T H E FA C T S O N F I L E

COMPANION TO

CLASSICAL
DRAMA
CD
JOHN E. THORBURN, JR.
 Dedicated to
Penny, Alexis, and Chloe

The Facts On File Companion to Classical Drama

Copyright © 2005 by John E. Thorburn, Jr.

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Thorburn, John E.
The Facts On File companion to classical drama / written by John E. Thorburn, Jr.
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 CONTENTS
CD
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv
INTRODUCTION v

A-TO-Z ENTRIES 1

APPENDIXES
I. PLAYS ATTRIBUTED TO THE EIGHT CLASSICAL PLAYWRIGHTS
WITH SURVIVING WORKS 593
II. LIST OF CLASSICAL PLAYWRIGHTS 599
III. LIST OF ALL TITLES ATTRIBUTED TO CLASSICAL PLAYWRIGHTS 609
IV. CHRONOLOGY 644
V. SELECTED BOOKS ON CLASSICAL DRAMA 647

INDEX 661
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CD
Thanks to Henry Rasof for introducing me to this proj- Froberg, John Nordling, Phillip Donnelly, Niall Slater,
ect and assisting in constructing the original proposal. Alden Smith, DeAnna Toten Beard, and Amy Vail.
I would also like to express my appreciation to Anne Thanks to my students Andrew Alwine and Candace
Saverese for her help and advice in the early stages of Spain, who read substantial portions of the manu-
this project. My deep appreciation also to Jeff Soloway script. Special gratitude goes to Thelma Mathews, our
for his help and guidance with this work. I am departmental assistant, who not only helped with
extremely grateful to the following colleagues, who were proofreading, but also helped compile the appendices
kind enough to read sections of this work: Antonios and selected books on classical drama. Any faults and
Augoustakis, Anne-Marie Bowery, Julia Dyson, Brent errors that remain are mine alone.

iv
 INTRODUCTION
CD
If the experience of today’s American students is the creatures, magical powers, unpredictable divinities,
same as my own was, a student’s first encounter with heroes of superhuman strength and endurance, and
the world of drama will be to read a play of people who contrive fiendish or fantastic schemes. I
Shakespeare, perhaps Romeo and Juliet or Julius Caesar, hope that this work will inspire students to challenge
and possibly also Arthur Miller’s The Crucible or themselves to go beyond the classical plays they
Tennessee Williams’ A Streetcar Named Desire. At some encounter in their formative studies and read not only
point during their midteens, students may also read a additional classical plays (one could read all the sur-
play or two by Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus and viving plays within three months at the pace of one per
Antigone, or perhaps Euripides’ Medea. What teenage day) but other works produced by two of world’s
students may not be aware of (I certainly was not at that greatest cultures.
age) is that several dozen other classical plays exist and The Facts On File Companion to Classical Drama was
that the Greeks and Romans enjoyed watching come- written for those without any previous introduction to
dies as well as tragedies. Although students may soon classical studies or the ancient Greek or Latin lan-
realize that the ideals and issues dealt with in plays such guage. I would be delighted, however, if scholars also
as Antigone and Medea are no different from the ones we benefited from this work. In this book, classical drama
face today, they may not know that the plays of the is taken to refer primarily to plays (tragedies, come-
Greeks and Romans can also tell us much more. dies, and satyr plays) written by Greek and Roman
This book has arisen from undergraduate courses I authors between the sixth century B.C.E. and the sec-
teach in classical drama and mythology. I like having ond century C.E. Understanding classical drama is a
my students read classical dramas because, after no daunting task. Of the thousands of plays written dur-
more than 90 minutes of reading by them, I can pres- ing this period, only about 85 survive in more or less
ent a complete work, beautiful poetry, and ideas that complete form, and though we know the names of
are powerful and enduring. Within this brief period of some 300 classical playwrights, the surviving 85 plays
reading, they meet with issues of culture, politics, reli- can be attributed to only eight writers: Aeschylus,
gion, history, and educational philosophy. Students of Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Menander,
classical drama face questions such as “What is jus- Plautus, Terence, and Seneca. The works of the other
tice?” and “What is the relationship between human playwrights are known only from references made to
beings and the divine?” Furthermore, these critical them by other ancient authors or from partial manu-
questions are embedded within a world of fantastic scripts that have survived. Similarly, many other plays

v
vi INTRODUCTION

written by the eight major authors have also been lost the average student (e.g., Lloyd-Jones’ translation of
and exist today only in fragments or references. Sophocles’ fragments).
Readers should also note that the interpretations
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK provided in the commentary section can highlight only
a few of the major themes or issues in a particular play.
The Facts On File Companion to Classical Drama focuses Students unfamiliar with classical scholarship should
on the eight major classical playwrights, all their sur- be advised that in some cases scholars have written
viving plays, the major characters in the important hundreds of articles and books about a single play
tragedies (e.g., Agamemnon, Heracles, Electra, Orestes) (e.g., Sophocles’ Antigone, Euripides’ Bacchae).
and Aristophanic comedies, and the names of persons, Students should also be aware that much of what we
places, and things important to understanding classical “know” about classical drama is based on information
drama. For example, one cannot begin to understand that cannot be verified, since so many classical plays
most of Aristophanes’ plays without a working knowl- have been lost. Thus, the phrases may be, seem to be,
edge of the Peloponnesian War or of the historical fig- and appear to be occur frequently in this work.
ures Cleon and Alcibiades. Similarly, one cannot under- Information on some of the fragmentary plays from
stand Aeschylus’ Oresteia without knowing about antiquity is present in the Companion to Classical Drama
mythological characters such as Tantalus, Pelops, and may be listed in the entry for a particular mytho-
Atreus, and Thyestes. Accordingly, the Companion to logical or historical figure or, on rare occasions, in an
Classical Drama provides entries for such items. The entry on a particular place. Thus, information about
book also provides a number of terms connected with Euripides’ Philoctetes (of which only fragments exist)
drama (such as chorus, parody, supplication) as well as can be found under the entry for the figure Philoctetes.
entries on most of the major figures in ancient mythol- Information about plays entitled Women of Lemnos may
ogy, many of whom were the subjects of lost dramas. I be found under the entry on the island of Lemnos.
have not provided individual entries for the characters Many entries conclude with a list of ancient sources.
in the comedies of Menander, Plautus, and Terence, These lists cannot cite every reference to a particular
works that employ stock characters such as prostitutes, topic in classical literature but should allow readers to
pimps, and slaves. Instead, I have included individual check what some of the major Greek or Roman writers
entries on the broader categories into which these char- have said about a particular topic. These lists focus on
acters fall. In the course of an entry, the reader will find references to the surviving plays of the major play-
words in small capital letters (e.g., EURIPIDES, HERACLES). wrights but also include references to fragments of the
Words thus capitalized have corresponding entries else- ancient playwrights. In these cases, a reference such as
where in the book. Only the first occurrence of such the following appears: “Cratinus, fragment 85.1 Kock.”
words in an entry is capitalized. Here, Cratinus is the ancient author; 85.1 refers to
The Companion to Classical Drama’s most extensive fragment 85, line 1; and Kock is the last name of one
entries are on individual plays. For each of the surviv- of the modern editors of Cratinus’ fragments. Because
ing plays, the book provides a plot summary, a com- Kock edited several volumes of ancient fragments,
mentary, and a few bibliographical references for fur- readers will sometimes find a number after his name or
ther study. Given the format and audience of this the name of other editors of fragments, such as
series, the number of bibliographical references for Philemon, fragment 42.1 Kock 2. The number after
each entry is limited, and preference has been given to Kock’s name refers to the second volume of fragments
works in English that attempt to provide an extensive edited by Kock. An additional remark should be made
treatment of a particular topic. Because translations of regarding Kock. Whereas Kock’s work on the frag-
the plays are widely available, I have listed in Selected ments has now been superseded by R. Kassel and C.
Books on Classical Drama only a select few, giving Austin’s Poetae Comici Graeci, Liddell and Scott’s Greek-
preference to those that might not be readily known to English Dictionary (the dictionary most widely used by
 INTRODUCTION vii

classicists) follows Kock’s numbering of the fragments. References to Greek texts in the Companion to Classical
Additionally, the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae computer Drama follow those found in version E of the Thesaurus
database of Greek texts has not yet incorporated Kassel Linguae Graecae compact disk. References to Latin texts
and Austin’s edition of the Greek comic fragments. follow those found in version 5.3 of the Packard
Therefore, I have followed Kock’s numbering because Humanities Institute compact disk. Students reading
it seems the most commonly available edition of the translations of the plays should note that the book, sec-
Greek comic fragments. tion, and line numbers given in this book may not match
The ancient sources section also includes references the numbering systems in their particular translation.
to other ancient authors who are not playwrights. In Regarding the spelling of Greek proper names,
some cases, these authors (e.g., Homer) may have influ- although the current trend in classical scholarship is to
enced the playwrights. In other cases, the playwrights give literal transliterations of Greek names (e.g.,
may have influenced them (e.g., Ovid). Frequently cited Aischylos rather than Aeschylus), I have chosen to fol-
also are the works of Apollodorus (Library and Epitome) low cultural habit and actual usage. Thus, in contrast
and Hyginus (Fables), both of which provide brief sum- to those who write Asklepios, Hektor, and Herakles, I
maries of stories from classical mythology. The most fre- have adopted spellings that might be more recogniza-
quently cited authors from literature other than the ble to someone who is unfamiliar with classical litera-
plays are Apollodorus, Aristotle, Herodotus, Hesiod, ture (Asclepius, Hector, and Heracles). A more difficult
Homer, Hyginus, Ovid, Pausanias, Plato, Pollux, and issue has been the choice of how to list the titles for the
Thucydides. various plays, because translations often deviate from
For those unfamiliar with the method of citing the ancient title. Because this work is designed prima-
ancient authors, a few explanatory remarks may be in rily for use by those who will be working from transla-
order. For example, the citation “Euripides, Medea tions, entries for such plays are found under a widely
25–30” refers to lines 25 through 30 in Euripides’ accepted English translation for a play’s title. Where
Medea; “Homer, Iliad 2.176” refers to Book 2, line 176, the appended English translation of a Greek or Latin
of Homer’s Iliad; “Apollodorus, Library 1.9.15” refers to work is not italicized, this indicates that the work does
Book 1, section 9, subsection 15, of Apollodorus’ not appear in a published English-language edition.
Library. In the case of an author who has only one sur- Cross-references are also provided to help alleviate
viving work, only the author’s name and the reference confusion. As an additional aid, the appendices list all
numbers are given. Thus, “Herodotus 8.7” refers to the 85 surviving plays, grouped by author, with the
Book 8, section 7, of Herodotus’ Histories. titles used in the text of this book.
viii INTRODUCTION
 C AD
ABAE In the northwest part of the region of PHO- ABYLA See CALPE.
CIS,Abae was the location of an oracle of APOLLO. The
Persian XERXES severely damaged the sanctuary at Abae ACAMAS A son of THESEUS and brother of
during his invasion of Greece. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pau- DEMOPHON. See also CHILDREN OF HERACLES.
sanias, 10.35.1–2; Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos 900]
ACASTUS (AKASTOS) The son of Pelias
ABSYRTUS (APSYRTUS) Absyrtus, the son and Anaxibia (or Phylomache), and the brother of
of AEETES and Eidyia or the Caucasian nymph Aster- ALCESTIS, Pisidice, Pelopia, and Hippothoe, Acastus
odeia, was the younger brother of MEDEA. When JASON was a king of IOLCUS. Acastus was also the father of
and Medea escaped from COLCHIS, Aeetes pursued them. Sthenele, LAODAMEIA, and Sterope by either Astydameia
To counter the pursuit, Medea, accompanied by Absyr- or CRETHEUS’ daughter, Hippolyte. Acastus accompa-
tus aboard the ship, killed her brother by cutting up his nied JASON and the Argonauts on their quest for the
body and scattering his limbs upon the sea, an action Golden Fleece. After the murder of his father through
that caused Aeetes to break off his pursuit. EURIPIDES also the treachery of MEDEA and Jason, Acastus became
makes Medea the killer of her brother, but according to king of Iolcus and drove them from the town. SENECA
the fourth century B.C.E. epic poet Apollonius Rhodius, suggests that after Jason and Medea went to Corinth
Medea lures Absyrtus, pursuing the Argo, into an Acastus sought them for punishment. EURIPIDES sug-
ambush by which Jason kills him. Hyginus reports that gests that Acastus might retaliate against ADMETUS for
Jason kills Absyrtus without the use of trickery. Apol- the death of Alcestis.
lodorus makes Absyrtus’ burial site a place in the Black According to Euripides, Acastus has banished
Sea region called Tomi, meaning “cut” and referring to PELEUS, the father of ACHILLES, from THESSALY. The cir-
the manner of his death, whereas Hyginus says Medea cumstances are as follows: According to Apollodorus,
buries her brother at Absoros, an island in the Adriatic Acastus’ wife, Astydameia, fell in love with Peleus and
Sea. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.23; tried to seduce him. When Peleus rejected her, Asty-
Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.303–481; Hyginus, dameia told Peleus’ wife (his spouse before his union
Fables 23; Seneca, Medea 131–32, 911–12] with Thetis) that Peleus was going to marry Acastus’
BIBLIOGRAPHY daughter Sterope. Hearing this, Peleus’ wife hanged
Edgeworth, R. J. “The Eloquent Ghost: Absyrtus in Seneca’s herself. Astydameia also informed Acastus that Peleus
Medea,” Classica et Mediaevalia 41 (1990): 151–61. had attempted to rape her. Acastus took Peleus to hunt

1
2 ACCIUS

on Mount PELION, and when Peleus fell asleep, Acas- the fifth century B.C.E.; he was “widely accused of
tus, hoping Peleus would be killed, hid Peleus’ sword being of foreign birth” (Sommerstein). His mother may
and left him on the mountain. The defenseless Peleus have been an Athenian; his father may have been from
awoke and the CENTAURS attacked, but the centaur CHI- MYSIA. Acestor’s nickname was Sacas, a reference to a
RON saved him and gave him back his sword. tribe called the Sacae (the Scythians who lived in Asia).
Acastus also appears in one version of the tragic [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 31–32, Wasps
events associated with his daughter Laodameia. After 1221; Athenaeus 6.237a; Cratinus, fragment 85.1
the death of PROTESILAUS, Laodameia’s husband, a Kock; Eupolis, fragment 159.14 Kock; Theopompus,
statue of him was made and the grieving Laodameia fragment 60.2 Kock]
was accustomed to holding and kissing it. A servant
BIBLIOGRAPHY
saw her do so and told Acastus, who thought Lao-
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
dameia was having intercourse with another man. sity Press, 1995, 146–47.
When Acastus found the statue, he had it burned. The Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
sorrowful Laodomeia then committed suicide by Teubner, 1880.
throwing herself into the same fire. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
Apollodorus, Library 1.9.10, 3.13.3; Euripides, Alcestis Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 228.
732–33, Trojan Women 1,127–38; Hyginus, Fables
103–4; Seneca, Medea 257, 415, 521, 526] ACHAEANS The group of people who inhabited
Achaea, a region in the northwestern part of the Pelo-
ACCIUS (CA. 170–90 B.C.E.) Accius, a Roman ponnese on mainland Greece. EURIPIDES, ION, 1,591–94,
writer, produced several types of literature. The content derives the region’s name from Achaeus, a son of XUTHUS
of one work, Parerga, is unknown. Two works, Didas- and CREUSA, who eventually ruled over the region. Poets
calica and Pragmatica, both dealt with various aspects of more often use the name Achaeans as a synonym for the
literature, especially drama. Accius’ Sotadica seems to Greeks of the Peloponnese or for the Greeks as a whole,
have been a collection of erotic poetry. Accius was the especially the coalition of Greeks who fought during the
author of about 45 tragedies. At least one-quarter of Trojan War. MENANDER wrote a play entitled Achaeans
these were probably modeled on plays by EURIPIDES; (Greek: Achaioi) from which a single three-line fragment
SOPHOCLES and AESCHYLUS (in that order) were also survives (fragment 113 Austin).
drawn upon. Titles of two historical dramas (see FABULA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRAETEXTA) are known: Aeneadae (or Decius) and Brutus.
Austin, C. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta in Papyris
BIBLIOGRAPHY Reperta. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1973.
Slater, N. W. “Two Republican Poets on Drama: Terence and
Accius.” In Antike Dramentheorien und ihre Rezeption. ACHAEUS (BORN CA. 484–481 B.C.E.) A
Edited by Bernhard Zimmermann. Stuttgart: M&P Verl. Greek tragedian from ERETRIA who may have written as
Für Wiss. & Forsch., 1992. many as 44 plays, although only 19 or 20 titles survive
and fewer than five dozen fragments remain. At least
ACCLAMATIO A Latin term (plural: acclama- seven of the surviving titles are recorded as SATYR PLAYS,
tiones) that refers to groups of people (arranged for by and Diogenes Laertius reports that the philosopher
a person connected with a play, such as an actor) Menedemus considered only Aeschylus’ satyr plays as
placed in the crowd to applaud rhythmically or to superior to those of Achaeus. In the first century B.C.E.,
shout. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Ovid, Art of Love 1.113; Plau- the Alexandrian scholar Didymus wrote a commentary
tus, Amphitruo 65–85] on Achaeus, and the Alexandrian scholars included
him in their canon (a list of the best classical poets).
ACESTOR A tragic poet from ATHENS whom a Athenaeus comments that Achaeus’ style of composi-
few comic poets mention in the last three decades of tion was “polished,” but that he expressed ideas darkly
 ACHARNIANS 3

and that he often wrote enigmatically. Achaeus’ first ambassador to the king of Persia next enters the assem-
play appeared around 447 B.C.E., and he won first prize bly. The ambassador’s report indicates that he has done
in a competition on one occasion. Athenaeus states nothing but waste Athenian money. The ambassador,
that Euripides borrowed a line from Achaeus’ satyr however, has with him Pseudartabas, whose name
play Aethon (“Cypris exists in satiety, not in a hungry means “false Artabas” and who serves as the “Eye” of
man”). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Athenaeus, 6.270b, 10.451c; the king of Persia. Pseudartabas, whose speech Aristo-
Diogenes Laertius, 2.133] phanes casts partly in Greek, partly in gibberish, tells
the Athenians that they will not receive any financial
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
backing from the Persians, despite the ambassador’s
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. interpretation to the contrary. With no hope of peace
in sight, Dicaeopolis summons Amphitheus and pays
ACHARNAE An Athenian DEME. The chorus of the divinity to arrange a peace treaty between his fam-
ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS are from Acharnae. ily and the Spartans, a treaty that will allow him to
trade with the Megarians and other allies of the Spar-
ACHARNIANS ARISTOPHANES (425 B.C.E.) tans. When the next visitors to the assembly, a group
This COMEDY defeated offerings from the veteran play- of Odomantian mercenaries from Thrace, steal
wrights CRATINUS and EUPOLIS and captured the first Dicaeopolis’ lunch, Dicaeopolis pretends that he feels a
prize at the LENAEA (see line 504) in ATHENS. The play’s drop of rain and calls for the assembly to be dismissed.
setting shifts several times but is primarily Athens and As the assembly breaks up, Amphitheus returns
its outlying areas. The play deals with the struggles of from Sparta with the peace treaties, actually wineskins.
an Athenian farmer, DICAEOPOLIS (honest citizen), in Because the Greek verb spendein can mean both “to
the sixth year of the PELOPONNESIAN WAR between conclude a peace treaty” and “to pour a drink offering,”
ATHENS and SPARTA. One cause of this war, the MEGAR- ARISTOPHANES takes literal advantage of this double
IAN DECREE, banned the people of MEGARA, a town sev- meaning. Dicaeopolis delights in the taste of the 30-
eral miles west of Athens, from trading in Athenian year treaty and accepts it. Amphitheus runs out,
ports. The decree caused hardship not only for Megar- because some Acharnian veterans (who compose the
ians but also for Athenians such as Dicaeopolis, who play’s chorus) from the battle of MARATHON have
counted on trade with the Megarians to supplement smelled his peace treaties and start to chase him. The
their income. Furthermore, because the Spartans rav- Acharnians, whose grapevines the Spartans destroyed
aged territory outside the walls of Athens during the during their incursions into Athenian territory, favored
war, people such as Dicaeopolis, who lived in the the war with Sparta (compare Thucydides 2.21.3).
countryside, were brought within the city walls for At first, Dicaeopolis distracts the Acharnians by
safety: a situation that made the country folk unhappy. leading his family’s own procession in honor of Diony-
As the Acharnians opens, the audience listens to sus. As Dicaeopolis ends the festivities, the aged Achar-
Dicaeopolis, who, waiting for the Athenian assembly to nians, who have learned that Dicaeopolis has made
begin its business, longs for his country home and peace with the Spartans and their allies, attempt to
complains of the war and its economic hardships and stone Dicaeopolis. To hold off the Acharnians,
the apparent unwillingness of the Athenian assembly Dicaeopolis takes hostage some charcoal—the Achar-
to discuss peace. When the assembly opens, a divinity, nians were known for their production of charcoal—
Amphitheus (whose name means “divine on both and threatens to “kill” it if they do not put down their
sides”), tells the assembly that the gods have sent him rocks. This scene parodies a nonextant play by EURIPI-
to make a treaty with the Spartans. After the Athenian DES, Telephus, in which TELEPHUS apparently took
magistrates indicate that they will not provide AGAMEMNON’s son, ORESTES, hostage and threatened to
Amphitheus with money to make his journey, the kill him. After the Acharnians drop their stones,
divinity is thrown out of the assembly. An Athenian Dicaeopolis persuades them to allow him to costume
4 ACHARNIANS

himself appropriately for the speech. At this point, than go off to war. Dicaeopolis agrees to this request
Dicaeopolis goes to the house of the tragic poet Euripi- and provides the bride with some wine with which to
des and borrows the tattered costume of Telephus. anoint her husband’s penis.
Dicaeopolis hopes that his wearing Telephus’ rags will At this point, the Pitcher Feast is interrupted by the
draw sympathy and understanding from the Acharnian arrival of a messenger who summons Lamachus to war,
chorus. while another messenger calls Dicaeopolis to drink,
Dressed as Telephus, Dicaeopolis makes his argument dinner, and dancing girls. The play ends by showing a
to the Acharnian chorus. Dicaeopolis reduces the causes side-by-side view of the two men in their various envi-
of the war to the denunciation of Megarians who try to ronments. Dicaeopolis experiences all the pleasures of
trade in Athenian ports, the abduction of a Megarian peace (warm weather, wine, and women), while
PROSTITUTE by some drunken Athenians, and the retalia- Lamachus suffers the hardships of war (cold, soldiers’
tory abduction of two Athenian prostitutes by the rations, and injury).
Megarians; the ensuing Megarian decree; and the Megar-
ians’ eventual plea to the Spartans for help. Dicaeopolis’ COMMENTARY
argument divides the opinion of the chorus, and they As shown by its victory at the Lenaea, Acharnians
summon the Athenian general LAMACHUS for help. achieved critical acclaim in its own day. Modern schol-
When Lamachus arrives, he and Dicaeopolis insult one ars also regard the play highly. Whitman calls it “one of
another, mainly arguing that whereas a young man such [Aristophanes’] greatest works.” Acharnians contains a
as Lamachus always receives his military pay, the old number of noteworthy features. First, Aristophanes
men who serve in the army do not get theirs. At this uses dialect more extensively in this play than in any
point, Dicaeopolis and Lamachus exit, leaving the cho- other extant drama. Other than Aristophanes’ own
rus to deliver the PARABASIS, in which they praise Aristo- Attic Greek, spoken by the play’s Athenian characters,
phanes’ concern for and instruction of the state, and Aristophanes gives the Persian Pseudartabas a sort of
they promise that Aristophanes will serve the audience gibberish Greek to speak (100–104); the Megarian
well in the future. The chorus also condemn the Athe- merchant speaks his regional dialect (729–835), as
nians for their treatment of aged war veterans. does the Boeotian merchant (860–954).
After the parabasis, Dicaeopolis sets up his own Aristophanes’ use of multiple settings in the play is
marketplace and begins to trade wares with various also remarkable, especially because his audience would
merchants who enter. He trades garlic and salt with a have seen a simple backdrop that Dover thinks makes
Megarian for “piggies,” in fact the Megarian’s daughters use of no more than two doors—one representing the
dressed as pigs. Next, when Dicaeopolis encounters a entrance to Dicaeopolis’ house, the other the door to
Theban merchant, a market informant tries to Lamachus’ house. Thus, peace and war literally live
denounce the pair; Dicaeopolis has the informant next door to one another in this play. As the play opens,
packed up and trades him to the Theban for some eels, Dicaeopolis is at the Pnyx near the Athenian acropolis.
a delicacy from that region. After the assembly breaks up, the audience must now
After the transaction with the Theban, a servant imagine that Dicaeopolis goes to his home in the coun-
from Lamachus enters and summons Dicaeopolis to tryside, which Aristophanes seems to place next door to
the PITCHER FEAST. As Dicaeopolis prepares for this the home of Lamachus. After his confrontation with the
feast, various people ask him for some of his “peace.” Acharnians and Lamachus, Dicaeopolis goes to Euripi-
The farmer Dercetes, blind as a result of weeping for des’ home, traditionally on the island of Salamis, but for
his two oxen destroyed during a Boeotian incursion, the purposes of the play conveniently located beside
wants Dicaeopolis to heal his eyes. Dicaeopolis, how- Dicaeopolis’ home. Dicaeopolis then returns to his own
ever refuses. Next, a bridegroom sends one of his home, outside which he eventually sets up his market-
groomsmen to ask for some “peace” so that he can stay place. The play’s final scene is a tour de force, and the
home and have intercourse with his new bride rather audience must imagine that Dicaeopolis basks in the
 ACHELOUS 5

sunshine outside his own house, while Lamachus Dover, K. J. Aristophanic Comedy. Berkeley: University of
labors in the snows of Thrace. California Press, 1972, 78–88.
The Acharnians is also noteworthy for the use of Edmunds, Lowell. “Aristophanes’ Acharnians,” Yale Classical
tragic parody to enhance comedy. In addition to Studies 26 (1980): 1–41.
Foley, H. P. “Tragedy and Politics in Aristophanes’ Acharni-
Aristophanes’ employment of Euripides’ Telephus, the
ans,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 108 (1988): 33–47.
wounding of Lamachus that occurs at the end of the MacDowell, D. M. “The Nature of Aristophanes’
play may also allude to Telephus, because Telephus’ Akharnians,” Greece & Rome 30 (1983): 143–62.
wound prompted him to journey to Greece and seek Reckford, Kenneth J. Aristophanes’ Old-and-New Comedy.
a cure. Aristophanes commonly uses and abuses Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987,
Euripidean poetry in his repertoire and appears to do 162–215.
so to an even greater extent in his THESMOPHORIAZUSAE Sommerstein, A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, Achar-
and FROGS. nians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 11.
Acharnians also provides an excellent example of a Whitman, Cedric H. Aristophanes and the Comic Hero. Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964, 59–79.
typical Aristophanic play and a typical Aristophanic
hero. It is one of three extant Aristophanic plays (com-
pare also PEACE and LYSISTRATA) that focus on the Pelo- ACHELOAN CITIES Places of uncertain loca-
ponnesian War. As in Peace and Lysistrata, so in tion either near the Thracian coast or on islands off the
Acharnians the hero contrives, as Sommerstein coast from THRACE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Per-
describes it, a “fantastic project” to achieve peace with sians 867]
the Spartans and their allies. Unlike events in the other
two extant peace plays, in the Acharnians the hero’s ACHELOUS (ACHELOOS) Achelous was
peace involves only himself and a select few (his fam- the divinity who ruled over the river (of the same
ily, those who trade with him, the bride and groom) name) that divides the regions of AETOLIA and Acarna-
upon whom he chooses to confer the benefits of his nia in southwestern Greece and flows into the Ionian
peace. As is typical in Aristophanic comedy, the hero’s Sea. Hesiod makes him the child of Oceanus and
plan must overcome obstacles. In this play, Dicaeopo- Tethys. EURIPIDES calls Achelous the father of DIRCE.
lis must overcome the Acharnians themselves and Several sources make him the father of the Sirens by
Lamachus. Ultimately, the hero triumphs and reaps the the MUSE Melpomene. Apollodorus also makes him the
rewards of peace often mentioned by Aristophanes: father of Hippodamas and ORESTES by Perimede; Pau-
sanias says the river fathered Pirene and the CASTALIAN
wine, women, and song. The final scene of Acharnians
SPRING. Achelous became a suitor for DEIANEIRA of
brilliantly conveys Aristophanes’ message to his fellow
CALYDON. Despite Achelous’ ability to alter his shape
Athenians: By accepting the ways of peace, one can
from a river to a bull, a serpent, or a creature that was
enjoy the sunshine, drink wine, eat fine foods, and
part ox, part man, HERACLES defeated him in a
enjoy the company of women; by choosing war, one
wrestling match for Deianeira’s hand in marriage when
must suffer through cold, eat soldiers’ rations, and risk
Heracles broke off one of his horns. Achelous recov-
injury and perhaps even death. As Reckford writes,
ered his horn, however, by trading Heracles the horn
“This comedy, like the Peace, not only plays out a
of AMALTHEA, the cornucopia, which had the ability to
recovery of the good things of peace . . . before the
produce as much food or drink as a person could
audience, but gives them an experience of recovery, of
want.
participation in the delights of peace, that must remind
Achelous is also connected with the story of
them feelingly of what they have lost.” ALCMEON. After he killed his mother, ERIPHYLE,
BIBLIOGRAPHY Alcmeon eventually went to Achelous’ springs. The
Carey, C. “The Purpose of Aristophanes’ Acharnians,” river purified Alcmeon of the murder and gave him
Rheinisches Museum 136 (1993): 245–63. his daughter, Callirrhoe, in marriage. Alcmeon later
6 ACHERON

