangi Hiroa 1953). It is not certain if this is the same island as Orona 

(Hull) in the Phoenix Islands. 

Orona (Hull) was continually being mistaken for Manra (Sydney) which was less than 60 

miles away, even up to the Wilkes visit in 1841 (Maude 1968). Orona (Hull) was well 

known to whaling vessels in the early 19 th century (Garnett 1983a). 

Orona (Hull) was discovered by Commander Wilkes in 1840 (Wilkes 1845a; Hydrographer 

of the Navy 1969) and named Hull Island (see also Hobbs 1945; and Dickson 1939). When 

the U.S.S. Vincennes discovered Orona (Hull), there was a sick Frenchman and 11 Tahitians 

on the island (Wilkes 1845a; see also Dickson 1939; Douglas and Douglas 1994). Wilkes 

(1845a) called the Tahitians Kanakas. They had been left there 5 months earlier to catch 

turtles (4 months according to Dickson 1939). They provided directions to Manra (Sydney) 

some 97 km (60 miles) to the east (Wilkes 1845a; south according to Sharp 1960). In 

addition, they knew of two other islands north of Orona (Hull). 

Orona (Hull) was named after Commodore Isaac Hull of the U.S. Navy (Cooley 1940; Hobbs 

1945; see also Nicholas 1946; a distinguished officer of the Navy according to Wilkes 

1845a). 

On January 17, 1841, the Peacock and Flying-Fish made Orona (Hull) (Wilkes 1845b). The 

island had been surveyed earlier by the Vincennes. The party of Tahitians that were catching 

turtles had left. 


the first reliable fixing of the positions of Orona (Hull). 

Pompey (1970) reported that Orona (Hull) was discovered by the Agate in 1859 (see also 

Anon. 1860a). The Agate also reported that there were signs of previous inhabitation on the 

island (Pompey 1970). 


In 1823, the French explorer Tromelin in the Bayonnaise, reported the position of the 

Phoenix Islands (Sharp 1960; Rawaki (Phoenix) and Manra (Sydney) according to Maude 

1968). According to Tromelin, this information had already been published in the map by 

Norie (Maude 1968). 

In a 1828 report to the U.S. Navy Department based on discoveries by American whaling 

vessels, Reynolds noted the location of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Sharp 1960; see also Maude 

1968). 

Rawaki (Phoenix) was discovered prior to 1828 by a ship named Phoenix (Bryan 1941 and 

1942; Tudor 1968; or Phenix according to Sharp 1960; by Captain Moore on the Phoenix in 

1794 according to Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004). According to Garnett (1982a), Rawaki 

(Phoenix) might have been discovered by Daniel Bennett in the whaler Phoenix in 1815. 

29




There were three vessels named Phoenix in the region from about 1794 to 1824 (Bryan 1941 

and 1942). Which of these vessels discovered Rawaki could not be determined. During 

1815, the London whaler Phoenix, owned by Daniel Bennett was engaged in whaling in the 

Pacific (Maude 1968). In 1821, the Phoenix of Nantucket under Captain Harris was the only 

vessel by that name in the central Pacific (Stackpole 1935; 1822 according to Maude 1968). 

It was later followed by the Phoenix of New Bedford (Stackpole 1935). 

In 1834, the location of Rawaki (Phoenix) was published by the Russian hydrographer 

Krusenstern (Sharp 1960). 

Rawaki (Phoenix) was discovered in 1840 by the U.S. Exploring Expedition (Baarslag 1940). 

The Peacock and Flying Fish of the U.S. Exploring Expedition searched for Rawaki 

(Phoenix) in 1841, but were not able to locate it (Garnett 1983a). Bryan (1941 and 1942) 

noted that the U.S. Exploring Expedition did not find the island. 

On March 9, 1853, Captain Stuart of the Corinthian discovered Rawaki (Phoenix), but 

reported it to be a dangerous reef that could be seen for 8 miles in clear weather (Pompey 

1970; see also Anon. 1853b). However, according to the note by Ward (1967d) to Anon. 

(1853b), the description provided by Captain Stuart did not exactly correspond with that of 


Anon. (1853a) reported that the schooner John Franklin had drifted ashore on Rawaki 

(Phoenix). 


Enderbury (Anon. 1860h). 


Carondelet Reef was former known as Mary Reef (Krusenstern 1835; Maude 1968). 

The whaling ship Loper discovered a reef at 5 0 30’S, 175 0 00’W (Anon. 1826). In the note to 

this article by Ward (1967a), it was stated that this reef was probably Carondelet Reef. 

In 1903, Carondelet Reef was sighted by the British steamer Aorangi (Ward 1967a). 

A vessel named Carondelet reported the reef about 97 km (60 miles) southweast of 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Hydrographic Office 1916). The sighting was in 1903. 

In 1927, the steamship Lume reported sighting Carondelet Reef (Ward 1967a). 

In 1937, Carondelet reef was confirmed by the H.M.S. Wellington (Hydrographer of the 

Navy 1969). 

WINSLOW REEF 

Winslow (1853) reported that in 1851 he captained the ship Phoenix from Nantucket and 

discovered a dangerous reef at 1 0 40’S, 174 0 50’W (see also Hydrographic Office 1940; 

30




Degener and Gillaspy 1955). The reef was about 1.6 km (1 mile) NW to SE, and nearly 1.2 

km (¾ mile) broad. Sounding indicated the depth of the reef was 7.3 m (4 fathoms). 

In the early 1900’s various ships and planes unsuccessfully searched for this reef 

(Hydrographic Office 1940). In 1922 the steamer Hauraki passed over the reef, and saw no 

signs of it (Ward 1967f). In 1928, the British steamer Nassa passed over the site, and saw no 

signs of it. In 1932, the American steamer Golden Cross also passed over the position and 

saw no sign of it. 

The British auxiliary schooner Doris Crane passed a sand bank or coral reef at 0 0 55’W, 174 0 

51’W (no year provided, Ward 1967f). This location was about 72 km (45 miles) northward 

of Winslow Reef. 

Winslow Reef was finally located in 1944 about 16 km (10 miles) northwest of the originally 

reported location (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

In 1945, a small area of the sea about 4.8 km (3 miles) east of Winslow reef was reported to 

be breaking (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

C. GUANO ERA (c1856 to c1887) 

In August 18, 1856, Congress passed the guano act that authorized American citizens to take 

possessions of islands that contained guano deposits if those islands were not occupied or 

possessed by any other government (Grattan 1941). 

Many of the Phoenix Islands were wrongly placed on charts (Ellis 1937). Some were as 

much as 24 km (15 miles) out of position. This made their identification and registration as 

a guano island difficult. 

Obsolete names for Phoenix Islands and locations were identified in Anon (1871). 

Hempstead (1871) reported that there were no islands named Favorite Island or Arthurs 

Island. 

C.A. Williams & Co. discovered five guano islands (Anon. 1859b). In a note to Anon. 

(1859b), Ward (1967b) suggested that the Williams Company probably referred to the 

Phoenix Islands Guano Co. 

The digging of guano on the Phoenix Islands was difficult work under appalling conditions 

(Skaggs 1994). 

For a detailed history of the guano era see Skaggs (1994). 


In 1859, a list of 48 islands was published by the New York Tribune that listed Pacific 

Islands with guano deposits (Hague 1862). The list included Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix), 

Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), and Abariringa (Mary). 

31




In 1860, Abariringa (Canton) was bonded by the U.S. (Orent and Reinsch 1941). The bond 

was filed by Captain Greene of the American brig Agate on behalf of the Phoenix Guano 

Company. However, no certificate was issued. According to Skaggs (1994), the U.S. Guano 

Company filed a claim to Abariringa (Canton) on February 12, 1859, and received bond 

number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (claim filed for Mary’s Island according to McIntire 1960). 

All of the Phoenix Islands, except Orona (Hull) were bonded to the American Guano 

Company, or its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968). 

There was no evidence that any guano was removed from Abariringa (Canton) by Americans 

(McIntire 1960; see also Murphy et al 1954). However, according to Grattan (1961) 

American worked the guano deposits on Abariringa (Canton). Gardner (1938) noted that 

Abariringa (Canton) guano deposits were not rich enough to justify the expense and labor 

costs for extraction. 

Anon. (1870) provided detailed discussion of the reported and actual locations of Abariringa 

(Canton, Mary, Swallow), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie. 

Anon. (1871) provided more accurate positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, Canton), 

Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and Orona (Hall). In 1871, sailing directions 

for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These included: Abariringa 

(Mary, Swallow, Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), Orona (Halls), and Rawaki 

(Phoenix). 

The Howard de Troop went ashore on Abariringa (Canton) just after the Lorenzo grounded 

on Manra (Sydney) (Ellis 1937; see also Rhodes 1936b; Murphy et al 1954). This was in 

1884 (Anon. 1940c; 1884-1885 according to Gardner 1938). According to Gardner (1938), 

the steam winch of this vessel was still visible on the beach and 61 cm (2 ft) long iron spikes 

could be found on the reef where the vessel went aground. 

Mr. C.A. Williams transferred his interests in Abariringa (Canton) to J.T. Arundel (Garnett 

1983a). By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended 

American guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, 

Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All 

of these had been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them. 

Between 1885 and 1886, Arundel and Co. worked large deposits of phosphate-guano on 

Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 1938e; see also Ellis 1937; Morrell 1960; 1881 to 1891 

according to Douglas and Douglas 1994). 

A steam launch was used to pull surf-boats loaded with guano to the vessel (Ellis 1937). 

Abariringa (Canton) was unusual as the lagoon connected to the sea and small boats could 

enter or exit the lagoon at any time. In addition, a small stone pier on the north side of the 

lagoon was used (Bryan 1941 and 1942; east side of the lagoon according to Van 

Zwaluwenburg 1941; Murphy et al 1954). 

Forts on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were built to protect guano diggers (Wright 

1951). U.S. guano ships were sometimes pirated by Peruvians. 

32




Little guano was dug by the John T. Arundel Co. between 1885 and 1886 (Bryan 1941, 1942, 

and 1974). 

Abariringa (Canton) was once so covered with guano that guano harvest was a long and 

lucrative export during the later half of the 19 th century (Degener and Degener 1959). 

BIRNIE 

Hague (1862) noted that in 1859, a list of 48 islands was published by the New York Tribune 

that listed Pacific Islands with guano deposits. The list included Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix), 


The U.S. Guano Company filed a claim to Birnie on February 12, 1859, and received bond 

number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). Birnie was claimed by U.S. guano 

interests, but no guano was actually dug (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also King 1973; Garnett 

1983a). Pompey (1970a) reported that the Pacific Islands Company held the guano lease, 

but there was no record of guano harvest from Birnie. 



The reported and actual locations of Abariringa (Canton, Mary, Swallow), Rawaki (Phoenix), 

and Birnie were published in Anon. (1870). 

In 1871, C.A. Williams gave up his interest in Birnie to J.T. Arundel and Co., Ltd. (Garnett 

1983a). In 1883, Arundel visited Birnie, but decided not to collect guano as it was not worth 

exploiting. 

Positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, and Canton), Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix), 

McKean, and Orona (Hall) were published in Anon. (1871). 

In 1871, sailing directions for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These 

included: Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, and Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), 

Orona (Halls), and Rawaki (Phoenix). 

By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended American 

guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Nikumaroro 

(Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All of these had 

been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them. 

ENDERBURY 




The U.S. Guano Company filed a claim for Enderbury on February 12, 1859, and received 

bond number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). The following month, the Phoenix 

33




Guano Company filed a claim dated March 14, 1859, and received bond number 6 dated 

December 27, 1859. 

Between 1857 and 1860, American companies took possession of McKean, Rawaki 

(Phoenix), and Enderbury for guano extraction (Morrell 1960; 1858 for Enderbury according 

to Gardner 1938). 

In 1859, the U.S. Secretary of State issued a proclamation granting Enderbury guano rights to 

the Phoenix Guano Company (Abbott 1966, see also Orent and Reinsch 1941). Enderbury 

was bonded to Mr. C.A. William of Honolulu (Garnett 1983a). All of the Phoenix Islands, 

except Orona (Hull) were bonded to the American Guano Company, or its subsidiary, the 

Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968). 

In 1859, a group of Hawaiian workers who had worked on Enderbury, McKeans, and Rawaki 

(Phoenix) sued C.A. Williams for greater compensation due to the hardships (Skaggs 1994). 

They lost in court. 

The Phoenix Guano Company placed men on Enderbury (Abbott 1966). In April 1860, 

guano digging began on Enderbury (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). 

On January 1, 1961, Captain Lawton of the Agate found two men with scurvy on Enderbury 

(Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; see also Pompey 1970; Anon. 1861a). They had 2.3 kg (five 

pounds) of wormy bread and plenty of water. Both men could not get out of their house. 

They had been there 9 months waiting for relief. One was taken away by the Agate. Both 

men had worked for the Phoenix Guano Company (Skaggs 1994). The Agate brought the 

new crew and supplies to Enderbury. 

In 1861, the U.S. Guano Company, headed by Alfred G. Benson, sent a ship under Captain 

John Gunn to Enderbury to gain control of the island (Abbott 1966, see also Bryan 1974). 

Gunn kidnapped the Phoenix Guano Company agent, mounted two cannons on the island, 

and left two men to guard the island. When the next Phoenix Guano Company ship arrived, 

they were not allowed to land and returned to Honolulu (Abbott 1966; see also Bryan 1974). 

The agent for the Phoenix Guano Company returned to Enderbury with sufficient force to 

remove the U.S. Guano Company guards. 

The locations for McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury were published in Anon. 

(1861b). However, according to a note to Anon. (1861b) by Ward (1967e), the positions 

were not very accurate. 

In 1866, the British bark Golden Sunset carrying 20 passengers and a cargo of coal grounded 

on Enderbury (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; on Derby Island on December 11, 1866 

according to Anon. 1867b and c). One crew was drowned (Pompey 1970; see also Anon. 

1867b and c). The captain, crew and passengers were brought to Honolulu on the Hawaiian 

brig Kamehameda V, a supply ship (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). The British 

Commissioner in Honolulu investigated the wreck and acquitted the captain and all officers. 

The disaster was attributed to the incorrectness of charts (Anon. 1867b and c). 

In 1866, a short narrative of the brig Harriet Newell’s reprovisioning trip from Honolulu to 

Rawaki (Phoenix), Enderbury, and McKean in early 1866 (Cunningham 1866). The voyage 

took 32 days. 

34




In June 1870, Captain Hempstead arrived with 60 Hawaiian laborers under contract with the 

Phoenix Guano Co. (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). A railway tram and pier on the western 

side of the island were constructed to move guano to awaiting ships (Abbott 1966). Houses 

were constructed to house workers. In 64 days, four vessels were loaded and 5,443 tonnes 

(6,000 tons) of phosphate were removed (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Garnett 1983a). For a 

detailed list of vessels and guano amounts for 1870, see Pompey (1970). 

The positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki 

(Phoenix), McKean, and Orona (Hall) were published in Anon. (1871). In 1871, sailing 

directions for the Phoenix Islands were also published by Hempstead (1871). These 

included: Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), 

Orona (Halls), and Rawaki (Phoenix). 

A short account of the schooner C.M. Ward’s trip from Honolulu to Rawaki (Thoenix) and 

Enderbury was published by Rickman (1871). 

Phoenix Guano Company mined several of the Phoenix Islands including Enderbury, 

McKeans, and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Skaggs 1994). On Enderbury, guano was dug and 

exported during the 1870s (Abbott 1966; see also Boggs 1938). The price was USD 29 to 36 

per tonne (USD 32 to 40 per ton). 

In 1872, 4,375 tonnes (4,822 tons) were exported from Enderbury (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 

1974). 

In 1876, there were 4 foreigners and 55 Hawaiians working the guano on Enderbury (Bryan 

1941 and 1942). 

During the guano mining period, there was a mutiny aboard one of the guano ships two 

weeks after it left Enderbury (Abbott 1966). No other specifics were provided. 

Forts were built on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury to protect guano diggers (Wright 

(1951). U.S. guano ships were sometimes pirated by Peruvians. 

In 1877, guano collection on Enderbury ceased (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; 1878 according 

to Schuyler 1940). Enderbury had been worked for guano from 1862 to 1877 (Maude 1952 

and 1968; 1861 to 1877 according to Tracey et al 1972). More than 90,720 tonnes (100,000 

tons) of phosphate had been mined from Enderbury (Burnett and Lee 1980 citing Tracey 

1979; Huchinson 1950). 

Guano had been dug on the north side of Enderbury (Bryan 1941, 1942 and 1974). The area 

now resembled a great mine dump. 





After 1881, J.T. Arundel & Co. worked guano deposits on Enderbury for several years 

(Douglas and Douglas 1994; Tracey et al 1972). According to Skaggs (1994), Arundel 

35




arrived at Enderbury in about 1886 and found a horse and mule there (that had been left in 

1877 according to Garnett 1983a). Arundel promptly caught both animals and yoked them to 

rail cars to transport guano. 





On February 12, 1859, the U.S. Guano Company filed a claim for Manra (Sydney) and 

received bond number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). The bonder was probably 

C.A. Williams of Honolulu (Garnett 1983a). All of the Phoenix Islands, except Orona (Hull) 

were bonded to the American Guano Company, or its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano 

Company (Maude 1952 and 1968). 

The Phoenix Guano Company operated at the southeast end of Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor 

n.d.). They constructed a dock and tramway at the east end of the lagoon. A tram line was 

constructed on the north side of the lagoon (Douglas and Douglas 1944). Another short line 

ran to the southeast side of the island to the stone pier on the lagoon. A passage was blasted 

through the reef (Hilder 1959). Operations were under Captain Mann with 96 workers from 

Niue and the Cook Islands (Garnett 1983a). 

American guano interests claimed Manra (Sydney). However, they made no efforts to collect 

guano (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

In 1861, Arundel visited Mara (Sydney) twice in 1881 and left three laborers with 12 months 

of provisions (Garnett 1983a). 

In about 1882 or 1883, John T. Arundel obtained a lease to Manra (Sydney) from Britain 

(Bryan 1941 and 1942; 1883 according to Hilder 1959; 1882 according to Tudor 1968; 1881 


Between 1883 and 1885, 6,350 tonnes (7,000 tons) of phosphate were exported from Manra 

(Sydney) (Garnett 1983a). 

Between 1884 and 1885, guano was extracted from Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 

1883 to 1885 according to Garnett 1983a; 1882 to 1885 according to Douglas and Douglas 

1994). 

The guano ship Lorenzo was wrecked while loading guano at Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1941 

and 1942; Ellis 1937; in 1885 according to Hilder 1959; Rhodes 1936b; Garnett 1983a). 

According to Rhodes (1936b) the Lorenzo’s cables parted. 





36




In the southeast corner of the lagoon on Manra was a series of small slightly brackish ponds 

that were left from guano collection (Bryan 1941; eastern end of the island according to 


MCKEAN 

In 1858, McKean was occupied and guano had been exported (Hague 1862). Much of the 

deposits had become covered by a foot of coral mud. 

On March 14, 1859, the Phoenix Guano Company filed a claim for McKean and received 

bond number 6, dated December 27, 1859 (Skaggs 1994; C.A. Williams and Co. filed the 

claim according to Garnett 1983a). In 1859, C.A. Williams and Co. (which became the 

Phoenix Guano Co.) filed a claim to McKean with the U.S. State Department under the 1856 

Guano Act (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Anon. 1860e). 


Company, or its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968). The 

Phoenix Islands Guano Company claimed McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury 

(Anon. 1859a). The agent for the Phoenix Islands Guam Company was C.A. Williams & Co. 


(Phoenix), and Enderbury for guano extraction (Morrell 1960). It was estimated that there 

was over 100,000 tons of guano on McKean (Pompey 1972c). 

In 1859, Captain T. Long of the Agate took possession of McKean in the name of the United 

States of America for the Phoenix Guano Company (Hydrographic Office 1940). A plaque 

bearing that inscription was found by the U.S.S. Bushnell in 1939. Anon. (1859f) reported 

that the Agate left 29 workers on McKean for loading guano on the Modern Times. A.M. 

Goddard and 29 Hawaiians were planning to go to Rawaki (Phoenix), but ended up on 

McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The Modern Times was chartered at $10 per ton to load 

guano from McKean (Anon 1859a; see also Anon. 1859c). 




The anchorage on McKean was excellent, so no mooring was needed (Anon. 1859f). The lee 

of McKean was a good smooth place for a ship to wait (Anon. 1859g). However, the 

Asanasia, slipped the large anchor and 137 m (75 fathoms) of chain during a heavy squall 

while anchored at McKean (Anon. 1860d). 

In 1860, Captain Long probably visited McKean to claim the island for C.A. Williams 


A load of 1,089 tonnes (1,200 tons) of guano from McKean transported by the White 

Swallow, was the first load of guano to be brought to the U.S. (Anon. 1860e; see also Anon. 

1860e, f, and h). McKean had nothing whatsoever of value for any useful purpose, except its 

abundant wealth of fertilizing substance(Anon. 1860h). 

37




Locations for McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury were published by Anon. (1861b). 

However, according to a note to Anon. (1861b) by Ward (1967e), the positions were not very 

accurate. 

In 1861, the Osborn Howes, loaded with guano from McKean, sprang a leak and threw 

overboard 112 tonnes (123 tons) of guano at about 44 0 S (Anon. 1861c). 

In 1861, a report came out proclaiming the benefits of using Phoenix Islands guano, 

specifically guano from McKean, for agricultural purposes (Phoenix Guano Co. 1861). The 

chemical composition of this guano was presented. At the end of the report were testimonials 

regarding the increased plant growth achieved by using this guano. In addition, instructions 

were provided on the application rate. 

With the development of the guano exports from such islands as McKean, the importance of 

the harbor at Aspia (Upolu, Samoa) as a center for commerce had increased (Anon. 1866). 

A short narrative of the brig Harriet Newell’s reprovisioning trip from Honolulu to Rawaki 

(Phoenix), Enderbury, and McKean in early 1866 was provided by Cunningham (1866). The 

voyage took 32 days. 

During a gale on December 4, 1867, the Washington, under Captain Berry, went ashore on 

McKean (Anon. 1868b; see also Anon. 1868b; 1868c). She was carrying 771 tonnes (850 

tons) of guano. On December 9, 1867, her crew was rescued by the Kamehaneha V (Anon. 

1868d). 

From 1859 to 1870, McKean was worked for guano (Maude 1952 and 1968; 1859 to 1870 

according to Garnett 1983a). McKean was worked out first (Bryan 1941 and 1942). No 

vessels were recorded to have visited there after 1870. Guano was worked until 1870 (Tudor 

1968) by the Phoenix Guano Company (Pompey 1972c) when all reserves had been exploited 


Under the American Guano Act of 1856, three of the Phoenix Islands, including McKean, 

were worked exclusively by American guano companies (Freeman 1951). Phoenix Guano 

Company had mined Enderbury, McKeans, and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Skaggs 1994). 



directions for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These included: 

Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), Orona (Halls), 

and Rawaki (Phoenix). 

No wrecks of guano ships were recorded (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

The basin within the rim of land on McKean had been deepened by guano digging (1859 to 

1870) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The ruins of the Phoenix Guano Company buildings were the 

most conspicuous objects on McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942; also Hydrographic Office 

1940). These were on the west side of the island and consisted of numerous stone walls. The 

highest point was a wall 2.1 m (7 ft) high. 

38




By 1880, the Pacific Island Company, a British firm) worked the island for guano (Pompey 

1972c). According to Garnett (1983a), the Pacific Islands Co., Ltd. applied for a license to 

work McKean, but the license was never granted. McKean was therefore never used by a 

British firm. 





John T. Arundel Co. did not use or develop McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942). They reported 

no guano left on McKean. 


On February 12, 1869, the U.S. Guano Company filed a claim to Nikumaroro (Gardner) and 

received bond number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). All of the Phoenix Islands, 

except Orona (Hull) were bonded to the American Guano Company, or its subsidiary, the 

Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968). 

Nikumaroro (Kemins) was claimed by Americans under the U.S. Guano Act of 1856 (Bryan 

1941 and 1942). This was probably to C.A. Williams (Garnett 1983a). However, there was 

no exploitation or development on the island. 

There was no record of guano being dug on Nikumaroro (see also Garnett 1983a). 





ORONA (HULL) 

There was some confusion regarding the location of Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

This may have lead to Orona (Hull) not being claimed by American guano diggers as Manra 

(Sydney) and Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

Orona (Hull) was the only Phoenix Island never bonded to the American Guano Company, or 

its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968; see also Skaggs 1994; 

Garnett 1983a). However, it was mined by the Phoenix Guano Company (Skaggs 1994). 



directions for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These included: 

Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), Orona (Halls), 

and Rawaki (Phoenix). 

39








In 1887, Ellis took samples of guano for analysis (Ellis 1937). The quantity was insufficient, 

but of it was high quality. 




Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), and Abariringa (Mary). Hague (1862) noted that the guano 

quantity was not very extensive, but was said to be of good quality. 

On February 12, 1859, the U.S. Guano Company filed a claim for Rawaki (Phoenix) and 

received bond number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). In addition, the Phoenix 

Guano Company filed a claim for Rawaki (Phoenix) on May 14, 1859, and received bond 

number 6, dated December 27, 1859. 




(Phoenix), and Enderbury for guano extraction (Morrell 1960). In 1859, C.A. Williams and 

Co. (later the Phoenix Guano Co.) filed notice that Rawaki (Phoenix) had been taken as a 

possession of the U.S. (Bryan 1941). A sign board had been erected and a bottle containing 

papers had been buried there. 

In 1859, the American brig Agate departed Hawaii to set up a base camp on Rawaki 

(Phoenix) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Landing was too difficult, so the ship went to McKean. 

Rawaki (Phoenix) had habors affording safe anchorage for large ships (Anon. 1859e). 

However, in the notes to this article, it was noted that Rawaki (Phoenix) did not have a harbor 

for large ships. 




In 1860, guano collection operations began on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 

1862 according to Garnett 1983a). The Phoenix Guano Company erected a hut, shed, and 

tramline to assist in guano collection (Maude 1937). They also released rabbits on Rawaki 

(Phoenix). 

The locations for McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury were published by Anon. 

(1861b). However, according to a note to Anon. (1861b) by Ward (1967e), the positions 

were not very accurate. 

40




A short narrative of the brig Harriet Newell’s reprovisioning trip from Honolulu to Rawaki 

(Phoenix), Enderbury, and McKean in early 1866 was provided by Cunningham (1866). The 

voyage took 32 days. 

The reported and actual locations of Abariringa (Canton, Mary, Swallow), Rawaki (Phoenix), 

and Birnie were discussed in detail in Anon. (1870). 

Rawaki had been worked for guano from 1860 to 1871 (Maude 1952 and 1968; 1862 to 1872 

by the Phoenix Guano Company according to Douglas and Douglas 1994; 1859 to 1871 

according to Garnett 1983a). In 1871, Rawaki (Phoenix) was abandoned by guano collectors 

(Bryan 1941 and 1942). A total of between 18,144 to 36,288 tonnes (20,000 to 40,000 tons) 

of phosphate were shipped from Rawaki (Phoenix) between 1862 to 1871 (Garnett 1983a). 

Guano had been extracted from Rawaki (Phoenix) (Boggs 1938; see also Bryan 1951). 

Phoenix Guano Company had mined Enderbury, McKeans, and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Skaggs 

1994). 

In 1871, sailing directions for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These 

included: Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), Orona 

(Halls), and Rawaki (Phoenix). The positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, Canton), 

Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and Orona (Hall) were published in Anon. 

(1871). 

A short account of the schooner C.M. Ward’s trip from Honolulu to Rawaki (Thoenix) and 

Enderbury was provided by Rickman (1871). 

In 1882, William relinquished his claim to Rawaki (Phoenix) to J.T. Arundel (Garnett 

1983a). 





D. POST-GUANO ERA TO THE START OF WORLD WAR II (c1887 to 

1939) 

Great Britain’s 1875 Pacific Islanders Protection Act only applied to territories whose 

independence Britain did not recognize (Ward 1948). In 1877, the Western Pacific Order of 

Council brought the 1875 Act into operation. The 1877 Order listed islands to which the 

1875 Act applied including the Phoenix Islands. 

From 1877 to 1881, the Phoenix Islands were uninhabited and probably unvisited (Maude 

1952 and 1968). John T. Arundel and Co. then either took direct control over, or acted as 

agent for the Phoenix Islands. In addition to further exploitation of the guano resources, he 

had a policy to turn the islands into coconut plantations. 

41




When A.F. Ellis was young, he and his brother and three natives worked on Orona (Hull) 

(Ellis 1946). This was in 1887 (Anon. 1940b; Ellis 1937). The other seven Phoenix Islands 

were uninhabited (Ellis 1946; see also Morrell 1960). 

Based on Ellis 1946 and other sources, the following table was assembled regarding the 

population of the Phoenix Islands between 1877 to 2000 (see Table III-2.6 below). 

TABLE III-2.6. Population of the Phoenix Islands, 1877 to 2000. 

*1 *1 *2 *3 *4 *5 *6 *7 *2 *8 *9 *10 *11 *12 

1877 1881 1921 1931 1938 1947 1963 1968 1973 1978 1985 1990 1995 2000 

Abariringa 0 0 0 6 230 205 0 0 24 45 83 61 

Birnie 0 0 0 0 

Enderbury 0 0 0 4 0 

Manra 0 0 16 130 294 0 

McKean 0 0 0 0 

Nikumaroro 0 0 0 79 230 0 0 

Orona 5 5 15 432 530 583 0 0 

Rawaki 0 0 0 0 

Total 5 5 31 572 1,133 1,018 0 0 0 24 45 83 61 

PI Total *13 989 31 984 1,018 0 0 0 24 45 83 61 

*sources: 

1. Ellis 1946. 

2. No breakdown of populaton by island was identified. 

3. For each island see Bryan 1951. 

4. Abriringa - Anon. 1938c; Enderbury - Schuyler 1939; Manra - Hydrographic Office 1940; Orona - 

Bryan 1951. 

5. For each island, see Bryan 1951. 

6. Abariringa, Nikumaroro, Orona - McArthur and McCaig 1963. 

7. Abariringa, Nikumaroro, Orona - Zwart and Groenewegen 1968. 

8. Abaririrnga, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona - Kiribati 1983. 

9. Abariringa - ADB 2002. 

10. Abariringa - ADB 2002; Statistics Office 1991. 



13. Ministry of Home Affairs and Decentralisation 1978; Statistics Office 2002a and b. 

The Phoenix group was annexed by the British between 1888 and 1889 (UN Department of 

Political Affairs, Trusteeship and Decolonization 1979; for most Phoenix Islands annexation 

was in 1889 according to Ellis 1937 and Follett 1943). The symbolic acts of declaring 

protectorates were performed on each island (except Nikumaroro (Gardner) by the H.M.S. 

Egeria (Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a formal declaration and the hoisting of the 

British flag. The reason for these annexations was the proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward 

1948; Robson 1956) that provided a new use for these small isolated islands. These 

annexations were at the request of Mr. Arundel (Bryan 1941; urgent request according to 

Ellis 1937). 

Laws enacted in accordance with a Pacific order in council of 1893 were applied to the 

Phoenix Islands when they were annexed by the British (Office of Territories 1963). 

42




In 1897, the John T. Arundel and Company was merged with Henderson, McFalane & 

Company to become the Pacific Islands Company, Ltd. (Skaggs 1994). This merger was 

necessary as guano production had declined and copra production was needed to offset costs. 

Lever Brothers transferred their lease to the Phoenix Islands to the Samoa Shipping and 

Trading Company (Foreign Office 1920). Samoa Shipping and Trading Company planted 

coconut trees and expected to harvest 635 to 907 tonnes (700 to 1,000 tons) of copra within a 

year. 

There were about 50 laborers that were working for the Samoan Shipping and Trading Co. on 

a few coconut plantations in the Phoenix Islands (Foreign Office 1920). In that report, both 

Baker and Howland were included as part of the Phoenix Islands. No details were provided 

about which islands had the coconut plantations or how many people were on each island. 

In 1925, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. died (Degener and Gillaspy 

1955). In 1926, liquidators of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Captain Allen) sold the 

lease for Abariringa (Canton), Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner), 

Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie (Birney) to the Burns Philp Co., Ltd. (Anon 1940e). The 

original 99 year lease had 75 years remaining. 

In 1931, the population of the Phoenix Islands was 31(Wiens 1962). 

In the mid-1930s, there were about 50 workers on the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1977). 

Most were working the copra plantations on Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull). There were 

no indigenous inhabitants. 

The natives of the Phoenix Islands were Polynesians (Rhodes 1936a). 

In 1937, Burns Philp and Co. held the lease for the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1965). 

A major problem of the Phoenix Islands was the lack of anchorage (Ellis 1937). Any deepsea 

mooring was liable to slip if any undue strain was put on it. Also, if the easterly wind shifted, 

the vessel would swing toward the reef. A square rigged vessel would have no chance of 

clearing the lee shore if the anchor slipped. 

No one really cared who owned the Phoenix Islands until the Kingsford-Smith pioneer flight 

across the Pacific in 1928 and 1934 that drew attention to the need for a half-way stop (Clune 

1951; Luke 1962; Murphy et al 1954). Kingsford-Smith flew directly over the Phoenix 

Islands (Oates 2003). The Phoenix Islands were an example of how useless, scorned, and 

disowned little equatorial islands can become international aviation value overnight (Robson 

1942; see also Office of Territories 1963). 

On March 18, 1937, the Phoenix Islands became part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony 

(Bryan 1951; see also Luke 1945a; 1938 according to Robson 1942). According to Grattan 

(1963a), the protectorate was cancelled and the islands were annexed by the Gilbert and 

Ellice Islands Colony. On April 8, 1937, the Western Pacific High Commission Gazette 

reported the official proclamation that the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony 

had been extended to include all of the Phoenix Islands (Anon. 1937b; Cowell 1966; 1939 

according to Bunge and Cooke 1984). 

43




Burns Philip interests held the lease over the Phoenix Islands until 1938 when it was taken 

over by the Gilbert and Ellice government (Anon. 1940a; see also Anon 1938i). GEIC obtain 

a grant from the British Colonial Development and Welfare Fund that was used to buy the 

leases (Bryan 1951; 1937 according to Freeman 1951). There was a provision in the lease 

that allowed the British Government to terminate the license for any cause (Hilder 1959). 

The lease for the six Phoenix Islands was bought out for £7,500 (Hilder 1959). One 

provision of the buy out was that the islands would be used for resettlement (Anon. 1938i). 

Burns Philp withdrew from the Phoenix group so as to remove any embarrassments for 

Britain (Anon. 1941a). The lease termination was an “imperial service” of Burns Philp Co., 

Ltd. to the British Government (Anon. 1940e). The fee paid to terminate the lease was based 

on the amount Burns Philp invested since 1926 to improve the islands (plant coconuts). 

Phoenix Islands were administered through the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific at 

Suva (Anon. 1939a; Freeman 1951). 

Traditionally, the Gilbertese people were in balance with the limited resources on their atolls 

(Maude 1937). However, with the introduction of western religious practices and colonial 

rule, traditional checks on population size had been curtailed. Details of traditional methods 

of population control were provided. With over-population and limited land, many families 

had become landless. The overpopulation problem in the Gilbert Islands was a consequence 

of European contact and colonial rule (Schultz and Tenten 1979; Maude 1968). A solution 

was sought for this population crisis (Maude 1937). 

Wiens (1962) noted that the resettlement scheme was due to drought conditions in the 

Southern Gilbert Islands and the subsequent pressure on food resources (see also Laxton 

1951). 

In 1937, H. Maude led a survey of the entire Phoenix Islands (Maude 1937; see also Knudson 

1965; Maude 1952 and 1968). A detailed account of this survey was provided in Maude 

(1937, 1952, and 1968) including detailed descriptions of each island. 

The survey team included government employees and representatives from the southern 

Gilbert Islands, as well as from the Ellice Islands (Maude 1937; see also Knudson 1965). 

Each of the Phoenix Islands was surveyed. Key considerations were topography, lagoon 

characteristics, fertility, flora, water supply, fishing, anchorages, landing facilities, and any 

unusual aspects. Schultz and Tenten (1979) noted that the test wells, except on Manra 

(Sydney), had water poorer than that usually found in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. 

In 1937, Maude then proposed a resettlement scheme to alleviate population pressures in the 

Gilbert Islands (Maude 1937, 1952, and 1968; Knudson 1965). Very detailed plans of the 

settlement scheme and budget are documented in Maude (1937, 1952, and 1968). It was 

proposed that land be provided on a freehold basis to settlers. In addition to settlement of 

select Phoenix Islands, consideration was given to islands in the Line group in Maude (1937). 

In July 1937, Amelia Earhart’s airplane was lost in the Central Pacific (King et al 2001). 

This was just a few weeks after the solar eclipse expedition left Abariringa (Canton) (Oates 

2003). There was speculation that she may have crashed somewhere in the Phoenix Islands. 

Pam American’s radio station in Hawaii and Wake Island picked up a nondescript 

transmission that appeared to be coming from the Phoenix Islands (Loomis and Ethell 1985). 

44




The minesweeper Swan left for the Phoenix Islands (Leff 1940; see also Wright 1951). Two 

days later, the search was given up in the Phoenix Islands. According to Beheim (2004), 

three planes from the Colorado began aerial searches of the Phoenix Islands. The four day 

search covered about 25,490 square miles. 

The H.M.S. Achilles was in the vicinity of the Phoenix Islands when Earhart was lost 

(Holbrook 1973). It had transmitted a message that they had received an unidentified signal. 

This prompted the search in the Phoenix Islands area. Apparently, the Achilles was 

conducting further surveys of the Phoenix Islands area to support the British claim to the 

islands. 

During the search for Earhart, it became evident that Howland and Baker Islands were 

inadequate for seaplanes (Holbrook 1973). The U.S. Navy then began looking for alternative 

islands for development of air fields. Their attentions focused on the Phoenix Islands. 

Between 1937 and 1938, the migration rate from Beru (Gilbert Islands) to the Phoenix 

Islands was 15 percent (Di Piazza and Pearthree 1999). The average migration rate from the 

other Gilbert Islands to the Phoenix Islands was about 3 percent. 

In 1938, the resettlement scheme was approved (Knudson 1965; see also Maude 1968). In 

addition to the overcrowding in the Gilbert Islands, there were political reasons for settling 

the Phoenix Islands (Bevington 1990). American claims to part of the Phoenix Islands and 

the doctrine of sovereignty based on occupation developed. 

The migration program was known as the Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme (PISS) (King 

et al 2001). This trap was not noticed until a hurried letter from Suva was sent to the officer 

commanding the resettlement program using only the program’s acronym (Robson 1941). 

In 1938, the British were compelled to relocate about 2,000 Gilbertese to the Phoenix Islands 

to relieve population pressures (Freeman 1951; 700 according to Keith-Redi 1996; see also 

Maude 1968). Gilbertese from the southern islands were the target audience (Knudson 

1965). Persons selected for this scheme possessed the least land, the poorest land, or came 

from a large family relative to the quantity and quality of land holdings (Knudson 1965). 

However, there appeared to be at least some circumvention of these criteria. Settlers were 

told that there was no possibility of return to the Gilbert Islands (see also Maude 1952 and 

1968). Settlers to the Phoenix Islands would take over the copra plantations on the Phoenix 

Islands previously leased by Burns Philip (Anon. 1939a). For a detailed account of the 

relocation voyages and initial resettlement activities, see Maude (1952 and 1968). 

Post offices were set up on each island resettled (Maude 1952 and 1968). Since the 

cancellation stamps had not arrived, letters were hand cancelled. 

In 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell completed a surveying expedition to the Phoenix and Samoan 

Islands (Schultz 1939). This included surveys and collections of terrestrial and marine 

species. A general account of the actual expedition is provided in Schultz (1939). 


45




Abariringa (Canton) was on a straight line between Australia and Hawaii (Oates 2003). 

However, cable companies did not like the “more than mile deep” waters around Abariringa 

(Canton). 

In 1889, Abariringa (Canton) was visited by the H.M.S. Egeria that was on a cruise to map 

the islands of the central Pacific (Murphy et al 1954). J.J. Lister, a naturalist, was on board. 

He completed the first bird surveys of Abariringa (Canton). 

In 1897, the Pacific Islands Company took over Arundel’s business (Garnett 1983a). In 

1899, Abariringa (Canton) was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 

1974). The Pacific Islands Co. was to grow copra and to fish for pearl shells (Wright 1951). 

There was no development of the island under the Pacific Islands Co. (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 

1974). 

In 1902, control of Abariringa (Canton) changed to Lever’s Pacific Plantation, Ltd. (Garnett 

1983a). 

In 1907, there were no inhabitants on Abariringa (Canton) (Hydrographic Office 1916). 

In 1914, control of Abariringa (Canton) changed to the Samoa Shipping and trading Co., Ltd. 

(Garnett 1983a). In 1915, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd., 

erected a beacon and planted hundreds of coconut trees on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 

1940c). 

In 1916, Abariringa (Canton) was leased to the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Bryan 

1934, 1941, 1942 and 1974; see also Allen 1918; Schuyler 1940; for the copra industry 

according to Hobbs 1945 and Wright 1951). However, it was never developed (Hobbs 1945). 

In 1919, when Captain Allen returned to Abariringa (Canton), all but 5 or 6 coconut trees had 

died (Anon. 1940c; 10 trees according to Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). Only one tree 

survived until 1950 (Degener and Gillapsy 1955). The island was often called one tree island 

as the one coconut tree was visible by ships at sea. 

Abariringa (Canton) had a boat passage into the lagoon (Foreign Office 1920). 






In 1926, control of Abariringa (Canton) changed to the Burns Philp (South Seas) Co., Ltd. 


In 1928, Abariringa (Canton) was selected as the emergency landing place for the Kingsford 

Smith Hawaii to Fiji flight (Tudor 1968; Oates 2003). Small coral atolls originally had little 

importance, but they may acquire importance because of unique resources, geographical 

position, or marine resources on their foreshore (Grattan 1961). This was the case with 

Abariringa (Canton), after years of unimportance, it became of great importance as a 

refueling stop for trans-Pacific aircraft in the 1930s. It was only the possibility of 

46




commercial trans-Pacific air transport that gave Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury new 

value (Melamid 1955). 

In 1931, there was no one living on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). 

In 1935, an American expedition surveyed the Phoenix Islands and selected Abariringa 

(Canton) for trans-Pacific commercial air service (Clune 1951). 

In 1936, the H.M.S. Leith visited Abariringa (Canton) and proclaimed British sovereignty 

(Anon. 1938e; Baarslag 1940; Leff 1940; Robson 1956). The proclamation was placed in a 

container that was buried at the foot of the flagpole (Anon. 1938e). In 1937, the H.M.S. Leith 

visited the island again and nailed a sign board proclaiming British sovereignty to a coconut 

tree (Anon. 1938e; Degener and Gillapsy 1955). 

On April 8, 1937, Abariringa (Canton) and the rest of the Phoenix Islands were placed under 

the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan 1941, and 1942; McIntire 1960). The Phoenix 

Islands District headquarters was on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960; see also Luke 

1945a) and was administered by the Colonial Office. 

A party of New Zealand astronomers planned to visit Abariringa (Canton) to observe the 

1937 solar eclipse (Anon. 1936). In June 1937, the H.M.S. Wellington visited Abariringa 

(Canton), but found the U.S.S. Avocet on the only anchorage (Baarslag 1940; Leff 1940; May 

26, 1937 according to Mitchell c1937). The commander of the British vessel requested that 

the American ship move, but was referred to Washington D.C. (see also Grattan 1941; 

Marshall 1938). According to Degener and Gillaspy (1955), the Wellington fired a round 

over the bow of the Avocet, and the Avocet responded similarly. Both captains then 

communicated with their respective governments regarding the situation. Both were told not 

to do anything rash. 

When the British lodged a diplomatic complaint again the U.S.S. Avocet, it opened the door 

for negotiations between the British and the U.S. regarding the future use of Abaririgna 

(Canton) as a stop for planes between Hawaii and New Zealand and for British access to 

landing rights in Hawaii (Holbrook 1973). 

Detailed accounts of organizing and executing the American solar eclipse expedition in 1937 

were provided in a number of reports (see Hellweg 1937; Mitchell 1937, c1937, and 1938; 

Gardner 1938; Oates 2003). The eclipse expedition was transported by the U.S.S. Avocet. 

According to Follett (1943), the solar eclipse expedition became Abariringa’s (Canton’s) first 

settlers since the whaling ship Canton. The solar eclipse expedition built a landing dock in 

the lagoon to assist with unloading (Schuyler 1939). 

The solar eclipse on June 8, 1937 was in totality for about three minutes (Anon. 1937c; 1939 

according to Luomala 1951). This was the longest duration of totality of any solar eclipse in 

1,200 years (Michell 1938). The solar eclipse was to pass directly over Abariringa (Canton) 

and Enderbury (Bryan 1937). Events of the solar eclipse were broadcast live from Abariringa 

(Canton) (Mitchell 1938). The expedition was sponsored jointed by the U.S. Navy and the 

National Geographic Society (Murphy et al 1954). 

47




At the time of the solar eclipse expedition (1937), all huts used by guano collectors in the 

1800’s were entirely flattened (Gardner 1938). One artifact from that era was a lonely grave 

of a native who worked the guano deposits. 

During that visit, the British planted another British flag (Baarslag 1940; sign according to 

Bryan 1941 and 1942; sign on coconut tree according to Murphy et al 1954). The H.M.S. 

Wellington also brought 1,000 coconuts for planting (Hellweg 1937). Relations between 

sailors and scientists from both ships quickly became friendly (Anon. 1937g). 

The American eclipse expedition planted two large American flags and erected a concrete 

marker proclaiming Abariringa (Canton) as U.S. soil (Baarslag 1940; to commemorate the 

event according to Follett 1943; see also Marshall 1938; Anon. 1937g). According to Orent 

and Reinsch (1941), the U.S. national ensign in stainless steel on a marble marker 

commemorated the event. According to Anon. (1937g), two stainless steel American flags 

were mounted onto a concrete base. 

As part of the mission of the Avocet, both Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) were surveyed 

regarding their possible use as an airfield (Holbrook 1973). Enderbury was found unsuitable. 

In August 1937 (according to Degener and Gillapsy 1955), the H.M.S. Leith rushed back and 

left two radio operators and a completed radio station (Baarslag 1940; see also Leff 1940). In 

addition, 1 Fijian servant was with them according to Maude (1952 and 1968; 1 Gilbertese 

servant according to Anon. 1937i). The British technicians were Langdale and Manning 

according to Schuyler (1939; Langdale and Rostier according to Anon. 1937h and 1937i; 

Murphy et al 1954). One was a radio operator and the other was an engineer (Anon. 1938e). 

In 1937, a British officer had been stationed on Abariringa (Canton) (Colonial Office 1951). 

According to Bevington (1990), the acting District Officer was the wireless operator. The 

Phoenix Islands District headquarters were on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960) and was 

administered by the Colonial Office. The significance of posting an officer to Abariringa 

(Canton) developed when American increased interest in the area were considered (Grattan 

1963a). 

With the radio equipment on Abariringa (Canton), vessels were able to check their direction 

finders when they passed the island (Anon. 1937i). 

In 1937, the U.S. Navy informed the U.S. State Department of its intentions to occupy 

Abariringa (Canton) (Holbrook 1974) using civilian colonists. 

Between 1937 and 1942, various U.S. Coast Guard cutters visited Abariringa (Canton) and 

Enderbury (Bryan 1974). Detailed accounts of each trip, personnel, and mission were 

provided in Bryan (1974). Visits were at intervals of about 3 months (Murphy et al 1954). 

In response to the American concrete marker, placed in 1937, the two British inhabitants of 

Abariringa (Canton) erected a small monument with metal sign with the Union Jack on it 

(Bevington 1990). The metal sign was beat out of a kerosene tin. 

In 1937, the name of Canton was changed to Aba Riringa, the land of sunshine (Maude 1937, 

1952 and 1968). This was because the island had little vegetation and was exposed to the full 

withering effect of the sun’s rays (Maude 1937). 

48




In January 1938, Western Pacific High Commission representatives paid an official 

inspection visit to Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) (Anon. 1938g). Mr. Rostier, the 

radio operator on Abariringa (Canton) was replaced by Mr. Manning. 

In 1938, President Roosevelt placed Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury under the U.S. 

Department of Interior (Bordon 1961; see also Follett 1943; Office of Territories 1963; 1937 

according to Grattan 1963a). For the text of the transfer to the Department of Interior, see 

Reeves (1939). Anon. (1939f) noted that the U.S. claim was rather pointless. The U.S. did 

nothing for over 50 years to exert any claim. It was not until trans-Pacific flights developed 

that it asserted its claim. 

In February 1938, the U.S. Department of Interior issued orders for the establishment of 

permanent American stations on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Schuyler 1939). 

On March 3, 1938 (according to Degener and Gillaspy 1955), the United States proclaimed 

sovereignty over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Anon. 1938a; Anon. 1938d; Enderby 

according to Grattan 1961; March 8, 1938 according to Orent and Reinsch 1941). This was 

viewed with alarm in Tokyo (Anon. 1938b). Anon. (1937d) noted that the American claim 

to Abariringa (Canton) was a little cheeky. It was noted that the 1937 National Geographic 

Society map showed the Phoenix Islands as belonging to Britain (Anon. 1937d). 

On March 7, 1938 (according to Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; see also Degener and Gillapsy 

1955), seven Hawaiian-Americans were landed on Abariringa (Canton) to support the U.S. 

claim over this island (Anon. 1938c, Daniel 1943; Follett 1943; November 1937 according to 

Baarslag 1940; March 7, 1938 according to McIntire 1960). Williams (1938) noted that no 

U.S. born Japanese Americans were selected as colonists, even though they dominated the 

population of Hawaii. Williams (1937) noted that over 100 applications were received for 

the colonist posts on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury. These colonists were called 

“Panala’au” the Hawaiian word for colonists (Oates 2003). 

A summary of the off-loading of the colonists was provided by Waesche (1938). As part of 

the off-loading process, a shock recorder was installed to record earth waves. During that 

visit, two American surveyors completed a survey of Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1974). The 

colonists were to collect meteorological data in preparation of possible commercial air bases 

(Orent and Reinsch 1941). 

The American colonists raised the American flag to the official objections of the British 

representatives on Abariringa (Canton) (Schuyler 1939). 

In 1938, there were 6 New Zealanders on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 1938c). The relations 

between the two nationalities were friendly (Anon. 1938h). 

American colonists were instructed that the friendliest relations be maintained with the 

British (Anon 1938f). This included beer drinking, poker, and bridge (see also Williams 

1938). Black (1939) added ice cream to this list. Black (1938) reported that during a visit by 

the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Roger B. Taney, personal relations between the British and 

American residents of Abariringa (Canton) were excellent (see also Williams 1938). 

49




On April 1, 1938, the U.S. Secretary of the Interior granted Pan American Airways a license 

to use Abariringa (Canton) for commercial air flights between Hawaii and Australia (Office 

of Territories 1963; Degener and Gillapsy 1955). The official designation for Canton airport 

was CIS (Wright 1951). 

In 1938, two powerful radio transmitters were installed on Abariringa (Canton) (Black 1938). 

The military value of Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) was that they could be small 

naval bases with good airstrips (Hobbs 1945). 

In 1938, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Abariringa (Canton) as part of the 1938 Line 

Island Expedition. 

A lighthouse was constructed and named for Captain Edwin H. Musick of Pam American 

Airways (Black 1938; Murphy et al 1954). Continuous operation of the lighthouse was 

started on November 1, 1938 (Black 1939; Bryan 1974; Schuyler 1939). 

In late 1938, Pan American Airways conducted preliminary surveys of Abariringa (Canton) 

in preparations for development of airline service there (Anon. 1939e). For details of the 

development of Pan American Airways operations on Abariringa (Canton) and the backdoor 

politics necessary for this development, see Oates (2003). 

In 1939, Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were placed under joint administration of the 

United States and Great Britain for 50 years (Bordon 1961; Hobbs 1945; Anon. 1939f; 1938 

according to Skaggs 1994). For text of agreement see Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs 

(1939). For a summary of text see Reeves (1939). Negotiations for the agreement took three 

years (Anon. 1955a). This was done to facilitate the establishment of an airport by an 

American company (Colonial Office 1951). This could be used freely by British and 

American aircraft (Quinn 1945). 

The agreement was an executive agreement, not a treaty that would have to be ratified by the 

Senate (Grattan 1941). U.S. Representative Tinkham called the agreement a political alliance 

of far reaching and dangerous consequences and that President Roosevelt was guilty of 

collusive action (Mackie 1940). Tokyo was concerned over this example of Anglo-American 

cooperation (Leff 1940). Luke (1962) noted that this was the world’s smallest condominium. 

Reeves (1939) provided legal and legislative insights into the process of creating the 

condominium. Holbrook (1973) noted that under this agreement, the British had basically 

lost control of Abariringa (Canton). They also failed to obtain landing rights to Hawaii (prior 

to World War II), and they had to allow Pan American into Australia. With the agreement, 

the question of sovereignty over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were differed (Maude 

1968). 

In 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell completed a surveying expedition to the Phoenix Islands, 

including Abariringa (Canton) (Schultz 1939). 

American and British colonists occupied separate camp (Hydrographic Office 1940). A coral 

slab pier extended into the lagoon from the northeast rim. After the 1938 U.S./British 

agreement regarding Abariringa (Canton), the British maintained a small official party on the 

island (Anon. 1939c). 

50




In May 1939, it was reported that only routine work such as weather data collection was ongoing 

on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Anon. 1939h). Much work was necessary 

before seaplanes landed on Abariringa (Canton). 

In 1939, the Pan American Airways’ supply ship North Haven, put ashore a construction 

crew of 43 (Anon. 1940c). At that time, there were 4 Americans and 2 British colonists on 

the island. During construction, P.A.A. had 75 workers on the island (see Anon. 1939i). 

Schuyler (1940) reported that 2 radio men had been placed on Abariringa (Canton) to record 

and transmit weather information of importance in the development of air service in the 

Pacific. 

During 1938 to 1939, Pan American Airways constructed the airport and deepened and 

cleared the lagoon (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; Oates 2003; completed in 1940 according to 

Luke 1945a). The Pam American Airways workers used high explosives to blow up coral 

heads to make a safe landing area for giant seaplanes (Anon. 1940c; Oates 2003). The 

southwestern portion of the lagoon was dredged in preparation for the seaplane landing area 

(Bryan 1974). The sea landing area that was being blasted clear was 2,428 x 610 m (8,000 x 

2,000 ft) with minimum depth of 2.1 m (7 ft) (Anon. 1939i; Anon. 1939b). 

Since large ships could not dock at Abariringa (Canton), supplies and equipment had to be 

brought to shore on lighters (Anon. 1939i). One critical task was the production of distilled 

water for domestic use as there was little rainfall on Abariringa (Canton). 

The American constructed various buildings, installed equipment, a radio station, generators, 

refrigeration plant, meteorological station, and cleared a sea plane landing area and built a 

hotel (Anon. 1939c). 

University of Hawaii’s Agricultural Extension Service assisted the development of 

Abariringa (Canton) (Warner 1939). Services included recommendations for growing a 

variety of plants under atoll conditions. A greenhouse was sent down and tomatoes, papayas, 

lettuce, beets, carrots, and cucumbers were being grown. Plants were disease free and grown 

using pot-culture. 

The 1939 surveying expedition by the U.S.S. Bushnell visited Enderbury, Orona (Hull), 

Abariringa (Canton) (Schultz 1939). 

BIRNIE 

In 1889, the British proclaimed Birnie as a protectorate (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; see 

also Bryan 1941 and 1942). This was done by the H.M.S. Egeria according to (Maude 1952 

and 1968; Ward 1948).). The symbolic acts of declaring protectorates were performed on 

each island except Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a formal 

declaration and the hoisting of the British flag. The reason for these annexations was the 

proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward 1948) that provided a new use for these small isolated 

islands. 

In 1889, there were no inhabitants on Birnie (Hydrographic Office 1916). 

51




In 1899, Birnie was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic Office 1916; Tudor 

1968). The license was not issued until 1901 (Garnett 1983a). In 1902, Lever’s Pacific 

Plantation took over Birnie. 

In 1905, a beacon was erected midway along the eastern coast (Garnett 1983a). The beacon 

was 8 m high with a base of coral slabs and an iron ladder like structure on top. 

In 1914, Samoan Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd. took over Birnie (Garnett 1983a). 

Hydrographic Office (1916) reported a beacon 9.1 m (30 ft) high had been constructed 914 m 

(1,000 yards) northwest of the southern sandy extremity. A flagstaff 4.6 m (15 ft) in height 

was on top of the beacon. 

In 1916, Birnie was leased to the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Bryan 1934; see also 

Allen 1918). This was an 87 year lease (Bryan 1941 and 1942). This lease was taken over 

by Burns Philp (South Sea) Co. (in 1926 according to Garnett 1983a). There were no 

activities on Birnie from any of these companies (Garnett 1983a). 






In 1931, no one lived on Birnie (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). 

In 1937, Birnie was placed under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). 

In 1937, Birnie was investigated as a possible settlement site, but it was considered too small 

for settlement (Garnett 1983a). Maude (1937) reported that a large stone beacon encased in 

an iron framework was found on Birnie. This was repaired and a flagstaff and notice board 

was erected on it. 

In 1938, Birnie was declared a bird sanctuary under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony 

Wild Birds Protection Ordinance (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1939, it was decided that coconut trees would be planted on Birnie to support colonies on 

Orona, Manra, and Nikumaroro (Garnett 1983a). In May 1939, about one-third of Birnie was 

planted with coconut trees. 

ENDERBURY 

During the 1880’s Enderbury was used by the John T. Arundel Co. (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 

1974). They found a hose and mule there. 

In 1899, Enderbury was leased by Great Britain to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic 

Office 1916; Orent and Reinsch 1941; rented according to Leff 1940; 1897 according to 

52




Garnett 1983a). Little was done by that company and Enderbury was later abandoned 

(Schuyler 1940). 

In 1902, Enderbury was taken over by Lever’s Pacific Plantations (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1914, McKean and Enderbury were the only two Phoenix Islands not leased to the Samoa 

Shipping and Trading Company (Pompey 1972c). In 1914, the Samoan Shipping and 

Tradition Company, Ltd. took control of Enderbury (Garnett 1983a). In 1926, Burns Philp 

(South Seas) Company, Ltd., took control of Enderbury. 

In 1931, no one lived on Enderbury (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). In 1933, Enderbury was 

uninhabited (Leff 1940). 

Bryan (1934) reported finding a small rusted canon (1 m (3.5 ft) long) on Enderbury. 

According to Leff (1940), the canon was used to frighten away Peruvian pirates. 

The 1937 solar eclipse could be better observed on Enderbury, but due to a lack of mooring, 

the solar eclipse expedition landed on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; 

Follett 1943; for detailed account of attempted landing see Hellweg 1937). The solar eclipse 

was to pass directly over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Bryan 1937). 

During the 1937 solar eclipse expedition, after the Abariringa (Canton) station was set up, the 

U.S.S. Avocet revisited Enderbury for one day (Hellweg 1937). As part of the mission of the 

Avocet, both Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) were surveyed regarding their possible use 

as an airfield (Holbrook 1973). It was only the possibility of commercial trans-Pacific air 

transport that gave Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury new value (Melamid 1955). 

Enderbury was found unsuitable (Holbrook 1973). 

Maude (1937) observed two abandoned settlements as well as traces of the old tramways and 

buildings. There was a flagpole and large cairn in front of the southern settlement. Notice 

boards were observed recording visits to the island. In addition, two cannons were found 

lying besides the main house in the settlement. Maude considered Enderbury unsuitable for 

settlement (Garnett 1983a). 

In April 1937, Enderbury, as well as other Phoenix Islands, were placed under the Gilbert and 

Ellice Islands Colony (Garnett 1983a). 

Between 1937 and 1942, various U.S. Coast Guard cutters visited Abariringa (Canton) and 

Enderbury (Bryan 1974). Detailed accounts of each trip, personnel, and mission were 

provided in Bryan (1974). 

In 1938, the United States proclaimed sovereignty over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury 

(Anon. 1938a; Anon. 1938d; Enderby according to Grattan 1961; 1939 according to 

Schuyler 1940). This was viewed with alarm in Tokyo (Anon. 1938b). In 1938, President 

Roosevelt placed Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury under the U.S. Department of Interior 

(Bordon 1961, Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; 1937 according to Grattan 1963a). For the text 

of the transfer to the Department of Interior, see Reeves (1939). 

In February 1938, the U.S. Department of Interior issued orders for the establishment of 

permanent American stations on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Schuyler 1939). 

53




In March 1938, four Hawaiian-Americans were landed on Enderbury to support the U.S. 

claim over this island (Schuyler 1939; see also Anon. 1938c; Daniel 1943; Follett 1943). 

Williams (1938) noted that no U.S. born Japanese Americans were selected as colonists, even 

though they predominate the population of Hawaii. Williams (1937) noted that over 100 

applications were received for the colonist posts on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury. 

These colonists were called “Panala’au” the Hawaiian word for colonists (Oates 2003). 

A detailed account on how food and water were of off-loaded during the colonization trip 

was provided by Waesche (1938). Substantial stone and frame buildings and a lighthouse 

were constructed (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). Luke (1945b) reported that there were 4 

men that were manning the U.S. Meteorological Station on Enderbury. 

As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1953) visited Enderbury and 

reported finding a rusted canon. 

In 1939, Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were placed under joint administration of the 

United States and Great Britain for 50 years (Bordon 1961; Bryan 1942 and 1974; Clune 

1951; Grattan 1963a; 1938 according to Skaggs 1994). For the text of agreement see 

Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (1939). For a summary of text see Reeves (1939). 

This was done to facilitate the establishment of an airport by an American company (Colonial 

Office 1951). Tokyo was concerned over this example of Anglo-American cooperation (Leff 

1940). Luke (1962) noted that this was the world’s smallest condominium. Reeves (1939) 

provided legal and legislative insights into the process of creating the condominium. With 

the agreement, the question of sovereignty over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were 

differed (Maude 1968). 

Black (1939) reported several wrecks on the eastern beach. One was a steel ship about 6.1 m 

(20 ft) long. The other was of wood and metal fitting that were strewn along the beach north 

of the steel wreck. 

In May 1939, it was reported that only routine work such as weather data collection was ongoing 

on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Anon. 1939h). 

The 1939 surveying expedition by the U.S.S. Bushnell visited Enderbury, Orona (Hull), 

Abariringa (Canton) (Schultz 1939). 


In 1886, Arundel was granted a license for coconut planting (Garnett 1983a). Bush was cut 

and burned and the entire island was planted in coconuts. 

In 1889, Manra (Sydney) was proclaimed a British protectorate (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 

Hydrographic Office 1916). This was done by the commander of H.M.S. Egeria (Douglas 

and Douglas 1994; Commander Oldham according to Garnett 1983a). The symbolic acts of 

declaring protectorates were performed on each island (except Nikumaroro (Gardner) by the 

H.M.S. Egeria (Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a formal declaration and the 

hoisting of the British flag. The reason for these annexations was the proposed trans-Pacific 

cable (Ward 1948) that provided a new use for these small isolated islands. 

54




In 1899, Manra (Sydney) was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic Office 1916; 

took over Arundel’s business in 1897 according to Garnett 1983a). 

In 1905, the island was used by Lever Brothers (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 1902 according to 

Garnett 1983a). They planted coconuts (MacGregor n.d.; had a coconut plantation there 

according to Robson 1956; planted first coconuts according to Bigelow 1939). Lever blasted 

a landing passage through the reef and ereted a 15,000 gallon rainwater tank (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1907, there were 13 inhabitants of Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1934; Hydrographic Office 

1916). 

In 1916, Manra (Sydney) was leased to the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Bryan 1934; 

see also Allen 1918; in 1914 according to Hilder 1959; Garnett 1983a) for 87 years (Bryan 

1941 and 1942; Hilder 1959). A coconut plantation was reported for Manra (Sydney) (Allen 

1918). Annual production was about 45 tonnes (50 tons) of copra (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1924, there was a coconut plantation manager and eleven Samoan and Ellice Island native 

workers (Bryan 1934). 

In 1925, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. passed away (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. went out of business in 1925 (Hilder 1959). In 

1926, liquidators of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Captain Allen) sold the lease for 

Abariringa (Canton), Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner), Rawaki 

(Phoenix), and Birnie (Birney) to the Burns Philp Co., Ltd. (Anon 1940e). The original 99 

year lease had 75 years remaining. The lease was taken over by Burns Philp Co. (for £2,000 

according to Hilder 1959). 

In 1931, there were 16 people living on Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). 


Most were working the copra plantations on Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull). 

In 1932, Burns Philp Co. abandoned Manra (Sydney) due to the low price of copra (Garnett 

1983a). 

In 1937, there were 11 coconut plantation workers on Manra (Sydney) (Knudson 1965; 

Maude 1952 and 1968). Garnett (1983a) noted that between the 1880s to 1937, Manra 

(Sydney) was managed as a coconut plantation. 

Ellis (1937) speculated that Orona (Hull), Manra (Sydney) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) might 

be useful to relieve overpopulation in the Gilbert Islands. 

