Abhijit Mitra, Sufia Zaman (Auth.) - Basics of Marine and Estuarine Ecology-Springer India (2016)

Abhijit Mitra · Sufia Zaman
Basics of
Marine and
Estuarine
Ecology
Basics of Marine and Estuarine Ecology
Abhijit Mitra • Sufia Zaman
Basics of Marine
and Estuarine Ecology
Abhijit Mitra Sufia Zaman
Department of Marine Science Department of Oceanography
University of Calcutta Techno India University
Kolkata, West Bengal Kolkata, West Bengal
India India
ISBN 978-81-322-2705-2 ISBN 978-81-322-2707-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015957433
Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

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Acknowledgement
The purpose of this book is to focus the marine and estuarine ecosystem,
which is one of the vital resource reservoirs of the planet Earth. These
resources are not only the abiotic resources like oil, natural gas or minerals,
but also encompass living resources like coastal vegetation, fishes, molluscs,
arthropods and representatives of almost all the animal phyla. We hope this
book will be a useful source of information for those working for a world that
is ecologically sustainable.
This book is not a final work but should be viewed as part of an ongoing
process, of a continuing effort to understand a set of complex interrelated
global issues. It is part of a continuous flow of ecosystem related research
papers and books. Indeed, some of the material in this book have been taken
from our own earlier papers, where research scholars like Dr. Ananda Gupta,
Dr. Amitava Aich, Dr. Kiran Lal Das, Dr. Aftab Alam, Dr. Harekrishna Jana,
Dr. Rajrupa Ghosh, Mr. Prosenjit Pramanick, Mr. Shankhadeep Chakraborty,
Mr. Atanu Roy, Ms. Bulti Nayak, Ms. Suhana Datta, Mr. Deepta
Chakravartty, Ms. Kasturi Sengupta, Mr. Kunal Mondal, Mr. Subhasmita
Sinha, Ms. Mahua Roychowdhury, Mr. Saumya Kanti Ray, Mr. Rahul Bose
and Mr. Saurav Sett contributed their findings through rigorous field work.
Our debt to Dr. Kakoli Banerjee, Subhdra Devi Gadi and Dr. Rajrupa
Ghosh is uncommonly large. Their contribution went far beyond that of
editors as they added texture and colour to our prose. At times it was difficult
to tell when editing ended and writing began.
Each of our colleagues, Dr. Subhra Bikash Bhattacharya and Mr. Tanmay
Ray Chaudhuri, put great effort in updating the book. We are thankful to
Dr. Pardis Fazli of the Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineer-
ing, University Putra, Selangor, Malaysia, for her effort in representing our
data in graphical forms.
We are also indebted to the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Ministry
of Earth Science, Department of Science and Technology (DST), Govern-
ment of India, and IUCN for funding our venture through various projects.
Several innovative programmes that constitute the annexure sections of the
present book may serve as a road map in climate change mitigation and
adaptation process. Few examples of such innovations are mangrove based
fruit products by Mr. Prosenjit Pramanick, carbon content in gastropods by
v
vi Acknowledgement
Ms. Bulti Nayak etc., which are valuable assets of the present knowledge
reservoir.
Finally, Dr. Abhijit Mitra expresses his gratefulness to his wife Shampa,
daughter Ankita and mother Manjulika whose inspirations and
encouragements acted as boosters to complete the manuscript. In many
rigorous field works in Sundarbans, the assistance provided by Ankita has
helped the authors to add case studies of various dimensions. The sacrifice
and inspiration that Dr. Mitra received from his father Late Dhanesh Chandra
Mitra can be considered as the foundation pillar of his effort in learning
ecology and grasping the subject.
Dr. Sufia Zaman expresses her deepest gratitude to her mother Mrs.
Ayesha Zaman for her unconditional love and practical day-to-day support,
and to her father Mr. Salim-uz-Zaman who gave her immense moral support.
Dr. Zaman also acknowledges the support of her beloved husband Dr. Sahid
Imam Mallick. Dr. Zaman wishes to accord her deep sense of gratitude to her
family members including her uncle (Mr. Pradip Kumar Mitra) and aunt
(Late Mrs. Kanika Mitra), younger sister (Ms. Sharmilee Zaman), her in-laws
and beloved grandmother (Mrs. Shibani Dhar) for their encouragement and
inspiration throughout the strenuous period of manuscript preparation.
Contents
1 Marine Ecosystem: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Benthic Compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Supralittoral Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Eulittoral Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Sublittoral Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.4 Continental Shelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.5 Continental Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.6 Bathyal Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.7 Abyssal Plains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.8 Hadal Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Aquatic Compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1 Classification on the Basis
of Light Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 How to Estimate the Age of Ocean Water? . . . 14
1.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Consumption
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.4 Decay Rate of 14C Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
90
1.2.5 Sr Content Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.6 Hydrogen Isotope Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 Estuarine Ecosystem: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1 Definition and Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.1 Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3 Physical Processes in the Marine and Estuarine
Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1 Waves and Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.1 Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.2 Theories Related to Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1.3 Tidal Bore and Tide in Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
vii
viii Contents
3.2 Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.1 Upwelling and Downwelling: Causes
and Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.2 Factors Regulating the Pattern and Distribution
of Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.3 What Happens Practically? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.4 El Niño . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4 Abiotic Variables of the Marine and Estuarine
Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.1 Chemical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.1.1 Spatio-temporal Variations of Salinity . . . . . . . 90
4.1.2 Deep-Water Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.1.3 Conservative and Non-conservative Ions . . . . . 90
4.1.4 Dissolved Gases in Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1.5 Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2 Sediment Compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.1 Transportation of Marine Sediments . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.2 Classification of Marine Sediments . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.3 Ooze: Definition and Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.2.4 Sediment Deposition: A Boon or a Curse? . . . . 101
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5 Producers of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems . . . . . . 137
5.1 Phytoplankton Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.1.1 Diatoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1.2 Dinoflagellates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1.3 Coccolithophores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1.4 Blue-Green Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1.5 Green Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1.6 Classification of Phytoplankton . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2 Macrophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.1 Seaweed Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.2 Mangroves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.2.3 Seagrass and Salt Marsh Grass . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6 Consumers of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems . . . . . 193
6.1 Zooplankton Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.1.1 Zooplankton: Do They Maintain Uniformity
in Their Life Timeline? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.2 Vertebrate Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Contents ix
6.2.1 Fishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

6.2.2 Reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.2.3 Sea Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.2.4 Marine Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
7 Decomposers of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems . . . . 251
7.1 Overview of Marine and Estuarine Microbes . . . . . . . . 251
7.1.1 Marine Organisms as Habitats
of Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.1.2 Identification of Marine and Estuarine
Microorganisms: A Molecular Genetic
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.2 Importance of Marine and Estuarine Microbes . . . . . . . 261
7.2.1 Production of Antibiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.2.2 Production of Antitumour Compounds . . . . . . 264
7.2.3 Production of Enzyme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.2.4 Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon . . . 264
7.2.5 Degradation of Mangrove Litter . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.2.6 Drugs from Marine Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8 Adaptation of Marine and Estuarine Organisms . . . . . . . . 303
8.1 Adaptation of Organisms in the Intertidal Zone . . . . . . 303
8.1.1 Adaptation of Biota Inhabiting Rocky Shore . . . 306
8.1.2 Adaptation of Biota Inhabiting
Soft Substratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
8.2 Adaptation of Organisms Inhabiting Deep Sea . . . . . . . 318
8.2.1 Morphological Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
8.2.2 Biochemical Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
8.2.3 Vent Communities of the Deep Sea . . . . . . . . . 322
8.2.4 Properties of Vent Community . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
9 Hot Spots of Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . 331
9.1 Mangroves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
9.2 Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.2.1 Types of Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.2.2 Coral Reef Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
9.2.3 Reef Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
x Contents
10 Threats to Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . 365

10.1 Natural Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
10.1.1 Alteration of the Earth’s Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
10.1.2 Natural Oscillation of Atmospheric
Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
10.1.3 Volcanic Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
10.1.4 Variations in Solar Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
10.1.5 Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
10.1.6 Natural Disasters and Extreme
Weather Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
10.2 Anthropogenic Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
10.2.1 Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
10.2.2 Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
10.2.3 Unplanned Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
10.2.4 Introduction of Alien Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
10.2.5 Development of Coastal Structures . . . . . . . . . 399
10.2.6 Negative Fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
11 Conservation of Marine and Estuarine Resources . . . . . . . 419
11.1 Conservation or Preservation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
11.2 Tiers for Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
11.2.1 Habitat Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
11.2.2 Community and Ecosystem Diversity . . . . . . . 425
11.2.3 Functional Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
11.2.4 Population Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
11.2.5 Phyletic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
11.2.6 Species Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
11.2.7 Genetic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
12 Instruments and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
12.1 Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
12.1.1 Instruments Used for Physical
Oceanographic Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
12.1.2 Instruments Used for Geological
12.1.3 Instruments Used for Chemical
12.1.4 Instruments Used for Biological
12.2 Application of Satellites in Marine and Estuarine
Researches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Brain Churners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Annexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
About the Authors
Abhijit Mitra Associate Professor and former Head, Department of Marine

Science, University of Calcutta, India, has been active in the sphere of
Oceanography since 1985. He obtained his Ph.D. as a NET qualified scholar
in 1994. Since then he joined Calcutta Port Trust and WWF (World Wide
Fund for Nature-India), in various capacities to carry out research
programmes on environmental science, biodiversity conservation, climate
change and carbon sequestration. Dr. Mitra is also serving as the advisor of
Oceanography Division of Techno India University, Kolkata. He has to his
credit about 325 scientific publications in various national and international
journals, and 28 books of postgraduate standards. Dr. Mitra is presently the
member of several committees like PACON International, IUCN, SIOS,
Mangrove Society of India etc. and has successfully completed about 16
projects on biodiversity loss in fishery sector, coastal pollution, aquaculture,
alternative livelihood, climate change and carbon sequestration. Dr. Mitra
also visited as faculty member and invited speaker in several universities of
Singapore, Kenya, Oman and USA. In 2008 Dr. Mitra was invited as visiting
fellow at University of Massachusetts at Dartmouth, USA, to deliver a series
of lecture on climate change. Dr. Mitra also successfully guided 24 Ph.D.
students. Presently his research areas include environmental science, man-
grove ecology, sustainable aquaculture, alternative livelihood, climate
change and carbon sequestration.
Sufia Zaman presently serving as Adjunct Assistant Professor in the Depart-

ment of Oceanography in Techno India University (Kolkata, India) started
her career in the field of Marine Science since 2001. She worked in the
rigorous region of Indian Sundarbans and has a wide range of experience in
exploring the floral and faunal diversity of Sundarbans. She has published
3 books on carbon sequestration, 75 scientific papers and contributed
chapters in several books on biodiversity, environmental science, aquacul-
ture and livelihood development. Dr. Zaman is presently a member of
Fisheries Society of India. She is also running projects on carbon sequestra-
tion by mangroves of Indian Sundarbans. She is the recipient of DST Women
Scientist and Jawaharlal Memorial Doctoral fellowship awards. Her areas of
research include aquaculture, fish nutrition, phytoplankton diversity, climate
change mangrove ecology and alternative livelihood. Dr. Zaman is also the
first researcher in the maritime state of West Bengal (India), who initiated
xi
xii About the Authors
trial experiments on iron fertilization and subsequent enhancement of pri-

mary (phytoplankton) and secondary (fish) productions in the brackish water
ponds of Indian Sundarbans with the financial assistance of the Department
of Science and Technology, Government of India. Dr. Zaman is also
providing consultancy on green technology to several industries, NGOs and
corporate sectors.
Marine Ecosystem: An Overview
1
Contents About 71 % of the surface of the planet Earth is

1.1 Benthic Compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 covered by saline water. The water depth
averages 3.8 km, a volume of 1370 106 km3.
1.2 Aquatic Compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
This is the marine ecosystem and is the reservoir
Annexure 1A: Oscillation of Seafloor of food, oil, natural gas, minerals and several
in the Gulf of Mannar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
bioactive substances that have immense impor-
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 tance in the pharmaceutical industries. The eco-
system sustains the livelihood of millions of
people. The oceans serve as the main highway
for international trade as well as the main stabi-
lizer of the world’s climate. The oceanic waters
and sediments are also the dwelling place of a
large variety of flora and fauna. According to the
Global Biodiversity Assessment, produced by
the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), there are 178,000 marine species in
34 phyla.
The oceans are basically huge mass of saline
water mainly separated from each other by the
continents. On the other hand, the seas are vary-
ing extents separated from the oceans by island
chains or by submarine ridges rising from the
seafloor, subjected to considerable changes in
the course of geological history. The ocean is
divided into five major areas, namely, Antarctic
Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian
Ocean and Pacific Ocean, while the nomencla-
ture of sea expands to the North Sea, Mediterra-
nean Sea, Red Sea, Black Sea, Arabian Sea,
Caribbean Sea, Baltic Sea (Table 1.1), etc.
Unlike oceans, the seas are more prone to
changes by climatic conditions.
# Springer India 2016 1

A. Mitra, S. Zaman, Basics of Marine and Estuarine Ecology,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_1
2 1 Marine Ecosystem: An Overview
Table 1.1 Mean area and volume of oceans and seas

Name Area (km2) Volume (km3)
Atlantic Ocean 82,441,500 323,613,000
Indian Ocean 73,442,700 291,030,000
Pacific Ocean 165,246,200 707,555,000
Oceans 321,130,400 (88.94 %) 1322,198,000 (96.50 %)
Arctic Sea 14,090,100 16,980,000
Malay Sea 8,143,100 9,873,000
Central American Sea 4,319,500 9,573,000
Mediterranean Sea 2,965,900 4,238,000
Inter-continental seas 29,518,600 (8.20 %) 40,664,000 (2.96 %)
Baltic Sea 422,300 23,000
Hudson Bay 1,232,300 158,000
Red Sea 437,900 215,000
Persian Gulf 238,800 6000
Smaller enclosed seas 2,331,300 (0.64 %) 402,000 (0.03 %)
Bering Sea 2,268,200 3,259,000
Okhotsk Sea 1,527,600 1,279,000
Japan Sea 1,007,700 1,361,000
East China Sea 1,249,200 235,000
Andaman Sea 797,600 694,000
California Sea 162,200 132,000
North Sea 575,300 54,000
English Channel and Irish Seas 178,500 10,000
Laurentian Sea 237,800 30,000
Bass Sea 74,800 5000
Fringing seas 8,078,900 (2.22 %) 7,059,000 (0.51 %)
Hydrosphere 361,059,200 137,032,500
Both ocean and seawater are saline in nature. brought by the rivers is too small and estimated
The salinity exhibits significant spatio-temporal to be two millionth part of the ocean. Some of it
variations. The salt in the marine ecosystem is absorbed by animals and plants to form
originates from various sources. It is stated that skeletons of lime or silica. A certain proportion
from the very beginning, the crust of the Earth is called cyclic salts is swept off the sea towards the
subject to slow dissolving action of water. Ever land by windblown spays and picked up by water
since seawater has been constantly washing the vapour and again brought into the sea. Thus, they
shores and rains falling on the land have been further reduce the gross contribution of salt
draining debris into rivers and seas. Thus, seawa- which the rivers make to the ocean. Moreover,
ter contains all the elements of the Earth’s crust. a great amount of calcium brought by rivers is
The rivers bring about 5.4 108 of the total constantly being withdrawn by marine animals
solids of the ocean. However, it is surprising that like coral polyps, foraminifera, gastropods,
there exists great similarity between river water oysters, etc. Inspite of the above facts, the small
and seawater in terms of chemical composition. amount of salt brought annually by rivers
The latter has chloride in abundance (about increases the salinity of the sea.
75 %), while the former has mostly calcium Salts are also added either due to erosion of
(60 %). There is only 2 % of sodium chloride in the earth crust or by some agencies which add
river waters. The conclusion is naturally that minerals from the obscure sources buried deep
either rivers do not convey enough salts to the within the earth, e.g. volcanic ash brings some
sea which makes it saline or whatever they pour material—especially chlorine, boron, sulphur
in the sea is continually lost. The quantity of salts and iodine.
1.1 Benthic Compartment 3
The marine ecosystem can be divided into devoid of vegetation. These slopes, under per-
benthic (substratum based) and pelagic (aquatic) missible angle of repose, also show development
zones. of eolian ripples and wind ripples. The formation
of dunes follows a basic sequence of dune forma-
tion stages.
1.1 Benthic Compartment During the initial stage of dune formation, the
perennial grass Paspalum vaginatum of the fam-
The benthic compartment of the ocean starts from ily Poaceae forms an arc-shaped train in the sand
the shoreline and extends up to the hadal zone with the convexity of the arc pointed along the
(Fig. 1.1). The zone is vast and complex and is direction of wind. This grass helps trap sand and
characterized by the presence of several interesting initiates the growth of mounds of sand. The
sculptures and features. For the convenience of the growth of the vegetation continues, which further
readers, the benthic zone of the marine ecosystem accelerates the accumulation of sand and which,
is discussed here on the basis of subdivisions like in turn, results in the growth of the dunes.
supralittoral zone, eulittoral zone, sublittoral zone, Hummocks of shrubs like Clerodendrum
continental shelf, continental slope, bathyal zone, inerme may coalesce sometimes to give rise to
abyssal plains and hadal zone. complexities in dune morphology. A typical
dune configuration is finally attained through
the upwind deposition of more sand, away from
1.1.1 Supralittoral Zone the convex front of the arc-shaped hummock
covered with vegetation. As a result, sand grains
The supralittoral zone also known as the splash are deposited on the upper part of the slip face
zone or spray zone is the area above which the and may eventually avalanche. Further drifting
highest tidal water reaches. The organisms of sands along the windward slope creates a steep
inhabiting this zone are adapted to minimum face to the dune structure.
availability of water and include species of Plants play an important role in dune forma-
gastropods and isopods. Some thorny plants tion. The root acts as sand binders and helps
(mangrove variety) like Acanthus sp. are com- stabilize the dunes while the leaves and stems
mon in the supralittoral zone. The thorns are the help trap airborne sand. The vegetation protects
features of xerophytes that reduce the loss of the dune from destructive winds and arrests dune
water from the plant body. migration to a considerable extent. In many des-
Sand dune is a common feature of tropical ert areas, vegetation cover has been found to be
supralittoral zone. A sand dune is formed by a the most effective and permanent mechanism to
mound of sand deposited by winds, which rises to arrest dune migration.
a summit and possesses a slip face. In the The plant communities associated with dunes
Sundarbans, the dunes run parallel to the southern may be separated into two distinct groups,
coastline and have no definite shapes during the namely, those which help in the establishment
initial stages of formation. The eolian sand deposits and growth of dunes and these which arrest dune
make up an area known as the dune field. Wind migration. Some plant species such as grass
sand ripples also characterize many areas of the Paspalum and the herbs Aeluropus lagopoides,
dune field. Sand dunes in the Sundarbans are gen- Cynodon dactylon, Opuntia sp., Salicornia
erally oriented parallel to the relevant wind and are sp. and Suaeda maritima are associated with
barchan or transverse dunes. Barchan dunes are embryonic dunes (pro-dunes) and new dunes.
crescent-shaped formed by unidirectional wind Ipomoea pes-caprae, Launea sp. and Sesuvium
and advance by avalanching of sand on the slop portulacastrum are generally associated with
face. In contrast, transverse dunes are elongated, post-embryonic to mature dunes and arrest dune
nearly straight and regularly spaced sand ridges. migration, to a great extent. The herb
The windward sides of dunes contain S. portulacastrum has extremely long, penetrating
superimposed eolian ripples, wherever they are roots which may reach 2–3 m in length. Ipomoea
a b
Ultraviolet
Pelagic
yellow
green
Neritic Oceanic
blue
red
l 0
ra al
to or
Photic
Lit
Light
zone
b litt
Su
Epipelagic 200 m 100
al
Mesopelagic
hy
1000 m
t
Ba
PELAGIC PROVINCE 200
Epipelagic 0 – 200 m Bathypelagic
2000 m
Water depth (m)
Dysphotic
Mesopelagic 200 – 1000 m
“Twilight”
zone
Bathypelagic 1000 – 2000 m
l
sa
Abyssalpelagic 2000 – 6000 m
ys
3000 m 300
Ab
Hadalpelagic > 6000 m
Be
Abyssalpelagic
nth
ic
BENTHIC PROVINCE 4000 m

Littoral Intertidal 400
Sublittoral 0 – 200 m
l
da
Bathyal 200 – 2000 m Ha 5000 m
Abyssal 2000 – 6000 m
Hadal > 6000 m 500
6000 m
Aphotic
Hadalpelagic
zone
Dark
7000 m 600
BIOZONES LIGHT ZONES
Fig. 1.1 Benthic compartment of the marine ecosystem
Fig. 1.2 Ipomoea pes-caprae serves as the sand binder in the intertidal zone
Fig. 1.3 View of Launea sp. that forms a dense cover on the dune surface and imparts stability
pes-caprae (Fig. 1.2) has good network of roots In some cases, the azimuthal directions of the
that often penetrate to depth of 1–2 m. The spe- cross-laminations in the same dune showed 180
cies, together with Launea sp (Fig. 1.3), can form reversals. The variability of inclinations of cross-
a dense cover on the dune surface. laminations reflected avalanche faces, variations
Investigations of the internal structure of the in wind directions and vegetation hummocks
dunes revealed that wedge, lenticular and planar occurring in different pats and levels of the
tabular type of cross-laminations in sections cut same dune. The internal laminations of the
both parallel and normal to the lee directions of dunes were often disrupted by the roots of vari-
dunes. The boundary surfaces of the cross- ous types of vegetation.
laminations had, in many cases, been eroded.
These surfaces were either straight or were con-
cave upward. The sets varied in thickness from a 1.1.2 Eulittoral Zone
few cm to 40 cm. The bounding surfaces showed
variable degrees of inclination (5 –40 ) in It is the zone between high tide and low tide and
sections parallel to the lee-slope of the dunes. sustains a wide spectrum of organisms. The zone is
Dune sections cut normal to the lee-slope also also referred to as midlittoral zone and is the dwell-
revealed bounding surfaces with variable ing ground of wide variety of organisms (Fig. 1.4).
inclinations. Sliding of the sands down the lip The eulittoral zone sustains a wide spectrum
face caused high dip of the bounding surfaces, of flora and fauna. In tropical regions, this zone is
while erosion by sourcing on the stoss side was the survival ground of mangroves, which are
responsible for creating upward concave or specialized halophytes with pneumatophores,
straight low dipping bounding surfaces. The supporting root system and possess features like
cross-laminations in between the upper and viviparous germination (Fig. 1.5).
lower bounding surfaces within a set showed The eulittoral zone is the matrix for ecological
dips ranging between 20 and 35 . Laminar succession, and the pH of the substratum
with dips of more than 30 were not uncommon. (Fig. 1.6) associated with the mangrove forest is
High moisture enabled the sand to remain cohe- slightly acidic in nature, with values ranging
sive at high angles of repose. between 5.5 and 6.8 (Fig. 1.7).
HTL
LTL
Fig. 1.4 Intertidal mudflat in the estuarine ecosystem falls under the eulittoral zone; HTL high tide level, LTL low
tide level
Fig. 1.5 Eulittoral zone: survival ground of coastal vegetation

Fig. 1.6 Eulittoral zone adjacent to mangrove forest
Fig. 1.7 Slightly acidic pH of the eulittoral substratum
1.1.3 Sublittoral Zone of sublittoral zone extends up to the edge of the

continental shelf. Several species of seaweeds
This is the zone below eulittoral zone and is are found in the sublittoral zone, and their growth
always exposed to saline water. The lower limit is luxuriant due to presence of sun light.
1.1.4 Continental Shelf When the ice melted and sea level rose, these
areas were flooded and sediments built up in
Continental shelves are generally flat areas, aver- areas close to the new shore. Although presently
aging 68 km (40 miles) in width and 130 m submerged, these shelf areas bear the signatures
(430 ft) in depth, which slope gently towards of old riverbeds and glaciers, features they
the bottom of the ocean basin. The width of a acquired when exposed as part of the continent.
continental shelf is frequently related to the slope Some continental shelves are covered with thick
of the land it borders. Mountainous coasts, like deposits of silt, sand and mud derived from the
the West Coast of the United States, usually have land; for example, the Mississippi and Amazon
a narrow continental shelf, whereas low-lying Rivers deposit large amounts of sediments at
land, like the East Coast of the United States, their mouths. Other shelves are bare of
usually has a wide one. Continental shelves are sediments, such as where the Florida Current
the extensions of the continents to which they are sweeps the tip of Florida, carrying the shelf
attached (Fig. 1.8). The criterion for defining the sediments northwards to the deeper water of the
seaward edge of the continental shelf is a marked Atlantic Ocean.
change in slope. The continental shelf has a gra- The repeated emergence and submergence of
dient of about 1:1000. coast have been instrumental in shaping the mor-
The continental shelves are basically part of phology of the continental shelves. A study
the landmasses, and during geologic past, they conducted on this dynamicity in the Indian sub-
witnessed rise and fall of the sea level. When the continent (East Coast) is highlighted as
sea level was low during, the ice ages (periods of Annexure 1A.
increased ice on land), erosion deepened valleys, The continental shelves (Fig. 1.9) act as the
waves eroded previously submerged land and reservoir of several commercially important
rivers left their sediments far out on the shelf. items like sand, petroleum, natural gas and
Fig. 1.8 Pinkish colour denoting the continental shelves

Established baseline 2500 m isobath + 100 M

(either normal of straight)
350 M
200 M
dry land
60 M
continental shelf
idge
sl
op
r
arine
e e
is
lr abyssal
subm
continental crust a
nt plain
i ne
foot of slope nt
(max. change of gradient) co
sediment
1% sediment thickness ocean crust
Outer limit of CS
Fixed points (lat, long)
Fig. 1.9 Continental shelf: a zone for resource exploration and utilization
different categories of shellfish, finfish, rapidly from 200 m (600 ft) to 3000 m
seaweeds, etc. These areas are also treated as (10,000 ft) or it may drop as far as 8000 m
the bin of civilization, as several wastes of com- (26,000 ft) into a deep-sea trench, as it does
plex nature are dumped on the continental off the West Coast of South America. The con-
shelves. As the continental shelves are extremely tinental slope may show rocky outcroppings,
important in terms of commercial valuation and and it is often relatively bare of sediments
ecosystem services, therefore some regulations because of its steepness. Some continental
have been imposed on the issue of commercial slopes possess submarine canyons that are simi-
exploration and valuation. In the domain of laws lar to canyons found on land. Many of these
and policies, continental shelves as mentioned in submarine canyons are aligned with river
Article 76 encompasses prolongation of the land systems on land and were probably formed by
territory of all the maritime states that remains in these rivers during periods of low sea level. The
submerged state including the seabed and subsoil Hudson River canyon on the East Coast of the
and extends up to a distance of some 200 nautical United States is an example of this. Other sub-
miles. marine canyons have ripple marks on the floor,
and at the ends of the canyons sediments fan out,
suggesting that they were formed by moving
1.1.5 Continental Slope sediments and water. Oceanographers believe
that these canyons were formed by turbidity
Seawards from the continental shelf is the con- currents. Turbidity currents are swift avalanches
tinental slope, which extends to a depth of of sediment and water that erode a slope as they
1.6–3.2 km. The continental slope has a gradient sweep down and pick up speed. At the end of the
between 1:2 and 1:40. The angle and extent of slope, the current slows and the sediments fan
the slope may be of varying nature. In some out. Turbidity currents can be caused by
oceans, the angles may be low, whereas in earthquakes or the accumulation of large
some other cases, the angles may be high that amounts of sediments on steep slopes that over-
causes steepness. The depth may increase load the slope’s capacity to hold them.
1.1.6 Bathyal Zone from the continental rise carried down by the
turbidity currents. Abyssal hills and seamounts
The bathyal zone lying between 200 m and are scattered across the seafloor. Submerged flat-
2000 m is characterized by absolute darkness topped seamounts, known as guyots, are found
and low temperature, making the survival of most often in the Pacific Ocean. They may vary
organisms highly difficult. In the absence of from low hills to mountains as high as 1525 m.
solar radiation, photosynthesis is practically nil The example of Bermuda rise is very prominent
in the bathyal zone except in some regions of in this context on which the Bermuda Islands are
tropics where a small amount of solar radiation formed. Seamounts are isolated peaks that rise
can penetrate up to some 600 m. The speed of several thousand metres above the seafloor.
water current is extremely slow in bathyal zone, These guyots are 1000–1700 m (3300–5600 ft)
and in some regions, water is almost stagnant. below the surface, with many at the 1300
The biodiversity is extremely poor in bathyal (4300 ft) depth. Many of these guyots exhibit
zone and encompasses few species of suspension the remains of shallow marine coral reefs and
feeders and mud scavengers. In sub-Arctic to the evidence of wave erosion at their summits.
equatorial regions, cold water bathyal corals are This indicates that at one time they were surface
widely distributed. features and that their flat tops are the result of
The sediments in the bathyal zone are terres- past coral reef growth, wave erosion or both.
trial, pelagic or authigenic (formed in place) in
nature. Terrestrial (or land-derived) sediments
are predominantly clays and silts and are com- 1.1.8 Hadal Zone
monly coloured blue because of accumulated
organic debris as well as bacterially produced The hadal zone represents the deepest part of the
ferrous iron sulphides. Coarser terrigenous ocean. This zone is found from a depth of around
sediments are also brought to the bathyal seafloor 6000 m (20,000 ft) to the bottom of the ocean.
by sporadic turbidity currents originating in The hadal zone has extremely poor biodiversity
shallower areas. Where supplies of terrigenous due to stressful environmental conditions in
materials are scarce, microscopic shells of phy- terms of temperature, pressure and light avail-
toplankton (coccolithophorids) and zooplankton ability. In the absence of any solar radiation, life
(foraminiferous and pteropods) fall through the in the hadal zone is triggered by the process of
water grain by grain, accumulating as white cal- chemosynthesis.
careous ooze deposits. Authigenic sediments Trenches are long narrow depressions in the
result from the interaction of clay, feldspar, and hadal zone that are over 6100 m deep. The
volcanic-glass particles with seawater, forming deepest known trench in the ocean compartment
the minerals glauconite, chlorite, phillipsite and is the Mariana Trench of the western North
palagonite. These sediments are characteristi- Pacific that is about 11,000 m deep. The
cally green because of their chlorite and glauco- Peru–Chile Trench extends for over 6120 km
nite contents. (3600 miles) along the coast of South America
and is the longest of the ocean trenches. The Java
Trench extends for a distance of almost 4760 km
(2956 miles) along the coast of the islands of
1.1.7 Abyssal Plains Indonesia. By comparison, there are only two
relatively short trenches in the Atlantic, namely,
The term abyssal plain indicates the flatness of the South Sandwich Trench and the Puerto
the surface. Abyssal plains are found at the base Rico–Cayman Trench. Trenches are invariably
of the continental rise and are relatively flat associated with the systems of active volcanoes
plains having a gradient less than 1:1000. They and are believed to be caused by down wrapping
are formed due to even deposition of sediments of the oceanic crust beneath the continental crust.
1.2 Aquatic Compartment 11
Fig. 1.10 Major trenches of the world
Fig. 1.11 Components of

the ocean basin (after Mitra Ocean basin
2000)
Continental margin Continental rise Ocean basin floor
Continental Continental
shelf slope
Abyssal Oceanic Sea mounts Trenches

Plains rises
Figure 1.10 highlights some major trenches of relatively calm recesses of the ocean, and
the world. changes are mainly attributed to sedimentation,
It is interesting to note from the above discus- uplifting and subsidence.
sion that the ocean basin has unique designs and The structures and features of ocean basin are
sculptures similar to the land features above it summarized in Fig. 1.11.
(Fig. 1.11). Mountain ranges, canyons, valleys
and vast plains are all the important components
of the underwater landscape. These physical 1.2 Aquatic Compartment
features of the ocean bottom are called
bathygraphic features, and unlike their counter- The entire water mass above the ocean floor
part topographic features on land, they change at (benthic substratum) with all the diverse types
relatively slow pace. Erosion is slow in the of organisms is referred to as the pelagic zone
Fig. 1.12 Division of

pelagic zone of the ocean
and may be differentiated into neritic and oce- and (2) aphotic zone. The photic zone is
anic zones. Neritic zone is the shallow-water restricted up to that layer where light is available
zone that extends from the intertidal zone to the and usually ranges up to 200 m from the surface.
edge of the continental shelf and includes the The productivity is more in this zone and the
coastal waters having an average depth of producers include many species of large algae
200 m. The water masses beyond the continental thriving in extensive beds (Fig. 1.13), as well as
shelf and overlying the deep abyssal plain con- huge populations of phytoplankton that serve as
stitute the oceanic zone. The depth of this zone is nutrient base for the rest of the consumers.
more than 6 Km. The pelagic zone is divided The aphotic zone is the deeper lightless zone
vertically into sub zones like epipelagic zone of the ocean usually below 200 m. Apart from the
(up to 200 m), mesopelagic zone (200–1000 m), above two zones, there is another zone known as
bathypelagic zone (1000–4000 m) and the dysphotic zone, sometimes referred to as the
abyssopelagic zone (4000–6000 m) (Fig. 1.12). twilight zone. This zone has very low levels of
illumination because the water above absorbs
more than 95 % of the sunlight. Photosynthesis
1.2.1 Classification on the Basis under these dim conditions is not possible.
of Light Penetration In the euphotic zone, there is plenty of light
to perform the process of photosynthesis by
On the basis of distribution/penetration of light, macrophytes and macrophytes due to which
the oceanic compartment may be divided into organic material is produced. This production
two distinct zones, namely, the (1) photic zone exceeds the loss of organic matter through the
1.2 Aquatic Compartment 13
Fig. 1.13 Large algae on hard substrata in the photic zone
process of plant respiration. The amount of light themselves against UV radiation (Ylognen
required for photosynthetic productions to just et al. 2005). Larvae of several benthic organisms
balance the respiratory losses in plants is and deep-dwelling shrimp species escape the
referred to as the ‘compensation light intensity’, adverse impact of UV radiation by changing
and the depth at which the photosynthetic pro- their dwelling place (Frank and Widder 1994;
duction is balanced by plant respiration is Adams 2001). Copepod (Martin et al. 2000;
known as ‘compensation depth’. Basically com- Rhode et al. 2001) and cladoceran (Johnsen and
pensation depth defines the lower boundary of Widder 2001) species avoid UV stress by vertical
the euphotic zone. migrations. Some crustaceans have evolved bio-
Light has immense role in regulating the chemical methods of avoiding the UV-induced
behaviour of marine organisms. Light has regu- stress, including pigmentation (Rhode
latory role on the behaviour of marine and estua- et al. 2001); more coloured shrimps tend to
rine organisms particularly on zooplankton occur in deeper water layers (Vestheim and
(Clarke 1934; Duval and Geen 1976; Pagano Kaartvedt 2009). Different responses of cladoc-
et al. 1993; Atkinson et al. 1996). Ultraviolet eran species to UV exposure in various freshwa-
(UV) radiation, especially with a wavelength of ter lakes have been documented (Leech and
280–315 nm, has adverse impact on many zoo- Williamson 2000; Leech et al. 2005). Light-
plankton species (Hunter et al. 1981; dependent behaviour of the abundant zooplank-
Kouwenberg et al. 1999). Some animals, for ton species inhabiting the White Sea (situated
example, larvae of Coregonidae fishes, use skin adjacent to North Polar circle) was studied exper-
pigmentation and avoidance behaviour to protect imentally by Daria et al. (2010).
1.2.2 How to Estimate the Age constant through seasons and years and (iii) physi-
of Ocean Water? cal processes like wave action, turbulence, upwell-
ing, etc., have been ignored in this calculation.
The age of ocean water refers to the time or
period since the water mass was last at the sur-
face and in contact with the atmosphere. The 1.2.4 Decay Rate of 14C Method
computation of age of ocean water has great
relevance. It throws light on the rate of overturn This method was first reported by Kulp
of ocean water. This has important implications et al. (1952). According to this estimation, the
in terms of dumping of conservative pollutants atmosphere at the sea surface was only source of
like radioactive wastes and also replenishment of 14
C to ocean waters. Away from the surface, the
nutrients. If the average time of overturn is much 14
C content would not be replenished and would
less than the half-life of such materials, it would decay with its half-life of about 5600 years. The
be dangerous to dump them in the ocean because early measurements suggested an age of the
they would be brought to the surface while still order of 2000 years for water at 2000–5000 m
active and might be picked up by fish and so in the North Atlantic, but this was subsequently
conveyed back to man. shown to be too high on account of contamina-
There are several methods to estimate the age tion in the chemical processing.
of ocean water, which are discussed here.
90
1.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen 1.2.5 Sr Content Method
(DO) Consumption Method
Measurement of the 90Sr content of ocean water
This method was devised by Worthington in has revealed significant amounts at depths to
1954. He observed in the deep water of North 1000 m. As the only source of this isotope is
Atlantic Ocean (at depths of 2500 m) the average presumed to be the residue from atom bombs,
dissolved oxygen content decreased by 0.3 ppm starting in 1954, this indicates that the rate of
between 1930 and 1950. Considering the con- vertical mixing in the upper waters may be
sumption of oxygen to be constant, the rate of quite rapid.
decrease of DO is 0.3 ppm/20 ¼ 0.015 ppm/
year. Now this data can be used to calculate the
age of the ocean in the following way: 1.2.6 Hydrogen Isotope Method
Suppose, initial DO in the surface water of Bay
Radioactive tracer like tritium (3H) with a half-
of Bengal ¼ 7:6 ppm ðin 2014Þ:
life of about 12 years is also used to estimate the
Assume final DO ðat a certain depthÞ in Bay of
age of ocean water. It occurs in the upper layers
Bengal ¼ 5:8 ppm
of the ocean at concentrations of the order of only
Change in DO ¼ 1:8 ppm
one tritium atom for 1017 or 1018 ordinary hydro-
Considering the rate of decrease of
DO ¼ 0:015 ppm=year, the age of the water is gen atoms (1H), but with new techniques, it can
then 120 years: be measured quantitatively for age
determinations of seawater which have been rou-
This implies that the present parcel of water was tinely measured in the systematic redetermina-
last at the surface of Bay of Bengal during 1894. tion of the distribution of the main elements in
This calculation is based on several the world oceans in the GEOSECS (Geochemical
assumptions as, for example, (i) the consumption Ocean Sections Study). This was a multinational,
of oxygen occurs by chemical combination with multi-institutional study of the main oceans and
detritus, (ii) the consumption rate of oxygen is whose objective was the study of the
Annexure 1A: Oscillation of Seafloor in the Gulf of Mannar 15
geochemical properties of the oceans with West Coast. The shelf on the West Coast is broad
respect to large-scale circulation problems. with thin layer of sediment, while the shelf in the
East Coast is narrow with thick layer of sedi-
ment. The case studies of the area of Gulf of
Brain Churners
Mannar, extending from Tuticorin to
1. What causes the water salty in the
Rameswaram Island, are very pertinent in this
ocean?
context. The area lies between 8 470 and
2. Why the environment is stressful in
9 150 N latitudes to 78 50 and 79 300 E
supralittoral zone?
longitudes and sustains several types of habitats
3. How the salts of the ocean water are
like seagrasses, seaweeds and coral reefs
used by the organisms?
(Fig. 1A.1).
4. Why continental shelves are highly
productive compared to continental
slopes and abyssal plains?
2. Materials and Methods
5. Why the length of the food chain and
the number of trophic levels are more
The main components used for this study are
in the continental shelves and low in
Naval Hydrographic Chart (1975), Topographic
the hadal zone?
Sheet of Survey of India (SOI), Eco-Sounder and
6. Why photic zone of the ocean has
Global Positioning System (GPS). The bathyme-
greater fishery production compared
try map was prepared on the basis of Naval
to dysphotic or aphotic zone?
Hydrographic (1975) chart data and was subse-
7. Why seamounts are flat topped?
quently digitized into ARC-INFO to prepare a
8. How submarine canyons are formed
digital elevation model using ERDAS imagine
on the continental slopes?
software. A survey on the bathymetry of the
9. How trenches are formed at the bottom
area was carried out during April 1999 using
of the ocean?
eco-sounder and GPS along Mandapam and
10. Why the potential fishing zones mostly
Tuticorin coastal area in the Gulf of Mannar.
coincide with the zone of upwelling?
The depth values were recorded with respect to
chart datum. The measured depths were tide
corrected with respect to time and then converted
with respect to chart datum.
Annexure 1A: Oscillation of Seafloor

in the Gulf of Mannar 3. Results and Discussion
1. Introduction In the shore between Tuticorin and Vaippar

River, the seafloor is sloping gently down to
The floor below the ocean compartment is never 5 m depth, while in Sippikkulam coast where
stable. Several researches have been carried out the seafloor is very steep down to 2 m depth, it
on the changes in seafloor, which may be extends up to 0.129 km from the coast. In
attributed to alteration of land surface elevation. between 4 m and 5 m depths, some elevated
Changes in absolute water surface levels occur rises and islands are observed. At a distance of
worldwide as the oceans are interlinked. Such 4.30 km (8 490 N–78 120 1600 E) from Tuticorin
alterations are referred to as eustatic changes. In coast, a 3.9 m elevated rise was observed. Just
many cases, it has been observed that the extent north-east of this rise a 6 m elevated island
of continental shelf undergoes changes with the (8 490 3500 N–78 120 2800 E) called Van Island,
passage of time. In case of Indian subcontinent, a which is situated 5 km away from Tuticorin
pronounced variation in the extent of continental coast. Around this island, the seafloor is sloping
shelf is observed between the East Coast and the very gently down to 2 m depth in southeast, east,
Fig. 1A.1 Location of Gulf of Mannar
north-east and north directions. Whereas in the shore of Vilangu Shuli Island, whereas west of
west, southwest and northwestern parts of the the seafloor tends to slope very steeply. An
island, the seafloor slope is very steep. On the extensive well-developed fringing reef has been
north-eastern, eastern and southern sides of the identified around Vilangu Shuli and Karia Shuli
island, the seafloor is covered by fringing coral Islands extending to 3 m depth.
reef, extending down to 2 m depth with an In the shore between Vaippar and
approximate distance of 1.50 km from the coast Muttiapuram, the seafloor is at a depth of 3 m,
of the island. Between the depths of 3 m and 4 m, which extends to an approximate distance of
there is another island called Koswari Island, 3.51 km from the shore. In the area near the
which is located at 8 520 200 N–78 130 2200 E, mouth of Vembar, the seafloor topography is
with a distance of 6.09 km from Tharuvaikulam plain with a depth of 2 m. Between 2 m and
coast. In between 5 m and 10 m depths, the 20 m, the seafloor slopes very gently and extends
seafloor slopes moderately. From the depth of to a distance of 19.75 km. A sudden steep slope is
10 m to 20 m, the seafloor slopes gently, having encountered at 20 m depth; this area is the
a distance of 16.65 km between them. At a depth starting point of the continental slope and it
of 20 m, the seafloor falls suddenly with a very extends to the depth of 30 m. The width of the
steep slope (continental slope) extending till slope has been calculated as 5.45 km, and the
30 m depth. The width of this slope has been width of the continental shelf has been calculated
calculated as 7.27 km. The total width of conti- as 19.75 km. In the area from Terkku Narippeyur
nental shelf in Tuticorin region has been calcu- to Gundar River, the shelf is found at a depth of
lated as 26.75 km. In the coast from Veppalodai 3 m, extending to 0.36 km south and southeast of
to Sippikkulam, between 4 m and 6 m depths, Narippeyur coast and 0.88 km south of Gundar
elevated islands, namely, Kariya Shuli and River-mouth. Between the depths of 7 and 8 km,
Vilangu Shuli Islands, are situated at a distance the seafloor is considerably broad and the slope is
of 4.77 km and 6.56 km from Sippikulam coast very gentle. An elevated island is found exposed
respectively. The seafloor is found to be sloping above sea level, viz., Uppu Tanni Island situated
gently towards north, east and south from the at 6.72 km from Gundar River-mouth. The
Annexure 1A: Oscillation of Seafloor in the Gulf of Mannar 17
seafloor is plain up to 1 m depth in all directions 0.75 km. After reaching 3 m depth, the seafloor
around the island except in the north and north- has a sudden fall to 10 m depth. In between the
eastern directions where the slope is very steep. two depressions, a flat-topped continental rise
In the shore between Gundar and Palar River, the has been observed. The average width of the
seafloor is found at a depth of 3 m, and this deep continental rise is 1.58 km and is located
extends to 1.19 km from the coast. At the south of 5.7 km from the shore. On this rise, there are
Mel Mendal coast, the seafloor slopes very two elevated islands rising 4 m from the seafloor
steeply to 7 m depth and extends to 1.44 km and are located between 9 90 300 N–78 410 2800 E
from the coast. Between the depths of 10 and and 9 90 400 N–78 430 3200 E. These islands are
20 m, the seafloor slopes moderately with a called as Anaipar and Pilliyarmunai Islands.
width of 7.52 km. At an average depth of Around these islands, the seafloor slopes very
20–30 m, there is a continental slope with gently, and extensively developed fringing corals
16.56 km width. In between 7 and 8 m depths, are found within 2 m depth. Between 4 and 5 m
the seafloor is broad and has a very gentle slope. depth, at a lat long of 9 90 1200 N–78 450 80 E, an
In this region particularly at latitude of 9 60 500 N island, namely, Puvarasanpatti Island, having an
and longitude of 78 320 1000 E, an island, namely, elevation of 4.50 m from the seafloor, is encoun-
Shalli Island, having 9 m elevation from seafloor tered. At a depth between 10 m and 20, the sea-
is encountered. On the northern and southern floor slopes gently. The width of this continental
sides of this island, the seafloor slopes very shelf is 18.17 m. In the area between Keelakarai
steep, while on the eastern and western sides, and Pudumadam, the seafloor is almost plain and
the slope is gentle. Towards the east from Shalli has a depth of 3–4 m. This plain extends to a
Island, another island, namely, Nalla Tanni distance of 9.72 km from the coast. In this plain,
Island, is encountered (9 60 1100 N–78 340 2900 E). some low elevated rise and Islands are observed.
Around this island, the seafloor slopes very Located at a lat long of 78 490 1000 E–9 90 3100 N,
gently, particularly in the north-east, east and an island, namely, Appa Island, having an eleva-
southeastern sides of the island, which extends tion of 5 m from seafloor, has been noticed.
to a depth of 4 m from the shore of the island. Around this island, the seafloor slopes gently to
Whereas in the northern and southwestern sides 2 m depth. It extends to an average distance of
of this island, the seafloor have a very steep 1.50 km. At 9 140 200 N–78 510 2500 E and 9 140 3200
slope, extending to a depth of 4 m at a distance N–78 520 3100 E, two continental rise have been
of about 0.36 m from the coast of the island. In observed having an elevation of 1 m from the
the region between the Palar River-mouth and seafloor. In between 4 and 5 m depths, there are
Dhanushkodi shelf, the topography has some some low elevated islands (5.50 m from sea-
irregularities. In the area opposite to the Palar floor), namely, Talairi, Valai and Muli Islands.
River-mouth, there is a gentle depressed channel, They are located at an average distance of
having an approximate length of 4.41 km 8.45 km from Kaplar River-mouth. In this region,
towards south. In the coast between the Palar the seafloor gradient is very steep extending from
River-mouth and Kalachimundal, the seafloor is 5 m depth to 10 m depth and then it slopes gently
found at a depth of 1 m, and it extends to a up to 30 m depth.
distance of 0.28 km from the shore. Between In the coast between Pudumadam and
these areas, the seafloor gradient is very steep to Thoniturai, the seafloor is almost plain having a
a depth of 7 m. The width of this area is 1.60 km. depth of 2-3 m. This plain extends 6.95 km from
After reaching 7 m depth, the seafloor rises up to the coast. Near Seeniappa Dargah and
3 m depth; this depressed channel runs to a dis- Thoniturai, this plain is encountered at 2 m
tance of 21.27 km towards the north-east and depth, and it extends to an average distance of
south and lies between 9 90 1500 N–78 400 40 E 2.17 km from the coast of Seeniappa Dargah and
and 9 130 800 N–78 470 3700 E. The average 0.50 km from Thoniturai coast. Along this plain,
width of this channel has been measured as some low elevated continental rise (9 120 1400
N–79 50 1900 E) and chain of islands have been moderately up to 30 m depth. The width of the
observed. From Seeniappa Dargah to 6.65 km continental shelf in this area has been measured
towards south, an island, namely, Musal Island, approximately as 26.25 km.
having an elevation of 3.5 m from seafloor is A comparative study was conducted using
encountered. Around this island, fringing corals the contour map of 1999 and bathymetry map
have developed very extensively to a depth of of 1975. The study exhibited a decrease in the
2 m; they extend 1.45 km towards the north, seafloor level in the study area. This may be
1.75 km towards the northwest, 1.69 km towards attributed to emerging of land due to tectonic
the west and 1.42 km towards the south from the activity. Several marine scientists have also
coast of the island. Around this island, the sea- confirmed that the coast of Gulf of Mannar is
floor slopes gently up to a depth of 2 m. On the on an emerging phase due to tectonic movement
seaward side of this island, the seafloor slope is (Foot 1888; Ahmad 1982; Stoddart and Pillai
very steep to 10 m depth and to an average 1972; Loveson and Rajamanickam 1988;
distance of 2 m. About 6.18 km away from Ramasamy 1989). Ramasamy (1997) has build
Maraikayar Pattinam, there are two islands, up a post collision tectonic model for the south-
namely, Manalli and Manalliputti Islands ern part of Indian in which he has observed a
(9 120 2300 N–79 70 2600 E and 9 120 2300 series of geo-environmental problems being
N–79 80 1600 E). Around these islands, the seafloor caused due to such ongoing tectonic movement.
is encountered at 1 m depth, and the topography In some areas (particularly at river-mouths and
of the seafloor around this island has a moderate some islands), the seafloor level increased as a
gradient. On the seaward side of this island, the result of erosional activities. In and around the
seafloor slope is very steep, between 3 m and 6 m Tuticorin group of islands, the illegal removal
depths. The width of this slope is 0.73 km. At a of corals resulted in an increase in depth
depth of 6–7 m, a plain having a width of 3.52 km (Thanikackalam and Ramachandran 2002).
is encountered. The seafloor slopes gently The average depth reduction of seafloor along
between 7 and 30 m depths. In the area between the coast of the study area has been estimated as
Thoniturai and Pamban canal, the seafloor is 0.51 m over a period of 24 years, which is
encountered at a depth of 1 m and extends to an equivalent to 0.021 m/year along the coast
average distance of 1.07 km from the coast of and 0.023 m/year around the island. This esti-
Thoniturai and Velupilliyarkovil. In this area, the mation is based on the assumption that the rate
seafloor slopes very gently up to 2 m depth. In of change of seafloor is uniform throughout
between 2 and 3 m depths, there is a vast plain the study period. Thus, we conclude from this
seafloor extending 3.80 km from north to south result and discussion that tectonic movement
and 23.3 km from east to west. Along this plain, coupled with anthropogenic activities (like
there are low elevated chains of islands (9 140 2800 coral mining) play a crucial role in regulating
N–79 100 2800 E and 9 130 2800 N–79 140 1600 E), the anatomy, physiology and morphology of
namely, Pumurichan, Kovi, Kursadi and Shingle seafloor.
Islands. Around these islands, the seafloor is
encountered at a depth of 0.5 m and extends to
an average distance of 0.49 km towards north,
1 km towards south, 0.19 km towards east and References
0.27 km towards west. In the north of these
Adams, N. L. (2001). UV radiation evokes negative pho-
islands, the seafloor slope is steep (till a depth
totaxis and covering behavior in the sea urchin
of 1 m), whereas it is very gentle in the south (till Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. Marine Ecology
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periodicity of sub-Antarctic copepods: Relationships
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between vertical migration, gut fullness and gut evac-
In the area between Dhanushkodi and Kundugal, uation rate. Journal of Plankton Research, 18,
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Estuarine Ecosystem: An Overview
2
Contents Estuaries are unique spots on our planet, which are

2.1 Definition and Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . 21 situated and sandwiched between the continents
and the seas. Penetrated by the sea through the
2.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
recurring tides and flushed by the freshwater
Annexure 2A: Blending Mangroves outflows of the lotic system, an estuary is a
and Livelihood: A March Towards
dynamic system where the freshwater meets sea-
a New Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
water. Blessed by the fertile flows of both the seas
Annexure 2B: Mangrove Vegetation: A Natural and the rivers; these fascinating biotopes are by far
Source of Antioxidant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
the most productive ecosystem on our planet; the
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 abode of unique species of plants and animals; the
cradle of several species of finfish; the nursery of
commercially important shellfish; the reservoir of
food, chemicals, mineral, oils and natural gas; and
the ideal spots for tourism and aquaculture.
2.1 Definition and Ecosystem

Services
An estuary may be defined as the zone of intersec-

tion of fresh and marine waters with unique
physico-chemical and biological characteristics.
Estuaries generally occupy those areas of the
coasts, which are least subject to marine features/
activities and wave actions and thus are major
sites for development of harbours, recreational
activities and aquacultural farms. In estuaries,
freshwater collected over vast regions of the land
pours into the ocean, which sends saltwater
upstream far beyond the river-mouth. According
to Odum (1971), estuaries belong to different class
of ‘fluctuating water level ecosystems’.

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_2
22 2 Estuarine Ecosystem: An Overview
Each estuary has its own physical features that Several definitions have been forwarded to
influence its ecology. These features primarily depict the features of estuarine compartment,
encompass the amount of river discharge, depth some of which are highlighted here.
and general topography, specific circulation pat- According to Cameron and Pritchard (1963), ‘an
tern, climatic regime and vertical tide range. estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water
Although the physico-chemical condition in which has a free connection with the open sea and
estuaries is extremely stressful (particularly in within which seawater is measurably diluted with
terms of salinity and turbidity), yet the food freshwater derived from land drainage’.
availability is so favourable that the ecosystem Pritchard (1967) stated estuary as ‘a semi-
is packed with life. Organisms living in this enclosed coastal body of water, which has a
habitat exhibit wide range of tolerances due to free connection with the open sea; it is thus
tidal and seasonal variations of hydrological strongly affected by tidal action and within it
parameters (i.e. they are mainly euryhaline). seawater is mixed with freshwater from land
Estuaries rank first among the most productive drainage’.
regions of marine ecosystems as they typically Perillo (1995) defined estuary as ‘a semi-
contain diverse group and high biomass of ben- enclosed coastal body of water that extends to
thic algae, seagrasses, salt marsh grasses and the effective limit of tidal influence, within
phytoplankton that support large number of which seawater entering from one or more free
fishes and birds. This is mainly because estuaries connections with the open sea or any other saline
are enriched by nutrients that are contributed coastal bodies of water is significantly diluted
through land drainage. Also rivers contribute with freshwater derived from land drainage and
substantial load of nutrients in the estuarine sys- can sustain euryhaline biological species, either a
tem. The estuarine system possesses consider- part or whole of their life cycle’.
able nutrient retention capacity due to which the Estuaries described by these definitions do not
flora and fauna thriving within such system never include the narrowness of the system, neither
faces the scarcity of nutrients. these definitions address the situation where
The astronomical tide at the estuarine mouth evaporation exceeds the freshwater supply from
determines the nature of flow in an estuary near rivers and from local rain. Considering all these
its mouth. The tide along the coast of India is gaps, in recent times estuary has been defined as
mixed, i.e. it consists of a mixture of oscillations ‘a narrow semi-enclosed coastal body of water
with a period of about 12.5 h (semidiurnal oscil- which has a free connection with the open sea at
lation) and with a period of about a day (diurnal least intermittently and within which salinity of
oscillation). The range is particularly high in the water is measurably different from the salin-
gulfs such as the Gulf of Kutch or the Gulf of ity in the open ocean’ (www.es.flinders.edu.au/
Khambhat or a funnel-shaped estuary like the ~mattom/ShelfCoast/chapterl1.html).
Hooghly estuary of West Bengal, all of which In an estuarine system, salinity and other
get narrower away from their sea end (Fig. 2.1). hydrological parameters are controlled by the
Estuaries provide unique ecosystem services. tidal action. It is observed that exactly in the
Only a few types of fish species leave perma- same location (that can be fixed by GPS), an
nently in an estuary, but many species develop environmental variable alters significantly with
there; thus, both larval and juvenile fishes are the change in tidal phase. A case study on the
present in large numbers. It has been estimated effect of tidal influence on major hydrological
that well over half of all marine fishes develop in parameters is presented Chap. 3 of this book.
the protective environment of an estuary, and The time required for an estuary to exchange
because of this reason estuaries are often referred its water with the ocean is its flushing time. If the
to as the nurseries of the sea. Apart from com- net circulation is fast and the total volume of an
mercially important finfish species, shellfishes estuary is small, flushing is rapid. A rapidly
like shrimps, molluscs and crabs also use the flushing estuary has a high carrying capacity for
estuary as their nursery ground (Fig. 2.2). wastes, because the dissolved or suspended
2.1 Definition and Ecosystem Services 23
Fig. 2.1 Hooghly estuary with funnel-shaped mouth and gradually becomes narrower towards upstream
wastes are moved quickly out to sea and diluted. estuarine systems that are derived from the adja-
The flushing time has great relevance in cent landmasses or aquacultural units. The
maintaining the aquatic health of an estuary. If flushing time of estuaries is determined by divid-
the flushing time is slow, there is high probability ing their volume by the rate of net seaward flow.
of accumulation of waste materials in the Understanding the circulation and flushing time
Fig. 2.2 Estuaries are breeding grounds for finfish and shellfish species
of the estuarine system is, therefore, extremely of conservative pollutants have immense
important for managing and accelerating the eco- economic and ecological importance.
system services of the system. 3. Estuaries are the sites for recycling of
nutrients where microbes are the key players.
4. Estuaries offer sustainable fisheries to the
2.1.1 Ecosystem Services local population.
5. The mangroves of estuaries provide timber,
Estuaries are noted for taxonomic diversity of fuel, wax, honey to the island dwellers and
species, biological productivity and unique aes- local people of the fringe villages (Table 2.1).
thetic value. The water, sediment and biotic 6. Estuaries serve as the migratory route for the
communities of the estuaries offer several eco- anadromous and catadromous fishes, and
system services that provide both direct and indi- because of such migration, the breeding and
rect benefits to run the wheel of human life cycles of the fishes are completed.
civilization. Few common ecosystem services 7. Estuaries are the home ground for a variety of
are highlighted here: migratory birds and endangered species that
can serve as the foundation of ecotourism in
1. Estuaries are the breeding and nursery real sense. The intertidal mudflats, the aquatic
grounds of several species of finfish and system and floral communities of the
shellfish, which are commercially important estuaries may attract the tourist with gorgeous
and are also included in the export basket of and eye catching array of herons, pelicans,
the nation. The estuaries of Sundarbans, for storks, eagles, ospreys, plovers, gulls,
example, are the survival ground for several sandpipers and kingfishers. About 95 varieties
species of finfish, shrimps and crabs that add of migratory birds come all the way in the
foreign currency to the country economy. estuaries of India from the Caspian Sea in
2. Estuaries sustain mangroves, seagrasses, salt Russia and the northern parts of the Himala-
marsh grasses and seaweeds, which often yan ranges. The Sundarban estuaries are the
serve as agents of bioremediation. Reports home ground of Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera
of heavy metal accumulation by tigris tigris), which can swim across the
macrophytes of estuaries are plenty (Mitra estuary over a distance of 15 km.
et al. 1994; Trivedi et al. 1994), which show 8. The aquatic system of the estuary is exten-
the adaptive capability of estuarine flora to sively used for aquaculture, although in
thrive in contaminated media (both water many cases the adverse impacts of shrimp
and sediment). Such biological treatments culture have been identified (Mitra 1998).
Table 2.1 Traditional uses of mangrove species

Mangrove species Use
Aegiceras Bark used as fish poison; also contains tannin
corniculatum
Avicennia alba Used for fodder and fuel
Avicennia officinalis Used for firewood; bark contains tannin
Bruguiera Wood used for firewood and timber; bark used as tannin
caryophylloides
Bruguiera Wood used for house posts; excellent fuel; bark contains tannin
gymnorrhiza
B. parviflora Timber used as fuel; leaves and bark contain tannin
B. sexangula Timber used in house building
Ceriops tagal Used for keels of boats and house posts. Provides good fuel charcoal. Bark rich in tannin used
for dyeing fishing nets
Rhizophora Bark used for tannin and cattle fodder
mucronata
Sonneratia apetala Wood used in house building, packing cases and yields excellent fuel
Xylocarpus Yields gum, resin which is used in local medicine; bark contains tannin
granatum
9. Estuaries are treated as the final receptacle of twice the size of yeast. This quality has
all wastes. Deterioration of the water quality brought the seaweeds in serving many
and commercially important fauna has been industries such as food, animal feed,
reported from many estuaries of the world. cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and biofuels.
10. The biotic communities of the estuarine sys- 12. Flora and fauna of the estuaries are today
tem (particularly the mangroves, salt marsh used as sources of bioactive substances,
grass, seaweeds, etc.) and the underlying soil which have immense importance in the phar-
act as the store house of carbon. This ecosys- maceutical industries. Examples of CAL
tem service is of great relevance in context to (Carcinoscorpius amoebocyte lysate) and
carbon dioxide rise and subsequent climate TAL (Tachypleus amoebocyte lysate) are
change. A study conducted by the present very relevant in this context. They are
authors in 24 stations of Indian Sundarbans derived from the blue blood of horseshoe
(Fig. 2.3) exhibits considerable percentage crabs (Carcinoscorpius rotundifolia and
of soil organic carbon in the intertidal Tachypleus gigas) found abundantly in the
mudflats ranging from 0.66 % to 1.41 % estuaries of West Bengal and Odisha, which
(Fig. 2.4). are two maritime states in the North-east
11. The salt marsh grass found abundantly in the coast of the Indian subcontinent. CAL and
intertidal mudflats of estuaries is used for TAL are used for bacterial endotoxin test.
fish feed preparation (Vide Annexure 2A 13. Estuarine fishes are the sources of omega-3
for detailed experimental approach). fatty acids, which are good for the heart. Cor-
Research findings also reveal that fish feed onary heart disease occurs due to atherosclero-
incorporated with estuarine seaweed has sis and thrombosis. Atherosclerosis is initiated
resulted in improved performance, better by endothelial damage that may result from
feed efficiency, better pellet stability and stress-related events and may finally lead to
improved animal (fish) product quality, thrombosis and arrhythmia, the main cause of
which may be attributed to the enormous sudden death. The omega-3 fatty acid
genetic potential of these lower group of synthesizes with the help of enzymes,
plants with a genome that is more than eicosanoids. The antithrombotic effect of
Fig. 2.3 Stations in Indian Sundarbans selected for organic carbon study
omega-3 fatty acid is due to these eicosanoids, 14. Several medicinal plants widely distributed in
which inhibit platelet aggregation, vasocon- the coastal and estuarine regions were tested
striction and adhesion, and induces vasodila- for antiviral, antifungal and mosquito larvicidal
tion. Omega-3 fatty acid is also good for activities. In the Parangipettai coast of India
diabetic patients as it improves insulin resis- (Southeast coast), 113 medicinal plants have
tance syndrome that leads to heart disease. It is been recorded. Out of 36 plants, 3 plants
also reported to be good for arthritis. showed high anti-HIV activity. The anti-HIV
Fig. 2.4 Percentage of organic carbon in the intertidal mudflats of Indian Sundarbans
activity of coastal population was also tested in against one or more bacteria. Twenty-five
comparison with their terrestrial counterparts. plants were screened for antifungal activity
In general, coastal populations exhibited better against six fungi. All the plant extracts exam-
anti-HIV activity than terrestrial ones. 23 plants ined showed activity against one or more fungi.
were screened for antibacterial activity against Two plant species exhibited high antifungal
13 human pathogenic bacterial strains, of activity. In general, the coastal samples showed
which 23 extracts showed antibacterial activity higher activity than terrestrial ones. Eleven
plants were tested for mosquito larvicidal the forest for collecting their daily needs. The
activity against two mosquito species, namely, principal local folk deities are Dakshin Rai,
Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti, of Kalurai, Badar Sahib, Bakra Gazi, Sona Pir,
which five samples were effective. In addition Sawal Pir, Gazi Saheb and the first Goddess,
to these services, the mangrove flora thriving in Bonbibi (Fig. 2.5). Wood cutters, honey
the coastal and estuarine region are rich sources collectors and fishermen worship Dakshin
of antioxidants (readers are advised to consult Rai, Narayani Ma, Bonbibi, Gazi Saheb,
Annexure 2B for detailed information. Kalu Rai, Barkhan Gazi and Sa Janguli. In
15. The estuarine ecosystem and surrounding addition, the Goddess Manasa is worshipped
island villages are unique sites of cultural with the belief to protect the people from ven-
and religious convergence unlike the urban omous snakes and Jagatguru from cobras.
areas. This may be attributed to the extreme Makal Thakur and Biswalakshmi are treated
need for livelihood and adverse environmen- as the God and Goddess of fish respectively.
tal conditions prevailing in the estuarine eco- Manik Pir is worshipped for the welfare of
system that often break the barrier of caste cows and Olabibi for protection against chol-
and religion among the people. A relevant era. For protection of the embankments,
example in this context is the religious and people refer to Ganga as the supreme Goddess.
cultural canvas of Indian Sundarbans. In this
mangrove-dominated deltaic complex, peo- Historically, people have depended on bays,
ple of both religions—Islam and Hinduism— estuaries and coastal regions for their living
worship the same deities before entering into requirements; this has resulted in the
Fig. 2.5 Bonbibi: ‘the

Goddess of forest’
worshipped by the local
people of Indian
Sundarbans irrespective of
religion and caste
2.2 Classification 29
establishment of major population centres along book entries maintained in the ecotourism
the shores of estuaries and coastal seas. In the camps, hotels, resorts, sanctuaries, eco parks or
United States today, over one-half of the popula- reserve forest. The charges for visiting and stay-
tion lives within 80 km (50 mi) of the coasts ing in the heart of Indian Sundarbans are
(including the Great Lakes). This population, highlighted in Fig. 2.6 and Table 2.3.
with its necessary industries, energy-generating Certain ecosystem services are extremely dif-
facilities, recreational activities and waste- ficult to measure as, for example, the pollution
treatment plants, has created a significant nega- control, erosion control and flood control poten-
tive impact on the coastal and estuarine zones. tial of an estuarine system or the oxygen genera-
The ecosystem services of the estuaries are tion and carbon dioxide sequestration by the
presently under threat due to rapid industrializa- estuarine microphytes and macrophytes, etc.
tion, urbanization and unplanned tourism. Added The mangroves of estuarine system, for example,
to the uncontrolled fishing and extraction of nat- are noted for erosion control and combat sea
ural resources, estuaries and brackish waters are level rise (Fig. 2.7). In such cases ‘shadow
subjected to constant changes in their physico- value’ must be estimated in order to ‘price’ the
chemical condition due to various anthropogenic produced services.
activities. The widespread reclamation of water It is also difficult to measure the option values
areas, construction of barrages and other saltwa- and non-use values of the estuary as they are not
ter extraction structure, dredging and aquatic reflected as physical commodities or in any form
pollution, etc., cause substantial negative impact of observable/measurable items. These values
on the positive health of the estuaries. Days are are estimated by using surveys that ask people a
not too far when the ecosystem services of the series of questions about their willingness to pay
estuaries will be greatly squeezed. for ecosystem services they do not use
In general, the total economic valuation of an (Table 2.4).
estuarine system can be calculated as the sum of
four components. These are (direct) use value,
indirect use value, option value and non-use 2.2 Classification
value (Table 2.2).
For monetary valuation, many of these In standard text books on oceanography, four
components are easier to measure, as, for exam- basic types of estuaries are described (Table 2.5).
ple, use values are easy to measure because they Pritchard (1967) classified estuaries on the
are observable quantities of products consumed basis of the following four characteristics. They
as well as their standard market prices can be are (a) salinity, (b) geomorphology, (c) water
utilized to determine the economic value. Recre- circulation and stratification and (d) systems
ational use can also be measured from the log energetics.
Table 2.2 Components of economic valuation of an estuarine ecosystem

Type Description Example
Direct Resources that provide direct benefits to the Fishery resources, irrigation facilities,
use value stakeholders aquaculture activities, existing tourism units, etc.
Indirect Users get indirect benefits and often some distance Pollution filtering capacity of estuarine system,
use value away from where they originate flood control, etc.
Option Users may be willing to pay for acquiring benefits May be a future source of drinking water or
value from estuarine resources in future introduction of mangrove tourism
Non-use Users may be willing to pay for conservation of Preservation or protection of endangered species
value resources, which will never be used directly arising out of a sense of environmental
stewardship that is unrelated to the indirect and
direct uses in the current or in the future
Fig. 2.6 Price for visiting and staying in a forest camp in the heart of Indian Sundarbans
Table 2.3 Approximate Items Price ($)

price (in $) for travelling
Staying charge per head per day 1
and staying in the heart of
Indian Sundarbans Air condition launch (per day) 33.34
General launch (per day) 10
Boat 5.83
Still camera Free
Video camera 3.33
Cinema, documentary (per day) 250
Ethnic cottage 20
Round cottage (per day) 16.67
Govt. employee on duty (excluding forest department staffs) (per day) 6.67
Dormitory (of 10 beds) 2.5
Educational trip per student (per day) 0.17
Children under 5 years Free
Note: Conversion to $ has been done on the rate of $1 ¼ INR.60.00
I. On the basis of salinity, estuaries can be ultimately becomes uniformly saline.

grouped into the following types: Such estuaries are common where
(a) Oligohaline: In this type of estuary, the small rivers meet the seas, e.g. Haldi
freshwater mixes with the saline water River of West Bengal (India).
in such proportion that the water
Fig. 2.7 Mangroves are potential controlling agents of erosion
Table 2.4 Economic valuation methods for water

Water service
Method Approach appropriate for method Data needs Limitations
Contingent Ask people All use values and Survey with scenario Potential biases due to
valuation directly their non-use value description and hypothetical nature of
method willingness to (e.g. drinking water, questions about WTP scenarios
pay (WTP) fishing, protecting for specific services
species)
Travel cost Estimate demand Recreation: boating, Survey on Only captures
method curve from data fishing, swimming expenditures of time recreational benefits;
on travel and money to travel to difficult to apply for
expenditures specific sites multiple destination trips
Hedonic Identify Water quality, wetland Property values and Requires extensive
property contribution of services characteristics information about
value environmental including ecosystem services of
method quality to land environmental quality hundreds of specific sites
values
Change in Assess impact of Commercial fisheries, Impact of change in Information on
productivity change in water agricultural uses water service on biological impacts of
method service on production; net values changes in ecosystem
produced goods of produced goods services often
unavailable
Source: Pagiola et al. (2004)
Table 2.5 Types of estuaries and its characteristics

Name Figure Description
Salt- The high flow rate of the river holds back the
wedge lesser flow of saltwater. The saltwater is drawn
estuary Fresh upwards into the fast-moving river flow
Water
Salt
Water
Well- Strong tidal currents distribute and mix the

mixed seawater throughout the shallow estuary. The net
estuary Fresh flow is weak and seawards at all depths
Salt Water
Water
Partially Seawater enters below the mixed water that is

Fresh
mixed flowing seawards at the surface. Seaward surface
Water
estuary net flow is larger than river flow alone
Salt
Water
Fjord- Fresh River water flows seawards over the surface of

type Water the deeper seawater and gains salt slowly. The
estuary deeper layers may become stagnant due to the
Salt
slow inflow rate of saltwater
Water
Fig. 2.8 Location of sector-wise sampling stations in Indian Sundarbans; the red colour indicates the mangrove
vegetation
(b) Mesohaline: It is that type of estuary description of the data (and methods) at
where the estuarine water has medium different times over the past three
salinity due to proportional mixing of decades (Mitra et al. 1987, 1992,
the fresh and saline water, 2009; Chakraborty and Choudhury
e.g. Mahanadi river of Odisha (in the 1985; Mitra and Choudhury 1994;
East coast of India). Saha et al. 1999; Banerjee et al. 2002,
(c) Polyhaline: In this type of estuary, 2003, 2013; Mondal et al. 2006;
there are areas where there is distinct Sengupta et al. 2013). Real-time data
variation of salinity owing to the varia- (through field sampling by the authors)
tion in tidal water intrusion into the were also collected simultaneously
river-mouth, e.g. estuaries adjacent to since 1998 from 18 sampling stations
the Bay of Bengal and the Indian (Table 2.6) in the lower Gangetic
Sundarbans. The estuarine complex in region during high tide condition to
this mangrove-dominated deltaic com- assure quality and continuity to the
plex can be subdivided into three data bank. For each observational sta-
sectors, namely, western, central and tion, at least 30 samples were collected
eastern sectors (Fig. 2.8), each with dif- within 500 m of each other, and the
ferent signatures of salinity mean value of 30 observations was con-
(Fig. 2.9a–c). More than two decades sidered for statistical interpretations.
of data (1984–2013) were compiled In the western sector, the salinity
from the archives of the Department decrease ranged from 0.58 psu/year
of Marine Science, University of (at Jambu Island) to 1.46 psu/year
Calcutta, for this study. A number of (at Harinbari) (Fig. 2.9a). Considering
studies on different aspects of the all the six stations in the western sector,
Sundarban complex have been the decadal decrease of salinity is
published over the years, which include 7.50 psu/decade. In the western sector,
34
a 24
22
25
20
20
18
15
16
Water salinity
10
14
5
2013
12 2012
2010
2008
2006 88*17'39.77"XX1*42'44.89"
2004
2002 88*04'10.83"XX1*44'22.16"
2000
10 1998 88*21'23.93"XX1*38'05.04"
1996
1994
1992 88*1029.25"XX1*35'22.55"
1990
1998 88*22'59.30"XX1*40'27.78"
1986
1984 88*09'46.64"XX1*38'54.86"
Fig. 2.9 (a) Surface water salinity in six stations of western Indian Sundarbans. (b) Surface water salinity in six stations of central Indian Sundarbans. (c) Surface water
salinity in six stations of eastern Indian Sundarbans
2 Estuarine Ecosystem: An Overview
2.2
Classification
b
28
30
27
28
26
26
25 24
Water salinity
24 22
20
23 2013
2012
2010
2008
2006 88*51'01.43"XX1*01'12.92"
2004
2002 88*44'01.30"XX1*54'07.00"
22 2000
1998 88*46'43.52"XX1*43'37.53"
1996
19941992 88*34'33.58'XX1*41'22.09"
1990
1998 88*34'55.85"XX1*47'12.88"
1986
1984 88*31'53.16"XX1*49'36.45"
Fig. 2.9 (continued)

35
36
c
17
18
16
16
15
14
Water salinity
14
12
13
10
2013
2012
2010
2008
2006 89*00'50.92"XX1*51'31.73"
12 2004
2002 88*57'26.52"XX1*53'05.91"
2000
1998 89*01'03.12"XX2*03'09.52"
1996
1994
1992 88*59'05.32'XX1*59'17.79"
1990
1998 88*56'04.13"XX2*10'20.55"
1986
1984 89*00'03.15"XX2*12'07.44"

2 Estuarine Ecosystem: An Overview
Table 2.6 Sampling stations in the western, central and eastern sectors of Indian Sundarbans in the lower Gangetic
delta region
Sectors Sampling station Latitude Longitude
Western sector Stn. 1 Chemaguri (W1) 21 380 25.8600 N 88 080 53.5500 E
Stn. 2 Saptamukhi (W2) 21 400 02.3300 N 88 230 27.1800 E
Stn. 3 Jambu Island (W3) 21 350 42.0300 N 88 100 22.7600 E
Stn. 4 Lothian (W4) 21 380 21.2000 N 88 200 29.3200 E
Stn. 5 Harinbari (W5) 21 440 22.5500 N 88 040 32.9700 E
Stn. 6 Prentice Island (W6) 21 420 47.8800 N 88 170 55.0500 E
Central sector Stn. 7 Thakuran Char (C1) 21 490 53.1700 N 88 310 25.5700 E
Stn. 8 Dhulibasani (C2) 21 470 06.6200 N 88 330 48.2000 E
Stn. 9 Chulkathi (C3) 21 410 53.6200 N 88 340 10.3100 E
Stn. 10 Goashaba (C4) 21 430 50.6400 N 88 460 41.4400 E
Stn. 11 Matla (C5) 21 530 15.3000 N 88 440 08.7400 E
Stn. 12 Pirkhali (C6) 22 060 00.9700 N 88 510 06.0400 E
Eastern sector Stn. 13 Arbesi (E1) 22 110 43.1400 N 89 010 09.0400 E
Stn. 14 Jhilla (E2) 22 090 51.5300 N 88 570 57.0700 E
Stn. 15 Harinbhanga (E3) 21 570 17.8500 N 88 590 33.2400 E
Stn. 16 Khatuajhuri (E4) 22 030 06.5500 N 89 010 05.3300 E
Stn. 17 Chamta (E5) 21 530 18.5600 N 88 570 11.4000 E
Stn. 18 Chandkhali (E6) 21 510 13.5900 N 89 000 44.6800 E
the salinity intrusion is confined to 70 km from 0.54 psu/year (in Chamta) to

from the mouth even during the dry sea- 0.98 psu/year (in Jhilla). The average
son. The tidal variation at the mouth is decadal decrease of the salinity in this
from 6.1 m at springs to 0.22 m at neaps. sector is 10.28 psu.
The freshwater discharge ranges from a II. On the basis of geomorphology, estuaries
peak value of 4250 m3 s1 to almost zero are of the following types:
in the dry season. The average values of (a) Drowned river valleys: The coastlines
freshwater discharge are 3000 m3 s1 with relatively low and extensively
during SW monsoon season (June–- wide coastal plains, e.g. Chesapeake
September) and 1000 m3 s1 during a Bay on the mid-Atlantic coast of the
dry season (November–May). Normally, United States.
the freshwater discharges are regulated (b) Fjord-type estuaries: The deep
from Farakka barrage to maintain water U-shaped indentures due to glacial ero-
levels at Calcutta (Biswas 1985; sion with a shallow sill at their mouth
Sadhuram et al. 2005). formed by terminal glacial deposits,
The central sector presents a e.g. Norway, British Columbia and
completely reverse picture in terms of Alaska.
aquatic salinity. Irrespective of stations, (c) Bar-built estuaries: These are shallow
salinity has increased (Fig. 2.9b) between basins often partly exposed at low tide
the range 1.05 psu/year (in Chulkathi) enclosed by a chain of offshore bars or
and 1.12 psu/year (in Matla and Pirkhali). barrier islands, broken at intervals by
The average decadal increase of salinity inlets. These bars are sometimes depos-
is 13.04 psu/decade. ited offshore or are remnants of former
In the eastern sector, salinity has coastal dunes, e.g. North Carolina and
decreased (Fig. 2.9c) which ranges Georgia.
(d) Estuaries produced by tectonic pro- (a) Physically stressed systems of wide
cesses: Geological faulting or local latitudinal range: These include
subsidence results in the formation of mainly the high energy breaking
coastal indented structures, e.g. San waves, strong tidal currents, severe
Francisco Bay. temperature and salinity shocks, low
III. On the basis of water circulation and dissolved oxygen level during night or
stratification: high rate of sedimentation. Due to
(a) Highly stratified or ‘salt-wedge’ severe environmental stress in this sys-
estuary: When the freshwater dis- tem, few species (opportunistic species)
charge from the rivers dominate over are able to thrive in this fluctuating
the tidal action, the freshwater tends to condition. It is because of this fact
overflow the heavier saltwater which such systems exhibit extremely poor
forms a ‘wedge’ extending along the species diversity. The index of domi-
bottom for a considerable distance nance is high in these systems owing to
upstream. This flow of freshwater is the ability of fewer numbers of species
again governed by the Coriolis force, to cope with adverse environmental
which forces the freshwater to move conditions. However, in areas of inter-
strongly along the right shore (if the tidal zone, sharp zonation of species
observer faces the sea in the Northern and seasonal replacement of
Hemisphere and vice versa in the communities is very distinct because
Southern Hemisphere). Such adaptation is more efficiently accom-
‘stratified’ or ‘bilayered’ estuary will plished by species replacement along a
exhibit a salinity profile with a ‘halo- gradient than by adaptation within the
cline’ or zone of sharp change in salin- species. Rocky sea fronts, intertidal
ity from top to bottom, e.g. Mississippi rocks, sand beaches, high velocity
River. tidal channels, sedimentary deltas and
(b) Partially mixed or moderately hypersaline lagoons are included in this
stratified estuary: When the freshwa- category.
ter and the tidal water mix in equal (b) Natural arctic ecosystems with ice
proportion due to turbulence caused stress: Extreme cold conditions
by periodicity of waves, such estuary (in Arctic and Antarctic coasts) exert
is formed. Due to this, the energy is considerable stress on the intertidal
dissipated in vertical mixing, thus cre- zones of the areas in which light is
ating a complex pattern of layers and limiting due to very short summer sea-
water masses, e.g. Chesapeake Bay. son. Productivity is extremely low in
(c) Completely mixed or vertically these systems due to poor diversity of
homogenous estuary: When the tidal phytoplankton. In most of the times of
action is more than the freshwater dis- the year, the phytoplankton species
charge, the water tends to mix well remain in encysted condition to get rid
from top to bottom and the salinity is of the chilled water.
relatively high. When there is wide (c) Natural temperate coastal
variation in salinity and temperature, ecosystems with seasonal program-
then horizontal estuaries are formed, ming and reproduction: Seasonal
e.g. bar-built estuaries. changes in primary productivity of the
IV. On the basis of systems energetics: H. T. ocean and the behaviour of animals are
Odum (1971) have described estuaries on the the common characteristics in estuarine
basis of systems energetics as stated here: biology. The more subdued tides,
waves and currents in the semi- microbial load, type of estuary and cli-
enclosed basins provide energy matic zone. Materials such as treated
subsidies rather than stresses in com- sewage and pulp mill wastes, seafood
parison to deeper sounds and offshore and other food processing wastes,
waters which often get charged with petroleum wastes and dredging spoil
nutrients and organic matter from fer- can be decomposed and dispersed
tile shallow zones. Temperate estuaries, provided that (i) the system is not
though very fertile, are vulnerable to stressed by poison (insecticides, acids,
damages caused by pollution, dredging, etc.) and that (ii) the rate of input is
filling and diking. Some important controlled at low to moderate levels
features of the temperate estuaries and not subjected to sudden shocks pro-
include tide pools, salt marshes, eel- duced by periodic massive dumping. Of
grass (Zostera sp.) beds, seaweed all the man-made changes, impounding
bottoms, kelp beds, oyster reefs and estuarine water has perhaps the greatest
mudflats, which harbour dense popula- effect. It must be recognized that
tion of clams and sea worms. impounded waters are a completely dif-
(d) Natural tropical coastal ecosystems ferent type of ecosystem that have
of high diversity: These systems are nearly no natural capacity for waste
characterized by minimum environ- treatment. In countries like India and
mental stress, and therefore negligible Bangladesh, huge numbers of
energy is spent by the species for adap- impounded waterbodies have been cre-
tive modifications. Due to congenial ated to promote shrimp or tiger prawn
environment, the species diversity is (Penaeus monodon) culture in the
very high in these systems. Examples coastal areas, due to which the ecology
of such systems are mangroves, and environment of the surrounding
seagrass meadows, salt marsh grass areas have been greatly damaged. The
and seaweed community and coral rate of reclamation of marshes and par-
reefs in shallow-water zones. These ticularly mangrove swamps has
biotic forms contribute nutrients due accelerated in recent years in some
to which a wide spectrum of planktonic parts of the tropics due to the rapid
diversity exists in this system. The fish- expansion of pond farming of shrimps
ery potential is extremely high, and for export (Fig. 2.10). About 50 % of
hence the modern trend of monoculture the mangrove forests in the Philippines
(e.g. culture of Penaeus monodon) is have been developed into
perhaps a wrong choice in this system. brackishwater fish ponds (Saclauso
These productive systems with varied 1989). The area converted in Thailand
ecological niches are suitable for is estimated to be about 27 % and in
polyculture practice. Ecuador about 13–14 %. Such large-
(e) Emerging new systems associated scale conversions have aroused consid-
with man: In modern societies, erable environmental concern among
estuaries are treated as the ultimate the public and development agencies.
sink of different categories of waste. Tabuchi (2003) estimated that on a
Estuaries have varying capacities to global scale, the area under mangroves
handle ‘degradable’ material is shrinking by 100,000 ha annually due
depending on the size of the system, to clear cutting of timber and conver-
flow patterns, hydrological parameters, sion into aquaculture projects.
Fig. 2.10 Shrimp culture ponds in mangrove patches: a Chaudhuri (Environmentalist and a researcher of Techno
common scene in tropical mangrove ecosystem (Photo- India University, Kolkata))
graph taken on 04.12.2013 by Mr. Tanmay Ray
In many countries, the coastal area is exploited growth of coastal vegetation. High salinity
for procuring salt from the seawater. About 30 % reduces the growth of mangroves and even results
of the world’s supply of salt comes from seawater. in complete extinction of certain species like
In order to keep the cost of production low, natural Heritiera fomes.
evaporation is used for extracting salt from the The marshy areas and mangrove patches are
seawater. In the south of France, Puerto Rico, also destroyed in few areas of lower Gangetic
central California, the Bahamas, Hawaii and the delta through development of brick kilns
Netherland Antilles, sea salt is extracted and (Fig. 2.12). The soil excavated for developing
reined to produce table salt. The process begins shrimp farms are used to manufacture bricks,
by allowing seawater to enter shallow ponds. which is a spin-off product of shrimp industry.
Evaporation of the water produces a concentrated The construction of brick kilns in swampy areas
salt solution to which more seawater is added. not only adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
Finally, the water is allowed to totally evaporate, (a local level effect) but also clears the vegetation
leaving a thick salt layer behind, which can be and modify the marsh soil, which otherwise are
processed commercially. In the Indian subconti- rich reservoir of carbon.
nent, salt pans (Fig. 2.11) are developed in man- Estuaries may also be classified as tide-
grove patches located along the coastlines of dominated and wave-dominated (Fig. 2.13)
maritime states which cause vertical and horizon- estuary on the basis of several important (posi-
tal migration of salts in the adjacent areas. This tive and negative) hydrological processes
has profound negative impact on the survival and (Table 2.7).
Fig. 2.11 Coastal waters stocked in shallow ponds for procuring salt through evaporation (Photograph taken on
04.12.2013 by Ms. Ankita Mitra (Environmentalist, Asutosh College, Kolkata))
Fig. 2.12 Brick kiln in the marshy land near estuary in the lower Gangetic delta region (Photograph taken on
04.12.2013 by Mr. Tanmay Ray Chaudhuri (Environmentalist and a researcher of Techno India University, Kolkata))
Fig. 2.13 Wave and tide-

dominated estuary A: WAVE-DOMINATED ESTUARY
BARRIER
BAY-HEAD
DELTA
CENTRAL
BAXXN TXXAL
LMT
B: TIDE-DOMINATED ESTUARY
TXXAL
LMT
TXXAL SAND BAR
SALT MARSH
Annexure 2A: Blending Mangroves

Brain Churners and Livelihood: A March Towards
1. Why are the tidal amplitude and range a New Dimension
higher in a funnel-shaped estuary?
2. How is flushing time important in The phenomenon of climate change was triggered
maintaining the health of the estuary? since the dawn of human civilization, but it took
3. What is the source of soil organic car- an extraordinary long period to reveal this naked,
bon in the intertidal mudflats of man- but uncertain truth that anthropogenic factors are
grove forests? the raw materials for changing the climate of the
4. How can the estuarine resources be planet Earth. The Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
linked with pharmaceutical industries? mate Change (IPCC) stated the fact with high
5. Why is religious convergence observed confidence in their report of 2007. And this real
in highly stressful environmental but indigestible issue has converged two US pres-
condition? idential candidates of opposite polarity into one
6. Will you consider CAL and TAL in the principal focus. Obama says that the United States
domain of direct use value of estuarine is responsible for leaving the planet in better shape
resources? for future generations, while Clinton points
7. How the ecosystem services of the estu- towards moral issue in context to global warming.
ary may be hampered? She thinks to replace the Kyoto Protocol, which is
8. How are estuaries affected by climate set to expire in 2012. The heat of these statements
change and subsequent sea level rise? hardly reaches the poor villagers of Amalamethi,
9. Why is productivity extremely low in or Kalidaspur, which are located in the remotest
Arctic and Antarctic coasts? corner of this planet at the apex of Bay of Bengal.
10. Can the estuarine system be considered The places in the deltaic complex of Indian
as a store house of carbon? Explain Sundarbans are known for magnificent mangrove
your answer with case studies. vegetation (Fig. 2A.1), tiger habitat (Fig. 2A.2),
man–animal conflict, tiger prawn seed collection
(Fig. 2A.3) and frequent natural calamities due to
Annexure 2A: Blending Mangroves and Livelihood: A March Towards a New Dimension 43
Table 2.7 Comparative study of tide and wave-dominated estuaries

Point Tide-dominated estuary Wave-dominated estuary
Catchment’s Freshwater entering from the catchments is Freshwater enters from the catchments.
input relatively lower. In negative estuaries, the net Although the volume of freshwater input varies
inflow of marine water exceeds the outflow of spatially and temporally (depending on local
catchment-derived (fresh) water. In such cases, catchments and climate conditions), it is often
the hypersaline water is usually exported to the relatively high in positive estuaries
ocean
Freshwater The volume of freshwater entering the estuary is Water circulation in wave-dominated estuaries
input too low to cause significant level of generally ranges from well mixed to salinity-
stratification. High tidal ranges may tend to stratified, depending on the degree of wave
accelerate mixing of any freshwater inputs and mixing, volume of freshwater input and climate.
marine water ‘Positive’ wave-dominated estuaries have lower
salinity water towards their head. The volume of
freshwater causes stratification (or layering) in
the water column, which varies with seasonal
flow. Buoyant low-salinity freshwater floats
above the denser, high-salinity ocean water
Salinity High rates of evaporation cause increases in A ‘salt-wedge’ or intrusion of denser saline
salinity within the estuary. The resulting high- marine water penetrates through the entrance
density hypersaline water sinks beneath the along the bed of the estuary. Some mixing
buoyant marine water which penetrates through occurs at the interface between the fresh and
the estuary mouth and flows out of the estuarine marine water. The distance that the salt-wedge
entrance into the coastal ocean through a process penetrates is dependent on the tidal range and
known as reverse stratification. A large degree the amount of fluvial flow received by the
of mixing occurs between the two layers estuary. During high fluvial flow events (which
may be seasonal), fresh floodwater may push the
saltwater beyond the mouth. However, the large
volume of central basins typical of wave-
dominated estuaries tends to reduce this effect
Evaporation Evaporation is the dominant process in negative While significant evaporation can occur in
tide-dominated estuaries due to arid climatic wave-dominated estuaries characterized by
conditions and the extensive area of shallow positive circulation, evaporation (by definition)
intertidal environments. Aridity and the degree does not exceed the amount of freshwater input
of evaporation may vary seasonally; however by
definition, evaporation in ‘negative’ estuaries is
much larger than freshwater input.
Consequently, negative estuaries tend to have
longer residence times than positive estuaries
Water Exchange of seawater and estuarine water Exchange of ocean water and estuarine water
exchange occurs through the wide entrance of the estuary. occurs through the entrance of the estuary,
Flood and ebb tides may follow different routes although the magnitude of exchange depends on
into and out of the estuary, and the tidal prism the size and length of the entrance channel. In
tends to be large. In negative estuaries, the net positive wave-dominated estuaries, the outflow
inflow of marine water exceeds the outflow of of freshwater exceeds the inflow of marine
freshwater derived from the catchments. In such water. During dry conditions, the entrance of the
cases, the hypersaline water is usually exported estuary may be intermittently closed
to the ocean
cyclonic depressions and equinoxus tides. Nitai or fish feed preparation from mangrove flora. It is
Gayen, a son of the mangrove soil, was a poacher, in this context a study was undertaken at
but after witnessing the repeated disasters due to Kalidaspur village in the eastern part of Indian
tidal surges now thinks to shift to a new livelihood Sundarbans during 2007 to find the role of spe-
pattern. Like Netai, a large fraction of the people cially formulated feed prepared from Porteresia
of these islands are thinking to accept new liveli- coarctata (commonly known as salt marsh grass)
hood schemes like oyster culture, seaweed culture to boost up the growth of freshwater prawn,
Fig. 2A.1 Mangrove-dominated Indian Sundarbans at the apex of Bay of Bengal
Fig. 2A.2 Sundarbans, the home of Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) (Photo credit: Mr. Biswajit Roy
Chowdhury, NEWS)
Annexure 2A: Blending Mangroves and Livelihood: A March Towards a New Dimension 45
Fig. 2A.3 Prawn seed collection by island dwellers: a major threat to the ecosystem
Macrobrachium rosenbergii. This mangrove asso- ecological management. Continuous erosive

ciate species is abundantly available in the actions due to tidal currents and waves along
mudflats of Indian Sundarbans (Fig. 2A.4) and is with changing salinity have aggravated the
noted for its rich protein content. Dried powder of magnitude of threat. The present programme
this floral species was mixed with the prawn feed has immense ecological and economic rele-
as a source of protein. The Department of Marine vance in connection to these issues in the fol-
Science, University of Calcutta, became a partner lowing ways:
to this project in context to technology transfer. A
significant profit was obtained after the final har- • Utilization of only the freshwater system
vest (Fig. 2A.5) through this innovative scientific (ponds, ditches, rainwater harvested canals,
venture, and the beneficiaries witnessed the etc.) and therefore clearance of mangrove
differences in terms of success indicators areas for the culture of Penaeus monodon
(Table 2A.1). (shrimp) may be totally avoided.
The Sundarbans mangrove region is a • Involvement of the local people in three live-
threatened ecosystem due to multitude of factors lihood tiers: preparation of fish feed,
like prolonged over-exploitation of its natural ecofriendly prawn culture practice and nurs-
resources, its use as a sink of anthropogenic ery development of Porteresia coarctata for
wastes, industrial and maritime wastes generated raw material backup to sustain the floral-
in the upstream of the rivers flowing through the based fish feed industry. It is expected that
region, high population pressure around the such involvement will restrict a sizable frac-
region and the resultant shrinkage of the area tion of the people from illegal poaching and
brought about by clearing of forest land for agri- several anti-conservation activities.
culture and tiger prawn culture and lack of proper • Economic upliftment of the local people.
Fig. 2A.4 Salt marsh grass Porteresia coarctata: a natural protein reservoir of deltaic Sundarbans
Fig. 2A.5 Final harvest of freshwater prawn grown with proteins of salt marsh grass
planet earth. The entire mechanism of aerobic

Annexure 2B: Mangrove Vegetation: respiration resulting in the liberation of ATP is
A Natural Source of Antioxidant triggered by oxygen. However, this gaseous life-
line of the planet has an important demerit as it
1. Introduction poses oxidative stress. Oxidative stress has been
defined as a disturbance in the cell or organism
Oxygen is an indispensable molecule for the related to pro-oxidant–antioxidant balance in
growth and survival of aerobic organisms in the favour of the former (Sies 1991). It differs from
Annexure 2B: Mangrove Vegetation: A Natural Source of Antioxidant 47
Table 2A.1 Cost benefit analysis of the project

Pond (area ¼ 500 m2) maintained by Pond (area ¼ 500 m2) maintained by
Items traditional method (control pond) new technology (experimental pond)
Cost Number of seeds 2500 3250
Seed cost (in Rs.) 1000 1300
Feed quantity 336.9 571.35
(in kg)
Feed cost (in Rs.) 13,476.00 14,283.75
Experimental 6000 6000
cost
Labour/ 2000 2000
management cost
Total cost (in Rs.) 25,312.90 27,405.10
Total unit cost 50.63 42.16
(in Rs./m2)
Benefit Production return 104 156
(in kg)
Economic return 36,400 54,600
(at Rs. 350/kg)
Expenditure 25,312.90 27,405.10
(in Rs.)
Total profit/pond 11,087.10 27,194.90
(in Rs.)
Profit/unit area 22.17 41.84
(in Rs./m2)
any other stresses in that its primary effectors, the and the carotenoids are very important biological
reactive oxygen species (ROS), can arise largely antioxidants that have both preventative and
in the course of normal cell metabolism (Marova radical-scavenging roles.
et al. 2005). Oxidative stress is involved in sev- Astaxanthin is a carotenoid. It belongs to a
eral pathological problems, especially in chronic larger class of phytochemicals known as terpenes.
degenerative diseases as diabetes, atherosclero- It is classified as a xanthophyll, which means ‘yel-
sis, cancer, Alzheimer disease, etc. A question low leaves’. Like many carotenoids, it is a
arises on how the organisms get rid of the oxida- colourful, fat-/oil-soluble pigment. Astaxanthin
tive stress. Till date the answer is related to the can be found in microalgae, yeast, salmon, trout,
antioxidant defence mechanism of aerobic krill, shrimp, crayfish, crustaceans and the feathers
organisms. This defence mechanism is provided of some birds. Professor Basil Weedon was the first
by an integrated antioxidant system, which has to map the structures of astaxanthin (Fig. 2B.1).
three distinct components (Scheme 2B.1), each Astaxanthin, unlike some carotenoids, does
equipped to reduce oxidative stress and the resul- not convert to vitamin A (retinol) in the human
tant adverse effects. body. Too much vitamin A is toxic for a human,
Preventative antioxidants suppress the forma- but astaxanthin is not. However, it is a powerful
tion of free radicals. Radical-scavenging antioxidant; it is ten times more capable than
antioxidants, such as the flavonoid compounds other carotenoids, which is due to its pure anti-
and vitamin C, serve to ‘mop up’ excess free oxidant nature, unlike other pigments which have
radicals. Thus, scavenging antioxidants remove pro-oxidant features (Fig. 2B.2).
the ROS once formed, thereby preventing radical In nature, a typical xanthophylls-producing
chain reaction (Marova et al. 2005). Repair unicellular microalgae is Haematococcus
enzymes play an important role in repairing and pluvialis, well known for its massive accumula-
removing ROS-damaged molecules. Vitamin E tion of ketocarotenoids, mainly astaxanthin up to
Scheme 2B.1 Structure

Integrated Antioxidant System
of astaxanthin
Preventive Scavenging Repair

Antioxidants Antioxidants Enzymes
Small molecules
Enzymes like
superoxide
..... Hydrophilic Lipophilic

(glutathione, (tocopherol,
ascorbate, carotenoids
bilirubin etc.)
uric acid,
flavonoids etc.)
O
OH
HO
O
Fig. 2B.1 Astaxanthin structure
Fig. 2B.2 Pro-oxidants

Annexure 2B: Mangrove Vegetation: A Natural Source of Antioxidant 49
4 % of its dry mass and its acyl esters, in response water and oven dried at 110 C overnight. The
to various stress conditions, e.g. nutrient depriva- extraction of astaxanthin was done in organic
tion or high irradiation. Also, the yeast Phaffia solvent as per the standard method and analysed
rhodozyma has been widely used for astaxanthin spectrophotometrically.
production in fed-batch fermentation processes
using low cost materials as substrates
(An et al. 2001; Chociai et al. 2002; Vazquez 3. Results and Discussion
et al. 1998). Because of antioxidative properties
and the increasing amount of astaxanthin needed The astaxanthin level in the selected mangrove
as a supplement in the aquaculture of salmonoids species exhibits significant variations. It is of the
and other seafood, there is growing interest in order Heritiera fomes > Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
finding out the natural reservoir of astaxanthin. > Avicennia alba > Avicennia marina >
The present paper is the outcome of a research Avicennia officinalis > Sonneratia apetala >
endeavour undertaken during March 2007 to Aegiceras corniculatum > Aegialitis
screen the mangrove vegetation for astaxanthin rotundifolia > Ceriops decandra > Rhizophora
at Jharkhali Island in the eastern sector of Indian apiculata (Table 2B.1). The relatively greater
Sundarbans region. This deltaic lobe is situated astaxanthin content in the submerged leaves of
at the apex of the Bay of Bengal and has been mangroves confirms the synthesis of astaxanthin
designated as World Heritage Site for its marvel- content under stressful condition. However, more
lous genetic diversity with respect to mangroves studies are needed to confirm the influence of
and its associated flora and fauna. There are tidal influx and subsequent salinity fluctuation
34 species of true mangroves in the present geo- on astaxanthin level in the mangrove floral
graphical locale with several ecological, pharma- parts. The present data may serve as baseline
ceutical and economic utilities (Mitra and information on the regulatory role of tidal sub-
Banerjee 2005), but the leaves of only ten domi- mergence on astaxanthin level in the estuarine
nant species collected from the Jharkhali island and coastal vegetation. The enhancement of
were selected for the present study. astaxanthin production under stressed condition
of organisms is a matter of interest, and several
researches are still being undertaken to pinpoint
2. Materials and Methods the reaction pathway of astaxanthin production
by inducing stress of varied nature. Many types
The entire network of the present programme of yeast have been described with an increase
consists of the sampling of the leaves of ten ability to produce carotenoids when they grow
dominant mangrove species during the low tide under unfavourable environment (Certik
period from the Jharkhali Island during March et al. 2005). Several workers have reported both
2007. Leaves of the selected species were col- in the dark and light the enhancement of the
lected from two different portions (submerged accumulation of astaxanthin in cysts of
lower zone and exposed upper zone) of the Haematococcus pluvialis under salt stress
same plant. The lower region of the tree gets conditions. The present study has pointed higher
inundated during the high tide condition and astaxanthin level in those leaves of the
upper region of the same plant remains unex- mangroves that are inundated for 10–12 h by
posed to tidal water. Salinity, pH, temperature, tidal waters (Table 2A.1) having typical estua-
dissolved oxygen and nutrient load of the ambi- rine water characteristics (salinity ¼ 25.85 %0,
ent water were analysed simultaneously to pin- pH ¼ 7.97, temperature ¼ 31.5 C, dissolved
point the hydrological parameters to which the oxygen ¼ 6.10 mg/l, NO3 ¼ 21.04 μgat/l, PO4
plant species are exposed in natural condition. ¼ 1.39 μgat/l and SiO3 ¼ 83.16 μgat/l). The
The collected leaves were thoroughly washed steep enhancement of astaxanthin level in the
with ambient water followed with deionized inundated Sundari leaves (Heritiera fomes)
Table 2B.1 Astaxanthin content in ten mangrove species collected from Jharkhali Island of Indian Sundarbans during
March 2007
Astaxanthin content (mg/kg)
Mangrove species Submerged Exposed Percentage increase (%)
Avicennia officinalis 396.56 297.75 33.19
Avicennia alba 441.33 328.02 34.54
Avicennia marina 435.59 319.10 36.51
Sonneratia apetala 162.80 103.49 57.31
Aegiceras corniculatum 120.86 98.15 23.14
Aegialitis rotundifolia 105.92 82.41 28.53
Ceriops decandra 91.09 67.44 35.07
Heritiera fomes 761.00 398.54 90.95
Rhizophora apiculata 84.90 56.22 51.01
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 461.38 397.11 16.18
clearly reflects the highest degree of stress posed dimension to these halophytes. Astaxanthin is
by water salinity on this species. Heritiera fomes, an important feed ingredient with wide applica-
being freshwater-loving mangrove species, can- tion both in pisciculture and animal husbandry
not tolerate high salinity (Mitra and Pal 2002), sector owing to its antioxidant nature. Since the
and thus acceleration of astaxanthin production animals cannot synthesize carotenoids within
may probably be a part of its adaptation to cope their system, pigments must be supplemented to
with the stenohaline condition of coastal and their feeds, allowing the assimilation and
estuarine environment that becomes acute during providing the characteristic pigmentation of the
high tide. The astaxanthin level of mangrove cultured aquacultural species, egg yolk, etc., for
flora is thus a function of its physiological sys- increasing the quality and consumer acceptance
tem, which is extremely species specific. in the market place (Johnson and An 1991). This
The level of astaxanthin estimated in the man- will not only upgrade the nutrition sector of ani-
grove floral species of Indian Sundarbans is less mal husbandry and aquaculture but will also
than the existing natural mega-reservoir of increase the immunity power of the cultured
astaxanthin like Phaffia rhodozyma and fish species and domesticated livestock. An
Haematococcus pluvialis. However, considering ecologically fragile ecosystem sustaining a
the huge stock of mangrove vegetation in and large fraction of poverty-stricken population
around the area of Sundarban Biosphere Reserve like Sundarbans needs an alternative livelihood
(SBR), the reservoir of the natural antioxidant programme not only for upgrading their eco-
may reach the point of compensation, provided nomic profile but also to realize the utility and
few backup nurseries in the region for extraction application of their surrounding vegetation as a
of bioactive substances are maintained. part of strengthening the root of conservation.
The present programme may open an avenue of
preparing fish feed, poultry and cattle feed by
4. Looking Forward utilizing the antioxidant base of mangroves
through involvement of the local people. This
The mangrove ecosystem of Indian Sundarbans will defray the people from illegal entry into the
is one of the most biologically productive and forest and will also improve the animal and fish
taxonomically diverse ecotone of Indian subcon- nutrition sector of the area through setting up of
tinent with a unique reservoir of bioactive small-scale feed units. The antioxidant reservoir
substances. The detection of antioxidant of Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem has several
astaxanthin in the floral parts of these typical future applications, and hence proper policy is
estuarine and coastal vegetations adds a new needed to blend the biotechnological approach
References 51
Table 2B.2 Astaxanthin Natural astaxanthin sources Astaxanthin concentration (ppm)

level in different organisms
Salmonoids ~5
Plankton ~60
Krill ~120
Arctic shrimp ~1200
Phaffia yeast ~8000
Haematococcus pluvialis ~40,000
Source: http://algatech.com/astax.htm
Table 2B.3 Application mangrove antioxidant property

Application field Avenues
Conservation of Diversion of local inhabitants from illegal intrusion into the forest through introduction of
biodiversity nonconventional livelihood programmes
Maintaining carotenoid enriched floral nursery or floral park, grinding and mixing of
carotenoid rich mangrove leaf with poultry feed, cattle feed, fish feed, etc.
Livelihood schemes Setting up of fish, poultry and animal-feed units based on mangrove originated astaxanthin
Initiation of ecofriendly aquaculture practice through fish feed rich in astaxanthin or any
other natural antioxidant
Production of export quality aquacultural items
Ecology and Upgradation of water and pond bottom health
environment Minimization of microbial load in the aquaculture sector
with the livelihood components of the island on biology, utilization and conservation of Mangroves
dwellers (Tables 2B.2 and 2B.3). (pp. 467–472).
Mitra, A. (1998). Status of coastal pollution in West
Bengal with special reference to heavy metals. Jour-
nal of Indian Ocean Studies, 5(2), 135–138.
Mitra, A., & Choudhury, A. (1994). Heavy metal
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Henry’s Island, India. Journal of Ecobiology, 6(2),
Banerjee, K., Mitra, A., Bhattacharyya, D. P., & 157–159.
Choudhury, A. (2002). Role of nutrients on phyto- Mitra, A., Ghosh, P. B., & Choudhury, A. A. (1987).
plankton diversity in the north–east coast of the Bay Marine bivalve Crassostrea cucullata can be used as
of Bengal. In A. Kumar (Ed.), Ecology and ethology of an indicator species of marine pollution. In
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Phytopigment level of the aquatic subsystem of Indian Mitra, A., Choudhury, A., & Zamaddar, Y. A. (1992).
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(India)
Physical Processes in the Marine
and Estuarine Ecosystems 3
Contents The major physical processes that configure the

3.1 Waves and Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 coastal zone, estuarine mudflats and shorelines of
islands are waves, tides and currents. These pro-
3.2 Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
cesses may be broadly divided into destructive and
Annexure 3A: Oscillation of Hydrological constructive processes. The destructive processes
Parameters in and Around Indian Sundarbans . . 74
include shoreline weathering, coastal erosion, etc.,
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 and the constructive processes encompass accre-
tion or deposition of the sediment. The coastal
zone is constantly exposed to waves, currents and
tides of varying degree and types. Each of these
processes is discussed in brief.
3.1 Waves and Tides
The most identifiable signature of the restless-

ness of the sea is the form and type of waves.
Waves are of various categories due to their
different mode of origin. There are tidal waves,
seismic sea waves and wind or storm waves.
Waves are usually generated by wind passing
over the surface of the sea. As long as the waves
propagate slower than the wind speed just above
the waves, there is an energy transfer from the
wind to the waves. Both air pressure differences
between the upwind and the lee side of a wave
crest, as well as friction on the water surface by
the wind, making the water to go into the shear
stress, causes the growth of the waves.
Wave height is determined by wind speed, the
duration of time the wind has been blowing, fetch
(the distance over which the wind excites the

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_3
54 3 Physical Processes in the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
waves) and by the depth and topography of the there is an increase of pressure on windward
seafloor (which can focus or disperse the energy side of each crest and decrease on leeward
of the waves). A given wind speed has a side. Hence, wind pressure is positive in
matching practical limit over which time or dis- order to increase the energy of waves.
tance will not produce larger waves. When this (b) When waves advance in the direction oppo-
limit has been reached, the sea is said to be ‘fully site to the wind, the atmospheric pressure is
developed’. In general, larger waves are more negative in its action for wave energy.
powerful, but wave power is also determined by (c) If speed of wave is greater than that of wind
wave speed, wavelength and water density. and waves are moving in the same direction,
Oscillatory motion is highest at the surface then the wave energy will have negative
and diminishes exponentially with depth. How- effect due to atmospheric pressure.
ever, for standing waves (clapotis) near a
reflecting coast, wave energy is also present as In addition to these actions, wind also works
pressure oscillations at great depth, producing on the water surface by exerting a tangential
microseisms. These pressure fluctuations at frictional stress. The fetch of the wind acting
greater depth are too small to be interesting upon the water is also responsible for the
from the point of view of wave power. increased energy and consequent increase in the
The waves propagate on the ocean surface, height of waves.
and the wave energy is also transported horizon- In a wave train, there is a regular succession of
tally with the group velocity. The mean transport crests and troughs (Fig. 3.1). The horizontal dis-
rate of the wave energy through a vertical plane tance between successive crests is the wave-
of unit width, parallel to a wave crest, is called length (L), while the wave height (H ) is the
the wave energy flux. vertical distance from a crest to a trough.
Wind acts in several ways to help the forma- The period (T) is the time for passage of two
tion of waves. Waves are generally produced by successive wave crests passed through a fixed
the action of wind blowing across the surface of point and is usually expressed in seconds. Wave
the ocean and are formed as a result of the trans- speed (V) can be calculated by V ¼ L=T.
fer of energy from the wind to the water. Winds At the surface, water moves in circular verti-
can generate waves as small as a ripple or as high cal orbits with a diameter equal to the wave
as 30 m. The relation between wind direction and height. Away from the surface, orbital motion
the energy of the wave may be elucidated in the decreases, and orbits become smaller. At a
following cases: depth of half a wavelength (L/2), orbital motion
essentially vanishes. Thus, wave-generated water
(a) When waves advance in the direction of the movements only occur near the surface. Where
wind, with a speed lesser than of the wind, the water depth is less than half a wavelength, the
Fig. 3.1 Schematic Direction of travel

representation of a A B
typical wave Wave length
Wave height
Calm sea level
Crest Trough
Wave Frequency Wave Period
The number of wave crests The time required for the wave
passing point A each second crest at point A to reach point B
3.1 Waves and Tides 55
bottom interferes with the water motion. Water (b) A ‘shallow-water wave’ is one in which D/L
particles near the bottom cannot move vertically. is less than 1/20. ‘Tsunamis’ are shallow-
This causes elliptical-shaped orbits. Wave size water waves even in the deepest portion of
and speed depend on wind speed, wind duration the ocean.
and distance of water over which the wind blows.
Theoretically, a wave’s height cannot exceed Another mode of wave classification is by the
0.14 of its wavelength. If this is exceeded, nature of controlling force.
white caps and breaking waves are formed
(Fig. 3.2a, b, c). (a) The shortest of the waves, the capillary
Ocean surface waves can be classified in sev- waves, have a restoring force due to the
eral ways. The most common way is by the surface tension of water. When water has
period of the waves (Table 3.1). been displaced, the force brings it back to
normal position due to surface tension.
(a) The shortest-period waves under this classi- (b) In case of ultra-gravity waves and gravity
fication are the capillary waves. When the waves, gravity acts as the major restoring
wind starts to blow on the ocean surface, force.
capillary waves are generated. They seem (c) Gravity together with Coriolis force acts as
just like a fine structure of small ripples of the restoring force in case of long-period
nearly capillary dimension. They basically waves.
contribute the largest amount of energy
from the wind to the ocean water. Their Waves can also be classified on the basis of
wavelength is up to 1.74 cm. their generating force:
(b) Ultra-gravity wave is another type of wave
with periods between 0.1 and 1.0 s. (a) Winds are responsible for the generation of
(c) The third division is ordinary gravity waves capillary waves, ultra-gravity waves gravity
with periods between 1 and 30 s. They are waves and infra-gravity waves.
composed of two types of waves namely (b) Storms and earthquakes or movement of the
‘sea waves’ and ‘swell waves’. crustal plates are responsible for long-
(d) The infra-gravity waves are generally long- period waves like tsunamis. Basically seis-
period waves having periods between 5 min mic sea waves (or tsunami) are generated by
and 12 h. ‘Tsunamis’ and ‘storm surges’ displacement of the ocean floor. Volcanic
belong to this division. eruptions and catastrophic submarine mass
(e) The ordinary tidal waves are astronomical movements can produce them, but by far,
waves with fixed time period of about 12 h the most significant cause is earthquake.
(semidiurnal) and 24 h (diurnal). The displacement of a large mass of ocean
(f) The trans-tidal waves are those having water, often at a great depth, generates
periods greater than 24 h. Under this the waves of small amplitude (usually less
longer-period components of astronomical than 1 m), considerable length (up to
tides are also included. 200 km or more) and high velocity. As
with translatory waves, the wave velocity
Waves can also be classified on the basis of is related to ocean depth, and waves can
the relationship of the waveform to the depth of travel at a velocity of about 600 km/h over
water. water 3000 m deep. Seismic waves can
therefore cross the entire Pacific Ocean
(a) A ‘deep-water wave’ is one in which the within a span of few hours.
ratio depth (d)/wave/length (L ) is more
than 0.5. Capillary waves belong to this
category.
Fig. 3.2 (a) Initiation of breaking waves. (b) Approaching of breaking waves. (c) Formation of white caps and
breaking waves
Table 3.1 Classification of ocean surface waves