colonized the land formed by the silt of the Achelous. not only broke the magic spell, but also angered
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.3.4, 1.7.3, Thetis, who left Peleus and returned to the sea. As a
2.7.5, 3.7.5; Aristophanes, Lysistrata 381; Euripides, young boy, Achilles was trained by the CENTAUR CHI-
Bacchae 519–20; Hesiod, Theogony 337–40; Hyginus, RON. Peleus gave PHOENIX as a tutor to Achilles as a
Fables 141; Pausanias, 2.2.3, 9.34.3, 10.8.9; Sopho- young man. When Menoitius, father of PATROCLUS,
cles, Trachinian Women 3–25; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus who accidentally caused a friend’s death, traveled to
299–304, 495–500] Phthia seeking purification for his son, Patroclus and
Achilles soon became inseparable friends.
ACHERON While two rivers in the upper world Thetis knew her son would die at TROY if he fought
were called Acheron, one in Greece that passes through there, so Achilles, disguised as a woman, was taken to
Lake Acherusia to the Ionian Sea and one in southern the island of SCYROS, where he lived at the court of
Italy, Acheron, a word that means “lacking in joy,” is King LYCOMEDES. While on Scyros, Achilles became the
best known as the name of a river in the UNDERWORLD. father of NEOPTOLEMUS (also known as Pyrrhus) by
According to HOMER, two other rivers, the COCYTUS and Lycomedes’ daughter Deidamia. When the Greeks
the Pyriphlegethon, flow into the Acheron. Whereas were gathering to sail to Troy, ODYSSEUS went to Scyros
some ancient writers say that the souls of the dead had in search of Achilles. Odysseus tricked Achilles into
to cross the river Styx to enter the underworld, others revealing himself by visiting Lycomedes’ palace and
have souls crossing the Acheron. PLATO says the offering the women of the court some gifts. Among the
Acheron flows in the opposite direction from Oceanus, gifts, Odysseus had placed a shield and spear. As the
passes through desert regions, and eventually flows into women of the palace were gazing at the gifts, Odysseus
the underworld, where it empties into Lake Acherusia. arranged for a battle trumpet to be sounded. The dis-
Plato later says that souls who have lived neither a good guised Achilles, thinking the island was under attack,
nor a bad life go by the Acheron and travel by boat to grabbed the implements of war, thus revealing his
the lake, where they are purified and pay penalties if identity. Despite Thetis’ warning, Achilles accompa-
they have committed some wrong while alive. Some nied the Greeks to war at Troy. Physically, he was the
writers make Acheron synonymous with the under- most powerful of the Greek warriors in the Trojan War,
world. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against and in EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA AT AULIS he is described as
Thebes 854–60; Aristophanes, Frogs 471; Homer, outrunning a four-horse chariot.
Odyssey 10.513–15; Plato, Phaedo 112e; Plautus, The accounts of the Greeks’ voyage to Troy vary
Amphitruo 1078, Carthaginian 431, The Three-Dollar greatly. According to one account, the Greeks’ first
Day 525; Seneca, Hippolytus 198, Oedipus 578] attempt to sail there failed, as they landed in Mysia.
Achilles, fighting against the natives, wounded their
ACHILLES Achilles was the son of the mortal leader, TELEPHUS. The Greeks then returned to Greece
PELEUS and the goddess THETIS. ZEUS himself was in need of someone to guide them to Troy. Later, when
attracted to Thetis until a prophecy revealed that Telephus’ wound would not heal, Telephus traveled to
Thetis would produce a son destined to be more pow- Greece in accordance with an oracle, which stated that
erful than his father. Desiring to avoid this fate, Zeus only the one who wounded him could heal him. Ulti-
arranged for Thetis to marry Peleus. Some sources say mately, Telephus found Achilles, who healed him with
that Thetis attempted to make her son immortal by the rust from his spear. In thanks, Telephus agreed to
dipping him into the river STYX, but that she failed guide the Greeks to Troy.
because she did not immerse the child’s heel, by which The Greeks’ successful voyage to Troy started from
she was holding him. Others say that every day and Aulis; when adverse weather prevented them from sail-
night Thetis anointed Achilles with ambrosia and ing and an oracle declared that the sacrifice of
placed him in the embers of a fire. Peleus, however, Agamemnon’s daughter IPHIGENIA, was the only remedy
discovered Thetis anointing their son. His interruption for the bad weather, Iphigenia was lured to Aulis under
 ACHILLES 7

the pretext that she would marry Achilles, who knew Trojans would be frightened and retreat, thinking that
nothing about the plot until Iphigenia arrived at Aulis. Achilles had returned to the battle. Hector, however,
In Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis, Achilles offers to save killed Patroclus and stripped off Achilles’ armor. After
Iphigenia, but she eventually agrees to be sacrificed to HEPHAESTUS made Achilles a new suit of armor,
save her country. After the Greeks left Aulis, they Achilles and Agamemnon were reconciled and
landed on and stormed the island of Tenedos, just off Achilles returned to battle. Achilles killed numerous
the coast of Troy. In the fighting, Achilles killed Tenes, Trojans and dumped their bodies into the river Xan-
a son of APOLLO. Thetis had warned Achilles to avoid thus, causing the river itself to rise up against
Apollo’s sons, because any harm to a son of Apollo Achilles. Fortunately for Achilles, Hephaestus came
would invite retaliation from the god. Achilles, how- to his aid and with his flames drove the river back.
ever, apparently did not know Tenes’ lineage. Immedi- Soon, Achilles killed Hector, defiled his body by
ately upon arriving at Troy, Achilles made his presence dragging it behind his chariot, and held funeral
known as he encountered POSEIDON’s son CYCNUS. games for Patroclus. Eventually, at the insistence of
Despite the supposed invulnerability of Poseidon’s son the gods, Achilles ransomed Hector’s body, which was
Achilles managed to choke Cycnus to death. When the returned to Priam.
Trojans saw the havoc that Achilles was wreaking on After the death of Hector, Achilles killed several
their army, they retreated to the safety of their city and other notable Trojans or Trojan allies. After Achilles
made every effort to avoid engaging the Greeks in open killed the Amazon Penthesileia, some sources say that
battle. Occasionally, Achilles managed to pick off a few he fell in love with her. When his fellow Greek Ther-
Trojans who ventured outside the walls, most notably sites made fun of him for this, Achilles killed Thersites.
PRIAM’s son Troilus. Achilles also killed MEMNON, the son of EOS and
Otherwise, the Greeks had to content themselves Tithonus. Before the fall of Troy, an Apollo-guided
with making raids on the towns in the surrounding arrow from the Trojan Paris’ bow killed Achilles. As the
countryside and nearby islands that were allied with Greeks left the conquered city of Troy, Achilles’ ghost
the Trojans. Such raids continued for the first nine appeared and demanded a sacrifice at his grave: Polyx-
years of the war. Achilles was instrumental in the sack- ena, the daughter of Priam and Hecabe.
ing of almost two dozen towns. After a successful Achilles was an important figure in TRAGEDY, COM-
attack on Lyrnessus, Achilles was awarded a female EDY, and the SATYR PLAY, although he appears as a char-
captive, Briseis. In the 10th year of the war, Achilles acter in only one extant work—Euripides’ Iphigenia at
refused to fight any longer when Agamemnon took Aulis. As mentioned previously, in this play Agamem-
Briseis for himself. With Achilles out of the fighting, non lures his daughter Iphigenia to Aulis by pretend-
the Trojans began to engage the Greeks in open war- ing that she is to marry Achilles, when she is actually
fare. The Trojans’ success prompted Agamemnon to try to be sacrificed to Artemis. When Achilles discovers
to appease Achilles’ wrath. Agamemnon sent a few this plan, he is outraged (primarily because he has
Greeks to Achilles’ tent to win him over with a vast been used in Agamemnon’s scheme without his knowl-
amount of gifts and money, but Achilles refused edge) and tries to persuade the Greeks not to sacrifice
Agamemnon’s offer and stated that the following morn- Iphigenia. When he tries to do so, however, the Greek
ing he planned to sail home to Greece. army shouts him down. Achilles notes that even his
The next day, however, the Trojans smashed their own troops turned against him. Although Achilles
way into the Greek camp and the Trojan HECTOR was nobly tries to defend Iphigenia, one notes that when
threatening to burn the Greek ships. Achilles’ com- she is sacrificed Achilles is present and even offers a
rade, Patroclus, was so distressed by these circum- prayer before the sacrifice (1568–76).
stances that he begged Achilles to allow him to lead Numerous ancient dramas would have had
their troops into battle. Patroclus persuaded Achilles to Achilles as a character or would have dealt with some
allow him to wear Achilles’ armor, in the hope that the aspect of Achilles’ life. Greek playwrights who wrote
8 ACRAEA

dramas entitled Achilles are Aristarchus, Iophon, ACRISIUS A king of ARGOS, Acrisius was the son
Astydamas, the younger Carcinus, Diogenes, and of Abas and Aglaia. He was also the brother of Proetus
Cleophon. Chaeremon wrote Achilles Thersitoktonos and husband of Eurydice. Acrisius had no male off-
(Achilles, the killer of Thersites). Aeschylus wrote an spring and so he consulted an oracle, who told him
Achilles trilogy (Myrmidons, fragments 131–42 Radt; that he would not have a son, but that a son produced
Nereids, fragments 150–54 Radt; Phrygians or The by his daughter, DANAE, would kill him. To prevent his
Washing of Hector, fragments 263–72 Radt), of which own death, Acrisius imprisoned Danae in a bronze
survive several fragments; the work treated Patroclus’ chamber. Zeus, however, saw Danae, transformed him-
death, Achilles’ killing of Hector, and the ransom of self into a golden shower, and impregnated her. Acri-
Hector’s body from Achilles. Athenaeus says Aeschy- sius then placed both Danae and her child, PERSEUS, in
lus introduced the subject of love between males a wooden chest, which was thrown into the sea.
(Achilles and Patroclus) in Myrmidons. SOPHOCLES Perseus and Danae survived, landing on the island of
wrote Lovers of Achilles (Greek: Achilleos Erastai), SERIPHUS. Many years later, when Acrisius heard that
whose roughly 20 surviving lines reveal that it was a Perseus was returning to Argos, Acrisius went to LAR-
satyr play and that Peleus and Phoenix were charac- ISA in northern Greece. According to Pausanias,
ters. Both Ennius (fragments 1–9 Jocelyn) and ACCIUS Perseus heard that Acrisius was living in Larisa and
wrote Latin tragedies entitled Achilles that may have went to see his grandfather. When Perseus was giving
concerned the embassy to Achilles. [ANCIENT SOURCES: a demonstration of the discus, which Pausanias says
Athenaeus, 13.601a–b; Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis; Perseus invented, Acrisius was struck dead when he
Homer, Iliad; Hyginus, Fables 96–98, 106–14; Ovid, happened to walk into the path of the discus. Apol-
Metamorphoses 12.580–628; Seneca, Trojan Women; lodorus differs slightly, saying that Perseus was partic-
Sophocles, Philoctetes] ipating in the pentathlon when he struck Acrisius (in
the foot). SOPHOCLES wrote a play entitled Acrisius,
BIBLIOGRAPHY from which some brief fragments survive (see frag-
Jocelyn, H. D. The Tragedies of Ennius. Cambridge: Cam-
ments 60–76 Radt). According to Sutton, the usual view
bridge University Press, 1969.
is that the play treated the “earlier phases” of the Acri-
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, sius legend. Lloyd-Jones is inclined to think that Sopho-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. cles’ Acrisius and Danae were actually the same play.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, 2.2.1–2, 2.4.1–2.4.4;
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. Hyginus, Fables 63; Pausanias, 2.16.2, 3.13.8]
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Press of America, 1984.
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil-
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard Uni- Harvard University Press, 1996, 29.
versity Press, 1935. Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Sutton, Dana. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Harvard University Press, 1936. Press of America, 1984, 4.

ACRAEA A title given to the goddess HERA. ACROPOLIS An acropolis, by definition, is the
According to EURIPIDES, MEDEA buried her children high point of a city. When one thinks of an acropolis,
near the sanctuary of Hera Acraea. Because the play’s one usually thinks of the Athenian acropolis, the rocky
setting is CORINTH, this title would refer to a shrine on rise upon which the Parthenon stands. Along with the
the Corinthian ACROPOLIS, or Acrocorinth as it is usu- Parthenon, the Theater of DIONYSUS, the place where
ally called. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Medea 1379] the plays of dramatists such as AESCHYLUS, Sophocles,
 ACTORS 9

EURIPIDES, and ARISTOPHANES were performed, was Later, a single actor joined the chorus. The usual Greek
located on the slopes of the Athenian acropolis. Some- word for actor, hupokrites, means “answerer” or
times the Athenian acropolis serves as a location in “explainer,” and this term points to the relationship
drama. In Euripides’ ION, APOLLO sexually assaulted between the chorus and the actor. ARISTOTLE reports
CREUSA near the Athenian acropolis and near the same that AESCHYLUS introduced a second actor and that
place Creusa abandoned the child who resulted from SOPHOCLES introduced a third, although clearly three
that union. In Aristophanes’ LYSISTRATA, the women actors are needed at certain points in Aeschylus’
seize the Athenian acropolis so that they can gain con- ORESTEIA. In COMEDY, certain plays of ARISTOPHANES
trol of the money kept in the Parthenon. (ACHARNIANS, BIRDS, THESMOPHORIAZUSAE) seem to
require more than three actors.
ACTAEON The son of Aristaeus and AUTONOE, One should also keep in mind that the Greek
Actaeon was a Theban prince. Taught to hunt by CHI- tragedians often put on a TETRALOGY (four plays) with
RON, Actaeon died while he was hunting on Mount the same group of actors in each play. Thus, the actor
CITHAERON. According to another tradition, ZEUS who played CLYTEMNESTRA in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon
caused Actaeon’s destruction because the young man and Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA) could conceivably
tried to court SEMELE. The more common version is play ATHENA in Eumenides (see ORESTEIA) and PROTEUS
that Actaeon angered ARTEMIS. In BACCHAE, EURIPIDES in the satyr play that concluded the Oresteia tetralogy.
says Actaeon boasted that he was a better hunter than Additionally, some playwrights, such as Aeschylus
Artemis was, while the most common tradition is that and Sophocles, performed in their own plays.
Actaeon merely saw the goddess bathing (although Athenaeus reports that Sophocles played the lyre in
Hyginus says that Actaeon wanted to assault the god- his Thamyras and played some sort of ball game on
dess sexually). The enraged Artemis caused Actaeon to stage in his Nausicaa.
appear as a stag, which his own hunting dogs tore While the number of actors eventually increased to
apart. To the Greek playwrights PHRYNICHUS, three, two major acting styles, the “grand style” and the
Cleophon, and Iophon are attributed plays entitled “realistic style,” emerged in Greek drama. As the names
Actaeon. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, 3.4.3; Euripi- imply, the grand style employed more extravagant lan-
des, Bacchae 337–40; Hyginus, Fables 180; Ovid, Meta- guage and costuming than the realistic style. The con-
morphoses 3.138–252; Pausanias, 9.2.3; Seneca, trast in these two styles can be seen in the debate
Oedipus 756–63] between Aeschylus and EURIPIDES in ARISTOPHANES’
BIBLIOGRAPHY FROGS. Aeschylus is characterized as using extremely
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, complex vocabulary, dressing his characters in extrav-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. agant clothing, and having his heroes speak and
behave in a manner that is “larger than life.” Euripides,
ACTE Acte was a former slave who became NERO’s in contrast, often put rags on his heroes and heroines
mistress. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia 195; Taci- and had them speak in a much simpler fashion.
tus, Annals 13.12, 42, 14.2] Around 450 B.C.E., actors began competing for a
prize in the dramatic festivals, and, with occasional
ACTOR The brother of Hyperbius, Actor defended exceptions, this ended the practice of poets’ acting in
one of THEBES’ seven gates in the famous invasion led their own plays. This development seems to have con-
by POLYNEICES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven tributed to the rise of the importance of the actor and
against Thebes 553–62] the decrease in the importance of the chorus. Actors
became increasingly professionalized; by the fourth
ACTORS In the Greek theater, men played all the century B.C.E., they were more prominent than the
roles, even those of women. In the early days of Greek playwrights themselves, and around 330 B.C.E. Greek
drama, tradition states, only the CHORUS took the stage. actors would begin to form guilds known as the Artists
10 ADAMANT

of Dionysus. Acting guilds also existed in Rome as BIBLIOGRAPHY

early as the second century B.C.E. Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon
Whereas in Greek drama the actors were usually cit- Press, 1993, 76.
izens, in Roman drama the actors (Latin: histriones; sin-
gular: histrio) were typically slaves and as such could ADEUES A Persian who took part in the battle of
be punished as slaves were (by whipping) if their per- SALAMIS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 312]
formance was not satisfactory. Most Roman citizens
considered acting a vile profession, although that atti- ADITUS MAXIMUS A Latin phrase that means
tude did not prevent them from going to see the vari- “the main entrance,” aditus maximi (plural) are the two
ous performances. As on the Greek stage, in the plays entrance paths, usually vaulted, into the ORCHESTRA
of PLAUTUS and TERENCE men would have played both from the sides of a Roman theater. In the Greek theater,
male and female roles. In Rome, women could appear this entrance path is called a PARODOS (2).
as dancers onstage or in MIMES and PANTOMIMES.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 404–34, ADMETUS The son of PHERES and Periclymene,
Frogs 907–26, 959–67, 1058–69; Aristotle, Poetics Admetus became king of Pherae while his father was
1449a15–19, Problems 956b11, Rhetoric 1403b31–35, still alive. Admetus was the husband of ALCESTIS, and
1404b18–25, 1405a23; Athenaeus, 1.20f: Suetonius, by her he fathered Eumelus and Perimele. Tradition
Augustus 45.3; Tacitus, Annals 1.77, Histories 2.62.2; says that Admetus took part in both the quest for the
see especially Csapo] Golden Fleece and the hunt for the Calydonian boar.
Admetus is best known for his relationship with
BIBLIOGRAPHY APOLLO, whose host he became after ZEUS sentenced
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
Apollo to serve a mortal master for one year as pun-
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 221–85.
Knox, B. M. W. “Aeschylus and the Third Actor,” American ishment for Apollo’s killing of some Cyclopes. Apollo
Journal of Philology 93 (1972): 104–24. was so impressed with Admetus’ hospitality that the
god helped Admetus gain Alcestis as his wife. Because
ADAMANT A mythical dense, black substance Alcestis’ father, Pelias, would allow only the man who
considered the hardest of all metals. In AESCHYLUS’ yoked a lion and a boar to a chariot to marry her,
PROMETHEUS BOUND, shackles made of this material bind Apollo accomplished the task for Admetus and then
PROMETHEUS. According to SENECA, HERACLES used allowed Admetus to drive this unusual team in Pelias’
chains of this material to bind CERBERUS. PERSEUS used a presence. On Admetus and Alcestis’ first night as hus-
sickle made of adamant to behead MEDUSA. [ANCIENT band and wife, Admetus forgot to sacrifice to ARTEMIS,
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 6, 64, 148; Apol- who consequently put snakes in their bedroom.
lodorus, Library 2.4.2; Seneca, Hercules Furens 808] Apollo, however, helped Admetus appease his sister,
Artemis. Apollo, by tricking the FATES (AESCHYLUS says
ADEIMANTUS The cousin of ALCIBIADES, he made them drunk), also arranged for Admetus to
Adeimantus was an Athenian commander at the battle avoid death, provided that he could find someone to
of Aegospotami in 406/405 B.C.E. The Spartans die in his place. Alcestis gave up her life for that of
defeated the Athenians in this battle, and Adeimantus Admetu but was restored to her husband either when
“was widely regarded as a traitor and responsible for HERACLES wrestled her away from Thanatos, the god of
the disaster” (Dover). After the battle, the Spartans death (see EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS), or when PERSEPHONE
were killing the Athenian captives, but they spared sent her back to the upper world. The fate of Admetus
Adeimantus because he had opposed a decree of the and Alcestis after this event is unknown.
Athenian Assembly regarding severing captives’ hands. Two comic poets, Aristomenes and Theopompus,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 1513; Lysias, wrote plays entitled Admetus, but no fragments survive
14.38; Xenophon, Hellenica 2.1.30–32] from either play. To SOPHOCLES is attributed an Adme-
 ADONIS 11

tus, from which no fragments survive. Admetus may (compare the arrangement among HADES, PERSEPHONE,
have been the speaker in Sophocles, fragment 851 and DEMETER). The festival first appears in the fifth cen-
(Radt), who refers to a rooster that is summoning tury B.C.E. but may not have been officially sanctioned
someone (Apollo?) to a mill (belonging to Admetus?). by the Athenian government during that time.
Most of our knowledge about Admetus comes from [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 420; Plato,
Euripides’ Alcestis, and modern scholars have vigor- Phaedrus 276b]
ously debated the character of Admetus in this play. Is
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Admetus a virtuous man? In the course of the Alcestis,
Detienne, M. The Gardens of Adonis: Spices in Greek Mythol-
both Apollo and Heracles call Admetus the best of ogy. Translated from the French by Janet Lloyd. Introduc-
hosts, and in the prologue Apollo uses the same epi- tion by J. P. Vernant. Hassocks, U.K.: Harvester Press,
thet, hosios (pious), to describe himself and Admetus. 1977.
Elsewhere in the play, Admetus appears in a negative Simms, R. “Mourning and Community at the Athenian Ado-
light. Admetus deceives Heracles about Alcestis’ death, nia,” Classical Journal 93, no. 2 (1997–1998): 121–144.
although the chorus seem satisfied with Admetus’ Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5,
explanation that he did not want to turn Heracles away Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985, 152.
because then his house would be considered
unfriendly to guests. The encounter between Admetus ADONIS The son of either Phoenix and Alphesi-
and his father, Pheres, becomes unpleasant when boea, or Cinyras and Metharme, or Cinyras (or Theias)
Admetus essentially renounces Pheres as his father, and Myrrha (also called Smyrna), Adonis was a hand-
while Pheres offers the view that some in Euripides’ some young mortal with whom APHRODITE fell in love.
audience must have been considering—that Admetus Bizarre details surround the story of his birth. Myrrha,
was a coward and the actual cause of Alcestis’ death. who fell in love with her father, Cinyras, managed to
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Eumenides 727–28; Apol- trick him into having sexual relations with her. When
lodorus, Library 1.9.15; Euripides, Alcestis; Hyginus, Cinyras learned what had happened, he tried to kill
Fables 51–52] Myrrha, but she was transformed into a myrrh tree by
the gods. Cinyras split the tree open with his sword
BIBLIOGRAPHY and the infant Adonis emerged.
Burnett, Anne Pippin. “The Virtues of Admetus,” Classical
In one account of the story Adonis was so beautiful
Philology 60 (1965): 240–55.
when he was born that Aphrodite, immediately capti-
Dyson, M. “Alcestis’ Children and the Character of Adme-
tus,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 108 (1988): 13–23. vated by the child, put him into a chest and gave him
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. to PERSEPHONE with instructions not to look into the
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: chest. Persephone’s curiosity got the better of her, how-
Harvard University Press, 1996. ever, and she, also being captivated by Adonis, refused
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, to give up the child to Aphrodite. When the dispute
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. between the goddesses was referred to ZEUS, he
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University decided that Adonis should spend part of the year with
Press of America, 1984. Aphrodite, part of the year with Persephone, and part
of the year alone—an arrangement similar to the one
ADONIA A Greek festival (usually lasting two HADES and DEMETER had regarding Persephone. Other
days) that honored ADONIS. The first day of the festival sources say Zeus turned over the arbitration to the
involved mourning for Adonis’ disappearance; the sec- Muse Calliope, who decided that Adonis should spend
ond day was devoted to a search for his body by the half the year with Aphrodite and the other half with
community’s women, with whom the Adonia was quite Persephone. Some say that the angered Aphrodite
popular. This ritual search celebrated Adonis’ return to killed Calliope’s son ORPHEUS in retaliation. Adonis,
life and a six-month reunion with his lover, APHRODITE however, died young, fatally wounded by a boar.
12 ADRASTEIA