In 1937, the H.M.S. Leith visited and reasserted British claim over the island (Bryan 1941). 

Also in 1937, the Burns Philp Co. lease was bought out and the island became part of the 

Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. 

In 1937, the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa visited Manra (Sydney) with H.E. Maude (Bigelow 1939). 

Maude (1937) reported that there were excellent roads and remains of the old tramways 

throughout Manra (Sydney). These were said to have been constructed by Lever Bros. which 

55




worked the island for copra. Maude (1937) reported erecting a flagpole and notice board on 

the old beacon on Manra (Sydney). 

Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) were to be settled first as there were existing coconut 

plantations on them (Knudson 1965). Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) could 

follow after Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) had been planted in coconut trees and 

coconuts became available for settlers (Knudson 1965). 

In 1937, Sydney was re-christened Manra (Bryan 1951; see also Freeman 1951; Maude 

1937). Manra was the one of the Gilbertese ancestral homelands in Indonesia (Maude 1952 

and 1968). Manra was known to have possessed a lake similar to Sydney’s lagoon. 

In 1937, 700 Gilbertese were moved from the Southern Gilbert Islands to Orona (Hull), 

Manra (Sydney), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Chapman 1961). 

In 1938, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony purchased Manra (Sydney) from Burns Philip 


On Christmas day 1938, the first party of 41 settlers aboard the Nimanoa arrived at Manra 

(Syndey) (Knudson 1965 and 1977; colony established in the fall of 1938 according to 

Bigelow 1939; colony established in 1933 according to Bryan 1941 and 1942). This trip was 

lead by District Officer, G. Gallagher (Anon. 1939d). According to Knudson (1965) this 

group became the nucleus of the new community. All Manra (Sydney) settlers were 

Protestants (Knudson 1965). For a detailed account of the relocation voyages and initial 

resettlement activities, see Maude (1952 and 1968). 

In 1938, a settlement of 130 natives from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands was established on 

the southwest point of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; western side according to 

Hydrographer fo the Navy 1969). Copra was the sole export. A model village with 117,347 

lt (31,000 gallon) cement cistern, and 15 wells was constructed (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The 

7,500 coconut palms were distributed to the 260 Gilbertese settlers (Bryan 1951; see also 

Freeman 1951). 

The relocation scheme was very popular to the point where two men and a woman traveled 

across from the Gilbert Islands to Manra (Sydney) against the wind and current in a small 

canoe (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

In 1939, there was a drought during which most of the wells became brackish (Bryan 1941 

and 1942). The cistern was almost empty when the rains finally returned. 

In 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell erected two range marks to indicate the channel leading up to 

the landing at the village (Hydrographic Office 1940). Bryan (1941) reported that there was a 

beacon on the west side that marked the best anchorage on Manra (Sydney). 

MCKEAN 

McKean was a British protectorate that was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic 

Office 1916; in the 1890’s according to Tudor 1968; no lease was ever granted according to 


56




In 1914, McKean and Enderbury were the only two Phoenix Islands not leased to the Samoa 

Shiping and Trading Company (Pompey 1972c). 

In 1931, no one lived on McKean (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). 

In 1936, the H.M.S. Leith visited McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942) and claimed it for the 

British. Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that in 1936, the British annexed the 

island. 

In 1937, the H.S.C.S. Nimanoa visited McKean with the administrative officer of the Gilbert 

and Ellice Islands Colony who was now responsible for McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see 

also Maude 1937). Bevington (1990) reported that in 1937 the (British) Admiralty was keen 

to obtain as much information as possible on McKean. A landing party from the Nimanoa 

mapped the island. 

Maude (1937) reported that a cairn, flag pole and notice board were constructed on McKean. 

McKean was considered as a potential settlement site (Garnett 1983a) however, it was too 

dry and too small for settlement considerations. 

There was speculation that Amelia Earhart landed on McKean or Nikumaroro (Gardner) in 

1937 (Beheim 2004). 

In 1938, McKean was declared a Bird Sanctuary under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony 

Wild Birds Protection Ordinance (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1939, McKean was surveyed by the U.S.S. Bushnell (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

In 1939, the decision was made to plant coconut trees on McKean to support the other 

settlements in the Phoenix Islands (Garnett 1983a). It was planned that 3,000 coconut trees 

were to be planted. The outbreak of World War II prevented the scheme from going forward. 


In 1881, Arundel obtained his occupation license for 20 years duration (Laxton 1951). Initial 

coconut planting was done that year (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1889, the H.M.S. Egeria annexed Manra (Sydney), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Orona (Hull) 

(Morrell 1960 1892 according to Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; Hydrographic Office 1916; 

1891 according to Grattan 1963a). The symbolic acts of declaring protectorates were 

performed on each island except Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Orent and Reinsch 1941). Captain 

Gibson of the H.M.S. Curacao visited Nikumaroro (Gardner), but was not able to land due to 

heavy surf (Garnett 1983a). Nikumaroro (Gardner) was formally annexed at that time. The 

annexation declaration was read to the two Niuean laborers who swam out to the Curacao. 

According to some reports, the H.M.S. Curacoa visited Nikumaroro and raised the British 

flag (Robson 1956; Tudor 1968; Pompey 1974 and 1972d). The reason for these 

annexations was the proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward 1948) that provided a new use for 

these small isolated islands. 

57




In 1891, J.T. Arundel was granted a coconut planting license by the British Scretary of State 

(Garnett 1983a). The grant was for 21 years. 

In the 1880’s coconut trees were planted on Nikumaroro by the John T. Arundel and Co. 

(Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also Laxton 1951; 1892 according to Douglas and Douglas 1994). 

In 1892, J.T. Arundel had 20 Niuean laborers who were clearing the land and planning 

coconuts on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Garnett 1983a). They were supervised by Mr. Challis. 

Coconuts were planted on the northwest end of Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Pompey 1974 and 

1972d). Shortly after, laborers were removed from the island (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1897, Arundel’s interests in Nikumaroro (Gardner) were bought by the Pacific Islands Co., 

Ltd. (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1902, Lever’s Pacific Plantation Ltd. took over Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1914, Samoan Shipping and Trading Co. took over control of Nikumaroro (Gardner) 

(Garnett 1983a). Allen (1918) reported that Nikumaroro (Gardner) was leased to the Samoan 

Shipping and Trading Company. This was in 1916 (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Hydrographic 

Office 1916). The lease was for 87 years. However, due to World War I, no activities were 

completed on Nikumaroro (Laxton 1951). 






In 1931, no one lived on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). 

In 1931, the Norwich City, a 3,175 tonne (3,500 ton) vessel, grounded on the western reef of 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 1929 according to King et al 2001). 

According to Laxton (1951), the Norwich City was driven ashore in a gale in 1931. It was 

wrecked off the west side of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940). It is the most 

conspicuous object on the island 



In February 1937, the H.M.S. Leith anchored at Nikumaroro and erected a plaque and 

flagpole and raised the British flag (King et al 2001). They claimed the island for Britain. 

In March 18, 1937, Nikumaroro was integrated into the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony 

(Laxton 1951). 

There was speculation that Amelia Earhart landed on McKean or Nikumaroro (Gardner) in 

1937 (Beheim 2004). 

In 1937, the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa visited Nikumaroro (Gardner) with the Administrative Office 

of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also Bevington 1990). 

58




This was the trip that H.E. Maude was on to conduct the pre-settlement survey of 

Nikumaroro (Laxton 1951). 

In 1937, Gardner was renamed Nikumaroro after the home island of a Gilbertese ancestress, 

Nei Manganibuka, who swam from her land “i-an Tamoa” (near Samoa) to Nikunau in the 

southern Gilbert Islands with the first buka tree in her mouth (Maude 1937, 1952 and 1968). 

Since Nikumaroro (Gardner) was covered with buka trees, it must have been the home of Nei 

Manganibuka. 

In 1937, 700 Gilbertese were moved from the Southern Gilbert Islands to Orona (Hull), 

Manra (Sydney), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Chapman 1961). Fifty eight Gilbertese were 

resettled on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1951; see also Freeman 1951). The forest had to 

be cleared and coconut palms needed to be planted. For a detailed account of the relocation 

voyages and initial resettlement activities, see Maude (1952 and 1968). 

In 1938, the GEIC bought out Burns Philp’s interest in Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Garnett 

1983a). 

In December 1938, a plane from the H.M.S. Leander flew over Nikumaroro and took aerial 

photographs (King et al 2001). 

In 1938, the lagoon on Nikumaroro (Gardner) was surveyed by the New Zealand Navy in 

1938 (December 1938 to February 1939 by the Royal New Zealand Air Force according to 

King et al 2001). They chartered the MV Yanawai and arrived on November 30, 1938. The 

H.S.S. Leander arrived the following day supported the landing party. Bryan (1941 and 

1942) reported that the survey was done in either 1935 or 1938. They marked the lagoon 

“British Pacific Airways, Gardner Island Sea Aerodrome Reserve”. Part of the lagoon was 

marked off as a landing area for British Pacific Airway planes (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

In 1938, there was a drought as new settlers became established on Nikumaroro (Laxton 

1951). In December 1938, two water condenser plants from the Nimanoa were left for the 

Nikumaroro settlers. 

In 1939, there were 80 natives living on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see 

also King et al 2001). Their village was just south of the western lagoon entrance. A 

concrete cistern had been constructed. Drought and limited number of coconut trees (200) 

hindered development of the colony on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

As part of the settlement scheme, about 163 Gilbertese were settled on Nikumaroro (Gardner) 

(Pompey 1974 and 1972d). 

In April 1939, the U.S.S. Pelican visited Nikumaroro and launched a plane to take aerial 

photos of the island (King et al 2001). In November to December 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell 

spent a week mapping Nikumaroro (King et al 2001). 

ORONA (HULL) 

In 1887, J.T. Arundel occupied Orona (Hull) (Garnett 1983a). In 1891, Arundel obtained a 

coconut planting license for Orona (Hull). 

59




Ellis planted coconut trees on Orona (Hull) as a youth while working for John T. Arundel 

Company (Ellis 1946). This was in 1887 (Anon. 1940b; Ellis 1937). He and his brother 

landed with 20,000 coconuts for planting (Ellis 1937). At that time, he and his brother and 

three natives were the only people in the entire Phoenix Islands (Ellis 1946; see also Morrell 

1960). 

In 1889, the British clamed Orona (Hull) as a protectorate (Dickson 1939; Hobbs 1945; 

Hydrographic Office 1916). Orona (Hull) was annexed by the H.M.S. Egeria (Douglas and 

Douglas 1994; Morrell 1960). The symbolic acts of declaring protectorates were performed 

on each island except Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a 

formal declaration and the hoisting of the British flag. The reason for these annexations was 

the proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward 1948) that provided a new use for these small isolated 

islands. 

In 1899, Orona (Hull) was leased to the Pacific Island Co. (Hydrographic Office 1916; 1897 

according to Garnett 1983a). There were no inhabitants at that time. 

In 1901, the Pacific Islands Co., Ltd. requested a long term lease for Orona (Hull) (Garnett 

1983a). The lease was granted in 1902 for 99 years. 

In 1902, Lever’s Pacific Plantations Ltd. bought out Pacific Islands Co., Ltd.’s holding on 

Orona (Hull) (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1916, Orona (Hull) was leased to Captain Allen and the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. 

(Bryan 1934; see also Allen 1918; 1914 according to Garnett 1983a) for 87 years for the 

production of copra (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The Samoa Shipping and Trading Company 

established camps on Orona (Hull) for copra cutting (Pompey 1972b; Tudor 1968). 

Allen (1918) reported that Orona (Hull) was uninhabited. 

In 1924, there were about 20 people living on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1934). This included 17 

Tokelauan workers, and W. Shafer and his family (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Tokelauan and 

Ellice islands according to Dickson 1939). After Captain Allen died in 1925, the group 

nearly starved to death since no supplies were received. Shafer died on Orona (Hull) in 1931. 

In 1925, there were 15 inhabitants, one American and 14 natives, who lived on the west side 

of the island (Dickson 1939). 

In 1925, Samoa Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd. abandoned Orona (Hull) (Garnett 1983a). 

Orona (Hull) had a boat passage into the lagoon (Foreign Office 1920). 






In 1931, there were 15 people living on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). 

60





Most were working the copra plantations on Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull). 

In 1936, Burns Philp (South Seas) Co., Ltd. purchased Orona (Hull) from the Samoan 

Shipping and Trading Co. which was in liquidation (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1937, there were 30 coconut plantation workers on Orona (Hull) including 9 women 

(Knudson 1965; Maude 1952 and 1968). A European overseer also lived on Orona (Hull) 

(the overseer was J.W. Jones according to Garnett 1983a). 



On May 14, 1937, the 250 ton schooner Makoa struck an uncharted coral reef at Orona (Hull) 

and was lost (Anon. 1937a; see also Robson 1956). According to Anon. (1937e), the Makoa 

was lost on May 25, 1937. Her crew swam ashore and were able to salvage the ship’s gear, 

stores, cargo, and boats (Anon. 1937a). The survivors were picked up by the R.M.S. Niaaara 

in June 1937. Anon. (1937f) noted that the Makoa had just been thoroughly overhauled and 

repainted in Fiji. She was carrying laborers to erect dwellings and copra sheds on Orona 

(Hull). Captain Jones arrived on the Makoa that wrecked (Bryan 1941 and 1942). He went 

there to manage the island for Burns Philp Co. 

In 1937, the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa visited Orona (Hull) and conducted a survey of the island in 

preparation for resettlement (Bevington 1990; see also Maude 1937). The landing party met 

Captain Jones and a small group of Tokelauan who were working the coconut plantation. 

That same year, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony took over the lease (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). Captain Jones (from the schooner Makoa) was retained as island administrator. 

In 1937, Hull was rechristened Orona (Freeman 1951; Maude 1937, 1952 and 1968). Orona 

was the old Polynesian name by which Hull had been known (Maude 1937, 1952 and 1968). 

In 1937, Orona (Hull) was incorporated into the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Garnett 

1983a). 

In January 1938, Western Pacific High Commission representatives paid an official 

inspection visit to Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) (Anon. 1938g). 

In 1938, Donaggho (1953) visited Orona (Hull) as part of the 1938 Line Island Expedition. 

The island’s governor, Mr. Jones, greeted the expedition members. There were 31 

Tokelauans and Ellice Islanders on Orona (Hull) in addition to the governor. 

Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) were to be settled first as there were existing coconut 

plantations on them (Knudson 1965). Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) could 

follow after Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) had been planted in coconut trees and 

coconuts became available for settlers (Knudson 1965). 

Seven hundred Gilbertese were moved from the Southern Gilbert Islands to Orona (Hull), 

Manra (Sydney), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Chapman 1961). The settlers to Orona (Hull) 

included both Protestants and Catholics. The 15,000 coconut palms there were apportioned 

61




to the 432 Gilbertese colonists (Bryan 1951; see also Freeman 1951). For a detailed account 

of the relocation voyages and initial resettlement activities, see Maude (1952 and 1968). 

Between 1938 and 1939, Orona (Hull) was surveyed by a party from New Zealand (Bryan 

1941; Hobbs 1945). Principal coral heads were marked with empty drums. The island was 

claimed for British Pacific Airways. The military value of Abariringa (Canton) and Orona 

(Hull) was that they could be small naval bases with good airstrips (Hobbs 1945). 

In July 1939, seaplanes from the battleship Colorado landed at Orona (Hull) (Dickson 1939) 

in their search for Amelia Earhart. 

The Gilbertese settled the island in 1938-1940 (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). In 1939, 

there were 80 Gilbertese people in a settlement on the western part of the island 

(Hydrographic Office 1940). There was a well arranged village where the copra camp used 

to be on the west end (Bryan 1941 and 1942). A large concrete cistern had been build. The 

14,000 coconut trees had been apportioned to the settlers. 

In July 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell surveyed Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1941; as part of the 

surveying expedition to the Phoenix and Samoan Islands according to Schultz 1939). In 

1939, the Bushnell blasted channel to the lagoon (Hydrographic Office 1940). This was next 

to the village where landings could be made (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). The blasted 

channel was 0.9 m deep at spring tides. 

Anon. (1939j) noted that the Phoenix Islands including Orona (Hull) have been under British 

control for 70 to 100 years. Paradise of the Pacific magazine was critical of the Pacific 

Islands Monthly regarding their biased reporting of U.S. claims to the Phoenix Islands 

including Orona (Hull) and other island groups (Anon. 1939j). 

By 1939, the population of Orona (Hull) had reached 307 (Garnett 1983a). 


In 1889, the British proclaimed Phoenix as a protectorate (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; 

see also Hydrographic Office 1916). The British vessel that annexed Rawaki (Phoenix) was 

the H.M.S. Egeria (Douglas and Douglas 1994; under Commander Oldham according to 

Garnett 1983a). The symbolic acts of declaring protectorates were performed on each island 

(Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a formal declaration and the hoisting of the British 

flag. The reason for these annexations was the proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward 1948) that 

provided a new use for these small isolated islands. Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that a 

careful survey was completed of Rawaki (Phoenix) at that time. 

In 1891, J.T. Arundel applied for a coconut planting license for Rawaki (Phoenix) (Garnett 

1983a). 

In 1897, the Pacific Islands Company took over Arundel’s business (Garnett 1983a). In 

1899, Rawaki (Phoenix) was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic Office 1916). 

62




The Pacific Islands Company was purchased by Lever’s Pacific Plantations, Ltd. (Garnett 

1983a). In 1914, the Pacific Plantations Ltd. sold out to the Samoa Shipping and Trading 

Co., Ltd. 

In 1914, Rawaki (Phoenix) was leased to Burns Philp (South Sea) Co. for 87 years (Bryan 

1941 and 1942; in 1926 according to Garnett 1983a). Another account indicated that it was 

leased to Captain Allen of the Samoan Shipping and Trading Co. for 87 years (Bryan 1941 

and 1942; see also Bryan 1934 and Allen 1918). 

In 1924, there was almost no trace of the houses, shed, flagpole and tramway that had been 

abandoned by the Phoenix Guano Company in August 1871 (Bryan 1934). In 1924, there 

was no one living on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 






In 1926, Rawaki (Phoenix) was bought by Burns Philp (South Seas) Co., Ltd. (Garnett 

1983a). 

In 1931, no one lived on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). 

Between 1902 and 1938, Rawaki (Phoenix) was not visited (Garnett 1982a). Garnett (1982a) 

noted that Lever’s Pacific Plantation, Ltd., Samoan Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd., and 

Burns Philps (South Seas) Co., Ltd. apparently did no development on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

In 1937, Rawaki (Phoenix) was placed under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan 

1941 and 1942). 

In 1937, the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa visited Rawaki (Phoenix) and conducted a survey of the 

island in preparation for resettlement (Bevington 1990). Details of that trip were provided in 

Maude (1937). Maude (1937) considered Rawaki (Phoenix) not suitable for settlement due to 

the small size and absence of potable water. 

In 1938, Rawaki (Phoenix) was declared a bird sanctuary under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands 

Colony Wild Birds Protection Ordinance (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1939, the decision was made to plant 3,500 coconut trees on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Garnett 

1983a). Planting was stopped with the outbreak of World War II. 

E. WORLD WAR II (1940 TO 1945) 

In the last months of 1940, severe gales hit the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1965; see also 

Gallagher 1941). All islands had damage to housing, coconut trees, and new plantings. 

Gallagher (1941) noted that the northwesterly gales were almost continuous for the forth 

quarter of 1940. 

63




By 1940, 729 volunteer colonists had been settled in the Phoenix Islands (Maude 1953b). 

Between July and September 1940, an additional 76 settlers and 454 tonnes (500 tons) of 

supplies were transported to the Phoenix Islands (Gallagher 1940). 

In 1940, infant mortality in the Phoenix Islands reached 50 percent (Gallagher 1940). This 

was attributed to incorrect care of infants by their mothers. An education program was 

initiated in the form of women’s committees. Since its inception, no infant has been lost on 

Manra (Sydney). 

In 1941, resettlement of the Phoenix Islands ceased due to the war (Maude 1953a). Attempts 

to charter a vessel were not successful (Gallagher 1941). Gallagher (1941) noted that despite 

air connections from Abariringa (Canton) to the rest of the work, there was no 

communication available between the Phoenix Islands. 

Robson (1942) reported that nearly 2,000 people had been resettled to the Phoenix Islands 

from the overcrowded Gilbert Islands. 

During World War II, the Phoenix Islands became strategically important (Borden 1961). If 

Japan had extended its conquests to the Ellice and Phoenix Islands, this would have cut off 

U.S. convoys and air links to New Zealand and Australia. Grattan (1963a) reported that there 

were coast watchers on the Phoenix group during World War II. The Phoenix Islands were 

not occupied by Japan (Knudson 1965). 

The Native Government Ordinance of 1941 introduced a revised constitution (Colonial 

Office 1951). Due to World War II and the need to translate this constitution into the local 

vernacular, it was not operative until 1948. Native governments on three of the Phoenix 

Islands were functioning under this revised constitution. 

Daniel (1943) noted that all eight of the Phoenix Islands were British-controlled, despite the 

1939 United States and Great Britain agreement placing Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury 

under joint administration for 50 years (see also Bordon 1961; Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; 

Clune 1951; Freeman 1951). 

Cooper (1944a) noted that the Americans solved the British transport problem in the Phoenix 

Islands. The British District Officer could now routinely visit recently settled Phoenix 

Islands by military PBY seaplanes. This would normally require several days of ship travel. 

In addition, the U.S. military dropped 1.8 tonnes (2 tons) of foodstuff on an island, thus 

averting near famine of the 70 inhabitants. 

Luke (1945b) suggested that after phosphate had been removed from Ocean Island (Banaba), 

inhabitants might be persuaded to relocated to the Phoenix Islands or elsewhere. 


In 1940, there were 2 Europeans and 2 natives on Abariringa (Canton) (Gallagher 1940). 

In March 1940, six U.S. Navy patrol bombers made the 2,679 km (1,665 mile) flight from 

Honolulu to Abariringa (Canton) (Leff 1940; Navy Catalinas according to Wright 1951). 

This was the first equator crossing by American warplanes. 

64




In April 1940, Pan American Airways and the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association began 

the Abariringa (Canton) plant quarantine station (Van Zwaluwenburg 1943). Planes north or 

southbound were inspected and sprayed to kill insects. Insects killed were collected. 

In July 1940, the first commercial Pam American Airway clipper landed at Abariringa 

(Canton) enroute to New Zealand (Leff 1940). Official commercial air service began on July 

12, 1940 (Anon. 1940c). 

In October 1940, the American colonists on Abariringa (Canton) were withdrawn since there 

were Pan American Airways staff on island (Bryan 1974). 

In November 1940, the Department of Interior transferred administration of Abariringa 

(Canton) from the U.S. Government to Pan American Airways (Anon 1941a). The Pam 

American Airways station manager was appointed as the Department of Interior’s 

representative (Bryan 1974; McIntire 1960). 

With the outbreak of World War II, Pam American’s service was discontinued (McIntire 

1960). The U.S. armed forces then occupied Abariringa (Canton). 

Musick Light stood atop a white cylindrical stone tower 8.5 m (28 ft) above sea level 

(Hydrographic Office 1940) on the southern side of the lagoon entrance (Hydrographer of the 

Navy 1969). There was also an aeronautical light atop a steel tower 15.5 m (51 ft) high that 

was located about 4.0 km (2.5 miles) southward of Musick Light (Hydrographic Office 

1940). 

In 1940, the U.S. Congress placed Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury under the U.S. District 

Court of Hawaii (Skaggs 1994; see also McIntire 1960; 1948 according to Office of 

Territories 1963). 

In 1940, the 4,000 ton freighter Admiral Day was wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 

1940d; September 1940 according to Oates 2003). Several attempts were made to get the 

ship off the reef. After several days and several attempts, rescuers gave up. A Rabaul Naval 

Court found that the cause of the wreck was carelessness and negligent navigation (Anon. 

1940d). However, in Sydney (Australia), it was reported that the decision was only 

preliminary and that the captain had answered the charges of carelessness and negligent 

navigation. The remaining wreck slipped into deep water (Oates 2003). Oil-soaked timber 

washed up on the reef for several weeks after. 

During World War II, Abariringa (Canton) became a hub of central Pacific air movement 

(Bryan 1974). Detailed accounts of development of Abariringa (Canton) into a military base 

were provided in Oates (2003). 

In addition to the seaplane landing area, a landing strip (Topham Field) was built on the 

northside of the island (Wright 1951). Topham Field was named after J.H. Topham of the 

333 Fighter Sqaudron who was killed on Abariringa (Canton) on November 13, 1942 (Oates 

2003). Topham Field had two runways were constructed on the northwest corner of the 

island (McIntire 1960). One was north-south and the other was east-west. These runways 

met near the outer edge of the corner. 

65




A separate fighter plane landing strip was built on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1974; see also 

Stack 1982; on the north rim of Abariringa (Canton) according to McIntire 1960). The 

fighter plane landing strip was 1.83 km (6,000 ft) (Garnett 1983a). Revetments were built to 

protect the fighter aircraft (McIntire 1960). 

A road was also built around the island (Bryan 1974). Concrete pillboxes and other 

fortifications were built around Abariringa (Canton) (Degener and Gillaspy 1955). These 

still dot the landscape. 

In March 1941, Navy PBYs visited Abariringa (Canton) and completed assessments of the 

island and Pan American Airways’ operations (Oates 2003). Later that month additional 

Navy PBY visits were completed. 

In November 1941, a Catalina PBY flying boat made a record non-stop flight from 

Abariringa (Canton) to Sydney, Australia, a distance of 5,310 km (3,300 miles) (Anon. 

1941b). This and other PBYs were purchased by Australia to minimize raiders in the South 

Pacific. 

In 1942 (McIntire 1960), the President Taylor was wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) when she 

sought shelter in the lagoon after a warning that Japanese submarines were near (Clune 

1951). According to Walker (1955), the Taylor was surprised by Japanese submarines and in 

the attempt to bring her to safe water, she was run aground (two Japanese submarines 

according to Degener and Degener 1959). The President Taylor was 159 m (522 ft) and 

weighed 9,525 gross tonnes (10,500 gross tons) (McIntire 1960). According to Johnson 

(1950), the President Taylor grounded while trying to avoid a reported Japanese submarine as 

her escort destroyer moved off to drop depth charge patterns. According to Degener and 

Gillaspy (1955), the President Taylor was caught in the channel current while trying to 

disembark troops as close to shore as possible due to enemy submarine danger. According to 

Murphy et al (1954), the officers of the President Taylor thought that they were being chased 

by a submarine. A detailed account of the incident was also provided in Oates (2003). 

During the war, there was a parade of visitors to Abariringa (Canton) including Noel Coward 

(playwright), Rod Laver (tennis star) and Bobby Riggs (tennis star) (Oates 2003). 

In 1942, Abariringa (Canton) was shelled three times by the Japanese (Knudson 1965; see 

also Wright 1951; Oates 2003). 

In probably late 1942, U.S. fighter aircraft began making regular reconnaissance flights from 

Abariringa (Canton) (Knudson 1965). They occasionally would drop tobacco, cloth, soap, 

candy, and chewing gum to villages on the various other Phoenix Islands. 

In late 1942, a Japanese submarine shelled the President Taylor (Degener and Gillaspy 1955; 

April 1942 according to Oates 2003). 

In late 1942, Captain Eddie Rickenbacker (the most decorated American aviator in World 

War I) was enroute to Abariringa (Canton) from Hawaii, when his B-17 aircraft went down 

(Oates 2003; see also Wright 1951). He was eventually rescued and his story made headlines 

in the U.S. (a detailed account of this flight was provided by Oates 2003). His story of the 

ordeal was published in Life Magazine, including his account of eating sea gulls (Wright 

1951). There were no seagulls within 1,000 miles of Abariringa (Canton) (Wright 1951). 

66




In 1943, Japanese aircraft bombed Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960). Damage was slight 

on all four occasions (Degener and Gillaspy 1955; see also McIntire 1960). The island 

periodically experienced harrassment attacks (Oates 2003). 

In 1943, an artificial channel was blasted and dredged (76.2 m wide and 8.8 m deep) 

(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969, see also Bryan 1974; Oates 2003). The dredging 

operations created Spam Island (Oates 2003). The channel could then accommodate vessels 

not exceeding 128 m (420 ft) in length which could then tie up to the 117 m (385 ft) wharf 

(Degener and Gillaspy 1955). 

During World War II, the U.S. dollar was widely used in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, 

despite the 1937 Currency Ordinance that made notes from Australian and United Kingdom 

the legal tender (Colonial Office 1951). After the war, Abariringa (Canton) was the only 

place where the U.S. dollar was allowed as it was a staging point for trans-Pacific air flights 

and where the bulk of the business was in dollars. 

Cooper (1944b) noted that water was the most precious commodity on Abariringa (Canton). 

Hobbs (1945) noted that the military value of Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) was that 

they could be small naval bases with good airstrips and seaplane bases. 

During World War II, more than 30,000 soldiers came to Abariringa (Canton) according to 

Witherspoon (1957; see also Murphy et al 1954). At times there were over 1,100 troops 

based on Abariringa (Canton) (Garnett 1983a). 

After the fall of Tarawa in 1943, the importance of Abariringa (Canton) declined as military 

resources were shifted to Kwajalein and westward (Wright 1951). 

In 1944, a chain of LORAN (Long Range Navigation Stations) was established in the 

Phoenix Islands including Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Oates 2003). 

BIRNIE 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there was a beacon about 4.6 to 6.1 m (15 to 20 ft) high on 

the eastern curve of Birnie. Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that others had reported that the 

beacon was 9.1 m (30 ft) high. The beacon was constructed from coral sandstone. 

ENDERBURY 

In 1940, the U.S. Congress placed Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury under the U.S. District 

Court of Hawaii (Skaggs 1994; see also McIntire 1960; 1948 according to Office of 

Territories 1963). 

The Hydrographic Office (1940) reported wrecks of two vessels along the southeast corner of 

Enderbury. No details were provided of these ship wrecks. 

67




Hobbs (1945) noted that the military value of Enderbury was that it could be a useful lookout 

station, but supplies would have to come in by air. Hobbs (1945) noted that Enderbury was a 

natural airplane base. There was a small settlement on the southwest corner of Enderbury 

that was manned by Americans. 

One of the most conspicuous objects on Enderbury was the 6.1 m (20 ft) high heap of guano 

on the western side of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the 

Navy 1969). In addition, there were buildings of the settlement at the southwest corner that 

were occupied by American citizens (Hydrographic Office 1940). These buildings included a 

house, shed, weather and instrument house, a 9.1 m (30 ft) high radio mast, and a flagpole. 

A white cylindrical light tower 9.8 m (32 ft) above sea level was being constructed on 

Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940). Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that the 

beacon was 6.1 m high and was located near the landing place on the western side of the 

island. 

During World War II no use was made of Enderbury (Garnett 1983a). 


There was a dilapidated coral slab beacon 2.4 m (8 ft) high on the southeastern side of the 

island (Hydrographic Office 1940). On the southwest side of the island, there was a coral 

slab beacon 2.7 m (9 ft) high next to a 13.4 m (44 ft) flagpole. 

By the end of 1940, there were 302 settlers on Manra (Sydney) (Knudson 1965; see also 

Gallagher 1940). World War II ended additional transfer of people. Employment 

opportunities developed for Manra (Sydney) residents. Many were employed on Abariringa 

(Canton) during the war and after the war with the commercial airlines. Despite the absence 

of the Officer-in-Charge, work continued on Manra (Sydney) (Gallagher 1940). 

In 1940, infant mortality in the Phoenix Islands reached 50 percent (Gallagher 1940). This 

was attributed to incorrect care of infants by their mothers. An education program was 

initiated in the form of women’s committees. Since its inception, no infant has been lost on 

Manra (Sydney). 

In late 1940, the wireless broke on Manra (Sydney) and communication was lost for a time 

(Gallagher 1941). 

In 1941, the last boatload of settlers to Manra (Sydney) arrived (Knudson 1977). 

In 1941, G.B. Gallagher who assisted H.E. Maude in the Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme 

passed away during a return trip from Fiji to the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1965). According 

to Luke (1945b), Gallagher died on Manra (Sydney). 




68




In 1943, men from Manra (Sydney) contracted to work on Abariringa (Canton) either for the 

military or Pan American Airlines (Knudson 1965). Also in 1943, American engineers 

assessed the possibility of blasting a channel to the lagoon. This was not done because of 

concerns that resultant wave action might inundate the village and plantation. Instead, the 

passage through the reef was cleared to allow for safer landing from anchored ships. 

During the later years of the war, a large four-engine aircraft from Abariringa (Canton) 

crashed on Manra (Sydney) (Knudson 1965). The four-engine aircraft was not a B-24, but 

rather a twin engine C-47A that crashed in November 1943 on Manra (King et al 2001; see 

also Kepler 2000). There were no survivors (Knudson 1965). The next day, a ship from 

Abariringa (Canton) came and important equipment and documents were recovered. The 

plane was the chief source of aluminum for ornaments. Eventually, there was no trace of the 

aircraft. 

In 1945, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Orona (Hull) were reported to have 

been evacuated due to a prolonged drought (The Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

MCKEAN 

There were no inhabitants on McKean (Hydrographic Office 1940). 


There were about 80 inhabitants on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Their village is on the south side of the western break in the land ridge. 

In 1940, there was 1 European and 69 natives on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Gallagher 1940). 

Work continued on planting coconut trees. Construction was begun on the government 

station. Work also commenced on clearing rocks and roots to level the ground. 

In late 1940, low lying areas of Nikumaroro (Gardner) were flooded from high tides and 

almost continuous north-westerly gales (Gallagher 1941). This caused considerable damage 

to structures. The original site for the settlement was deemed unsuitable because the ground 

became water-logged. About 40 houses were taken down and moved to a more appropriate 

site. A new 18.0 m (59 ft) flag pole was constructed adjacent to the church. 

In 1940, colonist found a partial human skeleton, a woman’s shoe, a man’s shoe, and a 

sextant box on Nikumaroro (King et al 2001; see also Beheim 2004; Burns et al 1998). There 

was speculation that these belonged to Amelia Earhart. In addition, there were anecdotal 

accounts of an airplane wreckage on the fringing reef and lagoon shore. The colonial 

administrator, G. Gallagher, communicated this information to the Western High 

Commission (Burns et al 1998). He was told to keep the matter “strictly secret.” 

King et al (2001) reported that the bones were put in a box and sent to Fiji, but were cast 

overboard during the trip. Beheim (2004) noted that artifacts, including bones were 

examined by the Central Medical School in Suva, Fiji (see also Burns et al 1998). However, 

results were not conclusive. Burns et al (1998) reported that notes of examination in Fiji 

were re-examined and it appeared that the bones belonged to a European female. 

69







During World War II, the Americans set up a radio station on Nikumaroro (Anon. 1952). A 

survey was completed in 1943, prior to construction of the navigation station (Laxton 1951). 

Good relations were reported between the Americans and the islanders (Anon. 1952). 

According to King et al (2001), the U.S. Coast Guard Loran station on the southeast tip of 

Nikumaroro was built in 1944 (see also Oates 2003). It was manned by 20 to 30 Coast 

Guardsmen. After the war, the radio station was closed (Anon. 1952), then dismantled (King 

et al 2001), and the Americans left (Anon. 1952). 


been evacuated due to a prolonged drought (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

ORONA (HULL) 

There was a coral slab beacon 5.2 m (17 ft high) on the western extremity of the island 

(Hydrographic Office 1940). The proposed British Pacific Airways airport was marked out. 

In 1940, there were 2 Europeans and 370 natives on Orona (Hull) (Gallagher 1940). New 

dwelling houses, a native court house, a new road, and the hospital were constructed by late 

1940. 

In late 1940, low lying areas of Orona (Hull) were flooded from high tides and almost 

continuous north-westerly gales (Gallagher 1941). This caused damage to local housing. 




Hobbs (1945) noted that the military value of Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) was that 

they could be small naval bases with good airstrips and seaplane bases. 


been evacuated due to a prolonged drought (The Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 


The island was uninhabited (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

F. POST-WORLD WAR II TO INDEPENDENCE (1946 TO 1979) 

In 1947-1948, the population of the Phoenix Islands was 903 indigenous and 230 foreign 

(Bryan 1951). The Phoenix Islands settlement had a budget of £16,800 (Colonial Office 

1951). According to Laxton (1951), the Phoenix Islands settlements had happy, thriving 

70




communities. They had schools, hospitals, wireless communication, electd local 

governments, and co-operative societies (Maude 1953b). The scheme was considered a 

success (Maude 1953b). 

By the end of 1947, there were more than 1,000 colonists in the Phoenix Islands (Maude 

1953b; 984 in the Phoenix Islands, not including the Americans on Abariringa (Canton) 

according to Pusinelli 1948; see also Robson 1956). 

By 1952, the Phoenix [Settlement] Scheme was officially declared a failure (Schultz and 

Tenten 1979). The primary reason for the project’s failure was the poor water quality or lack 

of freshwater on the Phoenix Islands. 

There were 1,200 people living in the Phoenix Islands according to Halstead and Bunker 

(1954). 

By 1955, there were more than 1,300 Catholics in the Phoenix Islands (Garrett 1997). Two 

of the Phoenix Islands were under the Roman Catholic diocese that also covered Nauru, 

Tuvalu, and the Gilbert islands (Bunge and Cooke 1984). The specific Phoenix Islands 

covered were not identified. 

Eggs of the grey-backed tern which breed in the thousands in the Phoenix Islands were eaten 

during times of food shortage (Child 1960). 

After 1963, the Phoenix Islands experienced severe droughts and had been evacuated (Cowell 

1966). The droughts forced the colonial government to abandon the Phoenix Islands 

Settlement Scheme (Knudson 1977; see also Teiwaki 1988; Bunge and Cooke 1984; repeated 

droughts according to Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1993). 

For two of the three Phoenix Islands with settlers, abandonment was more for administrative 

and financial reasons than because of the viability of otherwise of the settlements themselves 

(MacDonald 1982). 

In 1963, Grattan (1963a) reported that no one lived in the Phoenix group. By 1964, all the 

settlers in the Phoenix Islands had left (Levy 1996). 

In March 1965, the U.S. reaffirmed its claim to all eight of the Phoenix Islands (Maude 

1968). 

From 1968 to 1978, the British Government lease four of the Phoenix Islands to the U.S. 

(Teiwaki 1988). The rent was $10,000 annually. 

In 1979, the Treaty of Friendship was signed between the United States and the Government 

of Kiribati (Trease 1993). This Treaty was approved by the U.S. Senate on June 21, 1982. In 

the Treaty, the U.S. acknowledged Kiribati sovereignty over the Phoenix Islands in return the 

Government of Kiribati agreed to consult with the U.S. Government should it wish to allow 

third party access to the islands for military purposes (Abariringa (Canton) only according to 

Ogashiwa 1991). 

The Treaty also gave the U.S. Government the right to construct facilities, after consultations 

with the Government of Kiribati on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) 

71




(Trease 1993). The U.S. retained the right of joint utilization of facilities it had constructed 

on Abariringa (Canton) (Skaggs 1994). In addition, there were special provisions within the 

Treaty for the mutual development of the marine resources in the Line and Phoenix Islands 

(Teiwaki 1988). 


From 1945 to 1946, Abariringa (Canton) was de-militarized (Oates 2003). In 1946, the 

aviation facilities on Abariringa (Canton) were transferred from the U.S. War Department to 

the Department of Commerce (McIntire 1960). In 1946, the last seaplane landed on 

Abiriringa (Kanton) (Oates 2003). 

Between 1945 and 1958, the Abariringa (Kanton) was used for trans-Pacific flights by Qantas 

and Pan Am (Douglas and Douglas 1994). About 50 commercial flights were serviced there 

(Stack 1982). A detailed account of this transformation seasoned with personal stories was 

provided in Oates (2003). 

In 1946, the Federal Aviation Agency’s island manager represented the Department of 

Interior with the designation “United States Resident Administrator, Canton and Enderbury 

Islands” (Office of Territories 1963, McIntire 1960; this was done in 1948 according to 

Wright 1951). The FAA island manager also served the Justice Department as U.S. Deputy 

Marshall, the Treasury Department as disbursing agent, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey 

as tide water observer. 

In 1947, the last U.S. military personnel left Abariringa (Canton) (Wright 1951). 

In 1947, there were 230 people living on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). 

Maude (1953a) reported 81 people on Abariringa (Canton) (see also Robson 1956). Pusinelli 

(1948) reported that there were about 150 Americans and 81 British subjects on Abariringa 

(Canton). Of the British subjects, 74 were male and 7 were female. 

In 1948, the President Taylor that wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) in 1942 was gutted by fire 

(McIntire 1960; Degener and Degener 1969; 1949 according to Johnson 1950). There was 

speculation that the fire stared with an explosion of an illicit whiskey still (Degener and 

Gillaspy 1955). 

In 1948, jurisdiction of the district court of Hawaii was extended to Canton and Enderbury 

Islands by an act of Congress (Office of Territories 1963). 

In 1948, Pan American Airways restarted their commercial services through Abariringa 

(Canton) at a cost of USD 2.8 million (Garnett 1983a). The runway was resurfaced, road and 

buildings were built. 

In 1949, 134 Gilbertese were employed on Abariringa (Canton) (Knudson 1965). The 

European population (including Americans) was 180 people. 

In 1949, the population on Abariringa (Canton) was 327 (McIntire 1960; for population 

nationality breakdown see Degener and Gillaspy 1955). Degener and Gillaspy (1955) 

provided a breakdown on the employment of residents of Abariringa (Canton) in 1949. 

72




Degener and Degener (1959) reported that W. Cooney and Taylor Salvors, Inc. purchased the 

rights to the President Taylor [that wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) in 1942] for $5,200. 

Johnson (1950) provided a personal account of the salvage operations on the President 

Taylor wreck using the Caronia, a 272 tonnes (300 ton) pleasure yatch (see also Anon. 1954; 

Oates 2003). Two primary concerns of the operation were fresh food and freshwater. A 

distiller had to be purchased and it required continual maintenance. 

In 1950, modern housing units were constructed on the north side of the island near the 

runway for the Federal Aviation Agency (McIntire 1960; see also Oates 2003). Three 

airlines were using Abariringa (Canton), Pan American World Airways, Qantas Empire 

Airways, and Canadian Pacific Airlines. According to Garnett (1983a), British Overseas 

Airlines also used the facility. 

In 1950, the main air strip was extended and resurfaced by the Federal Aviation Authority 

(FAA) (McIntire 1960; see also Wright 1951). The main air strip was 2,316 m (7,600 ft) long 

and 45.7 m (150 ft) wide. It was asphalt over a coral base with a 68,040 kg (150,000 pound) 

capacity. The overruns at both ends were 122 m (400 ft) on the west, and 457 m (1,500 ft) on 

the east end. The runway could be extended another 914 m (3,000 ft) beyond the east end 

overrun. 

In 1951, the only commercial air service for the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony was at 

Abariringa (Canton) (Colonial Office 1951). In addition to commercial air service, the U.S. 

military and the RNZAF had flights through Abariringa (Canton). 

In 1951, the population of Abariringa (Canton) was almost 300 people (Bunker 1951; 253 

according to Clune 1951). 

In 1951, a weekly newspaper began to be published on Abariringa (Canton) (Wright 1951). 

It was titled, Canton Coral Capers. 

In the 1950s there was a small fish exporting enterprise on Abariringa (Canton) (Garnett 

1983a). 

For the first half of 1952, Abariringa (Canton) did not have any outbreaks of communicable 

diseases (Pacific Area Communicable Disease Information Service 1952). 

In 1952, the first intercontinental jet made its maden voyage from London to South Africa 

(Oates 2003). This was the beginning of the end for fuel stops such as Abariringa (Canton). 

In 1954, 762 planes landed on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960). 

Pan American World Airways (1954) produced a 3 page brochure for visiting airline 

passengers. The brochure provided a brief historic background and information of 


In August 1954, the Canton Outrigger Club was formed to promote knowledge and use of 

Gilbertese sailing outrigger canoes (Canton Outrigger Club 1954). The club developed a 

constitution. In addition to providing basic sailing and safety guidance, the Canton Outrigger 

73




Club (1954) provided a summary and diagram of different types of Gilbertese sailing canoes 

(te wa). 

In 1955, there were about 300 to 400 people living on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 1955a). 

Half were British, and half were Americans. Walker (1955) reported the population of 

Abariringa (Canton) as 280. 

Walker (1955) reported observing a rust-encrusted part of the original Canton wreck still on 

the beach. 

In 1955, there were three oil companies operating on Abriringa (Canton) (Degener and 

Gillapsy 1955). There were also three fishing companies operating. One of the fishing 

companies exported 8,157 kg (17,984 pounds) of fish to Hawaii in July 1950. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported that there were four carriers operating through 

Abariringa (Canton) including: Pan American World Airways, British Commonwealth 

Pacific Airlines, Canadian Pacific Airlines, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Civil Aeronautics 

Administration. There were 14.67 flights per week carrying 220 passengers, or 762.67 flights 

per year carrying 11,440 passengers. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported that the U.S. Civil Aeronautics Administration had 9 

ships visit Abariringa (Canton) per year. There were 4 oil company ships and 3 Gilbert and 

Ellice Islands ships that also visited Abariringa (Canton) annually (16 vessels per year). 

Melamid (1955) noted that Abariringa (Canton) was one of only a few places in the world 

where the U.S. dollar could be exchanged 1:1 with the British pound. Transactions, however, 

were limited to personal requirements. 

There were some attempts to clean up abandoned infrastructure left by the U.S. military after 

World War II (Walker 1955; see also McIntire 1960). However, much work still remains to 

clean up the island. 

After 1955, the Pam American Airways hotel was abandoned (McIntire 1960). By 1958, it 

was in shambles (Degener and Degener 1959; see also McIntire 1960). 

There was a weather station on Abariringa (Canton) that was manned by 7 men (Degener and 

Gillaspy 1955; see also McIntire 1960). In addition, there was a post office in the airport 

terminal building (McIntire 1960). The British post office was located on the south side of 

the boat channel in the British area with a branch at the airport terminal. 

Robson (1956) reported a population of 320, of which 115 were natives. In addition to the 

airport, there were two fishing companies operating from Abariringa (Canton). 

In 1956, the Caronia that was salvaging the President Taylor caught fire in the lagoon 

(Degener and Degener 1959; see also Oates 2003). In 1957, the Coast Guard towed the 

wreck of the Caronia out to sea and sank her. Abariringa (Canton) residents mourned the 

loss of the Caronia as a fishing platform (Oates 2003). 

The population of Abariringa (Canton) was about 300 (Witherspoon 1957). In 1957, the 

population of Abariringa (Canton) was 341 (McIntire 1960). 

74




High sea swells occurred several times in the past (Environmental Data Services 1966). In 

January 1958, swells were 4.6 to 6.1 m (15 to 20 ft) high lasted for several days and damaged 

the seawall protecting the runway. 

In Abariringa (Canton) as well as other remote air field locations operated by Pan American 

Airways, there was a motto that was followed call Clipper glory (Oates 2003). Basically, 

even after working longer, harder, and smarter than expected, the worker would do the same 

tomorrow. There was no second or third shift to relieve workers. Also, there was no city or 

other services to support passengers or planes. Workers stayed on duty until the work was 

done. This motto extended beyond the airlines to the entire island community. 

Since 1958, Pan American and Qantas began using jets to on their flights from Hawaii to 

Australia and New Zealand (McIntire 1960). These flights by-passed Abariringa (Canton). 

Pan American Airways sold its Abariringa (Canton) installation to Qantas (Oates 2003, no 

date provided, but this appeared to have occurred in the late 1950’s). 

By 1958, most of the above water portions of the 1942 President Taylor wreck had been 

salvaged (Degener and Degener 1959; see also McIntire 1960). 

In 1959, the population was 330 (McIntire 1960). In that year, 595 planes landed on 

Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960). 

Abariringa (Canton) support for trans-Pacific air flights was already losing its importance due 

to developing long-distant flights (Luke 1962). 

In September 1959, commercial air flights through Abariringa (Canton) stopped (Stack 

1982). Long range jets by-passed Abariringa (Canton). After that, the airstrip on Abariringa 

(Canton) was maintained as an emergency landing field until the 1960s (Levy 1996). It was 

abandoned after that. 

In October 1959, Abariringa was selected by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) as a station for the worldwide Mercury tracking network (Stack 

1982). 

In 1960, in addition to the regular population, there were 75 members of the Mobile 

Construction Battalion Ten on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960; see also Oates 2003). 

They were involved in construction of the NASA facility there. Construction began in April 

1960 and was completed by November 1, 1960. Abariringa (Canton) was designated Station 

11 of 26 stations worldwide (Oates 2003). 

McIntire (1960) reported that vessels more than 128 m (420 ft) in length with drafts more 

than 7.0 m (23 ft) should not enter the Abariringa (Canton) lagoon entrance, except in an 

emergency. The lagoon turning basin was unsafe for vessels greater than 61 m (200 ft) 

(Degener and Gillapsy 1955). The wharf can be used by vessels of 4,536 gross tonnes (5,000 

gross tons) can tie up (according to Degener and Gillapsy 1955). There was anchorage on the 

reef side south of the lagoon entrance for vessels that drew less than 7.3 m (24 ft). For larger 

ships, there was no good anchorage on the outer shelf. 

75




Freshwater was supplied by six Cleaver-Brooks units (McIntire 1960). Each unit produced 

757 lt (200 gallons) of freshwater per hour. 

Pratt (1961) presented an illustration of the hand stamp used to stamp mail originating from 


In 1961, there was an agreement between the Governments of the United Kingdom and the 

United States regarding the establishment and operation of a space vehicle tracking and 

communication station on Abariringa (Canton) (U.S. Department of State 1961; 1959 

according to Stack 1982). This was in connection with the U.S. manned earth satellite 

program (Project Mercury according to Douglas and Douglas 1994). The missile tracking 

station was being constructed in the summer of 1960 by NASA (McIntire 1960). 

In 1962, there were about 400 people living on Abariringa (Canton) (Office of Territories 

1963). 

The Chance Vought Company set up a monitoring station on Abariringa (Canton) to monitor 

the nuclear blast from Christmas Island (Oates 2003, probably in about 1962). 

The U.S. Federal Aviation Agency maintained facilities in Abariringa (Canton) (Office of 

Territories 1963). They maintained the airport, communication links, electrical power plant, 

water production, and sanitary facilities. A private oil company maintained the fuel facilities. 

The U.S. Weather Bureau provided meteorological services. The U.S. Department of Interior 

provided two school teachers who organized classes for kindergarten to 8 th grade. There 

were more than 30 students on Abariringa (Canton). A three-bed hospital was also 

maintained by the U.S. Department of Interior. 

A U.S. Coast Guard vessel visited Abariringa (Canton) annually to service navigational 

buoys (Office of Territories 1963). Shipping was irregular and much was done by charter 

vessel. 

Radiogram service was provided by a British station (Office of Territories 1963). 

In 1963, there were 101 people in Millers Camp and 104 at the District Station, for a total 

population of 205 on Abariringa (Canton) (McArthur and McCaig 1963) 

The satellite tracking station was established on Abariringa (Canton) in 1965 (Levy 1996). 

In June 1965, the FAA (formerly the CAA) ceased operations on Abariringa (Canton) (Oates 

2003). The facilities on Abariringa (Canton) were turned over to NASA. NASA operated 

the air navigation aids on Abariringa (Canton) until November 1965 (Oates 2003). 

By 1966, the dredged channel north of Spam Island had shrunk from 76.2 m to 61.0 m wide 

(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). On the western side of the turning basin (north of the 

channel, there is a wooden faced jetty 109.7 m long with a depth (in 1957) of 9.1 m 

(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

In 1966, the island population was about 500 (Bryan 1974; see also King 1973). 

76




There were two settlements on Abariringa (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). The northern 

settlement was the United States National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) 

Stellite Tracking station and meteorological station. There were about 60 U.S. personnel at 

this station. The Gilbertese settlement of about 100 people was on the southern side. 

The hotel and other installations had fallen into disrepair (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

The District Commissioner of the Phoenix Islands District still maintained a house and 

residency on the shore of the lagoon inside the opening. There was a small boat pier at this 

site. 

Abariringa (Canton) became a port of entry for the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony 

(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

In 1967, the aviation facilities on Abariringa (Kanton) were closed (Douglas and Douglas 

1994; see also Bryan 1974). 

In 1967, the NASA satellite tracking station on Abariringa (Canton) was closed (Levy 1996; 

see also Garnett 1983a; 1968 according to Planetary Coral Reef Foundation 2004). Control 

of the facility passed to the U.S. Air Force. The unused facility was being taken care of by an 

i-Kiribati family. The U.S. turned over these facilities to the Government of Kiribati (Levy 

1996) [year of turnover not specified]. According to Stack (1982), the Government of 

American Samoa was authorized to salvage whatever it wanted from the deactivated site. 

Then Abariringa (Canton) was abandoned. 

Near the northwestern end of Abariringa (Canton), there was an aircraft light tower that was 

12.2 m in height (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). There was a beacon 3.4 m high on a 

wood structure on the western side of the boat channel (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

In 1968, Topham Field, Abarirnga (Canton) was relegated to emergency airport status (Oates 

2003). The FAA and the Government of Amerian Samoa were the caretakers. Equipment 

was removed and transported to Western Samoa. The post office was removed and the 

Brfitish District Officer was transferred. There were no activities and no work to sustain the 

economy. 

In 1968, there were no residents on Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro 

(Gardner) (Zwart and Groenewegen 1968). 

In the fall of 1968, the U.S. Air Force dispatched a small security force (of American 

Samoans) to remain on location. This security force stayed until September 1970 (Oastes 

2003). 

In 1969, the Canton Operating Location was set up by the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile 

Test Center (SMTC) (Stack 1982; see also Oates 2003; 1970 according to Garnett 1983a). 

The initial function was to test the accuracy of Minuteman missiles fired from Vandenbeg Air 

Force Base (AFB) in California. It later became part of the world wide Space Track network. 

Tall radar towers were constructed on Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton), and Enderbury as 

part of the missile tracking system (Stack 1982). 

77




In 1969, Abariringa (Canton) was reinhabited by 200 U.S. Air Force personnel as part of the 

U.S. missile testing system (Bryan 1974; see also King 1973) for tracking anti-ballistic 

missiles (Balazs 1975). 

Since 1970, the U.S. Department of Defense had authority on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, 

Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) to conduct missile launch tracking research (Balazs 1975). 

In the 1970’s, temporary facilities for USAF SAMTEC were set up on Abariringa (Kanton), 

Orona, and Enderbury (King et al 2001; see also Oates 2003). Stack (1982) noted that these 

were very expensive operations. It only took 30 or 40 people to operate the facility, but it 

took hundreds more to service the facility. There was a reason why no one lived on 

Abariringa (Canton). Water had to be distilled from seawater, and all food and materials had 

to be either flown or shipped in. 

In October 1970, Abariringa (Kanton) was officially uninhabited (Douglas and Douglas 

1994). 

During the 1970’s, the population of Abariringa (Canton) varied between 200 and 350 people 

(Stack 1982). Most of these were contractors to the U.S. Air Force. 

In 1971, operational readiness tests were conducted on the various facilities in the Phoenix 

Islands, including Abariringa (Canton) (Oates 2003). The facilities used heliocopters to 

transport staff and equipment between the islands. 

In 1972, NOAA shut down the upper-air and sea-level stations at Abariringa (Canton) 

(TOGA Panel 1996). This closed down occurred right at the beginning of the 1972-1973 El 

Niño event and ended the 20 years time series data set. TOGA Panel (1996) reported that the 

U.S. entered into a bilateral agreement with New Zealand for the maintenance of the upperair 

station at Abariringa (Canton) which was subsequently closed. 

From 1972 to 1979, a radio station, WXLE, operated on Abariringa (Canton) 24 hours a day, 

7 days a week (Ricquish 1982). This was part of the American Forces Radio and Television 

Service (AFRTS). Programs were solely for the entertainment of the 300 or so personnel on 

Abariringa (Canton), but reception was periodically as far as New Zealand. 

In 1973, a major scientific survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton) atoll lagoon (Smith 

and Henderson 1976 and 1978) by University of Hawaii staff (Paulay 2000). The specific 

objective of the survey was to determine the impacts of human influences had on the atoll 

through World War II and post-war occupation. 

An ecological survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra 

(Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Fosberg et al 1973). The purpose of this 

survey was to report on the ecological impacts of SAMTEC operations, assess the status of 

terrestrial ecology of islands visited, and to make recommendations to minimise adverse 

ecological effects of SAMTEC operations. The conclusion was that the USAF had 

substantial success in minimizing the impact of the SAMTEC operations in the Phoenix 

Islands. 

The history of postal cancellation stamps used in the Phoenix Islands was reviewed (Kyle 

1974). Only Abariringa (Canton) really ever had postal service (mail stamp cancellation). 

78




There were examples of stamp cancellation from Enderbury. The other Phoenix Islands 

never had postal services. 

In 1976, the USAF SAMTEC program in Abariringa (Canton) was deactivated (King et al 

2001; Planetary Coral Reef Foundation 2004; deactivation began in 1974 according to Stack 

1982; deactivated in 1979 according to Garnett 1983b). Most bulky noncombustibles were 

piled in an area adjacent to the landfill on Abariringa (Canton) (King et al 2001). Stack 

(1982) noted that giant USAF C-5 transport aircrafts were used to transport out important 

equipment and staff. Stack (1982) noted that most of the equipment was abandoned as the 

costs for continued operation as part of the Space Track network were too high. Once again, 

the Govenrment of American Samoa was permited to salvage what they wanted. 

A small number of i-Kiribati were based at the facility on Abariringa (Canton) to maintain 

remaining facilities and to ensure that American Samoa did not occupy it (Garnett 1983b). 

Garnett (1983b) noted that Abariringa (Canton) was also claimed by American Samoa. 

In 1977, there was a major collecting trip by the Steinhart Aquarium of San Francisco and the 

Waikiki Aquarium to collect small shark specimens (Oates 2003). 

In 1978, there was no one living on Abariringa, but it was projected that this island could 

support 100 people (Kiribati 1983). A project for development of Abariringa was identified 

with a cost of AUD 1 million (Kiribati 1983). However, specific details of this project were 

not provided. 

In 1979, the Treaty of Friendship signed between the United States and the Government of 

Kiribati gave the U.S. Government the right to construct facilities, after consultations with the 

Government of Kiribati on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (Trease 1993). 

Government of Kiribati agreed to consult with the U.S. Government should it wish to allow 

third party access to the islands for military purposes. This was only for Abariringa (Canton) 

(Ogashiwa 1991). The Treaty was made after the U.S. decided to withdraw its military 

installations on Abariringa (Canton) after 40 years of occupation (Ogashiwa 1991). 

BIRNIE 

In 1947, no one lived on Birnie (Freeman 1951; Pusinelli 1948; Robson 1956). 

A stone beacon 4.9 m (16 ft) high was located on the eastern extremity of the island 

(Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

There were no inhabitants on Birnie (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 



According to King (1973), the USAF leased Birnie, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Manra 

(Sydney) from the U.K. Preconstruction environmental surveys were carried out on Manra, 

Nikumaroro, McKean, and Birnie (King et al 2001). 

79




In May and June 1973, an ecological survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, 

Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Fosberg et al 1973). The 

purpose of this survey was to report on the ecological impacts of SAMTEC operations, assess 

the status of terrestrial ecology of islands visited, and to make recommendations to minimise 

adverse ecological effects of SAMTEC operations. 

Birnie was claimed by both the U.K. and the U.S. (King 1973). 

In 1975, Birnie’s bird protection status (from the 1938 Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony 

Wild Birds Protection Ordinance) was confirmed in the Wildlife Conservation Ordinance 


ENDERBURY 

In 1946, the Federal Aviation Agency’s island manager represented the Department of 

Interior with the designation “United States Resident Administrator, Canton and Enderbury 

Islands” (Office of Territories 1963; McIntire 1960; this was done in 1948 according to 

Wright 1951). 

The FAA island manager also served the Justice Department as U.S. Deputy Marshall, the 

Treasury Department as disbursing agent, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey as tide water 

observer 

In 1947, no one lived on Enderbury (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951; Pusinelli 1948; Robson 

1956). 

In 1948, jurisdiction of the district court of Hawaii was extended to Canton and Enderbury 

Islands by an act of Congress (Office of Territories 1963). 

In 1962, Enderbury was uninhabited (Office of Territories 1963). 

The Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported a wreck on the fringing reef on the southeastern 

side of the island. 

Enderbury was uninhabited (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

In 1969, as part of the Canton Operating Location that was set up by the USAF SMTC, tall 

radar towers were constructed on Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton), and Enderbury (Stack 

1982; see also King 1973). Holmes and Narver constructed a 61 m (200 ft) radio antenna at 

one end of Enderbury, two 12.2 m (40 ft) sighting towers at the other end of the island, a 

road, and an air conditioned trailer (Bryan 1974; King 1973; see also Stack 1982). Supplies 

were brought in by helicopter from Abariringa (Canton). 

Two or three employees were on Enderbury most of the time (King 1973). This facility was 

serviced daily by helicopter from Abariringa (Canton) (Garnett 1983a). 

By 1970, all signs of former habitation were no longer visible on Enderbury, except for the 

lighthouse and one frame house (Bryan 1974; see also King 1973). 

80









The history of postal cancellation stamps used in the Phoenix Islands was reviewed (Kyle 

1974). There were examples of stamp cancellation from Enderbury. The other Phoenix 

Islands never had postal services. 

In July 1979, the U.S. Air Force SAMTEC facility on Enderbury was closed down (Garnett 

1983a). It was operational from 1970 to 1979 (Garnett 1983b). 





In 1947, there were 294 people living on Manra (Sydney) (Freeman 1951; Maude 1953a; 

Robson 1956; 294 or 300 according to Garnett 1983a). Of these 123 were males and 171 

were females (Pusinelli 1948). Manra (Sydney) had its own villages, schools, hospital, 

churches, and co-operative society (Garnett 1983a). 

By 1948, there were 299 persons on Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1951). 

In 1949, the colonists were moved from Manra (Sydney) to Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Clune 

1951). 

Manra (Sydney) was the only island that did not have a cooperative since all inhabitants had 

been removed (Cooper 1963). The coconut plantation was operated by the Phoenix Islands 

Co-operative Society. The copra collection ship visited the Phoenix Islands once every four 

months. 

There was a mysterious mortality amongst infants on Manra (Sydney) (Clune 1951 and 

Halstead 1950). Research indicated that fish from one side of the island were poisonous, but 

did not adversely affect adults. However, it was fatal to infants. 

In the early 1950s, there was a series of droughts on Manra (Sydney) that resulted in the 

elders of Manra (Sydney) to request that the colony be transferred elsewhere (Knudson 1965 

and 1977). However, not all of the settlers of Manra (Sydney) wished to move (Knudson 

1965). These were primarily Catholic converts. According to Luke (1962), the reason for the 

move was because the soil on Manra (Sydney) was too salty for coconut trees, the lagoon was 

too salty for fish, and many of the fish around Manra (Sydney) were poisonous. 

A number of families on Manra (Sydney) had to be moved to Nikumaroro (Robson 1956). 

The importance of Portulaca in the diets of settlers of the Phoenix Islands was reported by 

Turbott (1954). It was an important source of vitamin C and a major part of the diet. 

81




However, it was considered too strong for the sick and infants. Turbott (1954) provided 

preparation instructions for Portulaca that were used on Manra and Orona. 

After, a severe drought struck and between 1955 and 1958, the Manra colony was moved to 

Gizo in the Solomon Islands (Garnett 1997; see also Knudson 1965; between 1958 and 1964 

according to the Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

In 1955, the first group of settlers from Manra (Sydney) landed in Gizo, Solomon Islands 

(Anon. 1955b; see also Chapman 1961; Knudson 1965 and 1977). According to Douglas and 

Douglas (1994), the entire population was transferred to Gizo, Solomon Islands in 1958 (369 

people according to Knudson 1977). Hilder (1959) reported on the transport of the last 220 

Nikumaroro (Sydney) residents that were moved to the Solomon Islands. The charter of the 

M.V. Tulagi that transported residents to the Solomons cost about £5,000 (Hilder 1959). 

Until 1961, Manra (Sydney) was occupied by copra cutters who were then evacuated due to a 

prolonged drought (King 1973). In 1961, Manra was abandoned due to a severe drought 


After the departure of the last settlers, Manra (Sydney) was handed over to the co-operative 

treading societies on Orona (Hull) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) for use as plantations for added 

income and mutual benefit (Knudson 1965) 

In 1964, it was reported that there were two passages through the reef that had been improved 

by blasting (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

The USAF leased Birnie, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Manra (Sydney) from the U.K. (King 

1973). Preconstruction environmental surveys were carried out on Manra, Nikumaroro, 

McKean, and Birnie (King et al 2001). 






Manra (Sydney) was claimed by both the U.K. and U.S. (King 1973). 

In 1978, there was no one living on Manra, but it was estimated that this island could support 

300 people (Kiribati 1983). 

MCKEAN 

In 1947, no one lived on McKean (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951; Pusinelli 1948; Robson 

1956). 

Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported no inhabitants on McKean. 

In 1975, Wildlife Sanctuary status was confirmed for McKean under the Wildlife 

Conservation Ordinance of 1975 (Garnett 1983a). 