Classification Period range Depth classification Restoring force Generating force
Capillary <0.1 s Deep-water wave Surface tension Winds
waves
Ultra-gravity 0.1–1 s Deep-water wave Surface tension Winds
waves and gravity
Gravity 1–30 s Deep-water wave to Gravity Winds
waves shallow-water wave
Infra-gravity 30 s–5 min Deep-water wave to Gravity and Winds and gravity
waves shallow-water wave Coriolis force
Long-period 5 min–12 h Transitional to shallow- Gravity and Storms and earthquake
waves water wave Coriolis force
Ordinary (Semidiurnal and Shallow-water wave Gravity and Gravitational attraction of
tidal waves diurnal) Coriolis force sun and moon
12–24 h
Trans-tidal >24 h Shallow-water wave Gravity and Storms, sun and moon
waves Coriolis force
(c) The gravitational attraction of the sun and by strong winds in the Strait (Griffin and
the moon acts as generating force for ordi- Middleton 1991). They are, therefore, predict-
nary tidal waves. able to some extent and can have the effect of
(d) Storms, the sun and the moon are effective producing strong currents in the nearshore
causes for trans-tidal waves. region, which may have either northward flowing
or southward flowing.
On the basis of motion of waveform, wave Very little information is available on the
can be classified into two categories. classification of waves in the Bay of Bengal
region adjacent to the Indian part of Sundarbans.
(a) Progressive waves are those, which propa- Surface waves in the Bay of Bengal are caused
gate laterally. due to the wind system whose direction and
(b) Standing waves are those, which does not velocity are mainly controlled by northeast and
propagate laterally, but moves in a vertical southwest monsoons. The wind from north and
direction. A standing wave may form when northeast starts blowing from the beginning of
two progressive waves move in opposite October to the end of March. The months of
direction in such a way that interference January and February are relatively calm with
results. ‘Seiches’ are standing waves. an average speed of around 3.5 km/h. It again
commences to blow violently from southwest
In addition to the above categories of waves, around the middle of March and continues till
several researchers have stated about coastal September. During this period, several
trapped waves in the Sydney region of low-pressure systems are formed in this region,
Australia. These are not waves in true sense, among which few take the shape of depressions
since they have little observable effects at the and cyclonic storms of varying intensity. The
sea surface. These are characterized by wind speed during this time rises above
timescales of 7–20 days and scales of long- 100 km/h and is usually accompanied by gigantic
shore variability of many hundreds of kilometres tidal waves causing much loss of lives, damage
(Church et al. 1986). They may be thought of as a to properties, forests and habitats of animals and
current oscillation which moves equatorwards plants thriving in this area. Sea waves in this
from its generation source in Bass Strait affecting region rarely become destructive except during
Sydney waters some 2 days after being generated cyclonic storms. When the cyclonic incidences
Fig. 3.3 Spring and neap

tides
coincide with the spring tides, wave height some- the farthest situated mass will exert lesser force
times exceeds over 5 m above the mean tide than those situated nearby. Based on this back-
level. Ripple waves appear in the months of ground, the gravitational attraction of the moon
October, November and December, when wind- felt on the Earth is more powerful than that of
generated wave height varies approximately other planets and stars, because of its proximity
from 0.20 to 0.35 m. In the months of April to to the planet Earth.
August, when the normal wind speed ranges In oceanographic terminology, tides may be
between 15 and 40 km/h, large wavelets are defined as the periodic rise and fall of the sea
formed in the shelf region, which starts breaking level and occur as a result of the gravitational
as they approach towards the coastal margin. In pull of the sun and the moon. The magnitude of
this condition, the wave height rises up to 2 m this attraction varies directly as the product of the
that causes maximum scouring action to adjoin- mass of attracting bodies and inversely as the
ing of landmasses. square of the distance between them. Though
the sun’s mass is 26 106 times bigger than
that of the moon, the ratio of the square of the
3.1.1 Tides distance from the sun to the Earth and that from
the moon to the Earth is roughly 58 106. It is
Tide is a phenomenon that occurs in the marine because of this, the moon’s pull is about 2.2
and estuarine systems in response to the pull of times stronger than that of the sun. Depending
the moon and the more distant sun. Its character, on the position of the heavenly bodies, the tides
pattern and variation are dynamic due to chang- may be of two types: (i) spring tides (tides that
ing position of the attracting bodies. Hence, to are witnessed during the new moon condition),
explain the tide, it is necessary to account for when the sun, the moon and the Earth are in a line
these forces separately as well as in coordination. (linear alignment) leading to maximum tidal
Newton was the first to put forth that the gravita- range and (ii) neap tides (tides that occur when
tional attraction exists even between the minutest the sun and the moon are at right angles to each
drop of ocean and the outermost star of the uni- other during the first or third quarter of the lunar
verse—which may be negligent in amount. In cycle). Figure 3.3 represents the positions of the
general, the theory of gravitation states that the sun and the moon in relation to the Earth during
force of attraction is directly proportional to the the two types of tides.
product of masses and inversely proportional to It may so happen that, while the sun, the moon
the square of the distance between them—imply- and the Earth are in conjunction, the moon is at
ing that the bigger mass will exert more gravita- perigee, i.e. shortest distance in its orbit from the
tional pull as compared to the smaller mass and Earth. The tidal forces are mightiest under such
Fig. 3.4 Global distribution of the three major tidal types. Most of the world’s coastlines have semidiurnal tides
circumstances, and the tides are higher than the Tides may therefore be classified from various
usual. If in addition, the sun is on the equator, the angles as stated here in brief:
perigee spring tides are the strongest. This
happens in the equinoxes in March and (i) Semidiurnal tides
September. These tides occur at intervals of 12 h
Tides are normally semidiurnal in nature. 30 min. When the moon is directly over
However, diurnal and mixed tides are also the Earth’s equator, its associated tidal
observed in some places in the ocean and bays. bulges are centred on the equator. In the-
Hence, tides are classified as one of three types, ory, all locations on the planet except at
semidiurnal, diurnal or mixed according to the the highest latitudes would rotate through
characteristics of the tidal pattern (Fig. 3.4). the two tidal bulges and experience two
In semidiurnal tide, two high waters and two equal high tides and two equal low tides
low waters occur in each day with relatively per tidal day; this is known as a semidiur-
small differences in the respective highs and nal tide. Semidiurnal tides have an
lows. Examples of such tides are the tides on approximate period of 12 h and 25 min
the Atlantic coast of United States. In diurnal (Fig. 3.5) and theoretically have a wave-
tides, only a single high and a single low water length of more than half the circumference
occur each tidal day. Tides of diurnal type occur of the Earth.
along the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico, (ii) Diurnal tides
in the Java Sea and in the Gulf of Tonkin. Mixed In this case, a single high and a single low
tides are characterized by large diurnal tide occur each day. They tend to occur in
inequalities in heights and/or times of successive certain areas when the moon is at its fur-
high and/or low waters. In general, this type of thest from the equator. When the moon is
tide intermediates between predominantly semi- above the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of
diurnal and a predominantly diurnal. Such tides Capricorn, the diurnal inequality is at its
are prevalent along the Pacific coast of the maximum and the tides are called tropic
United States and in many other parts of the tides. When the moon is above or nearly
world. above the equator, the diurnal inequality is
two unequal low tides per tidal day

(Fig. 3.5); this is called a mixed tide and
the difference in height between succes-
sive high (or low) tides is called the diur-
nal inequality.
(iv) Quarter-diurnal tides
This type of tide occurs very rarely and
happens when the moon is in quadrature
about 1 week after the new moon and full
moon phases respectively.
(v) Spring tides
These tides recur once a fortnight due to
the revolution of the moon and its declina-
tion. The separate sets of ocean bulges
related to the moon and sun act at times
together and at other times in opposition.
About every 2 weeks, the positions of the
sun, moon and Earth form a straight line
(Fig. 3.3). At these times of new and full
moon phases as viewed from the Earth, the
lunar- and solar-related ocean bulges also
line up (and add up) to produce tides hav-
ing the greatest monthly tidal range
(i.e. the highest high tide and lowest
low tide).
(vi) Neap tides
These tides recur once a fortnight due to
the revolution and declination of the
moon. At the first and third quarter phases
of the moon, the sun’s pull on the Earth is
Fig. 3.5 Types of tides at right angles to the pull of the moon
(Fig. 3.3). At this time, tides have their
minimum and the tides are known as equa- minimum monthly tidal range
torial tides. When the moon and its (i.e. unusually low high tide and unusu-
associated tidal bulges are either north or ally high low tide); these are called neap
south of the equator, most points at high tides or ‘fortnightly tides’. Furthermore,
latitudes in theory would be impacted by the moon orbits the Earth in an ellipse
one tidal bulge and would experience one (rather than a circle) so that the moon is
high tide and one low tide per tidal day. closest to the Earth (stronger tide-
This so-called diurnal tide has a period of generating force) at perigee and farthest
24 h and 50 min (Fig. 3.5). from the Earth (weaker tide-generating
(iii) Mixed tide force) at apogee. The moon completes
Different types of tides occur when the one perigee–apogee–perigee cycle once
moon is either north or south of the equa- in every 25.5 days.
tor. Whereas semidiurnal tides are (vii) Monthly tides
observed at the equator at all times, most The tides that occur due to the revolution
locations north or south of the equator of the moon and its position at perigee and
experience two unequal high tides and apogee
(viii) Equinoctial spring tides explained by studying equilibrium tides on a

These tides recur at an interval of smooth water-covered sphere. Let us consider
6 months, due to the revolution of the the Earth and the moon as a single unit that orbits
Earth round the sun and sun’s varying the sun (Fig. 3.6). The moon orbits the Earth,
declination. held by the Earth’s gravitational force acting on
(ix) Yearly tides the moon (B), which must be balanced by a force
Tides that occur due to revolution of the called centrifugal force (B́0 ) acting to pull the
Earth and the position at perihelion and moon away from the Earth and send it spinning
aphelion out into space, and this balance maintains the
moon in its orbit. Similarly, the moon’s gravita-
The tidal currents, produced by the ebb and tional force acting on the Earth (C) must be
flow of tides, have little significance in open sea, balanced by the centrifugal force (C0 ). These
but in the nearshore zones (depending on the centrifugal forces are caused by the Earth–moon
size, configuration and topography of the system rotating about an axis at the centre of the
marine basins), they control the coastal mor- system’s mass, which is 4640 km. away from the
phology to a great extent. The coasts can be Earth’s centre. Again the Earth–moon system is
categorized into macrotidal (<2 m), mesotidal held by the sun’s gravitational attraction (A). A
(2–4 m) and microtidal (>4 m) depending on centrifugal force again acts to pull the
the tidal range. Earth–moon system away from the sun (A0 ). To
remain in this orbit, the Earth–moon system
requires that the gravitational forces equal the
3.1.2 Theories Related to Tides centrifugal forces.
The moon’s gravitational force is stronger on
Numerous theories have been put forwards to particles on the side of the Earth closest to the
explain the origin of the tides. The tidal theories moon, while the centrifugal force is stronger on
involve difficult mathematical deductions and particles on the side of the Earth furthest from the
analysis. The first mathematical theory which centre of mass of the Earth–moon system. The
states the response of the ocean to the tidal forces distribution of forces tends to pull surface
was given by Newton in 1687. Newton’s particles away from the centre of the Earth and
approach made the foundation on which subse- creates the tide-generating force field on the
quently the later works are based. Some of the Earth.
important theories are given here. The stronger gravitational force of the moon
acting on a unit mass of water at the Earth’s
3.1.2.1 The Equilibrium Theory surface closest to the moon is proportional to
Isaac Newton in 1687 in his Principia developed Mr/R3, where ‘M’ is the mass of the moon, ‘r’
the theory of equilibrium in which he assumed a is the radius of the Earth and ‘R’ is the distance
mass of equilibrium under the combined forces between the centres of the Earth and the moon.
of gravitation of celestial bodies. According to Because the water covering the Earth is liquid
the equilibrium theory, the tidal bulge is caused and deformable, the moon’s gravity moves water
by the gravitational attraction, and the moon is towards a point under the moon, producing a
the major component regulating the ocean tide. bulge in the water covering. At the same time,
The tide here is exaggerated. The actual bulge is the centrifugal force acting on the surface oppo-
on the order of 1 m. An equilibrium tide is a site the moon creates a similar bulge of water.
theoretical tide. The Earth model develops two bulges with two
The effect of the sun’s and moon’s gravity and depressions in between the bulges or two crests
the rotation of the Earth on tide is most easily and two troughs or two high tide levels and two
Fig. 3.6 Gravitational

and centrifugal forces
associated with tides
(a) Gravitational forces
between earth and moon
centers; (b) Centrifugal
forces acting on earth
and moon centers;
(c) Gravitational forces
between sun and earth-
moon system centers
low tide levels. The wavelength is equal to half actually change their positions, that is, a horizon-
the circumference of the Earth. tal movement of tide is essential for this. Sec-
ondly, high tide should occur only when the
moon is exactly on its meridian, and all the
Limitations of the Theory places on the same longitude should have high
The equilibrium theory has several limitations. tides at the same time. But in practical this does
Firstly, the bulge of seawater as proposed by this not happen. In addition to this, the bottom relief/
theory cannot take place unless water masses topography and its complicated features (which
have been ignored in this theory) obstruct the the sea from the place of its origin under the
passage of the tidal flow from the sea to the moon’s tidal influence. In a globe completely
estuary and vice versa. surrounded by water, the tides will have the form
of a wave having crests (tide) and troughs (ebb).
3.1.2.2 The Dynamical Theory of Laplace The length is measured from crest to crest, which
In 1775, the famous mathematical astronomer, will be half of the circumference of that latitude on
Laplace approached the phenomenon of tides which it is proceeding. The rate of the progressing
from the viewpoint of dynamics as the water in wave is dependent on the depth of the water bod-
the sea is always in motion. In his work, ies in which it is moving. On a rotating Earth, the
Mecanique Celeste, he proved that the horizontal progress of the wave would be from east to west.
tide-producing forces are more important than the Due to the location of the continents, the move-
vertical forces, because in the latter the periodical ment of the waves and the generation of the pro-
variation of the acceleration of gravity is absent. gressive waves are hampered.
Under the impact of oscillation, there is a horizon-
tal movement of water towards the moon’s merid- 3.1.2.4 Stationary Wave Theory
ian where the bulge is created. As the Earth rotates, The stationary wave theory probably seems to
different places automatically come beneath the offer the best explanation for local differences
moon, and changes in the horizontal movements in tides, their varieties and their age. Dr. R.-
of water follow. Hence, the water runs sometimes A. Harris of the US Coast and Geodetic Survey
in one direction and sometimes in another in order first propounded this theory, which is almost
to raise the bulge at points opposite the moon opposed to the ideas advanced by the progressive
occupying different positions at different times. wave theory. The idea of this theory is to insist
upon the regional occurrence of tidal phenome-
3.1.2.3 Progressive Wave Theory non in the water bodies such as the Atlantic, the
William Whemwell in his paper entitled ‘Essay Indian and the Pacific Oceans. Hence, the solid
towards a First Approximation to a Map of Earth with its water hemisphere is made to oscil-
Co-Tidal line’ in 1833 and G.B. Airy in his late under the lunar force. The resulting waves
article ‘Waves and Tides’ in 1842 presented the are known as the stationary waves.
concept of progressive waves while explaining
the varying intensity and varying amplitude of
tides at different places. Whemwell also prepared 3.1.3 Tidal Bore and Tide in Rivers
a map of the world on which were drawn the
so-called co-tidal lines, that is, the lines joining The tidal bore occupies a significant position in a
points at which high water occurs at the same tidal phenomenon. It is created when the tide
hour. He called his theory the ‘progressive wave enters the river mouth, and there is a forced
theory’, whereas G.B. Airy’s approach is known entry of tidal wave against the running water of
as the ‘canal theory’. The progressive wave the- river or the channel. The forces are directly or
ory for the first time took a different approach, indirectly connected with the tides of the open
considering the Earth as a heterogeneous body sea. Therefore, the nature and magnitude of the
and not a perfect fluid. Secondly, tide is seen on tides in the rivers and estuaries are affected by a
the same longitude at different times, while variety of factors such as slope of river, flow of
simultaneously a lagging in the time of tide is water, range of tide in the adjacent seas and the
observed on the same meridian away from the factor of friction. Once the tide originates by tidal
source. Thirdly, on a globe surrounded by water, forces in the open sea, it takes the form of the
a tide appears to take the form of a tidal wave tidal wave moving inside the river or the estuary.
travelling from east to west. Hence, the feature of river tide is considered as
The progressive wave theory at the outset the wave motion in progress. According to math-
observes the tides as the movement of a wave in ematical calculations, the progress of the tidal
Hooghly
estuary
290 km
tidal flow
Fig. 3.7 Tidal pulse in the western Indian Sundarban estuary (Hooghly estuary) reaches 290 km upstream
wave should vary with the depth, the formula stopped by fall, rapids or dams. In the Amazon
being r ¼ gh, where, r stands for the rate of River, the upward movement of tides in the river
progress of the tide, g for the acceleration of channel goes to the extent of 45 nautical miles. In
gravity and h for the depth of the water way. the Hudson River, the tide reaches up to
The average value of the acceleration of gravity 131 miles inside, but in the Mississippi River, it
is 3217 ft/s, so r in terms of nautical miles per is limited up to the delta because of tides of lesser
hour is 3.36 √h. magnitude and intensity in the Gulf of Mexico.
The extent of tidal movement, upwards in the The tidal water in the Hooghly estuary (the west-
river channel, is determined by the slope of the ern most estuaries of Indian Sundarbans) reaches
riverbed, the velocity of the river current and the about 290 km upstream from the estuarine mouth
force of the tide. Under normal conditions, the (Fig. 3.7). The tide penetrates up to 170 km in the
tidal waves go up the stream until they are southwest and 0–50 km in the southeast area of
Fig. 3.8 Tidal pulse in the western and eastern Bangladesh Sundarban estuary reaches maximum up to 170 and 50 km,
respectively
Bangladesh during lean period (April–May) The tidal activity is an important mechanism
depending on the topography and channels in for the movement of water and nutrients espe-
the area (Fig. 3.8). cially in the estuarine areas, and this is probably a
reason for the wide range of biodiversity in the component of the major surface currents and
estuarine water. It is also interesting to observe drifts. Other controls are the Coriolis effect and
that the hydrological parameters in an estuarine the size, shape and depth of the sea or ocean
system significantly changes with tidal phase. basin. Currents may also be caused by
Same sampling station/site (fixed with GPS) differences in density due to variations in tem-
exhibits different values of environmental/hydro- perature and salinity, tides and wave action. The
logical parameters during high and low tidal major surface currents move in broad circulatory
phases. For further information on the variation patterns, called gyres, around the subtropical
of environmental parameters with tide, the highs. Because of the Coriolis effect, the gyres
readers are advised to go through Annexure 3A. flow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
(Fig. 3.9). As a general rule, the surface currents
do not cross the equator.
3.2 Currents
Waters near the equator in both hemispheres
are driven west by the tropical easterlies or the
Ocean current is the general movement of a mass
trade winds. The current thus produced is called
of water in a fairly defined direction under the
the equatorial current. At the western margin of
influences of various forces, internal as well as
the ocean, its warm tropical waters are deflected
external. It is one of the most important
polewards along the coastline. As these warm
characteristics of the seawater. Like the planetary
waters move into higher latitudes, they move
wind system, surface-ocean currents play a sig-
through waters cooler than themselves and are
nificant role in helping equalize the energy
identified as ‘warm currents’ (Fig. 3.9). In the
imbalance between the tropical and polar
Northern Hemisphere, warm currents, such as
regions. In addition, surface-ocean currents
the Gulf Stream and the Kuroshio Current, are
greatly influence the climate and shoreline con-
deflected more and more to the right (or east)
figuration of coastal locations. The Earth’s
because of the Coriolis effect. At about 40 N,
surface-wind system is the primary controlling
Fig. 3.9 The major ocean

currents flow in broad gyres
in opposite directions in the
Northern and Southern
Hemispheres
3.2 Currents 67
the westerlies begin to drive these warm waters About 10 % of the water in the world ocean is
eastwards across the ocean, as in the North Atlan- involved in surface currents, which are water
tic Drift and the North Pacific Drift. Eventually, flowing horizontally in the uppermost 400 m
these currents run into the land at the eastern (1300 ft) of the ocean surface, driven mainly by
margin of the ocean, and most of the waters are wind friction. Winds drive currents that are at or
deflected towards the equator. By this time, these near the ocean’s surface. These currents are gen-
waters have lost much of their warmth, and as they erally measured in metres per second or in knots
move equatorwards into the subtropical latitudes, (1 knot ¼ 1.85 kilometres per hour or 1.15 miles
they are cooler than the adjacent waters. They per hour). Surface currents move water above the
have become cool, or cold, currents (Fig. 3.9). pycnocline, the zone of rapid density change
In general the warm currents move polewards with depth. The primary force responsible for
as they carry tropical waters into the cooler surface currents is the wind. Most of the Earth’s
waters of higher latitudes, as in the case of the surface-wind energy is concentrated in each
Gulf Stream or the Brazil Current. Cool currents hemisphere’s trade winds (easterlies) and
deflect water equatorwards, as in the California westerlies. Waves on the sea surface transfer
Current and the Humboldt Current. Warm some of the energy from the moving air to the
currents tend to have a humidifying and warming water by friction. This tug of wind on the ocean
effect on the East Coasts of continents along surface begins a mass flow of water. The water
which they flow, whereas cool currents tend to flowing beneath the wind forms a surface current.
have a drying and cooling effect on the West The moving water ‘piles up’ in the direction the
Coasts of the landmasses. The contact between wind is blowing. Water pressure is higher on the
the atmosphere and ocean currents is one reason ‘piled up’ side, and the force of gravity pulls the
why subtropical highs have a strong side and a water down the slope—against the pressure gra-
weak side. Subtropical highs on the West Coast dient—in the direction from which it came. In
of continents are in contact with cold ocean this case, the Coriolis effect intervenes. Northern
currents, which cool the air and make the eastern Hemisphere surface currents flow to the right
side of a subtropical high more stable and stron- of the wind direction, because of the Coriolis
ger. On the East Coasts of continents, contacts effect. Southern Hemisphere currents flow to
with warm ocean currents cause the western the left. Continents and basin topography often
sides of subtropical highs to be less stable and block continuous flow and help deflect the
weaker. The general circulation just described is moving water into a circular pattern. This flow
consistent throughout the year, although the posi- around the periphery of an ocean basin is called
tion of the currents follows seasonal shifts in a gyre.
atmospheric circulation. In addition, in the Gyres in balance between the pressure gradient
North Indian Ocean, the direction of circulation and the Coriolis effect are called geostrophic
reverses seasonally according to the monsoon gyres, and their currents are called geostrophic
winds. The cold currents along the West Coasts currents. The geostrophic gyres are largely inde-
in subtropical latitudes are frequently reinforced pendent of one another in each hemisphere,
by upwelling. As the trade winds in these because of the patterns of driving winds and the
latitudes drive the surface waters offshore, the present positions of continents. There are six great
wind’s frictional drag on the ocean surface current circuits in the world ocean: two in the
displaces the water to the west. As surface waters Northern Hemisphere and four in the Southern
are dragged away, deeper, colder water rises to Hemisphere. Five are geostrophic gyres: the
the surface to replace them. This upwelling of North Atlantic gyre, the South Atlantic gyre, the
cold waters adds to the strength and effect of the North Pacific gyre, the South Pacific gyre and the
California, Humboldt (Peru), Canary and Indian Ocean gyre. Though it is a closed circuit,
Benguela Currents. the sixth and largest current, known as the West
Wind Drift (or Antarctic Circumpolar Current), is
Fig. 3.10 Ekman

transport moves surface
waters away from the coast,
and surface waters are
replaced by water that
wells up from below in the
process known as
upwelling
technically not a gyre since it does not flow around direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the
the periphery of an ocean basin. The West Wind left of the wind direction in the Southern Hemi-
Drift flows endlessly eastwards (i.e. never sphere. Coastal upwelling (Fig. 3.10) occurs
deflected by a continent) around Antarctica, driven where Ekman transport moves surface waters
by powerful, nearly ceaseless westerly winds. away from the coast; surface waters are replaced
While it might be assumed that the two gyres in by water mass from the bottom of the ocean.
the North and South Pacific (and the two gyres in Where Ekman transport moves surface waters
the North and South Atlantic) converge exactly at towards the coast, the water piles up and sinks in the
the geographical equator, instead the junction of process known as coastal downwelling (Fig. 3.11).
equatorial currents (referred to as the meteorologi- Upwelling and downwelling illustrate mass conti-
cal equator) lies a few degrees north of the geo- nuity in the ocean; that is, water is a continuous fluid
graphical equator. The meteorological equator and so that a change in distribution of water in one area
the Intertropical Convergence Zone (the band at is accompanied by a compensating change in water
which the trade winds converge) are displaced 5 distribution in another area.
to 8 northwards primarily because of the heat Upwelling and downwelling influence
accumulated in the Northern Hemisphere’s greater sea-surface temperature and biological produc-
tropical land surface area. Ocean circulation like tivity. Upwelling waters may originate below
the atmospheric circulation is balanced around the the pycnocline and are therefore colder than the
meteorological equator. surface waters they replace. Where the thermo-
cline is shallow, the upwelling waters are usually
rich in the dissolved nutrients (e.g. nitrogen and
3.2.1 Upwelling and Downwelling: phosphate compounds) required for phytoplank-
Causes and Significance ton growth. This nutrient transport into the sur-
face waters where sunlight, also required for
In some coastal areas of the ocean (and large phytoplankton growth (photic zone), is present
lakes such as the North American Great Lakes), results in the rapid growth of phytoplankton
the combination of persistent winds, the Earth’s populations. Since phytoplankton form the base
rotation (the Coriolis effect) and restrictions on of marine food webs, the world’s most productive
lateral movements of water caused by shorelines fisheries are located in areas of coastal upwelling
and shallow bottoms induces upward and down- that bring cold nutrient-rich waters to the surface
ward water movements. The Coriolis effect (especially in the eastern boundary regions of the
along with the frictional coupling of wind and subtropical gyres); about half the world’s total
water (Ekman transport) causes net movement of fish catch comes from upwelling zones.
surface water at about 90 to the right of the wind
3.2 Currents 69
Fig. 3.11 Ekman

transport moves surface
waters towards the coast,
where the waters pile up
and sink in the process
known as downwelling
Downwelling reduces biological productivity 6. The currents and their nature vary according
and transports heat, dissolved materials and sur- to the seasonal changes in the year.
face waters rich in dissolved oxygen to greater
depths. This occurs along the West Coast of The pattern and distribution of currents in the
Alaska in the eastern boundary region of the world ocean is regulated by several factors, which
Gulf of Alaska gyre (driven by winds in the may arise within or outside the planet Earth. For
Aleutian low). convenience of the readers, these factors are clas-
sified here in brief (Tables 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4).
3.2.2 Factors Regulating the Pattern

and Distribution of Currents 3.2.3 What Happens Practically?
Most of the currents of the oceans follow certain The shape of the planet Earth is not exactly round;
rules as listed here (Fig. 3.12). it is ellipsoidal, and hence, there is a deviation in
the current pattern of the ocean. In ellipsoidal
1. Warm currents move towards the cold seas, and structure, the force of gravity is not directed
cool currents move towards the warm oceans. towards the centre of the equator. In Fig. 3.13 at
2. Cold dense upwelled waters are found in the surface (P), the gravitation AB (Fig. 3.14) may be
middle latitude (trade belt) on the western resolved into two components, namely, AD at
shores of the continents. right angles to the surface and AE, which is tan-
3. From the colder seas, the cold waters of lesser gential. The former presses the particle against the
density move into warmer oceans along the surface, while the latter tends to move towards the
eastern coasts of higher latitudes. pole. In Fig. 3.14, the centrifugal force in AC
4. In the lower latitudes, warm currents are found direction is at right angles to the axis of rotation,
on the eastern shores and the cold on the west- which may be resolved again into two
ern shores, whereas in the higher latitudes, components—AF at right angle to the surface
warm currents flow along the western shores and AG, which is tangential. The former makes
and cold currents on the eastern shores. the particle relatively lighter, and the latter tends
5. Convergences and divergences in the oceans to move it towards the equator. When the particle
also control the currents. In each hemisphere, is at rest on the rotating Earth, the forces AE and
there are three different water masses and two AG balance each other. Otherwise, if AE becomes
convergences, namely, subtropical and subpo- more than AG, it will drive the mass towards poles
lar convergence. and vice versa. This deflecting force is calculated
C u rr e n t
Current
gian
La
br rwe
a NO
ia n
do
r Curr
eg
t N or w
n
urre
ent
dC
lan
en
re
skan East G
nt nt
Ala
rre rre
Cu
Cu
tic Cu
rre
an io
nt
Atl sh
rth ya
c Current No O
Pacifi
rth
No
t
u rr e n
nt
re
Ca ur
am NORTH
yC
lifo C
rn o
re
NORTH
n ar
ATLANTIC
i
St
sh
ia
ro
Gulf
Ca
PACIFIC GYRE
Cu
GYRE
Ku
rre
nt
nt
e
urr
North Equatorial Current
ali C
So m
Eq
u at
Equatorial Counter Current o rial Counter Current
atorial Current Equatorial Counter Current

South Equ
l Current South Equatorial Curre
South Equatoria nt
Ben
We
nt
rre
st A
guela C
ustralian Cu
SOUTH INDIAN
Peru Current
ustralian Current
INDIAN
nt
OCEAN GYRE
rre
PACIFIC GYRE
nt
SOUTH
urrent
OCEAN
Cu
urre
ATLANTIC GYRE
zil
sC
st A
Bra
GYRE
iha
Ea
gu
A
West West Wind Drift West Wind Drift

Wind
Drift
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
East Wind Drift

East Wind Drift
East Wind Drift
ANTARCTICA
Fig. 3.12 Map of the major world ocean currents, showing warm and cool currents
Table 3.2 Factors in relation to the Earth’s nature

Factor Description
Gravitational force A tiny particle of the ocean mass is also subject to a pure gravitational force directed
towards the central region of the Earth. The magnitude and the dimensions of the
acceleration of gravity of a moving mass vary with latitude and depth depending upon
the position near to the centre of the Earth. Polar diameter is lesser than the equatorial
diameter; hence, acceleration is greater at poles. The normal value at the pole is
9.83205, and at the equator, it is 9.78027. In other words, the gravity increases
polewards; similarly deeper places in the ocean are near to the centre; hence,
gravitational pull varies. In general the resultant effect on the currents would be a pull
directed towards the centre. This force is also known as centrifugal force
Deflective force by the The rotation of the Earth from west to east results into the deflective Coriolis force
Earth’s rotation which has a tendency to throw away particles from the centre of the Earth, opposing to
the gravitational pull. Otherwise weaker, this force acts as an important controlling
factor of the currents. The general tendency of the water at the surface in equatorial
region is to reach the polar seas. But due to the rotational force, the currents are
deflected as observed in the Baltic and the Mediterranean Sea. There it was found that
the wind current existed up to 5 m only, and on many occasions, its speed was
registered below 3 on Beauford Scale, thus unable to develop strong currents.
Similarly, observations were made at the time when strong wind blew; then the speed
of the current was 3.7 miles per 24 h. By computing the actual direction of the current
and the wind, the deviation on the right was made up and was attributed to the rotation
of the Earth. This deflection of the current, as computed and summarized by Ferrel in
his Law, is the result of the movement of any particle on the rotating Earth which is
acted upon by two forces, the force of gravity in the direction of AD towards the
centre at right angles to the surface and the centrifugal force in the direction of DB at
right angles to the axis of rotation as shown in Fig. 3.13. The former is directed
downslope, as against the upslope direction of the latter. AD will be at right angles to
the surface and hence can have no tendency to make the particle move in any
direction. As the force DB is oblique to the surface, it will not only lift the particle but
will cause it to slide towards the equator or the pole
3.2 Currents 71
Table 3.3 Ex-oceanic factors

Factor Description
Atmospheric pressure and Atmospheric pressure is of primary significance in the fundamental equation of
its variations motion
Wind and the frictional Wind blowing regularly on the surface of the sea exercises a very considerable force
force in the movement of seawater. It glides with friction over the sea surface and drags
onwards the pile of water with a considerable modification of the theoretical
directions of the current to a remarkable depth
Precipitation The excess of precipitation on oceans disturbs the level and results in the slope
currents to equalize it
Nature of evaporation and Differences in the distribution of insolation and amount of evaporation over the
insolation oceans leads to current formation
Table 3.4 Physico-chemical factors

Factor Description
Pressure gradient The variation in the pressure gradient within the ocean may result in an internal disturbance.
The surface of the sea over which the pressure is uniform or all points on which same pressure
is found is known as ‘isobaric surface’. Within the sea, pressure from all sides acts over a
particle, hence the amount of pressure on any small element can be computed from the depth at
which it is found, and on the coefficient of compressibility of seawater. Generally, the pressure
increases downwards in the sea, and isobaric surfaces are parallel to sea level
Temperature Turbulent mixing produced by winds and waves transfers heat downwards from the surface. In
difference low and middle latitudes, this creates a surface mixed layer of water of almost uniform
temperature which may be a few metres deep to several hundred metres deep. Below this mixed
layer, at depths of 200–300 m in the open ocean, the temperature begins to decrease rapidly
down to about 1000 m. The water layer within which the temperature gradient is steepest is
known as the permanent thermocline
The temperature difference through this layer may be as large as 20 C. The permanent
thermocline coincides with a change in water density between the warmer low-density surface
waters and the underlying cold dense bottom waters. The region of rapid density change is
known as the pycnocline, and it acts as a barrier to vertical water circulation; thus, it also
affects the vertical distribution of certain chemicals which play a role in the biology of the seas
Salinity Variability in salinity is closely linked to ocean currents. Salinity in surface waters is increased
by the removal of water through evaporation, and it is decreased primarily through the addition
of freshwater via precipitation and continental run-off, either in the form of rain or snow or
from river inflow. At higher latitudes, salinity also is decreased by ice and snowmelt
The average salinity of the oceans is about 35 psu, and variability in the global distribution of
surface salinity greatly influences the movement of water mass. It has been observed that the
highest salinity values are found at about 20 –30 latitude in both hemispheres, in areas having
high evaporation and low precipitation. Low salinities are found in polar areas, which have high
precipitation as well as melting ice, and in areas influenced by polar water
Density In the marine system, the densest and deepest water masses originate primarily around
Antarctica or in the vicinity of Greenland and Iceland. During winter in high latitudes, surface
waters become colder, and because seawater density continues to increase to the freezing point,
there is a continual sinking of water until that point is reached. As sea ice forms, it is less saline
than the seawater so the salinity of the water is elevated, and the density further increased. This
very dense polar water sinks and flows towards the equator at intermediate depths (Antarctic
Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Deep Water) or along the seafloor (Antarctic Bottom
Water). Antarctic Bottom Water in particular penetrates far into the northern parts of the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Deep water will eventually be returned to the surface by wind-
driven mixing, and thus, there is a continuous, but very slow (on the order of several hundred to
a thousand years), cycling between surface and deep waters
Fig. 3.13 Effects of N

deflection force upon the
moving particle
A
X
R M⬘ D
P
B
Y R⬘ M
O
Supposed Resultant
important in maintaining oxygen levels at all

F
depths.
E
C The ocean currents are also influenced and
A
modified by factors like shape of the coastline,
G seasons and bottom topography. There role in
modifying the direction and pattern of currents
D
B is discussed here in brief.
3.2.3.1 Direction and the Shape

of the Coastline
Direction and shape of the coastline—coastal
Fig. 3.14 Effects of deflection force upon the moving form modifies the direction of the currents to
particle on the ellipsoidal Earth some extent. The westward movement of the
South Equatorial Current is obstructed by the
as a function of the latitude, and it increases from presence of the South American continent, and
the equatorial region to the pole. due to its projecting nose at Cape Sao Roque, this
Salinity, temperature and pressure establish current is bifurcated into two: one part enters into
the density of seawater. Changes at the sea sur- the Caribbean Sea moving along northern coast
face, which result in higher density, will result in of South America and mixes with the North
the downwelling of that water. Very dense water Equatorial Current, whereas the other moves to
formed at high latitudes sinks to form the bottom the south following the direction of the coast of
water masses of the oceans, and this process is Brazil. Similar deflections are found on the
3.2 Currents 73
western parts of equatorial oceanic regions where 3.2.4 El Niño

piling up of water takes place. In the Indian
Ocean also, drift closely follows the form of the Figure 3.14 represents the cold Humboldt Cur-
Indian coastline. In the Pacific Ocean, the islands rent that flows equatorwards along the coasts of
obstruct the westward flow of the equatorial cur- Ecuador and Peru. When the current approaches
rent and govern their directions. the equator, the westward-flowing trade winds
cause upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water
3.2.3.2 Seasonal Variations along the coast. This process triggers the phyto-
Seasonal variations in direction and in the volume plankton bloom and results in the increase of fish
of the currents are found in specified areas of wind population. Fishing, especially for anchovies, is a
shift belt or in special climatic regions. The major local industry. Every year usually during
currents of the Indian Ocean show a marked the months of November and December, a weak
change in their direction. During northeast warm counter current replaces the normally cold
monsoons in winter, the direction of the monsoon coastal waters. Without the upwelling of
drift is from east to west along the coast. But nutrients from below to feed the fish, fishing
reversed direction is noted in summers when comes to a standstill. Fishermen in this region
southwest monsoon drags the currents in the north- are acquainted with this phenomenon for
east direction. Consequently, changes in direction hundreds of years. In fact, this is the time of
are also noted in the equatorial current of the year they traditionally set aside to tend to their
Indian Ocean. The former appears only during equipment and await the return of cold water.
winter months, and the latter only in summers. The residents of the region have given this phe-
nomenon the name El Niño, which is Spanish for
3.2.3.3 Bottom Topography ‘The Child’, because it occurs about the time of the
The nature of the bottom topography to some celebration of the birth of the Christ Child. The
extent modifies the currents on the surface as warm-water current usually lasts for 2 months or
well as on the bottom of the sea. Ekman has less, but occasionally the disruption to the normal
examined the above fact by taking into account flow lasts for many months. In these situations,
the rotation of the Earth. According to him, in water temperatures are raised not just along the
low latitudes, the currents tend to flow east to coast but for thousands of kilometres offshore
west, independent of the slope of the bottom, but (Fig. 3.15). Over the past decade, the term El
in middle and high latitudes, the currents tend to Niño has come to describe these exceptionally
be influenced by the bottom contours. strong episodes and not the annual event. During
The curvature or the deflection observed in the the past 50 years, approximately 18 years qualify
surface current as a result of a bottom barrier as having El Niño conditions (with sea-surface
would be greatest where the change in the slope temperatures 0.5 C higher, or warmer, than nor-
is greatest. In a homogenous layer, the presence of mal for 6 consecutive months).
the slope current within which the velocities are
independent of depth, except within a layer, are
influenced by bottom friction. But in a nonhomo-
geneous water, the isosteric surfaces would be Brain Churners
horizontal at bottom and sloping above in such a 1. How does the wind passing over the
manner that looking towards the direction of flow surface of the sea generate waves?
the water of greatest specific volume (lowest den- 2. What is clapotis?
sity) is to the right and of east specific volume is to 3. How are the seismic waves generated?
the left. When there is a submarine ridge under the 4. What are coastal trapped waves?
water mass, the surface of water rises and the 5. How is the tidal bulge influenced by
distribution of mass is altered in such a way that the sun and moon?
the surfaces slope upwards when approaching the
ridge and downwards after passing the ridge. (continued)
Fig. 3.15 These enhanced satellite images show a sig- warmer sea-surface temperatures, while the blues and
nificant El Niño (left) and La Niña (right) episodes in the purples mark areas of cooler temperatures
Tropical Pacific. The red and white shades display the
about 40 km southeast below Farakka at

6. Why do gyres flow clockwise in the
Khejurtala village in Murshidabad district. The
Northern Hemisphere and counter-
right arm of the river (which was the original
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere?
course of Ganga) continues to flow south in
7. What are upwelling and downwelling?
West Bengal in the name of the Bhagirathi
How is the primary and secondary pro-
(called Hooghly in its downstream stretch),
ductivity influenced by these processes?
which crosses 500 km to the sea (Bay of
8. What are the factors regulating the
Bengal). The left arm flows into Bangladesh
salinity of seawater?
after flowing by the border of Murshidabad for
9. Why does the polar water from the
60 km in the name of Padma and joined by the
Antarctic Region sink down and flow
Brahmaputra and the Meghna, these rivers form
towards the equator?
the huge deltaic lobe before meeting the Bay of
10. How is the South Equatorial Current
Bengal. The Hooghly estuary is the western-
modified by the shape of the coast line?
most estuary in the Gangetic delta and serves as
the lifeline of millions of people inhabiting the
mangrove-dominated Sundarbans and highly
urbanized city of Kolkata, Howrah and the
Annexure 3A: Oscillation newly emerging Haldia port–cum–industrial com-
of Hydrological Parameters in and plex. Multifarious industries are situated on the
Around Indian Sundarbans banks of the Hooghly River, namely, paper,
textiles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, plastics,
1. Introduction shellac, food, leather, jute, pesticides, etc.
(UNEP 1982). A considerable quantity of toxic
The deltaic complex of the mighty River Ganga and hazardous substance is being released into this
can be said to start from the extreme upstream important aquatic system through these industrial
region of Farakka in the maritime state of West effluents along with huge organic load emanating
Bengal. The River Ganga divides into two arms from agricultural and shrimp culture activities and
Annexure 3A: Oscillation of Hydrological Parameters in and Around Indian Sundarbans 75
several non-point sources. The present study was Table 3A.1 Local name and coordinates of sampling
therefore undertaken during 15–30 May 2014 to stations
scan the stretch of the Hooghly estuarine system, S. No. Sampling station Coordinates
the major arm of the River Ganga in terms of 1 Raichak (Stn.1) 22 120 12.0000 N and
some important physico-chemical variables. 88 070 42.0900 E
2 Diamond Harbour 22 110 04.0200 N and
(Stn.2) 88 100 50.5200 E
3 Kulpi (Stn.3) 22 360 28.8600 N and
2. Study Area 88 230 28.3200 E
4 Balari (Stn.4) 22 070 02.1600 N and
The River Ganga emerges from the glacier at 88 110 35.3400 E
Gangotri, about 7010 m above mean sea level 5 Haldi River mouth 22 000 26.0700 N and
(Stn.5) 88 030 29.6400 E
in the Himalayas, and flows down to the Bay of
6 Nayachar (Stn.6) 22 000 30.4200 N and
Bengal covering a distance of 2525 km. In this 88 030 32.5200 E
length, Ganga passes along 29 class I cities (pop- 7 Khejuri Reserve 21 540 51.6600 N and
ulation over 100,000), 23 class II cities (popula- Forest (Stn.7) 88 000 56.5200 E
tion between 50,000 and 100,000) and 48 towns 8 Ghoramara Island 21 560 15.2400 N and
having less than 50,000 populations. (Stn.8) 88 070 33.0600 E
Stakeholders of several tiers are associated with 9 Harwood point 21 560 15.2400 N and
(Stn.9) 88 070 33.0600 E
this mighty river. About 50 % of Indian
10 Harinbari (Stn.10) 21 460 54.1200 N and
populations live in the Ganga basin. 43 % of the 88 040 02.6400 E
total irrigated area in the country also falls within 11 Chemaguri (Stn.11) 21 390 49.3200 N and
the Ganga basin, and there are about 100 urban 88 090 11.8800 E
settlements with a total population of about 12 Sagar South 21 390 04.6800 N and
120 million on its banks. (Stn.12) 88 010 47.2800 E
The Hooghly estuary, the first deltaic offshoot
of the River Ganga, is a coastal plain estuary and
lies approximately between 21 310 –23 200 N and phases in the premonsoon period (May, 2014).
87 450 –88 450 E. The southern part of the estuary The coordinates of the stations were measured
flows through the marshy deltaic complex covered by GPS (Model Garmin eTrex H).
with thick mangrove forest called Sundarbans
(declared as Biosphere Reserve of the country
with an area of 9630 km2). The estuary has a 3. Materials and Methods
funnel-shaped mouth. The area of cross section
can be related to distance by the expression The entire network of the present programme
Ax ¼ Ao e-kx , where Ax is the area of cross section consists of the analysis of physico-chemical
of distance x, x is the distance measured landwards characteristics of Hooghly estuarine water during
and Ao is the area of cross section at the mouth and May 2014 with respect to selective variables like
is a constant (0.0241). The tide in the estuary is surface water temperature, salinity, pH, alkalin-
predominantly semidiurnal. The vertical tide ity, DO, BOD, COD, NO3-N, PO4-P, SiO3-Si,
range at the mouth varies from 5.2 m during extinction coefficient, chloride, sodium, potas-
spring to 1.8 m at the neap period. Due to the sium and total nitrogen. In order to evaluate the
funnel-shaped mouth configuration of the estuary, impact of tides, water samples were collected
a near constancy of ranges is maintained over a both during high tide and low tide periods. For
long stretch of the estuary. Twelve stations were each observational station, triplicate water
selected in this estuarine stretch (Table 3A.1 and samples were collected from the surface during
Fig. 3A.1) to monitor the spatial variations of two tidal conditions at a distance of 100 m of each
physico-chemical characteristics during two tidal other and analyzed for the selected parameters.
Fig. 3A.1 Map showing the lower stretch of Gangetic delta and location of sampling stations
Table 3A.2 Precision level of hydrological parameters evaluated through Duncan’s Multiple Range
Parameter Precision Detection limit Test (Table 3A.3). The alphabetical notations
Water 0.05 C 0–100 C were used to mark the similarity and differences
temperature at significant level of an alpha 0.05 (Gomeez and
( C) Gomez 1984).
Salinity (‰) 0.5 ‰ 0–100 ‰
pH 0.02 1–14
Alkalinity 5 mg/l 10–2000 mg/l
(mg/l) 4. Results and Discussion
DO (mg/l) 0.3 mg/l 2–20 mg/l
(0.2 C) Estuaries are important segment of biogeochem-
BOD (mg/l) 0.2 mg/l 1–20 mg/l ical cycle as they regulate the amount of river-
COD (mg/l) 0.5 mg/l 10–300 mg/l borne major and minor elements entering the
NO3 (μg at/l) 0. 2 μg at/l (1 μg 0.1–45 μg at/l coastal environment and ultimately the deep
at/l at 1.7 cm Cell)
ocean. Estuarine ecosystems are complex and
PO4 (μg at/l) 0. 3 μg at/l (3 μg 0.05–5 μg at/l
at/l at 1.7 cm Cell) dynamic due to strong gradients in chemical
SiO3 (μg at/l) 1.5 μg at/l 20–300 mg at/l composition of water, variable suspended matter
Extinction 0.2 m1 2–10 m1 concentration and complex hydrodynamic pro-
coefficient cesses. When river water mixes with seawater,
(m1) different types of physical and chemical pro-
SO4 (mg/l) 3 mg/l 5–1500 mg/l cesses take place that may affect the partitioning
Na (mg/l) 5 mg/l 10–15,000 mg/l
of trace metals between particulate and dissolved
K (mg/l) 3 mg/l 10–500 mg/l
phases and hence the composition of the depos-
Cl (mg/l) 10 mg/l 100–20,000 mg/
l ited sediments (Forstner 1983). Recently, the
Total N 0.5 μg at/l 5–75 mg/l importance of estuarine processes in modifying
(μg at/l) the chemistry of the materials accumulating and
passing through this interface has been realized.
Several geochemical processes, such as precipi-
A Celsius thermometer was used to measure tation and flocculation of the dissolved and col-
the surface water temperature; pH and alkalinity loidal substances (Coonley et al. 1971;
were measured in the field using a portable pH Sholkovitz 1976; Gobeil et al. 1981), desorptio-
meter (sensitivity ¼ 0.02) and micropipette n–adsorption phenomenon, chemical diagenesis
titration method, respectively. Surface water and exchange with the bottom sediments (Yeats
salinity was measured by refractometer and and Bewers 1982), have been studied within the
cross-checked in the laboratory by argentometric mixing zone.
method. The salinity of the standard seawater In the present era, because of rapid industriali-
procured from NIO was analyzed by the same zation and urbanization, wastes of complex nature
method, and a deviation of 0.02 % was obtained. have posed an adverse impact on the coastal and
Transparency was measured in the field by using estuarine waters. The waters, rich in nutrients and
a Secchi disc of 30 cm in diameter and converted heavy toxic metals, damage the living aquatic
into extinction coefficient. D.O., BOD, COD, organisms (Bryan 1971, 1976, 1984; Hobbie
NO3-N, PO4-P, SiO3-Si, chloride, sodium, potas- 1976; Andrew et al. 1983). Our study area is no
sium and total nitrogen were measured as per the exception to this trend. The chain of factories and
procedure stated in Strickland and Parsons and industries situated on the western bank of the
APHA 20th Edition (Strickland and Parsons Hooghly estuary is a prominent cause behind the
1972; APHA 2001). The precision of analysis is gradual transformation of this beautiful ecotone
highlighted in Table 3A.2. into stinking cesspools of the megapolis. Our
Finally, the tidal and spatial variations of the observation on the tidal and spatial variations of
selected physico-chemical variables were important physico-chemical variables in the major
Table 3A.3 Duncan’s Multiple Test Range to determine the spatial and tidal variation of hydrological parameters
Water Extinction
Station temperature Salinity Alkalinity DO BOD COD NO3 PO4 SiO3 coefficient SO4 Na Total N
No. (ºC) (%0) pH (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (μg at/l) (μg at/l) (μg at/l) (m-1) (mg/l) (mg/l) K (mg/l) Cl (mg/l) (μg at/l)
HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT HT LT
1 a a A b a b a b a b a b a b a B a b a b a b a b a b a a a b a b
c c C d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c c c d c d
10 a a A b a b a b a b a b a b A B a b a b a b a b a b a a a b a b
c c C d c d c d c d c d c d C d c d c d c d c d c d c c c d c d
a-a combination ¼ tidal similarity, a-b combination ¼ tidal variation, c-c combination ¼ spatial uniformity, c-d combination ¼ spatial variation; the similarity and differences are at
significant level of an alpha 0.05, HT high tide, LT low tide
80 45
Surface water temperature (°C)
LT HT LT HT
70 40
60 35
Salinity (psu)
30
50
25
40
20
30
15
20 10
10 5
0 0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
18 LT HT LT HT
16 600
14 500
Alkalinity (mg/l)
12
10 400
pH
8 300
6
200
4
2 100
0 0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
14
Extinction Coefficient (m−1)
LT HT
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Fig. 3A.2 Tidal variations of surface water temperature, salinity, pH, alkalinity and extinction coefficient in the
sampling stations
estuarine stretch of the Gangetic delta region is less fluctuation of water temperature is due to
summarized in Table 3A.3 high specific heat of the aquatic phase, which
enables water to resist much fluctuation of tem-
4.1 Surface Water Temperature perature than the adjacent landmasses. The
The surface temperature varied between 36.1 C aquatic subsystem in the present geographical
and 36.8 C during high tide and 36.2 C to locale therefore acts as a stabilizing factor upon
36.9 C during low tide. The estuarine stretch the temperature profile of the Gangetic delta
did not exhibit significant tidal variation of sur- protecting the deltaic biodiversity from drastic
face water temperature; neither the spatial varia- thermal shock. The surface water temperature
tion was prominent (Table 3A.3, Fig. 3A.2). The has considerable effect on phytoplankton
population density by influencing the process of 4.3 Surface Water pH

cyst germination (Ishikawa and Taniguchi 1994; The pH of the seawater showed a variation within
Blanco 1995). The fluctuation of this variable has a small range. The values ranged from 7.64 to
profound influence on estuarine food chain. 8.19 during high tide condition and 7.50 to 8.10
Insignificant tidal and spatial variations of sur- during low tide condition. The relatively higher
face water temperature seem to have no impact values of pH during high tide in all the selected
on the phytoplankton community of the estuary. stations are the effect of intrusion of saline water
from the Bay of Bengal that penetrates almost
4.2 Surface Water Salinity 250 km upstream. The funnel-shaped mouth of
The surface water salinity values ranged from the estuarine system forces more penetration of
2.02‰ to 21.59‰ during high tide and 1.28‰ seawater in the upstream zone that caused alka-
to 19.66‰ during low tide. The salinity values line effect even in the extreme uppermost station
(mean of high tide and low tide) decreased from around Stn. 1. The pH values in the downstream
the downstream to the upstream zone as per the stretch of the estuary (Stn. 10, Stn. 11 and Stn.
order Stn. 12 > Stn. 11 > Stn. 10 > Stn. 12) are approximately around 8.15, which is very
9 > Stn. 8 > Stn. 7 > Stn. 6 > Stn. 5 > Stn. close to the average pH of the Bay of Bengal
4 > Stn. 3 > Stn. 2 > Stn. 1, and the significant water (8.28). Significant tidal and spatial
spatial variation was confirmed by Duncan’s variations of surface water pH (Table 3A.3,
Multiple Range Test (Table 3A.3). La Fond Fig. 3A.2) may thus be linked strongly to the
(1954) explained that the decline of salinity of intrusion of seawater from the bay.
the surface waters is mainly due to the riverine
contribution, which is much higher in the 4.4 Alkalinity
upstream stations (Stns. 1–4). The discharge Alkalinity of seawater is equal to the stoichio-
from the Farakka barrage has got a significant metric sum of the bases in solution. In the
influence on salinity in the present study area natural environment, carbonate alkalinity
(Mitra et al. 2009). The barrage was constructed tends to make up most of the total alkalinity
during 1975 to augment water flow in the due to the common occurrence and dissolution
Hooghly channel for the purpose of navigation, of carbonate rocks and presence of carbon
and during our study period, the average dis- dioxide in the atmosphere. Other common nat-
charge was 34,195 cusec of freshwater per day. ural components that can contribute to alkalin-
Five-year surveys (1999–2003) on water dis- ity include borate, hydroxide, phosphate,
charge from Farakka barrage revealed an average silicate, nitrate, dissolved ammonia, the conju-
discharge of (3.4 1.2) 103 m3/s. Higher dis- gate bases of some organic acids and sulphide.
charge values were observed during the monsoon The major components contributing to alkalin-
with an average of (3.2 1.2) 103 m3/s and ity in the present geographical locale are car-
the maximum of the order 4200 m3/s during bonate rocks and other substances like nitrate,
freshet (September). Considerably lower dis- phosphate, ammonia, etc., that originate from
charge values were recorded during premonsoon sewage, municipal wastes (from the city of
with an average of (1.2 0.09) 103 m3/s and Kolkata, Howrah and Haldia) and large number
the minimum of the order 860 m3/s during May. of shrimp culture units in the Gangetic delta
During postmonsoon discharge values were region. The alkalinity values ranged from
moderate with an average of (2.1 0.98) 103 160 to 240 mg/l during high tide condition
m3/s. Significant tidal variation of surface water and 131 to 250 mg/l during low tide condition.
salinity (Fig. 3A.2) in all the sampling stations is Significant tidal and spatial variations of alka-
being regulated by the discharge of freshwater linity (Table 3A.3, Fig. 3A.2) were confirmed
from the barrage. in the study stretch. The relatively higher alka-
linity values in the downstream stations (Stns.
9 to 12) may be related to the proximity of the 4.6 BOD and COD
stations to the Bay of Bengal and the presence In the present study, the BOD values ranged from
of luxuriant mangrove vegetation in these 2.8 to 6.5 mg/l during high tide condition and 2.7
zones. The relatively higher pH values in the to 8.1 mg/l during low tide condition. The COD
downstream stations are due to the mixing of values ranged from 67 to 145 mg/l during high
seawater with estuarine waters and by the man- tide condition and 71 to 152 mg/l during low tide
grove photosynthetic activity, which utilize condition. High BOD, COD and low DO levels
CO2, thereby shifting the equilibrium towards observed at Stn. 2, Stn. 5 and Stn. 9 may be
highly alkaline (Ruttner 1953). Mangroves in attributed to discharge of untreated municipal
the present study area are restricted in and sewage and effluents from industries. The COD
around Stns. 9, 10, 11 and 12. is used as a measure of the oxygen equivalent of
Alkalinity is important for fish and aquatic life the organic matter content of a sample that is
because it protects or buffers against rapid pH susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical
changes. Living organisms, especially aquatic oxidant. The mushroom growth of hotels and
life, function best in a pH range of 6.0–9.0. resorts and the presence of fish landing centres
Higher alkalinity levels in surface waters of in and around Stn. 2 and Stn. 9 may be another
downstream stations will buffer acid rain and prominent cause of high BOD and COD values.
other acid wastes and prevent pH changes that Most pristine rivers have a 5-day BOD below
are harmful to aquatic life. The downstream 1 mg/L, and moderately polluted rivers have a
stations of Gangetic delta are therefore relatively BOD value in the range of 2–8 mg/L. The present
less stressful in comparison to upstream zones. estuarine stretch is therefore not congenial in
terms of organic load and nutrients. The anthro-
4.5 Dissolved Oxygen pogenic activities of diverse nature have caused
Dissolved oxygen values ranged from 4.43 to significant spatial variation of BOD and COD
6.60 mg/l during high tide and 4.95 to 6.91 mg/l values (Fig. 3A.3). The relatively higher dilution
during low tide. The higher values of DO in the of the system during low tide brings more sewage
upstream stations (Stn. 1 to Stn. 4) may be appar- from the upstream stations centering the thickly
ently due to DO-rich freshwater conveyed populated city of Kolkata that increased BOD
through rivers and mere dilution of the zone and COD values significantly (Table 3A.3).
with Farakka barrage discharge. Significant
tidal variation of DO with relatively higher 4.7 Nutrients
value during low tide period is the result of Nitrate represents the highest oxidized state of
more freshwater during this phase of the tidal nitrogen. The most important source of nitrate is
cycle. The contributory role of freshwater to biological oxidation of organic nitrogenous
increase dissolved oxygen was confirmed by substances, which come through sewage and
Nair (Nair 1985) while working in the industrial wastes. Nitrate and phosphate usually
Kalapakkam waters. Significant variation of DO exhibited higher values towards the upstream
through space in the estuarine stretch stations, while a reverse picture was noticed for
(Table 3A.3, Fig. 3A.3) may be attributed to silicate. The nitrate values ranged from 15.02 to
dilution factor (high in the upstream stations) 30.45 μg at/l during high tide and 16.29 to
and anthropogenic pressure (maximum at Stns. 35.14 μg at/l during low tide. Phosphate values
4 and 9) due to the presence of Haldia ranged from 1.42 to 3.98 μg at/l during high tide
port–cum–industrial complex (at Stn. 4), passen- and 1.81 to 6.01 μg at/l during low tide. The
ger jetties, fish landing units and busy markets silicate values showed an increasing trend while
draining untreated sewage (at Stn. 9) into the proceeding from the coastal zone to riverine
estuary. zone, although the values were significantly low
at Stns. 9, 10, 11 and 12 near the bay. The values
16 LT HT 16 LT HT
14 14
12 12
BOD (mg/l)
DO (mg/l)
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
350
70
300 LT HT LT HT
60
Nitrate (µgat/l)
250 50
OOD (mg/l)
200 40
150 30
100 20
50 10
0 0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
12
LT HT
10 250
Phosphate (µgat/l)
LT HT
8
Silicate (µgat/l)
200
6 150
4 100
2 50
0 0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Fig. 3A.3 Tidal variations of surface water DO, BOD, COD, mitrate, phosphate and silicate in the sampling stations
ranged from 61.80 to 110.22 μg at/l during high units, (v) considerable number of unorganized
tide and 49.78 to 95.00 μg at/l during low tide fish landing sites with no provision for proper
(Table 3A.3, Fig. 3A.3). Observations of increase sewage and garbage disposal, (vi) increased
in nutrients with decrease in salinity have been number of fishing vessels and trawlers
reported in the Indian estuaries by various (Mukherjee et al. 2007) (Table 3A.4), (vii) ero-
workers (Sankaranarayanan and Qasim 1969; sion of embankments and mudflats due to wave
Solarzano and Ehrilich 1975). The increase of action and (viii) contribution of litters and man-
nutrient load in the present study area may be grove detritus from the adjacent landmasses.
attributed to (i) increased industrialization and The variations of nutrients were significant
urbanization, (ii) unplanned expansion of shrimp between two tidal conditions and also with
culture units, (iii) large-scale use of fertilizers space. The higher NO3 and PO4 levels in and
(urea, superphosphate, etc.) for boosting crop around Stn. 2, 5 and 9 are the results of anthro-
production in monocropping areas of the islands pogenic activities. The considerable nutrient load
of Sundarbans, (iv) mushrooming of tourism around Stn. 8 is the result of erosion activities
Table 3A.4 Official records of fishing vessels/trawlers 4.9 Sulphate

in and around Indian Sundarbans Sulphate is a major constituent of seawater and is
Year No. of mechanized boat/trawlers used as an electron acceptor for the oxidation of
1998–1999 3362 organic matter in the absence of oxygen. The site
1999–2000 3585 of sulphate reduction is more often on the surface
2000–2001 3622 of sediments than the water column. The reaction
2001–2002 3763 kinetics of sulphate reduction and associated sul-
2002–2003 4175
phur cycling depend on the interplay between
2003–2004 4481
sulphate concentration and availability of
2004–2005 4521
2005–2006 4575
organic matter (Goldhaber and Kaplan 1974). In
2006–2007 4630 coastal sediments, the reduction of sulphate by
the respiratory metabolism of sulphate by the
sulphate-reducing bacteria is reported to be a
due to sea level rise (Hazra et al. 2002). The common phenomenon (Jorgensen 1977). A prin-
spatial oscillation of nutrients (NO3, PO4 and cipal controlling factor of sulphate reduction is
SiO3) is therefore the resultant of several causes, the abundance and type of organic matter present
and it is extremely difficult to isolate the exclu- (Berner 1972).
sive contribution of each factor in enrichment of In the present study, the sulphate values
nutrients. ranged from 492 to 1293 mg/l during high tide
condition and 354 to 1123 mg/l during low tide
4.8 Extinction Coefficient condition. Significant spatial and tidal variations
The values of extinction coefficient ranged from of sulphate were observed in the estuarine stretch
4.65 to 6.12 during high tide and 5.33 to 6.91 of the delta complex (Table 3A.3, Fig. 3A.4).
during low tide (Table 3A.3, Fig. 3A.2). The high Sulphate, like Cl, exhibited a higher concentra-
value of extinction coefficient around Stn. 5 may tion in the downstream stations under the influ-
be related to the location of the station near ence of seawater mixing. The relatively lower
Haldia port–cum–industrial complex that dis- concentration of sulphate in the upper estuary
charge considerable amount of domestic sewage may be due to consumption of the anion by
and industrial effluents. Stn. 9 is a busy market paddy fields along the upstream stations, whereas
place with fish landing units and passenger vessel removal is compensated in the lower part of the
jetties, which generate considerable amount of estuary by the contribution of seawater and decay
sewage. The domestic sewage contains colloidal of organic matter from mangroves.
and finely divided suspended matter that impact
turbidity in the water column thereby raising the 4.10 Chloride
value of extinction coefficient. Similar lowering Chloride is the major ion in seawater, which
of water transparency was confirmed by regulates the estuarine salinity. Chloride level
Satyanarayana et al. (1990) while working in exerts considerable influence on the biotic com-
the other Indian estuaries. Extinction coefficient munity of marine and estuarine system. It has got
was also higher around Stn. 8, which is an biological effects at different levels such as at
erosion-prone zone contributing appreciable cellular level and in animal tissues and is also
load of silt particles to ambient water. Relatively responsible for mortality. Studies on fish have
higher extinction coefficient values during low shown that the first detectable damage occurs in
tide indicate more riverine contribution of the blood cells. Osmoregulatory dysfunction and
suspended particulate matter from the populated disturbance to calcium and magnesium levels
cities and towns of the upstream zone. Significant precede haemolysis. These effects have been
tidal and spatial variations of the parameter were observed in the number of species (Hose
confirmed through Duncan’s Multiple Test et al. 1983; Cohen and Valenzuela 1977;
Range (Table 3A.3).
2500 14000
LT HT 12000 LT HT
2000
10000
Sodium (mg/l)
Sulphate (mg/l)
1500 8000
1000 6000
4000
500
2000
0 0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
600 25000
500 LT HT LT HT
20000
Potassium (mg/l)
Chloride (mg/l)
400
15000
300
10000
200
100 5000
0 0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
140
LT HT
120
Total Nitrogen (mg/l)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Station 6
Station 7
Station 8
Station 9
Station 10
Station 11
Station 12
Fig. 3A.4 Tidal variations of surface water sulphate, sodium, potassium, chloride and total nitrogen in the sampling
stations
Middaugh et al. 1977; Buckley et al. 1976). The are due to the proximity of the stations to the Bay
degree of damage has been reported to occur at a of Bengal. Significant spatial and tidal variations
concentration of 0.1 mg/l in 30 min (Hose of chloride ion in the estuarine stretch (Table
et al. 1983). Kidney damage has been observed 3A.3, Fig. 3A.4) confirm the influence of seawa-
in a chlorine concentration as low as ter intrusion in the upstream zone of the Gangetic
0.06–0.3 mg/l (Bass and Heath 1977). Other delta region. The discharge from Farakka bar-
than fishes, several marine invertebrate species rage, however, acts as a shield against seawater
are also affected by lethal concentration of chlo- penetration in the upper estuarine stretch due to
rine in ambient waters. In the present study, the which the values were lower.
Cl values ranged from 1412 to 12,104 mg/l dur-
ing high tide condition and from 799 to 4.11 Sodium
11,180 mg/l during low tide condition. The The Na values ranged from 711 to 685 mg/l
higher values of Cl in the downstream stations during high tide and 439 to 6099 mg/l during
low tide condition and represent the dominant 4.13 Total Nitrogen
cation in the system contributing to 28 % of Water samples from the study area were signifi-
surface water salinity (Fig. 3A.4). These values cantly enriched in nitrogen (NH4+ NO2 and
are comparable to Na level in the water of NO3) indicating that inputs from sewage, agri-
Pichavaram mangrove, Vellar estuary and cultural run-off and benthic fluxes are not fully
Coleroon estuary in the southeast coast of India assimilated within the system. In the present
(Ramanathan et al. 1999). The progressive study, the total nitrogen values ranged from
increase of Na from Stn. 1 to Stn. 12 is due to 20.6 to 56.8 μg at/l during high tide condition
the proximity of the downstream stations to the and from 26.5 to 67.9 μg at/l during low tide
Bay of Bengal, and the higher values during high condition. The significant tidal and spatial
tide are the result of intrusion of seawater from variations of total nitrogen (Table 3A.3) reflect
the Bay. Significant tidal and spatial variations of the anthropogenic source of the variable. The
the cation are confirmed by Duncan’s Multiple present study stretch acts as sink of the highly
Range Test (Table 3A.3). urbanized city of Kolkata. The city is one of the
major megacities in India where the population
4.12 Potassium has increased from 9,194,018 (in 1981) to
Seawater contains about 400 ppm potassium. It 11,021,918 (in 1991) and finally 13,216,546
tends to settle and consequently ends up in sedi- (in 2001). This means an exponential growth
ment mostly. Rivers generally contain about rate of 1.72 during 1981–1991 and 1.82 during
2–3 ppm potassium. This difference is mainly 1991–2001 (http://www.india-seminar.com/
caused by a large potassium concentration in 2007/59/579/_k_c_sivaramakrishnan.htm). The
oceanic basalts. Calcium-rich granite contains wastes generated from such quantum of popula-
up to 2.5 % potassium. In water, this element is tion load reaches the Hooghly estuarine stretch.
mainly present as K+ (aq) ions. Potassium is a Apart from these, the area supports large num-
naturally abundant radioactive potassium iso- bers of shrimp (Penaeus monodon) culture farms
tope. Seawater contains a natural concentration often coexisting with brick manufacturing units
of about 4.5 105 g/L. Potassium occurs in that are potential sources of nitrogen in the
various minerals, from which it may be dissolved Gangetic delta complex (Table 3A.3, Fig. 3A.4).
through weathering processes. Some clay
minerals also contain potassium, which ends up
in seawater through natural processes and settles 5. Conclusion
in sediments.
In the present study, the K values ranged from In the present study, some environmentally
29 to 246 mg/l during high tide condition and important hydrological parameters and nutrients
23 to 241 mg/l during low tide condition. Unlike were measured during the premonsoon period
other variables, the tidal difference of K is not (May, 2014) at different sampling stations in
significant, although the spatial variation of the the Hooghly of the lower Gangetic delta. Few
cation is highly significant (Table 3A.3, core findings from this study are listed here:
Fig. 3A.4). The higher values of K in the lower (i) There is pronounced impact of tidal cycle on
estuarine stretch are due to the deposition of clay the hydrological parameters of the Hooghly estu-
particles in the high-saline downstream stations ary as confirmed through Duncan’s Multiple
at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The extreme Range Test. (ii) The presence of highly
erosion in the lower estuarine stretch is another populated and industrialized cities like Kolkata,
prominent cause of origin of clay particles Howrah and Haldia port–cum–industrial com-
enriched with K. Earlier study in this estuarine plex has posed an adverse impact on the health
system recorded lower K level in the upper estu- of the ecosystem. (iii) Ecorestoration of this frag-
ary in comparison to downstream zone ile ecosystem is of utmost importance as it is a
(Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994).
hot spot of biodiversity with some 34 true man- Bryan, G. W. (1971). The effects of heavy metals (other
grove floral species and 69 mangrove associate than mercury) on marine and estuarine organisms.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 177,
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(Ed.), Effects of pollutants on aquatic organisms
(p. 7). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bryan, G. W. (1984). Pollution due to heavy metals and
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Ishikawa, A., & Taniguchi, A. (1994). The role of cysts on
Stockholm: Wiley.
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Blanco, J. (1995). Cyst production in four species of
(Dinophyceae) in Onagawa Bay, Northeast Japan.
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Oceanography, 22, 815. environmental characteristics. Journal of Marine
La Fond, E. C. (1954). On the upwelling and sinking off Biology, 2, 236.
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Oceanography Waltair, 29, 117. (1990). Primary productivity, plants pigments and
Middaugh, D. P., Couch, J. A., & Crane, A. M. (1977). particular organic carbon of Visakhapatnam Harbour –
Responses of early life-history stages of the Striped A seasonal study. Proceeding of International
Bass Morone saxatilis to chlorination. Chesapeake Symposium of Marine Pollution, Department of
Science, 18(1), 141–153. Ocean Development, New Delhi, pp. 287–300.
Mitra, A., Banerjee, K., Sengupta, K., & Gangopadhyay, Sholkovitz, E. R. (1976). Flocculation of dissolved
A. (2009). Pulse of climate change in Indian organic and inorganic matter during the mixing of
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Mukherjee, M., Roy Choudhury, M., & Tripathi, Solarzano, L., & Ehrilich, B. J. (1975). Chemical
R. (2007). Fishers, fishery and gears in Sundarban investigations of Loch Etive Scotland: I. Inorganic
wetlands. In M. Mukherjee (Ed.), Sundarbans nutrients and pigments Exch. Marine Biology and
wetlands (pp. 115–131). West Bengal: Department of Ecology, 29, 45.
Fisheries, Aquaculture, Aquatic Resources, and Fish- Strickland, J. D. H., & Parsons, T. R. (1972). A practical
ing Harbours, Govt. of West Bengal. handbook of seawater analysis (Fisheries Research
Nair, K. V. K. (1985). Impact of nuclear power station on Board of Canada Bulletin, Vol. 167, p. 310). Ottawa:
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University Press.
Abiotic Variables of the Marine
and Estuarine Ecosystems 4
Contents 4.1 Chemical Components

4.1 Chemical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2 Sediment Compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Aquatic phase of the marine and estuarine
ecosystems is an ideal solvent, and because of
Annexure 4A: Interannual Variation of Salinity this reason seawater is a well-mixed solution of
in the Inshore Region of the Bay of Bengal . . . . . . 104
several salts and gases. The churning of seawater
Annexure 4B: Litmus Test of Climate Change due to wave, currents and tidal actions
in Indian Sundarbans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
accelerates the process of solubility of substances
Annexure 4C: Impact of Climate Change in the solvent. It is mainly because of thorough
on Fish Community, A Case Study
mixing the ionic composition of the major ions of
from Indian Sundarbans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
the seawater (except bicarbonate and fluoride)
Annexure 4D: Acidification of Sundarban exhibits uniform spatial variation, i.e. the com-
Mangrove Estuarine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
position is almost the same from place to place as
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 well as from depth to depth. Thus, the ratio of
one major ion to the other remains almost
constant.
The total salinity may change as freshwater is
removed or gained, but the major ions exist in the
same proportions. This principle of constant
proportions may not apply along the shores,
where rivers may bring in large quantities of
dissolved substances or reduce the salinity to
very low values. Some anthropogenic factors
like discharge of freshwater from dams and
barrages also lower the salinity of estuarine sys-
tem. The case study of the estuaries of Indian
Sundarbans is very relevant in this context. The
discharge from Farakka barrage situated in the
upstream of the Hooghly estuary (westernmost
estuaries of Indian Sundarbans) is the primary
cause of freshening of the water, whereas factors
like massive siltation (leading to total death of

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_4
90 4 Abiotic Variables of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
the Bidyadhari channel that used to carry fresh- 0.5. In regions of marked annual variation in
water to Sundarbans) has made the central zone precipitation, such as the eastern North Pacific
hypersaline by cutting off the freshwater supply and the Bay of Bengal, and near ice, there are
from the upstream region. The factors controlling large annual variations. These variations are con-
the salinity of nearshore region or estuaries are fined to the surface layers because in such
explained through a case study highlighted as regions the effect of reduced salinity may over-
Annexure 4A. ride the effect of temperature in reducing the
The salinity of the surface water is basically seawater density. This keeps the low-salinity
zonal in distribution although not as clearly so as water in the surface layer. Diurnal variations of
the temperature. The average surface salinity salinity appear to be very small.
distribution is different from that for temperature Temporal salinity variations may be large at
in that it has a minimum just north of the equator water mass boundaries where advective and dif-
and maximum values in the subtropics at about fusive changes occur. These water mass
25 N and S of the equator. The minimum and boundaries can be found both at the surface and
maxima are evident in the individual oceans. at depth. Again, these boundaries are usually
Values decrease towards high latitudes. marked by fluctuations in salinity maxima or
Observations make it clear that surface salinity minima.
is determined by the opposing effects of evapo- The spatio-temporal variation of salinity has
ration increasing it and precipitation decreasing become very vivid as impact of climate change
the value. The salinity maxima of the trade wind induced sea level rise and several anthropogenic
regions exist where the annual evaporation factors cropped up in the present era (Vide
(E) exceeds precipitation (P), so that (E P) is Annexure 4A). The alteration of salinity is an
positive. Examples of the areal distribution of important topic in marine and estuarine ecology
(E P), as distinct from global average, were as this variable poses a significant impact on the
given as annual and seasonal averages for the coastal vegetation (Vide Annexure 4B), on fish-
North Atlantic Ocean by Schmitt et al. (1989) ery (Vide Annexure 4C) and even on carbon
together with references to other sources of sequestration potential of mangroves (Vide
such data. Annexure 4D).
The range of surface salinity values in the
open oceans is from 33 to 37 psu. Lower values
occur locally near coasts where large rivers 4.1.2 Deep-Water Salinity
empty and in the Polar Regions where the ice
melts. Higher values occur in regions of high In deep waters, 4000 m or deeper, the salinity is
evaporation such as the eastern Mediterranean relatively uniform at 34.6–34.9 psu throughout
(39 psu) and the Red Sea (41 psu). On the aver- the world ocean. Remembering that the deep-
age the North Atlantic is the most saline ocean at water temperature also has a small range
the surface (35.5 psu), the South Atlantic and (0.9 C to 2 C), this means that the deep-
South Pacific less so (about 35.2 psu) and the water environment is very uniform in character.
North Pacific the least saline (34.2 psu).
4.1.3 Conservative and Non-

4.1.1 Spatio-temporal Variations conservative Ions
of Salinity
The major ions present in seawater are also
Information on temporal variations of salinity is called conservative ions, because they do not
much less than for temperature which is more change their ratios to each other with changes
easily measured. Annual variations of surface in salinity and because they are not generally
salinity in the open ocean are probably less than removed or added by living organisms. Certain
4.1 Chemical Components 91
ions present in much smaller quantities, and organisms except for certain bacteria. Gases such
some dissolved gases and assorted organic as argon, helium and neon are present in small
molecules change their concentrations in seawa- amounts, but they neither interact with the ocean
ter with biological and chemical processes; these water nor are used by its inhabitants.
are called non-conservative ions (Table 4.1). The amount of any gas that can be held in
solution without causing the solution either to
gain or to lose gas is the saturation value. The
4.1.4 Dissolved Gases in Seawater saturation value changes because it depends on
the temperature, salinity and pressure of the
The most abundant gases in the atmosphere and water. Colder water holds more gas than warmer
the oceans are nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2) and water; less salty water holds more gas than more
carbon dioxide (CO2). The percentages of each salty water, and water under more pressure holds
of these gases in the atmosphere and in seawater more gas than water under less pressure.
are given in Table 4.2. Oxygen and carbon diox- In the process known as photosynthesis,
ide play important roles in the ocean because plants use carbon dioxide to form organic
they are necessary to life, and biological molecules and produce oxygen as a by-product.
activities modify their concentrations at various Since plants require sunlight for photosynthesis,
depths. Nitrogen is not used directly by living plant-like marine organisms are confined, on the
Table 4.1 Major constituents of seawater
Constituent Symbol g/kg in Percentage by weight

seawater1
Chloride Cl- 19.35 55.07
Sodium Na+ 10.76 30.62
2-
Sulfate SO4 2.71 7.72
Magnesium Mg 2+
1.29 3.68 99. 36
2+
Calcium Ca 0.41 1.17
+
Potassium K 0.39 1.10
-
Bicarbonate HCO3 0.14 0.40
-
Bromide Br 0.067 0.19
2+
Strontium Sr 0.008 0.02
Boron B3+ 0.004 0.01
Fluoride F- 0.001 0.01
Total ~35.00 99.99
Source: Riley and Skirrow (1975), Chemical Oceanography, Vol. 1, 2nd Edition., p. 366
Table 4.2 Dissolved gases in seawater

Gas molecule % in atmosphere % in surface seawater ml/l of seawater Molecular wt. μmol/kg
Nitrogen N2 78.0 47.5 10 28.014 0.446
Oxygen O2 21.0 36.0 5 31.998 0.219
Carbon dioxide CO2 0.03 15.1 40 42.009 2.142
Argon 1 1.4 – 39.948 0.01
Fig. 4.1 Distribution of

O2 and CO2 with depth
[concentration of dissolved
gases in millilitres per litre
(ml/l)]
average, to the top 100 m (330 ft) of the sea, to absence of photosynthetic process, but pres-
where sufficient light is available. Therefore, ence of respiratory events by organisms dwelling
oxygen is produced in surface water, and carbon at this aphotic zone. At depths greater than this,
dioxide is consumed there. By contrast, respira- the rates of removal of oxygen and production of
tion, which breaks down organic substances to carbon dioxide both fall because the population
provide energy, requires oxygen and produces density of animals and the abundance of
carbon dioxide. All living organisms respire in decaying organic matter have decreased. The
order to produce energy in living cells, and res- slow supply of oxygen to depth by cold water
piration occurs at all depths in the oceans. sinking from the surface gradually increases the
Decomposition, the bacterial breakdown of non- oxygen concentration again at depth. Very low or
living organic material, also requires oxygen and zero concentrations of oxygen occur in the bot-
releases carbon dioxide. tom waters of isolated deep basins, which have
Oxygen can be added to the oceans only at the little or no exchange or replacement of water.
surface, from exchange with the atmosphere or as These include the bottoms of trenches, deep
a waste product of photosynthesis. Carbon diox- basins behind a shallow entrance sill (e.g. the
ide also enters from the atmosphere at the sea Black Sea) and the bottoms of deep fjords. The
surface, but it is available at all depths from water is trapped and becomes stagnant; respira-
respiration and decomposition (Fig. 4.1). tion and decomposition use up the oxygen faster
If the water is quiet, the nutrients and sunlight than the slow circulation of water to this depth
are abundant, and a large population of plants can replace it. The bottom water thus becomes
(preferably phytoplankton) is present; oxygen anoxic, or stripped of dissolved oxygen.
values at the surface can rise above the saturation The common features for dissolved oxygen
value to 150 % or more. This water is supersat- profiles for the Atlantic and the Pacific are
urated. Wave action tends to liberate oxygen to (1) the high values close to the surface, (2) the
the atmosphere and return the condition to the oxygen minimum in the upper 1000 m between
saturated state. the tropics, (3) the relatively high values below
Much below the surface, the oxygen mini- 1000 m in the Atlantic (North Atlantic Deep
mum occurs at about 800 m (2600 ft) depth due Water), (4) low values in the North Pacific and
Fig. 4.2 Carbon reservoir

of the planet Earth.
Atmosphere 560
Numbering in boxes is the
amounts of carbon in each
reservoir (unit Gt).
Numbers between arrows
are the annual rates of 120 60 M
carbon transfer (in Gt);
M methane flux, 60-M-R
R riverine flux of
particulate carbon, Biota 720
Surface Water 560
B burial flux Soil & Detritus 1200 R 50
40
Biota 3
(1-a)R 10 10
Net Flux = B
Deep Ocean 38,000
(5) similar distributions in the southern latitudes The CO2, HCO3 and CO32 are collectively
in both oceans. Distributions in the Indian Ocean referred to as dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC).
are similar to this in the Pacific (south and When CO2 enters seawater, the following
tropics). The lower values in the deep water of chemical reactions take place:
the pacific compared with the Atlantic indicate
CO2 ðgasÞ þ H2 OðliquidÞ ) H2 CO3 ðaqÞ ðcarbonic acidÞ
that this water has been away from the surface for
a longer period of time and that the deep-water H2 CO3 ) Hþ þ HCO3
circulation may be slower in the Pacific. In cer-
tain regions, such as the Black Sea and the CO3 2 þ Hþ ) HCO3
Cariaco Trench (off Venezuela in the Carib- giving the net reaction:
bean), there is no oxygen, but hydrogen sulphide
H2 O þ CO2 þ CO3 2 ) 2HCO3
is present instead (from the reduction of sulphate
ion by bacteria). This indicates that the water has About 90 % of the inorganic carbon in the oceans
been stagnant there for a long time. is in the form of HCO3, about 10 % is in the
Carbon dioxide is a major component of sea- form of CO32 and less than 1 % is in the form of
water. Figure 4.2 illustrates the major carbon CO2. The transfer of CO2 between the atmo-
reservoirs of the planet Earth as a series of sphere and ocean is driven by the difference in
interconnected boxes. The number in each box is CO2 partial pressures (pCO2). If, for example,
the estimated amount of the carbon in the reser- the pCO2 in the atmosphere is greater than of
voir whose unit is gigaton or Gt or billions of tons. the ocean surface, there will be a net flow of
All these data are devoid of anthropogenic noise. CO2 into the ocean. The fact that only 1 % of
Carbon occurs in the atmosphere primarily as oceanic carbon is in the form of CO2 means that
CO2 and to a much smaller extent as CH4, in the it would be otherwise. This in turn allows the
living biota and soils as organic matter and in the ocean to hold a large amount of carbon without
oceans primarily as dissolved CO2, HCO3 creating a large back pressure that would drive
(bicarbonate ion) and CO32 (carbonate ion). CO2 back into the atmosphere.
Fig. 4.3 Schematic

diagram of interaction and ATMOSPHERE
transference of carbon CO2 Air - Sea Gaseous Exchange
between atmosphere,
surface layer of ocean and
CO2 OCEAN SURFACE LAYER
deep layer of ocean
CO2 + H2O + CO23− 2HCO−
3 Chemical Equilibration
CO2 + H2O CH2O + O2 Net Photosynthesis
Ca 2+
+ 2HCO−3 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Construction of Skeletons
Equator - to - Pole ΔT
Low DIC
Diffusive
Mixing Downwelling Water:
Upwelling Water: High DIC relative to non-polar
High DIC surface layer due to coldness,
producing a DIC comparable
to that of upwelling water
BioPump
Downward Settling,
and Dissolution of
Organic Matter
and CaCO3 DEEP OCEAN
In the surface layer of the ocean, two biologi- ends up in the deep ocean through sinking dead
cally driven processes of importance occur: the microorganisms. The combined flux is crudely
construction of soft organic tissues by photosyn- estimated to be about 10 Gt C/year and is referred
thesis, which can be represented by the reaction: to as the biological pump. About 60–80 % of this
flux is due to falling soft tissue, and the remain-
CO2 þ H2 O ) CH2 O þ O2 þ der is due to falling CaCO3 particles. These and
and the construction of calcareous skeletons, other processes by which carbon is transferred
through the net reaction: between the surface layer and deep ocean are
illustrated in Fig. 4.3. Most of the organic tissue
Ca2þ þ 2HCO3 ) CaCO3 þ H2 O þ CO2 decomposes in the upper 1 km of the ocean,
while most of the CaCO3 dissolves below a
depth of 3–4 km. The net result is to deplete the
Photosynthesis in the oceans is estimated to take surface water of nutrients (primarily phosphate
up about 50 Gt C/year. Most of this goes into and nitrate) and DIC, to create maximum nutrient
short-lived microorganisms and is rapidly concentrations around a depth of 1 km and to
returned to ocean surface water when these create a maximum DIC concentration at a some-
organisms die or are eaten and ‘burned’ by larger what greater depth in the ocean.
organisms. However, some of the soft tissue and Biological activity transfers DIC from areas
skeletal material produced in the mixed layer of low DIC (surface water) to areas of large DIC
(the deep water), which is against the concentra- of estuarine water due to carbon dioxide rise in
tion gradient. This transfer is therefore referred the atmosphere and seawater (an effect of climate
to as the ‘biological pump’, since pumps are change) is presented as Annexure 4D.
devices that transfer air or liquid against a pres-
sure gradient.
Because of the sharp increase in the DIC 4.1.5 Nutrients
concentration with increasing depth in the upper
ocean, turbulent mixing (diffusion) tends to Nitrate, phosphate and silicate are the three
transfer DIC (and nutrients) upwards. This is important nutrients in seawater. For all three
the main process that balances the downward nutrients, the values are low in the upper few
transfer of DIC by the biological pump. Convec- hundred metres with higher values in the deeper
tion also causes an upward flow of DIC, since the water. In the Pacific, these deeper distributions
water that sinks tends to have a lower DIC con- are in the form of mid-depth maximum value
centration than the water that rises. One might tongues extending from north to south with
expect that advection would also transfer DIC cores at 1000/2000 m for phosphate and nitrate
upwards, since the concentration of DIC in the and at 2000/3000 m for silicate and values
surface layer which feeds the downwelling water decreasing from north to south. In addition
in polar regions is much less than in the water there are maxima at the south in the Antarctic
that upwells from below. However, the solubility Bottom Water.
of DIC in seawater increases with decreasing In the Atlantic, the mid-depth tongues
temperature, and as warm surface waters flow extending from north to south are minimum
polewards, they are able to absorb more CO2 value cores associated with the North Atlantic
from the atmosphere as they cool. As a result, the Deep Water and again there are maximum values
DIC concentration in sinking water is about 8 % in the south in the Antarctic Bottom Water.
greater than the global average surface concentra- The actual values in the mid-depth cores are
tion and, it turns out, very close to that in the water higher by a factor of about 2 for phosphate and
that upwells at lower latitudes. Consequently, the nitrate in the Pacific than in the Atlantic and by a
net vertical transfer of DIC due to advective factor of 3–10 for silicate. This is attributed to the
overturning is rather small. However, the effect slower and mid-depth and deep circulations in
of the solubility variation alone is to cause a down- the Pacific than in the North Atlantic. The lower
ward transfer of DIC, and this downward transfer dissolved oxygen values in the Pacific than in the
is referred to as the ‘solubility pump’. Atlantic are attributed to the same cause. A con-
The average overall concentration of carbon spicuous feature of the phosphate and nitrate
dioxide throughout the oceans is not substantially concentrations is that their ratio is everywhere
affected by biological processes, but tends to close to 1 phosphorous atom to 15 nitrogen
remain almost constant, controlled by tempera- atoms, although the reason for this is not known.
ture, salinity and pressure. The general profile of The low values of the nutrients in the upper
carbon dioxide exhibits relatively lower values at layers is because of their utilization by phyto-
the surface (effect of photosynthesis by plankton in the euphotic zone, while the increase
producers of the aquatic phase) and a higher in deeper waters is because of their release back
value at depth (this may be attributed to only to solution, by biological processes during the
respiration and decomposition and no photosyn- decay of detrital material sinking from the
thesis in the aphotic zone coupled with high upper layers. It is assumed that replenishment in
column pressure). the surface layers is chiefly by physical processes
An interesting feature in connection to varia- of vertical diffusion, overturn and upwelling. The
tion in carbon dioxide level in seawater is the upwelling processes active along the east sides of
alteration (decrease) of pH, which is referred to the oceans are the reasons for the high biological
as acidification. A case study on the acidification productivity observed there. In addition, in the
upper 200–300 m, physical processes of up- and et al. 1997). By 1995 the global use of inorganic
downwelling associated with upper-layer N fertilizer was again growing rapidly with
divergences and convergences modify nutrient much of the growth driven by increased use in
distributions locally. For example, in the equato- China (NRC 2000). Approximately half of the
rial Pacific, higher surface values of phosphate inorganic N fertilizer that was ever used on
(and silicate) occur in the upwelling regions at Earth has been applied during the last 15 years.
and north of the equator associated with the Production of N fertilizer is the largest process
divergence of the South Equatorial Current at whereby human activity mobilizes N globally.
the equator and between the North Equatorial Others human control processes, such as com-
Counter Current and the North Equatorial Cur- bustion of fossil fuels and production of
rent at about 10 N, and these are regions of high N-fixing cropping agriculture, convert atmo-
biological productivity. spheric N into biologically available forms of
Excessive nutrient load is currently the larg- N. Overall, human fixation of N (including pro-
est problem in the coastal rivers and bays duction of fertilizer, combustion of fossil fuel
throughout the world. Human activity has an and production of N-fixing agricultural crops)
enormous influence on the global cycling of increased globally twofold or threefold between
nutrients, especially on the movement of 1960 and 1990 and continues to grow (Galloway
nutrients to estuaries and other coastal areas. et al. 1995). By the mid-1990s human activities
For phosphorous (P), global fluxes are made new N available at a rate of 140 Tg N/year
dominated by the essentially one-way flow of (Vitousek et al. 1997), matching the natural rate
phosphorous carried in eroded materials and of biological N fixation on all the land surfaces
wastewater from the land to the oceans, where of the world (Vitousek et al. 1997; Cleveland
it is ultimately buried in ocean sediments et al. 1999). The rate at which humans have
(Hedley and Sharpley 1998). The size of this increased the supply of reactive, biologically
flux is currently estimated at 22 Tg P/year available N, leading to global eutrophication,
(Howarth et al. 1995), suggesting that current far exceeds the rate at which humans have
human activities cause an extra 14 Tg of P to increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
flow into the ocean sediment sink each year or leading to global warming (Vitousek
approximately the same as the amount of P et al. 1997).
fertilizer (16 Tg P) applied to agricultural land
annually (NRC 2000). The effect of human
activity on the global cycling of nitrogen (N) is 4.2 Sediment Compartment
equally immense, and the rate of change of
pattern of uses is much greater (Galloway Sediment is the term given to any natural particle
et al. 1995). The single largest global change that accumulates in a loose form. The sand,
in the N cycle comes from increased reliance on gravel and even the dust floating off are all
synthetic inorganic fertilizers, which accounts examples of sediment. The continental crust
for more than half of the human alteration of the and the oceanic crust that constitute the floor of
N cycle (Vitousek et al. 1997). The process for the planet Earth are vast blankets of material
making inorganic N fertilizer was invented called ‘sediment’. This material accumulates
early in the twentieth century (Smil 2001), but over time as it drifts down through the water
was not widely used until the 1950s. The rate of from the surface. The material can originate
use increased steadily until the late 1980s, when from various sources—it may come from the
the collapse of the former Soviet Union led to land and from animals and plants living in the
great disruptions in agriculture and fertilizer use oceans and estuaries and may even come from
in Russia and much of Eastern Europe. These the outer space. A large portion of the sea bottom
disruptions resulted in a slight decline in global is covered with sediments, which contains rock
N fertilizer use for a few years (Matson fragments, animal debris, sand, silt, clay, etc.
4.2 Sediment Compartment 97
4.2.1 Transportation of Marine melting of ice, the surface of the icebergs rises
Sediments and it floats away; thus, the material is carried far
away from the source. This material, as deposited
Marine sediments present at the bottom of the sea ordinarily or during glacial age, is characterized
are deposited by the transporting agents like by a variety of debris, ranging in size and in
rivers, winds, ice, waves, etc. According to character depending on the rocks. Murray and
Twenhofel (1932) these agents are of different Hjort (1912) and Bramlette and Bradley (1940)
categories. have also noted icebergs carrying land debris far
away from the source. After melting, the glacial
4.2.1.1 Rivers material is deposited along with the pelagic
Rivers are considered to be the main agents, deposits.
which help to bring the disintegrated rock
particles up to the sea and deposit them on the 4.2.1.5 Organic Rafting
shelf. A variety of terrigenous material, ranging Sometimes trees, vegetation, etc., are transported
from sedimentary to igneous, from red to black, during the floods which carry them to a great
and from big to small, is brought into the seawa- distance. Thus, terrigenous plants are found
ter by them. They carry down 33 times as much deposited in the deep-sea bottom. Man also
sediment as worn off by the waves along the becomes an agent, who helps the deposition of
coasts. cinders and ash from vessels which are found in
samples of mud.
4.2.1.2 River Wash
It causes most of the landslides, occurring along 4.2.1.6 Volcanic Activity
the river banks as well as slidings along the Apart from the transportation of volcanic mate-
coasts. Landslides occurring on the heads of sub- rial by winds, volcanic activity itself has great
marine canyons also help to widen their valleys amount of force which throws the material far
on the shelves and carry the sediment into the into the sea, later to be deposited on the ocean
deep sea. Thus, a vast amount of sediment is floor. The volcanic material ranges from big lava
being carried away. fragments, lapilli, dust cinder and ash to various
gases. The thickness of the material decreases
4.2.1.3 Wave Action with the distance from the source. Near the ori-
The mighty waves erode the land along the gin, the thickness of the sediment is greatest.
shores and break it into fragments and boulders Assortation of sediment is not found in volcanic
which are further reduced to sand and mud. They deposit of the ocean floor.
carry these particles, far away from the shores,
and deposit it along waveless coasts or rather 4.2.1.7 Wind
quiet areas. Researchers have observed that erod- Wind is a great force in transporting the finer
ing zones of the islands coincide with low particles of the land into the sea. It is found that
organic carbon (expressed in %) in the sediment. the products of volcanic eruptions either on the
land or on the sea are blown thousands of miles
4.2.1.4 Work of Ice away from the origin. The volcanic dust of
The work of glaciers is of great importance in Krakatoa in 1883 is deposited into the sea.
higher latitude. They carry with them whatever Hence, the volcanic dust is found in almost
debris cones the way either by erosion, plucking each part of the ocean. The lack of vegetation
or disintegration. According to Twenhofel in the regions of wind erosion and lack of agri-
(1932), in the Arctic Ocean, shallow-water sea cultural activity on a large scale also helps the
ice is formed during winter, capturing within it in wind to carry away the material to distant
the sea bottom material present there. Due to regions.
Table 4.3 Classification of sediments on the basis of particle size

Division Subdivision Diameter (mm) Phi (Ø) size Sinking rate (cm/s)
Gravel Boulder >256 <8 >4.29 106
Cobble 64–256 6 to 8 2.68 105 to 4.29 106
Pebble 4–64 2 to 6 1.05 103 to 2.68 105
Granule 2–4 1 to 2 2.62 102 to 1.05 103
Sand Very coarse 1–2 0 to 1 65.6–262
Coarse 0.5–1 +1 to 0 16.4–65.5
Medium 0.25–0.5 +2 to +1 4.09–16.4
Fine 0.125–0.25 +3 to +2 1.02–4.09
Very fine 0.0625–0.125 +4 to +3 0.256–1.02
Mud Silt 0.0039–0.0625 +8 to +4 <9.96 104
Clay <0.0039 >8
Radezewski (1939) noted that in the west of away from the coast by currents. The distance to
the African coast, wind carries a great amount of which the particle is carried away depends on the
desert sediment in the form of dust clouds which settling velocity. Some of the very fine sediments
falls into sea. In general the size of the particles is in the seawater move in suspension, but in the
between 5 and 15 μ. Smaller particles than this course of time they also settle down.
are not easily distinguished from the waterborne
particles. But typical desert minerals could be
recognized such as quartz, feldspar, mica, 4.2.2 Classification of Marine
organic siliceous remains, calcite, aggregates of Sediments
small particles, etc. Quartz grains coated with
reddish iron oxide known as desert ‘quartz’ are Sediments may be categorized as sand, if the
most easily recognized among the sea deposits. diameter of the individual particle exceeds
62 μm, or mud, if the diameter of the individual
4.2.1.8 Transportation Within the Sea particle is less than 62 μm. Geologists use a phi
Other forces inside oceans also work to assort or or Ø scale, based on the negative of the power of
carry away the material brought by different 2 to differentiate between the sizes of the sedi-
agencies. The material that is brought into the ment particles (Table 4.3).
sea is not deposited on the floor at once but is Marine scientists have reported the presence
continuously transported by waves and currents, of three classes of mud based on the colour of the
in suspension. According to the specific gravity, sediments. These are blue mud, red mud and
size and shape of the particle and the specific green mud. A brief account of each of these
gravity and viscosity of the water, the material mud types is discussed here.
begins to settle. Various observations regarding
this have also been carried out. Wadell proves (a) Blue mud: It is the most common and wide-
that turbulence reduces the rate of fall; and spread deposit in the deeper areas
currents and eddies also affect the rate of deposi- surrounding continental lands and in par-
tion. Gripenberg (1934) found that fine-grained tially enclosed seas. This fine mud, mostly
material when mixed with the seawater bluish-black, is fine detritus resulting from
flocculates into units of greater size and settles the disintegration of the rock containing
with similar velocity of quartz sphere (5–15 μ in iron sulphide and organic matter. Their
diameter), that is, at the rate of 1–20 m/day. The upper layer has a reddish tint due to the
coarser material brought near the shore by presence of ferric oxide or ferric hydrate.
icebergs is immediately deposited, but finer Blue mud is considered to be mainly formed
material of lesser settling velocity is carried far of land detritus; hence, carbonate of lime
Table 4.4 Types of sediment on the basis of origin

Type Source Favourable deposition site Examples
Biogenous Biota Seabed under neritic and Coral, siliceous and
oceanic zone calcareous oozes
Cosmogenous Outer space Seabed under pelagic zone Meteorites
Hydrogenous Chemical precipitation from Seabed under neritic and Phosphates, manganese
seawater oceanic zone nodules
Lithogenous Eroded rock, volcanoes and Seabed under neritic and Boulder–sand, sand–silt,
airborne dust oceanic zone silt–clay
ranges up to 35 %. The process of formation percentage, glauconite ranges up to 7–8 %

is helped by sulphur, which reduces the iron and carbonate of lime 0.56 %. Green mud is
into ferrous state containing 1 % or 2 % of found between 100 and 900 fathoms deep.
amorphous black organic substances. Most In fine green sand composed of angular
of the deposits of blue mud are found along glauconite, particles are found off the Cape
the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, the Arctic of Good Hope where cold and warm
and the Banda Sea. currents meet.
(b) Red mud: It is a variety of mud
differentiated from others by the presence Apart from describing the marine sediments
of iron oxide and ochreous matter. The per- as mud or sands, the particles may be categorized
centage of calcium carbonate ranges from by origin like biogenous, hydrogenous,
6 to 61, whereas the average remains 32. lithogenous, etc. The biogenous sediment is
The siliceous organisms such as radiolarian derived from the marine biota, particularly the
and diatom are rare, while mineral particles debris of the shell. If the sediment contains more
of neighbouring land form 10–25 % of the than 30 % of the biogenous particle, then only the
red mud. As compared to blue mud, this sediment may be referred to as biogenous type.
variety is rare. Typical localities of its Essentially, biogenous particles may be rich in
occurrence are the Yellow Sea, the coasts calcium carbonate (calcareous), silicate (sili-
of Brazil and large areas of the floor of the ceous) or phosphate (phosphatic) depending
Atlantic Ocean. upon whether they are derived from the shells
(c) Green mud: It is mostly seen off high of foraminifera or diatoms or from the bones/
coasts free from large rivers and their scales of marine vertebrates. The hydrogenous
deposits, such as the Pacific and the Atlantic particles are derived from inorganic chemical
coasts of North America (south of Cape reactions in water, which comprises the manga-
Hatteras and California specially), and off nese nodules of the ocean floor in the Pacific
the coasts of Japan, Australia and Ocean. The lithogenous particles originate from
South Africa. Due to this, terrigenous the erosion of rocks, the particles of which are
particles are thus longer exposed to the transported in the seas or rivers. A summary of
dissolving action of seawater and are not the major types of sediment is given in Table 4.4.
soon overlain by sediments accumulating On the continental slope, the particles are sorted
on their tops; hence, gradually they are by size according to the action of waves and
converted into green mud, containing currents. The largest particles are deposited,
green silicate of potassium and iron known whereas the smallest grains move seawards in
as glauconite. As regards the mineral deep and are eventually deposited in deep water.
Fig. 4.4 Patterns created by sediment fauna
4.2.3 Ooze: Definition and Type water level, indicating a sediment change from
sandy to silty nature. The sand flats of the mixed
Sediments which contain more than 30 % of and open-sea intertidal zone consist of 90–95 %
material of organic origin are known as oozes. of fine to very fine sand. Sorting of sediments is
Oozes may of various types as stated here. very systematic due to natural agents in the pres-
ent geographical locale. The surface of the sand
Globigerina ooze in which the calcium car- flat is covered with crescentic ripples, asymmet-
bonate is in the tests of rical ripples, backwash ripples, ladder back or
pelagic foraminifera cross ripples, swash marks, rhomboid marks, rill
Pteropod ooze which contains conspicu- marks and current crescents. Bioturbation
ous shells of pelagic structures are special attractions to nature lovers
molluscs that are witnessed in the sediment bed of muddy
Diatom ooze which contains frustules of and sandy beaches (Fig. 4.4). These structures
diatoms and is primarily result from the activities of nearshore benthic
restricted to a virtually con- organisms and reflect a unique fabric work of
tinuous belt around the biotic community on the abiotic matrix. The
Antarctica and a band across main agents behind these marvellous fabric
the North Pacific Ocean works and sculptures are the anemones,
Radiolarian ooze which is almost entirely gastropods, crustaceans, decapods, bivalves,
limited to the Pacific holothuroids and hemichordates (Fig. 4.5). In
Ocean, where it covers a some pockets of Indian Sundarbans, animals
wide band in the equatorial like Macoma birmanica, Telescopium
region telescopium, Uca sp. and Cerithidea sp. prepare
a muddy substratum and produce bioturbation
In coastal Bay of Bengal, the intertidal zone (Fig. 4.6) in the form of mounts, trails and
registers a gradual change in the textural burrows.
characteristics from high water level to low
Fig. 4.5 Holes of crabs on the sea beach
Fig. 4.6 Ripple marks and bioturbation
4.2.4 Sediment Deposition: A Boon intertidal mudflats, which are caused by gradual
or a Curse? deposition of sediments sustains a rich genetic
resource (Fig. 4.7). Deposition of sediment also
Deposition of sediment in the coastal zone and increases the area of islands as seen in case of
estuarine bed creates a suitable habitat for coastal Thakuran Island in central Indian Sundarbans
vegetation, particularly mangroves. The (Fig. 4.8).
Fig. 4.7 Intertidal mudflats formed due to deposition of sediments
Excessive sedimentation reduces the draft of sediments are discharged in the Bay of Bengal,
the navigational channel leading to an adverse while the rest contributes to the formation of new
effect on the economic growth of the region. The land and islands. However, widespread loss of
case study of Gangetic delta can be a relevant mature land through river erosion is a severe
example in this context. The major portion of the problem in the estuaries areas (Islam 2004).
Bengal Basins and the Ganges delta is floored The major rivers of Bangladesh Sundarbans
with quaternary sediments eroded from the high transport 2.4 billion tons of sediment annually.
lands on three sides and deposited by the Ganges, This situation has an adverse impact on the coastal
Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers and their vegetation. For example, silt deposition in the
tributaries and distributaries (Chowdhury 2010). north-eastern part of the Bangladesh Sundarbans
The Ganges river originated in Gangotri glacier hinders the vigorous growth of mangrove vegeta-
in the southern slopes of the Himalayas and car- tion. In many cases it has been observed that
ries discharge from catchments of about mangroves are not properly regenerated under
865,000 km2 in India to Bangladesh (Islam and condition of excessive sedimentation. Deposition
Gnauck 2008; Joseph 2006). Erosions and accre- of sediment also possesses adverse impact on the
tion are common phenomena and threats in the benthic communities, particularly oysters.
coastal zone of the Bangladesh Sundarbans, Enhanced siltation of the riverbed and subsequent
where nearly a billion tonnes of sediment is drainage congestion are some other problems
brought by the rivers. About two thirds of these associated with sediment deposition.
Fig. 4.8 Accretion of

Thakuran Island due to
sediment deposition
Brain Churners 4. Compare between the solubility of

1. How is the principle of constant oxygen and carbon dioxide in seawater
proportions between major ions of the with depth.
seawater violated in the coastal zone 5. What is the main cause behind the
and estuaries? presence of oxygen minimum layer at
a depth around 800 m?
2. What factors control the salinity of 6. How is the pH of seawater affected due
nearshore region? to the rise of carbon dioxide in the
3. How does sea level rise alter the salin- atmosphere and seawater? What are
ity in the nearshore region and the possible implications of the gradual
estuaries? acidification of seawater?
(continued)
Harbour, an area just adjacent to the northern

7. What are the sources of nutrients in boundary of Indian Sundarbans, exhibits a net sea
seawater and how are they utilized in level rise of 5.74 mm/year (considering the subsi-
the euphotic zone? dence value), which is much higher compared to
8. What is organic rafting? several other coastal cities of India like Mumbai
9. When can the sediment be referred to (1.20 mm/year), Kochi (1.75 mm/year) and
as ooze? Vishakhapatnam (1.09 mm/year) (Jagtap and
10. Who are the main agents of Nagle 2007). On this background the present
bioturbation? study aims to analyse the decadal variation of
salinity since 1984 in Indian Sundarban region
located at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The
study has great relevance as salinity is the primary
Annexure 4A: Interannual Variation criterion regulating the distribution of mangrove
of Salinity in the Inshore Region species and their growth (Chaudhuri and
of the Bay of Bengal Choudhury 1994; Mitra and Banerjee 2005;
Mitra et al. 2011; Banerjee et al. 2013; Sengupta
1. Introduction et al. 2013; Mitra 2013). The entire biological
spectrum of deltaic Sundarbans along with the
India is a large country with 329 million hectares livelihood of the local people is also influenced
of geographical area and is situated in the tropics by salinity of the ambient media.
between 8 40 and 37 60 N latitude and 68 70 and
97 250 E longitude. The country has been
identified as one of the 27 countries which are 2. Materials and Methods
the most vulnerable to the impacts of global
warming-induced sea level rise (Mitra 2000). For 2.1. Study Area
Indian Sundarbans, this salinity ingress from the The Ganges is an international river shared by
Bay of Bengal is likely to be more severe with China, Nepal, India and Bangladesh. With regard
decreasing freshwater flow from the Gangotri gla- to the distribution of the 109.5 106 ha basin
cier of the Himalayan range due to intervention of area, India has 79 %, Nepal 14 %, Bangladesh
several barrages/dams on the flow path of the 4 % (this is equivalent to 37 % of Bangladesh)
mighty river Ganges from the Gangotri to the and China 3 %. The river has great importance
Bay of Bengal, covering distance of 2525 km. for the socio-economy of the co-basin countries.
The siltation of the Bidyadhari river since the late It is estimated that about 410 106 people are
fifteenth century has decreased the freshwater flow directly or indirectly dependent on the Ganges
in the central sector of Indian Sundarbans to a river.
considerable level (Mitra et al. 2009, 2011; The river Ganges is thus a trans-boundary
Sengupta et al. 2013; Roy Chowdhury river of Asia which flows through India and
et al. 2014). In addition to this, there are reports Bangladesh Sundarbans, a mangrove-dominated
of rising sea level at 3.14 mm/year (Hazra delta complex in the inshore region of the Bay of
et al. 2002) in Indian Sundarbans, which is also a Bengal. The 2525 km (1569 mile) river rises in
primary factor influencing the spatio-temporal var- the western Himalayas in the Indian state of
iation of salinity. UNESCO (2007) reported that Uttarakhand and flows south and east through
45 cm rise in sea level (likely by the end of the the Gangetic plain of North India into
twenty-first century, according to the IPCC), com- Bangladesh, where it empties into the Bay of
bined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on Bengal. It is the third largest river by discharge.
the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of At the apex of the Bay of Bengal (in the Indian
75 % of the Sundarban mangroves. Diamond side), a delta has been formed which is
Annexure 4A: Interannual Variation of Salinity in the Inshore Region. . . 105
Table 4A.1 Sampling stations in the western, central and eastern sectors of Indian Sundarbans in the lower Gangetic
delta region
Sectors Sampling stations Latitude Longitude
Stn. 4 Lothian (W4) 21 380 21.2000 N 88 200 29.3200 E
Stn. 10 Goashaba (C4) 21 430 50.6400 N 88 460 41.4400 E
Stn. 11 Matla (C5) 21 530 15.3000 N 88 440 08.7400 E
Stn. 12 Pirkhali (C6) 22 060 00.9700 N 88 510 06.0400 E
Stn. 14 Jhilla (E2) 22 090 51.5300 N 88 570 57.0700 E
Stn. 17 Chamta (E5) 21 530 18.5600 N 88 570 11.4000 E
Fig. 4A.1 Location of sector-wise sampling stations in Indian Sundarbans; the red colour indicates the mangrove
vegetation
recognized as one of the most diversified and sites were selected, 6 each in the western, central
productive ecosystems of the tropics and is and eastern sectors of Indian Sundarbans
referred to as the Indian Sundarbans. The deltaic (Table 4A.1, Fig. 4A.1). We demarcated the
complex has an area of 9630 km2 and houses three sectors of Indian Sundarbans on the basis
about 102 islands (Mitra 2000). 18 sampling of our primary surface water salinity data of
Annexure 4A.1 Annual variation of surface water salinity in western Indian Sundarbans during 30 years’
(1984–2013) observation period
Station
Year Chemaguri Saptamukhi Jambu Island Lothian Harinbari Prentice Island
88 090 46.640 88 220 59.3000 88 100 29.2500 88 210 23.9300 88 040 10.8300 88 170 39.7700
21 380 54.8600 21 400 27.7800 21 350 22.5500 21 380 05.0400 21 440 22.1600 21 420 44.8900
1984 21.76 20.89 23.47 22.89 16.18 22.02
1985 21.01 20.94 22.89 22.64 16.02 22.56
1986 20.02 21.06 23.86 22.45 15.95 22.39
1987 20.39 21.33 23.02 23 15.28 22.89
1988 21 20.49 23.11 23.05 15.84 23
1989 21.23 20.88 23.95 23 15.77 22.48
1990 20.16 21.08 22.79 22.44 14.98 22.31
1991 20.14 21.26 22.48 22.13 15.00 22.08
1992 20.01 22.49 22.16 22.00 14.69 21.97
1993 19.34 22.13 22.44 21.95 14.75 21.82
1994 19.31 20.77 22.39 21.89 14.83 21.64
1995 19.42 21.45 22.18 21.96 15.12 21.48
1996 19.00 22.02 22.07 21.00 14.20 20.75
1997 18.65 22.43 21.95 21.41 14.05 20.82
1998 18.43 22.61 21.68 20.59 13.98 20.44
1999 18.21 22.90 21.79 20.33 13.16 20.68
2000 18.05 22.43 20.63 20.31 13.00 20.26
2001 17.79 22.56 21.92 20.37 12.49 20.13
2002 17.14 22.79 21.00 20.10 12.82 20.02
2003 17.03 22.81 20.49 20.02 12.73 19.75
2004 17.56 22.34 20.32 19.85 11.65 19.65
2005 16.83 21.95 20.17 19.54 11.49 19.00
2006 16.98 22.46 20.68 19.91 11.33 18.59
2007 17.02 22.99 19.95 19.08 10.49 18.92
2008 16.75 23.01 19.89 19.12 10.66 18.98
2009 16.45 23.42 20.01 19.00 10.42 18.68
2010 16.29 23.83 19.95 18.95 9.85 18.48
2011 16.04 23.98 19.83 18.88 9.79 17.95
2012 15.96 24.02 19.76 18.79 9.23 17.49
2013 15.75 24.11 19.41 18.60 9.10 17.53
24 years and secondary data (of 27 years) from the weather over time with the period generally
(Mitra et al. 2009) and (Sengupta et al. 2013). being 30 years (although for some marine cli-
mate parameters such as storminess, longer
2.2. Data Sources and Quality averages are required) (Zhang et al. 2000).
We considered a data set of 30 years (Vide More than two decades of data (1984–2013)
Annexures 4A.1, 4A.2, 4A.3) in this first-order were compiled from the archives of the Depart-
analysis as per the minimum standard norm of ment of Marine Science, University of Calcutta,
climate-related researches. The World Meteoro- for this study. A number of studies on different
logical Organization and the Intergovernmental aspects of the Sundarban complex have been
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007; Smith published over the years, which include descrip-
2001) define ‘climate’ as the average state of tion of the data (and methods) at different times
Annexure 4A.2 Annual variation of surface water salinity in central Indian Sundarbans during 30 years’ (1984–2013)
observation period
Station
Year Thakuran Dhulibasani Chulkathi Goashaba Matla Pirkhali
88 310 53.1600 88 340 55.8500 88 340 33.5800 88 460 43.52000 88 440 01.3000 88 510 01.4300
21 490 36.4500 21 470 12.8800 21 410 22.0900 21 430 37.5300 21 540 07.0000 22 010 12.9200
1984 21.67 21.93 22.01 21.95 21.61 21.59
1985 21.94 22.06 22.43 22.13 21.9 21.88
1986 21.86 22.19 22.5 22.23 21.8 21.76
1987 22.49 22.89 22.99 22.92 22.36 22.3
1988 22.2 22.46 22.78 22.58 22.17 22.1
1989 22.86 23.01 23.5 23.41 22.8 22.76
1990 23.15 23.89 23.97 23.91 23.10 23.06
1991 23.17 23.91 24.02 24.00 23.12 23.09
1992 23.80 24.01 24.20 24.15 23.76 23.69
1993 23.49 23.98 24.09 24.00 23.45 23.40
1994 23.96 24.16 24.65 24.55 23.91 23.88
1995 24.70 25.11 25.43 25.33 24.65 24.60
1996 24.73 25.12 25.62 25.41 24.70 24.68
1997 24.88 24.92 25.01 24.97 24.82 24.80
1998 25.06 25.78 25.98 25.65 25.00 24.98
1999 25.13 25.67 25.78 25.71 25.06 25.00
2000 25.01 25.98 26.01 25.99 24.98 24.95
2001 25.73 25.99 26.43 26.09 25.70 25.68
2002 26.07 26.71 26.92 26.83 26.00 25.86
2003 26.16 26.79 26.85 26.80 26.12 26.10
2004 26.30 26.43 26.79 26.54 26.27 26.24
2005 27.09 28.03 28.13 28.10 27.00 26.90
2006 27.19 27.42 27.85 27.52 27.10 27.05
2007 27.40 27.95 28.01 27.97 27.37 27.34
2008 27.50 27.92 28.05 28.01 27.38 27.31
2009 28.02 28.19 28.83 28.76 28.00 27.95
2010 28.13 28.91 28.97 28.93 28.10 28.06
2011 28.88 28.90 28.92 28.89 28.81 28.79
2012 28.69 28.76 28.81 28.70 28.62 28.60
2013 28.90 28.93 28.94 28.90 28.88 28.85
for more than two decades (Chakraborty and collected within 500 m of each other and the
Choudhury 1985; Mitra et al. 1987, 1992, 2009; mean value of 30 observations was considered
Mitra and Choudhury 1994; Saha et al. 1999; for statistical interpretations.
Banerjee et al. 2002, 2003, 2013; Mondal
et al. 2006; Sengupta et al. 2013). Real-time 2.3. Measurement of Surface Water
data (through field sampling by the authors) Salinity
were also collected simultaneously since 1998 In situ surface water salinity was estimated from
from 18 sampling stations in the lower Gangetic the selected stations during high-tide condition
region during high-tide condition to assure qual- with the help of a refractometer (VEE GEE
ity and continuity to the data bank. For each STX-3). For cross-checking, water samples from
observational station, at least 30 samples were the selected stations were brought to the
Annexure 4A.3 Annual variation of surface water salinity in eastern Indian Sundarbans during 30 years’ (1984–2013)
observation period
Station
Year Arbesi Jhilla Harinbhanga Khatuajhuri Chamta Chandkhali
89 000 03.1500 88 560 04.1300 88 590 05.3200 89 010 03.1200 88 570 26.5200 89 000 50.9200
22 120 07.4400 22 100 20.5500 21 590 17.7900 22 030 09.5200 21 530 05.9100 21 510 31.7300
1984 15.39 15.82 16.46 16.49 17.08 17.19
1985 15.52 15.39 16.19 16.93 17.15 17.38
1986 15.06 15.16 16.21 16.46 17.09 16.85
1987 15.08 15.05 15.53 16.35 16.23 16.98
1988 14.95 14.91 15.7 15.79 16.11 16.43
1989 14.1 14.84 15.34 15.86 14.99 15.66
1990 14.22 14.66 15.83 15.79 14.63 15.31
1991 14.15 14.65 15.11 15.77 14.48 14.98
1992 14.08 13.13 14.05 14.94 14.29 15.06
1993 13.44 13.79 14.21 14.12 15.02 15.15
1994 13.89 13.46 13.96 14 14.37 14.88
1995 13.53 13.31 13.44 13.85 14.49 14.93
1996 13.3 13.39 13.98 14.01 14.56 14.99
1997 13.56 13.21 13.77 14.63 14.81 15.16
1998 13.18 13.84 13.68 13.98 14.47 14.88
1999 12.95 13.68 13.43 14.51 14.39 14.53
2000 12.63 13.1 13.41 14 14.22 14.01
2001 12.49 13.32 12.55 12.86 13.99 14.16
2002 12.33 12.49 12.2 12.43 13.45 13.98
2003 12.46 12.3 12.67 12.93 13.33 13.85
2004 12.73 12.15 12.54 12.75 13.67 13.96
2005 11.89 12.69 12.29 12.48 13.85 13.53
2006 11.93 11.54 12.88 13.08 13.43 13.31
2007 11.97 11.86 12.49 12.97 13.39 13.45
2008 12 11.93 12.66 12.85 13.17 13.28
2009 11.41 12 12.41 12.63 13.1 13.86
2010 11.31 11.99 11.59 12.44 13.04 13.09
2011 11.26 11.41 11.93 12.29 12.85 13.03
2012 11.19 11.32 11.41 12.08 12.49 12.85
2013 11.21 11.17 11.65 11.95 14.33 12.97
laboratory in ice-freezed condition and analysed adopted to forecast the values for surface water
for chlorinity by argentometric method and salinity in the ambient media of the sampling
converted into salinity through standard equation. station till 2043.
2.4. Statistical Analysis