Other sources say that Adonis was a young man Adrastus’ new sons-in-law were both exiles from
when he first captured Aphrodite’s attention, that she their native town and barred from kingdoms that they
fell in love with him, and she spent much of her time claimed. When Polyneices claimed the Theban throne
with him. Adonis, however, enjoyed hunting, and held by his brother ETEOCLES, Adrastus provided
Aphrodite warned him about the dangers of such Polyneices with an army and allies. The subsequent
sport. Unfortunately, Adonis disregarded Aphrodite’s expedition became known as the Seven against
warning and was killed by a boar. The red anemone Thebes. On the way to Thebes, at NEMEA, Adrastus and
sprang up from his blood. The comic poet Nicophon the other leaders competed in funeral games for
wrote an Adonis, of which only the title survives. Opheltes. Adrastus was champion in the horse race.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.14.3–4; Upon arrival at Thebes, each of the seven commanders
Aristophanes, Lysistrata 389; Hyginus, Fables 58, 248, assaulted one of Thebes’ seven gates. Adrastus and his
251, Poetica Astronomica 2.7; Ovid, Metamorphoses troops were positioned near the Homoloidian Gate.
10.519–59] After the defeat of Polyneices and his allies, Adrastus
BIBLIOGRAPHY became the sole survivor of “the Seven.”
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: In EURIPIDES’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN, Adrastus went to
Teubner, 1880. THESEUS and the Athenians for help in recovering the
dead for burial. Theseus defended Adrastus and the
ADRASTEIA Adrasteia, which means “she who Argives from the Thebans, who opposed Adrastus’
cannot be escaped,” was the daughter of ZEUS and claim. Before Theseus turned over the bodies for bur-
NECESSITY. Some sources consider Adrasteia synony- ial, however, ATHENA appeared and arranged for Adras-
mous with the goddess Necessity or Nemesis. Others tus and his citizens to swear that they would not wage
consider Adrasteia as a goddess who rewards those war against Athens and would assist the Athenians if
who act in a proper manner but punishes those who they were attacked. Regarding the ultimate fate of
are proud and arrogant. Apollodorus mentions an Adrastus, Pausanias reports a story from the Megarians
Adrasteia as one of the nymphs who cared for Zeus that he died in their territory on the way back from
when he was an infant. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Thebes as a result of old age and grief over the death of
Prometheus Bound 936; Apollodorus, Library 1.1.6; his son Aegialeus.
Euripides, Rhesus 342–43, 468; Menander, Girl with the Other than in Euripides’ Suppliant Women, Adrastus
Shaven Head 304, Samia 503, fragment 321 Kock] does not take the stage in any extant drama. Adrastus,
however, would have appeared in other dramas that
ADRASTUS A king of ARGOS, Adrastus was the have not survived. To AESCHYLUS is attributed an Adras-
son of Talaus and Lysimache (or Eurynome). Adrastus tus TETRALOGY that included Nemea, Women (or Men) of
married Amphithea and by her fathered three daugh- Argos, and Men of Eleusis. Adrastus also may appear in
ters, Argia, Deipyle, and Aegialeia, and two sons, SOPHOCLES’ Epigonoi. Fragment 187 suggests an
Aegialeus and Cyanippus. An oracle of APOLLO told encounter between Adrastus and ALCMEON in which
Adrastus to arrange the marriages of two of his daugh- Alcmeon reproaches Adrastus with being the brother
ters, one to a lion and one to a boar. When POLYNEICES of ERIPHYLE, whose actions brought about the death of
of THEBES and TYDEUS of CALYDON, both exiles from their her husband, AMPHIARAUS, and Adrastus retorts that
native land, fought over a place to sleep in Adrastus’ Alcmeon killed his mother, Eriphyle. The tragedian
palace, Adrastus noticed Polyneices had a lion on his Achaeus also wrote a play entitled Adrastus, from
shield and Tydeus had a boar on his shield. Realizing which a single word survives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
the oracle must be referring to Tydeus and Polyneices, lodorus, 1.9.13, 3.6.1–3.7.1; Euripides, Phoenician
Adrastus married his daughters to the two princes: Women, Suppliant Women; Hyginus, Fables 69–71; Pau-
Argia (or Aegialeia) to Polyneices, Deipyle to Tydeus. sanias, 1.43.1, 9.5.13]
 AEDILE 13

BIBLIOGRAPHY AEACUS The son of ZEUS and Aegina, Aeacus

Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, married Endeis and by her had PELEUS and Telamon.
1984. By the NEREID Psamathe, he had another son, Phocus.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
When Aeacus was born, the island where he lived was
Harvard University Press, 1996.
uninhabited. After Aeacus prayed to Zeus to populate
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. the island, the god transformed the island’s ants into
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, humans. Aeacus named the people Myrmidons, from
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. the Greek word for “ant” (myrmex). Other sources say
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University that the people were born from the earth or that they
Press of America, 1984. appeared after a plague had wiped out the island’s peo-
ple. After the island was populated, Aeacus renamed it
ADRIA Poets use the name Adria to refer to both a after his mother and became the island’s ruler. Aeacus
region in northern Italy and the Adriatic Sea. gained fame for his piety and his sense of justice.
When Nisus and Sciron quarreled about the kingship
ADULESCENS The adulescens (plural: adules- of MEGARA, Aeacus arbitrated the dispute and made
centes), a stock character in Roman COMEDY, is a Nisus the king but put Sciron in charge of military
young man usually in his late teens or twenties and affairs. Sciron was so pleased that he gave his daughter,
usually unmarried. Typically, the adulescens spends Endeis, to Aeacus as his wife. When Greece suffered
his time either pursuing the love of a PROSTITUTE or a from barrenness because of PELOPS’ killing of Stamphy-
slave girl, who eventually turns out to be a freeborn lus, an oracle declared that the barrenness would end
woman, or helping another adulescens acquire the if Aeacus prayed for Greece. Aeacus did, and the
object of his affection. The adulescens must usually famine ended. When Peleus and Telamon killed their
either avoid having his father find out about the brother, Phocus, Aeacus exiled his two surviving sons.
woman with whom he is in love or find money to Because of his just decisions in the upper world, Aea-
pay off the PIMP who owns her. The adulescens is most cus was rewarded by becoming a judge in the UNDER-
often aided by a clever slave, who will try to prevent WORLD or being allowed to keep Hades’ keys. Aeacus
the young man’s father from finding out about the appears as a character in ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS, in which
love affair and try to find money to pay off the pimp. he tortures DIONYSUS and Xanthias to determine which
Whereas Plautus’ plays usually feature one adulescens of them is a god and which a slave. Aeacus also had a
in love, most of Terence’s plays have two adulescentes. speaking role in Euripides’ Peirithous, which dealt with
Whereas PARASITES often make comments about their the title character’s entrapment in the underworld.
desire for food, the adulescens frequently comment [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.12.6; Aristo-
on the grief and hardship that being in love is caus- phanes, Frogs; Hesiod, Theogony 1003–4; Hyginus,
ing him. In some instances, the adulescens expresses Fables 52; Isocrates, 9.13–15; Ovid, Metamorphoses
thoughts of suicide when he thinks he will be unable 7.472–660; Pausanias, 1.44.9, 2.29.2–2.30.5]
to have his beloved, but this extreme action never
BIBLIOGRAPHY
comes to pass. Duckworth remarks that “the youths Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London:
of Terence as a rule are more respectful and Heinemann, 1970.
respectable than those of Plautus, they are also less
amusing and somewhat less colorful.”
AEDILE In Roman society, the aedile was a magis-
BIBLIOGRAPHY trate who oversaw the finances required to organize
Duckworth, G. E. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton, theatrical productions. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Per-
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 242. sian 160]
14 AEETES

AEETES A king of COLCHIS, Aeetes was the son of before Aegeus returned to Athens would cause Aegeus’
Helios, god of the SUN, and Persa. Aeetes was the hus- doom. Aegeus, however, not understanding the oracle,
band of Chalciope and by her became the father of decided to ask his friend Pittheus about the meaning.
MEDEA and ABSYRTUS, although some sources call According to EURIPIDES’ Medea, Aegeus passed through
Medea the daughter of Aeetes and Idyia. When JASON CORINTH on his way to Pittheus’ home in TROEZEN. En
traveled to Colchis and asked for the Golden Fleece, route through Corinth, Aegeus met Medea and men-
Aeetes told Jason he would give him the fleece if he tioned the oracle to her. Medea did not interpret the
yoked a pair of fire-breathing bulls and plowed a field oracle for Aegeus but promised she would help him
with the teeth of a dragon. Jason was successful, have children through her skills in magic if he would
thanks to the help of Medea, but Aeetes did not turn grant her asylum in Athens after she left Corinth.
over the fleece. Instead, Aeetes plotted to kill Jason and Aegeus agreed to Medea’s proposal and then set out for
burn his ship. With Medea’s help, Jason made off with Pittheus’ home. Pittheus did understand the oracle,
the fleece. Afterward, Aeetes lost his kingdom to his but his desire for grandchildren apparently out-
brother Perses but he regained it with Medea’s help weighed his friendship with Aegeus. Accordingly, Pit-
when she returned to Colchis after her expulsion from theus made Aegeus drunk and arranged for him to
Athens. Some sources say that Medea herself killed have intercourse with his daughter Aethra. On the
Perses and restored Aeetes to the throne; others report same night, POSEIDON also had intercourse with Aethra,
that Medea had her son MEDUS kill Perses and then who became pregnant and eventually gave birth to
take the kingdom for himself. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- THESEUS. The next morning, Aegeus departed Pittheus’
lodorus, Library 1.9.23; Apollonius Rhodius, house and left a sword and a pair of sandals under a
2.1140–4.241; Hyginus, Fables 22–23] large rock. Aegeus instructed Aethra that if she gave
birth to a son and the son were ever able to lift the rock
AEGEAN SEA The sea located to the east of and retrieve these items, that child should be sent to
mainland Greece and the west of modern-day Turkey. him at Athens.
According to the myth, the sea got its name when After Aegeus returned to Athens, he married Medea
AEGEUS, the father of THESEUS, committed suicide by and fathered MEDUS by her. Many years later, when
hurling himself into it. Theseus grew up, he retrieved the sword and sandals
and traveled to Athens. When Theseus arrived, Medea
AEGEIRA A town near the coast of the region of realized that he would replace her son Medus as heir to
Achaea, Aegeira is mentioned in AESCHYLUS, fragment the Athenian throne. To prevent this, Medea, having
284 (Radt). convinced Aegeus that Theseus was planning to kill
him, plotted to have Aegeus give Theseus a poisoned
BIBLIOGRAPHY cup of wine at a banquet. When Aegeus recognized the
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, sword and sandals that Theseus wore as his own,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. Aegeus caused the poisoned wine to be spilled. Medea
was then driven from Athens.
AEGEUS The son of Pandion (or Scyrius) and The reunion of Aegeus and Theseus was brief. Many
Pylia, Aegeus was a king of ATHENS. Because Aegeus years earlier, some Athenians had killed Androgeus,
had no children by either his first wife, Meta, or his the son of MINOS, king of CRETE, during his visit to
second wife, Rhexenor, he consulted the DELPHIC ORA- Athens. In retaliation, Minos waged war against
CLE. According to EURIPIDES’ MEDEA, the oracle told him Athens, defeated its soldiers, and imposed a severe
not to loose the mouth of his wineskin until he reached penalty upon its citizens: The Athenians were obli-
Athens. The hidden meaning of the oracle was that gated to send seven young men and seven maidens to
Aegeus was not supposed to have sexual intercourse be sacrificed to the MINOTAUR every nine years. Not
until he returned to Athens. Any child conceived long after Theseus arrived in Athens, this tribute fell
 AEGISTHUS 15

due. Theseus volunteered to be one of the victims. pent, may have been ringed with serpents, and had the
Although Theseus survived his journey to Crete, face of a gorgon on it. In EURIPIDES’ ION, we hear that
Aegeus believed that Theseus was killed during the Athena killed a certain gorgon and then used its skin
mission. When Theseus had left Athens, the ship was as the aegis. Other sources said that the aegis was the
flying a dark-colored sail. Aegeus told Theseus to skin of the goat Amalthea, who had suckled the infant
change the sail to a light-colored one if he had been ZEUS. The aegis is most associated with Zeus and
successful on Crete. Upon returning to Athens, The- ATHENA, who often caused fear by shaking it. In a story
seus forgot to change the ship’s sail. When Aegeus, about a fight between Athena and Pallas, Zeus tries to
anxiously awaiting Theseus’ return from Crete, saw part the combatants by putting the aegis between
Theseus’ ship flying a dark-colored sail, he assumed them. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.12.3;
Theseus had died and threw himself into the sea, Aristophanes, Clouds 603; Euripides, Ion 989–96;
which was then named the AEGEAN after him. Seneca, Agamemnon 528–32]
SOPHOCLES wrote an Aegeus that appears to have
dealt with the arrival of Theseus in Athens and his sub- AEGISTHUS Aegisthus’ birth resulted from the
sequent reunion with his father (see fragments 19–25a incestuous union of THYESTES and his daughter Pelo-
Radt). Euripides also wrote an Aegeus (fragments 1–13 pea. Not long after Thyestes impregnated Pelopea—he
Nauck). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library sexually assaulted her—Pelopea married Thyestes’
3.15.6–7; Euripides, Medea; Hyginus, Fables 37, 43] brother, ATREUS. As soon as Aegisthus was born, Pelo-
pea left the child to die, but he was found by a shep-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
herd, who allowed him a she goat to suckle him. The
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, name Aegisthus means “strength from a goat.” When
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. Atreus learned that the child had been left to die,
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, Atreus, believing that he was the child’s father,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. retrieved Aegisthus. A number of years later, Atreus,
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University who hated Thyestes, captured his brother and impris-
Press of America, 1984. oned him at his house. Atreus, wanting to kill
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: Thyestes, sent the young Aegisthus to kill him.
Methuen, 1967. Thyestes, however, recognized the sword that
Aegisthus carried as one that he had dropped when he
AEGINA This small island, off the coast of ATHENS had sexually assaulted Pelopea. Thyestes asked
in the Saronic Gulf, was the home of AEACUS and the Aegisthus from whom he had received the sword, and
birthplace of PELEUS and Telamon. The island took its when Thyestes learned that the boy’s mother had given
name from Aeacus’ mother, Aegina, with whom ZEUS it to him, Thyestes asked to see the boy’s mother.
had sexual relations. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, When Pelopea was face to face with Thyestes and real-
Acharnians 653, Frogs 353, Wasps 122] ized that she had produced a child by her father, she
committed suicide with the sword. Thyestes then
AEGIPLANCTUS Mount Aegiplanctus, west of revealed to Aegisthus that he, not Atreus, was his
ATHENS near MEGARA, was one of the points by which father. Aegisthus, instructed by Thyestes, took the
CLYTEMNESTRA’s signal fires (indicating the end of the sword and killed Atreus. Thyestes again became king
Trojan War) were relayed. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschy- of Argos but was soon driven out by Atreus’ son
lus, Agamemnon 303 (see ORESTEIA)]. AGAMEMNON. Thyestes and Aegisthus then went into
exile, after which apparently Thyestes died. After
AEGIS The aegis (Greek for “goatskin”), described Thyestes’ death, Aegisthus tried to avenge his father.
as either a breastplate or a shawllike garment worn While Agamemnon was fighting at Troy to recover
over the head and shoulders, had the scales of a ser- HELEN, Aegisthus seduced Agamemnon’s wife,
16 AEGOCERUS

CLYTEMNESTRA, and then plotted with her to murder and Gauls in 295 B.C.E. (see lines 1–16 Warmington).
Agamemnon when he returned from the Trojan War. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer, Iliad 5, 17, 20; Hyginus,
Aegisthus died at the hands of Agamemnon’s son, Fables 112, 273; Ovid, Metamorphoses 14.75–608;
ORESTES, who avenged his father’s murder. Vergil, Aeneid]
Aegisthus appears as a character in AESCHYLUS’
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agamemnon and Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA), EURIPI-
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
DES’ ELECTRA, SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA, and SENECA’s
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
AGAMEMNON. ACCIUS wrote a tragic AEGISTHUS, from Harvard University Press, 1936.
which survive several fragments. That play seems to
have dealt with Orestes’ killing of Aegisthus and
AENIANES A tribe who lived in northeastern
Clytemnestra. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Agamem-
Greece near TRACHIS.
non, Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA); Euripides, Electra;
Hyginus, Fables 87–88, 119; Seneca, Agamemnon;
Sophocles, Electra] AEOLUS The son of Hellen and Orseis, Aeolus
was the brother of Dorus and XUTHUS. When Hellen
AEGOCERUS Aegocerus, “goat-horned,” is divided Greece among his sons, Aeolus acquired Thes-
another name for the constellation Capricorn. [ANCIENT saly and called its inhabitants Aeolians. Aeolus had
SOURCES: Seneca, Thyestes 864]
numerous sons and daughters by his wife, Enarete;
some sources name ATHAMAS, CRETHEUS, SALMONEUS,
AEGYPTUS As his name indicates, Aegyptus was and SISYPHUS among them. Another of Aeolus’ sons,
a mythical king of Egypt and the brother of Danaus. Macareus, raped his sister Canace, who tried to conceal
Aegyptus wanted his 50 sons to marry Danaus’ 50 the birth of their child by pretending to be sick.
daughters, known as the DANAIDS. The women refused Macareus persuaded his father to let Macareus and his
and fled to Greece with their father. The sons of Aegyp- brothers marry their sisters. Aeolus agreed and drew
tus pursued the Danaids to Greece and forced the lots, but Canace’s lot fell to someone other than
women to marry them. Danaus persuaded his daugh- Macareus. After Aeolus learned of the incestuous rela-
ters to murder their new husbands. With the exception tionship of Macareus and Canace, he sent Canace a
of one son, Lynceus, all Aegyptus’ sons died. [ANCIENT sword, with which she committed suicide. Macareus
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Suppliant Women; Aristophanes,
then committed suicide. EURIPIDES wrote the play Aeo-
Frogs 1206] lus (fragments 14–41 Nauck), which Webster thinks
was staged before 423 B.C.E. and appears to have dealt
AENEAS The son of Anchises and APHRODITE, with the incest and deaths of Canace and Macareus.
Aeneas was one of the greatest of the Trojan warriors BIBLIOGRAPHY
during the Trojan War. He was also one of the few Tro- Casali, Sergio. “Ovid’s Canace and Euripides’ Aeolus: Two
jan males to survive the fall of TROY. With his son Notes on Heroides 11,” Mnemosyne 51, no. 6 (1998):
Ascanius (also called Iulus), Aeneas eventually made 700–10.
his way to Italy, where he founded a settlement. Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Among the Greek dramas, Aeneas appears as a charac- Methuen, 1967.
ter in one extant play, EURIPIDES’ RHESUS. Here, Aeneas
cautions Hector against rushing hastily into battle AEROPE When Catreus, king of CRETE, learned
against the Greeks and advises instead that they send a from an oracle that he would be killed by one of his
spy to determine the Greeks’ intentions. Among children, he gave NAUPLIUS his daughter Aerope (and
Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a historical drama (see some add her sister, Clymene), to sell in a foreign coun-
FABULA PRAETEXTA), Sons of Aeneas (Latin: Aeneadae), a try (or to kill). Nauplius, however, spared the girl or
play about the victory of Decius Mus over the Samnites girls. Some sources say Aerope came to MYCENAE and
 AESCHYLUS 17

married PLEISTHENES, the son of ATREUS. When Pleis- the father of Greek TRAGEDY. Written more than a quar-
thenes died, Aerope married Atreus. Aerope had a ter-century after Aeschylus’ death, ARISTOPHANES plays
daughter, Anaxibia, and two sons, Atreus and THYESTES; (especially FROGS) portray Aeschylus as the best of the
however, the ancient sources differ as to whether the Athenian tragedians, especially in the view of the eld-
children’s father was Pleisthenes or Atreus. Aerope, ers and conservative thinkers in the Athenian society of
however, had an affair with Atreus’ brother, Thyestes, the fifth century. Moreover, during Aristophanes’
and gave to Thyestes a golden lamb that belonged to career, Aeschylus was the only tragedian whose dramas
Atreus. The people of Argos had agreed that whoever were restaged in ATHENS. At the opening of Aristo-
possessed this lamb would be king. After Atreus dis- phanes’ ACHARNIANS, produced in 425, the hero recalls
covered Aerope’s betrayal, he had her drowned. his disappointment when an expected tragedy from
Aerope does not appear as a character in any sur- Aeschylus is not staged. At the conclusion of Aristo-
viving plays, although her story was dealt with in sev- phanes’ Frogs, produced 20 years later, DIONYSUS takes
eral fragmentary works. Euripides’ Cretan Women, Aeschylus back to the upper world because he is best
produced in 438 B.C.E., appears to have treated able to instruct the Athenians.
Aerope’s encounter with Nauplius. AGATHON wrote an Aeschylus, the son of Euphorion, and a native of
Aerope, from which a single word survives (fragment 1 Eleusis, also served alongside his fellow countrymen in
Snell). The younger Carcinus also wrote an Aerope, of their battles against the Persians at MARATHON, Artemi-
which only the title survives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- sium, and SALAMIS (Pausanias 1.14.5). Little informa-
lodorus, Library 3.2.1–2, Epitome 2.10; Euripides, tion exists about the nature of Aeschylus’ youth and
Helen 390–92, Orestes 18; Hyginus, Fables 87] education; his first play was produced between 500
and 496. The anonymous Life of Aeschylus (Vita
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aeschyli 13) reports that Aeschylus won 13 first prizes
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. at dramatic competitions at the CITY DIONYSIA in
Athens, the first victory in 484, according to Parian
Marble. The article on Aeschylus in the Suda (a histor-
AESCHINADES An otherwise unknown per- ical encyclopedia written in Greek in the 10th century)
son mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at Peace 1154.
adds another 15 victories, presumably at other festivals
than the City Dionysia.
AESCHINES A minor Athenian statesman Aeschylus visited SICILY twice. In 476/475, he went
prominent in the 420s and 410s B.C.E. who falsely to the island as the guest of King Hiero of Syracuse.
claimed to be wealthy. In the year 423, he may have During Aeschylus’ stay there, he wrote Aitnaiai (Women
accompanied AMYNIAS “on an embassy to Pharsalus in of Aetna) to honor that city, which Hiero had recently
423” (Sommerstein), and in 418/417 he served on the founded. During Aeschylus’ second visit to Sicily, his
board that oversaw the contributions made by mem- life ended at the town of Gela. For obvious reasons,
bers of the Athenian empire. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- modern scholars do not give credence to the popular
phanes, Birds 823, Wasps 325, 459, 1220, 1243] story that Aeschylus died when an eagle dropped a tor-
BIBLIOGRAPHY toise onto his head. More than 80 dramas are attrib-
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, uted to Aeschylus, of which only seven survive:
Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 185. PERSIANS (472 B.C.E.), THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES (467),
Storey, I. C. Komodoumenoi and Komodein in Old Comedy. SUPPLIANT WOMEN (ca. 466–459), and the ORESTEIA tril-
Toronto: University of Toronto, 1977, 150. ogy, which consisted of Agamemnon, Libation Bearers,
and Eumenides (458). The authorship and date of the
AESCHYLUS (AISCHYLOS) (525/524– seventh drama, PROMETHEUS BOUND, are disputed.
456/455 B.C.E.) Because the oldest extant dramas Although Aeschylus is best known as a writer of
are those of Aeschylus, this playwright is often called tragedies, a SATYR PLAY would normally conclude a
18 AESCHYLUS

tragedian’s TETRALOGY, and Pausanias says Aeschylus’ because the gods will not allow a violent and wicked
satyr plays were popular, though none survives today. man to triumph. In Suppliant Women, the daughters of
Aeschylus’ plays reveal the following characteristics: DANAUS pray to ZEUS to deliver them from the hubris of
First, Aeschylus had a reputation for visually stimulat- the sons of AEGYPTUS. At Agamemnon 944–57, the title
ing costumes. Pausanias writes that Aeschylus (in character’s fate is sealed when he walks on the purple
Eumenides) was the first to show the Furies with snakes tapestries—an act that he himself realizes should be
in their hair. Aeschylus was also noted for complex reserved only for divinities. Acts of hubris that violate
imagery and diction. Aristophanes (FROGS 926) exag- the customs of HOSPITALITY (xenia) are also highlighted
gerates that the spectators could not understand much in Aeschylus. PARIS’ abduction of HELEN and ATREUS’
of what Aeschylus said, but in Agamemnon (827–28), slaughter of THYESTES’ children at a banquet are central
for example, the Greek army’s destruction of TROY is to the events of Agamemnon, and both violators are
described as a savage lion’s leaping over its walls and ultimately punished.
lapping up royal blood. Aeschylean drama is also char- At Frogs 913–27, Aristophanes suggests that
acterized by prologues that are either brief or not pres- Aeschylus taught his fellow citizens how to behave
ent at all. Aeschylean choruses also have a prominent properly in times of peace or war, and that the most
role. Of the six surviving plays regarded as genuinely noble achievement to which a citizen could aspire was
Aeschylean, the CHORUS speak almost half of the lines. to triumph over one’s enemies. Because Aeschylus had
Contrast the seven extant plays of SOPHOCLES, in which a reputation for dramas that dealt with war, Aristo-
the chorus deliver a little more than one-third of the phanes (Frogs 1045) not surprisingly suggests Aeschy-
lines. Thus, Aeschylean choral odes are generally lus’ works had nothing to do with Aphrodite, that is,
longer than what we find later in Sophocles or EURIPI- love. With less than 10 percent of Aeschylus’ work sur-
DES. The first choral passage in Agamemnon approaches viving, it is difficult to say to what extent Aristophanes’
225 lines; the chorus open Suppliant Women with 175 claim is true. Aeschylus certainly wrote about women
lines of song. Often, Aeschylean scenes consist of a sin- with whom gods such as Zeus (compare the title char-
gle actor’s speaking to the chorus (e.g., Suppliant acter of Semele) and Poseidon (compare the title char-
Women 176–907) or two actors’ addressing one acter of the satyric Amymone) had affairs. Aeschylus
another. In fact, at Poetics 1449a, Aristotle says Aeschy- does not, however, seem to have put on stage women
lus was the first to increase the number of actors from such as PHAEDRA or STHENEBOEA (as Euripides did), who
one to two. In Suppliant Women, only three other char- actively attempted to seduce men forbidden to them. In
acters besides the chorus speak in the play. The largest Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, adulterous CLYTEMNESTRA is
number of speaking characters, seven, are in Libation motivated to kill her husband, Agamemnon, more
Bearers (see ORESTEIA). At Frogs 911–15, Aristophanes because of her love for the daughter whom Agamem-
also suggests that Aeschylus had a habit of having non sacrificed than of any passion she has for her
characters on stage who would remain silent for an lover, AEGISTHUS. Although Euripides may have had a
inordinately long period. reputation for writing plays about evil women, the
As for themes commonly treated by Aeschylus, Fer- younger playwright certainly had a model to draw on
guson states that “they are found in the great moral in Aeschylus’ Clytemnestra.
problems at the heart of the universe.” In the Oresteia, Ultimately, Aeschylus celebrates the Athenian way of
for example, Agamemnon and Orestes must choose life, the triumph of civilization over barbarism. At Per-
between obedience to the gods and killing of a family sians 1025–26, the defeated enemy acknowledge the
member. The ultimate triumph of justice over HUBRIS, valor of the Athenian people. In Eumenides (see
violent arrogance, also commonly occurs in Aeschylus’ ORESTEIA) bloodshed over several generations in the
extant plays. At Persians 749, Aeschylus has Xerxes’ house of Tantalus is resolved ultimately through the
own father, Darius, portray his son as someone who agency of Athens’ patron goddess, ATHENA, and her cit-
tried to defeat even the gods themselves. Xerxes fails izens. Athena even manages to calm the wrath of the
 AFRANIUS 19