82





After the departure of the Americans, the islanders became discontent (Anon. 1952). Most 

wanted to return to the Gilbert Islands. After discussions and meeting with P.B. Laxton 

settlers agreed to stay (Laxton 1951). 

In 1947, there were 79 people living on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Freeman 1951; Maude 

1953a; Pusinelli 1948; Robson 1956). 

By 1948, there were 84 persons on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1951). 

In 1949, Manra (Sydney) colonists were moved to Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Clune 1951). A 

number of families on Manra (Sydney) had to be moved to Nikumaroro due to the difficult 

living conditions there (Robson 1956). There were a total of about 125 people living on 

Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

In 1955, there was a complete LORAN radio station with several diesel generators and other 

equipment that had been left on Nikumaroro (Gardner) since World War II (Anon. 1955c). 

The building was no longer weather-proof and this equipment was deteriorating. 

In the 1960s, the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme visited Nikumaroro (Gardner) 

several times (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1963, there were 112 people in Ritiati, 118 in Noriti, for a total of 230 people on 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) (McArthur and McCaig 1963). 

When the Phoenix Islands were hit with another drought in 1963, relief measures were 

needed (MacDonald 1982). In 1963, 210 settlers of Nikumaroro (Gardner) were evacuated 

because of a drought (King 1973; see also Garnett 1983a). Settlers on Orona (Hull) and 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) were evacuated to the Solomon Islands, even though by January 1964 

the islands had clearly recovered from the drought (MacDonald 1982). The primary factor 

for the relocation was the cost and inconvenience of administration. All settlers were taken to 

Wagina Island in the Solomon Islands (Douglas and Douglas 1994). 

The settlement on Nikumaroro lasted until 1964 (Gilbert Islands 1978). 

In 1967, the island was uninhabited (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). Flying boats had 

landed in the lagoon successfully. 



By 1969, the wreck of the Norwich City was reported to be breaking up (Hydrographer of the 

Navy 1969). 

According to King (1973), the USAF leased Birnie, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Manra 

(Sydney) from the U.K. Preconstruction environmental surveys were carried out on Manra, 

Nikumaroro, McKean, and Birnie (King et al 2001). 

83




In 1973 and 1975, a joint Smithsonian Institute/Royal Society expedition visited Nikumaroro 


In 1974, the Line Islands Expedition visited Nikumaroro (Gardner) briefly (Garnett 1983a). 

On the southeast end of Nikumaroro there had been some kind of activity (King et al 2001). 

This appeared to be related to the USAF space and missile center there during the 1970s. 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) was claimed by both the U.S. and U.K. (King 1973). 

In 1978, there was no one living on Nikumaroro, but it was estimated that this island could 

support 250 people (Kiribati 1983). 

In 1978, the Gilbert Islands (1978) conducted a survey of Nikumaroro after 14 years of 

abandonment (see also Garnett 1983b). Natural resources such as fish, coconut, and coconut 

crabs were abundant. However, it was noted that these resources could be depleted by large 

influxes of people. Resettlement was not recommended (Garnett 1983b). 

Preliminary plans were included in Gilbert Islands (1978) regarding possible resettlement of 

Nikumaroro. It was estimated that the island would support 25 families initially. This might 

be expanded to 100 families later. The plans included cost estimates. 

After 1978, small groups of copra cutters and fishermen have been landed on Nikumaroro 

(Gardner) for a few months at a time to collect and dry copra and to catch and salt fish 


ORONA (HULL) 

In 1947, there were 530 people living on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951; Maude 

1953a; Robson 1956). Of these 241 were males and 289 were females (Pusinelli 1948). The 

community included a village, schools, hospital, churches, and co-operative society (Garnett 

1983a). 

By 1948, there were 558 persons on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1951). 

The population of Orona (Hull) was 575 people (Robson 1956). 

The importance of Portulaca in the diets of settlers of the Phoenix Islands was reported by 

Turbott (1954). It was an important source of vitamin C and a major part of the diet. 

However, it was considered too strong for the sick and infants. Turbott (1954) provided 

preparation instructions for Portulaca that were used on Manra and Orona. 

In 1963, there were 286 people in Arariki, and 297 in Kukutin, for a total of 583 people on 

Orona (Hull) (McArthur and McCaig 1963). 

In 1963, when the Phoenix Islands were hit with another drought, relief measures were 

needed (MacDonald 1982). In 1963, there was an advance party from the Phoenix Islands 

84




[probably Orona] to Wagina, Solomon Islands (Cochrane 1970). The advance party prepared 

houses and land. In early 1964, the main party from the Phoenix Islands arrived in Wagina. 

In 1963, 590 Gilbertese were evacuated from Orona (Hull) (King 1973). They were 

evacuated to Wagina, Solomon Islands (Douglas and Douglas 1994). The island was 

evacuated in 1965 due to lack of water (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; severe drought 


Settlers on Orona (Hull) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) were evacuated to the Solomon Islands, 

even though by January 1964 the islands had clearly recovered from the drought (MacDonald 

1982). The primary factor for the relocation was the cost and inconvenience of 

administration. 

According to Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004), the real reason for abandonment of the 

resettlement scheme on Orona was not the drought, but rather homesickness, isolation, and 

lack of communication. Wells were salted so that officials would send settlers back to the 

Gilbert Islands. 

In 1968, the flagstaff was reported missing and the markings for anchorages and the boat 

passage were gone (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 



In 1969, as part of the Canton Operating Location that was set up by the USAF SMTC, tall 

radar towers were constructed on Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton), and Enderbury (Stack 

1982; temporary facilities set up in the 1970s according to King et al 2001; see also King 

1973; Oates 2003). 



In 1970, a 61 m (200 ft) antenna was constructed on Orona (Hull) by the USAF (King 1973; 

see also Stack 1982). The antenna was checked periodically by heliocopter from Abariringa 

(Canton). About 5 ha were cleared around the U.S. Air Force SAMTEC site on Orona 

(Hull) (Garnett 1983a). The facility was serviced daily by heliocopter from Abariringa 

(Canton) (see also Garnett 1983a). 

From 1970 to 1979, there was a small American team on Orona (Hull) to man a satellite and 

missile tracking station (Garnett 1983a). 

Orona (Hull) was claimed by the U.K. and the U.S. (King 1973). 






85




In 1978, there was no one living on Orona, but it was estimated that this island could support 

400 people (Kiribati 1983). 

In 1979, the USAF facility on Orona was closed (Garnett 1983b). 





In 1947, no one lived on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951; Pusinelli 1948). 

There were no inhabitants on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 






G. POST INDEPENDENCE (1979 TO PRESENT) 

In 1979, the 370 km (200 mile) exclusive economic zone around the Phoenix and Line 

Islands was declared by Kiribati (Teiwaki 1988). 

The eight Phoenix Islands lacked permanent populations (Bunge and Cooke 1984). 

The 1979 Treaty of Friendship was to be reviewed after 5 years (Teiwaki 1988). Teiwaki 

(1988) noted that the treaty provided no tangible benefits for Kiribati and that Kiribati was 

denied the sovereignty of developing the Phoenix and Line Islands by the treaty. 

Tuvalu requested the use of some of the uninhabited Phoenix Islands (Teiwaki 1988). 

However, this request was not acted upon. 

Another attempt would be made to settle the Phoenix Islands as three of the eight islands had 

potential (Keith-Reid 1996). 

In 1996, the Government of Kiribati offered a Kiribati passport for sale to investors 

(primarily Chinese) (Crocombe 2001). The charge was USD 15,000 and the first year USD 

2 million was earned. However, investors were charged USD 30,000 and surplus funds went 

to the minister. The passport entitled the bearer to invest and live in the uninhabited Phoenix 

Islands (Crocombe 2001). By 1999, none had taken up residence. 

Surveys for manganese nodules had been completed in the Phoenix Islands in the 1980’s by 

the Germans and Japanese (Glasby 2002). Global attempts to exploit these resources failed 

due to a collapse of world metal prices, onerous provisions in the U.N. Convention on the 

Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), and overoptimistic assumptions regarding the viability of nodule 

86




mining. Continued efforts to harvest these resources require heavy subsidy by the host 

governments. 

The international community should encourage the Phoenix Islands Project to promote and 

cooperate with the Central Pacific World Heritage Project (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 

2004). 

In 2006, Kiribati designated the Phoenix Islands marine protected area that was to be funded 

by an endowment fund (Anon 2006). The chronology of events to make the Phoenix Islands 

a protected area was presented. 


In mid-1979, the USAF withdrew even its token caretaker force leaving the island 

uninhabited again (Stack 1982). According to Garnett (1983a), a handful of i-Kiribati 

remained on the island as caretakers. 

The Americans left Abariringa (Canton) after 1979, the year of Kiribati’s independence 

(Bataua 1989). Most of the good equipment there was shifted to Tarawa. There was also a 

work force on Abariringa (Canton) to repair and maintain the remaining buildings and 

machinery. When Kiribati became independent in 1979, the U.S. relinquished all claims to 

Abariringa (Kanton) and Enderbury (Douglas and Douglas 1994). 

In 1979, the U.S. disposed of their interests in the Phoenix Islands through the Treaty with 

the Government of Kiribati (Skaggs 1994), but retained the right of joint utilization of 

facilities it had constructed on Abariringa (Canton). 

Onorio (1984) reported that the shore facilities on Abariringa (Canton) were better than those 

in the Line group. However, they were deteriorating and needed to be used. 

In 1985 there were 24 people living on Abariringa (Kanton) (Asian Development Bank 

(2002). 

In 1988, a household survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton) (Yeeting 1988). All 5 

households were surveyed (total population 18). The average number of people per 

household was low because government employees there left household members (children 

and working adults) in Tarawa where the schooling and work opportunities were better. This 

survey focused on marine and fisheries issues. 

In 1990, there were 45 people living on Abariringa (Kanton) (Asian Development Bank 

2002, Statistics Office 1991). These were all i-Kiribati. Nine worked for the Government of 

Kiribati (Statistics Office 1991). In that year (1990), the Government of Kiribati installed 

firefighting equipment and refueling capacity at the airstrip on Abariringa (Canton) (Levy 

1996). This was in order to provide emergency landing facilities between Tarawa and 

Christmas Island. 

In 1993, Abariringa (Kanton) was the only Phoenix Island with inhabitants (Neemia and 

Thaman 1993). 

87




According to Douglas and Douglas (1994), there were 45 people on Abariringa (Kanton). 

In 1992, it was reported that there were 45 government workers and their families lived on 

Canton (Republic of Kiribati 1992). The 1995 annual need for freshwater (1995) was 

estimated at 2000 m 3 and 3000 m 3 by 2000. There were 8 rain water tanks, and 7 open and 7 

protected wells. There was one health center on Abariringa (Canton). 

Abariringa (Kanton) had a small population of civil servants (Integrated Marine Management 

Ltd. 1993). 

In 1995, there were 83 people there (Asian Development Bank 2002). 

In 1995, the survey team for the Phoenix Islands made numerous recommendations for 

development of the Phoenix Islands, specifically Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra, 

and Nikumaroro (Government of Kiribati 1995). These included the re-settlement of 

Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra, and Nikumaroro. Overseas funding was suggested 

as a mechanism for funding these projects. 

In 1997, the Te Kakai scheme was proposed for Manra, Orona, Nikumaroro, and Abariringa 

(Tunaari) to utilize idle resources there (Tauati 1997). The basic plan included four 

activities: (1) copra production, (2) seaweed planting and harvesting, (3) sea cucumber 

collection and (4) shark fin production. The budget provided ($95,048) was a 12 month 

budget for expenses, not including staff costs and medical supplies. 

In 2000, there were 61 people on Abariringa (Kanton) (Asian Development Bank 2002). 

In the 2000 census, Statistics Office (2002b) reported that of the 61 people on Abariringa 

(Kanton), 29 were male, and 32 were female. Detailed demographic information on these 

residents was provided in Statistics Office (2002b). 

There was a NOAA meteorological station on Abariringa (Kanton) (Kaufmann 2000). 

Kaufmann (2000) reported about 40 people on Abariringa (Kanton). 

Servicing Abariringa (Katon) and Orona were a financial problem as the volume of cargo was 

too small to meet shipping costs (Timeon 2001). 

In 2001, there was a notice in the Travel Notes of Angling Destinations, Incorporated (Anon. 

2001) soliciting anglers interested in a special fishing trip to Abariringa (Kanton). 

Oxfam Community Aid Abroad (2002) noted that Nauru and Kiribati had not signed the 1951 

Convention on the Status of Refugees. The Australian Government approached the 

Government of Kiribati regarding the possibility of setting up new refugee detention camps 

(Maley et al 2002; see also Oxfam Community Aid Abroad 2002). Refugee camps had 

already been set up in Papua New Guinea in exchange for AUD 10 million of economic 

assistance. A camp had also been set up in Nauru. 

In October 2001, a team of 3 Australians and 2 i-Kiribati officials travelled to Abariringa 

(Kanton) to investigate the abandoned U.S. military base as a possible detention camp 

88




(Oxfam Community Aid Abroad 2002). After the visit, Australia rejected Abariringa 

(Kanton) for logistical reasons (Maley et al 2002; Oxfam Community Aid Aboard 2002). 

Abariringa was proposed as a substitute site for the Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager 

2002). 

During a 2002 expedition to the Phoenix Islands, a trimaran yacht was observed on 

Abariringa (Kanton) with an American and his Fijian partner (Neilson 2002). They had lived 

there for 6 months and had erected a shack and constructed a water catchment. They did not 

have any permit to be there. 

Stone (2004) reported 35 people living on Abariringa (Kanton). 

BIRNIE 

1992, Birnie was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992). 

In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Birnie, were uninhabited except Abariringa (Kanton) 

(Neemia and Thaman 1993). 

ENDERBURY 

When Kiribati became independent in 1979, the U.S. relinquished all claims to Abariringa 

(Kanton) and Enderbury (Douglas and Douglas 1994). 

Garnett (1983a) noted that since Kiribati independence in 1979, no use had been made of 

Enderbury. 

1992, Enderbury was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992). 

In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Enderbury, were uninhabited except Abariringa 

(Kanton) (Neemia and Thaman 1993). 

Most recently, Enderbury had become part of the U.S. anti-ballistic missile program (Douglas 

and Douglas 1994). 







1992, Manra was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992). 

89




In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Manra, were uninhabited except Abariringa (Kanton) 










collection and (4) shark fin production. The budget provided (AUD 95,048) was a 12 month 

budget for expenses, not including staff costs and medical supplies. Manra was proposed as 

a substitute site for the Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager 2002). 

In 2002, the fore part of a plane (3.5 m) was found on the west interior of Manra (Bukaeireiti 

and Rabaua 2002). In addition, evidence of an old wooden vessel (oxidized iron, thin copper 

strips, and non-carbonaceous rocks=ballast) was found on the northwest side of the island. 

The exact location of the shipwreck could not be determined. 

MCKEAN 

There were no intact buildings or other structures on McKean (Garnett 1983a). 

In 1992 McKean was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992). 

In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including McKean, were uninhabited except Abariringa 


Preconstruction environmental surveys were carried out on Manra, Nikumaroro, McKean, 

and Birnie (King et al 2001). This was for the U.S. Air Force’s Space and Missile Test 

Center (SAMTEC) program in the Phoenix Islands. 

In 2001, a fish trawler wrecked on McKean (Kerr and Wragg 2006). International Maritime 

Organization (2004) reported that the vessel was the Korean fishing vessel, Chance No. 301, 

that grounded on McKean Islands. It was a total loss, but no lives were lost, and there were 

no injuries. Weather was not a factor in the accident. This vessel has been suspected in 

introducing the Asian rat to McKean (Pierce et al 2006). 


In 1980, it was proposed that a resettlement project be developed to include Nikumaroro 

(Gardner) (Brechtefeld 1980). Investigations indicated that resettlement was possible, despite 

British Government denial of aid for this project. The proposal included a loan program for 

participants and initial government support for the settlers. 

90




In 1991, two more shoes were found on Nikumaroro (King et al 2001). One matched a shoe 

that Amelia Earhart worn (see also Burns et al 1998), the other was a man’s shoe. 

1992, Nikumaroro was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992). 

In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Nikumaroro, were uninhabited except Abariringa 





Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra, and Nikumaroro. With a total land area of 414 

hectares, 50 to 100 families could be settled on Nikumaroro (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

Overseas funding was suggested as a mechanism for funding these projects. 






The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) had generated 

anthropological data consistent with the theory that Amelia Earhart landed and died on 

Nikumaroro (Burns et al 1998). Four surveys and excavations had been completed by 

TIGHAR. 

There were a few wrecked fishing boats on McKean (King et al 2001). 

Nikumaroro was proposed as a substitute site for the Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager 

2002). 

ORONA (HULL) 

In 1992 Orona was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992). 

In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Orona, were uninhabited except Abariringa (Kanton) 


There was a radar station on Orona that was built by the U.S. (Douglas and Douglas 1994). 






In mid-2001, as preliminary work for development of the Kakai Scheme Project, marine 

surveys were conducted on Orona (Tioti et al 2001). The purpose of the marine survey was 

to develop a baseline of information so that impacts from new settlers could be measured. 

91




In 2001, the Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Development initiated the Phoenix Islands 

Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager 2002). The main activities of the scheme included: 

(1) cutting copra, (2) shark fins, (3) sea cucumbers, (4) seaweed, and (5) replanting coconut 

trees and cleaning. The initial budget was AUD 397,750.36. Sixty workers were recruited 

and sent to Orona with a one year contract (Tehumu 2004). 

In 2001, 68 copra workers and their families were moved to Orona as part of the Kakai 

Scheme (Mangubhai 2002). In 2001, 200 villagers were settled on Orona (Obura and Stone 

2003; see also Timeon 2001). One of their primary activities was to catch sharks for the 

sharkfin market. Copra production was limited due to breakdown of the tractor, rats, and 

limited coconuts (PIKS Project Manager 2002). Shark finning was initially successful with 

the use of longline. However, the boat and engine broken and could not be repaired. Sea 

cucumbers were not abundant. Only wae ura and tabanebane were found in harvestable 

amounts. 

In 2001, seaweed was transplanted in 2001 from Fanning, but this failed as the vessel stayed 

too long on Christmas Island (PIKS Project Manager 2002). A second attempt in 2002 from 

Fanning was successful. Coconut planting was planned for the second year of this project. 

In 2002, a survey was conducted and wae ura was found on the ocean side (PIKS Project 

Manager 2002). 

Servicing Abariringa (Katon) and Orona were a financial problem as the volume of cargo was 

too small to meet shipping costs (Timeon 2001). This was a major problem for the Phoenix 

Islands Kakai Scheme on Orona. Monthly trips were planned, but KSSL schedules resulted 

in only period visits. 

In June 2001, an emergency trip was made to Orona using the Fisheries Division’s Nei 

Tebenebene to deliver needed supplies to Orona (Timeon 2001). This was a fishing vessel, 

not a cargo vessel. It left Betio overloaded. Rough seas (5 m waves) and strong winds (15 

knots) resulted in excessive fuel consumption forcing a trip to Abariringa (Kanton) to pick up 

additional fuel for the return trip. 

After a year of operations, difficulties developed as scheduled shipping hardly visited Orona 

(PIKS Project Manager 2002). Shipping companies wanted diversion or charter fees for 

deviating from their Tarawa to Christmas Island route. Scheduled stops were not enforced by 

the government. Charter and deviation fees were a major expense of this project. 

Major construction under the Kakai Scheme included: office plus toilets, maneaba, well, 

copra shed, house for support staff and workers (PIKS Project Manager 2002). In addition, a 

new road was also completed. 

In 2004, the Phoenix Islands Kakai Scheme (PIKS) was officially closed by a Cabinet 

resolution (Minute No.: 18/03) (Tehumu 2004). This was after substantial expenses were 

incurred. Workers’ contracts were extended until the date of departure from Orona. 

Repatriation costs were met by the Office of Te Beretitenti and the Ministry of Line and 

Phoenix Islands Development (MLPID). 

92




One of the primary factors in the failure of the PIKS was the location of Orona (Tehumu 

2004). Transportation costs were too high for the volume of cargo. In addition, copra 

production was much lower than expected. This impacted revenue and resulted in the need 

for further government subsidies. There some speculation that some workers returned with 

tons of dried fish and buckets of te were (sea cucumbers). 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that there were three separate helicopter landing 

pads on the northwestern rim of Orona. These were constructed of perforated steel sheets. 

About 5 ha around these featured had been bulldozed (see also Garnett 1983a). 


1992, Rawaki was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992). 

In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Rawaki, were uninhabited except Abariringa (Kanton) 


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94




Anon. 1859f. Brig Agate from McKean's Island. The Friends, Honolulu. July 1859 (see 

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95




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96




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97




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113


Chapter III. Background, 3. Terrestrial Resources 


3. TERRESTRIAL RESOURCES 

A. FRESHWATER 

CHAPTER III. 

BACKGROUND 

Foreign Office (1920) noted that few of the Phoenix Islands had any water supply. Brackish 

water pools were found. Neilson (2002) reported that there was no free standing bodies of 

freshwater on any of the Phoenix Islands (see also Obura and Stone 2003). All inland bodies 

of water were saline. 


Bryan (1934) reported that there was no freshwater on Abariringa (Canton). 

Maude (1937) reported digging several wells around Abariringa (Canton). In addition, there 

were a few wells already present on Abariringa (Canton). All the wells dug by Maude’s 1937 

party had good and average quality water and similar in quality that found in the Gilbert 

Islands. 

There is no freshwater on the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Bunker 1951). 

There are a few old wells on the northeast rim near an old guano collection area. 

McIntire (1960) reported that rainfall on Abariringa (Canton) was insufficient to build up a 

good Ghyben-Herzberg lens (freshwater lens). Any lens that developed was not a dependable 

source of freshwater. 

Environmental Data Service (1966) reported that some rainwater can be collected, but most 

drinking water must be distilled from sea water. 

Guinther (1978) reported on the terrestrial surface and subsurface water on Abariringa 

(Canton). All sites surveyed were to some degree saline. 

Garnett (1983) reported that there was no standing freshwater on Abariringa (Canton) and 

ponds were saline. There was a freshwater lens, but periods of drought result in the water 

from the lens becoming almost undrinkable. 

Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that in Bikentabakea, the water table was shallow, 

only 30 cm deep. But at Teieta, Tebaronga and Umari villages, the depth of the well was 

more than 1 m. Well water at Uamari and Tebaronga was good. Well water at Bikentabakea 

had high salinity, but less that that at Terieta. 

Neilson (2002) reported that the freshwater lens on Abariringa (Kanton) was less than 2 m 

below the surface (see also Obura and Stone 2003). It was brackish and showed signs of 

contamination. 

1




Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) presented water quality data on various terrestrial water 

sources on Enderbury, Abariringa (Kanton), Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, and Orona (see Table 

III-3.1). 

BIRNIE 

Table III-3.1. Salinity and water chemistry of various water sources on 

Enderbury, Abariringa (Kanton), Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, and Orona. 


Bryan (1934) reported that there was no fresh water on Birnie. 

Maude (1937) reported that no test wells were dug on Birnie since there were little prospects 

for finding freshwater and the island was so small that it was unsuitable for settlement. 

Garnett (1983) indicated that there was no evidence of a freshwater lens on Birnie. 

ENDERBURY 

According to Hydrographic Office (1916), there was no fresh water on Enderbury. There 

was no standing surface freshwater on Enderbury (Garnett 1983). 

There was a small water hole just north of the southern coconut grove (Bryan 1934). The 

water was brackish, but no worse than that natives use for drinking in other Pacific islands. 

Maude (1937) reported that seven wells were dug. All wells yielded salty water. Maude 

(1937) noted that even the brackish water drunk by Gilbertese may not be found on 

Enderbury. 

2




Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that the water from the water pool on the southern 

end of Enderbury was salty. 



III-3.1). 


Arundel (1885) reported an old water hole on the west side of the lagoon on Manra (Sydney) 

with excellent fresh water (see also Wiens 1962). 

Hydrographic Office (1916) reported that there was no freshwater on Manra (Sydney). 

Bryan (1934) reported that on the southeast side was a low area with a slightly brackish pond. 

Maude (1937) reported that the existing well had excellent freshwater. An additional well 

was dug in the southwest of the island, but the water from it was not drinkable. Additional 

wells were dug. Wells on the west and northwest parts of the island had freshwater. Those 

elsewhere had brackishwater. 

There are several wells that provide brackish water (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Garnett (1983) reported that there was no standing surface freshwater on Manra (Sydney). 

There was a freshwater lens at the western and north-western end of the island, but these fail 

and wells go brackish after prolonged drought conditions. 

Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that wells were 2 to 3 m deep on Manra. Water from 

the old well and the two newly dug wells were fresh and drinkable. 



III-3.1). 

MCKEAN 

Bryan (1934) reported that there was no freshwater on McKean. 

Throssell and Specht (1989) reported that there was no surface freshwater on McKean. 

Garnett (1983) reported that there was no evidence of a freshwater lens on McKean. 


Bryan (1934) reported that no freshwater could be found on Nikumaroro (Gardner) by the 

U.S. Exploring Expedition. But the presence of rats may suggest the presence of freshwater. 

3




Maude (1937) reported that 8 wells were dug. Only 2 wells had water of fair quality, and 1 

well had water fresher than many wells in the Gilbert Islands. These wells were dug at the 

end of the dry season. 

There were a few wells on the island, but they were brackish (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

In 1978, the abandoned cistern on Nikumaroro was examined (Gilbert Islands 1978). Water 

tests were positive for coliform at cistern 1. Cistern 2 required maintenance and had no 

water. Various test wells were dug and an old existing well was examined. All had water 

with salinity over 560 ppm. Specifications for existing cisterns and wells examined were 

provided in Gilbert Islands (1978). 

Garnett (1983) noted that there was no standing surface freshwater on Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

The several small ponds were all brackish. There was a freshwater lens which was best 

developed on the western side of the island. 

Government of Kiribati (1995) noted that the water lens was shallow in some areas and more 

than 2 m in other areas. Three wells were dug. The three new wells and one old well were 

tested. All had drinkable water. 

Neilson (2002) did not test the freshwater lens on Nikumaroro, but suggested that it was 

sizable based on the profuse vegetation that was enveloping the old colony buildings (see also 

Obura and Stone 2003). However, the possibility of this freshwater lens to support a human 

population during dry seasons was very small. 

ORONA (HULL) 

Maude (1937) reported that freshwater was on the west side of Orona (Hull) where the island 

is widest. Three wells there had drinkable water, but the water from these wells was not as 

good as water in the Gilbert or Ellice Islands. Two other wells had water only suitable for 

washing. 

Bryan (1939) reported that there was good freshwater available from shallow wells on the 

west side of Orona (Hull). 

There are several brackish water wells on the island (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Garnett (1983) reported that there was no standing surface freshwater on Orona (Hull). There 

was a freshwater lens occurred on the western side where the land was thickest. The 1963 

severe drought caused this lens to become very saline. 

In 1995, two wells were dug at Moantewa, one was dug at Teniko, and one at Teoti 

(Government of Kiribati 1995). Well depth was 0.3 to over 2 m. Well water was drinkable. 

Timeon (2001) reported that the water on Orona was quite good. Six wells were observed 

during the 2001 visit. 

4




Neilson (2002) noted that the freshwater lens on Orona was more than 4 m below the surface 

(see also Obura and Stone 2003). The water was of high quality and showed no indications 

of salinization or contamination. It appeared sufficient to support the current population 

there. 



III-3.1). 


Bryan (1934) reported that there was no freshwater on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Maude (1937) reported that six wells were dug on Rawaki (Phoenix). All were deeper than 

12 feet. Water was only reached in two of the six wells. The water found was too salty for 

drinking (see also Garnett 1983). 

In 1937, no freshwater was found on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Maude 1952). 

Anon. (1940b) reported that there was a large freshwater lake at the center of Rawaki 

(Phoenix) (see also Baarslag 1940 and Clune 1951). 

Anon. (1953) noted that six wells were dug, but only salty water was obtained. 

Robson (1956) reported that there were freshwater pools in the center of Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Garnett (1983) noted that there was no standing or surface freshwater on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

There did not appear to be a freshwater lens on Rawaki (Phoenix). 



III-3.1). 

B. VEGETATION AND FUNGI 

A chronology of the few botanical investigations of the Phoenix Islands was provided in 

Fosberg et al (n.d.). This included details on where plant species collected were sent for 

further study. 

The severe drought in 1890 to 1894 killed the coconut trees in most of the Phoenix Islands, 

except those on Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) (Knudsen 1965). 

Degener and Fosberg (1952) reported that specimens of Sesuvium portulacastrum from both 

Christmas and the Phoenix Islands deserved at least varietal status. Sesuvium portulacastrum 

var. griseum was proposed. 

5




Maude (1952) estimated that there were 20 to 30 species of plants in the Phoenix Islands (see 

also Knudsen 1965). The main species were ren, Tournefortia argentea, mao, Scaevola 

frutescens, non, Morinda citrifolia, buka, Pisonia grandis, and kanawa, Cordia subcordata. 

According to Maude (1952), the main grass was Lepturus repens, and thickets were of koura 

bush, Sida fallax. The lagoon shore and salt flats were covered with pigweed (boi), Sesuvium 

portulacastrum. Maude (1952) noted that each of the Phoenix Islands was different and had 

a different mix of these plants. 

Fosberg (1953) reported that the one of the most potent factors influencing vegetation in the 

Phoenix Islands was the extreme fluctuation in rainfall from year to year. More than a year 

can elapse with no rain at all. 

Turbott (1954) reported that Portulaca (te boi) grew profusely on Manra, Orona, and 

Nikumaroro. In the Gilbert Islands, it was considered an emergency food item, but it became 

a stable for settlers in the Phoenix Islands. According to Turbott, Maude referred to it as 

Sesuvium portulacastrum. New Zealand botanists identified it as Portulaca lutea. Chemical 

analysis of a sample from Abariringa (Canton) provided in Table III-3.2 below. 

Table III-3.2. Chemical composition of Portulaca lutea 

(source: Turbott 1954). 

Fresh (percent) Dried (percent) 

Water 86.5 16.1 

Protein (N x 6.25) 1.03 5.2 

Ash 1.9 11.0 

Fat (ether-soluble extract) 0.2 1.0 

Crude Fiber 1.2 9.2 

Ascorbic Acid (mg/1009) 10.9 3.3 

Portulaca, therefore was an important source of vitamin C for settlers of the Phoenix Islands 

(Turbott 1954). 

Van Balgooy (1960, Table 4) lumped the Phoenix Islands with the Line Islands and Tokelau 

and comparied the number of Phenerogam genera in that group with those of the Marshall, 

Gilbert and Ellice Islands (combined). The first group (including the Phoenix Islands) had a 

lower number of genera than the second group. 

In 1973 and 1975, vascular plant collections were completed in all eight of the Phoenix 

Islands (Fosberg et al n.d.). Both collections were made under the auspices of the U.S. Air 

Force SAMTEC program. Fosberg et al (n.d.) provided a detailed narrative of plant species, 

location of collected specimens, their habitats and specific locations on the Phoenix Islands. 

This overview included both native and exotix plant species. Detailed information in Fosberg 

et al (n.d.) was subsequently absorbed, summarized, and up-dated in Fosberg and Stoddart 

(1994). 

Dahl (1980) presented a matrix of terrestrial biomes. The Phoenix Islands were lumped with 

the Line and Northern Cook Islands. These islands were classified as low islands. Biomes 

6




that were present included: semi-deciduous forests, mangrove forests, scrub, bog, grassland, 

freshwater marsh, and permanent lake. 

Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) reviewed the flora of the Phoenix Islands and noted that there 

were 87 species in 36 families. However, only 28 species (32 percent) were considered 

native. An additional 60 species were recorded in the literature, but many of these species 

have not survived. 

Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) noted that large numbers of plant species were introduced 

during the colonization scheme and the military and aviation periods. Most exotic species 

could not exist without the assistance of man. Weeds have been brought in accidentally and 

have persisted, including Cenchrus echinatus, Eleusine indica, Portulaca oleracea, 

Euphorbia hirta, E. hypericifolia, Pluchea carolinensis, P. indica, Tridax procumbens, 

and Vernonia cinerea. 

Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the 

Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart 

(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3. 

Dalzell et al (1996) noted that mangroves were absent from the Phoenix Islands. 

Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998) reported that there were 15 more or less definable 

natural vegetation types or communities in the Phoenix Islands. These included the 

following: 

1) Pisonia grandis forest - Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull); 

2) Cordia subcordata ( te ango)forest and tall scrub – Manra (Sydney), 

Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury. 

3) Scaevola taccada (te mao )scrub – Manra (Sydney), Nikumaroro (Gardner), 

Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton). 

4) Tournefortia argentea (te ren ) scrub – Enderbury, Abariringa (Canton). 

5) Morinda citrifolia tall scrub – Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), Orona 

(Hull). 

6) Pemphis acidula (te ngea) scrub – Orona (Hull). 

7) Suriana maritima scrub – Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull). 

8) Sida fallax(te kaura) scrub and dwarf scrub – All Phoenix Islands. 

9) Triumfetta procumbens (te kiaou) mat – Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury. 

10) Sesuvium portulacastrum var. griseum mat – All Phoenix Islands. 

11) Tribulus cistoides mat – No Phoenix Island named. 

12) Lepturus repens and Lepturus pilgerianus meadows – All Phoenix Islands. 

13) Fimbristylis cymosa(te uteute ni mwane) turf – Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra 

(Sydney), Orona (Hull). 

14) Digitaria pacifica bunchgrass cover – No Phoenix Island named. 

7

8 




Table III-3.3. Plant species in the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Fosberg and Stoddart 1994) 

Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki 

(Canton) 

(Sydney) (Gardner) (Hull) (Phoenix) 

Acanthaceae Pseuderanthemum carruthersii X x 

var. atropurpureum* 

Aizoacae Sesuvium portulacastrum var. X x 

portulacastrum* 

Sesuvium portulacastrum var. X x x x X x x x 

griseum 

Tetragonia tetragonioides* X 

Amaranthaceae Alternanthera bettzickiana* X 

Amaranthus dubius* X 

Amaranthus viridis* X 

Anacardiaceae Schinus terebinthifolius* X 

Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus* X 

Nerium oleander* X 

Ochrosia sp.* X 

Plumeria rubra* X 

Plmueria obtuse* X 

Araceae Anthurium sp.* X 

Philodendrom sp.* X 

Cyrtosperma chamissonis* X 

Alocasia macrorrhiza* X 

Dieffenbachia seguine* X 

Syngonium angustatum* X 

Araliaceae Polyscias guilfoylei* X 

Arecaceae Cocos nucifer* X X X x x x x 

(Palmae) 

Phoenix dactylifera* X 

Asclepiadaceae Calotropis gigantean* X

9 




Rawaki 

(Phoenix) 

Orona 

(Hull) 

Table III-3.3 (continued). Plant species in the Phoenix Islands 


Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro 

(Canton) 

(Sydney) (Gardner) 

Conyza Canadensis* X 

Asteraceae 

(Compositae) 

Gaillardia picta* X 

Tagetes sp.* X 

Emilia sonchifolia* X 

Borrichia arborescens* X 

Pluchea carolinensis* X 

Pluchea indica* X 

Pluchea x fosbergii X 

Tridax procumbens* X x 

Vernonia cinera* X X 

Zinnia elegans* X 

Boraginaceae Cordia sebestena* X 

Cordia subcordata X x x x x x 

Heliotropium procumbens* X x 

Tournefortia argentea X x x x x 

Cannaceae Canna hybrid* X 

Caricaceae Caria papaya* X x x 

Caryophyllaceae Spergularia marina* X 

Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia* X 

Casuarina glauca* X 

Combretaceae Conocarpus erectus* X 

Terminalia catappa* X 

Terminalia muelleri* X 

Terminalia samoensis x 

Commenlinaceae Rhoeo spathacea* X 

Setcreasia purpurea* X

10 




Rawaki 

(Phoenix) 



Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona 

(Canton) 

(Sydney) 

(Gardner) (Hull) 

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea batatas* X 

Ipomoea macrantha X X X X X 

Ipomoea pes-caprae spp. 

X X 

Brasiliensis 

Ipomoea quamoclit* X 

Merremia tuberosa* X 

Crassulaceae Kalanchoe pinnata* X 

Cruciferae Lepidium bidenatum var. o- 

X 

waihiense* 

Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita pepo* X 

Citrullus lanatus var. caffer* X 

Cucumis dipsaceus* X 

Cucumis melo* X X 

Cucumis sativa* X 

Cyperaceae Cyperus javanicus X X 

Cyperus polystachyos* X 

Cyperus rotundus* X 

Fimbristylis cymosa X X X X 

Scirpus subulaus X 

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha wilkesiana* X 

Euphorbia cyathophora* X X X X 

Euphorbia hypericifolia* X X 

Euphobia hirta* X X X X 

Euphorbia prostrata* X X X 

Euphorbia pulcherrima* X 

Pedilanthus tithymaloides* X X 

Phyllanthus amarus* X X X

11 




Rawaki 

(Phoenix) 




(Canton) 

(Sydney) 


Goodeniaceae Scaevola taccada X X X X 

Guttiferae Calophyllum inophyllum* X X 

(Clusiaceae) 

Lauraceae Cassytha filiformis X X 

Lecythidaceae Barringtonia asiatica X 

Leguminosae Desmanthus virgatus* X 

(Minosaceae) 

Intsia bijuga*2 

Leucaena leucocephala* X 

Prosopis pallida* X 

Liliaceae Aloe sp.* X 

(including Yucca sp.* X 

Agavaceae and Cordyline fruticosa* X 

Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum* X X X X 

Lythraceae Pemphis acidula X X X X X X 

Malvaceae Gossypium brasiliense* X 

Gossypium tomentosum* X 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis* X 

Hibiscus hybrid* (pink) X 

Hibiscus hybrid* (red) X 

Hibiscus tiliaceus* X X 

Sida acuta* X 

Sida fallax X X X X X X X X 

Thespesia populnea* X X 

Moraceae Artocarpus altilis* X X 

Ficus microcarpa* X X 

Musaceae Musa nana* X

12 







(Canton) 

(Sydney) 

(Gardner) (Hull) (Phoenix) 

Musa sapientum* X 

Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia albiflora X X X X X X X X 

Boerhavia tetrandra X X X X 

Bougainvillea glabra* X 

Mirabilis jalapa* X 

Pisonia grandis X X X X X 

Pandanaceae Pandanus tectorius* X X X X 

Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida* X 

Poaceae Cenchrus echinatus* X X X X X 

(Gramineae) 

Chloris inflata* X X 

Cynodon dactylon* X X 

Digitaria ciliaris* X X 

Digitaria ciliaris ssp. 

X 

chrysoblephara* 

Digitaria henryi* X 

Digitaria pacifica* X X X X X 

Digitaria setigera* X 

Eleusine indica* X X X 

Eragrostis amabilis* X X X X 

Eragrostis pectinacea* X 

Eragrostis whitneyi X X X X 

Lepturus pilgerianus X X X X X X 

Lepturus repens var. cinereus X X 

Lepturus repens var. repens X X 

Lepturus repens var. 

X X 

septentrionalis

13 







(Canton) 

(Sydney) 


Lepturus repens var repens appr. X 

var. subulatus 

Lepturus repens var. subulatus X X X X X X 

Panicum distachyon* X 

Panicum miliaceum* X 

Pennisetum ciliare* X 

Setaria verticillata* X 

Tricholaena rosea* X 

Polygonaceae Coccolaba uvifera* X X X 

Portulacacae Portulaca cyanosperma* X X 

Portlaca lutea X X X X X X X X 

Protulaca oleracea* X X X X X 

Potamogetonaceae Ruppia maritime var. pacifica X 

Rubiaceae Casasia clusiiflia*2 

Guettarda speciosa X X X X 

Morinda citrifolia X X X X 

Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens* X 

Solarnum lycopersicum* X 

Solarnum melongena var. 

X 

esculenta* 

Petunia hybrida* X 

Nicotiana glauca* X 

Physalis anglata* X X X 

Surianaceae Suriana maritime X X 

Tamaricaceae Tamarix aphylla* X 

Tilaceae Triumfetta procumbens X X X X X X X 

Urticaceae Laportea ruderalis X X X

14 




Rawaki 

(Phoenix) 




(Canton) 

(Sydney) 


Pilea microphylla* X 

Verbenaceae Clerodendrum inerme* X X X 

Lantana camara var. aculeata* X X 

Premna serratifolia* X 

Stachytarpheta indica* X 

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis* X 

Vitex trifolia* X 

Zygophyllaceae Tribulus cistoides X X X X X X 

*note: exotic species




Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998) also discussed various mixed plant species 

communities in the Phoenix Islands including small tree/shrub communities, and herbaceous 

plant species communities. Cryptogamic formations in which various species of blue-green 

algae (Cyanobacteria) penetrate exposed coral limestone result in dark grey or blackish color. 

Hypersaline pools, ponds, and lagoons were also home to a gelatinous mixture of blue-green 

algae. 


Phoenix Islands. 

Neilson (2002) reported that there were no mangroves in the Phoenix Islands. 

Neilson (2002) noted the number of plant species present on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, 

Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki, and the plant habitats present for each island (see 

Table III-3.4 below). 

Table III-3.4. Number of plant species and plant habitats 

present on each Phoenix Islands 

(source: Neilson 2002; see also Obura and Stone 2003). 

Island No. of Species Habitats present* 

Abariringa (Kanton) 18 F, S, H, M 

Nikumaroro 13 F, S, H, M 

Orona 13 F, S, H, M 

Enderbury 11 S, H 

Manra 7 S, H 

Birnie 5 H 

Rawaki 4 H 

*F = Forest, S = Shrub, H = Herbaceous, M = Modified. 

Neilson (2002) noted that the prostrate vine, Ipomoea macrantha was present in the Phoenix 

Islands. I. pes-carprae was not present, but was now dominant over I. macrantha in the 

Gilbert Islands. 

Pierce et al (2006) conducted plant surveys in the Phoneix Islands. Summary results are 

provided in Table III-3.5 below. 

15




Table III-3.5. List of plant species recorded on Rawaki, Enderbury, 

Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro in April to May 2006. 

(source: Pierce et al 2006). 

16





Lister (1891) reported that there were 10 species of plants on Abariringa (Canton). Except 

for some thickets of Tournefortia argentea, Abariringa (Canton) was treeless. 

In 1915, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd, planted hundreds of 

coconut trees on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 1940c). When he returned in 1919, all but 5 or 

6 coconut trees had died. 

In 1924, there were 8 sad looking coconut trees on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1937; 10 

according to Murphy et al 1954). McIntire (1960) noted that only 2 of these early plantings 

survived and they became landmarks for ships in the area. 

Bryan (1934) reported that the most significant plants were Morinda cirtrifolia and Cordia 

subcordata. 

In 1937, the H.M.S. Wellington brought 1,000 coconuts to Abariringa (Canton) for planting 

(Hellweg 1937). According to McIntire (1960), 3,000 coconuts were brought for planting 

during the solar eclipse expedition in 1937. These sprouting coconuts were examined by 

Gilbertese that accompanied Maude (1937). Apparently, these coconuts were not planted 

17




corrected (only partially buried) and the Gilbertese thought that they would not survive. Only 

a few survived (McIntire 1960). 

Anon. (1937) described Abariringa (Canton) as having only grass and shrubs with a few 

clumps of tree heliotropes, noni trees, and 8 to 10 coconut palms. Ellis (1937) reported that 

there was only 1 coconut tree on Abariringa (Canton) left from the earlier efforts of the 

company (presumably the John Arundel Company). 

Maude (1937) noted that the vegetation on Abariringa (Canton) was similar to that of the 

Gilberts. The few coconut trees on Abariringa (Canton) were examined and showed no sign 

of wasting. This suggested that trees had not been subjected to drought conditions. 

Maude (1937) noted that heat radiation from Abariringa (Canton) split rain clouds and 

resulted in higher rain fall in adjacent waters than on the atoll. This might be minimized with 

additional plant ground cover. 

In 1937 and later, banana and other plans were planted on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 

1940b). The survival of these plants was yet to be seen. 

As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Abariringa 

(Canton) and that the surface was covered with bunch grass and low crawling plants such as 

Sesuvium and Boerhaavia. A clump of kou was also observed. 

Between March and July 1938, the Department of Interior sponsored a vegetative survey of 

Abariringa (Canton) (Degener and Gillaspy 1955). Results were documented in Hatheway 

(1955). 

Bryan (1939) reported the presence of a few patches of Cordia, Tournefortia, and Morinda 

trees, and Scaevola, Pemphis, and Sida schrubs on Abariringa (Canton). 

In 1939, the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter, Roger B. Taney, brought the following species of 

plants (or their seeds) to Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1974): hau, Casuarina equisetifolia, 

milo trees, Plumeria acutifolia, Geiger trees (Cordia subestena), crown flower (Calotropis 

gigantea), Messerschmidia argentea, Pulchea indica, Prosopis (spineless Kiawe), Kentucky 

wonder beans, watermelons, and tomatoes. In addition 15 tons of soil was delivered. 

Fosberg (1939) noted that the grass, Digitaria pacifica, had been collected and identified 

from both Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull). Initially, the specimen from Abariringa 

(Canton) had been misidentified as D. stenotaphrodes. 

University of Hawaii’s Agricultural Extension Service sent down a greenhouse to Abariringa 

(Canton) and tomatoes, papayas, lettuce, beets, carrots, and cucumbers were being grown 

(Warner 1939). Plants were disease free and grown using pot-culture. 

Bryan (1940b) reviewed the meager vegetation of Abariringa (Canton). Plants noted on 

Abariringa (Canton) included the following: 

1) bunchgrass, Lepturus repens, 

2) purslane, Portulaca lutea, 

3) trailing herb, Boerhaavia tetrandra, 

4) ilima shrub, Sida fallax, 

18




5) prostrate herb, Triumfetta procumbens, 

6) bunchgrass, Digitaria pacifica, 

7) grass, Eragrostis whitneyi var. typica, 

8) seaside purslane, Sesuvium portulacastrum, 

9) wiry shrub, Suriana maritima, 

10) parasitic laurel-dodder, Cassytha filiformis, 

11) morning glory, Ipomoea grandiflora and 

12) morning glory, I. pes-caprae, 

13) goodenia shrub, Scaevola frutescens, 

14) tree heliotrope, Messerchmidia argentea, 

15) kou tree, Cordia subcordata, and 

16) non, Morinda citrifolia. 

Bryan (1940b) listed 17 native species including the coconut (see also Murphy et al 1954). 

However, the list provided by Murphy et al (1954) for Bryan (1940b) was not exactly the 

same as that provided in Bryan (1940b). 

In 1940, the Taney brought several hundred plants and trees to Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 

1974). In 1941, 658 plants wee provided to Abariringa (Canton). 

Bryan (1941) reported 10 grown coconut trees, in addition to Scaevola shrubs, Suriana 

shrubs, and small clumps of heliotrope and kou trees (see also Bryan 1942). 

Abariringa (Canton) almost bare of vegetation except for a few scattered palm trees, kou 

brush, and bunch grass (Hydrographic Office 1940). There was one lone palm tree on the 

northwest point and one large kou brush on the southwest point. 

Between December 1940 and February 1941, strong westerly winds on Abariringa (Canton) 

(up to 55 knots) brought drift seeds to Abariringa (Canton) (Van Zwaluwenburg 1942). 

Seeds were from the following plants: 

1) Myrstica sp., 

2) Entada scandens, 

3) Inocarpus edulis, 

4) Mucuna spp., 

5) Caesalpinia crista, 

6) Canarium sp., 

7) Barringonia speciosa, 

8) Terminalia catappa, 

9) Crebera odollam, 

10) Unidentified spp. 

11) Cocos nucifera, 

12) Aleurites moluccana, 

13) Pandanus sp. 

Native flora of Abariringa (Canton) was identified by E.L. Caum and reported by Van 

Zwaluwenburg (1941). They were as follows: 

1) Digitaria pacifica, 

2) Eragrostis whitneyi var. typical, 

3) Lepturus repens, 


5) Boerhaavia diffusa, 

6) Sesuvium portulacastrum, 

7) Portulaca lutea, 

8) Cassytha filiformis, 

9) Tribulus cistoides, 

10) Suriana maritima, 

11) Triumfetta procumbens, 

12) Sida fallax, 

13) Ipomoea pes-caprae, 

14) Ipomoca grandiflora, 

15) Cordia subcordata, 

16) Tournefortia argentea, 

17) Morinda citrifolia, and 

18) Scaevola frustescens. 

19




Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) noted that coconut trees might not be considered native as all 

coconut trees that were present were planted. The most conspicuous vegetation included 

Cordia (kou), Tournefortia (tree heliotrope), and Scaevola bushes. 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) reported that soil was imported from Hawaii and caused the 

introduction of weeds such as Emilia sonchifollia, three species of Euphorbia, Leucaena 

glauca, nutgrass and amaranth. A few grasses including Bermuda grass have also been 

introduced with imported soils. 

Daniel (1943) noted that Abariringa (Canton) was covered with stunted vegetation. In the 

southern end a few coconut palms grew. 

Williams (1945) noted that the large noctuid moth, Achaea janata, was reared from Cordia 

subcordata on Abariringa (Canton) by Langford and Van Zwalunwenburg. 

Between 1946 and 1950, the Civil Aviation Authority brought in several hundred coconut 

spouts for planting on Abariringa (Canton) (Wright 1951). 

In 1950 to 1951, there was a program to introduce plants to Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 

1960). Many of the introduced plants did not survive. However, some did, and now grow in 

many places on the island (particularly on the western part). According to Degener and 

Gillaspy (1955), between 1950 and 1951 Otto Degener introduced 129 species of plants to 

Abariringa (Canton) (see also Fosberg and Stoddart 1994; Fosberg et al n.d.). Of the 129 

species, only 14 persisted until 1973 and only two, Coccolaba uvifera and Conocarpus 

erecta, were able to spread out (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994; see also Fosberg et al n.d.). 

Plant surveys were conducted in 1949 and 1950 (Luomala 1951). Dr. Luomala, University 

of Hawaii, completed field studies and wrote a report on the plants of Abariringa (Canton) 

(according to Anon. 1952; see Luomala 1951). Fifty eight species of flowering plants and 

one seaweed were included in Luomala’s report. Luomala (1951) reported 18 species of 

plants that were native to Arbariringa (Canton) according to Knudsen (1965). These included 

the following species: 


2) Eragrostis whitneyi, 











13) Ipomoea pes-caprae, 

14) Ipomoca grandiflora (I. tuba), 


16) Tournefortia argentea, 

17) Morinda citrifolia, and 

18) Scaevola frustescens. 

Halstead (1950) noted that there was a small grove of coconut trees on the south side of 

Abariringa (Canton) that were struggling to survive. 

In 1950 and 1951, floral and vegetative surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Canton) 

(Hatheway 1955). Native flora consisted of 14 species of vascular plants. In addition, about 

150 plant species had been introduced. Native vascular flora was primarily confined to parts 

of Abariringa (Canton) that have not been subject to grading or other anthropogenic 

influences (Hatheway 1955). 

20




Luomala (1951) identified the following plants on Abariringa (Canton): 

1) Pandanus sp. 

2) Cenchrus echinatus 

3) Chloris inflata 

4) Cynodon dactylon 

5) Digitaria pacifica 

6) Eleusine indica 

7) Eragrostis whitneyi 

8) Lepturus repens 

9) Setaria verticillata 

10) Cyperus rotundus 

11) Fimbristylis cymosa var. 

microcephala 

12) Cocos nucifera 

13) Anthurium sp. 

14) Philodendron sp. 

15) Liliaceae Unidentified sp. 

16) Musa sp. 

17) Crinum asiaticum 

18) Casuarina equisetifolia 

19) Casuarina glauca 

20) Coccoloba uvifera 

21) Amarantus sp. 

22) Boerhavia diffusa 

23) Sesuvium portulacastrum 

24) Portulaca oleracea 

25) Portulaca lutea 

26) Cassytha filiformis 

27) Leucaena glauca 

28) Tribulus cistoides 

29) Suriana maritima 

30) Euphorbia heterophylla 

31) Euphorbia hypericifolia 

32) Euphorbia prostrata 

33) Euphorbia hirta 

34) Triumfetta procumbens 

35) Hibiscus tiliaceum 

36) Sida fallax 

37) Thespesia populnea 

38) Calophyllum inophyllum 

39) Tamarix aphylla 

40) Carica papaya 

41) Terminalia melanocarpa 

42) Terminalia littoralis 

43) Terminalia catappa 

44) Terminalia samoensis 

45) Polyscias guilfoylei 

46) Plumeria rubra 

47) Nerium oleander 

48) Calotropis gigantea 

49) Ipomoea tuba 

50) Ipomoea pes-caprae 

51) Cordia sebestena 

52) Cordia subcordata 

53) Messerschmidia argentea 

54) Guettarda speciosa 

55) Morinda citrifolia 

56) Citrullus vulgaris 

57) Cucumis sativus 

58) Scaevola frutescens 

59) Pluchea odorata 

60) Emilia sonchifolia 

Degener and Fosberg (1952) studied specimens of Sesuvium portulacastrum from Christmas 

and Abariringa (Canton), and Enderbury, and concluded that they deserved at least varietal 

status. Sesuvium portulacastrum var. griseum was proposed. 

Maude (1953) reported that sporatic attempts to grow coconut trees have all failed on 

Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) due to the lack of rainfall. Only about one in one 

hundred coconut trees reached maturity. 

Fosberg (1953) observed that Abariringa (Canton) had growth of Sida fallax up to 2 m during 

wet periods. In 1949, it had the appearance of a desert. Severe dry periods can result in high 

concentrations of guano that have severely damaged or killed trees on Abariringa (Canton). 

Fosberg (1953) noted that on highly saline flats on Abariringa (Canton) the vegetation was 

scattered mats of Sesuvium portulacastrum. 

21




Murphy et al (1954) reported that Loumala (1951) recorded an additional 40 species of plants 

on Abariringa (Canton). Most were introduced, and many no longer occurred. According to 

Murphy et al (1954), the most conspicuous native plant species included: 

1) Cordia subcordata,, 

2) Messerschmidea argentea, 

3) Scaevola frutescens, 





8) Portulaca lutea, and 


Pan American World Airways (1954) reported that the few coconut trees visible on 

Abariringa (Canton) were recent plantings, not the coconut trees planted in 1915 by Captain 

Allen and the Samoan Shipping & Trading Co. 

Johnson (1954) reported a dozen coconut palms on Abariringa (Canton). The original palms 

planted by Captain Allen and his sons (no date specified) all died out. 

Hatheway (1955) estimated plant community areas on Abariringa (Canton). Percent 

coverage is presented in Table III-3.6 below. Hatheway (1955) provided descriptions of each 

plant community listed in Table III-3.6 below. 

Table III-3.6. Plant communities on Abariringa (Canton) 

(source: Hatheway 1955) 

A serious enemy of Cordia was the caterpillar of the moth Achaea janata which defoliated 

two entire groves of Cordia (Hatheway 1955). 

Hatheway (1955) reported that most native forest and scrub was dying or dead. Hatheway 

(1955) speculated that this might be related the enormous numbers of birds that nest on native 

forests. 

Anon. (1955) reported that Otto Degener and Edwin Gillaspy were tasked with introducing a 

variety of plants to Abariringa (Canton) by the American Civil Aeronautics Administration. 

The justification for these plant introductions was to hold the shifting sand to minimize sand 

erosion, encourage afforestation, and reduce the almost unendurable glare. Success of the 

plant introductions would be dependent on the swarms of hermit crabs. 

22




The reason for introducing plants to cover the bear soil on Abariringa (Canton) were two fold 

(Degener and Gillaspy 1955). First vegetative cover would stablize the soil and keep it from 

blowing away and damaging equipment. The second reason is to minimize health risks of 

dust and glare off the sand to people stationed there. 

Degener and Gillapsy (1955) provide a detailed discussion about plant species and plant 

communities on Abariringa (Canton). Species of plants noted and discussed were as follows: 

1) Pandanus tectorius 

36) Chamaesyce hypericifolia 


37) Chamaesyce prostrate 


38) Chamaesyce hirta 


39) Phyllanthus niruri 


40) Poinsettia cyathophora 

6) Digitaria timorensis 


7) Eleusine indica 

42) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 

8) Eragrostis amabilis 

43) Hibiscus tiliaceum 


44) Pariti tiliaceum 

10) Eragrostis pectinacea 

45) Sida carpinifolia 

11) Lepturus pilgerianus 




13) Panicum miliaceum 





50) Passifloa foetida 

16) Fimbristylis diphylla 


17) Fimbristylis pycnocephala 52) Terminalia samoensis 



19) Anthurium sp. 


20) Philodendron sp. 



56) Ochrosia sp. 

22) Musa nana 


23) Casuarina equisetifolia 58) Calonyction sp. 


59) Ipomoea pes-caprae 



26) Amarantus dubius 


27) Boerhavia tetrandra 

62) Messerschmidia argentea 

28) Sesuvium portulacastrum var. 63) Lycopersicum esculentum 

griseum 

64) Nicotiana glauca 

29) Portulaca cleracea 

65) Physalis angulata 




67) Cucumis melo 


68) Scaevola frutescens 


69) Pluchea indica 

34) Suriana maritima 

70) Emilia sonchifolia 

35) Acalypha wilkesiana 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) also provided a list of over 125 plant species that had been 

introduced to Abariringa (Canton) in 1950. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) also reported on aquatic plants from Abariringa (Canton). The 

blue-green algae species included: Microcoleus paludosus, Porphyrosiphon sp., and 

23




Scytonema hofmanni. These were all dormant during dry seasons, but created algal masses 

after periods of rain. There was also an unidentified blue-green algae that was pink. 

Walker (1955) reported that Abariringa (Canton) residents had recently planted a thousand 

coconut trees. Walker (1955) reported observing several introduced plant species on 

Abariringa (Canton). These included: poinsettia, mimosa, castor bean, Mediteranean olive 

trees, tobacco plant, papaya, sea grapes, spider lilies, and morning glories. 

Hatheway (1955) noted that Abariringa (Canton) rainfall was 19 inches annually and that 

there were 14 species of plants there (see also Wiens 1962). Compared with other islands, 

both rainfall and number of plant species were low. The more rainfall, the more species of 

plants were found (Wiens 1962). 

Most of the plant species introduced to Abariringa (Canton) in 1950 did not survive (Degener 

and Degener 1959). Apparently gardens around the housing area and the terminal building 

had been sprayed with weed killer, not insecticide as intended. 

In 1958, only one coconut tree was large enough to bear fruit (McIntire 1960). Many coconut 

trees were infested with scale. There were 2 small date palm trees, Phoenix dactylifera, that 

were being grown in a garden (Degener and Degener 1959; McIntire 1960). 

Degener and Degener (1959) noted and provided descriptions of the establishment of the 

following species: 





5) Digitaria henryi 


7) Digitaria sanguinalis 

8) Digitaria timorensis 

9) Eragrostis amabilis 




13) Panicum distachyum 

14) Panicum miliaceum 

15) Pennisetum setosum 


17) Tricholaena rosea 

18) Cyperus javanicus 

19) Cyperus polystachyos 


21) Fimbristylis dichotoma 

22) Fimbristylis pycnocephala 


24) Phoenix dactylifera 

25) Rhoeo spathacca 

26) Setcreasea purpurea 

27) Sansevieria cylindrica 

24 

64) Calotropis gigantea var. wilderi 

65) Ipomoea batatas 

66) Ipomoea tuba 

67) Ipomoea pes-caprae subsp. 

brasiliensis 



70) Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 

71) Capsicum frutescens 

72) Lycopersicum esculentum var. 

commune 

73) Lycopersicum esculentum subsp. 

Galena 

74) Nicotiana glauca 

75) Petunia hybrida 

76) Physalis angulata 

77) Solanum melongena var. esculentum 

78) Casasia clusiifolia 


80) Citrullus vulgaris 

81) Cucumis dipsaceus 

82) Cucumis melo 

83) Scaevola sericea 

84) Gaillardia picta 

85) Pluchea indica 

86) Tagetes sp. 

87) Conyza canadensis





29) Furcraea foetida 

30) Musa nana 




34) Amarantus dubius 

35) Sesuvium portulacastrum var. 

griseum 

36) Sesuvium portulacastrum var. 

portulacastrum 

37) Portulaca cyanosperma 

38) Spergularia marina 


40) Lepidium o-waihiense 

41) Bryophyllum pinnatum 

42) Leguminosae 

43) Desmanthus virgatus 


45) Prosopis chilensis 

46) Acalypha wilkesiana 

47) Phyllanthus niruri 

48) Poinsettia cyathophora 

49) Schinus terebinthifolius 

50) Gossypium brasiliense 

51) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 

52) Pariti tiliaceum 





57) Passifloa foetida 


59) Conocarpus erecta 





88) Microcoleus chthonoplastes 

89) Entophysalis deusta 

90) Anacystis aeruginosa 

91) Anacystis dimidiate 

92) Anacystis montana 

93) Johannesbaptistia pellucida 

94) Entophysalis deusta 

95) Hydrocoleum comoides 

96) Hydrocoleum confluens 

97) Hydrocoleum glutinosum 

98) Hydrocoleum lyngbyaceum 

99) Lyngbya aestuarii 

100) Lyngbya confervoides 

101) Lyngbya infixa 

102) Lyngbya majuscula 

103) Lyngbya semiplena 

104) Microcoleus acutissima 

105) Microcoleus chthonoplastes 

106) Microcoleus paludosus 

107) Microcoleus tenerrimus 

108) Phormidium gardneranum 

109) Phormidium papyraceum 

110) Porphyrosiphon fuscus 

111) Schizothrix creswellii 

112) Schizothrix heufleri 

113) Schizothrix lamyi 

114) Schizothrix longiarticulata 

115) Schizothrix taylorii 

116) Spirulina subsalsa 

117) Spirulina tenerrima 

118) Sumploca hydnoides 

119) Nodularia sphaerocarpa 

120) Nostoc calciocola 

121) Plectonema nostocorum 

122) Plectonema terebrans 

123) Scytonema hofmanni 

124) Calothrix crustaceae 

Degener and Degener (1959) noted that lichens, mosses and ferns have not been found on 


McIntire (1960) noted that many parts of Abariringa (Canton) had a hardpan found at various 

depths. Plant taproots were not able to penetrate this layer. 

McIntire (1960) divided natural vegetation into three major groups: (1) communities 

dominated by trees, Cordia subcordata, and Messeerschmidia argentea; (2) communities 

dominated by shrubs Scaevola and Suriana-Sesuvium, and (3) the Portulaca herbaceous 

community. McIntire (1960) provided detail discussions on each of these three native plant 

communities on Abariringa (Canton). 

25




McIntire (1960) provided a vegetation map of Abariringa (Canton) (see also Hatheway 

1955). It is presented in Figure III-3.1 below. In addition, McIntire (1960) documented 

vegetative cover area on Abariringa (Canton). This is presented in Table III-3.7 below. 

Figure III-3.1. Vegetation map of Abariringa (Canton). 

(source: McIntire 1960, see also Hatheway 1955). 

Table III-3.7. Comparison of land area and vegetation cover on Abariringa (Canton). 

(source: McIntire 1960). 

26




McIntire (1960) noted that more recent coconut tree plantings were completed by British and 

American settlements. These trees were 6.1 to 7.6 m (20 to 25 ft) tall, but required some care 

to survive. In addition, there were several small flowering plants that had been introduced. 

These could not survive without human assistance. The seagrape, Coccoloba uvifera, had 

also been introducted perhaps 11 years prior (McIntire 1960). 

There were also some accidental introductions to Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960). 

Many weeds, including the sandbur, Cenchrus echinatus, have been introduced. 

McIntire (1960) reported that the blue-green algae, Microcoleus paludosus, as well as 

Porphyrosiphon sp., and Scytonema hofmannii were sand binders. These were dormant 

during dry season. 

Borden (1961) reported that Abariringa (Canton) was treeless. 

Degener (1961) reported introducing the white-fruied Scaevola from Oahu to Abariringa 

(Canton). When the seeds germinated, Degener (1961) compared the resultant plants with 

native specimens of Scaevola. The Hawaiian plant was named S. sericea var. faurier, but 

Degener (1961) deferred naming the variety from Abariringa (Canton). 

Office of Territories (1963) noted that 500 coconut palms had recently been planted on 


Cooperrider and Galang (1965) identified a sterile hybrid of Pluchea indica x P. odorata 

(Compositae-Inulease) after examining a variety of specimens including one from Abariringa 

(Canton) that was collected in 1958 that was originally identified as P. indica. 

27




Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported coconut palms in places. Inside of the raised 

beach, there was coarse grass and low scrub. 

Fosberg et al (n.d.) noted several weeds that had been brought to Abariringa (Canton) and 

that had persisted. These included: Cenchrus echinatus, Eleusine indica, Portulaca oleracea, 

Euphorbia hirta, E. glomerifera, Pluchea carolinensis, P. indica, Tridax procumbens, and 

Vernonia cinera. 

During dry years on Abariringa (Canton), plants dried up (Bryan 1974). During wet years, 

with ten to fourteen times as much rainfall, luxurious vegetation grew. 

Bryan (1974) presented a list of native plant species for Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury 

(see Table III-3.8 below). 