Time series analysis was performed to forecast 3. Result
the trend of surface water salinity on the basis of
the past 30 year’s real-time data. Exponential It is interesting to note the significant spatio-
smoothing method produces maximum likeli- temporal variation of surface water salinity in
hood estimates and can reflect the future trend the study region. In the western sector, the salin-
of the selected variable. This approach was ity decrease ranged from 0.58 psu/year (at Jambu
Island) to 1.46 psu/year (at Harinbari). Although 4. Discussion

station 2 (Saptamukhi) is situated in the western
sector, but the salinity has increased by 0.51 psu/ The results of the long-term observed data on
year (Fig. 4A.2). Considering all the six stations surface water salinity clearly confirm significant
in the western sector, the decrease of salinity is spatio-temporal variations of the salinity in the
0.63 psu/year, which represents a decrease of study region ( p < 0.01). Basically a bell-shaped
7.50 psu/decade. The salinity has decreased salinity profile (Fig. 4A.8) can be a representa-
from 17.30 % (in Jambu Island) to 43.76 % tion for the region with a hypersaline environ-
(in Harinbari) over a period of 30 years ment in the central sector (mean
(Fig. 4A.2). salinity ¼ 25.43 2.24 psu) between two
The exponential smoothing method that hyposaline sectors, viz. western (mean salinity
produces maximum likelihood estimate of the ¼ 19.46 3.46 psu) and eastern (mean
variable predicts a salinity value of 13.05 psu in salinity ¼ 13.85 1.48 psu).
2043 (Fig. 4A.3), which is a decrease of 38.4 % The bell-shaped salinity profile in the present
since 1984 (over a span of 60 years). study region is not merely a representation of
The central sector presents a completely reverse salinity pattern, but it can be a test bed for future
picture in terms of aquatic salinity. Irrespective of climate-related research due to following
stations, salinity has increased (Fig. 4A.4) between reasons:
the range 1.05 psu/year (in Chulkathi) and
1.12 psu/year (in Matla and Pirkhali). Considering 1. Presence of unique mangrove-centric gene
the salinity values of selected six stations, the pool in the deltaic complex [from microbes
increase is 1.09 psu/year, which is equivalent to to Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris)]
13.05 psu/decade. The percentage of salinity primarily influenced by salinity.
increase in this sector ranges from 31.49 psu 2. Ecosystem services of the system to about 4.2
(in Chulkathi) to 33.64 psu (in Matla) with an million people dwelling in the delta region.
average of increase of 32.62 % over a period of 3. No trans-boundary-related research has yet
30 years (Fig. 4A.4). been taken up considering Sundarbans as an
Considering the observed data set of 30 years integrated system, although Farakka dis-
(1984–2013), we predict that salinity will be charge (a trans-boundary anthropogenic com-
around 36 psu after a period of 30 years in the ponent) has great influence on the mangrove
central sector of Indian Sundarbans (Fig. 4A.5), health and livelihood of the integrated
which is an indication of alarming hypersaline Sundarbans.
condition (a rise by 67.1 %) in 2043 in this sector.
In the eastern sector, salinity has decreased Similar profile is also observed in the
(Fig. 4A.6), which ranges from 0.54 psu/year Bangladesh part of Sundarbans, where three
(in Chamta) to 0.98 psu/year (in Jhilla). Consid- salinity zones have been identified, viz. less
ering all the six stations in eastern Indian saline zone (5–15 ppt), moderately saline zone
Sundarbans, the average decrease of salinity is (15–25 ppt) and strong saline zone (25–30 ppt)
0.86 psu/year, equivalent to a decadal decrease of based on degree of salinity (CEGIS 2006).
10.30 psu. Over a period of 30 years, the average The hyposaline environment of western
percentage decrease of salinity is 25.66 psu Indian Sundarbans may be attributed to Farakka
(Fig. 4A.6). barrage discharge situated in the upstream region
On the basis of observed data, the prediction of Ganga–Bhagirathi–Hooghly river system.
of salinity in 2043 is around 7.54 psu (Fig. 4A.7), 10-year surveys (1999-2008) on water discharge
which is decrease of 52.4 % considering a time from Farakka dam revealed an average discharge
span of 60 years. of (3.7 1.15) 103 m3/s. Higher discharge
values were observed during the monsoon with
110
24
22
25
20
20
18
15
4
16
Water salinity
10
14
5
12 20132012
2010
2008 88*17'39.77"XX1*42'44.89"
2006
2004
2002 88*04'10.83"XX1*44'22.16"
2000
10 1998 88*21'23.93"XX1*38'05.04"
1996
1994
1992 88*1029.25"XX1*35'22.55"
1990
1988 88*22'59.30"XX1*40'27.78"
1986
1984 88*09'46.64"XX1*38'54.86"
Fig. 4A.2 Spatio-temporal variation of salinity in western Indian Sundarbans

Abiotic Variables of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
Annexure 4B: Litmus Test of Climate Change in Indian Sundarbans 111
Fig. 4A.3 Future trend of surface water salinity in western Indian Sundarbans
an average of (3.81 1.23) 103 m3/s and the recommend a trans-boundary coordinated
maximum of the order 4524 m3/s during freshet programme of long-term research linking moni-
(September). Considerably lower discharge toring, process studies and numerical modelling
values were recorded during premonsoon with on the foundation of a diverse, interdisciplinary,
an average of (1.18 0.08) 103 m3/s and the multi-institution approach and establishment of
minimum of the order 846 m3/s during May. a strong institutional network between
During postmonsoon discharge, values were researchers and decision makers of India and
moderate with an average of (1.98 0.97) Bangladesh.
103 m3/s (Mitra 2013).
The central sector represents a hypersaline
environment due to complete obstruction of the Annexure 4B: Litmus Test of Climate
freshwater flow from the upstream region owing Change in Indian Sundarbans
to Bidyadhari siltation since the late fifteenth
century (Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994; 1. Introduction
Banerjee et al. 2013; Mitra 2013; Sengupta
et al. 2013). The Matla estuary in the central Climate change is one of the most critical global
Indian Sundarbans cannot be referred to as an challenges in the present era. Recent events like
ideal estuary as there is no head on discharge or flood, hurricanes, tornadoes and forest fires have
dilution of the system with freshwater. Thus, emphatically demonstrated our growing vulnera-
Matla can be designated as a tidal channel, bility to climate change. Climate change impacts
whose survival depends on the tidal flow from encompass several sectors like agriculture—fur-
the Bay of Bengal. ther endangering food security, sea level rise and
The eastern sector of the Indian sector the accelerated erosion of coastal zones, increas-
exhibits a low-saline profile possibly due to ing intensity of natural hazards, species extinc-
interconnection with several creeks and tion and the spread of vector-borne diseases. The
channels of the Harinbhanga estuary (the impact of climate change on the aquatic ecosys-
aquatic border of India and Bangladesh tem is an interlinked event between the melting
Sundarbans) with the tributaries of Bangladesh of polar ice or glaciers feeding the rivers and the
Sundarbans that arise from Padma–Meghna alteration of salinity in the riverine and estuarine
(Fig. 4A.9) river system. waters of the tropics and temperate and subtem-
On the basis of significant spatio-temporal perate zones. Thus, climate change is not one
variations of salinity and its future trend, we story, but many parallel stories of several
112
28
30
27
28
26
26
4
25 24
Water salinity
22
24
20
23 2013
2012
2010
2008 88*51'01.43"XX1*01'12.92"
2006
2004
2002 88*44'01.30"XX1*54'07.00"
22 2000
1998 88*46'43.52"XX1*43'37.53"
1996
1994
1992 88*34'33.58'XX1*41'22.09"
1990
1998 88*34'55.85"XX1*47'12.88"
1986
1984 88*31'53.16"XX1*49'36.45"
Fig. 4A.4 Spatio-temporal variation of salinity in central Indian Sundarbans

Fig. 4A.5 Future trend of surface water salinity in central Indian Sundarbans
ecosystems—only sporadically connected so far salinity, pH, etc., but the phenomenon has every
without concrete database. We have attempted to possibility to shift the biodiversity spectrum.
interlink the source (Himalayan glacier) and the The geographical and ecological profiles of
sink ecosystems in this article to detect the abi- the western and central parts of Indian
otic indicators of climate change at the sink Sundarbans are contrasting as the rivers in the
(aquatic system of Indian Sundarbans). western part (Hugli and Muriganga) are
connected to the Himalayan glaciers through
Ganga–Bhagirathi system, whereas rivers in the
2. Problem Statement central sector (around Matla) are all tide-fed.
Hence, to achieve a realistic picture of interan-
Sea levels on the Indian subcontinent are increas- nual variation of hydrological parameters, we
ing at the rate of about 2.5 mm/year; the rate of collected data after segmentation of the deltaic
increment is greater in the eastern coast, with an lobe on the basis of dilution of the system by
estimated sea level rise of about 3.14 mm/year. freshwater (Fig. 4B.1). The article also attempts
This suggests that mean annual sea levels in the to link up the salinity profile of the mangrove-
Indian subcontinent will be some 3 cm higher in dominated deltaic Indian Sundarbans with the
2012 and 15 cm higher in 2060 than what it was retreating glaciers in the Himalayan range as
during 2000. The Indian Sundarbans in the north- the main estuary in this zone (Hugli) is a direct
east coast of the country, at the apex of the Bay of continuation of the Ganga–Bhagirathi system,
Bengal, is an extremely dynamic deltaic lobe the origin of which is the Himalayan glacier.
sustaining a wide spectrum of mangrove flora
and fauna. It is estimated that sea level in this
deltaic lobe has increased by about 15 cm since 3. Observations: West Versus Central
the 1950s, and this has been correlated with
changes in the pattern and rates of erosion and The surface water temperatures in both the
accretion in the islands of the Indian Sundarbans. sectors have shown a rising trend (Fig. 4B.2), a
Such geophysical phenomena may not only pose signal of global warming in this part of the Indian
serious impact on the adjacent aquatic system by subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal.
way of altering turbidity, nutrient budget,
114
17
18
16
16
15
14
4
14
Water salinity
12
13
10
2013
2012
2010
2008 89*00'50.92"XX1*51'31.73"
2006
12 2004
2002 88*57'26.52"XX1*53'05.91"
2000
1998 89*01'03.12"XX2*03'09.52"
1996
1994 88*59'05.32'XX1*59'17.79"
1992
1990 88*56'04.13"XX2*10'20.55"
1998
1986
1984 89*00'03.15"XX2*12'07.44"
Fig. 4A.6 Spatio-temporal variation of salinity in central Indian Sundarbans

Fig. 4A.7 Spatio-temporal variation of salinity in eastern Indian Sundarbans
Series1
35.00
Series2
Series3
Series4
Series5
30.00
Series6
Series7
Series8
Series9
25.00
Series10
Series11
Series12
Series13
Salinity (psu)
20.00
Series14
Series15
Series16
Series17
15.00
Series18
Series19
Series20
Series21
10.00
Series22
Series23
Series24
Series25
5.00
Series26
Series27
Series28
Series29
0.00
Series30
Fig. 4A.8 Bell-shaped nature of salinity profile of Indian Sundarbans based on 9200 readings; 30 series represent
30 consecutive years (1984–2013)
116
4
Trans-boundary
channels/creeks
Fig. 4A.9 Trans-boundary channels feeding freshwater to eastern sector of Indian Sundarbans
Fig. 4B.1 Location of sampling stations (three each in the western and central sector) in the mangrove-dominated
Indian Sundarbans
The pulse of the phenomenon of temperature satellite panchromatic imagery, and the results
rise is visualized in two contradictory ways in show that the average recession for this period
both the sectors due to variation in geographical is about 23 m/year (Hasnain 1999, 2000, 2002).
features. The rivers in the western sector of The pictorial representation of historical
Indian Sundarbans (Hugli and Muriganga), evidences and recent data on Gangotri glacier
being the continuation of Ganga–Bhagirathi sys- retreat in a research by Jeff Kargel, geologist of
tem, receive the snowmelt water of Himalaya. USGS, also supports the increased rate of retreat
The impact of temperature rise is perhaps already of the Gangotri (Fig. 4B.2).
upon the Himalayas. The 30.2 km-long Gangotri The ex situ effect of Himalayan deglaciation
glacier is receding rapidly: the rate of retreat in is confirmed not only by lowering trend of salin-
the last three decades has been found to be more ity (Fig. 4B.3) but also through gradual increase
than three times the rate during the earlier of dissolved oxygen (Fig. 4B.4), in spite of rapid
200 years or so. The average rate of recession industrialization and urbanization in the western
has been evaluated by comparing the snout posi- part of Indian Sundarbans receiving freshwater
tion on 1985 topo-sheet map and the 2001 supply through Ganga–Bhagirathi conveyer belt
2007
2006
2005
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1995
Year
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1985
1984
1982
1980
29.5 30 30.5 31 31.5 32 32.5 33 33.5

Water temp. (in degree Centigrade)
Fig. 4B.2 Increasing trend of surface water temperature (in C) in Indian Sundarbans. The temperature in the western
sector is represented by dotted graphs and that of the central sector by black graphs
system. The change of hydrological parameters and biodiversity spectrum of the area. Increased
in the western sector is also regulated by Farakka flooding in the adjoining cities and towns of
barrage, which was constructed on the Ganga western Sundarbans was already observed since
river in April 1975 to augment water supply to last few decades. The livelihood of the people in
the Calcutta port. The project has brought about a the eastern sector is also under threat due to
significant increase in freshwater discharge in its salinization of agricultural land, loss of commer-
distributary, the Hugli estuary (Sinha et al. 1996). cially important fishes in the catch basket,
Such trends of lowering salinity and increasing vanishing of freshwater-loving Sundari
dissolved oxygen level are absent in and around (Heritiera fomes) trees (Fig. 4B.6), etc. While
the Matla river in the central sector, and here the sea level rise and subsequent change in hydrol-
footprint of global warming is felt through rising ogy have every possibility to hinder economic
tidal amplitude, increased salinity (Fig. 4B.4) profile of the deltaic complex, the impacts are
and lower dissolved oxygen in the river mouths likely to be hardest felt by the people living
(Fig. 4B.5) due to intrusion of saline water from below poverty line. Pressure on livelihoods may
the adjacent Bay of Bengal region. force poor landless island dwellers of the eastern
The results of different footprints of climate Indian Sundarbans to migrate in the western part
change may pose serious problems in livelihood or adjacent cities like Kolkata, Howrah and the
Annexure 4C: Impact of Climate Change on Fish Community, A Case Study from. . . 119
2007
2006
2005
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1995
Year
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1985
1984
1982
1980
0 5 10 15 20 25
Salinity (PSU)
Fig. 4B.3 Salinity (in PSU) fluctuation due to global warming in central (rising trend, marked in black) and western
(decreasing trend, marked in dots) Indian Sundarbans
newly developing Haldia industrial complex. organisms. Perceptible changes are evident in the
This will definitely magnify the magnitude of past few decades in the climate of the planet Earth
vulnerability as some 25–40 % of the urban pop- as manifested by increase in air and water temper-
ulation in developing countries already lives in ature. This has triggered the alteration of salinity
impoverished slums, with little or no access to profile in marine and estuarine compartment and
water and sanitation (World Bank 1997; IPCC more specifically at the river mouth and estuarine
2001b). systems that are connected to glaciers. The fish
communities thriving in these dynamic systems
shift or orient (adapt) themselves in response to
Annexure 4C: Impact of Climate ecological conditions. The mangrove ecosystem of
Change on Fish Community, A Case Indian Sundarbans is an ideal zone for such study
Study from Indian Sundarbans as the western and eastern sectors of the deltaic
lobe are drastically different from each other with
Global, regional and local effects of climate respect to salinity owing to the connections of the
change on biotic community are ultimately the rivers in the western zone (Hugli and Muriganga)
sum of processes which act on individual with the Himalayan glaciers. Construction of the
Fig. 4B.4 Skeletal remains of a wasted glacier near Everest
Farakka barrage on the Ganga river in April 1975 that may be attributed to decreasing trend of salin-
to augment water supply to the Calcutta port has ity in this zone (Table 4C.1) in recent times.
brought about a significant increase in freshwater In the eastern sector, the ingression of seawa-
discharge in its distributary, the Hugli estuary. The ter and resultant salinity increase has completely
rivers in the eastern sector on the other hand have reversed the picture with more quanta of trash
lost their connections with Ganga–Bhagirathi sys- fishes in comparison to economically important
tem in the course of time and are now tide-fed in species (Table 4C.2). We computed the
nature. This variation probably caused a composi- Shannon–Wiener species diversity index
tional variation in fish community. The western (H) with the collected samples (collection time
sector showed the presence of more economically was 18.03.2007–21.02.2008) for both commer-
important fish species in comparison to trash fishes cial and trash varieties with a sample size of
Annexure 4C: Impact of Climate Change on Fish Community, A Case Study from. . . 121
2007
2006
2005
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1995
Year
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1985
1984
1982
1980
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
D.O. (p p m)
Fig. 4B.5 Dissolved oxygen (in ppm) fluctuation due to global warming in central (decreasing trend, marked in black)
and western (increasing trend, marked in dots) Indian Sundarbans
100 and 50 kg for commercially important and Copeland 1967; Hammer 1986). The main
trash fishes, respectively, and documented more causes behind the alteration of fish community
diversity of trash fishes in the eastern sector, structure due to increase in salinity
which may be attributed to intrusion of saline (a consequence of seawater ingression because
water from the adjacent Bay of Bengal region of warming effect) are:
in the south.
The rate of climate change may thus be a • Reproductive failure
major determinant of the abundance and distri- • Interaction of other environmental parameters
bution of new populations. Rapid change from with salinity to cause excessive mortality
physical forcing usually will favour production (synergistic effect)
of smaller, low-priced, opportunistic species that • Loss of primary food supply due to exceed-
discharge large numbers of eggs over long ance of salinity tolerance for that organism
periods. Reports of decline of species numbers • Direct mortality due to exceedance of salinity
in fish due to increase of salinity have been tolerance
published by several workers (Carpelan 1967;
increasing trend in shad catch in recent times

(Fig. 4C.1).
According to the researchers, the western sec-
tor of Indian Sundarbans, lowering of salinity
due to supply of freshwater through Hugli (after
the commissioning of the Farakka barrage) has
made the environment congenial particularly for
fish like Hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha). The landing
volume of fish has also increased during the
post-Farakka period (Sinha et al. 1996). A long-
term study of several years is, however, needed
to discriminate the seasonal effect (feature) of
fish diversity from the impact of salinity fluctua-
tion on fish catch in the present geographical
locale.
Annexure 4D: Acidification

of Sundarban Mangrove Estuarine
System
1. Introduction
There are reliable scientific evidences that, as a

result of increasing anthropogenic carbon diox-
ide emissions due to intense industrialization and
Fig. 4B.6 Freshwater-loving Sundari (Heritiera fomes)
is gradually vanishing from the Matla riverine zone: a unplanned urbanization and tourism, absorption
threat posed by rising salinity? of carbon dioxide by the oceans and estuaries has
considerably increased the average oceanic acid-
The warning bell of climate change is also ity from pre-industrial levels. However,
perceived in the Hilsa population. The Indian uncertainties exist in the data structure because
shad Tenualosa ilisha is one of the important of several natural and man-made factors (Mitra
food fish of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Ara- 2013). According to the Intergovernmental Panel
bian Gulf area. It constitutes a fishery of consid- on Climate Change (IPCC), continuing carbon
erable economic weightage and importance in dioxide emissions in line with current trends
almost all the river systems and estuaries of could make the oceans up to 150 % more acidic
Gangetic delta. The species is anadromous in by 2100 than they were at the beginning of the
nature with feeding grounds in the sea and Anthropocene. Acidification decreases the abil-
spawning grounds in the upstream region of ity of the ocean to absorb additional atmospheric
estuaries. The recent trend of increasing salinity carbon dioxide, which implies that future carbon
in the central sector of Gangetic delta has dra- dioxide emissions are likely to lead to more rapid
matically modified their migratory path towards global warming.
the west—where the salinity is relatively low. Ocean acidification is also problematic
The landing stations in the central sector of because of its negative effects on marine
Indian Sundarbans witness severe crisis of the ecosystems, especially marine calcifying
species, whereas the western sector exhibits an organisms, and marine resources and services
Annexure 4D: Acidification of Sundarban Mangrove Estuarine System 123
Table 4C.1 Salinity (in ‰) variation in the western Indian Sundarbans after the commissioning of the Farakka barrage
Pre-Farakka Post-Farakka Post-Farakka Post-Farakka
Place (1960–1961) (1985) (1995) (2005)a
Kakdwip 32.80 15.10 13.93 8.56
Canning 28.00 28.90 26.70 11.34
Source: Sanyal et al. (2007), In: Sundarban Wetlands (edited by Dr. Madhumita Mukherjee); published by Department
of Fisheries, Aquaculture, Aquatic resources and Fishing Harbour, Govt. of West Bengal
a
Survey conducted by the authors
Table 4C.2 Mean value of Shannon–Wiener species diversity index (H) computed from 1-year survey
(18.03.2007–21.02.2008) on fish catch by local fishermen in Indian Sundarbans
H (sample H (sample
Station Commercial variety size ¼ 100 kg) Trash variety size ¼ 50 kg)
Namkhana Pama pama, Polynemus paradiseus, 3.187 Thryssa sp., 1.895
(in western Arius jella, Tenualosa ilisha, Stolephorus sp.,
Indian Sillaginopsis panijus, Osteogeneious Harpodon nehereus
Sundarbans) militaris and Polydactylus indicus and Cynoglossus sp.
Bali Island Pama pama, Polynemus paradiseus, 2.014 Thryssa sp., 3.961
(in eastern Arius jella and Sillaginopsis panijus Stolephorus sp.,
Indian Harpodon nehereus
Sundarbans) and Cynoglossus sp.
Fig. 4C.1 Hilsa (Indian shad) catch (bars) showing inverse relationship with aquatic salinity (line)
upon which human societies largely depend such It is now well established that the average pH
as energy, water and fisheries. The effect of of the world ocean surface waters has already
ocean acidification on the carbon system, its fallen by about 0.1 units from an average value
consequences for the ability of the ocean to take of about 8.21–8.10 since the beginning of the
up carbon, its impact on marine ecosystems and industrial revolution (http://mcbi.
the time involved in recovery of the ocean marineconservation.org/publications/pub_pdfs/
ecosystems have been investigated on a variety feely_etal_2008_pices.pdf).
of timescales. The coastal vegetation (commonly The estuaries of Indian Sundarbans is a per-
referred to as blue carbon bank) also has a regu- fect test bed to carry on such experiments
latory impact on aquatic pH. because of its proximity to highly urbanized
city of Kolkata (the direct cause of carbon diox- Table 4D.1 Sampling stations with coordinates in west-
ide emission) (Mitra et al. 1992; Mitra ern Indian Sundarbans
et al. 2010) and presence of about 2110 km2 of Sampling stations Latitude Longitude
mangroves (Sengupta et al. 2013; Raha Arbesi (Stn. 1) 22 120 07.4400 N 89 000 03.1500 E
et al. 2013). On this background the present Jhilla (Stn. 2) 22 100 20.5500 N 88 560 04.1300 E
study was conducted to evaluate the alteration Harinbhanga (Stn. 21 590 17.7900 N 88 590 05.3200 E
3)
of pH in six stations of eastern Indian Sundarbans
Khatuajhuri (Stn. 22 030 09.5200 N 89 010 03.1200 E
situated within the dense mangrove forest for a 4)
period of 30 years (1984–2013). Another impor- Chamta (Stn. 5) 21 530 05.9100 N 88 570 26.5200 E
tant aim of the study is to analyse the role of Chankhali (Stn. 6) 21 510 31.7300 N 89 000 50.9200 E
mangrove vegetation in regulating the trend of
acidification in the present geographical locale.
2.3. Mangrove Vegetation Mapping
Through Remote Sensing
2. Materials and Methods AWiFS data for June 2010 from IRS-P6 satellite
was requisitioned from NRSC Hyderabad for the
2.1. Study Site Description scene (row 55, path 107) with the primary objec-
The mighty river Ganga emerges from a glacier tive of carrying out rapid assessment of man-
at Gangotri, about 7010 m above mean sea level grove pool. The digital data were registered
in the Himalayas, and flows down to the Bay of with geo-referenced vector coverage data,
Bengal covering a distance of 2525 km. At the encompassing the Sundarban Reserved Forest,
apex of the Bay of Bengal, a delta has been using ArcInfo GIS software. The
formed which is recognized as one of the most geo-referencing was done using Polyconic pro-
diversified and productive ecosystems of the jection with Datum Modified Everest, Central
tropics and is referred to as the Indian Meridian 88 and Origin of Projection 24 .
Sundarbans. The deltaic complex has an area of In the next stage, unsupervized classification
9630 km2 and houses about 102 islands using ERDAS Imagine image processing soft-
(Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994). Six sampling ware was carried out. The algorithm adopted
sites were selected in the eastern sector of Indian was ‘initializing the means’ along diagonal
Sundarbans (Table 4D.1, Fig. 4D.1). axis, standard deviation ¼ 2 and convergence
threshold of 0.980. Number of classes was fixed
2.2. Aquatic pH at 20, based on the extent and diversity of man-
The sampling strategy aimed to study temporal grove forests in the Indian Sundarbans.
and spatial variability of surface water pH in the Attributes of the classified images were then
estuarine waters of eastern part of Indian grouped into different classes like dense man-
Sundarbans. Accordingly, systematic sampling grove, open mangrove, mudflat/tidal creeks and
was carried out in June (premonsoon season) water with variable sediment load (Fig. 4D.1).
for 30 consecutive years (1984–2013) during The classifications were subsequently confirmed
high-tide period in six selected stations. The pH through ground truth verification and earlier ref-
of the surface water was measured with a porta- erence maps. The classification was followed by
ble pH meter (Model BST-BT65; sensitivity ¼ the extraction of the forest area enclosing the
0.01). Twenty-five readings were recorded sampling stations. Area of mangroves around
from each site and the mean value was consid- each station was calculated to evaluate the man-
ered for statistical analyses. grove pool (comprising of dominant mangrove
Fig. 4D.1 Location of sampling stations in the eastern Indian Sundarbans; the red colour indicates the mangrove
vegetation
species) in tonnes. Five dominant species were branch and leaves of the tree. The biomass of
selected as per the order of relative abundance of above-ground structures was estimated as per the
each mangrove species in the sampling plots. standard procedures outlined for stem (Husch
et al. 1982), branch (Chidumaya 1990) and leaf
2.4. Mangrove Vegetation Pool (Mitra et al. 2011).
The estimation was carried out by the researcher The mangrove pool (in tonnes) was finally
from 02.06.2010 to 18.06.2010 during the estimated by the product of forest area (assessed
low-tide period. In each station, selected forest from AWiFS data retrieved through IRS-P6 sat-
patches were ~12 years old. Fifteen sample plots ellite) around the selected station (in ha) and total
(10 10 m) at an interval of 100 m were biomass of dominant mangrove species
established (in the river bank) through random (in tonnes per ha).
sampling in the various qualitatively classified
biomass levels for each station. The mean 2.5. Statistical Analysis
(of 15 sample plots) relative abundance of each To assess whether surface water pH varied sig-
mangrove species was evaluated for the order of nificantly between years and stations, analysis of
dominance in the study area. variance (ANOVA) was performed considering
Above-ground biomass (AGB) of individual the data collected for 30 years. It is to be noted
trees of the species in each plot was estimated, that every data point of pH for each station is the
and the average values of 15 plots from each mean of 25 readings. Possibilities less than 0.05
station were finally converted into biomass ( p < 0.05) were considered statistically
(tonnes per ha). AGB is the sum total of stem, significant.
Fig. 4D.2 Temporal Arbesi

8.35
variation of aquatic pH at
station 1
10
8 8.3
6
pH
0 8.25
1984
1989
1994
1999
Year
2004
2009
22⬚12⬘07.44⬙N & 89⬚00⬘03.15⬙E
2013 8.2
The regression equation between mangrove period of 30 years. The rate of decrease per
forest area and aquatic pH was assessed by con- decade ranges from 0.012 (at Stn. 6) to 0.036
sidering the mangrove forest area for the year (at Stn. 1). The spatial order of aquatic pH in
2010 (y) and average aquatic pH of six selected the present study area is Arbesi (Stn. 1) > Jhilla
stations for the same year. All statistical (Stn. 2) > Harinbhanga (Stn. 3) ¼ Khatuajhuri
calculations were performed with SPSS 9.0 for (Stn. 4) ¼ Chamta (Stn. 5) > Chandkhali (Stn.
Windows. 6). This spatio-temporal variation is also con-
firmed through ANOVA (Table 4D.3).
3. Results
4. Discussion
The temporal variations of aquatic pH in all the
six selected stations are presented in Figs. 4D.2, The average decrease of aquatic pH in eastern
4D.3, 4D.4, 4D.5, 4D.6 and 4D.7. sector of Indian Sundarbans is 0.026, which is
Table 4D.2 presents the percentage of pH quiet close to the observations recorded in sev-
reduction in the surface water of selected eral oceans and estuaries (IPCC 2007; Doney
stations. The table shows that in all the selected et al. 2012; Kim et al. 2013; http://www.espl.
stations the pH has decreased within the range noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends; http://hahara.soest.
0.36 % (at Stn. 6) to 1.08 % (at Stn. 1) over a hawaii.edu) (Table 4D.4).
Fig. 4D.3 Temporal Jhilla

variation of aquatic pH at 8.35
station 2
10
8
8.3
6
pH
0
1984 8.25
1989
1994
1999
Year
2004
2009 22⬚10⬘20.55⬙N & 88⬚56⬘04.13⬙E

2013 8.2
Harin Bhanga 8.35
10
8
8.3
6
pH
0 8.25
1984
1989
1994
1999
Year 2004
2009
21⬚59⬘17.79⬙N & 88⬚59⬘05.32⬙E
2013 8.2
Fig. 4D.4 Temporal variation of aquatic pH at station 3
It is expected that the aquatic pH in the Avicennia marina and Excoecaria agallocha.
eastern Indian Sundarbans will decrease at a These halophytes absorb carbon dioxide from
much faster rate as the region receives freshwa- the atmosphere and the water column and store
ter supply from the channels, creeks and it as carbon in their vegetative and reproductive
tributaries of Padma–Meghna–Brahmaputra parts. The principal carbon-fixing enzyme in
system, unlike central Indian Sundarbans, plants is ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxyl-
where there is no supply of freshwater due to ase/oxygenase (RuBisCo). The magnitude of
siltation of the Bidyadhari river in the late the mangrove vegetation pool thus exerts a reg-
fifteenth century (Mitra et al. 2009; Sengupta ulatory role on the pH of the estuarine water
et al. 2013). The present study, however, as these halophytes absorb carbon dioxide
reveals a slow pace of acidification of estuarine for photosynthesis and shifts the equilibrium
water of eastern Indian Sundarbans (0.026 unit/ towards alkalinity. The scatter plot presented
decade) compared to the estuaries of western in Fig. 4D.8 also depicts the positive influence
Indian Sundarbans (0.04 unit/decade). This of coastal vegetation on aquatic pH.
may be primarily due to presence dense man- A close observation on Figs. 4D.2, 4D.3,
grove forest in the eastern part of Indian 4D.4, 4D.5, 4D.6 and 4D.7 exhibits sudden
Sundarbans. The dominant species in the pres- rise of aquatic pH irrespective of stations during
ent study area are Sonneratia apetala, 2009. This was the effect of AILA, a
Avicennia alba, Avicennia officinalis, supercyclone that passed across the Gangetic
Khatuajhuri 8.35
10
8 8.3
6
pH
0 8.25
1984
1989
1994
1999
Year
2004
2009
22⬚03⬘09.52⬙N & 89⬚01⬘03.12⬙E
2013 8.2
delta with a speed of 110 km/hr during 5. Conclusion

25 May 2009. This supercyclone caused signifi-
cant rise of surface water salinity and pH in the This study has demonstrated that the change of
estuaries of the Indian Sundarbans (Mitra aquatic pH in the eastern sector of Indian
et al. 2011). Sundarbans is controlled chiefly by the estuarine
The overall result of the study suggests mixing process and process of halophyte interac-
that the pH of the estuarine water in eastern tion with the soil chemistry in coastal sectors of
Indian Sundarbans is regulated by the synergis- the Bay of Bengal. Thus, in the future, additional
tic effect of the halophytes and magnitude research on this sensitive process is needed, and
of mixing of seawater from the Bay of Bengal. more mangrove afforestation is needed to be
Thus, conservation of coastal vegetation introduced in order to safeguard the nature from
and mangrove afforestation must be given the danger of further acidification.
priority to prevent the process of acidification.
Chamta 8.35
10
8 8.3
6
pH
0 8.25
1984
1989
1994
1999
Year
2004
2009 21⬚53⬘05.91⬙N & 88⬚57⬘26.52⬙E
2013 8.2
6. Future Issues kilns located in the area and carbon capture

and storage should be also considered.
Key recommendations for future action in order 3. Monitor the environmental services of
to fully understand the trend of estuarine acidifi- endemic coastal vegetation like Porteresia
cation are as follows: coarctata (salt marsh grass), mangroves (all
34 species), seaweeds (Enteromorpha
1. Quantify further the biological and biogeo- intestinalis, Ulva lactuca, Catenella repens,
chemical response to estuarine acidification etc.) and other mangrove associates in
from the organismal to the mangrove ecosys- mitigating the acidification process.
tem level. 4. Facilitate dissemination and capacity building
2. Integrate natural and social sciences to help to help deliver scientific knowledge-based
mitigate estuarine acidification and develop advice to researchers and policymakers, to
adaptation strategies, taking into account the share best practices among researchers and
socio-economic impacts on natural success stories with island dwellers of
resources and human communities. The full Sundarbans highlighting the role of
cost of abating carbon dioxide emissions mangroves in maintaining the estuarine
(from the adjacent cities of Kolkata, Howrah water quality.
and Haldia industrial zone), several brick
Fig. 4D.7 Temporal 8.35

variation of aquatic pH at Chandkhali
station 6
10
8 8.3
6
pH
0 8.25
1984
1989
1994
Year 1999
2004
2009
21⬚51⬘31.73⬙N & 89⬚00⬘50.92 E
2013
8.2
Table 4D.2 Mangrove pool (tonnes), % pH reduction in the eastern Indian Sundarbans
Total biomass of dominant
species (tonnes/ha) Forest area (ha) Mangrove pool (tonnes) % pH reduction
Station Date type: primary Date type: primary Date type: primary Date type: primary
Arbesi S. apetala 67.12 7200 1,971,000 1.08
(Stn. 1) A. alba 62.20
E. agallocha 21.79
A. officinalis 63.56
A. marina 59.08
273.75
Jhilla S. apetala 65.33 8387 2,309,863.67 0.96
(Stn. 2) A. alba 63.88
E. agallocha 21.97
A. marina 60.10
275.41
Harinbhanga S. apetala 66.21 7465 1,971,357.20 0.72
(Stn. 3) A. alba 59.31
E. agallocha 21.84
A. marina 54.55
264.08
Khatuajhuri S. apetala 66.18 8666 2,402,648.50 0.72
(Stn. 4) A. alba 64.77
E. agallocha 21.58
A. marina 59.75
277.25
Chamta S. apetala 64.99 12,955 3,641,002.75 0.72
(Stn. 5) A. alba 66.09
E. agallocha 22.02
A. marina 60.01
281.05
Chandkhali S. apetala 62.14 9635 2,536,895.50 0.36
(Stn. 6) A. alba 60.54
E. agallocha 22.87
A. marina 55.17
263.30
Table 4D.3 ANOVA results showing spatio-temporal Table 4D.4 Reduction of surface water pH in different
variation of aquatic pH stations around the world
Variable Fcal Fcrit ( p < 0.05) Location Rate of decrease in pH

Aquatic pH Ulleung Basin East/Japan 0.04 pH units/decade
Sea since 1958
Between stations 35.2747 2.2766
ALOHA 0.02 pH units/decade
Between years 34.4408 1.5458
since 1989
HOT, BATS, ESTOC 0.02 pH units since 1980
3200 km north near Hawaii 0.026 pH units since
15 years
Western sector of Indian 0.024 pH units since
Sundarbans 1984
References 133
8.285
8.28 y = 0.0004x2+ 0.0049x + 8.234
8.275 R2= 0.8563
8.27
Aquatic pH
8.265
8.26
8.255
8.25
8.245
8.24
8.235
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Forest area (ha)
Fig. 4D.8 Interrelationships between forest area and aquatic pH in eastern Indian Sundarbans
Joseph, P. S. (2006). The environmental management the

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Producers of the Marine and Estuarine
Ecosystems 5
Contents In the marine and estuarine ecosystems, the pro-

5.1 Phytoplankton Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 ducer communities act as the converter of solar
energy into other utilizable forms of energy.
5.2 Macrophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
However, in terms of productivity (preferably
Annexure 5A: Avicennia alba: An Indicator net primary productivity), the order is estuaries,
of Heavy Metal Pollution in Indian Sundarban
swamps, and marshes > coastal zone > open
Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
ocean (Fig. 5.1).
Annexure 5B: Regulatory Role of Salinity It is interesting to note that highest primary
on Biomass and Carbon Content in Mangroves
of Lower Gangetic Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 production in the marine and estuarine systems
mostly occur along continental margins and shal-
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
low seas (Fig. 5.2). This is attributed to input of
nutrients through continental run-off coupled
with penetration of sunlight due to shallow
depth, both of which favour the growth and pro-
duction of phytoplankton.
The producer community consists of
organisms that are capable of synthesizing their
own food through photo- or chemosynthesis.
Most of the primary production in the marine
and estuarine ecosystems is carried out by phyto-
plankton. Apart from phytoplankton that manu-
facture their organic food through photosynthesis
(in the photic zone), there are several strains of
bacteria that can prepare their food through the
process of chemosynthesis. Chemosynthetic bac-
teria (also known as chemoautotrophs) oxidize
inorganic compounds such as ammonia, nitrites
and sulphides and trap the small amount of
energy released from these oxidations to use in
the reactions that synthesize carbohydrates. It has
been discovered that chemosynthetic bacteria
support a biological community near deep

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_5
138 5 Producers of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
Fig. 5.1 Average net primary productivity in different ecosystems
90° 110° 130° 150° 170° 170° 150° 130° 110° 90° 70° 50° 30° 10°0° 10° 30° 50° 70° 90° 110° 130° 150°
80° 80°
70° 70°
60° 60°
50° 50°
40° 40°
30° 30°
20° 20°
10° 10°
0° 0°
10° 10°
20° 20°
30° 30°
40° 40°
Highest
50° 50°
60° Highest rates of marine primary 60°
production take place along continental
70° margins and in shallow seas. 70°
Lowest
90° 110° 130° 150° 170° 170° 150° 130° 110° 90° 70° 50° 30° 10°0° 10° 30° 50° 70° 90° 110° 130° 150°
Fig. 5.2 Highest primary productivity (marked with red colour) is observed along continental margins
ocean ridges and vents. At the mid-ocean ridge Several groups of bacteria, including the pur-
system, hot minerals spew out of the inner Earth, ple bacteria, the green bacteria and
providing hydrogen sulphide to chemosynthetic cyanobacteria, are able to photosynthesize. Pur-
bacteria. The organic molecules produced by the ple bacteria and green bacteria are usually strict
bacteria support the growth of giant tube worms, anaerobes (organisms that live in environments
clams and crabs (Fig. 5.3). that lack oxygen) and are found in areas of the
5.1 Phytoplankton Community 139
Fig. 5.3 Chemosynthetic

bacteria survive in the deep
sea vent zones and are
capable of synthesizing
food from carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide
using the energy derived
from chemical reactions
Fig. 5.4 Free oxygen is not generated during food preparation by purple and green bacteria
marine environment such as mudflats that pro- regions where the sediment is dominated by
vide light, anaerobic conditions and sulphur- sand. Their elongated root system helps to bind
containing compounds. These organisms cannot the sediment particles and is very effective in
use water in their photosynthetic process, and controlling erosion (Fig. 5.8). However in coastal
therefore they do not produce any oxygen areas of Florida, the species is completely absent.
(Fig. 5.4). Instead, they often use hydrogen sul-
phide (H2S) and produce elemental sulphur or
sulphate. Purple bacteria and green bacteria are 5.1 Phytoplankton Community
an important source of food for some zooplank-
ton and filter feeders. Phytoplanktons are taxonomically diverse, single-
The seaweeds, seagrasses, salt marsh grasses, celled organisms that populate the upper sunlit
sand binders and mangroves are also among the layer of nearly all aquatic ecosystems on Earth.
producer list of the marine and estuarine They are free floating and cannot move against the
ecosystems (Figs. 5.5, 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8). Not all current. Net annual photosynthesis by ocean phy-
these categories of producers are found in the toplankton alone is of similar magnitude as that by
beaches, coastal zones or estuaries uniformly all terrestrial plants (Field et al. 1998; Behrenfeld
throughout the world. The pattern and distribu- et al. 2001) and it plays a vital role in biospheric
tion of these producers is largely controlled by carbon cycling. Ocean productivity is strongly
edaphic and climatic factors. Ipomoea impacted by climate variations (Gregg
pes-caprae, commonly known as sand binder, et al. 2005; Behrenfeld et al. 2006a), but
is abundant in Sundarban delta preferably in quantifying this impact and predicting future
Fig. 5.5 Thallus structure of seaweed (Ulva lactuca) in the intertidal zone
Fig. 5.6 Salt marsh grasses contribute to primary production in the coastal and estuarine system
Fig. 5.7 Mangrove vegetation contribute to primary production in the coastal and estuarine system
Fig. 5.8 Ipomoea pes-caprae commonly known as sand binder is an important producer in deltaic Sundarbans
change requires an understanding of environmen- physiological variability of phytoplankton with

tal factors regulating phytoplankton light-use respect to time and space. In this context chloro-
efficiencies and growth (Behrenfeld et al. 2008). phyll level of aquatic phase is often used as proxy
However it is extremely difficult to quantify the that is detected through remote sensing.
Fig. 5.9 Common marine phytoplankton with unique shape and configuration
As with terrestrial plants, oxygenic photosyn- During excessive bloom of phytoplankton, the
thesis in phytoplankton involves light harvesting light energy is intercepted, which could other-
and electron transport between two pigmented wise reach fixed plants like eel grass (Zostera
reaction centres: photosystem II (PSII), which is sp.) and kelp. Furthermore, when the phytoplank-
solely responsible for oxygen evolution, and photon eventually die back and break down, an
tosystem I (PSI), where light energy is captured excessive amount of oxygen is required to fuel
in chemical form. Both photosystems contribute this process, and hence areas may become
to cellular chlorophyll concentration and light deprived of oxygen. Excessive nutrients, and/or
absorption, but in vivo fluorescence emanates changes in their relative concentrations, may be
almost exclusively from PSII (Falkowski and one factor in a chain of events leading to changes
Kiefer 1985). Artificially stimulated fluorescence in the species composition of the phytoplankton
has accordingly been used as a non-invasive communities. Increased occurrence of toxic algal
probe for studying phytoplankton and PSII func- blooms may accelerate toxin production. Toxic
tioning (Cullen 1982; Cleveland and Perry 1987; phytoplankton, when consumed by shellfish or
Krause and Weis 1991; Falkowski and Kolber other species, can affect the marine food chain,
1995; Behrenfeld et al. 2006b). Fluorescence including poisoning of seabirds, mammals and
emission under natural sunlight is also detectable even humans.
in subsurface and above-surface upwelling irra- Nearly all marine plants, whether unicellular
diance spectra. Incident irradiance and pigment or multicellular, even those attached to substrata
absorption strongly influence this “natural fluo- (sessile) or free floating, pass some part of their
rescence” signal (Babin et al. 1996; Cullen life cycle in floating condition as phytoplankton.
et al. 1997; Huot et al. 2007), which was pro- However, those organisms which always remain
posed originally as a tool for deriving phyto- planktonic throughout the life cycle are
plankton photosynthetic rates and can register (1) diatoms, (2) dinoflagellates,
physiological variability. Such field observations (3) coccolithophores, (4) selective species of
were instrumental to the development of satellite blue-green algae and (5) some species of green
fluorescence detection capabilities. algae. The members of phytoplankton commu-
Phytoplankton sometimes may cause adverse nity have unique size, shape and morphological
impact on the marine and estuarine environment. features (Fig. 5.9).
5.1.1 Diatoms animals. Coccolithus sp. and Isochrysis galbana

are common coccolithophores of oceans, seas
Diatoms are characterized by the presence of and estuaries.
shell or frustules made up of translucent silica.
The cell wall of diatom has two parts resembling
a pillbox bottom and lid. The lid is called the
5.1.4 Blue-Green Algae
epitheca and the bottom is known as hypotheca.
These shells have great importance from the
These include both unicellular and multicellular
geological point of view and constitute the diato-
organisms. The blue colour in them is due to the
maceous crust. The diatoms exhibit remarkable
presence of a pigment known as phycocyanin. Of
varieties and forms and many species possess
the various organisms belonging to this category,
beautifully sculptured shells. Few diatoms com-
the most important is Trichodesmium erythraeum
monly found in the marine and estuarine waters
because in certain seasons of the year its biomass
are presented in Table 5.1.
increases greatly resulting in the formation of
Depending on the nature of valves and pattern
clumps.
of ornamentation in the valve surface, the
diatoms are grouped into centric and pennate
diatoms. The major differences between these
two groups are given in Table 5.2. 5.1.5 Green Algae
Microscopic green algae present in the plank-

tonic community largely occur in coastal waters.
5.1.2 Dinoflagellates The green colour in them is due to the presence
of chloroplasts. They are widely distributed in
These are important producers of the marine the warmer (tropical) seas and only few species
environment and rank second in importance in are found in the Arctic and Antarctic oceans.
the economy of the sea. Typically, these are Some common species of microscopic green
unicellular; some are naked while others are algae that are planktonic in nature are Chlorella
armoured with plates of cellulose. The marina, Chlorella salina, etc.
dinoflagellates possess two flagella for locomo-
tion. Several of them are luminescent and pro-
duce light. Few species of marine and estuarine
dinoflagellates are presented in Table 5.3. 5.1.6 Classification of Phytoplankton
The phytoplankton community consists of a vari-

ety of organisms, namely, diatoms,
5.1.3 Coccolithophores dinoflagellates, blue-green algae, silicofla-
gellates, coccolithophores, etc., which ranges in
These are among the smallest category of phyto- terms of size from 0.001 to 0.2 mm.
plankton having a size range between 5 and 20 μ. Phytoplankton may be classified variously
Some coccolithophores have flagella, while from different angles which are discussed here:
others are devoid of them. Their soft bodies are
shielded by tiny, calcified circular plates or (a) On the basis of size, the phytoplankton may
shields of various designs. These are normally be grouped under five categories
found in the open sea, but their profuse occur- (Table 5.4).
rence has been recorded in coastal waters. They (b) Phytoplankton can also be classified on the
form important diet components of filter feeding basis of the cell characteristics (Table 5.5).
Table 5.1 Common diatoms in marine and estuarine ecosystem
S. no. Species Microscopic view
1. Coscinodiscus eccentricus
2. Coscinodiscus jonesianus
3. Coscinodiscus lineatus
4. Coscinodiscus radiates
5. Coscinodiscus gigas
5.2 Macrophytes 145
Table 5.2 Differences between centric and pennate (a) Phaeophyceae: The brown seaweeds are
diatoms distinguished by their colour, which varies
Point Centric diatom Pennate diatom from olive green through light golden to a
Cell shape Discoid, Elongated and deep shade of brown. Motile reproductive
solenoid or fusiform, oval, cells are commonly found in the brown
cylindrical sigmoid or
roughly circular algae, e.g. kelps like Postelsia sp.,
Ornamentation Radial in nature, Bilateral in Nereocystis sp., Macrocystis sp., and Lami-
i.e. the pattern of nature, i.e. the naria sp. and Fucus sp., Padina
markings is markings are on gymnospora and Rosenvingea intricata.
radiating from either side of the
Since brown algae live primarily in shallow
the centre apical (main)
axis waters or on shoreline rocks, they exhibit
adaptations that protect them from the con-
stant pounding of the waves. The body of
brown algae is very flexible, which allow
5.2 Macrophytes them to bend or orient with the wave action.
Unlike red and green algae, brown algae
5.2.1 Seaweed Community usually do not reproduce by fragmentation
because the tissues are too highly
Seaweeds or macroalgae grow attached to rocks, specialized to regenerate new parts. A
shells or any solid objects (may be mangrove major exception to this rule is Sargassum
twig) (Fig. 5.10). Sometimes these are found in sp. (Fig. 5.12).
floating condition at the water’s edge or scattered (b) Rhodophyceae: These seaweeds posses
on the shore, but these are practically dislodged bright pink colour caused by the biloprotein
from their respective substrates. pigments, r-phycoerythrin and
Seaweeds are attached by holdfast that anchors r-phycocyanin. The freshwater forms how-
the plant to a solid base or substrate. The holdfast ever are of bluish-green in colour. Red algae
is not a root in real sense; it does not absorb water produce large amount of polysaccharides
or nutrients. Above the holdfast is a stem-like around their cells. Several of these
portion known as stipe. It acts as the flexible polysaccharides are commercially impor-
connection between the holdfast and the blade tant. The majority of the marine forms
and ranges from very short length to about 35 m. occur from low-tide marks to greater depths
The blades of the seaweeds are the photosynthetic up to 100 m beneath the surface of the sea,
portions, just like the leaves of the trees. e.g. Porphyra sp., Chondrus crispus,
Based on the colour of their pigmentation, the Catenella repens (Fig. 5.13), etc.
seaweeds are broadly classified into various
categories like Chlorophyceae (green), Seaweeds have been used for centuries to treat
Phaeophyceae (brown), Rhodophyceae (red), etc. a variety of illness. Asiatic cultures used
seaweeds as long as 300 B.C. to treat glandular
Chlorophyceae These types of seaweeds are disorders, such as goitre. A goitre is an enlarge-
green in colour, owing to the presence of chloro- ment of the thyroid, a gland located in the neck.
phyll. They are abundantly distributed in the The thyroid gland requires iodine to produce its
littoral zone of the marine ecosystem. Some secretions, and when an individual’s diet is defi-
examples of green seaweeds are Codium sp., cient in iodine, the gland frequently enlarges.
Enteromorpha intestinalis (Fig. 5.11), Since many seaweeds concentrate iodine from
Enteromorpha compressa, Ulva lactuca, seawater in their tissues, consumption of sea-
Chaetomorpha sp., Cladophora sp., etc. weed treats the condition.
Table 5.3 Common dinoflagellates in marine and estuarine waters

Sl. no. Species Microscopic view
1. Prorocentrum gracile
2. Prorocentrum micans
3. Prorocentrum concavum
4. Ceratium furca
5. Ceratium fusus
5.2 Macrophytes 147
The ancient Romans used seaweeds for individuals. Kainic acid, which is extracted from
treating burn and rashes and healing wounds. the red alga Digenia, is still used for this purpose.
The slimy mucilage that coats the blades of In the past, polysaccharides called
many seaweeds effectively blocks air and phycocolloids (fy-koh-KAHL-loydz) that were
microorganisms from reaching an affected area. isolated from red algae were used to treat a vari-
This relieves some of the discomfort, helps pre- ety of intestinal ailments. Phycocolloids dissolve
vent infection and promotes healing. The red slowly and are not digested. These characteristics
alga Porphyra contains vitamin C and was used allow them to coat the lining of the stomach and
by English sailors to prevent scurvy, a disease intestines so that material in the digestive tract,
caused by vitamin C deficiency. Porphyra was such as acids, will not irritate it, thus alleviating
more readily available than citrus fruits during some of the discomfort related to ulcers and
ocean voyages and did not spoil as quickly. Sev- stomach aches. Phycocolloids were used to treat
eral species of red algae were used to eliminate constipation because they promote retention of
parasitic worms from the intestines of affected fluid in the large intestine, which helps make
faecal material easier to move. Today products
from red algae, such as agar and carrageenan, are
Table 5.4 Classification of phytoplankton on the basis
of size
used in the treatment of ulcers. The pharmaceu-
tical industry uses a variety of polysaccharides
Plankton category Maximum dimension (μm)
from red algae in the coating of pills and the
Ultraplankton <2
production of time-release capsules.
Nanoplankton 2–20
Microplankton 20–200
Probably the most important algal product
Macroplankton 200–2000 used in medicine and research today is agar,
Megaplankton >2000 which is used for culturing microorganisms.
Table 5.5 Classification of phytoplankton on the basis of cell characteristics

Area(s) of
Class Common name predominance Common genera
Cyanophyceae (cyanobacteria) Blue-green algae Tropical Oscillatoria,
Synechococcus
Rhodophyceae Red algae Cold temperate Rhodella
Cryptophyceae Cyptomonads Coastal Cryptomonas
Chrysophyceae Chrysomonads Coastal Aureococcus
Silicoflagellates Cold waters Dictyocha
Bacillariophyceae Diatoms All waters, esp. coastal Coscinodiscus,
(Diatomophyceae) Chaetoceros, Rhizosolenia
Raphidophyceae Chloromonads Brackish Heterosigma
Xanthophyceae Yellow-green Brackish Very rare
algae
Eustigmatophyceae Yellow-green Estuarine Very rare
algae
Prymnesiophyceae Coccolithophorids Oceanic Emiliania
Prymnesiomonads Coastal Isochrysis
Prymnesium
Euglenophyceae Euglenoids Coastal Eutreptiella
Prasinophyceae Prasinomonads All waters Tetraselmis
Micromonas
Chlorophyceae Green algae Coastal Rare
Pyrrophyceae (Dinophyceae) Dinoflagellates All waters, esp. warm Ceratium
Gonyaulax
Protoperidinium
Fig. 5.10 Seaweed on a
mangrove twig
Fig. 5.11 Enteromorpha

intestinalis: a
green seaweed
Fig. 5.12 Sargassum sp.:

a common brown seaweed
5.2 Macrophytes 149
Fig. 5.13 Catenella

repens: a red seaweed
Agar can withstand high temperatures so it can Class—Chlorophyceae

be sterilized. It is porous so that it allows the Order—Ulvales
movement of nutrients. It is solid at room tem- Family—Ulvaceae
perature and resists decomposition by most Genus—Enteromorpha
microorganisms. These characteristics make Species—intestinalis
agar an ideal medium for growing bacteria and
fungi for study and research. Salient Features
Seaweed beds also act as significant sink of 1. Plant body is tubular, more or less com-
carbon dioxide. A study conducted by Chung pressed, constricted and coiled in the form of
et al. (2013) shows that seaweed beds can intestine.
remove substantial amount of carbon dioxide. 2. Thallus dark green in colour and found
The researchers observed that a pilot coastal car- attached to the substratum with the help of
bon dioxide removal belt (CCRB) firm can draw primary attaching cell.
approximately 10 tons of CO2/ha/year. Incre- 3. Presence of numerous multinucleated rhizoids
ment in biomass accumulation served as success growing from lower cell of the thallus.
indicator of the process. There was also a simul- 4. Cells of the thallus are small and elongated.
taneous decrease in the amount of dissolved inor-
ganic carbon in the ambient water column. In Type II
order to translate this unique ecosystem service
of seaweed into reality, the researchers also Systematic Position
designed a mid-water rope culture system for Division—Chlorophyta
pilot CCRB firm along the southern coast of Class—Chlorophyceae
Korea (Fig. 5.14). Order—Ulvales
Taxonomic position and salient features of Family—Ulvaceae
some common seaweed found in the mangrove Genus—Enteromorpha
ecosystem of Indian Sundarbans are listed here. Species—compressa
Type I Salient Features

1. Plant body is tubular, more or less compressed
Systematic Position and constricted.
Division—Chlorophyta
Fig. 5.14 Schematic structural diagram of mid-water rope-culture system for pilot seaweed CCRB farm installed
along southern coast of Korea
2. Thallus light green in colour and found Type IV

attached to the substratum with the help of
primary attaching cell. Systematic Position
3. Presence of numerous multinucleated rhizoids Division—Chlorophyta
growing from lower cell of the thallus. Class—Chlorophyceae
4. Cells of the thallus are small and round. Order—Cladophorales
Family—Cladophoraceae
Type III Genus—Rhizoclonium
Species—hookeri
Systematic Position
Division—Chlorophyta Salient Features
Class—Chlorophyceae 1. Filaments rigid, dark green in colour.
Order—Ulvales 2. Thallus simple, intertwined to form a fleecy
Family—Ulvaceae layer with numerous rhizoids.
Genus—Ulva 3. Branches are formed at right angles to the
Species—lactuca main axis.
4. Cells measure about 170–82 μ diameter and
Salient Features 72–105 μ long.
1. Plant body is tubular, more or less com-
pressed, flattened leaf-like. Type V
2. Thallus dark green in colour and found
attached to the substratum with the help of Systematic Position
primary attaching cell. Division—Chlorophyta
3. Presence of numerous multinucleated rhizoids Class——Chlorophyceae
growing from lower cell of the thallus. Order—Cladophorales
4. Cells of the thallus are small and ovoid. Family—Cladophoraceae
5.2 Macrophytes 151
Genus—Rhizoclonium Type VIII

Species—riparium
Systematic Position
Salient Features Division—Chlorophyta
1. Filaments pale green, expanded on the Class—Rhodophyceae
substrate. Order—Gigartinales
2. Filaments flexuous, intertwined into a fleece Family—Rhabdoniaceae
with thin cell wall. Genus—Catenella
3. Frequent rhizoid branches. Species—repens
4. Vegetative cells measure about 23–26 μ;
Salient Features
diameter usually 1–2 times as long as broad.
1. Plants with repent and assurgent branches.
2. Branching is ditrichotomous below but clearly
Type VI
pinnate above.
3. The axis and branches divided into dorsiven-
Systematic Position
trally compressed ellipsoid to ovate segment
three to five times longer than broad.
Class—Chlorophyceae
4. The haptera terminating into uncorticated fla-
Order—Cladophorales
gellar outgrowth chiefly formed at points of
Family—Cladophoraceae
forking and not in the plane of branching of
Genus—Chaetomorpha
the thallus.
Species—aerea
Salient Features Type IX
1. Filaments are unbranched.
2. Filaments 50–55 μ in diameter and 1–1.5 Systematic Position
times long. Division—Chlorophyta
3. Rhizoids present at the base are unbranched Class—Rhodophyceae
and form disc-like in appearance. Order—Ceramiales
4. Cell wall thick, hyaline and lamellate. Family—Rhodomelaceae
Type—Bostrychia sp.
Type VII
Salient Features
Systematic Position 1. Filiform black or dull purplish.
Division—Chlorophyta 2. Thallus with erect branches often
Class—Chrysophyceae distinguishable.
Order—Vaucheriaceae 3. Rhizoids polysiphonous, ordinarily regular
Family—Cladophoraceae and bilaterally branched.
Type—Vaucheria sp. 4. Branches with several cells of equal length
being disposed about the central axis or these
Salient Features pericentral cells regularly transversely divided.
1. Thallus filamentous, aseptate and laterally and
irregularly branched.
Type X
2. Filaments usually attached by branched
rhizoids.
Systematic Position
3. Filaments cylindrical with numerous small
chloroplasts towards the exterior boundering Class—Rhodophyceae
the central vacuole. Order—Ceramiales
4. Chloroplasts are without pyrenoids. Family—Delesseriaceae
Genus—Caloglossa 5.2.2 Mangroves

Species—leprieurie
Mangroves are the salt-tolerant forest ecosystems
Salient Features found mainly in the tropical and subtropical inter-
1. Plants dorsiventral, spreading or somewhat tidal regions of the world. They consist of
erect up to 4 cm across deep reddish-violet swamps, forestland within and its surrounding
in colour. waterbodies. It is a matter of great surprise that
2. Blades 1.5 mm broad, constricted at the mangrove floral species thrive luxuriantly in
forking and elsewhere. saline habitat, which is basically physiologically
3. Individual segments are lanceolate, 4–6 mm dry in nature. The mangroves not only stabilize
long, sometimes linear-attenuate, rarely the shoreline and act as a bulwark against the
ovate. encroachment by the sea, but they also act as the
4. Rhizoids and secondary segments or blades abode of several species of finfish, nursery of a
formed at the constrictions; blades formed wide range of finfish and shellfish juveniles and
here are irregularly branched. biopurifying matrix of wastes generated as a result
of industrialization and urbanization. In mangrove
ecosystem, different kinds of unrelated fauna and
The macroalgae are noted for their primary flora get themselves adapted to thrive under the
production. Efficiencies of solar energy trapped influence of tidal inundation and brackish water.
showed a maximum in Enteromorpha intestinalis Thus this ecosystem acts as the zone of adaptive
(0.64 %) and Ulva lactuca (0.43 %) with an convergence, which is a vital issue in the sphere
average of 0.35 % by this group. A research evolutionary biology.
conducted on this aspect indicates that in the Mangroves are circumtropical in distribution,
deltaic complex of Indian Sundarbans, and this forest community occupies approxi-
Enteromorpha intestinalis and Ulva lactuca are mately 75 % of the total tropical coastline. North-
the most productive species, followed by ern extension of this coastline occurs in Japan
Enteromorpha prolifera and Rhizoclonium (31 220 N) and Bermuda (32 200 N), whereas
grande (Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994). The southern extensions are in New Zealand
gross and net primary productions and energetics (38 030 S), Australia (38 450 S) and on the east
of benthic macroalgae in this mangrove- coast of South Africa (32 590 S). Globally,
dominated ecosystem are highlighted in mangroves are distributed in 112 countries and
Tables 5.6 and 5.7. territories. It is interesting to note that mangrove
Table 5.6 Gross primary production (GPP) and energetics of benthic macroalgae
Species GPP gC/m2/day Glucose g/m2/day Energy Kcal/m2/day Efficiencies (%)
Chlorophyceae
Enteromorpha intestinalis 3.84 9.60 35.91 0.64
E. prolifera 2.10 2.75 10.29 0.19
Ulva lactuca 2.54 6.35 23.75 0.43
Rhizoclonium grande 0.84 2.10 7.86 0.14
Rhodophyceae
Bostrychea radicans 2.26 3.15 12.78 0.21
Bostrychea sp. 0.61 2.53 5.72 0.10
Catenella nipae 2.14 2.85 10.66 0.19
C. adnata 0.24 0.60 2.25 0.04
C. leprieurii 0.27 0.68 2.55 0.05
Gracilaria verrucosa 0.96 2.40 8.98 0.16
Total 12.80 32.01 119.72 2.14
Mean 2.28 3.20 12.97 0.22
5.2 Macrophytes 153
Table 5.7 Net primary production (NPP) and energetics of benthic macroalgae
NPP g/m2/ Glucose g/m2/ Energy Kcal/m2/ (%) of Net
Species day day day GPP efficiencies
Chlorophyceae
Enteromorpha 3.26 8.150 30.48 85.00 0.55
intestinalis
E. prolifera 0.98 2.450 9.14 89.09 0.16
Ulva lactuca 2.25 5.630 22.04 88.58 0.38
Rhizoclonium grande 0.32 0.800 2.99 80.01 0.05
Rhodophyceae
Bostrychea radicans 0.86 2.154 8.04 68.25 0.15
Bostrychea sp. 0.38 0.950 3.56 62.29 0.06
Catenella nipae 0.86 2.150 8.04 75.43 0.15
C. adnata 0.12 0.300 2.12 50.00 0.02
C. leprieurii 0.21 0.530 2.97 77.77 0.03
Gracilaria verrucosa 0.62 2.550 5.80 64.98 0.10
Total 9.86 24.660 92.18 76.99 2.65
Mean 0.97 2.470 9.22 77.18 0.17
plants are not native to the Hawaiian Islands— 1. Over-wash mangrove forests: small mangrove
six species have been introduced there since the islands, frequently over-washed by the tides.
year 1900. The mangrove diversity is more in 2. Fringing mangrove forests: found along the
Southeast Asian countries (Fig. 5.15). The region waterways, influenced by daily tides.
holds nearly 75 % of the world’s mangrove spe- 3. Basin mangrove forests: stunted mangroves,
cies with the highest species diversity found in located in the interior of swamps.
Indonesia with 45 species, followed by Malaysia 4. Hammock mangrove forests: similar to basin
(36 species) and Thailand (35 species). India is type, but existing in more elevated sites.
no less in terms of the number of mangrove 5. Scrub mangrove forests: dwarf stands of
species (34 species of true mangroves) and mangroves, existing on flat coastal fringes.
hence is considered as one of the mega biodiver-
sity countries in the world. The sheltered coasts support a luxuriant
The total global coverage of mangroves has growth of mangroves and a higher biodiversity
been variously estimated as 14–15 million and this is because of the favourable conditions
hectares (Schwamborn and Saint-Paul 1996), such as muddy sediment, frequent water
10 million hectares (Bunt 1992) and 24 million exchange, high rainfall and high humidity,
hectares (Twilley et al. 1992). Spalding prevailing in the areas. The best examples are
et al. (1997) gave a recent estimation of global mangroves of Sundarbans (India and
mangrove coverage around 18 million hectares Bangladesh), Malaysia and Indonesia. In con-
with 42.4 % in South and Southeast Asia and trast, the arid regions of Arabian Gulf countries,
additional 23.5 % in Indonesia. Pakistan and Gujarat (India), where the sediment
The 15 most mangrove-rich countries and is sandy, highly saline and poor in nutrients, have
their cumulative percentage are highlighted in only dwarf mangrove stands.
Table 5.8. The mangrove forests are highly productive
In the Indian Ocean region, the mangroves are ecosystems with productivity about 20 times
found in a variety of coastal settings, ranging more than the average oceanic production
from arid areas through estuaries, lagoons and (Gouda and Panigrahy 1996). Moreover, it is a
deltas to coastal fringes. The functional types of ‘detritus-based’ ecosystem unlike other coastal
mangroves in the Indian Ocean region are: ecosystems, which are usually ‘plankton based’.
Fig. 5.15 Global distribution of mangrove diversity
Table 5.8 Fifteen most mangrove-rich countries of the world

Sl. No. Country Area (ha) % of global total
1. Indonesia 3,112,989 22.6
2. Australia 977,975 7.1
3. Brazil 962,683 7.0
4. Mexico 741,917 5.4
5. Nigeria 653,669 4.7
6. Malaysia 505,386 3.7
7. Myanmar 494,584 3.6
8. Papua New Guinea 480,121 3.5
9. Bangladesh 436,570 3.2
10. Cuba 421,538 3.1
11. India 368,276 2.7
12. Guinea Bissau 338,652 2.5
13. Mozambique 318,851 2.3
14. Madagascar 278,078 2.0
15. Philippines 263,137 1.9
The detritus supplied by the ecosystem saturates the world sustains a rich spectrum of floral and
the ambient water with nutrients, which triggers faunal community in and around its vicinity. The
the growth and development of planktonic com- mangroves enrich the coastal waters with
munity in the waterbodies on which the fishery nutrients, yield commercial forest products, pro-
resource is also dependent. The greatest concen- tect coastlines and support coastal fisheries
tration of mangrove species is observed usually (Kathiresan and Bingham 2001). Generally, the
at the mouth of tidal creeks and rivers where salt- mangrove vegetations are well adapted to
and freshwater mix in ideal proportion and extreme conditions of salinity, tides, winds and
floodwaters deposit plenty of material to build temperature, although they show a preference for
up the banks. This unique coastal ecosystem of freshwater. There are no floral groups in the plant
5.2 Macrophytes 155
kingdom, which possess such well-organized and which water and salts in the seawater are
highly developed morphological, biological and separated in the root zone itself and only
physiological as well as ecological adaptations to water is taken inside and the salts are
extreme environmental conditions. rejected. Many mangrove species can
Mangrove plants tolerate salinity of the soil exclude 90 % of salt in the ambient
and water through three basic processes as listed seawater or estuarine system (http://
here: www.epa.qld.gov.au/nature_conservation/
habitats/mangroves_andwetlands/man
(i) Salt excretion: Mangrove plants take saline groves). Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops
water as such through roots. However, in decandra, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Kandelia
the tissues of some species of mangroves, candel, etc., are few salt excluders of man-
only water molecules and essential salts are grove community. Scholander (1968)
retained. Excess salts are excreted through demonstrated experimentally that the salt
salt glands that are present in the leaves. separation process in mangroves occurs at
The salt-excreting species of mangrove or near the root surface. This is mediated
community like Avicennia alba, Aegiceras by physical processes alone, since it is not
corniculatum, Acanthus ilicifolius, inhibited by poisons or high temperature,
Aegialitis rotundifolia, etc., regulate their which may cause an inhibitory effect on
internal salt levels through foliar glands. In metabolic process. In the root area the phys-
salt-secreting (excreting) mangroves, the ical mechanism for salt separation involves
NaCl concentration of xylem sap is rela- ultrafiltration which occurs either at the root
tively high, about one tenth of the concen- surface (epiblema) or at the root endodermis.
tration of salt in seawater. So, the salt- However, the latter region might be the most
excreting species allow more salt into the preferable site (Tomlinson 1986) because the
xylem than do the non-excretors but still ultimate absorbing roots in most of the
exclude about 90 % of the salts (Scholander mangroves lack root hairs (e.g. capillary
et al. 1962; Azocar et al. 1992). Salt is only rootlets of Rhizophora sp.). This indicates
partially excluded at the roots. The that the absorbing area of mangroves is
absorbed salt is primarily excreted metabol- reduced in comparison to non-mangrove
ically via specialized salt glands in the plants.
leaves. The salt in solution can crystallize (iii) Salt accumulation: In this type of mangrove
by evaporation and either can be blown plants, the species possess neither salt
away or washed off. Since, in salt-excreting glands nor ultrafiltration system, but they
mangroves, superfluous salts are excreted have the capacity to accumulate a large
by guttation through special salt glands, all amount of salts in their leaves. This imparts
these salt-excreting halophytes are often succulence to their leaves. Sonneratia
referred to as crinohalophytes. apetala, Lumnitzera racemosa, Excoecaria
It is interesting to note that salt excretion agallocha, Sesuvium portulacastrum,
is an active process, as evidenced by ATPase Suaeda maritima and Suaeda nudiflora are
activity in the plasmalemma of the excretory included in this category. Leaf succulence
cells (Drennan and Pammenter 1982). The in mangroves has a simple explanation in
process is probably regulated by leaf hypo- terms of salt balance. The osmotic potential
dermal cells, which may store salt as well as of the leaf cells of mangroves is high
water (Balsamo and Thomson 1995). (Scholander et al. 1964) which is essential
(ii) Salt exclusion: In some of the mangrove if mangroves are to draw water from the sea
plants, the roots possess an ultrafiltration with its high negative water potential. How-
mechanism called reverse osmosis by ever, Scholander (1968) noted that the salt
concentration of mangrove leaves remain and ecosystem services are highlighted in

constant and independent of age. Measure- Table 5.9.
ment of salt content in xylem sap The growth, distribution and survival of
demonstrates incomplete salt exclusion at mangroves are primarily regulated by salinity,
the roots. But mangroves accumulate salt, although edaphic factors play important roles in
and so this accumulation is partly the process. A detailed study conducted on five
compensated by salt glands, mainly in the dominant mangrove species in Indian Sundarbans
less efficient salt excluders. Since salt con- (Vide Annexure 5B) clearly confirms the influence
centration is constant and independent of of aquatic salinity on the biomass, carbon content
leaf age, salt must accumulate by an and litter biomass of mangrove species. The study
increase in the volume of the leaf cells also reflects difference in salinity tolerance among
inducing succulence. The leaf succulence the true mangrove species, which can be used as a
in mangroves may therefore be accepted road map in the scenario of sea level rise and
as a part of their adaptation in an environ- subsequent alteration of salinity.
ment that provides ample water at the
expense of some compensation for high
aquatic salinity. 5.2.3 Seagrass and Salt Marsh Grass
Studies on salt tolerance in Aegiceras
corniculatum and Sesuvium portulacastrum Seagrasses are specialized marine flowering
generated a few interesting findings: plants that are found abundantly in the nearshore
(i) NaCl salinity has considerable effect on region (Fig. 5.16). They are marine plants that
the degree of succulence. With the increase generally inhabit the protected shallow waters of
of NaCl salinity in the ambient media, the temperate and topical coastal areas. These plants
mass and volume of the leaves increases are not true grasses, and they present several
due to increment in the water content. genera that appear to be more closely related to
(ii) Effect of NaCl and Na2SO4 is more members of the lily family. The most extensive
pronounced in Sesuvium sp. than Aegiceras areas of seagrasses are found in the tropics. They
sp. (iii) In Sesuvium sp., effect of chloride are concentrated in two major regions of the
salinity is more prominent than that of Indo-Pacific, as well as both coasts of the
sulphate salinity. (iv) NaCl is the most Americas. Seagrasses do not thrive in areas of
effective salt in promoting succulence low light intensity. If the water in a seagrass bed
(Van Eijk 1939). Succulence is due to becomes too turbid (clouded with sediments), it
expansion of the cell wall leading to can destroy the seagrasses and their dependent
increase in the size of cells. organisms. A massive die-off of seagrasses took
(v) Accumulation of NaCl is more in place in Maryland’s Chesapeake Bay estuary
Sesuvium than Aegiceras due to their differ- during the 1960s, largely due to diminished
ence in the mode of salt regulation. light associated with excessive sediment run-off
(vi) Chlorophyll content decreases sharply from the land surrounding the bay.
at high concentration of NaCl in both the Seagrasses are hydrophytes, which means
plant species. (vii) High concentration of they generally live submerged beneath the
Na2SO4 stimulates the synthesis of chloro- water. To survive in their subtidal habitat, these
phyll in Aegiceras corniculatum but inhibits plants must be adapted to a saline environment
the same in Sesuvium sp. with wave action and tidal currents. They must
also be able to carry out pollination and seed
Some common mangrove species (true dispersal underwater.
mangroves) abundantly found in Indian The major stems of seagrasses, called
Sundarbans along with their identifying features rhizomes or long shoots, grow horizontally,
5.2 Macrophytes 157
Table 5.9 Common mangroves of Indian Sundarbans

Mangrove species Identifying features Ecosystem services
1. Shrub tolerant to high 1. Fruit is poisonous to fish
saline areas due to presence of saponin
2. Bark reddish-brown and tannin and hence used
with leaves elliptical, leaf- in aquacultural farms to
tip notched, cuneate at kill crabs and unwanted
base predatory fishes
3. Fruit green to reddish in 2. Bark is a good source of
maturation, sharply curved tannin
4. Fragrant white flowers, 3. The flowers of these
curved yellow trees are good sources of
high-quality honey
Aegiceros corniculatum
Common name: Khalsi
1. Trees are tolerant to high 1. Used for fodder and fuel
salinity, pneumatophores 2. Paste prepared from
spongy, narrowly pointed seeds helps to relieve small
with slender stilt roots pox ulceration
2. Bark dark brown or even 3. Wood ash after burning
black wood is given in dysentery
3. Leaves lanceolate to 4. Acts as unique agent of
elliptical, leaf-tip acute, bioremediation by
lower surface silver grey to accumulating Zn, Cu and
white Pb in the body tissues
4. Curved fruit with (Interested readers/
relatively long beak researchers may Vide
Annexure 5A)
Avicennia alba
Common name: Kalo baen
1. Trees are tolerant to high 1. Bark decoction applied
salinity on “Haza” (a kind of sore
2. Pneumatophores pencil due to wet sand) for curing
like purpose
3. Bark yellowish brown 2. Paste prepared from
4. Leaves elliptical, leaf- seeds helps to relieve small
tip rolling, lower surface pox ulceration
white to light grey 3. Resinous exude is used
5. Inflorescence terminal for birth control purposes
or axillary, orange yellow 4. Efficient in
in colour bioaccumulation of Zn in
the body tissues
Avicennia marina
Common name: Piara baen
(continued)
Table 5.9 (continued)

1. Trees are tolerant to high 1. Used for firewood
salinity, pneumatophores 2. Ash obtained after
pencil like burning the dried bark is
2. Bark yellowish brown. used as antacid
Leaves elliptical, leaf-tip 3. Paste of green (raw)
rolling, lower surface fruits is applied on boils
white to light grey and skin diseases (like
3. Inflorescence terminal scabies) for the purpose of
or axillary, orange yellow curing
4. Efficient bioaccumulator
of heavy metals like Cu
and Pb
Avicennia officinalis
Common name: Sada baen
1. Trees are with long, 1. Wood used in house
corky, forked building and packing cases
pneumatophores 2. Yields excellent fuel
2. Stem light brown in 3. Fruit contains 28/100 g
colour of vitamin C and hence
3. Leaves thick, helps to fight cough and
coriaceous, narrowly cold
elliptic oblong tapering 4. Efficient bioaccumulator
towards apex of heavy metals (Zn, Cu,
4. Flowers are cream Pb and Mn)
coloured in axillary cymes
with globose berry seated
in flattened calyx tube
Sonneratia apetala
Common name: Keora
1. Trees generally found on 1. Bark decoction with
elevated interior parts of coconut oil is applied to
mangrove forest with cure dermatological
prominent buttress roots problems
2. Bark dark grey. Leaves 2. Unique source of tannin
simple, elliptical-oblong, (36 %)
leathery and leaf-tip 3. Wood used for house
acuminate post
3. Flowers axillary, single 4. Yields excellent fuel
with red calyx, red in
colour and almost
16 lobed; fruits are cigar
shaped, stout and dark
green
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Common name: Kankra
(continued)
5.2 Macrophytes 159

1. Stilt roots arising from 1. Source of tannin (29 %)
pyramidal stem base 2. Provides fuel charcoal
2. Light grey barked stem 3. Used for boat building
3. Leaves elliptic-oblong, 4. Obstetric and
emarginate at apex, haemorrhage cases are
cuneate at base treated with an infusion of
4. Flowers axillary in Ceriops bark
condensed cymes
5. Fruit is berry, dark red
when mature, warty
towards tip, ridged, not
hanging down
Ceriops decandra
Common name: Goran
1. Prominent main root 1. Latex applied on
absent, many laterally leprotic wounds
spreading snake like roots 2. Leaf decoction is
producing elbow-shaped claimed as medicine in
pegs epilepsy
2. Bark greyish. Poisonous 3. Heart wood and
milky latex highly pneumatophores give
irritating to eyes scent, but not
3. Leaves light green with commercially used
wavy margin 4. Efficient bioaccumulator
4. Catkin inflorescence of heavy metals from the
terminal or axillary, orange ambient media
yellow
Excoecaria agallocha
Common name: Genwa
1. Trees with numerous 1. Wood fetches a high
peg-like pneumatophores price in the international
and blind root suckers market, as it is of demand
2. Young branches covered for making furniture
with shining golden-brown 2. Indicator of salinity
scales profile of an area
3. Leaves elliptic with 3. Source of tannin (11 %).
lower surface shining with Rich in astaxanthin
silvery scales
4. Flowers golden yellow
with reddish tinge inside
and fruits sub-globose,
woody, indehiscent with
longitudinal and transverse
ridges
Heritiera fomes (Sterculiaceae)

Common name: Sundari
(continued)

1. Palm tree like 1. Ash prepared after
appearance with no aerial burning tender leaves is
roots used in stomach ulcers
2. Leaves lanceolate, palm 2. Dried leaves are often
leaves arising from root used for making roofs in
stock, leaf tip acute thatched houses
3. Flowers female in 3. Source of alcohol
globose head, males in 4. Rich in astaxanthin
catkin-like, brick red to
yellow; fruit dark brown or
brick red, globose, pericarp
fleshy, fibrous
Nypa fruticans
Common name: Golpata
Fig. 5.16 Global distribution of seagrass
usually just below the surface of the bottom Roots develop from both the rhizomes and the
sediments. The rhizomes and roots of seagrasses base of short shoots. Unlike the fibrous roots of
help to stabilize the bottom and, along with the terrestrial grasses, the roots of seagrasses are
leaves, help trap large amounts of sediment. The usually thicker and more fleshy. The flowers,
leaves are either flat or oval and ribbon shaped or normally inconspicuous, small and pale white,
cylindrical and are flexible to better withstand are usually located at the bases of the leaves.
water movement while remaining erect. Leaves The stamens (male flower parts) and pistils
either develop directly from the rhizomes or from (female flower parts) generally extend above
small vertical side stem called short shoots. the petals of the flower. As a rule, the pollen is
5.2 Macrophytes 161
released from the stamens in long, gelatinous stretching from Mandapam to Tuticorin. The
strands that are carried by water currents to the islands are located approximately 2–10 km
pistils. from the mainland and are classified based on
Seagrasses belong to the families their proximity to mainland into four major
Hydrocharitaceae and Potamogetonaceae. There groups: Tuticorin, Vembar, Keezhakarai and
are about 13 genera and 58 species of seagrass Mandapam groups. The region was declared a
available all over the world. Of these, six genera Marine Biosphere Reserve in 1989 under the
(Amphibolis, Heterozostera, Phyllospadix, Man and Biosphere Programme of UNESCO
Posidonia, Pseudalthenia and Zostera) are in lieu of its invaluable biodiversity and
mostly restricted to temperate seas and the multiple-use status. The 21 islands are
remaining seven genera (Cymodocea, Enhalus, protected under the Gulf of Mannar Marine
Halodule, Halophila, Syringodium, Thalassia National Park.
and Thalassodendron) are distributed in tropical It is observed that in the seagrass species
seas. Seagrass species have worldwide distribu- collected from three stations in the Gulf of
tion. They are found in tropical (hot), temperate Mannar region, the ratio of AGB and BGB
(cool) and the edge of the Arctic (freezing) ranges between 1:1.2 and 1:1.30. Because of
regions. They thrive luxuriantly in coastal water relatively more biomass in the below-ground
region. Seagrasses are mostly found in patches, structures, the stored carbon in the below-ground
but these patches can expand to form huge structures (BGC) is relatively more than above-
seagrass beds or meadows. The beds may sustain ground carbon (AGC) (Tables 5.10 and 5.11).
one species of seagrass or multiple species. The soil associated with the seagrass meadow
Seagrass meadows are essential coastal is also a unique reservoir of carbon. In addition to
ecosystems that provide many ecosystem the decomposition of the seagrass species,
services such as improved water quality and associated flora (blue carbon) and fauna also
light availability, increases in biodiversity and contribute organic matter to the intertidal
habitat, sediment stabilization and carbon and mudflats. We also monitored organic carbon
nutrient accumulation (Hemminga and Duarte level in the soil associated with the seagrass
2000; Orth et al. 2006; McGlathery et al. 2012). species and observed considerable carbon per-
Seagrasses serve as breeding grounds and centage in the associated soil (Table 5.12).
nurseries for important marine organisms. The seagrass bed is often affected by physical
Recently, seagrass meadows have been acknowl- and biological factors. Migration of sand dune
edged for their carbon storage potential, and it often affects the coverage and growth pattern of
has been estimated that globally as much as 19.9 some species of seagrass, whereas consumption
Pg of organic carbon are stored in seagrass by herbivores can greatly reduce the standing
meadows (Fourqurean et al. 2012). Seagrass stock of the community. Bioturbation
meadows cover only 0.1 % area of the world’s (e.g. feeding by stingray) also contributes greatly
ocean floor yet account for 10–18 % of the total to the destruction of seagrass meadows, and in
oceanic carbon burial, accumulating carbon at some areas, decapods burrowing creates
rates of 48–112 Tg C year1 (Duarte favourable environment for storm events that
et al. 2005; Kennedy et al. 2010; Mcleod can tear the rhizome mats of seagrass.
et al. 2011). Globally, seagrass ecosystems are declining
We studied the stored carbon in three seagrass in area by about 5 % per year due to anthropo-
species (namely, Cymodocea serrulata, genic stresses, including decreased water quality
Thalassia hemprichii and Halophila ovalis) in and increased water temperatures (Orth
the Gulf of Mannar region (Fig. 5.17) of India. et al. 2006; Mcleod et al. 2011; Waycott
The Gulf of Mannar extends from et al. 2009), and this decline could result in the
Rameswaram Island in the north to Kanyakumari release of large amounts of stored carbon Duarte
in the south in the southeast art of Indian subcon- et al. (2005). In order to partially mitigate
tinent. It consists of a chain of 21 islands seagrass decline, restoration in areas with
JAMMU & KASHMIR
Srinagar
Capital of State
Shimla Union Territory
HEMACHAL
PUNJAB PRADESH
Chandigarh
DELHI ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Itanagar
SIKKIM
RAJASTHAN Lucknow Gangtok
M NAGALAND
Jaipur SA
Depur AS Kohima
UTTAR PRADESH MEGHALAYA
Patna
MANIPUR Shilong
BIHAR Imphal TRIPURA
GUJARAJ
Bhopal Agartala
Aizawl
Gandhinagar Calcutta
MADHYA PRADESH MIZORAM
Diu
ORISSA
W.BENGAL
Dadra &
MAHARASHTRA Bhuhaneshwar
Nagar Haveli
Mumbai
Hyderabad
ARABIAN SEA
ANDHRA
PRADESH
BAY OF BENGAL
GOA
Panaj
KARNATAKA
Bangalore
Chennai
Pondicherry Port Blair

KERALA TAMIL NADU ANDAMAN & NICOBAR
ISLANDS
LAKSHADWEEP Trivandrum
INDIAN OCEAN
Fig. 5.17 Gulf of Mannar region

5.2 Macrophytes 163
Table 5.10 Species-wise above-ground biomass (AGB) and above-ground carbon (AGC) per unit area in Gulf of
Mannar
AGB (gm dry wt. m2) AGC (gm dry wt. m2)
Species Stn 1 Stn 2 Stn 3 Stn 1 Stn 2 Stn 3
115.23 (49.6 %) 109.60 (49.7 %) 101.85 (49.9 %) 57.15 54.47 50.82
Cymodocea serrulata
56.98 (48.5 %) 49.79 (48.9 %) 38.64 (47.9 %) 27.63 24.35 18.51
Thalassia hemprichii
28.87 (41.23 %) 25.19 (43.05 %) 19.49 (45.16 %) 11.90 10.84 8.80
Halophila ovalis
suitable habitat is an effective option that has the leaves covered by a thick cuticle to help retard
potential to re-establish lost carbon stores and water loss, and the stems and leaves contain well-
sinks, as well as other important ecosystem developed vascular tissues for the efficient trans-
services seagrass meadows provide. port of water within the plant’s tissues. Many of
Plants such as cordgrass (Spartina), rushes the plants that inhibit salt marshes, such as pickle
(Juncus) and pickle weed (Salicornia) are adapted weed, have thick, water-retaining, succulent leaves
to life in salt marshes. These plants generally grow similar to those of plants that live in hot, arid
in the middle to upper intertidal zones, where they terrestrial habitats.
are protected from the actions of waves and tidal Salt marsh grasses are special type of
currents and where they are not completely halophytes that are adapted to continual and peri-
submerged. Like seagrasses and mangroves, they odic flooding. They are found primarily through-
are considered facultative halophytes, meaning out the tropical, temperate and subarctic regions.
that they can tolerate salty conditions as well as The tide is the dominating characteristic of a salt
freshwater. Since they live in sediments with a marsh. The salinity of the aquatic phase defines
high salt content, salt marsh plants tend to lose the plants and animals species that can survive in
water to their environment by osmosis and display the marsh area. The vertical range of the tide
adaptations similar to those of desert plants to help determines flooding depths and thus the height
them retain water. Both cordgrass and rushes have of the vegetation, and the tidal cycle controls
Table 5.11 Species-wise below-ground biomass (BGB) and below-ground carbon (BGC) per unit area in Gulf of
Mannar
BGB (gm dry wt. m2) BGC (gm dry wt. m2)
Species Stn 1 Stn 2 Stn 3 Stn 1 Stn 2 Stn 3
144.04 (48.4 %) 140.29 (48.6 %) 132.41 (49.1 %) 69.72 68.18 65.01
Cymodocea serrulata
71.79 (47.9 %) 63.23 (48.2 %) 49.84 (48.5 %) 34.39 30.48 24.17
Thalassia hemprichii
36.31 (39.69 %) 33.14 (38.43 %) 24.75 (38.11 %) 14.41 12.74 9.43
Halophila ovalis
Table 5.12 Soil organic carbon (SOC) level associated Plants of the salt marsh have two types of
with the seagrass species
roots: one that act to anchor the plant and
Species SOC (%) another, short-lived type that functions in nutri-
Stn 1 Stn 2 Stn 3 ent absorption. Stems develop from rhizomes
Cymodocea serrulata 1.98 1.36 1.09 and produce the leaves. Like seagrasses, salt
Thalassia hemprichii 1.07 0.98 0.89 marsh plants usually have shallow roots and
Halophila ovalis 1.13 0.97 1.01 rhizomes. This arrangement helps to stabilize
coastal sediments and prevent shoreline
how often and how long vegetation is erosion.
submerged. Two areas are delineated by the Salt marshes usually are developed on a sink-
tide: the low marsh and the high marsh. The ing coastline, originating as mudflats in the shal-
low marsh generally floods and drains twice low water of sheltered bays, lagoons and
daily with the rise and fall of the tide; the high estuaries or behind sandbars. They are formed
marsh, which is at a slightly higher elevation, where salinity is high, ranging from 20 to
floods less frequently. 30 psu. Proceeding up the estuary, there is a
5.2 Macrophytes 165
Fig. 5.18 Salt marsh grass Porteresia coarctata: a mangrove associate species
transitional zone where salinity ranges from on the biomass and carbon content of
20 to less than 5 psu. In the upper estuary, P. coarctata.
where river input dominates, the water has The salt marsh is one of the most productive
only a trace of salt. This varying salinity ecosystems in nature and serves as a sediment
produces changes in the marsh—in the kinds sink, a nursery habitat for finfish and shellfish
of species and also in their number. Typically, species, a feeding and nesting site for water-
the fewest species are found in the hypersaline fowl and shorebirds, a habitat for numerous
zone and the greatest numbers of species are unique plants and animals, a nutrient source, a
found in the freshwater tidal marsh. In Indian reservoir for storm water, an important erosion
Sundarban region, salt marsh grass Porteresia control component and a site for aesthetic
coarctata grows in Nayachar Island pleasures.
(21 450 2400 N and 88 150 2400 E), where the salin-
ity of water touches almost 2 psu during mon-
Brain Churners
soon. Also the species is abundant in the
1. Why are continental margins more
intertidal mudflats of islands located in the
productive than open oceans?
high-saline zone like Sagar Island (21 390 0400 N
2. Do you consider chemosynthetic bac-
and 88 010 4700 E), Gosaba (22 150 4500 N and
teria as producers of marine
88 390 4600 E) and Satjelia Island (22 110 5200 N
ecosystem?
and 88 500 4300 E), etc., where the salinity varies
3. Phytoplankton may cause harm to
between 15 and 28 psu. In this mangrove-
marine environment during bloom
dominated ecosystem, the species is the neigh-
phase. Explain the statement.
bour of mangroves (Fig. 5.18) and plays an
4. Why do seaweeds under
important role to maintain stability of the
Rhodophyceae exhibit pinkish colour?
islands (Mitra and Banerjee 2005). It is the
5. Why is the holdfast of seaweeds not a
pioneer species in the process of ecological suc-
root in real sense?
cession. Studies carried out by researchers
showed that salinity has a regulatory influence (continued)
large molecular weight, humus materials and

6. How does salinity regulate the growth
metals adsorbed to hydrous oxides are also pos-
and biomass of mangroves?
sibly available (Gambrell 1994; Williams
7. How do mangroves adapt to saline
et al. 1994). A. alba, being an endemic and
environment?
dominant species of the Sundarban region, is
8. How does seagrass differ from salt
exposed to heavy metal pollution, as the region
marsh grass?
is contaminated with conservative pollutants
9. What are the causes of rapid decline of
(Mitra 1998; Mitra et al. 2011; Banerjee
seagrass ecosystem?
et al. 2012; Mitra and Ghosh 2014). On this
10. Why is the mangrove ecosystem
background the present study was carried out to
regarded as the region of adaptive
detect the concentrations of heavy metals in
convergence?
A. alba in three stations located in Indian
Sundarbans.
Annexure 5A: Avicennia alba: An 2. Materials and Methods

Indicator of Heavy Metal Pollution
in Indian Sundarban Estuaries 2.1. Sampling of A. alba
Three stations (Fig. 5A.1) were selected in the
1. Introduction central part of Indian Sundarbans: Canning, Stn.1
(22 180 3700 N; 88 400 3600 E); Chhotomollakhali,
Avicennia alba is a common mangrove floral Stn.2 (22 100 21.7400 N; 88 530 55.1800 E); and
species in Indian Sundarbans where the soil is Bali, Stn.3 (22 040 35.1700 N; 88 440 55.7000 E).
inundated (twice a day) with saline water of The species collected from the selected stations
2.0–28 psu. The species can also withstand sub- during low tide were brought to laboratory,
mergence with saline water for a long period of washed and dried with tissue paper and stored
time due to its inherent capacity to tolerate high at 20 C for further analysis.
levels of salinity and submergence. The species
is endowed with a unique system of ion 2.2. Analysis of Dissolved Zn, Cu and Pb
influx–efflux regulation (Mitra et al. 2004). 10 l Teflon-lined Glo-Flo bottles, filled with
The coastal zones and estuaries, which are Teflon taps and deployed on a rosette or on
the primary habitat of this mangrove species, Kevlar line, were used for collecting surface
are exposed to effluents from chemical water samples. Nucleopore filters (0.4 μm pore
industries everyday (Manahan 1994; diameter) was used to filter the collected water
Krishnamurti and Viswanathan 1991). As a con- samples and the aliquots of the filters were
sequence, nutrients and contaminants like heavy acidified with sub-boiling distilled nitric acid
metals, pesticides and halogenated hydrocarbons to a pH of about 2.0 and stored in clean polyeth-
are transported into the intertidal mudflats of ylene bottles of low density. Using dithiocarba-
mangrove forest (Delaune et al. 1990) since mate complexation and subsequent extraction
they are partly bound to suspended particles. into Freon TF, followed by back extraction as
The mangrove forests adjacent to the highly per the procedure of Danielsson et al. (1978),
urbanized and industrialized cities and towns dissolved heavy metals were separated and
often receive large pollutant loads, including concentrated from the ambient water of the
discharges of heavy metals from industry and selected stations. Zn, Cu and Pb in the extracts
transportation activities. In the intertidal were detected using atomic absorption spectro-
mudflats, water-soluble metals and exchangeable photometer (Perkin Elmer Model 3030). The
metals are the most available and precipitated quality aspect of dissolved heavy metal deter-
inorganic compounds; metal complexes with mination is confirmed by good agreement
Annexure 5A: Avicennia alba: An Indicator of Heavy Metal Pollution. . . 167
between our values and reported for certified 2.5. Data Analysis
reference seawater materials (CASS 2) Statistical software SPSS 16.0 was applied to
(Table 5A.1). determine the interrelationships of heavy metal
concentrations in A. alba and ambient environ-
ment by Pearson correlation coefficient analysis.
2.3. Analysis of Biologically Available Zn,
Statistical significance was tested at 95 % confi-
Cu and Pb
dence level. The computations of correlation
Collection of sediment samples from surface
coefficients were done considering the mean
(cm depth) was done by scrapping using a
values of selected variables for 2 consecutive
precleaned and acid-washed plastic scale and
years (n ¼ 24).
stored immediately in clean polyethylene bags,
which were sealed. Double-distilled water free of
metal was used to wash the collected samples 3. Results
and oven-dried at 05 C for 5–6 h. The samples
were freed from visible shells or shell fragments, 3.1. Dissolved Heavy Metal
ground to powder in a mortar and stored in acid- The dissolved heavy metals followed the order
washed polyethylene acids. As per the standard Zn > Cu > Pb irrespective of all stations.
procedure of Malo (1977), the analyses of bio- Dissolved Zn ranged from 213.64 57.67 ppb
logically available metals were done after (at Bali) to 551.01 60.39 ppb (at Canning)
redrying the samples, from which 1 g was taken during 2011 and from 232.77 57.76 ppb
and digested with 0.5 (N) HCl. Polyethylene (at Bali) to 570.14 60.39 ppb (at Canning)
containers were used to store the resulting solu- during 2012. Dissolved Cu ranged from
tion. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer was 79.83 54.19 ppb (at Bali) to 159.47 11.09
used for determining the metal concentrations. In ppb (at Canning) during 2011, and in 2012 it
the reagent blank, no detectable trace metals ranged from 94.95 54.19 ppb (at Bali) to
were found. To assure the quality of the data, 173.09 12.47 ppb (at Canning). Dissolved Pb
analysis of the NIES Sargasso sample was car- ranged from 8.41 3.76 ppb (at Bali) to
ried out that revealed least standard deviation 35.41 4.29 ppb (at Canning) during 2011 and
between the observed values and certified values from 16.69 4.95 ppb (at Bali) to 45.18 4.35
(Table 5A.2). ppb (at Canning) during 2012 (Figs. 5A.2a,
5A.2b and 5A.2c).
2.4. Analysis of Tissue Zn, Cu and Pb
20 g leaf and stem samples were oven-dried at 3.2. Biologically Available Heavy Metals
105 C overnight to a constant weight. 1 g of Biologically available heavy metals in sedi-
dried sample of each of the vegetative part was ment followed the same order as that of water,
digested with a mixture of 10 ml nitric acid and i.e. Zn > Cu > Pb irrespective of all stations.
perchloric acid (3:1) following the method as Sediment Zn ranged from 40.84 10.09 ppm
outlined by Lithor (1975) till a clear solution (at Bali) to 78.01 9.43 ppm (at Canning) dur-
was obtained. The resulting solution was made ing 2011 and from 49.87 10.09 ppm (at Bali)
up to a constant volume with 0.05 N nitric acid. to 87.03 9.43 ppm (at Canning) in 2012. In
Each of the vegetative samples was analysed case of sediment, Cu ranged from 10.68 2.84
for Zn, Cu and Pb against standard concentra- ppm (at Bali) to 26.86 2.76 ppm (at Canning)
tion of each metal on a Perkin–Elmer Atomic during 2011, and in 2012 it ranged from
Absorption Spectrophotometer (Model 3030) 15.64 2.84 ppm (at Bali) to 32.41 3.63
equipped with a HGA 500 graphite furnace ppm (at Canning). Pb in sediment ranged
atomizer and a deuterium background correc- from 6.26 1.83 ppm (at Bali) to
tor. Blank correction was done to bring accu- 12.65 2.33 ppm (at Canning) during 2011
racy to the results. and from 8.70 2.01 ppm (at Bali) to
168
700
600
800
700
500
600
500
400
400
5
300
Dissolved Zn (ppb)
300 200
100
Dec v
No Oct
200 pt Bali/2012
Se Aug Bali/2011
July e
Jun y Canning/2012
Ma l
Apri arch Canning/2011
M Feb Chhotomollakhali/2012
Jan
Chhotomollakhali/2011
Fig. 5A.1 Map of Indian Sundarbans showing the sampling stations

Producers of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
Table 5A.1 Analysis of reference material for nearshore 4. Discussion

seawater (CASS 2)
Certified value Laboratory results Metal pollution in the estuarine, harbour and
Element (μg l1) (μg l1) coastal environment is usually caused by land
Zn 1.97 0.12 2.01 0.14 run-off, mining activities, shipping and dredging
Cu 0.675 0.039 0.786 0.058
activities and anthropogenic inputs (Panigrahy
Pb 0.019 0.006 0.029 0.009
et al. 1997). Sediments in much affected domains
not only record its history but also indicate the
degree of pollution (Sahu and Bhosale 1991).
Table 5A.2 Analysis of reference material (NIES Sar-
gasso sample) for sediments obtained from the National The mechanism of accumulation of pollutants
Institute of Environmental Studies, Japan in the sediments is strongly controlled by the
Certified value Laboratory results nature of substrate as well as the physico-
Element (μg g1) (μg g1) chemical conditions controlling dissolution and
Zn 28.6 26.2 precipitation (Panigrahy et al. 1997). Even
Cu 14.9 13.7 though many of the organic compounds occur-
Pb 2.4 2.9 ring in the marine sediments are known to form
complexes with metal ions in solution, it has
been observed that humic substances are respon-
13.96 2.37 ppm (at Canning) during 2012 sible for these strong interactions (Manskaya and
(Figs. 5A.3a, 5A.3b and 5A.3c). Drozdova 1968). The physico-chemical
variables also play a major role in the compart-
3.3. Bioaccumulation Pattern mentalization and speciation of metal in the
In A. alba samples, the heavy metals varied as per coastal environment. It has been reported that
the order Zn > Cu > Pb. This sequence is uniform apart from anthropogenic influences, variables
in all the three selected stations. In the present like aquatic salinity and pH regulate the process
study, the mean concentration of Zn in leaf ranged of precipitation of metallic compounds on the
from 6.60 ppm (at Bali) to 11.66 ppm (at Canning) seabed and sediment.
during 2011, and in 2012 the mean concentration Heavy metals have contaminated the aquatic
ranged from 7.13 ppm (at Bali) to 13.84 ppm environment in the present century due to intense
(at Canning). Mean concentration of Cu ranged industrialization and urbanization. The Gangetic
from 5.75 ppm (at Bali) to 8.21 ppm (at Canning) delta is no exception to this usual trend. The
in 2011 and 6.12 ppm (at Bali) to 10.05 ppm rapid industrialization and urbanization of the
(at Canning) in 2012. Mean value of Pb in A. alba city of Kolkata (formerly known as Calcutta),
leaf ranged from 1.79 ppm (at Bali) to 2.44 ppm Howrah and the newly emerging Haldia complex
(at Canning) in 2011 and from 1.85 ppm (at Bali) to in the maritime state of West Bengal has caused
2.98 ppm (at Canning) in 2012 (Fig. 5A.4a). considerable ecological imbalance in the adja-
In the same species, the mean concentration of cent coastal zone (Mitra and Choudhury 1992;
Zn in stem ranged from 9.89 ppm (at Bali) to Mitra 1998). The Hooghly estuary, situated on
17.84 ppm (at Canning) during 2011, and in 2012 the western sector of the Gangetic delta, receives
the mean concentration ranged from 11.23 ppm drainage from these adjacent cities, which have
(at Bali) to 21.33 ppm (at Canning). Mean Cu sewage outlets into the estuarine system. The
concentration ranged from 7.89 ppm (at Bali) to chain of factories and industries situated on the
12.54 ppm (at Canning) in 2011 and 8.33 ppm western bank of the Hooghly estuary is a major
(at Bali) to 15.75 ppm (at Canning) in 2012. Pb cause behind the gradual transformation of this
ranged from mean value of 1.95 ppm (at Bali) to beautiful ecotone into stinking cesspools of the
2.80 ppm (at Canning) in 2011 and from megapolis (Mitra and Choudhury 1992). The
2.02 ppm (at Bali) to 3.59 ppm (at Canning) in lower part of the estuary has multifarious
2012 (Fig. 5A.4b). industries such as paper, textiles, chemicals,
170
180
160 200
140
150
120
100
100
5
Dissolved Cu (ppb)
50
80
0
Dec v
60 No Oct Bali/2012
pt
Se Aug y Bali/2011
Jul ne
Ju y Canning/2012
40 Ma pril Canning/2011
A ch
Mar Feb Chhotomollakhali/2012
Jan Chhotomollakhali/2011
Fig. 5A.2a Dissolved Zn in three stations of Indian Sundarbans during 2011–2012

50
45
60
40
50
35
40
30
30
25
20
Dissolved Pb (ppb)
20
10
Annexure 5A: Avicennia alba: An Indicator of Heavy Metal Pollution. . .
15 0
c
De v
10 No t
Oc pt Bali/2012
Se g Bali/2011
Au ly
Ju ne Canning/2012
5 Ju y
Ma ril Canning/2011
Ap rch b Chhotomollakhali/2012
Ma Fe Jan
Fig. 5A.2b Dissolved Cu in three stations of Indian Sundarbans during 2011–2012

171
172
100
90
120
80 100
80
70
60
60
5
Sediment Zn (ppm)
40
50
20
c
De v
No t
40 Oc ept Bali/2012
S g Bali/2011
Au
July Canning/2012
ne y
Ju Ma ril Canning/2011
30 Ap
rch b Chhotomollakhali/2012
Ma Fe Jan
Fig. 5A.2c Dissolved Pb in three stations of Indian Sundarbans during 2011–2012

35
40
30 35
30
25 25
20
20 15
Sediment Cu (ppm)
10
Annexure 5A: Avicennia alba: An Indicator of Heavy Metal Pollution. . .
15 5
e c
D v
No Oct
pt Bali/2012
Se g Bali/2011
Au ly
10 Ju ne Canning/2012
Ju y
Ma ril Canning/2011
Ap rch b Chhotomollakhali/2012
Ma Fe Jan Chhotomollakhali/2011
Fig. 5A.3a Biologically available Zn in surface sediments of three stations of Indian Sundarbans during 2011–2012
173
174
18
16
20
14
15
12
10
10
5
Sediment pb (ppm)
8
0
6 c
De v
No Oct
pt Bali/2012
Se Aug ly Bali/2011
4 Ju une y Canning/2012
J
Ma April Canning/2011
rch eb
F n Chhotomollakhali/2012
Ma Ja Chhotomollakhali/2011
Fig. 5A.3b Biologically available Cu in surface sediments of three stations of Indian Sundarbans during 2011–2012
Fig. 5A.3c Biologically

available Pb in surface
sediments of three stations
of Indian Sundarbans
during 2011–2012
Fig. 5A.4a Mean

concentrations (n ¼ 12 for
each year) of heavy metals
(in ppm dry wt.) in
A. alba leaf during 2011
and 2012
pharmaceuticals, plastic, shellac, food, leather, Ship bottom paint has been found to produce very
jute, tyres and cycle rims (UNEP 1982). These high concentration of Cu in seawater and sediment
units are point sources of heavy metals in the in harbours of Great Britain and southern
estuarine water. California (Bellinger and Benhem 1978; Young
Of the three metals studied in the present et al. 1979). The most toxic of these heavy metals
work, Zn and Cu are essential elements while is Pb, which finds its way in coastal waters through
Pb is a non-essential element for most of the the discharge of industrial wastewaters, such as
living organisms (Trieff 1980). from painting, dyeing, battery-manufacturing
The main sources of zinc in the present geo- units, oil refineries, etc. Antifouling paints used
graphical locale are the galvanization units, paint- to prevent growth of marine organisms at the bot-
manufacturing units and pharmaceutical pro- tom of the boats and trawlers also contain lead as
cesses. The main sources of Cu in the coastal an important component. These paints are
waters are antifouling paints (Goldberg 1975), designed to constantly leach toxic metals into the
particular type of algaecides used in different water to kill organisms that may attach to bottom
aquaculture farms, paint-manufacturing units, of the boats, which ultimately is transported to the
pipeline corrosion and oil sludges (32–120 ppm). sediment and aquatic compartments. Lead also
Fig. 5A.4b Mean concentrations (n ¼ 12 for each year) of heavy metals (in ppm dry wt.) in A. alba stem during 2011
and 2012
enters the oceans and coastal waters both from being used for wastewater treatment. Metals taken
terrestrial sources and atmosphere and the atmo- up by plants are also capable of re-entering wet-
spheric input of lead aerosols can be substantial. land systems through excretion from leaf salt
The sampling area is exposed to all these activities glands (Kraus et al. 1986; Kraus 1988). Metals
being proximal to the highly urbanized city of present within the water column may be carried
Kolkata, Howrah and the newly emerging Haldia through open stoma of the plant. This could result
port-cum-industrial complex. in the adhesion of the metals to the outer surface
Wetland vegetations are known to absorb and of the leaf. In the present study, the significant
accumulate metals from contaminated sediment positive correlations ( p < 0.05) observed
(Giblin et al. 1980; Kraus et al. 1986; Kraus between dissolved heavy metals and plant tissue
1988; Sanders and Osman 1985). The absorption metal confirm the adhesive characteristics of the
of contaminants is one reason that wetlands are metals (Table 5A.3). Also, significant negative
Table 5A.3 Interrelationships between heavy metal concentrations in A. alba and ambient environment
Station
r-value
Year Combination Canning Chotomollakhali Bali p-value (for 3 stations)
2011 Tissue Zn Dissolved Zn 0.8123 0.8864 0.7985 <0.01
Tissue Cu Dissolved Cu 0.7654 0.8032 0.7911 <0.01
Tissue Pb Dissolved Pb 0.6854 0.7039 0.8105 <0.01
Tissue Zn Sediment Zn 0.5999 0.6343 0.7107 <0.01
Tissue Cu Sediment Cu 0.7185 0.8004 0.7397 <0.01
Tissue Pb Sediment Pb 0.6115 0.7559 0.8023 <0.01
2012 Tissue Zn Dissolved Zn 0.7644 0.8123 0.6994 <0.01
Tissue Cu Dissolved Cu 0.7145 0.8323 0.6558 <0.01
Tissue Pb Dissolved Pb 0.6948 0.7732 0.9144 <0.01
Tissue Zn Sediment Zn 0.7184 0.8176 0.7739 <0.01
Tissue Cu Sediment Cu 0.7149 0.8028 0.6997 <0.01
Tissue Pb Sediment Pb 0.7314 0.6954 0.6249 <0.01
relationships between tissue metals and biologi- nutrients and transfer of oxygen to the rhizosphere
cally available metals in sediments signify that the by leakage from roots serve as matrix for growth
primary source of selected heavy metals in A. alba of microorganisms and stimulate more microbial
is the aquatic phase and not the sediment. activities (Conley et al. 1991). Microorganisms
regulate the decomposition of complex organic
matter in the mangrove ecosystem and result in
5. Looking Forward nitrogen turnover. The soil/sediment of
mangroves not only provides a habitat for micro-
In the coastal environment, mangroves play a and macro-flora and fauna that are involved in
major role in regulating the nutrient balance of chemical transformation but plays a significant
the zone. It can absorb excess nutrients, reduce role in its ability to retain certain chemicals.
suspended solids and sequester other pollutants It has been recorded that mangroves possess
from aquatic phase. Therefore, in many parts of high capacity to retain pollutants, which may be
the globe, this unique ecosystem is presently attributed to their presence in anaerobic and
used as the sink of waste generated from reduced conditions, periodically flooded by
urban, agricultural and industrial sectors located tides and high clay and organic matter content
nearby. (Tam and Yao 1998). However the impact of
During the past few decades, both natural and wastewater to the mangrove ecosystem is a mat-
constructed wetlands were considered as ter of great concern than the efficiency of
low-cost, easy maintained, simple and effective wetlands in improving water quality. The pro-
alternatives for the treatment of municipal, indus- ductivity of mangroves may increase due to
trial and agricultural effluents (Tam and Yao discharge anthropogenic wastes and this process
1998). The mangrove wetlands are no exceptions is beneficial particularly in those areas where
to this bio-purification activity. The mechanisms nutrient status is low (Wong et al. 1995). This
of mangroves to improve the health of the ambient research article thus reflects another face of
aquatic phase involve interactive processes of mangroves, which has been paid minimum
plants, soil/sediment and microorganisms attention but can successfully be used to control
(Kanokporn et al. 2002). Plants’ uptake of anthropogenic wastes.
Annexure 5B: Regulatory Role forests (William 2005). These intertidal forests
of Salinity on Biomass and Carbon play important ecological and socioeconomic
Content in Mangroves of Lower roles by acting as a nutrient filter between land
Gangetic Delta and sea (Robertson and Phillips 1995),
contributing to coastline protection (Vermatt and
1. Introduction Thampanya 2006), providing commercial fishery
resources (Constanza et al. 1997) and nursery
The general consensus among climate researchers grounds for coastal fishes and crustaceans. The
and environmentalists is that increased levels of coastal zone (<200 m depth), covering ~7 % of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) from human activities the ocean surface (Gattuso et al. 1998), has an
and luxurious lifestyles, burning fossil fuels and important role in the oceanic carbon cycle, and
massive deforestation in many regions of the various estimates indicate that the majority of
world are changing the climate of the planet mineralization and burial of organic carbon, as
Earth. CO2 plays the major role in absorbing well as carbonate production and accumulation,
outgoing terrestrial radiation and contributes take place in the coastal ocean (Gattuso
about half of the total greenhouse effect. Between et al. 1998; Mackenzie et al. 2004). The potential
1850 and 1900, around 100 gigatons of carbon impact of mangrove on coastal zone carbon
was released into the air just for land-use changes dynamics has been a topic of intense debate dur-
(Pandey 2002). Most of the increase has been ing the past decades. The ‘outwelling’ hypothesis,
since 1940 (Hair and Sampson 1992). The atmo- first proposed for mangroves by Odum (1968) and
spheric CO2 concentration is currently rising by Odum and Heald (1972), suggested that a large
4 % per decade. Worldwide concern about climate fraction of the organic matter produced by man-
change has created increasing interest in trees to grove trees is exported to the coastal ocean, where
help reduce the level of atmospheric CO2 (Dwyer it forms the basis of a detritus food chain and
et al. 1992). Forests are most critical components thereby supports coastal fisheries. A number of
for taking carbon out of circulation for long recent studies have indicated that a direct trophic
periods of time. Of the total amount of carbon link between mangrove forest production and off-
tied up in earthbound forms, an estimated 90 % shore secondary production is unlikely for many
is contained in the world’s forests, which includes mangrove systems. Despite the large number of
trees, forest floor (litter) and forest soil. For each case studies dealing with various aspects of
cubic foot of merchantable wood produced in a organic matter cycling in mangrove systems
tree, about 33 lb. (14.9 kg) of carbon is stored in (Kristensen et al. 2008), there is very limited
total tree biomass (Sampson et al. 1992). Tropical consensus on the carbon-sequestering potential
forests in general are a disproportionately impor- of mangroves.
tant component in the global carbon cycle and are The present study is an attempt to establish a
thought to represent 30–40 % of the terrestrial net baseline data set of the carbon content in the
primary production (Clark et al. 2001). Although mangrove ecosystem of Indian Sundarbans that
the area covered by mangrove ecosystems repre- has received the crowns of World Heritage Site
sent only a small fraction of tropical forests, their and Biosphere Reserve in 1987 and 1989 respec-
position at the terrestrial–ocean interface and tively by UNESCO, owing to its unique
potential exchange with coastal water suggests biological productivity, taxonomic diversity and
these forests make a unique contribution to carbon aesthetic beauty. To preserve the ecosystem in its
biogeochemistry in coastal ocean (Twilley pristine form, mangrove plantation is carried out
et al. 1992). Mangrove ecosystems thrive along on regular basis in the entire Gangetic delta com-
coastlines throughout most of the tropics and sub- plex. An accurate estimate of carbon storage and
tropics. About 75 % of tropical and subtropical sequestration is essential for any project related
countries of the world comprise of mangrove to plantation particularly in the sector of social
Annexure 5B: Regulatory Role of Salinity on Biomass and Carbon Content in. . . 179
forestry. In context to mangrove-dominated to variation in carbon pool under different envi-