Furies and incorporate them into the city that Aeschy- mals). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 471, 651,
lus himself served both on the battlefield and in the Peace 129, Wasps 566, 1259; Herodotus, 2.134.3–4]
theater. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Herodotus, 2.156.1; Pausa-
nias, 1.2.3, 1.28.6, 2.13.6, 2.24.4, 8.37.6; Plutarch, AETHRA See THESEUS.
Cimon 8.8]
AETNA (ETNA) At approximately 3,350
BIBLIOGRAPHY
meters high, Aetna, on SICILY, is the highest active vol-
Conacher, D. J. Aeschylus: The Earlier Plays and Related Stud-
cano in Europe. In mythology, Aetna was often consid-
ies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996.
Ferguson, J. A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Austin: Univer- ered the home of the CYCLOPES and the location of
sity of Texas Press, 1972, 33. HEPHAESTUS’ forge. ZEUS ended the fire-breathing mon-
Gargarin, M. Aeschylean Drama. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and ster TYPHON’s reign of terror by throwing Aetna on top
London: University of California Press, 1976. of the monster. AESCHYLUS wrote the play Women of
Otis, B. Cosmos and Tragedy: An Essay on the Meaning of Aetna (fragments 6–10 Radt), which appears to have
Aeschylus. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, dealt with a Sicilian woman named Aetna (or Thaleia),
1981. who, after having become pregnant with twin sons by
Podlecki, A. J. The Political Background of Aeschylean Tragedy. Zeus, prayed that the Earth would swallow her so that
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966. she could avoid punishment by HERA. Aetna’s prayer
Rosenmeyer, T. G. The Art of Aeschylus. Berkeley: University was answered, but the Earth opened again and her
of California Press, 1982. sons emerged. The boys were called the Palici (those
Sommerstein, A. H. Aeschylean Tragedy. Bari, Italy: Levante,
who come back) and people who lived near Mount
1996.
Aetna worshiped them. EURIPIDES’ CYCLOPS has a cave
Taplin, O. The Stagecraft of Aeschylus. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1977.
beneath Aetna as its setting. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschy-
West, M. L. Studies in Aeschylus. Stuttgart: B. G. Teubner, 1990. lus, Prometheus Bound 351–65; Aristophanes, Peace 73;
Winnington-Ingram, R. P. Studies in Aeschylus. Cambridge: Euripides, Cyclops; Macrobius, 5.19.17; Seneca, Medea
Cambridge University Press, 1983. 410; Servius on Vergil, Aeneid 9.584]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AESCULAPIUS See ASCLEPIUS. Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926.
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
AESIMUS An Athenian statesman prominent 1971, 381–82.
between 403 and the 370s B.C.E. Aesimus led the forces
for democracy in the Athenian civil war of 403, went AETOLIA A region in northwestern Greece east
on an embassy to CHIOS in 384, and served the Second of the ACHELOUS RIVER. In mythology, OENEUS, MELEA-
Athenian League in 378/377 by leading a tour of the GER, and DEIANEIRA were all Aetolians. In SENECA’s HER-
AEGEAN for the purpose of, among other things, swear- CULES OETAEUS, a chorus of Aetolian women appear.
ing in new members of the league. ARISTOPHANES men- The Greek comic poet Philemon wrote a play titled
tions him at ECCLESIAZUSAE 208 as someone badly Aetolian (Aitolos), of which only a single word survives:
treated by the Athenian public. [ANCIENT SOURCES: “light” (elaphros) (see fragment 6 Kock).
Lysias, 13.80]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, Teubner, 1884.
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 158.
AFRANIUS (BORN CA. 150 B.C.E.) Lucius
AESOP Living on the island of SAMOS during the Afranius produced more comedies whose characters
first half of the sixth century B.C.E., Aesop was a wore native (Roman) dress (see FABULA TOGATA) than
famous fabulist (especially telling stories involving ani- any other Roman poet. Some 430 fragments (most no
20 AGAMEMNON

more than two lines long) survive and 42 titles are After the war begins, we hear relatively little about
known. Afranius’ poetry focuses on the “middle” Agamemnon, despite his lofty position as commander
classes of society and life in the family. The poetry of of the Greek army. Because the Trojans generally
TERENCE influenced him, and Horace compares him avoided direct confrontation, the Greeks had to con-
with MENANDER; he himself indicates his debt to tent themselves with raiding towns in the areas around
Menander in a fragment from the prologue of his Com- Troy. During one of these raids, Agamemnon was
pitalia. Quintilian thought Afranius excelled in the fab- awarded a female captive, Chryseis. According to
ulae togatae but wished that he “had not defiled his Homer’s Iliad, during the 10th year of the war, Chry-
plots” with tales of love affairs of males. [ANCIENT seis’ father, Chryses, a priest of APOLLO, went to the
SOURCES: Horace, Epistle 2.1.57; Quintilian, 10.1.100] Greek camp to try to ransom his daughter from
Agamemnon. When Agamemnon angrily refused, the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
priest prayed to Apollo for vengeance. The god obliged
Beare, W. The Roman Stage. London: Methuen, 1950,
128–136. his priest by sending a plague upon the Greek camp.
Ribbeck, O. Tragicorum Romanorum Fragmenta. Leipzig, 1897. When the Greek prophet Calchas announced that
Agamemnon’s rejection of Chryses’ request was the
AGAMEMNON The son of ATREUS (or Plis- cause of the plague and that the situation could be
thenes) and AEROPE, Agamemnon became the king of remedied by his daughter’s return, Agamemnon reluc-
MYCENAE. Agamemnon was the husband of CLYTEMNES- tantly agreed to return the girl but demanded that he
TRA, and by her he became the father of ORESTES, IPHI- be given another to replace her. As Achilles had been
GENIA, ELECTRA, and Chrysothemis. When HELEN, the the primary supporter of the effort to restore Chryseis
wife of Agamemnon’s brother MENELAUS, was abducted to her father, he had angered Agamemnon, who
by the Trojan PARIS, Agamemnon joined his brother in decided to take for himself Achilles’ female war cap-
the military efforts to recover Helen. Agamemnon tive, Briseis. This action so enraged Achilles that he
served as the commander in chief of the Greek expedi- refused to fight any longer.
tion during the Trojan War and before the Greek fleet With Achilles out of the fighting, the Trojans took
sailed for Troy was forced to make a decision whose hope and made renewed assaults on the Greeks and
full effect would not be felt until many years later. their camp. As the Trojans were successful, Agamem-
When the Greek fleet gathered at AULIS, poor weather non offered Achilles a huge reward to return to the
conditions prevented them from sailing. When the fighting, but Achilles rejected this offer. After Achilles’
prophet CALCHAS was consulted as to the reason, the comrade PATROCLUS was killed in battle, Achilles
problem was blamed on Agamemnon, who had returned to the fighting and settled his quarrel with
offended the goddess ARTEMIS. The only way to remedy Agamemnon, who restored Briseis to him. In Aeschy-
the situation, according to the prophet, was for lus’ Agamemnon (see ORESTEIA), Agamemnon returns
Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia to the from Troy with the Trojan prophetess CASSANDRA as his
goddess. Fearing repercussions from the Greek army if concubine and is killed by his wife, Clytemnestra, and
he failed to act, Agamemnon had Iphigenia taken to her lover, Aegisthus.
Aulis with the pretext that she was to marry Achilles. Agamemnon appears as a character in Aeschylus’
According to EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA AT AULIS, when Iphi- Agamemnon, SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, Euripides’ HECABE and
genia discovered the reason she had been taken to Iphigenia at Aulis, and SENECA’s AGAMEMNON. Agamem-
Aulis, she willingly sacrificed herself. Whereas AESCHY- non would also have appeared as a character in numer-
LUS’ Agamemnon states that he sacrificed his daughter, ous other plays that no longer survive. We also know
Euripides’ plays about Iphigenia portray Artemis as that he appeared in Euripides’ Telephus. Agamemnon
rescuing Iphigenia at the last moment. In either case, was known for his skill with a spear, but he does not
the adverse weather subsided, and the Greek fleet was have the superior fighting power of Achilles, Ajax, or
able to sail for Troy. Diomedes. Agamemnon’s function in classical drama is
 AGAMEMNON 21

usually that of a decision maker or arbiter, and on the (15 percent of the play) describing the journey of the
classical stage Agamemnon is often placed in situations Greek fleet from TROY—a voyage in which many lost
in which the decision he must make is a difficult one. their lives. Soon, a new chorus, composed of captive
His most difficult choice, of course, is whether to sac- Trojan women and led by Cassandra, a priestess of
rifice his daughter Iphigenia. In Sophocles’ Ajax, Apollo, advance. They lament their fate and describe
Agamemnon and Menelaus oppose the burial of their the final hours of their city and the stratagem of the
comrade Ajax, who had attempted to kill them in a fit wooden horse that led to its destruction. After further
of rage when he was not given the armor of Achilles. lamentation by Cassandra and the chorus, Cassandra
Agamemnon’s role in Euripides’ Hecabe is minor, as he feels herself beginning to be seized upon by the spirit
acts as an arbiter in the grievance between Hecabe and of Apollo. In her frenzy, Cassandra predicts Agamem-
Polymestor. He sides with Hecabe though she is the non’s and her death. Cassandra then faints and is
wife of his enemy. restored to consciousness by Agamemnon, who has
just entered. Cassandra warns Agamemnon that he has
AGAMEMNON A Play by AESCHYLUS. See also much to fear, but the unsuspecting king enters the
ORESTEIA. palace.
Next, the chorus sing an ode to Hercules (Greek:
AGAMEMNON SENECA (WRITTEN HERACLES), alluding to many of his labors. The ode
BETWEEN 49 AND 65 C.E.?) As is AESCHYLUS’ seemingly has little relevance to Agamemnon or his sit-
play of the same name, SENECA’s drama is set at uation, except that Hercules was also connected with
AGAMEMNON’s palace at ARGOS. Unlike Aeschylus’ play, the town of Argos and that, as the chorus mention in
whose prologue is delivered by the mortal watchman the ode’s last five lines, Hercules also waged a success-
of the house, Seneca’s play opens supernaturally as the ful military campaign against Troy. After the choral
ghost of THYESTES (cf. the ghost of Tantalus in the ode, Cassandra emerges from the palace and describes
opening of Seneca’s THYESTES), whose brother ATREUS Agamemnon’s death at the hands of Aegisthus and
served him his own children for dinner, predicts Clytemnestra.
AEGISTHUS’ revenge against Atreus’ son Agamemnon. After Cassandra’s description, Electra and her
Seneca also changes the makeup of the CHORUS, replac- young brother, Orestes (who are not seen in Aeschy-
ing Aeschylus’ Argive elders with Argive women. Their lus’ Agamemnon [see ORESTEIA]), Agamemnon, and
opening song on Fortune has little thematic connec- Clytemnestra’s children emerge from the palace, fear-
tion to Thyestes’ prologue or the ensuing conversation ful for their lives. Their fear is remedied by the sud-
between CLYTEMNESTRA and her nurse, in which the den arrival of Strophius and his son, Pylades
queen ponders the course of action she will take (characters who also do not appear in Aeschylus’
against her husband when he returns from Troy. play). Electra urges Strophius to take Orestes and
Clytemnestra, moved by Agamemnon’s sacrifice of keep him in hiding.
IPHIGENIA at Aulis and the fact that Agamemnon takes As Strophius and Pylades depart with Orestes,
home with him the war captive CASSANDRA, appears to Clytemnestra emerges from the palace. Clytemnestra
decide to kill both her husband and his concubine. wonders what Electra is doing outside the palace. Elec-
Soon, however, Clytemnestra begins to waver because tra reproaches her mother for her actions and informs
of her feelings for Agamemnon. Aegisthus, however, her that Orestes is safely in exile. Clytemnestra threat-
tries to persuade her otherwise. ens to kill Electra, but the plan of Aegisthus, who also
After the exit of Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, the emerges from the palace, that Electra be imprisoned is
chorus sing a hymn invoking APOLLO, Juno (Greek: followed instead. Cassandra, who has witnessed the
HERA), Minerva (Greek: ATHENA), Diana (Greek: entire scene, is taken back into the palace to be slaugh-
ARTEMIS), and Jove (Greek: ZEUS). After their song, a tered. The play ends with Cassandra’s prediction of
herald, Eurybates, enters and makes a lengthy speech Orestes’ vengeance against Clytemnestra.
22 AGAMEMNON

COMMENTARY killed by his fellow Greeks at Troy—used false signal

In addition to the comparisons of the plays of Seneca beacons to cause many Greek ships to run aground on
and Aeschylus, many of which have been mentioned, deadly rocks.
Seneca’s Agamemnon draws attention to fathers, chil- After Cassandra arrives at Agamemnon’s palace, she
dren, and altars. Because of the sins of Agamemnon’s predicts that she will follow her father in death (742).
father, Atreus, the ghost of Atreus’ brother Thyestes When Cassandra’s frenzied prophecy apparently
will attack Atreus’ son, just as Atreus destroyed the causes her to faint, her fellow Trojan captives compare
sons of Thyestes. To take vengeance on Atreus, the fallen girl to a bull sacrificed at an altar (776–77).
Thyestes’ ghost recalls how Fortune defiled him as a This comparison is paralleled and echoed later as Cas-
father by compelling him to rape his daughter to pro- sandra predicts that Agamemnon will fall as a bull does
duce a son, Aegisthus, who would avenge the wrongs at an altar (898). When Agamemnon enters, he rejoices
done to him by Atreus (28–36). to see his father’s house (patrios lares, 782), which not
The horrific deeds of the fathers Atreus and only echoes the greeting of the messenger Eurybates
Thyestes are paralleled when Agamemnon, before sail- upon his return home (patrios lares, 392), but also both
ing for Troy, stood before sacred altars and sacrificed echoes and contrasts with the ghost of Thyestes, who
his daughter (166); when Clytemnestra begins to shuddered to see the house of his father and brother
waver in her resolve to kill Agamemnon (236), whose (paternos . . . fraternos lares, 6). As Agamemnon urges
blood Clytemnestra’s nurse imagines will defile Cassandra to kneel at an altar and pray before they
Clytemnestra’s altars (219), Aegisthus reminds her of enter the house, the daughter Cassandra recalls that
that deed. Aegisthus also suggests that Agamemnon is her father was killed at an altar (792)—a memory that
planning to divorce Clytemnestra and that if he rejects recalls the father Agamemnon’s sacrifice of his daugh-
her, then she will also be rejected if she tries to return ter Iphigenia at an altar (166). Cassandra’s presence at
to her father’s house (282). the altar is also ironic given her experience during the
Upon Agamemnon’s return from Troy, before his fall of Troy of being raped at Minerva’s altar.
death by treachery, Clytemnestra orders that sacrifices Ultimately, Agamemnon’s death is facilitated by the
of thanksgiving be made at the altars (585). This action woman who made him a father. Because the father sac-
parallels the glad sacrifices that Trojan fathers made rificed the daughter, the mother causes the father’s
before the fall of Troy through the treachery of the death. Two of the father’s children survive, and the
Greeks (645). Agamemnon takes with him captive Tro- daughter, Electra, makes sure that the son, Orestes,
jan women, who recall seeing the fall of their father- will live to avenge the death of their father (910). Elec-
land (611). Among the Trojan captives is Cassandra, tra hands over Orestes to Strophius, who will act as a
whose fatherland and father Agamemnon’s army surrogate father to him. Strophius, whose name means
destroyed (699). Additionally, she declares that Troy’s “nurturer,” is appropriately named for this task. As
altars have drunk her blood (700). Not only did both Strophius departs (940), he urges his own son, Pylades,
her father and brother die while taking refuge at altars: to learn steadfastness through his example. After
During the fall of Troy Cassandra also sought refuge at Strophius leaves with Orestes, Electra makes her way to
an altar of Athena, was torn from that altar, and then an altar and prepares to face death (951), thus creating
was raped by AJAX, the son of Oileus. As Eurybates a parallel between her and her sister, Iphigenia. When
indicates in his speech, Minerva attacked the Greek Clytemnestra enters and demands her son, Orestes,
fleet at sea and in imitation of her father (537) struck Electra demands that Clytemnestra restore her father to
Ajax with a lightning bolt. Father Neptune (553) then her (968). Upon Aegisthus’ arrival, Clytemnestra com-
drowned Ajax. For the desecration of her altar, Pallas plains about Electra’s treatment of her. When Aegisthus
(using her father’s weapons) takes revenge upon the tells Electra to speak respectfully to her mother, Elec-
Greeks; Eurybates reports that another father, the tra scoffs at him as one who, among other things, is the
father of Palamedes (568)—who was treacherously grandson of his father (985).
 AGORA 23

BIBLIOGRAPHY AGBATANA See ECBATANA.

Boyle, A. J. “Hic epulis locus: The Tragic Worlds of Seneca’s
Agamemnon and Thyestes.” In Seneca Tragicus: Ramus
Essays on Senecan Drama. Edited by A. J. Boyle. Berwick.
AGENOR The son of POSEIDON and Libya, Agenor
Australia: Aureal, 1983, 199–228.
was a king of Phoenicia. He was the father of CADMUS
Fantham, E. “Seneca’s Troades and Agamemnon: Continuity and EUROPA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs
and Sequence,” Classical Journal 77 (1981–82): 118–29. 1226; Euripides, Bacchae 171, Phoenician Women 217,
Shelton, J. A. “Revenge or Resignation: Seneca’s 281, 291; Seneca, Oedipus 715]
Agamemnon,” Ramus 12 (1983): 159–83.
AGLAUROS The wife of CECROPS, a king of
AGATHON A writer of TRAGEDY in the last quar-
ATHENS. Aglauros was the mother of Herse, Pandrosus,
ter of the fifth century B.C.E. Six titles of Agathon’s
and Aglauros the younger. Athena had entrusted
plays are known: Aerope, Alcmeon, Antheus, Thyestes,
Aglauros’ daughters with a box that contained a child
Mysoi (The Mysians), and Telephus. Although only the
named ERICTHONIUS. Although the goddess had told
title of Agathon’s Antheus is known, the play was
the girls not to look into the box, they violated her
thought to be the first tragedy whose characters did
not originate in mythology and were the author’s own command. The goddess had put two serpents into the
invention. Agathon is also credited with giving the box to protect the child, and when the girls saw the
CHORUS songs that served as interludes, rather than
serpents, they were terrified and hurled themselves
being connected to the play’s plot in some way. down from the Athenian ACROPOLIS and died. [ANCIENT
Agathon’s first victory in a drama competition onstage SOURCES: Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae 533; Euripi-

occurred in 416 B.C.E., a victory celebrated in Plato’s des, Ion 23, 496; Hyginus, Fables 166, 213]
Symposium. In ARISTOPHANES’ THESMOPHORIAZUSAE,
staged in 411, Agathon appears as an extremely effem- AGON In general, an agon is any sort of competi-
inate character. When the women at the Thesmopho- tion; in drama the agon is a debate between two char-
ria decree death for EURIPIDES, Euripides goes to acters. For example, the argument in EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS
Agathon’s house and begs Agathon, because of his between ADMETUS and his father, PHERES, is an agon
effeminate appearance, to plead his case before the between father and son over whether it was proper for
women. Agathon refuses but does provide Euripides Alcestis to give up her life for Admetus. The agon is a
with some stage props with which he can dress his standard feature in the COMEDY of ARISTOPHANES. In the
cousin, Mnesilochus. Early in FROGS, staged in 405, CLOUDS, for example, an agon regarding the proper way
Aristophanes mentions that Agathon had left Athens to of training and educating young people takes place
live at the court of King Archelaus of Macedonia. between Stronger Argument and Weaker Argument.
AGAVE The daughter of CADMUS and Harmonia, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agave was the sister of AUTONOE, INO, SEMELE, and Lloyd, Michael. The Agon in Euripides. Oxford: Clarendon
Polydorus. Agave became the wife of Echion and the Press, 1992.
mother of PENTHEUS. In EURIPIDES’ Bacchae, DIONYSUS
drives her mad and in her delusion she kills her son, AGONOTHETES In Greek society, the agono-
Pentheus, thinking that he is a lion. After the death of thetes (plural: agonothetai) was the person who spon-
Pentheus, she goes into exile in Illyria; marries the sored, administered, and to some extent funded a
local king, Lycotherses; and then kills him, an act that festival.
allows her father, Cadmus, to take over the kingdom.
In SENECA’s OEDIPUS (616), her spirit is conjured from AGORA Although this Greek word is usually
the UNDERWORLD. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, translated “market” or “marketplace,” the agora in a
Library 3.4.2; Euripides, Bacchae; Hesiod, Theogony Greek city was home, not only to various markets, but
975–78; Ovid, Metamorphoses 511–733] also to certain government buildings and served as a
24 AGORACRITUS

town’s civic center. In some cases, an agora could be a Paphlagon (a caricature of the Athenian demagogue
staging ground for a festival. References to the agora CLEON) by being more crude and more flattering than
are not especially frequent in Greek TRAGEDY, although his opponent and thus wresting Demos from the con-
the altar to which HERACLES’ children take refuge in trol of the evil Paphlagon. Unlike Dicaeopolis, Strepsi-
EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES is located in the agora ades, or Trygaeus, Agoracritus does not instigate the
at MARATHON. In Greek COMEDY, however, in which the reform that he achieves but is enlisted by two of
focus is often on the mundane, references to the agora Paphlagon’s fellow slaves to defeat Paphlagon.
are frequent and the agora becomes a focal point for
BIBLIOGRAPHY
comic activity. In ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS, DICAEOPO-
Bennett, L. J., and W. B. Tyrrell. “Making Sense of Aristo-
LIS arranges a peace treaty between him and the Spar-
phanes’ Knights,” Arethusa 23 (1990): 235–54.
tans so that he can create his own personal agora for Edmunds, Lowell. “The Aristophanic Cleon’s ‘Disturbance’
trade. In two of Aristophanes’ extant plays, the heroes of Athens,” American Journal of Philology 108 (1987):
have the word agora in their name. In KNIGHTS, AGO- 233–63.
RACRITUS (the market’s choice), a sausage seller for the
Athenian agora, saves the Athenian people from the AGRIPPINA THE ELDER (CA. 14 B.C.E.–33
clutches of the politician Paphlagon (a caricature of C.E.) Agrippina I was the daughter of Agrippina
Cleon). In ECCLESIAZUSAE, PRAXAGORA (“effective in the Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and the emperor AUGUSTUS’
assembly”) leads the women’s takeover of the Athenian daughter, Julia. Agrippina I was the mother of numer-
government. In general, Aristophanes characterizes the ous children but was survived by only four of them
Athenian agora of his day as a place where idle chatter (including the future emperor CALIGULA and AGRIPPINA
took place, one to be avoided by persons of modest THE YOUNGER). The emperor Tiberius suspected that
behavior. As shown by Acharnians, an agora where pro- Agrippina was involved in the death of her husband,
duce and useful products were abundant was a sign of Germanicus (Tiberius’ adopted son), and in the year
peaceful conditions, of which Aristophanes saw little 29 had Agrippina arrested. She died in exile on the
in his own lifetime. island of PANDATERIA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca,
BIBLIOGRAPHY Octavia 932; Suetonius, Augustus 64–65, Caligula 7–8;
Joyner, G. “The Agora in Athens: Literary Sources.” In Hel- Tacitus, Annals 14.63]
lenika: Essays on Greek History and Politics. Edited by G. H.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Horsley. North Ryde, Australia: Macquarie University
Balsdon, J. Roman Women. Rev. ed. London: Bodley Head,
Ancient History Association, 1982, 97–120.
1974.
Thompson, H. A., and R. E. Wycherley. The Agora of Athens:
The History, Shape, and Uses of an Ancient City Center.
Princeton, N.J.: American School of Classical Studies at AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER (15–59 C.E.)
Athens, 1972. The daughter of Germanicus and AGRIPPINA THE ELDER,
Wycherley, R. E. How the Greeks Built Cities. 2d ed. London, the younger Agrippina was the sister of the emperor
Melbourne: Macmillan, 1967. Caligula and the mother of NERO by Gnaeus Domitius
Ahenobarbus. She later married Crispinus Passienus
AGORACRITUS A character in ARISTOPHANES and eventually married the emperor CLAUDIUS in 49
KNIGHTS, Agoracritus, whose name means approxi- C.E. The next year, Agrippina persuaded Claudius to
mately “the market’s choice” (see AGORA), is a fictional adopt Nero, although Claudius already had a son, Bri-
sausage seller who defeats Paphlagon in a contest to tannicus. In 54, Claudius died (perhaps poisoned by
win the favor of Demos, who represents the Athenian Agrippina), and Nero became emperor. Nero, however,
people. Like Aristophanic heroes such as DICAEOPOLIS, grew tired of his domineering mother’s interference
STREPSIADES, or TRYGAEUS, Agoracritus is neither sophis- and in 59 had her assassinated. Agrippina’s ghost
ticated nor especially virtuous. Agoracritus defeats appears in SENECA’s OCTAVIA and complains of her son’s
 AJAX (1) 25

crimes against her. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia; Iliad, Ajax fought the Trojan HECTOR to a draw. After
Suetonius, Claudius, Nero; Tacitus, Annals 12–14, 16] Ajax and Hector’s duel, the two exchanged gifts—Ajax
gave Hector a sword belt, and Hector gave Ajax a
BIBLIOGRAPHY
sword. After the death of Achilles, a contest was held
Balsdon, J. Roman Women. Rev. ed. London: Bodley Head,
1974. to determine who would receive the hero’s armor. Ajax
Barrett, A. Agrippina: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Early and ODYSSEUS emerged as the contestants for this
Empire. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996. reward, but despite Ajax’s valor the armor was awarded
Flach, D. “Seneca und Agrippina im antiken Urteil,” Chiron to Odysseus. Ajax was enraged and tried to kill
3 (1973): 265–76. Odysseus, AGAMEMNON, and MENELAUS. ATHENA, how-
ever, caused Ajax to go mad and Ajax killed some cat-
AGYIEUS See APOLLO. tle instead. After Ajax realized what he had done,
SOPHOCLES relates that Ajax committed suicide with the
AGYRRHIUS A wealthy Athenian leader who sword that Hector had given him. Other sources say
rose to prominence in the first two decades of the that Ajax was invulnerable over most of his body and
fourth century B.C.E. He is mentioned several times in that when he tried to stab himself the sword recoiled
ARISTOPHANES’ ECCLESIAZUSAE and in the 390s is con- from his body. Eventually, Athena had to show Ajax a
nected with introducing pay for attendance at the place beneath his arm where he could position the
Athenian assembly. Under Agyrrhius’ proposal, those sword and kill himself. Some sources also report that
who attended the assembly would receive one OBOL. By from Ajax’s blood there sprang up a flower whose petals
the time Ecclesiazusae was staged, Agyrrhius had man- bore the first two letters of Ajax’s name, Ai (in Greek),
aged to increase the pay to three obols, the same which is a Greek word meaning “alas” or “woe.”
amount that jurors were paid for a day’s service. Ajax appears as a character in one extant play,
Between 389 and 387, Agyrrhius was elected general at Sophocles’ AJAX, in which he is portrayed as clinging to
least once, and perhaps twice. [ANCIENT SOURCES: a code of behavior that seems outdated compared with
Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 102, 184, Wealth 176; the code of Odysseus. To Ajax’s way of thinking, the
Philemon, fragment 42.1 Kock 2; Plato Comicus, frag- best warrior was someone who excelled in deeds rather
ment 185.2 Kock 1] than words. After the death of Achilles, Ajax believed
that he should have been considered the best of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Greek warriors at Troy. As such, he expected to receive
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880. the armor of Achilles as his reward instead of
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: Odysseus. Unable to abide by this decision, Ajax
Teubner, 1884. struck out against his former friends and comrades. He
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11 not only transformed his friends into enemies, but he
Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 147. also treated them as inferiors as he lashed them with
his whip. In the course of the play, however, we learn
AIAS See AJAX (1). that Ajax’s trouble had started some time earlier. When
he left for the Trojan War, Ajax rejected his father’s
AJAX (1) (Greek: AIAS) The son of TELA- advice on how he should conduct himself in battle.
MON and Periboea (or Eriboea), Ajax was a native of the Additionally, while in battle on one occassion, Ajax
island of SALAMIS. Ajax accompanied the Greeks on rejected Athena’s offer of help when she stood behind
their expedition to TROY to rescue HELEN. While there, him. Having ignored both his father and the goddess,
Ajax served well and proved himself the most power- Ajax had put himself in a dangerous position even
ful warrior after ACHILLES. For Ajax’s valor in combat, before his attack on his comrades. Thus, after Ajax’s
he was awarded a captive, TECMESSA, by whom he attempt on his comrades’ lives and the Athena-sent
fathered EURYSACES. In the seventh book of Homer’s madness that prevented him from killing them, Ajax
26 AJAX (2)

reasoned that his best course of action would be sui- Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
cide. In keeping with the play’s emphasis on the rever- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
sal of roles between friends and enemies, Ajax used the Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
sword of his enemy Hector to take his own life. Unfor- Press of America, 1984.
tunately for Ajax, he did not anticipate that his former
friends, Agamemnon and Menelaus, would oppose his AJAX SOPHOCLES (CA. 450–440 B.C.E.) The
burial. Ultimately, Ajax had to rely on the help of date of the play is uncertain, although Ajax is often
another former friend whom he tried to kill, Odysseus, considered the earliest extant Sophoclean play. Modern
to rise above the traditional code of ethics (help friends scholars usually date it before ANTIGONE (442 or 441)
and harm enemies) and secure burial for him in spite and during the 440s. The action of the play occurs
of the opposition of Agamemnon and Menelaus. before the tent of AJAX near the coast of TROY during
In addition to Sophocles in the extant Ajax, several the 10th year of the Trojan War. After ACHILLES’ death,
ancient authors wrote plays about this hero. Aeschylus his mother, THETIS, decided to award her son’s armor to
wrote a tetralogy; Astydamas wrote Ajax Mainomenos the warrior who had done the most to retrieve Achilles’
(Ajax mad), of which only the title survives. This title body from the battlefield. The contest for Achilles’
would suggest, however, that the play dealt with Ajax’s armor narrowed to two Greeks, ODYSSEUS and Ajax, the
insanity. The younger Carcinus wrote the play Ajax, in son of Telamon. When Odysseus was chosen, the furi-
whose one surviving fragment Ajax laughs at ous Ajax tried to kill not only Odysseus, but also
Odysseus’ statement “It is necessary to do just things.” AGAMEMNON and MENELAUS, who Ajax thought favored
Theodectas also wrote a play with the title Ajax, to Odysseus.
which Aristotle refers (Rhetoric 1399b29, 1400a27–28), As the play opens, ATHENA addresses Odysseus, who
is attempting to find Ajax. Odysseus has learned that
of which only the title survives. Polemaeus wrote a
some of the Greeks’ cattle were slaughtered. Athena
satyric Ajax, of which only the title is extant. ENNIUS
informs Odysseus that Ajax was responsible for killing
wrote a tragic Ajax, from which a few lines survive
the animals but that he had intended to kill Odysseus,
(fragments 10–13 Jocelyn).
Menelaus, and Agamemnon. When Athena summons
BIBLIOGRAPHY Ajax from his tent, the goddess then explains to
Jocelyn, H. D. The Tragedies of Ennius. Cambridge: Cam- Odysseus that she caused Ajax to become insane and
bridge University Press, 1969. attack the cattle, rather than Odysseus and the others.
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecilius.
Athena urges Odysseus to mock Ajax, but Odysseus
Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1935.
refrains. When Athena summons Ajax from his tent,
Odysseus hides. Ajax, still suffering from madness,
AJAX (2) The son of Oileus, Ajax, who also emerges from the tent and tells Athena that Menelaus
fought in the Trojan War, was from the region of and Agamemnon are dead and that he has Odysseus
Locria. During the fall of TROY, Ajax dragged CASSAN- tied up inside the tent and is preparing to kill him.
DRA away from the statue of ATHENA, to which Cassan- When Ajax reenters the tent, Odysseus emerges from
dra was clinging for refuge. SOPHOCLES wrote Ajax the his hiding place and expresses his pity for Ajax. Athena
Locrian (fragments 10a–18 Radt), which may have warns Odysseus not to behave as Ajax has, because the
been about Ajax’s rape of Cassandra and subsequent gods hate evil.
trial by his fellow Greeks. Fragment 10c indicates that After the departure of Athena and Odysseus, the
Athena was a character in the play. CHORUS, consisting of Ajax’s comrades from SALAMIS,