Table III-3.8. Plants not believed to have been recently introduced 

to Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury by man 

(source: Bryan 1974) 

scientific name common name islands 

Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass Abariringa (Canton) 

Digitaria pacifica Crabgrass Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Eragrostis whitney native lovegrass Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Lepturus repens wiry bunchgrass Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Frimbristylis cymosa button sedge Abariringa (Canton) 

Boerhaavia diffusa Boerhaavia creeper Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Sesuvium portulacastrum sea purslane Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Portulaca lutea yellow portulaca Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Portulaca oleraceae common purslane Enderbury 

Sida fallax Ilima Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Ipomoea brasiliensis beach morning glory Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Ipomoea alba white moonflower Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Cordia subcordata Kou Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Messerschmidia argentea tree heliotrope Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury 

Scaevola taccada v. sericea Naupaka, beach 

scaevola 

Abariringa (Canton) 

Guinther (1978) reported that Chlrophyll a concentrations in lagoonal ponds, potholes, and 

water filled burrows ranged from 1 to over 3,000 µg/lt. 

Garnett (1983) provided a narrative description of plants species and their locations on 

Abariringa (Canton). Garnett (1983) noted that several introduced plant species will most 

likely persist including: 

Trees and large shrubs Small shrubs and herbs 






6) Lantana camara 


2) Eragrostis tenella 

3) Euphorbia glomerifera 

4) Euphorbia hirta 

5) Euphorbia prostrata 

6) Phyllanthus amarus 

28




7) Leucaena leucocephalus 





12) Terminalia muelleria 

7) Portulaca oleracea 

8) Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 

Garnett (1983) estimated vegetative cover on Abariringa (Canton) based on major plant 

species. These estimates were as follows: 

Vegetation type Area (ha) 

Cordia forest 3.4 

Messerschmidia forest 12.1 

Scaevola scrub 71.2 

Suriana-Sesuvium 99.1 

Portulaca community 230.5 

Bare 269.9 

Disturbed 468.9 

Total 1,155.2 

Endemic vegetation on Nikumaroro, Orona and Abariringa (Kanton) were the last remaining 

large stands found in the Phoenix Islands (SPREP 1992). 



(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3 above. 

In 1995, only a few coconut trees were observed on Abariringa (Tunaari) except at 

Tebaronga and Umari (Government of Kiribati 1995). Terieta and Bikentabakea trees 

looked unhealthy. This was attributed to the hard pan in the area. 

In 1995, 75 percent of Abariringa (Tunaari) was coverd with the saltbush, Cordia subcordata, 

and Tournefortia argentea (Government of Kiribati 1995). Only a few pandanus were found 

at Tebaronga. There were also three breadfruit trees, two of which had fruit. At Umari, there 

were healthy pine (Christmas) trees. At Tebaronga, there were hibiscus plants and te biku. 

Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998) reported that coconut plantations were attempted on 

almost all islands in the central Pacific. They failed on the driest ones such as Abariringa 

(Canton). 

In the 2000 census, the Statistics Office (2002) reported that the 61 residents were raising 

breadfruit, babai, banana, pawpaw, kumala, and other vegetables. 



Table III-3.4 above). 

Pierce et al (2006) noted that most pest plants in the Phoenix Islands were on Abariringa 

(Kanton). The invasive plant, lantana, Lantana camara, extended over a large portion of the 

village and former military base. 

29




BIRNIE 

Bryan (1934) referred to the vegetation on Birnie as low shrubs and herbs. 

Ellis (1937) reported that Birnie was treeless. Maude (1937) reported that the vegetation on 

Birnie was similar to that found on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

In 1939, it was decided that coconut trees would be planted on Birnie to support colonies on 

Orona, Manra, and Nikumaroro (Garnett 1983). In May 1939, about one-third of Birnie was 

planted with coconut trees (see also Pusinelli 1948). 

The northern half of Birnie was flat and covered with low herbs such as Portulaca, 

Boerhaavia, and bunch grass (Bryan 1941 and 1942). According to Bryan (1941 and 1942), 

the small shallow lagoon was covered by a mat of green plats, probably Sesuvium. 

In 1952, 600 coconut trees were said to have been planted on Birnie by Maude but have 

vanished if indeed they ever grew (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994). 

Birnie was reported to have shrubby growth (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

Garnett (1983) reported six species of plants on Birnie: Leptus repens, Cocos nucifera, 

Boerhavia sp., Sesuvium portulacastrum, Portulaca lutea, and Sida fallax. 




Neilson (2002) reported that vegetation on Birnie was dominated by prostrate herbaceous 

vegetation. There was one small dense clump of Cordia subcordata that provided nesting for 

a number of Sula sula. It was the only tall vegetation on the island. 




Pierce et al (2006) conducted plant surveys on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, and 

Orona. Summary results are provided in Table III-3.5 above. 

ENDERBURY 

Hydrographic Office (1916) reported two small mangrove thickets and scattered patches of 

grass on Enderbury. 

In 1924, there were about 60 sad looking coconut trees on Enderbury (Bryan 1937; 22, 12 

and 26 trees (from north to south) according to Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). Ellis (1937) 

reported that coconuts had been planted on Enderbury, but they did not flourish. Waesche 

(1938) reported observing several small coconut palms around one of the muddy areas. 

30




Bryan (1934) reported that on the north point (in 1924), there were 22 coconut palms. There 

were 12 small coconut palms east of a hill. Bryan (1934) noted that these were not present at 

the time of Wilkes visit in 1840, nor were they mentioned by Captain Schorf in 1874. Bryan 

(1934) noted that there were several Tournefortia and Cordia trees on the west and south side 

of the island. The shallow lagoon was covered with Sesuvium. 

Maude (1937) reported that the vegetation on Enderbury was similar to that found on 

Abariringa (Canton). There were buka, ngea, or mao trees. In addition, there was a large 

patch of Tournefortia argentea trees. Kanawa trees surrounded an artifical mound of guano. 

The tops of the kanawa trees were dead. There were three groups of coconut trees that did 

not appear to be in good condition. 

As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Enderbury 

and reported a large patch of Tournafortia on the north end of the island. On the south end of 

the island were several patches of kou. Portulaca grew on the edge of the lagoon. Coconut 

palms were in a half-dead condition grew on the west bank. Wild morning glory vines were 

also observed. 

Bryan (1939) reported the presence of a few patches of Cordia, Tournefortia, and Morinda 

trees, and Scaevola, Pemphis, and Sida schrubs on Enderbury. 

The most conspicuous vegetation on Enderbury was several palms at the north end 

(Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). A major part of 

Enderbury appears to be a low-lying plain that resembles a grassy meadow at the center of 

the island (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Bryan (1941, 1942, and 1974) reported that the small shallow pond was covered with a mat 

of Sesuvium. It also covered the surrounding basin. 

Bryan (1941, 1942, and 1974) noted that much of the surface of Enderbury was covered by 

herbs, bunchgrass, Sida, and morning-glory vines. Kou trees and heliptropes were also 

present on Enderbury. 

Degener and Fosberg (1952) studied specimens of Sesuvium portulacastrum from Christmas 

and Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and concluded that they deserved at least varietal status. 

Sesuvium portulacastrum var. griseum was proposed. 

Maude (1953) reported that sporatic attempts to grow coconut trees have all failed on 

Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) due to the lack of rainfall. Only about one in one 

hundred coconut trees reached maturity. 

Robson (1956) reported that there were a few clumps of Tournefortia or heliotrope trees, a 

few stunted kou thickets, one or two noni trees, and a few sad-looking coconut trees on 

Enderbury. 

Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to 14 species of plants. No list the species 

was provided. 

31




There were two clumps of mangroves, a few coconut trees, and scattered patches of grass on 

Enderbury (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

Fosberg et al (1973) listed exotic plant species on Enderbury. These included: 

1) Sand bur, Cenchrus echinatus, 

2) Common purslane, Portulaca oleracea, 

3) Groose-grass, Eleusine indica, and 

4) Sedge, Fimbristrylis cymosa. 

Fosberg et al (1973) recommended elimination of these introduced species, especially while 

introductions were still restricted in area. 

Bryan (1974) presented a list of native plant species for Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury 

(see Table III-3.8 above). 

In 1975, there were several coconut seedlings remaining near the U.S. Air Force temporary 

installation on the northwest corner of Enderbury (Garnett 1983). However, all coconut trees 

reported by Bryan (1942) had died out (Garnett 1983). 

Garnett (1983) provided a list of plant species on Enderbury. Twenty three species were 

listed including: 

1) Ruppia maritima, 

2) Cenchrus echinatus, 



5) Lepturus pilgerianus, 


7) Fimbristylis cymosa, 


9) Laportea ruderalis, 

10) Boerhavia albiflora, 

11) Pisonia grandis, 



14) Portulaca oleracea, 



17) Euphorbia hirata, 



20) Ipomoea macrantha, 


22) Messerschmidia argentea, 

23) Scaevola taccada. 




In 1995, there were only two coconut trees on Enderbury (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

Both were healthy and bore fruits. Sixty coconuts were planted adjacent to these trees. An 

addition 40 to 60 coconuts were planted on the north end of Enderbury. 

In 1995, several other species of plants were observed on Enderbury (Government of Kiribati 

1995). These included: Pisonia grandis (te buka), Tournefortia argentea (te ren), Scaevola 

taccada (te mao), te mtea, te booi, te wao and Sida fallax (te kaura). 

In January 2000, Cordia subcordata thickets were dense (Kepler 2000). 

32







Pierce et al (2006) reported that mangroves were an invasive plant on Enderbury and 

recommended its removal. 




In 1886, Arundel was granted a license for coconut planting (Garnett 1983). Bush was cut 

and burned and the entire island was planted in coconuts. J.T. Arundel & Co. planted 

coconut trees on Manra (Douglas and Douglas 1994; presumably in the late 1800’s). 



In 1905 Lever Bros. established a coconut plantation on Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.). 

A coconut plantation was reported for Manra (Allen 1918). 

The eastern side of the island was thick with arboreal vegetation (Bryan 1934). The western 

side had been cleared and planted in coconut trees. 

Ellis (1937) reported that the two species of rat on Manra (Sydney) greatly reduced coconut 

yields. 

Maude (1937) reported that some of the coconut trees on Manra (Sydney) showed signs of 

wasting. Others had yields greater than that found in the Gilbert group. 

Ellis (1946) reported that coconut trees were planted on Manra (Sydney). 

As part of the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme, banana, pandanus, Ficus trees (te 

bero), papaya, babai, and taro were introduced to Manra (Sydney) (Knudsen 1965 and 1977). 

By 1940, most of these introductions had perished (Knudsen 1965 and 1977). 

There is a large coconut grove on the west side of Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 

1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; and Bryan 1941 and 1942). A smaller 

coconut grove was on the eastern side of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; southeastern 

side according to Bryan 1941 and 1942). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that these had been 

planted starting in 1905. 

Turbott (1954) noted that on Manra, normal Gilbertese diet plants that were introduced such 

as pandanus, babai, and breadfruit died or produced no fruit. Coconut trees did grow, but 

were not healthy. It was speculated that this was related to the salinity of the ground water. 

33




Although it did not survive the initial introduction, pandanus was re-introducted to Manra 

(Sydney) in 1950 (Knudsen 1965 and 1977). This second introduction was successful 

(Knudsen 1977). 

The remainder of the island was covered in bush and shrubs that are 4.6 to 9.1 m (15 to 30 ft) 

high (see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). The forest was composed of Tournefortia, 

Pisonia, Morinda, Cordia, Guettarda, and Scaevola. Portulaca, an edible plant grew wild on 

the Manra (Sydney). It became a main dietary item of early settlers (Knudsen 1977). 

Heavy rains after drought periods raised the level of the lake at the center of Manra (Sydney) 

and killed many of the new coconut trees that had been planted with the salt water (Knudsen 

1977). According to Luke (1962), one of the reasons for having to resettle inhabitants of 

Manra (Sydney) was because the soil on Manra (Sydney) was too salty for coconut trees. 

In 1973, there was a dead zone of vegetation immediately boarding the lagoon (Garnett 

1983). This zone was between 20 to 300 m wide. All plants within the zone were dead. In 

1975, some small plants were observed indicating a recovery. Garnett (1983) speculated that 

flooding of the hypersaline lagoon caused the dead zone. 

Garnett (1983) reported that the coconut trees planted in the 1880s still dominated the 

western end of the island. 

Garnett (1983) noted the following species of plants on Manra (Sydney): 



3) Eragrostis tenella, 




7) Cyperus javanicus, 










17) Euphorbia cyanthophora, 

18) Euphorbia glomerifera, 


20) Euphorbia prostrate, 



23) Cucurbita pepo, 




27) Clerodendrum inerme, 

28) Guettarda speciosa, 

29) Morinda citrifolia, 

30) Scaevola taccada, 

31) Vernonia cinerea. 




In 1995, there were coconut trees on Manra, some were healthy, others were not 

(Government of Kiribati 1995). At Temauri on the west side of Manra, coconut trees were 

senile, crowded and appeared unhealthy. 

34




In 1995, two varieties of pandanus trees were observed, te iritawatawa and antinakarewe. 

Banana trees were also observed. These had been planted by workers from Temarui and 

Tebaiti. 




MCKEAN 

Bryan (1934) reported that McKean had no trees (see also Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan 

1941 and 1942; Ellis 1937), but has some bushes on it. There was very little vegetation 

except around the shallow lagoon where patches of bunch grass grow (Hydrographic Office 

1940). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported low herbs such as Portulaca, Sesuvium and Lepturus 

bunchgrass. 

Maude (1937) reported that the vegetation on McKean was similar to that found on Rawaki 

(Phoenix) and Birnie. Six species of plants were observed [but not identified in Maude 

1937]. 

In 1939, the decision was made to plant coconut trees on McKean to support the other 

settlements in the Phoenix Islands (Garnett 1983). It was planned that 3,000 coconut trees 

were to be planted. The outbreak of World War II prevented the scheme from going forward. 

Baker (1968) reported that the fungi, Penicillium rotundum Rapper & Fennell, was found in 

the coastal sand of McKean. 

Garnett (1983) reported that there were no trees on McKean. The following plant species 

were reported on McKean. 



3) Boerhavia albiflora 




7) Sida falla 




Timeon (2001) noted that the healthy growing shrubs and grasses indicated that larger 

vegetation such as coconut trees may well thrive on McKean. 

Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002) reported Pisonia grandis, Sida fallax, pigweed, pig vine, 

puncture vines, and seaside purslane on McKean. 




35




In 1840, Commander Wilkes of the U.S. Exploring Expedition noted that Nikumaroro 

(Gardner) was devoid of low shrubbery (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

In the 1880’s coconut trees were planted on Nikumaroro by the John T. Arundel and Co. 

(Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also Laxton 1951; Morrell 1960; 1892 according to Douglas and 

Douglas 1994). These were planted in the northwest end of the island (Tudor 1968). The 

droughts of the 1890’s killed these coconut trees (Douglas and Douglas 1994). 

Ellis (1937) reported visiting Nikumaroro (Gardner) prior to the planting of coconut trees. At 

that time, there were only 7 or 8 coconut trees on the island. According to Ellis (1937), 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) was planted with coconuts by John T. Arundel Co. Ellis (1937) 

reported that the coconut trees were doing well. Maude (1937), noted that coconut trees 

planted by Arundel and Company did not do well was either because of the coconut crabs, a 

severe drought, or that they were planted in poor soil. 

Maude (1937) reported that Nikumaroro (Gardner) was covered by enormous buka trees, 

Pisonia grandis, that were up to 18.3 m (60 ft) high. On the south of the atoll, there were 

groves of kanawa trees, Cordia subcordata, that could be used for canoe building. The kaura 

shrub, Sida fallex, normally grew to a few feet high, but on Nikumaroro (Gardner) it grew to 

more than 2.1 m (7 ft). Coconut trees showed no signs of drought. 

Most of the rim was covered by low scrub forest (Bryan 1941 and 1942). This included buka 

(Pisonia) and kanava or kou (Cordia) and scattered heliotrope trees (Tournefortia). 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) had puka, pandanus, and about 200 coconut trees (Hydrographic 

Office 1940). There were several varieties of low shrubs and bunch grass. There were some 

trees that are 27.4 m (90 ft) high. 

Anon. (1940b) reported that there were several large coconut plantations on Nikumaroro 

(Gardner) (see also Ellis 1946). There were two clumps of coconut trees, one on each side of 

the western lagoon entranced (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Thousands of coconut trees have been 

planted but were ruined by the Polynesian rat (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Daniel (1943) reported that Nikumaroro (Gardner) was more fertile than other Phoenix 

Islands. This resulted in abundant coconut palms. 

Laxton (1951) reported that in addition to the coconut palms, very large buka trees, Pisonia 

grandis. Some of these trees were 24.4 to 27.4 m (80 to 90 ft) high. 

In 1974, there was an agricultural inspection tour of Nikumaroro by M.E.H. Vickers (Gilbert 

Islands 1978). The rainfall was low, so vegetation was in poor condition. 

In 1978, the Gilbert Islands (1978) conducted surveys of Nikumaroro. A map was made of 

the vegetation on Nikumaroro (see Figure III-3.2 below). 

Figure III-3.2. Vegetation map of Nikumaroro 

(source: Gilbert Islands 1978). 

36




In 1978, about 77.7 ha (192 acres) had coconut trees with thick undergrowth of Pisonia 

grandis, Scaevola sericea, Morinda citrifolia, and Sida fallax (Gilbert Islands 1978). About 

283 ha (700 acres) were undeveloped and another 53 ha (131 acres) was non-arable. Coconut 

production was estimated at 26 tonnes (29 tons) annually. If the undeveloped land was 

planted, total coconut production might reach 122 tonnes (134 tons) annually. 

Vegetation found on Nikumaroro included: Pisonia grandis, Scaevola sericea, Morinda 

citrifolia, Sida fallax, Guottarda speciosa, Portulaca sp. and Pandanus toctorious sol. 

(Gilbert Islands 1978). 

Garnett (1983) listed plant species on Nikumaroro. They included: 

1) Pandanus tectoriu, 



4) Digitaria cetigera, 

5) Eleusine indica, 





10) Cyrtosperma chamissonis, 








24) Pedilanthus tithymaloides 




28) Carica papaya, 

29) Terminalia samoensis, 


37




13) Coccolaba uvifera, 


15) Boerhavia tetrandra 








35) Scaevola taccada. 




In 1995, the coconut trees at Maroro and Etanterawa on Nikumaroro were in excellent 

condition (Government of Kiribati 1995). Pisonia grandis (te buka), saltbush (te mao), and 

the creeping plant (ruku), and pandanus were present on Nikumaroro. The survey team 

introduced other pandanus varieties such as te iritawatawa and te aintinakarewe, as well as 

breadfruit, te bukiraro, and banana. 








ORONA (HULL) 

In 1887, Ellis landed on Orona (Hull) with his brother, 3 Niueans, and 20,000 coconuts for 

planting (Ellis 1937; see also Anon. 1949e). At the time of his arrival on Orona (Hull), there 

were already about 150 coconut trees in full bearing. Ellis reported consuming wild 

portulacca that was abundant on Orona (Hull) (Ellis 1937). 

Ellis planted coconut trees on Orona (Hull) as a youth while working for John T. Arundel 

Company (Ellis 1946; see also Anon. 1940c; Morrell 1960; Pompey 1972). Albert and James 

Ellis planted 20,000 coconuts that they brought with them (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Ellis 1937). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that several thousand had been planted in the late 1880’s 

(see also Tudor 1968). 



Ellis (1937) reported that the coconut trees that he planted in the late 1880’s grew to maturity, 

but they did suffer through the occasional several droughts. 



38




Maude (1937) reported that the vegetation on Orona (Hull) was similar to that found on 

Manra (Sydney). The non, Morinda citrifolia, was conspicuous all over the western side of 

the island. This was the main food of the wild pigs. Coconut trees were thriving. 

Fosberg (1939) noted that the grass, Digitaria pacifica, had been collected and identified 

from both Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull). The Orona (Hull) specimen was reported 

to have been introduced from Funafuti (Ellice Islands) by Mr. Shafer. 

As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1953) visited Orona (Hull) reported 

it covered with Tournafortia. Coconut trees grew on the southwestern end. 

Bryan (1934) reported that the west end of Orona (Hull) had been cleared and planted with 

coconut trees. Planting began in about 1902. 

In 1939, the forest on the northeast side of Orona (Hull) was nearly dead (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). 

There were planted coconut trees on the western end of Orona (Hull) (Hydrographic Office 

1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; Bryan 1941 and 1942). Most of the island is 

covered with brush 3 to 3.7 m (10 to 12 ft) high. There are also several stands of Pisonia 

grande. These are up to 15.2 m (50 ft) high (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

The eastern most point was bare of trees (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

Fosberg et al (1973) listed exotic plant species on Orona (Hull). These included: 

1) Sand bur, Cenchrus echinatus, 

2) Dwarf heliotrope, Heliotropium ovatum, 

3) Prostrate spurge, Euphorbia prostrata, 

4) Finger-grass, Chloris barbata. 

Fosberg et al (1973) recommended elimination of these introduced species, especially while 

introductions were still restricted in area. 

Garnett (1983) noted several plant species on Orona. These included: 

1) Pandanus tectoriu, 


3) Chloris inflata, 

4) Digitaria ciliaris, 


6) Eleusine indica, 








14) Artocarpus altilis, 


16) Coccolaba uvifera, 



29) Euphorbia prostrata, 



32) Hibiscus tiliaceus, 

33) Hibiscus X sp. 


35) Calophyllum inophyllum, 

36) Carica papaya, 

37) Cucumis melo, 

38) Pemphis acidula, 


40) Impomea pes-caprae, 


42) Heliotropium procumbans, 

39





18) Boerhavia tetrandra, 

19) Mirabilis jalapa, 









44) Clerodendrum inerme, 

45) Lantana camara, 

46) Physalis angulata, 

47) Pseudoanthemum carrunthersii, 



50) Scaevola taccada, 

51) Tridax procumbens, 

52) Vernonia cinerea. 






In 1995, there were healthy looking coconut trees on Orona (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

Pandanus trees, including the te iritawatawa and antinakarewe varieties were also present. 

Guettarda speciosa (te uri), and Morinda citrifolia (te noni) were also present. The survey 

team planted banana, and breadfruit (te bukiraro). 

Neilson (2002) reported that the eastern point of Orona was dominated by te non, Morinda 

citrifolia, te nii, and te kaina. 




Pierce et al (2006) reported that the invasive plant lantana, Lantana camara, had been 

recorded on Orona by Garnett (1983), but was not found in 2006. 




Lister (1891) reported only four types of plants on Rawaki (Phoenix), the scrub, Sida fallax, a 

coarse grass, and two species of trailing plants. No species identification was provided for 

the grass and trailing plants. 

Hydrographic Office (1916) reported no trees on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

In 1924, there were no trees and the ground was covered with herbs (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

There was no vegetation on the east side where broken coral had been thrown up by waves, 

and on the north end of the lagoon which was covered in sand. 

40




Low vegetation (grass and herbs) seemed none the worse because of the rabbits (Bryan 

1934). 

Ellis (1937) reported that Rawaki (Phoenix) was treeless. 

Maude (1937) observed te boi (purslane) near the lagoon, te wao, te kaura, kiao, and two 

species of grass (not identified). No trees, shrubs, or coconut trees were observed. 

In 1939, the decision was made to plant 3,500 coconut trees on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Garnett 

1983). Planting was stopped with the outbreak of World War II. 

Anon. (1940b) reported that Rawaki (Phoenix) had extensive growths of coconuts. 

The bunchgrass Lepturus dominated the northwest point and west side (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). Boerhaavia and Portulaca dominated the south and soutwest. Sesuvium bounded the 

west side of the lagoon. Sida (ilima) and Triumfetta (beach runner) were on the east side. 

Rawaki (Phoenix) was treeless (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the 

Navy 1969). In the middle of the island sand was sparsely covered with grass. 

Factors other than food presumably held the rabbit population down to a level where rabbits 

did not seriously affect the vegetation (Watson 1961). 

Garnett (1983) listed plant species for Rawaki (Phoenix), including: 


2) Boerhavia 








In 2001, the Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Development initiated the Phoenix Island 



trees and cleaning. Copra production was limited due to breakdown of the tractor, rats, and 

limited coconuts. Coconut planting was planned for the second year of this project. 

In 2002, pigweed, Boerhaavia, bunch grass and Sesuvium were observed on Rarawki 

(Phoenix) (Bukaeireiti and Rabaua 2002). 

Neilson (2002) reported that the preferred food of rabbits on Rawaki was Portulaca lutea. 

This was evident by the low percentage cover of P. lutea on Rawaki. 




C. INSECTS 

41




Friederichs (1935) reported that E.H. Bryan, Jr. found several embiids on the Phoenix Islands 

that were closely related to Oligotoma insularis. Friederichs (1935) noted that O. insularis 

appeared identical to O. latreillei. 

Bryan (1939) reported that insects were few in number of species, but abundant in individuals 

on the Phoenix Islands. They included roaches, silverfish, leafhoppers, plant bug small 

bettles, small moths, ants, and flies. No mosquitoes were noted, but ground spiders were 

abundant. The specific islands that these occurred on were not provided. 

Extensive searches for the tick, Ixodes amersoni, were completed on other Phoenix Islands 

(besides Enderbury and Rawaki), but the tick was not found (Amerson 1968). Amerson 

(1968) noted that the tick may occur in such small numbers that it has been overlooked. 




Bryan (1934) reported that there were no butterflies, dragonflies, grasshoppers or mosquitoes. 

Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Abariringa (Canton). 

From 1936 to December 7, 1941, an entomologist employed by the Hawaiian Sugar Planter’s 

Association was stationed at Abariringa (Canton) to inspect, spray, and intercept all insects 

going to Hawaii on planes (Permberton 1953; see also Van Zwaluwenburg 1941). According 

to Van Zwaluwenburg (1943), the plant quarantine station was started in April 1940 (Van 

Zwaluwenburg 1943; see also Anon. 1940a; Anon. 1940d, Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). 

All flights from Abariringa (Canton) to Hawaii were inspected for live and dead insects. 

(Pemberton 1944). Each flight (to or from Hawaii) was sprayed with pyrethrum extract 

shortly before landing and prior to departure. Insects collected were sent to the entomologist 

at the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Experiment Station for identification. Abariringa (Canton) 

became an insect filter for Hawaii (see also Murphy et al 1954). Sea planes to Abariringa 

(Canton) originated in New Zealand and New Caledonia (Anon. 1940d). 


(Canton) and observed greenish-black bird flies. 

Gardner (1938) reported no flies or mosquitoes on Abariringa (Canton). 

Pemberton (1944) provided a summary of mosquito species collected on inbound and 

outbound Hawaii flights, but this is not broken down by island of transit. A total of 1,839 

live insects were removed from the 301 planes that transited Abariringa (Canton) 

(Permberton 1953). During World War II, the insect quarantine was marginalized due to the 

war effort. 

Browne (1940) collected the following insects on Abariringa (Canton): 

1) Harmonia areuata (Coleoptera) 

2) Cutilia soror (Orthoptera) 

4) Olfersia spinigera (Diptera) 

5) Aphis gossypii (Homoptera) 

42




3) Musca domestica (Diptera) 6) Mealybug (Homoptera). 

According to Van Zwaluwenburg (1941), insect species that were undesirable in Hawaii that 

were present on Abariringa (Canton) included: the noctuid moth, Prodenia litura, an 

unidentified cicadellid leafhopper, the arctiid moth, Utetheisa pulchelloides, and the nocturid 

caterpillar, Achaea janata. 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) noted that there were no insect parasites on Abariringa (Canton). 

In addition, there were no mosquitoes, no fleas. Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) reported three 

flea infested dogs that were brought to Abariringa (Canton), but none had any fleas when 

examined. There were no harbor fleas on rats. 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1942) noted that the butterfly, Hypolimnas bolina, was observed on 

Abariringa (Canton) from time to time in 1940, but never more than one at a time. By 1941, 

it was established in one area of the island, just south of the main channel. 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1942) reported that the monarch butterfly, Danaida archippus, had 

arrived at least once in the last 1.5 years, but had not yet become established on Abariringa 

(Canton). 

The globe skimmer dragonfly, Pantala flavescens, was not on Abariringa (Canton) in 1940, 

but was abundant in 1941 (Van Zwaluwenburg 1942). The reddish dragonfly, Diplocodes 

bipunctata, was also not present in 1940, but present in 1941. 

Follett (1943) also noted that there were mosquitos on Abariringa (Canton). 

Kelsey (1943) identified a new species of termite based on specimens from Abariringa 

(Canton). The termite was found in a driftwood log on the beach by J.A. Buddle. The new 

species was named Calotermes curvithorax n. sp. 

Oman (1943) described a new species of leafhopper, Homoptera Cicadellidae, Nesaloha 

cantonis from Abariringa (Canton). The holotype was collected on Boerhaavia diffusa 

foliage in 1940. Zimmerman (1948) reported that this species had a wide distribution in the 

Pacific. According to Zimmerman (1948) it was originally described as Thamnotettix 

argentata. 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1943) identified three groups of insects on Abariringa (Canton): 

permanently established, termporarily established, and recent immigrants. Eighty one insect 

species were identified on Abariringa (Canton), see Table III-3.9 below. 

Table III-3.9. List of insect species found on Abariringa (Canton) 

(source: Van Zwaluwenburg 1943). 

Order Family Species 

Thysanura Lepismidae Undetermined species 

Collembola Entomobryidae Undetermined species 

Orthoptera Blattidae Cutilia soror 

Orthoptera Blattidae Periplaneta americana 

Orthoptera Blattidae Pycnoscelus surinamensis 

43




Orthoptera Blattidae Supella supellectilium 

Orthoptera Gryllidae Gryllodes sigillatus 

Orthoptera Locustidae Conocephalus saltator 

Demaptera Labiduridae Anisolabis eteronoma 

Embioptera Oligotomidae Oligotoma saundersii 

Odonata Libellulidae Diplacodes bipunctata 

Odonata Libellulidae Pantala flavescens 

Corrodentia Atropidae Undetermined species 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Cydnidae Geotomus pygmaeus 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Reduviidae Reduviolus capsiformis 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Miridae Undetermined species 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Halobatidae Halobates micans 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Aphididae Aphis gossypii 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Asterolecanium pustulans 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Chrysomphalus aonidum 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Coccus hesperidum 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Hemichionaspis minor 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Pseudococcus longispinus 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Ripersia palmarum 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Saissetia hemispherica 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Undermined species 

Hemiptera-Heteroptera Cicadellidae Nesaloha cantonis 

Coleoptera Carabidae Tachys muscens 

Coleoptera Carabidae Tachys sp. 

Coleoptera Histeridae Carcinops quatuordecimstriata 

Coleoptera Nitidulidae Carpophilus hemipterus 

Coleoptera Coccinellidae Harmonia arcuata 

Coleoptera Dermestidae Dermestes cadaverinus 

Coleoptera Corynetidae Necrobia rufipes 

Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Alphitobius laevigatus 

Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Tribolium ferrungineum 

Coleoptera Anthicidae Anthicus oceanicus 

Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Pleurophorus parvulus 

Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Saprosites pygmaeus 

Coleoptera Calandridae Calandra oryzae 

Lepidoptera Danaidae Danaida plexippus 

Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Hypolimnas bolina 

Lepidoptera Arctiidae Utetheisa pulchelloides 

Lepidoptera Noctuidae Achaea janata 

Lepidoptera Noctuidae Amyna octo 

Lepidoptera Noctuidae Heliothis armigera 

Lepidoptera Noctuidae Laphygma exempta 

Lepidoptera Noctuidae Prodenia litura 

Lepidoptera Noctuidae Undetermined species 

Lepidoptera Pyralidae Hymenia recurvalis 

Lepidoptera Tineidae Petrochroa dimorpha 

Diptera Mycetophilidae Undetermined species 

Diptera Sciaridae Undetermine species 

44




Diptera Chironomidae Undetermined species 

Diptera Dolichopodidae Chrysosoma sp. 

Diptera Dolichopodidae Hydrophorus sp. 

Diptera Syrphidae Ischiodon scutellaris 

Diptera Calliphoridae Lucilia sericata 

Diptera Sarcophagidae Sarcophaga dux 

Diptera Muscidae Musca domestica 

Diptera Anthomyiidae Atherigona excisa var. trilineata 

Diptera Ortalidae Euxestra sp 

Diptera Ortalidae Scholastes bimaculatus 

Diptera Ephydridae Hecamede persimilis 

Diptera Ephydridae Scatella sp. 

Diptera Chloropidae Prohippelates palidus 

Diptera Chloropidae Siphunculina signata 

Diptera Milichiidae Desmometopa m-nigrum 

Diptera Milichiidae Milichiella lacteipennis 

Diptera Tethinidae Tethina insularius 

Diptera Agromyzidae Undetermined species 

Diptera Hippoboscidae Olfersia spinifera 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Paratrechina bourbonica 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Paratrechina longicornis 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Tapinoma melanocephalum 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Teramorium guieense 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Tetramorium simillimiun 

Hymenoptera Scelionidae Telenomus nawai 

Hymenoptera Eulophidae Euplectrus platyhypenae 

Hymenoptera Eulophidae Notanisomorphomyia prob. externa 

Hymenoptera Evaniidae Evania appendigaster 

Usinger (1944) noted that other Heteroptera had been reported from Abariringa (Canton) 

including: Geotomus pygmaeus, Nabis capsiformis, and Halobates micans. One specimen of 

the bean mirid, Pycnoderes quadrimaculatus, was identified from Abariringa (Canton), but it 

was suggested that this came in a collecting bottle from Hawaii. Usinger (1944) noted that 

Trigonotylus brevipes had also been collected on Abariringa (Canton). 

Usinger (1944) described a new species of Heteroptera, Cyrtorhinus zwaluwenburgi, from 


Williams (1945) noted that the large noctuid moth, Achaea janata, was reared from Cordia 

subcordata on Abariringa (Canton) by Langford and Van Zwalunwenburg. 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1947) reported a new species of termite, Calotermes curvithorax, from 

Abariringa (Canton). The specimen was collected from driftwood in 1937. Van 

Zwaluwenburg (1947) noted that no termites were found on Abariringa (Canton) in 1940 or 

in 1941. 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1948) reported a vespid wasp, Pachodynerus nasidens (Latreille) from 

Abariringa (Canton). Van Zwaluwenburg (1952a) reported that the type material of 

45




Calotermes curvithorax from Abariringa (Canton) was re-examined and found to be 

synonymous with Kalotermes immigrans. Van Zwaluwenburg (1952b) reported that the 

tenebrionid beetle, Gonocephalum adpressiformes, had been identified from Abariringa 

(Canton). Pemberton (1952) reported on occurrence of the grasshopper, Aiolopus tamulus, 

from Abariringa (Canton). The specimen was collected by N.L.H. Krauss in 1950. 

Frick (1952) reported studying two specimens of Ophiomyia sp. from Abariringa (Canton). 

These appeared to be distinct. Frick (1952) declined to describe them here. 

Hardy (1952) reported that in 1950, Ishiodon scutellaris was collected on Abariringa 

(Canton). Hardy (1952) indicated that this should be corrected to I. penicillatus. 

Frick (1953) proposed a new species of Agromyzidae (Diptera), Ophiomyia scaevolae, from 

Abariringa (Canton). The holotype was collected on Abariringa (Canton) from a leaf of 

Scaevola frustescens (naupaka). 

A serious enemy of Cordia was the caterpillar of the moth Achaea janata which defoliated 

two entire groves of Cordia (Hatheway 1955). 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1955) reported 93 species of insects (excluding one species of Isoptera) 

and 15 related species on Abariringa (Canton) (see also Wiens 1962; see Table III-3.3). 

Degener and Gillespy (1955) noted that the number of native insect species on Abariringa 

(Canton) was small due to the isolation of the island and limited flora. 

Van Zwalunwenburg (1955) up-dated his 1943 list of insects that occurred on Abariringa 

(Canton). These are also included in Table III-3.10 below. 

Table III-3.10. Revised list of insect species on Abariringa (Canton) 

(source: Van Zwaluwenburg (1955) 

Order Family Species 

Thysanura Lepismidae Undetermined species 

Collembola Entomobryidae Undetermined species 

Orthoptera Blattidae Cutilia soror 

Orthoptera Blattidae Periplaneta americana 

Orthoptera Blattidae Pycnoscelus surinamensis 

Orthoptera Blattidae Supella supellectilium 

Orthoptera Blattidae Blattia sp. 

Orthoptera Gryllidae Gryllodes sigillatus 

Orthoptera Tettingoniidae Aiolopus tamulus 

Isoptera Kalotermitidae Kalotermes immigrans 

Embioptera Oligotomidae Oligotoma saundersii 

Demaptera Labiduridae Anisolabis eteronoma 

Odonata Libellulidae Diplacodes bipunctata 

Odonata Libellulidae Pantala flavescens 

Corrodentia Liposcelidae Undetermined sp. 

Corrodentia Periopsocidae Ectopscocus perkinsi 

Homoptera Cicadellidae Orosius argentatus 

Homoptera Aphididae Aphis gossypii 

46




Homoptera Coccidae Asterolecanium pustulans 

Homoptera Coccidae Chrysomphalus aonidum 

Homoptera Coccidae Coccus hesperidum 

Homoptera Coccidae Pinnaspis strachani 

Homoptera Coccidae Pseudococcus palmarum 

Homoptera Coccidae Pseudococcus adonidum 

Homoptera Coccidae Saissetia hemispherica 

Homoptera Coccidae Undermined species 

Heteroptera Cydnidae Geotomus pygmaeus 

Heteroptera Pentatomidae Oechalia prob. consocialis 

Heteroptera Nabidae Nabis capsiformis 

Heteroptera Miridae Camylomma near hawaiiensis 

Heteroptera Miridae Trigonotylus brevipes 

Heteroptera Miridae Cyrtorhinus zwalunwenburgi 

Heteroptera Gerridae Halobates micans 

Coleoptera Carabidae Tachys muscens 

Coleoptera Carabidae Tachys sp. 

Coleoptera Histeridae Carcinops quatuordecimstriata 

Coleoptera Corynetidae Necrobia rufipes 

Coleoptera Elateridae Conoderus pallipes 

Coleoptera Dermestidae Dermestes cadaverinus 

Coleoptera Nitidulidae Carpophilus hemipterus 

Coleoptera Coccinellidae Harmonia arcuata 

Coleoptera Anthicidae Anthicus oceanicus 

Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Gonocephalum adpressiforme 

Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Pleurophorus parvulus 

Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Saprosites pygmaeus 

Coleoptera Anthribidae Araecerus vielillardi 

Coleoptera Curculionidae Calandra oryzae 

Coleoptera Curculionidae Dryotribus mimeticus 

Lepidoptera Tineidae Petrochroa dimorpha 

Lepidoptera Hyposmocomidae Aphthonetus sp. 

Lepidoptera Pyralidae Hymenia recurvalis 

Lepidoptera Arctiidae Utetheisa pulchelloides 

Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Achaea janata 

Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Amyna octo 

Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Heliothis armigera 

Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Laphygma exempta 

Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Prodenia litura 

Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Undetermined species 

Lepidoptera Danaidae Danaida plexippus 

Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Hypolimnas bolina 

Diptera Mycetophilidae Undetermined species 

Diptera Tendipedidae Undertermined species 

Diptera Sciaridae Undetermine species 

Diptera Dolichopodidae Chrysosoma sp. 

Diptera Dolichopodidae Hydrophorus sp. 

Diptera Syrphidae Ischiodon penicillatus 

47




Diptera Lonchaeidae Lamprolonchaea aurea 

Diptera Otilidae Pseudeuxestra prima 

Diptera Otilidae Scholastes bimaculatus 

Diptera Tethinidae Tethina insularius 

Diptera Ephydridae Hecamede persimilis 

Diptera Ephydridae Paralimna lineata 

Diptera Ephydridae Scatella sp. 

Diptera Agromyzidae Ophiomyia scaevolae 

Diptera Milichiidae Desmometopa m-nigrum 

Diptera Milichiidae Milichiella lacteipennis 

Diptera Chloropidae Cadrema pallida 

Diptera Chloropidae Siphunculina signata 

Diptera Muscidae Atherigona excisa trilineata 

Diptera Muscidae Musca domestica 

Diptera Calliphoridae Phaenicia sericata 

Diptera Sarcophagidae Sarcophaga dux 

Hymenoptera Evaniidae Evania appendigaster 

Hymenoptera Eulophidae Pnigalio sp. 

Hymenoptera Scelionidae Telenomus nawai 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Tetramorium guineense 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Tetramorium simillimum 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Tapinoma melanocephalum 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Camponotus variegatus hawaiiensis 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Paratrechina longicornis 

Hymenoptera Formicidae Paratrechina bourbonica hawaiiensis 

Hymenoptera Sphecidae Sceliphron caementarium 

Hymenoptera Vespidae Pachodynerus nasidens 

Hymenoptera Megachilidae Undetermined species 

Degener and Gillespy (1955) noted that the establishment of harmful insects on Abaririrnga 

(Canton) made it a dangerous stepping stone for the introduction of these insects to other 

regions. There were few native species of insects. However, some were being unknowingly 

introduced with plant introductions. 

Linnavuori (1956) reported the presence of the Cicadellidae, Nesophrosyne argentatus, from 

Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Manra (Sydney). Kulzer (1957) noted that the 

Tenebrionidae Coleoptera, Gonocephalum adpressiforme was found on Abariringa (Canton). 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1957) reported that the distribution of, Propsephus tongaensis 

(Coleoptera, Elateridae), included the Phoenix Islands. 

McIntire (1960) noted that the moth, Achaea janata, fed on Cordia subcordata trees on 

Abariringa (Canton). In some cases the entire tree has been defloliated. It was speculated 

that the moth limited the spread of these trees. 

McIntire (1960) noted the presence of the grasshopper, Aiolopus tamulus, and the cockroach, 

Pycnoscelus surinamensis. Several harmful insects have also been introduced. These 

included the scale insect that weakens coconut palms. The crater scale, which killed all 

introduced Plumeria rubra trees. 

48




McIntire (1960) noted that there were no mosquitoes on Abariringa (Canton). But there was 

a parasitic hippoboscid louse fly on some birds. If there was standing water, damselflies 

became numerous. 

Gressitt and Yamamoto (1963) reported that there were four ways that insects get to oceanic 

islands: (1) air currents; (2) rafts or logs; (3) feet or feathers of birds; and (4) man. Voluntary 

flight may be the mechanism for two species of dragonflies to become established on 

Abariringa (Canton). In addition, it may also be the mechanism used by the butterfly 

Hypolimnas bolina to become re-established there. 

Shiroma (1965) confirmed the absence of mosquitoes on Abariringa (Canton). Shiroma 

(1965) noted that 40 species of insects had been collected on Abariringa (Canton). No 

species list was provided. 

Beardsley (1965) reported that the notorious Rutherglen bug of Australia, Nysius vinitor 

Bergroth, had become established on Abariringa (Canton). 

Shiroma (1966) reported in 1965 there was an insect survey of Abariringa (Canton). During 

that survey 42 species of insects were collected. Eleven new insect were recorded. They 

included: 

1) Icerya purchasi (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), 

2) Pseudococcus vastator (Homoptera: Pesudococcidae); 

3) Orius persequens (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae); 

4) Chrysodeixis chalcites (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); 

5) Perigea dolorosa (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); 

6) Drosophila busckii (Diptera: Drosophilidae); 

7) Notogramma cimiciforme (Diptera: Otitidae); 

8) Hostis guamensis (Diptera: Ephydridae); 

9) Placopsidella cynecephala (Diptera: Ephydridae); 

10) Chrysoma megacephala (Diptera: Calliphoridae); and 

11) Chrysopa ramburi (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae); 

Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis 

group in Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.11). 

Table III-3.11. Distibution and hosts of Ornithoros capensis Neumann (*) 

and Ornithodoros capensis group (+) in the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Amerson 1968) 

49




Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia pusilla, O. aenescens, and O. 

spinifera from Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, McKean, Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix). 

The food plant needed by the monarch butterfly simultaneously was established on 

Abariringa (Canton) (Carlquist 1981). The presence of the monarch butterfly on Abariringa 

(Canton) showed a surprizing range of long-distace dispersal (Carlquist 1981). 

About 100 species of insects have been collected on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1974; see 

also Garnett 1983). 

Edwards and Thornton (2001) noted that the dragonfly, Pantala flavescens, had great powers 

of over sea dispersal and had reached oceanic islands such as Abariringa (Canton) that were 

at least 1,000 km from the nearest land. 

Oates (2003) noted that monarch butterflies were observed on Abariringa (Canton). 

One resident on Abariringa (Canton) raised bees (Oates 2003). Annual production of honey 

was about 125 gallons. 

Pierce et al (2006) reported on the occurance of ants on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, 

Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.12 below). None of 

these species were considered invasive. 

Table III-3.12. Ant species in the Phoenix Islands, May to June 2006. 


50




Species key: Carnud = Cardiocondyla nuda, Mondes = Monomorium destructor, Monflo = Monomorium 

floricole, Parlon = Paratrechina longicornis; Parvag = Paratrechina vaga; Phemeg = Pheidole megacephala, 

Tapmel = Tapinoma melanocephalum; Tetsim = Tetramorium simillimum. 

BIRNIE 

Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Birnie. 


group in Birnie (see Table III-3.11 above). 

Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia aenescens, from Birnie collected 

from Phaeton rubricauda. Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia 

pusilla, O. aenescens, and O. spinifera from Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, McKean, Orona 

(Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Garnett (1983) noted that there was one species of mite and two species of parasitic flies from 

Birnie. The two species of Diptera included: Olfersia aenescens, and Ornithoica pusilla. 


Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.12 above). None of 


ENDERBURY 

Perkins (1931) described a new species of coloptera, Proterhinus phoenix, based on 

specimens from Enderbury in the Phoenix Islands. 

Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Enderbury. 

Browne (1940) collected the following insects on Enderbury: 

1) Dermestes cadaverinus (Coleoptera) 

2) Aphis gossypii (Homoptera). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that a tiny beetle was found on Enderbury. It was hiding 

among the roots of herbs and bunch grass. It was a relative of the bark beetle in Hawaii, 

Samoa, and Fiji. 

51




Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to at least 30 species of insects. However, 

no list of species was provided. 

Amerson (1968) reported that the tick, Ixodes amersoni, was known from Rawaki (Phoenix) 

and Enderbury Islands. I. amersoni had been found on a red-footed booby, Sula sula on 

Enderbury in 1966. 


group in Enderbury (see Table III-3.11 above). 

Garnett (1983) listed the following species of insects on Enderbury: 

1) Pycnoscelus surinamensis 

2) Symploca capitata 

3) Periplaneta americana 

4) Lepolepis sp. 

5) Aphis gossypii 

6) Orosius argentatus 

7) Nephrosyne argentatus 

8) Reduviolus capsiformis 

9) Saemundsonnia hexagona 

10) Saemundsonia albemarlensis 

11) Eidmaniella albescens 

12) Iectinopygus gracilornis 

13) Quadracepts birostris 

14) Actornithophilus piceus 

15) Araecerus fasciculatus 

16) Harmonia acuta 

17) Rhyncogonus fosbergi 

18) Dermestes ater 

19) Dermestes cadaverinus 

20) Protorhinus phoenix 

21) Cosmopterigidae sp. 

22) Heliothis sp. (prob. armigeri) 

23) Spodoptera sp (prob. exempta) 

24) Olethreutidae sp 

25) Pterophoridae sp. 

26) Pyralidae sp. 

27) Amydria sp. 

28) Phaenica sericata 





Arundel (1885) noted that there were originally no mosquitoes on Manra (Sydney). 

However, after a visit from a vessel from Tahiti, mosquitoes (see also Bryan 1941 and 1942; 

in 1884 according to Garnett 1983) and hornets were observed. 

Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Manra (Sydney). 

Bryan (1939) reported that on wooded islands, such as Manra (Sydney), there were large 

moths, butterflies, grasshoppers, crickets, and dragonflies. 

There are several species of insects on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1940). But 

there were no mosquitos. 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported blue and white butterfly, several kinds of moths, dragonflies, 

ants, flies, leafhoppers, bugs, beetles, wasps, and spiders (see also Garnett 1983). 


Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Manra (Sydney). 

52





group in Manra (Sydney) (see Table III-3.11 above). 

MCKEAN 

Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on McKean. 

Some species of insects were noted for McKean (Hydrographic Office 1940), but none were 

identified. Flies and mosquitoes were absent. Small insects were common (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). 


group in McKean (see Table III-3.11 above). 

Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia spinifera, from McKean collected 

from Fregata minor. 



Garnett (1983) reported at least 15 species of insects on McKean, however, these have yet to 

be identified. Garnett (1983) noted the two species of Diptera on McKean included Olfersia 

spinifera, and Ornithoica pusilla. 

Pierce et al (2006) reported that there were Asian rats on McKean. An external parasitic tick 

was found on a juvenile Asian rat. 





Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

Bryan (1939) reported that on wooded islands, such as Nikumaroro (Gardner), there were 

large moths, butterflies, grasshoppers, crickets, and dragonflies. 

Gilbert Islands (1978) reported that there were no mosquitoes on Nikumaroro. However, 

flies concentrated at the expedition camp site. 




ORONA (HULL) 

53




Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Orona (Hull). 

Bryan (1939) reported that on wooded islands, such as Orona (Hull), there were large moths, 

butterflies, grasshoppers, crickets, and dragonflies. Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported 50 

different species of insects on Orona (Hull). However, insect life was less abundant than on 

wetter Manra (Sydney). 


Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Manra (Sydney). 

Usinger and Herring (1957) reported that the marine water striders were the only insect 

toinhabit the open ocean. In examining a new species of marine water striders, Hermatobates 

sp. from Coconut Island, Oahu, they noted that specimens from this obscure genus had also 

been collected on Orona (Hull). 


group in Orona (Hull) (see Table III-3.11 above). 

Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia aenescens, from Orona (Hull) 

collected from Anous stolidus. 



Garnett (1983) noted that there were 16 species of insects on Orona (Hull). These included 

the following: 

1) Phisis sp. 

2) Blattella germanica 

3) Lobopterella dimidiatipes 

4) Ectopsocus spilotus 

5) Orosius argentatus 

6) Hernatobates hawaiiensis 

7) Harmonia arcuata 

8) Trogoderma anthrenoides 

No mosquitos were found on Orona (PIKS Project Manager 2002). 

9) Utethesia pulchelloides 

10) Heliothis sp. (prob. armigera) 

11) Chrysosoma complicatum 

12) Hecamede persinilis 

13) Lamprolonchaea metatarsata 

14) Milichiella lactipennis 

15) Olfersia aenescens 

16) Ornithoica pusilla 





Lister (1891) reported that the lagoon on Rawaki (Phoenix) was swarming with mosquito 

larvae. 

Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

54




Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that insects were abundant, but of few species. These 

included flies, moths, leafhoppers, green bugs and spiders. 

Kohls (1966) described a new species of tick, Ixodes amersoni n. sp, from a fairy tern, Gygis 

alba, at Rawaki (Phoenix) in 1965 (see also Amerson 1968). Additional tick specimens were 

collected from white terns on Rawaki (Phoenix) in 1966 (Amerson 1968). 


group in Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.11 above). 

Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia aenescens, from Rawaki 

(Phoenix) collected from the following birds: Puffinus nativitatis, Pterodroma alba, Phaeton 

rubricauda, and Anous stolidus. 

Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia spinifera, from Rawaki (Phoenix) 

collected from Fregata minor. 



Garnett (1983) reported several insects on Rawaki (Phoenix): 

1) Nephrosyne argentatus 

2) Halipeuris bulweri 

3) Halipeuris heraldicus 

4) Halipeuris mirabilis 

5) Halipeuris spadix 

6) Trabeculus hexakon 

7) Naubates harrisoni 

8) Saemundsonia albemarlensis 

9) Saemundsonia sydneri 

10) Saemundsonia sp. 

11) Colpocephalum angulaticeps 

12) Frogatiella aurifasciata 

13) Iectinopygus gracilornis 

14) Iectinopygus sp. 

15) Quadraceps birostris 

16) Quadraceps separatus 

17) Quadraceps sp. 

18) Actornithophilus incisus 

19) Austromenopon atrofulvum 

20) Austromenopon sp. 

21) Protorhinus phoenix 

22) Olfersia spinifera 

23) Olfersia aenescens 




D. OTHER INVERTEBRATES 




Hermit crabs were found on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1934, 1941, and 1942; Donaggho 

1953). Ellis (1937) noted that occasionally thousands would congregate into a few square 

yards. 

55




Gardner (1938) provided an account of hermit crabs during the 1937 solar eclipse expedition. 

Hermit crabs were attracted to soap and food stuff. In addition, they took shelter on the shade 

side of tents. 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1943) identified 15 related invertebrate species (other than insects) on 

Abariringa (Canton). These are listed in Table III-3.13 below. Van Zwalunwenburg (1955) 

up-dated his 1943 list of arthropods (other than insects) that occurred on Abariringa (Canton). 

These are also included in Table III-3.13 below. Latrodectus mactans was added to the list 

and Filistata bakeris was deleted from it. 

Table III-3.13. List of 15 invertebrate species (other than insects) 

found on Abariringa (Canton). 

(source: Van Zwaluwenburg (1943 and 1955). 

Class Order 1943 Species 1955 species 

Crustacea Isopoda Metaponorthrus pruinosus X 

Crustacea Isopoda Undetermined species X 

Crustacea Amphipoda Undetermined species X 

Arachnida Scorpionoidea Isometrus maculatus X 

Arachnida Aranaeida Undetermined species X 

Arachnida Aranaeida Scytodes sp. X 

Arachnida Aranaeida Gamasomorpha minima X 

Arachnida Aranaeida Undetermined species X 

Arachnida Aranaeida Latrodectus mactans 

Arachnida Aranaeida Neoscona sp. X 

Arachnida Aranaeida Filistata bakeris 

Arachnida Acarina Laelaps sp. X 

Arachnida Acarina Listrophorides sp. X 

Arachnida Acarina Undetermined species X 

Arachnida Ixoidea Ornithodoros sp. X 

Myriapoda Chilopoda Mescistocepahlus prob. maxillaris X 

Chamberlin (1953) reported that chilopod (centipede), Honuaphilus alohanus, had been 

reported from various Pacific islands including Abariringa (Canton). 

Success of the proposed plant introductions to Abariringa (Canton) would be dependent on 

the swarms of hermit crabs (Anon 1955). McIntire (1960) noted that on Abariringa 

(Canton), crabs feed largely on the seedlings of plants. This made it difficult for many plants 

to reproduce. 

Murphy et al (1954) noted the enorous numbers of hermit crabs on Abariringa (Canton) and 

reported that they periodically destroy whole populations newly hatched chicks of greyheaded 

tern colonies. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that hermit crabs on Abariringa (Canton) which lived 

away from the bird rookeries had a vegetarian diet (see also Wiens 1962). 

56




Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that wolf spiders were abundant on Abariringa (Canton). 

The spider, Latrodectus geometricus, was common in abandoned shacks and bushes. 

McIntire (1960) noted that hermit crabs were attracted to Cordia and Messerschmidia tree 

groves on Abariringa (Canton) during the warmer parts of the day. It did not apprear that the 

hermit crabs damaged the trees. The most numerous crabs on Abariringa (Canton) were the 

small pale hermit crab, Coenobita perlatus (see also Degener and Gillaspy 1955). 

McIntire (1960) noted that there were a few native spiders on Abariringa (Canton). The wolf 

spider, which did not weave a web, was everywhere. The spiker, Latrodectus geometricus, a 

relative of the black widow, was found in abandoned shacks and in bushes. No bites were 

known from Abariringa (Canton). 

The scorpion, Isometrus maculatus, in the Buthidae family was found on Abariringa (Canton) 

(Wiens 1962). 

The hermit crab, Coenobita perlata, and land crabs were the most conspicuous invertebrates 

on Abariringa (Canton) (Garnett 1983). 

On Abariringa (Canton), Cardisoma carnifex [the land crab] dispersed the fruit of Pandanus 

tectorius as much as 25 m. (Lee 1985). The distance was much less on Christmas Island, 

and could be related to the densities of land crabs there compared with Abariringa (Canton) 

(O'Dowd and Lake 1991). 

Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that hermit crabs (te makauro) were observed on 

Abariringa (Tunaari), specially at Terieta, Bikentabwakea, and Umari. Land crabs (te mania) 

were also observed, but were not as abundant as hermit crabs. 

Neilson (2002) reported that on the southeastern edge of Abariringa (Kanton), at a large 

colony of Sterna lunata (perhaps 1,000 birds), almost half of the eggs were either empty, 

damaged or being eaten by hermit crabs. 

Oates (2003) noted that hermit crabs, Coenobita perlatus, kept the beaches clear of dead fish 

and animals. However, this was not enough food, so hermit crabs often had to eat plants and 

seeds. This kept the vegetation low. 

Pierce et al (2006) examined the species diversity of various terrestrial crab species on 

Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see 

Table III-3.14). Crabs species included the hermit crab, Coenobita spp., land crab, 

Cardisoma spp., and coconut crab, Birgus latra. 

Table III-3.14. Crab species recorded for the Phoenix Islands, April to May 2006 

(P=present but not recorded in transect; U=unknow/incomplete survey). 


57




BIRNIE 

Hermit crabs were found on Birnie (Hydrographic Office 1940). They were more numerous 

than the rats (Bukaeireiti and Rabaua 2002). 

According to Garnett (1983), there was one species of Arachnida on Birnie, Ornithodoros 

capensis. 



Table III-3.14 above). Crabs species included the hermit crab, Coenobita spp., land crab, 


ENDERBURY 

Hermit crabs were found on Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Abbott (1966) reported that thousands of hermit crabs now inhabit the abandoned guano 

worker houses. 

King (1973) noted that hermit crabs have been observed causing mortality in large sooty tern 

colonies (800,000 birds) and in frigatebird colonies. 

Bryan (1974) claimed that the principal damage done to the large colony of sooty terns and 

frigatebirds was caused by hermit crabs. 

Garnett (1983) reported two species of spiders (Arachnida) on Enderbury: Argasidae, 

Ornithodoros capensis, and Ixodidae, Ixodes amersoni. 

In 1995, land crabs were found on Enderbury (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

58




In 2002, coconut crabs were observed breaking bird eggs with their pincers (Yoshinaga 

2002). According to Yoshinaga (2002), “small red coconut crabs were common in troicbird 

nests under shrubs and rock shelves.” 






Hermit crabs were found on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Bryan 

1941 and 1942). 

Garnett (1983) reported the hermit crab, Coenobita sp., on Manra (Sydney). Garnett (1983) 

also noted the presence of spiders on Manra (Sydney). 

Government of Kiribati (1995) reported hermit and land crabs on Manra. 

Kepler (2000) reported that two medium-large coconut crabs were transported from Flint 

Island to Manra and released. 

MCKEAN 

Several kinds of crabs were noted on McKean (Hydrographic Office 1940). Bryan (1941 and 

1942) noted that hermit and other crabs were present on McKean. 

Garnett (1983) reported the hermit crab, Coenobita perlata, and land crab, Geograpsus 

grayii, on McKean. 

Garnett (1983) reported the Arachinda, Ornithodoros capensis, on McKean. 






Coconut crabs were so numerous that in the 1880’s Niue workers named the island, “motu 

oonga”, island of coconut crabs (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Ellis (1937) reported that there were 

extraordinary numbers of large coconut crabs on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (see also Wiens 

1962). Many were up to 3.6 kg (8 pounds). There were only 7 or 8 coconut trees on the 

island, so they must have fed on something else besides coconuts. 

During the 1937 survey of Nikumaroro (Gardner) in advance of resettlement, a landing party 

was sent ashore (Bevington 1990; see also Maude 1937). After the first night, when they 

59




awoke they realized that the thick callous on their feet had been eaten by hungry hermit 

crabs. On the second night, natives collected and ate 30 coconut crabs. Most of the landing 

party became sick from the rich meal. 

There were crabs on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

According to Baarslag (1940), Nikumaroro (Gardiner) was overrun with coconut crabs, 

Birgus latro, that weigh up to 3.6 kg (8 pounds). There were also land and hermit crabs 

(Bryan 1941 and 1942). Maude (1952) reported that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had some of the 

largest coconut crabs in the Pacific. 

Garnett (1983) noted that the coconut crab, Birgus latro, were still present in large numbers. 

In addition there were land crabs, probably Cardisoma carnifex, and land hermit crabs, 

Coenobita sp. on Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

In 1995, coconut crabs were observed at Maroro and Etanterawa on Nikumaroro 

(Government of Kiribati 1995). Coconut trees were crowded at Niku, so it was assumed that 

coconut crabs were also there. Land and hermit crabs were also found in large numbers. 

In January 2000, coconut crabs were extremely sparse (Kepler 2000). Only 3 were observed 

after many hours of searching. Land crabs, Cardisoma carnifex, occupied coconut crab 

burrows. Kepler (2000) noted that during the 1999 expedition to Nikumaroro to find 

evidence of Amelia Earhart there, the Fijian crew ate every coconut crab in sight. Kepler 

(2000) advised the organizers of the Earhart expedition that they should not harvest coconut 

crabs. 

King et al (2001) reported coconut crabs on Nikumaroro. Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002) 

noted that coconut crabs were abundant on Nikumaroro. 





ORONA (HULL) 

Hermit crabs were present on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1934). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported 

that land and hermit crabs were found on Orona (Hull). 

Garnett (1983) noted that there were land and hermit crabs on Orona (Hull) (see also Bryan 

1942). 

In 1995, land and hermit crabs were noted on Orona (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

Coconut crabs were also observed. 

In January 2000, signs of coconut crabs were identified (1 pile of shredded fibers) (Kepler 

2000). However, no coconut crabs were observed. Kepler (2000) noted that land crabs, 

Cardisoma carnifex were abundant. 

60









Lister (1891) reported that a large scarlet hermit crab was abundant and had attacked bird 

specimens that had been collected. 

Hermit crabs were on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Garnett (1983) noted the presence of the hermit crab, Coenobita perlata, on Rawaki 

(Phoenix). 

According to Garnett (1983), there were two species of Arachnida on Rawaki (Phoenix): 

Ornithodoros capensis, and Ixodes amersoni. 





E. AMPHIBIANS 

ABARIRINGA (CANTON) 

There were no amphibians on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960; Degener and Gillaspy 

1955). 

F. REPTILES 



Bryan (1974) noted that the two species of lizards that were common on Pacific Islands 

included the snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus boutonii poecilopleura, and the morning gecko, 

Lepidodactylus lugubris. 

Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, 

McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 below). 

Table III-3.15. Lizard species recorded on the Phoenix Islands, April to May 2006. 


61





Lizards were found on Abariringa (Canton) (Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan 1934; Bryan 

1941; Bryan 1942). One species of lizard was observed by Bunker (1951). 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported an adhesive-toed gecko and skink on Abariringa 

(Canton) (see also Wiens 1962). 

Murphy et al (1954) reported the skink, Ablepharus boutoni peocilopleurus, was extremely 

numerous in April 1949. It appeared that skink density was 0.8 per m 2 (1 per square yard). 

The skink was the principal diet of golden plover. However, by 1952 and 1954, skinks were 

not numerous. 

McIntire (1960) noted that there was a species of gecko and skink on Abariringa (Canton). 

Plovers often catch them for food. 

62




Garnett (1983) reported that there were 4 species of lizards on Abariringa (Canton). These 

included the following: 

1) Mourning gecko, Lepidodactylus lugubris, 

2) House gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus, 

3) Stump-toed gecko, Gehyra mutilata, 

4) Snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus bouton. 

Levy (1996) reported tiny insect-eating lizards on Abariringa (Canton). 


McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 above). 

BIRNIE 

No species of reptiles were reported from Birnie (Garnett 1983). There were no lizards there. 



ENDERBURY 


and reported seeing lizards and skink. 

Lizards were found on Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to 2 species of reptiles. The species name 

was not provided. 

In 1973, Clapp (1975) observed gray-backed terns, Sterns lunata, on Enderbury, swoop down 

and catch a snake-eyed skink, Crypotblepharus boutoni. Captured skinks were consumed in 

flight by the terns. This appeared to be the first documentation of skink consumption by 

gray-backed terns and might be related to the abundance of skink on Enderbury. 

Garnett (1983) reported two species of lizards on Enderbury. These included: the mouring 

gecko, Lepidodactylus lugubris, and snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus boutonii. 

Radtkey et al (1995) investigated the origin and spread of an asexual species of gecko in the 

central Pacific. They identified a new species of gecko, Lepidodactylus sp. nov. that ranged 

from the Marshall Islands to French Polynesia. Specimens examined included one from 

Enderbury. 




63




Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported the presence of lizards on Manra (Sydney). 

Garnett (1983) noted that there were two species of reptiles on Manra (Sydney), the 

Polynesian gecko, Gehyra oceanica, and snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus boutonii. 



MCKEAN 

A few lizards were noted on McKean (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Bryan 1941 and 

1942). 

Garnett (1983) reported one species of lizard on McKean, the morning gecko, Lepidodactylus 

lugubris. 




Garnett (1983) reported five species of lizards from Nikumaroro (Gardner). These included: 

1) Mourning gecko, Lepidodactylus lugubris, 

2) House gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus, 


4) Snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus bouton, 

5) Polynesian gecko, Gehyra oceanica, 

6) Azure-tailed skink, Emoia cyanura. 