Gangetic delta region, this is extremely impor- ronmental conditions.
tant as several government, nongovernment
organizations and even foreign donors are
participating in the mangrove afforestation 2. Methods
programme, owing to extreme vulnerability of
the system to sea level rise, erosion and tidal 2.1. Study Site Description
surges (Hazra et al 2002; Mitra and Banerjee Two sampling sites were selected each in the
2004). The ability of these plantations to seques- western and central sectors and around Indian
ter carbon has generated a lot of interest, since Sundarbans, a Gangetic delta at the apex of the
carbon sequestration projects in developing Bay of Bengal (Fig. 5B.1). This deltaic complex
nations could receive investments from has an area of 9630 Km2 and houses 102 islands.
companies and governments wishing to offset The western sector of the deltaic lobe receives
their emissions of greenhouse gases through the the snowmelt water of mighty Himalayan
Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mecha- glaciers after being regulated through several
nism (Fearnside 1999). Carbon registries typi- barrages on the way. The central sector, on the
cally segregate a number of carbon pools within other hand, is fully deprived from such supply
a mangrove forest that can be identified and due to heavy siltation and clogging of the
quantified. These carbon pools are categorized Bidyadhari channel in the late fifteenth century
in a variety of ways, but typically include four (Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994). The station in
major compartments. The total carbon in a man- the western part lies at the confluence of the river
grove system is the summation of above-ground Hugli (a continuation of Ganga–Bhagirathi sys-
biomass, below-ground biomass, litter and soil. tem) and Bay of Bengal. The site is locally
The mangrove ecosystem is unique in terms of known as Sagar South (88 010 47.2800 N latitude
carbon dynamics as the litters and detritus and 21 310 4.6800 E longitude). In the central sec-
contributed by the floral species are exported to tor, the sampling station was selected at Canning
adjacent waterbodies in every tidal cycle. (88 400 36.8400 N latitude and 22 180 37.4400 E
In this study, the above-ground stem, branch longitude), adjacent to tide-fed Matla river.
and leaf biomass and litter and soil were analysed Samplings in both these sectors were carried
for carbon content in two different physiographic out in low-tide period during January 2012.
settings in and around Indian Sundarbans. The In each sector, plot size of 10 10 m was
difference is caused by freshwater supply from selected for the study and the average readings
Himalayan glaciers (largest glacial coverage were documented from 15 such plots. The mean
~34,660 km2) through Farakka barrage in the relative abundance of each species was evaluated
western part of Gangetic delta. The barrage was for the order of dominance of mangrove species
constructed in 1975 to ensure availability of at the study sites.
water to the riverine ports. The Ganga–Bhagir- The above-ground biomass (AGB) of individ-
athi–Hugli river system in the western part of ual trees of five dominant species, namely,
Indian Sundarbans is therefore appropriately Sonneratia apetala, Avicennia alba, Avicennia
diluted in relation to mangrove growth. In con- marina, Avicennia officinalis and Excoecaria
trast, the Matla river in the central sector is dis- agallocha, in each plot was estimated as per the
connected to the Himalayan glaciers’ freshwater standard procedure stated here, and the average
due to heavy siltation of the Bidyadhari river values of 15 plots were finally converted into
since late fifteenth century and is now primarily biomass (in tonnes) per hectare in the study
tide-fed. This difference created a contrasting area. Litter production studies were carried out
natural laboratory for identifying climatic signals in both the sectors through net collection method
in salinity profile and mangrove growth leading and organic carbon in the soil substratum was
Fig. 5B.1 Location of sampling stations in the western and central sectors of Indian Sundarbans
analysed following the modified method of 2.4. Above-Ground Leaf Biomass

Walkley and Black (1934). Estimation
Leaves from ten branches (of all the three size
2.2. Above-Ground Stem Biomass groups) of individual trees of each species were
Estimation removed. One tree of each species per plot was
The above-ground (stem) biomass of individual considered for estimation. The leaves were
trees of each species in every plot was estimated weighed and oven-dried separately to a constant
using non-destructive method in which the diam- weight at 80 5 C. The species-wise leaf bio-
eter at the breast height (DBH) was measured with mass was then estimated by multiplying the aver-
a calliper and height with Ravi’s multimeter. age biomass of the leaves per branch with the
Form factor was determined as per the expression number of branches in a single tree and the aver-
outlined by Koul and Panwar (2008) with Spiegel age number of trees per plot as per the expression
relascope to find out the tree volume (V) using the Ldb ¼ n1 Lw1 N 1 þ n2 Lw2 N 2 þ þ n5 Lw5 N 5
standard formula given by Pressler (1895) and
Bitterlich (1984). Specific gravity (G) was where Ldb is the dry leaf biomass of dominant
estimated taking the stem cores, which was further mangrove species per plot, ni. . .n5 are the num-
converted into stem biomass (BS) as per the ber of branches of each tree of five dominant
expression BS ¼ GV. The expression for V is species, Lw1. . ..Lw5 are the average dry weight
FHΠR2, where F is the form factor, R is the radius of leaves removed from ten branches of each of
of the tree derived from its DBH and H is the the five species and N1 to N5 are the number of
height of the target tree. trees per species in the plot.
2.3. Above-Ground Branch Biomass 2.5. Litterfall Estimation

Estimation Litterfall was determined by setting 15 rectangu-
The total number of branches irrespective of size lar traps (3 3 m) in all the 15 plots in each
was counted on each of the sample trees. These sector. The traps were made of 1 mm mesh size
branches were categorized on the basis of basal nylon screen, through which rainwater can pass
diameter into three groups, viz. <5, 5–10 and (Brown and Lugo 1984). The traps were posi-
>10 cm. Fresh weight of two branches from tioned above the high tide level (Jeffrie and
each size group was recorded separately. Dry Tokuyama 1998) and contents of all the
weight of branches was estimated using the equa- 15 traps per sector were collected and brought
tion of Chidumaya (1990). to the laboratory after duration of 1 month. The
Total branch biomass (dry weight) per sample collected materials were segregated into leaves
tree was determined as per the expression and miscellaneous fraction that comprised of
X fruits, twigs, stipules, flowers, etc. The materials
Bdb ¼ n1 bw1 þ n2 bw2 þ n3 bw3 ¼ ni bwi were dried separately to a constant weight
80 5 C. Finally the mean weight per plot
where Bdb is the dry branch biomass per tree, ni was estimated for both the western and central
the number of branches in the ith branch group, sectors in the study area and transformed into
bwi the average weight of branches in the ith gm2 day1 unit.
group and i ¼ 1, 2, 3, . . .the branch groups
(i ¼ 3 in the present study). This procedure 2.6. Carbon Estimation in Trees and Litter
was followed for all the dominant mangrove Direct estimation of percent carbon was done by
species separately in both the sectors of the a CHN analyser. For this a portion of fresh sam-
study area. ple of stem, branch and leaf from 30 trees (two
trees/species/plot) of individual species (cover- present sectorial case study has also been
ing all the 15 plots) was oven-dried at 70 C, undertaken with the aim to visualize the impact
randomly mixed and ground to pass through a of salinity on the biomass and carbon budget of
0.5 mm screen (1.0 mm screen for leaves). The mangrove system.
carbon content (in %) was finally analysed on a
LECO® CHN-600 analyser. For litter, the same 3.1. Relative Abundance
procedure was followed after oven-drying the net Nine species of true mangroves were
collection at 70 C. documented in the selected plots in the western
sector, but in the central sector only six species
2.7. Organic Carbon Analysis in Soil were recorded. The mean order of abundance of
Soil samples from the upper 5 cm were collected these species was Sonneratia apetala (27.08) >
from all the 15 plots and dried at 60 C for 48 h. Excoecaria agallocha (18.75) > Avicennia alba
For analysis, visible plant particles and other (14.58 %) > Avicennia marina (12.5 %) ¼
organisms (like molluscs, crabs, decaying bodies Avicennia officinalis (12.5 %) > Acanthus
of fishes, etc.) were handpicked and removed ilicifolius (6.25 %) > Aegiceras corniculatum
from the soil. After sieving the soil through a (4.17 %) > Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (2.08 %) ¼
2 mm sieve, we ground the samples of the bulk Xylocarpus moluccensis (2.08 %) in the western
soil (50 g from each plot) finely in a ball mill. sector, but order in central sector was Excoecaria
The fine dried sample was randomly mixed to get agallocha (23.68 %) > Avicennia alba
a sector-wise representative picture of the study (21.05 %) > Avicennia marina (15.79 %) ¼
site. Modified version of Walkley and Black Avicennia officinalis (15.79 %) > Sonneratia
method (1934) was then followed to determine apetala (13.16 %) > Acanthus ilicifolius
the organic carbon of the soil in %. (10.53 %) (Table 5B.1). Few mangrove associate
floral species (like Porteresia coarctata, Suaeda
sp., etc.) were also documented in the plots. On
3. Results and Discussion the basis of relative abundance of the true man-
grove species, only five dominant species,
The biomass and productivity of mangrove forests namely, Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina,
have been studied mainly in terms of wood pro- Excoecaria agallocha, Sonneratia apetala and
duction, forest conservation and ecosystem man- Avicennia officinalis, were considered for carbon
agement (Putz and Chan 1986; Tamai et al. 1986; stock estimation in their respective above-ground
Komiyama et al. 1987; Clough and Scott 1989; biomass. In both these sectors, the forests were
McKee 1995; Ong et al. 1995). The contemporary 12 years old, but high salinity in the central
understanding of the global warming phenome- sector probably created a stress to the growth of
non, however, has generated interest in the the floral species.
carbon-stocking ability of mangroves. The carbon
sequestration in this unique producer community 3.2. Above-Ground Stem Biomass
is a function of biomass production capacity, In the western sector, the above-ground stem
which in turn depends upon interaction between biomass of the dominant mangrove trees were
edaphic, climate and topographic factors of an 104.09, 14.09, 27.20, 21.37 and 21.46 t ha1 for
area. Hence, results obtained at one place may Sonneratia apetala, Excoecaria agallocha,
not be applicable to another. Therefore region- Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina and Avicennia
based potential of different land types needs to officinalis, respectively, but in the central sector,
be worked out. In the present study, the results these values were much lower, exhibiting 21.68,
obtained have been compared with other regions 9.27, 15.56, 11.93 and 6.18 t ha1 for Sonneratia
of the world to evaluate the potential of Indian apetala, Excoecaria agallocha, Avicennia alba,
Sundarban mangrove as carbon sink on the back- Avicennia marina and Avicennia officinalis,
ground of changing scenario of the climate. The respectively (Table 5B.2). The values in the
Table 5B.1 Relative abundance of mangrove species (mean of 15 plots) in the study area
No./100 m2 Relative abundance (%)
Species Western sector Central sector Western sector Central sector
Sonneratia apetala 13 5 27.08 13.16
Excoecaria agallocha 9 9 18.75 23.68
Avicennia alba 7 8 14.58 21.05
Avicennia marina 6 6 12.5 15.79
Avicennia officinalis 6 6 12.5 15.79
Acanthus ilicifolius 3 4 6.25 10.53
Aegiceras corniculatum 2 ab 4.17 –
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 1 ab 2.08 –
Xylocarpus moluccensis 1 ab 2.08 –
‘ab’ means absence of the selected species in the selected plots of the study site
western sector are similar to the data of part of Indian Sundarbans—a condition for better
Komiyama et al. (2008) in a secondary mangrove growth and increase of mangrove biomass. The
(Ceriops tagal) forest at Southern Thailand. central sector, on contrary, does not receive the
The relatively higher stem biomass of similar freshwater discharge on account of siltation of
aged trees in the western sector may be attributed Bidyadhari river which may be accounted for
to optimum hydrological and soil characteristics low above-ground stem biomass of the selected
contributed by the river Ganges. Mangroves, in mangrove species inhabiting the zone.
general, prefer brackish water environment, and
in extreme saline condition stunted growth is 3.3. Above-Ground Branch Biomass
observed (Mitra et al. 2004). The western sector The branch biomass of mangroves showed
of Indian Sundarbans provides a congenial envi- marked differences between the trees of western
ronment for mangrove sustenance due to fresh- and central sectors. In western sector, the values
water discharge from Farakka barrage in the were 42.64, 6.30, 12.42, 10.08 and 9.23 t ha1,
Hugli estuarine system. Five-year surveys and in central sectors the values were 9.03, 3.81,
(1999–2003) on water discharge from Farakka 6.30, 5.25 and 2.59 t ha1 for Sonneratia apetala,
barrage revealed an average discharge of Excoecaria agallocha, Avicennia alba,
(3.4 1.2) 103 m3s1. Higher discharge Avicennia marina and Avicennia officinalis
values were observed during the monsoon with respectively (Table 5B.2). The branch biomass
an average of (3.2 1.2) 103 m3s1 and the in the western sector is almost similar to the
maximum of the order 4200 m3s1 during freshet values in a secondary mangrove (Ceriops tagal)
(September). Considerably lower discharge forest at Southern Thailand as documented by
values were recorded during premonsoon with Komiyama et al. (2000). Stunted branches of
an average of (1.2 0.09) 103 m3s1 and mangroves of central sector may again be related
the minimum of the order 860 m3s1 during to high salinity in this sector (Mitra et al. 2009).
May. During postmonsoon, discharge values
were moderate with an average of (2.1 0.98) 3.4. Above-Ground Leaf Biomass
103 m3s1. The lower Gangetic deltaic lobe The leaf biomass of the trees in the western and
also experiences considerable rainfall (1400 mm central sectors were 22.88 and 4.33 t ha1 respec-
average rainfall). This causes a considerable vol- tively for Sonneratia apetala, 3.22 and
ume of surface run-off from the 60,000 km2 1.85 t ha1 respectively for Excoecaria
catchment areas of Ganga–Bhagirathi–Hugli sys- agallocha, 7.07 and 2.96 t ha1 respectively for
tem and their tributaries. All these factors (dam Avicennia alba, 4.83 and 2.20 t ha1 respectively
discharge + precipitation + runoff) increase the for Avicennia marina and 5.46 and 1.24 t ha1
dilution factor of the Hugli estuary in the western respectively for Avicennia officinalis
184
Table 5B.2 Above-ground biomass (t/ha) of five dominant mangrove species in the intertidal
Sonneratia apetala Excoecaria agallocha Avicennia alba Avicennia marina Avicennia officinalis
Mangrove Western Central Western Central Western Central Western Central Western Central
vegetative part sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector
Stem 104.09 21.68 14.09 9.27 27.20 15.56 21.37 11.93 21.46 6.18
5
Branch 42.64 9.03 6.30 3.81 12.42 6.30 10.08 5.25 9.23 2.59
Leaf 22.88 4.33 3.22 1.85 7.07 2.96 4.83 2.20 5.46 1.24
Total (AGB) 169.61 35.04 23.61 14.93 46.69 24.82 36.28 19.38 36.15 10.01
(Table 5B.2). The values in the western sector was 8.61 t ha1 year1. Kishimoto et al. (1987)
are comparatively similar to the records of other reported that the litterfall of mangrove stands on
workers like 12.1–15.0 t ha1 in Avicennia Iriomote Island (Japan) was 7.5 and 8.8 t ha1
forests (Briggs 1977), 6.2–20.2 t ha1 in year1 in Rhizophora stylosa and Bruguiera
Rhizophora apiculata young plantations gymnorrhiza community, respectively. The
(Aksomkoae 1975), 13.3 t ha1 in Rhizophora annual litterfall across broad geographic
patch (de la Cruz and Banaag 1967) and boundaries are reported as 7–12 t dry weight
8.1 t ha1 in a matured Rhizophora forest ha1 year1 (Duke et al. 1981; Twilley
(Tamai et al. 1986). et al. 1986; Hardiwinoto et al. 1989; Lee 1990;
Gong and Ong 1990; Mall et al. 1991 and
3.5. Litter Production Mmochi 1993). In context to Indian mangrove
Average values of total litter, leaf litter and mis- system, the mangrove litter production was
cellaneous litterfall (comprised of twigs, stipules, recorded as 7.50 tonnes/ha/year in Pichavaram
flowers and fruits) are shown in Fig. 5B.2. The at Tamil Nadu (Krishnamurthy 1985), in which
biomass of total litter is more in the western leaf biomass amounts to about 80–90 % (Yadav
sector in comparison to central part of Indian and Choudhury 1985). Assuming hypothetical
Sundarbans. The leaf litter accounted for nearly situation of uniformity in litterfall through
70 % and 64 % of the total litter in the western seasons, our data may be interpolated to yield
and central sectors respectively. an annual litter production of 3.19 t ha1 in the
Although we have not studied the litterfall western sector and 1.33 t ha1 in the central
throughout the year, a significant difference was sector respectively. The lower value of litter pro-
observed between western and central sectors of duction in the central Indian Sundarbans may be
the study area with respect to quantum and rate of attributed to the trend of rising salinity due to
litter production. The value in the western sector siltation of Bidyadhari river in the present geo-
is comparable to the data of several workers. graphical locale (Chaudhuri and Choudhury
Twilley et al. (1986) reported that the total 1994). The growth, survival and biomass of
annual litterfall of mixed mangrove forest of mangroves depend on appropriate dilution of
Avicennia germinans, Rhizophora mangle and the brackish water system with freshwater. The
Laguncularia racemosa in South Florida was central sector of Indian Sundarbans hardly wit-
8.68 t ha1 year1 (in Fort Myers) and ness such dilution as the freshwater discharge of
7.51 t ha1 year1 (at Rookery Bay). Steinke the Ganga–Bhagirathi system cannot reach the
and Charles (1984) reported the total annual area due to clogging of the Bidyadhari river by
litterfall of mangrove forest in the Mgeni estuary silt and solid wastes (Mitra et al. 2009). The
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Litter production 0.5 Western
(gm–2d–1) 0.4 Central
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Leaf litter Miscellaneous Total litter
Fig. 5B.2 Variation in leaf litter, miscellaneous litter and total litter in the western and central sectors of Indian
Sundarbans
rivers in the study area are noted for their silt- occurs in coastal margins from 0 to 10 latitude
carrying potential. It has been reported that each (Twilley et al. 1992). For the present study, the
year Ganga and Brahmaputra bring around results of carbon stock in the above-ground bio-
166.70 crore tonnes of silt that has created the mass of the selected species are shown in
present Gangetic delta and the building process is Table 5B.3. Species-wise carbon content are in
still ongoing. the order Sonneratia apetala > Avicennia alba >
Avicennia marina > Avicennia officinalis >
3.6. Soil Organic Carbon Excoecaria agallocha in the western sector and
The values of organic carbon were 2.78 % in the Sonneratia apetala > Avicennia alba >
western sector and 0.58 % in the central sector. Avicennia marina > Excoecaria agallocha >
These values are indicators of mangrove growth, Avicennia officinalis in the central sector. The
biomass, decay and litterfall for a particular site. % of carbon in the mangrove litter was 31.8 and
Carbon fixed within plant biomass ultimately 29.3 in the western and central sectors respec-
enters within the soil, where it may reside for tively. On the basis of the % carbon and average
hundreds of years. The ability of soil to store this daily production values, the carbon stock of the
additional carbon, however, is highly controver- litter were 1.01 and 0.39 t ha1 year 1 in the
sial, because there are two contrasting ways in western and central sectors respectively
which the increased input of carbon may be (Table 5.7). The soil organic carbon also
processed in the soil. First, the extra-fixed carbon exhibited similar trend with higher value in the
may become soil organic carbon. Second, this western sector (2.78 %) than that of the central
readily available source of carbon may stimulate region (0.58 %). Considering the carbon pool in
soil microbial processes by providing substrates the above-ground biomass of the dominant man-
that enhance decomposition of the organic matter grove species and total litter and assuming sea-
through the so-called priming effect (Peterson sonal uniformity in carbon stock, the
et al. 1997). Strong evidence for a long-term corresponding CO2 equivalents ha1 year 1 in
sink for increased atmospheric CO2 in soils is western and central sectors of Indian Sundarbans
still lacking (Schlesinger 1990; Schimel 1995; were 477.98 t and 225.13 tonnes respectively
Canadell et al. 1995). Our study indicates that (Table 5B.4), which are effective figures when
high saline soil is relatively poor sink of CO2, the present trend of atmospheric CO2 rise is 4 %
which may be attributed to either poor growth of per decade (Hyun-Kil and Gregory McPherson
mangroves (Mitra et al. 2004) or low fertility of 2001). These figures can be manipulated through
the soil in terms of nitrogen that acts as retarding effective soil management, tidal interactions
factor for plant growth. Canadell et al. (1995) (through artificial canalization) and proper dilu-
opined that soil quality may influence sequestration of the system with freshwater, which are
tion of carbon in response to increased atmo- important requisites for accelerating the biomass
spheric CO2. Soil fertility may control the of mangrove species. The data generated in the
carbon inputs into the soil, since CO2 enrichment present geographical locale show significant
can stimulate plant growth only in soils with variations between the two sectors. The
adequate nutrients (Egli et al. 1998). Absence hypiersalinity of the central part of Indian
of nutrient in the soil of central sector may there- Sundarbans may be considered as one of the
fore be considered as plausible cause of poor important reason for such shortfall. Records
plant growth in the area as reflected through show that surface water salinity has increased
comparatively low soil organic carbon content. by 40.46 % in central sector and decreased by
46.21 % in western sector of Indian Sundarbans
3.7. Comparison of Carbon Stocks over a period of 27 years (1980–2007), which is
Mangroves are unique storehouse for carbon. the result of the blockage of freshwater flow from
The global storage of carbon in mangrove bio- western side of Indian Sundarbans to central
mass is estimated to be 4.03 pg, 70 % of which sector (Mitra et al. 2009). Higher salinity has
Table 5B.3 Above-ground carbon stock (t/ha) of five dominant mangrove species in the intertidal
Sonneratia apetala Excoecaria agallocha Avicennia alba Avicennia marina Avicennia officinalis
Mangrove Western Central Western Central Western Central Western Central Western Central
vegetative part sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector sector
Stem 43.51 8.63 5.78 3.81 11.07 6.32 8.48 4.89 9.14 2.61
Branch 18.34 3.61 2.63 1.55 5.25 2.52 4.19 2.09 3.98 1.03
Leaf 9.38 1.69 1.29 0.73 2.80 1.16 2.02 0.88 2.38 0.50
Total (AG carbon 71.23 13.93 9.70 6.09 19.12 10.00 14.69 22.55 15.50 4.14
stock)
Annexure 5B: Regulatory Role of Salinity on Biomass and Carbon Content in. . .
187
Table 5B.4 Carbon stock and CO2 equivalent in AGB of dominant mangrove species and litter in t ha1 year1 in the
western and central sectors of Indian Sundarbans
Sampling station Component AGB Litter Interpretation
Sagar south (88 010 47.2800 N C 130.24 1.01 Dilution of the Hugli river by ice melt water
latitude and 21 310 4.6800 E CO2 477.98 11.70 from Himalaya through barrage regulation
longitude) in the western sector equivalent
Canning (88 400 36.8400 N latitude C 56.71 0.39 Disconnection of freshwater supply due to
and 22 180 37.4400 E longitude) in CO2 225.13 4.91 massive siltation in the Bidyadhari river
the central sector equivalent leading to higher aquatic salinity
therefore reduced the floral growth and production during an ENSO transition. Science, 291,
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Consumers of the Marine and Estuarine
Ecosystems 6
Contents The spectrum of life in the blue soup of the

6.1 Zooplankton Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 planet Earth starts with the primary producers,
which encompass phytoplankton, seaweeds,
6.2 Vertebrate Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
salt marsh grass, seagrass and mangroves. The
Annexure 6A: Warming of Lower Gangetic energy (through nutrition) and survival of
Delta Water, A Projection on the Basis
consumers are direct function of the standing
of Real-Time Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
stock of primary producers. The consumers of
Annexure 6B: Finfish Juvenile Destruction oceans, seas, bays and estuaries feed on pri-
in and Around Mangrove Ecosystem of Indian
Sundarbans and Possible Measures mary producers and acquire energy for
of Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 performing various life processes. Depending
on the environmental conditions, the food
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
chains may be short or long. In extreme types
of environments like Arctic or Antarctic, very
short food chains are observed. Food chains
basically represent complex interrelationships
among organisms, in which case it is more
appropriate to designate the pattern as food
web (Fig. 6.1). Species may, however, change
levels in the food chain or web at difference
stages of their life cycle or consumers may feed
more than one level.
The transference of food energy and nutrients
from the members of the lowest trophic levels to
highest trophic levels is represented through food
chains and food webs. The members of lowest
trophic levels in marine and estuarine waters are
phytoplankton and other primary producers. The
zooplankton occupy the second tier in food
chains/food webs and the highest tiers are
occupied by sharks, whales, etc. Sea birds are
also within the domain of highest level consumer
in marine and estuarine food webs.

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_6
194 6 Consumers of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
Fig. 6.1 A common food web in marine ecosystem
It is to be mentioned that the numbers of They include tiny animals in general, but bigger
biomass of organisms decrease while animals like jellyfishes are also included within
approaching from the lowest to the highest tro- zooplankton. Unlike phytoplankton, which can
phic levels. manufacture their own food, zooplankton are het-
In marine and estuarine ecosystems, the upper erotrophic nature. Many species of zooplankton
trophic levels are occupied by sharks, skates and are herbivorous (that consume phytoplankton),
rays (Fig. 6.2). Marine mammals like dolphins while many others are carnivorous (that consume
and whales are also included in the higher trophic smaller zooplankton) and omnivorous (that feed
level of marine food web. on phytoplankton and zooplankton) (Fig. 6.3).
A brief account of the commonly observed Zooplankton, which are the consumers in the
secondary/tertiary consumers in the marine and second tier of marine and estuarine food chains,
estuarine ecosystems (that are primarily can also be subdivided into holoplankton and
vertebrates) is highlighted in Table 6.1. meroplankton depending on the time they spend
in free-floating form in their life cycles. The
holoplankton spend their entire life cycle in the
6.1 Zooplankton Community aquatic phase as seen in case of copepods. The
meroplankton, on the other hand, spend a part
Zooplankton community encompasses free- their life cycle as plankton. After a certain period
floating tiny animals that cannot move against of their life, they switch over to benthic or nek-
the currents of marine and estuarine ecosystems. tonic forms. The veligar larvae of oysters are
6.1 Zooplankton Community 195
Fig. 6.2 Sharks and skates
unique example in this context. After spending a small estuaries are dominated by high river flow
part of their life as larvae, they settle on hard that usually carries the zooplankton out to the
substrate as spats, which finally grow into adult sea. We conducted a monitoring programme on
(Fig. 6.4). the zooplankton diversity in the East Coast of
Most of the ichthyoplankton also become nek- India during 4–20 March 2014 and observed
tonic during their adult phase, when they can 88 species of zooplankton along with various
swim against the current. The planktonic and fish larvae (ichthyoplankton). In this investiga-
nektonic phases of bony fishes are highlighted tion sampling was carried out along the mouth of
in Figs. 6.5 and 6.6, respectively. five estuaries, namely, Hooghly (in West
Zooplankton are found in almost all the layers Bengal), Mahanadi (in Odisha), Rushikulya
of the photic zone of the ocean. They are poten- (in Odisha), Godavari (in Andhra Pradesh) and
tially limited by two factors in the coastal and Krishna (in Andhra Pradesh). These rivers drain
estuarine zones: firstly by turbidity which can huge amount of fresh water and sediment to the
limit phytoplankton production and thus restrict bay, particularly in the monsoonal season, and
the ration supply for the zooplankton community thus regulate the primary and secondary produc-
and secondly by currents which, particularly in tivity in the near-shore aquatic ecosystem of the
Table 6.1 Vertebrates of marine and estuarine ecosystems

Type Group Distribution Characteristics
Fishes Agnatha Some 50 species at present are This class encompasses the most
representing this group and the primitive varieties of fish, mainly the
evolution of this group dates back to jawless lampreys and hagfish. Both
Cambrian about 550 million years hagfish and lampreys possess
ago. Hag fishes and lampreys are elongated and eel-like body without
examples of this group any scales. A sucking disc-like
structure surrounds the mouth of this
animal
Osteichthyes Worldwide distribution and dwell in Bony skeleton with scales and fins.
(substratum-based: ocean depth associated with the sea Bottom and near-bottom feeders
halibut, flounder, sole, floor. Large population is observed in
rock fish, etc.) the sublittoral zone
Osteichthyes (pelagic, Worldwide distribution and mostly Bony skeleton with scales and fins.
deep sea: lantern fish) dwell between 200 and 3000 m in the Many species exhibit the
aquatic column phenomenon of bioluminescence.
Abundant and small in size
Chondrichthyes Worldwide distribution; subpolar to Cartilaginous skeleton. Sensory
(sharks, skates and tropics; inshore and offshore regions abilities are exceptional. Large
rays) sharks and rays are plankton feeders;
some species are predators
Reptiles Crocodiles Tropical waters and mangrove Migratory in nature. Ferociously
swamps are the suitable habitats. attack their prey in the territory.
Thrive luxuriantly in the muddy Often seen basking on the intertidal
estuarine waters mudflats
Turtles Thrive in warmer waters throughout Herbivores and carnivores.
the world ocean. Require beaches for Migratory in nature. Long-lived, but
laying eggs heavily impacted by humans
Snakes Warm waters of Pacific and Indian Poisonous in most cases. Fish eaters.
Oceans Adapted for swimming and diving
Lizards Galápagos Islands, Pacific Adapted for swimming in marine
habitat. Herbivorous in nature
Seabirds Comprises only about 3 % of the The bodies of sea birds are adapted in
estimated 9700 species of birds. such a way that the heat energy is
Seabirds are distributed from pole to conserved within their body. For this
pole, and their impact on marine life purpose, the entire body is covered
is significant. Most of the species with feathers, which are waterproof
feed on fish, squid and bottom in nature. An oily substance, secreted
invertebrates, but some feed on from the gland situated at the basal
plankton region of the tail, serves the purpose
of waterproofing. Birds preen by
rubbing the oil into their feathers
with their beaks. Flight is made
easier by their light, hollow bones.
Furthermore, their eggs have hard
shells that are more resistant to water
loss than those of reptiles
Mammals
Whales Toothed Worldwide distribution; polar to Carnivores and prey on fish, squid
tropic ocean and coastal waters. and seals. Included in this group are
Some species exhibit migratory sperm and killer whales, dolphins
behaviour and porpoises
Baleen Worldwide distribution from polar to Includes the great whales. Many
tropic open ocean and coastal waters. populations are getting depleted by
Some species exhibit migratory whaling industry. Krill feeders
behaviour
(continued)

Type Group Distribution Characteristics
Pinnipeds True seals Distributed mainly between polar to No external ears. Torpedo shape.
midlatitudes; require shore or sea ice Non-rotating flippers. Consume a
areas variety of vertebrates. Harbour seal,
elephant seal are typical examples
Eared seals Mainly distributed between polar to External ears, longer necks and
midlatitudes; require shore or sea ice rotating flippers are present.
areas Consume a variety of invertebrates
and vertebrates. Examples are sea
lion and northern fur seal
Walrus Distributed in the Arctic regions Tusks in males and females. Up to
only; need shore and sea ice areas 2 tonnes in size with rotating flippers.
Absence of external ears. Feeds on
shellfish
Sea cows Dugongs Distributed in tropical regions, Docile, slow-moving herbivores and
Australia, Southeast Asia and Africa prefer to eat seagrass. They have
coastal areas and common to Pacific fluke-like tails and tusks and are
smaller than manatees. Dugongs are
confined to saltwater only. Heavily
impacted by humans
Manatees Manatees are found in the Caribbean The manatees are herbivores and
towards South America, Africa and depend on marine vegetation for
Gulf of Mexico coastal areas their nutrition. They are extremely
slow moving in nature. They are
different from dugongs with respect
to length of snout. Manatees possess
snout of shorter length compared to
the snout of dugongs. Paddle-like
tails are also the characteristic
features of manatees. Manatees have
incisors. Heavily impacted by
humans
Sea otters Distributed in the sub-Arctic and No blubber layer. Fur is the only
midlatitude, cold coastal waters insulation. Eat and sleep in the
aquatic sub-system. Feed on
shellfish, crabs and sea urchins
bay. Zooplankton samples were collected at each identified referring standard literatures
station from surface water by horizontal hauling (Kasturirangan 1963; Wimpenny 1966; Newell
of zooplankton net (mouth area 0.25 m2, mesh and Newell 1977; Conway et al. 2003). Finally
size 800 μm) for 10 min and preserve in 4 % the Shannon–Wiener species diversity index was
neutral formaldehyde. In the laboratory, zoo- computed on the basis of relative abundance of
plankton samples were subsampled with a help each species and total number of individuals of
of Folson plankto spitter for quantitative and all the species (Table 6.2). The main purpose of
qualitative analysis. An aliquot of the sample this study was to evaluate the congenial environ-
was taken from the subsample and observed ment for zooplankton. On this background the
under an inverted microscope (Cippon; Model order of best to worst environment were
No. 21033) for identification and counting. The Godavari (4.149) > Mahanadi (4.039) >
numerical abundance values were represented in Krishna (3.897) > Rushikulya (3.774) >
nos./100 m3. Relative abundance was computed Hooghly (3.606). The high pollution load in the
from total density and the density of each group. Hooghly estuary (Mitra and Choudhury 1994a;
Different groups/species of zooplankton were Mitra 1998; Ray Chaudhuri et al. 2014; Mitra
Fig. 6.3 Zooplankton community
Fig. 6.4 Adult oysters (sedentary in nature) on hard substrata (pillars of jetties)
and Zaman 2015) may be attributed to lowest consume the primary producers (phytoplankton)
species diversity index of zooplankton. Thus and form the major food source for members of
zooplankton also act as proxy to health of the higher trophic levels in which several species of
aquatic ecosystem. osteichthyes and chondrichthyes exist. Despite
The zooplankton biomass can increase the several uses of zooplankton in terms of energy
fishery productivity because they chiefly flow through aquatic food chain, they are often
Fig. 6.5 Planktonic stage

of osteichthyes
Fig. 6.6 Nektonic stage of

osteichthyes
destroyed in huge quantum in some regions of Zooplankton are classified according to their
India and Bangladesh during the process of habitat, depth distribution, size and duration of
screening the coastal/estuarine waters for tiger planktonic life (Tables 6.3, 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6),
prawn seeds. India researchers documented the Fig. 6.7.
destruction of several species of ichthyoplankton
(a major component of the zooplankton commu-
nity) during tiger prawn seed collection, and this 6.1.1 Zooplankton: Do They Maintain
operation is carried out due to lack of hatcheries Uniformity in Their Life
in some maritime states of Indian subcontinent Timeline?
like West Bengal, Odisha, etc., because of low
salinity. A detailed report of ichthyoplankton Zooplankton do not maintain uniformity in their
destruction along with remedial measures is life history. Some species (as stated in Table 6.6)
highlighted as Annexure 6B. remain as free-floating organisms throughout
Table 6.2 Population density of zooplankton (No./100 m2) and Shannon–Wiener species diversity index of the
zooplankton community in East Coast of Indian subcontinent
S.no. Species Hooghly Mahanadi Rushikulya Godavari Krishna
Protozoa
Acantharia
1. Acanthometron sp. 0 0 0 34 112
Ciliata
2. Tintinnopsis tocantinensis 145 0 0 67 0
3. Tintinnopsis nordqvisti 129 0 0 83 0
Cnidaria
Hydroidomedusae
4. Cladonema sp. 0 0 0 0 3
5. Podocoryne sp. 0 0 0 91 0
6. Phialella quadrata 0 0 12 4 31
Siphonophorae
7. Agalma elegans 44 67 56 29 60
8. Sulculeolaria turgida 0 0 87 11 13
9. Diphyes bojani 37 11 10 3 41
10. Muggiaea sp. 7 6 0 76 81
11. Bassia bassensis 0 48 0 56 45
Ctenophora
12. Pleurobrachia pileus 12 60 70 87 39
13. Beroe sp. 29 48 23 61 32
Annelida
14. Polychaete larva 30 78 155 105 45
Arthropoda
Copepoda (Calanoida)
15. Nannocalanus minor 77 19 56 65 58
16. Mesocalanus tenuicornis 20 40 40 20 55
17. Eucalanus sp. 0 0 30 0 0
18. Eucalanus attenuatus 11 20 23 0 38
19. Acrocalanus gracilis 6 34 50 76 65
20. Paracalanus aculeatus 157 85 109 60 93
21. P. parvus 47 55 16 67 69
22. Paracalanus sp. 28 30 80 56 99
23. Euchaeta marina 81 78 78 75 14
24. Euchaeta indica 45 78 10 56 31
25. Scolecithrix danae 0 0 0 0 0
26. Centropages orsini 60 40 76 71 93
27. C. furcatus 67 50 99 88 50
28. Centropages tenuiremis 10 40 24 19 75
29. Centropages dorsispinatus 0 0 80 0 0
30. Centropages sp. 98 119 33 87 97
31. Pseudodiaptomus aurivilli 0 0 0 0 0
32. P. serricaudatus 0 0 0 0 0
33. Temora discaudata 23 10 51 51 79
34. T. turbinata 46 86 82 20 90
35. Metacalanus aurivilli 20 40 33 19 78
36. Candacia discaudata 18 45 34 133 66
37. Paracandacia simplex 12 13 9 103 90
38. Labidocera acuta 85 54 0 44 92
39. Labidocera minuta 0 48 0 0 0
(continued)

40. Calanopia minor 39 33 0 51 63
41. Pontellina plumata 31 26 53 42 50
42. Acartia centrura 53 29 81 46 90
43. Acartia spinicauda 48 29 11 51 62
44. Acartia danae 46 48 23 37 88
45. Tortanus barbatus 39 42 51 79 93
Copepoda (Cyclopoida)
46. Corycaeus catus 61 21 13 12 87
47. Corycaeus longistylis 16 55 32 20 60
48. Farranula gibbula 39 21 0 53 74
49. Copilia quadrata 25 81 24 19 75
50. Farranula curta 53 19 0 61 89
51. Corycaeus typicus 70 55 3 22 80
52. Oithona brevicornis 23 11 45 49 101
53. O. spinirostris 63 83 29 75 84
54. Oithona sp. 69 52 45 12 91
55. Oncaea venusta 53 36 25 87 25
56. Oncaea conifera 30 40 48 23 31
57. Oncaea sp. 0 0 60 45 19
Copepoda (Harpacticoida)
58. Microsetella norvegica 77 93 23 41 88
59. M. rosea 0 0 3 15 95
60. Macrosetella gracilis 0 60 0 80 99
61. Clytemnestra scutellata 0 8 0 19 53
62. Euterpina acutifrons 0 0 17 0 0
Cladocera
63. Evadne nordmanni 0 43 0 56 95
64. Evadne tergestina 77 68 83 17 56
65. Penilia avirostris 0 55 72 40 83
Ostracoda
66. Macrocypridina castanea 132 34 50 67 69
67. Conchoecia elegans 68 45 33 51 91
Amphipoda
68. Hyperia sp. 29 43 0 14 84
Isopoda
69. Isopod larvae 0 0 0 48 79
Decapoda
70. Lucifer penicillifer 0 0 0 63 53
71. Sergestes sp. 0 0 0 91 88
72. Brachyuran megalopa larva 203 116 79 114 109
73. Protozoea of Lucifer 0 0 0 133 1397
74. Protozoea of Penaeus indicus 41 33 29 21 97
75. Zoea larva of Elamen sp. 46 84 13 30 90
76. Zoea larva of porcellanid crab 41 33 20 56 82
Other crustaceans
77. Larvae of euphausiid 41 33 25 50 76
78. Alima larva of Squilla 19 46 53 26 88
79. Cyprid larvae 50 40 51 66 84
(continued)

Mollusca
80. Veliger larva 85 111 148 66 130
Pteropoda
81. Creseis acicula 33 29 17 44 51
82. Creseis sp. 0 95 0 80 105
Echinodermata
83. Ophiopluteus larva 84 66 43 93 104
Chaetognatha
84. Sagitta bipunctata 302 221 197 116 413
85. Sagitta enflata 29 102 56 54 61
Phoronida
86. Actinotroch larvae 21 33 7 84 116
Brachiopoda
87. Brachiopod larvae 0 5 0 0 23
Bryozoa
88. Cyphonautes larva 0 0 0 0 54
Chordata
89. Ichthyoplankton 127 106 383 85 99
N 3607 3585 3371 4321 7308
H 3.606 4.039 3.774 4.149 3.897
Table 6.3 Classification of zooplankton on the basis of habitat

Type Description
Oceanic plankton These are marine zooplankton that inhabit beyond the continental shelf
Neritic plankton These zooplankton inhabit waters overlying continental shelves. These waters are often very
productive as they receive the run-off from the adjacent landmasses that triggers the
phytoplankton growth in these regions
Brackish water These zooplankton inhabit estuarine regions, where there is a continuous mixing of freshwater
plankton and sea water. The zooplankton species of this category have wide range of tolerance to
different dilution factors. Such zooplankton are very common in the shrimp culture farms and
form important diet of the prawns
Table 6.4 Classification of zooplankton on the basis of depth distribution

Type Description
Neuston The zooplanktons of this category are restricted at the top few millimetres (usually 10 mm) of the
surface micro layer
Pleuston These are widely distributed at the surface of the sea (with parts of the body sometime projecting
above the water)
Epipelagic These are distributed between 0 and 300 m water column, e.g., siphonophores, arrow worms, etc.
Mesopelagic The zooplankton of this category are restricted within the depth 300–1000 m, e.g., euphausiids,
chaetognath, etc.
Bathypelagic These are restricted within the depth 1000 and 3000 m, e.g., foraminifera, euphausiids etc.
Abyssopelagic The waters overlying the vast abyssal plains of the ocean are inhabited by a variety of zooplankton
species, which is often referred to as abyssopelagic zooplankton. These zooplankton are thus
restricted between 3000 and 4000 m
Source: Santhanam and Srinivasan (1998)
6.2 Vertebrate Community 203
Table 6.5 Classification of zooplankton on the basis the body of phytoplankton. These areas exhibit
of size dense population of fishes as revealed from the
Type Size range Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) maps.
Nannozooplankton <20 μm The body of fishes is spindle shaped or
Microzooplankton 20–200 μm streamlined due to which they can penetrate and
Mesozooplankton 200 μm–2 mm move swiftly through the water column. The fins
Macrozooplankton 2–20 mm with rays provide force to the fishes to move
Megazooplankton >20 mm
against the currents. The fins also help the fishes
Source: Santhanam and Srinivasan (1998) to orient their direction and maintain the body
Table 6.6 Classification of zooplankton on the basis of duration of planktonic life

Type Description
Holoplankton This group includes organisms which are planktonic throughout their life cycle, e.g., tintinnids,
cladocerans, copepods, chaetognaths, etc. Figure 6.8 shows a very common holoplankton found in
the marine and estuarine waters of tropics
Meroplankton This group encompasses those organisms which remain free floating only during certain phase of
their life cycle, e.g., larvae of benthic invertebrates and fish larvae (ichthyoplankton). In the
estuaries of Indian Sundarbans, larvae of prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) are found in plenty
(Fig. 6.9), which finally become a semi-benthic species in the adult stage (Fig. 6.10)
Source: Santhanam and Srinivasan (1998)
their entire life cycle, while others switch off to balance.

different modes like nekton or benthos. The for- Fish constitute the largest and most diverse
mer are designated as holoplankton, while the group of marine vertebrates.
latter meroplankton. They are taxonomically separated into three
classes: (i) Agnatha, (ii) Osteichthyes and (iii)
Chondrichthyes.
6.2 Vertebrate Community
Animals with bony vertebral column that sur- 6.2.1.1 Agnatha

round a nerve cord are referred to as vertebrates. The Agnatha are the most primitive types of
Vertebrates are also characterized with the pres- fishes which encompasses lampreys and hag
ence of a brain enclosed within the skull. Present- fishes. These fishes lack jaws (Fig. 6.11).
day vertebrates include fishes, amphibians, The evolution of Agnatha occurred during
reptiles, birds and mammals. Cambrian period about 550 million years ago.
There are about 50 species of Agnatha in the
present time. The bodies of the representatives
6.2.1 Fishes belonging to Agnatha are eel-like without any
bony scales. There is contrasting variation in
Fishes dominate the nekton of the oceans, seas the mode of nutrition between the hagfishes and
and estuaries. They are widely distributed at all lampreys. The hagfishes depend on dead or dying
depths in the oceans, seas, bays and estuaries. organism for their food by burrowing into the
The distribution and abundance of fishes are internal part of their prey. The lampreys on the
largely controlled by the primary producers, other hand are parasitic in nature and get attached
which provide nutrition to the fish directly or to the body of the host by their suckers. They cut
indirectly (through zooplankton). The areas of the flesh of the host and feed on their soft parts
upwelling in the oceans are rich in nutrients like and body fluids. The lampreys spend a consider-
nitrate, phosphate, silicate, etc., which constitute able portion of lives in freshwater system.
Fig. 6.7 Variation of

zooplankton size
6.2.1.2 Osteichthyes of deltaic Sundarbans is the dwelling spot, nurs-

Osteichthyes are bony fishes that are widely ery and breeding ground of a wide variety of
distributed in the surface and column of the finfish and shellfish. However, with respect to
waters in oceans and estuaries. They have a ecological tolerance, a large fraction of the fish
streamlined body, which enable them to travel species in the mangrove-dominated estuarine
over long distance against the current. Most of complex are euryhaline in nature and move
the commercially important fishes available in freely from the upper stretch of minimum salinity
the market belong to the class Osteichthyes. to lower stretch of maximum salinity.
Estuaries are rich in fish resources. Most of Several workers have depicted the taxonomic
the commercial fishes with high economic value diversity of fish species in the aquatic subsystem
are available in the estuarine waters. Representa- of mangrove-dominated Indian Sundarbans del-
tive bony fishes that are fished commercially taic complex. Pillay (1967) estimated the species
from the waters of mangrove-dominated number to be more than 120. Jhingran (1982)
Sundarbans in the lower Gangetic delta are documented a total of 172 species and stated
shown in Fig. 6.12a, b. The aquatic subsystem that the diversity is comparatively more in the
Fig. 6.8 Copepod: a

common holoplankton
Fig. 6.9 Larval stage

(plankton) of
Macrobrachium
rosenbergii
Fig. 6.10 Adult stage

(prefers substrate) of
Macrobrachium
rosenbergii
Fig. 6.11 Agnatha
high saline zone of Indian Sundarbans. His esti- The representatives of osteichthyes that live in
mate reveals 73 species of freshwater origin and the deeper waters greater than 300 m are low in
99 species of marine/higher salinity origin. terms of taxonomic diversity compared to those
Mandal and Nandi (1989) documented 141 spe- that inhabit the surface waters. In fishes dwelling
cies under 100 genera, while Chaudhuri and in the deeper part of the ocean, bioluminescence
Choudhury (1994) recorded 250 species under is often witnessed. Lantern fish is a prominent
96 genera in the aquatic sub-system of Indian example in this context. Bioluminescence is the
Sundarbans. Khan (2003) recorded 107 species result of the oxidation of luciferin in presence of
from Sundarban Biosphere Reserve region, but the enzyme luciferase.
this figure does not include the species restricted In the dim transitional layer between 200 and
in the low saline upper zone of the 1000 m (600–3000 ft), the waters support vast
Hooghly–Matla estuarine complex. The fish schools of small luminous fish. The many species
fauna of the estuarine waters around Sundarbans of Cyclotbone are believed to be the most com-
has been classified into residents and transients mon fish in the sea. Deeper-living species are
(migrants). The species whose individuals of dif- black, while the shallower-living species are sil-
ferent sizes are present during all the months of very, to blend with the dim light. The lantern fish
the year in any zone of the estuary are referred to has a worldwide distribution; some 200 species
as resident species. The important resident spe- are distinguished by the pattern of light organs
cies of fish are Mugil parsia, Mugil tade, along their sides. They are a major item in the
Polynemus paradiseus, Polydactylus indicus, diet of tuna, squid and porpoises. Stomias, a fish
Otolithoides biauritus, Lates calcarifer, Hilsa with a huge mouth, long, pointed teeth and light
toli, Arius jella, Harpodon nehereus, Setipinna organs along its sides, is also found here, as is the
taty, Ilisha elongata, Setipinna phasa, Coilia large-eyed hatchel fish. These fish prey on the
ramcarati, Pama pama and Sillaginopsis great clouds of euphausiids and copepods found
panijus. The transient or migratory fishes enter at this depth.
and stay in the Bay of Bengal associated In perpetually dark zones are predators with
estuaries for a short period. Depending on their highly specialized equipment for catching their
migratory pattern and direction, the migrants prey. These fish are equipped with light-
may be divided into three categories (Jhingran producing organs used as lures, large teeth that
1982): in some species fold backwards toward the gullet
so their prey cannot escape and gaping mouths
1. Marine forms that migrate upstream and with jaws that unhinge to accommodate large
spawn in freshwater areas of the estuary like fish. Among the most famous of these predators
Tenualosa ilisha, Polynemus paradiseus, is Saccopharynx with its funnel-like throat and
Sillaginopsis panijus and Pama pama. tapering body. When the stomach is empty, the
2. Freshwater species, which spawn in saline fish appears slender, but it expands to accept
area of the estuary like Pangasius pangasius. anything the great mouth can swallow. The
3. Marine species, that spawns in less saline female angler fish has a dorsal fin modified into
water of the estuary like Arius jella, a fishing rod with an illuminated lure dangling
Osteogeneious militaris and Polydactylus just above her jaws.
indicus.
Fig. 6.12 (a) Commercially important fin fish species of deltaic Sundarbans. (b) Commercially important fin fish
species of deltaic Sundarbans
6.2.1.3 Chondrichthyes a few weeks or months. There is an increasing

The chondrichthyes comprised of sharks, skates demand for shark meat and shark fins, the latter
and rays have cartilaginous body. Sharks have being considered a delicacy in Asia. Shark fin
spindle shaped body with powerful muscles to soup is a delicious dish in many hotels. Numbers
swim against the current. Skates and rays, on the of sharks have sharply and rapidly declined in
other hand, have flattened bodies and lead a regions where fishing has intensified, and many
bottom-dwelling life. sharks are also captured incidentally in commer-
Sharks and rays typically have internal fertili- cial fishing operations for other species.
zation and low fecundity, producing only small In the Indian coastal waters, the common
numbers of relatively large eggs. Most sharks shark species are highlighted in Table 6.7.
and all rays give birth to live young. Skates lay As stated earlier the chondrichthyes (prefera-
their eggs in protective cases that are attached to bly the sharks) are presently under threat due to
a substrate and the young hatch from these within several reasons Sharks have wide use starting
from food to pharmaceutical industries. The
Table 6.7 Common shark in Indian coastal waters

Sl.
no. Species Distribution Diet Length Reproduction
1. Carcharhinus Cosmopolitan in Fish such as Matured ones are Produces an
limbatus (blacktip distribution near the sardines, mackerel, 2.5 m in length. average of six
shark) [IUCN inshore regions of croaker and sole Male matures at embryos per litter.
status: lower risk] tropical waters. It is along with 140–150 cm and Size at birth is
capable of cephalopods and female matures at 55–60 cm
tolerating reduced crustaceans 150–160 cm
salinity, but never
penetrates into
freshwater
2. Carcharhinus Commonly found Bony fish such as Short in length, Litter size is 2–6
sorrah (spot-tail in coral reefs region mackerels, about 2.5 m. Male usually delivered
shark) sardines, etc., and matures at 115 cm during March to
shellfish like squids and female May. The size at
and prawns matures at 120 cm birth is around
40 cm
3. Carcharhinus Common species in Small fishes, squids Matured ones are Produces an
dussumieri inshore waters and crustaceans 1 m. Male matures average of two
(white-cheeked at 65 cm and embryos per litter.
shark) [IUCN female matures at Size at birth is
status: lower risk] 75 cm around 35 cm
4. Carcharhinus Indo-Pacific Fish-like mullets, Matured ones are Size at birth
melanopterus tropical shark silver bellies, about 2.5 m ranges between
(blacktip reef migrates into anchovies, hilsa, 45 and 50 cm
shark) [IUCN estuaries and skate, prawns and
status: lower risk] brackish waters for squilla
delivering its pups
5. Carcharhinus Widely distributed Small fishes, squids Matured ones are Produces an
macloti (hardnose in the inshore and crustaceans 1 m in length. average of two
shark) region Male matures at embryos per litter.
60 cm and female Size at birth is
matures at 70 cm 35 cm
approximately
6. Galeocerdo Widely distributed Eels, cat fish, parrot Matured ones are Development is
cuvier (tiger tropical shark. It is fish, flat fish, flying about 7.4 m in oviparous and the
shark) [IUCN capable of cruising fish, skates, rays, length litter size is
status: lower risk] in mid-ocean and marine turtle, sea between 10 and
shows nocturnal snake, sea birds, 82. The size at
movement into sea lion, dolphin, birth is 50–75 cm
bays and estuaries etc.
7. Scoliodon West and south Small fishes, The majority of Produces up to
laticaudus (Indian coasts of India, crustaceans and males are 20 embryos per
dog shark) [IUCN dominant in East squids 50–55 cm and litter. The size at
status: lower risk] Coast and in Indian females are about birth is 14.5 cm
Sundarbans 65 cm. Males and
females mature at
30 and 35 cm,
respectively
8. Rhizoprionodon Abundant in the Small fishes, Matured ones are Produces an
acutus (Brazilian shore waters, squids, cuttle fish, about 1 m in average of 2–6
sharpnose shark) particularly in the crabs and shrimps length embryos per litter,
West Coast of India which are
during September 26–27 cm long
to February and
East Coast during
summer months
(continued)

Sl.
no. Species Distribution Diet Length Reproduction
9. Sphyrna lewini Abundantly found Sardines, Matured ones are Development is
(hammerhead in the Indian seas, anchovies, up to 4.2 m in viviparous and
shark) [IUCN notable for its mackerel, eel, length produces an
status: unique migratory milkfish and sole average of 15–30
vulnerable] behaviour fish. It also feeds on embryos per litter.
sharks and rays The size at birth is
45–55 cm
10. Rhincodon typus Appears Filter feeder and is Largest length up Ovoviviparous;
(whale shark) occasionally at believed to sieve to 1200 cm but embryo length
[IUCN status: Indian coastal plankton as small mean length is varies from 48 to
vulnerable] waters as 1 mm diameter around 700 cm 58 cm
through the fine
mesh of their gill
rakers
11. Atelomycterus Appears Squids, crabs, etc.
marmoratus occasionally at
(coral cat shark) Indian coastal
waters
12. Glyphis Hooghly–Ganges Fish Maximum length Viviparous. Newly
gangeticus (river river system of is around 200 cm. born individuals
shark) [IUCN West Bengal coast Matured males are are 56–61 cm long
status: extremely about 178 cm
endangered;
Wildlife
Protection Act:
Schedule I]
13. Glyphis glyphis Confined to turbid Fish Minimum length Live bearing
(sharptooth shark waters of rivers, is around 100 cm probably with
or speartooth estuaries and yolk-sac placenta
shark) inshore waters of
coastal West
Bengal
14. Glyphis siamensis Confined to turbid Fish Minimum length Live bearing
(Irrawaddy river waters of rivers, is around 63 cm probably with
shark) estuaries and yolk-sac placenta
inshore waters of
coastal West
Bengal
Source: Mitra and Banerjee (2005)
value of shark (in Indian currency) is shown in and direct benefits obtained from shark
Table 6.8. (Table 6.9).
Besides the fish meat, the shark meat has In coastal West Bengal (a maritime state in
become popular as a delicious food. Nowadays the northeast coast of India), sharks are trapped
shark fins are exported to foreign countries. Shark mainly for the purpose of meat, fins and liver.
fins are usually obtained from species like The catch of shark has progressively increased
Sphyrna zygaena, Rhizoprionodon acutus, since 1994 in the coastal and estuarine sectors of
Scoliodon laticaudus, Carcharhinus the state (Fig. 6.13a–h).
melanopterus, etc. The shark community, in the Incidence of poaching whale shark in recent
present era, is under threat due to various indirect year (2003) has also been recorded from the
Digha coast of West Bengal (Fig. 6.14).
Table 6.8 Valuation of shark parts the landing stations. New gear has to be
Product Minimum (Rs/kg) Maximum (Rs/kg) certified by government agencies before intro-
Shark meat 25 30 duction and code and mesh size are to be
Shark bones 70 75 strictly regulated. The best method for
Shark fins 280 340 checking overfishing is to declare off season
Source: http://www.tao.org/DOCREP/005/X3690E/ especially during spawning and breeding
x3690elq.htm months.
• Training to the forest personnel, fisherman
Deterioration of water quality due to severe and fishery personnel is needed so that they
anthropogenic pressure is also a major threat to are in a stage to identify the species and know
shark community. In the last few decades, the their status (vulnerable/endangered/critically
aquatic phase in and around Indian Sundarbans endangered/threatened) in the conservation
has undergone considerable change due to matrix.
overcrowding of several small- and medium- • Decentralization of shipping activity and
scale industrial units, tourism units, brick fields adopting a leak proof oil transmitting and
and several fishing vessels and trawlers (that carrier system would be advisable. Heavy
release considerable concentrations of Zn, Cu penalty should be imposed on polluting
and Pb during the process of conditioning with vessels and fitness certificate should be
antifouling paints). Many species of shark (par- granted after checking of oil and fuel. The
ticularly Glyphis sp.) cannot resist such alteration coastal industries should be strictly advised
of water quality due to poor adaptive power. to maintain the effluent discharge norms and
At the regional level, the following steps are a technical committee should be formed com-
useful for shark conservation: prising representatives of forest department,
fishery department, state pollution control
• A national fishery management policy has to board, academic institutes and research
be formulated and tuned to meet the organizations to undertake regular water qual-
guidelines of species conservation. The inter- ity monitoring.
action and coordination between national sur- • Specialized fishing gears and crafts are used to
vey, academic institutes, research trap the sharks in coastal West Bengal. Cod
organizations, forest department and fisher- nets and trawl nets are commonly used by the
man co-operative societies should be fishermen to catch the shark species, although
improved. Implementation of modern hook and line gear are also used. Strict
technologies has to be encouraged for checking should be done on these gear types
judicious exploitation of natural resources. to monitor the shark catch both qualitatively
Awareness has to be created among fishermen and quantitatively.
for their active participation in planning, man-
agement and implementation of shark conser-
vation programme. Mechanism needs to be
evolved to monitor the shark catch by vessel 6.2.2 Reptiles
exclusively meant for the purpose.
• Strict regulations are required to control fish- There are around 7000 living species of reptiles,
ing of cartilaginous species at regional level which includes lizards, snakes, turtles and
(particularly those enlisted as endangered, crocodiles. Their dry skin is covered with scales
vulnerable, rare, threatened and commercially to prevent water loss. Their eggs have a leathery
threatened). This could be achieved by shell that prevents them from drying out, and
regulating the number and size of the therefore reptiles can lay their eggs on land.
mechanized crafts and strict monitoring at Like most fishes, reptiles are poikilotherms and
Table 6.9 Uses of different shark parts

Shark parts Uses
Shark meat It is a delicious food, rich in protein, mineral and iodine
Shark fin and fin Fin and fin rays are used for preparing soup, which is a delicious and healthy food
rays
Shark cartilage The cartilage of shark contains collagens, chondromucoids and chondroalbumin. The proximate
analysis shows that shark cartilage contains 41 % ash, large amounts of Ca and P, 39 % protein,
12 % carbohydrate, 7 % water, 1 % fibre and about 0.3 % fat. This unique food value is extremely
good for human health
Shark liver The Indian sharks usually contain 2–180 kg of liver depending upon their size and the season.
The livers weigh 10–25 % of the sharks’ body weight and contains 60–70 % oil. Shark liver oil is
used in the tanning and textile industries, as a lubricant and also as a rich source of Vitamin
A. Components of shark oil are said to cure certain diseases, relieve pain and improve health.
Traditional uses in folk medicines have been cited from Japan, China and Spain. Squalene,
extracted from the shark liver oil, is a biosynthetic precursor of cholesterol, but still it is claimed
that it helps to normalize the blood cholesterol level in people who consume large amounts of
food rich in fat (http://www.tao.org/DOCREP/005/X3690E/x3690elq.htm)
Shark hide Surface skin of shark is known as shagroon, which is a rough leather with dermal denticles
embedded in the skin. It is used for rasping and polishing. A rare and expensive product known
as the boroso leather can be obtained by polishing the denticles to a high gloss. The hide can be
converted to a fancy leather by removing dermal denticles and used in manufacturing of shoes,
wallets, hand bags, purses, dress belts, etc.
ectotherms, commonly called ‘cold blooded’. 6.2.2.1 Marine Crocodiles

Like other poikilotherms, their metabolic rate— The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is
and therefore activity level—varies with temper- the largest of all living reptiles, which inhabits
ature; they usually get sluggish in the cold. This mangrove swamps and estuaries in the eastern
tends to keep them out of cold regions, especially Indian Ocean, Australia and some of the western
on land because the air temperature fluctuates Pacific islands. They have the broadest distribu-
more widely than does the ocean temperature. tion of any modern crocodile ranging from the
Reptiles are abundantly found in the oceans eastern coast of India throughout most of South-
and estuaries. Some common reptiles of marine east Asia stretching south and northern Australia
and estuarine ecosystems are gavial, turtle, and even beyond the East Coast of Africa and as
marine iguana, saltwater crocodiles, etc. The far as the coastal water off Japan. Saltwater
population of marine reptiles is today under crocodiles live mostly on the coast but also are
threat due to factors like pollution, urbanization, found in rivers and are known to venture into the
habitat destruction/degradation and destructive open sea. They are among the most aggressive of
fishing methods. In addition to these factors, the all marine animals and are known to attack and
demand for turtle products by human beings has eat people. Where they occur, they are more
also posed an adverse impact on the turtle popu- feared than sharks.
lation. Turtle eggs and turtle meat have great Their average life span is 70 years. The aver-
demand throughout the Pacific, and nests are age length of male saltwater crocodile varies
regularly raided by poachers. Hawksbill turtles between 430 and 520 cm, while females are
are killed by poachers in order to get their shell, relatively smaller with length between 290 and
which is used to make combs, boxes and jewelry. 310 cm. The average weight of males varies
The skins of turtles are used for making leather between 400 and 1500 kg. The saltwater
belts. The fats and oils of turtles are often used crocodiles are found in the mangrove swamps,
for making cosmetics. estuaries, deltas, lagoons and river mouths
(Fig. 6.15).
a
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Diamond Kakdwip Frezer- Roydighi Canning Namkhana Sagar Other
harbour gaunj Landing
Center
b
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Center
Fig. 6.13 (a) Catch of shark (in 000’ tonnes) in major tonnes) in major fish landing stations of West Bengal
fish landing stations of West Bengal during 1994–1995. during 1998–1999. (f) Catch of shark (in 000’ tonnes) in
(b) Catch of shark (in 000’ tonnes) in major fish landing major fish landing stations of West Bengal during
stations of West Bengal during 1995–1996. (c) Catch of 1999–2000. (g) Catch of shark (in 000’ tonnes) in major
shark (in 000’ tonnes) in major fish landing stations of fish landing stations of West Bengal during 2000–2001.
West Bengal during 1996–1997. (d) Catch of shark (h) Catch of shark (in 000’ tonnes) in major fish landing
(in 000’ tonnes) in major fish landing stations of West stations of West Bengal during 2001–2002
Bengal during 1997–1998. (e) Catch of shark (in 000’
c
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Center
d
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Center
e
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Center
f
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Center
g
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Center
h
0.02
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Center
Fig. 6.14 Sharks caught

illegally for fins
The primary behaviour to distinguish the salt- behaviour allows for the conservation of energy.
water crocodile from other crocodiles is its ten- They even interrupt their travels, residing in shel-
dency to occupy saltwater. Though other tered bays for a few days, when the current is
crocodiles also have salt glands that enable against the desired direction of travel, until the
them to survive in saltwater, a trait which current changes direction (Moskvitch 2010).
alligators do not possess, most other species do Crocodiles also travel up and down in river
not venture out to sea except during extreme systems, periodically (Moskvitch 2010).
conditions. In a similar fashion to migratory While most crocodilians are social animals
birds using thermal columns, saltwater sharing basking spots and food, saltwater
crocodiles use ocean currents to travel long crocodiles are more territorial and are less toler-
distances (Moskvitch 2010). In a study, ant of their own kind; adult males will share
20 crocodiles were tagged with satellite territory with females, but drive off rival males.
transmitters; 8 of these crocodiles ventured out Saltwater crocodiles mate in the months of mon-
into open ocean, in which one of them travelled soon, the period characterized with lowest
590 km (370 mi) in 25 days. Another specimen, a aquatic salinity. They lay eggs in a nest
4.84-m-long male, travelled 411 km (255 mi) in consisting of a mound of mud and vegetation.
20 days. Without having to move around much, The female guards the nest and hatchlings from
sometimes simply by floating, the current-riding predators.
Fig. 6.15 Crocodiles on

the mudflat of Indian
Sundarbans
A study of seasonal saltwater crocodile Reserve Forest area of Indian Sundarbans

behaviour in Australia indicated that they are (Fig. 6.16). Occasionally the estuarine crocodiles
more active and more likely to spend time in of Sundarbans stray to village pond and are res-
the water during the Australian summer; con- cued. People believe that the straying is mainly to
versely, they are less active and spend relatively eat the fishes of the village ponds. A total of
more time basking in the sun during the winter 69.23 % crocodile straying in villages takes
(Grigg et al. 1998). Saltwater crocodiles, how- place in the month of September and October.
ever, are among the most active of all This is the time when crocodiles are reported to
crocodilians, spending more time cruising and start making nest to lay egg and are on search of
active, especially in water. They are much less safe nesting sites.
terrestrial than most species of crocodiles, spend- Saltwater crocodiles have a strong tendency to
ing little time on land other than basking. At consider human beings in their territory as their
times, they can spend weeks at sea in search of lucrative prey. They have a long history of
land, and in some cases, barnacles have been attacking human beings who stray into their ter-
observed growing on crocodile scales, indicative ritory. It has been reported by marine biologists
of the long periods they spend at sea (Linnaeus that prawn seed collectors of Sundarbans
1758). They drink saltwater eliminating the estuaries, who are mostly women, are attacked
excess salt through salt glands on their tongues. by crocodiles during the time of dragging nets in
These reptiles live in burrows along the shore, the muddy estuarine water for tiger prawn seed
where they make their nest and lay eggs. collection (Fig. 6.17). It is surprising that
Several species of crocodiles like American although saltwater crocodiles are relatively
crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), Nile crocodile lethargic in nature, but as predators they display
(Crocodylus niloticus) and Asian saltwater croc- extreme reflex in terms of speed and attack. They
odile (Crocodylus porosus) are best suited to the are capable of explosive burst of speed when
marine environment. launching an attack from water. They can also
The researchers of Forest Department of the swim at a speed of 24–30 km/h if they target for
State of West Bengal (India) cited considerable their prey in their surroundings.
number of crocodiles during 2009–2011 in the
Fig. 6.16 Areas of citation for crocodiles in the Reserve Forest area of Indian Sundarbans
They feed mainly on fishes and are sometimes The species was indiscriminately killed for
known to attack and kill sharks close to their own the purpose of making luxury goods from its
size. They are very aggressive and often attack skin in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The
and kill human beings within their range. level of poaching became so severe that the
Fig. 6.17 Prawn

collectors of Indian
Sundarbans are prone to
crocodile attack
population subsequently declined, making the crabs and molluscs. The jaws of most species
species endangered. are adapted for crushing. The leatherback jaws,
however, are scissor-like and are used to capture
jellyfishes.
6.2.2.2 Sea Turtles
All sea turtles must return to land to repro-
Sea turtles belong to an ancient group of reptiles
duce. They migrate long distances to lay their
who primarily live in the ocean, seas, bays and
eggs on remote sandy beaches, and they were
estuaries. Their bodies are enclosed by an
doing so millions of years before humans
armour-like shell, or carapace, that is fused to
appeared on the scene. Green turtles still gather
the backbone. They have a carapace or upper
to nest on beaches on the East Coast of Central
shell and a lower shell known as plastron; unlike
America, Northern Australia, Southeast Asia,
land turtles, sea turtles cannot retreat into their
Ascension Island (in the middle of the South
shell. They have paddle-like flippers, which help
Atlantic) and a few other locations. Marine
them for propelling through the water. They also
biologists have tagged adult sea turtles at Ascen-
breathe air and hence sea turtles come to the
sion and have found that the turtles regularly
water surface when they need to breathe.
cross 2200 km (1360 mi) of open water to their
There are only seven species of sea turtles
feeding grounds along the coast of Brazil, a jour-
(though some biologists recognize eight), which
ney that takes a little more than 2 months.
live primarily in warm waters. Six of them (the
Though we are still not sure how they find their
hawk bill turtle, green turtle, flatback turtle, the
way, there is evidence that they do it by sensing
loggerhead turtle, kemp’s ridley turtle and olive
the Earth’s magnetic field.
ridley turtle) have shells made up of hard scutes
The breeding, nesting and hatching and
while leatherback turtle has a leathery carapace
migration of sea turtles are interesting areas of
made up of connective tissue. Sea turtles range in
research. All sea turtles are oviparous. The sex-
size from 2 to 6 ft depending on the species and
ual maturity may take 5–35 years depending on
age. Kemp’s ridley turtle is the smallest while the
the species. During breeding period males and
olive ridley turtle is the largest.
females migrate to the breeding grounds which
The remaining species of sea turtles have
are close to the nesting areas. Males and females
diverse diets, feeding on soft, bottom
mate offshore and females travel to nesting
invertebrates like sponges, soft corals and
areas to lay their eggs. It is interesting to note
jellyfishes as well as hardier invertebrates like
that female sea turtles return to the same

beaches where they were born. Even it may be
30 years later and the beach may have greatly
changed. The female sea turtles crawl up on the
beach, dig pits of about 1 ft deep with their
flippers and finally dig nests for the eggs with
their hind flippers. After the eggs are laid, the
female sea turtles cover the nests with the hind
flippers and pack the sand down. The eggs
require 45–70-day incubation period. This Fig. 6.18 Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
period is much influenced by the ambient tem-
perature of the sediment in which the eggs are
laid. Temperature determines the gender of the
hatchlings. Cooler temperature favours the
development of more males while warmer tem-
perature favours the development of more
females. It may be an interesting research proj-
ect if the rising trend of temperature in tropical
estuaries like estuaries of Indian Sundarbans has
any potential implications on the sexual pattern
of sea turtle hatchlings. The pattern of tempera-
ture rise in the estuaries of the Indian Fig. 6.19 Green turtle (Chelonia mydas)
Sundarbans is presented as Annexure 6A. The
researchers have found that eggs placed in the tracked diving to 640 m (2100 ft). Their diet
centre of the nest are more likely to hatch consists largely of jellyfishes. Like other species
females, while eggs on periphery of the nest of sea turtles, leatherbacks are in danger of
are more likely to hatch males. The migratory disappearing forever.
behaviour of sea turtles is also unique. Sea
turtles migrate long distance between feeding Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas)
and nesting grounds and prefer warmer waters Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) were once found
when the seasons change. in coastal waters throughout the tropics. Their
The salient features of seven major turtle shells may grow to 1 m (40 in.) in length. They
types are discussed separately. feed mostly on seagrasses and seaweeds. Like all
turtles, green turtles lack teeth, but they have
Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) strong biting jaws. The green turtle (Fig. 6.19)
The largest sea turtle is the leatherback is large in size about 3 ft long. Green turtles
(Dermochelys coriacea) (Fig. 6.18). This turtle’s weigh up to 350 pounds and their carapace can
shell consists of a single piece with five ridges be many colours, including shades of black, grey,
and is distinctive from other turtles that have green, brown or yellow.
plated shells. Instead of a solid shell, they have
a series of small bones buried in the dark skin, Loggerhead (Caretta caretta)
forming distinct longitudinal ridges. Its length The loggerhead turtles (Fig. 6.20) are reddish
and weight reach over 6 ft and 2000 pounds, brown in colour possessing a very large head.
respectively. T leatherbacks are an open-water Their length can extend up to 3.5 ft. The body
species, the widest ranging of all marine reptiles, weight of the loggerhead turtles range around
and are rarely seen except on nesting beaches. 400 pounds. Crabs, jellyfish and molluscs consti-
They are deep divers—one individual was tute the diet of loggerhead turtles.
Fig. 6.20 Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta)

Fig. 6.22 Kemp’s Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempii)
Fig. 6.23 Olive Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea)

Fig. 6.21 Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate)
and weighs approximately 60–90 pounds. Their
Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricate) diet includes crabs, shrimps, lobsters, jellyfish
The hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate) is and even algae. During the phase of nesting, the
smaller, and the shell is reddish brown with yel- females come in thousands and have mass
low streaks. It uses its beak-like mouth to feed on nesting aggregations (arribadas) on the coasts
encrusting animals (sponges, sea squirts, of Central America and East India.
barnacles) and seaweeds. The length of the
hawksbill turtle (Fig. 6.21) is about 3.5 ft. The Flatback (Natator depressus)
body weight is around 180 pounds. The name The flattened carapace is perhaps the origin of
hawksbill turtle may have originated from the the name flatback turtles (Fig. 6.24). They are
shape of their beak which is similar to the beak widely distributed in the coastal waters of
of a raptor. The beautiful patterns of the carapace Australia and feed on sea cucumbers, soft corals,
of the hawksbill turtle have attracted the bivalves and gastropods.
poachers who often kill these turtles. The hawks-
bill turtles are abundantly found in tropical 6.2.2.3 Marine Lizard
waters and their preferred diet are the sponges. The marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus
subcristatus), the only marine lizard (Fig. 6.25),
Kemp’s Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) is native to the Galápagos Islands. It spends most
Kemp’s ridley turtle (Fig. 6.22) has a length of of its time basking in large groups on rocks along
about 2.5 ft. and weight ranges around 90 pounds. the coast, warming up after swimming in the cold
In fact these turtles are very small in size. Their water. It eats seaweeds and can dive as deep as
preferred food materials are crabs and they are 10 m (33 ft) to graze.
found in coastal waters of temperate to subtropi- These large lizards are descendents of green,
cal regions. vegetarian iguanas that still inhabit the tropical
forests of the mainland. It is believed that in the
Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) distant past, chunks of riverbank from Central
Olive ridley turtles (Fig. 6.23) possess olive America may have broken loose and carried
coloured shells. They are not very big in size into the sea along with different other flora and
Fig. 6.24 Flatback turtle (Natator depressus)
fauna into the Galápagos Islands, which might be Fig. 6.25 Marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus subcristatus)
the probable cause of this animal to have settled
here. The iguanas travelled and wandered in the where they rest on the rocks, lying almost
islands in search of food and vegetation that they motionless above the high tide.
used to feed in the forest. The Galápagos Islands
was dramatically different from the forests, but it 6.2.2.4 Sea Snakes
had adequate resources for its survival. The Approximately 55 species of sea snakes are
conditions of the island thus favoured the species found in the tropical Indian and Pacific oceans.
to survive and propagate. The unusual lifestyle of Their bodies are laterally flattened and the tail
the marine iguana was due to its adaptability in paddle-shaped for swimming (Fig. 6.26). Most
precarious condition, when it had to feed on the are 1–1.3 m (3–4 ft) long. Practically all sea
marine algae, which got exposed only during low snakes lead a totally marine existence. They
tide. Although it was a foreign food, its mate in the ocean and are ovoviviparous, giving
subsequent generations resisted and persisted birth to live young. A few species, however, still
this condition. This caused the present-day come ashore to lay their eggs. Like all snakes, sea
iguana to be completely different from its snakes are carnivores. Most feed on bottom fish,
relatives on the mainland. a few specializing in fish eggs. They are closely
The marine iguana is 3 ft long lizard and is related to cobras and their allies, the most ven-
entirely black; some are mottled red and black omous of all snakes. Sea snakes are among the
showing some hint of green during the breeding most common of all venomous snakes, and their
season. This dark colouration allows them to bites can be fatal to humans. Fortunately, they
absorb more heat energy to raise their body tem- are rarely aggressive, and the mouth is too small
perature so that they can swim and feed in the to get a good bite. Most casualties, swimmers
cold Pacific waters. They are very good accidentally stepping on them and fishers remov-
swimmers, using lateral undulations of their ing them from nets have been reported in South-
body and tail to propel them through waters. east Asia. Sea snakes are also victims of
They avoid heavy surf and rarely venture more overexploitation. They are hunted for their
than 10 m from shore. When leaving the water, skins, and some species have become rare.
they tend to ride in with the swell and then The coral reef snakes or sea snakes inhabit
swiftly crawl up the rocks. If they do not find marine environments in most of the period of
their territory immediately, they touch the rocks their life cycle. The origin of coral reef snakes
with their tongues and carry scent to a receptor in occurred in the terrestrial environment. Then
the roof of the mouth. When they locate their they migrate to the aquatic system in course of
own scent, they follow it to their territory, time. Today except the genus Laticauda, other
90 m (300 ft) and can remain submerged for as

long as a few hours, possibly depending on tem-
perature and degree of activity (Fichter 1982;
Hydrophiidae 2007).
Some common sea snakes along with their
geographical distribution are highlighted in
Table 6.10.
Fig. 6.26 Sea snakes 6.2.3 Sea Birds
members of sea snakes or coral reef snakes are Birds are homeotherms, commonly referred to as
able to move on land. They are abundantly ‘warm blooded’. They are also endotherms. This
distributed in the warm coastal waters from the feature has allowed the sea birds to thrive in a
Indian Ocean to the Pacific. The coral reef snakes wide variety of environments. Their bodies are
have paddle-like tails with laterally compressed covered with waterproof feathers that help con-
body very similar to the structure of eel. serve body heat. Waterproofing is provided by oil
Representatives of Laticauda possess venom. from a gland above the base of the tail. Birds
They are among the most completely aquatic of preen by rubbing the oil into their feathers with
all air-breathing vertebrates (Parker and their beaks. Flight is made easier by their light,
Grandison 1977; Mehrtens 1987). Currently, hollow bones. Furthermore, their eggs have hard
17 genera are described as sea snakes, compris- shells that are more resistant to water loss than
ing 62 species (Elapidae 2007a, b). those of reptiles.
Sea snakes are generally reluctant to bite, Sea birds are birds that spend a significant part
(Stidworthy 1974; Fichter 1982) and are usually of their lives at sea and feed on marine
considered to be mild tempered, although there is organisms. Most breed in large colonies on
variation among species and individuals land, mate as lifelong pairs and take care of
(Hydrophiidae 2007). Some species, such as their young. True sea birds have webbed feet
Pelamis platurus, which feed by simply gulping for swimming.
down their prey, are more likely to bite when Sea birds have evolved from several different
provoked because they seem to use their venom groups of land birds. As a result, they differ
more for defence. Others, such as Laticauda, use widely in their flying skills, feeding mechanisms
their venom for prey immobilization; these and ability to live away from land. Though com-
snakes are often handled without concern by prising only about 3 % of the estimated 9700
local fishermen, who unravel and toss them species of birds, seabirds are distributed from
back into the water barehanded when the snakes pole to pole, and their impact on marine life is
become entangled in fishing nets (Stidworthy significant. Most are predators of fish, squid and
1974; Sea snakes at FAO 2007). Species reported bottom invertebrates, but some feed on plankton.
as much more aggressive include Aipysurus Seabirds have amazing appetites. They need a lot
laevis, Astrotia stokesii, Enhydrina schistosa of food to supply the energy required to maintain
and Hydrophis ornatus (US Navy 1991). their body temperature.
Sea snakes (Fig. 6.26) appear to be active both The sea birds constitute about 3 % of the
day and night. In the morning, and sometimes world’s bird. About 260–285 sea birds have
late in the afternoon, they can be seen at the been documented. The birds which are efficiently
surface basking in the sunlight, and they will adapted to marine environment are albatrosses,
dive when disturbed (Stidworthy 1974). They auks, petrels, penguins, etc. However, birds like
have been reported swimming at depths of over sandpipers and plovers are incapable of
swimming and are seen on seashore and inter- include a variety of types, from sparrow-sized
tidal mudflats. storm petrels to auks, gannets, puffins, petrels,
The aquacultural farms along the coastline/ shearwaters, guillemots and eagle-sized
mangrove intertidal mudflats are the home albatrosses. Some of these birds, such as the
ground of several species of shorebirds shearwaters and storm petrels, migrate thousands
(Fig. 6.27) that feed on shrimps and crabs. of kilometres each year as they follow schools of
The variety of seabirds may be grouped into fish or drifting plankton. Probably the most oce-
categories like true shorebirds, diving shorebirds, anic of all the seabirds is the wandering albatross
diving pelagic birds, etc. (Diomedea exulans) of the South Pacific. The
albatross, among the largest of all seabirds with
6.2.3.1 True Shorebirds a wingspan of about 3 m, is adept at gliding
The true shore birds include sandpiper, oyster- effortlessly on air currents over the ocean. The
catcher, snowy egret, some types of ducks, etc. albatross may spend 3 or 4 years at sea before
They are adapted to survive and grab their food returning to its birth island to breed. During this
materials from the sandy and muddy beaches. time, the bird rarely stops flying or gliding and
The beak of sandpiper (Calidris sp.) is narrow may actually circle the entire globe.
and pointed for penetrating into the sand in
search of small invertebrates preferably the 6.2.3.4 Penguins
infauna. The sandpipers usually remain in small Penguins are the most aquatic of all seabirds
flocks. (Fig. 6.28). There are about 18 species of
The oystercatcher (Haematopus sp.) has a penguins; all but one species live in the southern
large body size with a knife-like beak meant for hemisphere. They vary in height from about one
consuming various types of molluscs. The third of a metre to more than 1 m tall. Penguins
oystercatchers are mainly seen in marshy land have no flight feathers and are completely flight-
and sandy beaches. less. However, they are excellent swimmers and
The snowy egret (Egretta thula sp.) are seen divers. The smaller wings of a penguin function
usually in the intertidal mudflats and salt as flippers that can propel the bird through the
marshes. They possess long legs, long neck and water at speeds of up to 24 km per hour. Penguins
a pointed bill. They prefer small fishes like have dense bones with considerable specific
herons. In tropical regions flamingoes are seen gravity, which give them the weight necessary
in the shallow aquatic zones. They have pointed for deep dives.
and bent beaks which enable them to capture Seabirds are indicators of ocean productivity
small invertebrates from the water. and rank second in order of consumption of large
planktonic crustaceans, just after marine
6.2.3.2 Diving Shore Birds mammals. The marshy area of mangrove-
These birds are capable of diving to grab their dominated Sundarbans is the homeland of a vari-
prey. The diving shore birds include cormorant, ety of seabirds like herons, cormorants, egrets,
common tern, brown pelican, osprey, etc. The kingfishers, storks and darters. About 250 species
diving shore birds are equipped with excellent of birds have been documented in this deltaic
vision, which enable them to locate their prey lobe at the apex of Bay of Bengal, of which a
while flying. sizable proportion is migratory. A number of
species of eagles, including the white-bellied
6.2.3.3 Diving Pelagic Birds sea eagle, crested serpent eagle and Pallas’s fish-
Many seabirds that nest on islands and along ing eagle, and owls such as the barn owl, scops
coastlines actually spend most of their lives at owl, spotted owl and brown fish owl are also
sea. The pelagic, or open ocean, diving seabirds found in the mangrove trees. On the intertidal
Table 6.10 Some common sea snakes and their geographical distribution
Common name Geographical distribution
Spiny-headed sea snake or Gulf of Thailand, South China Sea, the Strait of Taiwan, and the coasts of
horned sea snake Guangdong, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Australia
(Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia)
Olive sea snake South China Sea, Gulf of Thailand, and coasts of Australia (Northern Territory,
Queensland, West Australia), New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, southern New
Guinea, Indonesia, western Malaysia and Vietnam
Stokes’ sea snake Coastal areas from west India and Sri Lanka through Gulf of Thailand to South
China Sea, west Malaysia, Indonesia, east to New Guinea, north and east coasts of
Australia, the Philippines
Turtlehead sea snake The coasts of Timor (Indonesian Sea), New Caledonia and Australia (Northern
Territory, Queensland, West Australia) and in the Southeast Asian sea along the
coasts of China, Taiwan, Japan and the Ryukyu Islands; in the Persian Gulf (Oman,
United Arab Emirates, etc.), south to the Seychelles and Madagascar
Beaked sea snake Southeast Asia (Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam),
Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland), New Guinea and Papua New Guinea
Grey’s mudsnake Northwestern Australia
Port Darwin mud snake Northern Australia, southern New Guinea
Sea snake Indo-Australian and Southeast Asian waters (Hydrophiidae 2007)
Jerdon’s sea snake Southeast Asian waters (Hydrophiidae 2007)
Bighead sea snake Indian Ocean
Spine-bellied sea snake, Persian Gulf to Indian Ocean, South China Sea, Indo-Australian Archipelago and
Shaw’s sea snake the western Pacific (Hydrophiidae 2007)
Sea kraits Southeast Asian and Indo-Australian waters
Northern mangrove sea snake Northern Australia, southern New Guinea
Hediger’s snake Bougainville Island, Solomons
Yellow-bellied sea snake From the Persian Gulf to the Indian Ocean, the South China Sea and northeast to
the coastal region of Fujian and Strait of Taiwan
Anomalous sea snake South China Sea (Malaysia, Gulf of Thailand), Indian Ocean (Sumatra, Java,
Borneo)
Fig. 6.27 Shorebirds are

attracted in shrimp farms
for abundant food supply
Fig. 6.28 Penguin with no

flight feathers
mudflats, different species of plovers and large number of birds during diving. Decrease
sandpipers are common. Marsh birds like herons, in food is also one of the reasons behind the
egrets, bitterns, storks and rails are resident birds reduction in bird population. Several sea birds
and are found throughout the year. Migratory and shorebirds are adversely affected by oil
flocks of sandpipers, redshanks and whimlocks pollution (Hiscock 1997). The floating oil sticks
can be seen during winter. Table 6.11 lists few to the feathers of the birds making them unable
frequently sighted avifauna in Indian to fly. The study on impact of climate change on
Sundarbans. sea bird population is still under progress. How-
Seabirds are often known for their excellent ever, anthropogenic factors like construction of
migratory behaviour. American subspecies hotels, refineries, power plants and aquacultural
(Calidris canutus rufa) spends the austral sum- farms in the coastal region have greatly affected
mer at the southern tip of Argentina, feeding the shore bird population.
primarily on young mussels in intertidal areas.
It migrates northwards in March, stopping to feed
on clams, mussels and worms along the South 6.2.4 Marine Mammals
American coast. By late May, over 100,000 birds
flock in Delaware Bay, along the eastern sea- Marine mammals spend all their lives in the
board of the United States. Their arrival ocean, or they may return to land for mating
coincides with the breeding cycle of horseshoe and giving birth to their young ones. The breed-
crabs (Fig. 6.29) that come ashore in thousands to ing grounds of several marine mammals like
lay millions of eggs. Their eggs provide a high humpback whale and grey whale are restricted
energy food source for the birds, and this fuels in the coastal region, while majority of the
their remaining flight to islands in the Canadian whales have their breeding grounds in the oce-
Arctic. anic water (Table 6.12).
Nowadays several advanced technologies are There are three orders of mammals that have
adapted by fishermen to catch fishes. Nets of evolved from different terrestrial ancestors and
various types are used to capture commercially independently adapted to life in the sea. These
important fishes. In North Atlantic and Pacific, three orders include, respectively, the whales,
the drift nets cause mortality and injury to a dolphins and porpoises; the seals, sea lions and
Table 6.11 Common avifauna of Indian Sundarbans

Vernacular name Scientific name
Resident
Little cormorant Phalacrocorax niger
Great cormorant P. carbo
Grey heron Ardea cinerea
Purple heron A. purpurea
Indian pond heron Ardeola grayii
Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis
Open-bill stork Anastomus oscitans
Great egret Egretta alba
Intermediate egret E. intermedia
Little egret E. garzetta
Black-crowned night heron Nycticorax nycticorax
Greater adjutant Leptoptilos dubius
Black-necked stork Xenorhynchus asiaticus
Black-headed ibis Threskiornis melanocephala
White-breasted water hen Amaurornis phoenicurus
Bronze-winged jacana Metopidius indicus
Pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus
Black-capped kingfisher Halcyon pileata
Collared kingfisher H. chloris
Brown-winged kingfisher Pelargopsis amauroptera
Migratory species
Spot-billed pelican Pelecanus philippensis
Northern pintail Anas acuta
Common teal A. crecca
Tufted duck Aythya fuligula
Common pochard A. ferina
Ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus
Black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa
Little stint Calidris minuta
Great knot C. tenuirostris
In shallow water
Eastern golden plover Pluvialis dominica
Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus
Eurasian curlew Numenius arquata
Wood sandpiper Tringa glareola
Terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus
Reclaimed area
Indian darter Anhinga melanogaster
Chestnut bittern Ixobrychus cinnanoneus
Black bittern Butoridea stellaris
Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia
Red-wattled lapwing Vanellus indicus
Grey-headed lapwing V. cinereus
Herring gull Larus argentatus (rare visitor)
Great crested tern Sterna bergii (rare visitor)
Lesser crested tern S. bengalensis (rare visitor)
Sooty tern S. fuscata (rare visitor)
(continued)

Vernacular name Scientific name
Red jungle fowl Gallus gallus (found in forest areas only)
Swamp partridge Francolinus gularis
Greater coucal Centropus sinensis
Occasional visitors to the estuary
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
Black kite Milvus migrans
Brahminy kite Haliastur indus
White-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster
Crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela
Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis
Yellow-footed pigeon Treron phoenicoptera
Large Indian parakeet Psittacula eupatria
Rose-ringed parakeet P. krameri
Barn owl Tyto alba
Brown fish owl Bubo zeylonensis
Spotted owlet Athene brama
Magpie robin Copsychus saularis
Asian paradise flycatcher Terpsiphone paradise
Black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis
Treepie Crypsirina vagabonda
Grey shrike Lanius excubitor
Common swallow Hirundo rustica
Indian roller Coracias bengalensis
Fig. 6.29 Horseshoe

crabs: eggs of this living
fossil serve as the fuel for
migratory seabirds
walruses; and the dugongs, manatees and sea 6.2.4.1 Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises
cows. All share the mammalian characteristics The largest group of marine mammals is the
of being warm blooded (homoiothermic) and cetaceans (order Cetacea) consisting of whales,
nursing their young, and they all rely on dolphins and porpoises. The bodies of cetaceans
breathing air. are streamlined and look remarkably fish-like.
Table 6.12 Distribution and food habits of whales

Whale Distribution Food
Toothed whales
Sperm Worldwide; breeding herds in tropic and temperate regions Squid, fish
Ballen whales
Blue Worldwide; large north–south migrations Krill
Finback Worldwide; large north–south migrations Krill and other plankton, fish
Humpback Worldwide; large north–south migrations along coasts Krill, fish
Right Worldwide; cool temperate Copepods and other plankton
Sei Worldwide; large north–south migrations Copepods and other plankton, fish
Grey North Pacific; large north–south migrations along coasts Benthic invertebrates
Bowhead Arctic; close to edge of ice Krill
Bryde’s Worldwide; tropic and warm temperate regions Krill
Minke Worldwide; north–south migrations Krill
This is a dramatic example of convergent evolu- 6.2.4.2 Baleen Whales

tion, in which different species develop similar Baleen whales form a separate suborder
structures because they have similar lifestyles. (Mysticeti) of about ten species. Like the largest
Though they superficially resemble fishes, of the sharks, most of these immense whales feed
cetaceans breathe air and will drown if trapped primarily on zooplankton that they strain through
below the surface. They are ‘warm blooded’, specialized horny plates called baleen or
have hair (though scanty) and produce milk for whalebone.
their young. Cetaceans have a pair of front The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus),
flippers, but the rear pair of limbs has which is actually blue grey, is the largest of all.
disappeared. Actually, the rear limbs are present Males average 25 m (80 ft), and there is a record
in the embryo, but fail to develop. In adults they of a female 33.5 m (110 ft) long (90–140 tonnes),
remain only as small, useless bones. Like fishes, but the record is an estimated 178,000 kg
many cetaceans have a dorsal fin, another exam- (200 tonnes). The blue whale, the fin whale
ple of convergent evolution. The muscular tail (B. physalus), and the minke whale
ends in a pair of fin-like, horizontal flukes. Blub- (B. acutorostrata—together with five other
ber provides insulation and buoyancy; body hair related species) are known as the rorquals. Two
is practically absent. Cetacean nostrils differ of these whales were recognized as separate spe-
from those of other mammals. Rather than cies in 2003. The rorquals and the humpback
being on the front of the head, they are on top, whale (Megaptera novaeangliae, which is often
forming a single or double opening called the included among the rorquals) feed by gulping up
blowhole. There are approximately 90 species schools of fish and swarms of krill. The lower
of cetaceans. They are all marine except for five part of the throat expands when feeding, hence
species of freshwater dolphins. Cetaceans are the distinctive, accordion-like grooves on the
divided into two groups: the toothless, filter-feed- underside of these whales. Krill is the most
ing whales and the toothed, carnivorous whales, important part of the rorqual diet, especially in
a group that includes the dolphins and porpoises. the Southern Hemisphere. Humpback whales
There are about 76 species under the order often herd fishes like herring and mackerel by
Cetacea and include mammals like whales, blowing curtains of bubbles around them. The
porpoises, dolphins, etc. They originated in the right whales (Eubalaena, Caperaea) and the
terrestrial environment and migrated to the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) feed by
marine compartment about 55 million years swimming along the surface with their huge
ago. The largest representative under this order mouths open. They have the largest baleen plates
is the blue whale, which has a body length of of the whales but the finest bristles. This allows
about 35 m. them to filter small plankton like copepods and
some krill. Grey whales (Eschrichtius robustus) The small-toothed whales are called dolphins
are primarily bottom feeders. When examined, or porpoises. Dolphin and porpoise are common
their stomachs contain mostly amphipods that names of two subtly different groups of small
inhabit soft bottoms. Greys stir up the bottom odontocete whales.
with their pointed snouts and then filter the sedi- The term dolphin is generally used for small
ment, leaving characteristic pits on the bottom. cetaceans having a slender body and beak-like
Most appear to feed on their right side because snout and porpoise for animals having a stocky
the baleen on this side is more worn. Some, body and blunt snout. Dolphins are strongly
however, are ‘left-handed’ and feed on the left social animals. They exhibit problem-solving
side. A 10-week-old female kept in captivity in skills, have long periods to mature with many
San Diego, California, ate over 815 kg (1800 lb) learning experiences and are capable of intraspe-
of squid every day, gaining weight at the rate of cies and inter-species cooperation. Dolphins are
1 kg (2.2 lb) an hour. usually larger and have an extended bottlelike
jaw filled with sharp round teeth. The small
jumping whales in most oceanarium are dolphins
6.2.4.3 Toothed Whales
and killer whales. However, this terminology has
There are 66 species of cetaceans under the sub-
not been strictly followed in naming the species.
order Odontoceti. The members of this group
Some species of dolphins typically possess a
have teeth and possess a single blowhole unlike
distinctive snout, or beak and a perpetual ‘smile’.
two blowholes that are found in baleen whales.
They often travel in large groups called pods,
They are fond of squid and several categories of
herd, or schools. They like to catch rides along
fishes. They possess the power of locating their
the bows of boats or around great whales. The
prey through eco-mechanism.
bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) is the
The largest toothed whale is the sperm whale
dolphin seen in marine theme parks and
(Physeter catodon). The other toothed whales are
oceanaria around the world. The spinner dolphin
much smaller than the great whales. One is the
(Stenella longirostris) is so named because of its
killer whale, or orca (Orcinus orca), a magnifi-
spectacular twisting jumps in air. It is one of the
cent black and white predator with a taste for
species of dolphins that get caught in the nets of
seals, sea lions, penguins, fishes, sea otters and
tuna fishers. This happens because the tuna and
even other whales. They use their white bellies to
dolphins eat the same fish and often occur
flash and frighten herring schools and their flukes
together.
to stun the fish. Killer whales are most common
Habitat wise, the cetaceans of the Indo-
in cold water but are found around the world.
Malayan region fall under three categories:
Killer whales have a nasty reputation, but there
(i) the river dolphin, (ii) coastal and estuarine
are very few confirmed cases of their attacking
forms and (iii) marine species which live in
humans in the wild. One of the most enigmatic of
deep waters. The latter may be resident of tropi-
whales is the narwhal (Monodon monoceros), a
cal waters or those, which mainly live in cold
small Arctic whale having a long, spiral tusk that
waters but migrate seasonally towards the tropics
can be as long as 2.7 m (9 ft). Narwhal tusks
like Balaenoptera musculus, Balaenoptera
washed ashore apparently gave rise to the legend
physalus, etc.
of the unicorn. The tusk, found only in males,
The common species of dolphin found in the
appears to be related to the establishment of a
Gangetic stretch adjacent to coastal Bay of
hierarchy of dominance. It has been recently
Bengal are Gangetic dolphin (Platanista
shown, however, that the tusks have a network
gangetica) and Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella
of small, fluid-filled tubes, which are connected
brevirostris). Gangetic dolphin is restricted in
to the narwhal’s nervous system, and it has been
freshwater zone, whereas Irrawaddy dolphin is
suggested that they may sense the water for the
widely visible in the brackish water in and
detection of prey or other chemical cues.
around the deltaic Sundarbans.
Technically, porpoises comprise only a small Antarctic krill. These seals strain krill from the
group of blunt-nosed whales, but in some places water with their intricately cusped, sieve-like
the name porpoise is given to some of the teeth. Unlike most seals, monk seals (Monachus)
dolphins. Porpoise, as a term, refers to smaller live in warm regions. The Mediterranean
members of the group, which have spade-shaped (M. monachus) and Hawaiian
teeth, a triangular dorsal fin and a smooth front (M. schauinslandi) monk seals are now
end tapering to a point. Black finless porpoise endangered. A third species, the Caribbean
(Neomeris phocaenoides) is often sighted in the monk seal (M. tropicalis), was last seen in
brackish waters of Indian Sundarbans. 1952. Seals have been hunted for their skin and
meat and for the oil extracted from their blubber.
6.2.4.4 Seals, Sea Lions and the Walrus The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972
These marine mammals constitute the order extends protection to all marine mammals and
Pinnipedia and are characterized with the pres- restricts the sale of their products in the United
ence of feather-like foot, which help in swim- States. For some seals, however, this protection
ming. Included in this order are the mammals has not been enough.
like seals, walruses and sea lions. Compared to Sea lions, or eared seals, and the related fur
whales these animals spend a considerable por- seals are similar to seals except that they have
tion of their time on land or on ice floes. They external ears. They can also move their rear
utilize this space for breeding and nesting. Their flippers forwards, so they can use all four limbs
preferred food materials include fish and squid, to walk or run on land. The front flippers can be
but the tusks of walruses are used to dig molluscs rotated backwards to support the body, permit-
and other benthic organisms from the seashore. ting the animal to sit on land with its neck and
Seals and related forms are marine mammals head raised. Sea lions are graceful and agile
that have paddle-shaped flippers for swimming swimmers, relying mostly on their broad front
but still need to rest and breed on land. Their flippers. Adult males are much bigger than
streamlined bodies are adapted for swimming. females, or cows, and have a massive head with
Most pinnipeds live in cold water. To keep a hairy mane. There are six species of sea lions
warm, they have a thick layer of fat, called blub- and nine of fur seals. The most familiar of all is
ber, under their skin. Besides acting as insulation, the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus)
it serves as a food reserve and helps provide of the Pacific coast of North America. These sea
buoyancy. Some pinnipeds also have bristly lions are the trained barking circus “seals” that
hair for added protection against the cold. Many do tricks for a fish or two. Fur seals, like the
of them are quite large, which also helps con- northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus), were
serve body heat because large animals have less once almost exterminated for their thick fur.
surface area for their size than small animals and Now most are protected around the world,
therefore lose less body heat. though some species are still hunted. Population
The largest group of pinnipeds, including of the Steller sea lion (Eumetropias jubatus) in
some 19 species, is the seals. Seals are distin- Alaska has decreased by 80 % since the 1970s,
guished by having rear flippers that cannot be most probably because of a decline in the fish
moved forward. On land they must move by they eat as a result of an increase in commercial
pulling themselves along with their front flippers. fishing.
They swim with powerful strokes of the rear The walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) is a large
flippers. Harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) are com- pinniped with a pair of distinctive tusks protrud-
mon in both the North Atlantic and North Pacific. ing down from the mouth. It feeds mostly on
Elephant seals (Mirounga) are the largest bottom invertebrates, particularly clams. It was
pinnipeds. Males, or bulls, reach 6 m (20 ft) in once thought that the walrus used its tusks to dig
length and can weigh as much as 3600 kg up food, but there is no evidence for this. Instead,
(4 tonnes). One unusual seal is the crab-eater these pinnipeds apparently suck up their food as
seal (Lobodon carcinophagus), which feeds on they move along the bottom. The stiff whiskers
of the snout probably act as feelers. The tusks are oceans. All three species (Trichechus) of
used for defence and to hold or anchor to ice. manatees are found only in tropical Atlantic
waters; one is restricted to the Amazon and the
6.2.4.5 Manatees and Dugong others inhabit shallow coastal waters and rivers
Manatees and dugongs belong to the mammalian from Florida to West Africa. The dugong
order Sirenia and are also known as sea cows, or (Dugong dugon) is strictly marine and survives
sirenians. They have a pair of front flippers but from East Africa to some of the western Pacific
no rear limbs. They swim with up-and-down islands. Its numbers are critically low throughout
strokes of their paddle-shaped, horizontal tail. most of its range.
The round, tapered body is well padded with
blubber. They have wrinkled skin with a few 6.2.4.6 Sea Otter and Polar Bear
scattered hairs. Sirenians are gentle creatures. Sea otters are members of the weasel or mustelid
They usually live in groups. Manatees and family. Though there is doubt about the
dugongs are thought to have been highly social pinnipeds, the sea otter (Enhydra lutris) is defi-
animals, as old records report huge nitely a member of the order Carnivora. It also
congregations of these animals before hunting differs from other marine mammals in lacking a
decimated their numbers. The few remaining layer of blubber. Therefore, they rely on their
individuals have tended to become solitary or fur to keep warm. If their fur is oiled, it loses
form only small family groups. Like elephants its insulating qualities and the sea otters soon
and other large mammals, they reproduce slowly, chill.
typically one calf every 3 years. They are the Insulation from the cold is provided by air
only herbivorous aquatic mammals, and they trapped in its dense fur. Their fur actually
rely on larger plants, not algae, for nourishment. consists of two layers, an undercoat and longer
Their food requirements restrict them to living in guard hairs. This system traps a layer of air next
shallow coastal waters, estuaries and rivers. to their skin so their skin does not get wet. In fact,
Their large lips are used to feed on seagrasses at 850,000 to one million hairs per square inch,
and other aquatic vegetation. Seagrass beds, their they have the thickest fur of any mammal. Sea
source of food, are being destroyed at an otters are usually dark brown, often with lighter
alarming rate by anchor and boat damage and guard hairs. This splendid, dark brown fur, unfor-
by excess silt and nutrients from land, which tunately, attracted hunters. Alaskan sea otters
often results from deforestation and intensive tend to have lighter fur on their heads.
farming. Only four species remain, and all are Sea otters are the smallest marine mammal.
in danger of extinction. All four species of this The female weight ranges between 35 and
order reside in warm waters and do not come on 60 pounds and males weigh between 70 and
to land. 90 pounds. In the Alaskan Sea, the sea otters
All sirenians are large. Dugongs may reach are relatively bigger with males having weight
3 m (10 ft) and 420 kg (930 lb), whereas around 100 pounds. The preferred habitats of sea
manatees are 4.5 m (almost 15 ft) in length and otter are the kelp beds. Their body is covered
weigh about 600 kg (1320 lb). A fifth species of with soft beautiful fur.
sirenian, Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), The population of sea otter is presently under
became extinct within historical times which threat due to over hunting and killing by
grew up to 7.5 m (25 ft) long. The sirenians poachers. The beautiful fur of sea otters is greed
have been particularly vulnerable to hunting to the hunters and poachers. Oil spill has consid-
pressure because of their inshore habitats and erable adverse impact on the sea otter population.
their slow and placid behaviour, and they are Often after massive oil spill, sea otters are found
prized for their meat, oil and hides in many covered with dark oil.
cultures. At one time, dugongs had a widespread Sea otters were slaughtered to near extinction
distribution which included Atlantic waters; until they became protected by an international
today, they are restricted to the Indian and Pacific agreement in 1911. The sea otter was then able to
Annexure 6A: Warming of Lower Gangetic Delta Water, A Projection on the. . . 233
slowly expand from the few individuals that had

managed to survive in some remote locations. 9. How are the crustaceans adopted to
Their numbers, however, have been declining in marine environment?
recent years, particularly as they have slightly 10. How is the kelp community associated
declined since peaking in 2004, mostly as a result with the sea otters?
of disease.
Sea otters are playful and intelligent animals.
They spend most or all of their time in the water,
including breeding and giving birth. Sea otters
need to eat 25–30 % of their body weight per day,
Annexure 6A: Warming of Lower
so they spend a lot of time looking for food. They
Gangetic Delta Water, A Projection
satisfy their ravenous appetites with sea urchins,
on the Basis of Real-Time Data
abalone, mussels, crabs, other invertebrates and
even fishes. The kelp acts as an anchor that the
1. Introduction
sea otters use to wrap themselves in when they
are resting. Sea otters are social animals, with
The carbon dioxide concentration in the atmo-
females and pups spending time together in one
sphere of India is gradually increasing over a
group and males in another. The furry pup is
period of time. The mid-tropospheric carbon
constantly groomed and nursed by its mother.
dioxide during 2002–2008 retrieved from Atmo-
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is the sec-
spheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) on board
ond member of the order Carnivora that inhabits
Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU-
the marine environment. Polar bears are semi-
A) was analyzed over the Indian subcontinent
aquatic animals that spend a good part of their
and surrounding oceans. Important features
lives on drifting ice in the Arctic. They feed
exhibited by the observations are the strong sea-
primarily on seals, which they stalk and capture
sonal and latitudinal gradient modulated by
as the seals surface to breathe or rest.
strong monsoonal activity over the study region
(Fig. 6A.1). Further analysis suggests that atmo-
Brain Churners spheric carbon dioxide concentration has
1. Why regions of high primary produc- increased linearly from 372 ppm in 2002 to
tion coincide with large populations of 386 ppm in 2008 at the rate of 2.05 ppm/year
animals in that sea? during past 6 years with strong seasonal variation
2. What are the basic factors controlling over the land and relatively weaker seasonal
the abundance of zooplankton in the variability over the ocean (Figs. 6A.1 and 6A.2).
estuarine region? Carbon dioxide, being a heavier gas, forms a
3. How are holoplankton different from blanket on the Earth’s surface that retains solar
meroplankton? radiation. The global air temperature is, there-
4. How myctophids produce light in the fore, increasing due to increase in GHGs mainly
deeper part of the ocean? carbon dioxide (Solomon and IPCC 2007).
5. What are the major threats on sharks? There have been many studies related to long-
6. How is the excess salt eliminated by term trends in surface air temperature in India.
saltwater crocodiles? During 1901–2003 average long-term trend of
7. How ambient temperature influences 0.05 C/decade was found in the all-India annual
the sex of the turtle hatchlings in the mean surface air temperature (Kothawale and
beach? Kumar 2005). The recent period of 1971–2003
8. What is the scientific basis of the coin- has seen a relatively accelerated warming of
cidence of arrival of Calidris canutus 0.22 C/decade. Recently, surface air
rufa in Delaware Bay with the post- temperatures in different parts of India were
mating period of horseshoe crab? analysed for the period of 1901–2003 (Ganguly
and Iyer 2008) and an increasing trend
40°N 40°N 40°N
30°N 30°N 30°N
20°N 20°N 20°N
10°N 10°N 10°N
0° 0° 0°
10°S 10°S 10°S
20°S 20°S 20°S
45°E 55°E 65°E 75°E 85°E 95°E105°E 45°E 55°E 65°E 75°E 85°E 95°E105°E 45°E 55°E 65°E 75°E 85°E 95°E105°E
40°N 40°N 40°N 385

30°N 30°N 30°N 384.5
20°N 20°N 20°N 384
10°N 10°N 10°N 383.5
0° 0° 0° 383
10°S 10°S 10°S 382.5
20°S 20°S 20°S 382
381.5
381
40°N 40°N 40°N 380.5
30°N 30°N 30°N 380
20°N 20°N 20°N 379.5
10°N 10°N 10°N 379
0° 0° 0° 378.5
10°S 10°S 10°S 378
20°S 20°S 20°S 377.5

377
376.5
40°N 40°N 40°N 376
CO2 (ppm)
30°N 30°N 30°N
20°N 20°N 20°N
10°N 10°N 10°N
0° 0° 0°
10°S 10°S 10°S
20°S 20°S 20°S
Fig. 6A.1 Monthly climatology of mid-troposphere carbon dioxide over India and surrounding oceans based on AIRS
observation during 2003–2008 (Source: National Carbon Project Status Report 2010)
(0.03–0.09 C/decade) was found over India, carbon dioxide emission in West Bengal is
except in the northwestern part (with decreasing 50.79 % from 1980 to 2000 (Ghoshal and
trend of 0.01 C/decade). However, there have Bhattacharyya 2010). The increase in carbon
been limited studies related to long-term changes dioxide in the air is reflected through gradual
in surface water temperature in the lower increase of air and surface water temperature in
Gangetic delta region although a significant the lower Gangetic delta region. The
transfer of heat and water vapour occurs at the implications of such rise in surface water temper-
air–water interface. ature are serious on different tiers of biodiversity,
West Bengal, a maritime state in the north- as the region sustains some 34 true mangrove
east part of India, is the domain area of this first- species (Mitra 2000) and some 62 mangrove
order analysis. The percentage of increase of associate species (Mitra and Pal 2002).
386.0 CO2 over India

CO2 over Ocean
Trend = 2.05 ppm Yr–1
382.0
CO2 (ppm)
378.0
374.0
370.0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Fig. 6A.2 Trend of mean atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration over India and surrounding oceans (Source:
National Carbon Project Status Report 2010)
Table 6A.1 Sampling stations in the western, central and eastern sectors of Indian Sundarbans in the lower Gangetic
delta region
Sectors Sampling stations Latitude Longitude