BIBLIOGRAPHY enter. They have heard of the horrific deeds of their

Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. leader. They wonder which divinity Ajax could have
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: offended and what he did to create offense. They pray
Harvard University Press, 1996, 29. that the gods will save them from implication in this
 AJAX 27

crime. After the chorus’ song, TECMESSA, a female war when Teucer arrives he take care of matters as he
prize of Ajax, leaves from the tent and describes Ajax’s (Ajax) would wish and says that when next they hear
madness to the chorus. When she relates how Ajax tor- of Ajax, his suffering will be over and he will be safe.
tured and brutally killed the cattle, Ajax’s comrades When Ajax makes his exit, the chorus praise the gods
expect that the army will stone them. Tecmessa also for Ajax’s new attitude and hope for reconciliation
informs them that Ajax’s madness has now passed; he among Ajax, Menelaus, and Agamemnon. The chorus
realizes the terrible atrocities he has committed and sits do not realize that they have just seen Ajax alive for the
in dejection amid the slaughtered cattle. After last time.
Tecmessa concludes her account of Ajax’s actions and After the chorus’ joyful ode, a messenger enters and
current behavior, Ajax can be heard wailing from announces that Teucer has returned and that he was
within the tent and calling for his son, EURYSACES. threatened with death by a mob from the army. When
Soon Tecmessa opens the entrance to the tent, and the messenger says Ajax should be told about this, the
probably by means of the ECCYCLEMA, Ajax, spattered chorus say that he has left the tent. The messenger is
with blood and gore, is revealed sitting amid slaugh- troubled by this news because Teucer had been told by
tered cattle. The chorus express horror and pity for the Greeks’ prophet, CALCHAS, that Ajax should not
their leader, who continues to hope for the death of leave his tent that day because Athena’s anger would
Odysseus, Menelaus, and Agamemnon. As the scene fall upon him. The messenger goes on to relate that
continues, Ajax begins to express thoughts of suicide. Ajax had angered Athena by rejecting her direction on
He realizes that the gods hate him; he wonders how he the battlefield. The chorus, worried by this news, sum-
could face his father if he returned home. The chorus mon Tecmessa from the tent, and the messenger
and Tecmessa realize that Ajax wants to take his own informs her of Calchas’ warning. Tecmessa then sends
life and try to dissuade him. In a speech modeled on some of the chorus to summon Teucer, while others
that of ANDROMACHE to HECTOR in Iliad 6, Tecmessa search for Ajax.
makes a tearful plea to her husband not to abandon With the stage empty (a rare occurrence in classical
her and their son, Eurysaces. As with the encounter drama), Ajax appears. He states that Hector’s sword has
between Hector and Andromache, Ajax calls for his been fixed in the ground. He prays to ZEUS that the
young son and addresses him for the last time. Ajax news of his death will be reported to Teucer, so that he
declares that his half brother, TEUCER, will become the can take up Ajax’s body. Ajax prays to HERMES that he
boy’s guardian and gives the child his shield. As will will guide him to the UNDERWORLD. He prays that the
Hector, Ajax will soon meet his fate, despite further FURIES will take vengeance on the Greek army for him,
pleas from Tecmessa. Ironically, Ajax will kill himself and that Helios (see SUN) will report the news of his
with a sword that Hector had given him. death to his father and family in his native land. After
After this, Ajax reenters the tent. Next, the chorus bidding farewell to his native land and Troy, he falls on
sing an ode asking their native land to pity their plight; his sword.
they lament Ajax’s situation and predict the grief of After this, the chorus enter searching for Ajax. They
Ajax’s mother and father. After the choral ode, Ajax are joined by Tecmessa, who points out his body. The
emerges from the tent and gives one of the most con- chorus lament their fallen leader and Tecmessa covers
troversial speeches in classical drama. In the presence him with a cloth. The chorus and Tecmessa then con-
of Tecmessa and his comrades, Ajax’s words (at least on tinue to mourn for Ajax, expecting that Odysseus,
the surface) indicate that he has changed his attitude Menelaus, and Agamemnon will mock him. The group
completely. He says that he will bury his sword in the is then joined by Teucer, who with the chorus
earth and that he will obey both the gods and expresses his grief. Teucer sends Tecmessa to find
Menelaus and Agamemnon. As Ajax departs, he Eurysaces so that their enemies will not harm the
instructs Tecmessa and his comrades to pray that child. After Tecmessa departs, Teucer utters a lengthy
events turn out for him as he wishes. He asks that lamentation over Ajax’s body. Teucer worries that his
28 AJAX

father, Telamon, will not welcome him home if he does in Sophocles’ play, Odysseus argues that denying
returns without Ajax. Teucer also notes that Hector’s Ajax burial would violate the laws of the gods.
sword killed Ajax though Hector had died already, Agamemnon expresses hatred for Ajax but allows
when the sword belt that Ajax gave Hector was used to Odysseus to have his way. After Agamemnon departs,
bind Hector to a chariot rail and drag him until he Odysseus becomes reconciled with Teucer, who had
died. expected him to behave much differently with respect
After Teucer’s speech, the play’s action recalls that of to Ajax. Odysseus even offers to help Teucer bury Ajax,
SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE. In Antigone, Creon had refused but Teucer rejects his offer, saying that Ajax would not
to allow the burial of POLYNEICES, because Polyneices, have wanted this. With this rejection, Odysseus exits
although a Theban by birth, had waged war against and Teucer, Eurysaces, and Ajax’s comrades begin to
Thebes. In Ajax, Menelaus now enters and declares prepare Ajax for burial.
that Teucer must not bury Ajax. Menelaus explains
that because of Ajax’s attempt against their lives, his COMMENTARY
body will be left for the birds to pick over. Menelaus Ajax has attracted a fair amount of attention from crit-
then talks about the need for people to yield to author- ics but is surely not as popular with the general mass
ity and the law. He concludes by warning Teucer not to of readers as Antigone or Oedipus Tyrannos. One of the
bury Ajax; if he does, he too may be killed. Teucer play’s major issues is Ajax’s suicide, which may have
argues that Menelaus has no authority over Ajax and taken place on stage. First, the change of scene for
that he will not obey Menelaus. The argument between Ajax’s suicide, which apparently moves from his tent to
the two continues, and no compromise or solution is an isolated spot on the shore, is rare in Greek TRAGEDY
reached. After an angry Menelaus exits, the chorus (cf. AESCHYLUS’ Eumenides [see ORESTEIA]). It is not clear
urge Teucer to go to prepare a grave for Ajax. At this whether SOPHOCLES’ audience would simply have to
point, Tecmessa and Eurysaces enter. Teucer urges imagine this change or whether some sort of painted
Eurysaces to sit as a suppliant by his father’s corpse screen representing a seashore was put on the stage.
and cling to the body until he returns. Second, how the suicide would have been achieved
After Teucer’s exit, the chorus sing an ode express- before the audience is not clear. The body is clearly on
ing their desire to know when their labors at Troy will stage during the last third of the play, as it becomes the
end. They lament the invention of war and the loss of focal point for the other characters. Scholars have pro-
their defender, Ajax, and wish that they could return to posed a variety of solutions to this problem. Most of
their native land. After the choral ode, Teucer enters these involve Ajax’ pretending to fall on his sword
and announces that Agamemnon is approaching. behind something (such as a painted screen) that
Agamemnon immediately begins to attack Teucer ver- would conceal his prostrate body from the audience’s
bally with insults about Teucer’s birth of a woman who view. At some point, the actor playing Ajax would
was a war captive. Because Teucer is of low birth, stealthily move back into the stage building and a
Agamemnon claims, he should not speak so arrogantly dummy would have been put in his place (perhaps by
to free men. Teucer responds that Agamemnon has for- using the eccyclema).
gotten how often Ajax helped the Greeks in battle, and In addition to problems of staging, Ajax’s speech in
that Agamemnon himself is a descendant of a barbar- which he deceives his comrades and the relevance of
ian and that his mother was an adulterous Cretan. last third of the play have troubled critics. Regarding
Teucer also defends his own birth, saying that his Ajax’s “deception speech,” some scholars have thought
mother was a Trojan princess, who was a war prize Ajax is lying; others have thought his character has
given to his father by Heracles. changed. Sicherl, however, argues that Ajax neither lies
The arrival of Odysseus, who intercedes on Ajax’s nor has a change in character, but that Ajax’s words are
behalf and persuades Agamemnon to relent, interrupts ambiguous and deceive his comrades. As for the play’s
the argument of Teucer and Agamemnon. As ANTIGONE structure, after Ajax’s death, a substantial part of the
 ALCAEUS (1) 29

play remains. In some ways, Ajax is constructed in who has become his enemy (121–22). Furthermore,
reverse of Antigone. In Antigone, the audience hears a Odysseus later opposes his friends Agamemnon and
debate about the burial of Polyneices and then is pre- Menelaus with respect to the issue of burying Ajax and
sented with the suicides of Antigone, Haemon, and even offers to help bury the body of the man who tried
EURYDICE. In Ajax, the audience is presented with the to kill him (1376–80). Odysseus has shown an ability
suicide of Ajax and then listens to a debate over his and a willingness to move beyond the bounds of the
burial. The unity of Ajax, however, may be found in traditional ethical code in his society, whereas even in
the play’s major themes, such as the reversal in the death, Ajax cannot. Accordingly, Teucer rejects
roles of friends and enemies. Odysseus’ offer because he believes that Ajax would be
Ajax is another Sophoclean hero who has become offended (1395).
entangled in the Greek ethical practice of helping one’s Sophocles’ Ajax is a play filled with the unexpected:
friends and harming one’s enemies (see Blundell’s Ajax’s attack against his enemies, Ajax’s apparent
study). His friends, the Greek army, become his ene- change of heart toward his enemies (716), and
mies when they award Achilles’ arms to Odysseus. Odysseus’ intervention in the burial of Ajax (1382). At
Ajax tries to kill three of his new enemies, but he is the end of the play, however, Ajax continues to behave
prevented by the goddess Athena, whose help, we are in accordance with the traditional code of ethics, while
told, he had rejected earlier in the war (thus trans- Odysseus adapts to the world as it changes around
forming Athena from a friend to an enemy). While him. Ajax is a man who has isolated himself from the
some of Ajax’s friends become his enemies, some of his civilized community but fails to anticipate that after his
enemies become his friends. Tecmessa, whose country death this community has the power to allow or refuse
Ajax destroyed with his spear (515), was his enemy. him burial. Were it not for the intervention of a person
Although she is his spear prize from battle, she seems Ajax considered his enemy, Ajax’s corpse would have
concerned for his welfare and appears to have some remained unburied. Thus, the reversal in the roles of
feeling for the man. Even if Tecmessa is motivated by friends and enemies not only serves as a major theme
self-preservation, she is certainly not his enemy. in the drama but also helps unify the play.
Another Trojan, to some extent, changes from enemy
BIBLIOGRAPHY
to friend in Ajax. Earlier in the war, when the single
Blundell, M. W. Helping Friends and Harming Enemies: A
combat between Hector and Ajax had resulted in a Study in Sophocles and Greek Ethics. Cambridge: Cam-
draw, the two men had exchanged gifts. The sword of bridge University Press, 1989, 60–105.
Ajax’s enemy Hector becomes the weapon with which Garvie, A. F. Sophocles. Ajax. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
he kills himself. Phillips, 1998.
While Trojans have become Ajax’s friends, the March, J. R. “Sophocles’ Ajax: The Death and Burial of the
Greeks have become Ajax’s enemies. The final instance Hero,” Bulletin for the Institute of Classical Studies 38
of a person who moves between friend and enemy is (1991–93): 1–36.
Segal, Charles. “Catharsis, Audience, and Closure in Greek
Odysseus. From Ajax’s perspective, Odysseus has
Tragedy.” In Tragedy and the Tragic: Greek Theatre and
become his enemy. Odysseus, however, does some-
Beyond. Edited by M. S. Silk. Oxford and New York:
thing unusual with respect to the Greek ethical code of Oxford University Press, 1996, 149–81.
helping one’s friends and harming one’s enemies in Sicherl, M. “The Tragic Issue in Sophocles’ Ajax,” Yale Classi-
opposing this code. Contrast Agamemnon and cal Studies 25 (1977): 67–98.
Menelaus, who, after discovering that Ajax has tried to
kill them, are ready to deny Ajax burial. The sons of ALCAEUS (1) (BORN CA. 620 B.C.E.) A
Atreus adhere to the traditional code of ethics as they writer of poetry, especially lyric poetry, from the island
try to harm the man who once was their friend but of LESBOS. ARISTOPHANES, at THESMOPHORIAZUSAE 161,
now is their enemy. Odysseus, in contrast, rejects associates Alcaeus with delicate behavior and soft
Athena’s invitation to mock Ajax and pities the man clothing.
30 ALCAEUS (2)

ALCAEUS (2) A Greek comic poet, whose which only fragments survive. The drama’s setting is
Pasiphae was defeated in a drama competition by PHERAE, a small town near the coast of northeastern
ARISTOPHANES’ WEALTH in 388 B.C.E. Greece. The play opens with the departure of APOLLO
from the house of ADMETUS, the king of Pherae. Apollo
BIBLIOGRAPHY tells the audience that had been forced by his father,
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
ZEUS, to become a servant to Admetus, because Apollo
Teubner, 1880.
had killed some of the CYCLOPES, the giant one-eyed
creatures who make lightning bolts for Zeus. Apollo
ALCESTIS The daughter of Pelias and Anaxibia, had killed the Cyclopes because Zeus had killed
Alcestis was the wife of ADMETUS and mother of Apollo’s son, ASCLEPIUS. During Apollo’s servitude, he
EUMELUS and Perimele. She had one brother, ACASTUS, found Admetus most hospitable, and accordingly he
and several sisters: Amphinome, Asteropeia, Evadne, tricked the Moirae (FATES) to allow Admetus to avoid
Hippothoe, Medusa (not the GORGON), Peisidice, and death by finding someone to die in his place. The
Pelopia. Alcestis’ father, Pelias, refused to marry Alces- encounter between Apollo and Admetus in which the
tis to anyone who could not yoke a lion and a boar to god reveals his gift to Admetus does not occur in the
a chariot. Admetus wanted to marry Alcestis, and the play itself; therefore, the audience does not know
god APOLLO, who was on good terms with Admetus, whether Admetus tried to reject this gift. Apollo does
yoked the lion and boar for him to take the yoked pair tell the audience, however, that Admetus asked his
to Pelias. In this way, Admetus was able to marry parents whether they would be willing to die in his
Alcestis. Some time later, Apollo arranged for Admetus place. Admetus’ parents, despite their advanced age,
to avoid death provided that he could find someone to were unwilling to die for their son. Admetus’ wife,
die in his place. Admetus’ parents refused, but Alcestis Alcestis, was. The encounter of Admetus and Alcestis
agreed to give up her life for her husband. Alcestis died when she agrees to die for her husband is also not seen
but was rescued from death by HERACLES (according to in the play.
EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS) or by PERSEPHONE, who allowed Apollo then explains that with Alcestis on the verge
Alcestis to be restored to Admetus. Because of her sac- of death, he must leave the house to avoid the pollu-
rifice, Alcestis became a model for virtuous behavior tion caused by the presence of death. No sooner are
among Greek women. these words out of Apollo’s mouth than he encounters
In addition to Euripides’ extant Alcestis, dramas with Thanatos, Death himself, who is there to take Alcestis’
the same title were written by several other play- life. Apollo tries to persuade Thanatos to let Alcestis
wrights. The tragedian PHRYNICHUS’ Alcestis predated live, but Thanatos refuses. As Apollo leaves, he pre-
Euripides’ play, and presumably Euripides drew on it dicts that Thanatos will be defeated and Alcestis will
in his own work. Although only a few words survive of survive.
Phrynichus’ play, those that do hint at the wrestling After Apollo’s departure, the chorus of elders from
match between Heracles and Death. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pherae approach the house looking for some indica-
Apollodorus, 1.9.10, 15; Euripides, Alcestis] tion of whether Alcestis is still alive. Soon a female ser-
BIBLIOGRAPHY vant emerges from the house and tells the chorus of
Nielsen, R. M. “Alcestis: A Paradox in Dying,” Ramus 5 Alcestis’ actions inside. Subsequently, Admetus
(1976): 92–102. emerges from the house with Alcestis, who is near
O’Higgins, Dolores. “Above Rubies: Admetus’ Perfect Wife,” death. Before Alcestis dies, she requests that Admetus
Arethusa 26 (1993): 77–97. not remarry after her death, a request to which Adme-
tus accedes.
ALCESTIS EURIPIDES (438 B.C.E.) Alcestis After Admetus reenters the house with the now-
was the final play of a TETRALOGY that included Alcmeon deceased Alcestis, the hero HERACLES arrives in town,
in Psophis, Cretan Women, and Telephus, three plays of hoping to stay with Admetus for a brief time before
 ALCESTIS 31

continuing on to Thrace. After Heracles discusses his men would presumably pass one another). When
mission (to fetch the horses of the Thracian Diomedes) Admetus returns, he laments the loss of his wife and
with the chorus, Admetus, wearing dark clothing and expresses the realization that his continued existence
having cut his hair as a sign of mourning, emerges will be painful. Soon, however, Heracles returns from
from the house. Heracles recognizes that Admetus is in the burial site with a silent young woman (Alcestis)
mourning, but Admetus, not wanting Heracles to stay whose face is not visible to Admetus. Heracles tells
with another host, does not tell Heracles that Alcestis Admetus that he won the girl in an athletic competi-
has died. Heracles wants to go to another host, but tion and asks Admetus to take care of her for him while
Admetus insists that he stay. Won over, Heracles reluc- he is on his mission. Because Admetus had promised
tantly enters the house. The chorus question Admetus’ Alcestis that he would not remarry, he does not wish to
decision to take in a guest during a time of mourning, take the young woman into his home. Eventually, Her-
but Admetus argues that Heracles has always been a acles persuades Admetus to take her. When Admetus
good host to him when he visited him and that he does takes the young woman’s hand, he recognizes his wife,
not want to have his home labeled as unfriendly to who continues to be silent. As the play ends, Admetus
guests. thanks the hero, who continues on his journey, and
At this point, Admetus reenters the house to prepare then declares a celebration in his kingdom. What hap-
for Alcestis’ funeral. During Admetus’ absence, the pens between Admetus and Alcestis after the drama’s
chorus sing an ode to Admetus’ house, recalling that conclusion is unknown.
the presence of Apollo brought peace and prosperity to
the kingdom, and that Admetus remains hospitable COMMENTARY
even in the face of the present misfortune. After the Alcestis is one of EURIPIDES’ most controversial plays.
choral ode, Admetus emerges from the house. He is Much of the debate centers on the play’s genre. In
soon met by his father, Pheres, who has arrived to pay Euripides’ tetralogy of 438, an ancient HYPOTHESIS to
his respects to Alcestis. Admetus, however, does not the play lists Alcestis as the fourth play. The fourth play
welcome his father, who did not offer to die for him was reserved for a SATYR PLAY, but no satyrs appear in
and allowed Alcestis to die instead. Admetus criticizes the drama. Satyr plays were comic in tone, and the
his father and mother’s refusal to die and states that he tone of the Alcestis is tragic for the most part. A few
is no longer their child. Pheres, in turn, lashes back at humorous elements are present in the text—the ser-
Admetus and calls him a coward for clinging to life. vant’s account of Heracles’ drunkenness and Apollo’s
After further angry words, Pheres departs, presumably encounter with Thanatos have some wry moments.
to his home, and Admetus exits to bury Alcestis. Otherwise, the play’s text, dominated by Alcestis’
While Admetus conducts Alcestis’ funeral outside death, is largely devoid of humor. The play’s intermin-
the house, Heracles becomes drunk inside, as the audi- gling of TRAGEDY and COMEDY has led some scholars to
ence is informed by a servant who claims Heracles is label it a TRAGICOMEDY. Other scholars prefer to attrib-
the worst guest he has ever served. Heracles himself, ute the play’s enigmatic tone to its derivation from a
quite intoxicated, soon emerges from the house, criti- folktale, a genre in which a typical pattern is that the
cizes the servant for his gloomy expression and atti- husband rescues his bride from a terrible ogre. In
tude, and proceeds to philosophize on the inevitability Alcestis, Thanatos is the terrible ogre, and Heracles
of death, the pleasure of wine, and the power of replaces Admetus in the battle with the ogre.
APHRODITE. Heracles then learns from the servant that Another of the play’s major issues concerns the
Alcestis has died. Heracles declares he will ambush respective characters of Admetus and Alcestis. Few
Thanatos and rescue Alcestis from him. have found Admetus worthy of Alcestis’ sacrifice, and
Just as Heracles departs to the gravesite to rescue some even regard Alcestis as manipulative and lacking
Alcestis, Admetus returns from the same site (perhaps in feeling. Scholars have also debated the purpose of
a problem for the staging of the play because the two the statue of Alcestis that Admetus proposes to have
32 ALCIBIADES

made and placed in Alcestis’ bed after her death. house. Alcibiades’ first major military action occurred
Admetus says he will put his arms around the statue in 418, when he led an unsuccessful Athenian force
and call it by Alcestis’ name. Some scholars have found against the Spartans at Mantinea. In 415, Alcibiades
this perversely sexual; others have suggested that it is persuaded his fellow Athenians to launch the SICILIAN
meant to recall the story of LAODAMEIA and her hus- EXPEDITION. Alcibiades, along with LAMACHUS and
band, PROTESILAUS. After Protesilaus died, Laodameia NICIAS, was elected one of the generals to lead the
commissioned a statue of her husband. Just as Adme- Athenians’ expedition to SICILY. Shortly after the expe-
tus declares that he will place the statue of Alcestis in dition sailed in 415 B.C.E., the Athenians recalled
their marriage bed, wrap his arms around it, and call it Alcibiades because he was suspected of participating in
by her name, Laodameia placed the statue in their mar- a mockery of the Eleusinian mysteries and in the muti-
riage bed and embraced it. lation of various statues of Hermes (called Herms)
Another much-discussed issue in the play is the before the expedition’s departure. Alcibiades, however,
silence of Alcestis after her return from the grave. Her- evaded the Athenian ship sent to take him back. He
acles explains her silence as a product of her recent escaped to Sparta and began providing the spartans
return from the dead—Admetus is not permitted to with military advice that would help them against the
hear her speak until she is purified from her encounter Athenians. In particular, Alcibiades advised the Spar-
with the gods below and two full days have passed. tans to establish a permanent garrison in Athenian ter-
Modern scholars, however, have usually dismissed ritory (at Decelea), from which they could strike out
Heracles’ remark, pointing out that evidence for such a against Athens all year. In addition to creating this gar-
ritual purification does not exist. Others have argued rison, the Spartans sent Alcibiades to the region of
that when Alcestis was staged, other than the chorus, Ionia (in western Turkey) to help stir up rebellion
commonly only two speaking actors would be on stage among the Athenian allies there. Because some leading
at one time. Because Admetus and Heracles are the Athenians began to favor oligarchy over democracy,
speaking actors in this scene, Alcestis’ character Alcibiades, using a promise of Persian financial back-
remains silent. ing, began to work with the oligarchic group in hopes
that he might be recalled to Athens.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Despite the hardship that Alcibiades had caused his
Burnett, A. P. Catastrophe Survived: Euripides’ Plays of Mixed fellow Athenians, many recognized his abilities as a
Reversal. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971. military leader, and after a few years Alcibiades had
Conacher, D. J. Euripides. Alcestis. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
worn out his welcome in Sparta. His relationship with
Phillips, 1988.
the Persians troubled the Spartans, and Alcibiades’
Dale, A. M. Euripides: Alcestis. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1954. seduction of the wife of Agis, one of the Spartan kings,
Lesky, Albin. Alkestis, der Mythus und das Drama. Vienna and did not help matters. In 411, the prooligarchic party
Leipzig: Holder Pichler Temsky, 1925. managed to overthrow the Athenian democracy.
Segal, Charles, Euripides and the Poetics of Sorrow: Art, Gender, Although this initial coup was in turn replaced by a
and Commemoration in Alcestis, Hippolytus, and Hecuba. mixture of oligarchy and democracy, by the end of 411
Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1993. the new government had voted to recall Alcibiades. In
Wilson, J. R. Twentieth Century Interpretations of Euripides’ 410, at Cyzicus, Alcibiades led the Athenians to victory
Alcestis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968. over the Spartans, who then offered to make peace
with Athens. The Athenians refused, and the Spartans
ALCIBIADES (CA. 450–404 B.C.E.) Alcibi- eventually rebuilt their fleet. In 406, the Spartan fleet
ades was one of the most charismatic yet outrageous defeated the Athenians at the battle of Notion. Alcibi-
Athenian military commanders and statesmen of the ades, although not present at the battle, was consid-
last quarter of the fifth century B.C.E. After his father ered responsible for the Athenian fleet, and thus he
died in 447, Alcibiades grew up in his uncle, PERICLES’, was exiled again by the Athenians. The conclusion of
 ALCMENA 33

ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS, produced in 405, suggests that des’ play because both “were aristocrats in exile, artic-
the Athenians were still considering allowing Alcibi- ulate, and eager to return home.” Vickers also links the
ades to return, but the recall did not come to pass. drunken satyr SILENUS with “Alcibiades the arch-
Retiring to a castle he owned on the shores of the boozer.” For Vickers, the blinded CYCLOPS represents
HELLESPONT, Alcibiades advised the Athenian fleet of a either “a gross caricature of a Spartan” or an important
Spartan attack at Aegospotami; he was ignored and this ambassador of the king of Persia, an official known as
setback paved the way for the ultimate defeat of Athens the King’s Eye. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ban-
in 404. After the Athenians surrendered to the Spar- queters, fragment 198.6 Kock, Frogs 1422ff, Wasps
tans, the Spartan naval commander and statesman 44–46; Cornelius Nepos, Alcibiades; Plato, Alcibiades,
Lysander arranged for Alcibiades to be killed by the Gorgias, Symposium; Plutarch, Alcibiades, Nicias; Thucy-
Persian satrap Pharnabazus. dides, Histories]
Although Alcibiades does not appear as a character
BIBLIOGRAPHY
in any extant dramas, the comic poets mentioned him
Bloedow, E. F. Alcibiades Reexamined. Wiesbaden, Ger.:
by name several times. Fragments from PHERECRATES Steiner, 1973.
(155 Kock 1) and Eupolis (158 Kock 1) refer to Alcib- Caizzi, F. D. Antisthenis Fragmenta. Milan: Istituto Editoriale
iades’ relations with numerous women; a fragment from Cisalpino, 1966.
an unknown comic poet mentions Alcibiades’ affair Ellis, Walter M. Alcibiades. London: Routledge, 1989.
with the Spartan queen (fragment 3–5 Kock 3). In Forde, Steven. The Ambition to Rule: Alcibiades and the Politics
Aristophanes’ Banqueters of 427 B.C.E., Alcibiades’ name of Imperialism in Thucydides. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univer-
appears, and five years later Aristophanes makes fun of sity Press, 1989.
his lisp in WASPS. At least two characters in Aristo- Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
phanes’ plays, PHEIDIPPIDES in CLOUDS and PEISETAERUS in Teubner, 1880.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Leipzig:
BIRDS, are thought to be modeled on Alcibiades.
Teubner, 1888.
Vickers, in his 2000 article, has suggested parallels
Rhodes, P. J. What Alcibiades Did or What Happened to Him.
between Alcibiades and several characters in extant Durham, N.C.: Durham University, 1985.
tragedies. Vickers argues that the potentially incestu- Tompkins, D. P. “Stylistic Characterization in Thucydides:
ous relationship between PHAEDRA and HIPPOLYTUS in Nicias and Alcibiades,” Yale Classical Studies 22 (1972):
EURIPIDES’ HIPPOLYTUS may have been influenced to 181–214.
some extent by a charge made against Alcibiades in a Vickers, M. “Alcibiades on Stage: Philoctetes and Cyclops,”
fragment from the works of the philosopher Antis- Historia 36 (1987): 171–97.
thenes (fragment 29a Caizzi), which accuses Alcibiades ———. “Alcibiades and Aspasia: Notes on the Hippolytus,”
of having sexual relations with his mother, daughter, Dialogues d’histoire ancien 26, no. 2 (2000): 7–17.
and sister. Vickers suggests that Euripides’ portrait of
Hippolytus has parallels in Alcibiades and that Euripi- ALCIDES Another name for HERACLES, who was a
des’ portrait of Phaedra may have been influenced by “descendant of Alcaeus.”
the prostitute Aspasia, the lover of Alcibiades’ uncle,
Pericles, who would then represent THESEUS in the ALCMENA (ALCMENE or ALCU-
play. Writing in 1987, Vickers finds similarities MENA) The daughter of Electryon and Anaxo (or
between Alcibiades and PHILOCTETES (Sophocles’ AMPHIARAUS and ERIPHYLE), Alcmena is best known as
Philoctetes was staged in 409 B.C.E.), who, as did Alcib- the mother of HERACLES (Roman: Hercules). When
iades, experienced exile and recall for military motives. Alcmena’s brothers were killed attempting to repel a
Vickers equates ODYSSEUS, Philoctetes’ enemy, with the cattle raid by the TELEBOANS, her father, Electryon, left
orator Andocides, an opponent of Alcibiades’. Regard- Mycenae to wage war against the raiders. Electryon left
ing Euripides’ CYCLOPS, which Vickers dates to 408, the kingdom and Alcmena under the care of his
Vickers links Alcibiades with the Odysseus of Euripi- nephew AMPHITRYON. When Electryon returned,
34 ALCMEON

Amphitryon accidentally killed his uncle. When Some sources say that after Amphitryon died, Alcmena
Amphitryon went into exile, Alcmena accompanied married RHADAMANTHYS of CRETE, and that she and
her cousin to THEBES. In Thebes, Amphitryon and Rhadamanthys were buried in Haliartus.
Alcmena married, but Alcmena would not consum- Besides Children of Heracles, Euripides also wrote
mate their marriage until Amphitryon avenged the Alcmena (fragments 88–104 Nauck), which was prob-
death of her brothers. While Amphitryon was away ably staged before 428 B.C.E. and dealt with the cir-
fighting the Teleboans, ZEUS, disguised as Amphitryon, cumstances surrounding Heracles’ birth. Aeschylus
arrived at Alcmena’s house and pretended to return also wrote a play titled Alcmena, from which one word
victorious from battle. Alcmena slept with Zeus and survives (see fragment 12 Radt). The Greek tragedian
became pregnant with Heracles. Not long after Zeus Astydamas’ Alcmena (fragment 1d Snell) survives only
left, Amphitryon returned home. Alcmena was baffled as a title.
by Amphitryon’s appearance, and he was equally puz- Among the Romans, Alcmena became the prime
zled when she claimed to have had sexual relations example of a virtuous wife. Alcmena also appears as a
with him a few hours earlier. The confusion was even- character in Plautus’ Amphitruo, in which she experi-
tually resolved by the prophet TEIRESIAS, who ences much confusion about Zeus’ being disguised as
explained what Zeus had done. Once Amphitryon and her husband. Although the words from Alcmena’s
Alcmena learned the truth, they became reconciled mouth are often noble, Christenson argues that the
and they too slept together. Thus, Alcmena became presentation of Alcmena in this play is farcical, as she
pregnant with fraternal twins. By Zeus, Alcmena had is portrayed as a sex-starved wife and, because she is
Heracles; by Amphitryon, she produced Iphicles. pregnant during most of the play, she would have
When it was time for Alcmena to deliver her chil- appeared in a heavily padded costume. We should also
dren, HERA delayed the birth so that EURYSTHEUS could keep in mind that her part would have been played by
be born first and receive a blessing (the kingship of a man. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.4.5;
ARGOS) that Zeus had intended for Heracles. After Her- Homer, Iliad 19.96–133; Ovid, Metamorphoses
acles and Iphicles were born, some sources say that 9.280–323; Pausanias, 5.17.1]
Alcmena, fearing that Hera would harm her, left Hera-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
cles to die. Athena, however, retrieved Heracles and
Christenson, David. “Grotesque Realism in Plautus’
returned him to Alcmena. Athena told Alcmena that Amphitruo,” Classical Journal 96, no. 3 (2000–1): 243–60.
she herself should not fear Hera, and that Heracles Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Leipzig: Teub-
himself would be the target of any assault by Hera. ner. 1889. Reprint, Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
After the birth of Heracles, we hear little of Alcmena. Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
In EURIPIDES’ HERACLES, she is not living in Thebes with Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Amphitryon, but some sources say that she returned to Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Tiryns and was living with some of Heracles’ children. Methuen, 1967.
In Euripides’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES, Alcmena has
accompanied some of Heracles’ children to MARATHON, ALCMEON (Latin: ALCMEO) The son of
where they took refuge from Eurystheus, who was try- AMPHIARAUS and ERIPHYLE, Alcmeon was the brother of
ing to kill them. After Eurystheus was defeated in bat- Amphilochus. Ten years after the destruction of the
tle and captured, he was taken before Alcmena. The expedition by the Seven against THEBES, the sons of the
end of Euripides’ play is lost; other sources say that fallen leaders, known collectively as the EPIGONI, again
Alcmena either demanded Eurystheus’ execution or undertook an attack on Thebes to avenge their fathers’
gouged out the eyes from Eurystheus’ severed head, deaths. In the earlier war, Eriphyle had been bribed by
sent to her by HYLLUS, son of Heracles. Little is known POLYNEICES with a necklace to persuade Amphiaraus to
about Alcmena’s death except that the ancient sources go to a war that took his life. In the expedition of the
usually say that Amphitryon preceded her in death. Epigoni, Polyneices’ son Thersander bribed Eriphyle
 ALEUS 35

with a robe to persuade Alcmeon to go to war. An ora- 1c Snell), Theodectas (fragments 1a–2 Snell), Timo-
cle had declared that the Epigoni would be victorious theus (see Snell), Euaretus (fragment 2 Snell), and
if Alcmeon led the army. Alcmeon did lead the Epigoni Nicomachus of Alexandria (fragment 2). A SATYR PLAY
to victory and killed ETEOCLES’ son Laodamas in the entitled Alcmeon is attributed to Achaeus (fragments
battle. 12–15 Snell). In Ennius’ Alcmeo (fragments 14–16
After the battle, Alcmeon learned of his mother’s Jocelyn), Alcmeon appears to have been tormented by
bribery. At this point, Alcmeon’s story becomes similar the Furies. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.7;
to that of ORESTES. The angry Alcmeon, in accordance Hyginus, Fables 73]
with another oracle, killed his mother, Eriphyle, and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
was subsequently tormented by her FURIES. Seeking
Jocelyn, H. D. The Tragedies of Ennius. Cambridge: Cam-
purification from his crime, Alcmeon went to Oicles of bridge University Press, 1969.
Arcadia and then Phegeus of Psophis. Phegeus purified Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Alcmeon and then married him to his daughter ALPH- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
ESIBOEA (or Arsinoe). When a plague fell upon the town Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil-
and an oracle revealed Alcmeon’s presence as the ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
cause, Alcmeon left Psophis and, at the instruction of 1935.
the oracles, went to the river ACHELOUS for purification.
After purification, Achelous married his daughter Cal- ALCYONE See CEYX.
lirrhoe to Alcmeon. Later, Callirrhoe refused to remain
with Alcmeon unless he gave her the robe and neck- ALETES (ALEITES) At least three characters
lace. Alcmeon then returned to Psophis to retrieve of classical mythology have the name Aletes. One
them and told Phegeus that his, Alcmeon’s, madness Aletes, the son of Icarius and Periboea, was the brother
would be healed if Phegeus gave him the robe and of ODYSSEUS’ wife, PENELOPE. Another Aletes, a son of
necklace. Phegeus handed over the items, but when he AEGISTHUS and CLYTEMNESTRA, usurped the kingdom of
learned the truth about them, he told some of his sons Argos from ORESTES. After returning from the land of
to ambush and kill Alcmeon. When Alphesiboea the Taurians, Orestes killed Aletes and reclaimed the
accused the young men of this act, they sold her into throne. Stobaeus attributed to SOPHOCLES a play enti-
slavery to Agapenor and claimed that she had mur- tled Aleites, which may have been about Orestes’
dered Alcmeon. killing of Aletes. A descendant of Heracles, also named
The legend of Alcmeon was apparently popular with Aletes, defeated the descendants of SISYPHUS at CORINTH
dramatists, although no extant drama based on this and reestablished the rule of his family there. [ANCIENT
subject survives. EURIPIDES wrote Alcmeon in Corinth SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.10.6; Hyginus, Fables
and Alcmeon in Psophis. From the former play, only a 122; Pausanias, 2.4.1; Strabo, 8.8.5]
single fragment survives (73a Snell). This fragment,
perhaps the words of APOLLO, mentions the sons of ALEUS This king of TEGEA was the husband of
Alcmeon. Alcmeon in Psophis was followed to the Neaera, by whom he had four children: three sons,
Athenian stage in 438 B.C.E. by Cretan Women, Telephus, Amphidamas, Cepheus, and LYCURGUS, and a daughter,
and Alcestis. SOPHOCLES also wrote a play called AUGE. An oracle had said that Aleus would be killed by
Alcmeon, which may have dealt with Alcmeon’s time in a son born to Auge. To prevent this death, Aleus made
Psophis (fragments 108–10 Radt). Of Ennius’ Alcmeon Auge one of ATHENA’s priestesses, who had to be vir-
(Latin: Alcmeo) about 15 lines survive; the lines suggest gins, and threatened to kill her if she had intercourse.
that Ennius’ play dealt with Alcmeon’s Fury-induced HERACLES, however, passing through the region,
madness. became drunk and had intercourse with Auge. When
Other tragedians who wrote plays entitled Alcmeon Aleus learned that Auge was pregnant, he gave her to
are AGATHON (fragment 2 Snell), Astydamas (fragment the sailor Nauplius with instructions to drown her.
36 ALEXANDER

Before Nauplius could carry out these orders, Auge before Cercyon, king in the region of ARCADIA. Cer-
gave birth to a son. At this point, Nauplius disobeyed cyon, recognizing the infant’s clothing as his daughter’s
Aleus’ instructions and gave Auge and her son to the handiwork, again ordered the child to be left to die,
Mysian king Teuthras. The latter married Auge and but a mare and shepherds saved the child’s life a sec-
named the son TELEPHUS. Sophocles wrote a play enti- ond time. Alope, however, did not have the same good
tled The Sons of Aleus (Greek: Aleadae). [ANCIENT fortune when Cercyon killed her, although Poseidon
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.7.4] transformed her into a fountain. THESEUS killed Cer-
cyon and turned over his kingdom to Hippothoon
ALEXANDER See PARIS. when he learned that Hippothoon, as he was, was
Poseidon’s son. Several plays entitled Alope survive.
ALEXANDRIA Established in 331 B.C.E. and Nine brief fragments survive from Euripides’ Alope
named after its founder, Alexander the Great, this port (105–13 Nauck), staged, Ferguson thinks, in 414
city became the capital of Egypt and an unsurpassed along with Ion and Heracles. Aristotle mentions an Auge
center of Greek culture. Alexandria was the home to by Carcinus; Pausanias knew of one written by Choer-
the most substantial library in the ancient world. In ilus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 559; Aristo-
addition to holding a collection of works that num- tle, Nichomachean Ethics 1150b10; Hyginus, Fables
bered in the hundreds of thousands and included 187; Pausanias, 1.14.3]
manuscripts of the plays of the great dramatists, the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
library provided employment for poets and scholars. It
Ferguson, J. “Tetralogies, Divine Paternity, and the Plays of
was damaged by fire on several occasions, the most 414,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philologi-
well known being in 47 B.C.E. cal Association 100 (1969): 109–117.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Leipzig: Teub-
Alexandria and Alexandrianism. Malibu, Calif.: J. Paul Getty ner. 1889. Reprint, Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964).
Museum, 1996. Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Forster, E. M. Alexandria: A History and a Guide. Garden Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1961. Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Methuen, 1967.
ALEXICACUS A title of the god HERMES and
other divinities. Alexicacus means “he who wards off ALPHESIBOEA The daughter of Phegeus,
evil.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 422] Alphesiboea (also known as Arsinoe) married
ALCMEON, who had gone to PSOPHIS after he had killed
ALIS See ELIS. his mother, ERIPHYLE. After an oracle from Apollo
prompted Alcmeon to leave Psophis and marry
ALOPE Not only is Alope the name of a town another woman, ACHELOUS’ daughter Callirrhoe, Alph-
north of TRACHIS on the coast of northeastern Greece, esiboea continued to love Alcmeon. After Alphesiboea’s
it is also that of a daughter of the Eleusinian king CER- brothers killed Alcmeon, she was angry with them.
CYON. Alope became the mother of Hippothoon by Accordingly, they enclosed her in a box; took her to
POSEIDON. Hyginus provides the most detailed source Agapenor, king of Tegea; and claimed she had killed
of her myth. After giving birth, Alope ordered her Alcmeon. Alphesiboea died in Tegea after she arranged
nurse to leave the child to die. A shepherd, however, for her brothers to be killed by Alcmeon’s sons. Among
found a mare nursing the child. When a second shep- the Greek dramatists, the tragedian Achaeus wrote an
herd asked that the child be given to him, the first Alphesiboea, whose three surviving words (fragment 16
shepherd handed over the child, but not the regal Snell) refer to someone who is raving mad. The single
clothing that the infant wore. When the two shepherds seven-line fragment extant from Chaeremon’s Alphesi-
argued over the clothing, their dispute was taken boea (fragment 1 Snell) describes the skin and hair of a
 AMMON 37

beautiful woman (Alphesiboea?). Timotheus also wrote Cephisodorus and Epicrates are too brief to be inform-
an Alphesiboea, of which only the title survives. ative. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, 2.5.9; Aristo-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Pausanias, 8.24.8–10] phanes, Lysistrata 679; Diodorus Siculus, 4.16;
Euripides, Heracles 374, 408, Hippolytus 10, 307, 351,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
581, Ion 1145; Herodotus, 4.110–17; Homer, Iliad
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. 6.186; Hyginus, Fables 30; Pausanias, 1.17.2, 1.41.7,
5.10.2; Plutarch, Theseus 27, 31, 33; Quintus Smyr-
naeus, 1.18–47]
ALTHAEA The daughter of Thestius and Eury-
themis, Althaea was the sister of Euippus, Eurypylus, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hypermnestra, Iphiclus, LEDA, Plexippus, and Prothous. duBois, Page. Centaurs and Amazons: Women and the Pre-His-
Althaea became the wife of the Calydonian king OENEUS, tory of the Great Chain of Being. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1982.
by whom she had four sons, Clymenus, MELEAGER,
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet-
Thyreus, and Toxeus, and two daughters, DEIANEIRA and
arum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann,
Gorge. The best known of her children are Deianeira, 1899.
who eventually married HERACLES, and Meleager, who Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
killed the Calydonian boar. Althaea, having learned Teubner, 1880.
through prophecy that Meleager would live as long as a ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
certain log remained intact, hid it in a chest. Many years Teubner, 1884.
later, after Meleager killed Althaea’s brothers, Althaea Von Bothmer, Dietrich. Amazons in Greek Art. Oxford:
burned the log completely. In her grief, Althaea com- Clarendon Press, 1957.
mitted suicide. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
1.7.10–1.8.3; Homer, Iliad 9.543–99; Hyginus, Fables AMEIPSIAS An Athenian comic poet who was a
129; Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.260–456] contemporary and rival of ARISTOPHANES. In 423 B.C.E.,
a work by Ameipsias placed second in dramatic com-
petition, ahead of Aristophanes’ CLOUDS; in 414,
AMAZONS The Amazons are depicted as a
Ameipsias’ work was victorious and defeated Aristo-
female-dominated tribe of warriors who frequently live
phanes’ BIRDS. He also won a victory at the LENAEA in
on the fringes of the Greek world, most often near the
the late fifth or early fourth century. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Black Sea region. Numerous Greek heroes fought
Aristophanes, Frogs 14]
against Amazon women. BELLEROPHON battled some
Amazons during his stay with Iobates of Lycia. HERA- BIBLIOGRAPHY
CLES defeated an attack of Amazon women during his Austin, C. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta in Papyris
quest for an Amazon’s girdle. THESEUS, who accompa- Reperta. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1973.
nied Heracles on his mission and abducted the Ama- Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9,
zon Hippolyta (or ANTIOPE), eventually fought and Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 158.
defeated the Amazons on Athenian soil. By Hippolyta
Theseus fathered HIPPOLYTUS, but eventually divorced AMMON The ram-headed Egyptian god whom
her (and killed her) in favor of PHAEDRA. In the final the Greeks identified with Zeus. Ammon had an oracle
year of the Trojan War, Achilles killed the Amazon in the Libyan desert whose “fame had come to rival
Penthesileia, who had allied herself and her women that of Delphi and Dodona” (Dunbar). [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 619, 716; Euripides,
with the Trojans. Three Greek comic poets wrote plays
entitled Amazons: Dinolochus (fragment 2 Kaibel), Alcestis 116, Electra 734]
Cephisodorus (fragment 1 Kock 1), and Epicrates BIBLIOGRAPHY
(fragment 1 Kock 2). Only the title of Dinolochus’ play Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
survives and the fragments from the plays of sity Press, 1995, 407.
38 AMPHIARAUS

Parke, H. W. Greek Oracles. London: Hutchinson, 1967. BIBLIOGRAPHY

———. The Oracles of Zeus: Dodona, Olympia, Ammon. Bond, G. W. Euripides: Hypsipyle. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Oxford: Blackwell, 1967. 1963.
Meineke, A. Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum. Vol. 2.2.
AMPHIARAUS Amphiaraus, son of Oicles (or 1841. Reprint, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1970.
APOLLO) and Hypermestra, daughter of Thestius, was a ———. Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum. Vol. 4. Berlin:
1841. Reprint, De Gruyter, 1970.
prophet and nobleman of ARGOS. He participated in
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941, Reprint, London:
the hunt for the Calydonian boar but is best known for
Heinemann, 1970.
his association with the famous Seven against THEBES Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
expedition. Amphiaraus married ERIPHYLE, sister of the Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Argive king ADRASTUS. Amphiaraus foresaw that every-
one (except Adrastus) who participated in the war AMPHITHEATER Although the structures are
against Thebes would die but was eventually per- known by the Greek word that means “double theater”
suaded to participate in it by his wife, Eriphyle, whom or “a place to view on both sides,” the first amphithe-
Polyneices had bribed with the notorious necklace of aters, built in the first century B.C.E., are credited to the
Cadmus’ daughter Harmonia. At Thebes, Amphiaraus Romans. Amphitheaters are best known as the sites of
died, swallowed up by the earth. gladiatorial matches and wild animal hunts, rather
Although Amphiaraus does not appear as a speaking than of performances of plays.
character in any complete extant tragedies, he played a
significant role in EURIPIDES’ Hypsipyle (cf. Bond, Page). AMPHITHEUS A fictional divinity who appears
In Hypsipyle, the title character has been charged with early in ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS and arranges for
care of the infant OPHELTES. When Amphiaraus arrives DICAEOPOLIS a peace treaty with the Spartans. The god’s
he asks Hypsipyle to show him a spring of pure water name literally means “divine on both sides.” Sommer-
so that he can make a libation for the army (on its way stein translates the god’s name as “Godschild.” The
to Thebes). When Hypsipyle does so, leaving the name Amphitheus was known in ATHENS. Griffith tried
infant unattended, the child is bitten by a snake and to identify Aristophanes’ divinity with one of the play-
dies. The child’s mother, EURYDICE, thinking Hypsipyle wright’s contemporaries.
has murdered the child, orders Hypsipyle to be killed.
At this point in the drama, Amphiaraus plays a role
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dow, S. “Some Athenians in Aristophanes,” American Journal
comparable to that played by ARTEMIS in Euripides’
of Archaeology 73 (1969): 234–35.
HIPPOLYTUS. As Hypsipyle is being led away to die, Griffith, J. G. “Amphitheos and Anthropos in Aristophanes,”
Amphiaraus arrives to explain the truth of Opheltes’ Hermes 102 (1974): 367–69.
death. Upon hearing Amphiaraus, Eurydice decides to Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
spare Hypsipyle’s life. Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980.
Among other tragedians, Cleophon wrote an
Amphiaraus, of which only the title survives. The AMPHITRUO PLAUTUS (AFTER 201 B.C.E.)
younger Carcinus also composed an Amphiaraus, of The circumstances surrounding the birth of Hercules
which the single stage direction that survives tells us (Greek: HERACLES) are the subject of this play, set in
nothing about the play’s plot. From among the work THEBES. The action takes place before the house of
of the comic poets, the single line of Philippides’ Amphitruo (see AMPHITRYON). As the play opens, Mer-
Amphiaraus that survives indicates nothing of the cury (Greek: HERMES), in a lengthy PROLOGUE (152
plot. ARISTOPHANES’ Amphiaraus was performed in 414 lines), calls for the audience’s attention and informs
B.C.E. at the LENAEA (fragments 1–19, Meineke 2.2); them that the subject of the play is tragic, but that he
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.6.2; Hygi- will change it into a TRAGICOMEDY. Mercury also says he
nus, Fables 68, 73, 128] is going to send inspectors into the audience to make
 AMPHITRUO 39

sure no one has been stationed to support or disrupt The second act opens with the return of the real Sosia
any of the actors unfairly. After these preliminary and the real Amphitruo. Sosia tries, unsuccessfully, to
remarks, the audience is informed that Amphitruo, the convince Amphitruo that he, Sosia, was driven from the
husband of Alcumena (see ALCMENA), led the Theban house by Sosia. The befuddled and angry Amphitruo
people to war against the TELEBOANS, and that Alcu- soon becomes more confused after he sees Alcumena.
mena was pregnant. After Amphitruo departed for war, He expects that she will be glad to see him, but Alcu-
Jupiter (see ZEUS), king of the gods, disguised himself mena is puzzled that Amphitruo has returned so soon
as Amphitruo, slept with Alcumena, and impregnated after leaving. Alcumena is also upset because she thinks
her. Furthermore, Mercury relates that his father Amphitruo’s sudden, unannounced return is an attempt
remains in the house and has lengthened the night. He to test her fidelity. Alcumena stirs up further anger and
adds that he has disguised himself as Amphitruo’s confusion in Amphitruo when she tells him all about the
SLAVE, Sosia, and that he and Jupiter will be wearing lit- battle he just fought and produces the golden bowl that
tle gold tassels on their hats so that the audience will Jupiter gave to her. Amphitruo is astonished, and when
be able to distinguish them from the real Sosia and Sosia opens the box where he was keeping the bowl, the
Amphitruo. These tassels will be unnoticed by the box is empty. Amphitruo is further horrified when Alc-
other people on stage, however. umena declares that they have slept together.
In the opening act, Sosia, carrying a lantern, arrives Amphitruo expresses his belief that Alcumena has been
from the harbor to inform Alcumena of his success in seduced, but Alcumena swears (ironically by Jupiter and
battle. He tells the audience of the Thebans’ victory Juno) that she has slept with no one except him.
and Amphitruo’s success. Before entering the house, Amphitruo is still baffled and ponders divorcing Alcu-
Sosia rehearses the speech that he will deliver to Alc- mena. Eventually, Amphitruo decides to invite Alcu-
umena. He relates the battle between the Thebans and mena’s relative, Naucrates, who sailed with Amphitruo
Teleboans and notes that Amphitruo killed the oppos- on his journey, to arbitrate the couple’s dispute.
ing king, PTERELAS, and then was given a golden bowl In the third act, Jupiter appears and tells the audi-
as a prize of victory. After rehearsing his speech, Sosia ence that he has arrived to help Alcumena out of her
prepares to enter the house, but Mercury blocks his predicament. He also announces that he will eventu-
access. Mercury/Sosia and the real Sosia quarrel, and ally help Alcumena and Amphitruo to reconcile and
Mercury forcefully drives a bewildered Sosia from the Alcumena to give birth to her twins painlessly. Alcu-
house. As Sosia leaves, he declares that he will go to mena then emerges from the house and declares that
the harbor to tell Amphitruo what has happened. she will leave Amphitruo if he does not apologize to
After Sosia exits, Mercury declares that he will trick her. When Jupiter/Amphitruo approaches her and tells
Sosia and Amphitruo when they return, he also says her that he was just testing her, she is not persuaded.
that the trickery of the two gods will cause trouble Only when he swears by Jupiter and calls a curse upon
between Amphitruo and Alcumena, but that Jupiter Amphitruo if he is lying does Alcumena finally relax.
will eventually smooth out matters. Additionally, Mer- With Alcumena appeased, Jupiter asks her to prepare
cury notes that today Alcumena will give birth to for a sacrifice (to Jupiter). With Alcumena busy in the
twins, one the son of Jupiter, the other the son of house, Jupiter calls Amphitruo’s Sosia out to invite
Amphitruo, and says Amphitruo will learn the truth Blepharo, the pilot of Amphitruo’s ship, to lunch.
about Jupiter’s sleeping with Alcumena. Mercury then However, Jupiter says Blepharo will not have lunch,
steps aside as Jupiter and Alcumena emerge from the because Amphitruo will know nothing about the invi-
house. Jupiter tells an unhappy Alcumena that he tation. After Sosia, thinking Jupiter is Amphitruo, sets
must return to his troops. To soothe Alcumena’s ruf- out to find Blepharo, Jupiter summons Mercury and
fled feelings at so sudden a departure, Jupiter gives orders him to trick Amphitruo. Mercury, still disguised
Alcumena the golden bowl that he says he won as as Sosia, agrees to do so; he says he will climb onto the
spoil in the war. roof of the house and pretend to be drunk.
40 AMPHITRUO