ORONA (HULL) 

Lizards were present on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1934). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that 

three species of lizards were found there. No species list was provided. 

Garnett (1983) reported four species of lizards from Orona (Hull). They included: 


2) Snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus bouton, 

3) Polynesian gecko, Gehyra oceanica, 

4) Azure-tailed skink, Emoia cyanura. 



64





Lizards were on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there were no lizards on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Garnett (1983) noted that no lizards had been reported on Rawaki (Phoenix). 



G. BIRDS 

Bryan (1940a, 1941, and 1942) reported that the bird life had been described by J.J. Lister 

(see Lister 1891). Lister (1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa 

(Canton), Birnie, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) 

(see Table III-3.16 below). No birds were noted for Enderbury or Orona (Hull). 

Table III-3.16. Bird species identified on various Phoenix Islands* 

(source: Lister 1891). 

species Abariringa Birnie Manra McKean Nikumaroro Rawaki 

(Canton) (Sydney) 

(Gardner) (Phoenix) 

Charadrius fulvus X X X 

Strepsilas interpres X X X 

Numenius tahitiensis X X X 

Totanus incanus X X 

Sterna bergii X 

Sterna panaya X 

Sterna fuliginosa X X 

Sterna lunata X X X 

Sterna melanauchen X 

Anous stolidus X X X X 

Anous caeruleus X X X X X 

Gygis candida X X X X X 

Frgata minor X 

Fregata aquila X 

Phaeton rubricauda X X X X 

Phaeton aetheus X 

Sula leucogaster X X X X X 

Sula cyyanops X X X X X 

Sula piscatrix X X X X X 

Puffinus assimilis X 

Puffinus dichrous X 

Puffinus 

chlororhynchus 

X 

Puffinus nativitatis X X 

Estrelata X X 

65




parvirostris 

Fregetta albigularis X 

Dafla modesta X 

*no birds were noted for Enderbury and Orona (Hull) by Lister (1891). 

Maude (1952) reported that there were millions of seabirds in the Phoenix Islands including, 

frigatebirds, boobies or gannets, the red-tailed tropicbirds, and white and sooty terns. 

Murphy and Ikehara (1955) reported on tuna school observations in relationship with bird 

schools in the Pacific Islands (including the Phoenix Islands). 

Child (1960) reported that Lister observed a few frigatebird nests with two eggs in it in the 

Phoenix Islands. Most only had one egg. Child (1960) noted that no breeding colonies were 

observed in the Gilbert or Elice Islands. Frigatebirds must fly several hundred miles to rearch 

their breeding colonies in the Phoenix Islands. According to Child (1960), Abariringa 

(Canton) and other Phoenix Islands were known breeding places for the greater frigate-bird 

(Pacific frigate-bird), Fregata minor palmerstoni. 

Child (1960) reported that the eggs of the grey-backed tern, which bred in the thousands in 

the Phoenix group, were eaten in times of food shortage. 

Child (1960) reported that the black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana sumatrana, was 

uncommon in the Phoenix Islands. The sooty tern (wideawake tern), Sterna fuscata 

oahuensis, was very common in the Phoenix Islands. Locals on Christmas Island reported 

that sooty terns that nest there migrated to the Phoenix group after breeding on Christmas 

Island. 

Child (1960) reported immense breeding colonies of grey-backed terns (bridled or spectacled 

tern), Sterna lunata, in the Phoneix Islands. Child (1960) reported nesting colonies of brown 

booby (common booby), Sula leucogaster plotus, on Abariringa (Canton) and other Phoenix 

Islands. Child (1960) reported that small colonies of the red-footed booby, Sula sula 

(rubripes?) had been observed on most of the Phoenix Islands. The white-throated stormpetrel, 

Nesofregetta albigularis, bred in the Phoenix Islands (Child 1960). The species had a 

very wide feeding range of nearly 1,609 km (1,000 miles). The Pacific golden plover, 

Pluvialis dominica fulva, occurred in the Phoenix Islands (Child 1960). 

The Pacific godwit (eastern bar-tailed godwit), Limosa lapponica baueri, had not been 

reported for the Phoenix Islands (Child 1960). However, Child (1960) speculated that a few 

stragglers may touch the Phoenix Islands periodically. 

The long-tailed New Zealand cuckoo, Urodynamis taitensis, was rare in the Manra (Sydney), 

Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960). There was a belief in the Phoenix 

Islands that if the cuckoo’s cry was heard above a house, one of the occupants would be 

strikened with severe stomach pains. 

The shoveller (duck), Spatula clypeata, was observed on Abariringa (Canton) and other 

Phoenix Islands (Child 1960). 

66




Ashmole (1963) noted that Phoenix and Line Islands sooty terns, Sterna fuscata, had a very 

different molt program than sooty terns elsewhere. Birds from the Line and Phoenix Islands 

have two breeding periods each year. With a six month breeding cycle, some individuals 

underwent a complete molt, but others only replaced some of its primaries and secondaries 

from one breeding cycle to the next. 

From 1963 to 1965, as part of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme of the 

smithsonian Institution, periodic biological surveys of the Phoenix and Line Islands were 

conducted (Clapp and Sibley 1967). These surveys included bird surveys. 

Clapp (1968) noted that there were discrete differences in the fall migrations of the sharptailed 

sandpiper, E. acuminata, and the pectoral sandpiper, E. melantos to the Phoenix 

Islands. E. melantos was observed in September and E. acuminata observed in November. 

Sibley and Clapp (1967) reported the lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel, bred on many islands 

of the Phoenix Islands. They estimated a population of 70,000 breeding birds in the Phoenix 

Islands (including Howland) (see Table III-3.17 below). Almost all leave the Phoenix 

Islands during the non-breeding period (December to April). 

Table III-3.17. Breeding status and populations of lesser frigatebirds 

(source: Sibley and Clapp 1967) 

Breeding 

Island Location Present status Nest site Population Population 

In 1963 and 1964, 13,027 nestlings and 146 adult lesser frigatebirds were banded on 

Howland, McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury (Sibley and Clapp 1967). Band 

recovery data indicated that 74 percent of young lesser frigatebirds were caught over 2,000 

miles from their birth island. Thirty one percent were caught 6,437 to 8,047 km (4,000 to 

5,000 miles) away. Figure III-3.3 illustrates the probable dispersal path of lesser frigatebirds 

from the Phoenix Islands. Adult lesser frigatebirds may not disperse as widely and do the 

young. 

67




Figure III-3.3. Dispersal of lesser frigatebirds from the Central Pacific 

Including the Phoenix Islands and prevailing wind patterns 

(source: Sibley and Clapp 1967) 

Clapp and Sibley (1967) reported new records of bird species for Abariringa (Canton), 

Birnie, Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) 


Table III-3.18. List of new records of bird species in the Phoenix Islands. 

(source: Clapp and Sibley 1967). 

Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Rawaki 

(Canton) 

(Sydney) 

(Gardner) (Phoenix) 

Spatula clypeata X 

Erolia acuminata X X X X X X X 

Limosa lapponica X X 

Crocethia alba X X X X X 

Amerson (1968) noted that five species of birds breed only in the Line and Phoenix Islands. 

They included: Puffinus lherminieri, Pterodroma alba, Nesofregetta albigularis, Fregata 

ariel, and Thal asseus bergii. Birds that only breed in the Phoenix Islands were not 

identified. 

68





group in the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.11 above). 

Sibley and McFarlane (1968) reviewed records of gulls from the Phoenix Islands. They 

noted that no gulls were collected by the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program (POBSP). 

In 1963, gulls were seen once in the Phoenix Islands. However, this sighting was apparently 

from Baker Island, not one of the eight islands identified here as part of the Phoenix group. It 

was still a puzzle why gulls had not colonized tropical islands such as the Phoenix Islands. 

Fosberg et al (1973) reported that a small number of birds were being killed by collision with 

radar masts on the Phoenix Islands. Forsberg et al (1973) did not specify which islands these 

radar masts were located. It was recommended that these birds be collected and dried, then 

periodically turned over to scientists. Any bird band information should also be recorded. 

Bryan (1974) presented a table of birds common on the equatorial Pacific Islands. However, 

resident and migratory birds for the Phoenix Islands in general, or for each of the Phoenix 

Islands were not identified. 

Harrington (1977) reported that adult red-footed boobies from south-central Pacific islands 

(including the Phoenix Islands) include small number of white morph birds, and the more 

easily identified darker morphs. Those from Hawaii and Johnston were white morphs. The 

immatures from the south and north were not readily separable. Banding studies indicate that 

there is little mixing of red-footed boobies between the south and north Pacific. 

Mayr (1978) reported that the Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, the black-naped tern, Sterna 

sumatrana, the sooty tern, Sterna fuscata, the bridled tern, Sterna lunata, the crested tern, 

Thalasseus bergii, blue-gray fairy ternlet, Procelsterna cerulea, ranged throughout the 

tropical Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands. The white-throated storm petrel, Nesofregetta 

albigularis, the Christmas shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, and the red-tailed tropic-bird, 

Phaethon rubricauda, bred in the Phoenix Islands. 

Schreiber and Schreiber (1988) noted that the pattern of sexual dimorphism for the great 

frigatebird, Fregata minor, found in the Phoenix Islands was similar to that found elsewhere. 

They noted that mass of birds from Phoenix Islands was the most dimorphic (1.37) of all 

islands, but was similar to that found on Christmas Island (1.28). 

Alder (1992) the Phoenix Islands were very endemic species-poor (relating to bird species). 

Low islands, such as the Pheonix Islands, Tokelau, Line Islands, Wake, etc. only had between 

one to four total endemic bird species. 

Neemia and Thaman (1993) reported that the bird population numbered in the millions 

consisting of less than a dozen families. Rare visitors included the reed warbler, 

Acrocephalus aequinoctialis, and the red-tailed tropic bird, Phaethon rubricanda. 

Marks and Redmond (1994) reported that bristle-thighed curlew under take a >6,000 km nonstop 

flights from Alaska to the central Pacific (including the Phoenix Islands). One model 

they applied indicated that curlew could make the 7,160 km flight from Alaska to the Phoenix 

Islands. They speculate that curlew seek out tailwinds that facilitate long-distance, non-stop 

flights. 

69




Government of Kiribati (1995) reported on bird observations on Abariringa, Enderbury, 

Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 below). 

Table III-3.19. Birds Observed on Various Phoenix Islands in 1995 

(source: Government of Kiribati 1995) 

common name local name Abariringa Enderbury Manra Nikumaroro Orona 

great frigatebird eitei bubura x x x x x 

lesser frigatebird eitei uarereke x x x x 

masked booby mouakena x x x x 

red-footed booby kootaa x x x x 

brown booby 

korobwaro ke 

kibui x x x x 

red-tailed tropicbird taake x x x 

brown noddy Io ke kunei x x 

black noddy mangkiri x x x x x 

gray-backed tern tarangongo x x x 

white tern 

matawa ke 

kiakia x x x x x 

sooty tern taraariki x x 

golden plover 

bristle-thighed 

te kun x x x x x 

curlew kewe x x x x 

wandering tattler kitibwa x x 

Sanderling kiriri x x x x 

Kepler (2000) reported on bird counts on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and 

Nikumaroro (see Table III-3.20 below). 

Table III-3.20. Birds observed in the Phoenix Islands in January 2000 

(source: Kepler 2000). 

Abariringa 

(Canton) 

Enderbury Manra* Nikumaroro Orona 

Sooty tern 1,000+ 50+ 

Grey-back tern 4,000+ 

Sooty tern & grey-back 

15,000tern 

20,000 

Great frigatebird 4 6+ 50-100 300-350 

Lesser frigatebird 8 5 

Lesser & great frigatebirds 5,000 

Brown noddy 1,000+ 150 1,200+ 1,000-1,500 900- 

1,200 

Black noddy 60 1,000+ 1,000- 

1,500 

Masked booby 60 120-150 6 

Red-footed booby 48 4 300-500 300-400 

Wedge-tailed shearwater 500+ 24 

70




Brown booby 30 12 100-120 

White tern 20 4 40+ 1,000 1,200- 

1,500 

Audobon’s shearwater 3 

Ruddy turnstone 60-80 30 

Golden plover 8 25 8 10 

Bristle-thighed curlew 1 

Wandering tattler 12 4 5 

White-tailed tropicbird 2 

Laysan albatross 1 

*counts for specific areas of the island, see Kepler (2000) for exact locations. 



Neilson (2002) noted that a bird species may be at different stages of the breeding cycle 

depending on which island it was on. During the June/July 2002 expedition, Sterna lunata on 

Abariringa (Kanton) and Rawaki were incubating eggs, while on Orona, nests contained large 

eggs. 

In 2002, birds were identified and counted in Abariringa, Birnie, Manra, McKean, 

Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). Results of these counts are 

provided in Table III-3.21. 

Table III-3.21. Birds observed in the Phoenix Islands in 2002 

(source: Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). 

species 

Abariringa Birnie Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki 

(Canton)* 

(Phoenix) 

Great frigatebird 2 260 1 105 

Lesser frigatebird 3,500 

Grey back tern 10 115 

White tern 2 26 20 50 110 100 100 

Sooty tern 5 1,100 100,000+ 750,100 

Brown booby 125 30 105 37 

Masked booby 1 1,509 22 305 50 2080 

Red footed booby 1257 50 21 11 

Brown noddy 3,101 2 60 2,023 111 1500 1,000 

Black noddy 3 22 1 201 

Blue grey noddy 100 

Red-tailed 

tropicbrid 

3 9 1 

Golden plover 1 

Bristle thigh curlew 1 1 1 30 

Christmas 

shearwater 

60 

Audubon 

shearwater 

1 

71




Wedge-tailed 

shearwater 

White throated 

storm petrel 

*count from islet adjacent to lagoon to sea passage, not entire atoll. 

Neilson (2002) reported the presences of various bird species on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, 

Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 below). 

Table III-3.22. The presence of bird species on the different Phoenix Islands* 

(source: Neilson 2002). 

*A=Nikumaroro (Nikumoro), B=Manra, C=Rawaki, D=Abariringa (Kanton), E=Enderbury, F=Birnie, 

G=Orona. 

In 2002, bird surveys were conducted on all Phoenix Islands, except McKean (Obura and 

Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef herons, or blue-gray 

noddies were observed. Bird species observed and their population estimates are provided in 

Table III-3.23 below. 

Table III-3.23. 2002 observed bird species and their population estimates 

(source: Obura and Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002). 

20 

1 

72




Yoshinaga (2002) reported that bird numbers appeared to be noticeably lower in 2002 than in 

2000. This may have been due to natural variation, or seasonal variations. Both the 2000 and 

2002 surveys were conducted in the month of June. Yoshinaga (2002) speculated that 

perhaps the crew of foreign fishing vessels had poached eggs. But this probably would not 

account for a significant decline in bird populations. 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided a list of bird species observed on Rawaki (Phoenix), 

Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.24 below). 

Table III-3.24. Inventory and breeding status of seabirds on the Phoenix Islands 

(Rawaki (Phoenix), Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Kanton) 

(B=breeding; b=possibly breeding; v=visitor or migrant). 


73




Pierce et al (2006) compared the number of bird species found during offshore and terrestrial 

surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 below). 

Table III-3.25. Relationship between seabird diversity from offshore and terrestrial 

surveys, O=Orona, K= Abariringa (Kanton), N = Nikumaroro, B= Birnie, M= McKean, 

E = Enderbury, R= Rawaki. 


74




Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of 

the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 below). 

Table III-3.26. Preliminary estimates of number of seabird pairs in 

the Phoenix Islands, April-May 2006. 


75




Note: all figures represent estimated total pairs except where “i” indicates “individuals” Red indicates 

threatened species, green = important populations, yellow = numbers greatly declined since 1960s. 

Pierce et al (2006) summarized significant seabird population changes in the Phoenix Islands 

since the 1960s (see Table III-3.27 below). 

Table III-3.27. Summary of significant seabird population changes in 

the Phoenix Islands since the 1960s. 


76




Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the 

Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 below). 

Table III-3.28. Shore and land birds on the Phoenix Islands, 

April to May 2006 (total number observed). 


Pierce et al (2006) examined the likely impacts of different pests on seabird colonies in the 

Phoenix Islands. Likely impacts are provided in Table III-3.29 below. 

Table III-3.29. Likely impacts of different pests on seabirds in the Phoenix Islands. 


77




Pierce et al (2006) reported that two species of birds in the Phoenix Islands were listed in the 

2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (see www.iucnredlist.org). 

1) The Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba - endanged. 

2) White-throated storm-petrel, Nesofregetta albigularis - vulnerable. 


In 1861, as part of guano investigations, J.D. Hague provided notes on the sea birds of 

Abariringa (Canton) (Murphy et al 1954; Hague 1862). 

Lister was part of the surveying voyage of the H.M.S. Egeria (Murphy et al 1954). Lister 

(1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Manra 

(Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.16 above). 

Eighteen species of birds were identified from Abariringa (Canton) (Murphy et al 1954). 

In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition completed a bird collection on Abariringa 

(Canton) (Murphy et al 1954). E.H. Bryan, Jr. was on this expedition and reported findings 

in a series of articles in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s. 

In 1937, several pairs of brown-winged tern, Sterna anaethetus anaethetus, were observed on 

Abariringa (Canton) by Bunddle (Child 1960). There were no signs of nesting. 

In 1937, G.A. Buddle, a New Zealand ornithologist, was part of the eclipse expedition to 

Abariringa (Canton) (Murphy et al 1954; Buddle 1938). Buddle (1939) reported that the 

birds of Abariringa (Canton) had been studied in 1889 and in 1937 (Buddle 1938 during the 

eclipse expedition; see also Bryan 1941 and 1942). There were few changes between 1889 

and 1937 (Buddle 1938 and 1939). Twenty species of birds were recorded in 1937 (Buddle 

1938). These included: 

1) Puffinus pacificus chlororhyncus 

2) Puffinus nativitatis 

11) Thalasseus hergii cristatus 

12) Sterna fuscata oahuensis 

78




3) Puffinus lherminieri dichrous 

4) Pterodroma alba 

5) Phaeton rubricauda 

6) Sula dactylatra personata 

7) Sula leucogaster plotus 

8) Sula sula rubripes 

9) Fregeta magnificens magnificens 

10) Fregeta minor palmerstoni 

13) Sterna lunata 

14) Sterna anaethetus anaethetus 

15) Sterna sumatrana sumatrana 

16) Gygis alba candida 

17) Anous stolidus pileatus 

18) Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi 

19) Numenius tahitiensis 

20) Pulvialis dominica fulva 

The wideawake terns that were reported breeding in large number in 1889 have completely 

disappeared (Buddle 1938). In addition, the turnstones and sandpipers noted in 1889 were 

also not observed. A new visitor, Frigeta magnificens, was observed in 1937 (Buddle 1938). 

Buddle (1938) provided a narrative for each species of bird observed. 

Buddle (1938) provided a map of Abariringa (Canton) indicating the areas occupied by each 

species of bird (see Figure III-3.4 below). 

Figure III-3.4. Map of Abariringa (Canton) indicated areas occupied 

by different bird species. 

(source: Buddle 1938). 

79




Buddle (1938) probably saw lesser frigatebirds on Abariringa (Canton) (according to Sibley 

and Clapp 1967). 


(Canton) and reported that bird life was considerably more scarce than at Howland. White 

terns and bo’son birds were the only bird in abundance. Fifty bo’sun birds were banned. 

Noddies, Christmas Island shearwater, red-footed boobies, frigatebirds, and Phoenix petrels 

were also observed. 

Gardner (1938) speculated that rats on Abariringa (Canton) lived on bird eggs which resulted 

in bird populations on Abariringa (Canton) being less than on Enderbury. 

Bryan (1940a) reported that the largest bird species was the great frigage of man-o-war bird, 

Fregata minor palmerstoni. It outnumbered all other birds on Abariringa (Canton). 

According to Bryan (1940a), Bundle (1938) reported seeing the magnificent frigate bird, 

Fregata magnificans, flying with the greater frigate, but was not reported to nest on 


The next largest birds and also abundant (Bryan 1940a) were the three species of boobies, the 

blue-faced booby, Sula dactylatra personata, the red-footed booby, Sula sula rubripes, and 

the brown booby, Sula leucogastra plotus. 

The red-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos, was also fairly abundant 

(Bryan 1940a). There were four species of shearwaters and petrels that have been observed 

on Abriringa (Canton) (Bryan 1940a). These included the wedge-tailed shearwater, Puffinus 

pacificus chlororhynchus, the Christmas Islands shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, the dusky 

shearwater, Puffinus ilherminieri dicrous, and the Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba. 

Also, eight species of terns have been reported from Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1940a). 

These colonies come and go. The wideawake or sooty tern, Sterna fuscata oahuensis, 

spectacled or bridled tern, Sterna lunata, and brown noddy, Anous stolidus pileatus, were 

abundant. The white tern, Gygis alba, and the blue-gray noddy, Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi 

were common, but not numerous. The crested tern, Thalasseus bergii cristatus, brownwinged 

tern, Sterna anaethetus, and black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana, were observed 

within flocks of other more abundant species. 

Other species were migratory (Bryan 1940a). This included the Pacific golden plover, 

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus, the turnstone, Arenaria interpres, the wandering tattler, 

Heteroscelus incanus, and the bristle-thighed curlew, Numenius tahitensis. 

Mathews (1942) proposed a new subspecies of birds from Abariringa (Canton), Pterodroma 

alba cantonia subsp. nov. He noted that this subspecies bred in June or July on Abariringa 

(Canton). 

During World War II, most birds left Abariringa (Canton) due to the test firing of canons and 

massive construction on the island (Oates 2003). After the military left in 1946, birds slowly 

moved back to Abariringa (Canton). In 1943, the dredging of the channel was completed and 

Spam island was created. Spam island became a natural bird sanctuary. Bird populations 

flourished there after the war. 

80




Porter (1950) observed colonies of frigate birds, Frigata minor palmerstoni, red-footed 

boobies, Sula sula rubripes, blue-faced boobies, Sula dacctylatra personata, at one quarter 

mile intervals along the 30 miles of roads on Abariringa (Canton). In addition, plover, sooty 

terns, red-tailed tropic birds, Phaethon rubricauda, and fairy terns were observed in large 

numbers. 

Bunker (1951) noted frigate birds, three species of booby, golden plovers, bosun’s birds, and 

several species of terns. 

Bailey (1952) reported collecting specimens of sea brids on Abariringa (Canton). These 

included: man-o’-war-birds, red-footed and blue-faced boobies, grey backed and white terns, 

and red-tailed tropicbirds. 

Murphy et al (1954) noted the enorous numbers of hermit crabs on Abariringa (Canton) and 

reported that they periodically destroy whole populations newly hatched chicks of greyheaded 

tern colonies. 

Murphy et al (1954) noted abundant numbers of Polynesian rats, Mus exulans. Prior to 

World War II, it was thought that these rats may have been responsible for the reduced 

avaifauna of Abariringa (Canton). 

Murphy et al (1954) combined information from a variety of sources regarding Abariringa 

(Canton) avifauna and summarized them by species. The following bird species were 

summarized and discussed by Murphy et al (1954). 

1) Puffinus pacificus chlororhynchus, 

2) Puffinus lherminieri dichrous, 

3) Puffinus nativitatis, 

4) Pterodroma alba, 

5) Phaethon lepturus, 

6) Phaethon rubricauda 

melanorhynchos, 

7) Sula dactylatra personata, 

8) Sula leucogaster plotus, 

9) Sula sula subspecies, 

10) Fregata minor palmerstoni, 

11) Fregata ariel, 

12) Anas platyrhynchos, 

13) Spatula clypeata, 

14) Pluvialis dominicus fulvus, 

15) Arenaria interpres interpres, 

16) Numenius tahitiensis, 

17) Heteroscelus incanus, 

18) Pisobia acuminata, 

19) Crocethia alba, 

20) Sterna fuscata oahuensis, 

21) Sterna lunata, 

22) Sterna anaethetus anaethetus, 

23) Sterna sumatrana sumatrana, 

24) Thalasseus bergii cristatus, 

25) Anous stolidus pileatus, 

26) Anous minutus melanogenys, 

27) Gygis alba candida, 

28) Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi 

Walker (1955) noted that parakeets were popular pets on Abariringa (Canton). 

Witherspoon (1957) reported turnstones, golden plovers, gray-backed terns, sooty terns, black 

noddies, brown noodies, man-o-war birds, brown boobies, blue-faced boobies, red-footed 

boobies, white fairy terns, red-tailed tropic birds, Phoenix Islands petrel, and wedge-tailed 

shearwaters on Abariringa (Canton). 

McIntire (1960) noted that Scaevola scrub on the southeastern part of Abariringa (Canton) 

was an important nesting area for enormous numbers of sea birds, including frigatebirds, 

Fregata minor palmerstoni, and red-footed boobies, Sula sula rubripes. McIntire (1960) 

81




noted that as many as 45 birds nest in a single bush. Hatheway (1955) suggested that the 

limiting factor for bird nesting was the limited amount of Scaevola scrub for nesting sites. 

McIntire (1960) noted that frigatebirds often made their nests in Suriana bushes. McIntire 

(1960) reported that about 8 miles of Abariringa (Canton) were rookeries. Most of these 

rookeries were formed by frigatebirds, Fregate minor palmerstoni, or red-footed boobies, 

Sula sula rubripes. Other species nesting on Abariringa (Canton) included: ref-tailed tropic 

birds, Phaeton rubricauda, which nested under Sida fallax bushes or under coral rock ledges. 

In addition, there were two or three species of petrels and shearwaters, sooty tern, graybacked 

tern, noddy, small noody, white tern, and gray terns. 

McIntire (1960) noted that chickens were kept by Abariringa (Canton) residents. There was a 

parasitic hippoboscid louse fly on some birds. 

Child (1960) reported a large colony of grey-backed tern, Sterna lunata, on the southeastern 

end of Abariringa (Canton). 

Child (1960) reported the blue-grey noddy (Bennett’s noddy; blue-grey fairy ternlet), 

Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi, on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra 

(Sydney), and Birnie. 

Child (1960) reported nesting colonies of brown booby (common booby), Sula leucogaster 

plotus, on Abariringa (Canton) and other Phoenix Islands. 

Child (1960) reported that the blue-fced booby (masked gannet), Sula dactylatra personata, 

were present in small numbers on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), 

Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). 

Child (1960) reported that in Abariringa (Canton), frigatebirds most commonly attacked 

boobies for food. 

According to Child (1960), Abariringa (Canton) and other Phoenix Islands were known 

breeding places for the greater frigate-bird (Pacific frigate-bird), Fregata minor palmerstoni. 

The lesser frigate-bird, Fregata ariel ariel, was observed on Abariringa (Canton), but did not 

breed there according to Buddle (Child 1960). 

The red-tailed tropic-bird, Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos, had breeding colonies on 

Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, Manra (Sydney), 

Abariringa (Canton) (Child 1960). 

The Christmas Island shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, bred on Abariringa (Canton) and 

Rawaki (Phoenix) (Child 1960). 

The Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, had breeding colonies on Abariringa (Canton) and 

Rawaki (Phoenix) and possibly Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960). 

The shoveller (duck), Spatula clypeata, was observed on Abariringa (Canton) and other 

Phoenix Islands (Child 1960). 

82




Fry (1966) reported that Standford University operated a two-masted schooner, Te Vega, that 

conducted surveys in September 1965 to Samoa, Tonga, Tokealau, and Abariringa (Canton) 

in the Phoenix Islands. No details of the birds observed on Abariringa (Canton) were 

provided. 




Sibley and Clapp (1967) reported that specimens of the lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel, had 

been collected from Enderbury, Orona (Hull), and Abariringa (Canton). 


group in Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.11 above). 

Three or four procellariids were breeding on Abariringa (Canton) in small numbers (King 

1973). Red-footed boobies and great frigatebirds formerly nested on Abariringa (Canton) in 

the thousands, but with the clearing of the shrubs, they no longer. 

Fosberg et al (1973) noted the disappearance over the last 25 years of the vast breeding 

populations of freigate birds and red-footed boobies from Abariringa (Canton). 

The bird populations on Abariringa (Canton) had been greatly reduced by the feral cats, dogs, 

and the Polynesian rat on island as well as the fact that 40 percent of the land area had been 

covered by man-made structures (Bryan 1974). 

The difficulties in differentiating the Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, from the Tahiti petrel, 

P. rostrata, on Abariringa (Canton) were noted by Julian (1979). Both were identical, but the 

Phoenix petrel can have a variable amount of white on its throat area. The petrel observed 

had a dark throat area and was assumed to be a Phoenix petrel. 

The spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularia, was also observed by Julian (1979) on Abariringa 

(Canton). 

Garnett (1983) noted that about a quarter of Abariringa (Canton) was greatly disturbed and 

the once extensive seabird colonies have been much disturbed by human activities. Several 

formerly abundant breeding species no longer nested there. Garnett (1983) provided 

summaries of bird species present on Abariringa (Canton). 

Governnment of Kiribati (1995) noted that birds concentrated on Spam Island on Abariringa. 


Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above). 


Nikumaroro (see Table III-3.20 above). 

In 2000, more than 20,000 brown noddies were observed returning to the land (Stone et al 

2001). A small undetermined number of spectacled or sooty terns and white fairy terns were 

also observed. 

83




In the 2000 census, the Statistics Office (2002) reported that the 61 residents of Abariringa 

(Kanton) raised local chickens and ducks. 


Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 above). 

Neilson (2002) reported that on the southeastern edge of Abariringa (Kanton), there was a 

large colony of Sterna lunata (perhaps 1,000 birds). Upon closer inspection, almost half of 

the eggs were either empty, damaged or being eaten by hermit crabs. 


Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002; see Table III-3.23 above). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef 

herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed. 

Yoshinaga (2002) reported that egg poaching was a significant activity on Abariringa 

(Kanton) from residents and passing boats. Yoshinaga (2002) reported that visiting naturalist 

reported that only 20 percent of tern eggs he examined were viable. 



provided in Table III-3.21 above. 

Oates (2003) provided general summary information of key bird species on Abariringa 

(Canton) including the frigate, fairy white tern, and the Pacific golden plover. 


Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.24 above). 


surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 above). 


the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 above). 


Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 above). 

BIRNIE 

In 1863, the brown-winged tern, Sterna anaethetus anaethetus, was reported from McKean 

by Finsch and Hartlaub 1867; see also Child 1960). 

Lister (1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Manra 


Maude (1937) noted that there were far fewer birds on Birnie than on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

84







Anon. (1966) reported that blue-faced boobies that were banded on Birnie were retrieved on 

Nikunau in the Gilbert Islands, and on Yap, in the Western Caroline Islands (see Figure III- 

3.5). 

Figure III-3.5. Tag and recapture of blue-faced boobies from 

Birnie (source: Anon. 1966). 




Clapp (1968) reported the sharp-tailed sandpiper, E. acuminata, and the sanderling, 

Crocethia alba, from Bernie. 


group in Birnie (see Table III-3.11 above). 

King (1973) noted that bird populations were not large on Birnie. But this was due to the 

small size of the island. It was of high value for bird conservation as it was almost in an 

undisturbed state. 

Garnett (1983) reported that six species of seabirds bred on Birnie. They included: 

1) Sula dactylatra, 

2) Sula leucogaster, 

4) Anous stolidus, 

5) Procelsterna carulea, and 

85




3) Phaethon rubricauda, 6) Gygis alba. 

Non-breeding visitors and migrants noted by Garnett (1983) included: 

1) Puffinus pacificus, 

2) Puffinus lherminieri, 


4) Sula sula, 

5) Fregata minor, 


7) Anous minutus, 

8) Sterna fuscata, 

9) Erolia acuminate, and 

10) Crocethia alba. 





herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed. Yoshinaga (2002) reported that the entire island 

was surveyed in 2002. 










ENDERBURY 

Lister (1891) reported that there were fewer birds on Endenbury than on Rawaki (Sydney). 

No lists of bird species observed were provided. 


and reported numerous bridled tern boobies, and frigate birds. Grey-backed terns nested on 

the Portulaca mats at the edge of the lagoon. Large frigate bird colonies were also observed. 

Bo’son birds, sooty terns, and white terns were banned. Red-footed boobies and whitecapped 

noddies were in the kou. Phoenix petrels, dusky shearwater, curlews, and fairy terns 

were also observed. One grey noddy was observed. In 1938, some bird banding had been 

done (Abbott 1966). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that birds on Enderbury were abundant and included sooty terns 

and other species. 

Cooke (1945) reported that a frigate bird, Fregata magnificens, banned on Enderbury Island 

on 2 May 1939 was caught on Tongareva Island (=Penrhyn Island, Cook Islands) on 28 

February 1941. 

86




Murphy et al (1954) reported that there were no Polynesian rats on Enderbury. This may 

have contributed to the abundant avifauna there. 

In the 1960’s the Smithsonian Institution set up camp on Enderbury to tag birds. Lesser 

frigatebirds that were banned in Enderbury were found in the Philippines (Anon. 1965). 

Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to 13 species of birds and a vacation spot 

for 10 other species of birds. She did not list the species. 

Abbott (1966) reported that as part of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program, over 600 

birds banned on Enderbury have been recaptured elsewhere. In addition, almost 400 birds 

banded on other islands have been recaptured on Enderbury. Based on these banding returns 

it is now known that the lesser frigatebird flies regularly to the Western Pacific, and 

commonly travels over 4,828 km (3,000 miles). 

Abbott (1966) noted that the red-tailed tropicbird, blue-faced booby, red-footed bobby, great 

frigatebird, lesser frigatebird, and gray-backed tern commonly nest on Enderbury and have 

annual breeding cycles. The sooty tern on Enderbury has a six-month breeding cycle. 


Howland, McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury (Sibley and Clapp 1967). A summary 

of band recover is presented in Figure III-3.3 above. 




Clapp (1968) reported three pintails, Anas acuta, were observed on Enderbury. In addition, a 

sandpiper, probably the spotted sandpiper, Tringa macularia, was observed on Enderbury. 

Clapp (1968) also reported the sharp-tailed sandpiper, E. acuminata, the pectoral sandpiper, 

E. melanotos, and the sanderling, Crocethia alba, from Enderbury. 



Amerson (1968) reported that the tick, Ixodes amersoni, was found on a red-footed booby, 

Sula sula on Enderbury in 1966. Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros 

capensis and the O. capensis group in Enderbury (see Table III-3.11 above). 

In 1973, Clapp (1975) observed gray-backed terns, Sterns lunata, on Enderbury, swoop down 

and catch a snake-eyed skink, Crypotblepharus boutoni. Captured skinks were consumed in 

flight by the terns. This appeared to be the first documentation of skink consumption by 

gray-backed terns and might be related to the abundance of skink on Enderbury. 

On Enderbury, a colony of 10,000 gray-backed terns lived near the 61 m (200 ft) antenna that 

was erected in 1970 by Holmes and Narver (King 1973). Seabirds colonies were not 

impacted by the antenna or other support facilities. 

87




King (1973) noted that on Enderbury, hermit crabs have been observed causing mortality in 

large sooty tern colonies (800,000 birds) and in frigatebird colonies. 

Bryan (1974) reported that birds use to be abundant on Enderbury. However, their numbers 

have been reduced due to the presence of the Polynesian rat and feral cats. Bryan (1974) 

claimed that the principal damage done to the large colony of sooty terns and frigatebirds was 

caused by hermit crabs. 

On Enderbury, Woodward (1976) reported that a previously banned red-footed booby, Sula 

sula, was brooding a nestling great frigatebird, Fregata minor. Later the same booby was 

found protecting another frigatebird nestling. Woodward (1976) speculated that a booby egg 

may have been accidently introduced into a frigatebird nest. The resultant booby was 

imprinted to a frigatebird. Both have similar diets and feed their young in a similar manner. 

Garnett (1983) provided a list of bird species and population size estimates for Enderbury. 

This was based on the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme’s visits in the 1960s (see 


Table III-3.30. List of breeding species of birds and population estimates for 

Enderbury based on the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme in the 1960s 

(source: Garnett 1983). 

Breeding species Population size 

1) Sula dactylatra 

2) Sula leucogaster 

3) Sula sula 

4) Fregata minor 

5) Fregata ariel 

6) Phaethon rubricauda 

7) Sterna fuscata 

8) Sterna lunata 

9) Anous stolidus 

10) Anous minutus 

11) Gygis alba 

2,000 

300 

2,000 

8,000 

15,000 

1,000 

400,000 

10,00 

500 

4,000 

20 

Garnett (1983) provided a list of migrant and visiting bird species for Enderbury based on 

results of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme in the 1960s. Migrant and visitng 

bird species included the following:Puffinus pacificus, 



3) Nesofregetta albigularis 

4) Procelsterna cerulea, 

5) Pluvialis dominica, 

6) Arenaria interpres, 


8) Tringa hypoleucos/macularia 

9) Erolia acuminata, 

10) Calidris melanotos, 


12) Anas acuta. 


Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above). About 500 lesser frigate birds 

were observed on Enderbury, but not on other islands in the Phoenix Islands. In addition, 

88




about the same number of sandering (te kiriri), and masked booby (te mouakena) were 

observed. About 200 red-tailed tropic birds were also observed. 



In 2000, in one area of Enderbury, 10,000 to 15,000 great and lesser frigatebirds and more 

than 30,000 spectacled or sooty terns were observed (Stone et al 2001). Other bird species 

observed included: masked and brown boobies, red-tailed ropicbirds, Phaethon rubricauda, 

brown noddies, white fairy terns and others. 



Neilson (2002) reported that Enderbury had the highest species diversity of birds in the 

Phoenix Islands. The remnants of the old guano extraction facilities on the south provided 

shelter for various nesting bird species such as Phoenton rubicauda and Gygis alba. 






Pierce et al (2006) identified seabird colony locations on Enderbury (see Figure III-3.6 

below). 

Figure III-3.6. Seabird colony locations on Enderbury in 2006. 


89











Tristram (1886) reported that J.V. Arundel of Manra (Sydney) sent him three duck 

specimens. Tristram named the duck, Daflia modesta. 

Lister (1891) did not visit Manra (Sydney), but spent three days making soundings around the 

island. Lister (1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, 

Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.16 

above). 

Hydrographic Office (1916) reported wild ducks were found in the lagoon of Manra 

(Sydney). 

Bryan (1934) report that no land birds or wild ducks were observed on Manra (Sydney). 

90




As part of the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme, chickens were introduced to Manra 

(Sydney) (Knudsen 1965). When Manra (Sydney) was evacuated in the 1950’s, all the 

chickens were killed and eaten. 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that bird life was similar to other islands, but not as abundant. 

Ducks used to be seen on the ponds, but both the ducks and the ponds were gone. 











Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960). 





group in Manra (Sydney) (see Table III-3.11 above). 

Wild duck were reported in the lagoon on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

Bird populations were low on Manra (Sydney) (King 1973). A pre-breeding swirl of 4,000 

sooty terns was observed. 

Clapp (1973) reported that an arctic tern, Sterna paradisaea, in breeding plumage was 

observed on Manra (Sydney). 

Garnett (1983) noted that bird nesting populations on Manra (Sydney) were low due to the 

Polynesian and black rats, feral cats, dogs, and pigs there. 

Garnett (1983) reported the following species of birds for Manra (Sydney): 


2) Phaethon rubricauda, 








10) Gygis alba 







91




Garnett (1983) noted that only Phaeton lepturus, Phaeton rubricauda, and Sterna fuscata 

may be breeding on Manra (Sydney). The rest of the birds listed were visitors, vagrants, or 

migrants. 


Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above). Eleven species of birds were 

reported from Manra. The masked booby (te mouakena), white tern (te matawa) did not 

breed on Manra. 



In 2000, no sea birds were noted for Manra (Stone et al 2001). 















MCKEAN 

Hartlaub and Finsch (1872) reported that nestlings of Puffinus dichrous from Pelews (now 

known as Belau) were precisely similar to those found in M’Kean. 



Maude (1937) reported that McKean was probably the favorite breeding place of the frigate 

bird. 

In 1937, Bevington (1990) observed mutton-birds, gannet, frigate birds, and white terns on 

McKean. 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that bird life was abundant and that terns predominated. 

92













Anon. (1965) reported that lesser frigatebirds banned in McKean were found in the 

Philippines, Lord Howe Island, Nauru, New Guinea, Fiji, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, 

Solomon Islands, New Ireland, and at sea south of Japan. 







Clapp (1968) reported a dead sooty shearwater, Puffinus griseus, from McKean. In addition, 

a reef heron, Demigretta sacra, was observed on McKean. Clapp (1968) also reported the 

pectoral sandpiper, E. melanotos, the bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica baueri, and the 

sanderling, Crocethia alba, from McKean. 


group in McKean (see Table III-3.11 above). 

King (1973) reported that there were no introduced predators of birds to McKean. There was 

a colony of 1,000 white-throated storm petrels, Nesofregatta albigularis, and 85,000 lesser 

frigatebirds. Other species also had large colonies. 

Garnett (1983) reported seabirds that nested on McKean including: 




4) Bulweria bulwerii, 

5) Nesofregetta albrigularis, 




9) Sula sula, 







16) Procelsterna carulea, and 

17) Gygis alba. 

Garnett (1983) reported the following non-breeding visitors and migrants to McKean 

included: 

93




1) Puffinus griseus, 

2) Demiegretta sacra, 


4) Arenaria interpres 






10) Limosa lapponica. 

Timeon (2001) reported te koota, te mouakena, and frigatebirds were nesting on McKean. 

Commonnoddy and white terns were also plentiful. 

Stone et al (2001) reported large aggregations of birds nesting on McKean in 2000. Almost 

the entire island was surveyed. Observed bird species included: 2,000 to 4,000 spectacled or 

sooty terns, 2,000 to 3,000 white fairy terns, 5,000 to 10,000 brown boobies, 10,000 to 

20,000 great frigatebirds, 1,000 to 2,000 brown noddies, and 5,000 to 10,000 masked 

boobies. Also present were red-footed boobies, Sula sula. Other unidentified shorebirds 

were also observed. 




Pierce (2006) reported that with the introduction of the Asian rat, Rattus tanezumi, to 

McKean, there was a 40 percent decline in seabird species diversity. Breeding success has 

been generally unsuccessfully. 










The natives domesticate booby birds and avoid the fishy flavor of flesh and eggs by tethering 

the birds (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Wiens 1962). The natives train frigate birds to 

fish for them, much like the Chinese use cormorants to catch small fish (Hydrographic Office 

1940). 




94











In 1963, when settlers were evacuated from Nikumaroro (Gardner) due to a drought, they left 

behind their chickens (King 1973). 




King (1973) reported low numbers of tree-nesting seabirds on Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

Gilbert Islands (1978) reported that wild poultry were on Nikumaroro. The species of wild 

poultry was not identified. 

Garnett (1983) reported the following seabirds on Nikumaroro (Gardner): 



3) Sula sula, 








11) Gygis alba, 







Garnett (1983) also noted that feral chickens had been observed on Nikumaroro (Gardner). 


Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above). Five species of birds were 

observed on Nikumaroro. The bird population was not large. The red-tailed tropicbird (te 

taake) was the most abundant. The white tern (te matawa) was observed breeding in trees at 

the old village site. Frigate birds, and the black noody (te mangkiri) were also observed. 



Stone et al (2001) reported that no large aggregations of birds were observed on Nikumaroro 

in 2000. Observed bird species included: 200 to 300 mostly sub-adult brown boobies, Sula 

leucogaster; 50-70 great frigatebirds, Fregata minor; 40-50 sooty, Sterna fuscata or 

spectacled, Sterna lunata, terns; 20 masked boobies, Sula dactylatra, 20-30 brown noddies, 

Anous stolidus, and several white fairy-terns, Gygis microrhyncha. 

95








herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed. Yoshinaga (2002) reported that only the 

southwestern portion of Nikumaroro was surveyed (south of the lagoon channel). 










ORONA (HULL) 

Lister (1891) did not provide any list of bird species for Orona (Hull). 

Ellis (1937) reported that the eggs of the wide-awakes (tern) were eaten. They did not have a 

fishy taste. In addition, young birds eaten just prior to being able to fly were also excellent. 

Ellis (1937) commented that young bos’n birds, just prior to being able to fly were also a 

good meal. 

Ellis (1937) noted that there were two varieties of gannets, two kinds of boobies, wide-awake 

terns, noddies, white tern, bos’n or tropic birds, and frigate-birds. 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there were 17 species of sea and migratory birds on Orona 

(Hull). No species list was provided. 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that ducks and chickens were raised domestically on Orona 

(Hull). 






Clapp (1968) reported that the whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus variegates, was observed on 

themud-flats near the lagoon on Orona (Hull). 

96




Clapp (1968) reported the pectoral sandpiper, E. melanotos, the bar-tailed godwit, Limosa 

lapponica baueri, the sanderling, Crocethia alba, and the New Zealand cuckoo, Eudynamis 

taitensis, from Orona (Hull). 




group in Orona (Hull) (see Table III-3.11 above). 

King (1973) reported that the sooty tern population was 3 million birds. Other tree dwelling 

species were not abundant. 

Garnett (1983) reported that species of seabirds were known to breed on Orona (Hull). They 

included: Phaeton lepturus, Phaethon rubricauda, Sula sula, Fregata minor, Sterna fuscata, 

Anous stolidus, Anous minutus, and Gygis alba. 

Other bird species were migrants or visitors to Orona (Hull) (Garnett 1983). These included: 

1) Pterodrona alba, 



4) Sua leucogaster, 

5) Fregata ariel 



8) Arenaria interpres 


10) Numenius phaeopus, 


12) Limosa lapponica, 

13) Croethia aba, 

14) Eudynamis taitensis 


Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above). Many species of birds were 

observed on Orona. Only the white tern bred on the island. Young of the frigate bird and the 

red-footed booby (te koota) were not found. Breeding sooty tern (te tarariki), grey-backed 

tern (tarangongo), brown booby (korobwaro), and the ref-footed booby (te mouakena) were 

also not observed. 



In 2000, in one area of Orona, tens of thousands of sooty terns were observed nesting (Stone 

et al 2001). In addition, frigate birds, white fairy terns, brown noddies, borwn boobies and 

masked boobies were observed. 





herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed. Yoshinaga (2002) reported observing numerous 

tiny dead chicks on Orona. There were many broken eggshells on the lagoon shores. 

97









Pierce et al (2006) reported on the sooty tern colonies on Orona in 2006. Colonies are 

identified in Figure III-3.7. 

Figure III-3.7. Sooty tern colonies on Orona in 2006. 









Lister (1891) reported that birds were most abundant on Rawaki (Phoenix) compared to the 

other Phoenix Islands. Specimens of the frigatebird, Fregata minor, were collected and 

observations on various aspects of their biology were reported. Since no unfledged young 

birds were observed, this suggested that the colony had begun nesting about the same time. 



98




Sibley and Clapp (1967) reported that earlier records of great frigatebirds on Rawaki 

(Phoenix) by Lister (1891) were actually descriptions of lesser frigatebirds. 

Maude (1937) noted that the bird populations on Rawaki (Phoenix) were the highest of all the 


Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that sea birds were very abundant. These included sotty, gray, 

and white terns, frigates that nested in the Sesuvium, four species of shearwaters, petrels, 

boobies, and migratory plover and curlews. 

Luke (1945) reported that bird populations were in the millions. 

Anon. (1953) reported that rabbits shared burrows with petrels and shearwaters (see also 

Bryan 1941). 







The only nesting place for the lesser frigate-bird, Fregata ariel ariel, was on Rawaki 

(Phoenix Island) according to Child (1960). 




The Christmas Island shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, bred on Abariringa (Canton) and 






Anon. (1965) reported that lesser frigatebirds banned in Rawaki (Phoenix) were found in 

Japan, Gilbert Islands, Taiwan, New Guinea, and Western Samoa. 




Kohls (1966) reported that the tick, Ixodes amersoni, was described from a white tern, Gygis 

alba) at Rawaki (Phoenix) in 1965 (see also Amerson 1968). Additional tick specimens were 

collected from white terns on Rawaki (Phoenix) in 1966 (Amerson 1968). 

99







Clapp (1968) reported the sharp-tailed sandpipers, Erolia acuminata, the pectoral sandpipers, 

E. melanotos, and the sanderling, Crocethia alba, were observed on Rawaki (Phoenix). 


group in Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.11 above). 

King (1973) reported that the guano miners’ house left on Rawaki (Phoenix) was providing 

nesting sites for white terns and black noddies. Rawaki (Phoenix) had five species of 

breeding procellariiforms, a blue-grey noddy population of about 10,000 birds, and a 

population of about 45,000 lesser frigatebirds. 

According to King (1973), birds were periodically harvested by the crews of copra boats that 

serviced the Line Islands. 

Garnett (1983) reported species of seabirds from Rawaki (Phoenix Islands). They included: 

1) Bulweria bulweria, 

2) Pterodroma alba, 




6) Nesofregetta albrigularis, 




10) Sula sula, 








18) Gygis alba, 

19) Pluvialis dominicus, 






25) Arenaria interpres. 

In 2000, tens of thousands of primarily great frigatebirds were observed on Rawaki (Phoenix) 

(Stone et al 2001). Other species observed included brown and masked boobies, red-foted 

boobies, lesser frigatebirds, white fairy terns, blue-grey noddies, Procelsterna cerulean, 

unidentified petrels, and whimbrels, Numenius phaeopus. 



Neilson (2002) reported that Rawaki had the largest aggregations of birds in the Phoenix 

Islands. Yoshinaga (2002) concurred with this statement. The rabbit population on Rawaki 

did not appear to effect the bird population (Neilson 2002). Details on nesting colonies 

observed were provided by Yoshinaga (2002). 




100







Stone (2004) reported counting 150,000 spectacled and sooty terns and more than 50,000 

lesser frigatebirds on Rawaki. No Phoenix petrels were observed. 



Pierce et al (2006) noted that Rawaki had the highest diversity of seabirds with 18 species. It 

was the only island that still had a breeding population of blue noddies and the Endangered 

Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, and the vulnerable white-throated storm petrel, 

Nesofregetta albigularis. Phoenix petrel and shearwater colonies on Rawaii were identified 

in Figure III-3.8 below 

Figure III-3.8. Phoenix petrel pairs and shearwater colonies on Rawaki 2006. 


Pierce et al (2006) noted that the very high density of rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus, was 

negatively impacting seabirds on Rawaki. Rabbits competed for burrows and shaded 

shelters. In addition, they trampled eggs and nestlings. Rabbits also consumed palatable 

species of vegetation, reducing nest site availability and burrow stability. 





101






H. MAMMALS 

Maude (1937) noted that there was a small rat on all of the Phoenix Islands. This was similar 

to that found in the Gilbert Islands. To control rat populations, the time honoured 

expenditure of a penny a rat tail was proposed. Maude (1937) noted that the use of rat poison 

bait resulted in the increase in rat populations throughout the islands. 

Carter et al (1945) reported that the common rat, Rattus sp., and the house mouse, Mus sp., 

were found on the Phoenix Islands. 

Bryan (1974) noted that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, was present on many equatorial 

islands [such as the Phoenix Islands]. These rats can be so small that they are mistakenly 

identified as mice. 



Neilson (2002) listed mammals that had been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury, 

Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.31 below). 

Table III-3.31. Introduced mammals to the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Neilson 2002). 

Species Common 

name 

Kiribati 

name 

Nikumaroro Rawaki Abariringa Enderbury Orona 

(Kanton) 

Sus scrofa Pig Te beeki X 

Canis lupus Dog Te kamea X 

Felis catus Cat Te 

katamwa 

X X 

Oryctolagus 

cuniculus 

Rabbit Te rabiti X 

Rattus exulans Polynesian 

rat 

Te kimoa X X X X 

Rattus rattus Asian 

black rat 

Te kimoa X X 

Mus musculus mouse Te kimoa 

ae uarereke 

X 

Pierce et al (2006) identified mammals observed on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, 

Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki and compared them with previously recorded species (see 


Table III-3.32. Invasive mammal species in the Phoenix Islands previously 

102




recorded and recorded in 2006. 


Pierce et al (2006) estimated the populationof mammal species on Birnie, Enderbury, 

McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (see Table III-3.33 below). 

Table III-3.33. Population estimates of mammal species in the Phoenix Islands, 2006. 


103




Pierce et al (2006) suggested the use of aerial application of rat bait on the larger Phoenix 

Islands. 


Maude (1937) reported rats on Abariringa (Canton). These rats did not appear to more 

numerous than on any of the Gilbert Islands. 

Gardner (1938) provided an account of the rats encountered during the 1937 solar eclipse 

expedition. Rats were small and unbelievably tame and had no hestitation to take food from 

a washpan held by hand. Gardner (1938) noted that rats were probably more common than 

hermit crabs. A shotgun was brought on that expedition to kill rats, but with little impact. In 

addition, rat poison was mixed and presented to rats. Hundreds of rats should have died, but 

this did not seem to dent the rat population. Gardner (1938) speculated that rats on 

Abariringa (Canton) lived on bird eggs which resulted in bird populations on Abariringa 

(Canton) being less than on Enderbury. 

Rats were found on Abariringa (Canton) (Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan 1934). Bryan 

(1941 and 1942) specified that Polynesian rats were found on Abariringa (Canton). Van 

Zwaluwenburg (1941) reported that where there was ground cover, the ground-nesting 

Polynesian rat was present in astonishing numbers. This rat fed on vegatable food including 

tree bark, and fruits and flowers of Scaevola. 

Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) reported three flea infested dogs that were brought to Abariringa 

(Canton), but none had any fleas when examined. There were no harbor fleas on rats. 

In 1946, feral canines (dogs) were first observed on Abariringa (Canton) (Oates 2003). These 

were probably left by the U.S. Army’s Canine Corps (1942 to 1943). They were observed 

swimming the lagoon from north to south. 

104




Bunker (1951) observed wild house cats that were abundant and roamed the island at night. 

Murphy et al (1954) noted abundant numbers of Polynesian rats, Mus exulans. Prior to 

World War II, it was thought that these rats may have been responsible for the reduced 

avaifauna of Abariringa (Canton). 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted the presence of dogs and cats on Abariringa (Canton). 

Some cats had escaped from domestication. 

Walker (1955) observed dogs, cats, and pet rabbits on Abariringa (Canton). There was also a 

pet monkey on Abariringa (Canton). 

McIntire (1960) noted that the only native mammal was the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans. 

The rat was not numerous and was primarily found on the eastern end of Abariringa 

(Canton). 

McIntire (1960) noted that dogs and cats had been introduced to Abariringa (Canton). Dogs 

were of all breeds and mixtures. None have run wild. Some cats have escaped and have 

taken a slight toll on nesting birds. 

Bryan (1974) noted that there were feral cats, dogs, and the Polynesian rat on Abariringa 

(Canton). This greatly reduced the bird populations there. 

Fosberg et al (1973) noted that there were dogs and cats on Abariringa (Canton). These 

animals were a threat to ground nesting birds. They should be sterilized or eliminated. No 

pet should be abandoned when the owner leaves. 

Abariringa (Canton) had feral cats, dogs, and Polynesian rats (King 1973). 

Garnett (1983) reported the Polynesian rat and feral cats and dogs on Abariringa (Canton). 

Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that the ship rat (kimoa) was present and caused 

much damage. 

In the 2000 census, the Statistics Office (2002) reported that the 61 residents raised local 

pigs, and kept dogs and cats. 

In 2002, about 30 Polynesian rats, Rattus exulans, on the islet (Spam Islet?) adjacent to the 

lagoon entrance passage (Bukaeireiti and Rabaua 2002). 

Neilson (2002) reported that residents of Abariringa (Kanton) had introduced cats to control 

the rats, but that bird populations were now vulnerable to the cats. 

Neilson (2002) reported that pigs that been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona. 


Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.31 above). 

105




In Abariringa (Canton), the most destructive of the introduced species was the dog (Oates 

2003). Abandoned dogs led to the decline in shore birds and sea turtle populations. 

BIRNIE 

The Polynesian rat was found on Birnie (Hydrographic Office 1940). King (1973) reported 

the Polynesian rat probably came from a ship wreck. At times, it was abundant on the island. 

Garnett (1983) reported that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, was the only mammal species 

on Birnie. 

Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002) reported that rats were abundant on Birnie. 





McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (see Table III-3.33 above). 

Pierce (2006) reported that the Pacific rat, Rattus exulans, was on Birnie. 

ENDERBURY 

In 1840, rats were observed on Enderbury (Wilkes 1845). 

There was a horse and mule on Enderbury during the 1880’s (Bryan 1941 and 1942). These 

were left by American guano diggers (Ellis 1937). 

As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1953) visited Enderbury and 

observed a dead rat. It was collected. 

The Polynesian rat was found on Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940). According to 

Bryan (1941 and 1942), the rat populaton was very large. 

Luke (1945) reported that there were cats on Enderbury. 

Murphy et al (1954) reported that there were no Polynesian rats on Enderbury. This may 

have contributed to the abundant avifauna there. 

Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to the Polynesian rat and the common 

house cat. These were introduced by man, but both were now extinct. 

Abbott (1966) noted that Enderbury has had dogs and a mule at one point in time. 

King (1973) reported that there were still a few feral cats on Enderbury. These were 

probably left by colonists. King (1973) recommended that dogs and cats (when present) be 

removed from Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Enderbury. 

106




Garnett (1983) reported that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, was common on Enderbury. 

In addition, there were unknown numbers of feral cats. 

Bryan (1974) reported that there were feral cats and Polynesian rats on Enderbury. These 

were impacting the bird populations there. 

In 1995, the Polynesian rat was found on Enderbury (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

In 2002, Enderbury had a sizeable population of rats (Obura and Stone 2003). Rats populated 

all parts of the island (Yoshinaga 2002). 



Pierce et al (2006) reported that the house cat, Felis catus, had disappeared on Enderbury. 






Pierce et al (2006) noted the presence of the Pacific rat on Enderbury. Rat baiting trials were 

undertaken on both Enderbury and McKean using a non-toxic rat bait made by Aminal 

Control Products, Ltd., Wanganui, New Zealand. Results indicated that bait needs to be set 

in crab-proof stations. 


Arundel (1885) reported the presence of a rat that was no very much larger than a large 

mouse. Arundel reported seeing hundreds of rats gather together at night and had frequently 

caught 100 per night in traps. 

Ellis (1937) reported that there were two species of rat on Manra (Sydney). One was the 

small native one and the other was a large species. Both were abundant. Ellis (1937) 

speculates that the larger rats are descendants which escaped from a wrecked vessel. These 

rats greatly reduced coconut yields. 

Maude (1937) reported wild pigs on Manra (Sydney). They lived on the fruit of the non tree, 

Morinda citrifolia. 

As part of the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme, pigs were introduced to Manra 

(Sydney) (Knudsen 1965; see also King et al 2001). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that 

domestic pigs ran wild on Manra (Sydney). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted the presence of rats on Manra (Sydney). 

107




Hilder (1959) noted that when Manra (Sydney) residents left for the Solomon Islands, they 

left their dogs behind. They had eaten all their pigs, and brought their cats with them to the 

Solomon Islands (see also Knudsen 1965). 

King (1973) reported that there were Polynesian and black rats on Manra (Sydney). 

Cats and dogs had also been left on Manra (Sydney) during the evacuation (King 1973). 

Most of the cats had been killed by Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program (POBSP) 

between 1964 and 1968. However, it was not certain if all the cats have been killed. One 

dog was observed in 1968. 

King (1973) recommended that dogs and cats (when present) be removed from Orona (Hull), 

Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Enderbury. 

Garnett (1983) reported that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, and the black rat, Rattus 

rattus, were on Manra (Sydney). 

Garnett (1983) also noted that feral cats, dogs, and pigs had been recorded on Manra 

(Sydney). However, the dog may have died out since only one was observed in 1968 by 

Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme staff. Garnett (1983) noted that feral pigs were 

formally abundant, but pigs have not been reported in recent years. 

In 1995, the Polynesian rat was found on Manra (Government of Kiribati (1995). However, 

no damage was reported to the coconut trees. 

In January 2000, cat tracks were observed on Manra (Kepler 2000). 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that there were large populations of rats, Rattus 

exulans, and R. rattus, as well as feral cats on Manra. 

MCKEAN 

Maude (1937) reported small brown rats on McKean. 

Garnett (1983) reported that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, was the only mammal known 

from McKean. 

Throssell and Specht (1989) reported that McKean was inhabited by “fearless” rats. 

In about 2001, the Korean vessel F/V Chance 301 grounded on McKean (Pierce et al 2006). 

It was presumed that this vessel introduced the Asian rat to McKean. However, Pierce et al 

(2006) suspect that the introduction of the Asian rat to McKean occurred earlier than 2001. 

This was based on bird survey results (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002) that were similar to 

results in Pierce et al (2006). 




108






Pierce et al (2006) reported that there were Asian rats on McKean. An external parasitic tick 

was found on a juvenile Asian rat. Pierce et al (2006) speculated that the introduction of 

Asian rats to McKean probably resulted in the extinction of the Pacific rat population there. 

Rat baiting trials were undertaken on both Enderbury and McKean using a non-toxic rat bait 

made by Aminal Control Products, Ltd., Wanganui, New Zealand (Pierce et al 2006). 

Results indicated that bait needs to be set in crab-proof stations. 


In 1840, Commander Wilkes of the U.S. Exploring Expedition noted that a large rat was 

observed on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Bryan (1934) reported that 

Wilkes found rats on Nikumaroro (Gardner) in 1840. 

Maude (1937) reported rats on Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

The Polynesian rat was found on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan 

1941 and 1942; King 1973). 

Luke (1945) reported that seven rabbits had been taken from Rawaki (Phoenix) to 

Nikumaroro (Gardner). All reach Nikumaroro (Gardner) safely and were released. 

In 1963, when settlers were evacuated from Nikumaroro (Gardner), they left behind their cats 

and dogs (King 1973). The Gilbertese colonists that had been relocated to the Solomon 

Islands had to leave their dogs behind (Anon. 1964). In May 1964, poison bait was laid out. 

On the return voyage, no live dogs were observed. 

King (1973) recommended that dogs and cats (when present) be removed from Orona (Hull), 

Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Enderbury. 

Gilbert Islands (1978) reported that there were rats and cats on Nikumaroro in 1978. The rat, 

Rattus exulens, population was low probably due to the presence of cats. Warfarin rat blocks 

were placed on Ritiati covering 30 acres. 

Garnett (1983) reported the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, as well as feral cats and dogs on 


Government of Kiribati (1995) reported Polynesian rats on Nikumaroro. However, no 

damaging effects to the coconuts were observed. 

In January 2000, no cats were observed on Nikumaroro, but due to the low bird populations, 

the presence of cats was suspected (Kepler 2000). 

King et al (2001) noted that large rats and a single dead cat were observed on Nikumaroro. 

109






Neilson (2002) reported that the rats on Nikumaroro were abundant and healthy (see also 

Obura and Stone 2003). 






Pierce et al (2006) reported that the house cat, Felis catus, appeared to have disappeared from 

Nikumaroro. 

Pierce et al (2006) reported that the dog, Canis familiaris, had disappeared from Nikumaroro. 

Pierce et al (2006) noted the presence of the Pacific rat on Nikumaroro. 

ORONA (HULL) 

The 1838 to 1842 U.S. Exploring Expedition collected various specimens of rat, including the 

wandering rat, Mus exulans Peale from Orona (Hull) (Bartlett (1940). Poole and Schantz 

(1942) reported on the type specimens in the U.S. National Museum included measurements 

of Mus exulans from Orona (Hulls) collected by the U.S. Exploring Expedition. 

In 1887, Ellis landed on Orona (Hull) with his brother, 3 Niueans, 20,000 coconuts and a dog 

(Ellis 1937). Ellis (1937) reported an immense number of rats. The rat was smaller in size 

than the common rat. 

Bryan (1934) reported rats on Orona (Hull). Bryan (1941) noted that Polynesian rats were 

found on Orona (Hull). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that cats, dogs, and pigs were raised domestically on Orona 

(Hull). 

When Orona (Hull) was evacuated in 1961, dogs and cats were left behind (King 1973). The 

Gilbertese colonists that had been relocated to the Solomon Islands had to leave their dogs 

behind (Anon. 1964). These dogs took refuge in equal numbers in the Roman Catholic and 

LMS missions. In May 1964, poison bait was laid out. On the return voyage, no live dogs 

were observed. 

King (1973) reported that a few cats and dogs were still present on Orona (Hull). Their 

reproductive state was not known. King (1973) recommended that dogs and cats (when 

present) be removed from Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and 

Enderbury. 

110




Garnett (1983) noted that the only mammals on Orona (Hull) were the Polynesian rat, Rattus 

exulans, cats, dogs and pigs. The status of the cats, dogs, and pigs were not known in 1963. 

Rats were found on Orona (PIKS Project Manager 2002). Government of Kiribati (1995) 

noted that the Polynesian rat on Orona had no damaging effects. 

In 2002, two female cats were taken from Kiritimati to the Phoenix Islands (Bukaireiti and 

Rabaua (2002). However, enroute, they were thrown overboard. There were concerns about 

establishing a cat population on Orona. 

Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002) observed that rats were abundant on Orona. Neilson (2002) 

reported that residents of Orona had introduced cats to control the rats, but that bird 

populations were now vulnerable to the cats. 



Neilson (2002) reported that pigs that been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona. 