Stn. 4 Lothian (W4) 21 380 21.2000 N 88 200 29.3200 E






Stn. 10 Goashaba (C4) 21 430 50.6400 N 88 460 41.4400 E

Stn. 11 Matla (C5) 21 530 15.3000 N 88 440 08.7400 E

Stn. 12 Pirkhali (C6) 22 060 00.9700 N 88 510 06.0400 E


Stn. 14 Jhilla (E2) 22 090 51.5300 N 88 570 57.0700 E



Stn. 17 Chamta (E5) 21 530 18.5600 N 88 570 11.4000 E

2. Materials and Methods which is recognized as one of the most

diversified and productive ecosystems of the
2.1. Study Area tropics and is referred to as the Indian
The mighty river Ganga emerges from a glacier Sundarbans. The deltaic complex has an area of
at Gangotri, about 7010 m above mean sea level 9630 km2 and houses about 102 islands (Mitra
in the Himalayas, and flows down to the Bay of 2000). Eighteen sampling sites were selected, six
Bengal covering a distance of 2525 km. At the each in the western, central and eastern sectors
apex of Bay of Bengal, a delta has been formed of Indian Sundarbans (Table 6A.1, Fig. 6A.3).
236
6
Fig. 6A.3 Location of sector-wise sampling stations in Indian Sundarbans; the red colour indicates the mangrove vegetation
Consumers of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
We demarcated the three sectors of Indian Exponential smoothing method produces maxi-
Sundarbans on the basis of our primary surface mum likelihood estimates and can reflect the
water salinity data of 24 years and secondary future trend of the selected variable. This
data (of 27 years) from Mitra et al. (2009) and approach was used to forecast the values for
Sengupta et al. (2013). surface water temperature in the ambient media
of the sampling station till 2043.
2.2. Data Sources and Quality
We considered a data set of 30 years in this first-
order analysis per the minimum standard norm of 3. Results
climate-related researches. The World Meteoro-
logical Organization and the Intergovernmental 3.1. Surface Water Temperature: Real-
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) define “cli- Time Data
mate” as the average state of the weather over The surface water temperature exhibited an
time with the period generally being 30 years increasing trend in all the three sectors of lower
(although for some marine climate parameters Gangetic region. In the western sector, the rate of
such as storminess, longer averages are required) increase ranges between 0.04 C/year
(Zhang et al. 2000). (at Saptamukhi) to 0.06 C/year (at Jambu
More than two decades of data (1984–2013) Island) (Fig. 6A.4). In the central sector, the
were compiled from the archives of the Depart- rate of increase ranges from 0.04 C/year
ment of Marine Science, University of Calcutta, (at Dhulibasani) to 0.05 C/year (at Thakuran,
for this study. A number of studies on different Chulkathi, Goasaba and Pirkhali) (Fig. 6A.5).
aspects of the Sundarban complex have been The eastern sector, adjacent to Bangladesh
published over the years, which include descrip- Sundarbans, exhibited similar increase in trend
tion of the data (and methods) at different times with values ranging from 0.05 C/year
over the past three decades (Mitra et al. 1987, (at Harinbhanga, Khatuajhuri, Chamta and
1992, 2009; Chakraborty and Choudhury 1985; Chandkhali) to 0.06 C/year (at Arbesi)
Mitra and Choudhury 1994a; Saha et al. 1999; (Fig. 6A.6). The overall increase in surface
Banerjee et al. 2002a, 2003, 2013; Mondal water temperature during the study period ranges
et al. 2006; Sengupta et al. 2013). Real-time from 3.73 % (at Saptamukhi) to 5.59 % (at Jambu
data (through field sampling by the authors) Island) in the study region. The long-term data of
were also collected simultaneously since 1998 30 years reveals an increasing trend in all the
from 18 sampling stations in the lower Gangetic three sectors, but the average (mean of 6 sam-
region during high-tide condition to assure qual- pling stations) rate of increase is relatively low in
ity and continuity to the data bank. For each the western sector (4.47 %) compared to the
observational station, at least 30 samples were central (4.55 %) and eastern (4.92 %) sectors.
collected within 500 m of each other and the
mean value of 30 observations was considered 3.2. Surface Water Temperature:
for statistical interpretations. Forecast Data
The forecast method predicts that in the western,
2.3. Measurement of Surface Water central and eastern sectors of the lower Gangetic
Temperature region, the surface water temperature can reach
The surface water temperature in the selected up to 34.9, 35.0 and 35.2 C, respectively, during
sampling stations was measured with a portable 2043 (Figs. 6A.7, 6A.8 and 6A.9) compared to
thermometer (sensitivity ¼ 0.02). the present average value of 32.8 C, 32.6 C and
32.7 C, respectively. Thus after a period of
2.4. Statistical Analysis 30 years from April 2013, there will be a rise of
Time series analysis was performed to forecast 6.40 %, 7.36 % and 7.65 % in the western, central
the trend of surface water temperature on the and eastern sectors, respectively, in deltaic
basis of the past 30 year’s real-time data. complex.
34
33_5
Temperature (°C)
33
32_5
32
2013
2008
2003 Pre
1998 Har ntic
Loth in B e Is
1993 Jam ian ari land
Sapt bu I
Year 1988 Chem amuk slan
1984 hi d
agur
i
Stations
Fig. 6A.4 Increasing trend of surface water temperature in six stations of western Indian Sundarbans
34
33_5
Temperature (°C)
33
32_5
32
31_5
2013
2008
2003 Pirkhali
1998 Matla
Goashaba
1993 Chulkathi
1988 Dhulibasani
Thakuran
1984
Year Stations
Fig. 6A.5 Increasing trend of surface water temperature in six stations of central Indian Sundarbans
4. Discussion coasts, bays and estuaries are important

components of the Earth’s climate system. The
Climate variability has become an important correlations between surface water temperature
topic of scientific pursuit during the past few and surface air temperature are generally high for
decades, intimately linking the economy of a all averaging periods and seasons indicating the
nation with its climate resources. In addition to high level of thermal communication at the
land and atmosphere, waters of ocean, seas, interface.
34
33_5
Temperature (°C)
33
32_5
32
31_5
2013
2008
2003 Chandkhali
1998 Chamta
1993 Khatuajhuri
Harin
1988 Jhilla bhanga
Arbesi
1984
Year Stations
Fig. 6A.6 Increasing trend of surface water temperature in six stations of eastern Indian Sundarbans
35.5
35.0
Western sector
34.5
34.0
33.5
33.0
32.5
32.0
31.5
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Fig. 6A.7 Forecast values of surface water temperature (mean of six stations) in western Indian Sundarbans
The ocean processes are slower and large- understanding of the sea-surface temperature
scale changes in the ocean that occur on monthly (SST) is therefore essential to know the pulse of
to multi-decadal timescales as compared to climate change at the local and regional levels.
changes occurring in the atmosphere. The trend of increase of water temperature has
India is surrounded by oceans and convection several implications like alteration of circulation
over these oceans plays a major role in the mon- pattern as well as the rate of biogeochemical and
soon rainfall over India. A recent study by ecological processes that determine the water
Barnett et al. (2005) has shown that oceans are quality with the increase of water temperature
not only becoming warmer at the surface, but marine and estuarine species ranges will likely
there is also a penetration of human-induced expand towards environments that are presently
warming into the deeper parts of the oceans. An cooler (IPCC 2007). If dispersal capabilities are
35.5
35.0
Central sector
34.5
34.0
33.5
33.0
32.5
32.0
31.5
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Fig. 6A.8 Forecast values of surface water temperature (mean of six stations) in central Indian Sundarbans
Fig. 6A.9 Forecast values of surface water temperature (mean of six stations) in eastern Indian Sundarbans
limited due to lack of suitable habitat (in terms of sector, which is relatively congenial in terms of
thermal statistics), local extirpations and thermal condition (as revealed from the present
extinctions are likely to occur (Thomas data) and salinity (Mitra et al. 2009, 2011;
et al. 2004). Temperature rise may also have Sengupta et al. 2013). However, still there is a
profound impact on commercial fisheries lack of information on how tropical fish will
through continued shifts in distribution and alter- respond to temperature increases (Cambers
ation in community interactions (Perry et al. 2007), although few studies in the present
et al. 2005). In many regions like Gulf of Mexico geographical level points towards more fish
and Mid- and South Atlantic shorelines, exten- diversity in the western sector compared to the
sive algal blooms are reported due to rise of central sector of the lower Gangetic region
water temperature, which have adverse impact (Mitra 2013).
on living resources, local economies and public
health (Cambers et al. 2007). In the present geo-
graphical local, the increase of surface water 5. Conclusion
temperature is more in the central (7.36 %) and
eastern (7.65 %) sectors compared to the western Based on an analysis of roughly 30,000 datasets,
(6.40 %). This variation may result in the shifting the IPCC (2007) concluded that 85 % of the
of nektonic species from the central and eastern physical and biological changes in natural
sectors of Indian Sundarbans to the western systems observed globally since 1970 were
Annexure 6B: Finfish Juvenile Destruction in and Around Mangrove Ecosystem. . . 241
consistent with the responses that would be plants fulfils the nutritional requirements of
expected to accompany atmospheric warming. prawn juveniles, crab megalops and juveniles of
However, our understanding on the impact of several species of osteichthyes. Due to this fact,
warming of ocean and estuarine water on biodi- the mangrove ecosystem is recognized as the
versity are in its infancy, and quantification of the world’s most potential nursery and breeding
impacts through proper scaling is even in an ground (Mitra and Pal 2002).
embryo stage. The present findings could cover The Indian Sundarbans lie at the apex of the
the decadal variation of surface water tempera- Bay of Bengal and sustain the famous mangrove
ture in three sectors of lower Gangetic delta and ecosystem of the tropics. The islands and the
concludes that these local level slight variation of associated waters, creeks and estuaries of the
water temperature may be attributed largely to deltaic lobe are the nurseries for many coastal
anthropogenic factors, like more dilution in the and oceanic species of fish that support important
western sector (on account of Farakka discharge) subsistence and commercial fisheries in the
compared to central and eastern sectors, where northern Bay of Bengal. The diverse vegetation
the freshwater availability is practically negligi- of the Sundarbans forests includes about 36 true
ble due to siltation of the Bidyadhari river since mangrove species that provide a unique mix of
the late fifteenth century. We also hypothesize habitats for wildlife, which includes tiger, deer,
the migration of nektonic species from the high wild boar, monkey, turtles, terrapins, dolphins,
thermal (central and eastern sectors) to the low estuarine crocodiles and several species of birds,
thermal region (western sector), but could not many of which are migratory. This region is
confirm the hypothesis due to absence of baseline considered as one of the most backward regions
data on nektonic domain. in the maritime state of West Bengal and is home
to about 4.2 million people, of whom 56 % are
landless. Literacy rates are below 35 %; most
Annexure 6B: Finfish Juvenile communities do not have electricity or safe
Destruction in and Around Mangrove drinking water and agricultural productivity is
Ecosystem of Indian Sundarbans lower than the state average. Inadequate infra-
and Possible Measures structure, poor communication facilities, lack of
of Conservation access to clean drinking water, health and educa-
tion services and a fragile and limited natural
1. Introduction resource base have contributed to a low level of
development and high poverty incidence in the
Ichthyoplankton and fish juveniles are the major region.
biotic components of the world ocean (Verlecar A diminishing natural resource base is threat-
and Parulekar 2001) and play a vital role in ening the ecological integrity of Indian
regulating the marine food chain. They are Sundarbans and the livelihood of the inhabitants.
widely distributed in the brackish water system At present, the major environmental-cum-socio-
and mangrove-dominated coastal zone owing to economic issue in this mangrove ecosystem is
the presence of mangrove vegetation-derived the proliferation of the shrimp farms. In the
nutrients and congenial environmental absence of any hatchery in the entire state, the
conditions for their growth and survival. It is supply of tiger prawn seeds to these farms is done
reported that the mangrove ecosystem serves as through the wild collection from the estuarine
the nursery of a large spectrum of fish juveniles and coastal waters. Thousands of women and
(Banerjee et al. 2002; Mitra 2000; Mitra and Pal children collect wild tiger prawn seeds by
2002; Mitra et al. 1992). This unique ecosystem employing nets of a particular mesh size to haul
forms an ideal ecological reservoir for the in the drifting community, irrespective of the
pelagic community because the production of tides, and throw away the major portion of the
leaf litter and detrital matter from mangrove haul (containing the juveniles of finfish and
shellfish) after sorting out the post larvae 2000). The recent emergence of Haldia industrial
(or seeds) of tiger prawn. This practice results complex and various fish landing stations in the
in a great loss of pelagic biodiversity (in terms of coastal zone has also opened the gateway of
stock) which might cause an adverse effect on input of various categories of wastes in this
the delicate ecological balance of the system ecosystem.
(Trivedi et al. 1994; Nageswara 2004). A nega- Geographically, the study area encompasses
tive impact also becomes obvious in the prospect three major districts of the state of West Bengal,
of demersal fisheries of the state of West Bengal namely, 24 Parganas (North), 24 Parganas
due to this indiscriminate destruction of the vari- (South) and Medinipur (East). The Indian
ous species of fishes at their juvenile stages. With Sundarbans which has been declared as the
this background, the present paper aims to high- World Heritage Site by UNESCO in the year of
light the magnitude of finfish juvenile diversity 1989 fall within the North and South 24 Parganas
loss in different seasons of the year during districts. Three sampling stations were selected
2004–2013. This occupation has spread its root in and around this deltaic ecosystem, namely,
to such an extent that about 95 % of the coastal Diamond Harbour (station 1), Sagar Lighthouse
population living below poverty line is engaged (station 2) and Junput (station 3). Each of these
with this destructive activity. It is very difficult to sampling stations is markedly different from the
implement a total ban on this activity, as these other with respect to aquatic salinity due to their
huge masses will face extreme economic margin- location and proximity to the Bay of Bengal.
alization. So, our present paper suggests few Diamond Harbour (station 1) is situated in the
alternative livelihood schemes, which may estab- low saline upper stretch of Hooghly estuary, just
lish a harmony between the biological diversity outside the northern boundary of Indian
and socio-economic profile of the area. Sundarbans. The station is very near to the
Haldia port-cum-industrial complex. Salinity of
surface water is minimum around the station
2. Description of the Study Area owing to its location far away from the Bay of
Bengal in the extreme upstream region and also
West Bengal is a maritime state in the northeast due to huge freshwater discharge from the
part of the Indian subcontinent adjacent to Hooghly river, which is perennial in nature. The
Bangladesh. The coastal zone of this state station has three mangrove species along with
spreads over an area of 10,158.22 km2 and is few mangrove associates like Porteratia

restricted within the latitude 21 300 N–22 300 N coarctata (salt marsh grass) and seaweeds

0 0
and longitude 87 25 E–89 10 E. The river (Enteromorpha sp.).
Harinbari or Heronbhanga of the Indian Sagar Lighthouse (station 2) is situated in the
Sundarbans (India– Bangladesh border) is the southwestern tip of the Sagar Island and falls in
easternmost border, while the New Digha Coast the western sector of Indian Sundarbans. The
of Orissa-West Bengal border constitutes the station has rich mangrove vegetation and exten-
western boundary of coastal West Bengal. With sive mudflats. Although there are no industrial
considerable degree of marine characteristics in activities in this station, but the presence of siz-
the major portion of the ecosystem, the important able number of shrimp farms (presently carrying
morphotypes of coastal West Bengal are on shrimp culture by traditional method with a
sandflats, coastal dunes, beaches, mudflats, very low stocking density of prawn seeds) has
estuaries, creeks, inlets and mangrove flats. enriched the surrounding water with nutrients
There is a drastic variation of salinity and dilu- and organic load.
tion factor between different horizontal transects Junput (Station 3) is situated in the Medinipur
of the ecosystem. The dilution factor, salinity and (East) district of coastal West Bengal, which is
pH reveal significant variations at the same time noted for its high aquatic salinity owing to its
in different locations of the coastal zone (Mitra proximity to the Bay of Bengal. The extremely
Annexure 6B: Finfish Juvenile Destruction in and Around Mangrove Ecosystem. . . 243
high salinity has posed an inhibitory effect on the the rich phytoplankton diversity (102 species
growth and survival of mangroves in this station documented so far) in the optimum level of
(Mitra et al. 2004a). Existence of saltpans has aquatic nutrients (Mitra et al. 2004b). About
made the soil of the area hyper saline in nature. 33,000 ha in North 24 Parganas and 12,000 ha
Although the station has no industry around its in South 24 Parganas districts have been
vicinity, but the presence of Digha tourist centre devoted for shrimp culture activities, which
and Shankarpur fishing harbour close to the sta- have high demand for tiger prawn seeds for
tion has multiplied the anthropogenic pressure economic viability. This demand is mitigated
around the zone. through wild harvest of PL20 (larval stage
In all these stations, tiger prawn seed collec- 20 days from the hatching date) from
tion is a very common scene in which the coastal estuaries, coastal wetland and brackish water
and estuarine waters are screened in search of creeks (Banerjee et al. 2005a, b; Mitra
target species (seeds of Penaeus monodon) by et al. 2005a).
using nets of very fine mesh size. This activity 2. Absence of hatchery: Currently, there are few
traps a varied spectrum of several finfish operational shrimp nurseries in West Bengal,
juveniles (nontarget species), which are subse- but no ideal hatchery in real sense (i.e.
quently thrown away and destroyed. spawning of adult to produce nauplii). Low
salinity is the biggest problem for shrimp
hatchery in West Bengal coast, particularly
3. Materials and Methods in Sundarbans. In the absence of any hatchery,
the demand for tiger prawn seeds has become
Finfish juvenile samples were collected monthly very acute and the entrepreneurs have no
during January 2004 to December 2013 from option, but to depend on wild harvest of tiger
tiger prawn seed collectors. Collection of ten prawn seeds.
nets was randomly mixed and a constant weight 3. Socio-economic profile: The socio-economic
of 10 g was preserved in 4 % formaldehyde. The profile of coastal West Bengal is not very
samples were identified from the Zoological Sur- encouraging; particularly, in Indian
vey of India and its count was done using hand Sundarbans, it is highly distressed. Recently,
lens. Triplicate counts were done to reach the the population has touched the figure of 4.2
maximum accuracy level and the mean value of million, which is predominated by farming
the species count was finally used to enumerate and fishing community. More than 90 % of
the community structure of finfish juvenile in the the farming community is either small or mar-
study area through computation of ginal farmers and about 50 % survives below
Shannon–Wiener species diversity index (9) per the poverty level. This sizable chunk of popu-
the AAMSTAT software developed by BOOL- lation engages themselves in screening the
EAN LOGIC PRIVATE LIMITED in 2005. estuarine water from dawn to dusk in search
of the target species which brings immediate
cash to them. The price of tiger prawn seeds
4. Results and Discussion ranges from Rs. 200 to Rs. 800 per 1000
depending on the season and demand (Mitra
A. Root Cause of Tiger Prawn Seed and Bhattacharyya 2003).
Collection
1. Mushrooming of shrimp culture activities:
The aquatic sub-subsystem of coastal West B. Community Structure of Finfish
Bengal is highly congenial for the culture of Juvenile
tiger prawn not only because of the aquatic The coastal zone of West Bengal is one of the
salinity, tidal flushing (which favours the pro- most biologically productive, taxonomically
cess of water exchange), but also because of
diverse and aesthetically celebrated ecotone of production status of the state in near future
the country, which is sustaining the famous man- (Trivedi et al. 1994).
grove ecosystem of Indian Sundarbans
(Bhattacharya et al. 1999). The pelagic system C. Conservation Measures
around the coastal zone is highly productive due The wasted juvenile species of osteichthyes have
to considerable concentrations of nutrients considerable total economic value and hence the
derived from anthropogenic origin, run-off from destructive operation rate needs an immediate
the adjacent landmasses, litters and detritus of retardation through few suggestive measures as
mangrove vegetation, etc. pinpointed below:
Table 6B.1 exhibits the monthly average of
standing stock (N) and Shannon–Wiener species • Development of alternative livelihood (like
diversity index (H) of finfish juvenile species in piggery, Campbell culture, broiler rearing,
the three sampling stations. Members of genus sewing, apiculture, fish feed manufacturing,
Coilia sp., Thryssa sp., Mugil sp., Tenualosa sp., handicrafts, spice grinding, etc.) to defray
Liza sp., Scatophagus sp., Stolephorus sp., the prawn seed collectors from the present
Cynoglossus sp. and Sillago sp. are dominant destructive operation. Such livelihood
(in terms of standing stock or biomass) in all schemes have already been implemented by
the stations (Table 6B.2) and in all the months WWF-India at Bali and Chotomollakhali
of the study period, which suggests the wide islands of Indian Sundarbans since 2003 and
range of tolerance of this genus in the present considerable success has been obtained.
geographical locale. The study clearly depicts the • Setting up of tiger prawn seed bank (nursery)
regulation of finfish juveniles by aquatic salinity. in the high saline zone of Sundarbans and
Similar observations were also recorded by ear- linking the same with the hatcheries present
lier workers in this study area (Bhattacharya in the maritime states of South India like
et al. 1999; Panja 2004; Mitra et al. 1998, 2000; Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Niyogi et al. 1998). The regulatory role of salin- • Increase of awareness programme among the
ity on finfish juvenile species composition and prawn seed collectors. Several academic
abundance was also confirmed in a South African institutes and reputed NGOs of the state have
case study (Whitfield 1999). The diversity of initiated this task through several projects
finfish juvenile is highest at station 3 (Junput) financed by Ministry of Environment and
which is followed by station 2 (Sagar Light- Forests, Govt. of India, Dept. of Science and
house) and station 1 (Diamond Harbour). The Technology, Govt. of India, Dept. of Environ-
highest values of H and N at Junput confirm the ment, Govt. of West Bengal, etc.
positive role of aquatic salinity in maintaining • Encouraging the people for canal excavation
the fish germplasm in the study area. Diamond to harvest the rain water which can help to
Harbour is an extremely low saline zone in the develop the second cropping during summer
upstream area with an average aquatic salinity of season. Four canals have already been
1.7 ‰ during premonsoon, 0 ‰ during mon- excavated in the Chotomollakhali islands of
soon and 1.3 ‰ during postmonsoon (Mitra Indian Sundarbans with the funding and assis-
et al. 2005b), and hence chance of getting steno- tance of WWF-India and mono-cropping pat-
haline fish juvenile species is rare. Irrespective of tern in the zone has been replaced by multiple
significant variation of species number and diver- cropping systems.
sity (H) among the selected stations, the present • Promotion and subsequent scaling up of
geographical locale is an abode of several species non-conventional pilot projects like seaweed
of finfish and shellfish and nursery of fish culture, oyster culture, ornamental fishery,
juveniles (Bhattacharyya et al. 2003). Destruc- biofertilizer preparation, etc., to broaden the
tion of this juvenile stock may therefore create an avenue of alternative livelihood for future.
adverse impact on the pelagic and demersal fish
Table 6B.1 Monthly average standing stock (N ) and Shannon–Wiener species diversity index of finfish juvenile species (H ) of three selected sampling stations during January 2004 to
December 2013
Monthly average standing stock (N ) of finfish species Monthly average of Shannon–Wiener species diversity index of finfish species (H )
Year stn1 stn2 stn3 stn1 stn2 stn3
Prm Mon Pom Prm Mon Pom Prm Mon Pom Prm Mon Pom Prm Mon Pom Prm Mon Pom
1994 392 161 245 1598 134 522 1593 260 767 2.9151 2.2994 2.7801 3.5291 1.7486 3.0118 3.4839 2.2867 3.2634
1995 321 133 291 1315 122 422 1303 213 625 2.9178 2.3014 2.7791 3.5297 1.5557 3.0087 3.4825 2.2792 3.2665
1996 200 82 183 1273 99 416 1290 213 631 2.8946 2.2715 2.7675 3.5291 1.6186 3.0187 3.4842 2.2894 3.2781
1997 195 79 175 1279 99 413 1229 201 596 2.8816 2.2440 2.7362 3.5097 1.5998 3.0374 3.4795 2.2942 3.2786
1998 215 89 197 1090 \84 361 1055 172 651 2.9286 2.3276 2.8140 3.5277 1.4978 3.0275 3.4813 2.2973 3.2809
1999 217 89 198 716 56 233 679 123 333 2.9295 2.3268 2.8054 3.5234 1.6254 3.0432 3.4616 2.2846 3.2878
2000 224 93 204 639 51 209 601 103 291 2.9197 2.3078 2.7919 3.5353 1.6378 3.0421 3.4647 2.2933 3.2508
2001 221 92 201 545 42 180 521 89 255 2.9253 2.3098 2.7977 3.5415 1.6021 3.0330 3.4847 2.3029 3.2921
2002 225 93 204 910 178 442 934 153 440 2.9310 2.3078 2.7919 3.4058 2.5097 3.1565 3.4986 2.2077 3.3045
2003 389 38 67 936 73 304 1020 79 367 2.8682 1.4809 1.9693 3.5312 1.6087 3.0308 3.4273 1.8401 3.0912
stn station, Prm premonsoon, Mon monsoon, Pom postmonsoon
Table 6B.2 Distribution of finfish juvenile species in 10 g composite wasted sample collected from three selected
sampling stations during January 2004 to December 2013
Sl. no. Species Station 1 Station 2 Station 3
1. Coilia sp. + + +
2. Thryssa hamiltonii (Grey) + + +
3. Thryssa baelama + + +
4. Torquigener oblongus + + +
5. Rhinomugil corsula + + +
6. Mugil cephalus + + +
7. Sillaginopsis panijus + + +
8. Sillago sihama + + +
9. Sillago soringa + + +
10. Zenarchopterus dispar + + +
11. Glossogobius quiris + + +
12. Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus + + +
13. Eupleurogrammus glossodon + + +
14. Pseudorhombus sp. + + +
15. Pisodonophis boro + + +
16. Tenualosa ilisha + + +
17. Cynoglossus arel + + +
18. Cynoglossus sp. + + +
19. Leiognathus blochii + +
20. Leiognathus equulus + + +
21. Hilsa sp. + + +
22. Scatophagus argus + + +
23. Liza parsia + + +
24. Liza tade + + +
25. Stolephorus commersonii + + +
26. Stolephorus baganensis + + +
27. Stolephorus kammalensis + + +
28. Lutjanus johnii + + +
29. Setipinna taty + + +
30. Lagocephalus lunaris + +
31. Escualosa thoracata + +
32. Epinephelus tauvina + +
33. Epinephelus coioides + +
34. Sphyraena sp. + +
35. Pomadasys sp. + +
36. Sardinella longiceps + +
37. Periophthalmus sp. + +
38. Macrognathus sp. + +
39. Tetradon cutcutia + +
40. Bregmaceros meclellandii + +
41. Ichthyocampus carce + +
42. Stigmatogobius sp. + +
43. Channa sp. +
44. Kurtus indicus +
45. Harpodon nehereus +
46. Moringua raitaborua +
47. Suggrundus rodricensis +
‘+’ refers to presence of finfish species
‘’ refers to absence of finfish species
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physical Research Letters, 32, L18714. doi:10.1029/
Internet References 2005GL023528.
Mitra, A. (2000). Chapter 62: The Northeast coast of the
Bay of Bengal and deltaic Sundarbans. In C. Sheppard
http://www.tao.org/DOCREP/005/X3690E/x3690elq.htm (Ed.), Seas at the Millennium—An environmental
evaluation (pp. 143–157). Amsterdam: Elsevier
Science.
Mitra, A., & Choudhury, A. (1994). Heavy metal
Annex 6A: References concentrations in oyster Crassostrea cucullata of
Henry’s Island, India. Journal of Ecobiology, 6(2),
Banerjee, K., Mitra, A., Bhattacharyya, D. P., & Choudhury, 157–159.
A. (2002). Role of nutrients on phytoplankton diversity Mitra, A., & Pal, S. (2002). The oscillating mangrove
in the north–east coast of the Bay of Bengal. In Arvind ecosystem in the Indian Sundarbans. Kolkata: WWF,
Kumar (Ed.), Ecology and ethology of aquatic biota WBSO.
(pp. 102–109). New Delhi: Daya Publishing House Mitra, A., Ghosh, P. B., & Choudhury, A. (1987). A
Banerjee, K., Mitra, A., & Bhattacharyya, D. P. (2003). marine bivalve Crassostrea cucullata can be used as
Phytopigment level of the aquatic subsystem of Indian an indicator species of marine pollution. Proceedings
Sundarbans at the apex of Bay of Bengal. Sea of national seminar on Estuarine Management,
Explorers, 6, 39–46. Trivandrum, pp. 177–180.
Banerjee, K., Sengupta, K., Raha, A., & Mitra, A. (2013). Mitra, A., Choudhury, A., & Zamaddar, Y. A. (1992).
Salinity based allometric equations for biomass esti- Effects of heavy metals on benthic molluscan
mation of Sundarban mangroves. Biomass and communities in Hooghly estuary. Proceedings of Zoo-
Bioenergy, 56, 382–391. logical Society, 45, 481–496.
Barnett, T. P., Pierce, D. W., Achuta Rao, K. M., Gleckler, Mitra, A., Banerjee, K., Sengupta, K., & Gangopadhyay,
P. J., Santer, B. D., Gregory, J. M., & Washington, A. (2009). Pulse of climate change in Indian
W. M. (2005). Penetration of human-induced warming Sundarbans: A myth or reality. National Academy of
into the world’s oceans. Science, 309, 284–287. Science Letters, 32, 1–7.
Cambers, G., Claro, R., Juman, R., & Scott, S. (2007). Mitra, A., Sengupta, K., & Banerjee, K. (2011). Standing
Working group report, climate change impacts on biomass and carbon storage of above-ground
coastal and marine biodiversity. Caribbean Natural structures in dominant mangrove trees in the
Resources Institute, West Indies, 87 pp. Sundarbans. Forest Ecology and Management, 261
Chakraborty, S. K., & Choudhury, A. (1985). Distribution (7), 1325–1335 (Elsevier doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2011.
of fiddler crabs in Sundarbans mangrove estuarine 01.012).
complex, India. Proceedings of national symposium Mondal, K., Mukhopadhyay, S. K., Biswas, H., De, T. K.,
on biology, utilization and conservation of mangroves, & Jana, T. K. (2006). Fluxes of nutrients from the
pp. 467–472. tropical river Hooghly at the land–ocean boundary of
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Perry, A. L., Low, P. J., Ellis, J. R., & Reynolds, J. D. (Ed.), Seas at the Millennium—An environmental
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Saha, S. B., Mitra, A., Bhattacharyya, S. B., & Mitra, A., & Banerjee, K. (2004). Physiology of
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Sengupta, K., Roy Chowdhury, M., Bhattacharya, S. B., issues of shrimp farming in mangrove ecosystems.
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variation of stored carbon in Avicennia alba of Mitra, A., & Pal, S. (2002). The oscillating mangrove
Indian Sundarbans. Discovery Nature, 3(8), 19–24. ecosystem in the Indian Sundarbans. Kolkata: WWF,
Solomon, S. D., & IPCC (2007). Summary for WBSO.
policymakers. Climate Change 2007: The physical Mitra, A., Choudhury, A., & Zamaddar, Y. A. (1992b).
science basis, contribution of working group I to the Effects of heavy metals on benthic molluscan
fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental communities in Hooghly estuary. Proceedings of Zoo-
Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University logical Society, 45, 481–496.
Press, Cambridge/New York. Mitra, A., Niyogi, S., & Choudhury, A. (1998). Impact of
Thomas, C. D., Cameron, A., Green, R. E., Bakkenes, M., wild harvest of prawn seeds on the community struc-
Beaumont, L. J., Collingham, Y. C., Erasmus, B. F. ture of juvenile fish in the coastal part of West Bengal.
N., De Siqueira, M. F., Grainger, A., Hannah, L., In S. Z. Qasim & G. S. Roonwal (Eds.), Living
Hughes, L., Huntley, B., Van Jaarsveld, A. S., resources of India’s exclusive economic zone
Midgley, G. F., Miles, L., Ortega-Huerta, M. A., (pp. 86–96). New York: Omega Scientific Publisher.
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(2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature, Bhattacharyya, D. P. (2000). Seasonal variations of
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Decomposers of the Marine and Estuarine
Ecosystems 7
Contents Decomposers are widely distributed in the salty

7.1 Overview of Marine and Estuarine blue soup of the planet Earth and occupy a key
Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 position in an ecological food chain/web. They
7.2 Importance of Marine and Estuarine
are considered as ‘cleaners’ of the ecosystem as
Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 they are capable of degrading complex organic
matter in to simpler forms. The vast volume of
Annexure 7A: Study on the Quality of Edible
Oyster in Indian Sundarbans with Respect saltwater may be the reason behind the presence
to Coliform Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 of wide variety and large number of decomposers
Annexure 7B: Study of the Microbial Health in the marine and estuarine ecosystems.
in and Around the Lower Stretch of Hooghly Unlike terrestrial organisms, marine flora and
Estuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 fauna are exposed to different degrees of pres-
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 sure, light, salinity, oxygen level (dissolved oxy-
gen), etc. Hence, they are adapted to these
pronounced variations of environmental
variables. Each level in the food chain needs to
be balanced for the survival and existence of life.
So just as phytoplankton (the foundation of
ocean food web) are important to provide energy
for higher level consumers, equally important is
the role of decomposers to provide energy by
decomposition of dead organic matter and releas-
ing nutrients and making it available to the phy-
toplankton and clean up the ocean biome.
7.1 Overview of Marine

and Estuarine Microbes
The marine and estuarine environment is the

dwelling place of diverse groups of
microorganisms like bacteria, filamentous fungi,
yeasts, microalgae and protozoa, which inhabit

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_7
252 7 Decomposers of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
various types of niches. They are distributed at scutellum). On seaweeds (Fig. 7.2),
the surface of the sea as neuston (also known as microorganisms like diatom, yeast and bacteria
pleuston), at the photic zone of the pelagic region thrive luxuriantly.
as plankton or at the epibiotic habitats The mangrove swamps also sustain a wide
(as attached communities). Epibiotic habitats range of microbes. A large number of bacteria
may be inanimate or animate. They are also have been isolated from a wide variety of
present inside the tissues of other marine substrates from Indian Sundarbans mangrove eco-
organisms (endobiotic habitats). The endobiotic system (Bhowmik et al. 1985). These include
usually denotes the environment within the 48 bacterial strains which have been isolated
tissues of other larger organisms. Here the rela- from the litter and detritus of mangrove origin.
tionship with the host may be beneficial (mutual- Species of bacteria identified include
ism), may be detrimental to the host (parasitism) Brevibacterium lypolyticum, B. marinopiscosum,
or may cause diseases (pathogenesis). A research B. minutiferula, B. sociovivum, B. stationis, Clos-
programme undertaken by Jana et al. (2013) tridium carnis, C. pectinivorum, Kurthia bessonii,
revealed the presence of microbes in the edible K. zopfii, Lactobacillus brevis, L. delbrueckii,
oyster Saccostrea cucullata (Fig. 7.1); (Vide L. fermentum, L. plantarum and Listiria
Annexure 7A). monocytogenes. Micrococcus was found to be
The intertidal zone of the marine environment predominant. Among the fungi, the genera Asper-
is rich in mangroves, seagrass, salt marsh grass, gillus, Collectotrichium, Fusarium and
seaweeds, etc., which offer unique dwelling sites Helminthosporium were notably common. Bacte-
for marine/estuarine microbes. Researchers ria identified in decomposed litter have also been
observed that grasses possess a narrower range found within the gut tissues of detritivorous ben-
of microorganisms than seaweeds. It has been thic fauna that rely on the substrate for their food
observed by marine microbiologists that cord- source. Bacteria have been identified from the
grass (Spartina alterniflora) is colonized haemocoelic fluid of Boleophthalmus spp. and
initially by fungi (Sphaerulina pedicellata), the gut of Mystus gulio and Uca spp. It is
whereas eelgrass (Zostera marina) mostly contended that this unique association of different
possesses the pinnate diatom (Cocconeis bacterial strains both in litter and in the detritivore
benthic fauna may have ecological implications
within the food web through microbial metabolic
processes.
Researches have been undertaken on the man-
grove litter, soil bacteria and fungi (microbes)
from different locations within the littoral zone
of mangroves (Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994).
Site selected for investigation included western,
central and eastern sectors of Indian Sundarbans
mangroves. The study revealed that 12 species of
bacterial strain were dominant. Most of the
strains were gram-positive forms, while gram-
negative forms were rare (Chaudhuri and
Choudhury 1994). Samples obtained from the
ridges, slopes and mudflats at each site indicated
that the bacterial populations were comparatively
high within the ridges and lowest in the mudflats.
There were also indications that samples col-
lected from the eastern sector and from the
south (facing the Bay of Bengal) contained
Fig. 7.1 Oyster tissue: site for microbes lower numbers of microbial forms than those
7.1 Overview of Marine and Estuarine Microbes 253
Fig. 7.2 Seaweed beds are the hot spots of several microbial strains
from other areas. Fungal populations of Penicil- composition in undisturbed mangrove soils,
lium and Aspergillus were very common in these such as the reserve forest area, compared to the
areas. species composition found in reclaimed man-
Higher microbial counts, particularly of bacte- grove areas, such as on Sagar Island, a site
ria, were recorded in the upper littoral zone. These which has been completely altered to agricultural
observations may have resulted from an accumu- farmland and shrimp culture activities.
lation of rich detritus content, caused by the man- Populations of fungi, such as Actinomycetes,
grove litter and reduced flooding by tidal water in were common and substantially more abundant
this region. By comparison, successive low counts in the reclaimed areas than in the reserve forest.
of bacteria in the mid-littoral and lower zones Differences in the microbial populations were
suggest less litter and increased tidal interplay in also noted in the Avicennia- and Rhizophora-
these zones. It was also observed that salinity in dominated sectors of the forest, the count being
the upper littoral zone was always high. From 7.7 104 per gram of soil and 5 104 per gram
these results, it may be inferred that the bacterial of soil, respectively. All the bacterial forms
populations in the coastal zone and estuary are isolated from these samples were highly tolerant
directly influenced by the salinity and the amount to the prevailing oscillations in salinity. Simi-
of litter content in the substratum. larly, the bacterial population of 7.7 103 per
Studies have been undertaken to elucidate the gram sampled in the Avicennia-dominated soil
relationship between the different types of soil was also higher than the sample population of
with their associated benthic organisms and leaf 4 103 per gram from the soil occupied by
litter decompositions, to assess the particular Rhizophora. These results helped in
roles played by various microbes, fungi and bac- documenting the existing results of functional
teria. Analysis of litter and soil samples from groups of microbes such as cellulose
selected mangrove areas revealed that there decomposers, denitrifiers and nitrogen fixers in
were marked differences in microbial different forest soils.
Fig. 7.3 Estuary adjacent to mangrove-dominated intertidal mudflats provides different salinity-based niches for
survival and growth of microbes
The estuarine environment associated with et al. 1997; Giovannoni and Rappe 2000). Such
mangroves is highly favourable for the survival changes in environmental conditions, when
of diverse strains of microbes (Fig. 7.3). This is recreated in mesocosm and microcosm
because the constantly changing environmental experiments, caused shifts in the phylogenetic
parameters (due to tidal actions or land run-off) composition of bacterioplankton communities
can create a wide diversity of ecological niches (Gasol et al. 2002; Lebaron et al. 2001; Schafer
in this brackish water ecosystem (Atlas 1998). et al. 2001; Van Hannen et al. 1999).
Estuaries have different types of salinity ranging A large number of scientific literatures are
from 0 psu to 32 psu. The freshwater, brackish available on estuarine microbial diversity where
water and saline water of estuaries offer suitable the microbes have been observed to survive and
habitats for different categories of decomposers. adapt under different salinity conditions (Bidle
This form of ecological partitioning reduces and Fletcher 1995; Bouvier and Del Giorgio
exploitative competition and enhances growth 2002; De Bie et al. 2001; Hollibaugh
of different types of microbial communities et al. 2000; Murray et al. 1996; Troussellier
(Campbell 1993). et al. 2002), but few reports have provided evi-
In estuarine system autochthonous biological dence of a unique estuarine bacterioplankton
activity modifies the mixing of freshwater and community. This is partly due to the dynamic
seawater and generates pronounced biological nature of estuaries and the difficulty in
and chemical gradients in estuarine water. The distinguishing estuarine populations from those
decomposition of microbes in such a dynamic that washes in from adjacent environments.
system is mostly regulated by salinity, nutrient Crump et al. (1999) identified putative estuarine
concentration, organic matter composition and bacteria associated with particles in the Colum-
bacterivore community composition (Barcina bia River estuarine turbidity maximum (ETM) by
Fig. 7.4 Fish landing

stations often contaminate
estuarine system with
microbial load
comparing environmental clone libraries of residence time averages 1–2 days and bacterial
PCR-amplified 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) production is low, a mixture of freshwater and
from the river, the estuary and the coastal marine populations dominated the free-living
ocean. Similarly, Hollibaugh et al. (2000) bacterioplankton community (Crump
demonstrated the mixing of bacterial et al. 1999). Thus, bacterial growth and time are
communities in the ETM of the San Joaquin the two vital parameters that govern the alter-
River and San Francisco Bay system by ation of community composition of microbes.
characterizing communities at three sampling The microbial population in the coastal zone
stations using denaturing gradient gel electro- is associated with anthropogenic activities like
phoresis (DGGE) of PCR-amplified 16S rDNA. rapid rate of urbanization, unplanned tourism,
Selje and Simon (2003) used this same tech- mushrooming of shrimp farms (that often release
nique, but with greater spatial resolution (six wastes), industrial effluent discharges or decom-
sampling stations), in the Weser River estuary position of fishes in fish landing stations (that are
and concluded that a distinct microbial commu- mostly constructed in the river mouths and
nity resides in the brackish section of the system. estuaries; see Fig. 7.4). A detailed study of
These three studies demonstrated the presence of monthly variation of bacterial content in the
river and coastal ocean bacteria in estuaries and Hooghly estuary, the westernmost estuaries of
suggested that the development of unique estua- Indian Sundarbans, is highlighted as Annexure
rine bacterial communities may be related to the 7B.
relatively long residence time of particles and It has been observed by researchers that the
particle-attached bacteria in some ETMs. more we approach towards offshore regions from
The residence time of water and free-living the continental margins, the microbial load grad-
bacteria, however, can be too short in some ually decreases. The magnitude of human
estuaries, relative to bacterial growth rate, for activities and its effects may be a cause for this.
such a shift to occur. In the Rhone River plume, In the inshore region of Bay of Bengal, a case
where water residence time is less than 6 h, study conducted by the present authors during
bacterioplankton appeared to be a mixture of 1990–2012 in three stations, viz., Harinbari
Rhone River and Mediterranean Sea bacterio- (inshore region; marked as 1 in Fig. 7.5),
plankton (Troussellier et al. 2002). Similarly, in Chemaguri (midshore region; marked as 2 in
the Columbia River estuary, where water Fig. 7.5) and Jambu island (offshore region;
Fig. 7.5 Map showing

three selected stations in
the inshore, midshore and
offshore region of Indian
Sundarbans
marked as 3 in Fig. 7.5), exhibited unique spatial weight. However, there was a doubling in num-
variation of nitrate and phosphate level. The bers to 8.29 108 bacteria/g dry weight at a
gradual decrease of nitrate and phosphate levels sediment depth of 3 cm followed by a progres-
(which are primarily liberated from sewage) sive decline to 1.7 107 bacteria/g dry weight in
while approaching from the inshore to the off- a core sample at 15 cm from the surface of the
shore waters (Figs. 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 7.10 and sediment. Parallel results were obtained in a sec-
7.11) speaks in favour of severe anthropogenic ond core collected from a similar depth. Higher
pressure along the nearshore waters. counts of approximately 3.07 1010 bacteria/g
The gradual increase of nitrate and phosphate dry weight were recorded from faecal pellets.
in the lower Gangetic delta region since the last These counts were 9–72-fold higher than in the
three decades (Figs. 7.12 and 7.13) is another underlying surface sediment (Deming 1985).
prominent cause behind the increase of microbial The deep-sea environment is thus an impor-
load in the estuaries of Indian Sundarbans. tant habitat of marine microorganisms. Turner
Microorganisms are also distributed in the (1979) observed bacteria on the surface of faecal
deep-sea sediments. Deming and Colwell pellets and concluded that many of the deep-sea
(1985) used epifluorescence microscopy to deter- microorganisms have their origin at the surface
mine the vertical distribution of bacteria in deep- layer of the ocean. This view has been supported
sea sediments. Thus using cores collected at to some extent by the results of experiments,
depths exceeding 4000 m, it was recorded that which demonstrated an enhanced rate in meta-
bacterial populations at the surface layer of sedi- bolic activity of marine microorganisms with a
ment amounted to 4.65 108 bacteria/g dry reduction of pressure (Jannasch and Wirsen
24
22
25
20
20
15
10
18
5
0
1990
16
1995
2000
2005 Harinbari 14
Year
2010 (88°04'32.97"E & 21°44'22.55"N)
2015
12
Fig. 7.6 Nitrate level (in μgatl1) in the inshore region of Indian Sundarbans (Graph designed by Dr. Nibedita
Mukhopadhyay, Environmentalist)
24
25 22
20
20
15
10
18
5
0 16
1990
1995
2000 14
2005
Year Chemaguri
2010
(88°08'53.55" E & 21°38'25.86"N) 12
2015
Fig. 7.7 Nitrate level (in μgatl1) in the midshore region of Indian Sundarbans (Graph designed by Dr. Nibedita
1982). This helps to draw an inference that the been documented with respect to distribution of
activity of marine microorganisms is more in the microbes in the deep-sea environment, particu-
shallow water and decreases with the increase of larly around the vent region. The deep-sea vents
depth and pressure. Some interesting facts have occur in the ocean floor where the ocean crustal
24
25 22
20
20
15
10
18
5
0
16
1990
1995
2000 14
Year 2005
JAMBU ISLAND
2010 (88°10'22.76"E & 21°35'42.03"N)
12
2015
Fig. 7.8 Nitrate level (in μgatl1) in the offshore region of Indian Sundarbans (Graph designed by Dr. Nibedita
3.5
4
3.5 3
3
2.5
2.5
2
1.5
1 2
0.5
0
1990 1.5
1995
2000 1
Year 2005 Harinbari
2010 (88°04'32.97"E 21°44'22.55"N)
2015 0.5
Fig. 7.9 Phosphate level (in μgatl1) in the inshore region of Indian Sundarbans (Graph designed by Dr. Nibedita
3.5
2.5
2 3
1.5
2.5
1
0.5
2
0
1990
1995 1.5
2000
Year 2005 1
Chemaguri
2010 (88°08'53.55" E & 21°38'25.86"N)
2015
0.5
Fig. 7.10 Phosphate level (in μgatl1) in the midshore region of Indian Sundarbans (Graph designed by Dr. Nibedita
3.5
2.5
3
2
1.5
2.5
1
2
0.5
0
1990 1.5
1995
2000 1
Year 2005
Jambu Island
2010
(88°04'32.97"E & 21°44'22.55"N)
0.5
2015
Fig. 7.11 Phosphate level (in μgatl1) in the offshore region of Indian Sundarbans (Graph designed by Dr. Nibedita
37
35 45
40
33
35
31
30
29
25
Nitrate
27 20
15
25
10
23
5
21 0
Premonsoon
19
17
Monsoon
2014
2012
2010
Postmonsoon 2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
Fig. 7.12 Decadal variation of nitrate (in μgat l1) in the Hooghly estuary of lower Gangetic delta
2.5 6
5
Phosphate
4
2
1.5
1
Premonsoon
Monsoon
2014
2012
2010
2008
2006
2004
Postmonsoon 2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
Fig. 7.13 Decadal variation of phosphate (in μgat l1) in the Hooghly estuary of lower Gangetic delta
7.2 Importance of Marine and Estuarine Microbes 261
plates spread apart and cause plumes of hot lava secretion of chemicals. Many microalgae such
to erupt into the ocean. The high concentrations as diatoms and dinoflagellates harbour bacteria
of electron-rich elemental compounds are very on their surfaces or as endosymbionts within
congenial for the growth and survival of their cells. Intimate associations between bacte-
eubacteria such as the chemoautotrophs rial and archaeal cells are also being revealed by
(Campbell 1993). Each type of bacteria has spe- new imaging techniques (Table 7.1). Blue carbon
cial adaptations that enable the organisms to community also sustains a dense population of
obtain metabolic energy and to withstand the bacteria (up to 106 per cm2) on their surface. In
extreme environmental conditions of high pres- this context it is to be noted that the term blue
sure and temperature (over 100 C). The concen- carbon refers to coastal vegetation that
tration of microbial population drops encompasses mangroves, seagrasses, salt marsh
dramatically as one move away from the deep- grass, seaweeds, etc.
sea vent region (Atlas 1998). There are hetero-
trophic bacteria in the seafloor sediments, which
feed on photoautotrophic cyanobacteria that drift 7.1.2 Identification of Marine
down attached to sediment particles. and Estuarine Microorganisms:
Hydrothermal vents mostly found in the A Molecular Genetic Approach
trench regions also offer unique survival tents
for microbes. The gradients of temperature and The twenty-first century is the era of innovation
nutrients that exist at hydrothermal systems proof scientific methodologies and technologies.
vide a great diversity of habitats for microbes Today, the classification, identification and char-
suspended in the surrounding heated waters and acterization of marine and estuarine microbes are
in sediments and attached to surfaces of the done through genotypic and proteomics
chimneys. Many of these are hyperthermophilic technologies. These technologies are superior to
bacteria and archaea, which can grow at the traditional methods as they can generate rapid
temperatures up to 121 C, while others grow at results and produce the best level of discrimina-
lower temperatures further from the fluid tion among strains of microbes.
emissions. Molecular studies are revealing an The genotypic technique of identifying bacte-
astonishing diversity of such organisms, many rial strains is based on profiling and organisms’
of which have biotechnological applications. genetic material mainly through its DNA. Geno-
The microbiology of the deep subsurface rocks typic techniques are superior to phenotypic
beneath vents is also now under investigation, methods because they are independent of the
and many novel microbes and metabolic pro- physiological state of an organism and are not
cesses are being discovered. influenced by constituents of the medium. The
genotypic techniques are not at all influenced by
the growth phase of the microbes.
7.1.1 Marine Organisms as Habitats Genotypic microbial identification can be car-
of Microorganisms ried out by (I) fingerprinting-based
methodologies and (II) sequence-based
Microbial biofilms are formed on all kinds of techniques. Each of these techniques is discussed
animals, seaweeds and coastal vegetation. The here separately in Tables 7.2 and 7.3.
biofilms provide a congenial environment for
the growth and survival of marine and estuarine
microbes through promotion of processes like 7.2 Importance of Marine
colonization, selective colonization, etc. Many and Estuarine Microbes
microbes are extremely choosy in nature,
allowing only certain microbes to colonize and Marine and estuarine microorganisms comprise a
inhibit the colonization of others through comparatively untapped reservoir of
Table 7.1 Size range of some representative marine microbes

Volume
Organism Characteristics size (μm)a (μm3)b
Parvovirus Icosahedral DNA virus infecting shrimp 0.02 0.000004
Coccolithovirus Icosahedral DNA virus infecting Emiliania huxleyi 0.17 0.003
Thermodiscus Disc-shaped hyperthermophilic archaea 0.2 0.08 0.003
Pelagibacter Crescent-shaped bacteria ubiquitous in ocean plankton (cultured 0.1 0.9 0.01
ubiquec example of SAR11 clade)
Prochlorococcus Cocci. Dominant photosynthetic ocean bacteria 0.6 0.1
Ostreococcus Cocci. Prasinophyte alga. Smallest known eukaryote 0.8 0.3
Vibrio Curved rods. Bacteria common in coastal environments and 12 2
associated with animals
Pelagomonas Photosynthetic flagellate adapted to low light 2 24
calceolata
Pseudo-nitzschia Pennate diatom which produces toxic domoic acid 5 80 1600
Staphylothermus Cocci. Hyperthermophilic archaea 15 1800
marinus
Thiploca auracae Filamentous. Sulphur bacteria 30 53 30,000
Lingulodinium Bioluminescent bloom-forming dinoflagellate 40 65,000
polyedrum
Beggiatoa Filamentous. Sulphur bacteria 50 160 314,000
Epulopiscium Rods. Bacteria symbiotic in fish gut 80 600 3,000,000
fishelsoni
Thiomargarita Cocci. Sulphur bacteria 300d 14,137,100
namibiensis
a
Approximate diameter length; where one value is given, this is the diameter of spherical virus particles or cells
b
Approximate values, calculated assuming spherical or cylindrical shapes
c
Candidatus; provisional taxonomic name—see Glossary
d
Cells up to 750 μm have been recorded
commercially valuable compounds. Many bacte- terrestrial organisms rather than representative of
ria are able to produce and secrete polymers and the true marine microfauna. Further work by
enzymes. Some marine bacteria are potent Krassil’nikova (1961) and Buck et al. (1962)
producers of DNase, lipase, alginases and confirmed antibiosis among marine bacteria,
proteases. Hence, the economic backbone of with the latter study pointing to inhibitory effects
any country may be strengthened if special thrust against yeasts. Then a proliferation of research
is given to certain applied sector of microbiology resulted in numerous publications, starting in
like production of biochemical compounds, 1966. Of these, the work of Buckholder
enzymes, single-cell protein and pharmaceutical et al. (1966) is relevant insofar as characteriza-
compounds. tion of the inhibitory compound revealed a novel
The various advantages that can be derived chemical structure. This was confirmed by
from marine microbes are discussed here in brief. Lovell (1966) as 2,3,4-tribromo-5(10 -hydroxy-
20 ,40 -dibromophenyl)-pyrrole. The compound
was recovered from bacteria, which had been
7.2.1 Production of Antibiotics isolated from Thalassia sp. (turtle grass) col-
lected in the vicinity of Puerto Rico.
Rosenfeld and Zobell (1947) described the pro- Within a decade of this work, another inhibi-
duction of antibiotics by marine bacteria. Inter- tory bromopyrrole was recovered from marine
estingly, in their study the majority of the bacteria. Using nonselective isolation
antibiotic producers were equated with Bacillus techniques, Anderson et al. (1974) recovered an
and Micrococcus, which are usually regarded as antibiotic producing purple-pigmented
Table 7.2 Common fingerprinting methods used in identifying bacteria

Method Technology Application Database
Repetitive Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Identification at the User created; commercial
element primers target specific repetitive species and strain levels individual database available
polymerase elements randomly distributed in
chain reaction the chromosomes of bacteria and
(rep-PCR) archaea
Amplified Restriction digestion of Identification at the User created
fragment length chromosomal DNA is followed by species and strain
polymorphism PCR using adapters coupled to the levels; can be used for
restriction sites both bacteria and
archaea
Riboprinting Restriction digest of chromosomal Identification at the User created; commercial
DNA is followed by probing genes species and strain universal database available
levels; often used in
quality control and
assurance
Random A set of arbitrary short primers are Comparison of strains User created
amplification of used to randomly amplify short of known species
polymorphic stretches of chromosomal DNA
DNA
Pulsed-field gel Chromosomal DNA is cut into Typing of pathogenic Public universal database
electrophoresis large fragments with rare-cutting bacteria administered by the Centers for
restriction enzymes, and fragment Disease Control and
is determined Prevention (www.cdc.gov/
pulsenet)
Multiplex PCR Multiple PCR primers are used for Identification of User created
diagnostic genes multiple species in
mixed samples, such as
food and clinical
specimens
Table 7.3 Common DNA sequencing methods used in identifying bacteria

Method Technology Application Database
Small-subunit Conserved primers are used to The current gold standard in Public universal databases
ribosomal amplify and then sequence the bacterial identification and available, including the
gene SSU rDNA gene; sequences are determination of Ribosomal Database Project
sequencing then compared with database evolutionary relationships; (http://rdp.cme.msu.edu) and
(SSU rDNA) may not distinguish strains or greengenes (http://
species within a genus greengenes.ilb.gov)
Multilocus DNA sequencing of a specific Typing of pathogenic Public universal database
sequence subset of conserved and bacteria; epidemiology available (administered by
typing semiconserved genes for a www.mist.net)
(MLST) given species is followed by a
comparison of concatenated
sequences
Multilocus DNA sequencing or a specific Provides more robust User created; based on
sequence subset of conserved genes is identification at the species BLAST (Basic Local
analysis followed by a comparison of level than traditional SSU Alignment Search Tool)
concatenated sequences; this rRNA gene sequencing searches against GenBank
method typically uses fewer
genes than MLST does (only
two or three)
Chromobacterium, designated strain 1-L-133, chains to top consumers, which includes variety
from seawater in the North Pacific. The organism of fishes of commercial importance. However,
was described as motile, gram-negative rods, this beneficial role has been extended on the
which produce oxidase but not catalase or indole, basis of recent laboratory findings showing that
hydrolyzed starch and gave negative responses to diatoms produce antibiotic compounds that block
the methyl red test and Voges–Proskauer reac- embryogenesis in copepod and sea urchin eggs
tion. From these traits, the organism was equated and arrest proliferation of human carcinoma cells
with Chromobacterium and, in particular, con- (Miralto et al. 1999).
sidered to resemble C. marinum.
Interest in the production of antibiotics by
marine gram-negative bacteria did not stop, and 7.2.3 Production of Enzyme
the researches continued. Lemos et al. (1985)
examined the microflora from seaweeds Marine and estuarine microorganisms are unique
(Enteromorpha intestinalis, E. compressa, sources of enzymes. Already it has been
Fucus ceranoides, Pelvetia canaliculata and established that some marine bacteria produce
Ulva lactuca), which were collected in Spain copious quantities of alginate, lyases and
from the intertidal zone at low tide. The seaweed chitinases, which may warrant commercial
was rinsed in sterile seawater to remove super- exploitation. For that matter, deep-sea thermo-
fluous organisms, and a 1 cm2 area was swabbed. philic bacteria may provide useful sources of
This material was spread over the surface of heat-stable enzymes (Deming 1986). Okami
marine 2216E agar plates, with incubation at (1986) recovered a useful isolate of Bacillus
20 C for 7 days. Antibacterial activity was circulans (No MT-GT2) from marine mud in
demonstrated in 38/224 (17 %) isolates derived Tokyo Bay, which produced an enzyme capable
from 62 samples of seaweed, with the majority of hydrolyzing glucan. Enzyme production,
originating from E. intestinalis. which was induced by the presence of glucan in
the medium, was maximal after 6 days. Fraction-
ation was performed by chromatography on
7.2.2 Production of Antitumour DEAF-Sephadex eluted with potassium chloride
Compounds followed by further chromatography on DE-32
cellulose, which was eluted with acetate buffer.
Flavobacterium uliginosum is a marine strain Finally gel filtration was achieved with Sephadex
from which a water-soluble compound named G-150. From this procedure a novel enzyme was
Marinactan was produced. Okami (1986) recovered which degraded glucans consisting α1,
discussed the isolation of a polysaccharide from 3 and α1, 6 linkages. The optimum temperature
marine Flavobacterium with marked activity in and pH for activity were 35 C and 6.2–6.7,
mice against sarcoma-180 solid tumour virus respectively. It is speculative whether or not
(s-180). From the seaweed disturbed along the this enzyme could be used for prevention/reduc-
Sagami Bay, Japan, bacterial isolations were car- tion of dental problems but its incorporation into
ried out on a nonselective nutrient medium with toothpastes for this purpose is a possibility.
incubation at 27 C for 1–3 days. Isolated
colonies were examined for the ability to produce
polysaccharide on a medium containing sugar 7.2.4 Bioremediation of Petroleum
after incubation at 27 C for 2 days. Hydrocarbon
Novel bioactive compound has also been
isolated from a very important group of Bioremediation is the utilization of a microor-
microalgae, the diatoms. This algal class has ganism to remove pollutants from the environ-
traditionally been regarded as providing the ment. It is in fact an acceleration of the natural
bulk of the food that sustains the marine food fate of biodegradable pollutants and hence can be
regarded as green solution to oil pollution. Bio- most microorganisms such as Pseudomonas
remediation is a necessary and cost-effective sp. involve the incorporation of hydrocarbon of
method of removing certain environmental oxygen by oxygenase.
pollutants that adversely affect human health or
environmental quality. The enormous natural
quality of diverse microorganisms to degrade 7.2.5 Degradation of Mangrove Litter
numerous organic compounds (ranging from
petroleum hydrocarbon to chlorinated solvents) The genus Aspergillus plays a major role in the
and to transform various inorganic substances to degradation process of mangrove litter. Till date,
metals forms the basis of bioremediation. The four species of Aspergillus have been identified
metabolic activities of microorganisms are used from lower Gangetic delta complex which are the
to change an undesirable chemical into one that main drivers of litter degradation. An experiment
has less objectionable properties, for example, in which the degradation process was allowed to
changing a toxic pesticide or a carcinogenic take place for 30 days found that the genus
petroleum hydrocarbon into nontoxic carbon Aspergillus comprised about 75 % numerically
dioxide and water. To date, most bioremediation of the total fungal population, while the
projects have relied on the use of naturally occur- remaining 25 % comprised species belonging to
ring microorganisms (often the indigenous the genus Helminthosporium (Chaudhuri and
microorganisms) at contaminated sites. Presently Choudhury 1994). A long-term field-based
some new projects are attempting to use geneti- experiment conducted by the present authors in
cally engineered species to degrade the Indian Sundarbans after litter collection and
pollutants at a much faster rate or to grow under subsequent analyses confirms that the role of
more adverse conditions. This research is very bacteria in the microbial degradation of man-
important in the present era, as many pollutants grove litter is also significant (Figs. 7.12 and
are nonaqueous and often occur in the environ- 7.13). Cellulose, hemicelluloses, cellobiose, pec-
ment that does not favour microbial growth and tin, lignin, chitin, lipid and protein are some of
biodegradative properties. Petroleum hydrocar- the essential litter substances which are exposed
bon is a widespread environmental pollutant to microbial degradation (Biswas et al. 1986).
that is amendable to removal by bioremediation. These molecules are broken down by the enzy-
Bioremediation of oil pollution usually relies matic activity of specific bacteria (Figs. 7.14 and
on modifying the environment so that the growth 7.15).
of indigenous hydrocarbon degrading microor- Most of the bacteria isolated in this study
ganism is stimulated. Since microorganism belong to ammonifying groups and some belong
requires nitrogen, phosphorus and other mineral to nitrifying groups. A few strains that were
nutrient for incorporation into biomass, the avail- isolated were chitinolytic bacteria, suggesting
ability of these nutrients within the area of hydro- that these bacteria assist in the breakdown of
carbon degradation is critical. In this situation the chitin found in a variety of marine and estuarine
addition of nitrogen and phosphorus containing arthropod sources. The above findings indicate
fertilizer overcomes the nutritional limitation for that bacteria are involved in the mineralization
microbial growth, because petroleum contains process of the soil and the adjacent coastal waters
concentration of these substances well below as well as play an important role in the break-
those needed for microbial growth. The typical down of litter in the mangrove substrate.
ratio of carbon to nitrogen in a microbial cell is Fluctuations in fungal populations in response
10:1 and has carbon to phosphorus 30:1. Besides to changes in some leaf constituents during deg-
nitrogen and phosphate, rapid hydrocarbon degradation in the natural environment have been
radation requires molecular oxygen because the studied by Misra et al. (1985). The study found
initial steps in biodegradation of hydrocarbon by that the Aspergillus genus was predominant
Fig. 7.14 Net for mangrove litter collection
Fig. 7.15 Mangrove litter

collection in a net
throughout the decaying process. The carbon, is also selectively cytotoxic against lung and
hydrocarbon and wax ester contents decreased colon cancer cell lines as well as melanoma.
during the process of degradation. This suggests Interestingly, the compound exerts preferential
that the invading microbes utilized these antiproliferative effects in colon cancer cell
constituents as a carbon source. A decrease in lines with defective p53 systems (Erba
cellulose indicated that the microbes use cellulo- et al. 1999). Thiocoraline represents a model of
lytic enzymes. The decrease in the constituents an anticancer agent acquired from marine
was proportional to the increase in nitrogen and microorganisms and illustrates how the problems
protein content produced during the decay proof drug supply can be overcome by artificial
cess. This may be due to an increase in numbers culture (Harvey 1975).
of microorganisms within the leaves, or alterna- A rich profile of biologically active
tively, the organisms may be nitrogen-fixing metabolites is described from filamentous fungi
types. The decomposed leaves are rich in protein of terrestrial origin, especially from just three
and carbohydrates and serve as food for the genera: Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium
detritus-feeding benthic community. (Lene 1996). However, the marine fungi are
least studied than terrestrial counterparts and
other ecological groups. Obligate marine fungi
7.2.6 Drugs from Marine Microbes are still an unexplored resource, although, marine
facultative fungi have been studied due to their
Marine microbes are the sources of several production of new metabolites which are not
diverse categories of bioactive substances from found in terrestrial fungi. Recently, more interest
which unique pharmaceutical products can be has been generated on studying biologically
synthesized. The contribution of probiotic bacte- active metabolites from higher fungi
ria, such as lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, is (Basidiomycetes), endophytic fungi and filamen-
mainly in the control of pathogenic microbes, tous fungi from marine habitats, the symbiotic
through production of antibacterial protein, lichens. In one study, the lignicolous fungus
namely, bacteriocin (DeVugst and Vandamme Leptosphaeria oraemaris (Pleosporaceae)
1994; Kathiresan and Thiruneelakandan 2008) yielded leptosphaerin (Schiehser et al. 1986;
and anticancer substances (Wollowski Pallenberg and White 1986). A further study of
et al. 2001). The dietary supplements of the same fungal species yielded none of the pre-
lactobacilli are reportedly decreasing the induc- viously found metabolites, but the polyketides,
tion of experimental colon cancer (Goddin and leptosphaerolide, its o-dihydroquinone deriva-
Gorbach 1992). They stimulate and modulate the tive and leptosphaerodione (Guerriero
mucosal immune system by reducing the produc- et al. 1991). This leads to a conclusion that the
tion of pro-inflammatory cytokines through production of secondary metabolites might be
actions on NFκB pathways, increasing produc- highly dependent on the culture conditions and
tion of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as the origin of the strains. To produce these
IL-10 and host defence peptides such as β- metabolites and to maximize the potential chem-
defensin 2, enhancing IgA defences and ical diversity, they need to be grown in various
influencing dendritic cell maturation as well as nutrient-limited media. For example, media for
modulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis Penicillium spp. that are deficient in carbon can
through cell responses to short-chain fatty acids produce penicillins, those that are phosphorus
(Devine and Marsh 2009). Thiocoraline is a limited can produce cephalosporins and vanco-
novel bioactive depsipeptide isolated from mycin and those that are nitrogen limited can
Micromonospora marina, a marine microorgan- produce carbapenems (Lawrence 1999).
ism located in the Mozambique Strait that Marine-derived fungi are known to be a source
inhibits RNA synthesis. The bioactive compound of antioxidative natural products: (i) acremonin
A from Acremonium sp. (Abdel-Lateff majuscula is an exceptionally potent antiproli-

et al. 2002) and (ii) xanthone derivative from ferative agent as it inhibits the polymerization
Wardomyces anomalus (Abdel-Lateff of the tubulin, and it also displays the inhibitory
et al. 2003). activity selectively on colon, renal and breast
Marine blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) are cancer-derived cell lines (Carte 1996).
considered to be one of the potential organisms
which can be the richest sources of known and
Brain Churners
novel bioactive compounds including toxins with
1. What are the different categories of
potential for pharmaceutical applications
microbes found in the marine and estu-
(Thajuddin and Subramanian 2005; Jha and
arine ecosystems?
Zi-Rong 2004). Some of the marine
2. Define neuston.
cyanobacteria appear to be potential sources for
3. Name the fungus associated with cord-
large-scale production of vitamins (B complex,
grass (Spartina alterniflora).
E) of commercial interest. Scytonemin is a pro-
4. Why do the mangroves offer diverse
tein serine/threonine kinase inhibitor (Stevenson
category of microbes?
et al. 2002a), isolated from the cyanobacterium
5. What is microbial biofilm?
Stigonema sp., and this compound is a yellow-
6. State the technology for repetitive ele-
green ultraviolet sunscreen pigment, known to be
ment polymerase chain reaction for
present in the extracellular sheaths of different
identifying bacteria.
genera of aquatic and terrestrial blue-green algae.
7. What are the common DNA sequenc-
Scytonemin regulates mitotic spindle formation
ing methods for identifying bacteria?
as well as enzyme kinases involved in cell cycle
8. Name the microbial strain for the pro-
control, and the compound also inhibits prolifer-
duction of antitumour compounds
ation of human fibroblasts and endothelial cells.
(Marinactan).
Thus, scytonemin may provide an excellent drug
9. How microbes are used for
as protein kinase inhibitors to have antiproli-
bioremediation?
ferative and anti-inflammatory activities
10. State the importance of curacin A.
(Stevenson et al. 2002b).
More than 50 % of the marine cyanobacteria
are potentially exploitable for extracting bioac-
tive substances which are effective in either kill-
ing the cancer cells by inducing apoptotic death Annexure 7A: Study on the Quality
or effecting the cell signalling through activation of Edible Oyster in Indian Sundarbans
of the members of protein kinase-c family of with Respect to Coliform Load
signalling enzymes. The cell extracts of
Calothrix isolates inhibit the growth in vitro of 1. Introduction
a chloroquine-resistant strain of the malarial par-
asite, Plasmodium falciparum, and of human The Indian Sundarbans is one of the most biolog-
HeLa cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner ically productive, taxonomically diverse,
(Rickards et al. 1999). Bioassay-directed mangrove-dominated ecosystems of the tropics
fractions of the extracts have led to their isolation (Mitra et al. 1992), which has been declared as a
and structural characterization of calothrixin A World Heritage Site in 1987 by UNESCO. The
(I) and B (II), pentacyclic metabolites with an deltaic lobe is a unique genetic reservoir sustain-
indole (3, 2-j) phenanthridine alkaloids which ing a wide spectrum of commercially important
exert their growth inhibitory effects at nanomolar finfish and shellfish. In recent times, thrust has
concentrations (Rickards et al. 1999). Another been given on the culture of edible oyster,
compound, curacin A, isolated from the organic Saccostrea cucullata, as alternative livelihood
extracts of Curacao collections of Lyngbya scheme for the local people (Mitra and Banerjee
Annexure 7A: Study on the Quality of Edible Oyster in Indian Sundarbans. . . 269
2005) It is therefore extremely important to eval- pressure. Station 1 (Namkhana) is situated in

uate the quality of meat of these commercially the western sector of the Sundarbans, which is
important bivalve species in terms of coliform not only an important fish landing station but also
load. Necessity of such work arises mainly due to receives the wastewater from Kolkata and nearby
discharge of anthropogenic wastes in coastal Haldia port–cum–industrial complex. Station
areas due to which the zone becomes vulnerable 2 (Frasergaunje) is also an official fish landing
in terms of microbial load (Glasoe and Aimee station of the state of West Bengal, but in addi-
2004). The microbes from the ambient media tion to this activity, the water of this station
often get accumulated in shellfish because of receives the discharge of several hotels and tour-
their filter-feeding activity. Under favourable ism units located at Bakkhali station. Station
condition, a single large oyster may filter up to 3 (Sajnekhali) is situated in the eastern sector of
5 l of water per hour. Such a species is thus an Indian Sundarbans, which is noted for its wilder-
effective filter device of particles that enter in the ness. Anthropogenic stress is minimum in this
estuarine environment through urban, industrial sampling station owing to presence of mangrove
and municipal wastes (Pommepuy 1996). Con- forest. Water samples were collected using water
sidering this property of oyster, some directives sampler and the sediment samples were collected
have been given in connection to marketing of with the help of the Petersen grab. The water and
live bivalves. An EC Directive (91/492/EEC) has sediment samples for microbial analysis were
defined the health conditions for production and immediately transferred into the sterile bottles,
marketing of live bivalves. All Member States and central portions of the sediment samples
are required to classify their harvesting areas into were aseptically taken and put into sterile poly-
one of three categories according to the level of thene bags and transported to the laboratory
faecal indicators present in shellfish samples. under ice for bacteriological examinations. Oys-
Shellfish from Category A can be placed directly ter samples were collected from the intertidal
on the market. They must meet a standard of no zone of the selected sampling stations for carry-
more than 230 Escherichia coli per 100 g shell- ing out microbial load analysis in terms of total
fish flesh (or 300 FC/100 g) as well as other coliform and faecal coliform.
standard for specific pathogens (such as Salmo- For bacterial analysis, the oyster samples were
nella), chemicals and algal biotoxins. Shellfish accurately weighed and blended with 0.1 % pep-
from category B must be purified before market- tone buffer and 3 % NaCl diluent for 1 min and
ing, and shellfish from category C must be placed finally inoculated taking different dilutions. The
again in clear water for 2 months prior to mar- incubation was done at 37 C for 24 h, and the
keting (Pommepuy 1996) Although such types of result was expressed from MPN index per gram
classification do not exist in Indian coastal and basis. For bacteriological analysis of water and
estuarine shellfish culture area, but a survey was sediment samples, the standard method as stated
conducted in three sampling stations of Indian APHA 20th Edition, 2001 was followed.
Sundarbans during April, 2007 to assess the
health of aquatic subsystem and edible oyster in
terms of microbial load. 3. Results and Discussion
The station-wise order of microbial contamina-

2. Materials and Methods tion in the study area is Namkhana >
Frasergaunje > Sajnekhali. This spatial variation
The present investigation was carried out during may be attributed to the degree of anthropogenic
the month of April, 2007 at three different stress. Namkhana and Frasergaunje, being the
stations, namely, Namkhana, Frasergaunje and fish landing sites, are constantly exposed to
Sajnekhali. The sampling stations were selected wastes of complex nature. In addition to
considering the magnitude of anthropogenic decomposed fish products, these sampling
Fig. 7A.1 Availability of different aquacultural products in the local market for internal consumption
Table 7A.1 Total coliform load (five test tube method) The mode of activities and degree of anthropo-
in water samples collected from the sampling stations
genic stress have been reflected through micro-
during April 2007
bial load
Sl. MPN/100 ml MPN/100 ml
The result indicates an alarming situation with
no. Stations in LST in BGL
respect to coliform load in the shellfish tissues
1 Namkhana >1600 >1600
2 Frasergaunje 1600 1600
sampled from Namkhana and Frasergaunje.
3 Sajnekhali 550 350 Hence, not only depuration but also a proper
feasibility report is needed to initiate oyster cul-
ture in these areas. Oyster being an edible prod-
Table 7A.2 Total coliform load (three test tube method) uct needs continuous monitoring with respect to
in sediment samples collected from the sampling stations coliform load to overcome the barrier of con-
during April 2007
sumer acceptability, which may otherwise pose
Sl. MPN/g in MPN/g in an adverse effect on the human health
no. Stations LST BGL
(consumers).
1 Namkhana 30 30
Today, shellfish industry has gained consider-
2 Frasergaunje 24 24
3 Sajnekhali 9.5 9.5
able momentum, and different types of molluscs
are widely available in the markets (Fig. 7A.1).
Marketing of oyster or any aquacultural
stations are also contaminated with zinc, copper products (both for internal consumption and
and lead released from antifouling paints export) is a function of purity of the cultured
required for conditioning fishing vessels and species. Under such circumstances, results of
trawlers. Sajnekhali, on the other hand, is a wild- the present work may serve as baseline informa-
life sanctuary with minimum environmental tion for initiating oyster industry in the maritime
stress. The area sustains unique mangrove vege- state of West Bengal (Tables 7A.1, 7A.2, 7A.3,
tation, which acts as agents of bioremediation. 7A.4, 7A.5 and 7A.6).
Annexure 7A: Study on the Quality of Edible Oyster in Indian Sundarbans. . . 271
Table 7A.3 Total coliform load (three test tube method) Table 7A.5 Total faecal coliform load (three test tube
in edible oyster samples collected from the sampling method) in sediment samples collected from the sampling
stations during April 2007 stations during April 2007
Sl. MPN/g in MPN/g in Sl. no. Stations MPN/g in EC
no. Stations LST BGL 1 Namkhana 24
1 Namkhana >110 >110 2 Frasergaunje 15
2 Frasergaunje 110 110 3 Sajnekhali 2.3
3 Sajnekhali 46 45
Table 7A.4 Total faecal coliform load (five test tube Table 7A.6 Total faecal coliform load (three test tube
method) in water samples collected from the sampling method) in edible oyster samples collected from the sam-
stations during April 2007 pling stations during April 2007
Sl. no. Stations MPN/100 ml in EC Sl. no. Stations MPN/g in EC
1 Namkhana 40 1 Namkhana >110
2 Frasergaunje 50 2 Frasergaunje 110
3 Sajnekhali 4 3 Sajnekhali 46
Annexure 7B: Study of the Microbial contamination or pollution of natural waters or

Health in and Around the Lower water environments, where these organisms sur-
Stretch of Hooghly Estuary vive for a long time (months) or through direct
contamination of products during processing. In
1. Introduction the entire Gangetic plain, it is the river Hugli that
is subjected to heavy pollution load from the
Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, industrialized and highly urbanized cities of the
actinomycetes, etc., are widely distributed in Kolkata and Howrah. The discharges from the
the water and sediment of marine and brackish port–cum–industrial complex of Haldia have
water environments. They have far reaching aggravated the magnitude of pollution. The
effects on the biological as well as the geochem- marine ecosystem nearest to the city of Kolkata
ical systems. They also play an important role in is the Indian Sundarbans, which is the most bio-
the decompositions of organic matter, dissolution logically productive, taxonomically diverse and
of inorganic insoluble salts and regeneration of aesthetically celebrated ecotone in the Indian
nutrients. The activities of the total heterotrophic subcontinent. The untreated and the under-
bacteria and the relative abundance reflect the treated sewage of the city of Kolkata and Howrah
hydrographic structure or the nature and nutrient is responsible for the microbial load. Among
concentrations in the aquatic environment microbial flora, the presence of pathogens such
(Oppenheimer and Wood 1962). as Salmonella, Streptococcus sp., Vibrio sp. and
The overloading of nutrients and organic load E. coli has been determined. It is thus clear that
also provides a favourable environment for the the present zone of investigation is under severe
growth and survival of a wide spectrum of micro- stress due to municipal discharge containing
bial strains. The high population densities and appreciable amount of sewage generated from
activities often common in the coastal areas municipal and several categories of anthropo-
result in pollution and release of contaminated genic microbial activities.
wastewater. Pathogenic microorganisms such as
bacteria and viruses, abundant in human wastes,
are often discharged into natural waters with 2. Aims and Objectives
little or no treatment. Survival of microbes in
waters depends on many parameters such as The present study aims to evaluate the microbial
biological (interaction with other bacteria) and load (total coliform and faecal coliform) in water
physical factors (temperature). Numerous studies sample in and around lower stretch of Hooghly
have been carried out in coastal areas over long river estuary. The area is stressed due to industrial
periods of time, demonstrating the various abi- and anthropogenic activities. Now-a-days bacte-
otic environmental conditions (fluxes, currents, rial indicators are measured instead of pathogenic
presence of mud and silt, etc.) due to which the organisms because the indicators are safer and can
distribution of microbes is affected. The under- be measured with faster, less expensive methods
treated effluents from the coastal population and than the pathogen of concern (McGee et al. 1997).
discharges from industrial belt regions often pose The main objectives of the present study are
an adverse impact on marine and estuarine spe- highlighted:
cies. The members like Salmonella sp., E. coli,
faecal coliform, etc., can multiply and survive in • To monitor monthly variation of physico-
the estuarine environment for weeks. The chemical variables during the study periods
Enterobacteriaceae (Salmonella, E. coli, etc.) • To observe the spatial variation of the selected
occur in the water as a result of contamination physico-chemical variables in the study area
from the animal or human origin. This contami- • To scan the microbiological parameters dur-
nation has been normally associated with faecal ing 3 months of the study period
Annexure 7B: Study of the Microbial Health in and Around the Lower Stretch. . . 273
• To monitor the spatial variation of the by Bangladesh in the East, the Hooghly river
microbiological parameter in the study area (a continuation of the Ganges river) in the west,
Dampier and Hodges Line in the north and the
Bay of Bengal in the south. With a considerable
degree of maritime characteristics in major por-
3. Physiography tion of the ecosystem, the important
morphotypes of deltaic Sundarbans are beaches,
3.1. The Ecological Profile mud flats, coastal dunes, sand flats, estuaries,
The Indian Sundarbans Delta (ISD) is part of the creeks, inlets and mangrove swamps.
delta of the Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna The rivers are the live matrix of deltaic com-
(GBM) basin in Asia. The Sundarbans shared plex, on which the unique spectrum of
between Indian and Bangladesh is home to one biological diversity is embedded. In Indian
of the largest mangrove forests in the world. The Sundarbans, approximately 2069 Km2 area is
ISD spread over about 9630 km2 between occupied by tidal river system or estuaries
21 400 0400 N and 22 090 2100 N latitude and which finally end up in the Bay of Bengal. The
88 010 5600 E and 89 060 0100 E longitude is the deltaic complex of Indian Sundarbans is also
smaller and western part of the complete noted for its seasonality in terms of climatic
Sundarbans Delta. condition and wind action as highlighted here
The Indian Sundarbans Delta is bounded by in brief. Frequent nor’westers are also common
the Ichamati–Raimangal River in the east, by the in the premonsoon season.
Hooghly River in the west, by the Bay of Bengal
in the South and by the Dampier-Hodges line 3.2. Climate of Indian Sundarbans
drawn in 1829–1830 in the north. A little over The deltaic lobe of Indian Sundarbans experiences
half of this area has human settlements on 54 del- a moderate type of climate because of its location
taic islands; the remaining portion is under man- adjacent to the Bay of Bengal as well as due to
grove vegetation. Soils of ISD are principally regular tidal flushing in the estuaries. Wave actions,
alfisols (older and alluvial soil) and aridisols micro- and macrotidal cycles and long-shore
(coastal saline soil). currents are recorded in most of the islands of the
The landscape is characterized by a web of ecosystems. Coastal processes are very dynamic
tidal water systems. The average tidal amplitude and are accelerated by tropical cyclones, which is
is between 3.5 m and 5 m, with the highest locally called ‘Kal Baisakhi’ (nor’wester). The
amplitudes in July–August and the lowest in seasonal climate in study area may be conveniently
December–January. Of the eight rivers that dom- categorized into premonsoon (March–June), mon-
inate the landscape, only the Hugli and soon (July–October) and postmonsoon
Ichamati–Raimangal carry freshwater flow of (November–February). Each season has a
some significance. Being the moribund part of characteristics feature of its own, which is very
the lower delta plain of the GBM system, the ISD distinct and unique. The oscillations of various
is experiencing both declining freshwater physico-chemical variables in different seasons of
supplies and net erosion, as has been recorded the year are discussed here in brief.
since 1969 (Hazra et al. 2002; Hazra et al. 2010).
The Indian Sundarbans at the apex of the Bay 3.3. Wind
of Bengal (between 21 130 N and 22 400 N lati- The direction and velocity of wind system in the
tude and 88 030 E to 89 070 E longitude) is coastal West Bengal are mainly controlled by the
located on the southern fringe of the state of north-east and southwest monsoons. The wind from
West Bengal (a maritime state in the north-east the north and north-east commences at the begin-
coast of India). The area of the Indian ning of October and continues till the end of March.
Sundarbans is 9630 Km2. of which the forest The months of January and February are relatively
area is about 4200 Km2. The region is bordered calm with an average wind speed around 3.5 km/h.
Violent wind speed recommences from the south- 3.6. Rainfall

west around the middle of March and continues till The average annual rainfall in deltaic
September. During this period, several Sundarbans region is 1920 mm. Rainfall is usu-
low-pressure systems occur in this region, a number ally maximum during the month of August/
of which take the form of depressions and cyclonic September, and the monsoon period lasts from
storms of varying intensity. The air temperature of July to October. The southwest wind triggers the
Sundarbans area varies from 19.0 C to 34.0 C precipitation in the monsoon period with an aver-
and velocity of wind from 0.85 to 4.54 m/s (Saha age rainfall of about 165 mm (Human Develop-
et al. 1998). ment Report, South 24 Parganas, 2009). The
postmonsoon (November to February) is
3.4. Waves and Tides characterized by negligible rainfall, and the
The wind is the basic driving force for generating premonsoon period (March to June) is basically
surface waves in the coastal zone of West Bengal. dry but occasionally accompanied by rains and
Sea waves in this region rarely become destructive thunderstorms.
except during cyclonic storms. During nor’westers
the wind speed rises above 100 km/h. and is usu- 4. Materials and Methods
ally accompanied by huge tidal waves. When the
cyclonic incidences coincide with the spring tides, The present programme encompasses the evalu-
wave height can rise over 5 m above the mean sea ation of microbial load (water) and some related
level. Ripple waves appear in the months of physico-chemical variables such as:
October, November and December when wind-
generated wave height varies approximately (a) Surface water temperature
between 0.20 and 0.35 m. In the months of April (b) Surface water salinity
to August, large wavelets are formed in the shelf (c) Surface water pH
region, and they start breaking when they approach (d) Surface water dissolved oxygen (DO)
towards the coastal margin. Wave height rises up (e) Surface water nitrate (NO3)
to 2 m during this period, which causes maximum (f) Surface water phosphate (PO42)
scoring of land masses. The average tidal ampli- (g) Surface water silicate (SiO2)
tude in the estuaries of the Sundarbans ranges from
3.5 to 4.0 m. Wave actions, micro- and macrotidal The work was carried out on a monthly basis
cycles and long-shore currents are recorded in from February 2013 to April 2013. Samplings
most of the islands in this ecosystem. have been carried out at eight different stations
in Indian Sundarbans, namely:
3.5. Surface Water Temperature
In coastal West Bengal, the seasonal variation of 1. Haldia
surface water temperature is not so drastic 2. Daimond Harbour
between premonsoon and monsoon seasons. 3. Lot 8
The premonsoon period (March to June) is 4. Kachuberia
characterized by a mean surface water tempera- 5. Chemaguri
ture around 34 C. The monsoon period (July to 6. Sagar Island
October) shows a surface water temperature 7. Namkhana
around 32 C (mean), and the postmonsoon 8. Frasergaunje
period (November to February) is characterized
by cold weather with a mean surface water tem- The entire work procedure has been divided
perature around 23 C. into four procedural phases as mentioned below:
Table 7B.1 Sampling stations with coordinates (IAPO Standard Seawater Service
Station Name of the Charlottenlund, Slot Denmark, Chlorinity
no. station Coordinates 19.376 ppt).
Stn. 1 Haldia 22 10 3100 N/88 30 2900 E (c) Surface water pH: The surface water pH
Stn. 2 Diamond 22 110 04.200 N/ was measured by using a portable
Harbour 88 110 22.200 E
pH-meter sensitivity ¼ 0.02.
Stn. 3 Lot 8 21 530 25.600 N/
88 090 58.400 E
(d) Surface water dissolved oxygen (DO): The
Stn. 4 Kachuberia 21520 26.5000 N/ surface water DO was measured by DO
88080 04.4300 E meter in the field and subsequently cross-
Stn. 5 Chemaguri 21390 58.1500 N/ checked in the laboratory by Winkler’s
88100 07.0300 E method.
Stn. 6 Sagar Island 21 380 54.3700 N/ (e) Surface water nutrient analysis: Surface
88 030 06.1700 E
water was collected for nutrient analysis in
Stn. 7 Namkhana 21 760 N/88 230 E
Stn. 8 Frasergaunje 21 360 55.7200 N/
cleaned Tarsons bottles and transported to
88 120 33.1500 E the laboratory in iced freeze condition.
Triplicate samples were collected from
same collection sites to maintain the quality
• Phase A: Site selection. of the data. The standard spectrophotomet-
• Phase B: Analysis of physico-chemical ric method of Strickland and Parsons (1972)
variables of water. was adopted to determine the nutrient con-
• Phase C: Analysis of microbial load (total centration in surface water.
bacterial count, total coliform, faecal coli- (i) Nitrate analysis: Nitrate was analyzed
form, E. coli, Vibrio sp., Streptococcus sp., by oxidizing it to nitrite by means of
Salmonella sp.) in ambient water media. passing the sample with ammonium
• Phase D: Statistical analysis. chloride buffer through a glass column
packed with amalgamated cadmium
filings and finally treating the samples
Phase A: Site Selection with sulphonyl amide. The resultant
The first phase of the work involves selection of diazonium ion was coupled with
eight sampling stations (Table 7B.1) in the del- N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylene diamine to
taic region of Sundarbans (Figs. 7B.1A and give an intensely pink azo dye.
7B.1B). (ii) Phosphate analysis: Determination of
the phosphate was carried out by treat-
Phase B: Analysis of Physico-chemical ment of an aliquot of the sample with
Variables of Water an acidic molybdate reagent
(a) Surface water temperature: The surface containing ascorbic acid and a small
water temperature was measured using proportion of potassium antimony
0–100 C mercury thermometer. tartrate.
(b) Surface water salinity: The surface water (iii) Silicate analysis: Dissolved silicate
salinity was recorded by means of an optical was determined by treating the sample
refractometer (Atago, Japan) and cross- with acidic molybdate reagent. The
checked in the laboratory by employing resultant silico-molybdic acid was
more Knudsen method (Strickland and reduced to molybdenum blue complex
Parsons 1972). The correction factor was by ascorbic acid and incorporating the
found out by titration of the silver nitrate oxalic acid to prevent the formation of
(AgNO3) solution against standard seawater similar blue complex phosphate.
Fig. 7B.1A Map of Indian Sundarbans
Phase C: Analysis of Microbial Load (ii) Preparation of culture media for the
in Ambient Water microbial analysis :
1. Sampling: (a) Preparation of the Lauryl Tryptose
Broth (LTB) for presumptive test: In
(i) Sampling of the water: Water samples order to prepare the LTB, at first a
were collected fortnightly aseptically in dehydrated amount of ingredients
sterilized glass container (sterilized in for single strength (SS) and double
autoclave) with utmost care from strength (DS) was required to dis-
February 2013 to April 2013. The col- solve separately in each 1 l of
lected samples were immediately trans- sterilized distilled water, and it was
ferred in icebox and brought to the thoroughly mixed and slightly
laboratory for further analysis. heated by proper swirling. The pH
was adjusted up to 6.8 0,2 by
Fig. 7B.1B Map showing

sampling stations
Table 7B.2 Ingredients of LTB containing inverted Durham’s tube

and then placed in the autoclave for
Composition Dose
sterilization at 121 C and 15 lbs for
Tryptose 20 g
Lactose 5g
15 min. The general ingredients of
Dipotassium hydrogen phosphate 2.75 g the LTB are given in Table 7B.2.
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate 2.75 g (b) Preparation of Brilliant Green Lac-
Sodium chloride 5g tose Bile Broth (BGLB) for con-
Sodium lauryl sulphate 0.10 g firmed test: At first the required
Sterilized distilled water 1000 ml amount of the dehydrated
ingredients was dissolved in 1 l of
Table 7B.3 Ingredients of BGLB sterilized distilled water which was
thoroughly mixed and slightly
Composition Dose
heated by proper swirling, and
Peptone 10 g
Lactose 10 g then pH was adjusted up to
Ox gall 20 g 7.2 0.2 by either 0.1(N) sodium
Brilliant green 0.133 g hydroxide (NaOH) or 0.1
Sterilized distilled water 1000 ml (N) hydrochloric acid (HCl). After
that it was distributed in test tubes
(10 ml each) containing inverted
either 0.1(N) sodium hydroxide Durham’s tube and then placed in
(NaOH) or 0.1 (N) hydrochloric autoclave for sterilization at 121 C
acid (HCl). After that it was and 15 lbs for 15 min. The general
distributed as required (10 ml SS ingredients of BGLB are as follows
and 10 ml DS) in test tube (Table 7B.3):
2. Preparation of the collected water samples: of 48 2 h. Within each tube, Durham’s tubes
(i) Preparation of the water samples: The were invertedly placed to show the bacterial
collected water samples were mixed thor- growth with the emission of gas. Production of
oughly before analysis. gas bubbles and acids with growth in the tubes
(ii) Microbial analysis of the water samples: within 48 2 h contributes presumptive reac-
For microbial analysis in terms of total tion. After the incubation period of 48 h, the
coliform load, the most probable number number of positive tubes were counted and pre-
(MPN) procedure by multiple fermenta- ceded for confirmatory test.
tion techniques (MFT) is stated in APHA
(1998). The techniques involve Confirmatory Test for Total Coliform
inoculating the sample and/ or its several For the total coliform test, the culture medium
dilutions in a liquid medium of Lauryl used was Brilliant Green Lactose Bile Broth
Tryptose Broth (LTB). After completion (BGLB). The positive presumptive tubes were
of the incubation period, the tubes were gently shaken with a sterile loop (3.5 mm-5 mm
examined for growth, acid and gas produc- in diameter); one or two loopfuls of culture were
tion by the coliform organisms. This test is transferred to a test tube containing BGLB with
known as the presumptive test. Since the an invertedly placed Durham’s tube. The
organisms other than coliforms may also inoculated BGLB tubes were incubated at
produce the reaction, the positive tubes 36 1 C. Formation of any gas within
from the presumptive test were subjected 48 2 h constituted the confirmed test. The
to a confirmatory test. The density of bac- results were obtained in MPN/100 ml by com-
teria was calculated on the basis of posi- paring with the MPN table.
tive and negative combination of the
tubes. For water samples, the results were Phase D: Statistical Analysis
expressed in MPN/100 ml (APHA 1998). In order to find the differences between months
and stations, ANOVA was done using Excel
under Windows 2007.
Presumptive Test for Total Coliform

Presumptive test for total coliform and Lauryl 5. Results
Tryptose Broth was used as culture media. For
analysis of water five test tubes each of 10 ml, 1 Marine and estuarine ecosystems are being
ml, 0.1 ml sample portions were used as the threatened by the discharge of untreated sewage
presumptive test. wastes and industrial effluents which ultimately
First set of contained five numbers of 10 ml affects the sustainability of living resources and
(DS) broth tubes. Second and third sets contained public health.
ten numbers of 10 ml (SS) broth tubes for analy- Some microbial pathogens in the coastal envi-
sis of water. Each tube in a set of five 10 ml, 1 ml ronment are indigenous to the oceans, including
and 0.1 ml of water sample was inoculated in the Vibrios, whereas others like Escherichia coli,
first, second and third sets of media tube, respec- Salmonella sp. and Shigella sp. are
tively, and mixed thoroughly. In each case a allochthonous which are introduced through
controlled set was run parallelly. The inoculated agricultural, urban surface run-off, wastewater
test tubes were incubated at 36 1 C after discharges and from domestic and wild animals.
24 2 h, and the inoculated tubes were exam- Most of the Vibrios and Salmonella sp. are path-
ined for growth of gas and acidic reaction. If ogenic to humans and some have fatal infections
there was no gas and acid reaction, the tubes (Blake et al. 1980; Grimes 1975; Carlson
were re-examined and re-incubated at the end et al. 1968; Gerba and Schaiberger 1975).
Infections with Vibrios are known to be during the study period. The station-wise order
associated with either consumption of seafood of surface water temperature is Frasergaunje
or exposure to marine environment (Raveendran (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Sagar Island
et al. 1990). The presence of faecal coliforms (Stn. 6) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) ¼ Haldia (Stn.
forms representative for the assessment of 1) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) ¼ Diamond Harbour (Stn.
coastal recreational water quality. The present 2) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) (Fig. 7B.3).
investigation highlights the occurrence distribu- In April 2013, the surface water temperature
tion pattern of enteric pathogens in marine water. ranged from 32.2 0.2 C to 33.1 0.2 C
It also evaluates the influence of anthropogenic during the study period. The station-wise order
inputs and raw sewage on the incidence of these of surface water temperature is Frasergaunje
bacteria in and around Indian Sundarbans. (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) ¼ Sagar Island
The microbial load is also influenced by (Stn. 6) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) ¼ Chemaguri
physico-chemical variables like temperature, (Stn. 5) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Haldia (Stn. 1) >
salinity, pH, etc. The level of DO also fluctuates Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) (Fig. 7B.4).
depending on the microbial load and action. The
present dissertation was therefore undertaken to
5.1.2 Surface Water Salinity
focus the spatio-temporal variations of physico-
In February 2013, the surface water salinity
chemical and microbiological parameter as
ranged from 1.05 0.05 psu to 20.89 0.34
highlighted here:
psu during the study period. The station-wise
order of surface water salinity is Frasergaunje
5.1 Physico-chemical Parameters
(Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Sagar Island
(Stn. 6) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Kachuberia
5.1.1 Surface Water Temperature
(Stn. 4) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Diamond Harbour
In February 2013, the surface water temperature
(Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. 1) (Fig. 7B.5).
ranged from 26.8 0.1 C to 27.1 0.1 C
In March 2013, the surface water salinity
during the study period. The station-wise order
ranged from 2.89 0.05 psu to 24.89 0.20
of surface water temperature is Frasergaunje
psu during the study period. The station-wise
(Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) ¼ Sagar Island
order of surface water salinity is Frasergaunje
(Stn. 6) ¼ Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Chemaguri (Stn.
(Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Sagar Island
5) ¼ Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn.
(Stn. 6) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Kachuberia
2) ¼ Kachuberia (Stn. 4) (Fig. 7B.2).
(Stn. 4) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Diamond Harbour
In March 2013, the surface water temperature
(Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. 1) (Fig. 7B.6).
ranged from 28.8 0.1 C to 30.7 0.1 C
Fig. 7B.2 Surface water temperature ( C) in the selected stations during February 2013
Fig. 7B.3 Surface water temperature ( C) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.4 Surface water temperature ( C) in the selected stations during April 2013
Fig. 7B.5 Surface water salinity (‰) in the selected stations during February 2013
In April 2013, the surface water salinity (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Sagar Island
ranged from 7.12 0.08 psu to 29.55 0.05 (Stn. 6) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Kachuberia
psu during the study period. The station-wise (Stn. 4) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Diamond Harbour
order of surface water salinity is Frasergaunje (Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. 1) (Fig. 7B.7).
Fig. 7B.6 Surface water salinity (‰) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.7 Surface water salinity (‰) in the selected stations during April 2013
Fig. 7B.8 Surface water pH in the selected stations during February 2013
5.1.3 Surface Water pH is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) >

In February 2013, the surface water pH ranged Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) >
from 7.89 0.01 to 8.28 0.02 during the study Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Diamond
period. The station-wise order of surface water pH Harbour (Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. 1) (Fig. 7B.8).
Fig. 7B.9 Surface water pH in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.10 Surface water pH in the selected stations during April 2013
In March 2013, the surface water pH ranged 5.1.4 Surface Water Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
from 7.90 0.01 to 8.29 0.02 during the In February 2013, the surface water dissolved
study period. The station-wise order of surface oxygen ranged from 4.99 1.23 (mg/L) to
water pH is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana 5.98 1.35 (mg/L) during the study period.
(Stn. 7) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Chemaguri The station-wise order of surface water DO is
(Stn. 5) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Lot 8 (Stn. Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) >
3) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Diamond Harbour (Stn.
1) (Fig. 7B.9). 2) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Frasergaunje (Stn.
In April 2013, the surface water pH ranged 8) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Haldia (Stn. 1)
from 8.10 0.02 to 8.32 0.01 during the (Fig. 7B.11).
study period. The station-wise order of surface In March 2013, the surface water dissolved
water pH is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana oxygen ranged from 4.93 1.23 (mg/L) to
(Stn. 7) ¼ Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Chemaguri 6.02 1.03 (mg/L) during the study period.
(Stn. 5) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Lot 8 (Stn. The station-wise order of surface water DO is
3) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) >
1) (Fig. 7B.10). Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) >
Fig. 7B.11 Surface water DO (mg/L) in the selected stations during February 2013
Fig. 7B.12 Surface water DO (mg/L) in the selected stations during March 2013
Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Dia- The station-wise order of surface water nitrate
mond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. 1) is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Haldia (Stn. 1) >
(Fig. 7B.12). Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Diamond
In April 2013, the surface water dissolved Harbour (Stn. 2) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) >
oxygen ranged from 4.88 1.33 (mg/L) to Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6)
5.45 1.13 (mg/L) during the study period. (Fig. 7B.14).
The station-wise order of surface water DO is In March 2013, the surface water nitrate
Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > ranged from 15.30 0.76 (mg/L) to
Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > 26.33 1.04 (mg/L) during the study period.
Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > The station-wise order of surface water nitrate
Haldia (Stn. 1) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) is Haldia (Stn. 1) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) >
(Fig. 7B.13) Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Diamond
Harbour (Stn. 2) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) >
5.1.5 Surface Water Nitrate Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6)
In February 2013, the surface water nitrate (Fig. 7B.15).
ranged from 18.32 1.04 (mg/L) to In April 2013, the surface water nitrate ranged
29.88 1.31 (mg/L) during the study period. from 14.21 0.76 (mg/L) to 24.33 1.01
Fig. 7B.13 Surface water DO (mg/L) in the selected stations during April 2013
Fig. 7B.14 Surface water nitrate (mg/L) in the selected stations during February 2013
(mg/L) during the study period. The station-wise 8) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Namkhana (Stn.
order of surface water nitrate is Haldia (Stn. 1) > 7) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) (Fig. 7B.17).
Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > In March 2013, the surface water phosphate
Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > ranged from 1.29 0.10 (mg/L) to 2.83 0.81
Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > (mg/L) during the study period. The station-wise
Sagar Island (Stn. 6) (Fig. 7B.16). order of surface water phosphate is Haldia (Stn.
1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Lot 8 (Stn.
5.1.6 Surface Water Phosphate 3) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Frasergaunje (Stn.
In February 2013, the surface water phosphate 8) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Namkhana (Stn.
ranged from 1.32 0.49 (mg/L) to 3.14 0.91 7) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) (Fig. 7B.18).
(mg/L) during the study period. The station-wise In April 2013, the surface water phosphate
order of surface water phosphate is Haldia (Stn. ranged from 1.09 0.11 (mg/L) to 2.11 0.81
1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Lot 8 (Stn. (mg/L) during the study period. The station-wise
3) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Frasergaunje (Stn. order of surface water phosphate is Haldia (Stn.
Fig. 7B.15 Surface water nitrate (mg/L) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.16 Surface water nitrate (mg/L) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.17 Surface water phosphate (mg/L) in the selected stations during February 2013
Fig. 7B.18 Surface water phosphate (mg/L) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.19 Surface water phosphate (mg/L) in the selected stations during April 2013
1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Lot 8 (Stn. 76.57 1.99 (mg/L) during the study period.
3) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Chemaguri (Stn. The station-wise order of surface water silicate
5) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. is Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) >
7) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) (Fig. 7B.19). Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Frasergaunje (Stn.
8) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Diamond Harbour (Stn.
5.1.7 Surface Water Silicate 2) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Haldia (Stn. 1)
In February 2013, the surface water silicate ranged (Fig. 7B.21).
from 49.84 3.42 (mg/L) to 81.22 3.93 In April 2013, the surface water silicate
(mg/L) during the study period. The station-wise ranged from 41.90 3.42 (mg/L) to
order of surface water silicate is Sagar Island (Stn. 66.44 2.05 (mg/L) during the study period.
6) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Frasergaunje (Stn. The station-wise order of surface water silicate
8) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Kachuberia (Stn. is Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) >
4) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Chemaguri (Stn.
2) > Haldia (Stn. 1) (Fig. 7B.20). 5) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) >
In March 2013, the surface water silicate Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. 1)
ranged from 44.32 3.42 (mg/L) to (Fig. 7B.22).
Fig. 7B.20 Surface water silicate (mg/L) in the selected stations during February 2013
Fig. 7B.21 Surface water silicate (mg/L) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.22 Surface water silicate (mg/L) in the selected stations during April 2013
5.2 Microbial Load 354 190 (MPN/100 ml) during the study
period. The station-wise order of faecal coliform
5.2.1 Total Coliform count is Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour
In February 2013, the total coliform count ranged (Stn. 2) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Frasergaunje
from 22 4 (MPN/100 ml) to 391 80 (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Lot 8 (Stn.
(MPN/100 ml) during the study period. The 3) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Chemaguri (Stn.
station-wise order of total coliform count is 5) (Fig. 7B.26).
Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > In March 2013, the faecal coliform count
Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > ranged from 10 1 (MPN/100 ml) to
Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Lot 300 80 (MPN/100 ml) during the study
8 (Stn. 3) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) (Fig. 7B.23) period. The station-wise order of faecal coliform
In March 2013, the total coliform count count is Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour
ranged from 20 5 (MPN/100 ml) to (Stn. 2) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Frasergaunje
356 80 (MPN/100 ml) during the study (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Lot 8 (Stn.
period. The station-wise order of total coliform 3) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) ¼ Sagar Island (Stn.
count is Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour 6) (Fig. 7B.27).
(Stn. 2) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Frasergaunje In April 2013, the faecal coliform count
(Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Kachuberia ranged from 5 1 (MPN/100 ml) to 267 75
(Stn. 4) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) (MPN/100 ml) during the study period. The
(Fig. 7B.24). station-wise order of faecal coliform count is
In April 2013, the total coliform count ranged Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) >
from 12 1 (MPN/100 ml) to 309 80 Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) >
(MPN/100 ml) during the study period. The Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) >
station-wise order of total coliform count is Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6)
Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > (Fig. 7B.28).
Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) >
Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) >
5.2.3 Total Bacterial Count (TBC)
Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3)
In February 2013, the total bacterial count ranged
(Fig. 7B.25).
from 5.76 0.01 (CFU 106/ml) to
17.11 0.12 (CFU 10 /ml) during the study
6
5.2.2 Faecal Coliform (FC) period. The station-wise order of TBC is

In February 2013, the faecal coliform count Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) >
ranged from 2 1 (MPN/100 ml) to Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Lot 8 (Stn.
Fig. 7B.23 Total coliform count (MPN/100 ml) in the selected stations during February 2013
Fig. 7B.24 Total coliform count (MPN/100 ml) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.25 Total coliform count (MPN/100 ml) in the selected stations during April 2013
Fig. 7B.26 Faecal coliform count (MPN/100 ml) in the selected stations during February 2013
3) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. 16.94 0.02 (CFU 106/ml) during the study
1) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) period. The station-wise order of TBC is
(Fig. 7B.29). Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn.
In March 2013, the total bacterial count 7) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) >
ranged from 0.68 0.01 (CFU 106/ml) to Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Haldia (Stn. 1) >
Fig. 7B.27 Faecal coliform count (MPN/100 ml) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.28 Faecal coliform count (MPN/100 ml) in the selected stations during April 2013
Fig. 7B.29 TBC (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during February 2013
Fig. 7B.30 TBC (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.31 TBC (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during April 2013
Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) 5.2.4 E. coli Count

(Fig. 7B.30). In February 2013, the E. coli count ranged from
In April 2013, the total bacterial count ranged 0.01 0.001 (CFU 106/ml) to 19.89 0.12
from 2.50 0.01 (CFU 106/ml) to (CFU 106/ml) during the study period. The
16.00 0.15 (CFU 106/ml) during the study station-wise order of E. coli count is
period. The station-wise order of TBC is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn.
Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) >
7) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Haldia (Stn. 1) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Dia-
Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. mond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4)
2) > Haldia (Stn. 1) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) (Fig. 7B.32).
(Fig. 7B.31).
Fig. 7B.32 E. coli count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during February 2013
Fig. 7B.33 E. coli count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during March 2013
In March 2013, the E. coli count ranged from 5.2.5 Vibrio sp. Count
0.002 0.001 (CFU 106/ml) to 18.55 0.12 In February 2013, the Vibrio sp. count ranged
(CFU 106/ml) during the study period. The from 0.10 0.01 (CFU 106/ml) to
station-wise order of E. coli count is 2.20 0.09 (CFU 10 /ml) during the study
6
Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > period. The station-wise order of Vibrio
Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > sp. count is Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > Sagar Island
Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Haldia (Stn. 1) > Dia- (Stn. 6) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Namkhana (Stn.
mond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) 7) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Haldia (Stn. 1) >
(Fig. 7B.33). Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Kachuberia (Stn.
In April 2013, the E. coli count ranged from 4) (Fig. 7B.35).
0.01 0.001 (CFU 106/ml) to 17.89 0.05 In March 2013, the Vibrio sp. count ranged
(CFU 106/ml) during the study period. The from 0.00 (CFU 106/ml) to 16.0 0.11 (CFU
station-wise order of E. coli count is 106/ml) during the study period. The station-
Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. wise order of Vibrio sp. count is Chemaguri (Stn.
7) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > 5) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Frasergaunje (Stn.
Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Sagar Island (Stn. 8) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Haldia (stn1) > Diamond
6) > Haldia (Stn. 1) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) Harbour (Stn. 2) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Sagar
(Fig. 7B.34). Island (Stn. 6) (Fig. 7B.36).
Fig. 7B.34 E. coli count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during April 2013
Fig. 7B.35 Vibrio sp. count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during February 2013
In April 2013, the Vibrio sp. count ranged 4) ¼ Chemaguri (Stn. 5) ¼ Sagar Island (Stn.
from 0.00 (CFU 106/ml) to 0.90 0.01 (CFU 6) (Fig. 7B.38).
106/ml) during the study period. The station- In March 2013, the Streptococcus sp. count
wise order of Vibrio sp. count is Chemaguri (Stn. ranged from 0.00 (CFU 106/ml) to
5) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 0.30 0.01 (CFU 106/ml) during the study
8) > Haldia (stn1) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Diamond period. The station-wise order of Streptococcus
Harbour (Stn. 2) ¼ Kachuberia (Stn. 4) > Sagar sp. count is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Haldia
Island (Stn. 6) (Fig. 7B.37). (stn1) > Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Diamond Har-
bour (Stn. 2) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Kachuberia
(Stn. 4) ¼ Chemaguri (Stn. 5) ¼ Sagar Island
5.2.6 Streptococcus sp. Count (Stn. 6) (Fig. 7B.39).
In February 2013, the Streptococcus sp. count In April 2013, the Streptococcus sp. count
ranged from 0.00 (CFU 106/ml) to ranged from 0.00 (CFU 106/ml) to
0.33 0.02 (CFU 106/ml) during the study 0.30 0.01 (CFU 106/ml) during the study
period. The station-wise order of Streptococcus period. The station-wise order of Streptococcus
sp. count is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana sp. count is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana
(Stn. 7) > Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 7) ¼ Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour
(Stn. 2) ¼ Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Kachuberia (Stn. (Stn. 2) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Kachuberia (Stn.
Fig. 7B.36 Vibrio

sp. count (CFU 106/ml)
in the selected stations
during March 2013
Fig. 7B.37 Vibrio sp. count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during April 2013
4) ¼ Chemaguri (Stn. 5) ¼ Sagar Island (Stn. 6) count is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn.
(Fig. 7B.40). 7) > Haldia (Stn. 1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn.
2) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) >
5.2.7 Salmonella sp. Count Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4)
In February 2013, the Salmonella sp. count (Fig. 7B.41).
ranged from 0.02 0.001 (CFU 106/ml) to In March 2013, the Salmonella sp. count
0.82 0.04 (CFU 106/ml) during the study ranged from 1.65 0.01 (CFU 106/ml) to
period. The station-wise order of Salmonella sp. 90.8 0.03 (CFU 106/ml) during the study
Fig. 7B.38 Streptococcus sp. count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during February 2013
Fig. 7B.39 Streptococcus sp. count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during March 2013
Fig. 7B.40 Streptococcus sp. count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during April 2013
period. The station-wise order of Salmonella sp. 1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. 2) > Chemaguri
count is Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > (Stn. 5) > Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Kachuberia
Namkhana (Stn. 7) > Haldia (Stn. (Stn. 4) (Fig. 7B.42).
Fig. 7B.41 Salmonella sp. count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during February 2013
Fig. 7B.42 Salmonella sp. count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during March 2013
In April 2013, the Salmonella sp. count is a priority to some organizations in Europe as
ranged from 1.25 0.01 (CFU 106/ml) to stipulated by Kirschner et al. (2009). This
75.40 0.13 (CFU 106/ml) during the study microbiological data in the Sundarbans estuary
period. The station-wise order of Salmonella sp. gives a strong signal to the environmental com-
count is Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) > Namkhana (Stn. munity to embark on the creation of water treat-
7) > Haldia (stn1) > Diamond Harbour (Stn. ment facilities in order to prevent the
2) > Lot 8 (Stn. 3) > Chemaguri (Stn. 5) > transmission of communicable diseases by popu-
Sagar Island (Stn. 6) > Kachuberia (Stn. 4) lation that explore its water, as total and faecal
(Fig. 7B.43). pollution is a crucial problem affecting most
urban water systems (Eleria 2002).
The monthly values are very important with
6. Discussion values reaching 391 80 (MPN/100 ml) in
February at Haldia (Stn. 1) for total coliforms.
Microbiological water quality investigations of These pathogens will keep on accumulating in
lotic and lentic ecosystems are very rare, despite the open system (Bell et al. 1994). The values
their importance in accompanying the role of obtained could be spatio-temporarily linked to
large water bodies for cases of recreation, tour- the number of visitors in this ecosystem and
ism and aquaculture. An attempt to adequately also the role played by point and non-point
monitor scientific data in large-scale river bodies sources in the biocontamination of aquatic
Fig. 7B.43 Salmonella sp. count (CFU 106/ml) in the selected stations during April 2013
ecosystem (Cieslak et al. 1993; Kelsey cause stomach and intestinal illness including
et al. 2004). These pathogens could be free liv- diarrhoea and nausea.
ing, particle associated or in an intermediary The Hooghly estuary is the lifeline of the
state, depending on the organic and inorganic highly urbanized city of Kolkata and supports
condition of the medium as stipulated in the industry of crucial economic importance. The
findings of Basemer et al. (2005). surrounding area is a complex mixture of com-
Rainfall–storm water run-off is a significant mercial, industrial, agricultural and residential
source of pollutants to the river, which can development. The watershed provides important
include bacteria, viruses and sediment, to which services for drinking water, wildlife habitat, rec-
the substrate pollutants attached as indicated by reation (swimming, fishing, boating), pilgrimage
Mallin et al. (2000). Storm rainfall and transportation. The mixed use of the water-
characteristics and conditions prior to the storms shed results in a complex pattern of waste and
are significant factors in the transport and pollutant input that alters ecosystem health.
concentrations of pollutants in the river. Stream Microbes play an important role in determining
flow–river flow is the primary transport media of water quality (nutrient concentration, clarity,
faecal coliform bacteria (Christensen oxygen levels, pathogen load) by controlling the
et al. 2000). internal transformations, but their activity is
Among the diseases associated with poor modulated by the system’s variable environmen-
microbial water quality, those causing tal conditions.
dehydrating diarrhoea are of critical importance The present dissertation focuses the following
as they could lead to death within 48 h after the points:
initial symptoms as analyzed in the findings of
Manja et al. (1982). These extreme cases are • There is an increasing trend in surface water
more predominant in countries where temperature, salinity, pH and silicates while
overcrowding and poor sanitary conditions are approaching from upstream to downstream
the norm (Francy et al. 2002). The presence of region. This may be because of the effects of
faecal coliforms indicates the contamination of the tidal action from Bay of Bengal, which is
water with faecal waste that may contain other in the south of selected stations. The surface
harmful or disease-causing microorganisms, water dissolved oxygen concentration, nitrate
including bacteria, viruses, protozoa or other and phosphate did not show any general spa-
infectious agents (Brewster et al. 1994). Drinking tial trend. The anthropogenic activities basi-
water contaminated with these organisms can cally control the concentration of dissolved
Table 7B.4 ANOVA: showing variation of hydrological Table 7B.5 ANOVA: showing variation of microbial
parameters between stations and months (for physico- load between stations and months (for microbial
chemical parameters) parameters)
Variables Fcal Fcrit Variables Fcal Fcrit
Surface water temperature Total coliform (TC) count
Between stations 2.71 2.76 Between stations 105.62 2.76
Between months 719.21 3.74 Between months 8.06 3.74
Surface water salinity Faecal coliform (FC) count
Surface water pH Total bacterial count (TBC)
Surface water dissolved oxygen E. coli count
Surface water nitrate Vibrio sp. count
Surface water phosphate Streptococcus sp. count
Surface water silicate Salmonella sp. count
oxygen, nitrate and phosphate through sewage • ANOVA revealed significant monthly
and other waste disposals. Haldia (Stn. 1), variations ( p < 0.01) in total coliform count,
Namkhana (Stn. 7) and Frasergaunje (Stn. 8) faecal coliform count, total bacterial count,
sustain port, industries, hotels and tourism E. coli count, Vibrio sp. count, Streptococcus
units and fish landing stations. These point sp. count and Salmonella sp. count
sources generate wastes of complex (exceptions are observed in case of E. coli
characters due to which the nitrates and count and Vibrio sp. count). However, the
phosphates exhibited comparatively higher statistical difference is not significant between
values in these stations. stations in case of Vibrio sp. count as Fcal
• ANOVA revealed significant monthly (1.58) is less than Fcrit (2.76). In case of Sal-
variations ( p < 0.01) in surface water tem- monella sp. count, the statistical difference
perature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, between stations is also not significant as Fcal
nitrate, phosphate and silicate. However, the (2.47) is lower than Fcrit (2.76) (Table 7B.5).
statistical difference is not significant between
stations in case of surface water temperature
as Fcal (2.71) is less than Fcrit (2.76). In case of
other physico-chemical variables like surface 7. Conclusion
water salinity, pH, DO, nitrate, phosphate and
silicate, significant differences between It is very difficult to come to a solid conclusion
stations were observed (Table 7B.4). All with a meagre data of 3 months. A long-term
these are related to nature and magnitude of study is required (at least 2 years) to monitor the
human/anthropogenic activities. seasonal effects of physico-chemical parameters.
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Adaptation of Marine and Estuarine
Organisms 8
Contents 8.1 Adaptation of Organisms