In the fourth act, Amphitruo arrives, unable to find Tiresias; Jupiter explains his actions to Amphitruo and
Naucrates. When Amphitruo tries to gain entrance to tells him to resume his life with Alcumena. As Jupiter
his house, he is met from above by Mercury/Sosia, who departs for the skies, Amphitruo promises to do as the
begins to wrangle verbally with him. As their argument god has commanded him.
begins, a gap occurs in the manuscript (after line
1034), and most of the remainder of the act is lost. The COMMENTARY
surviving fragments from the missing section suggest Amphitruo is one of PLAUTUS’ most interesting plays,
that Mercury and Amphitruo’s quarrel caused Alcu- and its influence on drama in modern times has been
mena to emerge from the house. After Alcumena and significant. The French playwright Molière wrote an
Amphitruo again quarrel, Amphitruo leaves the house, Amphitryon and Plautus’ use of two sets of identical
perhaps to get help from some friends. When twins may have influenced Shakespeare’s Comedy of
Amphitruo returns, he encounters Sosia returning with Errors. As in BACCHIDES and MENAECHMI, in Amphitruo
Blepharo. Another argument between Amphitruo and the humor of twins is exploited. In Amphitruo, how-
Sosia apparently takes place, after which Sosia exits. ever, Plautus has created two sets of twins rather than
Jupiter then emerges from the house and argues with one. Furthermore, the divine nature of the twins usu-
Amphitruo. Near the end of the fourth act, the manu- ally allows them to control the situation totally.
script resumes with Amphitruo’s appealing to Blepharo Amphitruo shares some similarities with plays such
for help, but Blepharo leaves because he does not as Bacchides and Menaechmi; it also resembles HAUNTED
know which Amphitruo he is being asked to help. HOUSE, in that one of the primary functions of the wily
Jupiter/Amphitruo then enters the house because Alc- slave in the play is to prevent others from entering the
umena is about to deliver her twins. Amphitruo house. In Haunted House, the slave Tranio tries to pre-
laments what has happened to him and declares he vent the father from entering the house because he will
will enter the house and kill everyone he sees. Before find that his son is having a party with his friends and
he can enter, a thunderclap occurs and knocks him to a prostitute. In Amphitruo, the divine slave Mercury
the ground. tries to prevent a mortal slave and the mortal owner of
The play’s final act opens with the arrival of a maid- the house from entering and catching the king of the
servant, Bromia, who announces that she heard the gods with the wife of the owner of the house. Mercury,
thunderclap and heard the voice of Jupiter declare that as a god, can use the threat of physical violence to repel
he had arrived to give aid to Alcumena. Bromia also anyone who might interrupt his father’s fun. Tranio, in
announces that Alcumena has given birth to twin sons. Haunted House, must rely on elaborate trickery to pre-
Bromia then finds Amphitruo lying on the ground, vent the father from spoiling the son’s pleasure.
helps him up, and tells him about what has happened Plautus’ Amphitruo is also intriguing because it is the
inside the house. Bromia tells Amphitruo that when only extant comedy among the works of Plautus or
the twins were in their cradles, two serpents attacked TERENCE that humorously renders an event from
the children, but the bigger of the twin boys (see HER- mythology. Unlike in other Roman comedies in which
ACLES) killed the serpents with his bare hands. Bromia wily members of the lower or servile classes trick
also tells Amphitruo that she heard Jupiter’s voice members of the upper classes, in Amphitruo the king of
declare that the child who had killed the snakes was the gods authorizes and orchestrates the trickery.
his son, and the other child was Amphitruo’s son. Whereas Hermes (Mercury) appears in several surviv-
Upon hearing this, Amphitruo makes no complaint ing Greek dramas, this is the only extant play in which
about sharing his bed with Jupiter and orders that a Zeus (Jupiter) does.
sacrifice be prepared for the god. He also announces In addition to including a unique, humorous
his intention to consult the prophet TIRESIAS about dramatization of a mythological event, Amphitruo is an
what he should do. Another thunderclap occurs, and atypical Roman comedy with no fathers or pimps to be
Jupiter appears and tells Amphitruo not to consult tricked, no lovesick men, no quest to acquire money to
 AMPHITRYON 41

buy the man’s beloved. Amphitruo is a soldier, but he TRYON’s, cattle by the Teleboans, Amphitryon’s uncle
is not the overconfident, braggart warrior seen in other entrusted him to watch over the kingdom while he
Roman comedies. Amphitruo’s war exploits are fact, searched for the cattle. Electryon also entrusted
not exaggerations. Amphitruo also plays an unusual Amphitryon with the care of his daughter, Alcmena.
comic male role, for he actually loves his wife. Hus- Not only did Amphitryon watch over the kingdom and
bands in Roman comedy typically either express no Alcmena, but also he managed to recover Electryon’s
feelings for their wife or seek some younger woman cattle during his uncle’s absence. When Electryon
with whom to have an affair. Additionally, Amphitruo returned, Amphitryon presented him with the cattle.
loves his wife but does not display the obsessed According to some sources, the cattle stampeded and
anguish of other lovers in Roman comedy. killed Electryon. Other sources say that Amphitryon
Alcumena is also not the usual matron one finds in threw a stick at the cattle, which ricocheted off one of
Roman comedy. She is not, for example, like the name- the cow’s heads, struck Electryon, and killed him. In
less wife in Menaechmi who constantly watches her either event, after Electryon’s death, Amphitryon left
husband and questions his every action. As do several Argos and went into exile at THEBES. Because all of
young women in Roman comedy, Alcumena gives Alcmena’s male relatives were dead, she accompanied
birth during the play, but she becomes pregnant not as Amphitryon.
the result of a drunken young man’s violence, but In Thebes, CREON purified Amphitryon of killing
through the actions of the king of the gods, disguised Electryon. Amphitryon also helped Creon rid Thebes
as her husband. Alcumena’s words in this play are of a dangerous fox that was ravaging the land. Amphit-
often noble, but Christenson (2000) argues that the ryon and Alcmena also appear to have been married
presentation of Alcumena in Amphitruo is farcical, as around this time. Alcmena, however, refused to con-
she is characterized as a sex-starved wife and, because summate their marriage until Amphitryon avenged the
she is pregnant during most of the play, she would deaths of her brothers, who had been killed defending
have appeared in a heavily padded costume. their father’s cattle. With military backing from Creon,
Amphitryon waged war successfully against the Tele-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
boans. While Amphitryon was at war, Zeus disguised
Baier, T., ed. Studien zu Plautus’ Amphitruo. Tubingen, Ger.:
Narr, 1999.
himself as Amphitryon and had intercourse with
Bond, R. P. “Plautus’ Amphitryo as Tragi-Comedy,” Greece and Alcmena, who became pregnant with Heracles.
Rome 46, no. 2 (1999): 203–19. Amphitryon returned from war after Zeus left, and he
Christenson, D. Plautus: Amphitruo. Cambridge: Cambridge also had intercourse with Alcmena, who became preg-
University Press, 2000. nant with Iphicles.
———. “Grotesque Realism in Plautus’ Amphitruo,” Classical Amphitryon appears as a character in EURIPIDES’
Journal 96, no. 3 (2001): 243–60. HERACLES, SENECA’s HERCULES FURENS, and PLAUTUS’
Schmidt, E. A. “Die Tragikomodie Amphitruo des Plautus als AMPHITRUO. In Euripides’ play, Amphitryon is the aged
Komodie und Tragodie,” Museum Helveticum 60, no. 2 defender of HERACLES’ wife and children against the evil
(2003): 80–104.
LYCUS, who threatens to kill them. As a defender of
children, Amphitryon most recalls IOLAUS, who per-
AMPHITRYON (Latin: AMPHITRUO) forms that role for the hero’s children in Euripides’
Amphitryon, the son of Alcaeus, was a descendant of CHILDREN OF HERACLES. Also as Iolaus does, Amphitryon
PERSEUS. The sources differ as to the identity of witnesses the overthrow of the evil tyrant who
Amphitryon’s mother (Astydameia, Hipponome, oppresses the children. In Children, however, Heracles’
Laonome, or Lysidice). Amphitryon became the hus- offspring are saved by the sacrifice of their sister and
band of ALCMENA and by her the father of Iphicles. Iolaus’ miraculous rejuvenation, which allows him to
Amphitryon was the foster father of HERACLES, whose capture the evil king EURYSTHEUS. In Heracles, Amphit-
real father was ZEUS. After a raid on his uncle, ELEC- ryon himself gives Heracles advice and helps lure
42 AMYCLAE

Lycus to a doom that Heracles inflicts on him. In Her- Amphitruo is one of the few warriors in Plautus’ plays
acles, the evil king is dead halfway through the play, whose deeds can actually match his words and who is
and Amphitryon’s role seems to change in the second not mocked behind his back by those who consider his
half of the play. After Heracles’ madness and destruc- actions in war a joke or even a complete fiction.
tion of his family, Amphitryon becomes more like Whereas other warriors in Plautus gain little sympathy
Euripides’ ELECTRA in ORESTES, who must care for the from audiences, people can actually sympathize with
hero who has been tormented by madness and has Amphitruo as he is tricked, not by a wily slave as in
committed a horrific crime. other Plautine works, but by the gods themselves.
Amphitryon’s presence in Euripides’ Heracles also Sophocles wrote an Amphitryon, which may have
serves as a constant reminder of the dual paternity with dealt with Amphitryon’s killing of Electryon. Three
which Heracles struggles. Doubts about Heracles’ divine other playwrights wrote plays titled Amphitryon: the
paternity are mentioned throughout the play—by Lycus tragedian Aeschylus of Alexandria (fragment 1 Snell)
(148–49), Amphitryon (339–47), the Theban chorus and two comic poets, Archippus (fragments 1–7 Kock)
(803–6), and eventually Heracles himself (1258–65), and Rhinthon (fragment 1 Kaibel). Of Rhinthon’s play,
who declares that he considers Amphitryon his father only the title survives. The two surviving lines of
rather than Zeus. Thus, in the first half of the play, Her- Aeschylus’ play tell nothing about the plot. Athenaeus
acles rescues his mortal father Amphitryon, and in the (10.426b) indicates that Archippus’ Amphitryon appar-
second half of the play he denies that he has a divine ently had a second production and fragment 2 indi-
father and embraces Amphitryon as his true father. cates that drinking of wine occurred in the play.
In Seneca’s Hercules Furens, Amphitryon’s contribu-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
tion to the plot is essentially the same as in Euripides’
Gregory, J. W. “Euripides’ Heracles,” Yale Classical Studies 25
play. As in Heracles, Seneca’s Amphitryon does try to (1977): 259–75.
soothe MEGARA’s fears Hercules will not return. Addi- Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet-
tionally, Seneca’s Amphitryon defends to Lycus the story arum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann,
of Hercules’ divine birth and his wondrous labors, 1899.
although the two do not argue about the nature of the Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
bow as in Euripides’ play. After the madness of Senecan Teubner, 1880.
Hercules, Amphitryon (see EURIPIDES) is first to face his Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
son and tries to dissuade him from committing suicide. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
One difference between Euripidean Amphitryon and
Senecan Amphitryon is that Senecan Amphitryon does AMYCLAE A town just south of SPARTA in south-
not attribute Hercules’ servitude to Eurystheus as being ern Greece. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata
due to an effort to help Amphitryon return to his native 1299]
land of ARGOS. Additionally, unlike Euripides’ Amphit-
ryon, Seneca’s Amphitryon asks Lycus to kill him before AMYMONE The daughter of Danaus, Amymone
he kills Megara and the children. Also, unlike in Euripi- went to search for water near ARGOS, after POSEIDON
des’ play, in which an anonymous messenger tells of had caused the region’s springs to dry up. Seeing a
Heracles’ destruction of his wife and children, in deer, she attempted to hit the animal with a spear but
Seneca’s Amphitryon describes these gory details. instead struck a SATYR, who attempted to assault her
Finally, in contrast to Euripides’ Amphitryon, Seneca’s sexually. When Poseidon happened to pass by, the
Amphitryon threatens to kill himself after his son’s satyr ran away; Amymone then had intercourse with
madness, but his son prevents him. Poseidon, who showed to her LERNA’s springs. AESCHY-
In Plautus’ Amphitruo, the title character is portrayed LUS wrote an Amymone (fragments 13–15 Radt), which
as a victorious warrior, but he is unlike the braggart may have been a SATYR PLAY. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
warriors whom Plautus usually brings to stage. Indeed, lodorus, Library 2.1.4; Hyginus, Fables 149a]
 ANAPHLYSTUS 43

BIBLIOGRAPHY ANAGNORISIS A Greek word meaning “recog-

Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926. nition,” anagnorisis refers to an event in drama in
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971. which characters recognize or learn something that
they did not previously know. Probably the most
AMYNIAS (1) An unknown person mentioned famous example of anagnorisis in drama occurs when
by ARISTOPHANES at CLOUDS 31 as someone to whom OEDIPUS discovers that he has killed his father and mar-
STREPSIADES owes money. ried his mother. Anagnorisis also occurs in COMEDY, as,
for example, in PLAUTUS’ MENAECHMI, when the twin
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Menaechmus brothers recognize one another. [ANCIENT
Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon
SOURCES: Aristotle, Poetics 1452a29–b13]
Press, 1993, 97.

ANAGYROUS A DEME on the coast south of

AMYNIAS (2) The son of Pronapes, Amynias ATHENS, Anagyrous took its name from a foul-smelling
was mocked by several comic poets for being effemi- plant that grew in this marshy area. Both ARISTOPHANES
nate or for being a braggart or avoiding military service. (fragments 41–63 Kock 1) and DIPHILUS (fragment 11
He may have been wealthy at one time but lost his Kock 2) wrote plays that bear the name of this DEME’s
money by gambling. In 423/2 B.C.E., Amynias may have local hero, Anagyrus. Only the title of Diphilus’
served as a general for the Athenian military. ARISTO- Anagyrus survives. Aristophanes’ Anagyrus appears to
PHANES and HERMIPPUS suggest that Amynias may have
have been staged about 418 or 417 B.C.E. and con-
been a Spartan sympathizer or have been involved in tained an attack on the comic playwright EUPOLIS.
some scheme with the Spartan general BRASIDAS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 67–68;
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 691, Wasps 74, Plato Comicus, fragment 160]
1266; Cratinus, fragment 213 Kock; Eupolis, fragment
209 Kock; Hermippus, fragment 71 Kock] BIBLIOGRAPHY
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
BIBLIOGRAPHY Press, 1987, 76.
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon Hofmann, H. “Ein Kommentar zum Anagyros des Aristo-
Press, 1971, 139. phanes (P. Oxy. 2737),” Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, Epigraphik 5 (1970): 1–10.
Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 159. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
AMYNON A person mentioned only by ARISTO-
Teubner, 1884.
PHANES at ECCLESIAZUSAE 365 and by the ancient com-
Luppe, W. “Der Anagyros-Kommentar Pap. Oxy. 2737,”
mentators on that line. Aristophanes suggests he was “a Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete 21
passive homosexual” (Sommerstein) and the ancient (1971): 93–110.
commentators indicate that Amynon may have been a ———. “Ein neues Lemma im Anagyros-Kommentar (Fr.
male prostitute before he became an Athenian politician. 56 Austin),” Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 30
(1978): 20–22.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, ANALEMMA This Greek word (plural: analem-
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 172.
mata) refers to a support wall on the side of Greek the-
aters. Analemmata were built out from the slope of a hill.
ANACREON (BORN CA. 570 B.C.E.) A
Greek poet from Teos (on the western coast of modern ANAPHLYSTUS A DEME on the coast of Athen-
Turkey). Anacreon wrote elegaic, iambic, and lyric ian territory that was southeast of ATHENS. ARISTO-
poetry. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Thesmophoriazusae 161] PHANES mentions this deme because its name is similar
44 ANAPIESMA

to the Greek verb anaphlan, which means “to mastur- stopped her, and she fell weeping into his arms. When
bate” or “to achieve an erection.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Chremes learned of Pamphilus’ actions with Glyc-
Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 979, Frogs 427] erium, he broke off Pamphilus’ engagement to Philu-
mena. At this point, Simo tells Sosia that he himself
BIBLIOGRAPHY
will try to patch up matters with Chremes; Sosia’s job
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 222. will be to prevent Pamphilus and Davus, another of
Simo’s slaves, from carrying out any plot.
After Sosia exits, Simo encounters Davus and threat-
ANAPIESMA The Greek word anapiesma means ens him with torture if he does anything to stop the
“that which presses upward.” In ancient drama, the
marriage of Pamphilus and Philumena. When Simo
anapiesma was some type of trap door to allow charac-
departs, Davus puzzles over whether to help Pam-
ters such as the FURIES to rise up from below the
philus or obey Simo. Davus also reveals that Pamphilus
ground level of the theater. An anapiesma did not exist
has impregnated Glycerium and that Pamphilus and
in every theater and its use probably did not begin
Glycerium have invented a story that Glycerium was
until the latter half of the fourth century B.C.E. [ANCIENT
an Athenian and that she was raised by Chrysis’ father
SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon 4.127, 132]
after he discovered her as an infant washed up on
Andros. After his soliloquy, Davus goes to the FORUM to
ANCAEUS A son of LYCURGUS of Arcadia, Ancaeus find Pamphilus.
participated in the hunt for the Calydonian boar and Next, Mysis, a maidservant of Simo’s, emerges from
was killed by the boar during the course of the hunt. Simo’s house to fetch the midwife Lesbia, as Glyc-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.8.2; Ovid, erium’s labor is beginning. Mysis is interrupted by a
Metamorphoses 8.401–7; Seneca, Medea 643] highly agitated Pamphilus, who has just learned of his
arranged marriage to Philumena. Just as Davus was
ANDRIA (THE GIRL FROM ANDROS) torn between obeying his master, Simo, and helping
TERENCE (166 B.C.E.) Traditionally, this play has Pamphilus, Pamphilus is torn between obedience to
been considered the earliest of TERENCE’s surviving his father, Simo, and his love for Glycerium. Mysis
works. In the play’s prologue, Terence admits that he informs Pamphilus of Glycerium’s condition and her
has combined elements from MENANDER’s Andria and concern that Pamphilus will abandon her. Pamphilus
Perinthia for his play. The action takes place in ATHENS reassures Mysis that he will not abandon Glycerium
before the houses of Simo, an Athenian gentleman, and and reveals that Chrysis, on her deathbed, had
Glycerium, the woman from ANDROS. entrusted Pamphilus with care of Glycerium. Given
As the play opens, Simo informs his freedman, this assurance, Mysis continues on her errand to fetch
Sosia, that the anticipated wedding of his son, Pam- the midwife.
philus, and Chremes’ daughter, Philumena, will not As Pamphilus remains on stage pondering his prob-
take place. Simo explains that Chrysis, a woman from lems, the young man Charinus and his slave, Byrria,
the island of Andros, moved to Athens and became a enter from the forum and discuss Pamphilus’ marriage
prostitute. When the companions of Simo’s son Pam- to Philumena. This news upsets Charinus because he is
philus took him along to her house, Pamphilus did not in love with Philumena. Charinus then approaches
partake of her sexual favors. Simo’s neighbor, Chremes, Pamphilus, tells him of his love for Philumena, and
was so impressed by Pamphilus’ behavior that he begs him not to marry her. Pamphilus urges Charinus
arranged with Simo for his daughter Philumena to and Byrria to do whatever they can to ensure that
marry Pamphilus. A few days after this arrangement, Philumena will be given to Charinus instead.
Chrysis died and at the funeral Pamphilus became At this point, Davus rushes in and informs Pam-
attracted to Chrysis’ sister, Glycerium. When Glyc- philus and Charinus that Chremes has decided to can-
erium moved too close to the funeral pyre, Pamphilus cel the marriage of Pamphilus and Philumena. Simo,
 ANDRIA 45

angered at Chremes, refuses to accept this situation. side his house and confronts Davus, who promises to
Davus, knowing that Chremes will refuse the union, rectify matters. Next, Charinus arrives, angry at Pam-
urges Pamphilus to agree to marry Philumena to pre- philus about the developments regarding Philumena.
vent conflict. Pamphilus agrees but makes Davus Charinus and Pamphilus argue, but Davus tells the two
promise not to reveal Glycerium’s pregnancy to Simo. young men that he will try to resolve the problem.
Next, Simo and Byrria enter separately. Byrria eaves- At this point, Mysis arrives from Glycerium’s house
drops on the ensuing conversation between Simo and in search of Pamphilus, who again promises that he
Pamphilus in which the son agrees to marry Philu- will not abandon her. As Pamphilus enters Glycerium’s
mena. Byrria, hearing this and thinking Pamphilus has house and Charinus departs for his own house, Davus
reneged on his earlier words to Charinus, runs off to enters Glycerium’s house, carries out a baby, and then
report to his master. After Pamphilus has returned to places it on the doorstep of Glycerium’s house. When
Simo’s house, Davus tells Simo that Pamphilus is upset Davus sees Chremes approaching, he urges Mysis to
that Simo has spent little money on the wedding. support his story when the need arises and then dashes
Simo, who realizes that Davus is engaged in trickery, off. As soon as Chremes enters and sees the baby,
nevertheless agrees to rectify the situation. Davus rushes back in, pretending he has arrived from
The play’s third act begins with the entrance of the forum. Davus, pretending not to know about the
Mysis and the midwife, Lesbia. Davus and Simo eaves- baby, asks Mysis whether she placed it on the step. As
drop as Mysis tells the midwife that Pamphilus has Chremes watches and listens, Davus instructs Mysis to
agreed to raise the child. Simo, however, thinks that state that the child belongs to Pamphilus and that the
this is a trick to induce Chremes to break off the child’s mother is an Athenian citizen. Overhearing all
engagement. Even when Simo hears Glycerium, in the these things, Chremes goes into Simo’s house to call off
throes of labor, crying out inside the house, he thinks the wedding of Pamphilus and Philumena. The act
that her cries are part of the charade. As further chaos concludes with the arrival of Chrysis’ cousin, Crito,
and confusion surround Glycerium’s delivery, Simo from the harbor. Crito has arrived to claim his cousin’s
accuses Davus of trickery. Davus, however, blames the possessions. Crito is met by Mysis and Davus, and
deceit on Glycerium, asserting that she is in love with soon the trio enter Glycerium’s house.
Pamphilus and is falsely claiming that the baby is Pam- The play’s final act begins with the entrance of
philus’ to stop the wedding. Chremes and Simo, who are arguing about the wed-
After Simo orders Davus to go back into their house, ding. Simo urges Chremes not to trust anything that he
Chremes arrives and Simo tries to smooth matters over has seen or heard from Davus and Mysis. Next, Davus
with his friend. Simo persuades Chremes that Pam- emerges from Glycerium’s house and informs Simo and
philus will be committed to Philumena and calls Davus Chremes of Crito’s arrival and states that Crito knows
from the house to attest to this. Davus pretends he is Glycerium is an Athenian citizen. When Simo hears
eager for the wedding to begin, but then Simo tells this, he becomes angry and calls his slave, Dromo, out
Davus that the wedding was a sham in order to test of his house to take Davus to be whipped. After Davus
how Davus would react. To throw Davus off track fur- is hauled away, Simo summons Pamphilus from Glyc-
ther, Simo then says, however, that he has in fact erium’s house and questions his son about Glycerium’s
arranged the wedding of Pamphilus and Philumena, social status. When Pamphilus does not deny the state-
that it will take place immediately, and that Davus ment that Glycerium is an Athenian citizen, Simo is
should make sure that Pamphilus is prepared. enraged, thinking that his son has called in Crito to
After Chremes and Simo depart to their various make this statement and that his son plans to marry
houses to prepare for the wedding, a baffled and fright- Glycerium against his wishes. Chremes, however, tries
ened Davus realizes that he has done just the opposite to intercede on Pamphilus’ behalf and to calm Simo’s
of what Pamphilus wanted. Pamphilus, who has temper. Soon, the situation is resolved as Crito enters
apparently just heard about his wedding, storms out- from Glycerium’s house and explains to Simo that
46 ANDRIA

Glycerium is actually the daughter of a man (Phania) These uninformed opinions are overheard by Mysis
who was shipwrecked on Andros with a young girl and she fears (timeo, 264) that Pamphilus will abandon
(Glycerium). When Chremes hears the name Phania, Glycerium. Mysis also relates that Glycerium’s knowl-
he excitedly states that Phania is his brother. Crito also edge of Pamphilus’ supposed marriage to Chremes’
reveals that Glycerium is not Phania’s daughter, but the daughter is causing Glycerium to fear (timet, 269) that
daughter of Phania’s brother. Thus, the girl with whom Pamphilus will abandon her. Pamphilus tries to allay
Pamphilus is in love turns out to be Chremes’ daugh- Mysis’ anxiety but does not want her to tell Glycerium
ter, whose name was originally Pasibula. When Simo about the wedding because of the anxiety it might
learns this, he is more than happy to agree to the mar- cause her.
riage of Pamphilus and Glycerium. The anxiety about Pamphilus’ supposed marriage
After Chremes and Crito reenter Glycerium’s house has not only caused Davus, Pamphilus, Mysis, and
to reunite father and daughter, Simo tells Pamphilus to Glycerium to worry, but troubled Charinus as well
invite Glycerium to Simo’s house. Pamphilus agrees (cura, 304), because he loves Chremes’ daughter. Char-
and says he will have tell Davus to make the arrange- inus’ worries are somewhat slackened by the acquisi-
ments. When Pamphilus learns that Davus is being tion of accurate knowledge from Pamphilus himself,
punished, he pleads for Davus’ release and Simo who informs Charinus that he does not love Chremes’
relents. After Simo’s exit into his house, Charinus daughter and does not want to marry her. Not only are
enters and eavesdrops on Pamphilus, who is soon Charinus’ worries diminished, but when Davus
joined by Davus. Pamphilus tells Davus about Glyc- appears on the scene he declares that he has informa-
erium’s discovery of her father and his imminent mar- tion that will take away Pamphilus’ fear (metum, 339).
riage to Glycerium. Eventually, Charinus approaches Hearing this, the citizen Pamphilus begs the slave
Pamphilus and offers his congratulations. The play Davus to free him from fear (metu, 351). Pamphilus is
ends as Pamphilus and Charinus enter Glycerium’s relieved when Davus tells him that observing the lack
house, while Davus is sent off to gather people to form of marriage preparations at Chremes’ house has led
the wedding procession. him to conclude that Pamphilus is not going to marry
Chremes’ daughter.
COMMENTARY Upon learning this, Pamphilus and Davus enter a
The main focal points of TERENCE’s Andria are marriage counterplot to deceive the father, Simo, and to ensure
and the acquisition of a wife. This play contains more that Pamphilus will marry Glycerium. From Pam-
than half of the references to marriage in Terence’s philus’ viewpoint, the key to his success is preventing
works. Intertwined with the focus on marriage are the his father from acquiring knowledge (400) of his child
themes of knowledge and anxiety. Simo arranges for by Glycerium. As for Davus, the deception of Simo
his son to marry Chremes’ daughter, but when Simo depends on Pamphilus’ appearing not to be worried by
learns that his son, Pamphilus, feels love for another marriage to Chremes’ daughter (403).
girl, he fabricates a false marriage with Chremes’ Simo, however, soon learns of Pamphilus’ child, and
daughter to discover his son’s true feelings. Because this knowledge, if true, causes Simo to worry (465).
Pamphilus does not know about his father’s plan, he Once Simo thinks that the child is meant to scare off
and his beloved Glycerium concoct a plan of their own (absterreant, 472) Chremes, that anxiety is relieved.
so that they can marry. Rumors of Simo’s false marriage Davus, however, becomes anxious that his plans are
make Davus fear (timeo, 210) for Pamphilus and pro- unraveling. When Simo accuses Davus of trickery, Davus
pel him into action as the slave wants to make sure realizes that Simo has incorrectly interpreted the infor-
Pamphilus is aware of what his father is doing. mation about the baby. Thus, Davus’ worries are relieved
Before Pamphilus can be informed, the young lover and Davus claims Glycerium is spreading false informa-
expresses his uninformed worries (curae, 260) about tion about the baby to stop the wedding. The anxiety is
what his father and Chremes have in mind for him. again reversed when Simo tells Davus that he had given
 ANDROMACHE 47