However, all pigs sent to Orona had disappeared. They had either died, escaped or had been 

eaten. 

Pierce et al (2006) reported that the Pacific rat, Rattus exulans, had disappeared from Orona. 

This population may have been dramatically reduced or eliminated following a Warfarin R 

toxin application to control rats there (Tiare Etei personal communication in Pierce et al 

2006). No further details were available on this application. 






Pierce et al (2006) reported that there was a small population of cats, Felis catus, on Orona. 

Pierce et al (2006) reported that the dog, Canis familiaris, and pig, Sus scrofa, had vanished 

from Orona. 


In the late 1860’s an American guano company was working on Rawaki (Phoenix) at about 

the time rabbits were liberated there (Watson 1961; see also Bryan 1942). Lister (1891) 

reported that the rabbits had been left by guano workers. Ellis (1946) noted that rabbits were 

left by Americans when they worked the phosphate-guano deposits there in the late 1800’s 

(see also Baarslag 1940; Ellis 1937). Maude (1937) reported that the Phoenix Guano 

Company left the rabbits on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Lister (1891) reported rabbits were fairly plentiful (see also Watson 1961). 

111




In 1901, rabbits had been left on Rawaki (Phoenix) by a guano hunting expedition 

(Bevington 1990). 

In 1924, rabbits were abundant on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1934; see also Bryan 1939). 

According to Ellis (1937), Rawaki (Phoenix) was overrun with rabbits. Low vegetation 

(grass and herbs) seemed none the worse because of them (see also Bryan 1942; Watson 

1961). 

Bryan (1934) reported that the presence of rats may suggest the presence of freshwater on 


In 1937, crew of the the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter, Roger B. Taney, collected two pair of 

rabbits from Rawaki (Phoenix) to be released on Howland (Bryan 1974). Maude (1937) 

reported that rabbits were still on Rawaki (Phoenix) in considerable numbers. About 25 were 

captured and taken on-board the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa. In 1937, 25 rabbits were taken from 

Rawaki (Phoenix) to the Gilbert Islands (Maude 1952; see also Watson 1961). The 

introduction was not successful as the rabbits were all killed by dogs. 

Rabbits and rats were on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Thirty two of these rabbits were taken from Rawaki (Phoenix) to Beru in the southern Gilbert 

Islands (Anon. 1941). The rationale was that rabbits would supply an alternative source of 

protein. Rabbits fed on coconuts. In 1941, only two or three rabbits remained on Beru. 

Rawaki (Phoenix) was waterless, so the rabbits had to obtain sufficient water from vegetation 

(Anon. 1941). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there were no rats on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Rabbits came in many colors or hues (Anon. 1941). Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that 

rabbits were white, yellow, and brown. Rabbits share their burrows with seabirds (Anon. 

1941). Anon. (1953) indicated that burrows were shared with petrels and shearwaters (see 

also Maude 1952). 

Luke (1945) reported that seven rabbits had been taken from Rawaki (Phoenix) to 


Wiens (1962) reported that Luke (1945) noted some feral cats on Rawaki (Phoenix) that kept 

rabbit populations down. However, this seems to be in error. Luke (1945) noted feral cats on 

Enderbury, not Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Maude (1952) noted that rabbits were poor-looking and had been left by a visiting ship. 

Anon. (1953) noted that rabbits were in poor condition (see also Maude 1952). When chased, 

they ran for about 91 m (100 yards) before stopping, making capture very easy. The locals 

called them “pussies” and refused to eat them. Twenty five were taken to the Gilbert Islands, 

but all were killed by dogs prior to reproducing. 

The rabbits were in poor condition (Watson 1961). After they ran for about 91 m (100 

yards), they squatted awaiting capture. 

112




Conditions in the Phoenix Islands (Rawaki) were only just within the level of tolerance for 

rabbits (Watson 1961). Factors other than food presumably held the population down to a 

level where rabbits did not seriously affect the vegetation. 

Tudor (1968) reported that Rawaki (Phoenix) was overrun with rabbits. 

Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) noted that the island was overrun with rabbits (see also 

Clune 1951). 

King (1973) reported that Rawaki (Phoenix) had European rabbits with a population of 

between 100 and 1,000. According to King (1973), these rabbits were periodically harvested 

by the crews of copra boats that serviced the Line Islands. King (1973) recommended that 

the removal of rabbits from Rawaki (Phoenix) was of great importance. 

Garnett (1983) reported that the European rabbit, Oryctolagus cunculus, was quite abundant 

on Rawaki (Phoenix) numbering from 100 to 1,000. They had white, yellow, and brown 

collars. Rabbits were the only mammals on Rawaki (Phoenix). Rabbits were the only 

mammal on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Bevington (1990) noted that rabbits obtained water from the dew in the early morning. 

Anon. (1953) noted that six wells were dug, but only salty water was obtained. Rabbits 

apparently never drink water since all water was salty. Bevington (1990) reported that 

rabbits shared burrows with mutton-birds. 

In 2000, only a few rabbits were observed on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Yoshinaga 2002). 

In 2002, the population of rabbits was estimated to be about 100 (Bukaeireiti and Rabaua 

2002). One male and one female rabbit were taken to Kiritimati. 



Neilson (2002) reported that Rawaki had a very large population of rabbits (see also Obura 

and Stone 2003). The preferred food was Portulaca lutea. The rabbits appeared to have a 

noticeable effect on the vegetation on Rawaki, but did not appear to have any effect on the 

bird population there. 

Yoshinaga (2002) reported that rabbits were abundant on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that Rawaki (Phoenix) was the only rat and cat-free 

island in the archipelago and had the richest and densest bird breeding populations. 






113




Pierce et al (2006) noted that the very high density of rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus, was 

negatively impacting seabirds on Rawaki. Rabbits competed for burrows and shaded 

shelters. In addition, they trampled eggs and nestlings. Rabbits also consumed palatable 

species of vegetation, reducing nest site availability and burrow stability. Pierce et al (2006) 

noted that there was some evidence of inbreeding effects on the rabbits of Rawaki. 

Pierce et al (2006) reported that Rawaki had no rats. 

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125


Chapter III. Background, 4. Marine Resources 


4. MARINE RESOURCES 

A. MARINE FLORA 

CHAPTER III. 

BACKGROUND 

Dahl (1980) presented a matrix of marine biomes. The Phoenix Islands were lumped with the 

Line and Northern Cook Islands. Marine biomes that were present included: algal bed, 

animals in sediments, algal reef, windward atoll reef, leeward atoll reef, lagoon reef, rocky 

coast, beach, saline lagoon, open lagoon, brackish lagoon, offshore terrace, offshore slope, 

abyssal plain, seamount, and inshore circulation cell. 

Bleakley (1995) reported that in the Phoenix Islands, there were no mangroves or seagrasses. 

South et al (2001) reported on marine algae collected from Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury, 

Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) in 

2000 by the New England Aquarium Expedition (see also Stone et al 2001). A total of 69 

taxa were identified. These are presented in Table III-4.1 below. Previous lists of algae were 

available and would bring the species list to 107, but South et al (2001) noted that there may 

be doubtful identification of algae in them. 

Table III-4.1. List of algae species for the Phoenix Islands 

(source: South et al 2001) 

Species Abariringa Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki 

(Kanton) 

(Sydney) 


Blennothrix lyngbyacea X 

Lyngbya confervoides X x 

Lyngbya majuscule x X 

Lyngbya semiplena X X 

Lyngbya sp. x 

Oscillatoria sp. X 

Schizothrix sp. X x 

Chroodactylon ornatum X 

Galaxaura filamentosa X x 

Gelidiella acerosa X 

Asparagopsis taxiformis X 

Peyssonnelia conchicola X 

Hydrolithon sp. X 

Jania micrarthrodia X x 

Lithothamnion proliferum X 

Hypnea pannosa x X 

Gelidiopsis intricata x X 

Aglaothamnion cordatum X 

Anotrichium tenue X 

Antithamnionella elegans X 

Ceramium affine X 

Ceramium flaccidum x X 

Ceramium sp. aff. C. 

marshallense 

X 

Corallophila huysmansii x x 


(Kanton) 

(Sydney) 


1




Crouania minutissima X x 

Griffithsia heteromorpha x X 

Ptilothamnion ?cladophorae x 

Dasya pilosa X 

Heterosiphonia crispella var 

laxa 

x X X 

Hypoglossum 

caloglossoides 

X 

Hypoglossum sp. X 

Chondria minutula X 

Chondria repens x X 

Herposiphonia dendroidea X 

Lophocladia trichoclados X 

Polysiphonia spp. x X 

Dictyopteris repens x X X 

Dictyota friabilis X 

Dictyota sp. X 

Lobophora variegata X 

Turbinaria ornata X 

Cladophora boodleoides X 


(Kanton) 

(Sydney) 


Cladophoropsis carolinensis X 

Dictyosphaeria cavernosa x x X 

Dictyosphaeria versluysii X 

Valonia fastigiata X 

Bryopsis pennata X 

Bryopsis pennata var. 

secunda 

X 

Caulerpa cupressoides var 

flabellata 

X X 

Caulerpa cupressoides var 

lycopodium 

x X 

Caulerpa peltata X 

Caulerpa serrulata x X 

Caulerpella ambigua X 

Halimeda bikinensis X 

Halimeda copiosa X 

Halimeda cuneata X x x 

Halimeda gracilis x X 

Halimeda incrassata X 

Halimeda opuntia X 

Halimeda taenicola X 


(Kanton) 

(Sydney) 


Chlorodesmis fastigiata X 

Pseudochlorodesmis 

furcellata 

X 

Rhipidosiphon javensis X 

Rhipilia diaphana X 

Rhipilia geppii x X X 

Rhipilia orientalis x X x 

Neomeris annulata x X 

Acetabularia parvula x 


2




Bunker (1951) reported observing very little marine plant life. Most of the reef area was 

covered with microscopic algae. In the shallow bay areas, there was thick growth of 

filamentous green algae. 

Luomala (1951) identified one species of brown seaweed (Fucaceae) from Abariringa 

(Canton), Turbinaria ornata. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported on the various species of marine algae present on 


1) Ulvaceae - Enteromorpha sp., Ulva lactuca? 

2) Cladophoraceae - Cladophora sp., Cladophoroposis menbranacea 

3) Caulerpaceae - Caulerpa crassifolia, Caulerpa peltata, Calerpa serrulata 

4) Valoniaceae – Dictyosphaeria cavernosa, Valonia sp. 

5) Fucaceae - Turbinaria ornata 

6) Gelidiaceae – Gelidium sp. 

7) Gigartinaceae – Ahnfeltia concinna 

8) Sphaerococcaceae - Gracilaria lichenoides?, Hypnea spinella 

9) Rhodomelaceae - Chondria sp., Herposiphonia tenella 

10) Ceramiaceae - Centroceras clavulatum, Ceramium sp. 

11) Grateloupiaceae - Halymenia sp. 

12) Corallinaceae - Jania capillacea, Lithothamion sp. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that the diatoms, Navicula sp. was collected on 


Green, brown, and red marine algae from Abariringa (Canton) were examined by Dawson 

(1959). The following species were examined and discussed in detail. According to Dawson 

(1959), the discussion on Polysiphonia was provided by Dr. G.J. Hollenberg. 

1) Enteromorpha clathrata 

2) Enteromorpha sp. 

3) Enteromorpha kylinii 

4) Ulvella lens 

5) Cladophora fascicularis 

6) Cladophora flexuosa 

7) Dictyosphaeria cavernosa 

8) Boodlea composita 

9) Cladophoropsis gracillimum 

10) Cladophoropsis sundanensis 

11) Ederbesia attenuate 

12) Caulerpa raceniosa var. peltata 

13) Caulerpa racemosa var. 

turbinata 

14) Caulerpa serrulata 

15) Caulerpa urvilleana 

16) Bryopsis pennata 

17) Codium ovale 

18) Codium geppii 

19) Halimeda fragilis 

20) Halimeda micronesica 

27) Pocockiella papenfussii 

28) Pocockiella variegata 

29) Turbinaria ornata 

30) Turbinaria trialata 

31) Gelidium pusillum 

32) Pterocladia sp. 

33) Gelidiella rigidiuscula 

34) Gelidiopsis intricata 

35) Jacia capillacea 

36) Jania micrarthrodia 

37) Jania tenella 

38) Hypnea esperi 

39) Gracilaria sp. 

40) Lomentaria sp. 

41) Ceramium clarionensis 

42) Ceramium equisetoides 

43) Ceramium gracillimum var. 

byssoideum 

44) Ceramium vagabunde 

45) Ceramium sp. 

46) Grirfithsia sp. 

3




21) Halimeda opuntia 

22) Ectocarpus indicus 

23) Sphacelaria furcigera 

24) Sphacelaria sp. 

25) Dictyota friabilis 

26) Dictyopteris repens 

47) Herposiphonia secunda 

48) Heterosiphonia wurdemannii 

49) Polysiphonia ferulacea 

50) Polysiphonia flaccidissima 

51) Polysiphonia mollis 

52) Laurencia nana 

McIntire (1960) reported that there were many types of aquatic plants around Abariringa 

(Canton). These included foraminifera, coralline algae, and others. 

Hollenberg (1968c) proposed several new tetrasporic algae, Polysiphonia, species and 

varieties including Polysiphonia sparsa comb. nov. This was based in part to a specimen that 

was found on Abariringa (Canton). 

Seaweed was not found around Abariringa (Tunaari) (Government of Kiribati 1995). The 

survey team brought seedlings and a test farm was established at Tebaronga. 




taxa were identified (see Table III-4.1 above). 

BIRNIE 

Hollenberg (1968b) described a new species of epiphytic algae, Herposiponia dendroidea, in 

part based on specimens from Nikumaroro (Gardner), Birnie, and Enderbury. 


varieties including Polysiphonia poko var. poko var nov. This was based in part to a 

specimen that was found on Halimeda sp. from Birnie. 

ENDERBURY 




varieties including Polysiphonia poko var. poko var nov. This was based in part to a 

specimen that was found on Halimeda sp. from Enderbury. 

In 2000, both leeward and windward slopes of Enderbury were dominated by coral rubble 

(Stone et al 2001). Coralline algae and Halimeda covered the rubble and rock surfaces. 





4





In 2000, the leeward sites of Manra had 20 to 30 percent coral coverage, followed by a 

mixture of fleshy algae, rubble, and sand (Stone et al 2001). On the windward side, there 

were large expanses of partially living coral rubble with coralline and turf algae growing on 

rubble. 





MCKEAN 

Hollenberg (1968a) reported the marine algae, Centrocera apiculatum, on other algae from 

McKean. 


varieties including Polysiphonia poko var. poko var nov. This was based in part to specimens 

that were found on Halimeda sp. from McKean. Polysiphonia scopulorum var. scopulorum 

comb. nov. was also proposed. This was based in part to a specimen that was found on 

Halimeda sp. from McKean. Polysiphonia sparsa comb. nov. was also proposed. This was 

based in part to a specimen from McKean. 

In 2000, algae (turf and fleshy algae), rubble, and coralline algae were abundant around 

McKean (Stone et al 2001). 






Hollenberg (1968a) reported the marine algae, Centrocera apiculatum, on Halimeda from 




Hollenberg (1968c) proposed several new tetrasporic algae, Polysiphoni, species and varieties 

including Polysiphonia poko var. longii var nov. This was based in part to a specimen that 

was found with matted algae on Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

In 1995, a survey team noted that seaweed might grow well on Nikumaroro (Government of 

Kiribati 1995). 

5




In 2000, the coralline algae, Halimeda, and rubble were second most dominant substrate type 

behind corals (Stone et al 2001). Coralline algae dominated in shallower waters. Halimeda 

and rubble dominated deeper unconsolidated slopes. 





ORONA (HULL) 

Two test seaweed farms were established one at a site opposite Moantewa and the other at the 

north end of this village (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

In 2000, at algae corner on Orona, a filamentous whispy brown algae, Halimeda and other 

algae covering all surfaces (Stone et al 2001). This suggested high nutrient levels in that 

area. Small tufts of brown algae dominated the habitat at the entrance to the lagoon. 





Tioti et al (2001) conducted algal surveys on Orona to assess ciguatera there. Halimeda sp. 

and filamentous algae were collected for subsequent analysis. 

Neilson (2002) reported that the first attempt at seaweed culture on Orona in 2000 failed 

because of overgrazing by turtles and insufficient seedstock (see also Timeon 2001). This 

was part of the Phoenix Islands Kakai Scheme. 

The second attempt at seaweed culture had just begun with the arrival of new seed stock 8 

days prior to the arrival of the Phoenix Islands Expedition team (Neilson 2002). Six separate 

plots of seaweed had been distributed around Orona. Neilson (2002) presented 5 day results 

of seaweed growth trials on Orona. The trial sites were all inside of the lagoon. 

Obura (in press) noted that the western point of Orona was unique for the Phoenix Islands as 

it was dominated by turf and fleshy algae (both brown algae and Halimeda) with < 5 percent 

coral cover. The algae were present even before recent human settlement in 2001. 



varieties including Polysiphonia anomala. This was based in part to a specimen that was 

found on Halimeda sp. from Rawaki (Phoenix). 

In 2000, coralline algae was the next dominant benthic cover (behind coral) in shallow water 

around Rawaki (Phoenix) (Stone et al 2001). Rubble was the dominant cover in deeper 

water. 

6








B. CORALS & OTHER COELENTERATA 

In 1842, Charles Darwin published his work on the structure and distribution of coral reefs 

(Darwin 1962). Various reefs were examined, including Manra (Sydney), Rawaki (Phoenix), 

and Nikumaroro (Gardner). Abariringa (Mary) could not be identified based on the 

information available at that time. 

During the 1973 environmental survey of Abariringa (Canton) atoll lagoon, 82 species of 

coral were identified (Oates 2003). 

Karlson and Cornell (1998) examined coral species richness of various regions in the world. 

For the Phoenix Islands, a regional richness rating of 78 was determined. This was relatively 

low in comparison with high diversity areas of the Indo-Pacific and the Indian Ocean 

(Southeast Asia), but higher than Hawaii, the Caribbean, and Central American. 

Lovell et al (2000) reported on the status of coral reefs in Kiribati including the Phoenix 

Islands. A summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, 

Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow Reef were provided (see Table 

III-4.2 below). 

Table III-4.2. Descriptive information on the coral reefs of the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Lovell et al 2000). 

7




Phoenix Islands coral reefs had moderate coral coverage (20 to 40 percent) (Stone et al 2001). 

It was evident that wave energy broke coral on the north, south, and east sides of each island. 

Overall, coral reefs were in near pristine condition, with little to no evidence of 

anthropogenic influences. During the 2000 expedition reported by Stone et al (2001), 99 

species of corals were identified (see Table III-4.3 below). 

Table III-4.3. List of coral species identified in the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Stone et al 2001). 

Acroporidae 

Pavona minuta 

Fungia fungites 

Acropora eacuminata Pavona varians 

Fungia repanda 

Acropora bushyensis Caryophilliidae 

Fungia scutaria Fungia sp. 

Acropora clathrata 

Plerogyra sinuosa 

Halomitra pileus 

Acropora cytherea 

Dendrophylliidae 

Herpolitha limax 

Acropora digitera 

Tubastrea coccinea Lithophyton edwardsi 

Acropora divaricata Tubastrea micrantha Podabacia motuporensis 

Acropora hemprichi Turbinaria mesenterina Sandalolitha robusta 

Acropora hyacinthus Turbinaria reniformis Merulinidae 

Acropora lovelli 

Faviidae 

Hydnophora microconos 

Acropora lutkeni 

Barabattoia amicorum Hydnophora rigida 

Acropora nasuta 

Cyphastrea chalcidicum Milleporidae 

Acropora robusta 

Echinopora gemmacea Millepora platyphylla 

Acropora sp. 

Echinopora hirsutissima Millepora tenella 

Acropora valida 

Favia favus 

Mussidae 

Astreopora myriophthalma Favia lizardensis 

Lobophyllia hemprichii 

Montipora aequituberculata Favia pallida 

Pectiniidae 

Montipora efflor/nodosa Favia rotumana 

Echinophyllia aspera 

Montipora foveolata Favia sp.1 

Echinophyllia taylorae 

Montipora hoffmeisteri Favia stelligera 

Oxypora lacera 

Montipora incrassata Favites abdita 

Pocilloporidae 

8




Montipora monasteriata 

Montipora sp.1 

Montipora spumosa 

Montipora tuberculosa 

Montipora zsmooth 

Agariciidae 

Gardineroseris planulata 

Leptoseris hawaiiensis 

Leptoseris incrustans 

Pachyseris speciosa 

Pavona cactus 

Pavona clavus 

Pavona danai 

Pavona decussata 

Pavona explanulata 

Pavona maldivensis 

Favites halicora 

Favites pentagona 

Favites russeli 

Favites sp.1 

Goniastrea edwardsi 

Goniastrea retiformis 

Leptastrea purpurea 

Leptastrea transversa 

Leptoria phrygia 

Montastrea annuligera 

Montastrea curta 

Montastrea valenncienesi 

Platygyra daedalea 

Platygyra sinensis 

Plesiastrea versipora 

Fungiidae 

Fungia danai 

Pocillopora damicornis 

Pocillopora eydouxi 

Pocillopora meandrina 

Pocillopora verrucosa 

Poritidae 

Porites annae 

Porites compressa 

Porites lutea 

Porites rus 

Porites sp.1 

Porites sp.2 

Siderastreidae 

Coscinaraea columna 

Psammocora contigua 

Psammocora haimeana 

In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). 

All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean. Visual assessment methods were 

used to define the overall reef structure and habitats. Video transects were completed. 

General findings were as follows. Benthic communities differ between leeward and 

windward sides, with higher coral cover on the leeward slopes. Lagoon communities were 

highly differentiated between Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, and Nikumaroro, with Abariringa 

the most developed. Minor coral bleaching primarily in the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton) 

and Orona. 

According to Mangubhai (2002), an additional 15 to 20 species of coral were identified for 

the Phoenix Islands during the 2002 expedition. Reefs were free of coral bleaching, disease 

or predation from crown of thorns starfish. 

Salvat (2002) reported that the coral reefs of the Phoenix Islands were some of the most 

difficult to access, also making them virtually pristine. A short overview of results of the 

2000 and 2002 New England Aquarium expeditions was provided in Salvat (2002). Salvat 

(2002) reported that there was no monitoring of coral reefs in Kiribati (this included the 

Phoenix Islands). 

In July to September 2002, there was a hot-spot over the Phoenix Islands (Planetary Coral 

Reef Foundation 2004). It was speculated that this caused the mass bleaching of corals most 

notably in the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona. 

In 2004, the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) conducted dive surveys on Manra 

(Sydney), Rawaki (Enderbury), Abaririgna (Kanton), McKean, and Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

No data analysis or summary was provided in this report. Raw field data were presented in 

the web site. 

Extensive and recent coral bleaching was reported for the Phoenix Islands (Anon. 2005). 

This was unusual as coral bleaching had not previously been reported from Kiribati. 

9




In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, 

Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed 

on the lee sides of these islands. Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported no evidence of the recent 

coral bleaching events and they did not observe any significant coral diseases. 

Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix 

Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to 

III-4.6 below. 

Table III-4.4. Estimated reef dimensions for islands in the Phoenix group. 

(source: Obura in press). 

Island Maximum Lagoon 

Island area 

length (km) (km 2 Reef Reef Ratio Outer 

Perimeter Width wind: Reef 

) @ 20 m (m) lee area 

(km) 

reefs (km 2 ) 

Abariringa (Kanton) 17.46 56 51.02 166 3.4 10.38 

Orona 9.90 22 30.83 159 1.9 5.91 

Enderbury 4.59 16.34 201 1.7 3.78 

Nikumaroro 6.99 6 21.57 151 3.7 3.64 

Manra 4.20 15.20 161 2.3 2.97 

Birnie 1.03 8.12 280 3.5 2.64 

McKean 1.07 6.25 177 2.2 1.27 

Rawaki (Phoenix) 1.12 3.07 219 3.9 0.74 

Table III-4.5. Reef area (km 2 ) by major zones for each of the Phoenix Islands 


Island Windward Leeward Lagoon Total % 

Abariringa (Kanton) 8.45 1.93 1.42 11.80 34.8 

Orona 4.29 1.62 1.12 7.03 20.7 

Enderbury 2.59 1.19 3.78 11.2 

Nikumaroro 2.59 1.04 0.06 3.69 10.9 

Manra 2.16 0.81 2.97 8.7 

Birnie 2.49 0.16 2.64 7.8 

McKean 0.84 0.43 1.27 3.7 

Rawaki 0.58 0.17 0.74 2.2 

Overall 23.98 7.35 2.60 33.93 

Table III-4.6. Area of outer reef slopes in the four main zones: surge zone, reef 

platform, reef edge and deep slope for islands of the Phoenix Islands. 


Island Windward slopes (km 2 ) Leeward slopes (km 2 ) Total 

Total surge platform edge slope Total surge platform edge slope 

Abariringa 

(Kanton) 8.45 1.30 5.18 0.79 1.18 1.93 0.27 1.08 0.23 0.35 10.38 

Orona 4.29 0.66 2.63 0.40 0.60 1.62 0.22 0.87 0.21 0.32 5.91 

Enderbury 2.59 0.42 1.66 0.20 0.31 1.19 0.18 0.71 0.12 0.18 3.78 

10




Nikumaroro 2.59 0.35 1.40 0.34 0.51 1.04 0.16 0.65 0.09 0.14 3.64 

Manra 2.16 0.32 1.30 0.21 0.32 0.81 0.12 0.47 0.09 0.14 2.97 

Birnie 2.49 0.43 1.74 0.13 0.19 0.16 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.05 2.64 

McKean 0.84 0.12 0.50 0.09 0.13 0.43 0.07 0.27 0.04 0.06 1.27 

Rawaki 0.58 0.09 0.36 0.05 0.07 0.17 0.03 0.11 0.01 0.02 0.74 

Total 23.98 3.69 14.77 2.21 3.31 7.35 1.05 4.20 0.84 1.26 31.33 

% 15.4 61.6 9.2 13.8 14.3 57.1 11.4 17.1 


Smith and Henderson (1976 and 1978) reported 82 species of coral in Abariringa’s (Canton) 

lagoon from 38 genera. Coral distribution in the leeward ocean reef and lagoon were 

controlled by physical conditions. Coral cover and number of coral species decreased with 

increased distance from the lagoon entrance. 

Jokiel and Maragos (1978) divided Abariringa (Canton) into various coral habitats including: 

leeward ocean reef zone, pass zone, altered zone, line reef zone in the lagoon, and back 

lagoon zone. Coral species list, precent coverage and frequency of occurance were provided 

for each zone surveyed. Overall, 29 percent of sites (7 sites) had live coral coverage of 0 to 

25 percent and 71 percent of sites had live coral coverage of 25 to 50 percent (see also Lovell 

et al 2000). Cluster analysis was completed to compare species similarities between sites 

and zones. Species number and percent coral coverage increased towards the lagoon passage. 

Based on coral survey results, Jokiel and Maragos (1978) estimated the coral coverage of 

Abariringa (Canton). Results are provided in Table III-4.7 below. 

Table III-4.7. Estimated coral coverage of Abariringa (Canton) Atoll. 


11




Total area covered by dominate coral species were also estimated for each zone surveyed 

(Jokiel and Maragos 1978). Results are provided in Table III-4.8 below. 

Table III-4.8. Estimated area of dominate coral species for key zones on 


(source: Jokiel and Maragos 1978) 

12




Henderson et al (1978) reported that the dredging of reef structures in Abariringa’s 

(Canton’s) lagoon has had a lasting impact on circulation and water quality of the inner 

lagoon. With the removal of line reef structures, the water current was altered from a strong 

current to a relatively sluggish tidal flow. 

Maragos and Jokiel (1978) noted that during the recent Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) 

surveys, 82 species of coral including 5 ahermatypes and 77 hermatypes were identified. 

These included the following (see Table III-4.9 below); 

Table III-4.9. Species list of corals collected from Abariringa (Canton) 

(source: Maragos and Jokiel 1978). 

13




*M after the species name indicates that the species was also collected at McKean by Dana (1975). 

+Hydrozoan corals 

Ahermatypes 

Bleakley (1995) reported that Abariringa (Kanton) had a maximum of 30 hermatypic coral 

genera. 

Luke (1998) reported on the Coelenterata benthic invertebrate collection of the Scripps 

Institute of Oceanography. One Antipatharia specimen was noted from Abariringa (Canton) 

Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie, 

Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow 

Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above). 

14




In 2000, 73 species of coral were identified on Abariringa (Stone et al 2001). Threats to coral 

were minimal. Coral cover varied considerably around Abariringa depending on the site 

visited (Stone et al 2001). In some sites, coral cover was more than 50 percent. 


All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean. Lagoon communities were highly 

differentiated between Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, and Nikumaroro, with Abariringa the 

most developed (Obura and Stone 2003). Minor coral bleaching was observed primarily in 

the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona. 






In 2005, less than 5 percent of the coral reef on Abariringa (Kanton) was bleached (Planetary 

Coral Reef Foundation 2004). 

Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2006) reported that the bleaching event took place in 

November and December 2004. Bleaching in Abariringa (Canton) lagoon was 100 percent. 



III-4.6 above. 

BIRNIE 





All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean. 








ENDERBURY 

15







In 2000, coral cover was low at 20 to 25 percent (Stone et al 2001). Forty seven species of 

coral were observed on Enderbury. Little stress to corals was observed. 















and Nikumaroro (Gardner). 




In 2000, forty three species of coral were identified in Manra (Stone et al 2001). 












16




MCKEAN 

Dana (1975) collected coral species on McKean (see also Maragos and Jokiel 1978). 

Maragos and Jokiel (1978) noted that there was lower diversity of coral on McKean. This 

was probably due to the geographic isolation and limitations in amount and diversity of 

habitat. Sampling effort by Dana (1975) was about half that for Abariringa (Canton) (see 

Maragos and Jokiel 1978). This may have also contributed to the low numbers of coral 

species found on McKean. 

Dana (1979) examined the species number relationship in McKean reef building coral. A 

comparison was made of complex depth gradient and wave exposure gradients. A total of 49 

species in 21 genera of hermatypic scleractinian and 2 species of hermatypic hydrozoans 

were identified. The greatest numbers of species were on shallow terraces. Species numbers 

were reduced as the reef slope increased at about 18 m depth. Heterogeneity of coral 

assemblages was observed along both depth and exposure gradients. Wave and surge action 

was suggested as the principal organizing factor. 

Dana (1975) observed the following coral species on McKean outside of gradient survey 

areas. 

1) Pocillopora eydouxi 8) Leptoseris mycetoseroides 

2) Acropra cymbicyathus 9) Fungia (Pleuractis) scutaria Lamarck 

3) A. hyacinthus 

10) F. (Verrillofungia) concinna 

4) A. sp. cf. A. abrotanoides 11) Favites abdita 

5) Pavona minuta 

12) Lobophyllia costata 

6) P. clavus 

13) Turbinaria irregularis 

7) P. (Polyastra) sp. 

14) Millepora murrayi 

Dana (1979) reported the following species of coral for McKean as part of the gradient study. 

1) Pocillopora setchelli 

2) P. verrucosa 

3) P. elegans 

4) P. damicornis 

5) Acropora variablis 

6) A. humilis 

7) Montipora verrilli 

8) M. sp. cf. 

9) M. aequi-tuberculata 

10) M. granulata 

11) M. informis 

12) M. socialis 

13) M. venosa 

14) Pavona varians 

15) P. clivosa 

16) Psammocora nierstraszi 

17) Halomitra phillippinensis 

18) Parahalomi trarobusta 

19) Porites lobata 

20) P. solida 

21) P. lutea 

22) P. australiensis 

23) P. fragosa 

24) P. superfusa 

25) P. lichen 

26) P. (Synaraea) hawaiiensis 

27) Favia stelligera 

28) F. pallida 

29) Favites pentagona 

30) Plesiastrea versipora 

31) Platygyra daedalea 

32) Hydnophora rigida 

33) H . microconos 

34) Leptastrea purpurea 

35) L. transversa 

36) Cyphastrea microphthalrna 

37) Echinopra lamellosa 

38) Millepraplaty phylla 

17




Luke (1998) reported on the Coelenterata benthic invertebrate collection of the Scripps 

Institute of Oceanography. Most specimens were from McKean and included the following 

species: 

1) Millepora murrayi 

2) Hydnophora microconos 

3) Hydnophora rigida 

4) Pocillopora damicornis 

5) Pocillopora elegans 

6) Pocillopora eydouxi 

7) Pocillopora setchelli 

8) Pocillopora verrucosa 

9) Seriatopora cf. angulata 

10) Acropora sp. 

11) Acropora abrotanoides 

12) Acropora cymbicyanthus 

13) Acropora humilis 

14) Acropora variabilus 

15) Montipora aequi-tuberculata 

16) Montipora venosa 

17) Montipora verrilli 

18) Porites cf australiensis 

19) Porites fragosa 

20) Porites hawaiiensis 

21) Porites lichen 

22) Porites lobata 

23) Porites lutea 

24) Porites solida 

25) Porites superfusa 

26) Psammocora nierstraszi 

27) Leptoseris mycetoseroides 

28) Pavona cf. clivosa 

29) Pavona clavus 

30) Fungia scutaria 

31) Parahalomitra robusta 

32) Echinophyllia aspera 

33) Lobophyllia costata 

34) Cyphastrea microphthalma 

35) Favites pentagona 

36) Leptastrea purpurea 

37) Platygyra daedalea 

38) Turbinaria irregularis 




In 2000, only 1 site was surveyed for coral species (Stone et al 2001). Nineteen species of 

coral were identified at this site. Only one partially beached Fungia was recorded indicating 

minimal coral stress. 

In 2000, coral cover averaged 20 percent around McKean (Stone et al 2001). Carpeting soft 

corals (Sinularia and Lobophytum) covered 10 percent of the bottom. 





Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported that McKean had surprisingly low levels of live coral. It 

appeared to have had a significant coral die off more than 2 years ago. This could have been 

related to a 2001 wreck of a fish trawler, or the coral bleaching event in 2002. 

Pierce et al (2006) reported that McKean had especially low coral levels on the lee side outer 

reef slope site (less than 10 percent). 



18
















In 2000, the leeward site of Nikumaroro had 25 to 40 percent coral cover (Stone et al 2001). 

The leeward sites surveyed in 2000 (Stone et al 2001) had 25 to 40 percent coral cover, and 

in some places coral cover exceeded 75 percent. Coral cover on the windward site platform 

was 70 percent with coral cover decreasing to 30 percent on the reef slope. Sixty one species 

of coral were observed on Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). Threats to corals including 

bleaching and starfish predation were noted. 




most developed (Obura and Stone 2003). 

Stone (2004) reported 92 species of coral on Nikumaroro with coral coverage as high as 75 

percent. Coral was the dominant substrate, followed by Halimeda and coralline algae. 










ORONA (HULL) 

19







In 2000, 49 species of coral were identified at Orona (Stone et al 2001). Threats to coral 

included algae overgrowth of coral colonies. 




most developed (Obura and Stone 2003). Minor coral bleaching was observed primarily in 

the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona. 

The algae corner on Orona, reported in 2000 (Stone et al 2001) was again surveyed in 2002 

(Obura and Stone 2003). 


















In 2000, coral cover exceeded 60 percent in some areas of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Stone et al 

2001). Branching corals were not dominant. Thirty eight species of coral were identified in 

Rawaki (Phoenix). Few threats to coral were observed. 

In 2000, if sandy benthic areas were omitted, Rawaki (Phoenix) had the highest coral cover 

compared with other Phoenix Islands (Stone et al 2001). 



20















WINSLOW REEF 




C. SPONGES 

In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the 

Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, 

Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Sponges were scarce. 


A sponge similar to that found on Abariringa (Canton) was observed on Orona (Hull) 





BIRNIE 




ENDERBURY 

21







MANRA 




NIKUMARORO 




ORONA (HULL) 

A sponge similar to that found on Abariringa (Canton) was observed on Orona (Hull) 





RAWAKI 




D. ECHINODERMS 

Ellis (1937) reported that in the Phoenix Islands, stout-spined sea urchins were so numerous 

that it was difficult to walk amongst them during low tide. Ellis (1937) noted that the red 

spined sea urchin was also seen in the Phoenix Islands. 



Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Echinoderms were low in species richness 

(for all classes). Four crown-of-thorns were observed during the 2002 surveys, three from 

Nikumaroro (Obura and Stone 2003). 


22




A new species of brittle star, Ophiocoma anaglyptica, was described from Abariringa 

(Canton) (Ely 1944). It was collected in 1941 from the near shore beneath loose coral blocks. 

McIntire (1960) noted the presence of Linckia multifora and L. diplax on Abariringa’s 

(Canton) reef (see also Degener and Gillaspy 1955). 

Sea urchins were everywhere on the reef (McIntire 1960). 

In 2000, no sea cucumbers were observed on Abariringa (Stone et al 2001). In addition, one 

crown of thorns star fish, Acanthaster planci, was observed. 




(for all classes). 

In 2004, one crown of thorns starfish was observed on the fringing reef of Abariringa 

(Kanton) (Planetary Coral Reef Foundation 2004). 

BIRNIE 





ENDERBURY 

In 2000, three species of sea cucumbers were observed at Enderbury (Stone et al 2001). The 

seastar, Linkia spp. was also observed there. 





MANRA 





MCKEAN 

23




No sea crown of thorns starfish were observed during the 2000 survey of McKean (Stone et 

al 2001). 

Two sea cucumbers, Holthuria leucospilota, were observed in the 2000 survey of McKean 

(Stone et al 2001). 


No sea cucumbers or crown of thorns starfish were observed during the 2000 survey of 

Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). 





Four crown-of-thorns were observed during the 2002 surveys, three from Nikumaroro (Obura 

and Stone 2003). 

Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported observing one crown of thorns starfish on Nikumaroro at 

“Amelia’s lost causeway”. 

ORONA (HULL) 

In 2000, no sea cucumbers were observed during dive surveys on Orona (Stone et al 2001). 

In addition, no crown of thorns starfish were observed. 

In 2001, few beche-de-mer were present during dive surveys (Tioti et al 2001). The only 

species observed was the lolly fish, Holothuria atra, and surf redfish, Actinopyga mauritiana. 

Dive tows and searches to more than 100 ft were not successful in finding additional bechede-mer 

resources. 





Obura and Stone (2003) report high densities of sea cucumbers, Holothuria atra and H. 

edulis in Orona’s lagoon. 

RAWAKI 





24




E. ANNELIDS 

ABARIRNGA (CANTON) 

McIntire (1960) reported that the polychaete, Eurythoe pacifica, was found in the lagoon at 

Abariringa Canton) (see also Degener and Gillaspy 1955). 

F. MOLLUSCS 

Foin (1976) identified 31 cypraeid (cowrie) biogeographic provinces around the world. For 

region 27, the western limit was Samoa and the Phoenix Islands. Foin (1976) compared these 

biogeographic regions to plate tectonics and concluded that the effects of plate tectonics 

appeared to be a major influence on the biogeography of the Cyrpaeidae. 

Integrated Marine Management Ltd. (1993) noted that Tridacna maxima had been reported 

from the Phoenix Islands. However, they did not specify which of the Phoenix Islands it had 

been reported from. 



Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Mollusks were strongly represented by 

bivalves and gastropods. No cepalopods were observed in 2002, but they were observed on 

night dives in 2000 (Stone et al 2001). 


Bunker (1951) reported that much of the beach was littered with Tridacna sp. shells. 

Byran (1955) published a list of shells that were collected on Abariringa (Canton) in 1951 by 

Otto Degener. 

McIntire (1960) reported that three species of shipworms, Teredo samoaensis, T. gregoryi, 

and T. bensoni, had been recorded for Abariringa (Canton) (see also Degener and Gillaspy 

1955). 

During the Abariringa (Canton) atoll lagoon survey in 1973, 90 species of molluscs were 

recorded (Oates 2003). 

Bryan (1974) presented a table listing the bivalves found on Abariringa (Canton) and 

Enderbury. This was modified and presented below (see Table III-4.10 below). 

Table III-4.10. List of Bivalvia found on 

Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury 

(source: Bryan 1974). 

Scientific name Common name Family Island 

BIVALVIA 

25




Arca sp.* 1 Ark shell Arcidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Pedalion perna* 1 Purse shell Isogononidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Pinctada 

Pearl oyster Pteriidae Abariringa (Canton) 

margaritifera* 1 

Modiolus auriculatus Mussel Mytilidae Abariringa (Canton)? 

Periglypta reticulate* 1 Venus shell Veneridae Abariringa (Canton), 

Enderbury 

Asaphis deflorata* 1 GASTROPODA* 

Rayed cockle Asaphidae Abariringa (Canton) 

2 

Trochus intextus Top shell Trochidae Abariringa (Canton), 

Enderbury 

Turbo argyrostomus Turban shell Turbinidae Enderbury 

Turbo intercostalis* 1 Turban shell Turbinidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Astralium confragosum Turban shell Turbinidae Enderbury 

Nerita plicata* 1 Sea snail Neritidae Abariringa (Canton), 

Enderbury 

Littorina coccinea* 1 Periwinkle Littorinidae Abariringa (Canton), 

Enderbury 

Planaxis sucatus* 1 Grooved shell Plaxidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Cerithium breve* 1 Horn shell Cerithiidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Cerithium echinatum* 1 Horn shell Cerithiidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Cerithium tuberosa* 1 Horn shell Cerithiidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Cypraea moneta* 1 Money cowry Cypraeidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Cypraea depressa Cowry Cypraeidae Enderbury 

Cypraea poraria Cowry Cypraeidae Enderbury 

Cypraea 

caputserpentis* 1 

Cowry Cypraeidae Abariringa (Canton), 

Enderbury 

Cypraea Isabella Cowry Cypraeidae Enderbury 

Cypraea intermedia* 1 Cowry Cypraeidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Epona mariae* 1 Cowry Cypraeidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Cymatium 

Triton shell Cymatiidae Abariringa (Canton) 

nicobaricum* 1 

Maculotriton pusillus* 1 Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton) 

Drupa ricinus* 3 Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton), 

Enderbury 

Drupa morum Dye shell Thaididae Enderbury 

Morula granulata* 1 Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton) 

Morula uva Dye shell Thaididae Enderbury 

Morula nodus* 1 Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton) 

Purprua 

Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton) 

hippocastaneum* 1 

Quoyula madreporarum Coralliophilidae Enderbury 

Engina lineata* 1 Whelk Buccinulidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Engina mendicaria* 1 Whelk Buccinulidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Latirus prismaticus* 1 Spindle shell Fasciolariidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Mitra litterata Miter shell Mitridae Abariringa (Canton) 

Vasum ceramicum* 1 Vase shell Vasidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Vasum armatuom Vase shell Vasidae Enderbury 

26




Conus sponsalis* 1 Cone shell Conidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Conus erbaeus* 1 Cone shell Conidae Abariringa (Canton), 

Enderbury 

Conus lividus* 1 Cone shell Conidae Abariringa (Canton) 

Conus catus Cone shell Conidae Enderbury 

PULMONATES 

Melamphus sp. * 1 Ear snail Elobiidae Abariringa (Canton) 

*notes: 

1. Also identified in Bryan (1955). 

2. Bryan (1955) also listed Mitra kitterara and Mitra cucumerina, Mitridae, the miter shell as a 

gastropod found on Abariringa (Canton). 

3. Byran (1974) listed Drupa ricinus. 

In the 1970’s, Dr. Reed Fautin visited Abariringa (Canton) as part of a U.S. Army medical 

team to control a gastro-intestinal disease outbreak there (Dunn and Dunn 2005). While 

there, he made a cowry collection. The following 16 cowry species were identified: Cypraea 

isabella, C. teres, C. irrorata, C. fimbriata, C. poraria, C. helvola, C. caputserpentis, C. 

carneola, C. depressa, C. scurra, C. tigris, C. mauritiana, C. nucleus, C. bistrinotata, C. 

globulus, and C. moneta. 

Smith and Henderson (1976 and 1978) reported that 90 species of micro-mollusks were 

recorded from Abariringa (Canton). These were collected from the reef slope, outer lagoon, 

and inner lagoon (see also Kay 1978). 

Kay (1978) analyzed sediment samples three habitats of Abariringa (Canton) for micromollusks 

(including primarily bivalves and gastropods). Habitats included: seaward outer 

reef, clear water lagoon, and inner turbid lagoon. The first two habitats had low standing 

stocks of micro-mollusks, but high species diversity primarily of micro-herbivores. The inner 

lagoon had high standing stocks, but low species diversity of suspension feeders. Micromollusks 

were less than 10 mm in greatst diameter. Ninety species of mollusks were 

recorded from samples. However, no complete species list was provided in Kay (1978). 

Standing crops averaged 9.9 shells per cm 3 . 

Kay (1978) summarized micro-mollusks by trophic structure (see Table III-4.11 below). 

Table III-4.11. Trophic structure of micro-mollusks in sediment samples from 

Abariringa (Canton) in percent present for each habitat. 

(source: Kay 1978) 

*see Kay (1978) for species included within each trophic structure. 

+ signifies less than 1% of assemblages. 

27




Yeeting (1988) reported the presence of giant clam, Tridacna maxima, on the southern side of 

Abariringa (Canton). Yeeting (1988) recommended that a survey be conducted to determine 

the presence of T. gigas. 

Sims et al (1990) noted that Abariringa (Canton) may have potential for pearl oyster culture. 

Fisheries Department should conduct a stock assessment for pearl oysters. 

Visual censuses of reef fish were conducted in the lagoon between Tirieta and Uamari 

(Government of Kiribati 1995). Clams were found between Bikentabwakea and Umari at a 

density of 15 to 20 clams per m 2 . Pearl oysters were not found. They had been heavily 

exploited by local divers. The oyster, te bwere, occurred in abundance. 

In 2000, Tridacna sp. was observed at three of the four sites surveyed on Abariringa (Stone et 

al 2001). 



Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. 

ENDERBURY 

Bryan (1974) presented a table listing the bivalves found on Abariringa (Canton) and 

Enderbury. This was modified and presented below (see Table III-4.10 above). 

In 1995, clams were found at a density of 5 to 7 clams per m 2 (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

Sea cucumbers were at 1 to 2 per m 2 . 

In 2000, Tridacna sp were observed in moderate numbers at Enderbury (Stone et al 2001). 





Fish and mollusks were abundant in the lagoon until it became too salty (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). 

In 1995, pearl oyster surveys were planned, but cancelled due to the aggressive sharks 





MCKEAN 

28




Dunn and Dunn (2005) reported that Nielsen published an account of cowries for McKean in 

1969. However, no citiation was provided. According to Dunn and Dunn (2005) Nielsen 

reported 14 cowry species for McKean including: Cypraea isabella, C. poraria, C. helvola, 

C. caputserpentis, C. carneola, C. depressa, C. scurra, C. mauritiana, C. nucleus, C. globules 

C. moneta, C. talpa, C. schilderorum, and C. vitellus. Eleven of these species were the same 

as found on Abariringa (Canton). 

In 2000, Tridacna sp were observed during surveys on McKean (Stone et al 2001). 


Nine giant clams were observed during the 2000 survey of Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). 

In 1995, clams were observed near the village of Niku facing Maroro (Government of 

Kiribati 1995). Clam density was 2 to 3 clams/m 2 . 




ORONA (HULL) 

In 1995, clams were surveyed at Moantewa lagoon (Government of Kiribati 1995). Density 

was 20 to 25 clams per m 2 . Even at the shoreline, clam density was 5 to 7 clams/m 2 . 

Surveys for pearl oysters were completed (Government of Kiribati 1995). Only one young 

black lip pearl oyster was found. 

In 2000, Tridacna sp were observed at Orona (Stone et al 2001). Within the lagoon, 

Tridacna was abundant. 

In 2001, no Tridacna gigas were found on the reef (Tioti et al 2001). Tioti et al (2001) 

reported that there were high concentrations of Tridacna maxima in Orona’s lagoon. 

Tioti et al (2001) reported that no pearl oysters were found during dive surveys on Orona in 

2001. 




Obura and Stone (2003) report high densities of Tridacna spp, in Orona’s lagoon, as high as 

10-15 clams/m 2 . They noted that giant clams were being harvested by the residents of Orona. 

Stocks were healthy, but could be depleted with over harvest. 

Obura and Stone (2003) reported high densities of Actinopyga sp. on the windward side of 

Orona. 

29




Obura (in press) reported dense patches of Tridacna (dominated by T. squamosa) clams in 

Orona’s lagoon. Clam densities in patches were over 50 clams per m 2 . 

RAWAKI 




G. ARTHROPODS 



Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Small shrimp and crabs were numerous. 



(Canton) and reported large stone crabs which had dug large holes in the sand in a pool 

adjacent to the lagoon. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported the following arthropods from Abariringa (Canton): 

1) Limnoriidae isopod - Limnoria multipunctata 

2) Palemonidae shrimp - Anchistus miersi 

3) Stenopodidae shrimp - Gonodactylus sp. 

4) Pontoniidae shrimp - Conchodytes meleagrinae 

5) Coenobitidae land hermit crab - Coenobita perlatus 

6) Paguidae hermit crab - Calcinus elegans, Calcinus elegans var., Calcinus 

herbstii, Clibinarius corallinus 

7) Porcellanidae crab – Pachycheles pisoides 

8) Inachidae – Micippa patypes 

9) Portunidae crab – Thalmita picta 

10) Xanthidae – Actaea sp., Carpilodes bellus, Chlorodopsis scabricula, 

Chlorodposis areojata, Eriphia scabricula, Eriphia laevimana, Leptodius 

sanguinesus, Phymodius ungulatus, Polydectus cupulifer 

11) Grapsidae – Geograpsus grayi, Metopograpsus messor, Pachygrapsus 

minutus, Percnon planissimum 

12) Ocypodidae – Ocypode ceratopthalma 

13) Lepadidae - Lepas anatifera 

14) Scalpellidae – Lithotrya pacifica 

Banner and Banner (1964) reported the following species of Alpheid shrimps from 

Abariringa (Canton) based on a 1954 collection of that island. Species noted included: 

1) Automate gardineri 

19) Alpheus macrochirus 

2) Athanas indicus 

20) Alpheus obesomanus 

3) Athanas rhothionastes 21) Alpheus malleodigitus 

30




4) Athanas djiboutensis 

5) Athanas dorsalis 

6) Salmoneus sibogae 

7) Alpheopsis equalis 

8) Alpheopsis diabolus 

9) Synalpheus paraneomeris 

10) Synalpheus charon 

11) Synalpheus streptodactylus 

12) Synalpheus tumidomanus 

13) Synalpheus coutierei 

14) Synalpheus heroni 

15) Alpheus collumianus inermis 

16) Alpheus lottini 

17) Alpheus gracilis 

18) Alpheus clippertoni 

22) Alpheus ovaliceps 

23) Alpheus bucephalus 

24) Alpheus bradypus, 

25) Alpheus brevipes 

26) Alpheus ehlersii 

27) Alpheus diadema 

28) Alpheus paracrinitus 

29) Alpheus gracilipes, 

30) Alpheus leviusculus 

31) Alpheus crassimanus 

32) Alpheus pacificus 

33) Alpheus strenuus 

34) Alpheus funafutensis 

35) Alpheus parvirostris 

36) Thunor microscaphis 

Ng (1998) described a new species of deepwater porter crab, Lamoha histrix (Homolidae) 

from Abariringa (Kanton, Canton). The specimen was caught in a trap baited with mullet set 

for 24 hours in 305 to 366 m of water. 

During 2000 surveys, only 1 lobster was observed (Stone et al 2001). 




BIRNIE 




ENDERBURY 








MCKEAN 

31




In 2000, no lobsters were observed during surveys of McKean (Stone et al 2001). 


No lobsters were observed during the 2000 survey of Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). 




ORONA (HULL) 

In 2000, no lobsters were observed during dive surveys at Orona (Stone et al 2001). 








H. FISHES 

Fowler (1940) reported on the fishes obtained by the Wilkes Expedition, 1838 to 1842 that 

visited the Phoenix Islands. Fishes collected included: Oxyporhamphus argenteus, 

Exocoetidae, from the stomach of a gannet, Sula sp. in the Phoenix Islands; Chaetodon 

auriga, Chaetodontidae, from Orona (Hull); Teuthis achilles, Teuthididae, from Orona (Hull), 

Teuthis triostegus, Teuthididae, from Orona (Hull); Anampses caeruleo-punctatus, Labridae, 

from Orona (Hull). 

Schultz (1943) documented fish species collected during the 1939 survey expedition of the 

Phoenix Islands by the U.S.S. Bushnell. Fish collections were done at Abariringa (Canton), 

McKean, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull). According to Grovhoug and Henderson (1978), 

Schultz (1943) identified 208 species of fish from 45 families for the Phoenix Islands. 

However, the Schultz (1943) study did not provide quantitative distributional data on fish 

species (Grovhoug and Henderson 1978). 

Schultz and Woods (1948) reported that for the subspecies of surgeonfish (Acanthuridae), 

Acanthurus triostegus triostegus, one-third of the specimens from the Phoenix Islands had an 

extra spot, or bar, or an elongated spot. About one-third also had one more pectoral fin ray 

than the average A. triostegus specimen from elsewhere. 

32




Halstead and Bunker (1954) collected fish species from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, 

Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) by hook and line, beach seind, spear, throw net, dip net, 

and rotenone poisoning. Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) noted that although informative, 

information collected by Halstead and Bunker (1954) on fish species was not quantitative. 

Briggs (1964) noted that the cirrhitid, Chirrhitichthys corallicola TeeVan, needed to be 

synonymized with C. oxycephalus (Bleeker) that ranged from the eastern Pacific to the Red 

Sea, including the Phoenix Islands. 

Stone et al (2001) reported on the 2000 New England Aquarium expedition to the Phoenix 

Islands. Thirty seven additional species of fish were identified in the Phoenix Islands (see 


Table III-4.12. New Fish Species for the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Stone et al 2001) 

Family Genus/Species Common Name 

Moringuidae (Spaghetti Eels) Moringua ferruginea Rusty spaghetti eel 

Muraenidae (Moray Eels) Gymnothorax chilospilus 

Gymnothorax buroensis 

Uropterygius supraforatus 

Congridae (Conger and Garden 

Eels) 

Cyclothonidae Cyclothone pallida 

Cyclothone alba 

(none) 

Buro moray 

(none) 

Conger cinereus cinereus Moustache conger 

(none) 

(none) 

Ophidiidae (Cusk Eels) Brotula multibarbata Reef cusk eel 

Bythitidae (Livebearing 

Brotulids) 

Dinematichthys iluocoeteoides Yellow pygmy brotula 

Antennariidae (Frogfishes) Antennarius nummifer Spotfin frogfish 

Exocoetidae (Flying fishes Cheilopogon suttoni Sutton’s flyingfish 

Scorpaenidae (Scorpionfishes) Scorpaenodes guamensis Guam scorpionfish 

Scorpaenodes hirsutus Hairy scorpionfish 

Taenianotus triacanthus Leaf fish 

Pterois antennata 

Spotfin lionfish 

Serranidae (Fairy Basslets and 

Groupers) 

Suttonia lineata (none) 

Grammistidae Pseudogramma polyacanthum (none) 

Pseudochromidae (Dottybacks) Pseudoplesiops revellei Revelle’s basslet 

Cirrhitidae (Hawkfishes) Cirrhitops hubbardi 

(none) 

Paracirrhites nisus 

(none) 

Paracirrhites xanthus (none) 

Apogonidae (Cardinalfishes) Gymnapogon urospilotus Lachner’s cardinalfish 

Pomacanthidae (Angelfishes) Centropyge flavicauda White-tail angelfish 

Centropyge flavissima Lemonpeel angelfish 

Pomacentridae (Damselfishes) Chrysiptera leucopoma Surge damselfish 

Plectroglyphidodon 

johnstonianus 

Johnston damselfish 

Tripterygiidae (Tripletails) Enneapterygius tatuilae (none) 

33




Enneapterygius nigricauda (none) 

Gobiidae (Gobies) Amblygobius phalaena 

Callogobius plumatus 

Callogobius sclateri 

Paragobiodon modestus 

Acanthuridae (Surgeon and 

Unicornfishes 

Priolepis nocturna 

Acanthurus nigricans 

Acanthurus nigrofuscus 

Zebrasoma scopas 

Zebrasoma veliferum 

34 

Brown-barred goby 

Feather goby 

Pacific flap-headed goby 

Warthead goby 

(none) 

White cheek surgeonfish 

Brown surgeonfish 

Brown tang 

Sailfin tang 

Holloway (2002) noted that region’s first six-gill and sleeper sharks were recorded at 914 m 

(3,000 ft) depth in the Phoenix Islands. 

Randall and Randall (2001a) reviewed the Kuhliidae genus Kuhlia. It was noted that Kuhlia 

petiti was only known from the Phoenix Islands and the Marquesas Islands. Specimens 

examined included fish from Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Enderbury. 

Bernardi et al (2002) examined color patterns of the damsel fish, Dascyllus auripinnis, from 

the Phoenix Islands. Relationships with other species of Dascyllus were examined based on 

mitochondrial DNA results. 

Bernardi et al (2003) noted that the three-spot damselfish from the Phoenix Islands, Dascyllus 

auripinnis, did not group in monophyletic clade, but rather intermixed with D. trimaculatus. 

In 2002, fish dive surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). In 

addition, and ROV and Dropcam were used to record species of fish. Abariringa, Birnie, 

Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. During these surveys, 

an additional 217 new species were identified for the Phoenix Islands. That brings the total 

number of fish species recorded for the Phoenix Islands to 518 comprising 192 species 

identified in Schultz (1943), 100 species reported in the 2000 expedition (Stone et al 2001), 9 

species recorded from various generic revisions, and 217 in the 2002 survey. 

As part of the 2002 fish dive surveys, fish abundance was estimated (Obura and Stone 2003). 

Fish densities averaged 0.522 fish per m 2 . No apparent pattern was seen regarding fish 

abundance according to site exposure or island. Overall, fish populations were healthy and 

representative of coral reef communities. 

Obura and Stone (2003) reported that tissue samples were taken of key species. 

Indicator species had similar abundance in 2002 (Obura and Stone 2003) as in 2000 (Stone et 

al 2001). The exceptions were dogtooth tuna and sharks, both of which declined significantly 

in abundance. Dogtooth went from being present in 75% of large fish sampled (in 2000, see 

Stone et al 2001) to zero in 2002 (Obura and Stone 2003). Reef shark density was similar 

between 2000 and 2003 in Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and Birnie. On Rawaki (Phoenix), 

Manra, Abariringa (Kanton), and Orona, shark density had dropped significantly and were 

absent in many sites.




In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key 

fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury, 

Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed on the lee sides of 

these islands. A comparison of fish abundance based on a 30 minute swim of indicator 

species aggregated is provided in Figure III-4.1 below. A comparison of abundance of all 

shark species combined and Napoleon wrasse are provided in Figures III-4.2 and III-4.3 

below. 

Figure III-4.1. Comparison of Tokelau and Phoenix Islands indicator fish abundance 

(all species, + SE), 30 minute swim (source: Kerr and Wragg 2006). 

Table III-4.2. Comparison of Tokelau and Phoenix Islands abundance of all shark 

species combined (+ SE), 30 minute swim (source: Kerr and Wragg 2006). 

35




Table III-4.3. Comparison of Tokelau and Phoenix Islands abundance of Napoleon 

wrasse (+ SE), 30 minute swim (source: Kerr and Wragg 2006). 

Pierce et al (2006) reported conducting marine fish surveys opportunistically during their 

terrestrial surveys. Results were similar to the New England 2000 and 2002 expeditions (see 

Stone et al 2001, and Obura and Stone 2003). 


The Abariringa (Canton) lagoon was infested with shark, moray eel, and ray (Hydrographic 

Office 1940). 

In 1939, Schultz (1949) observed a very large brown eel, Enchelynassa canina, 2.1 m (7 ft) in 

length in Abariringa (Canton). 



McKean, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull). 





During the 1973 Abariringa (Canton) atoll lagoon survey, 264 species of fish were identified 

(Oates 2003). 

Smith and Henderson (1976 and 1978) reported 264 species of fish from 50 families on 

Abariringa (Canton). The number of fish and number of fish species in the lagoon decreased 

36




with increased distance from the lagoon opening. The richest fish populations were on the 

reef slope outside the lagoon. 

In 1977, a female whale shark, Rhincodon typus, entered the lagoon on Abariringa (Nolan 

and Taylor 1978). It was about 8.1 m (26.5 ft) long (half grown). The shark was tagged. 

Attempts to chase it out of the lagoon were unsuccessful. It stayed in the lagoon at least 14 

months. 

Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) reported on the 1973 inshore fish surveys of Abariringa 

(Canton). In deeper waters, SCUBA divers completed fish counts using a weighted 30 m 

transect line. In shallow water, snorklers swam a pre-determined distance to survey fish. The 

cumulative fish species checklist was increased to 264 species from 50 families (including 

the 146 fish species observed during these surveys, see Table III-4.13). Fish abundance (for 

quantity of fish and fish species) was highest immediately outside and in the lagoon passage. 

Within the lagoon, fish abundance decreased with increased distance from the lagoon 

passage. 

Table III-4.13. List of fish species observed during the 1973 surveys. 

(source: Grovhoug and Henderson 1978) 

37




38




39




Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) also compared the number of fish species present with the 

distance from Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon passage. Results are provided in Figure III-4.4 

below. 

Figure III-4.4. Number of fish species compared with distance from 

Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon entrance. 

(source: Grovhoug and Henderson 1978) 

Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) also provided distributional information on key fish species 

including: 

1) Threadfin butterflyfish, Chaetodon auriga, 

2) Damselfish, Pomacentrus nigricans, 

3) Surgeonfish, Acanthurus xanthopterus, 

4) Honeycomb grouper, Epinephelus merra, 

5) Parrotfish, Scarus sordidus, 

6) Fivelined cardinalfish, Cheilodipterus quinquetineata, 

7) Bicolor chromis, Chromis margaritifer, 

8) Lemonpeel angelfish, Centropyge falvissimus, 

9) Surgeon fish, Zebrasoma scopas, 

10) Black grouper, Cephalopholus argus, 

11) Beaked wrasse, Gomphosus varius, 

12) White-tailed damselfish, Dascyllus aruanus, 

13) Rainbow wrasse, Thalassoma amblycephalus, 

40




14) Blue damselfish, Pomacentrus coelesris, 

15) Racoon butterflyfish, Chaetodon lunuta, 

16) Triggerfish, Rhinecanthus aculeatus, 

17) Big-eye sea bream, Monotaxis grandoculis, 

18) Balck-tailed snapper, Lutjanus fulvus, 

19) Soft puffer, Arothron hispidus, 

20) Convict tang, Acanthurus triostegus. 

Finally, Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) provided detailed survey results (species lists, 

number of fish observed, average fish size, habitat, and other parameters) for transects 

completed. 

In 2000, manta rays were observed in lagoon channel mouth (Stone et al 2001). 

Randall and Randall (2001b) described a new damselfish (Pomacentridae), Dascyllus 

auripinnis, based on specimens from 18 specimens from the Line Islands, 1 specimen from 

the Abariringa (Canton) in the Phoenix Islands. 

Randall and Randall (2001a) reviewed the Kuhliidae genus Kuhlia including specimens from 

Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Enderbury. Kuhlia petiti was only known from the 

Phoenix Islands and the Marquesas Islands. 

Randall and McCosker (2002) described a new species of sandperch, Parapercis lata, from 

the Line and Phoenix Islands. Twelve specimens were from the Line Islands and one was 

collected in 1968 in Abariringa (Canton) the Phoenix Islands. 



Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. 

Between 2000 and 2003, shark density had dropped significantly and were absent in many 

sites in Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, Abariringa (Kanton), and Orona (Obura and Stone 2003). 

Randall et al (2003) described a new soldierfish, Myripristis earlei, from the Marquesas and 

Phoenix Islands including specimens Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Rawaki (Phoenix). 

It was speculated that the Phoenix Islands population was probably the result of downcurrent 

dispersal of larvae from the Marquesas. 

In 2004, fish populations were extremely diverse and high on Abariringa (Kanton) (Planetary 

Coral Reef Foundation 2004). The exception was the shark population which declined due to 

shark finning efforts in 2001. 

Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) encountered schools of manta rays (up to 20) at the 

mouth of the lagoon pass on Abariringa (Kanton). 

In 2005, parrotfish were observed spawning at Abariringa (Kanton) (Stone 2004). 

BIRNIE 

41







Reef shark density was similar between 2000 and 2003 in Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and 

Birnie (Obura and Stone 2003). 



Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. 

ENDERBURY 

Fish were abundant on Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the 

Navy 1969). 








Randall (1956) reported that Acanthurus rackliffei was known from three specimens from 

Orona (Hull). A. glaucopareius and A. achilles from Orona (Hull) and Enderbury appeared 

to have similar stomach contents. Randall (1956) suggested that A. rackliffei may be a hybrid 

between A. glaucopareius and A. achilles. 










Phoenix Islands. Specimens examined included fish from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, 

and Rawaki (Phoenix). It was speculated that the Phoenix Islands population was probably 

the result of downcurrent dispersal of larvae from the Marquesas. 