8.1 Adaptation of Organisms in the Intertidal Zone
in the Intertidal Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.2 Adaptation of Organisms Inhabiting The intertidal zone can be considered as the zone
Deep Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 of intersection between land and the sea, which
Annexure 8A: Signals of Salinity Fluctuation remains inundated during high tide and becomes
in Nypa fruticans Seedling Growth, a Case naked (exposed to air only) during low tide. The
Study from the Lower Gangetic Plain . . . . . . . . . . . 324 region may be rocky (Fig. 8.1), sandy (Fig. 8.2)
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 or muddy (Fig. 8.3).
The intertidal zone may be conveniently
divided into upper intertidal, mid-intertidal, low
intertidal and subtidal zones (Fig. 8.4). The upper
intertidal zone receives very little water and
subtidal zone remains under water in most of
the time. The spray or splash zone is followed
by the upper intertidal zone. For convenience of
the readers, each of these zones is discussed here
separately.
Spray or Splash Zone This zone extends from

the highest reach of spray and storm waves to the
average height of the high tides. It is usually dry
with poor biodiversity. Species found in the
splash zone might include small barnacles
(Fig. 8.5) and gastropods. Mangrove species
with xerophytic adaptation like Acanthus
ilicifolius is abundantly found in this zone.
Upper or High Intertidal Zone This zone is

covered with water during highest tide and is
the survival ground of acorn barnacles, sea

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_8
304 8 Adaptation of Marine and Estuarine Organisms
Fig. 8.1 Rocky intertidal zone
anemones (Fig. 8.6), shore crabs, etc. Several Subtidal The zone remains under saline water
species of seaweeds are also found in this zone. and sustains floral species like kelp (Fig. 8.11),
In the tropical belt, several mangrove associ- bottom-dwelling invertebrates and several spe-
ate species like Suaeda sp. (Fig. 8.7) and cies of fishes.
Porteresia coarctata (Fig. 8.8) are abundantly The presence or absence of water, the oscilla-
distributed in the upper or high intertidal zone. tion and range of temperature, wave action, vari-
ation in salinity (saltiness), exposure to light and
Mid-intertidal Zone This zone extends from other factors determine the type of organisms
just below average sea level to the upper limit that are able to survive comfortably in each
of the average lowest tides (i.e. it is exposed at zone. In general, physical factors, especially
low tides—usually twice a day). This zone has exposure to drying, limit how far up on shore
rich taxonomic diversity and sustains organisms an organism can live. An organism’s lower limit
like mussels, oysters, anemones, chitons is often determined by competition or predators
(Fig. 8.9), sponges and several species of living in the lower zone.
macroalgae. Organisms of the marine and estuarine
organisms orient themselves in different ways
Low Intertidal Zone This zone remains under in different categories of intertidal habitats,
water during maximum period and is exposed e.g. the mode of adaptation of organisms
only during lowest tide. Chitons, crabs and sea inhabiting hard substratum (like rocky shore) is
urchins (Fig. 8.10) are the common fauna in this totally different from those inhabiting soft bot-
zone. Among the flora, kelp is predominant. tom (sandy or muddy substratum). Thus, the
8.1 Adaptation of Organisms in the Intertidal Zone 305
Fig. 8.2 Sandy intertidal zone
Fig. 8.3 Muddy intertidal zone

Spray Zone
Extreme High Tide
Positive Tide
Standard Tide Height (0 ft)

Negative Tide
Extreme Low Tide
Upper Intertidal Mid-Intertidal Low Intertidal Subtidal
Intertidal Zones
Fig. 8.4 Zonation of the intertidal zone
Fig. 8.5 Spray or splash

zone with small barnacles
nature of the substratum is a determining factor community are observed. The segregation of
in the process of adaptation. organisms into such definite bands or zones on
the rocky substratum is referred to as zonation.
The uppermost area of the rocky shore, which is
8.1.1 Adaptation of Biota Inhabiting covered only by the highest (spring) tides and is
Rocky Shore exposed to spray from the splashing of waves, is
the supratidal or splash zone. The subtidal
Rocky shore provides a relatively stable surface zone is the region of the shore that is covered
for attachment of organisms. As the tide retreats by water, even during low tide. The intertidal
from a rocky shore, the higher regions of the zone lies between the supratidal zone and
coast become completely exposed to air. On subtidal zone and is exposed and covered during
close examination of this region, horizontal low and high tides respectively on regular basis.
bands or zones inhabited by specific set of The intertidal rocky shore is characterized by the
Fig. 8.6 Upper or high

intertidal zone with
anemones
Fig. 8.7 Abundance of Suaeda maritima in the upper or high intertidal zone
abundance of light, water, nutrients, dissolved organs has become important criteria of the
oxygen, etc. There is luxuriant floral diversity organisms inhabiting the zone. In addition the
in the intertidal rocky shore, which offers shel- rocky shore organisms have developed unique
ter to a wide variety of animal species. The adaptations to get rid of desiccation. Few
animals are usually sessile and sedentary in important adaptive modifications are discussed
nature. Hence, development of attachment here:
Fig. 8.8 Porteresia coarctata in the upper or high intertidal zone
(b) Ascidians and polyzoans have devel-

oped efficient sense organs.
(c) Balanus and bivalves have developed
thick test.
(d) Mytilus sp. have developed special
organs for attachment in the form of
byssus threads.
(e) Rock urchins hollow out cavities in the
rocks.
(f) Sea stars use suction cups on the ends of
their tube feet to cling to the surface of
rocks.
2. To conserve water and to avoid desiccation,
Fig. 8.9 Upper or high intertidal zone with chiton animals have developed dwelling habits in
crevices. These shelters not only help in
1. To get rid from the strong wave actions, most preventing desiccation but also from escap-
of the rocky shore organisms have developed ing the pounding action of the waves.
a very powerful holdfast or any other 3. During unfavourable environmental
attaching organs. Due to this sedentary conditions, many animals (mainly
mode of life, several morphological changes gastropods) are able to remain for long
have taken place in the organisms of this periods in a condition of suspended activity.
zone such as the following: 4. Animals like limpets remain in a fixed position
(a) Mytilus sp. and Ostrea sp. have lost relative to water level for a given tidal height
their locomotory organs. by the help of scar marks. Scars due to
Fig. 8.10 Low intertidal

zone with sea urchin
Fig. 8.11 Subtidal zone

with floral species
adhesion to the rocky surface mark their home the collar of the animal replaces this. This tube
territory or home base. Several interesting is firmly cemented to the substratum.
mechanisms of attachment are observed in 5. To get rid from the pounding action of the
animals inhabiting rocky shore. Sessile waves, many animals (particularly
animals, which permanently attach themselves gastropods) take shelter in the seaweed com-
to one spot for life, use various cementing munity of the rocky shore, which acts as
substances. Spirorbid polychaetes attach tem- cushion. It has been found that the number
porarily by mucus secreted from ventral of rocky individuals per 1000 g of seaweeds
glands. They then spread the contents of the varies from 44 to about 13,000. In the
shell gland over the body by rolling from side Enteromorpha bed of Sundarbans, Littorina
to side (Nott 1973). A further secretion from spp. are found in plenty.
the ventral gland (now on the upper surface) is 6. To reduce friction many rocky shore animals
used to create a primary mucus tube. After have developed flattened body such as
metamorphosis, a calcareous tube secreted by Oscarella sp., leaf-like turbellarians,
tunicates and certain crabs like Sesarma southern Chile. Lessonia has a strong, stiff
sp. In molluscs, the shells of species in stipe that bends with the flow. In contrast, the
areas with considerable water movement elastic stipe and stretchy blade of Durvillaea
tend to be flatter, with large apertures sp. allow it to align with the flow completely.
providing a greater attachment area to the Flexible stipes that can be bent parallel with
substratum. water movements reduce the stress on the
7. Many rocky shore animals have developed a thallus and result in the plant being closer
peculiar mechanism for shifting their orien- to the rock where movement is less. These
tation in response to tidal cycle. The inter- structures respond best to the chaotic multi-
tidal periwinkle Littorina sp. orients their directional water movements typical of
body in response to high tide and low tide. exposed shores. In the North Atlantic, flexi-
8. The animals living on exposed rocks have ble elastic stipes are found in species from
developed various defence mechanisms such wave-exposed sites, such as Alaria
as spicules in sponges and stinging cells in esculenta.
coelenterates. 14. Avoiding dislodgement by wave action is a
9. Many animals of the rocky shore exhibit the major priority for rocky shore species, but
phenomenon of concealing mimicry in still all seaweeds require some degree of
which the body colour matches with the water movement to break down the bound-
background substratum. Crabs like Sesarma ary layer around the thallus. Materials have
sp. are notable example in this context. to diffuse in and out of the plant through this
10. Many organisms like the fiddler crabs have layer of slowly moving fluid, so that the
developed certain adaptations to cope with thicker the boundary layers the slower the
the tidal cycle that enable the animals to uptake of materials. In still water, the bound-
exploit the advantages of living in the stress- ary layer can be several millimetres thick.
ful condition. They have internal biological Many species have a surface of spiny
clocks that help to perform their feeding outgrowths (Macrocystis pyrifera), wavy
activity during the most favourable period margins (Laminaria saccharina) or even
of tidal cycle. holes or undulations in the blade (Agarum
11. Many plants develop strong holdfast and cribrosum, Laminaria saccharina) which are
float to escape from the pounding action of thought to enhance the turbulence in water
the waves. The large brown algae (Lami- flowing over the lamina and hence allow
naria sp.) have this type of adaptation. greater uptake of raw materials for photosyn-
12. Many plants develop a complex tissue dif- thesis. There is also evidence that fucoids
ferentiation as anatomical adaptation for the grow hair-like protrusions during periods of
rocky intertidal zone. In kelp, the tissue dif- low nutrient concentration and that these are
ferentiation is very complex with an outer involved in nutrient uptake (Hurd
epidermis, outer and inner cortex, and a cen- et al. 1993).
tral medulla. Trumpet hyphae and sieve like
elements are common in the medulla. It has
been found that the medullary cells are the
sites of translocation in Kelps (Schmitz and 8.1.2 Adaptation of Biota Inhabiting
Srivastava 1980). Soft Substratum
13. Different seaweeds may cope with the same
wave conditions in different ways, as shown The term soft substratum in marine ecology
by Lessonia nigrescens and Durvillaea refers to intertidal zone with dominancy of
antarctica, both of which occur in the sand, silt, clay, etc. Both sandy and muddy
exposed sublittoral zone of central and beaches are thus encompassed within the domain
Fig. 8.12 Muddy substratum with mangrove trees
of soft substratum. The muddy substratum Mudflats also known as tidal flats are coastal
sustains a wide spectrum of vegetation, mostly wetlands that form when mud is deposited by
mangroves (Fig. 8.12). tides or rivers. They are found in sheltered areas
Sandy shores occupy maximum percentage of such as bays, bayous, lagoons and estuaries.
the world shoreline and are made up of sand, Mudflats may be viewed geologically as exposed
gravel or shells. The environment is extremely layers of bay mud, resulting from deposition of
dynamic in nature where the sand particles are estuarine silts, clays and marine animal detritus.
always in a state of motion due to action of Most of the sediment within a mudflat is within
waves, tides and air. Fine-grained sand beaches the intertidal zone, and thus the flat is submerged
tend to be quite flat (Fig. 8.13). and exposed approximately twice daily. In the
Sandy beaches are soft shores that are formed past tidal flats were considered unhealthy, eco-
by deposition of particles that have been carried nomically unimportant areas and were often
by water currents from other areas. The dredged and developed into agricultural land.
transported material is in part derived from the Tidal flats, along with intertidal salt marshes
erosion of shores, but the major part is derived and mangrove forests, are important ecosystems.
from the land and transported by rivers to the They usually support a large population of wild-
sea. The two main types of beach material are life and are a key habitat that allows tens of
quartz (silica) sands of terrestrial origin and millions of migratory shorebirds to migrate
carbonate sands of marine origin. The carbonate from breeding sites in the northern hemisphere
sand is weathered from mollusc shells and to nonbreeding areas in the southern hemisphere.
skeletons of other animals. Other materials They are often of vital importance to migratory
include heavy minerals, basalt (volcanic origin) birds, as well as certain species of crabs,
and feldspar. molluscs and fish. The mudflats in Sundarbans,
Fig. 8.13 Flat sandy beach
at the apex of Bay of Bengal, are the home sp., Arenaeus sp., Lysiosquilla sp., Callianassa
ground of Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris sp., etc. The sandy shore is highly unstable due to
tigris) (Fig. 8.14) and their prey base like deer, movement of the sediments by current and tides.
monkeys, etc. (Fig. 8.15). The most important factor in determining the
The organisms thriving on/in the soft substra- distribution of life on sandy beaches is wave
tum adapt themselves on the basis of the nature action, because the waves regulate the availabil-
and composition of the soft substratum. For con- ity of the amount of moisture and oxygen to the
venience of the readers, the adaptations of organisms. In addition the nutritional
organisms inhabiting sandy or muddy substratum requirements of the sandy shore organisms is
are discussed separately. also fulfilled by waves as they carry plankton
and remove large amounts of organic material
8.1.2.1 Adaptation of Biota Inhabiting from the beach, leaving little for scavengers to
Sandy Shore consume. For an organism to survive in this
A sandy shore would seem at first to be a rigorous hostile environment, the wave action must be
habitat, with poor biodiversity, but it is better able to meet the organism’s specific needs for
populated than first appearances indicate. Most food, oxygen and waste removal. Based on the
of the larger animals are specialized burrowers, magnitude and type of wave action, sandy
and the diatoms, amphipods and other infauna, beaches can be classified into four broad
which live among the sand grains, would not be divisions (Table 8.1).
noticed at first sight. Some common sand The unfavourable situation in the sandy shore
burrowers are Callinectes sp., Ogyris sp., is usually avoided by biota through the process of
Lepidopa sp., Calappa sp., Ovalipes sp., Emerita burrowing. Most intertidal macrofauna of sandy
Fig. 8.14 Royal Bengal tiger on Sundarban mudflats
Fig. 8.15 Deer population on the intertidal mudflats of Sundarbans

Table 8.1 Classification of sandy beaches by exposure

Criterion Exposed Semi-exposed Protected Highly protected
Wave action High Considerable Low None
Wave types Plunging, surging Spilling – –
Slope Steep Gradual Gradual Flat
Width Narrow Wide Various Extensive
Oxygen Highest – – Lowest
Moisture Lowest – – Highest
Particle size Coarser Finer Finer Varies
Organic matter Lowest – – Highest
Permanent burrows No No Few Very frequently
Plankton diversity Maximum Considerable Medium Low
Bioturbation Very less frequent Less frequent Few Very frequently
shore exploit the physical properties of the sedi- Some adaptations to cope with the unstable
ment in particular dilatancy and thixotropy, to condition of the sandy shore are listed here:
burrow. When the water content becomes less
than 22 % by weight, any force applied upset 1. During unfavourable environmental
the close packing of the grains, and the interstitial conditions, many animals are able to remain
water is no longer able to fill all spaces between for a long period in a condition of suspended
the particles; the sediment becomes hard and activity.
resistant to shear forces. This effect is referred 2. Due to development of burrowing habit, the
to as dilatancy. In contrast, when the water con- organisms of the sandy shore have devel-
tent is above 25 %, there is a reduction in resis- oped certain adaptive features like develop-
tance with increasing rates of shear, and the ment of digging organs as found in Natica
sediment becomes liquefied slurry of grains and sp. and Nassa sp., development of ciliary
water. This condition is called thixotropy. Most mode of feeding as seen in Macoma
burrowing animals use repeated small birmanica, development of highly efficient
penetrations to displace sediments, making use respiratory devices, etc.
of their thixotropic property. Repeated small 3. The process by which the burrowing animals
agitations of the sediment result in the reduction solve the problem of respiration is highly
of the ratio of resistance to penetration by a factor interesting. The decapod, Albunea sp.,
of 10. Subsequently anchorage is achieved by holds both its long antennae together to
dilatancy and the process is then repeated. The form a long tube through which water is
molluscan species thriving in the sand–mud sucked for breathing purpose. Arenicola has
mixed substratum exhibits habitat selection with a series of gills on the side of the middle
respect to texture of the underlying matrix. The portion of the body, which are very efficient
distribution of infauna is regulated by the grain for water exchange with the ambient aquatic
size or texture of the bottom. Determining the phase.
sand–silt–clay ratio has considerable predictive 4. To carry out the process of burrowing very
value as to the kinds of organisms to be expected efficiently, Solen and Donax have flattened
(Odum 1971). The method of feeding by the shape. Natica and Nassa have expanded foot
benthos undergoes an interesting change along for the purpose of burrowing and creeping.
a sand–mud gradient. The filter-feeding In some polychaetes, the blisters are very
organisms dominate the sandy matrix, while poorly developed to avoid friction during
deposit feeders are common on the silty or the time of their entry inside the sandy
muddy substrates. substratum.
5. Burrowing molluscs have unique food- which becomes more severe with depth and
taking capacity by means of filtering mecha- with finer particles. Most species have
nism. The inhalant siphon helps to draw food appropriate physiological mechanism or
from the upper aquatic phase as seen in behaviours for coping with the problem of
Scrobicularia sp. low levels of oxygen at low tide. Many
6. Burrowing animals like Arenicola sp. can animals have respiratory pigments such as
load oxygen in their body tissues even at haemoglobin of polychaetes and
very low pressure. haemocyanin of decapod crustaceans. Other
7. Many burrowing animals swallow the sand species are able to regulate their oxygen
containing organic detritus as a source of consumption and reduce their activity to
their energy, e.g. Arenicola, Synapta, minimize demand at low tide. In more stable
Balanoglossus, etc. sediments, many species construct semi-
8. Many animals resist the water loss by reduc- permanent burrows, which provide access
ing their body surface area. Sea anemone is a to better-aerated surface water at low tide.
notable example in this context, which can Finally as is the case of many rocky shore
contract their body volume 8.5 times of the species, several species have to resort to
initial volume. anaerobic metabolism for some part of the
9. In some sandy intertidal zone, the impact of low tide period.
current on the substratum is significant. 12. The oxygen concentration is extremely low
Because of the wave and current action, below the chemocline of the redox potential
sediments constantly shift providing an discontinuity (RPD), but sulphide concentra-
unstable environment for sandy beach tion is extremely high, which poses an
organisms. However, an adaptation is adverse impact on the animal community.
noticed in some animals like Dotilla Many of the more familiar infauna, such as
sp. against the constant shifting of the bot- crustaceans, molluscs and annelids, do not
tom sediments. These animals can rotate occur within this black layer, unless they
itself within a fraction of second as soon possess some kind of burrow or tube which
the waves and currents expose them. gives them access to the upper sediment and
10. Certain animals like Donax sp. exhibit a so to oxygenated water. However, many
peculiar shifting behaviour in response to meiofaunal species regularly occur in the
wave action. These animals need moist black layer, and some groups, such as the
sand for survival and cannot stand thrashing Gnathostomulida and the turbellarian
of the waves. Hence, as the wave groups’ Solenomorphidae and Catenulida,
approaches, these animals emerge from the seem restricted to it. The inhabitants of this
sand bed, in response to instability of the black zone and the chemocline may repre-
sand–water mixture, and are carried shore- sent a self-contained sulphide ecosystem or
wards by the wave. As the tidal amplitude thiobios (Fenchel and Redl 1970; Boaden
falls, the animals again emerge by pushing and Platt 1971; Boaden 1989). The
their foot downwards and are carried down organisms found in the overlying oxic sedi-
by the beach to the moist zone. It has been ment, many of which are absent from the
found that only 0.87 cal of energy is thiobios, for example, Proseriata
expended per day for this migratory (Turbellaria), Nemertini, Tardigrada and
behaviour (Ansell and Trueman 1973). Archiannelida, have been termed the
11. The infauna of the sandy beaches may not oxybios. The thiobios are assumed to pos-
suffer the acute desiccation as experienced sess physiological adaptations to a lack of
by the rocky shore species, but they too oxygen and to the presence of toxic
suffer the problem of low level of oxygen, compounds such as hydrogen sulphide and
ammonia. However, Reise and Ax (1979) the sand for the duration of the tide-out
have argued convincingly that the division period. Activity is greater during the night
of sediments into an upper oxic zone and a than in daytime and is also greater on spring,
lower sulphidic region is a gross oversimpli- than neap, tides (review: Naylor 1985).
fication. Many macrofaunal species excavate
burrows, which cross the chemocline and The semiterrestrial amphipod Talitrus has a
create oxic microhabitats within the black circadian rhythm, foraging at night (Williams
zone. While all classic thiobiota seem to 1983). On these excursions, it goes down the
live where the oxygen concentration is effec- beach into the intertidal zone before returning
tively zero, Meyers et al. (1987) found that to the top of the shore. It also exhibits a semilunar
species were zoned in a continuous fashion rhythm, being more active on neap tides, thus
along the oxygen and sulphide concentration avoiding being swept away on spring tides. In
gradients, so that it is probably not sensible addition to the temporal pattern of activity, the
to make a clear distinction between an animals orientate themselves to return to the
oxybios and a thiobios. It is also possible correct position. Transplant experiments to either
that the thiobiotic meiofauna can utilize side of narrow isthmuses have shown that
extremely low concentrations of oxygen Talitrus will hop off in the wrong direction if
that occur in reduced sediments, but which taken to a beach where strand line is in the
are not possible to measure at present. opposite direction (Ugolini et al. 1986). Visual
13. The mole crab Emerita sp. exhibits a unique cues, such as the light/dark boundary on the
sinking behaviour. The species is capable of horizon, have been implicated in this behaviour.
sinking backwards into the sand within a few Interestingly, the orientation behaviour also has a
seconds. These crabs feed by extending their rhythmic component, with an exploratory and a
feathery antennae above the sand and homing phase. Various cues such as changes in
collecting plankton from the flowing water pressure, salinity, agitation, immersion/emersion
during the ingression of tide. or light/dark associated with environmental
14. The activity of intertidal organisms is keyed cycles have been shown to entrain rhythms. The
to the movement of the tides. As the tide accepted general view is of an approximate
moves in, the pace of life begins to quicken. endogenous pacemaker, which modulates activ-
During high tide, bivalves, such as cockles ity patterns and is continually reset by environ-
(Cardium), tellins and surf clams (Spisula), mental cues to local time.
project their siphons from their burrows and
begin to filter the water for food and bathe 8.1.2.2 Adaptation of Biota Inhabiting
their gills with oxygen. Muddy Shore
15. Amphipods and isopods inhabiting sandy The muddy environment in the marine and estu-
substratum show highly rhythmic behaviour arine zone is composed of several categories of
with a strong endogenous component. The sediments and is usually dominated by silty-clay
rhythms are such that animals emerge from type. The substratum is loose unlike rock. Hence,
the sand, feed, and then return to burrow or an interesting adaptation is noticed in the muddy
hide in the strand-line material at the appro- shore biota in respect to their reduction of the
priate tidal level. The midshore isopod body pressure. The muddy substratum is also the
Eurydice pulchra has tidal, daily and semi- zone of maximum amount of detritus, and the
lunar rhythms. It emerges from the sand animals derive their energy mainly from the
where the tide comes in, feeds while swim- decomposed parts of the halophytic species.
ming in the water column, ceases activity Since the detritus is dominated by a large group
before the retreating tide and burrows into of microbes, therefore most of the animals
having their habitat in the muddy substratum regulation, and accordingly three categories
secrete a type of mucous having antibacterial of mangroves have been recognized (Walter
property. 1961), namely, salt-excluding, salt-excreting
Some important adaptations of the biota and salt-accumulating types.
inhabiting this zone are highlighted here:
In salt-excluding species, the root system
1. The body of most animals is very soft; even if possesses an ultrafiltration mechanism, which is
they possess shell, they are very thin. just like an insurance of this particular group to
Nudibranchs are very common in this type of dominate in the mangrove community. Many man-
substratum. grove species can exclude 90 % of salt in seawater.
2. The presence of a long siphon is an important Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops candolleana,
characteristic of the animal (particularly Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Kandelia candel, etc., are
infauna) present in this habitat. Some molluscs few salt excluders of mangrove community.
(like Mya sp., Macoma birmanica, etc.) have The salt-excreting species of mangrove com-
very long inhalant and exhalant siphons. munity like Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina,
3. Mud dwellers are characterized by very Avicennia officinalis, Aegiceras corniculatum,
ill-developed nervous system, e.g. some Acanthus ilicifolius, etc., regulate their internal
sense organs like eye are either degenerated salt levels through foliar glands. However, salt-
or absent. accumulating species has the ability to accumu-
4. Mud dwellers reduce their pressure on the late high concentration of salts in their cells and
loose substratum through the presence of a tissues, which imparts succulence. Sonneratia
broad foot. apetala, Lumnitzera racemosa, Excoecaria
5. The body colour of many animals also agallocha, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Suaeda
matches with that of the substratum. maritima and Suaeda nudiflora are included in
Boleophthalmus sp., Nerita articulata and this particular group of mangrove vegetation.
Onchidium sp. are some of the animals having In salt-secreting (excreting) mangroves such as
their body colour greyish brown. This helps Avicennia sp., Acanthus sp., Aegiceras sp. and
them to escape from their predators. Aegialitis sp., the NaCI concentration of xylem
6. Animals inhabiting muddy substratum are sap is relatively high, about one tenth of the con-
usually detritivores, i.e. the energy for sustain- centration of salt in seawater. So, the salt-
ing life is obtained from the decomposed parts excreting species allow more salt into the xylem
of mangroves and its associates, seaweeds, than do the non-excretors, but still exclude about
salt marsh grass, etc. 90 % of the salts (Scholander et al. 1962; Azocar
7. Many animals develop a tube dwelling habit et al. 1992). Salt is only partially excluded at the
and these tubes are analogous to horizontal roots. The absorbed salt is primarily excreted
tubes. metabolically via specialized salt glands in the
8. Many animals are also burrowing in nature. leaves. The salt in solution can crystallize by
Peachia sp. remains burrowed up to 30 cm evaporation and either can be blown away or
below the surface and the long tentacles reach washed off. Since, in salt-excreting mangroves,
out the burrow for capturing prey. superfluous salts are excreted by guttation through
9. Mangroves are the most important biotic com- special salt glands, all these salt-excreting
ponent inhabiting the muddy substratum in halophytes are often referred as crinohalophytes.
coastal zones. Salt in high concentrations in It is interesting to note that salt excretion is an
plant tissues seems to pose an adverse impact active process, as evidenced by ATPase activity
(although the physiological reason is not in the plasmalemma of the excretory cells
known clearly) and must be largely excluded. (Drennan et al. 1992). The process is probably
All mangroves exclude most of the salt in regulated by leaf hypodermal cells, which may
seawater. Thus, mangroves are endowed store salt as well as water (Balsamo and
with a unique system of ion influx–efflux Thomson 1995).
In non-secretors, e.g. Rhizophora sp. and Indian Sundarbans named Heritiera fomes
Sonneratia sp., xylem sap has a salt concentration (locally known as Sundari and where from the
less than 1/100th of that of seawater, but still about name Sundarbans probably has originated) is on
10 times more concentrated than that of the verge of extinction (Fig. 8.16).
non-mangrove plants such as Hibiscus sp., Eugenia Steps have been taken to conserve the species
sp., etc. Although non-secretory mangroves have through mass plantation in place like Bonnie
no specialized mechanism for active secretion of camp in the central Indian Sundarbans. Before
salts, they lose some salt through leaf surfaces planting in the field, the seedlings are
especially by cuticular transpiration. The easiest acclimatized in earthen pots (Fig. 8.17).
mechanism for the elimination of salt in all We also observed that the adaptive capacity of
mangroves is simply by loss of plant parts, notably Nypa fruticans (a freshwater-loving mangrove
leaves. Many species of mangroves cope with the flora) is much less compared to Avicennia spp.
salt by concentrating it in bark or older leaves, or Excoecaria agallocha, and on increasing the
which carry it with them when they drop. salinity stress, the chlorophyll level decreased
Lumnitzera sp, Avicennia sp, Ceriops sp. and significantly in N. fruticans (Vide Annexure
Sonneratia sp. exhibit this interesting feature. 8A), thus indicating towards the poor coping
Several researchers demonstrated experimen- potential of the species in climate change-
tally that the salt separation process in mangroves induced sea level rise.
must occur at or near the root surface and is
mediated by physical processes alone, since it is
not inhibited by poisons or high temperature, 8.2 Adaptation of Organisms
which may cause an inhibitory effect on metabolic Inhabiting Deep Sea
process. This physical process in root area for salt
separation involves ultrafiltration mechanism The mystery of the deep ocean has attracted man
which occurs either at the root surface (epiblema) since time immemorial and after a long prepara-
or at the root endodermis, but the latter region tion backed up with scientific technology, two
might be the most preferable site (Tomlinson scientists and a pilot ventured in the spring of
1986) because the ultimate absorbing roots in 1977 through a small spherical submarine, and
most of the mangroves lack root hairs the Alvin into the green Pacific swells 274 km
(e.g. capillary rootlets of Rhizophora sp.). This north-east of Galapagos islands and due west of
indicates that the absorbing area of mangroves is Columbia, South America. Entering into this
reduced in comparison with non-mangrove plants. strange world, John Edmond and biologist John
The most distinctive trichome (appendages Corliss discovered an entirely new ecosystem
which are epidermal in origin) that develops in based on the heat energy from hydrothermal
certain mangrove leaves is the structure for secret- vents. The living community in this surprising
ing certain ions like Na+ and Cl. These form a ecosystem encompassed yellow vent mussels,
general class of secretory structures referred to as crabs, large vent clams and tube worms with red
‘salt glands’ by Fahn (1979). Salt glands are abun- plumes. The environment in the deep ocean is
dant on leaves of this particular group of totally different from the surface. There is no
mangroves (salt secretors), but are not necessarily sunlight to support photosynthesis, and the cold
equally frequent on upper and lower surfaces. temperatures and extreme pressures at great
The intertidal zone is today experiencing sea depths are thought to limit the variations in the
level rise and subsequent rise in salinity. It is an biotic community. Although the conditions of the
interesting area of research that how the deep sea are adverse, they are stable. This has
organisms are coping with the event of rising allowed several thousand species to adapt to this
salinity. We conducted some important habitat with a wide range of morphological, phys-
experiments on mangroves to observe which spe- iological and biochemical adaptations. Resource
cies is better suited to hypersaline condition and limitation is an important feature of the deep
observed that the endemic mangrove species of oceanic environment because of extremely low
8.2 Adaptation of Organisms Inhabiting Deep Sea 319
Fig. 8.16 Heritiera fomes

(Sundari) is gradually
vanishing from the central
sector of Gangetic delta
due to rising salinity
temperature; some building materials like calcium larger than the normal size, and to achieve this
carbonate are metabolically expensive in terms of enhanced body volume, the organisms often
secretion and maintenance. Under this restricted deviate from the standard body plans or
energy budget, along with a combination of cold morphologies of familiar or typical living
temperature and short nutrients supply, dwarfism relatives giving rise to bizarreness in the animal
is noticed in some infauna that secretes calcium kingdom. In fact the large body volume is an
carbonate. Gigantism, on the other hand, occurs adaptive measure to retain heat to withstand the
mainly in the epifaunal sector, and it is achieved chilling cold of the deep oceanic environment.
through some unique low-energy constructional The large size is attained through several ways
scheme. The apparently gigantic fauna of the like the elongation of appendages and sense
deep sea are thus in true sense caloric dwarf. organs, extreme flatness, mineralized lattice con-
Associated with the morphological peculiarities struction, stalk elongation, agglutination and big
are other adaptations like low metabolic rate, bio- bag construction (Table 8.2).
luminescence, low reproductive potential and use
of skeletal materials other than calcium carbonate. Physiological Adaptations
All these marvellous specializations achieved by The main physiological adaptations of the deep-
the members of the deep-sea biotic communities sea animals include:
are discussed here. • Low basal metabolic rate
• Low metabolic activity levels, lethargy and
vertical orientation
• Low reproductive potential with eggs few in
8.2.1 Morphological Adaptations
number
• Slow gametogenesis
Gigantism and bizarreness are the two striking
• Late reproductive maturity
features of deep-sea fauna. Gigantism implies
expenditure of energy, and thus low metabolic

activity level is achieved.
The deep-sea animals also possess low repro-
ductive potential and exhibit slow
gametogeneses which are the various ways to
restrict or minimize the expenditure of energy.
Sanders (1977) and Allen (1979) reported a
strange incidence (adaptation) in relation to
gonadial development of a deep-sea bivalve
Tindaria callistiformis. They found that this min-
ute bivalve exhibits no gonadial development
during the first 30–40 years of its life and their
sexual maturity is attained at 100+ years. The
process of embryonic development is very slow
in certain deep oceanic organisms, which
requires a very low expenditure of energy.
The growth rate in most deep-sea animals is
extremely slow owing to low metabolic rates. The
deposit-feeding bivalve of the deep-sea Tindaria
callistiformis (recovered from a depth of 3800 m
in the North Atlantic) attained a size of only 8 mm
in 98 years of life time (Turekian et al. 1975).
Although there are some exceptionally large
bivalves in the deep sea, most do not exceed
Fig. 8.17 Acclimatization of Heritiera fomes (Sundari)
marked by ‘E’ (means experimental) before mass planta- 5 mm in the adult size (Allen 1979). In some
tion as part of species conservation programme deep-sea organism, reduction in biomass is also
observed instead of size or volume reduction.
Oliver (1979) has shown that abyssal species of
• Slow embryonic development the bivalve genus Limopsis have extremely small
• Low growth rates visceral mass relative to the size of the mantle
• Reduced biomass/volume ratio cavity and gills. In these species there is a reduc-
tion of the biomass/volume ratio that may be
The low basal metabolic rates in deep-sea attributed to low metabolic rates.
animals were confirmed from the in situ experi-
ment of oxygen uptake by Smith and Teal (1973)
who demonstrated reduced rates of respiration by 8.2.2 Biochemical Adaptations
abyssal meiofauna.
The rates of metabolic activities related to The deep-sea animals have oriented their enzyme
growth (particularly when calcium carbonate is flexibility to cope with the extreme pressure and
concerned), feeding and reproduction appear to temperature prevailing there. Flexibility suggests
be low, but they are difficult to assess in terms of structural labiality, i.e. the very features of enzyme
their relative importance. Some organisms are structure that provides superfast efficiency of their
consistently lethargic, while others alternate activity, and this flexibility allows enzymes to
between periods of very low and normal meta- undergo rapid and reversible changes in shape (con-
bolic activity. Peniagone diaphana is a deep-sea formation) during the catalytic sequence. It has been
elasipod holothurians, which are free-swimming observed that the extreme temperature and pressure
forms that orient vertically with oral tentacles in the deep oceanic environment play important
hanging downwards in a lethargic state near the roles in altering the enzyme conformation. A study
bottom. This orientation involves negligible conducted in this context shows that a pressure of
Table 8.2 Common morphological adaptations of deep-sea animals

Morphological
adaptation Description Example
Elongation of Deep-sea animals often increase their effective size through Colossendeis
appendages and sense development of long, thin appendages or processes such as colossea and Munopsis
organs walking legs, sense organs or spines. Certain abyssal latifrons
pycnogonids with a leg span of 60 cm have only 5 cm body
length. In certain benthic isopods (Munopsis latifrons), the
walking legs are 116 mm long, more than seven times longer
than their body length
Extreme flatness Deep-sea organisms sometimes increase effective size at the Serolis sp.
expense of their three-dimensional volume by flattening or
expanding to occupy a greater amount of two-dimensional
space. Organisms living on fine-grained soft substrates
increase their body surface area by flattening that helps them
to minimize the potential for sinking into the substrate
Mineralized lattice Deep-sea animals sometimes increase their size through Hexactinellid sponges
construction construction of a mineralized skeleton. In extreme cold water,
this cannot be accomplished with calcium carbonate, but a
large size can be attained using silica lattices
Stalk elongation Many deep-sea animals specially the passive suspension- Hexactinellid sponges
feeding organisms achieve large size through stalk elongation.
This helps the organism to place itself in the proper current
regime so that maximum water can pass through a given cross-
sectional area and provide nourishment to the animal
Agglutination Several groups of marine organisms dwelling in the deep sea Lena neglecta
utilize prefabricated building blocks by removing particles
from sediment or aquatic compartment and finally incorporate
them in their body skeletons. Many agglutinated foraminifera
are able to achieve large size with this type of construction
Big bag construction Large body size of deep-sea creatures is often attained by Peniagone diaphana
assuming the form of a gelatinous or mucus bag that is filled
primarily with water. Certain holothurians of the deep sea
attain large size through use of gut cavity as a fluid internal
skeleton (Barnes et al. 1976)
340 atm inhibits the velocity of LDH reaction of a distinguish between the male and the female in
deep-sea fish by only 5 %, while for shallow living this case as the male fish, no more than 10 cm in
fishes, inhibition is much greater averaging 17 %. length, is attached with the female fish of approx-
This proves the unique ability of the deep-sea faunal imate length of 3.6–4.8 m. In this case, the light
enzymes to retain catalytic ability even under high is possessed only by the female and is situated at
pressure. However, this is not a generalized view for the end of a movable rod attached to the front
all the deep-sea organisms, and many studies are still part of the head of the female fish. The property
needed to understand the modifications of enzymes of bioluminescence is also used for defence
in this hostile environment. purposes. Some deep water squid species release
Bioluminescence is another notable adapta- a bioluminescence fluid that clouds the water
tion of the deep-sea fauna which is mainly used with light, confusing predators by distracting
for luring the prey or for sex identification. In their attention. The opossum shrimp (belonging
case of Lantern fish, the downward portion of the to Mysidae) release a substance on being chased
female shines and the male shines upwards. The by prey that bursts into a cloud of miniature light
deep-sea angler fish dwelling in perpetual dark- particles. The sudden burst of light frightens and
ness uses the property of self-luminescence for confuses potential predators, allowing the shrimp
sexual identification. In fact it is very difficult to to make an escape.
Bioluminescence occurs when a protein called On the basis of temperature, three main
luciferin is combined with oxygen in the pres- types of hydrothermal vents have been
ence of an enzyme called luciferase and ATP. recognized which are:
During the series of reactions that follows, the
chemical energy of ATP is converted into light (a) Diffuse vents: emitting low temperature,
energy. This process is efficient producing clear waters up to 30 C.
almost 100 % light and very negligible heat (b) White smoker vents: releasing milky fluids
energy. This characteristic is especially common with temperature varying from 200 to
in animals dwelling between 300 and 2400 m 330 C.
depth. Some deep-sea fauna like certain species (c) Black smoker vents: discharging jets of
of squid, crustacean and fish have their own water blackened by sulphide precipitates at
luminescent organ, while others harbour biolu- temperatures between 300 and 400 C. Gaill
minescent bacteria in species-specific locations. and Hunt (1991) described a fourth kind of
smoker, the basal mound variety
characterized by sulphide-cemented bio-
genic tubes. The most common type of
8.2.3 Vent Communities
basal mound smoker is found on the East
of the Deep Sea
Pacific rise.
In addition to existence of life in the deep waters
On the basis of geological setting, hydrother-
of the ocean, the floors are important habitats for
mal vents can be classified into two main types
biotic community. In 1977, oceanographers dis-
(Tivey and Johnson 1989): (1) those at
covered a unique community off the Galapagos
sedimented spreading centres and (2) those at
Islands along volcanic ridges in the ocean floor.
unsedimented spreading centres.
Since this initial discovery, marine scientists
Despite the extremes of temperature and pres-
have discovered several other vent communities
sure, these self-contained communities are some
in different regions of the world including off the
of the most productive in the sea and stand as the
coast of Oregon, the west of Florida, the Gulf of
proof of dependence of biotic community on
Mexico and in the central Gulf of California.
nonconventional energy source. Chemosynthesis
These communities are usually located around
forms the foundation of such community and
the deep-sea hydrothermal vents that bring super-
chemosynthetic bacteria occupy the first tropic
heated water and nutrients from beneath the
level. Few common fauna of the hydrothermal
earth’s crust. The submarine hydrothermal vents
vent community are listed here:
are associated with the volcanically active zone
at the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge system. The
(1) Giant white clams—Calyptogena magnifica
base of the oceanic crust is extremely hot
(2) Mussels—Bathymodiolus thermophilus
(>1000 C), and its upper boundary is in contact
(3) Tube worm—Riftia pachyptila
with sediments, due to which the elevation of
(4) Galatheid crab—Munidopsis sp.
temperature of the ambient media occurs. Hydro-
(5) Enteropneust worm—Saxipendium
thermal activity accounting for water tempera-
coronatum
ture elevations ranging from a few degrees above
(6) Brachyuran crab—Bythograea thermydron
ambient to 350–400 C is now known to occur at
(7) Turrid gastropod—Phymorphynchus sp.
seafloor spreading centres worldwide.
The species of vent communities share certain with the bacteria. The various adaptations in
common features as listed here: this very peculiar ecosystem may be grouped
under three broad headings.
1. Most species have planktotrophic larva and
have non-planktotrophic development and (1) Interspecific relationship: The most
hence low dispersion. surprising events at the vents are the symbi-
2. Long clams, mussels, tube worms or a large otic relationship established between bacte-
variety of other animals depend on bacteria ria and a variety of metazoans, including
that oxidize the hydrogen sulphide gas vestimentiferan tube worms, vesicomyid
dissolved in the spring waters as a source of clams, mytilids and other invertebrates.
energy to chemosynthetically produce food Symbiont-assisted animals that retain func-
for the community. tional digestive organs have been the subject
3. Ocean water sulphur, Mn and Fe support the of interest. Of particular interest are the
sulphur bacteria of the vent community, polychaetes that exhibit several feeding
which depend on metabolic systems that uti- types.
lize sulphur instead of oxygen. (2) Metabolism: In general sulphide levels in
4. Ecosystem of the vent communities are the low micromolar range effectively inhibit
unique because it exists in areas where the aerobic respiration and lead to death of
average depth is 2500 m (8200 ft) and the organisms when individuals are exposed to
temperature is above 350 C inside the vent the sulphide for sufficiently long periods
and about 250 C in the surrounding waters. of time.
The vent community changes its place or (3) Chemosynthesis: The ecosystem in hydro-
character when the vent ceases to emit min- thermal vent is governed by geothermal
eral oxides and sulphides. energy as photosynthesis fails to occur in
this zone due to complete absence of sun-
light. The reaction of seawater with crustal
rocks at high temperature produces inorganic
compounds (e.g. H2S, S, S2O32, NH4+, Fe2
8.2.4 Properties of Vent Community +
, NO2, Mn+2) that discharge from the hot
springs and provide energy for the free-living
The physico-chemical variables in hydrothermal
and/or symbiotic chemosynthetic bacteria,
vent regions are extremely drastic. There are few
which form the base of the food chain in
megafauna, endemic in nature, low diversity and
these specialized habitats. By oxidizing
unique community arrangement with the chemo-
sulphides especially H2S as well as other
synthetic bacteria at the base of the trophic level.
reduced substrates such as H2, Fe2+ and
The hydrothermal vent has a discrete ecosystem
Mn+2 released from vents or colder seeps,
and is very efficient to sustain high pressure at a
the microbes obtain energy to synthesize
depth of 2500 m and 350 C temperature. These
organic compounds from carbon dioxide in
vent communities settle only at these places due
seawater, the process being referred to as
to mineral-rich (sulphide) waters. The animals
autotrophy. In so doing, the bacteria support
living here do not have gut and exchange the
copious populations of specifically adapted
materials with the surrounding environment of
invertebrates living in close proximity to the
the vent.
vents. More than 250 strains of free-living
Karl et al. (1984) measured production rates at
bacteria have been isolated from deep-sea
one vent of 19 μgC/h. The primary consumers are
thermal environments. Among these micro-
the various animals that filter out the bacteria
bial populations, the most common are S-,
from the water, graze the bacterial film from the
CH4-, H2-, Fe- and Mn-oxidizing bacteria.
rocks or are locked in a symbiotic association
salinity often beyond tolerance of the sensitive

Brain Churners mangrove species. Excessive saline conditions
1. What factors control the survival, retard seed germination and impede growth and
abundance and type of organisms in development of mangroves. Indian Sundarbans,
the intertidal zone? the famous mangrove chunk of the tropics, is
2. How competition or pressures of
gradually losing Heritiera fomes (commonly
predators limit the abundance of
known as Sundari) owing to increase of salinity
organisms?
in the central sector of the delta complex around
3. Why tide pool is a congenial habitat
the Matla River (Mitra et al. 2009a). Reports of
for marine and estuarine organisms?
alteration of growth in mangroves due to differ-
4. What are the different methods by
ence in salinity between western and central
which rocky shore organisms get
sectors of Indian Sundarbans are available
attached to the hard substrata?
(Mitra et al. 2004). However, no study has yet
5. How are oysters adapted to thrive on
been carried on the effect of salinity fluctuation
hard substrata in the seashore?
on the photosynthetic pigments and carotenoid
6. Name few organisms of the muddy
level of Nypa fruticans under culture conditions
substratum. How they adapt to the
from this part of the Indian subcontinent. The
soft bottom?
effects of salinity on mangroves have been stud-
7. How rocky shore organisms adapt
ied in relation to antioxidative enzymes
themselves to desiccation?
(Takemura et al. 2000; Parida et al. 2004b), leaf
8. How the mangroves regulate excess
structure, rates of transpiration, stomatal conduc-
salt in their tissues?
tance and rates of photosynthesis (Santiago
9. Give some examples of detritivores.
et al. 2000; Parida et al. 2004a) and changes in
Do they have any role in bioturbation?
chloroplast structure and function (Parida
10. Why do the deep-sea animals construct
et al. 2003). Tanaka et al. (2000) reported that
their bodies with silica lattices instead
Na+/H+ antiport catalysed exchange of Na+ for
of calcium carbonate?
H+ across the vacuolar membrane of the cells of
Bruguiera sexangula offered tolerance to ionic
stress imposed by NaCl and this mechanism was
important for cellular salinity adjustments. Also,
the mechanism of acclimation to salt in
Annexure 8A: Signals of Salinity mangroves was suggested to be linked to the
Fluctuation in Nypa fruticans Seedling changes in the vacuolar size in B. sexangula
Growth, a Case Study from the Lower (Hotta et al. 2000). Further, one of the biochemi-
Gangetic Plain cal mechanisms by which mangroves counter the
high osmolarity of salt was accumulation of com-
1. Introduction patible solutes (Takemura et al. 2000).
In this paper, we present the effect of salinity
The mangrove community is greatly affected by on pigments in Nypa fruticans under hydroponic
climate change-induced salinity fluctuation, dilu- culture with an aim to obtain insights into the
tion by precipitation and run-off, temperature changes in chlorophyll and carotenoid level with
oscillation, atmospheric carbon dioxide concen- salt acclimation. Such study is important from the
tration, etc. Of all the outcomes from changes in point of sea level rise and subsequent saline water
the atmosphere’s composition and alterations to intrusion into the islands of Indian Sundarbans as
land surfaces, relative sea level rise may be the the lower Gangetic delta complex is extremely
greatest threat (Field 1995; Lovelock and Ellison vulnerable to climate change-related effects
2007) as the event increases the soil and aquatic owing to its location below the mean sea level
Annexure 8A: Signals of Salinity Fluctuation in Nypa fruticans Seedling Growth. . . 325
and experiencing a sea level rise of 3.14 mm/year. The preliminary experiments were carried out
Moreover unlike other mangrove species, Nypa in the selected species at five different
fruticans prefer extremely low saline condition salinities (2 psu, 5 psu, 10 psu, 15 psu and
and hence can act as signature of climate 20 psu) in order to determine the optimum
change-induced sea level rise and subsequent range of salinities in context to photosynthetic
intrusion of saline water into the islands. pigments and carotenoid. The cultures were
aerated continuously with an air bubbler. The
hydroponic cultures were maintained in a cul-
2. Materials and Methods ture room under a 14 h photoperiod at PAR of
300 μmol m2 s1, 26 3 C and 80 %
2.1 Plant Materials and Culture Conditions RH. The culture medium was changed every
Seeds of Nypa fruticans were collected from 7 days. Leaves were harvested at 7-, 14-, 21-
Sundarbans mangrove system of India. Seedlings and 30-day intervals to measure the pigment
were raised in the laboratory condition by dilut- concentrations.
ing the water collected from the lower stretch of
Sundarbans adjacent to Bay of Bengal in the 2.2 Extraction and Estimation of Pigments
southern part (salinity ¼ 30 psu) under photo- We followed the method of Porra et al. (1989) for
synthetically active radiation (PAR) of 1220–- chlorophyll estimation and Arnon (1949) for
1236 μmol m2 s1. Two-month-old healthy carotenoid estimation in the leaves of Nypa
seedlings were selected for hydroponic culture fruticans. The procedures for pigment estimation
in Hoagland’s nutrient medium (pH ¼ 5.8–6.0). are shown here in flow charts.
Estimation of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b
0.5gm leaves of Nypa fruticans
Homogenization in chilled N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) in motor and

pestle in dark at 4˚C
Centrifugation of homogenates at 8800×g for 10 minutes
Collection of supernatants
Absorption recorded at 663.8 nm and 646.8 nm in UV-vis

spectrophotometer for estimation of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b
Estimation of carotenoid
0.5gm leaves of Nypa fruticans
Homogenization in chilled 80% acetone (v/v)
Centrifugation of homogenate s at 8800×g for 10 minutes at 4˚C in dark
Collection of acetone extract
Recording of acetone extract at 663, 640 and 470 nm total for total
carotenoid estimation
2.3 Statistical Analysis Sundarbans may be attributed to freshwater sup-

Statistical analysis of the results was carried out ply from the Ganga–Bhagirathi channel, which
according to Duncan’s multiple range tests. Data originates from the Gangotri glacier of the Hima-
were also subjected to analysis of correlation layan range.
coefficient (r) in order to evaluate the interrela- The concentrations of chlorophyll and carot-
tionship between salinity and selected pigments enoid pigments decreased significantly with the
following the method of Sokal and Rohlf (1995). increase in salinity. The total chlorophyll
expressed, on unit fresh wt. basis, decreased by
63.44 %, 73.33 %, 63.39 % and 63.89 % at 7-,
3. Results and Discussion 14-, 21- and 30-day intervals, respectively. The
Chl a:b ratio in the plant, however, remained
All the collected seedlings of Nypa fruticans almost constant for the species and varied only
tolerate maximum salinity up to 15 psu and marginally during the period under observation.
could be maintained for more than 30 days. On In our experiments with differential salinity
exposure to salinity of 20 psu, the leaves began to exposure, the Chl a:b ratio yielded a value of
fall off after a week or so, and thus all the 3.00–3.41. It, thus, appears that high salinity did
experiments were done up to 30 days in the not affect Chl a:b ratio even though the total
salinity level 2, 5, 10 and 15 psu treated plants. chlorophyll content decreased at high salt con-
The unhealthy conditions of the experimental centration. A similar trend in carotenoid content,
seedlings of Nypa fruticans at 20 psu may be expressed in fresh wt. basis, was observed. The
attributed to their ambient salinity in the western pigment decreased by 36.84 % at the end of
sector of deltaic Sundarbans region from where 7 days, 33.33 % at the end of 14 days, 33.33 %
they were collected which usually ranges at the end of 21 days and 27.78 % at the end of
between 2 psu and 10 psu (Mitra 2000). Such a 30 days. The decrease of the selected pigments
low saline belt in the western part of Indian with aquatic salinity is statistically significant.
Annexure 8A: Signals of Salinity Fluctuation in Nypa fruticans Seedling Growth. . . 327
The decrease in chlorophyll content at higher 2003; Netondo et al. 2004) that are not the real
salinity might possibly due to changes in the image of ambient seawater.
lipid protein ratio of pigment–protein complexes Our results show that Nypa fruticans of Indian
or increased chlorophyllase activity (Iyengar and Sundarbans region can easily be propagated
Reddy 1996). Our results agree with several under low salinity conditions. At 15 psu, the
reports of decrease content of chlorophyll and plants become acclimated to salt after 1–2
carotenoids by salinity as reported in a number weeks of exposure, but at 20 psu the seedlings
of glycophytes (Gadallah 1999; Agastian and could hardly adapt.
Kingsley 2000). As the Chl a:b ratio remained Indian Sundarbans and its adjacent estuaries
unaffected at high saline condition in the selected at the apex of Bay of Bengal are one of the less
species, it appears that the light-harvesting studied regions of the world ocean in context to
complexes (LHCs) of thylakoid membranes are impact of rising salinity fluctuation on mangrove
little altered by salt exposure. floral community, although the region sustains
The adverse impact of salinity on leaf chloro- the 5th largest mangrove chunk in the world
phyll of mangrove species significantly affects (2120 km2 in the Indian part and 4500 km2 in
the rate of photosynthesis. Various studies have the Bangladesh part). The present study is
shown that a number of mangrove species grow extremely important from the point of view of
best at salinities between 4 psu and 15 psu rising salinity in the central sector of Indian
(Connor 1969; Clough 1985; Downton 1982; Sundarbans over a period of two decades (Mitra
Burchett et al. 1984; Clough 1984). Till date et al. 2009b) due to complete obstruction of the
there have been few studies on the effect of freshwater supply of Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly
salinity on photosynthetic gas exchange in River as a result of heavy siltation since the late
mangroves. Clough (1985) stated in his commu- fifteenth century (Chaudhuri and Choudhury
nication that the rate of light-saturated photosyn- 1994) and rising sea level (Hazra et al. 2002) at
thesis decreases with increasing salinity of the rate of 3.14 mm/year, which is higher than the
ambient media, attributing this to co-limitation global average sea level rise of 2.12 mm/year.
of assimilation rate by stomatal conductance and The pigments, being the key machinery in
photosynthetic capacity in response to regulating the growth and survival of the
differences in water status induced by the various mangroves, require an optimum salinity range
salinity treatments. Thus, on the evidences avail- between 4 and 15 psu (Downton 1982; Burchett
able so far, it is most likely that salinity exerts its et al. 1984) for proper functioning. Nypa
effect on photosynthesis mainly through changes fruticans, the freshwater-loving mangrove spe-
in leaf water status and this study confirms that cies, prefers an optimum salinity between 2 and
the photosynthetic process may be affected at 5 psu (Mitra et al. 2004). It appears that the
high saline condition due to decrease in chl growth of the species would be better if freshwa-
a and b concentrations in mangroves. The present ter of the western sector of Indian Sundarbans is
study is different from several works as the salin- channelized to the central sector.
ity of water has been altered naturally (through
rainwater dilution) keeping all the constituent Acknowledgments
salts of brackish water constant unlike several The financial assistance from the Clean Blue
previous studies where the plants were exposed Planet Consultancy Services, Kolkata, is grate-
to different NaCl concentrations (Mishra and Das fully acknowledged.
Table 8B.1 Effects of different salinities on pigment Suspended sediment feeders captured from deep sub-
concentrations in Nypa fruticans mergence vehicle. Science, 194, 1083–1108.
Duration of
Boaden, P. J. S. (1989). Meiofauna and the origins of the
treatment Salinity Chl Chl Total Chl Metazoa. Zoological Journal of Linnaeus Society, 96,
(d) (psu) a b chl a:b Carotenoid 217–227.
7 2 0.83 0.29 1.12 2.86 0.21 Boaden, P. J. S., & Platt, H. M. (1971). Daily migration
5 0.76 0.30 1.06 2.53 0.18 patterns in an intertidal meiobenthic community.
10 0.65 0.25 0.90 2.60 0.16 Thalassia Jugoslavica, 7, 1–12.
15 0.60 0.24 0.84 2.50 0.15 Drennan, P. M., Berjak, P., & Pammenter, N. W. (1992).
20 0.41 0.16 0.57 2.56 0.09 Ion gradients and adenosine triphosphatase localiza-
14 2 0.79 0.31 1.10 2.55 0.19 tion in the salt glands of Avicennia marina (Forssk.)
5 0.75 0.29 1.04 2.59 0.18 Vierh. South African Journal of Botany, 58(6),
10 0.67 0.26 0.93 2.58 0.13 486–490.
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20 – – – – –
Academic.
21 2 0.73 0.30 1.03 2.43 0.16 Fenchel, T. M., & Redl, R. J. (1970). The sulfide system:
5 0.68 0.27 0.95 2.52 0.14
A new biotic community underneath the oxidized
10 0.51 0.20 0.71 2.55 0.12
15 0.50 0.19 0.69 2.63 0.11 layer of marine sand bottoms. Marine Biology, 7,
20 – – – – – 255–268.
30 2 0.66 0.26 0.92 2.54 0.18 Gaill, F., & Hunt, S. (1991). The biology of annelid
5 0.52 0.20 0.72 2.60 0.13 worms from high temperature hydrothermal vent
10 0.48 0.19 0.67 2.53 0.12 Remons. Review of Aquatic Science, 4(2–3), 107–137.
15 0.47 0.18 0.65 2.61 0.06 Hurd, C. L., Galvin, R. S., Norton, T. A., & Dring, M. J.
20 – – – – – (1993). Production of hyaline hairs by intertidal spe-
cies of Fucus (Fucales) and their role in phosphate
Units of all pigments are mg.gm1 fresh weight; different
uptake. Journal of Phycology, 29, 160–165.
letters besides figures indicate statistically different
Karl, D. M., Knauer, G. A., Martin, J. H., & Ward, B. B.
means as at p 0.01
(1984). Bacterial chemolithotrophy in the ocean is
associated with sinking particles. Nature, 309, 54–56.
Table 8B.2 Interrelationships between salinity and Meyers, M. B., Fossing, H., & Powell, E. N. (1987).
selected pigments in Nypa fruticans Micro-distribution of interstitial meiofauna, oxygen
Combination ‘r’ value ‘p’ value and sulfide gradients, and the tubes of macro-infauna.
Marine Ecology Progress Series, 35, 223–241.
Salinity Chl a 0.74913 <0.01
Naylor, E. (1985). Tidally rhythmic behaviour of marine
Salinity Chl b 0.74615 <0.01
animals. Symposium Society of experimental Biology,
Salinity total Chl 0.75187 <0.01
39, 63–93.
Salinity carotenoid 0.78281 <0.01
Nott, J. A. (1973). Settlement of the larvae of Spirorbis
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Hot Spots of Marine and Estuarine
Ecosystems 9
Contents 9.1 Mangroves

9.1 Mangroves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
9.2 Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Mangroves are a special type of vegetation that
thrive in sediments that have a high salt concen-
Annexure 9A: Checklist of Corals in and Around
tration and are usually surrounded by seawater or
Gulf of Mannar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
estuarine water. As a result of these environmen-
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 tal conditions, they must conserve water and they
exhibit adaptation similar to those found in salt
marsh plants. These adaptations help to reduce
the loss of water by evaporation from the leaves.
In mangroves, the epidermis of the leaf is usually
covered with a thick cuticle, and the stomata are
sunken in nature that are usually confined to the
undersurface. Another important adaptation in
mangroves involves the germination of seeds.
Unlike in most of the plant, the embryo in most
mangroves germinates while the seed is still
attached to parent plant.
The area occupied by mangroves in the planet
Earth is roughly around 170,000 km2. The eco-
system services provided by mangroves prefera-
bly to coastal population and land dwellers drive
the economic wheel of the region. According to
policy researchers, mangroves have tremendous
social and ecological value. The annual eco-
nomic value of mangroves, estimated by the
cost of the products and services they provide,
has been estimated to be $200,000–$900,000 per
hectare (Wells et al. 2006).
In 2005, Badola and Hussain worked upon the
function of mangroves in protecting the
Bhitarkanika region in the state of Odisha,

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_9
332 9 Hot Spots of Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
I N D I A
Bay of Bengal
0 8 km
Key:
Bhitarkanika Conservation Area Mangrove forests
Village woodlots/agriculture fields/barren Water/sea
intensive study villages : Singidi Bandhamal Bankual
Fig. 9.1 Kendrapara and Bhadrak districts of Orissa, India, with the location of Bhitarkanika Conservation Area and
the extent of mangrove forests
India. The second largest mangrove forest of the economic conditions of the study villages. It
Indian subcontinent is the mangrove ecosystem evaluated the extent of damage caused in areas
of the Bhitarkanika (Fig. 9.1). Maximum biodi- that were under the umbrella of mangrove forests
versity of mangrove flora and fauna is associated and areas that were not in the wake of this
with this mangrove forest and its adjacent coastal supercyclone. In 1971, an embankment was cre-
areas. The dominant tree species Sonneratia ated along the entire Orissa coast to prevent
apetala, Heritiera fomes, Heritiera littoralis seawater intrusion into reclaimed paddy fields.
and other Avicennia species make this mangrove Therefore, the report also studied the effective-
forest different from others. ness of such artificial structures in providing
The report of Badola and Hussain (2005) did storm protection, as opposed to mangrove
not aim to assess the biodiversity of the forests.
mangroves, but its primary objective was to mea- Hence, the following three situations were
sure the economic losses attributed to the 1999 identified: (1) a village in the shadow of
supercyclone relative to the prevailing socio- mangroves; (2) a village not in the shadow of
9.1 Mangroves 333
mangroves and with no embankment; and (3) a towards mangrove forests in general. In the
village not in the shadow of mangroves but with mangrove-protected village, variables had either
an embankment on the seaward side. Bankual the lowest values for adverse factors (such as
village was in the shadow of a mangrove forest, damage to houses) or the highest values for posi-
Singidi village was neither in the shadow of tive factors (such as crop yield). The loss
mangroves nor protected by an embankment incurred per household was greatest (US
from storm surge and Bandhamal village was $153.74) in the village that was not sheltered by
not in the shadow of mangroves but had a sea- mangroves but had an embankment, followed by
ward side embankment. The report indicated that the village that was neither in the shadow of
the intensity of the impact of the 1999 cyclone on mangroves nor the embankment (US$44.02)
these villages should have been fairly uniform, as and the village that was protected by mangrove
all the three selected villages were equidistant forests (US$33.31). The local people were aware
from the seashore and had similar aspects. The of and appreciated the functions performed by
two villages outside mangrove cover were the mangrove forests in protecting their lives and
located close to each other, but both were far property from cyclones and were willing to coop-
from the mangrove forest in order to eliminate erate with the forest department with regard to
any effect of mangrove forest presence. mangrove restoration.
Services provided by the Bhitarkanika man- Although only indicative, the report shows
grove ecosystem in India and estimated cyclone that the damage attributed to the cyclone was
damage avoided in the three selected villages, more extensive in the village further away from
taking the supercyclone of 1999 as a reference the mangrove shadow. The embankments
point, were evaluated by assessing the socio- constructed in 1971, after a previous cyclone, to
economic status of the villages; the cyclone dam- prevent the intrusion of saltwater into agricul-
age to houses, livestock, fisheries, trees and other tural fields and villages were ineffective during
assets owned by the people; and the level and the high storm surge; in fact, they acted as a
duration of flooding. Eleven variables were used barrier to run off when the water was receding.
to compare damage in the villages (Table 9.1). The embankments suffered a number of breaches
Attitude surveys were carried out in 10 % of the that resulted in the flooding of villages such as
households in 35 villages located in the Bandhamal, which was surrounded on all sides
Bhitarkanika Conservation Area to assess local by the embankment. Singidi village, with no
people’s perceptions regarding the storm protec- mangrove cover and no embankment, suffered
tion function of mangroves and their attitudes the highest level of field inundation; however,
Table 9.1 Basic description and mean values of the variables (per household) in the three study villages in
Bhitarkanika Conservation Area, India (US$1.00 ¼ INR 45, August 2004)
Villages
Variable Description Singidi Bankual Bandhamal
DR Damage to residences (0–19 scale) 9.40 5.34 10.44
PTD Tree damage (%) 21.0 3.3 15.5
DPP Damage to other personal properties (INR) 108.11 0.00 2375.00
DL Damage to livestock in money terms (INR) 54.05 127.63 1044.37
FP Flooding in premises (m) 0.34 0.29 0.58
FF Flooding in fields (m) 1.99 1.09 1.39
WLF Waterlogging in fields 9.46 5.63 12.87
CR Cost of repair and reconstruction 996.97 682.86 973.21
Y99 Yield for the year 1999 (kg ha1) 531 1479.5 335.9
LFS Loss of fish 310.81 69.74 260.94
1983.3 61,454.13 6918.62
TML Total quantifiable variables (INR) 1983.3 61,454.13 6918.62
the seawater receded quickly, resulting in less Mangroves are noted for their property to
damage to agricultural crops. Bankual village, cope with the sea level rise through two basic
which was in the shadow of mangrove forest routes, namely, (i) by an increase in soil surface
and had minimal embankment around it, suffered elevation and/or (ii) by colonizing more land-
the least. Although this study is not conclusive, ward areas. Mangroves accrete sediment and
the lack of breaches in the embankment closer to soil particles that lead to the rise of substratum
the forest is indicative of the protection provided compared to adjacent sea level. When the height
by mangroves to the embankment. In areas far of a mudflat reaches a height above mean sea
from the forest, several breaches in the embank- level suitable for mangroves, and providing man-
ment were observed. Water levels were higher grove propagules (i.e. seeds) is available, then
and the flooding was of longer duration in mangroves are expected to colonize such an area
Bandhamal. (Fig. 9.4).
Extensive Casuarina plantations established Once mangroves have established, they have
as a storm protection measure along the Orissa the potential to change the environment. They
coast were ineffective in preventing damage; retard the velocity of water flows and reduce
rather, they caused destruction to olive ridley wave energy, which allow further deposition of
sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) nesting sediments, and through the growth of subsurface
beaches. The cyclone uprooted almost all the roots, they may increase the soil volume. Both
trees in the immediate vicinity of the coast and processes can further increase the height of the
caused much damage to trees several kilometres soil surface. If a time comes when soil inputs and
inland. However, mangrove forests and trees in losses approximately balance such that the soil
the shadow of mangrove forests remained intact. surface height (i.e. the surface elevation)
The report contends that the vulnerability of remains relatively stable (e.g. Fig. 9.3), then
many coastal communities to cyclones is height- mangroves may remain as the climax vegetation
ened by the removal of mangroves for develop- for many years (sometimes thousands of years,
ment, agriculture and habitation purposes e.g. in Twin Cays, Belize). If the height of the
(Valiela et al. 2001). Mangrove forests are natu- soil surface continues to increase due to soil
ral buffers against storm surges and protect trop- inputs exceeding soil losses, then the soil surface
ical shores from erosion by tides and currents. height may continue to rise until it reaches the
Ecological functions such as storm protection upper limit for mangroves to survive; ultimately,
may be very important components in the total terrestrial vegetation may outcompete
economic value of a wetland and may constitute mangroves.
almost 80 % of the estimated value. These major The difference in height between the current
benefits are often the principal reasons for restor- soil surface height within a mangrove forest and
ing mangrove forests along much of the the maximum soil surface height that can be
low-lying deltaic coasts. In the aforementioned achieved with mangroves present (limited either
study in Orissa, there was a 20–30 % reduction in by the balance of soil inputs and losses or by
repair and maintenance costs of sea dyke systems mangrove vegetation being outcompeted by ter-
due to the presence of mangroves in front of the restrial vegetation) is referred to as the mangrove
dyke. The report realized that the artificial sea accommodation space (Fig. 9.5). More gener-
defences were not only expensive to build and ally, the term ‘accommodation space’ describes
repair, but they were also, in many cases, the available space for soil expansion or growth,
ineffective. both vertically and laterally, given the current
The mangrove ecosystem exchanges position of the soil surface, the tidal frame and
materials and energy with the adjacent estuarine erosive forces. Over a particular stretch of coast,
water (Fig. 9.2), and these indirect benefits an accommodation volume may also be defined
of mangroves have been pointed by several as the volume of space above the substrate that
researchers (Ong 1993; Kristensen et al. 2008). could be filled with sediment and allow
9.1 Mangroves 335
Net primary production:

(Tg C y–1)
Litter fall: 68 ± 20
Wood production: 67 ± 40
Fine root production: 82 ± 57
Total: 218 ± 72
Fate of mangrove production (in Tg C y–1)
Burial: 18.4(°)
CO2 efflux: 42 ± 31
unaccounted
POC export: 21 ± 22
112 ± 85
DOC export: 24 ± 21
Fig. 9.2 Fate of mangrove productivity
Potential accommodation
space if soil inputs are
sufficient to fill the space
HIGH TIDE
MEAN SEA LEVEL mangrove

Intertidal mudflat
Fig. 9.3 Increase in soil surface height and sea level rise resulting in the relative height of the mangrove surface
remaining constant within the tidal range
mangroves to grow there; this allows for a ‘lat- ecosystems, it has been applied more frequently
eral accommodation space’, meaning seaward to coral reef systems (Pomar 2001; Kennedy and
areas where mangroves could live if sediment Woodroffe 2002; Montaggioni 2005) but only
filled the space (limited also by bathymetry and occasionally in relation to salt marshes (French
wave conditions eroding sediment, these factors 2006) and mangroves (Spencer and Möller
limit the seaward edge of the accommodation 2013).
space shown in Fig. 9.6). The accommodation When sea level rises or land subsides, the
concept is widely used in geology (Schlager volume of accommodation space increases
1993; Miall 1996); in relation to coastal (Fig. 9.3), as the difference in height between
HIGH TIDE
MEAN SEA LEVEL Soil surface has risen to fill

available accommodation
Intertidal mudflat space, allowing mangroves to
colonise seawards area
Fig. 9.4 Soil surface rise to fill up the available space allowing mangroves to colonize seawards area
Sea level rise
HIGH TIDE
MEAN SEA LEVEL

Mangroves will only be able to
survive in this area if soil inputs
Intertidal mudflat allow soils to fill newly created
accommodation space, increasing
Seaward edge the height of the soil surface, so
that mangroves remain between
determined by
mean sea level and high tide
bathymetry, wave
climate and erosion
Fig. 9.5 Seaward edge determined by bathymetry, wave climate and erosion
the height of the substrate and mean sea level has mangrove trees and probably resulting in their
increased. This volume can now be filled with death. If the change in soil surface height exactly
soil if soil inputs are high enough, allowing the matches the change in sea level, this results in the
soil surface to rise until the newly created accom- relative height of the mangrove surface
modation space has been filled. Soil inputs remaining constant within the tidal range
include organic or inorganic sediments and sub- (Figs. 9.4 and 9.5).
surface roots. The increase in height of the man- A number of processes may result in changes
grove soil surface can result in mangroves in the mangrove surface elevation, and these are
remaining in their preferred part of the tidal illustrated in Fig. 9.6 (lower part).
frame, i.e. between mean sea level and high These processes may be divided into surface
tide. Without such an increase in soil surface processes and subsurface processes. For the
height, the mangrove surface could end up purposes of this report, the soil surface refers to
below mean sea level, creating stress on the interface between the soil and the air
9.1 Mangroves 337
REGIONAL LONGER-TERM PROCESSES
Changes in sea level

Eustatic sea level varies
spatially and temporally
(e.g. with EI Nino)
Net effect:
RELATIVE
SEA LEVEL
Changes in land level RISE
Isostatic adjustments,
lithospheric flexural subsidence,
abstraction of oil or water etc
LOCAL SHORTER-TERM PROCESSES
Accretion
(sedimentation,
leaf litter accumulation,
benthic mat formation)
Shallow
subsidence
Erosion
(loss of sediment Net effect: Sub-surface (mangrove root
decomposition,
and organic matter) SURFACE expansion pore spaces
(mangrove
ELEVATION root growth,
empty of water
compaction)
CHANGE pore spaces
full of water
Fig. 9.6 Regional and local processes affecting the elevation of the mangrove surface relative to local mean sea level
(or water, when the tide covers the soil) layer (Fig. 9.7); these include growth and decom-
(Fig. 9.7). Surface processes refer to those pro- position of roots, swelling and shrinkage of soils
cesses which occur at or above the mangrove soil related to water content and compaction, com-
surface, including sedimentation (the deposition pression and rebound of soils due to changes in
of material onto the surface of the soil), accretion the weight of material above.
(the binding of this material in place) and erosion When subsurface processes result in a change
(the loss of surface material). Subsurface pro- in volume of the soil, this is called subsurface
cesses refer to processes that occur below the soil expansion or shallow subsidence. Shallow sub-
surface but above the basement or consolidated sidence refers to the loss of elevation caused by
Accretion Surface
elevation
Soil surface
Living roots
change
Shallow subsurface Mangrove peat

change
Basement
Deep subsidence Consolidated layer
/ uplift
PAST NOW FUTURE?
Fig. 9.7 Schematic diagram of a mangrove tree and the soil beneath it, showing where accretion, shallow subsurface
change and deep subsidence/uplift occur in the profile and illustrating how surface elevation change may occur
over time
Table 9.2 Locations and periods where mangroves kept pace with sea level rise
Period during which Relative sea level rise rate that
Location mangroves persisted mangroves kept pace with References
South Alligator Between 8000 and 6 mm/year (12 m rise in relative Woodroffe (1990), Ellison
River, Australia 6000 years BP sea level during this period) (2009)
Mary River, Australia Between 6500 and Up to 10 mm/year Woodroffe and Mulrennan
4000 years BP (1993), Ellison (2009)
Twin Cays, Belize Since 7600 years BP Up to 3 mm/year McKee et al. (2007)
Hungry Bay, Since 2000 years BP 0.85–1.1 mm/year Ellison (1993, 2009)
Bermuda
Fanga’uta Lagoon, Between 7000 and 1.2 mm/year Ellison (2009)
Tonga 5500 years BP
Kosrae, Federated Since 2000 years BP 1–2 mm/year Ellison (2008)
States of Micronesia
these subsurface processes, which act above the with the sea level rise in different times and in
bedrock or consolidated layer; it is called shallow different regions (Table 9.2).
to distinguish it from deep subsidence, caused by Mangroves are also noted to increase produc-
longer-term geological processes (Cahoon tivity of adjacent water through litter fall. The
et al. 1995), which are accounted for in relative mangrove litters (Fig. 9.6) are decomposed by
sea level rise rates. bacteria and provide nutrients to the adjacent
There are plenty of examples around the water bodies. Because of the abundance of the
world, which show that mangroves have adapted nutrients, the mangrove ecosystems act as the
9.1 Mangroves 339
breeding and nursery ground for the fishes. upper layers of mangrove sediments have high
Mangroves are also noted for their carbon carbon content (a conservative estimate is 10 %).
sequestration capacity. Mangroves respond well Each hectare of mangrove sediment would then
to high carbon dioxide by exhibiting greater contain some 700 tons of carbon per metre depth
accumulation of biomass with increasing carbon (Ong 1993). The monetary value of the carbon
dioxide level. For example, Rhizophora mangle sequestered by the forest is calculated by using
under high carbon dioxide conditions which was an international price per unit amount of carbon
double than normal for 1 year showed greater reduced (e.g. $150 per ton of carbon in Norway).
accumulation of biomass (Farnsworth The mangrove habitat is proved to be efficient in
et al. 1996). About 55–85 % of the above- carbon sequestration, 2.4-fold as high as salt
ground biomass (shoot) is held in the woody marshes, 5.2-fold as high as seagrasses and
trunk and branches. In contrast, 15–17 % is 50 times as high as tropical forest. The organic
held in aerial roots. The belowground biomass carbon concentrations in vegetated marine
(root) is high compared to other forest types. The sediments exceed by 2–10 folds those in shelf/
ratio between above-ground biomass and below- deltaic sediments (Duarte et al. 2005). Thus,
ground biomass is about 2.5:1, while it is 4 in mangrove sediment has a significant role in car-
upland forests. This relatively heavy investment bon sequestration. Preliminary estimates indicate
in root biomass helps to ensure stability in the that the total above-ground biomass for the
soft substrates of mangrove environment. Carbon world’s mangrove forests may be over 3700 tril-
sequestration potential of the mangroves is lion grams of carbon (Tg) and that sequestration
50 times greater than other tropical forests. This of organic matter directly into mangrove
is because of high levels of belowground bio- sediments is in the range of 14–17 Tg of carbon
mass and also considerable storage of organic per year. Organic-rich soils ranged from 0.5 m to
carbon in mangrove sediment soils. Mangrove more than 3 m in depth and accounted for
forests usually create thick, organically rich 49–98 % of carbon storage in the mangrove
sediments as their substrata. Most of the substrata systems. Thus, mangroves are capable of
in the tropics except under deltaic environments accumulating and storing carbon in the soil in
consist of mangrove peat which mainly derives large quantities. The mangroves may have an
from mangrove roots. This shows that mangrove important role to play in global carbon budgets
forests have great belowground productivity and and in the process of mitigating climate change.
play a significant role in carbon sequestration not Mangrove deforestation generates emissions of
only above ground but also below ground. 0.02–0.12 picograms of carbon per year—as
Rhizophora forest has higher belowground car- much as around 10 % of emissions from defores-
bon sequestration ability than other types of man- tation globally, despite accounting for just 0.7 %
grove forest and displays its greatest ability of tropical forest area. Thus, failing to preserve
during the early stage of the forest. Carbon burial mangrove forests could cause considerable car-
rate of Rhizophora forest was faster at 580 g/cm/ bon emissions and thus global warming
year than those of other types of mangrove forest (Spalding et al. 2010).
(Fujimoto 2000). Estimation of the potential of a Mangrove extracts are used in indigenous
forest in sequestrating carbon involves calculat- medicine; for example, Bruguiera species
ing the total biomass per hectare and then apply- (leaves) are used for reducing blood pressures
ing appropriate conversion factors to get the and Excoecaria agallocha for the treatment of
carbon equivalents. Ong et al. (1995) estimated leprosy and epilepsy. Roots and stems of Derris
the amount of carbon sequestered in a 20-year- trifoliata are used for narcotizing fishes, whereas
old stand of Rhizophora apiculata mangrove for- Acanthus ilicifolius is used in the treatment of
est as 7.14 tons of carbon per hectare per year. rheumatic disorders. Seeds of Xylocarpus species
The rate of carbon sequestered in mangrove mud have antidiarrhoeal properties and Avicennia
is estimated to be around 1.5 tC/ha/year. The species have tonic effect, whereas Ceriops
produces haemostatic activity. Barks of valuable ecosystems of the world. In general, the
Rhizophora species have astringent, economic value has been calculated between US
antidiarrhoea and antiemetic activities. Tender $2000 and 9000 per hectare per year (Table 9.3).
leaves of Acrostichum are used as a vegetable The global mangroves are presently under
and a beverage is prepared from the fruits of severe anthropogenic stress, but how long this
Sonneratia spp. Extracts from mangroves seem fragile and taxonomically rich ecosystem will
to have a potential for human, animal and plant withstand this anthropogenic threat is a million
pathogens and for the treatment of incurable viral dollar question. The more important question is
diseases like AIDS (Kathiresan 2000). that how the mangrove will withstand the tem-
Apart from the medicinal value, Indian perature rise and salinity rise, which are inevita-
researchers are successful in preparing food ble signatures of climate change occurring
products from mangrove fruits (Pramanick throughout the globe?
et al. 2014) or fish feed from mangrove litter We conducted a thorough study in ten sam-
and mangrove-associated species like seaweeds pling stations in Indian Sundarbans and observed
(Mondal et al. 2014). Today, the belief of man- a pronounced decadal variation of true mangrove
grove ecosystem as wasteland or marshland has floral species, both in terms of total numbers
been totally changed. Mangrove ecosystem is (Fig. 9.8) and diversity (Fig. 9.9), but no study
now considered as one of the most economically has yet been conducted on the fate of mangrove
Table 9.3 Country-wise economic value of mangroves (on the basis of service)
Country Service Valuation References
Indonesia Traditional use 3000 (half of income among the Ruitenbeek (1992)
poorest households)
Thailand Traditional use 230–1200 Christensen (1982),
Sathirathai (1998)
Southern parts of Traditional use 1500 per household (a quarter of Sathirathai (1998)
Thailand per capita GDP)
In southern Coastline protection and 3000 Sathirathai (1998)
Thailand stabilization services
Carbon sequestration 100 Sathirathai (1998)
Koh Kong province Local level uses and indirect 500–1600 Ban (1997)
in Cambodia values
Rekawa, Sri Lanka Coastal protection from storm 1000 Gunawardena and
and fisheries values Rowan (2005)
Sri Lanka Storm protection 800,000 Batagoda (2003)
Irian Jaya Erosion control service 600 per household per year Ruitenbeek (1992)
South of Vietnam Protection against extreme 500,000 Tri et al. (1998)
weather events
Southeast Thailand Ecosystem function 10,000 Panapitukkul
et al. (1998)
India (North Total monetary value 10,960 Khaleel (2008)
Malabar) Forestry and fisheries benefits 500–2500 Dixon (1989)
Disturbance regulation 1839 Costanza et al. (1997)
Waste treatment 6696 Costanza et al. (1997)
Habitat/refugee 169 Costanza et al. (1997)
Global mangroves Food production 466 Costanza et al. (1997)
Raw materials 162 Costanza et al. (1997)
Recreation 658 Costanza et al. (1997)
Total benefits 3294 Costanza et al. (1997)
Total economic value 9990 Costanza et al. (1997)
9.1
Mangroves
180 200
180
160
160
140 140
120
120
100
100 80
60
80
Total number of individuals of all speoies

40
60 2000
Harinbari
Chemaguri
Sagar South
2006 Lothian
Prentice
Canning
Sajpekhali
Chotomollakhali
Satjelia
2012 Pakhiralaya
Fig. 9.8 Spatio-temporal variation of a total number of individuals of true mangrove floral species (N)
341
342
20
18
3.5
16
3
14 2.5
12 2
1.5
10
1
8
0.5
6
0
Shannon Weiner speoies diversity index

9
2 2000
Ha
C rin
2006 Sag hema bari
a
P
Lot
h r Sou guri
Ca rentic ian th
Sa
jp
nni
n e
Sa Choto ekha g
2012 tjel mo l
Pak ia llak i
hira hal
laya i
Fig. 9.9 Spatio-temporal variation of Shannon-Wiener species diversity index of true mangrove floral species
Hot Spots of Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
9.2 Coral Reefs 343
biomass in relation to rising salinity (in terms of benthic communities. They are often regarded
predictive model), although it is a fact that salin- as the oases of the ocean. The Great Barrier
ity causes stunted growth of mangroves. In Reef, the largest coral reef of the planet Earth,
countries like India (Indian Sundarbans), few stretches more than 2000 km from New Guinea
mangrove species like Heritiera fomes are southward along the East Coast of Australia. The
already at the verge of extinction because of reefs are constructed and promoted by corals,
rising salinity. which are colonial animals and whose individual
Agricultural land conversion destroyed members are called polyps (Fig. 9.10).
17,179 ha of mangroves in India during A coral polyp looks like a tiny sea anemone
1975–2005. A further 7554 ha was lost due to possessing stinging tentacles, but unlike the
shrimp cultivation. Over the last 30 years, some anemone, a coral polyp extracts calcium carbon-
7500 ha in Bangladesh has become submerged ate from the water and builds within its tissues a
by rising seas. If this trend continues then not skeletal cup of calcareous material. Large num-
much days are left when mangroves will be some bers of polyps grow together in colonies of del-
museum specimens beside dinosaur. Unfortu- icately branched forms or rounded masses.
nately, the issues are addressed in seminars and Corals are very slowly growing organisms;
workshops with pomp and splendour, but imple- some species grow less than 1 cm in a year
mentation ultimately ends in smoke and we while others add up to 5 cm each year. The
eagerly wait for the next seminar even after lis- same coral may be found in different shapes
tening the warning/death bell for this very deli- and sizes, depending on the depth and wave
cate ecosystem of the planet Earth. action of the area. Within the tissues of the
coral polyps, single-cell dinoflagellate algae
called zooxanthellae are present. Polyps and
9.2 Coral Reefs zooxanthellae have symbiotic relationship in
which the coral provides the algal cells with a
Coral reefs, the rainforest of the ocean, occupy protected environment, carbon dioxide and
only 0.2 % of the total ocean basin but support nutrients (like nitrate and phosphate), and the
not less than 25 % species of the ocean. The reefs algal cells by the process of photosynthesis
sustain the most luxuriant and complex of all return oxygen, remove wastes and produce
Fig. 9.10 Coral polyps

carbon compounds, which help to nourish the Table 9.4 Species richness of coral reef-associated
coral. Some coral species receive as much as fauna
60 % of their nutrition from the algae. Taxon Number of species Reference
Zooxanthellae also cause the coral to produce General Indo-Pacific reef faunas
more calcium carbonate and increase the growth Fishes >2200 Sale (1980)
of their calcareous skeleton. The polyps feed Corals 390 Sebens (1994)
actively at night by extending their tentacles for Nudibranchs >500 Gosliner (1993)
Estimates of faunas of single reefs
catching the zooplankton, but during the day,
Fishes 860 Sale et al. (1994)
their tentacles are contracted, exposing their
Molluscs 150–500 Sorokin (1993)
outer layer of cells containing zooxanthellae to Crustaceans 100–250 Sorokin (1993)
the sunlight. The reef-building corals of tropical Polychaetes 100–200 Sorokin (1993)
regions have specialized requirements like warm, Echinoderms 50–100 Sorokin (1993)
clear, shallow, clean water and a firm substratum Sponges >50 Sorokin (1993)
to which they can attach. The growth of the
corals is restricted to tropical waters between
Indonesia is blessed to have 75,000 km2 of
30 N and 30 S where the temperature usually
coral reef, which are distributed throughout the
ranges between 20 C and 25 C. Waters at
archipelago. Throughout the Indonesian coastal
depths greater than 50–100 m are too cold for
water, fringing reefs are most common and are
considerable secretion of calcium carbonate. Per-
present around most small- and medium-sized
haps because of this reason, most of the Carib-
islands particularly in the eastern sector of
bean corals are found in the upper 50 m of lighted
Indonesia. Researchers documented that there
zone, whereas Indian and Pacific corals are found
are 590 species of hard corals (Suharsono
at depths of 150 m in the more transparent water
2004), 2010 species of soft corals (Moosa 1999)
of these oceans.
and 350 species of gorgonians (Moosa 1999).
Coral reefs are ecologically important
The coral reef ecosystems in Indonesia sustain
ecosystems with extremely rich taxonomic diver-
diverse categories of marine algae. In the eastern
sity (Table 9.4). They sustain complex
part, 782 species of seaweeds have been
assemblages of many different types of plants
documented out of which 179 species are under
and animals having intense competition for
Chlorophyceae, 134 species are under
space and food. Globally, coral reefs comprise
Phaeophyceae and 452 are under Rhodophyceae
about 1 % of total continental shelf area or
(van Bosse 1928). Seaweeds are collected or
slightly more than that (Groombridge and
cultured on reef flats. In Indonesia, the coral
Jenkins 2002), but they are among the most
reef is facing severe threats. It has been estimated
diverse of the world’s ecosystems. It is estimated
that 70 % of the reefs are either fair or richly
that about 793 species of scleractinian corals are
damaged and only 6.69 % are in excellent condi-
present worldwide (Veron 2000) of which
tion (Suharsono 2004). Reports available on
719 occur in the Indo-West Pacific region. Very
Indonesian coastal reef highlight that Indonesia
few species of any taxa are found in both the
has approximately 18,110 islands which are
Indo-Pacific coral reef area and Caribbean reef
partly or wholly surrounded by coral reefs.
area (Burke et al. 2001). It has been reported that
These coral reefs are taxonomically rich natural
the coral species richness of Indian Ocean Rim
display ground sustaining a wide spectrum of
countries is very similar to those in the Pacific
biological species.
Ocean with both of these regions having signifi-
The contribution of the Indian Ocean to this
cantly greater coral diversity than the Atlantic.
diversity is significant with six other countries
Countries with large coral diversities such as
spread from Seychelles in the west to India in the
Indonesia (443), Australia (428) and Thailand
north to Malaysia in the east, all having over
(238) border both the Indian and Pacific Oceans,
thus increasing the apparent diversity of both.
9.2 Coral Reefs 345
200 species of coral recorded (Keesing and controlled by the interaction of tectonic and geo-
Irvine 2005). morphological events with evolution and disper-
Coral reef is the housing complex of a wide sion processes. At a regional level, water
spectrum of fauna. It has been documented that parameter like turbidity and current strength,
as many as 300 animal species may live together perhaps requiring differential adaptation at the
on a single reef. The giant clam (Tridacna sp.) larval stage, may control the species distribution
measuring up to a metre in length and weighing pattern. At a local level, diversity is influenced
over 150 kg is an important species of reef eco- by the habitat characteristics such as depth, het-
system, but overharvesting and poaching have erogeneity and complexity. Because of the
greatly reduced their numbers. These clams also vagaries of larval distribution and recruitment,
possess zooxanthellae in large numbers in the the assemblages to be found at a site are quite
colourful tissues that line the edges of the shell. variable, although the extent of these variations
The bubblegum corals are another surprise to the probably differs among species and areas
reef community. They are octocorals belonging (Ormond and Callum 1997).
to the phylum Cnidaria, which also includes In Indian subcontinent, coral reefs are
stony corals and jellyfish. Despite forming enor- concentrated in regions like Gulf of Mannar,
mous tree-like structures, the trunk and branches Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep
of bubblegum corals are not corneous or calcare- Islands, etc. Coral reefs occur in and around
ous like most branching octocorals. Instead, the 20 islands between Tuticorin and Pamban in the
branches are accumulation and near fusion of Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. The Gulf of
microscopic sclerites made of calcite (Fig. 9.11). Mannar is located in Tamil Nadu, in the south-
Crabs, moray eels, colourful reef fish, poison- east coast of India (Fig. 9.12). Coral reefs in this
ous stonefish, spiny sea urchins, seahorses, zone have developed around a chain of 21 unin-
shrimps, lobsters, sponges and various life habited islands in four groups (Table 9.5) that lie
forms are found in the coral reef ecosystem. along the 140 km coastal stretch between
Global pattern of coral reef fish diversity has Rameshwaram and Tuticorin, at an average dis-
been examined in detail by McAllister tance of 9 km from the mainland.
et al. (1994). The biodiversity of coral reef fishes We conducted an intensive survey during
covers a wide array of species. Reef fishes show 2013 in the Gulf of Mannar region and
patterns of distribution and diversity at all scales documented 36 genera of corals under different
ranging from global to regional to local. At the families like Pocilloporidae, Acroporidae,
largest scale, diversity appears to be principally Fungiidae, Poritidae, Faviidae, Pectiniidae, etc.
(vide Annexure 9A for the checklist).
Coral reefs are also the sites of microbial
diversity. A wide spectrum of free-living nitro-
gen fixing bacteria, nitrate-reducing bacteria,
ammonifying bacteria, inorganic phosphate-
solubilizing bacteria, phosphate-producing bac-
teria, filamentous fungi and yeast were isolated
from the coral mucus samples of the Gulf of
Mannar. The positive correlation observed
between the content of inorganic phosphate
with solubilizing bacteria and phosphatase-
producing bacteria indicates that the release of
inorganic phosphate is mostly governed by bac-
terial action in the coral reef environment
Fig. 9.11 Bubblegum corals (Kannan 2004).
Fig. 9.12 Map of the Gulf of Mannar showing the location of the 21 islands
Table 9.5 Islands in the Gulf of Mannar and type of coral reef
Islands Reef type
Mandapam group
Shingle Fringing reef that extends down to 2 m depth
Krusadai Fringing reef extends down to 3 m, with patch reefs extending towards the eastern side
Pullivasal Fringing reefs to 2.3 m depth with patch reefs extending to the northern side
Poomarichan Fringing reef extends down to 2 m depth with patch reefs to the northeast
Manoliputti Fringing reefs extend down to 2.2 m depth
Manoli Fringing reefs extend to 2.2 m with patch reefs to the north
Hare Fringing reef extends to 2.2 m depth, two patch reefs to the northwest 3 m deep
Keezhakarai group
Mulli Fringing reef extends to 3.5 m with patch reefs to the southeast and south at 2.9 and 3.2 m
Valai Limited fringing reefs extend to 2.9 m
Thalaiyari Fringing reefs extending to 2 m depth
Appa Fringing reef extends to 3.2 m with patch reefs to the southeast and northwest side at 3.5 m
Poovarasanpatti Discontinuous patch reefs distributed up to 2.5 m depth
Valimunai Fringing reef to 2.5 m depth, patch reef to the southeast at 3.4 m depth
Anaipar Fringing reef extends to 2.8 m
Vembar group
Nallathanni Fringing reef extending to a depth of 3 m and small patch reefs to the south side down to 3.9 m
depth
Pulivinichalli Fringing type that extends up to a depth of 2.5 m and patch reefs on the south side at 3.2 m depth
Upputhanni Fringing reef that extends to 2.8 m depth with patch reefs to the south and west at 3 and 3.5 m
depths
The coral reef community has diverse ecolog- (e.g. Trapezia spp., Tetralia sp., Cymo spp.,
ical and economic importance. Productivity of Domecia glabra), gastropods (e.g. Coralliophila
these reefs is high due to their symbiotic associa- violacea, Ouoyola sp.) and fishes (e.g. Abudefduf
tion with zooxanthellae and the efficient spp., Dascyllus spp.). Turtles consume
recycling of nutrients. These corals check ero- seagrasses in the reefs. In addition, coral reefs
sion and are closely associated with diverse are nursery grounds for many fishes and habitat
organisms such as brachyuran crabs for rare species. Corals grow very slowly and its
9.2 Coral Reefs 347
gradual damage will not only affect the biodiver- population. Agarolytic bacteria, of potential
sity of the area but will also pose an adverse commercial importance, have been isolated
impact on the recruitment and yield of fisheries. from Agatti lagoon. Coral reef organisms are
Though corals are economically important economically very important because many of
from the point of view of biodiversity, they them are the sources of potential drugs and to
have been exploited for commercial purposes. alleviate human ailments, whose research is
Their aesthetic value makes them costly under progress. Recent reports from Europe sug-
souvenirs for tourists. Coralline boulders (mainly gest that coral skeleton can be used as a bone
Porites sp.) have been used as cheap substitute material substitute in orthosurgery.
for construction of houses. Coral reefs host many
organisms that are of commercial importance
and many of them are found on the accessible 9.2.1 Types of Coral Reefs
reef flats. The algae present on the coral reef
system are often utilized for the extraction of On the basis of the structure and their relation-
agar and algin. ship to the underlying geologic features, coral
Holothurians, being member of the reef com- reefs can be subdivided into three categories
munity, have been exploited in India for the (Fig. 9.13a, b, c). They are fringing reefs, barrier
production of bêche-de-mer, an industry reefs and atolls.
introduced by the Chinese more than a thousand
year ago (Hornell 1917). The product containing 1. Fringing reefs: These are found very close to
about 35–50 % digestible proteins imparts a fla- or near the newly formed volcanic islands as
vour to soup. Though there is an internal market well as surrounding the continental
for bêche-de-mer, foreign exchange equivalent to landmasses. They are located directly off-
one crore rupees is earned every year (James and shore and project outward to the sea, e.g. the
James 1994). This industry has been mainly Caribbean reef.
restricted to Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay 2. Barrier reefs: These reefs act as barrier
and has been facing a crisis due to declining separated by a lagoon from the landmass,
stocks. To mitigate the crisis, new areas are with which they are associated. Those
sought to be exploited. The crisis appears to surrounding volcanic islands are formed
arise mainly because of indiscriminate exploita- from subsiding islands with fringing reefs.
tion, lured by foreign exchange. Some echinoids, The lagoon forms between the island and the
e.g. Tripneustes gratilla, are potentially econom- reef. The largest barrier reef is the Great Bar-
ically important as their highly nutritious gonads rier Reef of Australia, which runs over
are considered a delicacy in European, American 2000 km along the north-eastern coast of
and Far Eastern Asian countries. Ornamental Australia to New Guinea. It is so large that it
fishes of reefs are important because of their is visible from space shuttle. The second larg-
high market value. est barrier reef is located in the Caribbean Sea
Extraction of bioactive substances is another off the coast of Belize.
important economic benefit obtained from coral 3. Atolls: These reefs are somewhat circular in
reef organisms. The pufferfishes Tetraodon spp. shape with a centrally located lagoon.
contain tetrodotoxin, which is a neurotoxin. According to Darwin, they are formed in
Many of the compounds extracted from coral areas where barrier reefs subside below sea
reef-associated species, useful to the pharmaceu- level, whereas according to Alexander
tical industry, have been identified (Kennish Agassiz, they are formed on the top of the
1989), and some of them are being commercially cones of submerged volcanoes, leaving only
marketed. Using biotechnological techniques, the reef around a central lagoon. But in any of
these compounds can be mass-produced in the the case, the lagoon remains connected to the
laboratory without exploiting the natural open sea by breaks in the reef. Over time, the
Fig. 9.13 (a) Fringing reef. (b) Barrier reef. (c) Atoll
reefs may become eroded or exposed to wind been recorded at several locations along the
action or waves. These physical processes coast.
sometimes give rise to formation of islands In addition to these three main reef types,
surrounding the lagoons, which is perhaps the there are several special reef arrangements.
depositional feature of sand carried by the These are table reefs and patch reefs.
wind or wave action. More than 300 atolls Table reefs are small reefs found in the open
are present in and around the Pacific and ocean that have no central islands or lagoons.
Indian Ocean, whereas 10 atolls are present Patch reefs occur numerously in patches
in the Atlantic Ocean as the water is too cool located in lagoons associated with atolls and
or turbid. barrier reefs.
Most atolls have northeast–southwest ori- The Lakshadweep archipelago
entation with an island on the east, a broad (8 N–12 13/ N, 71 E–74 E), the smallest
well-developed reef on the west and a lagoon union territory of India, is located on the
in between. Reefs of all atolls are widest on 2500 km Laccadive-Chagos ridge, presumed
the southwest side. to be the hot spot trace resulting from the
Low-lying islands distributed in the Indian northward migration of the Indian plate (Mor-
and South Pacific Oceans with a circular ring gan 1981). The islands of this archipelago are
of reefs encircling a lagoon are known as an located about 220–440 km from the mainland
atoll. Other coral reef formations in Indian city of Kochi (Cochin) in Kerala. The taxo-
waters such as fringing reefs occur in the nomic survey of the Lakshadweep revealed
Palk Bay, Gulf of Kutch and Andaman and the presence of more than 600 species that
Nicobar Islands, while coral patches have includes more than 100 few records
9.2 Coral Reefs 349
Table 9.6 Synopsis of number of species recorded during surveys at Lakshadweep

Faunal/floral groups No. of species recorded No. of new records
Corals 96 29
Seagrasses/seaweeds 86 17
Anomuran crabs 10 3
Brachyuran crabs 81 30
Gastropods 155 45
Bivalves 24 7
Sea stars 13 2
Brittlestars 6 1
Sea cucumbers 23 –
Sea urchins 15 –
Fishes 120 1
Total 629 135
Table 9.7 Diversity of marine organisms in the Lakshadweep

No. of species
Faunal/floral groups Reporteda New Recordsb Total
Corals 104 29 133
Seagrasses/seaweeds/mangroves 181 17 198
Sponges 91 – 91
Polychaetes 69 – 69
Sipunculids 17 – 17
Echiurids 7 – 7
Decapods 156 33 189
Molluscs 425 52 477
Echinoderms 88 3 91
Fishes 601 1 602
Turtles 4 – 4
Sea snakes 5 – 5
Birds 101 – 101
Marine mammals 8 – 8
Total 1857 135 1992
a
Sources: Appukuttan et al. (1989), Deshmukh (1991), Ghosh (1991), Haldar (1991), Jones and Kumaran (1980),
Kaliaperumal et al. (1989), Lal Mohan (1989), Lal Mohan et al. (1989), Mathew et al. (1991), Misra and Chakraborty
(1991), Pillai and Jasmine (1989), Rao (1991), Subba Rao and Subba Rao (1991), Rao et al. (1989), Sankarankutty
(1961), Thomas (1989), Untawale et al. (1983), Untawale and Jagtap (1984)
b
New records
(Table 9.6). Species belonging to other groups is given in Table 9.7. The table excludes the
such as mangroves, sponges, soft corals, micro/meiobenthic and planktonic species. It
zoanthids, polychaetes, nemerteans, can thus be seemed that the Lakshadweep
sipunculids, echiurids, other crustaceans, coral reefs are important reservoirs of marine
crinoids, ascidians, etc., also constitute some biodiversity in Indian territorial waters
of the dominant members. The large number (Rodrigues 1996).
of new records seems to suggest that many
species are not yet reported. A compilation of Assessment of biodiversity of flora and fauna
species reported to date, including new of the coral reef environment of the Great
records observed during the present surveys, Nicobar Island showed the presence of
150 species of phytoplankton, 80 species of to 56 genera and 16 families. It was found that
seaweeds, 9 species of seagrasses, 109 species there is close association between corals and
of zooplankton, 87 species of crustaceans brachyuran crabs, and the species diversity of
(including 55 species of brachyuran crabs, 18 spe- these crabs increases with the increase in the
cies of hermit crabs, 3 species of lobsters and interbranchial space in the corals. Molluscs
9 species of shrimps and 2 species of were represented by 60 species of gastropods
stomatopods), 119 species of molluscs (including and 20 species of bivalves. Coral reef fishes
30 species of bivalves, 83 species of gastropods represent 129 species belonging to 73 genera
and 6 species of cephalopods), 49 species of and 34 families that are mostly caught for marine
echinoderms (including 9 species of starfish, aquaria (Kannan 2004).
8 species of brittlestars, 11 species of sea urchins
and sand dollars and 21 species of sea
cucumbers) and 258 species of fishes (belonging 9.2.2 Coral Reef Characteristics
to 14 genera). Besides, 39 species of coral-boring
organisms were also identified from the coral All three types of reef share several common
reef area of the Great Nicobar Island. Many of characteristics. On the seaward side, the reef
the floral (3 species of seagrasses, 12 species of rises from the lower depths of the ocean to a
mangroves) and faunal (35 species of level just at or just below the surface of the
echinoderms, 22 species of benthic polychaetes, water. This portion of the reef is called reef
144 species of fishes) species identified from front or fore reef (Fig. 9.14). The slope of the
here were found to be new distributional records reef front can be either gentle or quite steep. In
for the Great Nicobar Island (Kannan 2004). It some cases, the reef front forms a vertical wall
has also been reported that the reef area is the referred to as a drop-off. The reef front does not
feeding centre for green turtle and resort for generally form a solid sea wall instead; finger-
Dugong dugon. like projections of the reef protrude seaward.
At Gulf of Mannar, studies on plankton This arrangement, called a spur and groove for-
recorded 122 species of phytoplankton that mation, disperses wave energy and prevents
include 94 species of diatoms, 15 species of damage to the reef and its inhabitants. Between
dinoflagellates, 8 species of blue-greens, 3 spe- some of these projections (spurs) lie sand-filled
cies of greens and 2 species of others. There were pockets (grooves) that allow sediments to be
98 species of zooplankton with 51 species of channelled down and away from the living
copepods; 8 species of tintinnids; 6 species of coral surface and provide a habitat for many
polychaetes; 4 species of chaetognaths; 3 species species of burrowing organisms.
of cladocerans; 3 species of thaliacea; 9 species The highest point on the reef is called the reef
of decapods; 2 species of hydrozoa; 1 species crest, and the area opposite the reef front levels
each in foraminifera, mysidaceae, phytofla- off and is referred to as a reef flat or back reef.
gellates and pteropod larvae; and 8 juveniles. This area exhibits a high degree of variability.
The phytoplankton population density ranged The flat may be short or several hundred metres
between 11,000 and 82,500 cells per litre, and long. It may be shallow or cut through by
the species diversity and population density were channels several metres deep. The bottom of
found to be more in the reef environs than the the flat may consist of rock, sand, coral rubble
coastal waters. Meiofaunal density was higher in or some combination of these. Seagrass beds are
the lagoon zone followed by reef flat and seaward commonly found in the reef flat area. The reef
slope, with nematodes as the major component flat of fringing reefs ends at the shoreline. The
besides the Foraminiferans, Turbellarians, reef flat of atolls and barrier reefs descends into
Polychaetes, Harpacticoida, Amphipods, the lagoon.
Gastrotrics and Ostracods. A study on Different areas of a reef support different spe-
brachyuran crabs recorded 105 species belonging cies of coral as well as other organisms. Coral
9.2 Coral Reefs 351
Fig. 9.14 Fore reef and back reef
populations on the reef front are usually found at species of coral such as rose (Meandrina and
depths of 10–60 m (33–200 ft). Massive, dome- Manicina), flower (Mussa and Eusmilia) and
shaped brain corals (Diploria) and columnar pil- star (Montastraea). Species of this type found
lar corals (Dendrogyra) are found on intermedi- associated with both Caribbean and Indo-Pacific
ate slopes. Below this region, species that form reefs. On some reefs, there are signs of zonation
platelike formations, like lettuce leaf and ele- as certain species of coral gradually appear and
phant ear coral (Pectinia, Pavona and Agaracia disappear along the reef.
species), predominate. Higher up on the reef, There are approximately 20 genera of coral
where wave stress is greatest, branching species represented on Caribbean reefs, and most Carib-
of coral are found. Wave stress is one of the most bean reefs are dominated by 10 species of hard
important factors in determining what species of coral and the hydrozoan coral Millepora, also
coral and other organisms can occupy the reef known as fire or stinging coral. By contrast,
crest. In the Caribbean, this upper area is the there are more than 80 genera of coral in the
habitat of elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata). Indo-Pacific, and the number of species is
This coral’s heavy, spreading branches project equally diverse. For instance, in the Caribbean,
towards sea, where they break the force of there are only three species of the genus
incoming waves. Acropora, whereas there are at least 150 species
In more protected areas behind the reef front, of this genus in the Indo-Pacific. The Great Bar-
the deeper and less turbulent water supports more rier Reef of Australia is inhabited by over
delicate species of coral. In the Caribbean, this is 200 species in the genus Acropora. Cooler
frequently a staghorn coral (Acropora water temperatures and higher turbidity are the
cervicornis). In the Indo-Pacific region, species primary reasons that there are fewer coral species
such as staghorn, finger (Stylopora), cluster in Caribbean waters. The Indo-Pacific region is
(Pocillopora) and lace corals (Pocillopora also geologically older and covers a larger area
damicornis) are prominent. Farther from the than the Caribbean; therefore, more species are
reef front in shallow, calmer water are small to be expected.
9.2.3 Reef Productivity many of the materials taken by the coral could just
as easily serve as growth factors for the
The water that surrounds and bathes coral reefs is zooxanthellae. It appears that coral polyps some-
not very rich in nutrients. The presence of how stimulate the zooxanthellae to release the
suspended material and organisms in productive nutrients, but the nature of this process is not clear.
waters reduces the amount of light that can pene- Coral animals (Fig. 9.15) actively poison their
trate the water. As a result, important algal symbionts to receive maximum exposure to
wavelengths of visible light disappear rapidly sunlight. During the day, the polyp’s tissue layer
below the surface, and the water appears green. containing the zooxanthellae (Fig. 9.15) is spread
Since corals require clear water so that there will out like a carpet to catch as much sunlight as
be enough light to support their photosynthetic possible. At night, when photosynthesis is not
symbionts, it is not surprising to find that coral carried out, the tissue containing the
reefs develop only in water that contains minimal zooxanthellae is withdrawn, and the coral polyp
amounts of plankton and is quite blue. Although extends its feeding tentacles and preys upon phy-
the water that bathes the coral reefs is nutrient toplankton. In shallow water, where sunlight is
poor, the reef itself is one of the most productive abundant, coral tissues contain several layers of
of all marine ecosystems. zooxanthellae, packing in as many zooxanthellae
The key to the high productivity of coral reefs per unit volume as possible. The colonies formed
is the symbiotic relationship between by these species are generally quite branched,
zooxanthellae and many of the reef’s inhabitants, allowing maximum numbers of zooxanthellae
especially the hard coral polyps. Other reef to be exposed to sunlight. In deeper water,
animals, such as giant clams and their relatives where sunlight is less available, coral colonies
(Tridacnidae), also support an enormous number tend to be flatter, forming large horizontal tables
of symbiotic zooxanthellae. Symbiotic over which polyps can spread their tissues
zooxanthellae can be as much as three times containing the zooxanthellae.
more productive than the equivalent amount of When coral polyps are stressed, they expel the
phytoplankton. Coral animals and their symbionts zooxanthellae from their tissues, a phenomenon
are so intimately connected that they behave as a known as bleaching. Lacking zooxanthellae that
single organism. As previously mentioned, give coral its characteristic yellow-brown colour,
zooxanthellae provide the corals with nutrients the coral colonies appear white, like the bleached
essential for reef building. A large portion of the specimens in souvenir shops, thus the term
zooxanthellae’s tremendous photosynthetic out- bleaching. Without symbiotic zooxanthellae, coral
put is channelled back to their host, and much of polyps will cease to grow and will die within a few
the oxygen produced by the photosynthesis is months. It appears that slight increase in water
consumed by the coral polyps. Zooxanthellae temperature (heat stress) is one of the most impor-
manufacture a variety of amino acids, sugars and tant causes of bleaching. During the 1980s, marine
other organic compounds that are absorbed biologists recorded widespread coral bleaching
directly into their host’s tissues. In turn, carbon throughout the world, a process that is unfortunately
dioxide and ammonia, wastes of the coral continuing today. Some researchers think that a
animal’s metabolism, are perfect nutrients for combination of global warming due to increased
zooxanthellae. The symbionts absorb these carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and El Niño
materials directly from the animal’s tissues so events is the primary culprit. Whatever the cause
efficiently that several species of coral release of bleaching, if environmental conditions return to a
virtually no nitrogen wastes to the surrounding more normal range, the coral polyps will collect
water. Some compounds may be passed back new zooxanthellae and continue to grow and thrive.
and forth between polyp and zooxanthellae sev- In addition to deriving nutrients from the sym-
eral times, each time being altered or combined biotic zooxanthellae, some coral polyps use
with other molecules. It is not clear what regulates sticky strands or nets of mucus to trap bacteria,
the exchange of nutrients, considering the fact that plankton and detritus on which they feed. Soft
9.2 Coral Reefs 353
Fig. 9.15 Coral animal

with zooxanthellae
corals frequently lack zooxanthellae and probably

employ methods such as absorption and mucous Brain Churners
nets to gather food. The coral mucus is an impor- 1. Why mangrove forests are known as
tant source of food for many reef organisms. Other ‘natural buffers’?
coral species that lack zooxanthellae are covered 2. How can mangroves cope with sea
with numerous microscopic projections that prob- level rise?
ably allow them to absorb scarce, dissolved 3. State few ecosystem services of
nutrients from the seawater. mangroves.
Many organisms, including crabs, shrimp, 4. What is referred to as the ‘mangrove
molluscs and fishes, depend on the abundant accommodation space’?
coral mucus for energy-rich triglycerides and 5. What is known as carbon burial rate?
fatty acids. Some species of benthic shrimp can How is the monetary value of carbon
live almost entirely on a diet of coral mucus. The sequestration calculated?
corals themselves provide food for some 6. Why is the growth of the corals
echinoderms, molluscs, crabs and fishes. restricted to tropical waters between
Coral reefs are highly visible, ‘charismatic’ and 30 N and 30 S?
metabolically active benthic ecosystems. They con- 7. State few uses of corals. What are the
tain two primary carbon (C) reservoirs found in three major types of coral reefs?
other marine ecosystems: organic matter and cal- 8. What is the key to the high productiv-
cium carbonate. They are recognized to be among ity of coral reefs? Name two hard
the most rapid producers, per unit area, of both corals and two soft corals.
organic carbon (the transformation of inorganic 9. What is coral bleaching and how does
carbon by photosynthetic organisms called ‘pri- it occur?
mary production’) and skeletal calcium carbonate 10. What is ‘0.6 rule’ in estimating coral
(CaCO3)—precipitated through calcification reefs as ‘carbon source or sink’?
process).
Annexure 9A: Checklist of Corals

in and Around Gulf of Mannar
Sl.
no. Genus Representative Species documented
1. Pocillopora Pocillopora damicornis Pocillopora verrucosa
Pocillopora eydouxi
Pocillopora damicornis
2. Madracis Madracis interjecta
Madracis kirbyi
Madracis kirbyi
3. Acropora Acropora formosa
Acropora intermedia
Acropora corymbosa
Acropora nobilis
Acropora humilis
Acropora valida
Acropora hemprichii
Acropora hyacinthus
Acropora stoddarti
Acropora millepora
Acropora diversa
Acropora hemprichii Acropora brevicollis
Acropora cytherea
Acropora hebes
Acropora echinata
Acropora nasuta
(continued)
Annexure 9A: Checklist of Corals in and Around Gulf of Mannar 355
Sl.
4. Montipora Montipora subtilis
Montipora digitata
Montipora divaricata
Montipora venosa
Montipora spumosa
Montipora tuberculosa
Montipora monasteriata
Montipora jonesi
Montipora granulosa
Montipora exserta
Montipora aequituberculata Montipora turgescens
Montipora manauliensis
Montipora verrucosa
Montipora hispida
Montipora foliosa
Montipora verrilli
Montipora aequituberculata
5. Astreopora Astreopora myriophthalma
Astreopora myriophthalma
6. Pavona Pavona duerdeni
Pavona varians
Pavona decussata
Pavona divaricata
Pavona varians
7. Pachyseris Pachyseris rugosa
Pachyseris rugosa
(continued)
Sl.
8. Siderastrea Siderastrea savignyana
Siderastrea savignyana
9. Pseudosiderastrea Pseudosiderastrea tayami
Pseudosiderastrea tayami
10. Coscinaraea Coscinaraea monile
Coscinaraea monile
11. Psammocora Psammocora contigua
Psammocora contigua
(continued)
Sl.
12. Cycloseris Cycloseris cyclolites
Cycloseris cyclolites
13. Goniopora Goniopora stokesi
Goniopora planulata
Goniopora minor
Goniopora planulata
14. Porites Porites solida
Porites mannarensis
Porites lutea
Porites lichen
Porites exserta
Porites compressa
Porites complanata
Porites nodifera
Porites lichen
15. Favia Favia stelligera
Favia pallida
Favia speciosa
Favia favus
Favia valenciennesi
Favia matthai
Favia speciosa
16. Favites Favites abdita
Favites halicora
Favites pentagona
Favites melicerum
Favites complanata
Favites flexuosa
Favites halicora
(continued)
Sl.
17. Goniastrea Goniastrea pectinata
Goniastrea retiformis
Goniastrea pectinata
18. Platygyra Platygyra daedalea
Platygyra sinensis
Platygyra lamellina
Platygyra sinensis
19. Leptoria Leptoria phrygia
Leptoria phrygia
20. Hydnophora Hydnophora microconos Hydnophora exesa
Hydnophora microconos
21. Leptastrea Leptastrea transversa Leptastrea purpurea
Leptastrea transversa
(continued)
Sl.
22. Cyphastrea Cyphastrea serailia
Cyphastrea microphthalma
Cyphastrea japonica
Cyphastrea microphthalma
23. Echinopora Echinopora lamellosa
Echinopora lamellosa
24. Plesiastrea Plesiastrea versipora
Plesiastrea versipora
25. Galaxea Galaxea fascicularis
Galaxea astreata
Galaxea fascicularis
26. Merulina Merulina ampliata
Merulina ampliata
(continued)
Sl.
27. Acanthastrea Acanthastrea echinata
Acanthastrea echinata
28. Lobophyllia Lobophyllia corymbosa
Lobophyllia corymbosa
29. Symphyllia Symphyllia radians
Symphyllia recta
Symphyllia radians
30. Mycedium Mycedium elephantotus
Mycedium elephantotus
31. Polycyathus Polycyathus verrilli
Polycyathus verrilli
(continued)
Sl.
32. Heterocyathus Heterocyathus aequicostatus
Heterocyathus aequicostatus
33. Heteropsammia Heteropsammia michelini
Heteropsammia sp.
34. Tubastrea Tubastrea aurea
Tubastrea aurea
35. Dendrophyllia Dendrophyllia coarctata
Dendrophyllia indica
Dendrophyllia coarctata
36. Turbinaria Turbinaria crater
Turbinaria peltata
Turbinaria mesenterina
Turbinaria peltata
In addition to the common coral species stated Ellison, J. C. (1993). Mangrove retreat with rising
in Annexure 9A, some new species have been sea-level, Bermuda. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Sci-
ence, 37, 75–87.
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Threats to Marine and Estuarine
Ecosystems 10
Contents Oceans and estuaries comprise about 70 % of the

10.1 Natural Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Earth’s land mass and provide more potential
biodiversity for novel products and services
10.2 Anthropogenic Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
than any other ecosystem in the world. Forty
Annexure 10A: Impact of Salinity percent of the world inhabitants are living along
on Above-Ground Biomass and Stored Carbon
the coastline of the oceans. Marine lives ranging
in a Common Mangrove Excoecaria Agallocha
Inhabiting Lower Gangetic Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 from bacteria to higher forms of lives are sources
of micro- and macromolecules required for the
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
advancement of civilization. Despite the vast
socio-economic potentials of oceans and
estuaries, they are treated as the final receptacle
of all wastes generated from anthropogenic
activities. In addition, natural hazards like
supercyclone, volcanic activities, tectonic
movements, etc. are threats of megascale on the
marine and estuarine ecosystems. Climate
change-related effects like salinity fluctuation,
acidification and extreme weather events greatly
damage the salt water domain of the planet Earth.
People all over the world face the reality of
climate variability in different mode and magni-
tude. More than 530,000 people died as a direct
result of almost 15,000 extreme weather events,
and losses of more than USD 2.5 trillion (in PPP)
occurred from 1993 to 2012 globally. The list of
natural disaster is vast, and the magnitude of
damage caused by such disasters is difficult to
assess with extreme accuracy.
The marine and estuarine ecosystems mostly
face four major threats: (i) climate change-
related threats, which include alteration of
aquatic temperature, salinity, pH and patterns of

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_10
366 10 Threats to Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
water movement (including currents, eddies and the sun occurs every 365.256363004 days (1 side-
fronts); (ii) overfishing, which includes the real year). This motion gives an apparent move-
by-catch problems both from commercial fish- ment of the sun with respect to the stars at a rate of
ing, recreational fishing, illegal fishing and about 1 /day (or a sun or moon diameter every
unregulated fishing; (iii) habitat damage largely 12 h) eastwards, as seen from the Earth. On aver-
caused by fishing gear (particularly during bot- age, it takes 24 h—a solar day—for the Earth to
tom trawling), destruction of coral reefs, complete a full rotation about its axis relative to
mangroves, seagrass beds, salt marsh grass the sun so that the sun returns to the meridian. The
beds, etc. for coastal development programmes orbital speed of the Earth around the sun averages
that include a wide range of activities like devel- about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h, or 67,108 mph),
opment of industrial units, tourism, aquaculture which is fast enough to cover the planet’s diame-
farms, saltpans, etc.; and (iv) pollution including ter (about 12,700 km, or 7900 miles) in 7 min, and
nutrients, plastic litter, heavy metals, microbial the distance to the moon of 384,000 km (239,000
load, persistent organic pollutants (POP), etc. All miles) in 4 h.
these threats are mixed in nature, e.g. natural There are several factors that regulate the alter-
threats like tsunami causes hypersaline environ- ation of the Earth’s orbit. The first cyclical varia-
ment due to the intrusion of salt water in areas tion, known as eccentricity, controls the shape of
where large number of saltpans exists. It is thus the Earth’s orbit around the sun. The orbit gradu-
difficult to segregate the natural and human- ally changes from being elliptical to being nearly
induced threats on marine and estuarine circular and then back to elliptical in a period of
ecosystems as both of them go hand in hand. about 100,000 years. The greater the eccentricity
Often the threats are synergistic in nature. For of the orbit (i.e. the more elliptical it is), the greater
the convenience of the readers, we have is the variation in solar energy received at the top
discussed the threats under two major heads, of the atmosphere between the Earth’s closest
viz. natural and anthropogenic threats. (perihelion) and farthest (aphelion) approach to
the sun. Currently, the Earth is experiencing a
period of low eccentricity. The difference in the
10.1 Natural Threats Earth’s distance from the sun between perihelion
and aphelion (which is only about 3 %) is respon-
The natural factors that affect the abiotic and biotic sible for approximately a 7 % variation in the
components of marine and estuarine ecosystems amount of solar energy received at the top of the
may be broadly divided into six heads. atmosphere. When the difference in this distance is
at its maximum (9 %), the difference in solar
(A) Alteration of the Earth’s orbit energy received is about 20 %.
(B) Natural oscillation of atmospheric carbon The second cyclical variation results from the
dioxide fact that, as the Earth rotates on its polar axis, it
(C) Volcanic activities wobbles like a spinning top changing the orbital
(D) Variations in solar output timing of the equinoxes and solstices (Fig. 10.1).
(E) Plate tectonics This effect is known as the precession of the
(F) Natural disasters and extreme weather events equinox. The precession of the equinox has a
cycle of approximately 26,000 years. According
to illustration (A), the Earth is closer to the sun in
January (perihelion) and farther away in July
10.1.1 Alteration of the Earth’s Orbit (aphelion) at the present time. Because of preces-
sion, the reverse will be true in 13,000 years, and
In astronomy, the Earth’s orbit is the motion of the Earth will then be closer to the sun in July.
the Earth around the sun, from an average distance This means, of course, that if everything else
of 149.59787 million kilometres (93 million remains constant, 13,000 years from now, sea-
miles) away. A complete orbit of the Earth around sonal variations in the Northern Hemisphere
10.1 Natural Threats 367
Fig. 10.1 Modification of

the timing of aphelion and
perihelion over time
should be greater than at present (colder winters accumulates on the ground surface. Moreover,
and warmer summers) because of the closer the warmer summers produced by the larger tilt
proximity of the Earth to the sun. provide additional energy to melt and evaporate
The third cyclical variation is related to the the snow that fall and accumulate during the
changes in the tilt (obliquity) of the Earth’s axis winter months. In conclusion, glaciers in the
of rotation over a 41,000 years period. During the polar regions should be generally receding, with
41,000 year cycle, the tilt can deviate from other contributing factors constant, during this
approximately 22.5–24.5 . At the present time, part of the obliquity cycle.
the tilt of the Earth’s axis is 23.5 . When the tilt The alteration of temperature and incoming
is small, there is less climatic variation between solar radiation has profound influence on the
the summer and winter seasons in the middle and distribution pattern and species diversity of
high latitudes. Winters tend to be milder and coastal vegetation. Increased surface temperature
summers cooler. Warmer winters allow for is expected to affect mangroves (Field 1995;
more snow to fall in the high latitude regions. Ellison 2000) by:
When the atmosphere is warmer, it has a greater
ability to hold water vapour, and therefore, more 1. Changing species composition
snow is produced at areas of frontal or orographic 2. Changing phenological patterns (e.g. timing
uplift. Cooler summers cause snow and ice to of flowering and fruiting)
accumulate on the Earth’s surface because less 3. Increasing mangrove productivity where tem-
of this frozen water is melted. Thus, the net effect perature does not exceed an upper threshold
of a smaller tilt would be more extensive forma- 4. Expanding mangrove ranges to higher
tion of glaciers in the polar latitudes. latitudes where range is limited by tempera-
Periods of a larger tilt result in greater sea- ture, but is not limited by other factors, includ-
sonal climatic variation in the middle and high ing a supply of propagules and suitable
latitudes. At these times, winters tend to be physiographic conditions
colder and summers warmer. Colder winters pro-
duce more snow because of lower atmospheric Since 1880, the Earth has warmed 0.6–0.8 C,
temperatures. As a result, more snow and ice and it is projected to warm 2–6 C by 2100
mostly due to human activity (Houghton describe the influence of temperature on the
et al. 2001). Mangroves are not expected to be development of marine larvae. Then, they used
adversely impacted by the projected increases in the results to develop a model that predicts the
sea temperature (Field 1995). Most mangroves effect of temperature on dispersal and survival.
produce maximal shoot density when mean air The researchers found that the distance larvae
temperature rises to 25 C and stop producing travelled varied with ocean temperature. They
leaves when the mean air temperature drops observed that larvae from the same species travel
below 15 C (Hutchings and Saenger 1987). At far less in warmer waters than in colder waters. In
temperatures above 25 C, some species show a particular, mean dispersal distance differs greatly
declining leaf formation rate (Saenger and (20 vs. 225 km) as temperature varies from trop-
Moverly 1985). Temperatures above 35 C have ical conditions (30 C) to cold temperate waters
led to thermal stress affecting mangrove root (5 C).
structures and the establishment of mangrove The authors argue that this is due to the fact
seedlings (UNESCO 1992). At leaf temperatures that larvae in cold waters develop more slowly
of 38–40 C, almost no photosynthesis occurs and drift further before beginning their next
(Clough et al. 1982; Andrews et al. 1984). development stage because colder temperatures
Some scientists have suggested that mangroves cause sluggish metabolisms. For endangered spe-
will move polewards with increasing air cies, the survival of some animals may depend on
temperatures (UNEP 1994; Field 1995; Ellison whether offspring from parents in one protected
2005). Although it is possible that some species area can get to another area where they are safe
of mangroves will migrate to higher latitudes from harvest. Consequently, in warmer waters,
where such range extension is limited by temper- marine protected areas may need to be closer
ature, Woodroffe and Grindrod (1991) and together than in colder water, since in warmer
Snedaker (1995) suggest that extreme cold water dispersal distances tend to be shorter.
events are more likely to limit mangrove expan- Moreover, they found that the predictions made
sion into higher latitudes. by the developed model hold true for virtually all
Temperature controls the rate of fundamental marine animals with a larval life cycle. In the
biochemical processes in organisms, and conse- context of global warming and associated
quently, changes in the environmental tempera- changes in ocean temperatures, it is important
ture can influence population-, species- and to understand how fish populations are affected
community-level processes. In the marine envi- by changes in temperature. The current study
ronment, temperature can alter the number and provides new insights in this regard that may be
diversity of adult species in a certain area by useful in marine ecology and conservation. The
changing larval development time. Nevertheless, model developed by the authors could represent a
to date, the influence of temperature on larval useful tool for studying larval movement with
duration has only been studied for specific spe- knowledge about ocean temperature. It may
cies, and therefore, the generality of the temper- make it possible to predict what large-scale
ature dependence of larval duration remains changes in ocean temperature may mean for
untested. Knowing the larval dispersal distance, adult populations (O’Connor et al. 2006).
which is believed to be influenced by the dura-
tion of the larval period, is a critical component
for managing commercially important or inva- 10.1.2 Natural Oscillation
sive species. Recently, American researchers of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
have studied the effect of temperature on larval
development using data from 72 marine species, In prehistoric times, during the Permian period,
including cod, herring, American lobster, horse- in the Palaeozoic Era, the concentration of car-
shoe crabs and clams. The researchers first used a bon dioxide dropped below 210 ppmV. The
multilevel model to estimate parameters that Permian Period was the phase of divergence
and evolution and appearance of species. of atmospheric carbon dioxide was caused by
Dinosaurs prospered and predominated over all an extraordinary increase in solar activity in
the other orders of vertebrates. Coniferous plants 1998 which warmed up the El Niño South Atlan-
first appeared in the Permian period. The change tic Oceanic Oscillation (Fig. 10.2).
of atmospheric temperature at the time of the Several research works on climate change,
Permian period was around 10 C. Compared to however, have confirmed the findings that the
the Permian period, the current change of global temperature variations are closely correlated to
temperature is only 0.52 C, while the concentra- the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmo-
tion of atmospheric carbon dioxide is 385 ppmV. sphere and variations in solar radiation received
If the global temperature is dependent on carbon by the planet as controlled by the Milankovitch
dioxide, then the change of temperature at pres- cycles. Measurements indicated that atmospheric
ent would be around 10 C or higher, as it was carbon dioxide levels were about 30 % lower
during the Permian period. during colder glacial periods. It was also
From the Early Triassic to the Middle Creta- theorized that the oceans were a major store-
ceous, the concentration of atmospheric carbon house of carbon dioxide and that they controlled
dioxide was similar to its current density. From the movement of this gas to and from the atmo-
the Late Cretaceous to the Early Miocene, the sphere depending on the temperature. Carbon
concentration climbed above 210 ppmV. During dioxide is released from the oceans when global
the Holocene period, the concentration has temperatures become warmer and diffuses into
oscillated from 210 ppmV to 385 ppmV. the ocean when temperatures are cooler. Initial
It is possible that the concentration of atmo- alterations in global temperature were triggered
spheric carbon dioxide will increase normally in by changes in received solar radiation by the
the course of the next 50 million years to 1050 Earth through the Milankovitch cycles. The
ppmV or 2500 ppmV. increase in carbon dioxide then amplified the
Researchers observed that the concentration global warming by enhancing the greenhouse
of atmospheric carbon dioxide increases several effect. The direct relationship between carbon
centuries after glaciations. Perhaps this is due to dioxide concentration and temperature is shown
the fact that most plants perish at sub-zero in Fig. 10.3.
temperatures, and plants are organisms that cap- The effect of enhanced carbon dioxide on blue
ture carbon dioxide from their surroundings to carbon community is poorly understood and
make food through the process of photosynthesis. sometimes contradictory, and there is a paucity
Scientists have also observed that the concen- of research in this area. A direct effect of ele-
tration of atmospheric carbon dioxide increases vated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels may be
during periods of warming. However, an increase the increased productivity of some mangrove
in temperature always precedes an increase in species (Field 1995; Ball et al. 1997; Komiyama
carbon dioxide, which generally occurs decades et al. 2007). Mangrove metabolic responses to
or centuries after any change of temperature. increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are
Researchers have not observed an increase in likely to be increased growth rates (Farnsworth
the concentration of carbon dioxide to have pre- et al. 1996) and more efficient regulation of water
ceded a period of warming. This latter phenome- loss (UNEP 1994). For some mangrove species,
non occurs because when oceans absorb more the response to elevated carbon dioxide may be
heat from an increase in the amount of direct sufficient to induce substantial change of vegeta-
solar irradiance incident upon the Earth’s sur- tion along natural salinity and aridity gradients.
face, they release more carbon dioxide molecules Ball et al. (1997) showed that doubled carbon
into the atmosphere. Nevertheless, most drastic dioxide had little effect on mangrove growth
increases in carbon dioxide concentration occur rates in hypersaline areas, and this may combine
decades or centuries after the oceans have with reduced rainfall to create some stress. The
warmed up. For example, the present increase greatest effect may be under low salinity
370
10
Fig. 10.2 Geological timescale: concentration of carbon dioxide and temperature fluctuation (Source: 1. Analysis of the temperature oscillations in Geological Eras by
Dr. C.R. Scotese #2002; 2001; 2. Ruddiman, W.F. (2001). Earth’s Climate: past and future. W.H., Freeman and Sons, New York, NY; 3. Mark Pagani et al. (2005). Marked
decline in Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations during the Paleocene. Science, 309(5734): 600–603. Conclusion and interpretation by Nasif Nahle #(2005, 2007).
Corrected on 07 July 2008 (CO2: Ordovician Period))
Threats to Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
Fig 10.3 Global average Global Temperature and Carbon Dioxide

temperature and carbon 400
dioxide concentrations
58.5
380
CO2 Concentration (ppm)

Global Temperature (°F)
360
58.0
340
57.5
320
300
57.0 CO2 Concentration
280
56.5 260
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year
conditions. Elevated carbon dioxide conditions zooplankton to whales. In particular, pteropods

may enhance the growth of mangroves when are an important source for North Pacific juvenile
carbon gain is limited by evaporative demand at salmon. Mackerel, pollock, herring and cod are
the leaves, but not when it is limited by salinity at also known to feed on pteropods. Many species
the roots. There is no evidence that elevated of other marine calcifers, such as
carbon dioxide will increase the range of coccolithophores (microscopic algae), foraminif-
salinities in which mangrove species can grow. era (microscopic protozoans), coralline algae
The increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide (benthic algae), echinoderms (sea urchins and
and its subsequent dissolution in ocean and estu- starfish) and molluscs (snails, clams and squid),
arine waters is, however, not favourable for mol- also exhibit a general decline in their ability to
luscan communities as ocean acidification may produce shells with decreasing pH (Kleypas
dissolve their shell. The calcification rates of the et al. 2006). A very recent study conducted by
edible mussel (Mytilus edulis) and Pacific oyster the present authors exhibit significant inverse
(Crassostrea gigas) decline linearly with increas- relationship between aquatic pH and shell weight
ing carbon dioxide levels (Gazeau et al. 2007). of Saccostrea cucullata in Indian Sundarbans
Squids are especially sensitive to ocean acidifi- estuarine water. Thus, in conclusion, it can be
cation because it directly impacts their blood advocated that an increase of atmospheric carbon
oxygen transport and respiration (Portner dioxide may in one way cause a positive impact
et al. 2005). Sea urchins raised in lower-pH on coastal vegetation but, on the other hand, may
waters show evidence for inhibited growth due pose an adverse impact on shell-forming
to their inability to maintain internal acid–base organisms by triggering the process of ocean
balance (Kurihara and Shirayama 2004). acidification.
Scientists have also seen a reduced ability of
marine algae and animals to produce protective
carbonate shells (Gattuso et al. 1998; Langdon
10.1.3 Volcanic Activities
et al. 2000; Riebesell et al. 2000). These
organisms are important food sources for many
Volcanic activity frequently occurs at the
marine species. One such example is a pteropod,
boundaries of the Earth’s tectonic plates which
a free-swimming molluscan species that is eaten
are a series of large blocks moving between each
by organisms ranging in size from tiny
other. The movement of these plates plays a
significant role in the type of volcano formed, also documented sudden increase of phytoplank-
which influences its shape. Volcanoes also occur ton species after the incidence of volcanoes,
in the deep sea (suboceanic volcanoes), which which may be attributed to increase of iron con-
affect the deep-sea organisms particularly the centration in the ambient aquatic phase due to
organisms constituting the vent communities. eruptions. The role of iron in the increase of
Volcanoes affect the marine and estuarine phytoplankton has been observed by several
flora and fauna through increment of suspended researches in recent times (Zaman et al. 2013;
particulate matter or by altering the chemical Mitra and Zaman 2014). The case study of Pagan
composition of seawater. The case study of Bar- Island volcano is also a relevant example in this
ren Island volcano can be an eye opener for the context (Fig. 10.4). However, little is known
readers. After the first eruption noticed in April about the effect of moderate amounts of small
1991 began with hot gases and strong ash particulate ash deposits on reef communities.
emissions with activity continuing through Volcanic ash contains a diversity of chemical
October, another eruption was noticed in compounds that can induce nutrient enrichments
December 1994 and January–March 1995, triggering changes in benthic composition. Two
where thick clouds of pale brownish gas, dark independently collected data sets on the marine
ash particles and white steam were observed. benthos of the pristine and remote reefs around
Very high values of sulphate ion concentrations Pagan Island, Northern Mariana Islands, reveal a
in rainwater were observed from January to April sudden critical transition to cyanobacteria-
in 1995 when predominant winds are northeast- dominated communities in 2009–2010, which
erly. The volcanic emission of smoke was also coincides with a period of continuous volcanic
reported during January 2000. The pH values ash eruptions.
showed a decreasing and sulphate and nitrate Pagan’s volcanic rocks mainly consist of sili-
concentrations exhibited an increasing tendency con dioxide (SiO2, 50.5 %), aluminium oxide
from the year 1995 onwards. As the volcanic (Al2O3, 17.4 %) and iron oxides (Fe2O3 and
eruption at Barren Island during 1991 almost FeO, 11.2 %). The latter compounds are the
coincided with the major volcanic eruption of most likely candidates to stimulate
Mt. Pinatubo in June 1991 in the Philippines cyanobacterial growth as iron requirements of
and Mt. Pinatubo’s eruption was of very large cyanobacteria are greater than other algal groups
magnitude, it is very difficult to differentiate because of their high PS I to PS II ratio and the
individual contributions during the 1991 episode, presence of nitrogenase in diazotrophs. The iron
and hence, it may be considered as a combined limitation of cyanobacteria in oligotrophic coral
effect of both the eruptions. The sulphate and habitats has been attributed to their evolutionary
nitrate values of the aquatic phase increased origin in an anoxic ocean with high bioavailabil-
abruptly after the eruption along with a lowering ity of iron. When volcanic ash dissolves in sea-
of pH. water, bioactive trace metals like iron become
According to the researchers, increase of immediately available to primary producers,
suspended solid decreases the transparency of and experimental studies have demonstrated
the aquatic phase thereby reducing the penetra- that this increase in iron concentration can initi-
tion of solar radiation. This has high probability ate cyanobacterial blooms.
to reduce the photosynthetic activity of phyto-
plankton and other marine producers. The
members of higher trophic level may also get 10.1.4 Variations in Solar Output
affected if the producer communities face crisis
or extinction. The presence/absence and number of sunspots is
The volcanic ash also poses an adverse impact one of the important reasons that regulate the
on the coral communities through the process magnitude of solar radiation. Sunspots have
like burial and smothering. Researchers have magnetic fields of strength up to 3000 times as
Fig. 10.4 Emission of gas and ash at Pagan Island
great as the average magnetic field of either the of the sun’s energy from leaving its surface.
sun or the Earth. Astronomers believe the cause However, these findings tend to contradict
of sunspots is attributed to this fact. According to observations made on longer timescales.
a standard explanation, the strong magnetic fields During periods of maximum sunspot activity,
of the sun have the shape of tubes just below the the sun’s magnetic field is strong. When sunspot
solar surface at the beginning of the sunspot activity is low, the sun’s magnetic field weakens.
cycle. These tubes lie perpendicular to the sun’s The magnetic field of the sun also reverses every
equator. The sun rotates faster at its equator than 22 years, during a sunspot minimum. Some
at its poles, and so the tubes are stretched out in researchers believe that the periodic droughts
the east to west direction. Kinks then develop in on the Great Plains of the United States are in
the magnetic tubes and push through the solar some way correlated with this 22-year cycle.
surface. A pair of sunspots appears wherever a Temperature, a direct function of solar output,
kink penetrates, because the kink both leaves and determines the performance of coastal vegeta-
re-enters the surface. The number and size of tion, and indeed all organisms, at the fundamen-
sunspots show cyclical patterns, reaching a max- tal levels of enzymatic processes and metabolic
imum about every 11, 90 and 180 years. The function. Seaweeds have evolved biochemical
decrease in solar energy observed in the early and physiological adaptations, including varia-
1980s corresponds to a period of maximum sun- tion in the identity and concentration of proteins
spot activity based on the 11-year cycle. In addi- and the properties of cell membranes, that enable
tion, measurements made with a solar telescope them to optimize their performance with respect
from 1976 to 1980 showed that during this to the temperatures they encounter (Eggert
period, as the number and size of sunspots 2012). Although seaweeds are generally well
increased, the sun’s surface cooled by about adapted to their thermal environment, they nev-
6 C. Apparently, the sunspots prevented some ertheless experience temperatures in nature—
particularly during periods of environmental described in most seaweed. Although many

change—that are sufficiently high or low to physiological and ecological studies have linked
result in disruptive stress in the form of cellular seaweed performance to temperature, a substan-
and subcellular damage (reviewed in Davison tial fraction of these studies do not investigate
and Pearson 1996; Eggert 2012). Such damage enough temperatures across a wide enough range
and any reallocation of resources for protection to characterize the underlying, nonlinear rela-
and repair can slow growth, delay development tionship between the two. Furthermore, various
and lead to mortality (Davison and Pearson physiological parameters within an organism dif-
1996). In response, seaweeds can produce heat fer in the shape and optimum temperature of their
shock proteins that repair or remove damaged thermal performance curves, which limits our
proteins (e.g. Vayda and Yuan 1994; Lewis ability to use an easily measured parameter
et al. 2001). However, protein thermal physiol- (e.g. photosynthesis) as a proxy for parameters
ogy is not well understood in macroalgae (Eggert that may be more ecologically relevant
2012) and the upregulation of heat shock protein (e.g. growth and reproduction). Indeed, growth
production is only one of many transcriptional rates do tend to peak at lower temperatures than
changes that occur in seaweeds during periods of photosynthetic rates (Eggert 2012), presumably
thermal stress (Collen et al. 2007; Kim because metabolic rates increase faster than pho-
et al. 2011). Relevant genomic, transcriptomic tosynthetic rates at higher temperatures. Much
and proteomic studies are only just beginning to remains to be learned regarding the thermal
scratch the surface, and most links from gene dependence of the key physiological processes
expression to organismal performance are far that control growth, reproduction and survival
from well established. As a result of across the full range of temperatures experienced
non-stressful conditions at intermediate by an individual in its lifetime.
temperatures and stress at the extremes, the rela- A study conducted by Indian researchers
tionship between temperature and most subcellu- (Banerjee et al. 2013) exhibit that the biochemi-
lar, tissue-level or whole-organism processes is cal composition of seaweed species in lower
described by a hump-shaped thermal perfor- Gangetic delta region is greatly influenced by
mance curve. From colder to warmer, these temperature, particularly the carbohydrate con-
curves generally rise exponentially as rates of tent exhibited significant positive correlation
biochemical reactions increase, peak at some with ambient aquatic temperature.
optimum temperature and then fall rapidly as
the biological components of the system become
less efficient or damaged (Kordas et al. 2011;
10.1.5 Plate Tectonics
Eggert 2012). When properly parameterized
across the full-temperature tolerance range of a
Plate tectonics governs the topography and
species, thermal performance curves have the
motions of the surface of the Earth, and the loss
potential to predict the physiological effects of
of heat from the Earth’s interior, but appears to
any given warming or cooling scenario (barring
be found uniquely on the Earth in the Solar
any further acclimatization, adaptation or
System.
context-dependent surprises). The effect of a
The movement of the Earth’s crust is the basis
small increase in thallus temperature will be ben-
of the theory of plate tectonics. In this theory, the
eficial when the initial temperature is cooler than
lithosphere is viewed as a series of rigid plates
optimal and detrimental when it is warmer than
that are separated by the earthquake belts of the
optimal, and the precise change in performance
world—that is, the trenches, ridges and faults.
can be predicted from the starting and ending
There are seven major lithospheric plates: the
temperature values along the curve. Unfortu-
Pacific, Eurasian, African, Australian, North
nately, the shapes of thermal performance curves
American, South American and Antarctic plates.
and the positions of their optima are poorly
Each plate is composed of continental and/or and the drainage systems adjust slowly to the
oceanic crust (Fig. 10.5). changes. The adjustments, however, may be
At the mid-oceanic ridges, where plate abrupt in response to the fast, almost instanta-
boundaries move apart as new lithosphere is neous (in geological perspective) coseismic land-
formed, divergent plate boundaries occur. Con- level changes associated with morphogenic
vergent plate boundaries occur at trenches, where earthquakes (i.e. the earthquakes that produce
plates move towards each other and old litho- recognizable surface deformation). Coseismic
sphere is destroyed. The plates move past each subsidence induces landward shift of the coast-
other at regions known as faults, which represent line resulting in drowning of the coasts and con-
breaks in the Earth’s crust where one plate can sequent distress, whereas uplift induces seaward
move past the other. migration of the coastline, exposing stretches of
A transform fault is a special kind of fault that the seafloor. Moreover, the land-level changes
is found in sections of the mid-ocean ridge. Each lead to a change in the configuration of the inter-
side of a transform fault is formed by a different tidal zones (tidal swamps/mudflats/wetlands/
plate, and these plates are moving away from estuaries), which may also shrink (Fig. 10.6) or
each other in opposite directions. The fault zone expand due to ground uplift and subsidence,
produced by this movement is quite active and is respectively.
the site of frequent earthquakes. The motion of The case study of North Andaman is very
the plates along these faults produces a nearly relevant in this context where the dimension of
continuous line of cliffs with sharp vertical blue carbon reservoir has undergone a change
drops, known as escarpments. In these regions, due to tectonic movement. The western coastline
there are sudden changes in the ocean depth. of North Andaman is indented by several tidal
Regions where the lithosphere splits, separates marshes/swamps, bays, estuaries and mudflats.
and moves apart as new crust is formed are called Vast stretches of intertidal wetlands covered by
rift zones. The mid-ocean ridge and rise systems luxuriant mangrove forests (i.e. mangrove
represent the major rift zones at this time. It is swamps) and traversed by a network of tidal
generally thought that rifting occurs when rising creeks occur along the western coast.
magma causes enough tension to stretch the During the event of tsunami on 26 December
overlying crust, creating a sunken rift zone. As 2004, the estimated 0.3–1.5 m uplift and its east-
this process continues, the rift spreads and the erly tilt in the North Andaman Island have
fault deepens and cracks, allowing the magma to caused many changes in the coastal geomorphic
seep through and eventually form a ridge. When pattern. The strandline has moved seawards
this happens to the lithosphere under the exposing vast stretches of seabed and the fring-
continents, a sunken rift zone can occur. As the ing coral reefs. Upper reaches of the tidal creeks
process continues, the fault gets thinner and and streams that flow from the hilly interior of
deeper and can eventually fill with seawater. the island to the sea have dried up, leaving dry
The Red Sea is an example of this type of streambeds with stagnant pools of water. The
formation. boundary of the tidal zones has migrated towards
As a plate moves away from the rift zone, it the central drainage channels, converting the
cools and thickens. At the rift, thinning of the upper intertidal swamps to subaerial coastal
crustal plate and increased flow of magma into uplands (Fig. 10.7). It was documented that
the rift causes the land masses to separate. A after 2 years, the vegetation of the supratidal
low-lying region of oceanic basalt is formed zone died, and there was mass mortality in blue
as well. carbon reservoir due to the non-availability of
Coastal drainages and strandlines are sensitive tidal water.
to land-level changes by tectonic movements and There are also instances of complete blockage
deformations. In the case of slow deformation as of freshwater supply due to plate tilting that not
during the inter-seismic intervals, the coastlines only caused massive alteration of coastal and
376
10
Fig. 10.5 Schematic representation of seven major tectonic plates (after Davidson et al. 2001)
Upland Tidal wetland Creek channel Tidal wetland Upland
HWL
a LWL
Tidal Tidal
Upland Creek channel Upland
wetland wetland
HWL
b
Withered LWL Withered
- Trees - Dead trees
Fig. 10.6 Rise and fall of relative sea level due to ground uplift. The plants in the intertidal zone that have been
uplift. (a) Ground uplift and consequent fall of sea level. shifted above the high tide level slowly wither away
(b) Distribution after the earthquake and coseismic because of the unavailability of seawater
estuarine floral composition, but also resulted in et al. 2009, 2011). The aquatic salinity of these
stunted growth of some mangrove species. rivers has increased that resulted in the stunted
Neotectonic movements in the Bengal Basin growth of the mangroves. The readers can con-
between the twelfth and fifteenth century AD sult Annexure 10A for further information.
resulted in an easterly tilt of the deltaic complex
(Chaudhuri and Choudury 1994). During the six-
teenth century, the river Ganga changed its
10.1.6 Natural Disasters and Extreme
course to shift eastwards and join the
Weather Events
Brahmaputra (Deb 1956; Blasco 1975; Snedaker
1991). Later, in the mid-eighteenth century, the
Extreme weather describes weather phenomena
combined Ganga (now called Padma) and
that are at the extremes of the historical distribu-
Brahmaputra again tilted eastwards to empty
tion, especially severe or unseasonal weather.
into the river Meghna (Snedaker 1991). This
The meteorological or statistical definition of
continuing tectonic activity greatly influenced
extreme weather events is the events at the
the hydrology of the deltaic region because of
extremes (or edges) of the complete range of
changes in the sedimentation patterns and the
weather experienced in the past. Defined in this
reduction in freshwater inflows. Most rivers
way, extreme weather events include, but are not
(distributaries) other than the Hooghly, which
limited to, severe events like heat waves or
contributed to the formation of the Ganga Delta
intense rainfall. For example, the warmest day
(from west to east: Muriganga, Saptamukhi,
of winter can be described as a weather extreme.
Thakuran, Matla, Gosaba and Bidya), have lost
Whenever there is an extreme weather event,
original connections with the Ganga because of
such as a sudden temperature fall, heat waves,
siltation, and their estuarine character is now
flood or drought, people usually point towards
maintained by the monsoonal runoff (Cole and
global warming. Unfortunately, there is no
Vaidyaraman 1966) and tidal actions (Mitra
straightforward logic to support this pointing.
Bangladesh
Myanmar
India Thailand
ANDAMAN ISLANDS
Sri Lanka
INDIAN OCEAN Indonesia
Maldives
0 781km
93E
92E
+1.0
LANDFALL IS. +0.5
H
LATE
NC
0 ANDAMAN
SEA
TRE
LIAN P
Radhanagar
USTRA
JAVA
Diglipur
Kishorinagar
NORTH ANDAMAN
INDO-A
Radhanagar
ISLAND
Ramnagar 13N
INTERVIEW IS.
Mayabandar
DA
SUN
MIDDLE ANDAMAN
ISLAND
Kishorinagar
-0.5
N PLATE
-1.0 -0.5
AST ASIA
SOUTHE
SOUTH ANDAMAN 12N

HAVELOCK
ISLAND
IS.
N
Port Blair
0 10 20
NORTH Kilometres
SENTINEL IS. RUTLAND
IS.
Fig. 10.7 Map showing the location of the Sunda–Java contours of vertical ground movement. Values assigned to
trench and distribution of coseismic vertical ground move- the contour lines give the estimated vertical offset in metres.
ment in the Andaman region, caused by the 26 December The ‘+’ and ‘–’ signs indicate ground uplift and subsidence,
2004 megathrust earthquake. The dashed lines represent the respectively. The ‘0’ value contour represents the neutral line
10.2 Anthropogenic Threats 379
Weather is highly variable and extreme weather impacts on seagrass meadows; however, early
events have always happened. Detecting trends indications suggest significant seagrass loss in
takes time, particularly when observational some areas between Cairns and Hervey Bay.
records are rare or even missing in certain Initial inspections of deep sites off Townsville
regions. An increase in extreme weather is using autonomous underwater vehicle found
expected with global warming because rising there has been damage to deep-water seagrass
temperatures affect weather parameters in sev- meadows in areas affected by cyclone Yasi.
eral ways. Changes in the frequency of extreme
events coinciding with global warming have 10.1.6.3 Dugong and Turtle
already been observed, and there is increasing Declines in seagrass from extreme weather
evidence that some of these changes are caused events have serious implications for turtles and
by the impacts of human activities on the dugong as this is their main food source. Impacts
climate. on populations can take many months or years to
The extreme weather events influence the fully eventuate. However, the number of dead
biotic communities of the oceans, seas, coastal dugong and turtle reported along the Queensland
regions, bays, estuaries and river mouths in vari- coast in the first 7 months after the extreme
ous ways. The Extreme Weather Response Pro- weather events exceeds any previous full year
gram (launched in 1 June 2008) focused on how of records since the reporting programme began
floods and cyclones in the summer of 2010–2011 in 1996.
affected coral reefs, seagrass, dugong and marine
turtles and islands in the Great Barrier Reef 10.1.6.4 Islands
Marine Park in Australia. The effects of extreme Islands are very exposed to the destructive forces
weather events are region/location specific and of cyclones, while major floods can substantially
cannot be generalized for all parts of the globe, increase the risk of debris and pests arriving on
but the present programme in the Great Barrier islands.
Reef may be considered as a road map in this Aerial photographic surveys of islands have
domain of climate change. revealed a number of cays have disappeared or
altered shape and size following the recent
10.1.6.1 Coral Reefs cyclones. Several new rubble cays have
Flood plumes and cyclone Yasi together posed appeared. Changes in islands and cays are being
adverse impacts on the coral reefs in the Great mapped and analyzed using a geographic infor-
Barrier Reef Marine Park. Cyclone damage was mation system.
both severe and widespread. Approximately 6 %
of the reef area in the Marine Park suffered
severe damage, with broken corals reported 10.2 Anthropogenic Threats
across an area exceeding 89,000 km2. The most
severe damage was confined to the area between Anthropogenic threats on marine and estuarine
Cairns and Townsville, sparing the key tourism waters, sediment or on the biodiversity are
areas off Cairns and Airlie Beach from major consequences of human activities. Such activities
impacts. In contrast, the impacts of flood plumes cover a wide range of subjects like industrializa-
were generally confined to shallow areas of tion, urbanization, tourism, aquaculture, defores-
inshore coral reefs near major rivers, such as tation to meet the daily needs, destructive fishing
those in the Keppel Bay region. activities, etc. The degree and types of threats
are, however, site and time specific, e.g. the type
10.1.6.2 Seagrass of threats in Indian Sundarbans (like loss of
Seagrass can be vulnerable to the effects of ichthyoplankton due to the wild harvest of tiger
reduced light during long periods of exposure to prawn seeds or the cutting of mangroves for fuel)
flood plumes. Scientists are still evaluating the is not similar to that of Goa coast (where tourism
is a major activity) or South Indian coasts (where bioaccumulation and biomagnification, while
salt production through development of mass- going up the ocean food chain.
scale salt pans makes the surrounding coastal The problems of global marine pollution are
environment highly hypersaline). Again honey examined in terms of both short-term, acute,
or mangrove fruit collection by the island local effects and long-term, chronic, cumulative,
dwellers of Sundarbans is regulated by season worldwide effects of pollutants in the world’s
(time factor). oceans. The present pollution problems are
The anthropogenic threats on marine and estu- most serious in coastal waters, which constitute
arine ecosystem may be broadly divided into six only 10 % of the area of the oceans yet, together
broad heads: with the upwelling areas of the world, produce
99 % of the world fish catch. However, the long-
(A) Pollution term consequences of persistent, cumulative
(B) Aquaculture substances pose the greatest concern. The critical
(C) Unplanned tourism marine pollutants can be conveniently classified
(D) Introduction of alien species into five categories: (1) metals, (2) synthetic
(E) Development of coastal structures chemicals, (3) petroleum hydrocarbons,
(F) Negative fishing (4) radionuclides and (5) solid wastes. Pollutants
may enter the sea through rivers, atmospheric
transport, ocean outfalls, ocean dumping, ships
and such marine activities as mining. Atmo-
spheric transport of pollutants and entry into the
10.2.1 Pollution
sea through fallout, rainout and washout has been
considered an important rapid route for certain
The magnitude and threat of marine pollution
pollutants from man’s activities on land to the
becomes more and more acute everyday with
world oceans. This particularly applies to the
the growing use of sea for commerce, the
radionuclides and the polyhalogenated
increasing size and variety of cargo ships and
hydrocarbons, e.g. DDT and PCBs, but may
tankers and also the use of seabed for mineral
also be important to worldwide dispersion of
extraction. The other reasons may be the river
metals and petroleum hydrocarbons.
runoff from the land carrying large amount of
Problems of marine pollution from ships,
pollutants, atmospheric deposition, oil spills and
especially by oil, and from ocean dumping are
other wastes. Nuclear weapon testing has added
rapidly coming under control through national
another dark chapter to the health and biodiver-
legislation and international conventions, such
sity of oceans.
as the International Convention for the Preven-
Marine pollution has been defined as ‘the
tion of Pollution from Ships (1973) and the Inter-
introduction by human, directly or indirectly of
national Convention for the Prevention of Marine
substances or energy into the marine environ-
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Mat-
ment (including estuaries) resulting in such dele-
ter (1972). Control of atmospheric testing of
terious effects as harm to living resources,
nuclear weapons among the major nuclear
hazards to human health, hindrance to marine
powers, under the Treaty Banning Nuclear
activities including fishing, impairment of qual-
Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer
ity for use of sea water and reduction of
Space and Underwater, 1963, has largely stopped
amenities’. Thus, marine pollution is the harmful
entry of radionuclides into the sea from fallout.
entry of chemicals, energy or particles into the
There are stringent controls on nuclear power
ocean compartment. A big problem is that many
reactors, and other peaceful uses of atomic
toxins adhere to tiny particles, which are taken up
energy, so that in the absence of accidents,
by plankton and benthic organisms, most of
there is minimal entry of radionuclides into the
which are filter feeders in nature. This results in
sea from these sources.
Many scientific conferences on the marine Table 10.1 Potential sources of marine and estuarine
environment are identifying the major pollution pollution
problems, examining the critical issues and S.
determining ways in which a meaningful base- No. Major sources of pollution
line survey can be conducted and a useful moni- 1 Domestic sewage
2 Sewage sludge
toring programme established. All the United
3 Industrial wastes
Nations Specialized Agencies concerned with
4 Solid wastes
the marine environment continue to review cer-
5 Shipboard wastes
tain pollution problems within their areas of 6 Aquacultural farms
responsibility. The MCO /FAO/UNESCO/ 7 Pesticides and fertilizers
WMO/WHO/IAEA/United Nations/UNEP 8 Offshore oil exploration and production wastes
(1) Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific 9 Oil spills
Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP 2001) 10 Radioactive wastes
examines some of the problems on an interdisci- 11 Heat: thermal pollution from power plants
plinary basis in annual meetings and in 12 Fly ash from thermal power plants
intersessional working groups. It advises mem- 13 Continental runoff
ber agencies and/or member governments, 14 Antifouling paints
through the agencies, on marine pollution 15 Barges and other metallic structures
16 Ocean mining
matters. The IOC/WMO IGOSS Pilot Project
17 Precipitation of air borne pollutants
on Marine Pollution (Petroleum) Monitoring
18 Oil from tanker cleaning and deballasting
commenced in January 1975, with a review of 19 Weathering of the Earth’s crust
the first year’s results in May and June 1976, and 20 Volcanic eruptions
another review is planned for an indefinite date 21 Natural submarine oil seeps
after 1977. ICG for the Global Investigation of 22 Dredge spoils
Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME) 23 Military wastes (weapon testing, explosives,
met for its third and last session at UNESCO, chemical warfare agents etc.)
IOC/INF (1976) Paris, in July 1975 and prepared 24 Tourism and recreational activities
a comprehensive plan for the global investigation
of pollution in the marine environment and base-
line study guidelines. The working committee for chemicals. A list of major marine pollutants and
GIPME, which replaced ICG, met for its first their effects are presented in Table 10.2.
session in Hamburg, from 18 to 22 October On the basis of origin, the wastes discharged
1976. Progress is being made on scientific data in the marine and estuarine compartments may
exchange in marine pollution. Training courses be classified into point and non-point sources.
and workshops are providing a means of educating The effects produced by such wastes are
technical people in developing countries on discussed here.
techniques of measuring and assessing marine
pollution and in initiating regional projects
investigating problems of marine pollution. 10.2.1.1 Effect from Point Sources
Different substances find their entry in the
marine and estuarine environment in three basic Domestic Wastes
forms, namely, solid, liquid and gas. The major The domestic sewage is an untreated sewage that
categories of waste that enter into the ocean are comes from coastal cities and towns through long
listed in Table 10.1. pipelines, which would carry the waste away
The pollutants discharged from these sources from recreational beaches. Wastes with high
pose considerable effects on the community, spe- organic substances can lead to deoxygenation
cies, cellular and even genetic levels. The mag- condition (effect at the ecosystem level). Again
nitude of hazard ranges from moderate to decomposition of these wastes can release large
extreme depending on the nature of the amounts of plant nutrients, phosphates, nitrates
Table 10.2 A ranking of major marine pollutants (Johnston 1976)

Harm to living Hazard to human Hindrance to maritime Reduction of
Pollutant resources health activities amenity
Domestic sewage Important Important Slight Important
Pesticides Important Significant Negligible Negligible
Inorganic trade Mainly slight Slight except Hg Negligible Negligible to
wastes slight
Radioactive wastes Negligible Significant Negligible Negligible
Petroleum Significant Uncertain Significant Important
Organic chemicals Highly variable Some significant Negligible to slight Variable
Organic trade wastes Some Important/ Negligible Negligible to slight Significant to
significant Important
Military wastes Uncertain Uncertain Negligible Negligible
Waste heat Significant Negligible Negligible Negligible
Detergents Uncertain Negligible Important Important
Solid objects Slight Negligible Uncertain Significant
Inert solids and Significant Negligible Uncertain Significant
dredged spoil
Notes: ‘Important’—requires restrictive or preventive measures
‘Slight’—caution required further study needed
‘Negligible’—no restrictive action needed
‘Uncertain’—special situations apart, no restrictive action needed
and silicates, which lead to massive algal bloom nitrate, also triggers the process of eutrophica-
(effect at the community level since alteration of tion. Deoxygenation caused by algal bloom can
diversity indices occur). These also cause harm result in fish mortality (effect at the species level
to the fish stock. As pointed out earlier in the and community level).
beginning of this chapter, there exists lot of As the disposal of sludge on the land becomes
“noise” in any signal and these noises are the difficult, it is disposed into the ocean, and this
results of interactions between natural and method was practiced by several countries
man-made factors. A relevant case study in this including UK, where in London City alone, five
context is the nitrate, phosphate and silicate million tons of sludge/year from the treatment
levels in the Ganga–Bhagirathi and Hooghly plants are dumped in the Thames Estuary.
estuarine system in the northeast coast of Indian Table 10.3 shows the discharge of metals at the
subcontinent. Located adjacent to the city of Thames Estuary.
Kolkata, the nutrient level is considerably high The picture of discharging wastes into the sea
in the aquatic phase, but the abrupt increase in has become almost uniform throughout the
the nutrient levels during premonsoon 2009 globe, irrespective of developed or developing
(Figs. 10.8, 10.9 and 10.10) may be attributed nations. Table 10.4 shows the discharge of
to AILA (a supercyclone that occurred during organic load directly to the Mediterranean Sea.
22–26 May 2009). This supercyclone not only
devastated the lower Gangetic delta region but Heavy Metals
contributed huge nutrient load in the estuarine Most of the industries situated along the coasts,
water through river bank erosion, huge surface river and estuaries discharge untreated or insuffi-
runoff and churning of the water mass. ciently treated wastewater. Almost every indus-
Due to rapid industrialization, synthetic trial process involving water is a potential source
detergents also come to marine environment, of heavy metals in river and estuaries, and their
which contain up to 30 % phosphate in the form traces are always found in marine organisms.
of polyphosphates that degrade into orthophos- Large volumes of liquid wastes are also produced
phate. Sewage, which contains ammonia and in electroplating processes. The effect of heavy
10.2
37
35 45
33 40
Anthropogenic Threats
35
31
30
29 25
27 20
Nitrate
15
25
10
23 5
21 0
Premonsoon
19
17 Monsoon
20 201
Postmonsoon 2 20 2010 12 4
0
2 0 8 0
2 20 004 6
19 1998000 02
1 19 96
1 19 99 94
19 988 90 2
19 86
84
Fig. 10.8 Nitrate level in the Ganga–Bhagirathi and Hooghly estuarine water (in μgatl1) during three decades (1984–2014). Note the abrupt rise in level in premonsoon 2009
(synergistic effect of AILA and local level pollution)
383
384
7
2.5 6
2 4
3
Phosphate
2
1.5
1
0
Premonsoon
10
Monsoon
2
2 2 0
20 2012014
1 0
Postmonsoon 2 20 006 08
1 19 2000002 04
1 9 98
1 19 994 96
19 1988990 92
19 86
84
Fig. 10.9 Phosphate level in the Ganga–Bhagirathi and Hooghly estuarine water (in μgatl1) during three decades (1984–2014). Note the abrupt rise in level in premonsoon
2009 (synergistic effect of AILA and local level pollution)
10.2
200 250
Anthropogenic Threats
200
150
150
Silicate
100
100
50
50 0
Premonsoon
Monsoon
20 201
Postmonsoon 2 20 2010 12 4
2 20 006 08
1 19 2000002 04
1 99 98
1 19 199 994 6
1 9 9
8 0 2
19 986 8
84
Fig. 10.10 Silicate level in the Ganga–Bhagirathi and Hooghly estuarine water (in μgatl1) during three decades (1984–2014). Note the abrupt rise in level in premonsoon
2009 (synergistic effect of AILA and local level pollution)
385
Table 10.3 Thames Estuary: inputs of contaminants (tonnes/annum)

Sewage sludge River Sewage outfalls Direct industrial Total
Cadmium 2.3 1.8 5.2 0.6 9.9
Chromium 35.4 18.1 20.5 1 75
Copper 75.9 26.3 26.2 4.6 133
Lead 96 34 16.3 3.9 150.2
Mercury 0.7 0.2 0.8 0.1 1.8
Nickel 11.6 34 37.9 3.8 87.3
Zinc 345.0 60.3 131.3 20.2 556.8
Arsenic 0.5 2.5 0.2 0.1 3.3
Lindane (kg) 60.0 8 5 73
DDT (kg) 100 6 1 107
Average flow (M 1/d) 7511 2693 489 10,693
Table 10.4 Organic load of domestic sewage discharged directly into the sea or through rivers
BOD5a (tons/year) BOD5/km coastline (tons/year)
Spain 130,000 60
Northwestern Basin 360,000 336
Italy 400,000 61
Yugoslavia 17,800 27
Malta 8000 67
Greece 100,000 36
Turkey 100,000 36
Cyprus 9600 15
Lebanon 31,250 149
Israel 32,000 145
a
The BOD5 has been calculated on the assumption that the organic load of domestic sewage equals 20–25 kg/person/
year
metals on marine organisms varies depending on management, atmospheric fallout and sewage
their concentrations of pollutants in the tissue disposal. Natural phenomena such as earthquake,
systems. In the body, they may undergo biotrans- landslides, tornadoes and cyclones have been
formation and metabolism and may be excreted implicated (Nemerow 1986; Nathaniel
without the risk of toxicity depending on the et al. 2000). Nuclear reactor accidents and solid
chemical characteristics of the compound and weapons sometimes discharge heavy metal
the dose. However, some of the pollutants resist pollutants, which constitute potential dangers to
chemical and biological transformation and the environment. For instance, the Chernobyl
accumulate in the tissues, including the nerves, (Ukraine, April 1986) radioactive metal
to cause toxicity. The adverse effects of these pollutants left about 4000 dead and 60,000 at
pollutants on the nerves give rise to neurotoxic- the risk of dying from thyroid cancer. The Jintsu
ity. Some heavy metals are neurotoxic. For River, Japan, victims died after eating methyl
instance, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc, cadmium, mercury-contaminated fish polluted by an indus-
chromium and manganese (Stewart 1975; trial effluent discharged into the river (Maduka
Klaassen 1995; Plaa 2001; Wagman 2000) are 2006). The Minamata Bay in Japan has caused
highly neurotoxic in nature. The most common human losses in 1950s and 1960s which killed
sources of heavy metal pollution are industrial more than 100 persons in the area through the
and mining activities, petroleum exploration, intake of fish and shellfish contaminated with
exploitation, processing and effluent methyl mercury discharged from a chemical
industry. Consumption of oysters with high con- gasoline are more likely to mix in the water
centration of cadmium caused another endemic column and are more toxic to marine life, but
disease named “itai-itai” in a community in tend to evaporate more quickly and do not persist
Japan. long in the environment. Heavier crude or fuel
oil, while of less immediate toxicity, can remain
Oil Spill on the water surface or stranded on the shoreline
Oil is one of the world’s main sources of energy, for a much longer period. A heavy oil spill across
and it is transported by ship across oceans and by the shore blankets rock pools and prevents gas
pipelines across land. This results in accidents exchange and eliminates light as well as directly
while transferring oil to vessels, when leaching toxins into the water, and can also
transporting oil and when pipelines break, as become mixed deeply into pebble, shingle or
well as when drilling for oil. While massive and sandy beaches, where it may remain for months
catastrophic oil spills receive most of the atten- or even years. Fishes often escape from toxicity
tion, smaller and chronic oil spills and seeps by swimming away from the polluted area, but
occur almost at regular intervals. These spills the benthic organisms suffer large numbers of
contaminate coasts and estuaries, and they can mortalities as the oil settles with the sediments.
cause harm to humans. Oil can refer to many Coral reefs often get damaged both by oil depo-
different materials, including crude oil, refined sition and by the water-soluble chemicals
petroleum products (such as gasoline or diesel contained in oil. Seabirds are adversely affected
fuel) or by-products, ships bunkers, oily refuse or as the oil penetrates and opens up the structure of
oil mixed in waste. The contribution of oil to the their plumage, so they become chilled, lose the
marine environment arises from the disposal of ability to fly and lose their buoyancy in water.
waste oil from domestic and industrial automo- They are thus unable to feed normally, but ingest
tive sources and from industrial operations the oil as they attempt to preen. This condition
(e.g. lubrication, hydraulic and cutting oils, etc). finally draws these avian fauna towards death.
Most of the oil comes from unauthorized sources Oil in the seas also affects human health.
such as illegal cleaning of oil tankers and residue Short-term public health impacts from oil spills
dumping. For example, only 5 out of 14 harbours include accidents suffered by those on damaged
in the Mediterranean have the facilities for tankers or those involved in the cleanup and
receiving oil residues from tankers. Thus, in illnesses caused by toxic fumes or by eating
most cases, the residues are dumped into the contaminated fish or shellfish. However, there
sea. It is estimated that in this particular dumping are other less obvious public health impacts,
area, 300,000 tons of oil is released annually. Oil including losses and disruptions of commercial
is also released into the environment from natural and recreational fisheries, seaweed culture units,
geologic seeps on the seafloor, as along the boating and a variety of other uses of affected
California coastline. Overall production of petro- water. The concern involves the ingestion of
leum products rose from about 500 million tons carcinogenic compounds, especially the polycy-
in 1950 to over 2500 million tons by the clic aromatic hydrocarbons present in petroleum.
mid-1990s, resulting in massive transport and The various components of oil have varied
associated oil spills. effects on the biotic community. Insoluble petro-
Oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds. leum fractions can be very damaging as they may
Crude oil is a mixture of gas, naphtha, kerosene, coat the organisms and thereby cause suffocation
light gas and residuals, which have different or they may cause tainting of edible species. The
adverse effects on the health of marine biota. toxicity due to oil is caused by the soluble
The fate, behaviour and environmental effects fractions. Aliphatic hydrocarbons having low
of spilled oil can vary, depending upon the type molecular weight, which are readily soluble in
and amount of material spilled. In general, lighter seawater, produce narcosis and anaesthesia at
refined petroleum products such as diesel and low concentration. At higher concentration,
they can cause cell damage and death, particu- Killer Whales
larly to the larval forms of marine life. Low- Oil spills are one of the many ways killer whales
boiling-point aromatic hydrocarbons have been have become endangered. The oil may be eaten
found to be the most toxic fractions and to be the or may enter the whale’s blowhole. A blowhole
primary cause of organism mortality. Certain is a hole to help them breath. Plugging of the
heterocyclic compounds are also toxic at very blowhole by oil will inhibit the entry of atmo-
high concentrations such as 3,4-benzopyrene, spheric air inside the whale’s system. This may
and other polycyclic aromatic compounds are result in the death of the animal.
known to be carcinogenic.
Susceptibility to oil toxicity has been best
Plankton
correlated with habitat. It has been found that
Plankton are drifting community and are fully
pelagic fish and shrimp are most sensitive to
dependent on exchange of gases for their sur-
crude oil or No. 2 fuel oil, and the intertidal
vival. Oil, being lighter than the seawater, floats
animals (fish, crabs, starfish and molluscs) are
on the surface and cuts off the diffusion of atmo-
the most tolerant.
spheric gases into the water. This results in the
The degree of initial impact by oil on marine
shortage of oxygen resulting in the death of the
and estuarine communities and the expected
planktonic forms. The layer of oil also prevents
recovery rate are summarized in Table 10.5.
the solar radiation to reach the seawater due to
which the photosynthetic process in phytoplank-
Effects of Oil Spills on Marine Biota ton is also affected.
Birds die from oil spills if their feathers are The entire spectrum of biological effects that
covered with oil. Animals may die because they might occur due to oil pollution may be of the
get hypothermia, causing their body temperature following types:
to be really low. Oil may also cause the death of
an animal by entering the animal’s lungs or liver. • Lethal toxic effects
Oil also can kill an animal by blinding it. The • Sublethal effects that disrupt physiological or
animal will not be able to see and be aware of behavioural activities but do not cause imme-
their predators. Oil spills sometimes are the rea- diate mortality
son for animals becoming endangered. • Uptake of the oil or certain fractions of it by
organisms causing tainting or in some cases
carcinomas
Seabirds
• Ingestion by organisms which leads oil to
Seabirds are strongly affected by oil spills. A
enter the food web
seabird may get covered with the oil. The thick
• Direct smothering and suffocation or interfer-
black oil is too heavy for the birds to fly and so
ence with movements to obtain food or escape
they attempt to clean themselves. The bird then
from predators as a result of being coated by
eats the oil to clean its feathers and poisons itself.
oil
Table 10.5 Effects of oil on marine populations and communities

Community or population type Expected degree of initial impact Expected recovery rate
Plankton Light to moderate Fast to moderate
Benthic communities: Light Fast
1. Rocky intertidal Moderate Moderate
2. Sandy or muddy intertidal Heavy Slow
3. Subtidal, offshore
Fish Light to moderate Fast to moderate
Birds Heavy Slow
Marine mammals Light Slow, if population seriously affected
• Alteration to the chemical and physical and may cause serious problems for the plants
properties of marine habitat and animals living there. In extreme cases, fish
• Mortalities caused by indiscriminate use of lethality may occur. Thermal pollution is consid-
detergents to dispose the oil ered to be the main reason of ciguatera poison-
ing. Ciguatera poisoning causes severe
discomfort in victims and can be fatal to man,
which occurs throughout shallow tropical seas.
Hazardous Materials
Ciguatera cycle may begin with colonization of
The hazardous materials mainly include artifi-
newly cleaned surfaces by pioneering blue-green
cially produced radioactive substances arising
algae, which prefers seawater of high tempera-
from nuclear detonations or waste products
ture for growth.
from nuclear plants. The release of these
materials into the ocean system results in a wide-
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
spread contamination.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are
Radionuclides reaching estuarine areas can
organic compounds that are resistant to environ-
remain in solution or in suspension, precipitate
mental degradation through chemical, biological
and settle at the bottom or be taken by plants and
and photolytic processes. Due to this nature, they
animals. The radionuclides which enter estuaries
persist in the environment, bioaccumulate in
as waste from nuclear reactors are biologically
human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food
active elements, and therefore, the ones that
chains and have potential significant impacts on
would be transferred through food webs are man-
human health and the environment. Thus, these
ganese, iron and zinc.
groups of chemicals are not materially broken
down over a reasonable period of time and are
Thermal Pollution usually measured in decades or more. The POPs
Thermal pollution produces alteration of temper- of most concern are those that build up in the
ature in natural water bodies caused by human environment or are bioaccumulated and/or
influence. The main cause of thermal pollution is biomagnified in the food chain.
the use of water as a coolant, especially in POPs are often halogenated and characterized
nuclear power plants and fossil fuel. Water used by low water solubility and high lipid solubility,
as a coolant is returned to the natural environ- leading to their bioaccumulation in fatty tissues.
ment at a higher temperature. Increases in water They are also semi-volatile, enabling them to
temperature can alter aquatic organisms by move long distances in the atmosphere before
(a) decreasing oxygen supply; (b) killing fish deposition occurs. The Stockholm Convention,
juveniles/ichthyoplankton, which are vulnerable a global treaty to protect human health and the
to small increases in temperature; and environment from POPs, describes POPs as
(c) affecting ecosystem composition. Primary ‘chemicals that remain intact in the environment
producers are affected by thermal pollution for long periods, become widely distributed geo-
because higher water temperature often graphically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of
accelerates plant growth rates, resulting in a living organisms and are toxic to humans and
shorter lifespan and species overpopulation. wildlife. POPs circulate globally and can cause
This can cause an algal bloom that reduces the damage wherever they travel’. The twelve POPs
oxygen levels in the water. The higher plant have been identified by the Convention and are
density leads to an increased plant respiration commonly known as the dirty dozen. They are
rate because the reduced light intensity decreases DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, hepta-
photosynthesis. Tropical estuaries are nursery chlor, mirex, toxaphene, hexachlorobenzene
grounds for penaeid shrimps, lobsters, crabs, clu- (HCB), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
peid fish and sciaenid fish that constitute vast dioxins and furans. Of these, nine are organo-
food supplies and high-value fisheries. The chlorine pesticides. PCBs are compounds with
added heat lowers the dissolved oxygen content varied industrial applications, while HCB,
PCBs, dioxins and furans are produced uninten- immunodeficiency has been induced in a variety
tionally, industrially as well as otherwise. of wildlife species by a number of prevalent
The effects of POP on marine and estuarine POPs, including TCDDs, PCBs, chlordane,
organisms have been well documented. If HCB, toxaphene and DDT.
analyzed for tissue or environmental samples, Exposure to POPs has been correlated with
some POPs will almost always be found. As is population declines in a number of marine
the case with many environmental pollutants, it mammals including the common seal, the har-
is most difficult to establish causality of illness or bour porpoise, bottle-nosed dolphins and beluga
disease that is directly attributable to exposure to whales from the St. Lawrence River. More nota-
a specific persistent organic pollutant or group of bly, a clear cause and effect relationship has been
POPs. This difficulty is further underscored by established between reproductive failure in mink
the fact that POPs rarely occur as single and exposure to some POPs.
compounds and individual field studies are fre- The scientific literature has demonstrated a
quently insufficient to provide compelling evi- direct cause and effect relationship in mink and
dence of cause and effect in their own right. ferrets between PCB exposure and immune dys-
More to the point, however, is the fact that the function, reproductive failure, increased kit mor-
significant lipophilicity of these compounds tality, deformations and adult mortality. Similarly,
means that POPs are likely to accumulate, persist investigators have also demonstrated a convincing
and bioconcentrate and could, thus, achieve tox- correlation between environmental concentrations
icologically relevant concentrations even though of PCBs and dioxins with reduced viability of
discrete exposure may appear limited. larvae in several species of fish. Noteworthy as
Experimentally, POPs have been associated well is the report suggesting significant reproduc-
with significant environmental impact in a wide tive impairment in a number of Great Lakes spe-
range of species and at virtually all trophic levels. cies described as top-level predators dependent on
While acute effects of POP intoxication have the Great Lakes aquatic food chain. Supporting
been well documented, adverse effects this is the observation that wildlife, including
associated with chronic low-level exposure in stranded carcasses of St. Lawrence beluga whales,
the environment are of particular concern. Note- with reported high incidence of tumours, has
worthy in this context is the long biological half- contained significantly elevated concentrations of
life of POPs in biological organisms thereby PCBs mirex, chlordane and toxaphene. A 100 %
facilitating accumulation of seemingly small incidence of thyroid lesions in coho, pink and
unit concentrations over extended periods of chinook salmon sampled in the Great Lakes over
time. For some POPs, there is some experimental the last two decades has also been reported to be
evidence that such cumulative low-level associated with increased body burdens of POPs
exposures may be associated with chronic nonle- (Tables 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 10.10, 10.11, and
thal effects including potential immunotoxicity, 10.12).
dermal effects, impairment of reproductive per-
formance and frank carcinogenicity. Miscellaneous
Several authors have reported Apart from above pollutants, there are also some
immunotoxicity in association with exposure to other minor pollutants that have considerable del-
different POPs. Investigators have demonstrated eterious effects. Organic wastes with very high
immune dysfunction as a plausible cause for BOD levels coming from industries like palm oil
increased mortality among marine mammals and pulp mill could harm marine life through
and have also demonstrated that consumption of direct toxicity, oxygen depletion, turbidity,
persistent organic pollutant-contaminated diets colouring of the water, etc. Kraft mill effluents
in seals may lead to vitamin and thyroid pose a threat to fish because of methyl mercaptan;
deficiencies and concomitant susceptibility to hydrogen sulphide toxicity and sulphite pulp mill
microbial infections and reproductive disorders. wastes cause reduction of spawning and settling of
Investigators have also noted that oysters. Phenol, which is very toxic to aquatic
Table 10.6 Toxicity of chlordane to selected aquatic organisms
Species Size/age Temp ( C) 96-h LC50 (μg/L) Reference
Penaeus duorarum (pink shrimp) 50–65 mm 28.4 0.4 Parrish et al. (1976)
Cancer magister (Dungeness crab) Zoeal 13 1.3 Cladwell (1977)
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) 38–44 25 22 Henderson et al. (1959)
Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) 38–84 mm 25 52 Henderson et al. (1959)
Salmo gairdneri (rainbow trout) 0.9 g 13 7.8 Cope (1965)
Table 10.7 Toxicity of DDT and its derivatives to selected marine organismsa
Temp 96-h LC50
Organism Compound ( C) (μg/l) Reference
Crangon septemspinosa (shrimp) DDT 20 0.4 McLeese and Metcalfe
(1980)
Mysidopsis bahia (mysid shrimp) DDT 25 0.45 Mayer (1987)
(0.39–0.52)
Cyprinodon variegatus (sheepshead DDT 15 2.0 (48-h) Mayer (1987)
minnow)
Morone saxatilis (striped bass) DDT 17 0.53 Korn and Earnest (1974)
(0.38–0.84)
DDE 17 2.5 (1.6–4.0) Korn and Earnest (1974)
a
Taken from WHO (1989)
Table 10.8 Acute toxicity of dieldrin to selected aquatic organismsa

96 h
Developmental stage, Temperature LC50
Species body weight or length ( C) (μg/L) Reference
Daphnia magna 330b Anderson (1960)
Crangon 0.25 g 20 7 Eisler (1969)
septemspinosa (sand 2.6 cm
shrimp)
Pteronarcys Naiad, 3–3.5 15.5 0.5 Sanders and Cope (1968),
californica (stonefly) Johnson and Finley (1980)
Salmo gairdneri 1.4 g 13 12 Johnson and Finley (1980)
(rainbow trout)
Pimephales promelas 0.6 g 18 3.8 Johnson and Finley (1980)
(fathead minnow)
Lepomis macrochirus 1.3 g 18 3.1 Johnson and Finley (1980)
(bluegill)
a
b
48-h LC50
Table 10.9 Toxicity of endrin to selected marine organismsa

Developmental stage, body Temperature 96 h LC50
Species weight or length ( C) (μg/L) Reference
Penaeus duorarum (pink shrimp) Adult 17 0.037 μg/L Mayer
(1987)
Pagurus longicarpus (hermit – – 1.2 μg/L Eisler
crab) (1970a)
Cyprinodon variegatus Adult 18 0.38 μg/L Mayer
(sheepshead minnow) (1987)
Mugil cephalus (striped mullet) 83 mm 20 0.3 μg/L Eisler
(1970b)
a
Table 10.10 Toxicity of heptachlor to selected aquatic organisms

Pteronarcys californica Technical (72 %) 15.5 0.9–1.1 Sanders and
(stonefly) Cope (1968)
Penaeus duorarum (pink Technical (72 %) 27.5–30 0.11 Schimmel
shrimp) et al. (1976a)
Pimephales promelas Technical (72 %) 25 130 Henderson
(fathead minnow) et al. (1959)
Lepomis macrochirus Technical (72 %) 25 26 Henderson
(bluegill) et al. (1959)
Salmo gairdneri (rainbow Technical (72 %) 25 7.0 Macek
trout) et al. (1969)
Table 10.11 Toxicity of PCB mixtures to select aquatic organismsa

Gammarus fasciatus (scud) Mature 21 0.052 Mayer and
Ellersieck (1986)
Ischnura verticalis Late instar 15 0.4 Mayer and
(damselfly) Ellersieck (1986)
Salmo gairdneri (rainbow 1.8 g 17 >0.23 Mayer and
trout) Ellersieck (1986)
Pimephales promelas Fry 24 0.008 Nebeker et al.
(fathead minnow) (1974)
Lepomis macrochirus 0.8 g 18 0.69 Mayer and
(bluegill) Ellersieck (1986)
a
Table 10.12 Toxicity of toxaphene mixtures to select aquatic organismsa

Penaeus duorarum (pink Nauplii – 2.2 Schimmel
shrimp) et al. (1977)
Lepomis macrochirus 0.6–1.7 g 18 21(14–30) Macek and
(bluegill) McAllister (1970)
Pimephales promelas 0.6–1.5 g 12.7 3.2 Macek et al. (1969)
(fathead minnow) (2.8–3.7)
Salmo gairdneri (rainbow 18.3 1.8 Cope (1965)
trout)
a
animals, comes out from petrochemical industries 10.2.1.2 Effect from Non-point Sources
and mix with water to produce unpleasant taste Non-point source pollution occurs as water moves
and smell in fish and shellfish. across the land or through the ground and picks up
The accumulation of phenols increases in the natural and human-made pollutants, which can then
presence of detergents that impair respiration and be deposited in lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal
salt balance. The by-products from the produc- waters and even groundwater. The water that car-
tion of vinyl chloride such as chlorinated ali- ries non-point source pollution may originate from
phatic hydrocarbons also act as a pollutant of natural processes, such as rainfall or snowmelt, or
the marine environment. from human activities, such as crop irrigation or
lawn maintenance. The most common non-point (c) Non-point sources contribute roughly 80 %
source pollutants are sediment, nutrients, of the total nitrogen and more than 50 % of
microorganisms and toxics. Sediment can degrade the phosphorus load into receiving water.
water quality by contaminating drinking water (d) Agricultural runoff may contain large
supplies or silting in spawning grounds for fish quantities of toxic metals, pesticides and
and other aquatic species. Nutrients, micro- other organic chemicals.
organisms and other toxic substances can be haz- (e) Large amounts of decomposable organics
ardous to human health and aquatic life. In areas originate as a part of soil loss from
where crops are grown or in areas with landscaping non-point source that may form objection-
(including grassy areas of residential lawns and city able mud deposits in the surface water.
parks), irrigation and rainfall can carry soil,
pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides For faecal and total coliform counts,
to surface water and groundwater. Bacteria, non-point sources account for over 98 %.
microorganisms and nutrients (nitrogen and phos-
phorus) are common non-point source pollutants
from agricultural livestock areas and residential 10.2.1.3 Effects from Solid Waste
pet wastes. Disposal
The main non-point sources are: Many of the larger cities and metropolitan areas
in the world are on or near coastlines. The over-
• Soil erosion from farmland fields as well as increasing amount of solid wastes generated
construction sites from these places have greatly increased the
• Fertilizer runoff from both rural and urban pressure to dispose them off to the sea. Pollution
areas of the ocean by solid waste is caused by the
• Pesticide runoff from both rural and urban areas oceanic dumping of wastes and by the pollutants
• Animal waste management that reach the ocean through surface runoff.
• Paint, oil, anti-freeze and other contaminants Thickened sewage sludge; industrial solid
poured directly into storm drains wastes such as spent clays, catalysts, sludge
• Activates near a water source that can easily and drilling mud; and refuse and explosive
be contaminated without care materials from military and chemical warfare
• Illegal dumpsites agents have been dumped for years and continue
• Failing septic systems to be disposed of at designated and approved
locations in many countries. Two basic methods
The problem of pollution from non-point are used for chemical waste disposal in the
sources is very complex. Most of the non-point ocean. Wastes are either transported to sea
sources are carried by surface runoff, which aboard tank barges, or disposed of in sealed
enters the surface water in a diffuse manner and weighted barrels, which will ultimately leak.
at intermittent intervals that are mostly related to Refuse dumping methods are two types—loose
the occurrence of meteorological events. and bale dumping. Baling of refuse is more
In the United States, problems associated with efficient, neat and ecologically sound than
non-point pollution are as follows: loose dumping, but it is expensive. Loose dump-
ing is difficult to handle and requires more stor-
(a) Out of the four billion tons of sediments age space, and it floats. Sometimes, incinerator
delivered into streams and rivers, almost residues are dumped into the ocean instead of
half of the amount originates from approxi- spreading in landfill. The radioactive wastes are
mately 170 million hectares of land. also dumped into the ocean. Certain chemicals
(b) Strip mining, which affects approximately if released untreated, e.g. cyanides, mercury and
150,000 ha of lands annually, results in the polychlorinated biphenyls, are highly toxic, and
discharge of millions of tons of sediments exposure can lead to disease or death of
and high acidity into receiving water. organisms inhabiting the ecosystem.
10.2.2 Aquaculture It is an economic activity that transforms nat-

ural resources through inputs of capital and
Aquaculture has become an important source of labour into products valued by society. In so
seaweed, shellfish and fish, especially for human doing, wastes are inevitably produced. The
food, and production is likely to continue to impact of aquaculture on the environment and
expand well into the next century. Mariculture on biodiversity thus arises from these three pro-
has both direct and indirect impacts on biodiver- cesses: the consumption of resources, the aqua-
sity through the consumption of natural resources culture processes itself and the production of
and the production of wastes. Natural resources wastes (Beveridge et al. 1994).
such as land, water, seed and feed are required, Statistics produced by the FAO show that
consumption varying with intensity of produc- world aquaculture production is currently around
tion. Wastes, comprising uneaten food, faecal 25 million tonnes (FAO 1996), equivalent to
and urinary products, chemicals, pathogens and 20 % of world fisheries (capture + culture) pro-
feral animals, are released into the environment, duction by weight and around twice this by
quantities also being largely dependent upon pro- value. Production from the marine environment
duction methods. accounts for around 51 % of aquaculture produc-
World population continues to increase faster tion by weight (53 % by value) and is growing by
than global food supply (Anon, 1993). While some 5 % per annum. While only 4 % of farmed
99 % of food comes from terrestrial agriculture fish production comes from the sea, all farmed
(Pimentel et al. 1994), this disguises the fact that macroalgae, almost all farmed mollusks and
in many, especially developing, countries the bulk more than 90 % of farmed crustaceans are pro-
of animal protein comes from fish and other duced in the marine environment. The fastest
aquatic products. Aquatic foods have until growing sectors of mariculture are in high-
recently been derived almost exclusively from market-value products such as shrimp and fish,
capture fisheries sources. In recent years, how- production of the former having doubled over the
ever, aquaculture has been playing an increasingly past 5 years. By contrast, farmed production of
important role. Mariculture can be defined as the aquatic plants and molluscs has increased only
farming of the marine environment. A large and slowly.
increasing range of plants and animals is being Aquaculture, which is essentially cage or
farmed in the sea. Unlike inland water aquacul- pond culture, will have an impact on the carrying
ture, mariculture involves the culture of plants and capacity of the coastal marine environment. The
invertebrates not only for food but also for deco- impacts are several folds and not fully
ration (shells and pearls) and chemicals appreciated. Eutrophication is a major issue. In
(alginates). Systems and methods for the most general, from the fish feed, 85 % of the phospho-
commonly grown tropical and temperate species rus (P), 80–88 % carbon (C) and 52–95 % of
are summarized in Table 10.13. The terms ‘inten- nitrogen (N) are lost to the environment
sive’, ‘semi-intensive’ and ‘extensive’ are used (Wu 1995). Nearly 53 % of P, 23 % C and
here with regard to inputs of foods. In extensive 21 % N end up in the sediment. Specifically, in
aquaculture, the farmed organism is reliant on the the shrimp culture, such as those on the East
environment for food or nutrients, while in semi- Coast of India, which are run on Thailand design,
intensive farming, natural food is supplemented 24 % N and 13 % P were incorporated, and the
with additions of fertilizer and/or food, the latter rest is exported to the environment (Briggs and
usually being derived from agricultural Funge-Smith 1994).
by-products such as animal manures and rice Aquaculture preferably the shrimp culture is
bran. In intensive mariculture, all, or almost all, practiced in mangrove-dominated zone, because
of the nutritional requirements are supplied by the of the availability of brackish water, congenial
farmer, and diets are largely fishmeal based. There nutrients and environmental conditions. For
is also a correlation between intensity of produc- centuries, mangrove systems have contributed
tion, as defined here, and energy consumption. significantly to the wellbeing of coastal
Table 10.13 Summary of the principal rearing systems and methods employed in tropical and temperate mariculture
Group Species System Method
Tropical
Macroalgae Laminaria japonica Beds (stake and line rafts) Extensive
Undaria pinnatifida
Porphyra tenida
Eucheuma spp.
Molluscs Crassotrea spp. Suspended (rafts, long lines) Extensive
Mytilus spp.
Pecten yessoensis
Venerupis japonica
Solen spp.
Crustaceans Scylla serrata Ponds Semi-
Penaeus spp. intensive
Intensive
Finfish Chanos chanos Land based (ponds) and Water based (cages) Intensive
Mugil spp.
Epinephelus spp.
Serranidae
Pagrus major
Seriola
quinqueradiata
Temperate
Macroalgae Gracilaria Beds, rafts Extensive
Molluscs Ostrea edulis Bottom (tressels, trays) and suspended (rafts, long lines) Extensive
Crassotrea spp.
Mytilus spp.
Tapes spp.
Finfish Salmo salar Water based (cages) and land based (tanks) Intensive
Oncorhynchus spp.
Dicentrarchus labrax
communities through their provision of a wide least in Southeast Asia (Primavera 1995, 1997).
array of goods (resource function) and services The high rates (25–80 %) of mangrove loss in the
(regulatory function). These products come from region over the last three decades (Low
forestry (wood used for fuel, construction and et al. 1994) have coincided with the Shrimp
fishing poles, forage for livestock, honey, Fever of the 1980s (Primavera 1997, 1998). In
medicines, wax, etc.) and the higher-valued Vietnam, a total of 102,000 ha of mangroves
fish, crustaceans and molluscs from fisheries. A have been cleared for shrimp farming from
positive correlation between mangrove area and 1983 to 1987 (Tuan 1997). Shrimp farms in
shrimp/fish catches has been documented for the Thailand accounted for 32 % or 65,150 ha of
Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia the total 203,600 ha of mangrove area destroyed
(Primavera 1995, 1998). Mangrove ecosystem between 1961 and 1993 (Menasveta 1997). For
services include coastal protection provided by example, in Ao Ko Nok, Chanthaburi province,
a buffer zone during typhoons and storm surges, the increase in prawn ponds from zero in 1975 to
reduction of shoreline and riverbank erosion, 1836 ha in 1991 saw a parallel decline in man-
flood control, nutrient recycling and habitat for grove forests by 1428 ha in the same period
wildlife. However, such a valuable compartment (Raine 1994). Although Southeast Asia has the
of nature was cleared in mass scale to promote greatest area of shrimp ponds totalling close to a
shrimp culture. Although conversion to salt beds, million ha, mangrove–shrimp pond conversion is
agriculture, settlements and overexploitation by also widespread in Latin America. Seventy-five
coastal dwellers have caused mangrove decline, percent of around 100,000 ha of shrimp ponds
aquaculture remains the major causative factor at established in Ecuador by 1995 and more than a
third of the total 11,515 ha of shrimp farms in Sensing Application Centre carried out a case
Honduras were developed in mangroves study for the Godavari delta in Andhra Pradesh.
(Skladany and Harris 1995; DeWalt et al. 1996). The results of the classification of the images are
In the Indian subcontinent, almost a similar presented in Table 10.15.
picture was witnessed in all the maritime states From the remote sensing images, it is apparent
during the 1980s. The fast development of the that in the Godavari delta areas, about 14 % of
shrimp sector required the conversion of flat, the aquaculture farms have been constructed on
coastal lands to shrimp ponds. Part of the shrimp mangrove lands. Shrimp aquaculture is responsi-
pond construction took place in mangroves, and ble for about 80 % of the conversion of mangrove
shrimp aquaculture has been an important cause land. Shrimp ponds are often located in sparse
of the conversion of mangroves in India in the mangrove forests (see maps). The decrease in the
last decade (Lakshmana Rao et al. 1994; area of sparse mangrove cover is partly reversed
Holmgren 1994; Alagarswami 1995; by the conversion of dense into sparse
Krishnamoorthy 1995; James 1999). A recent mangroves, probably through fuelwood collec-
survey by the aquaculture sector found that tion and grazing.
about 5 % of the shrimp aquaculture farms in The rate of conversion of mangroves into
India have been constructed in former mangrove shrimp ponds increased in the period
areas (ADB/NACA 1998) (Table 10.14). Man- 1997–1999, suggesting that shrimp pond con-
grove conversion has been undertaken by both struction started in fallow and croplands but
small-scale extensive farms and by larger-scale then encroached on mangroves in the absence
semi-intensive and intensive farms of suitable fallow land. Policy regulations ban-
(Vivekanandan et al. 1997; ADB/NACA 1998). ning the conversion of mangroves to shrimp
In order to determine the proportion of the ponds and the protected status of the Godavari
destruction of mangroves by aquaculture in rela- forest (Figs. 10.11 and 10.12) have not been able
tion to other factors having an impact on man- to prevent the conversion of mangroves into
grove ecosystems, the Andhra Pradesh Remote shrimp ponds.
Table 10.14 Prior land use of shrimp farms (%)

Production system Mangroves Intertidal wetland Rice farming land Other, including fallow land
Traditional and extensive 3 20 32 45
Semi-intensive 7 8 5 80
Totala 5 14 18 63
Source: ADB/NACA (1998)
a
966 farms, with a total surface of 3560 ha
Table 10.15 The impact of shrimp aquaculture in the Godavari delta (ha)
Land use Land use area Converted to shrimp farms
1989 1997 1999 1987–1997 1997–1999 1989–1999
Crop land 4543 2324 6903
Fallow land 3149 1327 4497
Dense mangrove 16,586 15,987 15,318 433 471 1137
Sparse mangrove 4530 3786 3,199 604 666 1030
Total mangroves 21,116 19,773 18,517 1037 1137 2167
Other 2281 1493 3714
Aquafarms 2006 13,032 19,239
Total 17,281 6251 17,281
Source: Remote Sensing Images from the Andhra Pradesh Remote Sensing Application Centre (1999)
Fig. 10.11 Land use and

land cover in the Godavari 1989
delta in 1989 Kakinada Bay
r
(backwater)
ve
Ri
gi
n
ra
Co
r
ive
r uR
de
Ga
CORANGI
RESERVED FOREST
Lakshmipatipuram
G
Bay
ad
im
BHAIRAVAPALEM
of
og
Bengal
a
RESERVED FOREST
ka
lu
va
Dense mangroves Sparse mangroves

Salt pans Beach
Agricultural lands
10.2.3 Unplanned Tourism threats and ultimately to the loss of habitats and
their resources. Establishment of hotels on coral
There are greatly increasing stresses on coasts reefs is becoming popular and often leads to the
caused by tourism even in Antarctica and the destruction of the habitat.
Arctic. The most serious threats are those of Several tourist units and hotels have been
habitat destruction. Mangroves are often constructed without giving any importance to
removed, wetland areas filled in and estuaries the endemic biodiversity in developing countries.
reclaimed to make way for tourist complexes A relevant example in this context is the devel-
without there being any evaluation of the benefits opmental activities in the Goa coast. Goa is
of the intact systems or the ecosystem services India’s smallest state by area and the fourth
connected with the system (Wells 2006). Once smallest by population. Located in West India
built, the resort may lead to effects on adjacent in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded
habitats through sewage discharge and other by the state of Maharashtra to the north and by
Fig. 10.12 Land use and

land cover in the Godavari 1999
delta in 1999 Kakinada Bay
r
ve
(backwater)
Ri
n gi
ra
Co
r
ve
u Ri
d er
Ga
CORANGI
RESERVED FOREST
Lakshmipatipuram
Ga Bay
dim
og of
a BHAIRAVAPALEM
ka Bengal
luv RESERVED FOREST
a
Dense mangroves Sparse mangroves

Shrimp ponds Beach
Agricultural lands
Karnataka to the east and south, while the Ara- 1997). Several shore fronts have been designed
bian Sea forms its western coast. Goa is India’s and built in such a manner that they bear little
richest state with a GDP per capita two and a half resemblance to the coast that formerly existed.
times that of the country as a whole. This mari- Many coastal communities thus experienced a
time state encompasses an area of 3702 km2 dramatic growth during this period with
(1429 sq mi) and lies between the latitudes constructions of high-rise buildings, resorts and
14 530 5400 N and 15 400 0000 N and longitudes residential dwellings that mushroomed almost all
73 400 3300 E and 74 200 1300 E. Goa has a coastline over the coastal zone of Goa. During the last two
of 101 km (63 mi). In Goa, several coastal areas decades, the advent of tourism, population
have changed from virtual wilderness in 1970s to increase coupled with building activity and mod-
haphazardly developed stretches, full of concrete ern societal demands has resulted in large-scale
buildings and related structures in less than changes in the geological and ecological setup
20 years. The Baga–Candolim coast is a classic and has indelibly altered ecosystems, land use
example of frenzied development (Mascarenhas patterns and the coastal zone landscape
Fig. 10.13 Hard concrete structures adjacent to the HTL on the Goa coast (15 290 5.000 N and 73 470 40.400 E) (Photo-
graph taken on 04.04.2013 by Dr. Subhadra Devi Gadi (zoologist))
(Mascarenhas 1997). Figures 10.13 and 10.14 tanks again with new oil. Alien species are
show some developmental concrete mostly introduced into a system mainly through
constructions almost adjacent to the high tide ballast discharge.
line (HTL), which can accelerate the rate and The ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi was
magnitude of erosion subsequently leading to imported from the United States East Coast to
destruction of coastal vegetation. the Black Sea, probably in ballast water. The
In addition to the concrete structures, some introduction of the ctenophore species caused a
additional threats of tourism include the left- catastrophic alteration in the whole trophic web
away plastic bottles, cans, etc. by the tourists or and contributed to a huge reduction in stocks of
enjoying in the estuarine system with lighted commercial fisheries (GESAMP 1995). Other
vessels and boats (Fig. 10.15), thereby posing concerns covered by GESAMP are the transport
an adverse impact on the endemic wildlife of species of algae that may cause toxic blooms
associated with the estuaries. in new areas and other introductions which have
led to dramatic effects at regional levels.
Alterations in biodiversity are also highly likely
10.2.4 Introduction of Alien Species although this is poorly documented.
About half of the crude oil produced per year is

transported through the sea. After unloading of 10.2.5 Development of Coastal
the cargo of oil from a tanker, it carries seawater Structures
as ballast. It is a general practice to fill several
tanks (25–30 % of the total capacity of the Coastal zones face a variety of pressures. Coastal
tanker) with seawater to ballast the ship for the development results in the infilling of lagoons
voyage back to the loading terminal. These bal- and reclamation of coastline. Historically, the
last waters are discharged prior to filling the Dutch have fought a long battle with the North
Fig. 10.14 A hotel under construction on the Goa coast (15 290 5.100 N and 73 470 40.900 E) [Photograph taken on
04.04.2013 by Ms. Ankita Mitra (environmentalist)]
Fig. 10.15 Lighted vessels in the estuarine water adjacent to mangrove forests
Sea and by an extensive system of dykes have considerably higher than a level of fishing inten-
extended their landmass and turned the semi- sity which meets the criteria designed to protect
enclosed marine Zuiderzee into the freshwater marine biodiversity.
IJsselmeer. However, most coastal development Despite the fact that most fisheries resources
is piecemeal and insidious and hence difficult to are now within the jurisdiction of coastal states,
effectively regulate. The cumulative effects of nearly all the world’s fish resources are
such developments within a particular estuary overexploited (FAO 1991). Between 1988 and
can be depressing. For instance, about 2500 ha 1990, the marine fish catch declined in nine key
of mudflats in the Firth of Forth, Scotland, have fishing areas and especially of Peru, pelagic fish
disappeared over the last 200 years through a of Japan, of the Northeast coast of the United
series of individually unspectacular schemes, States and in European seas. The consequences
leading to a reduction in the estuary’s fish bio- of heavy fishing pressure on commercial species
mass by 50 % (McLusky et al. 1991). This scale are that the size distribution changes, and this
of loss of intertidal zone has occurred or is fore- leads to loss of genetic diversity, e.g. orange
cast for many UK areas (Prater 1981) and must roughy (Elliott and Ward 1992). In many areas
apply to most of the world’s industrialized of the Northwest Atlantic, there have been dra-
estuaries. Development, whether by dykes or matic changes in the composition of fish stocks
coastal defences, seaside promenades, residential as a consequence of fishing. Highly important
‘marinas’ or dock complexes, tends to shorten commercial species have declined (e.g. herring
the foreshore and reduces the extent of mudflats, and Arctic cod), and other less valuable species
upper-shore creek and salt marsh systems. have increased, e.g. sand eels (Sherman and
Sometimes coastal structures become indis- Alexander 1990) and sharks. Several studies
pensable to promote the rapid pace of industrial- show that changes in fish species composition
ization and urbanization in the coastal zone, have dramatic effects on other species dependent
which is now a common scene in developed on fish such as seabirds and mammals
and developing countries. This can cause dra- (Monaghan 1992; Hamre 1994). Exploitation of
matic change in the coastal landscape. Examples fish resources can lead to local or regional species
of such alterations include the construction of sea extinctions. The Blue Walleye (Stizostedion
walls, breakwaters, revetments, groins and vitreum glaucum) was over-shed in Lake Erie and
jetties. Each of these structures, aimed at became locally extinct (Scott and Crossman 1973).
protecting coastal property, refracts energy The Coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae), which
away from the shore and can cause erosion and lives in caves in the Cormora islands, has a total
increase currents that can harm seagrasses. world population of under 500 individuals and is
being harvested accidentally as a by-catch of fish-
ing for other species (Mackenzie 1995) and is in
10.2.6 Negative Fishing real danger of becoming extinct. Local extinctions
of fish can also occur where estuaries are made
Overfishing is one of the major anthropogenic unfit for spawning. Trawling for bottom-living fish
threats on the living resources of the marine and species is having a major effect on the habitat for
estuarine ecosystems. It may be defined as the species other than target species. It has been
level of fishing which puts at-risk values estimated that all of the seabed of the North Sea
endorsed either by the fishery management is trawled over at least twice per year and the gear
agency, by the nation in whose water fishing is getting heavier over time (Sydow 1990). Trawls
takes place or within widely accepted interna- have destroyed long-lived species of molluscs and
tional agreements. A point of critical importance echinoderms in the North Sea. Since these species
in this regard successfully needs traditional stock play important functional roles in biogeochemical
sustainability criteria (e.g. fishing a stock at max- cycling, the consequences may be far-reaching.
imum sustainable yield) which may well be There are plans to designate trawl-free areas
where by comparison with trawled areas, effects of Annexure 10A: Impact of Salinity
trawling can be assessed. Fishing using explosives on Above-Ground Biomass and Stored
on coral reefs (Lundin and Linde 1993) occurs Carbon in a Common Mangrove
globally in areas where reefs are not properly Excoecaria Agallocha Inhabiting
protected. The ensuing destruction of the reef habi- Lower Gangetic Delta
tat, which sustains not only the fish but all other
species dependent on the reef, has catastrophic 1. Introduction
consequences for biodiversity. In the Philippines,
in addition to dynamite fishing and fishing for the Mangroves are a taxonomically diverse group of
aquarium industry, there is a further serious prob- salt-tolerant, mainly arboreal, flowering plants
lem of the widespread and increasing use of cya- that grow primarily in tropical and subtropical
nide to obtain live fish for restaurants. Although the regions (Ellison and Stoddart 1991). Salinity
fish recover when placed in clean water, the cya- plays a crucial role in the growth and survival
nide has major effects on the reefs. It is not known of mangroves. Based on the physiological stud-
what effects the loss of large numbers of reef fish ies, Bowman (1917) and Davis (1940) concluded
will have on the reef system as a whole. There are that mangroves are not salt lovers, rather salt
relatively few quantitative data on local species tolerant. However, excessive saline conditions
extinctions. retard seed germination and impede growth and
development of mangroves. Indian Sundarbans,
Brain Churners the famous mangrove chunk of the tropics, is
1. Alteration of salinity in an estuarine gradually losing few mangroves species (like
ecosystem is one of the major threats Heritiera fomes, Nypa fruticans, etc.) owing to
related to climate change and the increase of salinity in the central sector of the
man-made construction of barrages. deltaic complex around the Matla River. Reports
Explain the statement with a case study. on the adverse impact of salinity on growth of
2. What are the major types of pollution mangroves in Indian Sundarbans are available
in marine and estuarine ecosystems? (Mitra et al. 2004). However, no study has yet
3. How does plate tectonics affect the been carried out to investigate the effect of salin-
biodiversity of marine ecosystem? ity on the carbon content of mangroves from this
4. What factors regulate the alteration of part of the Indian subcontinent.
the Earth’s orbit? The present study aims to establish a baseline
5. Briefly discuss the role of temperature data set of stored carbon in the AGB of
on the mangrove vegetation. Excoecaria agallocha, a dominant mangrove
6. What is the probable reason behind the species of Indian Sundarbans. The species thrives
increase of carbon dioxide after the luxuriantly in a wide range of salinity (4 psu–28
phase of glaciation? psu), and hence, an attempt was also made to find
7. What is acidification? Which phyla are the AGB and carbon content in above-ground
expected to be harmed by the process? structures (stem, branches and leaves) of the
8. How do the coastal structures damage species with respect to ambient aquatic salinity.
the seagrass beds?
9. How are alien species introduced into 2. Materials and Methods
the aquatic phase of the marine
ecosystem? 2.1 Study Area
10. How does bottom trawling affect the The mighty river Ganga emerges from the
benthic and pelagic communities of Himalayas and flows down to the Bay of Bengal
marine ecosystem? covering a distance of 2525 km. At the apex of
Bay of Bengal, a delta has been formed which is
Annexure 10A: Impact of Salinity on Above-Ground Biomass and Stored Carbon. . . 403
recognized as one of the most diversified and stem cores from 5 to 10 cm depth with a
productive ecosystems of the tropics and is motorized corer, which was further converted
referred to as Indian Sundarbans. The deltaic into stem biomass (BS) as per the expression
complex has a Biosphere Reserve area of 9630 BS ¼ GV. The stem biomass of individual tree
sq. km and houses 102 islands. The western was finally multiplied with the number of trees of
sector of the deltaic lobe receives the snowmelt the species in 15 selected plots in both western
water of mighty Himalayan glaciers after being and central Indian Sundarbans.
regulated through several barrages on the way.
The central sector, on the other hand, is fully 2.3 Above-Ground Branch Biomass
deprived from such supply due to heavy siltation Estimation
and clogging of the Bidyadhari channel in the The total number of branches irrespective of size
late fifteenth century (Chaudhuri and Choudhury was counted on each of the sample trees. These
1994). Such variation causes sharp difference in branches were categorized on the basis of basal
salinity between the two sectors (Mitra diameter into three groups, viz. <6 cm, 6–10 cm
et al. 2009). Two sampling sites were selected and >10 cm. Dry weight of two branches from
each in the western and central sectors of this each size group was recorded separately using
lower Gangetic delta (Fig. 10A.1). The station in the equation of Chidumaya (1990). Total branch
the western part lies at the confluence of the river biomass (dry weight) of individual tree was
Hooghly (a continuation of Ganga–Bhagirathi determined after drying at 80 5 C as per the
system) and the Bay of Bengal. The site is locally expression Bdb ¼ n1bw1 + n2bw2 + n3bw3 ¼ Σ
known as Sagar South (21 310 4.6800 N latitude nibwi, where Bdb is the dry branch biomass per
and 88 010 47.2800 E longitude). In the central sec- tree, ni the number of branches in the ith branch
tor, the sampling station was selected at Canning group, bwi the average weight of branches in the
(22 180 37.4400 N latitude and 88 400 36.8400 E lon- ith group and i ¼ 1, 2, 3, . . ...n are the branch
gitude), near to tide-fed Matla River. The study groups. The branch biomass of individual tree
was undertaken in both of these sectors during was finally multiplied with the number of trees
low tide period through three seasons, viz. of the species in all the 15 plots for each station.
premonsoon (March), monsoon (September)
and postmonsoon (December) for 5 consecutive 2.4 Above-Ground Leaf Biomass
years (2005–2010). Estimation
In each sector, a plot size of 10 m 10 m was Leaves from nine branches (three of each size
selected, and the average readings were group) of individual trees were plucked, weighed
documented from 15 such plots. The mean rela- and oven dried separately to a constant weight at
tive density of Excoecaria agallocha was 80 5 C. Three trees per plot were considered
evaluated for relative abundance of the species. for estimation. The leaf biomass was then
estimated by multiplying the average biomass
2.2 Above-Ground Stem Biomass of the leaves per branch with the number of
Estimation branches in a single tree and the average number
The stem volume for each tree of the species in of trees per plot as per the expression
every plot was estimated using the Newton’s Ldb ¼ n1Lw1N1 + n2Lw2N2 + . . .. . .. . ..
formula (Husch et al. 1982) as per the expression niLwiNi, where, Ldb is the dry leaf biomass
V ¼ h/6 (Ab + 4Am + At), where V is the vol- of selected mangrove species per plot,
ume (in m3), h the height measured with laser n1... . ..ni are the number of branches of
beam (BOSCH DLE 70 Professional model) and each tree of the species, Lw1 . . .. . ..Lwi are
Ab, Am and At are the areas of the selected tree at the average dry weight of leaves removed
base, middle and top, respectively. Specific grav- from the branches and N1. . .. . .. . .Ni are the
ity (G) of the wood was estimated, taking the number of trees of the species in the plots.
Fig. 10A.1 Location of sampling stations in the western and central sectors of Indian Sundarbans
2.5 Carbon Estimation (two trees/plot) of the species (covering all the
Direct estimation of percent carbon was done by 15 plots) was collected. The vegetative parts
a CHN analyzer. For this, a portion of fresh were oven dried separately at 70 C and ground
sample of stem, branch and leaf from 30 trees to pass through a 0.5 mm screen (1.0 mm screen
for leaves). The carbon content (in %) was finally less than 0.01 ( p < 0.01) were considered statis-
analyzed on a Vario MACRO elementar CHN tically significant. All statistical calculations
analyzer. were performed with SPSS 9.0 for Windows.
2.6 Salinity
The surface water salinity was recorded by 3. Results
means of an optical refractometer (Atago,
Japan) in the field and cross-checked in the labo- 3.1 Relative Abundance
ratory by employing Mohr–Knudsen method. Nine species of mangroves were documented in
The correction factor was found out by titrating the selected plots in the western sector, but in the
the silver nitrate solution against standard seawa- central sector, only six species were recorded.
ter (IAPO Standard Seawater Service The mean relative abundance of Excoecaria
Charlottenlund, Slot Denmark, chlorinity agallocha was 18.75 % and 25.81 % in the west-
¼ 19.376 ‰). Our method was applied to esti- ern and central sectors, respectively. In both the
mate the salinity of standard seawater procured sectors, the trees are ~12 years old, but high
from NIO, and a standard deviation of 0.02 % salinity in the central sector probably stunted
was obtained for salinity. The average accuracy the growth of the species.
for salinity (in connection to our triplicate sam-
pling) is 0.28 psu. 3.2 Above-Ground Biomass
The stem, branch, leaf and AGB of the mangrove
2.7 Statistical Analysis species increased with age. The increment was,
Scatter plots, allometric equations and however, not uniform in both the sectors as
correlations were computed with a sample size revealed from the trend line equations (Figs.
of 240 for each sector to observe the interrela- 10A.2, 10A.3, 10A.4 and 10A.5). We observed
tionships between AGB, DBH, stem, branch and significant variation in the rate of AGB increase
leaf biomass along with stored carbon in these between sites ( p < 0.01). It was 0.63 t/ha/month
above-ground structures. Analysis of variance and 0.75 t/ha/month in the western and central
(ANOVA) was performed to assess whether bio- sectors, respectively. The yearly variation of
mass and carbon content varied significantly AGB was also significant ( p < 0.01), but the
between sites, years and seasons; possibilities seasonal variation was not pronounced. It is
Fig. 10A.2 Stem biomass 30

of Excoecaria agallocha
25
Stem biomass (t/h)
20
y = 0.8396x + 6.0925
15 R2 = 0.9546 Western
Central
10
y = 1.53x - 1.2507
5 R2 = 0.9474
0
Sept.,2005
Dec.,2005
Mar.,2006
Sept.,2006
Dec.,2006
Mar.,2007
Sept.,2007
Dec.,2007
Mar.,2008
Sept.,2008
Dec.,2008
Mar.,2009
Sept.,2009
Dec.,2009
Mar.,2010
Fig. 10A.3 Branch 18

biomass of Excoecaria
agallocha 16
14
Branch biomass (t/h)

12
y = 0.9145x + 1.497
10 R2 = 0.992
Western
8
Central
6
y = 0.9016x - 1.7879
4
R2 = 0.9656
2
0
Sept.,2005
Sept.,2006
Sept.,2007
Sept.,2008
Sept.,2009
Dec.,2005
Mar.,2006
Dec.,2006
Mar.,2007
Dec.,2007
Mar.,2008
Dec.,2008
Mar.,2009
Dec.,2009
Mar.,2010
-2
Fig. 10A.4 Leaf biomass 12

of Excoecaria agallocha
10
8
Leaf biomass (t/h)
y = 0.6404x + 0.2699
6
R2 = 0.9914 Western
Central
4
y = 0.56x - 1.151
2 R2 = 0.936
0
Mar.,2010
Dec.,2009
Sept.,2009
Mar.,2009
Dec.,2008
Sept.,2008
Mar.,2008
Dec.,2007
Sept.,2007
Mar.,2007
Dec.,2006
Sept.,2006
Mar.,2006
Dec.,2005
Sept.,2005
-2
interesting to note that AGB of Excoecaria 3.3 Carbon Content

agallocha in the Indian Sundarbans is accounted The seasonal variations of stored carbon in the
solely due to stem, which is a basic indicator of above-ground structures of the species for five
growth unlike branches and leaves that contrib- successive years are shown in Figs. 10A.12,
ute substantially to litter fall and less to perma- 10A.13, 10A.14, and 10A.15. In both of the
nent biomass. The nature of the scatter plots also sectors, carbon content was highest in stems,
confirm strong dependency of AGB on stem bio- followed by branches and leaves. In the stem,
mass and DBH unlike branch and leaf biomass the carbon content ranged from 0.81 t/ha (in the
that exhibit no relationships with AGB of the central sector during September 2005) to 10.13 t/
species (Figs. 10A.6, 10A.7, 10A.8, 10A.9, ha (in the central sector during March 2010),
10A.10 and 10A.11). which are 40.5 % and 42.0 % of the biomass,
Fig. 10A.5 AGB of 50

40
y = 2.3881x + 7.9308
R2 = 0.9933
30
AGB (t/ha)
Western
20
Central
y = 2.9901x - 4.1249
10
R2 = 0.9549
0
Sept.,2005
Dec.,2005
Mar.,2006
Sept.,2006
Dec.,2006
Mar.,2007
Sept.,2007
Dec.,2007
Mar.,2008
Sept.,2008
Dec.,2008
Mar.,2009
Sept.,2009
Dec.,2009
Mar.,2010
-10
Fig. 10A.6 Relationship 35.00 y = 0.8446x + 12.514

between stem biomass and
AGB of Excoecaria
30.00 R2 = 0.6761
agallocha in the western 25.00
AGB (Kg)
sector
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
Stem Biomass (Kg)
Fig. 10A.7 Relationship 25.00

between stem biomass and
y = 1.0283x + 5.4284
AGB of Excoecaria 20.00
agallocha in the central R2 = 0.7426
AGB (Kg)
sector 15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Stem biomass (Kg)
respectively. The sequestration rates of carbon in respectively. In the branch, the range of stored
the stem of the western and central sectors are carbon was 0.22 t/ha (39.2 % of the branch bio-
significantly different ( p < 0.01) with values of mass in the central sector during September
0.10 t/ha/month and 0.17 t/ha/month, 2005) to 6.40 t/ha (42.2 % of the branch biomass

between branch biomass
and AGB of Excoecaria 30.00
agallocha in the western 25.00
sector
AGB (Kg)
20.00
y = 0.8807x + 20.83
15.00
R2 = 0.1131
10.00
5.00
0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
Branch Biomass (Kg)

between branch biomass y = 1.6631x + 8.9866
and AGB of Excoecaria R2 = 0.3011
20.00
agallocha in the central
sector
AGB (Kg)
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Branch Biomass (Kg)

between leaf biomass and
agallocha in western sector 25.00
AGB (Kg)
20.00
15.00 y = 1.5126x + 21.255

R2 = 0.1075
10.00
5.00
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Leaf Biomass (Kg)
in the western sector during March 2010). The leaf biomass) was observed in the central sector
branch sequestered 0.10 t/ha/month and 0.09 t/ in September 2005 and the maximum value
ha/month in the western and central sectors, (4.74 t/ha which is equivalent to 46.4 % of leaf
respectively. In the leaf, minimum carbon con- biomass) was recorded in the western sector in
tent (0.22 t/ha which is equivalent to 43.1 % of March 2010. The sequestration rates are 0.08 t/

between leaf biomass and
y = 2.8266x + 9.4954
agallocha in the central R2 = 0.2738
sector
AGB (Kg)
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50
Leaf Biomass (Kg)
Fig. 10A.12 Carbon 12

content in Excoecaria
agallocha stem
10
Carbon content (t/h)
8 y = 0.3752x + 2.577
R2 = 0.9391
Western
6
Central
4
y = 0.6478x - 0.533
2 R2 = 0.952
0
Sept.,2005
Dec.,2005
Mar.,2006
Sept.,2006
Dec.,2006
Mar.,2007
Sept.,2007
Dec.,2007
Mar.,2008
Sept.,2008
Dec.,2008
Mar.,2009
Sept.,2009
Dec.,2009
Mar.,2010

agallocha branch 6
5
y = 0.3804x + 0.6025
4 R2 = 0.9879
Western
3
Central
2
y = 0.3703x - 0.7356
1 R2 = 0.9673
0
Sept.,2005
Dec.,2005
Mar.,2006
Sept.,2006
Dec.,2006
Mar.,2007
Sept.,2007
Dec.,2007
Mar.,2008
Sept.,2008
Dec.,2008
Mar.,2009
Sept.,2009
Dec.,2009
Mar.,2010
-1

agallocha leaf
4
y = 0.2885x + 0.1203

3 R2 = 0.9802
Western
2
Central
y = 0.2518x - 0.5292
1
R2 = 0.9347
0 Sept.,2005
Dec.,2005
Mar.,2006
Sept.,2006
Dec.,2006
Mar.,2007
Sept.,2007
Dec.,2007
Mar.,2008
Sept.,2008
Dec.,2008
Mar.,2009
Sept.,2009
Dec.,2009
Mar.,2010
-1

content in AGB of
20
15
y = 1.0534x + 3.0511
R2 = 0.9623 Western
10
Central
5 y = 1.2692x - 1.7874
R2 = 0.9582
0
Sept.,2005
Sept.,2006
Sept.,2007
Sept.,2008
Sept.,2009
Dec.,2005
Mar.,2006
Dec.,2006
Mar.,2007
Dec.,2007
Mar.,2008
Dec.,2008
Mar.,2009
Dec.,2009
Mar.,2010
-5
ha/month and 0.06 t/ha/month in the western and in the central sector during 2008 premonsoon).
central sectors, respectively. The salinity values varied as per the order
ANOVA results confirmed significant premonsoon > postmonsoon > monsoon, and
differences in stored carbon of the stem between the seasonal variation is significant ( p < 0.01).
the sites ( p < 0.01), but no differences were The salinity values were significantly higher
observed for branches and leaves. The carbon ( p < 0.01) in the central sector compared to the
content in the above-ground structures exhibit western sector irrespective of seasons and year
significant positive correlations with stem bio- (Table 10A.1).
mass and its DBH, but not with branch and leaf
biomass.
4. Discussion
3.4 Salinity
The surface water salinity values ranged from The potential impact of mangrove on coastal
8.66 psu (at Sagar South in the western sector zone carbon dynamics has been a topic of intense
during 2010 monsoon) to 26.59 psu (at Canning debate during the past decades. Despite the large
Table 10A.1 Seasonal variation of surface water salinity (in psu) in the selected stations during 2005–2010
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Season A B A B A B A B A B A B
Premonsoon 26.99 24.99 26.10 26.50 25.12 26.00 29.11 26.59 24.04 26.08 23.58 25.95
Monsoon 9.16 10.44 9.02 9.65 9.30 9.98 8.76 9.90 9.08 10.02 8.66 10.13
Postmonsoon 22.32 23.10 21.67 23.10 21.80 23.88 20.73 24.06 21.04 24.32 19.88 25.31
A Sagar South (western sector), B Canning (central sector)
Annexure 10A: Impact of Salinity on Above-Ground Biomass and Stored Carbon. . .
411
Table 10A.2 List of AGB in few mixed mangrove forests

Condition AGB
Region Location or age (t/ha) Reference
Sri Lanka 8 150 N latitude and 79 500 E Fringe 172.0 Amarasinghe and
longitude forest Balasubramaniam (1992)
Sri Lanka 8 150 N latitude and 79 500 E Riverine 57.0 Amarasinghe and
longitude forest Balasubramaniam (1992)
Thailand (Trat Eastern) 12 120 N latitude and 102 330 E Secondary 142.2 Poungparn (2003)
longitude forest
Western Indian 88 010 47.2800 N latitude and ~18 years 19.64 This study
Sundarbans (Sagar South) 21 310 4.6800 E longitude
Around central Indian 88 400 36.8400 N latitude and ~18 years 19.08 This study
Sundarbans (Canning) 22 180 37.4400 E longitude
number of case studies dealing with various (0.75 t/ha/month) compared to the western part
aspects of organic matter cycling in mangrove (0.63 t/ha/month) confirms its tolerance to salin-
systems (Kristensen et al. 2008), there is a very ity. A critical analysis of biochemical
limited consensus on the carbon sequestering mechanisms may throw light on the adaptation
potential of mangroves. It has been opined by of Excoecaria agallocha in the high-saline envi-
several workers that the carbon sequestration in ronment of the central Indian Sundarbans.
this unique producer community is a function of The carbon content and sequestration rate of
biomass production capacity, which in turn above-ground structures are also higher in the
depends upon interaction between edaphic, cli- central sector as a direct function of above-
mate and topographic factors of an area ground biomass. During our study period, the
(Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994; Mitra and average surface water salinity in the central
Banerjee 2005). Hence, results obtained at one Indian Sundarbans were relatively higher (26.22
place may not be applicable to another. We psu during premonsoon, 10.02 psu during mon-
therefore attempted to establish allometric soon and 23.70 during postmonsoon) compared
equations for Excoecaria agallocha of the to the western part (25.59 psu during
Indian Sundarbans relating its DBH, stem bio- premonsoon, 9.00 psu during monsoon and
mass, branch biomass, leaf biomass, AGB and 21.31 during postmonsoon). This could not
stored carbon. The nature of the scatter plots retard the carbon sequestration of the species
indicates significant positive correlations (by the total AGB) as evidenced from the stored
between AGB, stem biomass, DBH and stored carbon and sequestration rate in the central sector
carbon in both of the sectors. The AGB and (0.32 t/ha/month) compared to the western sector
stored carbon do not exhibit any dependency on (0.28 t/ha/month). The results of our study have
branch and leaf biomass of the species, Sengupta been compared with the AGB of few mixed
et al. (2013). This indicates the sole contribution mangrove forests (Table 10A.2) to evaluate the
of stem biomass and DBH to AGB and carbon potential of Indian Sundarbans mangrove as car-
stored in the above-ground structures. bon sink. The values of the present study are less
Mangroves, in general, prefer brackish water when compared with other regions, but efficient
environment, and in extreme saline condition, adaptation of the species in high-saline zone has
stunted growth is observed (Mitra et al. 2004). multiplied the importance of the species as the
The present study, however, presents a different present geographical locale is vulnerable to cli-
picture and reveals the adaptation of Excoecaria mate change-induced salinity rise owing to its
agallocha in the high-saline central sector. The location below the mean sea level and
relatively higher growth rate of the above-ground experiencing a sea level rise of 3.14 mm/year as
structures of the species in the central sector compared to global average of 2.5 mm/year.
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Conservation of Marine and Estuarine
Resources 11
Contents 11.1 Conservation or Preservation?

11.1 Conservation or Preservation? . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
11.2 Tiers for Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Protecting the environment of the planet Earth is
the prime goal of mankind. The domain of pro-
Annexure 11A: International Legal Framework
tection of natural resources encompasses two
to Safeguard Marine and Estuarine
Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 major verticals, namely, conservation and pres-
ervation. Conservation is the sustainable use and
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
management of natural resources which include
flora, fauna, air, water, earth deposits, etc. Con-
servation of natural resources primarily focuses
on the needs and interests of human beings, for
example, biological, economic, cultural and aes-
thetic values these resources possess. The man-
grove ecosystem, for example, contains a wide
spectrum of flora and fauna, which provides tim-
ber, fuel wood, honey, wax, fishes, medicinal
ingredients, etc. The seed of conservation
germinates for developing a better future. Preser-
vation, on the contrary, is an attempt to maintain
the existing condition of the environment of a
particular ecosystem or habitat that is mostly in a
wilderness condition. The essence of preserva-
tion spreads from the fact that mankind is
encroaching the natural habitats at such a rate
that many untouched landscapes are now getting
sacrificed for industrial development, urban
development, farming, tourism, aquaculture,
etc. Strong lobbies of preservationists support
protection of natural reservoir with priority and
give less importance to the ecosystem services of
natural resources (flora, fauna, etc.) to mankind.