Landaeta et al (2005) noted that the Creediidae genus, Crystallodytes included two species, 

one of these species had two subspecies. One of the subspecies, Crystallodytes cookie 

enderburyensis, was originally described from Enderbury. 

42








Manra (Sydney) had one large lagoon that was not connected to the sea (Arundel 1890; see 

also Wiens 1962). There were no fish as the salinity was too high. 

Fish and mollusks were abundant in the lagoon until it became too salty (Bryan 1941 and 

1942). 





According to Luke (1962), one of the reasons for having to resettle inhabitants of Manra 

(Sydney) was because the lagoon on Manra (Sydney) was too salty for fish. 









MCKEAN 




Timeon (2001) reported that there were no fish in McKean’s lagoon. 





In 2000, one manta ray was observed (Stone et al 2001). 

43









In 2004, the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) noted several encounters with manta 

rays while conducting dive surveys on Nikumaroro. 




ORONA (HULL) 

In 1887, Ellis observed and consumed large fat ava in the lagoon of Orona (Hull) (Ellis 

1937). The shore was about 91.4 m (100 yards) from the lagoon. Ellis (1937) speculated that 

fish must have gotten into the lagoon through an overflow of the lagoon. 

Fowler (1940) reported on the fishes obtained by the Wilkes Expedition, 1838 to 1842 that 

visited the Phoenix Islands. Fishes collected included: Oxyporhamphus argenteus, 

Exocoetidae, from the stomach of a gannet, Sula sp. in the Phoenix Islands; Chaetodon 

auriga, Chaetodontidae, from Orona (Hull); Teuthis achilles, Teuthididae, from Orona (Hull), 

Teuthis triostegus, Teuthididae, from Orona (Hull); Anampses caeruleo-punctatus, Labridae, 

from Orona (Hull). 




Hubbs (1944) reviewed the blennioid fishes of the genus Brotula including specimens of B. 

mulleri that were collection on Orona (Hull) by Leonard P. Schultz in 1939. Counts and 

measurements of the Orona (Hull) specimen were presented in Hubbs (1944). 





Randall (1956) reported that Acanthurus rackliffei was known from three specimens from 

Orona (Hull). Specimens of A. glaucopareius and A. achilles from Orona (Hull) and 

Enderbury appeared to have similar stomach contents. In addition, no distinct breeding 

season could be ascertained based on gonad samples from these two Acanthurus species. 

Randall (1956) suggested that A. rackliffei may be a hybrid between A. glaucopareius and A. 

achilles. 

44




Tioti et al (2001) reported on fish transect surveys that were completed on Orona in 2001. 

Four sites were surveyed on the windward side. Dominant fish groups included snapper 

(19.3 percent), angel and butterfly fish (14.01 percent), groupers (12.48 percent), and parrot 

fish (6.8 percent). These percents were based on number of fish observed. Other fishes such 

as basslets, gobies, sharks, rays and damsels accounted for more than 37.96 percent. Mean 

density of key fish groups was estimated and presented in Figure III-4.5 below. 

Figure III-4.5. Mean density of key fish groups on Orona in 2001 

(source: Tioti et al 2001). 

Tioti et al (2001) concluded that there was an abundance of finfish on Orona. The hump head 

wrasse, Chelenius undulates, was the most encountered wrasse along with the common parrot 

fish, Scarus sp. Raw data collected by Tioti et al (2001) were presented as an attachment to 

the report. 









Pierce et al (2006) reported that Orona appeared to have been recently impacted by fishing. 

Pierce et al (2006) suggested that fish resources in Orona be monitored recovery of the 

stocks. 




45











Phoenix Islands. Specimens examined include fish from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, 

and Rawaki (Phoenix). It was speculated that the Phoenix Islands population was probably 

the result of downcurrent dispersal of larvae from the Marquesas. 




I. TURTLES 

Turtle were found in fair numbers in the Phoenix Islands (Foreign Office 1920). 

Dahl (1980) presented a matrix of marine biomes. The Phoenix Islands were lumped with the 

Line and Northern Cook Islands. Sea turtle nesting was identified as one marine biome in 

this group of islands. 

Integrated Marine Management Ltd. (1993) reported that the hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys 

imbricate, and green turtle, Chelonia mydas, had been reported from most of the Phoenix 

Islands. They did not elaborate on which Phoenix Islands these turtles were found. 

In 2002, turtle surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, 

Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Turtle mating was observed on 

three occasions. Results of these turtle surveys are presented in Table III-4.14 below. 

Table III-4.14. Number of turtles observed on dives and number of nests 

observed in 2002. (source: Obura and Stone 2003). 

island Turtles observed Nests observed 

green hawksbill old new 

Birnie 5 2 3 

Enderbury 7 160 

Abariringa (Kanton) 28 30 5 

Manra 10 1 2 

Nikumaroro 7 2 41 18 

Orona 6 1 8 

Rawaki (Phoenix) 3 1 6 

46




Total 66 5 233 34 

Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie, 

Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table 

III-4.15 below. 

Table III-4.15. Turtle sightings on SCUBA dives and at sea 

(source: Kerr and Wragg 2006). 

Island Quantity Type Latitude Longitude 

Kerr and Wragg (2006) also conducted shoreline surveys for old (>1 year old) and new (< 1 

year old) turtle nests and turtle tracks on Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, 

Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 below. 

Table III-4.16. Sightings of marine turtle nests in the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Kerr and Wragg 2006). 

47




Pierce et al (2006) reported that no evidence of recent (1 to 2 months) turtle nesting on 

Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. However, several old nests 

were observed (see Table III-4.17). 

Table III-4.17. Turtle nests observed on the Phoenix Islands in April to May 2006. 



Bryan (1934) reported observing turtles on Abariringa (Canton). Bryan (1941 and 1942) 

mentioned that turtles come up to sandy beaches to lay eggs. 

Maude (1937) reported that the reef beaches of Abariringa (Canton) were covered with turtle 

tracks. During that visit, 4 large turtles were caught. 

Degener and Gillaspy 1955) noted that occasionally on Abariringa (Canton), a turtle comes 

on the beach to lay her eggs (see also McIntire 1960). 

In 1973, a preliminary turtle survey was completed on Abariringa (Canton) (Balazs 1975). 

Principal nesting sites were along four areas of the beach (see Figure III-4.6). 

Figure III-4.6. Marine Turtle Nesting Areas on Abariringa (Canton) 

(source: Balazs 1975). 

48




At nesting site 1, 16 fresh turtle tracks were identified (Balazs 1975). In addition, two green 

turtles, Chelonia, were observed. At site 2, more than 100 nesting pits were identified. Most 

appeared less than 2 to 3 months old. At site 3, more than 30 recent pits were identified. At 

site 4, more than 40 pits were identified. 

Personnel on Abariringa (Canton) also kept turtle pets (Balazs 1975). Many had photographs 

of turtles they had observed on the island. These were all identified as Chelonia. There were 

two reports of turtles with distinct ridges on their carapace. This would suggest that other 

marine turtles were also present on Abariringa. Turtles were common throughout the year 

inside and outside of the lagoon. Nesting was observed throughout the year, but more 

common during October and November at sites 2 and 3. Balazs (1975) estimated that there 

may be a fairly large numbers of green turtles that nest on Abariringa (Canton) (see also Hirth 

1993). 

Dahl (1980) reported that sea turtle nesting was common on Abariringa (Canton) and 

Enderbury. Dahl (1980) recommended that Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury turtle 

breeding areas be protected. 

Garnett (1983) reported that green turtles nest on Abariringa (Canton) in unknown numbers. 

Zug and Balazs (1985) examined skeletochronological techniques to determine age 

estimations of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas. Humeri from 10 Hawaiian green turtle that 

died in the last 9 years, and 1 green turtle from Abariringa (Canton) in the Phoenix Islands 

were examined. The specimen from Abariringa (Canton) was estimated to be 15 years in age 

based on skeletochronological techniques. Based on results, it appeared that the Abariringa 

(Canton) turtle grew much faster and had an earlier maturity than green turtles from Hawaii. 

Hirth (1993) recommended that the status of green turtle nesting on Abariringa (Canton) 

needed to be examined. 

49




Yeeting (1988) reported a lot of breeding pits on the ocean side beach close to the brid 

sanctuary site on the southern part of Abariringa (Canton). Turtles were observed in the 

shallow waters on the western reef site. 

In 2000, 34 green turtles and 1 hawkbill turtle were observed while diving (Stone et al 2001). 


Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Results of these turtle surveys are 

presented in Table III-4.14 above. 

In 2004, Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) observed mating turtles twice while diving 

at Abariringa (Kanton). In addition a great number of turtles, mostly green turtles were 

observed. 

Pierce et al (2006) reported that people on Abariringa (Kanton) recently consumed turtles. 




BIRNIE 

Balazs (1975) did not visit Birnie, but reported that tracks had been observed there. Garnett 

(1983) reported that green turtles were known to nest on Birnie according to Balazs (1975). 









Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 above. 



were observed (see Table III-4.17 above). 

ENDERBURY 

The large sea turtle [presumably the green turtle] was found on Enderbury (Hydrographic 

Office 1940). 

The Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that turtle were plentiful. 

50




Bryan (1974) noted that Enderbury was called the most important green turtle breeding island 

in the south central Pacific (see also King 1973). 

Balazs (1975) did not visit Enderbury, but reported that there was heavy nesting along the 

eastern and western coasts during October and November. Nesting also probably occurred 

throughout the year. 

Dahl (1980) reported that sea turtle nesting was common on Abariringa (Canton) and 

Enderbury. Dahl (1980) recommended that Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury turtle 

breeding areas be protected. 

Garnett (1983) noted that Enderbury was considered by the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey 

Programme (in the 1960s) to be the most important nesting rookery for green turtles, 

Chelonia mydas, in the Phoenix Islands and perhaps the entire central Pacific Ocean (see also 

King 1973). 

In January 2000, two turtle tracks were observed near the southwest end of Enderbury 

(Kepler 2000). 

In 2000, all Enderbury beaches were surveyed. There was no evidence of turtle nesting 

(Stone et al 2001). During dive surveys around Enderbury, 5 green turtles were observed. 




Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that Enderbury was still one of the most important 

green turtle, Chelonia mydas, nesting sites in the central Pacific. 

Pierce et al (2006) reported that turtle nest counts on Enderbury indicated that it was an 

important island for green turtle, Chelonia mydas, breeding. 











Turtles were occasionally obtainable on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1916). 

51




Turtles were found on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1940). Hydrographer of the 

Navy (1969) noted that turtles were in the lagoon. 

Balazs (1975) did not visit Manra (Sydney), but reported that tracks had been observed on the 

northwestern coast of Manra (Sydney). These turtle populations were probably heavily 

exploited during the recent settlement of this island. 

Garnett (1983) reported that green turtles, Chelonia mydas, were known to breed on Manra 

(Sydney). 

In January 2000, several old turtle nests were observed under pandanus trees, south of the 

landing on the beach on Manra (Kepler 2000). 

In 2000, all beaches on Manra were surveyed for turtle nests (Stone et al 2001). Thirty one 

green turtle nests were found. During dive surveys, 17 green turtles were observed. 










MCKEAN 

Balazs (1975) reported that there was no information available on turtles on McKean. 

Dana (1975) reported that on the western side of McKean there was a high sandy beach used 

by green turtles, Chelonia mydas, for nesting. 

Garnett (1983) reported that there were no records of green turtles nesting on McKean. 

In 2000, all of McKean’s beaches were surveyed for turtles (Stone et al 2001). Two recent 

green turtle tracks and nests were identified in the southern beach. During dive surveys of 

McKean, two green turtle, and one hawksbill turtle were observed. 







52








Turtle were plentiful (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

Balazs (1975) did not visit Nikumaroro (Sydney), but reported that tracks were observed on 

the southern coast of Nikumaroro (Gardner). These turtle populations were probably heavily 

exploited during the recent settlement of this island. 

Garnett (1983) reported that green turtles, Chelonia mydas, breed on Nikumaroro (Gardner). 

However, there were no estimates of their numbers. 

In January 2000, 22 green turtle tracks were observed (Kepler 2000). More than 25 nests 

were found under coconut and pandanus trees. Some were recent, others were older. 

In 2000, 15 to 20 fresh green sea turtle tracks were identified on the southwestern beach of 

Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). Other beaches were not surveyed. 

In 2000, during 11 dives around Nikumaroro, one hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imricata 

bissa, and 12 green turtles, Chelonia mydas agassizi, were observed (Stone et al 2001). 




In 2004, Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) reported encountering plenty of turtles. 










ORONA (HULL) 

In 1840, the U.S.S. Vincennes discovered Orona (Hull) with 1 sick Frenchman and 11 

Tahitians on the island (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Hobbs 1945; Dickson 1939; Douglas and 

Douglas 1994). They had been left there 5 months earlier to catch turtles (4 months 

53




according to Dickson 1939). The following year when the Peacock and Flying-Fish visited 

Orona (Hull), the Tahitians that were catching turtles had left (Wilkes 1845b). 

Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that turtles used to be caught frequently on Orona (Hull). 

Turtle were abundant (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). 

Balazs (1975) did not visit Orona (Hull), but reported nesting on the western and southern 

coast throughout the year. These turtle populations were probably heavily exploited during 

the recent settlement of this island. 

Garnett (1983) reported that green turtles, Chelonia mydas, were known to breed on Orona 

(Hull). At one time green turtles were numerous. There was no recent information on the 

size of the breeding population. 

In 1995, a male and female turtle were caught in a channel from the lagoon to the sea 


In January 2000, no turtle tracks or nests were observed on Orona (Kepler 2000). 

In 2000, a small portion of the beach on Orona was surveyed (Stone et al 2001). Twelve 

probable green turtle nests were identified. During dive surveys, 13 green turtles were 

observed. 

Tioti et al (2001) reported the location of turtle nesting areas on Orona (Figure III-4.7 below). 

However there was no discussion in this report regarding how the turtle nesting beaches were 

determined. 

Figure III-4.7. Turtle nesting beaches on Orona 

(source: Tioti et al 2001). 

Neilson (2002) reported that the first attempt at seaweed culture on Orona in 2000 failed 

because of overgrazing by turtles (see also Timeon 2001). 

54

















Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that turtles probably nested on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

Balazs (1975) reported that there was no information available on turtles on Rawaki 

(Phoenix). 

Garnett (1983) reported small numbers of nesting green turtles on Rawaki (Phoenix). 

In 2000, all Rawaki beaches were surveyed for marine turtles (Stone et al 2001). Five green 

turtle nest sites were found. During three dive surveys, three green turtles were observed. 




Stone (2004) reported finding 5 green turtle nesting sites on Rawaki. 










J. MARINE MAMMALS 

55




There are several marine mammals that transit or live within the waters of the central Pacific 

Ocean, the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) area (Reeves et al 

1999). The SPREP area included the Phoenix Islands. Marine mammals that transit or live 

within these waters include: 

1) Bryde’s whale, Balaenoptera edeni; 

2) Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus; 

3) Pygmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps; 

4) Dwarf sperm whale, Kogia simus; 

5) Short-finned pilot whale, Globicephala macrorhynchus; 

6) Killer whale, Orcinus orca; 

7) False killer whale, Pseudorca crassidens; 

8) Melon-headed whale, Peponocephala electra; 

9) Pygmy killer whale, Feresa attenuata; 

10) Risso’s dolphin, Grampus griseus; 

11) Bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus; 

12) Striped dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba; 

13) Pan-tropical spotted dolphin, Stenella attenuata; 

14) Spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostri; 

15) Fraser’s dolphin, Lagenodelphis hosei; 

16) Rough-toothed dolphin, Steno bredanensis; 

17) Southern bottlenose whale, Hyperoodon planifrons; 

18) Cuvier’s beaked whale, Ziphius cavirostris; and 

19) Other beaked whales, Mesoplodon spp. 

Whales were once abundant in the central Pacific. Lever (1964) noted that in the late 1700’ 

and early 1800’s, the East India Company limited British whaling activities in the Pacific. 

This allowed the American whaling fleet to flourish in the Pacific. By 1846, there were at 

least 730 vessels in this trade (735 vessels in 1846 according to Townsend 1935). 

Townsend (1935) summarized whale takes based on American whaleship logbooks for the 

period 1800 to 1870 (see Figure III-4.8 below; see also Boggs 1938). If landing sites relate to 

areas of high density, then whale stocks were probably also distributed along the equator. 

Figure III-4.8. Sperm whales* taken by American whaleships primarily from 

1800 to 1870 based on logbooks: A – April to September; B – October to March 

(source: Townsend 1935). 

A – April to September 

56




B – October to March 

*Each circle represented the ship’s location on the day that one or more whales were caught. 

57




In Chart C and D from Townsend (1935), no northern or southern right whales or bowhead or 

humpback whale were taken in the central Pacific (around the equator including the Phoenix 

Islands) by American whale ships primarily between 1800 to1870. 

Lever (1964) noted one of the most intensively whaling areas was the equatorial belt that was 

known as the “On the Line” whaling grounds. Whalers operated there throughout the year. 

The Phoenix Islands were within the “On the Line” whaling ground noted by Lever (1964), 

and were at the center of whale landings based on logbook data summarized by Townsend 

(see Figure III-4.8 above). 

Areas of maximum whale captures for key whale species were mapped by Lever (1964; see 

Figure III-4.9 below). Based on Figure III-4.9, the central Pacific (including the Phoenix 

Islands) appeared to have the highest rate of capture for sperm whales. 

Figure III-4.9. Areas of Maximum Whale Captures 

(source: Lever 1964) 

Weilgart and Whitehead (1977) recorded the codas (pattern of clicks) of female and 

immature sperm whales, Physeter macrocephalus, from various locations, included the 

Phoenix Islands (recorded in 1992). They noted that short codas prevailed off of Christmas 

Island and the Phoenix Islands. These short codas were completely absent in the Caribbean. 

These codas were probably acquired through vocal learning. 

Stone et al (2001) noted that during the 2000 New England Aquarium expedition to the 

Phoenix Islands, few cetaceans were seen (see Table III-4.18 below). Odontocetes were the 

58




most common sub-order observed and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) the most 

common species. No large whales were observed during the voyage to and from or at the 


Table III-4.18. 2000 Marine mammal sightings around the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Stone et al 2001). 

Date Position Species # Comment 

In 2002, there were two sightings of 15 and 30 dolphins (Obura and Stone 2003). These were 

probably Stenella spp. No other marine mammals were observed during either the transit 

from and to Fiji and between the Phoenix Islands. 

Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported documenting marine mammal sighting during their 

expedition to the Phoenix Islands in 2006. Sightings were at Abariringa (Kanton), 

Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-4.19 below). They reported observing 

spinner dolphins, Stenella longirostris, and the bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncates. No 

whales were sighted during their entire voyage. 

Table III-4.19. 2006 marine mammal sightings 

(source: Kerr and Wragg 2006) 

59




Pierce et al (2006) reported that no whales were observed during the entire 2006 trip (from 14 

April to 10 May 2006) that included 80 hours of pelagic seabird transects. 

ABARIRINGA (CANTON) 

The bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops spp., was observed near Nikumaroro, Abariringa (Kanton), 

and Orona. Tissue samples were taken of bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncates, from 

Nikumaroro and Abariringa (Kanton) (Obura and Stone 2003). 

Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) reported encountering pods of bottlenose dolphin at 

Abariringa (Kanton). 

Stone (2004) reported that tissue samples were taken from a resident population of bottlenose 

dolphins from Abariringa (Kanton). 



Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-4.19 above). 

ENDERBURY 

In 2000, no marine mammals were observed at Enderbury (Stone et al 2001). 

60








In 2000, no marine mammals were observed around Manra (Stone et al 2001). 

MCKEAN 

In 2000, no marine mammals were observed around McKean (Stone et al 2001). 


In 2000, a mixed group of bottlenose and spinner dolphins were observed 1.6 km (1 mile) 

east of Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). 


and Orona. Tissue samples were taken of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncates, from 

Nikumaroro and Abariringa (Kanton) (Obura and Stone 2003). 

Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) reported encountering pods of bottlenose dolphin at 

Nikumaroro. In addition, a pod of false killer whales were observed attacking and killing a 

marlin at Nikumaroro. 




ORONA (HULL) 

In 2000, no marine mammals were observed around Orona (Stone et al 2001). 


and Orona (Obura and Stone 2003). 




K. OTHER MARINE BIOTA 

PARASITIC FUNGI 

61




Steele (1965 and 1967) collected coastal sand samples from McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), 

Enderbury, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie. A total of 13 samples were taken from the 

Phoenix Islands. Phoenix Islands samples averaged 80 isolates per gm. Saprophytic and 

facultative parasitic fungi were identified from samples (for species list see Steele 1965 and 

1967). The numbers of isolates from the Phoenix Islands was lower than that found in 

Hawaiian sand samples. The Nikumaroro (Gardner) samples had higher numbers of isolated 

compared with other Phoenix Islands. This was attributed to previous habitation of this 

island. 

PLANTON 

In 2002, deepwater plankton were collected using a vertical tow net (Obura and Stone 2003). 

Sampling was conducted at Nikumaroro (2 sets), Manra, Abariringa (Kanton), and 

Enderbury. Depth of sampling was 500 to 1,000 m. 

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Nolan, R.S. and L.R. Taylor. 1978. Mini, the friendly whale shark. Sea Frontiers 24(3): 

169-176. 


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Obura, D. in press. Coral reef structure and zonation of the Phoenix Islands. Atoll Research 

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Marine Turtle Newsletter 33: 9-10. 

69


Chapter III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources 


5. FISHERIES RESOURCES 

CHAPTER III. 

BACKGROUND 

A. OFFSHORE FISHERIES RESOURCES (TUNA) 

In the late 1940’s, J. Francis was hired by the Hawaiian Tuna packers Ltd., to conduct 

baitfish studies around the Phoenix Islands to determine the feasibility of setting up a tuna 

industry there (Teiwaki 1988). 

Shimada (1951) reported that additional skipjack spawning grounds were near the Phoenix 

Islands. This was based on results of the 1950 Pacific Ocean Fishery Investigations (POFI) 

survey. Juvenile skipjack (25 and 38 mm TL) were collected while the research vessel was 

drifting near the Phoenix Islands. In addition, juvenile skipjack (20, 22, and 35 mm TL) were 

caught while night fishing off the west end of Orona (Hull). 

June and Reintjes (1953) document common tuna-bait fishes from Abariringa (Canton), 

Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 below). 

Table III-5.1. Common tuna-bait fishes that are found in the Phoenix Islands 

(Source: June and Reintjes 1953). 

Species Common name Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Orona 

(Canton) 

(Hull) 

Albula vulpes bonefish X 

Chanos chanos milkfish X 

Spratelloides delicatulus small round 

herring 

X 

Allanetta ovalaua Fijian silversides X X 

Neomyxus chaptalli, False mullet X X X 

Mugil vaigiensis Black-fin mullet X X 

Mugil longimanus Blue-tailed mullet X 

Crenimugil crenilabis Thick-lip mullet X X 

Scomberoides sanctipetri 

Leatherjacket X 

Decapterus pinnulatus Mackerel scad X X 

Kuhlia sandvicensis Mountain bass X X X 

Mulloidichthys 

auriflamma 

Golden goatfish X X 

Mulloidichthys 

samoensis 

Samoan goatfish X X 

June and Reintjes (1953) noted that there were no reports on the successful introduction of 

the sailfin molly, Mollienesia latipinna to the Phoenix Islands. 

1




Reintjes and King (1953) conducted research in the Line and Phoenix Islands on yellowfin 

tuna. Of 1,097 stomachs examined, 996 were not empty and contained a total of 189,000 

prey items representing 99 taxa. 

Murphy and Ikehara (1955) reported on tuna school observations in relationship with bird 

schools in the Pacific Islands. Results from the Phoenix Islands are provided in Table III-5.2 

below. 

Table III-5.2. Summary of Phoenix Islands observations 

on fish schools and bird flocks. 

(source; Murphy and Ikehara 1955). 

March 

to May 

June to 

August 

September 

to November 

December 

to 

February 

2 

Totals and 

unweighted 

average 

Days fishing & scouting - 3 0 3 6 

Days running 3 4 2 14 23 

Yellowfin schools 0 8 3 3 14 

Yellowfin schools per day 0.0 1.1 1.5 0.2 0.7 

Skipjack schools 0 6 2 1 9 

Skipjack schools per day 0.0 0.9 1.0 0.1 0.5 

Unidentified schools 2 5 2 5 14 

Unidentified schools per day 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.3 0.7 

Total fish schools 2 19 7 9 37 

Total fish schools per day 0.7 2.7 3.5 0.5 1.9 

Bird flocks 6 26 1 13 46 

Bird flocks per day 2.0 3.7 0.5 0.8 1.8 

Murphy and Ikehara (1955) reported that in the Phoenix Islands, yellowfin dominated near 

land and skipjack dominated the semi-oceanic zone. They also conducted troll test fishing 

around the Phoenix Islands. Detailed results were included in Murphy and Ikehara (1955). 

Van Pel (1956) conducted longline fishing trials in American Samoa for the South Pacific 

Commission. During these trials, 4 days were spent in the Phoenix Islands area (00 0 S, 

170 0 W). Catch rates within the Phoenix Islands were 1.83 yellowfin tuna and 0.97 albacore 

tuna per 100 hooks. 

Ishiyama and Okada (1957) examined post-larval skipjack, Katsuwonus pelamis, from the 

Phoenix Islands. The characteristics of these young (measuring between 5 to 8 mm) were 

similar to skipjack post-larvae from the Philippines and elsewhere. 

Between 1978 to 1979, the SPC’s Skipjack Survey and Assessment Programme conducted 

one trip to the Phoenix Islands using the F/V Hatsutori Maru No. 3 (Chapman 2003). 

In 1979, 183 kg of milkfish from the milkfish farm in Tarawa were taken to the Phoenix 

Islands and used for tuna bait (Kleiber and Kearney 1983). About 150 kg bait survived the 

trip and was used to catch .7 tonnes (0.8 tons) of skipjack (87%) and yellowfin tuna. CPUE 

was 0.8 tonnes/day (0.9 tons/day). This low CPUE was not due to a lack of tuna, but because




tuna responded poorly to bait. The sighting of tuna schools was reported at 1.5 schools/hour 

for the Phoenix Islands. This was generally higher than that reported by Waldron (1964) for 

the Pacific Ocean Fisheries Investigation (POFI) cruises. 

Kleiber and Kearney (1983) presented a map indicating the origin of skipjack tags that were 

recovered in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ (see Figure III-5.1 below). It 

appeared that most tags originated towards the southwest of the Phoenix Islands in Fiji, 

Tuvalu, and Western Samoa. Similar information was provided in Kearney (1983) that 

aggregated tag returns for the entire Pacific Islands region. 

Figure III-5.1. Results of skipjack tuna tag returns to and from 

The Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ 

(source: Kleiber and Kearney 1983). 

Skipjack tuna tag recoveries where the fish was recovered more than 200 nmi from point of 

tagging were documented in Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme (1993). These results 

are provided below in Figure III-5.2 for skipjack, Figure III-5.3 for yellowfin, and Figure III- 

5.4 for bigeye. Skipjack from the western Pacific were finding their way to the EEZ around 

the Phoenix Islands. 

Figure III-5.2. Skipjack tuna tag recovery more than 200 nmi from 

tagging site (as of 31 July 1991). 


3




Figure III-5.3. Yellowfin tuna tag recovery more than 200 nmi from 



Figure III-5.4. Bigeye tuna tag recovery more than 200 nmi from 



4




Bailey and Itano (1992) reported that one yellowfin tuna and five skipjack tuna tagged in 

Tuvalu waters were recaptured in the Phoenix Islands. They also reported that one bigeye 

tuna tagged in the Phoenix Islands was recovered within the Tuvaluan EEZ. 

Itano (1992a) reported that during the Te Tautai trip, yellowfin and bigeye tuna on the 

northwest corner of the Phoenix Islands EEZ responded well to milkfish chum. During that 

trip, 137 yellowfin tuna, 80 skipjack, and 482 bigeye tuna were tagged (total of 699 tuna 

tagged). A total of 106 yellowfih, 41 skipjack and 353 bigeye were double tagged within the 

Phoenix Islands EEZ. Itano (1992a) noted that the hardy nature and low mortality of milkfish 

allowed successful tagging in the Phoenix Islands. 

Itano (1992b) noted that during the SPC tuna tagging project using the Te Tautai, large 

schools of surface-feeding tuna were found around the Phoenix Island portion of the Kiribati 

EEZ. 

Itano and Williams (1992) summarized yellowfin tuna tagging data and related information 

collected by the skipjack survey and assessment programme. The 1977 and 1978 cruises 

went through the Phoenix Islands EEZ. Yellowfin tuna were tagged within the Phoenix 

Islands EEZ. Data on Phoenix Islands EEZ caught fish were lumped into the Kiribati EEZ 

fish data and were not presented separated in this report. 

Kaltongga (1998) summarized the Secretariat of the Pacific Community’s tuna tagging 

results from 1989 to 1992. Skipjack tuna tagged in Fiji, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, 

Wallis and Futuna, Palau, Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia were 

recovered in the Phoenix Islands. Skipjack and yellowfin tuna tagged in the Gilbert Islands 

and Papua New Guinea were recovered in the Phoenix Islands. Bigeye tuna tagged in the 

Gilbert Islands, and Australia were recovered in the Phoenix Islands. 

5




Sibert and Hampton (2002) analyzed tuna tag results and concluded that skipjack and 

yellowfin were not really highly migratory, but rather were limited to ranges of about 740 to 

926 km (400 to 500 nmi). Therefore regional management may not be as appropriate as subregional 

arrangements. Results also suggested that each island country could also implement 

domestic management policies that would complement sub-regional arrangements. The 

perspective that all tuna within an EEZ should be captured as they are only passing through 

may not be as valid as initially thought. 

No specific studies were identified regarding the status of tuna stocks in the Phoenix Islands. 

However, in 2003, SPC completed a review of the status of tuna stocks in the Pacific (see 

Langley et al 2003). Langley et al (2003) reported that at the regional level, the skipjack tuna 

stocks were not overfished due to the high level of recruitment and modest level of 

exploitation relative to the stock’s biological potential. The current regional level of harvest 

of 1.2 M tonne was sustainable. Langley et al (2003) reported that at the regional level, 

yellowfin tuna stocks were not overfished and not in an overfished state. However, yellowfin 

tuna were near full exploitation. Any future increase in landings may move yellowfin tuna to 

the overfished state. Langley et al (2003) reported that at the regional level, bigeye tuna were 

not overfished, but were approaching overfishing. The current level of landings might not be 

sustainable over the long term unless high recruitment was maintained. 

Langley et al (2003) reported that during El Niño events, there was a spatial shift in purse 

seine skipjack tuna catches in the central western Pacific to the east. 


A baitfish survey was conducted in Abariringa (Canton) lagoon in 1949 (see June 1950). The 

black-fin mullet and thick-lip mullet were the most abundant bait fishes in the lagoon. Small 

round herring, mountain bass, and goatfish were also present along the fringe of the lagoon. 

In 1950, there were four baitfish trials on Abariringa (Canton) (June and Reintjes 1953). 

Results of these bait trials indicated the bait species present were only fair tuna bait. Also, 

the abundance of bait varied during the year. Bait was sufficient to supplement tuna fishing 

operations, but the area was not a large-scale baiting ground. 

Only Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) were of any importance as potential bait grounds 

(June and Reintjes 1953). June and Reintjes (1953) document common tuna-bait fishes from 

Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 above). Only 

Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) had potential as a potential as a baiting ground as 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) had an extremely dangerous passage into the lagoon. Due to the coral 

reefs in the lagoon, it was difficult to navigate limiting the effectiveness of baitfishing 

operations. 

As part of the South Pacific Commission’s Skipjack Survey and Assessment Programme in 

Kiribati waters, trial fishing was conducted west of McKean, Abariringa (Canton), 

Enderbury, and east of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hallier and Kearney 1980). A total of 183 

skipjack and 12 yellowfin tuna were tagged off of Abariringa (Canton). 

Kleiber and. Kearney (1983) reported that 182 skipjack and 16 yellowfin had been tagged off 

of Abariringa (Kanton). 

6




Itano (1992a) reported that Abariringa (Canton) lagoon had been surveyed for tuna bait, but 

no baitfish species were found. Strong currents limited the use of the bouke-ami lift net. 

Itano (1992b) reported that the lagoon at Abariringa (Canton) proved unsuitable for baiting. 

BIRNIE 


Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 above). 

ENDERBURY 


Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 above). 



Enderbury, and east of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hallier and Kearney 1980). One skipjack tuna was 

tagged off of Enderbury. 

MCKEAN 



Enderbury, and east of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hallier and Kearney 1980). A total of 184 

skipjack tuna and 4 yellowfin tuna were tagged west of McKean. 


Only Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) had potential as a baiting ground as Nikumaroro 

(Gardner) had an extremely dangerous passage into the lagoon (June and Reintjes 1953). 

ORONA (HULL) 

During 1950 to 1951, four visits were made to Orona (Hull) (June and Reintjes 1953). 

Several species of mullet were observed in varying amounts. Amounts were inadequate to 

attempt seining. It was doubtful that sufficient bait was present to make seining feasible. 

Only Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) were of any importance as potential bait grounds 

(June and Reintjes 1953). June and Reintjes (1953) document common tuna-bait fishes from 

Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 above). Only 

Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) had potential as a potential as a baiting ground as 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) had an extremely dangerous passage into the lagoon. 

7







Enderbury, and east of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hallier and Kearney 1980). No fish were tagged 

off of Rawaki (Phoenix). 

B. OFFSHORE FISHERIES (TUNA) 

In 1979, the 200 mile exclusive economic zone around the Phoenix and Line Islands was 

declared (Teiwaki 1988). 

In 1987, the U.S.A. and certain Pacific Island states entered into a Multilateral Treaty on 

Fisheries (Crocombe 2001). Kiribati was one of the Pacific Island states that approved the 

treaty. The Treaty allowed tuna purse seine vessels from the U.S. to fish in Kiribati waters 

(including the Kiribati EEZ around the Phoenix Islands). 

TBAP (1993) provided annual summaries for boat days for longline, pole-and-line and purse 

seine vessels in the Kiribati EEZ from 1978 to 1990 (see Figure III-5.5 below). 

Figure III-5.5. Annual boat days by longline (LL), pole-and-line (PL) 

and purse seine (PS) vessels in the Kiribati EEZ, 1978 to 1990 


TBAP (1993) provided annual summaries for bigeye, yellowfin, and skipjack by gear type for 

foreing vessels in the Kiribati EEZ from 1978 to 1990 (see Figure III-5.6 below). 

Figure III-5.6. Annual landings of bigeye (BET), yellowfin (YFT), and 

8




skipjack (SJT) by longline (LL), pole-and-line (PL) and 

purse seine (PS) vessels in the Kiribati EEZ, 1978 to 1990 


TBAP (1993) diagrammed the distribution of pole-and-line skipjack and yellowfin tuna 

catches in Kiribati (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1985 to 1990 (see Figure III-5.7 

below). 

TBAP (1993) also diagrammed the distribution of longline yellowfin and bigeye catches in 

the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1985 to 1990 (see Figure III-5.8 

below). 

9




Figure III-5.7. Distribution of pole-and-line catches in 

the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands), 1985 to 1990 


A. Skipjack - Largest circle is about 1,600 

metric tonnes. 

B. Yellowfin - Largest circle is about 200 

metric tonnes 

10




Figure III-5.8. Distribution of longline yellowfin and bigeye catches in the 

Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands), 1985 to 1990. 


A. Yellowfin - Largest circle is about 210 


B. Bigeye - Largest circle is about 110 

metric tonnes 

11




Annual Japanese longline CPUE for both yellowfin and bigeye in the Phoenix Islands portion 

of the Kiribati EEZ were diagrammed for 1962 to 1990 (TBAP 1993, see Figures III-5.9 and 

III-5.10 below). 

Figure III-5.9. Annual Japanese longline yelllowfin tuna CPUE (number per 100 

hooks), in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1962 to 1990. 


Figure III-5.10. Annual Japanese longline bigeye tuna CPUE (number per 100 hooks), 

in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1962 to 1990. 


Distribution of 1985 to 1990 purse seine tuna catches with in the Kiribati EEZ (including the 

Phoenix Islands) were presented by TBAP (1993), see Figure III-5.11 below. 

12




Figure III-5.11. Distribution of purse seine catches in 

the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands), 1985 to 1990. 


A. Skipjack - Largest circle is about 

1,800 metric tonnes 

B. Yellowfin - Largest circle is about 1,800 


13




The length frequency of skipjack and yellowfin caught by U.S. purse seiners in the Phoenix 

Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ based on port sampling was plotted by TBAP (1993), see 

Figures III-5.12 and III-5.13 below. 

Figure III-5.12. Raised length-frequency histogram of skipjack tuna caught by 

U.S. purse seiners in the Phoenix Islands portion of 

the Kiribati EEZ based on port sampling. 


Figure III-5.13. Raised length-frequency histogram of yellowfin tuna caught by 

U.S. purse seiners in the Phoenix Islands portion 

of the Kiribati EEZ based on port sampling. 


Catch, effort, and CPUE for pole-and-line, purse seine, and longline vessels fishing in the 

Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ from 1978 to 1990 were reported in TBAP 

(1993) (see Tables III-5.3 for pole-and-line, III-5.4 for purse seine, and III-5.5 for longline). 

14




Table III-5.3. Catch, effort and CPUE for pole-and-line vessels 

fishing in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990 


Table III-5.4. Catch, effort and CPUE for purse seine vessels fishing 

in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990 


15




Table III-5.5. Catch, effort and CPUE for longline vessels fishing 

in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990 


Seasonal catch, effort, and CPUE for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ (data 

for all months combined, for all vessel nationality) were compared by TBAP (1993), see 

Table III-5.6 below. 

Table III-5.6. Seasonal catch, effort, and CPUE for the Phoenix Islands portion of the 

Kiribati EEZ (data for all months combined, for all vessel nationality) 


16




Annual longline yellowfin and bigeye CPUE and effort for the Japanese and Korean vessels 

within the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 1990 were summarized in 

TBAP (1993), see Tables III-5.7 and III-5.8 below. 

Table III-5.7. Japanese longline annual yellowfin and bigeye tuna CPUE and effort for 

the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990. 


Table III-5.8. Korean longline annual yellowfin and bigeye tuna CPUE and effort for 



17




Monthly longline yellowfin and bigeye CPUE and effort for the Japanese and Korean vessels 

within the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 1990 were reported by 

TBAP (1993), see Tables III-5.9 and III-5.10 below. 

Table III-5.9. Japanese longline monthly yellowfin and bigeye tuna CPUE and effort 

for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990. 


Table III-5.10. Korean longline monthly yellowfin and bigeye tuna CPUE and effort for 



Annual longline tuna and billfish CPUE and effort in the Phoenix Islands portion of the 

Kiribati EEZ from 1962 to 1980 for Japanese, Taiwanese and Korean vessels were presented 

in TBAP (1993), see Tables III-5.11, III-5.12, and III-5.13 below. 

Table III-5.11. Japanese longline annual tunas and billfish CPUE 

and effort for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1962-1980. 


18




Table III-5.12. Taiwanese longline annual tunas and billfish CPUE 

and effort for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1967-1989. 


Table III-5.13. Korean longline annual tunas and billfish CPUE and effort 

for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1975-1980. 


The Phoenix Islands were popular fishing areas for the Japanese and South Korean longliners 

(Teiwaki 1988). 

19




Integrated Marine Management Ltd. (1993) reported that purse seine activities of the U.S. 

fleet were equally spread between the Gilbert and Phoenix group, with little activity in the 

Line Islands area. 

For 1978 to 1990, tuna fishing effort in the Phoenix Islands generally followed the same 

seasonal trend as catch (Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993). This suggested 

that effort was directed towards area of higher CPUE. Korean longlining concentrated in the 

Line and Phoenix Islands in the mid-1980s, but has spread throughout the Kiribati EEZ with 

the decline in the Japanese longlining activities. 



to the east and skipjack catches also shift to the east extending to the Phoenix Islands. This is 

illustrated in Figure III-5.14 below. 

Figure III-5.14. Distribution of skipjack tuna catches (tonnes) and mean sea surface 

temperatures (SST, in 0 C) in the Pacific Ocean: (a) first half of 1989 

(La Niña period), and (b) first half of 1992 (El Niño period). 

(source: Lehodey 1997). 

20




Langley (2003) reported that about 20 percent of total purse seine landings within the Kiribati 

EEZ came from the Phoenix EEZ area. Most of this effort was by the U.S. purse seine fleet 

under the Multi-lateral Treaty. 

Langley (2003) noted that yellowfin accounted for a higher proportion of longline catch in 

the Phoenix and Gilbert EEZ areas than in the Line Islands where bigeye represented the 

highest proportion of longline catch. The Kiribati longline fishery began in the 1950’s. By 

the mid-1960’s the Korean longline fleet entered the fishery and concentrated effort in the 

Line and Phoenix EEZ area. Since the mid-1970’s, the Korean longline fleet has dominated 

this fishery. Korean longline fishing effort from the Phoenix EEZ area from about 1980 to 

2000 was about 20 percent of their total Kiribati EEZ effort. 

Korean longline yellowfin catch rates were slightly higher in the Phoenix EEZ area, than in 

the Line EEZ area (Langley 2003). Japanese longline yellowfin catch rates were higher in 

those areas compared with the Korean longline fleet. 

21




Langley (2003) noted that albacore was also taken by the longline fleet in the Phoenix and 

Line EEZ areas. Langley (2003) suggested that higher albacore landings were possible in the 

southern Phoenix and Line EEZ areas. However, in recent years, albacore has become a 

minor component of longline catches in the Phoenix and Line EEZ areas. For the Phoenix 

EEZ area, albacore catch rates were highest in June to August. 

Most of the pole-and-line catch and effort in Kiribati was in the Gilbert EEZ area, but in 

some years, significant catches were obtained from the Phoenix EEZ area (Langley 2003). 

In the Phoenix EEZ area, annual purse seine skipjack tuna catches were negatively correlated 

with ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) conditions (Langley 2003). Low catches were 

related to strong positive SOI (La Niña), while high purse seine catches were related to El 

Niño conditions. The Phoenix and Line EEZ areas represent the eastern extremity of the 

distribution of skipjack, therefore the availability of this species was more sensitive to SOI 

conditions. 

The CUPE for bigeye was comparable between the three EEZ areas of Kiribati (including the 

Phoenix EEZ area) (Langley 2003). 

Langley (2003) presented a summary of purse activities and catches within the Phoenix 

Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ from 1982 to 2001 (see Table III-5.14 below). 

Table III-5.14. Number of purse-seine vessles, fishing effort (sets), and catch (t x 1000) 

of skipjack, yellowfin, and bigeye for the Phoenix Islands 

portion of the Kiribati EEZ from 1982 to 2001. 


Year Vessels sets skipjack yellowfin Bigeye 

1982 - 53 0.6 0.3 0.0 

1983 - 532 8.8 5.9 0.0 

1984 - 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 

1985 3 17 0.1 0.0 0.0 

1986 7 211 2.2 0.1 0.0 

1987 9 101 1.7 1.0 0.0 

1988 7 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

1989 9 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

1990 35 617 8.7 9.9 0.0 

1991 42 884 20.8 0.3 0.0 

1992 46 1,447 35.9 5.3 0.0 

1993 33 596 9.2 0.4 0.0 

1994 59 2,645 42.0 14.7 0.0 

1995 16 6 0.2 0.0 0.0 

1996 26 172 4.8 0.7 0.2 

1997 100 1,178 18.0 10.3 0.2 

1998 47 922 27.0 2.2 0.1 

1999 42 545 22.4 3.9 0.7 

2000 39 707 16.1 5.2 0.2 

2001 - 422 10.2 2.3 0.2 

*- data not available. 

22




The distribution of purse-seine sets within the Kiribati EEZ from 1992 to 2001 was compared 

for the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.15 

below. Purse-seine sets were also compared graphically for the Kiribati EEZ (including the 

Phoenix Islands) of the Kiribati EEZ (see Figure III-5.16 below). 

Figure III-5.15. Distribution of purse-seine sets in the Kiribati EEZs (including the 

Phoenix Islands) from 1992 to 2001, by degree of latitude and longitude. 

Circle size is proportional to the maximum number of sets (maximum =1104). 

(source: Langley 2003). 

10S 5S 0 5N 

165E 

Gilbert Gilbert Gilbert Islands 

Islands 

Islands 

Phoenix Phoenix Phoenix Islands 

Islands 

Islands 

Line Line Line Line Islands 

Islands 

Islands Islands 

170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 

Figure III-5.16. Annual number of purse-seine sets in the Kiribati EEZ (including the 

Phoenix Islands) from 1985 to 2001 


5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

23




Number of sets 

9000 

8000 

7000 

6000 

5000 

4000 

3000 

2000 

1000 

0 

Line 

Phoenix 

Gilbert 

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 

Year 

1994 1996 1998 2000 

Longline fishing effort and catch for 1952 to 2001 was compared within the Kiribati EEZ 

(including the Phoenix Islands) by Langley (2003); see Figure III-5.17 below. 

Figure III-5.17. Longline fishing effort (number of hooks) and catch for 5 degrees of 

latitude and longitude for 1952 to 2001. 


*note: The size of the pie chart is proportional to the magnitude of fishing effort in the 5-degree square. The 

red portion of the pie chart represents the proportion of the effort and catch allocated to within the EEZ. 

Langley (2003) presented a summary of yellowfin, bigeye, and albacore tuna catch and effort 

in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EZZ for 1952 to 2001 (see Table III-5.15 

below). 

24




Table III-5.15. Summary of yellowfin, bigeye, and albacore tuna catch (t) and effort 

(millions of hooks) from the longline fishery in the Phoenix Islands portion of the 

Kiribati EEZ from 1952 to 2001 for 5 degrees of latitude and longitude. 


Year Hooks Yellowfin bigeye albacore 

1952 0.00 0 0 0 

1953 0.09 49 16 7 

1954 0.27 284 19 24 

1955 1.55 1,296 143 246 

1956 0.38 251 35 56 

1957 1.23 716 203 277 

1958 1.51 1,115 326 174 

1959 1.73 1,264 324 250 

1961 3.88 2,278 501 988 

1962 2.90 1,674 403 770 

1963 4.85 2,069 834 732 

1964 2.52 1,140 362 648 

1965 2.93 1,156 451 721 

1966 4.76 1,385 502 1,061 

1967 3.18 755 409 1,220 

1968 4.51 1,315 414 1,642 

1969 5.46 1,266 447 1,586 

1970 5.42 605 264 1,452 

1971 2.85 641 187 936 

1972 4.49 1,151 325 1,081 

1973 3.97 476 235 877 

1974 5.45 224 91 528 

1975 1.57 276 262 205 

1976 6.36 2,232 1,562 299 

1977 10.36 3,808 2,174 683 

1978 4.59 1,640 1,082 814 

1979 7.37 2,340 1,310 495 

1980 14.68 5,475 2,021 1,108 

1981 8.28 1,781 950 690 

1982 6.63 2,103 1,231 532 

1983 8.88 3,829 1,428 422 

1984 6.38 2,097 1,187 253 

1985 11.74 3,993 2,145 353 

1986 2.92 1,066 521 351 

1987 5.67 1,232 997 426 

1988 9.21 2,013 1,259 533 

1989 8.53 1,179 1,326 60 

1990 6.01 1,221 1,062 176 

1991 4.37 1,039 768 287 

1992 6.84 1,975 1,585 343 

1993 4.84 1,273 1,064 100 

1994 5.95 1,246 1,808 260 

1995 7.26 737 1,114 391 

1996 4.81 1,488 624 217 

1997 4.72 957 1,230 138 

1998 9.85 1,360 2,168 625 

1999 4.27 671 578 105 

2000 6.70 1,683 1,004 156 

2001 3.26 553 641 239 

25




Annual distribution of longline fishing effort by nation for the Phoenix Islands portion of the 

Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 2001 was compared graphically by Langley (2003), see Figure III- 

5.18 below 

Figure III-5.18. Annual distribution of longline fishing effort (million of hooks set) by 

nation for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 2001. 


Annual catches of main tuna species by longliner in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix 

Islands) for 1952 to 2001 were compared graphically by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.19. 

Figure III-5.19. Annual catches of main tuna species by the longline fishery by species 

for the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1952 to 2001. 


Longline catches for 1996 to 2001 in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) were 

plotted on a map by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.20. 

26




Figure III-5.20. Longline catches for the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) 

from 1996 to 2001, grey circles represent cumulative level of longline 

catches from these areas. 


A summary table of the number of vessels, fishing days, and catch of skipjack and yellowfin 

by the pole-and-line fishery in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 

2001 was presented by Langley (2003), see Table III-5.16 below. 

Table III-5.16. Summary of number of vessels, fishing days, and catch (tonnes) of 

skipjack and yellowfin by the pole-and-line fishery in 

the Phoenix Islands from 1978 to 2001. 


Year Vessels Days Skipjack Yellowfin 

1972 - 11 98 0 

1973 - 0 0 0 

1974 - 0 0 0 

1975 - 9 16 0 

1976 - 291 2,492 7 

1977 - 32 120 0 

1978 0 652 6,991 56 

1979 28 96 430 1 

1980 65 473 5,108 2 

1981 42 385 2,896 4 

1982 41 472 3,174 153 

1983 7 35 161 33 

1984 6 29 133 0 

1985 19 139 1,018 24 

1986 45 847 14,809 13 

1987 33 311 2,515 77 

1988 10 99 723 27 

27




1989 4 9 34 1 

1990 8 50 283 1 

1991 14 44 819 0 

1992 2 10 12 0 

1993 21 201 2,541 10 

1994 1 6 8 0 

1995 20 275 4,291 17 

1996 8 44 358 8 

1997 3 20 132 5 

1998 0 0 0 0 

1999 - 5 38 1 

2000 - 0 0 0 

2001 - 0 0 0 

Langley (2003) summarized annual fishing effort for the pole-and-line fishery in the Kiribati 

EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) for 1972 to 2001 (see Figure III-5.21 below). 

Figure III-5.21. Annual level of fishing effort (days fished) by the pole-and-line fishery 

in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1972 to 2001. 


Number of days 

3500 

3000 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

Line 

Phoenix 

Gilbert 

1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 

Year 

1990 1993 1996 1999 

Langley (2003) summarized pole-and-line fishing effort in the Kiribati EEZ (including the 

Phoenix Islands) for 1980 to 1989 and 1990 to 1999 (see Figure III-5.22). 

Figure III-5.22. Location of pole-and-line fishing effort (days fished) in Kiribati’s EEZ 

(including the Phoenix Islands) for 1980-1989 (top graph), and 1990 to 1999 (bottom 

graph), circles size is proportional to the number of days fished (maximum = 857). 


28




1980-1989 

1990-1999 

Monthly purse seine catch and the Southern Oscillation Index were compared for the Phoenix 

Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1990 to 2001 by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.23 

below. 

Figure III-5.23. Comparison between monthly catch and the SOI for the purse-seine 

fishery in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ from 1990 to 2001, 

only catch from free-school and log sets included. 


29




Catch (t) 

12000 

10000 

8000 

6000 

4000 

2000 

0 

Catch 

SOI 

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 

Langley (2003) compared the monthly CPUE trend for bigeye and yellowfin for each island 

group within the Kiribati EEZ including the Phoenix Islands (see Figure III-5.24 below). 

Date 

Figure III-5.24. Monthly trends in CPUE (kg per 100 hooks) of bigeye (BET, top) and 

yellowfin (YFT, bottom) for each of Kiribati’s EEZ areas and the SOI, 

the three month moving average presented here. 


20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

-5 

-10 

-15 

-20 

-25 

-30 

SOI Index 

30




BET CPUE 

YFT CPUE 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 

0 20 40 60 80 

Gilbert 

Phoenix 

Line 

SOI 

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 

1995 1996 1997 1998 

Date 

1999 2000 

The distribution of all purse seine sets for 1996 to 2001 for the Kiribati EEZ including the 

Phoenix Islands were presented by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.25 below. 

Figure III-5.25. Distribution of all purse-seine sets by year and set type for 1996 to 

2001, the area of the pie chart is proportional to the total number of sets in degree of 

latitude and longitude (maximum size for all figures is 330 sets). 


1996 1998 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

-20 -10 0 10 

SOI 

-20 -10 0 10 

SOI 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

31




1997 1999 

2000 2001 

The annual distribution of all purse seine sets by the U.S. Multi-lateral Treaty fleet for 1999 

to 2001 in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) was presented by Langley (2003), 

see Figure III-5.26 below. 

Figure III-5.26. Annual distribution of all purse-seine sets by the USMT fleet by set 

type for 1999 to 2001, area of the pie chart is proportional to the total number of sets in 

degree of latitude and longitude (maximum is 189 sets). 


1999 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

2000 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

32




2001 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

The annual distribution of skipjack and yellowfin catch by Federated States of Micronesia 

Arrangement purse seine vessels in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1999 

to 2001 was presented by Langley (2003), see Table III-5.17. 

Table III-5.17. Annual distribution of total skipjack and yellowfin catch (t x 1000) by 

the different purse seine fleets in the Phoenix portion 

of the Kiribati EEZ for 1999 to 2001 


Phoenix EEZ Area Skipjack catch Yellowfin catch 

1999 2000 2001 1999 2000 2001 

FSM Arrangement purse seiners 

Percent of total catches 0.0% 0.8% 1.5% 0.0% 1.1% 1.8% 

Total catch 28.2 30.7 77.0 10.9 11.3 17.2 

US registered purse-seiners 

Percent of total catch 14.3% 15.8% 9.3% 13.1% 25.1% 8.5% 

Total catch 145.2 94.3 72.6 37.4 27.8 20.5 

Korean purse-seiners 


Total catch 107.9 121.8 132.4 31.3 26.0 38.5 

Taiwanese purse-seiners 


Total catch 164.9 188.6 177.9 45.2 37.6 44.6 

Purse seine catches of skipjack and yellowfin in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix 

Islands) for 1996 to 2001 were presented by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.27 below. 

189 

94.5 

18.9 

unassociated 

log_debris 

drif ting_FAD 

anchored_FAD 

other 

33




Figure III-5.27. Spatial distribution of the purse-seine catch (tonnes) of skipjack (SKJ) 

and yellowfin (YFT) by year in the Kiribati EEZ 

(including the Phoenix Islands) for 1996–2001. 


10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

155E 

155E 

155E 

1996 

160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

1997 

160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

1998 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

SKJ_MT 

YFT_M T 

15,000 

7,500 

1,500 

160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

34




10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

155E 

155E 

155E 

1999 

160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

2000 

160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

2001 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

SKJ_MT 

YFT_MT 

15,000 

7,500 

1,500 

160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

Langley (2003) presented a summary of longline catch and effort for the Phoenix Islands 

portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 2001 (see Table III-5.18 below). 

35




Table III-5.18. Summary of catch (t) and effort (number of vessels, number of sets, and 

number of hooks set in millions) for Phoenix Islands EEZ area 

longline fishery from 1978 to 2001. 


Year Effort Catch (t) 

Vessels Sets Hooks Bigeye Yellowfin Albacore Billfish Shark Other 

1978 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 

1979 2 17 0.04 6 10 0 0 0 1 

1980 15 207 0.46 114 155 0 0 0 32 

1981 6 102 0.21 68 90 1 28 2 4 

1982 18 420 0.91 287 477 26 63 10 36 

1983 22 417 0.98 195 599 12 43 0 3 

1984 29 731 1.81 408 575 42 84 6 18 

1985 42 1,216 3.40 650 1,044 43 91 11 37 

1986 17 145 0.43 55 70 14 10 0 5 

1987 27 529 1.50 305 315 23 63 4 10 

1988 45 976 2.78 353 471 73 67 8 16 

1989 63 1,123 3.02 436 354 21 75 7 12 

1990 58 836 2.21 319 451 33 59 6 19 

1991 48 677 1.66 324 450 44 50 5 28 

1992 67 1,250 3.05 662 635 79 143 8 19 

1993 60 1,314 3.16 665 779 39 165 5 15 

1994 66 1,939 4.65 1,422 995 168 148 3 11 

1995 96 2,525 5.98 1,077 620 343 178 5 16 

1996 61 1,290 3.12 413 877 117 73 3 2 

1997 54 1,338 3.52 744 741 189 133 4 3 

1998 82 1,509 4.08 836 552 162 193 4 0 

1999 79 1,225 3.35 481 519 49 102 7 2 

2000 56 1,077 2.88 401 535 36 86 3 1 

2001 13 92 0.25 40 47 23 11 0 0 

Langley (2003) presented annual distribution of longline fishing effort for the Kiribati EEZ 

for 1996 to 2001 (see Figure III-5.28). 

36




Figure III-5.28. Annual distribution of longline fishing effort (number of hook set) by 

nation by degree of latitude and longitude for 1996 to 2001. 


10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

170E 175E 180 

170E 

175E 180 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

175W 170W 165W 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

160W 155W 150W 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 

150W 

- 1996 - 

- 1997 - 

- 1998 - 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

37




10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

170E 175E 180 

170E 

175E 180 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

175W 170W 165W 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

160W 155W 150W 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 

150W 

- 1999 - 

- 2000 - 

- 2001 - 

Langley (2003) illustrated the annual distribution of longline catches by species for the 

Kiribati EEZ for 1996 to 2001 (see Figure III-5.29 below). 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

38




Figure III-5.29. Annual distribution of longline catch by species by degree of latitude 

and longitude for 1996 to 2001. 


10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

170E 175E 180 

170E 175E 180 

170E 175E 180 

170E 175E 180 

170E 175E 180 

170E 

175E 180 

175W 170W 165W 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

160W 155W 150W 

1996 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 

1997 

1998 

Catch (t) 

500 

250 

50 

Albacore 

Bigeye 

Yellowfin 

Shark 

Billfish 

Other 

150W 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

39




10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

10S 5S 0 5N 

170E 175E 180 

170E 175E 180 

170E 175E 180 

170E 175E 180 

170E 175E 180 

170E 

175E 180 

175W 170W 165W 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

160W 155W 150W 

1999 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 

2000 

- 2001 - 

Catch (t) 

500 

250 

50 

Albacore 

Bigeye 

Yellowfin 

Shark 

Billfish 

Other 

Langley (2003) examined the skipjack catches for 1972 to 1999 for the region (including the 

Phoenix Islands) using the skipjack MULTIFAN-CL analysis (see Figure III-5.30 below). 

150W 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

5N 

0 

5S 

10S 

40




Figure III-5.30. Distribution of total skipjack catches 1972 to 1999 in relation to the sixregion 

spatial stratification (including the Phoenix Islands) used in the 

skipjack MULTIFAN-CL analysis. 


0 10N 20N 30N 40N 

20S 10S 

Skipjack tuna catch (mt) 

120E 1972-1999130E 

140E 

1,000,000 

500,000 

100,000 

Pole-and-line 

Purse seine 

Other 

1 

120E 

130E 140E 

150E 160E 170E 

2 

5 

180 170W 160W 150W 

150E 160E 170E 180 170W 160W 

Langley (2003) examined the yellowfin catches for 1991 to 2000 for the region (including the 

Phoenix Islands) using the skipjack MULTIFAN-CL analysis (see Figure III-5.30 below). 

Figure III-5.31. Distribution of yellowfin tuna catch, 1991−2000, heavy lines indicate 

the spatial stratification used in the yellowfin MULTIFAN-CL model. 


10S 0 10N 20N 30N 

20S 

30S 

3 

4 

6 

150W 

120E 130E 140E 150E 160E 170E 180 170W 

1 

160W 

Yellowfin tuna 

Catch (t) 1991-2000 

250,000 

125,000 

25,000 

Longline 

Purse seine 

Other 

120E 130E 140E 150E 

2 3 

4 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

160E 170E 180 

PHOENIX 

ISLANDS 

5 

170W 160W 

30N 

20N 

10N 

0 

10S 

20S 

30S 

40N 

30N 

20N 

10N 

0 

10S 

20S 

41




Lawson (2005) presented Korean longline catches for 2003 that included the Phoenix Islands 

portion of the Kiribati EEZ (see Figure III-5.32 below). 

Figure III-5.32. Korean Longliner Catches in 2003 

including the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ 

(source: Lawson 2005) 

Tumoa (2006) summarized 2004 and 2005 longline effort data for the Kiribati EEZ 

(including the Phoenix Islands portion). These are presented in Figures III-5.33 below. 

Figure III-5.33. Annual longline effort for 2004 and 2005 for Japan, 

Korea, and China Taipei in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands). 

(source: Tumoa 2006). 

2004 2005 

42




Lawson (2005) illustrated the purse seine catches for 2004 in the region (including the 

Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ) for purse seiners from Federated States of 

Micronesia (see Figure III-5.34), New Zealand (see Figure III-5.35), and the U.S. (see Figure 

III-5.36). 

Figure III-5.34. Federated States of Micronesia purse-seine catch in 2004 for the region 

(including the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ). 


43




Figure III-5.35. New Zealand purse-seine catches in 2004 for the region 

(including the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ). 


Figure III-5.36. U.S. purse-seine catches in 2004 (including 

the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ). 


44




Tumoa (2006) presented annual purse seine effort summaries for 2004 and 2005 for purse 

seiners from Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) Arrangement, Korea, Taiwan, U.S. 

Treaty, and Vanuatu (see Figure III-5.37 below). 

Figure III-5.37. Annual purse seine effort for 2004 and 2005 for FSM Arrangement, 

Korea, Taiwan, U.S. Treaty, and Vanuatu in the 

Kiribati EEZ (and Phoenix Islands EEZ) 

(source: Tumoa 2006). 

2004 2005 

45




Tumoa (2006) reported that for 2002 to 2004, no fish were unloaded in the Phoenix Islands. 

However, for 2005, 6,305 tonnes of fish were unloaded in the Phoenix Islands. 


Teiwaki (1988) noted that there had been discussions between the Government of Kiribati 

and the U.S. purse seine fleet regarding the use of Abariringa (Kanton) as a base in the 

Central Pacific. 

C. INSHORE FISHERIES RESOURCES 

In 1937, trochus was introduced from Palau to the Phoenix Islands (Bour et al 1982; Gillett 

1993 and 2002; Gillett 1986). Gillett (1986) and Gillett (1993 and 2002) noted that 

Government of Kiribati official had no information regarding the status of this introduction 

(Onorio, personal communication to Gillett, see Gillett 1986 and Gillett 1993 and 2002). 

Eldredge (1994) noted that the map arrow illustrated in Bour et al (1982) regarding trochus 

introductions pointed to the Phoenix Islands. 

In the Fisheries Division Annual Report for 1984, the Phoenix Islands were not covered 

because few people lived there (Onorio 1984). 

ADB (1998) reported that maximum sustainable yields from deep slope bottomfish for 

Kiribati was 70 to 200 tonnes per year. No separate estimates were available for the Phoenix 

Islands. 



Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed on the lee sides of 

these islands. 


Maude (1937) reported that fish were more abundant on Abariringa (Canton) than on 

elsewhere in the Colony. 

Fish were plentiful in the lagoon on Abariringa (Canton) (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

However, some may be poisonous such as the red snapper and rock cod. 

In 1951, a field survey was completed on the poisonous fishes of Abariringa (Canton) 

(Bunker 1951). Thirty one stations were sampled around the island. Ninety species of fish 

were collected with total weight of 159 kg (350 pounds). Information on fish poisoning was 

also collected from inhabitants. The incidence of fish poisoning was low, but there were a 

few species that were avoided by natives. The detailed trip organization was provided in 

Halstead (1950). 

Halstead and Bunker (1954) reported that fish collections were made on Abariringa (Canton), 

Enderbury, Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). A total of 93 species were 

46




tested. Toxicity was indicated for 27 species, or 29 percent. There was evidence that species 

may be poisonous at one site, but not in another. 

A list of fish found to be toxic from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Orona (Hull), and 

Manra (Sydney) (Halstead and Bunker 1954) is provided in Table III-5.19 below. 

Table III-5.19. List of fish in the Phoenix Islands found to be toxic 

(source: Halstead and Bunker 1954). 

Species Abariringa Enderbury Orona Manra 

(Canton) 

(Hull) (Sydney) 

Abudefduf septemfasciatus X 

Abudefduf sordidus X 

Acanthurs fulginosus X 

Acanthurus lineatus X 

Arothron hispidus X 

Arothron meleagris X 

Arothron nigropunctatus X 

Bothus mancus X 

Caranx lugubris X 

Caranx melampygus X 

Caranx sexfasciatus X 

Chaetodon ephippium X 

Chaetodon unimaculatus X 

Epibulus insidiator X 

Lethrinus miniatus X 

Lethrinus nebulosus X 

Lethrinus ornatus X 

Lethrinus semicinclus X 

Lethrinus variegatus X 

Lutjanus bohar X X 

Lutjanus vaigiensis X 

Mullloidichthys samoensis X 

Pseudobalistes flavomarginatus X 

Psuedoscarus sp. X 

Rhinecanthus aculeatus X 

Scarid X 

Scarus dussumieri X 

Scarus jonesi X 

Scarus sp. X 

Scarus sordidus X 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that edible fish species in Hawaii may be poisonous in 

Abariringa (Canton), especially from the lagoon. 

In 1982, the Fisheries Division conducted a two day visit to Abariringa (Canton) (Onorio 

1984). Based on this visit, it was concluded that the fish and crustacean resources were 

similar to those in the Line group. 

47




According to Yeeting (1988), Fisheries Division conducted surveys on Abariringa (Canton) 

in 1983. A report written by Onorio was referenced in Yeeting (1988), but no citiation was 

provided. 

Yeeting (1988) noted that shark, lobsters, deepbottom fish, and tuna were not exploited on 

Abariringa (Canton) and could probably be harvested commercially. 

In 1988, exploratory gillnet, reef gleaning (walking the reef at night with a flashlight), rod 

and hand lining fishing was undertaken on Abariringa (Canton) (Yeeting 1988). Gillnet 

average catches were 7.41 kg/man/hour for the lagoon and 10.85 kg/man/hour for the reef. 

Mullet and snapper were the main species landed during gillnet trials. Reef gleaning average 

catch was 4.15 kg/man/hour. Redtail snapper was the major catch for reef gleaning. Rod and 

line fishing catch rate was 6.03 kg/man/hour. The major catch was the longnosed emperor. 

Handline catch rate was 8 kg/man/hour. A 12 kg marbled grouper was caught with handline. 

In 1994, an initial assessment of mature bonefish, Albula neoguinaica, on Abariringa 

(Kanton) was completed (Kamatie and Awira 1994). Bonefish inhabited the entire lagoon 

and the ocean side of the island. Male bonefish maturity occurred at 32 cm and female 

bonefish maturity occurred at 42 cm (TL, FL, or SL not specified). In assessment catches, 

83% were males and 17% were females. Bonefish stocks were estimated at over 1 million 

fish or about 757 tonnes (835 tons). Kamatie and Awira (1994) also provided various 

suggestions on management of these stocks. 

In 1995, red snapper, Lutjanus gibbus, populations for Abariringa (Tunaari) were estimated at 

between 4,097 and 16,384 fish (Government of Kiribati 1995). 

Trial gillnet fishing with a 8.9 cm (3.5 inch) mesh 50 m long resulted in a CPUE of 0.850 

kg/hour (Government of Kiribati 1995). Gillnet sets were at Bikentabwakea and Tirieta and 

the ocean side of Tebaronga. 

Trial rod fishing in the lagoon resulted in a CPUE of 10.5 kg/hour per person (Government of 

Kiribati 1995). Main fishes caught included: Caranx melampygus (rereba), Caranx ignobilis 

(urua), Albula neoguinaica (ikari), Lutjanus gibbus (ikanibong), sting ray (te baiku), and 

Lethrinus sp. (te rou). 

Trial rod fishing on the ocean side resulted in a CPUE of 39.7 kg/hour per person 

(Government of Kiribati 1995). Main fishes caught included: Caranx ignobilis (urua), 

Sphyreana barracuda (baninua), and Thunnus albacares (ingimea). 

Dive surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton) (Stone 2004). Far fewer sharks were 

observed than in previous years. This was attributed to a shark fishing vessel that had 

operated in the Phoenix Islands in 2002. 

BIRNIE 

Fish were plentiful and as far as known, were not poisonous (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002) reported that the land-locked lagoon had milkfish. 

48




ENDERBURY 

Maude (1937) noted that fish were plentiful on Enderbury. 

In 1951, field studies were completed to examine fish poisoning in the Phoenix Islands 

(Halstead and Bunker 1954). Fish collections were made on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, 

Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). A total of 93 species were tested. 

Toxicity was indicated for 27 species, or 29 percent. There was evidence that species may be 

poisonous at one site, but not in another. 


Manra (Sydney) (Halstead and Bunker 1954) is provided in Table III-5.19 above. 

Regarding trochus introductions to the Phoenix Islands (see Gillett 1986, Gillett 1993 and 

2002), Gillett (1993 and 2002) noted that this may have been a mix up of Enderbury in the 

Phoenix Islands with Enderby in Pulawat, Truk. According to Eldredge (1994), the arrow 

pointing to the Phoenix Islands (specificially Enderbury) in Bour et al (1982) that indicated 

trochus introductions there was not in Bour (1990). 

All common fish species were edible (Hydrographic Office 1940). 

In 1995, trial rod fishing resulted in a CPUE of 10.6 kg/hour per person (Government of 

Kiribati 1995). Fish caught included: Caranx melampygus (rereba), Caranx ignobilis (urua), 

and Lutjanus bohar (ingo). 


Ellis (1937) reported that the fish on Manra (Sydney) were poisonous. 

Maude (1937) reported that there were no fish in Manra’s (Sydney’s) lagoon. Many fish 

species from the reef were said to be poisonous. 

There were many species of fish on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1940). Most were 

not poisonous. 

Fish from Manra (Sydney) had the reputation of being poisonous (Bryan 1941 and 1942). 

Clune (1951) reported fish from one side of Manra (Sydney) were poisonous. They were 

fatal to infants, but did not adversely affect adults. 

Gilbertese on Manra (Sydney) used Morinda citrifolia (noni) to treat fish poisoning (Groves 

1951; see also Wiens 1962). 

Turbott (1954) reported that there were no fish in Manra’s lagoon as it was too salty. In 

addition, reef fish were for the most part poisonous except at places furthest from the settled 

areas. 

49











Knudsen (1965) reported that a Manra (Sydney) informant identified 32 species of fish eaten 

in the Gilbert Islands. Of these 32 species, 31 were present on Manra (Sydney). 

Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that some of the reef fish were poisonous. 

In 1995, test troll fishing resulted in a CPUE of 6.5 kg/hour per person (Government of 

Kiribati 1995). Catch included Lutjanus bohar, barracuda, wahoo, and sharks. Test longline 

fishing resulted in an average CPUE of 13.5 kg/hour per person. Catch was mainly sharks 

and Lutjanus bohar. Test rod fishing was also completed and resulted in a CPUE of 9.3 

kg/hour per person. 

In 1995, chumming was done to attract fish on the reef (Government of Kiribati 1995). It 

was estimated that Lutjanus bohar density was 65 per m 3 from the chumming. 

MCKEAN 

Hydrographic Office (1940) noted that the best fishing in the Phoenix Islands was off of 

McKean (see also Bryan 1941 and 1942). During the U.S.S. Bushnell visit, yellowfin tuna, 

barracuda, wahoo, rainbow runner, red snapper and ulua (jacks) were caught. Sharks were 

found in large numbers. 

Dana (1979) reported a remarkable abundance of grey reef sharks, Carcharhinus 

amblyrhynchos, around McKean. 

Timeon (2001) noted that fish were abundant around McKean. Sharks, red snappers, dog 

toothed tuna, trevally, mullet were observed or easily caught. It was speculated that the 

island could support a commercial fishery. 


Maude (1937) reported that fish were abundance in the lagoon and on the reef. Most fish 

species were known to the Gilbertese. Maude (1937) noted that as the island was settled, fish 

would naturally become scarce. In a natural lake on the southwest corner of the lagoon, 

baneawa, a species of pond mullet that was much esteemed, was abundant. 

Fish are plentiful in the lagoon and off the reef (Hydrographic Office 1940). Most varieties 

are edible. 

50




In 1978, the Fisheries Division conducted a variety of surveys for economically important 

fish in Nikumaroro (Gilbert Islands 1978). These included surveys using beach seines, gill 

net, tangle net, trolling and hand lines. In addition, surveys for beche-de-mer and rock 

lobsters were conducted. During fishing trials, sharks were a nuisance both inside and 

outside of the lagoon. Reef and ocean fishes, sharks and lobsters were abundant. However, 

beche-de-mer were not seen in commercial quantities. 

The abundance of fisheries resources on Nikumaroro has been mentioned in past reports 

(Gilbert Islands 1978). However, there was a difference between artisanal and commercial 

abundance and viability. According to fisheries staff, Nikumaroro would probably be able to 

support a subsistence community of perhaps 100. However, development of commercial 

fisheries was another question. With only two lagoon entrances, these could be closed off 

with nets and lagoon fish resources could be depleted. 

Milkfish ponds were considered by Gilbert Islands (1978). However, labor requirements for 

pond construction limited this possibility. Surface water was tested from the five milkfish 

ponds on the island. Salinity was 2,500 ppm. 

In 1995, trial rod fishing was conducted on the lagoon and reef of Nikumaroro (Government 

of Kiribati 1995). The CPUE for both the lagoon and reef combined was 15.54 kg/hour per 

person. Bonefish were the common catch in the lagoon. Trial trolling was also completed. 

The trolling CPUE was 14.68 kg/hour per person. Trolling catch included: rainbow runner 

(te kama), black trevelly, yellowfin, te tawatawa, and wahoo. 

In 1995, two trial gillnet sets were completed on Nikumaroro, one inside the lagoon, the other 

on the reef flat (Government of Kiribati 1995). CPUE was 1.524 kg/m 2 per hour. Catch was 

primarily adult milkfish, mullet and shark. 

ORONA (HULL) 

Maude (1937) reported that fish were abundance in Orona’s (Hull’s) lagoon and reef. Some 

fish species were said to be poisonous. 

Fish and lobsters were plentiful (Hydrographic Office 1940). Lagoon fish may be poisonous. 

During 1950 to 1951, four visits were made to Orona (Hull) (June and Reintjes 1953). 

Several species of mullet were observed in varying amounts. Amounts were inadequate to 

attempt seining. It was doubtful that sufficient bait was present to make seining feasible. 








51




In 1995, two trial gillnet sets were made in the lagoon at Moantewa on Orona (Government 

of Kiribati 1995). Catch was 1.84 kg/m 2 gillnet/hour. Milkfish dominated the catch. Shark, 

and mullet (te baiburoro) were also caught. 

In 1995, a visual census was completed opposite Moantewa on Orona (Government of 

Kiribati 1995). Parrot fish (inai), yellow snapper (baweina), flaming angel, and rouper were 

observed. 

1995 trial trolling was completed (Government of Kiribati (1995). CPUE was 26.4 kg/hour. 

Catch included: trevally, Lutjanus bohar, Napoleon fish, wahoo, yellowfin, and small 

skipjack. 

In January 2000, a small pond filled with milkfish was observed on Orona (Kepler 2000). 

The pond was close to the lagoon east of the village. 

In 2001, marine surveys were completed on Orona to assess ciguatera prior to resettlement 

under the Kakai Scheme Project (Tioti et al 2001). Four sites including a control site were 

surveyed (see Figure III-5.38). Algae were collected, rinsed and rinse water was examined 

for toxic dinoflagellates. The control site at the entrance to the lagoon had undetectable 

levels of toxic dinoflagellates. All other sites had toxic dinoflagellates. 

Figure III-5.38. Toxic dinoflagellate areas of Orona 

(source Tioti et al 2001). 

Tioti et al (2001) noted that toxic dinoflagellates can occur at wreck sites. In 1937, the 

Makoa wrecked on Orona. The wreck is adjacent to where toxic dinoflagellates were 

identified (see Figure III-5.38 above). 

Reef fish reported to be toxic on Orona included the following (Tioti et al 2001): 

Local name Common name 

Ikamatoa Longnose emperor 

Ingo Red bass 

Rou Emperor 

Koinawa Convict surgeon 

Nimanang Peacock hind 

52




Riba Common bristle toothed tang 

Karon Humphead wrasse 

Rereba Trevally 

Mako Surgeon 

Rabono Eel 

Ikamawa Parrotfish 

Kuau Groupers 

Bwawe Redtail (blacktail) snappers 

Ikanibong Paddletail snapper 

Tioti et al (2001) noted that 43 cases of ciguatera had been reported on Orona between March 

and May 2001 by Kakai Scheme workers. Tioti et al (2001) considered this number was 

low. 

During initial implementation of the Kakai Scheme on Orona, 20 workers became sick with 

fish poisoning (PIKS Project Manager 2002). Fish from the ocean side were the cause. After 

that, fish from the lagoon side were caught and consumed. 

The PIKS Project Manager (2002) noted that consumption for living on Orona by Kakai 

Scheme workers would rapidly exhaust marine resources. 

Timeon (2001) reported that the sea cucumber resources on Orona were too small to support 

long term harvest. 


Fish were plentiful on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographic Office 1940). As far as known, 

these were not poisonous. 






D. INSHORE FISHERIES 

Based on the 1939 exchange of notes between the U.S. and Britain, U.S. fishers believed that 

they had the same fishing rights as British nationals in the Line and Phoenix Islands (Teiwaki 

1988). As a result, the 1946 Fisheries Ordinance was amended in 1947 to accommodate U.S. 

interests. 

In 1949, there was an agreement between the U.S. and Britain that their representatives on 

Abariringa (Canton) would jointly administer fishing and related activities of the Phoenix and 

Line Islands (Teiwaki 1988). There was mistrust on both sides, and the result was inefficient 

administration of the fishery. 

53




In 2001, the Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Development initiated the Phoenix Island 



trees and cleaning. Shark finning was initially successful with the use of longline. However, 

the boat and engine broken and could not be repaired. Sea cucumbers were not abundant. 

Only wae ura and tabanebane were found in harvestable amounts. In 2002, a survey was 

conducted and wae ura was found on the ocean side. Seaweed was transplanted in 2001 from 

Fanning, but this failed as the vessel stayed too long on Christmas Island. A second attempt 

in 2002 from Fanning was successful. 

In 2001, a foreign-owned shark finning vessel visited most of the Phoenix Islands 

(Mangubhai 2002). Notable decreases in shark populations were observed in some of the 

Phoneix Islands after. 

Obura and Stone (2003) reported that Napoleon wrasse numbers declined from 2000 and 

2002 (see also Stone et al 2001). These declines occurred even though this species was not 

targeted by longliners. 


In 1949, J. Francis of Honolulu set up Marine Products Inc. on Abariringa (Canton) (Teiwaki 

1988). The scheme used i-Kiribati fishermen to catch tuna, mullet and lobster and ship 

products using military transports to Hawaii. The originator of the concept of fish exports 

from Abariringa (Canton) was Jim Francis, a fisheries research from Hawaii (Murphy et al 

1954). He formed Marine Products Company that he later sold to Medeiros, Izami, and 

Chee. Oates (2003) reported that J. Francis’ fish exports from Abariringa (Canton) did not 

start until 1952. Within the first 6 months, about 20.4 tonnes (45,000 pounds) of fish, 

primarily mullet, were shipped to Hawaii. 

In 1950, T.H. Miller of Fiji set up the Phoenix Islands Fisheries on Abariringa (Canton) 

(Teiwaki 1988). Miller also hired i-Kiribati fishermen to catch tuna, mullet, and lobster. 

Fresh fish were sent to Hawaii. Halstead (1950) noted that T.H. Miller owned the Phoenix 

Islands Fishing Company on Abariringa (Canton). Fish were shipped twice a week to 

Honolulu via airplane. 

Both Francis and Miller were able to use U.S. military transport and infrastructure to support 

their operations (Teiwaki 1988). 

Bailey (1952) reported that frozen fish were being exported from Abariringa (Canton) to 

Honolulu by air. 

In 1952, Joe Medeiros, a Portuguese fisher was exporting fish to Honolulu (Murphy et al 

(1954). Murphy et al (1954) noted that it was only because of the dependable plane 

transportation that commercial fishing was feasible on Abariringa (Canton). About 907 to 

1,361 kg (2,000 or 3,000 pounds) of fish were exported weekly to Honolulu by Medeiros. 

Fish were then sold at the Honolulu auction. 

Walker (1955) reported that about 9 tonnes (20,000 pounds) of chilled fish were ship by air to 

Hawaii each month. Pan American handled two shipments per week. Walker (1955) noted 

54




that the time between catch in Abariringa (Canton) and consumption in Hawaii was usually 

less than 24 hours. 

Walker (1955) noted that the Gilbertese caught and shipped about 1.8 tonnes (two tons) of 

mullet per month from Abariringa (Canton) to Hawaii. 

Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported that there were three fishing companies operating on 

Abariringa (Canton). In July 1950, one of the companies exported 8.1 tonnes (17,984 

pounds) of fish to Hawaii. 

In 1955, the two commercial fishing companies on Abariringa (Canton) closed (Teiwaki 

1988). 

Witherspoon (1957) noted that in 5 months, one commercial fishing operation had exported 

27.7 tonnes (61,000 pounds) of fish to Hawaii from Abariringa (Canton). 

Two commercial fishing companies were exporting fish to Hawaii by air from Abariringa 

(Canton) (McIntire 1960). These included the Phoenix Islands Fisheries (a British company), 

and Marine Products Inc. (an American company). Both companies operated in the Phoenix 

and Line Islands. About 9.1 tonnes (20,000 pounds) of fish were exported monthly to 

Honolulu (Walker 1955; see also McIntire 1960). Since the advent of jet travel across the 

Pacific, and loss of air flights to Abariringa (Canton), both were now closed (Robson 1959; 

see also McIntire 1960). 

In 1988, a household survey was conducted by the Division of Fisheries (Yeeting 1988). All 

5 households on Abariringa (Canton) were surveyed (representing 18 people). Survey results 

indicated that people on Abariringa (Canton) fish only for their subsistence needs. No 

commercial fishing activities were undertaken. Also, if catch was good, surplus was shared 

amongst the community. The fishing effort targeted the lagoon (2.6 trips/week) and reef (1.4 

trips/week) near the settlement. There was no ocean fishing as there were no boat engines. 

An average of 2.2 persons went on each fishing trip. 

Trip costs averaged AUD 3.00 per week for hook and line fishing (for replacement hooks), 

and AUD 2.88 per for net fishing (Yeeting 1988). There was one traditional canoe and one 

dinghy on the island. Both lacked engines and had to be paddled. The one insulated fish box 

was not commonly used for fish as there was no ice. 

Gillnets and hook and line were the most common fishing gear, although scoop nets were 

also used (Yeeting 1988). During the week of the survey, total landings were 364.4 kg, 61 

percent from the lagoon and 49% from the reef. Per caput consumption was estimated at 2.89 

kg per day. Common catches included Albulidae (bonefish) 32.1 percent, and Lethrinidae 

(emperors) 16.0 percent. Other fish caught included: Mugillidae (mullets), Carangidae 

(trevallies), Holocentridae (soldierfish), Serranidae (groupers), Lutjanidae (snappers), 

Crustaceans (crayfish), Kyphosidae (drummers), and Acanthuridae (surgeonfish). Most of 

the bonefish were caught using gillnets (77.9 percent). 

In 2001, a foreign fishing vessel was licensed to harvest sharkfins by longline around 

Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, Manra (Sydney), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Planetary Coral Reef 

Foundation 2004). 

55




Obura and Stone (2003) reported that the American Samoa fishing vessel Maddee, obtained 

permission to harvest sharkfin in the Phoenix Islands. The Maddee visited Abariringa, 

Manra, Rawaki (Phoenix) and Orona. The ship caught between 30 and 100 sharks per day 

(Stone 2004). The ship also visited other islands in the Phoenix group. The vessel broke and 

returned to Samoa for repairs. 2002 shark populations in these islands were fished to nearzero 

levels (Obura and Stone 2003). 











ORONA (HULL) 




Tioti et al (2001) reported that workers for the Kakai scheme on Orona were landing about 20 

to 35 sharks every fishing trip. In the May-June 2001 period, 142 sharks were landed with 

shark fin value of AUD 5,000. Sharks most often taken included: white tip, Carcharinus 

melanopterus, black tip, Triaenodeon obseus, and grey shark, C. amblyrhyncus. 

The Phoenix Islands Kakai Scheme (PIKS) included shark finning as a key activity (Timeon 

2001; see also Mangubhai 2002). Shark were caught, fins dried for sale, and the meat was 

distributed to residents for consumption or for making kabuibui (dried, salted shark meat). 

Neilson (2002) reported that during the Kakai Scheme, shark landings were dramatically 

reduced. Comparisons of shark observations during dives between 2000 and 2002 showed 

dramatic decrease in shark abundance (see also Mangubhai 2002). Neilson (2002) noted that 

the shark fishery may not be a sustainable resource. 







56














E. REFERENCES 

Allain, V., and B. Leroy. 2003. Ecosystem monitoring and analysis: stomach sampling 

overview of the GEF-SAP project 2000-2005 and stomach sampling strategy of the 

GEF_OFM Project 2005-2010. Paper presented at the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries 

Commission, Scientific Committee Second Regular Session. 7-18 August 2006. Manila, 

Philippines. 

Asian Development Bank. 1998. Kiribati: 1997 economic report. Asian Development Bank, 

Manila, Philippines. 239 pp. [cited unseen from Mangubhai 2002.] 

Bailey, A.M. 1952. Australian expedition. Denver Museum of Natural History Annual 

Report 1952. page 31. 

Bailey, K., and D.G. Itano. 1992. Regional tuna tagging project, Activity Report - Tuvalu 1. 

SPC Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme. Technical Report No. 21. 

Bour, W. 1990. The fishery resources of Pacific island countries. Part 3: trochus. FAO Fish. 

Tech. Pap. 272.3. 89 p. [French/English bilingual]. [cited unseen from Eldredge 1994]. 

Bour, W., F. Gohin and P. Bouchet. 1982. Croissance et mortalité naturelle des trocas de 

Nouvelle-Calédonie. ORSTOM, Noumea, New Caledonia. [cited unseen from Gillett 1993 

and 2002, and Eldredge 1994]. 






15, 2002. 




57




Chapman, L. 2003. Field report no. 19 on development options and constraints including 

training needs and infrastructure requirements within the tuna fishing industry and support 

services on Tarawa and Christmas Island, Republic of Kiribati, 11 to 19 November 2002, and 

26 November to 5 December 2002. Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Noumea, New 

Caledonia. 



304 pp. 


Dana, T.F. 1979. Species-numbers relationships in an assemblage of reef-building corals: 

McKean Island, Phoenix Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 228: 1-43. 


41: 1-50. 

Eldredge, L.G. 1994. Introductions of commercially significant aquatic organisms to the 

Pacific Islands. Vol. 1. SPC Inshore Fisheries Research Project Technical Document No. 7, 

SPREP Report and Studies Series No. 78. 



Gillett, B. 1993. Pacific islands trochus introductions. Trochus Information Bulletin, No. 2, 

September 1993, pp. 13 - 16. 

Gillett, R.D. 1986. A summary of the Tokelau trochus transplant project. SPC Fisheries 

Newsletter No. 38, July - September 1986. pp. 37-43. 

Gillett, B. 2002. Pacific islands trochus introductions 1927-1998. SPC Trochus Information 

Bulletin #9, November 2002, pp. 9-13. 



Groves, K.E. 1951. Report of an expedition to Polynesia for the purpose of collecting fishes, 

epidemiological and ecological data relative to ichthyotoxism. Loma Linda, California. 24 

pp. (mimeographed). [cited unseen from Wiens 1962.] 

Hallier, J.-P. And R.E. Kearney. 1980. Second interim report of the activities of the 

skipjack survey and assessment program in the waters of Kiribati (22 November - 5 

December 1979). Skipjack Survey and Assessment Programme, Preliminary Country Report 

No. 20. 



58












Hyrdographic Office. 1940. Sailing directions for the Pacific islands. Vol. II. (Eastern 




Ishiyama, R., and K. Okada. 1957. Postlarval form of the skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) 

from the Phoenix Islands. Journal of Shimonoseki College of Fisheries 7(1): 141-146. 

[Abstract in English, text in Japanese] 

Itano, D.G. 1992a. Regional tuna tagging project, Activity Report - Kiribati 2. SPC Tuna 

and Billfish Assessment Programme, RTTP Activity Report No. 18. 

Itano, D. 1992b. Two months successful tagging aboard Te Tautai. SPC Fisheries 

Newsletter No. 61, April - June 1992. pp. 17 - 20. 

Itano, D.G., and P.G. Williams. 1992. Analyses of yellowfin tagging data and related 

information collected by the skipjack survey and assessment programme. SPC Tuna and 

Billfish Assessment Programme. Technical Report No. 28. 

June, F.C. 1950. Preliminary fisheries surveys of the Hawaiian-Line Islands area. Part II - 

Notes on the tuna and bait resources of the Hawaiian, Leeward, and Line Islands. U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, Com. Fish. Rev., 13(1): 1-22. [cited unseen from June and Reintjes 

1953]. 

June, F.C., and J.W. Reintjes. 1953. Common tuna-bait fishes of the central Pacific. U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service Research Report 34. 54 pp. 

Kaltongga, B. 1998. Regional tuna tagging project data summary. SPC Oceanic Fisheries 

Programme, Technical Report No. 35. 

Kamatie, M. and R. Awira. 1994. The initial assessment survey conducted on Kanton Island 

in the Phoenix group to estimate the relative abundance of a mature bonefish (Albula 

neoguinaica) stock. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 

Development. 

Kearney, R.E. 1983. Assessment of the skipjack and baitfish resources in the central and 

western tropical Pacific Ocean: a summary of the skipjack survey and assessment 

programme. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 752/83. 

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report. 

Kleiber, P. and R.E. Kearney. 1983. An assessment of the skipjack and baitfish resources of 

Kiribati. South Pacific Commission, New Caledonia. Skipjack Survey and Assessment 

Programme Final Country Report No. 5. 



Langley, A. 2003. Kiribati national tuna fishery status report no. 2. Oceanic Fisheries 

Programme, Secretariat of the Pacific Community. 

Langley, A., J. Hampton, P. Williams, and P. Lehodey. 2003. The western and central 

Pacific tuna fishery: 2003 overview and status of stocks. SPC Oceanic Fisheries Programme, 

Tuna Fisheries Assessment Report No. 6. 

Lawson, T.A. 2005. Tuna fishery yearbook 2004. Western and Central Pacific Fisheries 

Commission, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. 

Lehodey, P., M. Bertignac, J. Hampton, A. Lewis, and J. Picaut. 1997. El Nino Southern 

Oscillation and tuna in the western Pacific. Nature 389: 715-719. 





Suva. 



Murphy, G.I., and I.I. Ikehara. 1955. A summary of sightings of fish schools and bird flocks 

and of trolling in the central Pacific. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Special Scientific 

Report: Fisheries No. 154. 






Press. 

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Onorio, B. 1984. Fisheries Division annual report 1984. Fisheries Division, Ministry of 

Natural Resources Development. 





Reintjes, J.W. and J.E. King. 1953. Food of yellowfin tuna in the Central Pacific. U.S. Fish 

& Wildlife Service. Fisheries Bulletin V. 54. No 81: 91-110. [cited unseen from Allain and 

Leroy 2006]. 

Robson, R.W. (ed.). 1959. Pacific Islands year book. 8 th edition. Sydney: Australasian 

Publishing Company. 479 pp. [cited unseen from McIntire 1960.] 

Shimada, B.M. 1951. Juvenile oceanic skipjack from the Phoenix Islands. U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service Fishery Bulletin 64. 

Sibert, J., and J. Hampton. 2002. Lifetime displacements of tropical tunas: how much ocean 

do you need to conserve "your" tuna? SCTB 15 Working Paper YFT-2, 15th Meeting of the 

Standing Committee on Tuna and Billfish, Honolulu, Hawaii, 22-27 July 2002. 


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Teiwaki, R. 1988. Management of marine resources in Kiribati. University of the South 

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Development. 



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and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, Scientific Committee Second Regular Session. 7- 

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61






Van Pel, H. 1956. Possibilities for improving the fisheries of American Samoa. South 

Pacific Commission, Noumea. 

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117-132. 


Press. 




62


Chapter III. Background, 6. Environmental Issues, Regulations, and Agreements 


CHAPTER III. 

BACKGROUND 

6. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, REGULATIONS, AND AGREEMENTS 

A. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 

NUCLEAR ISSUE 

Yellowfin tuna contaminated by radioactivity from the Bikini Atoll nuclear test of 1954 were 

identified (Suzuki et al 1978; Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993). Few of these 

radioactive fish were found in the Phoenix Islands area (see Figure III-6.1 below). 

Figure III-6.1. Distribution of yellowfin tuna contaminated 

by radioactivity from the Bikini Atoll nuclear test 

(Suzuki et al 1978; Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993). 

1




In the 1950’s there was a suspension of tuna exports from the Pacific into Europe due to the 

discovery of radioactive elements in the tuna (Teiwaki 1988). There were nuclear tests in 

the Marshall Islands and Christmas Island during that period and there was concern about the 

spread of radiation through the Line and Phoenix Islands. 

There was concern within the Government of Kiribati regarding the potential use of the high 

seas between the Phoenix and Line Islands for nuclear dumping (Teiwaki 1988). 

OCEAN DUMPING 

An explosives dumping area was established southwestward of Abariringa (Canton) 

(Hydrographic Office 1956; see also McIntire 1960). Coordinates for the dumping area were 

3 0 09’S to 3 0 28’S, and 171 0 53’W and 172 0 13’W. 

TOXIC WASTES 

According to Greenpeace (n.d.) unused malathion was stored on Abariringa (Kanton). It was 

left by the U.S. military after World War II. 

Burns et al (2000) reported that there were additional quantities of pesticides stored on 

Abariringa (Canton). This included Sevin and Malathion that were stored in an open shed. 

Burns et al (2000) noted that an inventory of the chemical stocks on Abariringa (Kanton) (site 

KIR17) was not yet available. 

Neilson (2002) reported finding hazardous chemicals at the former Quarantine Station storge 

sheds on Abariringa (Kanton). Chemicals found are listed below in Table III-6.1. Some of 

these materials had leaked from their containers and had spilled onto the concrete floor. The 

remains of many dead animals were observed on the floor including rats, crabs and several 

different species of birds. I-Kiribati workers on Abariringa (Kanton) had attempted to 

catalog these materials, but became sick from the fumes. 

Table III-6.1. Summary of chemicals found in 2002 at the 

Quarantine Station, Abariringa (Kanton). 

(source: Neilson 2002) 

Chemical Quantity Condition 

2




In addition to the drums of hazardous chemicals, asbestos strips were common at former 

military sites on Abariringa (Kanton) (Neilson 2002). Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB’s) 

was found in transformers and probably also was present in switches and other electronic 

equipment. Finally, much of the old military infrastructure that was donated to the 

Government of Kiribati was deemed unsafe due to deterioration and vandalism. 

In 2006, there was a Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) cleanup mission to Abariringa 

(Kanton) (Pollution Control Unit 2006). POPs left by the Americans were found during a 

previous visit to Abariringa (Kanton) [date not provided]. Three sites had POPs: (1) 

chemical shed (pesticides); (2) tracking station (oil in transformer reservoirs possibly 

contaminated with PCBs; and (3) radio house (capacitors, unidentified materials, and PCB 

contamination). Grease and sump drums around the chemical shed were also cleaned up. A 

total of 24 drums were filled and removed by the Neptune Gale. Table III-6.2 below 

provided a summary of POPs removed from Abariringa (Kanton). 

Table III-6.2. Summary of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 

removed from Abaririgna (Kanton) in 2006. 

(source: Pollution Control Unit 2006). 

Name Active ingredient Solid / 

Liquid 

Packaging Unit 

quantity 

Number 

units 

Diazinon AG 500 Diazinon Solid Drum 5 L Approx 

32 

Sevin Carbaryl, 

inaphthyl 

nethylcarbamate, 

80%wt 

Solid Bag 10 lbs Approx 

50 

3 

Packaging 

Condition 

Poor 

Good 

Malathion - Liquid Drum 20 L 10 Poor, 

leaked 

Bromacil - Solid Bag 50 lbs 6 Poor 

Rodenticide Calcium salt of 2pivalyl-1, 

3- 

Indandione 

0.3%wt 

Solid Tin 500 g 4 Good




Rodent Cake Warfrin Solid Cardboard 

box 

2 kg 4 Good 

Trichloroethylene - Liquid Drum 2 L 2 V. Poor, 

empty 

Chemicals found and packaged were stored in a container on Tarawa for eventual shipment to 

Australia for plasma conversion neutralization (Pollution Control Unit 2006). If oil found is 

contaminated, it will also be shipped to Australia, if not, it can be used on Tarawa. 

VESSEL GROUNDINGS AND OIL SPILLS 

The Phoenix Islands have had numerous vessel groundings over the years. One of the earliest 

recorded groundings was the whaleship Canton on Abariringa (Canton) in 1854 (Bryan 1941 

and 1942). 

During the guano period (c1856 to c1887), the following vessel groundings were reported: 

1) 1884, Howard de Tropp, Abariringa (Canton) (Ellis 1937); 

2) 1866, Golden Sunset, Enderbury (Bryan 1941 and 1942); 

3) c1884, Lorenza, Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1941 and 1942); 

4) 1867, Washington, McKean (Anon. 1868); 

More recent vessel groundings included: 

1) 1937, Makoa, Orona (Hull) (Robson 1956); 

2) 1940, Admiral Day, Abariringa (Canton) (Oates 2003); 

3) 1942, President Taylor, Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960); and 

4) 2001, Chance No. 301, McKean (Internationa Maritime Organization 2004). 

These were vessel groundings that were reported. Undoubtedly, there have been other 

groundings that were not permanent, did not resulting in vessel loss, or were not reported. 

Newer motor driven ships of the 20 th century probably caused more oil pollution as most 19 th 

century sailing ships. Both types of ships would have caused coral damage during grounding 

and breakup. 

CORAL BLEACHING 

In July to September 2002, there was a hot-spot in the Phoenix Islands (Planetary Coral Reef 

Foundation 2004). Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) speculated that this was the 

cause of mass bleaching in 2002 that were most notable in the lagoons of Abariringa 

(Kanton) and Orona. 

Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2006) reported that the bleaching event took place in 

November and December 2004. Bleaching in Abariringa (Canton) lagoon was 100 percent. 

Extensive and recent coral bleaching was reported for the Phoenix Islands (Anon. 2005). 

This was unusual as coral bleaching had not previously been reported from Kiribati. 

4




EXOTIC SPECIES 

Garnett (1983c) identified priority actions for exotic species in the Phoenix Islands: 

1) Eliminate feral cats on Enderbury; 

2) Eliminate feral animals (cats, dogs, pigs) on Orona (Hull); 

3) Eradicate feral cats and dogs on Abariringa (Canton); and 

4) Assess impact of rabbits on the ecosystem on Rawaki (Phoenix), eradicate as 

necessary. 

Pierce et al (2006) identified high priority actions for exotic species in the Phoenix Islands: 

1) Incorporate pest eradication plans into the conservation management plan 

including biosecurity measures to prevent reinvasion of mammals and 

invasive ants and plant pests. 

2) Eradicate the rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus, from Rawaki. 

3) Eradicate the Asian rat, Rattus tanezumi, from McKean. 

4) Eradicate the Pacific rat, Rattus exulans, from Birnie. 

Pierce et al (2006) also identified second level priority actions for exotic species in the 

Phoenix islands: 

1) Eradicate the Pacific rat, Rattus exulans, from Enderbury. 

2) Completed follow-up surveys to confirm pest status on Orona, Nikumaroro, 

and Manra, and seabird diversity on Abariringa (Kanton) and Manra. 

3) Monitor seabird populations on above islands. 

4) Eradicate cats (and rodents if present) on Orona. 

Finally, Pierce et al (2006) suggested that after priority issues were completed, eradication 

plans could be developed for pests on Nikumaroro, Manra, and the small islets inside the 

entrance to Abariringa (Kanton) lagoon. 

5


Chapter III. Background, 7. Regulations, Laws and International Agreements 


Pierce et al (2006) provided a detailed proposal on the feasibility on eradication of key exotic 

species in the Phoenix Islands. This initial proposal focussed on high priority actions as 

outlined above. 

ENDANGERED SPECIES 

Pierce et al (2006) reported that two species of birds in the Phoenix Islands were listed in the 

IUCN (2004) Red List of Threatened Species: 

1) The Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba - endanged. 

2) White-throated storm-petrel, Nesofregetta albigularis - vulnerable. 

Two sources of endangered species lists were examined. These included the IUCN Red List 

http://www.iucnredlist.org/ and CITES Appendices (see 

http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html). 

The IUCN Red Lists uses defined criteria to determine the status of a species. The decision 

tree used is listed below (see Figure III-6.2). In addition, prior rating criteria can be carried 

forward for rating species. 

Figure III-6.2. Decision tree and criteria rating used by IUCN Red List. 

(source: http://www.iucnredlist.org/) 

The IUCN Red List for Kiribati is presented in Table xx below. Many of the species 

presented in Table III-6.3 below are found in the Phoenix Islands. 

Table III-6.3. IUCN Red List of Endangered Species for Kiribati. 

6




Species 

(source: http://www.iucnredlist.org/) 

Common Name Status 

Eretmochelys imbricata HAWKSBILL TURTLE Critically endangered 

Birgus latro COCONUT CRAB Data deficient 

Feresa attenuata PYGMY KILLER WHALE Data deficient 

Lagenodelphis hosei FRASER'S DOLPHIN Data deficient 

Mesoplodon densirostris BLAINVILLE'S BEAKED WHALE Data deficient 

Mesoplodon ginkgodens GINKGO-TOOTHED BEAKED Data deficient 

WHALE 

Steno bredanensis ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN Data deficient 

Thunnus alalunga ALBACORE TUNA Data deficient 

Xiphias gladius SWORDFISH Data deficient 

Alopias vulpinus THRESHER SHARK Data deficient 

Echinorhinus brucus BRAMBLE SHARK Data deficient 

Chelonia mydas GREEN TURTLE Endangered 

Cheilinus undulatus GIANT WRASSE Endangered 

Pterodroma alba PHOENIX PETREL Endangered 

Prosobonia cancellata TUAMOTU SANDPIPER Endangered 

Vini kuhlii KUHL'S LORIKEET Endangered 

Pterodroma cookii COOK'S PETREL Endangered 

Acrocephalus 

BOKIKOKIKO Least Concern 

aequinoctialis 

Actitis hypoleucos COMMON SANDPIPER Least Concern 

Anas acuta NORTHERN PINTAIL Least Concern 

Anas clypeata NORTHERN SHOVELER Least Concern 

Anas platyrhynchos MALLARD Least Concern 

Anas strepera GADWALL Least Concern 

Anous minutus BLACK NODDY Least Concern 

Anous stolidus BROWN NODDY Least Concern 

Arenaria interpres RUDDY TURNSTONE Least Concern 

Branta canadensis CANADA GOOSE Least Concern 

Bulweria bulwerii BULWER'S PETREL Least Concern 

Calidris acuminata SHARP-TAILED SANDPIPER Least Concern 

Calidris alba SANDERLING Least Concern 

Calidris melanotos PECTORAL SANDPIPER Least Concern 

Ducula pacifica PACIFIC IMPERIAL-PIGEON Least Concern 

Eudynamys taitensis LONG-TAILED KOEL Least Concern 

Fregata ariel LESSER FRIGATEBIRD Least Concern 

Gygis alba COMMON WHITE-TERN Least Concern 

Gygis microrhyncha LITTLE WHITE-TERN Least Concern 

Heteroscelus incanus WANDERING TATTLER Least Concern 

Larus atricilla LAUGHING GULL Least Concern 

Larus delawarensis RING-BILLED GULL Least Concern 

Larus pipixcan FRANKLIN'S GULL Least Concern 

Limosa lapponica BAR-TAILED GODWIT Least Concern 

Numenius phaeopus WHIMBREL Least Concern 

Oceanites oceanicus WILSON'S STORM-PETREL Least Concern 

7




Oceanodroma castro BAND-RUMPED STORM- 

PETREL 

Least Concern 

Oceanodroma leucorhoa LEACH'S STORM-PETREL Least Concern 

Pelagodroma marina WHITE-FACED STORM-PETREL Least Concern 

Phalaropus fulicarius GREY PHALAROPE Least Concern 

Pluvialis fulva PACIFIC GOLDEN-PLOVER Least Concern 

Procelsterna cerulea BLUE NODDY Least Concern 

Puffinus nativitatis CHRISTMAS ISLAND 

SHEARWATER 

Least Concern 

Stercorarius pomarinus POMARINE JAEGER Least Concern 

Sterna albifrons LITTLE TERN Least Concern 

Sterna bergii GREAT CRESTED-TERN Least Concern 

Sterna fuscata SOOTY TERN Least Concern 

Sterna lunata GREY-BACKED TERN Least Concern 

Sula dactylatra MASKED BOOBY Least Concern 

Sula leucogaster BROWN BOOBY Least Concern 

Hippopus hippopus BEAR PAW CLAM Lower risk, conservation 

dependent 

Stenella longirostris LONG-BEAKED DOLPHIN Lower risk, conservation 

dependent 

Tridacna maxima SMALL GIANT CLAM Lower risk, conservation 

dependent 

Tridacna squamosa FLUTED CLAM Lower risk, conservation 

dependent 

Carcharhinus falciformis SILKY SHARK Low risk, least concern 

Kogia sima DWARF SPERM WHALE Low risk, least concern 

Thunnus albacares YELLOWFIN TUNA Low risk, least concern 

Carcharhinus 

amblyrhynchos 

GRAY REEF SHARK Low risk, near threatened 

Carcharhinus 

melanopterus 

BLACKTIP REEF SHARK Low risk, near threatened 

Galeocerdo cuvier TIGER SHARK Low risk, near threatened 

Isurus oxyrinchus SHORTFIN MAKO Low risk, near threatened 

Prionace glauca BLUE SHARK Low risk, near threatened 

Pseudocarcharias 

kamoharai 

CROCODILE SHARK Low risk, near threatened 

Sphyrna lewini SCALLOPED HAMMERHEAD Low risk, near threatened 

Triaenodon obesus WHITETIP REEF SHARK Low risk, near threatened 

Ducula oceanica MICRONESIAN IMPERIAL- 

PIGEON 

Near Threatened 

Epinephelus 

fuscoguttatus 

BROWN-MARBLED GROUPER Near Threatened 

Epinephelus 

polyphekadion 

CAMOUFLAGE GROUPER Near Threatened 

Thunnus obesus BIGEYE TUNA Vulnerable 

Rhincodon typus WHALE SHARK Vulnerable 

Nesofregetta fuliginosa POLYNESIAN STORM-PETREL Vulnerable 

Tridacna gigas GIANT CLAM Vulnerable 

8




Epinephelus lanceolatus BRINDLE BASS Vulnerable 

Numenius tahitiensis BRISTLE-THIGHED CURLEW Vulnerable 

CITES has three different lists of Kiribati species (see 

http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html). Appendix I listed species that were most 

endangered. Appendix II listed species that were not necessarily now threatened with 

extinction but that may become so unless trade was closely controlled. Appendix III listed 

species at the request of a party that already regulates trade I the species and needed the 

cooperation of other countries to prevent unsustainable or illegal exploitation. 

CITES Appendices I, II, and III for Kiribati are provided below (see Table III-6.4a to c 

below). Many of the species listed in these appendices are found in the Phoenix Islands. 

Table III-6.4a. CITES Appendix I for Kiribati 

(source: http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html) 

APPENDIX 1 

Aves (bird) Branta canadensis 

Reptilia (turtle) Chelonia mydas 

Eretmochelys imbricata 

Table III-6.4b. CITES Appendix II for Kiribati 


APPENDIX 2 

Mammalia (dolphin) Lagenodelphus hosei 

Aves (bird) Vini kuhlii 


Actinopterygii (bony fishes) Chelinus undulates 

Elasmobranchii (sharks and 

rays) 

Rhincodon typus 

Mollusc (shellfish) Hippopus hippopus Tridacna maxima 

Tridacna gigas 

Anthozoa (corals) Tubipora musica 

Helioproa corerulea 

Pocillopora damicornis 

Pocillopora elegans 

Pocillopora eydouxi 

Pocillopora meandrina 

Pocillopora molokensis 

Pocilloproa verrucosa 

Seriatopora hystrix 

Stylophora mordax 

Stylophora pistillata 

Acropora abrotanoides 

Acropora acuminata 

Acropora anthocercis 

Acropora cerealis 

Tridacna squamosa 

Gardineroseris planulata 

Leptoseris hawaiiensis 

Leptoseris incrustans 

Leptoseris mycetoseroides 

Leptoseris scabra 

Pachyseris speciosa 

Pavona cactus 

Pavona clavus 

Pavona divaricata 

Pavona explanulata 

Pavona gigantea 

Pavona maldivensis 

Pavona minuta 

Pavona varians 

Pavona venosa 

9




Acropora clathrata 

Acropora cytherea 

Acropora digitifera 

Acropora divaricata 

Acropora echinata 

Acropora formosa 

Acropora gemmifera 

Acropora grandis 

Acropora horrida 

Acropora humilis 

Acropora hyacinthus 

Acropora intermedia 

Acropora latistella 

Acropora longicyathus 

Acropora lovelli 

Acropora lutkeni 

Acropora microphthalma 

Acropora nana 

Acropora nasuta 

Acropora palifera 

Acropora paniculata 

Acropora polystoma 

Acropora robusta 

Acropora secale 

Acropora selago 

Acropora spicifera 

Acropora striata 

Acropora subulata 

Acropora tenuis 

Acropora tortuosa 

Acropora valida 

Acropora vaughani 

Acropora verweyi 

Acropora yongei 

Astreopora gracilis 

Astreopora listeri 

Astreopora myriophthalma 

Astreopora ocellata 

Astreopora randalli 

Astreopora scabra 

Montipora aequituberculata 

Montipora efflorescens 

Montipora foveolata 

Montipora grisea 

Montipora hispida 

Montipora hoffmeisteri 

Montipora informis 

Montipora monasteriata 

Montipora peltiformis 

Montipora tuberculosa 

Fungia concinna 

Fungia costulata 

Fungia fralinae 

Fungia fungites 

Fungia granulosa 

Fungia horrida 

Fungia paumotensis 

Fungia repanda 

Fungia scruposa 

Fungia scutaria 

Halomitra pileus 

Herpolitha limax 

Podabacia crustacea 

Sandalolitha dentata 

Sandalolitha robusta 

Culicia stellata 

Echinophyllia aspera 

Echinophyllia echinata 

Mycedium elephantotus 

Oxypora lacera 

Acanthastrea echinata 

Lobophyllia corymbosa 

Lobophyllia costata 

Lobophyllia hemprichii 

Symphyllia radians 

Hydnophora exesa 

Hydnophora microconos 

Hydnophora rigida 

Merulina ampliata 

Cyphastrea microphthalma 

Cyphastrea serailia 

Echinopora horrida 

Echinopora lamellosa 

Favia favus 

Favia matthaii 

Favia pallida 

Favia rotumana 

Favia speciosa 

Favia stelligera 

Favites abdita 

Favites chinensis 

Favites flexuosa 

Favites halicora 

Favites pentagona 

Favites russelli 

Goniastrea aspera 

Goniastrea edwardsi 

Goniastrea favulus 

Goniastrea pectinata 

Goniastrea retiformis) 

10




Montipora venosa 

Montipora verrilli 

Montipora verrucosa 

Alveopora verrilliana 

Goniopora stutchburyi 

Porites arnaudi 

Porites australiensis 

Porites cylindrica 

Porites lichen 

Porites lobata 

Porites lutea 

Porites pukoensis 

Porites rus 

Porites solida 

Porites vaughani 

Coscinastrea columna 

Coscinastrea monile 

Psammocora contigua 

Psammocora haimiana 

Psammocora nierstraszi 

Psammocora profundacella 

Psammocora stellata 

Psammocora verrilli 

Hydrozoa Millepora platyphylla 

Distichopora coccinea 

Distichopora nitida 

Leptastrea bewickensis 

Leptastrea pruinosa 

Leptastrea purpurea 

Leptastrea transversa 

Leptoria phrygia 

Montastraea curta 

Montastraea magnistellata 

Oulophyllia crispa 

Platygyra daedalea 

Platygyra lamellina 

Platygyra sinensis 

Plesiastrea versipora 

Plerogyra simplex 

Plerogyra sinuosa 

Javania insignis 

Tubastraea coccinea 

Tubastraea diaphana 

Tubastraea micranthus 

Turbinaria frondens 

Turbinaria irregularis 

Turbinaria mesenterina 

Turbinaria reniformis 

Turbinaria stellulata 

Distichopora violacea 

Stylaster bocki 

Stylaster sanguineus 

Table III-6.4c. CITES Appendix III for Kiribati 


CITES APPENDIX 3 

Aves (birds) Anas acuta 

Anas clypeata 

Reservations to or withdrawals from the CITES Appendices for Kiribati can be entered. 

These are noted below in Tables III-6.5 and III-6.6). 

Table III-6.5. CITES Reservations to Appendices I, II, and III for Kiribati 


CITES Appendix 1 -Reservations 


Eretmochelys imbricate 

CITES Appendix 2 – Reservations 

Aves (birds) Vini kuhlii 


Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays) Rhincodon typus 

Molluscs (shellfish) Hippopus hippopus 

11




Tridacna gigas 

Tridacna maxima 

Tridacna squamosa 



Anas clypeata 

Table III-6.6. CITES Withdrawals to Appendices I, II, and III for Kiribati 


CITES Appendix 1 – Withdrawals 


Eretmochelys imbricate 

CITES Appendix 2 – Withdrawals 

Aves (birds) Vini kuhlii 


Molluscs (shellfish) Tridacna gigas 



Anas clypeata 

BIOSECURITY 

Pierce et al (2006) provide guidelines for maintaining biosecurity once key exotic species 

were removed from the Phoenix Islands. These included: 

1) Ensure that all vessels visiting the Phoenix Islands were free of exotic species 

such as rodents, ants, plants and seeds. 

2) Clean and seal food and equipment containers, spray with insecticides. 

3) Check all personal gear and clothing for ants and seeds. 

4) Erect large print “NO LANDING” signs on all islands. 

5) Establish rat bait stations on all foreign fishing vessels in the area. 

6) Erect public education signs on Abariringa (Kanton) regarding the value of 

terrestrial resources and risks to them. 

7) Train inhabitants to conduct follow-up biosecurity issues. 

8) Initiate public and seafarer education programs on the value of the Phoenix 

Islands. 

9) Advocate rat removal and the beneficial impacts to the economy. 

10) Advocate the continued need to protect the Phoenix Islands against 

reintroduction of pest species. 

11) Develop non-landing alternatives for scientists and adventurers. 

B. NATIONAL REGULATIONS AND LAWS 

PHOENIX ISLANDS SPECIFIC LAWS AND REGULATIONS 

12




Specific rules on inheritance were made regarding gifts for an adoption as a grandchild were 

specified for Nikumaroro and Orona (Anon. nd). “Gifts will revert to the donor’s family if 

the recipient dies issueless. But if the recipient has children the donor loses his reversionary 

right and it is immaterial if his issue are later issueless”. 

For Nikumaroro, “if an owner has several spouses the eldest son of the owner will receive the 

best land and it is immaterial whether he is by the first spouse, the second spouse, the third 

spouse or any other spouse, and thereafter the estate will be shared equally between the 

spouses” (Anon. nd). 

For Nikumaroro and Orona, “gifts to an adopted child will revert to the donor’s family if the 

recipient dies issueless. But if the recipient has children the donor loses his reversionary right 

and it is immaterial if his issues are later issueless” (Anon. nd). 

The Native Lands Ordinance 1956 declared that the Gilbert and Phoenix Islands Lands Code 

was code of law governing native land rights effective 1 March 1963 (Pulea and Farrier 

1993). 

COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCE CONSERVATION 

The Government of Kiribati has codified national legal instruments regarding coastal and 

marine resource conservation (Mangubhai 2002; Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 

(1999; Garnett 1983c). These are listed in Table III-6.7 below. 

Table III-6.7. National legal instruments relating to 

marine resources and coastal resources in Kiribati 

Closed District Act *4 1990 

Environmental Act *1 1999 

Fisheries (Pacific Islands States’ Treaty with the U.S.) Act *2 1988 

Fisheries (Processing and Export) Regulations *1 1981 

Fisheries (Vessel Licenses) Regulation (No. 1) *1 1982 

Fisheries (Vessel Licenses) Regulations *1 1981 

Fisheries Act *1 1977 

Fisheries Amendment Act *1 1984 

Fisheries Conservation and Protection Regulations *1 1979 

Fisheries Ordinance *1 1977 

Fisheries Regulations *1 1981 

Foreshore and Land Reclamation Ordinance *1,2 1973 

Importation of Animals Ordinance *2 1964 

Land Planning Ordinance *2 1973 

Local Government Act *2 1984 

13




Marine Zones (Declaration) Act *1,2 1983 

Merchant Shipping (oil pollution) *2 1975 

Native Lands Ordinance *2 1956 

Plant Ordinance *2 1975 

Prohibited Areas Ordinance *2 1957 

Prohibited Fishing Areas (Designation) Regulations *1 1978 

Quarantine Ordinance *2 1931 

Wildlife Conservation Ordinance (cap 100) *1,2,3 1975 

*source: 

1. Mangubhai (2002); 

2. Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development (1999); 

3. Garnett (1983c); and 

4. Pulea and Farrier (1993). 

Closed District Act - The Closed District Act 1990 was a re-enactment of a 1936 ordinance 

and followed the Constitutional (Laws Adaptation) Order 1980 (Pulea and Farrier 1993). 

Under this law, Abariringa (Canton), as well as Kiritimati, Tabuaeran, and Teraina were 

declared closed areas. Access was limited to permit holders. [Need to confirm with AG on 

the new Act, ie no more closed district – may be 1995] 

Environment Act - Environmental Act of 1999 has been redrafted and has passed first reading 

in Parliament (in late 2006). The second and final reading should be in early 2007. 

The Fisheries (Pacific Island States’ Treaty with the U.S.A.) Act - The Fisheries Act gave 

effect to the Treaty on Fisheries between the Governments of certain Pacific Island States and 

the Government of the United States (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999). The 

Treaty allowed tuna purse seine vessels from the U.S. to fish in Kiribati waters (including the 

Kiribati EEZ around the Phoenix Islands). 

The Fisheries Ordinances of 1977, and amendments, and the Fisheries Act of 1984 – These 

regulations and laws relate to marine tenure and resource use (Ministry of Line and Phoenix 

Development 1999). 

The Fisheries Act provided the regulatory framework for the operation of the fishery in 

Kiribati (Sharp n.d.). However, the Fisheries Act provided no guidance on fisheries 

conservation or sustainable development. Other key points of the Fisheries Act included: 

1) Vessels over 7 m require a license; 

2) Foreign vessels must have a permit prior to entry into the fishery; and 

3) Fishing permits were issued annually with fees subject to negotiation. 

Vessels involved in transshipping must also be registered and licensed and must pay 

transshipment fees (Sharp n.d.). 

According to the Fisheries Act, the Minister has the power to make regulations on closed 

seasons, closed areas, size limits, gear limitations, and other measures as appropriate. 

14




Various fisheries regulations have been promulgated to manage the fishery including 

regulations for processing and export of fishery products and for vessel licensing. 

Foreshore and Land Reclamation Ordinance - The Foreshore and Land Reclamation 

Ordinance included the general provision that the State owns the foreshore and the seabed 

(Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999). However, the public has the right of 

navigation, fishing and passing over the foreshore. 

Importation of Animals Ordinance – The Importation of Animals Ordinance regulated the 

importation of animals (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999). 

Land Planning Ordinance - The Land Planning Ordinance provided for control of 

development and use of land (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999). 

Local Government Act - The Local Government Act gave the local island councils wideranging 

functions, include regulation of local fisheries (Ministry of Line and Phoenix 


Marine Zone (Declaration) Act – The marine Zone (Declaration) Act related to the internal 

waters, archipelagic waters, territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), and the 

contiguous zone of Kiribati (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999). 

Merchant Shipping (oil pollution ) Order - The Merchant Shipping (oil pollution) Order was 

the application of the U.K. Merchant Shipping (oil pollution) Act of 1971 (Ministry of Line 

and Phoenix Development 1999). 

Native Lands Ordinance of 1956 – The Native Lands Ordinance relates to land tenure 

(Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999). 

Plant Ordinance - The Plant Ordinance provided for the protection of endangered or 

culturally important plant species (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999). 

Prohibited Areas Ordinance 1957 – The Prohibited Areas Ordinance had a provision for 

setting aside areas for nature conservation purposes (Pulea and Farrier 1993). Under the 

1957 ordinance, Birnie, Abariringa (Canton, Kanton), Enderbury and Orona (Orana, Hull) 

were declared protected areas (L.N. 46/72). 

Quarantine Ordinance - The Quarantine Ordinance regulated importation of agricultural and 

other products that may harbour dangerous pathogens (Ministry of Line and Phoenix 


Wildlife Conservation Ordinance of 1975, amended in 1979 – The Wildlife Conservation 

Ordinance covered the conservation of wildlife (Anon. 1985). For a full text of the Wildlife 

Conservation Laws (Chapter 100) see Government of Kiribati (1977). 

LAND TENURE 

Local Ownership - Knudsen (1965) noted that anyone who came to the Phoenix Islands as 

part of the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme by H.E. Maude would have “to renounce 

15




all claims in their home islands, and their lands there would be distributed among their kin” 

(Maude 1952 and 1968; see also Knudsen 1977). Knudsen (1977) reported that each new 

settler in the Phoenix Islands was to be allocated a plot of productive land. 

During the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme, each Manra (Sydney) settler received 

one block of land containing 25 coconut trees at the center of the coconut tree plantation, and 

one block of land at the fringes of the planted area (Knudsen 1965; Maude 1952 and 1968). 

An addition block of land was given to each settler at the center of the plantation in the 

village for his house. Each child was also given a block of unplanted land that, if not planted 

with coconuts within 5 years, would revert to the government. All titles were freehold. Lots 

were drawn to determine assignment of blocks. A two week grace period was provided so 

that settlers could exchange blocks if so desired. A land book was used to register land 

ownership. 

The demarcation of kainga land (30.5 m (100 ft) wide running in strips from the lagoon to the 

sea) and house plots on Nikumaroro were completed (Laxton 1951). 

According to Garnett (1983a), all of the Phoenix Islands were owned by the Government of 

Kiribati. 

International Ownership – In 1937, the Phoenix Islands were placed under the Gilbert and 

Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan 1941 and 1942). In 1938, the U.S. claimed sovereignty over the 

Phoenix Islands. In 1939, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to jointly administer the Phoenix 

Islands for 50 years. In 1979, the U.S. surrendered its sovereignty claims over the Phoenix 

Islands to the Government of Kiribati under the 1979 Treaty of Friendship (Trease 1993). 

Garnett (1983b) reported that American Samoa also claimed Abariringa (Canton). After the 

U.S. satellite and missile tracking station was closed in 1979, a small group of I-Kiribati were 

based on Abariringa (Canton) to ensure that the American Samoans did not occupy it. 

PROTECTED STATUS 

Birds - In the amended ordinance, all regularly occurring species of birds, their eggs, and 

nests are fully protected (see also Dahl 1980). 

Wildlife sanctuaries – Wildlife sanctuaries have been established in Rawaki (Phoenix), 

McKean, and Birnie (Anon. 1985; Government of Kiribati 1977; L.N. 24/77 according to 

Pulea and Farrier 1993). Garnett (1983a) listed the current protection status of islands in the 

Phoenix Islands (see Table III-6.8). 

Table III-6.8. Current Protection Status of the Phoenix Islands 

(source: Garnett 1983a). 

Island Protection Status 

Abariringa (Canton, Kanton) None. 

Birnie Wildlife Sanctuary 

Enderbury None 

Manra (Sydney) None 

16




McKean Wildlife Sanctuary 

Nikumaroro (Gardner) None 

Orona (Hull) None 

Rawaki (Phoenix) Wildlife Sanctuary 

Designated conservation area on Orona – According to Tioti et al (2001), Ueantabo (personal 

communication) reported that a conservation area had been established in the lagoon on 

Orona about one-third the size of the island (see Figure III-6.3 below). 

Figure III-6.3. Designated conservation area on Orona. 

(source: Tioti et al 2001) 

Green turtles - Under the Wildlife Conservation Ordinance, green turtles, their eggs, and 

nests were protected in most of the Phoenix Islands, excluding Abariringa (Canton) and 

Enderbury (Anon. 1985; see also Dahl 1980; see also Government of Kiribati 1977). 

According to Pulea and Farrier (1993), the green turtle was fully protected in the following 

designated areas: Birnie, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Orana, Hull), McKean, Rawaki 

(Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). Prohibited acts included: (1) hunting, killing or capturing, 

(2) possession of any part, (3) searching for, taking, or wilfully destroying or damaging eggs 

and nests, and (4) possession, acquiring, selling or giving eggs or nests. Pulea and Farrier 

(1993) note that green turtles were protected on certain Phoenix Islands, but were not 

protected at sea. 

Other turtle species - Other marine turtles were protected on land by Section 7 of the Wildlife 

Conservation Ordinance (Pulea and Farrier 1993). Hunting, capture, and killing other marine 

turtles while on land were prohibited without a permit. However, like the green turtle, they 

were not protected at sea. 

Subtidal conservation area - It was not known if there was a subtidal marine component for 

McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie Wildlife Sanctuaries in the Phoenix Islands (Bleakley 

1995). Pulea and Farrier (1993) noted that there appeared to be no reason why a wildlife 

sanctuary could not be declared over an area of the seabed. 

Marine mammals - Sharp (n.d.) noted that there was no protection for marine mammals under 

Kiribati law. 

C. I NTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL AGREEMENTS 

17




The Government of Kiribati has made various commitments to international and regional, 

legal instruments regarding coastal and marine resource conservation (Mangubhai 2002). 

These international and regional agreements are listed in Table III-6.9 below. 

Table III-6.9. International and regional legal instruments relating to 

marine resources and coastal resources in Kiribati 

Legal Instrument Year 

International 

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of 1982 

Wastes and Other Matter (London Dumping Conservation) *1,2 

Convention on Biological Diversity *1 1992 

Convention on Climate Change *1 1993 

World Heritage Convention *1 2000 

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty *2 

International Maritime Organization Convention *2 

Maritime Pollution Convention (MARPOL) *2 

Regional 

Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (Apia 1976 

Convention) *1 

South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency Convention *1 1979 

Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and 

Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) *1,2 

1986 

South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (Rarotonga Treaty) *1,2 1986 

Treaty on Fisheries between the Governments of Certain Pacific 

Island States and the Government of the United States of America *3 

1987 

Convention for the Prohibition of Fishing with Long Driftnets in the 

South Pacific (Tarawa Declaration) *1,2 

1992 

Cooperation in Fisheries Surveillance and Law Enforcement in the 

South Pacific Region (Niue Treaty) *1 

1993 

*source: 

1. Mangubhai (2002), 

2. Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development (1999). 

3. Crocombe (2001). 

Wetlands - Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and Birnie have been listed under the Ramsar 

Convention on Wetlands of International Significance (Anon. 1985). 

D. REFERENCES CITED 

Anon. nd. Gilbertese and Phoenix lands code. 

Anon. 1868. Loss of three Boston ships in the Pacific Ocean, their crews all saved. The 

Boston Herald, Boston. February 4, 1868 (see Ward 1967, p. 313-314). 

18




Anon. 1985. Kiribati. Pp. 115-124 in "Report of the Third Pacific National Parks and 

Reserves Conference, Apia, Western Samoa. Vol. III. Country reviews. 

Anon. 2005. Preliminary findings: a snapshot of the condition of coral reefs in Fiji Islands, 

French Polynesia, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Tonga and Vanuatu from 2002-2004. SPC 

Fisheries Newsletter No. 112, January - March 2005. pp. 3-5. 


Bleakley, and S. Wells (eds.), A global representative system of marine protected areas. 







Burns, T., B . Graham, A. Munro, and I. Wallis. 2000. Management of persistant organic 

pollutants in Pacific Island countries, waste and obsolete chemicals and chemical 

contaminated sites SPREP. 227 pp. 













Government of Kiribati. 1977. Laws of the Gilbert Islands, Chapter 100. Wildlife 

Conservation. Revised 1977. 

Greenpeace. n.d. Overview profiles of persistent organic pollutants in the Pacific Islands. 

Appendix 

Hydrographic Office. 1956. Sailing directions for the Pacific islands. Vol. III. Washington, 

D.C.: Government Printing Office. H.O. Publication No. 166. 460 pp. [cited unseen from 

McIntire 1960.] 

19




International Maritime Organization. 2004. Casualties of fishing vessels and fishermen. 

Very serious and serious casulaties for the year 2001. FSI.4/Circ. 4. 

IUCN. 2006. 2006 IUCN list of threatened species. www.iucnredlist.org. 










Society 61(1952): 62-89. 





Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development. 1999. Kiritimati Atoll conservation area project 

(KACAP). South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme, Project Preparation 

Document. 




Press. 







Planetary Coral Reef Foundation. 2006. Comparison of Vitareef Results. 

http://www.pcrf.org/science/vitacomp.html 

Pollution Control Unit. 2006. Report on Kanton chemical cleanup mission (19/5/06 - 

/05/06). Environment and Conservation Division. 

20




Pulea, M., and D. Farrier. 1993. Environmental legislation review - Kiribati. Report for 

SPREP and Republic of Kiribati. 


Sharp, B.M.H. n.d. Fisheries of Kiribati. University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. 

Suzuki, Z., P.K. Tomlinson and M. Honma. 1978. Population structure of Pacific yellowfin 

tuna. Iner-Aerican Tropical Tuna Commission Bulletin 17(5): 273-441. [cited unseen from 

Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993.] 

Teiwaki, R. 1988. Management of marine resources in Kiribati. University of the South 

Pacific, Suva Fiji. 239 pp. 



Trease, H.V. 1993. From colony to independence. Chapter 1 in Trease, H.V. (ed). Atoll 

Politics, the Republic of Kiribati, Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, University of 

Canterbury, and Institute of Pacific Studies, USP. 






Volume 3. 

21

Chapter I Intro & Objectives - SPREP

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