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_11
420 11 Conservation of Marine and Estuarine Resources
A comparative account of conservation and latter. A snapshot of different tiers of biodiver-

preservation is given in Table 11.1. sity, namely, habitat diversity, community and
The vertical of conservation emphasizes on ecosystem diversity, functional diversity, popu-
alternative livelihood schemes through which lation diversity, phyletic diversity, species diver-
human encroachment can be reduced and natural sity and genetic diversity, is presented here.
reservoir be preserved. We have strong inclina-
tion to recommend the term conservation as the
ecosystem services of flora, fauna and other
11.2.1 Habitat Diversity
organisms need to be explored and rationally
utilized to mitigate the needs of the growing
The most frequently used quantitative measure of
population (that is considered by us as the root
biodiversity is for a given area rather than for a
cause of all evils in this planet). The generation
given biological community. In ecological terms,
of alternative livelihood schemes also falls under
physical areas and the biotic components they
this category.
contain are referred to as habitats. Habitat diver-
Whether the term is preservation or conserva-
sity is a more useful term than that of ecosystem
tion is not the primary question, but protecting
diversity since habitats are easy to envisage (e.g. a
the natural resources from the natural and anthro-
mangrove forest, a coral reef, an estuary, etc.).
pogenic threats is the main goal of both. In con-
Furthermore, habitats often have clear boundaries.
text to marine and estuarine ecosystems, it is
Habitats have been termed the template for ecol-
essential to develop a concrete plan for ensuring
ogy (Southwood 1977). There are strong
protection to the flora and fauna thriving in the
relationships between sampling scale and the pro-
system. For achieving this primary goal,
cesses that influence diversity (Huston 1994). At
programmes and planning with activities must
small scales, all species are presumed to interact
be developed with thrust area and priority
with each other and to be competing for similar
(Table 11.2).
limiting resources. Ecologists have called this
within habitat (or alpha) diversity (Fisher
et al. 1943; Whittaker 1960, 1967). At slightly
11.2 Tiers for Conservation larger scales, habitat and/or community
boundaries are crossed, and sampling covers
Conservation of marine and estuarine more than one habitat or community. This scale
ecosystems requires a concrete understanding of has been called between-habitat (or beta) diversity
the different tiers of biodiversity. The taxonomic (Whittaker 1960, 1975, 1977). At an even larger
diversity is higher in benthic rather than pelagic scale (regional scale) where evolutionary rather
system, although considerable uncertainty exists than ecological processes operate, the pattern has
in this statement. Also, if one compares the been called gamma diversity or, more recently,
coastal biodiversity with the open ocean, the ‘landscape diversity’ (Whittaker 1960; Cody
former will be much ahead compared to the 1986). Landscape diversity can be defined as the
Table 11.1 Comparative account preservation and conservation

Issue Preservation Conservation
Objectives Landscapes without Flora, fauna, microbes and food webs—members of all tiers of ecological
humans pyramids
Justifications Aesthetic Intellectual interest; present and future utility preferably for the benefit of
mankind
Target National parks, Hot spots of biodiversity and even natural resources
sanctuary, etc.
Obstacles Encroachment, Encroachment, overexploitation, shrinkage of livelihood, lack of proper
overexploitation, etc. management of man–natural resource conflict, etc.
11.2 Tiers for Conservation 421
Table 11.2 Planning, components and domain of investigation with priority for conserving marine and estuarine
ecosystems
Domain of
S. no. Planning Components investigation Priority
1 Integrated landscape 1. Biodiversity assessment Ecosystem A
development 2. Identification and scaling of threats
3. Identification of degraded and fragile
ecosystems
4. Zonation of the operational area into
core, buffer and tourism/urbanization/
industrial (activity) zones
5. Identification of ecorestoration plans
befitted to the landscape
2 Assessment of the impact of 1. Assessment and prediction of the Ecosystem A
climate change on the marine and impact of climate change on flora,
estuarine ecosystems fauna and energy flow through
different tiers of trophic levels
2. Assessment and prediction of impact
of climate change on the community
structure of flora and fauna
3. Identification of keystone species
4. Assessment and prediction of
climate change on the socio-economic
and demographic profile of coastal
communities
5. Preparation of a long-term
conservation plan with special
emphasis on disaster management
3 Ecosystem services 1. Identification of knowledge, Ecosystem A
innovations and practices of
indigenous and local communities
2. Assessment of impacts of
developmental activities on ecosystem
goods and services
3. Evaluation of negative and positive
impacts using tools of market and
non-market valuation
4. Economic analysis of
conservation–development scenarios
using multiple-criteria assessment and
cost–benefit analysis
5. Ranking of scenarios and
identification of options for
conservation and sustainable
development
4 Biodiversity census 1. Assessment and inventorization of Ecosystem A
flora and fauna
2. Assessment and scaling of
community health of flora and fauna
3. Identification of threatened species
4. Short-term and long-term
conservation plan involving the local
population (coastal population, island
dwellers, etc.)
(continued)

Domain of
5 Assessment of anthropogenic 1. Listing the industries around the Ecosystem A
threats landscape and finding out the effluent
release
2. Analysis of samples of contaminated
soil and water
3. Laboratory analysis of affected
plants/animals to determine the
concentration of toxicants
(bioaccumulation)
4. Identification of indicator organisms
6 Assessment of coastal 1. Collection of available data on Ecosystem A
geomorphology and shoreline various aspects of coastal
configuration geomorphology and analysis in GIS
domain to record the changes
2. Identification of drivers which might
have changed the geomorphology and
developed ecological modelling for
expected future changes
3. Quantification and determination of
importance of sediment and freshwater
flow
7 Assessment of dilution factor in 1. Collection of data on freshwater Ecosystem A
the estuarine and coastal zones flow, barrage discharge, land run-off
and sediment influx
2. Recording and documentation of
tidal amplitude
3. Regular monitoring of salinity of
sample station (under investigation)
and that of source water (particularly
for estuarine ecosystem)
8 Assessment of intertidal 1. Assessment of biodiversity in the Habitat A
mudflats/sandy shore/rocky shore intertidal mudflats/sandy shore/rocky
and their ecological significance shore along with their adaptations
2. Assessment of avifaunal diversity
and migratory species
3. Texture and composition of the
intertidal zone
9 Assessment of mangroves/ 1. Identification and marking of Habitat A
seagrass/salt marsh grass/coral monitoring plots for biomass study on
reefs regular basis
2. Identification of interlinkage
between the habitats, e.g. mangroves,
salt marsh grasses or coral reefs and
mangroves, etc (if any)
10 Coastal lagoon ecology and 1. Developmental history and origin of Habitat A
biodiversity lagoon (through satellite imagery)
2. Flora, fauna and keystone species
assessment
3. Primary and secondary productivity
of the lagoon
4. Livelihood associated with the
lagoon water and other resources
11 Threatened animals 1. Identification and assessment of Habitat A
status of critical habitats of threatened
species
2. Long-term planning for
ecorestoration
(continued)

Domain of
12 Monitoring of primary 1. Preparation of phytoplankton species Species A
production inventory
2. Tidal, diurnal and seasonal
variations in primary productivity
3. Monitoring phytopigment level on a
regular basis during high tide and low
tide
13 Monitoring of secondary 1. Documentation of zooplankton Species A
production 2. Documentation of nekton
(considering both osteichthyes and
chondrichthyes)
3. Inventorization of benthic organisms
4. Application of DNA barcoding as a
tool for biodiversity assessment
14 Invasive species 1. Monitoring of ballast discharge Species B
2. Monitoring ecology of invasive
species
3. Monitoring the interaction between
endemic and alien species
4. Long-term planning to manage
invasive species particularly those
which intrude through ballast discharge
15 Natural calamities 1. Collection of secondary data on Ecosystem and B
magnitude and occurrence of natural production
calamities sectors
2. Long-term planning for disaster
management
3. Monitoring of resources (flora,
fauna, groundwater, intertidal zone,
etc.) before and after the natural
calamities through satellite imagery
and ground truthing
4. Development of bio-shield to reduce
the impact of natural calamities
5. Development of reclamation models
for the affected sites
6. Development of species recovery
plans particularly for the threatened
species
16 Livelihood 1. Identification of alternative Socio-economic A
livelihood schemes befitted to the area
of investigation
2. Identification of proper beneficiaries
associated with the livelihood schemes
3. Monitoring the viability of schemes
through cost–benefit analysis and
market demand
4. Establishment of local and regional
marketing linkage
5. Attempt to develop international
market through quality production and
subsequent certification
(continued)

Domain of
17 Tourism 1. Assessment of existing tourism units Socio-economic B
2. Monitoring the effluents released
from tourism units and prediction of
the level of ingredients of these
effluents (viz. nitrate, phosphate, etc.)
through statistical tools/programmes
3. Assessment of tourist carrying
capacity and footfalls
4. Development of ecotourism
involving the local people
5. Training the local people on flora,
fauna and other endemic species on a
regular basis so that they can provide
service as eco-guide
6. Development of ecofriendly waste
management system (bioremediation)
18 Good management practice 1. Collection of successful case studies Socio-economic C
from district level/state level/country
level/international level
2. Group activity through formation of
homogeneous group
3. Capacity building in the sphere of
aquaculture, agriculture, horticulture,
etc.
4. Value addition in the field of
aquaculture, agriculture, horticulture,
etc.
19 Production and development 1. Rapid and long-term EIA studies for Socio-economic B
sectors any developmental activities in the and
coastal and estuarine ecosystems developmental
2. Impact studies and habitat activities
degradation
3. Monitoring ecosystem services and
deletion of natural resources
20 Policy-level research 1. Development of a national policy on Policy research C
the coastal and marine environment
2. The efficacy of international,
national and state policies and legal
instruments in resource management in
the coastal and marine environment
needs to be assessed. The readers may
consult Annexure 11A to have an idea
about the existing legal framework to
protect the marine/coastal/estuarine
resources
3. Mechanism of networking various
governmental, non-governmental and
community-based institutions in the
participatory management of coastal
and marine resources
4. Identification of various components
that need to be part of a national- or
state-level policy for restoration and
rehabilitation of communities affected
by conservation initiatives, natural
disasters, etc.
Note: A high priority, B moderate priority, C low priority
mosaic of habitats over larger scales of often probably best considered as between-habitat bio-
hundreds of kilometres. Franklin (1993) discussed diversity. Hard rocky surfaces have a rich
landscape diversity in relation to biodiversity con- encrusting flora and fauna, for example, in clumps
servation. Ray (1991) called the marine of mussels, Suchanek (1992) found over 300 spe-
equivalents seascapes. Much attention has been cies in Washington, USA.
given to ways of conserving landscape diversity
on land. Clearly, a given habitat can be
maintained, but landscape diversity can be 11.2.2 Community and Ecosystem
reduced if the mosaic of habitats is altered. It is Diversity
clearly important, therefore, to specify what scale
(and hence type of diversity) is being studied. In Biodiversity can also be considered at levels
an important recent paper, Tuomisto et al. (1995) other than that of taxonomic organization, for
have shown from an analysis of satellite images example, at the level of the community or/and
followed by extensive ground truthing that beta ecosystem. In fact, when biodiversity is
diversity has been greatly underestimated in trop- measured quantitatively, it is usually as the num-
ical rainforests. Since between-habitat (beta) ber of species or the value of a diversity index for
diversity has been underestimated, then the land- a given community or area of habitat. A great
scape diversity will also be underestimated. The ecological debate started in the 1930s on whether
conservation value of different areas primarily or not species occurred in distinct groups which
depends on a sound estimate of between-habitat could be classified as communities. Today, the
and landscape diversity. This is a topic that must generally accepted view is that species are
be emphasized thorough consideration and discus- distributed along environmental gradients in
sion in any future conservation strategy. Within approximately lognormal abundance patterns
coastal areas, there are a wide variety of habitats (Mills 1969). However, interactions between
with known high species diversity such as species (predator–prey relationship, commensal-
seagrass beds (McRoy and Lloyd 1981), coastal ism, symbiotic relationship and competitive rela-
sedimentary habitats (Gray 1994), mangal tionship) lead to there being co-occurring groups
(MacNae 1968; Walsh 1974) and coral reefs of species under given environmental conditions.
(Loya 1972; Huston 1985; Sheppard 1980). Ray Thus, communities are convenient groupings of
and Gregg (1991) critically analysed the coastal species which merge gradually into other
wetland areas of Virginia and the Carolinas, USA. groupings unless there are sharp boundaries in
They concluded that there are large differences in environmental conditions. Recently, another
the proportions of salt and freshwater marshes, term has found favour, assemblage, which is a
forest/scrub–shrub and tidal-at areas which lead more neutral term and does not imply the tight
to differences in biodiversity between the two interspecies organization that is implied in the
areas. In Indian Sundarbans also, difference in term ‘community’, with its anthropomorphic
salt concentrations in the estuarine water causes connotations. The diversity of a community
significant differences in mangrove floral diver- (or assemblage) is often measured. In the Biodi-
sity. Excoecaria agallocha and Avicennia spp. versity Convention, an ecosystem is defined as
are common in high-saline to moderately saline ‘A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-
areas (15–28 psu), whereas Heritiera fomes and organism communities and their non-living envi-
Sonneratia apetala are found in low saline with a ronment interacting as a functional unit’. Terms
salinity around 5 psu. Ray (1991) classified such as ‘estuarine ecosystem’ or ‘coral reef eco-
marine habitats into 20 categories as a basis for system’ are used commonly. Yet the boundaries
characterizing coastal areas. Coral reefs are also of such systems are loosely defined and are espe-
highly variable with large differences between the cially difficult to demarcate in the sea since the
reef top, reef crest and reef slope both in coral and fluxes of energy and material within and
associated species, and each component is exported from a system are rarely known. It is

perhaps significant that in the Research Agenda Species diversity index H ¼
for Biodiversity (Solbrig 1991), no mention is X s X
s
Pi loge Pi or, H ¼ ni =N loge ni =N
made of ecosystem diversity. Huston (1994) in i¼1 i¼1
his book used the terms ‘community’ and ‘eco-
system’ interchangeably. However, while the where:
distinction between community and ecosystem Pi ¼ Importance probability for each species
may be helpful, in some ways the implication ni ¼ Importance value for each species
that communities and ecosystems can be studied N ¼ Total of importance values
as separate entities is wrong. No ecological sys- The macro-benthic molluscan community
tem, whether individual, population or commu- inhabiting the intertidal zone of four major
nity, can be studied in isolation from the estuaries/coasts in the eastern part of India
environment in which it exists. In this context, showed the presence of 17 dominant species. In
we have analysed the macro-benthic molluscan the Shankarpur area of West Bengal, six bivalve
community diversity and structure in four species and four gastropod species were recorded
regions of the East Coast of India (distributed in during the study period. In the Bahuda estuary of
four maritime states of the country), namely, Odisha, the number of bivalve species was nine,
West Bengal (Shankarpur coast), Odisha and the number of gastropod species was eight.
(Bahuda estuary), Andhra Pradesh (East In the East Godavari mudflats in the state of
Godavari estuary) and Puducherry (Kalapet Andhra Pradesh, we documented eight bivalve
coast), during the 2014 summer. Data from species and eight gastropod species. In the
50 quadrates (10 quadrates selected at random Kalapet coast of Puducherry, the number of
from each coordinate) were collected (Fig. 11.1) bivalve and gastropod species was nine and
to ensure quality to the population data, and these seven, respectively. The community structure of
data sets were finally used to enumerate the com- the molluscan community also exhibited pro-
munity structure of macro-benthic molluscs in nounced spatial variation (Table 11.3).
the study area through computation of the Question arises at this point regarding signifi-
Shannon–Wiener species diversity index cant spatial variation of the macro-benthic mol-
(1949), as per the expression: luscan community structure. The only logical
Fig. 11.1 Population

density study of macro-
benthic molluscan species
Table 11.3 Mean population density of macro-benthic molluscan species (of 50 quadrates at an interval of 500 m
selected at random) in the East Coast of India
Species Shankarpur coast Bahuda estuary East Godavari estuary Kalapet coast
2 6.6 3.2 2
Nerita articulata
13.4 10 6.4 13.4
Cerithidea cingulata
11.8 9.8 8 6
Telescopium telescopium
10.4 7.6 1.2 5.6
Bursa rana
13.2 8.8 6.4 3
Nassarius spp.
0 6.4 3 3.6
Bullia vittata
0 7.8 4.6 0
Oliva oliva
0 7.8 6.8 4.6
Olivancillaria gibbosa
(continued)

13.6 6.8 5.4 4
Murex troscheli
4.4 3.4 1.8 3.8
Anadara sp.
0 4.2 2.2 4
Perna viridis
3.4 3.4 8.6 4.4
Crassostrea cuttackensis
14.6 6.2 7.4 13.6
Saccostrea cucullata
0 4.4 0 6
Siliqua radiata
(continued)
answer is the effect of environment. Thus, no gastropods in the major estuaries/coasts of the
community can be studied without evaluating eastern part of India but also to evaluate the
the ambient environment. The present study health of the community in context to environ-
was therefore undertaken not only to prepare a mental stress. For this we used the
checklist of the most common bivalves and Shannon–Wiener species diversity index as

8 8.8 2.6 12.4
Donax scortum
0 8 2 8.4
Sunetta scripta
12.8 5.6 4.6 15.6
Meretrix meretrix
N 107.6 115.6 74.2 110.4
H 2.278 2.787 2.638 2.599
proxy and observed maximum value of the index concentrated along the coast of Shankarpur due
in the Bahuda estuary of Odisha. This coast is to which the area experiences stress of a high
relatively free of any type of human interference/ degree. The frequent movements of cargo vessels
anthropogenic pressure. The East Godavari estu- and oil tankers in the adjacent water of
ary in the state of Andhra Pradesh and Kalapet Shankarpur coast have made the area much
coast in Puducherry experience considerable more vulnerable to stress factor (Fig. 11.2).
anthropogenic stress particularly due to intense The value of Shannon–Wiener index has sev-
fishing activities and tourism-related pressure. eral ecological explanations. As Margalef (1968)
Shrimp culture and salt pan also fall within the stated, ‘the ecologists find in any measure of
domain of anthropogenic activities in these two diversity an expression of the possibilities of
sites. The moderate value of Shannon–Wiener constructing feedback system’. Higher diversity
index in the East Godavari estuary and Kalapet then signifies longer food chains and more cases
coast is an indicator of such stress related to of symbiosis (mutualism, commensalisms, etc.)
human activities in these areas. In the state of and greater probabilities for negative feedback
West Bengal, the Shankarpur coast exhibited the control, which reduces the drastic oscillation and
lowest value of Shannon–Wiener index, which hence increases stability.
may be attributed to high pollution load in the The value of Shannon–Wiener index is a
environment due to presence of shrimp farms, unique indicator of environmental stress. As the
tourism units and a major fish landing station. sensitive species gradually shift or get eliminated
Several boat and trawler repairing units are also from the habitat with the increase of magnitude
Fig. 11.2 Magnification of stress (as indicated by lowest Shannon–Wiener index value in Table 11.3) in the
Shankarpur area of West Bengal by frequent movements of vessels and trawlers
of environmental stress, therefore the species and accordingly species diversity decreases with
diversity index has been claimed as an effective poor water quality. A community dominated by
statistics for predicting the change in environ- relatively few species indicates that the environ-
ment (Wilhm and Dorris 1968; Cairns and ment is under stress (Plafkin et al. 1989). Con-
Dickson 1971). sidering the two primary variables, namely,
A scale of pollution in terms of species diver- (i) number of species and (ii) uniformity/non-
sity (3.0–4.5 slight, 2.0–3.0 light, 1.0–2.0 moder- uniformity, among the population of different
ate and 0.0–1.0 heavy pollution) has been species in the present macro-benthic molluscan
described by Staub et al. (1970). In a community, we conclude that the selected
Shannon–Wiener legislation, the aquatic envi- estuaries/coasts in the eastern part of the Indian
ronment of soil and water is divided as good subcontinent experience moderate environmen-
when H > 4; good quality is 4–3, moderate qual- tal stress, the magnitude being in the order
ity 3–2, poor quality 2–1 and very poor quality Shankarpur coast (in West Bengal) > Kalapet
<1. The Shannon–Wiener index in the present coast (in Puducherry) > East Godavari estuary
study is within the range of 2.114–2.863 which (in Andhra Pradesh) > Bahuda estuary
indicates less environmental stress on the macro- (in Odisha).
benthic molluscan species inhabiting the East A three-class stress scale (2.000–2.300,
Coast of India. The distribution of species 2.300–2.600, 2.600–2.900) constructed on the
(in terms of population density) becomes more basis of mean values of Shannon–Wiener index
dissimilar as the environmental stress increases (1949) thus reflects the most congenial
environment for the growth and survival of mol- environment’. Steele’s main point is that marine
luscan biodiversity in the Bahuda estuary of organisms are closely linked to physical pro-
Odisha. On the contrary, in the Shankarpur cesses at decadal scales whereas on land undis-
coast of West Bengal, the situation is worst as turbed systems change at scales of centuries to
per the range and classification of our millennia. The data of decadal variation of true
constructed stress scale (Fig. 11.3). mangrove floral count and diversity in Indian
Sundarbans is a befitting example in this context,
where salinity is playing a major role in
11.2.3 Functional Diversity regulating the growth and diversity of species.
The present study was conducted in the Indian
Functional diversity is the range of functions that Sundarban mangrove ecosystem during
are performed by organisms in a system. The November 2000, 2006 and 2012 in ten sampling
species within a habitat or community can be sites of Indian Sundarbans (Fig. 11.4). Several
divided into different functional types such as field trips were made to select the field stations
feeding guilds or plant growth forms or into (Figs. 11.5, 11.6, 11.7, and 11.8) and study the
functionally similar taxa such as suspension distribution of mangrove vegetation, geographic
feeders or deposit feeders. Functionally similar nature of the riverine system, salinity, environ-
species may be from quite different taxonomic mental quality and anthropogenic pressure.
entities. One of the major current topics of debate While selecting the sampling sites, we focused
is that of functional redundancy (Di Castri and on two major issues, namely, natural threats (like
Younes 1990; Walker 1991) where it is salinity fluctuation) and human-induced factors
suggested that there are more species present in (like industrialization, urbanization, tourism,
communities than are needed for efficient bio- aquacultural practice, etc.). These criteria have
geochemical and trophic functions. Recent data, been selected to observe the factors regulating
however, show that this is not the case and the the survival/degradation of mangroves in and
higher the number of species in a community, the around the selected sampling stations.
greater the efficiency of biogeochemical pro- Quadrates of 10 m 10 m were laid ran-
cesses (Naeem et al. 1994; Tilman and Downing domly up to 500 m from LTL, and data from
1994). Such experiments, however, have not each one were recorded from 15 such quadrates.
been done in the marine environment. Steele Plant materials collected during the sampling
(1991) defines functional diversity in a different were identified and confirmed from the Botanical
and idiosyncratic way as ‘the variety of different Survey of India, Kolkata.
responses to environmental change, especially Relative abundance of the species was
the diverse space and time scales with which estimated as per the expression: RA ¼ abun-
organisms react to each other and to the dance of a particular species/sum of the
Fig. 11.3 A three-class 2.900

stress scale to indicate the
health of estuary/ Bahuda estuary of Odisha (2.730)
coastal zone
2.600
Kalapet coast of Puducherry (2.468)

East Godavari estuary of Andhra Pradesh (2.376)
2.300
Shankarpur coast of West Bengal (2.220)
2.000
abundance of all species 100, where RA A total of 25 mangrove species (Acanthus

represents relative abundance. ilicifolius, Acrostichum aureum, Aegiceras
The Shannon–Wiener index for diversity corniculatum, Aegialitis rotundifolia, Avicennia
(H) was calculated based on the abundance alba, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis,
value of plant species in different categories as Bruguiera cylindrica, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza,
per the expression stated earlier (see Bruguiera hexangula, Bruguiera parviflora,
Sect. 11.2.2). It is to be noted that the Ceriops decandra, Ceriops tagal, Excoecaria
Shannon–Wiener index was calculated on the agallocha, Heritiera fomes, Kandelia candel,
basis more than equal to 40 % abundance of the Lumnitzera racemosa, Nypa fruticans, Phoenix
species common to all the ten selected sampling paludosa, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora
stations. To assess whether the total number of mucronata, Sonneratia apetala, Sonneratia
individuals of all the true mangrove species caseolaris, Xylocarpus granatum, Xylocarpus
(N) and Shannon–Wiener species diversity mekongensis) were recorded from the selected
index (H) vary significantly among sites and sites.
years (6-year interval data sets), analysis of vari- The total number of individuals of all the
ance (ANOVA) was performed; possibilities less documented species per unit area, which
than 0.05 ( p < 0.05) were considered statisti- represents the dense/sparse growth of the trees,
cally significant. exhibits pronounced variation due to which the
88°10'E
88°20'E
88°30'E
88°40'E
88°50'E
89°0'E
22°20'N
22°20'N
Stn 6(Canning)
Station No & Location Longitude-Latitude

Stn 1: Harinbari 88°04'22.88" - 21°46'53.07"
Stn 2: Chemaguri 88°08'49.01" - 21°39'42.88"
Stn 3: Sagar South 88°04'0.51" - 21°37'49.90"
Stn 8 (Chotomollakhali)
22°10'N
Stn 4: Lothian Island 88°19'8.47" - 21°39'08.04"
22°10'N
Stn 5: Prentice Island 88°17'3.62" - 21°42'43.31"

Stn 10(Pakhiralaya)
Stn 6: Canning 88°41'04.63" - 22°19'03.20"
Stn 7 (Sajnekhali) ARBESI
Stn 7: Sajnekhali 88°48'15.78" - 22°06'34.19" Stn 9(Satjelia) JHILLA
Stn 8: Chotomollakhali 88°54'26.71" - 22°10'40.00"
Stn 9: Satjelia 88°52'49.51" - 22°05'17.86"
Stn 10: Pakhiralaya 88°48'29.00" - 22°07'07.23" PIRAKHALI
22°0'N
22°0'N
PANCHMUKHANI KHATUAJHURI
HEROBHANGA
HARINBHANGA
NETIDHOPANI
AJMALMARI
21°50'N
21°50'N
CHAMTA
CHANDKHALI
MATLA
Stn 1(Harinbari)
Stn 5(Prentice Island) GOASHABA
DULIBHASANI
CHHOTAHARDI GONA
21°40'N
Stn 2(Chemaguri) THAKURAN

21°40'N
Stn 4(Lothian Island)

BAGHMARA
SAPTAMUKHI
Stn 3(Sagar South)
CHULKATI
MURIGANGA N
MAYADWP
88°10'E
88°20'E
88°30'E
88°40'E
88°50'E
89°0'E
Fig. 11.4 Location of sampling stations in Indian Sundarbans

Fig. 11.5 A view of the field site in the Indian Sundarbans
Fig. 11.6 Mangroves thrive on the intertidal mudflat, and their growth and metabolism are greatly regulated by salinity
Shannon–Wiener species diversity is affected. whereas lowest value is observed in Canning,

Highest numbers of individuals (N) are observed the sampling station with maximum anthropo-
in the quadrate of Lothian Island, a pristine forest genic stress (Fig. 11.9).
patch almost with no human intervention,
Fig. 11.7 Field survey on

the intertidal mudflat of the
study area
Fig. 11.8 Researchers

laying quadrates of
dimension 10 m 10 m in
the mangrove forest for
evaluating relative
abundance (RA) of the true
mangrove floral species
11.2
Tiers for Conservation
Fig. 11.9 Spatio-temporal variation of total number of individuals of all species (N)
435
The results of the Shannon–Wiener index are hypersalinity and human intrusion in these sam-
shown in Table 11.4 and Fig. 11.10. The spatial pling stations, except Sajnekhali, which is a
order of the index is Lothian Island (3.052, 3.083 protected reserve forest under the West Bengal
and 3.174 in 2000, 2006 and 2012, respectively) forest department. The hypersaline water in the
> Prentice Island (3.043, 3.033 and 3.13 in 2000, central Indian Sundarbans is the effect of
2006 and 2012, respectively) > Sajnekhali Bidyadhari siltation since the late fifteenth cen-
(3.035, 3.027 and 3.091 in 2000, 2006 and tury (Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994) due to
2012, respectively) > Pakhiralaya (2.883, 3.008 which the mangroves are less diverse and stunted
and 3.074 in 2000, 2006 and 2012, respectively) in this zone.
> Satjelia (2.765, 2.928 and 3.07 in 2000, 2006 The overall investigation thus pinpoints the
and 2012, respectively) > Chotomollakhali hypersalinity and human intrusion as the major
(2.622, 2.828 and 2.948 in 2000, 2006 and threats to mangrove floral diversity of Indian
2012, respectively) > Harinbari (2.562, 2.701 Sundarbans and advocates for an
and 2.88 in 2000, 2006 and 2012, respectively) ecorestoration-oriented management plan that
> Chemaguri (2.563, 2.784 and 2.924 in 2000, (i) encompasses provision of alternative liveli-
2006 and 2012, respectively) > Sagar South hood to reduce the exploitation of mangrove
(2.44, 2.449 and 2.837 in 2000, 2006 and 2012, resources, (ii) increases the dilution factor of
respectively) > Canning (2.145, 2.319 and the estuarine water through periodic dredging of
2.636 in 2000, 2006 and 2012, respectively). the silted Bidyadhari river and (iii) is freshening
The variation in the value of the index reflects the central Indian Sundarbans through construc-
(i) the degree of stress (both natural and anthro- tion of rainwater harvesting ponds and plantation
pogenic) and (ii) conditions of the ambient envi- of mangrove associate species in mass scale
ronment (in terms of hydrological parameters (as ground cover) like Suaeda maritima,
and soil quality). Greater value of the index Salicornia sp., etc. (Fig. 11.11), that are potential
represents a more congenial environment which absorbers of salt from the ambient media.
usually occurs due to the survival of more num-
ber of species or even distribution of the number
of individuals among different species in the 11.2.4 Population Diversity
quadrate.
The true mangrove floral diversity values are A population may be defined as a group of
relatively lower in the sampling stations of cen- organisms belonging to the same species and
tral Indian Sundarbans (Sajnekhali, occupying a particular space. A population, like
Chotomollakhali and Pakhiralaya). This may be any other level of organization, has a number of
attributed to the synergistic effects of both important group properties like density, birth
rate, death rate, growth rate, dispersion, etc., not
shared by the adjacent levels (the organism on
Table 11.4 Shannon–Wiener species diversity index at
selected stations of Indian Sundarbans the one hand and the community on the other).
The term population diversity is definitely a
Station 2000 2006 2012
new entrant in the field of biodiversity. However,
Harinbari 2.562 2.701 2.88
Chemaguri 2.563 2.784 2.924 the diversity of population between two or more
Sagar South 2.44 2.449 2.837 sites is a common feature of biodiversity-related
Lothian 3.052 3.083 3.174 work. It has been observed by researchers that
Prentice 3.043 3.033 3.13 population of a species is a function of suitability
Canning 2.145 2.319 2.636 of habitat in terms of nutrients, light availability
Sajnekhali 3.035 3.027 3.091 and other natural resources in addition to the
Chotomollakhali 2.622 2.828 2.948 predation pressure. In this context, the variation
Satjelia 2.765 2.928 3.07 of molluscan population can be considered as an
Pakhiralaya 2.883 3.008 3.074 example. The authors observed that even in the
Fig. 11.10 Spatio-temporal variation of Shannon–Wiener species diversity index (H)
same area, the population of molluscs fluctuates salinity (Mitra et al. 2011; Banerjee et al. 2013;
significantly (Figs. 11.12 and 11.13). This may Sengupta et al. 2013; Raha et al. 2014). The
extend our discussion to niche preference of primary cause behind this variation in population
species. is attributed to the adaptation of the species to
In the coastal floral community, variation in factors like salinity (primarily). S. apetala,
relative abundance of species is a function of Heritiera fomes and Nypa fruticans can tolerate
edaphic factors, climatic factors and availability low-saline environment (between 2 psu and
of resources like nutrients, light, temperature, 7 psu), whereas Avicennia spp. can survive and
salinity, etc. In mangrove forests of coastal grow luxuriantly even at a salinity around 25 psu.
zone, river mouths or deltaic system, a significant Rhizophora sp. can again adapt to extremely
variation in population is observed, e.g. in the high-saline condition. Thus, salinity is a limiting
lower Gangetic region, the abundance of factor governing the distribution and relative
Sonneratia apetala in the western sector and abundance (RA) of the species.
abundance of Avicennia spp. in the entire deltaic The functional diversity also encompasses the
complex are the result of spatial variation of grouping of species on the basis of functionally
Fig. 11.11 Suaeda

maritima in the intertidal
mudflats of Sundarban
mangroves
Fig. 11.12 Significant variation of population of gastropod species in five different quadrates in the same area in
Shankarpur coast (a site in the East Coast of India)
similar taxa like suspension feeders or species are frequently done. In mangrove-
detritivores. Although such classification is still dominated Indian Sundarbans, the major filter
in its infancy, but in some mangrove ecosystem, feeders are the oysters (Fig. 11.14), and the
documentation and subsequent grouping of detritivores are the gastropods (Fig. 11.15).
Fig. 11.13 Significant variation of population of bivalve species in five different quadrates in the same area in
Shankarpur coast (a site in the East Coast of India)
11.2.5 Phyletic Diversity to availability of oxygen, light and nutrients

(from adjacent land masses, mangrove litter and
In the marine and estuarine ecosystems, there are other coastal vegetation decomposition). The dif-
more animal phyla than on land. Most phyla are ference in physical mixing also regulates the
encompassed within the benthic compartment. distribution pattern of marine microbes as ben-
Even within the benthic environment, diversity thic communities exhibit more diversity with
varies with depth as seen in the case of epifaunal increasing distance than pelagic communities.
diversity in the north-east Indian shelf The higher phyletic diversity of marine microbial
(Table 11.5). community may be the result of substantially
A similar picture was also observed in the higher densities of bacterial population in
infaunal community, where different depths wit- sediments, greater temporal stability of habitat
ness variation in diversity of infaunal species (compared to that of the pelagic compartment),
(Table 11.6). higher niche diversity and resource partitioning
The phyletic diversity in the marine ecosys- in the benthic realm.
tem is very pronounced in the microbial
communities. The synthesis of 9.6 million bacte-
rial V6-ribosomal RNA amplicons collected 11.2.6 Species Diversity
from marine microbial samples exhibit that the
pelagic and benthic communities are signifi- The most common usage of diversity is the num-
cantly different at all taxonomic levels. Even in ber of species found in a given area, species
the pelagic compartment, there is significant var- diversity. Most ecologists would regard a com-
iation in phyletic diversity between surface and munity comprising of 50 individuals of species A
deep water, coastal and open ocean and anoxic and 50 of species B as more diverse than a
and oxic waters. This variation may be attributed community comprising 99 individuals of species
Fig. 11.14 Filter-feeding bivalves in the mangrove ecosystem of Indian Sundarbans
Fig. 11.15 Detritivores (gastropods) in the mangrove ecosystem of Indian Sundarbans

Table 11.5 Distribution of important epifaunal species (ind. haul1) at different depths on the north-east Indian shelf
Species 30–50 m 51–75 m 76–100 m >100 m
Virgularia sp. – – 0.75 0.31 (0–2) –
Panthalis sp. 2.00 0.92 0.33 0.33 (0–1) 1.5 0.98 (0–8) –
(1–17)
Eunice indica 6.80 3.48 – – –
(1–18)
Diopatra neapolitana 5.74 2.56 – 7.63 5.95 –
(0–35) (1–48)
Maldanidae sp. 1 1.32 0.74 0.33 0.33 (0–1) – –
(1–14)
Maldanidae sp. 2 – – 2.67 0.88 (0–4) –
Flabelligera sp. – 0.33 0.33 (0–1) 0.50 0.38 (1–3) –
Terebellidae 0.95 0.53 – 0.25 0.25 (1–2) –
(1–10)
Pista sp. 0.89 0.79 – – –
(1–15)
Oratosquilla sp. – 0.67 0.67 (1–2) 0.63 0.26 (12) –
Parapenaeus sp. – – 1.25 0.86 (1–7) –
Polychelid lobsters – – 3.63 3.48 –
(0–28)
Raninoides 0.58 0.27 (1–5) 1.00 0.58 (1–2) – –
serratifrons
Calappa lophos 0.21 0.16 (1–3) – – –
Charybdis sp. 6.89 3.70 – 0.38 0.18 (0–1) –
(1–70)
Liagore sp. 0.16 0.12 (1–2) 1 0 (1) – –
Majidae – – 1.00 0.68 (1–5) –
Tibia delicatula – – 0.50 0.19 (0–1) 6.00 1.00 (5–7)
Natica vitellus – 0.33 0.33 (0–1) 0.75 0.41 (1–3) –
Nassarius variegatus 1.05 0.52 (1–7) – – –
Gemmula speciosa 0.21 0.12 (1–2) 0.33 0.33 (0–1) – –
Lophiotoma indica 1 2.00 1.00 (0–3) – –
Conus inscriptus 0.89 0.45 (1–8) 0.67 0.33 (0–1) – –
Terebra collumelaris 0.32 0.15 (1–2) – – –
Amygdalum watsoni 0.05 0.05 (0–1) – – 19.50 9.50
(10–29)
Amphioplus depressus 2.32 0.66 – 1.25 0.37 (1–3) –
(1–12)
Clypeaster rarispinus 0.84 0.41 (1–7) 0.33 0.33 (0–1) 1.25 1.25 –
(1–10)
Echinodiscus auritus 0.21 0.16 (1–3) – – –
Sipunculida 0.84 0.53 – – –
(1–10)
Pleuronectidae – 0.67 0.67 (1–2) 0.38 0.26 (1–2) 0.50 0.50 (0–1)
Overall abundance 51 10 (6–160) 9 4 (3–15) 37 14 (5–102) 28 13 (15–40)
Note: Data presented as mean SD (range). –: not found in this depth range
A and 1 individual of B. Thus, in addition to the (Magurran 1988). The number of species cur-
number of species in a given area, diversity rently described on Earth is between 1.4 and 1.7
indices have been proposed that take into account million (Stork 1988), but the Global Biodiversity
the distribution of individuals among species Assessment suggests a conservative estimate of
Table 11.6 Distribution of important infaunal species (ind. m2) at different depths on the north-east Indian shelf
Species 30–75 m 76–100 m >100 m
Chloeia rosea 39.7 17.2 (10–640) 36.2 11.0 (10–130) 1.7 1.7 (10–20)
Ancistrosyllis parva 13.0 2.7 (10–60) 73.1 30.8 (10–390) 4.2 2.3 (10–20)
Nereis sp. 10.5 3.8 (10–100) 6.2 2.1 (0–20) 0.8 0.8 (0–10)
Nephtys sp. 45.4 6.9 (10–210) 125.4 312.0 (0–420) 1.7 1.1 (0–10)
Lumbrineris sp. 1 14.6 2.9 (10–60) 3.1 1.3 (0–10) –
Prionospio sp. 2 9.7 3.9 (10–130) 7.7 2.3 (10–20) 86.7 43.5 (10–530)
Spionidae sp. 1 17.0 5.8 (10–200) 0.7 0.7 (0–10) 0.8 0.8 (0–10)
Spionidae sp. 3 7.3 2.6 (10–60) 49.2 17.3 (0–200)
Magelona sp. 19.2 4.9 (0–140) 13.9 7.7 (10–100) –
Cirratulidae sp. 1 43 8.6 (10–250) 53.1 15.5 (10–150) 4.2 3.4 (10–40)
Cossura coasta 10.8 2.4 (10–70) 44.6 18.4 (10–230) 174.2 69.1 (10–700)
Mediomastus sp. 19.2 8.2 (10–260) 2.3 1.7 (10–20) –
Notomastus sp. 16.8 4.3 (10–100) 4.6 4.6 (10–60) –
Ampelisca sp. 211.1 43.1 (10–1390) – –
Maera sp. 25.7 5.5 (10–140) 1.5 1.5 (10–20) –
Corophium sp. 1.4 1.4 (10–50) 22.3 5.0 (10–70) 70.8 49.0 (10–560)
Nemertea 10.5 1.9 (10–40) 6.2 3.1 (10–30) 8.3 3.2 (10–40)
Overall abundance 808 97 (230–2460) 586 82 (290–1140) 379 124 (30–1280)
Note: Data presented as mean SE (range). –: not found in this depth range
1.75 million (Heywood and Watson 1995). How- In the Permian, some 50 % of marine families
ever, this figure does not include microbial spe- became extinct (Raup 1979; Sepkoski 1979,
cies. Little is known about microbial diversity in 1984, 1991). The number of species has
general. New genetic techniques will change this. increased enormously in recent geological time
For example, Giovannoni et al. (1990) using more than doubling compared to those present
ribosomal RNA techniques found a completely 100 million years ago (Signor 1994). Most of the
novel group of bacteria in the Sargasso Sea. On marine species diversity is benthic rather than
land, there are more species known than in the pelagic (Angel 1993). This is a consequence of
sea. This is due largely to the extraordinary the fact that the marine fauna originated in ben-
diversity of beetles (Coleoptera); 400,000 spe- thic sediments. The pelagic realm has an enor-
cies are described (Heywood and Watson mous volume compared with the inhabitable part
1995). Recently, in a highly controversial paper, of the benthic realm. Yet there are only
Grassle and Maciolek (1992) have suggested that 3500–4500 species of phytoplankton (Sournia
there may be ten million undescribed species in and Chretiennot-Dinet 1991) compared with the
the deep sea. Briggs (1991) and May (1992) 250,000 species of flowering plants on land.
disagree with the methods used, and May Angel estimates that there are probably only
suggests that a more realistic estimate may be 1200 oceanic fish species against 13,000 coastal
around 500,000 undescribed deep-sea species. species. In the pelagic realm, diversity is higher
Nevertheless, even this lower figure would be a in coastal rather than oceanic areas (Angel 1993),
substantial increase in the approximate figure of and, therefore, efforts should be concentrated in
300,000 known marine species (Grassle 1991). coastal areas. Another highly important aspect of
Over geological time there has been a large species diversity is endemism (i.e. the species
change in the ratios of orders of families to occurring in a restricted locality). The Antarctic
genera to species (Briggs 1994). A rapid increase has a higher degree of endemism than the Arctic.
occurred in higher taxa (orders and families) In the Red Sea 90 % of some groups of fishes are
until the Ordovician when diversity levelled off. endemic. Overall, however, only 17 % of Red
Sea fishes are endemic (Shepherd 1994). In a 11.2.7 Genetic Diversity

survey of 799 pantropical fish species, Roberts
et al. (in Shepherd 1994) showed that 17 % The most basic level of biological diversity is
occupied only one grid square (223 223 km). that found within a species and is known as
In the Indian Ocean, of the 482 coral species genetic diversity. Genetic diversity encompasses
recorded, 27 % occur only at one site (Shepherd the variation among individuals within a popula-
1994), and of the 1200 species of echinoderms tion in their genetic make-up and the genetic
found at 16 sites, 47 % occurred at only one site variation among populations (Begon et al.
(Clark and Rowe 1971). High degrees of 1990). Each species consists of one or more
endemicity pose problems for development of populations of individuals. A population is usu-
conservation strategies. Because of their extreme ally defined as a group of individuals that can
non-elastic nature, they need the variables (envi- interbreed and, if sexually reproducing, can inter-
ronmental parameters needed for conservation) change genetic material. Different populations
within a very narrow range. However, species tend to diverge genetically due to their having
with a wide range of tolerance to environmental limited genetic mixing or mutations, natural
parameters can be easily conserved even in selection, genetic drift and the accumulation of
places far away from their original habitat. The selectively neutral mutations. Thus, there are
example of Ipomoea pes-caprae is very pertinent genetic differences both among individuals and
here. Ipomoea pes-caprae commonly known as among populations. Populations with higher
goat’s foot is a trailing herb found abundantly in genetic diversity are more likely to have some
the sand-dominated intertidal mudflats of the individuals that can withstand environmental
coastal region of India. The herb has long change and thereby pass on their genes to the
stems, sometimes twining and reaching up to next generation (Nevo et al. 1987). On an evolu-
30 m in length. The leaves are simple, ovate, tionary timescale, (over many generations)
quadrangular and rounded, measuring 2.5 cm genetic diversity is higher in species which char-
by 10 cm with slender petioles that can be as acterize unstable, stressed environments when
long as 17 cm (Fig. 11.16). compared with counterparts from more stable
A unique experiment was conducted during environments (Nevo et al. 1984). However, on
2014 with this coastal herb under the joint an ecological timescale (few generations), stress
research collaboration between KPO of Tata reduces genetic diversity. Gillespie and Guttman
Steel (Odisha) and Techno India University (1988) showed that long-term exposure to
(Salt Lake, Kolkata) in terms of its conservation. contaminants decreased genetic diversity, and
Artificial sandy environment was created in the the remaining population was more vulnerable
Tata Steel KPO complex of Odisha (where later- to extinction. Alberte et al. (1994) have shown
ite soil is predominant) to grow this coastal veg- that stressed eelgrass has lower genetic diversity
etation, and the result was cent percent than non-stressed populations. Commercial fish-
successful. The species not only survived and ing, concentrating on specific size ranges, has
exhibited growth (Fig. 11.17), but the leaf chlo- significantly altered the genetic composition of
rophyll (total) was almost similar when com- populations (Elliott and Ward 1992). In general,
pared to that collected from the Sundarban marine species have higher genetic diversity than
estuarine region. freshwater and terrestrial species. In a compara-
This experiment is an eye-opener of species- tive study of fish, Ward et al. (1994) showed that
level conservation through creation of artificial average heterozygosity was similar in marine and
environment and is now widely used in Environ- freshwater species subpopulations, but was con-
ment Management Plan (EMP) of any develop- siderably less in freshwater species. High genetic
mental activities. diversity is found in marine algae (Wood 1989),
and Pinctada margaritifera is an exploited
Fig. 11.16 Ipomoea

pes-caprae—a trailing herb
found abundantly in the
Indian coasts
Fig. 11.17 Growth of

Ipomoea pes-caprae in the
artificial substratum of
KPO of Tata Steel (Odisha)
complex
tropical bivalve (Durand and Blanc 1988). Elliott and Allen 1989), Manila clam (Mattoccia
and Ward (1992) found that a minimum of only et al. 1991), oysters (Blanc and Jaziri 1990;
200 migrants per year were enough to maintain Hedgecock and Sly 1990; Hedgecock
the genetic diversity of the orange roughy et al. 1991; Jaziri et al. 1987; Sly and Hedgecock
(Hoplostethus atlanticus) which suggests that 1989), penaeid shrimps (Qiu 1991; Benzie
marine populations probably exchange between et al. 1992), salmonids (Gall et al. 1992) and
10 and 100 times more migrants per generation the orange roughy (Elliott and Ward 1992).
than freshwater species. Not all marine Doyle et al. (1991) have reviewed genetic
populations have high numbers, and Scudder aspects of aquaculture and conclude that current
(1989) argues that for marginal populations the practices lead to reductions in genetic diversity
best way to maintain genetic (and species) diver- and maintenance of many breeds and meta-
sity is by ‘marginal habitat conservation’. This is populations of marine species is needed (see
an alternative strategy to the conservation of also reviews by Cataudella and Crosetti 1993;
high-biodiversity ‘hot spots’ advocated by Blanc and Bonhomme 1987). Grassle et al.
some. Much work has been done on the genetics (1991) argues that a considerable proportion of
of species used in aquaculture: on clams (Bushek the genetic diversity of the planet is probably
Annexure 11A: International Legal Framework to Safeguard Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems 445
found in deep-sea organisms and recommends Annexure 11A: International Legal

genetic studies of hydrothermal vent fauna Framework to Safeguard Marine
which are naturally tolerant of high and Estuarine Ecosystems
concentrations of toxic elements produced by
the vents. 1. 1982 UNCLOS
Brain Churners The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law

1. ‘A’ is an island where developmental of the Sea (UNCLOS) was adopted in 1982 and
activities occurred in the early 1990s. enters into force in 1994. UNCLOS established
‘B’ is another island in the same geo- the types of maritime zones that can be claimed
graphical locale, which is yet uninhab- by coastal states, as well as the rights, jurisdic-
ited. State with reason which island tion and obligations of coastal states in the vari-
needs to be preserved. ous zones. It gave coastal states the right to claim
2. How does alternative livelihood regu- the territorial sea of 12 nautical miles and an
late the conservation approach in a exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles.
fragile ecosystem? The territorial sea is under the sovereignty of the
3. State few alternative livelihoods that coastal states, but such sovereignty is subject to
can upgrade the economic profile of the right of ships of all states to pass through the
coastal population. territorial sea. The coastal states have the right to
4. Which of the two terms ‘preservation’ pass laws and regulations to protect and preserve
and ‘conservation’ should be given the marine and coastal environment within its
priority in environmental protection? territorial sea, subject to restrictions on its right
Explain your answer with two reasons. to regulate ships exercising passage rights
5. State four steps that must be taken to through its waters. The 200-nautical-mile EEZ
conserve Heritiera fomes is not under the sovereignty of the coastal states.
(an endangered true mangrove flora) It is a ‘specific legal regime’ in which the coastal
in an estuarine system? state has the right to explore and exploit the
6. How can an island be reclaimed from living and nonliving resources. The coastal state
the effects of sea level rise? has jurisdiction to pass laws and regulations only
7. Would you like to coin the term ‘eco- in so far as they are connected to its right to
system gift’ instead of ‘ecosystem ser- explore and exploit the living and nonliving
vice’? Justify your answer with proper resources. Other states have the right to exercise
logic. traditional high seas freedoms in the EEZ such as
8. Would you encourage the participation freedom of navigation and freedom of overflight.
of local people in the process of con- The right of coastal states to pass laws to regulate
servation? Why? pollution from ships of other states in the EEZ is
9. What is ecorestoration? Do you expect severely restricted.
the Shannon–Wiener index value to UNCLOS has several important provisions in
change after successful context to conservation of marine and coastal
ecorestoration? habitats and ecosystems. First, it provides that
10. Lagoons ‘1’ and ‘2’ have states have a general obligation to protect and
Shannon–Wiener index values 3.025 preserve the marine environment. Second, it
and 4.123, respectively. Which envi- provides that states have an obligation to take
ronment is more congenial and why? all measures as necessary to prevent pollution
of the marine environment from any source,
using for this purpose the best practicable means Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The
at their disposal and in accordance with their objectives of the Biodiversity Convention are
capabilities. Third, it provides in Article 194 the conservation of biological diversity, the sus-
(5) that such measures ‘Shall include those nec- tainable use of its components and the fair and
essary to protect and preserve rare or fragile equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the
ecosystem as well as the habitat of depleted, utilization of genetic resources. The Biodiversity
threatened or endangered species and other Convention is the first global, legally binding
forms of marine life’. comprehensive agreement to address all aspects
of biological diversity: genetic resources, species
and ecosystems. It establishes a proactive, holis-
2. Agenda 21, Chapter 17 (1992) tic, cross-sectoral and ecosystem-based approach
to conserve and sustain using their biological
Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, the programme of resources.
action adopted by states at the 1992 Earth Sum- The Biodiversity Convention establishes a
mit in Rio de Janeiro, was a significant advance framework of genera, obligations that Parties
in several respects. Firstly, it made clear that are obliged to elaborate in more detail at the
currently the management of the marine and national level. Parties are required to develop
coastal resources has not always proved capable and implement comprehensive national biodiver-
of achieving sustainable development and that sity strategies and action plans. Parties are also
coastal resources and the coastal environment required to identify research and monitor their
are being rapidly degraded and eroded in many biodiversity, to establish protected areas, to reg-
parts of the world. Secondly, it suggested an ulate or manage activities with significant
approach for establishing a situation of gover- adverse effects on biodiversity and to conduct
nance or integrated management. It provided assessments of the biodiversity impacts of pro-
that each coastal state should consider posed projects. The convention also requires
establishing, or where necessary strengthening, Parties to take special measures to protect cus-
appropriate coordinating mechanisms, for tomary required uses and the knowledge,
integrated management and sustainable develop- innovation and practices of local and indigenous
ment of coastal and marine areas and their communities.
resources, at both the local and national levels.
It also stated that states should cooperate, as
appropriate, in the preparation of national 4. The Jakarta Mandate (1995)
guidelines for integrated coastal zone manage-
ment and development, drawing on existing The Biodiversity Convention does not contain
experience. Thirdly, it provided that coastal any specific provisions on the conservation of
states undertake measures to maintain biological marine and coastal biodiversity. At their second
diversity and productivity of marine species and Conference of Parties (COP) in Jakarta in 1995,
habitats under national jurisdiction. These the Parties agreed on a programme of action for
measures might include surveys of marine biodi- implementing the Biodiversity Convention with
versity, inventories of endangered and manage- respect to marine and coastal biodiversity. This
ment of protected areas and support of scientific programme is referred to as the Jakarta Mandate
research and dissemination of its results. of Marine and Coastal Biodiversity or ‘The
Jakarta Mandate’.
The Jakarta Mandate recommended a ‘check-
3. 1992 Biodiversity Convention list’ of actions that Parties should take to fulfil
their obligations under the Biodiversity Conven-
The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity tion in marine and coastal environments. The
(Biodiversity Convention) was adopted at the recommendation cover, in particular, five
Annexure 11A: International Legal Framework to Safeguard Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems 447
thematic areas: integrated marine and coastal geological features, habitats of threatened plants
area management, mariculture, alien species, liv- or animal species and areas of value on scientific
ing marine resources and marine protected areas. or aesthetic rounds or from the point of view of
The two areas that are of the most relevance to conservation. The criteria for selecting natural
the conservation of marine and coastal habitats heritage sites require that they be of sufficient
are integrated marine and coastal area manage- size and contain the necessary elements to ensure
ment (IAM) and marine protected areas (MPAs). the integrity of ongoing ecological and biological
processes. For example, the criteria may require
that of coral reef designation should include
5. 1971 Ramsar Convention seagrass, mangrove or other adjacent
on Wetlands ecosystems. An international committee of gov-
ernment representatives selects the sites with the
The 1971 Convention on Wetlands is of interna- consent of the states concerned.
tional importance, particularly for waterfowl. The Convention establishes a fund for conser-
The convention was conducted in Ramsar, Iran, vation of the cultural and natural sites on the list
on 2 February 1971. It is popularly referred to as of the World Heritage Sites. The fund can be
the Ramsar Convention. The Ramsar Convention used for various kinds of aid and technical coop-
entered into force in 1975. More than 1000 eration, including the conduct of expert studies to
wetlands have been designated for inclusion in plan conservation measures, the training of local
the List of Wetlands of International Importance specialists in conservation or renovation
(Ramsar Sites), covering some 73 million measures, the training of local specialists in con-
hectares. servation or renovation techniques and the sup-
The main decision-making body of the plying of equipment for the protection of the
Ramsar Convention is the Conference of the natural park.
Parties, which is comprised of delegates from
all the member states. UNESCO serves as
Depositary for the Convention, but its adminis- 7. UNESCO Man and the Biosphere
tration has been entrusted to the secretariat Programme
known as the ‘Ramsar Bureau’, which is housed
in the headquarters of IUCN (1980), the World The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme
Conservation Union in Gland, Switzerland. The is not based on a legally binding treaty or con-
Ramsar Secretariat (2001) acts under the author- vention. It is an interdisciplinary programme of
ity of the Conference of the Parties and the research and training intended to develop the
Standing Committee of the Convention. basis, within the natural and the social sciences,
for the rational use and conservation of the
resources between people and the environment.
6. 1972 World Heritage Convention The overall programme is guided by the MBA
International Coordinating Council consisting of
The Convention concerning the protection of the 34 member states elected by the UNESCO Gen-
world cultural and natural heritage is the eral Conference. Programme activities are
UNESCO Convention that was adopted by the conducted in more than 100 countries under the
General Conference of UNESCO in 1972. It is direction of their MBA National Committees or
popularly known as the World Heritage Conven- focal points.
tion. This Convention covers both cultural heri- Global Programme of Action for the Protec-
tage and natural heritage sites of outstanding tion of the Marine Environment from Land-
value. Sites which can be designated as natural Based Activities, 1995 (GPA)
heritage sites under the Convention include sites The Global Programme of Action for the Pro-
with outstanding physical, biological and tection of the Marine Environment from Land-
Based Activities (GPA) was adopted at a global governmental or non-governmental; and all
intergovernmental conference in Washington in persons concerned with the conservation of fish-
1995. The United Nations Environment ery resources and management and development
Programme (UNEP) was tasked to lead the coor- of fisheries; it provides principles and standards
dination effort and to establish a GPA Coordina- applicable to the conservation, management and
tion Office. The comprehensive, multisectoral development of all fisheries.
approach of the GPA reflects the desire of The General Principles stated in the Code
governments to strengthen the collaboration and include two which are of particular relevance to
coordination of all agencies with mandates rele- the conservation of marine and coastal
vant to the impact of land-based activities on the ecosystems and habitats.
marine environment. All critical fishery habitats in marine and
The GPA is designed to be a source of con- freshwater ecosystems such as wetland,
ceptual and practical guidance to be drawn upon mangroves, reefs, lagoons, nurseries and
by national and/or regional authorities for devis- spawning areas should be protected and
ing and implementing sustained action to pre- rehabilitated as far as possible and where
vent, reduce, control and/or eliminate necessary (FAO 2003).
degradation from land-based activities. One of Particular effort should be made to protect
the issues addressed by the GPA is physical such habitats from destruction, degradation, pol-
alterations and destruction of habitat. The lution and other significant activities that
objectives of the GPA on this issue are to: threaten the health and viability of the fishery
resources.
(a) Safeguard the ecosystem and maintain the
integrity and biological diversity of habitats
which are of major socio-economic and 9. Convention of International Maritime
ecological interest through integrated man- Organization
agement of coastal areas.
(b) Where practicable, restore marine and The Convention of International Maritime Orga-
coastal habitats that have been adversely nization (IMO) gives coastal states an opportu-
affected by anthropogenic activities. nity to establish regimes in certain vulnerable
coastal areas to reduce the oil pollution from
ships. Under the IMO conventions, there are
two types of areas that can be established where
8. FAO Code of Conduct on Responsible special rules will apply to ships. Both types are
Fisheries established by the IMO after the submission of
scientific and technical evidence by the coastal
The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries state.
was unanimously adopted on 31 October 1995 by The first is ‘Special Areas’ under the Interna-
the FAO Conference. The code provides a neces- tional Convention on the Prevention of Pollution
sary framework for national and international from Ships, or MARPOL 73/78. A Special Area
efforts to ensure sustainable exploitation of under MARPOL 73/78 is defined as follows:
aquatic living resources in harmony with the A sea area where, for recognized technical reasons
environment and in a manner that is consistent in relation to its oceanographic and ecological
with applicable global instruments. It is global in condition and to the particular character of its
scope and is directed towards members and traffic, the adoption of special mandatory methods
for the prevention of sea pollution by oil, noxious
non-members of FAO; fishing entities’ subre- liquid substances, or garbage, as applicable, is
gional and global organizations, whether required.
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scientific and technical evidence that they are Salinity based allometric equations for biomass esti-
vulnerable to pollution by discharges from ships mation of Sundarban mangroves. Biomass &
Bioenergy, (ELSEVIER), 56, 382–391.
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is required. Several areas, such as the Black Sea, Ecology, individuals, population and communities
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Benzie, J. A. H., Frusher, S., & Ballment, E. (1992).
IMO as Special Areas. Geographical variation in allozyme frequencies of
The second areas where special IMO rules can populations of Penaeus monodon (Crustacea:
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Instruments and Methods
12
Contents 12.1 Instruments

12.1 Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
12.2 Application of Satellites in Marine
The marine and estuarine compartments are the
and Estuarine Researches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 storehouses of vast resources, but instrumenta-
tion sector is a vital wing not only to monitor the
Annexure 12A: Study on Soil Organic
Carbon in the Intertidal Mudflats of Indian magnitude and variation of these resources but
Sundarbans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 also to harness them in a cost-effective way.
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Research vessels from different countries are
constantly monitoring the oceans and generating
data on temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxy-
gen (DO), nutrients chlorophyll and several other
parameters. Many of these research vessels have
sophisticated laboratories inside, where analysis
of water sediment and other biological samples
are carried out.
The modern research vessel (RV) is equipped
with precision navigational instruments that
communicate with satellites and computers
(Fig. 12.1).
RVs are often dedicated to undertake research
activities in physical oceanography, chemical
oceanography, geological oceanography and
biological oceanography and are thus equipped
with specific types of scientific instruments.
Some subfields of the various disciplines are
hydrology, marine chemistry, marine geophysics
and geology of the ocean, hydroacoustics,
hydrography, meteorology and marine biology.
Also included in the scientific fleet are vessels for
telemetry of space vehicles, which are often used
to collect meteorological information. The larg-
est fleets of RVs belong to the Russia and the

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2707-6_12
454 12 Instruments and Methods
Fig. 12.1 A view of a modern research vessel (RV)
United States. Vessels displacing 2000–4000 used for research have dual purposes, including
tonnes are the common types of ships. The as supply and rescue ships. Icebreakers have
present-day oceanographic research activities double hulls and rounded bows, and the ice is
are totally dependent on scientifically equipped broken by running the ship up onto the ice.
RVs, which have a high degree of seaworthiness, These sophisticated RVs are equipped with
good speed, manoeuvrability and stability. These several instruments meant for carrying out
vessels possess devices for ‘over-the-tide studies, researches in several fields of oceanography.
such as winches, cranes, booms and folding A remarkable revolution has occurred in the
platforms. Removable (container) laboratories field of marine instrumentation. Instead of con-
are also important components of modern RVs’. ventional reversing thermometer, scientists and
Descriptions of few RVs are presented in researchers are today using CTD probes for simul-
Table 12.1. taneous monitoring of conductivity, temperature
An ideal research vessel is reliable, and depth. These data are finally transmitted for
manoeuvrable, stable at sea and has comfortable further processing. Gas-analysis probes, intended
living and working spaces. The RV Revelle to measure the concentration of dissolved gases in
(Fig. 12.2) is a typical large research vessel water column, have also been developed. Electro-
(Scripps Institution of Oceanography 2009; magnetic and acoustic devices now make current
scilib.ucsd.edu/sio/annual/Annual_report_2010_ measurements in the ocean.
pdf). It was built in 1996. Its overall length is Modern research vessels are also equipped
277 ft and its displacement is 3180 tonnes. with meteorological observation devices, tem-
Icebreakers are important components of perature sensors, current accelerometers, echo
modern research vessel. Most of the icebreakers sounders, hydro-locators, etc. They use towed
12.1 Instruments 455
Table 12.1 Description of few RVs engaged in oceanographic research

Speed and
Name Displacement range Overview
Jean Charcot (built in 1965) 2200 tonnes Speed—15 Length—
knots 74.5 m
Range— Beam—
10,000 miles 14.1 m
Draught—
5.0 m
Professor Bogorov (built in 1975) 1677 tonnes Speed—13.5 Length—
knots 68.8 m
Beam—
12.4 m
Draught—
4.2 m
Academician Mstislav Keldysh (built in 1981) 6339 tonnes Speed—15.7 Length—
knots 122 m
Range— Beam—
20,000 miles 17.8 m
Draught—
5.8 m
Vadim Popov (between 1986 and 1988, six ships of the Vadim 929 tonnes Range— Length—
Popov class were constructed) 5500 miles 49.9 m
Beam—
10.0 m
Draught—
3.6 m
Admiral Vladimirsky (hydrographic vessels of this type were built 9100 tonnes Speed—20 Length—
between 1970 and 1977) knots 147 m
Range— Beam—
23,000 miles 18.6 m
Draught—
6.3 m
Geolog Primor’ya (built in 1984) 791 tonnes Speed—9 Length—
knots 35.1 m
Range— Beam—
1320 miles 18.2 m
Draught—
3.3 m
Meteor (built in 1986) 4000 tonnes Speed—15 Length—
knots 97.5 m
Range— Draught—
10,000 miles 5.3 m
magnetometers, heat-flow (geothermal) probes, 12.1.1 Instruments Used for Physical

radioactivity sensors, wave meters and underwa- Oceanographic Study
ter television cameras and even carry submers-
ible vehicles. However, students and scholars Physical oceanography is a branch of oceanogra-
pursuing oceanographic studies at the college/ phy, which focuses on the dynamic property of
university level use several common instruments oceans, seas, bays and estuaries like waves,
as listed in Tables 12.2, 12.3, 12.4 and 12.5. currents, tides, etc. The air–water interaction is
Fig. 12.2 A view of RV Roger Revelle
Table 12.2 Common instruments in the sphere of physical oceanography

Instrument General description
Bathythermograph The bathythermograph (BT) is a device used for recording graphically the in situ water
temperature relative to the depth at which the measurements are made. It is capable of
measuring temperature with an accuracy of 0.05 C. It is particularly useful for
oceanographic research and can be towed from a ship while moving at speeds of up to about
18 knots, or it may be used to obtain a temperature-depth profile at a specific point. Thus, the
instrument can be used for measuring temperature and temperature gradients, locating
thermocline, identifying thermal regimes of different water masses as well as providing
supplemental data for water current studies
Tide gauge It is used to determine the tidal amplitude. The earliest version of the modern tidal gauge is
perhaps the Aime’s tidal gauge. In 1838 this tide gauge was first used in the port of Algiers. In
course of time, Crouzet Marine Oceanology Corporation developed autonomous ultrasonic tide
recorder from a prototype developed by the Studies and Research Department of France
Electric. This instrument was mounted on the bottom and emitted sound waves that reflected off
the water surface. With the change of the water level, this instrument could record the apparent
changes in depth
Piezometers Liquids posses the property of compressibility and this property is measured by piezometers
Viscometer It is used to measure the viscosity of a liquid. The instrument works by measuring the force,
which oppose the rotation of a disc or a cylinder that is immersed in the liquid
Current meter This device is used to know the magnitude and direction of the current in the marine and
estuarine waters
Secchi disc It is a device which is very commonly used to get an indication of transparency of natural
waterbodies. It is a heavy circular plate made up of metal, plastic or wood and normally of
approximately 30 cm in diameter. The upper surface is painted plain white or white and black
alternate band with the bottom painted black. It is fastened to a rope through a ring located at
the centre of its upper surface. The disc is submerged vertically into the water for observation
and is viewed from above to determine the depth at which it just disappears
also encompassed in the vertical of physical such regions. Upwelling produced by the Peru
oceanography. The most productive areas of Current creates one of the richest fisheries in the
planet Earth are located in these regions of world. In addition, this upwelling supports large
upwelling, which occur largely on western populations of seabirds that deposit countless
coasts, as evidenced by the large fisheries in tons of nitrate- and phosphate-rich guano on
Table 12.3 Common instruments in the sphere of geological oceanography

Echo sounder This instrument works on the principle of reflection of sound wave. The instrument
has great application in studying the depth and bottom features of the ocean floor.
The transducer in echo sounder emits signals directed perpendicularly along the
track of the vessel. The nature of return of these signals after hitting the ocean floor
determines the bottom relief (bathymetry)
Autonomous sampler This device collects a sample of bottom sediments of about 0.15 m in area. The
sample weighs about 30 kg. The time of submergence and return to the surface is
about 1.5 m/s
Geological coring device Geological coring devices are used to collect the sediment samples from the
seafloor. These are further analyzed to know the mineral resources, metal content,
sediment texture, composition, etc. In general vibrating corer, piston corer and
gravity corer are used to draw samples from the ocean floor
Proton magnetometer This instrument is used to monitor the vector of geomagnetic induction. There are
measurement intervals to know the vector of geomagnetic induction and normally
the intervals are of 1, 3, 5, 20 and 60 s
Marine multichannel This is used to measure the geothermal gradients (heat flow) in the bottom
geothermal complex sediments. Measurements are taken with regard to the temperature of the near-
bottom layer of water and heat conductivity of the ocean flow
Manned submersibles These are equipped with modern instrumentations and are the perfect tools for
underwater research, capable of researches for opening opportunities for undersea
technical work. The first manned submersibles are usually considered to be the
bathyspheres and bathyscaphs. The Swiss scientist A. Piccerd designed the
bathyscaphs in 1953–1954 and in 1960 dived to the bottom of the deepest part of the
ocean, the Mariana Trench
coastal islands, and thus the ocean water gets some basic instruments whose names and short
naturally fertilized. Such phenomenon of upwell- description are given in Table 12.2.
ing and distribution of nutrients is also addressed
through the lens of physical oceanography.
The knowledge of physical oceanography 12.1.2 Instruments Used for Geological
helps to get a basic idea on the circulation pattern Oceanographic Study
of the ocean and weather condition and predict
the impact of global warming, El Niño, etc., on Geological oceanography, sometimes called
the marine and estuarine environment. Physical marine geology, covers a vast range of time and
oceanography also gives idea on the depth profile space scales since it considers processes that
of the ocean, which is important for the move- occur in minutes over millimetre-scale distances
ment of submarine. The reservoir under the land as well as processes that effect entire ocean
is depleting very fast, owing to man’s need in basins and continents over time spans of millions
terms of energy. Coal has already come on the of years. The phenomena like continental drift,
verge of depletion, and days are not very far formation of trench due to subduction, seafloor
when the coal-powered electrical plants will spreading, formation of manganese nodules on
have to stop their production journey. Under the ocean floor, sedimentation, formation of
this situation, tidal energy, ocean thermal energy islands, shoreline changes due to waves, currents
or the wind energy may be the source of future and tidal actions, etc., are all encompassed under
power, whose magnitude and application is the branch of Geological Oceanography.
dependent on the knowledge base of physical The tectonic movement is an important aspect
oceanography. The in-depth study and researches of geophysics through which knowledge of natu-
on physical oceanography are carried out with ral calamities like tsunamis can be gained. Thus,
Table 12.4 Common instruments in the sphere of chemical oceanography

Nephelometric turbidity meter The instrument is used to determine the turbidity of the water and is
based on the Tyndall effect of scattering of light. The nephelometric
method is applicable to the measurement of turbidity in all water types
over a practical working range of about 0.05 to 1000 FTU. In Hach
model 2100A turbidimeter, a strong light beam is transmitted upwards
through a turbidity optical tube containing the sample. The amount of
light reflected at 90 angle to the incident light beam by the suspended
particulate matter is directly proportional to the turbidity present and is
received by a photomultiplier tube. This diffracted is transformed into
an electrical signal, which is measured on the instrument meter
graduated in turbidity units
Colorimeter and spectrophotometer Colorimetric and spectrophotometric methods have been extensively
used in the analysis of nutrients, because of their speed, simplicity and
accuracy. Nutrients such as nitrogen—or phosphorus—containing
substances can be detected in microgram per litre range without any
separation or pre-concentration. These methods are based on absorption
of visible or ultraviolet light by molecules, and the intensity of
absorption is proportional to the concentration of the absorbing species
in the solution. When the absorption of light occurs in the visible range
(approximately 400-700 nm) and can be monitored visually or by
simple devices such as colorimeters or filters and photometers, the
technique is referred to as colorimetry
Spectrophotometry differs from colorimetry in that a narrower band of
wavelength for absorption is used, and the absorption of a substance is
measured over a wider wavelength range that includes the ultraviolet
region of the spectrum (250–700 nm)
Atomic absorption spectrophotometer Atomic absorption spectrophotometry is the most widely used
(AAS) technique for the determination of trace metals in waters, sediment and
biological samples. In this technique, atoms absorb radiation only at
discrete wavelengths characteristic of the absorbing species. Thus,
radiation from the source, produced from a vapour of the metal of
interest, is absorbed at a discrete wavelength(s) by atoms of that
element in the atomizer. As a result, the radiation beam intensity is
attenuated by an amount that is proportional to the concentration of the
element of interest in the atomizer. In AAS, the atomizer is usually a
flame—or furnace-type electrothermal device. Radiation of a
characteristic wavelength is usually produced by a hollow cathode or
electrodeless discharge lamp. A monochromator placed after the
atomizer is used to isolate the desired wavelength from the absorbing
and non-absorbing lines
Gas chromatograph (GC) Gas chromatography is an analytical technique for separating
compounds on the basis of their volatility. It provides both qualitative
and quantitative information for individual compounds present in a
sample. Compounds move through a GC column in the form of gases
mainly because of two reasons: either the compounds are normally
gases or they are heated and vaporized into a gaseous state. The
components of GC are injector (hollow heated glass-lined cylinder,
where the sample is introduced), carrier gas (usually helium, hydrogen
or nitrogen, which is the mobile phase and moves the sample through
the column), capillary GC column (coated with stationary phase like
large molecular weight polysiloxane, polyethylene glycol or polyester
polymers of 0.1 to 2.5 μm film thickness), GC oven, electron capture
detector (ECD) and flame ionization detector (FID)
High-performance liquid chromatography High-performance liquid chromatography is an analytical technology
(HPLC) for quantifying and analyzing mixtures of chemical compounds. It is
used to determine the amount of a chemical compound within a mixture
(continued)

of other chemicals. For this purpose, the sample is dissolved in a solvent
(like water or alcohol). A detector measures response changes between
the solvent itself and the solvent and sample when passing through
it. Thus, in HPLC the mobile phase is a solvent, which is pumped under
high pressure through a column, and the stationary phase is a finely
divided solid held inside the column
Inductively coupled plasma atomic This sophisticated instrument allows multielemental analysis and is fast
emission spectrometer (ICP-AES) revolutionizing the conventional flame emission method of seawater
analysis in terms of trace metals. In this case, the sample is introduced
into plasma via an ultrasonic or pneumatic nebulizer chamber system
similar to that used in the conventional AAS. In the plasma, the sample
is subjected to temperatures of about 7000–10,000 K, and electrons of
the atoms of elements contained in the sample undergo a transition to
excited state by absorbing thermal energy from the plasma source that
are then re-emitted at a characteristic frequency (atomic spectra) as they
return to lower energy state. Thus, the elements present may be
determined by resolving individual spectral lines of the element of
interest and choosing and measuring the intensity of one or more of the
carefully selected lines for each element
Neutron activation analyser (NAA) Neutron activation analyser is an extremely sensitive, precise and
accurate method of trace elements determination. Because of its
simultaneous multielemental capability, this technique can give a
wealth of elemental information even in small amounts of sample, e.g.
aerosols, lunar materials, special precious rare minerals, etc. AA is
based on measurement of the intensity of radioactivity of an element
produced by the bombardment of the element with nuclear projectiles.
When the sample is bombarded with neutrons, radioactive nuclei are
invariably formed due to their interaction. The compound spectrum
produced by the mixture of radionuclides is resolved either
instrumentally (INAA), using high-resolution g-spectrometer with high
purity Germanium detector (HPGe) system or by carrying out chemical
separation of the radionuclides. Induced radioactivities are measured
and compared with that of the standard, which is irradiated along with
sample under the same conditions to evaluate the amount of element in
the sample
Gas chromatograph mass Foods and beverages contain several types of aromatic compounds,
spectrophotometer (GC-MS) some naturally present in the raw materials and some are formed during
processing. GC-MS is extensively used for the analysis of these
compounds which include esters, fatty acids, alcohols, aldehydes,
terpenes, etc. It is also used to detect and estimate contaminants from
spoilage or adulteration which may be harmful and which are often
controlled by governmental agencies, for example, pesticides
geological oceanography has become a vital from the underlying bed rock, (3) minerals found
component in present-day disaster management in ocean bottom and (4) minerals within marine
sector. sediments like oil and gas. The availability and
The seafloor is covered with sediments, which extraction of variable resources in different zones
are unique reservoirs of minerals. Basically the of the marine and estuarine compartment come
mineral resources of the ocean may be divided under purview of geological oceanography. The
into four main categories, namely, (1) elements common instruments used in the field of geolog-
dissolved in seawater, (2) minerals recoverable ical oceanography are given in Table 12.3.
Table 12.5 Common instruments in the sphere of biological oceanography

Nansen bottles Nansen bottles are used to collect non-sterile water samples specially phytoplankton from
subsurface levels. The reversing bottle is made of brass and plated inside with tin or silver or
coated with a special lacquer. It is fitted with a drain cock and an air vent to facilitate draining the
trapped water samples. The reversing water samplers are available in different capacities
(750–1250 ml)
Niskin sampler Niskin samplers are used to collect sterile water. This involves a presterilized plastic bag,
which fits onto a winged sampler. The wings are locked together, fitted with a plastic bag and
positioned on a line. At the predetermined depth, a messenger operates a guillotine, which opens a
hose into the bag and simultaneously releases the wings of the sampler. These wings spring apart,
drawing water into the bag. The bag may be retrieved for subsequent examination
SCUBA The SCUBA equipment is used to collect the epibiotic and the benthic communities. The epibiotic
equipment communities are collected by immersing inert structures, e.g. glass slides into the sea for
predefined periods
Grab sampler This device is used to grab material from the upper layers of seafloor sediment for studying the
habit and habitat of benthic community
12.1.3 Instruments Used for Chemical of the readers. In this study, the bulk density and
Oceanographic Study carbon density of the soil samples were also
analyzed to assess the role of soil in the
The knowledge of chemical oceanography is mangrove-dominated lower Gangetic delta as
essential not only to know the mineral formation the store house carbon.
and their deposition in the ocean but also to know
the phytoplankton status of the seawater; since
these tiny free-floating floral components are 12.1.4 Instruments Used for Biological
constituted of carbon, nitrogen, phosphate and Oceanographic Study
silicate, which they absorb from the ambient
seawater. Biological oceanography, sometimes called
Marine corrosion, settlements of biofoulars on marine biology, is the study of life in the sea
submersible objects, pollution due to industriali- ranging from viruses to whales. It has several
zation and urbanization, ocean biogeochemical subtopics like census of marine/estuarine/coastal
cycle and even global warming are all studied biodiversity, adaptation of flora and fauna to
under the banner of chemical oceanography. The marine and estuarine ecosystems, energy flow
knowledge of this branch of oceanography is from primary producers to consumers, decompo-
extended to extract useful substances like mag- sition process by microbes, biodiversity in differ-
nesium, sodium, bromine, etc., from seawater. In ent depths of the ocean and living resources with
the sphere of chemical oceanography, the com- their ecosystem services.
mon instruments (Table 12.4) are used mainly to Fish form a rich source of food and nutrition
analyze water and sediment samples, but nowa- to man. Fishing has long been the economic
days with increasing thrust on climate change, activity of variable importance in all the
analysis of stored carbon in soil, coastal vegeta- latitudes. It is regarded as the oldest occupation
tion and even molluscan tissue has become of man, and now all the great maritime nations
extremely important. The stored carbon is moni- have well-developed fishing industry.
tored through CHN analyzer (Fig. 12.3). A study Fisheries have played a part in the destiny of
conducted in 24 stations in deltaic Sundarbans nations. The rise and downfall of nations have
(Indian part) during 2012 was completely based been the result of the prosperity and decay of the
on the use of CHN analyzer. The study report is industries connected with fisheries. The Hanse-
presented as Annexure 12A for the convenience atic League from the small beginnings of the
Fig. 12.3 A view of CHN

analyzer
herring fisheries in Scania rose to a power of identified as the potential sources of bioactive
great magnitude. The rise of the sea power of substances. Marine phytoplankton have been
the Dutch in seventeenth century came as the identified to be a rich source of astaxanthin,
result of development of fisheries in the North which is a powerful, bioactive antioxidant that
Sea. The Tudors in England feared a loss of sea has demonstrated efficacy in animal or human
power with the decline of fisheries. The progress models for addressing several heath problems
of fisheries also resulted in the development of like muscular degeneration, Alzheimer’s
mercantile marines and the royal navy. The loca- (Markesbery and Carney 1999; Behl 1999) and
tion and extent of commercial fisheries in com- Parkinson’s diseases (Ebadi et al. 1996), cardio-
parison to the great extent of oceans is very vascular diseases, stroke and several types of
restricted, but the fish as an inexhaustible source cancer.
has the incredible capacity for multiplying. The Recent researches have shown that
wanton exploitation and dwindling local supplies astaxanthin acts like a vitamin for salmon. Now-
has, however, affected the commercial fishing in adays, astaxanthin is used in the feed of farm-
some areas. The world’s important fisheries are raised salmon to impart their flesh the same pink
of three general types: (1) inshore, (2) pelagic colour of wild salmon and also in poultry feed to
and (3) demersal. The general distribution and augment the yellow colour of egg yolk. It is
abundance of fish population depend upon the expected that the branch of biological oceanog-
spawning habits of fish and the presence of food raphy will handover bio-gems to mankind
and congenial water quality. through the corridors of biotechnology, bioinfor-
Apart from fishing, the study of biological matics and genetic engineering. The branch of
oceanography also helps to culture edible oyster, biological oceanography needs some basic
pearl oyster, shrimp, seaweeds and even phyto- instruments (Table 12.5) for its expansion. How-
plankton, which are extremely important for sus- ever, apart from the instruments stated in
taining modern aquaculture industry. The future Table 12.5, several programmes/softwares are
world is waiting on the optimistic researches used to compute community structure of flora
related to Marine Biotechnology, as several and fauna inhabiting marine and estuarine
strains of microbes, flora and fauna have been ecosystems.
12.2 Application of Satellites data to plan their sampling programmes while

in Marine and Estuarine at sea.
Researches SEASAT, a specialized oceanographic satel-
lite, was launched in June 1978, but remained
The present-day oceanographers are greatly operational only until October. Its radar could
dependent on satellite observations and computer measure the distance between the satellite and
software. The research vessels are equipped with the sea surface with an accuracy of about 5 cm
gadgets that can be used to study the parameters (2 in.), allowing the measurements of wave
within a small area. In this case, the observations heights. In addition to this, the radar of SEASAT
are local in nature. With the use of satellites, the could monitor temperatures, wind speeds, sea ice
oceanographers can study the oceans as a global cover, currents and phytopigment level of the
system. Each satellite records millions of aquatic system. In the ocean, the physical, chem-
observations everyday as it follows changing ical and biological processes are linked in an
conditions across the world’s oceans. The huge intimate manner (Tang et al. 2002). Oceanic
amounts of information collected by the satellites features such as chlorophyll concentration, cur-
are processed and manipulated by sophisticated rent boundaries, sea-surface temperature, ocean
computers to develop the databank in connection fronts and eddy, suspended matter and dissolved
to seashore configuration, currents, waves, pig- organic matter (DOM), etc., influence the ocean
ment level, biodiversity, sea ice, storms and even dynamics and its interaction with the atmo-
the seafloor. The continuity, global coverage and sphere. To study this intricate interrelationship
high temporal and spatial resolution of satellite in a more detailed way, several global sensors
data make it an important tool for monitoring and with their spectral characteristics are presently in
characterizing marine ecosystems. The potential use (Table 12.6).
fishing zone (PFZ) is detected through satellites. The satellite data (after being calibrated with
It is very important to note in this context that ground reality) are also used to generate maps of
satellites do not observe fish stocks directly, but nutrient load in different segments of the estuary.
measurements such as sea-surface temperature We conducted a nutrient-level monitoring during
(SST), sea-surface height (SSH), ocean colour, June 2014 in the Hooghly estuary in the north-
ocean winds and sea ice characterize critical east coast of India (Fig. 12.4) and generated
habitat that influences marine resources. Most separate maps each for nitrate (Fig. 12.5), phos-
of the spatial features that are important to phate (Fig. 12.6) and silicate (Fig. 12.7). This
marine ecosystems like ocean fronts, eddies, con- study was later correlated with the phytopigment
vergence zones, river plumes and coastal regions level (Fig. 12.8) in the estuarine water procured
cannot be adequately resolved without satellite from the ocean colour monitor (OCM) of the
data. Chlorophyll is the only biological compo- Indian Remote Sensing Satellite IRS-P4, which
nent of the marine ecosystem accessible to is optimally designed for the estimation of chlo-
remote sensing (via ocean colour) and as such rophyll in coastal and oceanic waters.
provides a key metric for evaluating the health Another interesting area of studying and mon-
and productivity of marine ecosystems on a itoring marine and estuarine fauna is biologging.
global scale. Long-term ocean colour satellite The vertical of biologging, i.e. the deployment
monitoring provides an important tool for better of recording and transmitting tags on animals to
understanding of the marine processes, ecology study their movements, behaviour, physiology
and the coastal environmental changes (Tang and and habitat usage, has rapidly expanded over
Kawamura 2001). Modern oceanographic the past decade, because of advances in minia-
vessels are, therefore, linked to satellites via turization of electronic tags (Bograd et al. 2010).
computers, allowing scientists to use immediate Fishes are tagged to monitor their migratory
12.2 Application of Satellites in Marine and Estuarine Researches 463
Table 12.6 Ocean colour satellites and sensors

Spectral
Launch Swath Resolution No. of coverage
Sensor Agency Satellite date (km) (m) bands (nm) Orbit
MERIS ESA ENVISAT 01/03/02 1150 300/1200 15 412–1050 Polar
(Europe) (Europe)
MMRS CONAE SAC-C 21/11/00 360 175 5 480–1700 Polar
(Argentina) (Argentina)
MODIS- NASA Aqua 04/05/02 2330 1000 36 405–14,385 Polar
Aqua (USA) (EOS-PM1)
MODIS- NASA Terra (USA) 18/12/99 2330 1000 36 405–14,385 Polar
Terra (USA)
OCM ISRO IRS-P4 26/05/99 1420 350 8 402–885 Polar
(India) (India)
OSMI KARI KOMPSAT 20/12/99 800 850 6 400–900 Polar
(Korea) (Korea)
PARASOL CNES Myriade 18/12/04 2100 6000 9 443–1020 Polar
(France) series
SeaWiFS NASA OrbView- 01/08/97 2806 1100 8 402–885 Polar
(USA) 2 (USA)
routes and preferred breeding and feeding SSTs are the most commonly SRS data used
regions (Fig. 12.9). in combination with tagging data. These can be
Satellite remote sensing (SRS) oceanographic analyzed to determine whether an animal uses
data coupled with tracking data are now widely mesoscale features, including temperature fronts
accepted and used to identify the niches, breed- and cyclonic eddies, and to characterize its habi-
ing grounds, nesting sites and travelling patterns tat regarding preferred SSTs (Polovina
of marine animals. The data generated through et al. 2000; Kobayashi et al. 2008). For logger-
SRS provide both the meso- and larger-scale head sea turtles (Caretta caretta), preferred hab-
oceanographic context for each available animal itat north of Hawaii constitutes a temperature and
position and time. The types of SRS data most chlorophyll front delineated by a SST of 18 C.
commonly used with animal tracking include Daily maps of probable turtle habitat, defined by
SST, surface Chl a and geostrophic currents. a narrow band around the 18 C SST isotherm,
Before linking tracking and SRS data, it is pref- are distributed to longline fishers to help them
erable to estimate the most likely tracks using a avoid the area and reduce turtle bycatch (Howell
state–space modelling approach (Patterson et al. 2008).
et al. 2008). In addition, improved tag position SRS chlorophyll data often serve as a valuable
data is obtained by including satellite-derived proxy for water mass boundaries and may iden-
SST in the estimation process (Nielsen tify upwelling associated with mesoscale
et al. 2006). A recently developed alternative features. The range of surface chlorophyll values
modelling approach validated with GPS data used by an animal may help characterize its
consists of bootstrapping random walks habitats (Polovina et al. 2000; Kobayashi
generated from the probability distributions of et al. 2008). For example, by combining turtle
animal locations and trajectories for the tracking with SeaWiFS chlorophyll data,
geolocation of tagged animals (Tremblay Polovina et al. (2001) characterized and
et al. 2009). The method provides a flexible described interannual changes in the position
framework for including remotely sensed data and dynamics of a North Pacific basin-wide chlo-
sets and has the advantage of being easier to rophyll front, the transition zone chlorophyll
implement than state–space models. front (TZCF), which has proven to be an
Fig. 12.4 Hooghly estuary in the north-east coast of India

Annexure 12A: Study on Soil Organic Carbon in the Intertidal Mudflats. . . 465
important migration and forage habitat for a Annexure 12A: Study on Soil Organic
variety of species. Carbon in the Intertidal Mudflats
of Indian Sundarbans
1. Introduction
Brain Churners
1. How does the vertical of physical
Human activities have led to considerable
oceanography help in exploring alter-
emissions of greenhouse gases (Murako 2004).
native energy from oceans and
In particular, for the period from 1980 to 1989,
estuaries?
carbon dioxide emission from fossil-fuel burning
2. What is the basic working principle of
and tropical deforestation amounted to 7.1 billion
viscometer?
tons of carbon being released a year
3. According to you, which colour should
(Table 12A.1) (IPCC 1994). Increase in atmo-
be used to paint the upper surface of
spheric carbon dioxide concentration can
the Secchi disc—white or alternate
account for about half of the carbon dioxide
band of white and black? Justify your
emission for this period (Siegenthaler and
answer with reason.
Sarmiento 1993). This has led to study the capac-
4. What are the different categories of
ity of carbon sequestration in forests and other
mineral resources of the ocean?
terrestrial and wetland ecosystems.
5. What substances are used as mobile
Most of the studies so far available are related
and stationary phases in HPLC?
to forest ecosystems and crops, and there is not
6. How is the compound spectrum pro-
enough information on carbon sequestration
duced by radionuclide mixture
potential of wetland soil. Wetlands provide sev-
resolved in neutron activation
eral important ecosystem services, among which
analyzer?
soil carbon sequestration is most crucial particu-
7. Write the difference between pelagic
larly in the backdrop of rising carbon dioxide in
and demersal fishes with some
the present century. Wetlands cover about 5 % of
examples.
the terrestrial surface and are important carbon
8. State the role of carotenoid pigments in
sinks containing 40 % of SOC at global level
finfish and shellfish species.
(Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). Estuarine wetlands
9. Distinguish between stenohaline and
have a capacity of carbon sequestration per unit
euryhaline species. Which type of spe-
area of approximately one order of magnitude
cies (between stenohaline and euryha-
greater than other systems of wetlands (Ceron-
line) will be excluded if the dilution
Breton et al. 2010) and store carbon with a mini-
factor of the estuarine system abruptly
mum emission of greenhouse gases due to inhi-
increases due to barrage discharge?
bition of methanogenesis because of sulphate
10. How can the migration of horseshoe
(Bridgham et al. 2006). The reservoirs of SOC,
crab in mangrove swamps be moni-
however, can act as sources or sinks of atmo-
tored through updated technology?
spheric carbon dioxide, depending on land use
practices, climate, texture and topography
Fig. 12.5 Nitrate level in the Hooghly estuary in the north-east coast of India
(Vesterdal et al. 2002; Zinn et al. 2005; Homann et al. 2008). A large number of biogeochemical
et al. 2004; Shukla and Lal 2005). models, however, do not contain explicit
Vertical patterns of SOC can contribute as an algorithms of belowground ecosystem structure
input or as an independent validation for biogeo- and function (Jackson et al. 2000). Most of the
chemical models and thus provide valuable infor- studies primarily focused on the topsoil carbon
mation for examining the responses of terrestrial stock, and carbon dynamics in deeper soil layers
ecosystems to global change (Jobb’agy and and driving factors behind vertical distributions
Jackson, 2000; Wang et al. 2004; Mi of soil organic carbon remain poorly understood
Fig. 12.6 Phosphate level in the Hooghly estuary in the north-east coast of India
(Jobb’agy and Jackson, 2000; Gill et al. 1999; With this background, the present study was
Meersmans et al. 2009). Thus, improved knowl- undertaken to estimate the SOC in four different
edge of distributions and determinants of SOC depths in the mangrove-dominated Indian
across different soil depth is essential to deter- Sundarbans that sustains some 34 true mangrove
mine whether carbon in deep soil layers will species and some 62 mangrove associate species
react to global change and accelerate the increase (Mitra 2000). This deltaic lobe together with
in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration Bangladesh Sundarbans constitutes the world’s
(Meersmans et al. 2009; Fontaine et al. 2007). largest brackish water wetland. Hence, it is
Fig. 12.7 Silicate level in the Hooghly estuary in the north-east coast of India
essential to establish a baseline data of soil car- 2. Materials and Methods

bon pool of this mangrove ecosystem. In this
study, we used our unpublished data of SOC 2.1 The Study Area
and bulk density to evaluate the spatial variations The Sundarban mangrove ecosystem covering
of OCD in the intertidal mudflats of western and about one million ha in the deltaic complex of
eastern Indian Sundarbans that are markedly dif- the rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna is
ferent with respect to anthropogenic activities shared between Bangladesh (62 %) and India
and mangrove vegetation. (38 %) and is the world’s largest coastal wetland.
weather with frequent cyclonic depressions

occurs during mid-March to mid-September.
Average annual rainfall is 1920 mm. Average
humidity is about 82 % and is more or less
uniform throughout the year. This unique ecosys-
tem is also the home ground of Royal Bengal
tiger (Panthera tigris tigris). The deltaic com-
plex sustains 102 islands, 48 of which are
inhabited. The ecosystem is extremely prone to
erosion, accretion, tidal surges and several natu-
ral disasters, which directly affect the top soil and
the subsequent carbon density. The average tidal
amplitude is around 3.0 m.
We conducted survey at 24 stations in the
Indian Sundarban region in February, 2012. Sta-
tion selection was primarily based considering
the blocks in Indian Sundarbans.
2.2 Sampling
Table 12A.2 and Fig. 12A.1 represent our study
site in which sampling plots of 10 m 5 m were
considered for each station. Care was taken to
collect the samples within the same distance
from the estuarine edge, tidal creeks and the
same microtopography. Under such conditions,
Fig. 12.8 Phytopigment level in the Hooghly estuarine spatial variability of external parameters such as
water tidal amplitude and frequency of inundation
(Ovalle et al. 1990) inputs of material from the
Enormous load of sediments carried by the rivers adjacent bay/estuary and soil granulometry and
contribute to its expansion and dynamics. salinity (Lacerda et al. 1993; Tanizaki 1994) are
The Indian Sundarbans (between 21 130 N and minimal.
22 400 N latitude and 88 030 E and 89 070 E lon-

10 cores were collected from the selected
gitude) is bordered by Bangladesh in the east, the plots in each station by inserting PVC core of
Hooghly River (a continuation of the river known volume into the soil to a maximum depth
Ganga) in the west, the Dampier and Hodges of 0.40 m during low tide condition. Each core
line in the north and the Bay of Bengal in the was sliced in 0.10 m layers up to 0.40 m depth.
south. The important morphotypes of deltaic The uppermost 0.01 m, which frequently
Sundarbans include beaches, mudflats, coastal includes debris and freshly fallen litter, was not
dunes, sand flats, estuaries, creeks, inlets and used in this study. Each core section was placed
mangrove swamps (Chaudhuri and Choudhury in aluminium foil and packed in ice for transport.
1994). The temperature is moderate due to its In the laboratory, the collected samples were
proximity to the Bay of Bengal in the south. carefully sieved and homogenized to remove
Average annual maximum temperature is around roots and other plant and animal debris prior to
35 C. The summer (premonsoon) extends from oven-drying to constant weight at 105 C for bulk
the mid-March to mid-June and the winter density determination considering the volume of
(postmonsoon) from mid-November to February. the PVC core. SOC of the collected samples
The monsoon usually sets in around the mid of (n ¼ 10) from each plot was analyzed by stan-
June and lasts up to the mid of October. Rough dard method (Walkley and Black 1934), and the
Fig. 12.9 Fishes are

tagged to monitor their
migratory routes and
preferred breeding and
feeding regions
Table 12A.1 Anthropogenic carbon fluxes, 1980 to 1989

Carbon dioxide sources GtC/year
Fossil fuel burning, cement production 5.5 0.5
Changes in tropical land use 1.6 1.0
Total anthropogenic emission 7.1 1.1
Partitioning among reservoirs 3.2 0.2
Storage in the atmosphere 2.0 0.8
Oceanic uptake 0.5 0.5
Uptake by Northern Hemisphere forest regrowth 1.4 1.5
Additional terrestrial sinks: CO2 fertilization, nitrogen fertilization, climatic effects
Source: IPCC (1994)
mean value was considered for determination of 15 (0.83 %) > Stn. 6 (0.80 %) ¼ Stn.
OCD in (kg/m2) as per the expression: 16 (0.80 %) > Stn. 19 (0.75 %) > Stn.
OCD ¼ % SOC bulk density (BD) soil 7 (0.74 %) ¼ Stn. 22 (0.74 %) ¼ Stn.
depth 24 (0.74 %) > Stn. 17 (0.73 %) > Stn.
18 (0.72 %) . Stn. 20 (0.68 %) > Stn.
21 (0.66 %) (Annexure 12A.1 and Fig. 12A.2).
3. Results and Discussion The significant spatial variation of SOC
( p < 0.001) may be attributed to a large extent
3.1 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) by mangrove diversity, anthropogenic activity,
The organic carbon in soil differs significantly accretion and erosion processes (Table 12A.3
between stations. The spatial trend of SOC and Fig. 12A.3).
follows the order Stn. 1 (1.41 %) > Stn. The relatively low SOC at Sagar South (Stn.
2 (1.28 %) > Stn. 23 (1.27 %) > Stn. 4) is due to its location at sea front where wave
3 (1.23 %) > Stn. 8 (1.06 %) > Stn. action and tidal amplitude is maximum (~3.5 m
9 (1.04 %) > Stn. 4 (1.02 %) ¼ Stn. mean amplitude). This station experiences the
13 (1.02 %) > Stn. 10 (1.01 %) > Stn. freshwater discharge from the Farakka Barrage
12 (0.99 %) > Stn. 11 (0.98 %) > Stn. (located in the upstream zone), which is about
14 (0.96 %) > Stn. 5 (0.88 %) > Stn. 40,000 cusec/day. This huge quantum of
Table 12A.2 Sampling stations in Western and Eastern Indian Sundarbans

Sl. No. Sampling station Latitude Longitude
1 Muriganga 21 380 25.8600 N 88 080 53.5500 E
2 Saptamukhi 21 360 02.4900 N 88 230 47.1800 E
3 Thakuran 21 490 43.1700 N 88 330 21.5700 E
4 Herobhanga 21 590 34.3200 N 88 410 46.5200 E
5 Ajmalmari 21 510 34.7200 N 88 390 00.6800 E
6 Dhulibasani 21 470 06.6200 N 88 330 48.2000 E
7 Chulkathi 21 410 53.6200 N 88 340 10.3100 E
8 Arbesi 22 110 43.1400 N 89 010 09.0400 E
9 Jhilla 22 090 51.5300 N 88 570 57.0700 E
10 Pirkhali 22 060 00.9700 N 88 510 06.0400 E
11 Panchmukhani 21 590 41.5800 N 88 540 14.7100 E
12 Harinbhanga 21 570 17.8500 N 88 590 33.2400 E
13 Khatuajhuri 22 030 06.5500 N 89 010 05.3300 E
14 Chamta 21 530 18.5600 N 88 570 11.4000 E
15 Matla 21 530 15.3000 N 88 440 08.7400 E
16 Chandkhali 21 510 13.5900 N 89 000 44.6800 E
17 Goashaba 21 430 50.6400 N 88 460 41.4400 E
18 Gona 21 410 15.4400 N 88 540 31.0900 E
19 Chhotahardi 21 440 42.2400 N 88 440 17.7900 E
20 Baghmara 21 390 04.4500 N 89 040 40.5900 E
21 Mayadwip 21 350 50.2300 N 88 470 09.9500 E
22 Jambu Island 21 350 42.0300 N 88 100 22.7600 E
23 Lothian 21 380 21.2000 N 88 200 29.3200 E
24 Sagar Island 21 380 51.5500 N 88 020 20.9700 E
freshwater discharge through the Hooghly chan- 0.01–0.05 m, 0.05–0.10 m and 0.10–0.15 m
nel also causes erosion of the Sagar Island. Con- depth respectively (Lacerda et al. 1995). Similar
tinuous erosion of the southern part of this island decrease of SOC with depth was also observed
may be the reason behind minimum retention of under Avicennia soil (Lacerda et al. 1995).
organic matter in the intertidal zone (Fig. 12A.4). Report of decreasing mangrove SOC below 1 m
The variation of SOC in the Indian Sundarban was also documented in several mangrove
is thus regulated through an intricate interaction ecosystems (Donato et al., 2011).
of biological, physical and anthropogenic
activities. 3.2 Bulk Density
The factors governing variation of below- The bulk density of mangrove soil is attributable
ground carbon storage in mangrove soils is diffi- to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay
cult to pinpoint (Bouillon et al. 2009; Alongi and more specifically to the specific gravity of
2008) as it is not a simple function of measured solid organic and inorganic particles and porosity
flux rates, but also integrates thousands of years of the soil. The compactness of mangrove soil
of variable deposition, transformation and ero- increases with depth both in western and eastern
sion dynamics associated with fluctuating sea Indian Sundarbans due to which the bulk density
levels and episodic disturbances (Chmura exhibits higher values with depths in all the
et al. 2003). The mean value of SOC shows a stations. Basically the bulk density in the present
decrease with depth. Similar trend is also study area is regulated by sediment texture and
observed by several researchers. The organic deposition/erosion which is the effect of current
carbon levels under Rhizophora mangle soil pattern, tidal amplitude and wind action. The
were 2.80 %, 2.70 % and 2.70 % in the order of bulk density variation is Stn.
Fig. 12A.1 Location of sampling stations
24 (1.44 gm/cc) > Stn. 22 (1.38 gm/cc) > Stn. 21 (1.31 gm/cc) > Stn. 3 (1.30 gm/cc) ¼ Stn.
6 (1.35 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. 11 (1.35 gm/cc) > Stn. 7 (1.30 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. 12 (1.30 gm/cc) ¼ Stn.
9 (1.34 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. 13 (1.34 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. 15 (1.30 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. 16 (1.30 gm/cc) ¼ Stn.
23 (1.34 gm/cc) > Stn. 1 (1.33 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. 17 (1.30 gm/cc) > Stn. 14 (1.29 gm/cc)
5 (1.33 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. 20 (1.33 gm/cc) > Stn. (Figs. 12A.5 and 12A.6). The significant spatial
4 (1.32 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. 8 (1.32 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. variations of bulk density ( p < 0.001) as shown
10 (1.32 %) > Stn. 2 (1.31 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. in Annexure 12A.2 are thus regulated by geo-
18 (1.31 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. 19 (1.31 gm/cc) ¼ Stn. physical processes.
Annexure 12A.1 SOC (in %) in 24 blocks of Indian Sundarbans

Station no. Name 1–10 cm 10–20 cm 20–30 cm 30–40 cm
1 Muriganga 1.46 1.44 1.38 1.36
2 Saptamukhi 1.31 1.29 1.27 1.25
3 Thakuran 1.29 1.25 1.19 1.19
4 Herobhanga 1.05 1.02 1.01 0.99
5 Ajmalmari 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.85
6 Dhulibasani 0.83 0.8 0.79 0.79
7 Chulkathi 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.71
8 Arbesi 1.09 1.05 1.05 1.04
9 Jhilla 1.07 1.04 1.04 1.02
10 Pirkhali 1.04 1.01 0.99 0.98
11 Panchmukhani 1.02 1.00 0.98 0.92
12 Harinbhanga 1.07 1.03 0.98 0.89
13 Khatuajhuri 1.09 1.05 1.00 0.93
14 Chamta 1.05 0.99 0.92 0.86
15 Matla 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.81
16 Chandkhali 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.76
17 Goashaba 0.77 0.74 0.73 0.69
18 Gona 0.75 0.73 0.73 0.67
19 Chhotahardi 0.78 0.75 0.74 0.71
20 Baghmara 0.73 0.7 0.68 0.62
21 Mayadwip 0.71 0.69 0.65 0.60
22 Jambu Island 0.80 0.79 0.69 0.66
23 Lothian 1.31 1.31 1.26 1.18
24 Sagar Island 0.81 0.78 0.71 0.66
1-10 cm
1.6
10-20 cm
1.4 20-30 cm
1.2 30-40 cm
1
SOC (%)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Muriganga
Saptamukhi
Thakuran
Herobhanga
Ajmalmari
Dhulibasani
Chulkathi
Arbesi
Jhilla
Pirkhali
Panchmukhani
Harinbhanga
Khatuajhuri
Chamta
Matla
Chandkhali
Goashaba
Gona
Chhatahardi
Baghmara
Mayadwip
Jambu Island
Lothian
Sagar Island
Fig. 12A.2 Spatial variation of mean soil organic carbon (SOC) in Indian Sundarbans
3.3 Organic Carbon Density (OCD) between stations ( p < 0.001). The spatial trend
OCD being a direct function of SOC and bulk of OCD is in the order Stn.1 (1.875 kg/m2) >
density exhibits almost similar spatial variation Stn.23 (1.697 kg/m2) > Stn.2 (1.680 kg/m2) >
to that of SOC. The OCD differs significantly Stn.3 (1.595 kg/m2) > Stn.8 (1.398 kg/m2) >
Table 12A.3 ANOVA for spatial variation of SOC, BD and OCD

Source of variation SS DF MS FOBS P VALUE FCRIT
SOC Between stations 4.0783 23 0.177317 337.127 6.94E-62 1.686
Between depth 0.115408 3 0.038469 73.140 2.18E-21 2.737
BD Between stations 0.099166 23 0.004312 12.801 8.66E-17 1.686
Between depth 0.043586 3 0.014529 43.139 8.13E-16 2.737
OCD Between stations 7.093164 23 0.308398 339.927 5.23E-62 1.686
Between depth 0.071925 3 0.023975 26.426 1.71E-11 2.737
Fig. 12A.3 Map showing spatial variation of mean soil organic carbon (in %) in Indian Sundarbans
Fig. 12A.4 Shoreline
changes of Sagar Island
confirming the process of
erosion in the Southern part
Fig. 12A.5 Map showing the bulk density in the intertidal mudflats of the selected stations
30-40 cm
7
20-30 cm
6 10-20 cm
1-10 cm
5
4
gm/cc
0
Muriganga
Saptamukhi
Thakuran
Herobhanga
Ajmalmari
Dhulibasani
Chulkathi
Arbesi
Jhilla
Pirkhali
Panchmukhani
harinbhanga
Khatuajhuri
Chamta
Matla
Chandkhali
Goashaba
Gona
Chhatahardi
Baghmara
Mayadwip
jambu Island
Lothian
Sagar
Fig. 12A.6 Spatial variation of bulk density
Annexure 12A.2 Bulk density (in gm/cc) of mudflat soil

Station no. Station 1–10 cm 10–20 cm 20–30 cm 30–40 cm
1 Muriganga 1.32 1.33 1.33 1.34
2 Saptamukhi 1.28 1.31 1.32 1.34
3 Thakuran 1.27 1.29 1.31 1.32
4 Herobhanga 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33
5 Ajmalmari 1.31 1.31 1.33 1.35
6 Dhulibasani 1.34 1.34 1.35 1.37
7 Chulkathi 1.28 1.30 1.30 1.33
8 Arbesi 1.29 1.31 1.34 1.35
9 Jhilla 1.31 1.33 1.33 1.37
10 Pirkhali 1.28 1.32 1.34 1.35
11 Panchmukhani 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.38
12 Harinbhanga 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.34
13 Khatuajhuri 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.33
14 Chamta 1.26 1.28 1.29 1.32
15 Matla 1.30 1.3 1.30 1.31
16 Chandkhali 1.28 1.3 1.31 1.32
17 Goashaba 1.28 1.29 1.29 1.32
18 Gona 1.26 1.29 1.33 1.34
19 Chhotahardi 1.29 1.3 1.31 1.33
20 Baghmara 1.30 1.32 1.34 1.37
21 Mayadwip 1.27 1.29 1.32 1.35
22 Jambu Island 1.32 1.38 1.39 1.44
23 Lothian 1.30 1.33 1.36 1.38
24 Sagar 1.33 1.41 1.50 1.52
Annexure 12A.3 Mean OCD (in kg/m2) of Sundarban soil

Station 1–10 cm 10–20 cm 20–30 cm 30–40 cm
Muriganga 1.927 1.915 1.835 1.822
Saptamukhi 1.677 1.690 1.676 1.675
Thakuran 1.638 1.613 1.559 1.571
Herobhanga 1.365 1.336 1.333 1.317
Ajmalmari 1.192 1.166 1.170 1.148
Dhulibasani 1.112 1.072 1.067 1.082
Chulkathi 0.960 0.975 0.962 0.944
Arbesi 1.406 1.376 1.407 1.404
Jhilla 1.402 1.383 1.383 1.397
Pirkhali 1.331 1.333 1.327 1.323
Panchmukhani 1.357 1.340 1.323 1.270
Harinbhanga 1.370 1.329 1.274 1.193
Khatuajhuri 1.450 1.407 1.350 1.237
Chamta 1.323 1.267 1.187 1.135
Matla 1.118 1.092 1.066 1.061
Chandkhali 1.050 1.053 1.035 1.003
Goashaba 0.986 0.955 0.942 0.911
Gona 0.945 0.942 0.971 0.898
Chhotahardi 1.006 0.975 0.969 0.944
Baghmara 0.949 0.924 0.911 0.849
Mayadwip 0.902 0.890 0.858 0.810
Jambu Island 1.056 1.090 0.959 0.950
Lothian 1.703 1.742 1.714 1.628
Sagar Island 1.077 1.100 1.065 1.003
2.500 1-10 cm
10-20 cm
20-30 cm
2.000
30-40 cm
OCD (Kg/Sq.m)
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
Muriganga
Saptamukhi
Thakuran
Herobhanga
Ajmalmari
Dhulibasani
Chulkathi
Arbesi
Jhilla
Pirkhali
Panchmukhani
Harinbhanga
Khatuajhuri
Chamta
Matla
Chandkhali
Goashaba
Gona
Chhatahardi
Baghmara
Mayadwip
Jambu Island
Lothian
Sagar Island
Fig. 12A.7 Spatial variation of OCD

Fig. 12A.8 Map showing OCD in the study area
Stn.9 (1.391 kg/m2) > Stn.13 (1.361 kg/m2) > Stn.7 (0.960 kg/m2) > Stn.17 (0.948 kg/m2) >
Stn.4 (1.338 kg/m2) > Stn.10 (1.329 kg/m2) > Stn.18 (0.939 kg/m2) > Stn.20 (0.908 kg/m2) >
Stn.11 (1.322 kg/m2) > Stn.12 (1.291 kg/m2) > Stn.21 (0.865 kg/m2) (Annexure 12A.3 and
Stn.14 (1.228 kg/m2) > Stn.5 (1.169 kg/m2) > Figs. 12A.7 and 12A.8).
Stn.15 (1.084 kg/m2) > Stn.6 (1.083 kg/m2) > We compared our carbon density data (rang-
Stn.24 (1.061 kg/m2) > Stn.16 (1.035 kg/m2) > ing from 0.865 kg/m2 to 1.875 kg/m2) with sev-
Stn.22 (1.014 kg/m2) > Stn.19 (0.974 kg/m2) > eral global reports published between 2004 and
References 479
7
6
OCD (Kg/sq.m)
5
4
3
2
1
0
n
il A A pa lia dy
ic
so
, US US Ja s tra stu
o r n ,
an i
ste
a Au ur
ce Oh ea in
aw rn O
neo t in t h k t e
ar
i
re
s
so
u O as
tu fo in he
Es i n t he v es o ut
Ra at o s
ds gr he
a n an a tt
M
etl ds
W an
etl
W
Fig. 12A.9 Global figures of OCD compared to our study in February 2012
2011. OCD of 3.03 kg/m2, 0.033 kg/m2, 5.73 kg/ out the lower Gangetic region sustaining the
m2, 6.61 kg/m2 and 0.38 kg/m2 was observed in Indian Sundarban. The present approach is thus
rainforests of Ohio, USA (Bernal and Mitsch an attempt to fill this gap area and establish a
2008); wetlands at the southeastern United States baseline data of SOC and OCD in the mangrove-
(Brevik and Homburg 2004); mangroves in dominated Indian part of Sundarban delta.
Okinawa, Japan (Khan et al. 2007); wetlands at
the southeastern Australia (Howe et al. 2009) and
estuarine oceanic soil (Donato et al. 2011)
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Abhijit Mitra · Sufia Zaman

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1 Marine Ecosystem: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

6.2.1 Fishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

10 Threats to Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Abhijit Mitra Associate Professor and former Head, Department of Marine

Sufia Zaman presently serving as Adjunct Assistant Professor in the Depart-

trial experiments on iron fertilization and subsequent enhancement of pri-

Contents About 71 % of the surface of the planet Earth is

# Springer India 2016 1

Table 1.1 Mean area and volume of oceans and seas

Water depth (m)

BENTHIC PROVINCE 4000 m

BIOZONES LIGHT ZONES

Fig. 1.1 Benthic compartment of the marine ecosystem

Fig. 1.5 Eulittoral zone: survival ground of coastal vegetation

Fig. 1.6 Eulittoral zone adjacent to mangrove forest

Fig. 1.7 Slightly acidic pH of the eulittoral substratum

1.1.3 Sublittoral Zone of sublittoral zone extends up to the edge of the

Fig. 1.8 Pinkish colour denoting the continental shelves

Established baseline 2500 m isobath + 100 M

Fig. 1.10 Major trenches of the world

Fig. 1.11 Components of

Continental margin Continental rise Ocean basin floor

Abyssal Oceanic Sea mounts Trenches

Fig. 1.12 Division of

Fig. 1.13 Large algae on hard substrata in the photic zone

Annexure 1A: Oscillation of Seafloor

1. Introduction In the shore between Tuticorin and Vaippar

Fig. 1A.1 Location of Gulf of Mannar

Contents Estuaries are unique spots on our planet, which are

2.1 Definition and Ecosystem

An estuary may be defined as the zone of intersec-

# Springer India 2016 21

Table 2.1 Traditional uses of mangrove species

Fig. 2.5 Bonbibi: ‘the

Table 2.2 Components of economic valuation of an estuarine ecosystem

Table 2.3 Approximate Items Price ($)

I. On the basis of salinity, estuaries can be ultimately becomes uniformly saline.

Fig. 2.7 Mangroves are potential controlling agents of erosion

Table 2.4 Economic valuation methods for water

Table 2.5 Types of estuaries and its characteristics

Well- Strong tidal currents distribute and mix the

Partially Seawater enters below the mixed water that is

Fjord- Fresh River water flows seawards over the surface of

Fig. 2.9 (continued)

Fig. 2.9 (continued)

the salinity intrusion is confined to 70 km from 0.54 psu/year (in Chamta) to

Fig. 2.13 Wave and tide-

Annexure 2A: Blending Mangroves

Table 2.7 Comparative study of tide and wave-dominated estuaries

Macrobrachium rosenbergii. This mangrove asso- ecological management. Continuous erosive

planet earth. The entire mechanism of aerobic

Table 2A.1 Cost benefit analysis of the project

Scheme 2B.1 Structure

Preventive Scavenging Repair

..... Hydrophilic Lipophilic

Fig. 2B.1 Astaxanthin structure

Fig. 2B.2 Pro-oxidants

Table 2B.2 Astaxanthin Natural astaxanthin sources Astaxanthin concentration (ppm)