Davus false information about the wedding because he BIBLIOGRAPHY

feared (veritus sum, 582; metuens, 585) that Davus would Goldberg, S. M. “The Dramatic Balance of Terence’s Andria,”
try to trick him. The wedding of Pamphilus and Philu- Classica et Mediaevalia 33 (1981–82): 135–43.
mena will, in fact, take place, according to Simo. Again McGarrity, T. K. “Thematic Unity in Terence’s Andria,” Trans-
Davus enters a state of high anxiety (600–6). actions of the American Philological Association 108 (1978):
103–14.
Information of this wedding also agitates both Pam-
Richardson, L. “The Moral Problems of Terence’s Andria and
philus and Charinus. Davus, however, promises to
Reconstruction of Menander’s Andria and Perinthia,”
relieve their anxieties. After Pamphilus again tries to Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 38, no. 2 (1997):
calm Glycerium’s fear that he will abandon her 173–85.
(693–97), Davus puts a halt to the wedding of Pam- Valgiglio, E. “Sul prologo Terenziano,” Annali della Facoltà di
philus and Philumena by creating a false situation (the Lettere e Filosofia, Università di Macerata 3–4 (1970–71):
abandonment of the baby) that will supply Chremes 69–96.
with true information (Pamphilus has a child by Glyc- Victor, B. A. “A New Critical Edition of Terence’s Andria.”
erium, who is actually an Athenian citizen) that will Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, 1988.
lead Chremes to break off the wedding. Davus’ alleged
abandonment is rendered all the more tense because ANDROCLES (DIED 411 B.C.E.) A statesman
Mysis’ knowledge is incomplete: She does not under- from the DEME of COLONUS, Androcles was a staunch
stand what Davus is doing (791). supporter of the democratic government in ATHENS. He
As Davus’ scheme has relieved the tension between appears to have served as a military commander in the
Pamphilus and Charinus, it has also created tension 420s, and in 415 he vigorously supported the attempt
between Chremes and Simo. When Davus gives Simo to prosecute ALCIBIADES. When the oligarchs overthrew
accurate information about Glycerium’s citizenship, the democracy in 411, they killed Androcles, perhaps
Simo is further angered and demands that the slave be because of his earlier opposition to Alcibiades, who
punished. When Pamphilus confirms the information favored the oligarchic revolution. As early as the 430s,
that Davus has revealed, Simo continues to think that the comic poets in Athens had branded Androcles as
the information is false. Not only is Simo in torment someone who had recently acquired wealth, who was
(886–87), but Pamphilus is sorely vexed as well by his a ruthless legal prosecutor, was a thief, was born a
father’s accusations of deception. The anxieties of slave, and had once been a male prostitute. In ARISTO-
father and son are soon resolved when Pamphilus PHANES’ WASPS, BDELYCLEON associates Androcles with

reveals his true feelings about Glycerium and sum- the behavior of up-and-coming young statesmen.
mons out Crito to tell his story (896–900). Crito’s [ANCIENT SOURCES: Andocides, 1.27; Aristophanes,
information is confirmed as accurate by Chremes, and Wasps 1187; Cratinus, fragments 263, 458 Kock;
when Glycerium’s true father is revealed, Chremes and Ecphantides, fragment 4 Kock; Telecleides, fragment
Simo agree to the marriage of Pamphilus and Chremes’ 15 Kock; Thucydides, 8.65.2]
daughter, albeit a different daughter. Thus, by the end BIBLIOGRAPHY
of the play, Glycerium’s citizenship and true identity Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
have been revealed. The tension between Chremes and Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 225.
Simo has been alleviated; that between father and son
has been removed; that between the young men Char- ANDROMACHE The daughter of Eëtion,
inus and Pamphilus has also been eliminated, and as Andromache was the wife of HECTOR, by whom she
Pamphilus will marry one of Chremes’ daughters, the produced a son, ASTYANAX. In the early years of the Tro-
audience expects that Charinus will marry the other. jan War, Achilles killed Andromache’s father. After the
Even Davus’ anxiety is eliminated as Pamphilus inter- fall of TROY, the Greeks killed Astyanax, and Andro-
cedes on the slave’s behalf and integrates him into the mache became the war prize of ACHILLES’ son, NEOP-
wedding festivities. TOLEMUS. After the war, Andromache returned to
48 ANDROMACHE

Greece with Neoptolemus and gave birth to at least the palace of NEOPTOLEMUS, king of Phthia, a town in
one son (EURIPIDES mentions only MOLOSSUS), and per- northeastern Greece. As Andromache informs the
haps as many as three (other sources add Pergamus audience in the prologue, she is the widow of the Tro-
and Pielus). Neoptolemus’ wife, HERMIONE, became jan hero HECTOR and now the slave and concubine of
jealous of Andromache, because Hermione herself had Neoptolemus, by whom she has produced a son,
borne no children. Hermione persecuted Andromache MOLOSSUS. Ironically, Neoptolemus was the son of
and accused her of using magic to make her barren. ACHILLES, the man who killed her husband, Hector.
Andromache took refuge at an altar, and Neoptolemus’ Thus, Andromache has produced a son by the son of
grandfather, Peleus, rescued her. After Neoptolemus the man who killed her husband. Some time after
was killed at DELPHI, Andromache married the Trojan Molossus’ birth, Neoptolemus married Hermione, the
prophet Helenus, the brother of her first husband, daughter of MENELAUS and HELEN. When Hermione
Hector; Apollodorus says Helenus left Troy with Neop- was unable to produce any children, she claimed that
tolemus and founded a city in the region of Molossia Andromache used magic to prevent her from becom-
(in northern Greece). By Helenus Andromache had a ing pregnant. Hermione threatened to kill Andro-
son, Cestrinus. mache, causing her to take refuge at an altar of THETIS,
Andromache appears as a character in EURIPIDES’ the grandmother of Neoptolemus. Andromache relates
ANDROMACHE and has a brief role in the same author’s that she has sent Molossus from town in fear for his
TROJAN WOMEN. In addition to Euripides’ extant play, life. She notes that Hermione’s efforts are aided by
several other playwrights produced plays entitled Menelaus, who has arrived in Phthia. Neoptolemus
Andromache. SOPHOCLES may have written one, himself is unable to help Andromache because he has
although Lloyd-Jones notes that the single fragment gone to DELPHI to consult APOLLO about Achilles’ death
that survives may have been an incorrect attribution and to gain Apollo’s friendship.
from Sophocles’ Andromache. ENNIUS wrote a tragic After Andromache’s opening monologue, an aged
Andromache Aechmalotis (Andromache the captive), of female SLAVE, who served Andromache in TROY, arrives
which about three dozen lines survive and whose from the palace and informs Andromache that
action may have been similar to that in Euripides’ Tro- Hermione and Menelaus are planning to kill Molossus
jan Women. Some of the play’s fragments refer to the and that Menelaus has gone to take the child back to the
deaths of POLYXENA and Astyanax, events that occur in palace. Andromache worries about her child’s fate but
Euripides’ play (see fragments 27–44 Jocelyn). Naevius holds out a glimmer of hope that Achilles’ father, Peleus,
also wrote an Andromache, the two surviving lines of for whom she has sent, will aid her. Andromache begs
which reveal nothing about its plot. [ANCIENT SOURCES: the old servant to go ask Peleus again for help. After the
Apollodorus, Library 3.12.6, Epitome 5.23, 6.12; slave’s departure, Andromache laments her sufferings
Homer, Iliad 6.369–529, 22.437–515, 24.723–45; and sings an ode that recalls Helen’s abduction by PARIS
Pausanias, 1.11.1; Vergil, Aeneid 3] and Hector’s death at Achilles’ hands.
Andromache’s song is followed by the entrance of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHORUS, a group of women from Phthia. Although
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1996. Hermione is a Greek (from SPARTA) and Andromache is
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil- a barbarian (from Troy), the chorus of Greek women
ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1935. sympathize with Andromache. They urge her to leave
———. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, Naevius, the altar and accept her status as Hermione’s servant.
Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard After the chorus’ opening statement, Hermione, dressed
University Press, 1936. in Spartan rather than Phthian finery, enters. Hermione
claims Andromache’s witchcraft has made her barren
ANDROMACHE EURIPIDES (430–424 and Andromache should learn to be a servant.
B.C.E.) The action of Andromache takes place before Hermione criticizes Andromache’s fellow Trojans for
 ANDROMACHE 49

committing incest and murder and having more than uation is relieved with the unexpected arrival of
one wife—a critique that is ironic given the mythologi- Peleus. Andromache explains the situation and Peleus
cal traditions about Hermione’s family and the situa- demands that Andromache be set free. Menelaus
tions already mentioned (e.g., Neoptolemus’ sleeping refuses, and Peleus threatens to strike him with his
with both Andromache and Hermione; Menelaus and walking stick. Peleus labels Menelaus a coward and his
Hermione’s efforts to kill Andromache and Molossus). wife Helen a whore. Peleus also criticizes Menelaus
Andromache admits that she is Hermione’s slave but because he urged the sacrifice of IPHIGENIA and did not
denies that she is taking Hermione’s place as a wife or kill Helen after the war. Menelaus retorts that Peleus
that she is practicing witchcraft. Andromache blames should not side with a barbarian over a Greek. He
Hermione’s barrenness on her hateful character and states that Helen’s situation was caused by the gods,
suggests that she is like her mother, Helen. After this, not her own free will; that the war with Troy brought
Andromache and Hermione’s argument deteriorates about advances in military operations and resulted in
into single-line barbs at one another. Hermione threat- the unification of many different Greeks; and that not
ens to kill Andromache before Neoptolemus returns, killing Helen was an act of self-control. Peleus contin-
but Andromache remains defiant. After Hermione’s ues the verbal assault on Menelaus, who he claims has
exit, the chorus sing an ODE about the judgment of achieved glory for a war in which he had little front-
Alexander (see PARIS) and lament that he was allowed to line experience. Peleus also warns Menelaus to take
live. If Alexander had been killed as an infant, in accor- Hermione and leave Neoptolemus’ house. Peleus then
dance with the prophecies, Troy and Andromache unties Andromache’s bonds and states that he will take
would not have suffered. care of Andromache and Molossus at his house. With
After the choral ode, Menelaus and his henchman this, Menelaus declares that he is going back to Sparta.
enter with Molossus. Menelaus threatens to kill the After Menelaus leaves, Peleus, Andromache, and
child unless Andromache leaves her station at Thetis’ Molossus also exit. Their departure is followed by a
altar. Andromache argues that Hermione and Menelaus choral ode that praises the life of those who have
will be considered murderers, Neoptolemus will wealth and honor, the exercise of power in modera-
divorce Hermione, and Menelaus will be unable to tion, and the valor of Peleus.
marry her to anyone else. Menelaus, of course, rejects Andromache’s rescue marks the beginning of the
this line of reasoning and again threatens that if she play’s second segment. Once Andromache is rescued,
does not leave the altar, Molossus will die. Andro- Hermione now fears for her own life. After the choral
mache wonders what she has done to Menelaus to ode, Hermione’s nurse arrives from the house and says
deserve such treatment but leaves the altar. The chorus Hermione was just prevented from hanging herself by
express pity for Andromache and urge Menelaus to some other servants. Hermione, in a suicidal frenzy,
persuade Hermione to reach some accord with Andro- emerges from the palace. She laments that her father
mache. After Andromache leaves the altar, Menelaus has left her, and her nurse advises her not to take
orders his men to seize Andromache and threatens to extreme actions. The earlier despair and rescue of
allow Hermione to decide Molossus’ fate. Andromache Andromache are now repeated in the case of HERMIONE
protests Menelaus’ treachery and the lies of his people, as ORESTES arrives on his way to consult ZEUS’ oracle at
the Spartans. After the exit of Menelaus, Andromache, Dodona. When Hermione sees her cousin Orestes, she
and Molossus into the palace, the chorus sing an ode clings to him and begs for his help. Hermione explains
about the dangers of two women’s sharing one man. the situation to Orestes, and he agrees to help her
The chorus’ song is followed by the entry of Andro- because, as he says, Menelaus had promised to marry
mache, Molossus, and Menelaus. In a moving Hermione to him before Neoptolemus but had reneged
exchange, Andromache and Molossus anticipate their on the agreement when Orestes suffered from the
deaths. Andromache urges Molossus to beg Menelaus FURIES after he killed his mother, CLYTEMNESTRA. Before
for mercy, but Menelaus rejects the child. The tense sit- Orestes and Hermione depart, Orestes reveals that he
50 ANDROMACHE

has a plot ready to spring on Neoptolemus at Delphi COMMENTARY

that will result in his death. The departure of Orestes Andromache is one of EURIPIDES’ most puzzling plays.
and Hermione is followed by a choral ode that won- Its structure has some similarities to that of Euripides’
ders why APOLLO and POSEIDON allowed Troy, whose HERACLES. Andromache opens as an altar siege (as does
walls they built, to be destroyed. They lament the Heracles); the siege gives way to a rescue (as in Hera-
deaths of many Trojans, but also the deaths of many cles), which is followed by another rescue; the report of
Greeks, especially that of AGAMEMNON, whose killing at the death of a hero, who has not taken the stage,
the hands of Clytemnestra was avenged by Orestes at occurs next, and then a divine appearance that prom-
Apollo’s command. ises the reunion of goddess with mortal man dispels
After the choral ode, Peleus returns and asks about the sadness of Neoptolemus’ death.
the rumor he has heard that Hermione has left. The Because Euripides’ fellow Athenians were involved
chorus confirm the rumor and explain what happened. in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR with SPARTA and its allies
The women also inform Peleus that Orestes mentioned when Andromache was presented, the play has often
a plot to kill Neoptolemus. Peleus sends an attendant been viewed as an attack against the Spartans. The
off to Delphi to warn Neoptolemus, but a messenger Spartan Hermione threatens to burn, mangle, and tor-
arrives from Delphi and reports that Neoptolemus has ture the innocent Andromache. Hermione’s Spartan
been killed there—ambushed by Orestes and some of father, Menelaus, is characterized as equally violent,
his henchmen. As Andromache did earlier in the play, threatening Andromache and her son with death, lur-
Neoptolemus initially took refuge at an altar but even- ing Andromache from the altar under the pretense that
tually left and tried to fight against his attackers. The he will save Molossus, and even having some role in
messenger who makes the announcement ends his the death of Neoptolemus. Orestes, although born at
speech by attributing the death to Apollo, who held a ARGOS, eventually became a king of Sparta according to
grudge against Neoptolemus for his earlier criticism of some traditions and is said to have incited the Delphi-
Apollo for Achilles’ death. After the messenger’s ans to kill Neoptolemus.
speech, the chorus see the body of Neoptolemus being In addition to being critical of the Spartans, Andro-
carried in. Peleus, who is onstage during this mache, as is Iphigenia in Aulis at the end of Euripides’
announcement, laments the loss of his grandson, career, is quite concerned with the subject of marriage,
Neoptolemus, and his son, Achilles. Peleus’ lament, which provides a unifying theme for a play that seems
however, is interrupted by the appearance of the god- structurally unconnected. Euripides’ reasons for con-
dess THETIS, Peleus’ estranged wife. Thetis tells Peleus centrating on marriage in this play are disputed, but
to bury Neoptolemus at Delphi as a reproach to its according to one line of thought, the Athenians,
people. She predicts that Andromache will marry a because of a war-depleted population, allowed their
Trojan named Helenus and raise her son, Molossus, citizens to take multiple wives for a brief time. Thus,
who will pass on his name to the people of Molossia. just as the Peloponnesian War disrupted Athenian
Thetis announces that she will make Peleus immortal marriages, the mythical Trojan War affected the mar-
and live with him in the house of her father, NEREUS, riages in Andromache.
and that Peleus will see their son, Achilles, living on The Trojan War resulted from Paris’ disruption of the
the Island of the Blessed. After Thetis’ speech, Peleus marriage of Menelaus and Helen. The war also dis-
announces his intention to follow her instructions and rupted the marriage of Menelaus’ brother, Agamemnon,
points out the importance of marrying someone of whose wife, as the chorus recall later in the play
noble blood. The chorus conclude the play with a (1028–30), killed him on his return from Troy. The
comment on the unexpected events that gods bring to same war led to the death of Andromache’s husband,
pass. The same choral remark ends Euripides’ ALCESTIS, Hector, and the death of her child by him. Now Andro-
HELEN, and BACCHAE. The ending of MEDEA is the same mache has produced a child for the son of the man who
except the first line. killed her husband, and Andromache’s child by Neop-
 ANDROMEDA 51

tolemus has caused the disintegration of the marriage of Kovacs, P. D. The Andromache of Euripides: An Interpretation.
Neoptolemus and Hermione. Hermione blames the Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1980.
problems in her marriage on Andromache’s magic, but Lloyd, M. Euripides: Andromache. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
Andromache claims Hermione has failed to adapt her- Phillips, 1994.
Phillippo, S. “Family Ties: Significant Patronymics in Euripi-
self to her husband and behaves as her mother, Helen
des’ Andromache,” Classical Quarterly 45, no. 2 (1995):
(213–31), did. Andromache predicts Neoptolemus will
355–71.
divorce Hermione and Menelaus will not be able to find Steven, P. T. Euripides: Andromache. Oxford: Clarendon
another husband for her. At the height of Andromache’s Press, 1971.
despair, she calls upon her deceased husband, Hector Storey, I. C. “Domestic Disharmony in Euripides’ Andro-
(523), but although Hector does not return, the aged mache,” Greece & Rome 36 (1989): 16–27.
Peleus provides a temporary and sufficient substitute as
he rescues Andromache and Molossus. ANDROMEDA The daughter of Cepheus and
With the rescue of Andromache, Hermione becomes Cassiopeia, Andromeda became the wife of PERSEUS.
suicidal. She knows she has wronged her husband After Cassiopeia boasted that her beauty surpassed that
(835) and fears he will divorce her (808) or kill her of the NEREIDS, POSEIDON sent a sea monster that began
(857). Her nurse thinks Hermione’s husband will for- destroying Ethiopia and its inhabitants. An oracle from
give her (840, 869), but Hermione cannot be calmed. AMMON declared that they would be rid of the monster
Just as the distressed Andromache was saved by if Cepheus sacrificed Andromeda to it. Andromeda was
Peleus, Orestes saves Hermione. chained on the shore and left for the monster to
Upon his arrival, Orestes quickly guesses that devour. Fortunately for Andromeda, Perseus, flying
Hermione’s husband prefers another woman’s bed to past on his way back from beheading the GORGON
Hermione’s (907) and Hermione tells him of her fears MEDUSA, saw the young woman, fell in love with her,
that her husband will kill her (919, 926). Hermione rescued her from the monster, and killed the creature
claims the gossip of her female companions led her to be by revealing Medusa’s head. Andromeda left her home
jealous of her husband (939). Orestes is more than with Perseus, and they returned to Greece, after which
happy to help Hermione, because he says Menelaus had little is heard about Andromeda. She and Perseus had
promised her to him before Neoptolemus. Thus, Orestes a son named Perses. After Andromeda’s death, she
will rescue Hermione, will become her new husband, became a constellation.
and will arrange for her former husband to be killed. Several playwrights wrote a play with the title
When Peleus hears of Neoptolemus’ death, he laments Andromeda. EURIPIDES’ version, produced in 412 B.C.E.,
the marriage (to Hermione) that destroyed both his is the best known, as ARISTOPHANES parodies it in his
house and his city (1186). Although the gods themselves THESMOPHORIAZUSAE. SOPHOCLES also wrote an Androm-
eda. ENNIUS wrote a tragic Andromeda, from which
attended Peleus’ own wedding, the chorus declare that
eight lines are extant (see fragments 45–51 Jocelyn).
Peleus has received little benefit from them (1218). Just
These few lines indicate that the play was about
as Andromache and Hermione both reached the height
Andromeda’s exposure to the sea monster and her res-
of despair and then were rescued, now Thetis appears
cue by Perseus. ACCIUS’ Andromeda, which appears to
and rescues Peleus from his grief. Thetis predicts that
have treated the same subject, has some two dozen
Andromache’s marriage to Helenus will be happy and
extant lines. Warmington suggests the probability that
prosperous and announces that her own marriage to
the action of Accius’ play “began earlier than the
Peleus will be repaired. After the goddess departs, Peleus
exposing of Andromeda to the monster.” Cepheus’
praises the marriages of noble men and women.
brother, Phineus, may have been a character in Accius’
BIBLIOGRAPHY play. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.4.3–5;
Allan, W. The Andromache and Euripidean Tragedy. Oxford: Hyginus, Fables 64, Poetica Astronomica 2.11; Ovid,
Oxford University Press, 2000. Metamorphoses 4.670–803]
52 ANDROS

BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bubel, F. Euripides, Andromeda. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1991. Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Falcetto, R. “L’Andromeda di Euripide: proposta di Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
ricostruzione.” In Quaderni del Dipartimento di filologia, lin-
guistica e tradizione classica 1997. Bologna: Pàtron, 1998, ANTAGONIST A term derived from Greek
55–71. words meaning “one who struggles against,” in drama
Resta Barrile, A. Ennio e il mito di Andromeda. Bologna: Tip. an antagonist is the main character who opposes the
Compositori, 1998.
PROTAGONIST. In EURIPIDES’ HELEN, the Egyptian king
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil-
Theoclymenus would be the antagonist as he tries to
ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1935. force Helen to marry him. In ARISTOPHANES’ KNIGHTS,
———. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, Naevius, PAPHLAGON opposes the goals of the sausage seller, AGO-
Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard RACRITUS. In PLAUTUS’ comedies, the PIMP is commonly
University Press, 1936. the antagonist of the young man who seeks to be with
his beloved. In some plays, the protagonist might strug-
ANDROS An island in the central AEGEAN SEA, gle against multiple opponents; in others protagonists
just off the southern end of EUBOEA. In TERENCE’s might struggle against themselves (e.g., OEDIPUS).
ANDRIA, Glycerium is from Andros. Terence’s play was
influenced by a play of MENANDER by the same name ANTENOR A respected Trojan who served as host
(fragments 33–45 Körte). to MENELAUS and ODYSSEUS when they requested the
release of HELEN prior to the outbreak of the Trojan War.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Antenor favored the release of Helen and even protected
Körte, A., Thierfelder, A. Menandri Quae Supersunt. Vol. 2,
the two Greeks from the Trojans who wanted to kill
2d ed. Leipzig: Teubner, 1959.
them. Because of Antenor’s kindness, when the Greeks
destroyed TROY, Menelaus and Odysseus, by hanging a
ANGIPORTUM In Roman COMEDY, the angipor-
leopard’s skin over Antenor’s door, signaled to their
tum was a space between two houses where characters
comrades that they should spare the lives of Antenor
could hide to eavesdrop on conversations by other
and his family. Both SOPHOCLES and ACCIUS wrote plays
characters. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Comedy of Asses
entitled The Sons of Antenor (Antenoridae). The seven
741, Haunted House 1044–46, Persians 444, 678,
surviving lines from Accius’ play indicate that it had
Pseudolus 971; Terence, Phormio 891]
Troy as its setting, and that the action may have started
early in the morning. One fragment is spoken by some-
ANTAEUS The son of POSEIDON, Antaeus was a
one who has apparently arrived to be an ally to the Tro-
king in LIBYA who challenged strangers to his land to
jans. In another fragment, the speaker boasts that he will
wrestle him. Antaeus, having killed all his opponents,
rout the Greeks on land, burn their ships, or drive their
was roofing his father, Poseidon’s, temple with their
camp into the sea. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer, Iliad
skulls. Antaeus’ reign of terror ended when he encoun-
3.203–24, 7.344–53; Pausanias, 10.26.7–8, 27.3–4;
tered HERACLES. Antaeus posed a great challenge to
Pindar, Pythian 5.80–87; Vergil, Aeneid 1.242–49.]
Heracles, however, because as long as Antaeus
remained in contact with the EARTH (who some say was BIBLIOGRAPHY
his mother), his strength increased. When Heracles Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
realized this, he lifted Antaeus off the ground and Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
crushed the life from him. PHRYNICHUS and Aristias Harvard University Press, 1936.
wrote plays (no longer extant) with the title Antaeus.
Archestratus may also have written an Antaeus. ANTIDOSIS A Greek word meaning “exchange,”
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.5.11; Pindar, antidosis refers to the legal process by which an Athen-
Isthmian 3/4 70–73; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 1899] ian who was a candidate for a LITURGY would trade
 ANTIGONE 53

property with someone he thought was better able to Besides dramas entitled Antigone by SOPHOCLES and
carry out the liturgy. The second person would then SENECA, plays with this title were produced by numer-
use the proceeds from the property to perform the ous other authors. EURIPIDES wrote an Antigone about
liturgy. If the second person did not want to perform 413 B.C.E. ACCIUS’ Antigone, from which about 10 lines
the liturgy, then he could give his property to the first survive, surely dealt with the same subject as Sopho-
person and the first person would perform the liturgy. cles’ play. The fragments indicate that Antigone,
Ismene, and a guard assigned to guard Polyneices’
BIBLIOGRAPHY
body were all characters in Accius’ play.
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 126, 140, BIBLIOGRAPHY
145–46. Sconocchia, S. “L’Antigona di Accio e l’Antigone di Sofocle,”
Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione Classica 100 (1972):
ANTIGONE The daughter of OEDIPUS and 273–82.
JOCASTA, Antigone was the sister of ETEOCLES, POLYNE-
ICES, ISMENE, and even Oedipus himself, because ANTIGONE SOPHOCLES (442 OR 441 B.C.E.)
Jocasta was both mother and wife to Oedipus. When The play’s setting is the palace of CREON at THEBES. The
Oedipus blinded himself and left THEBES, Antigone and action takes place after the battle between two sons of
Ismene accompanied their father/brother into exile. OEDIPUS, ETEOCLES and POLYNEICES, for the right to rule
Eventually, the trio made their way to COLONUS, just Thebes. In the battle, the brothers had killed each
outside Athens. When it was discovered that the The- other. As the play opens, Oedipus’ daughters,
bans could not win their war with Polyneices and his ANTIGONE and ISMENE, discuss what to do about their
Argive allies unless Oedipus was buried in Theban ter- brother, Polyneices, whom Creon, the new king of
ritory, CREON and Eteocles went to Colonus and tried Thebes, has decreed should not be buried because he
to persuade Oedipus to return to Thebes. Antigone attacked Thebes to retake the throne. Furthermore,
and Ismene were even taken prisoner by the Thebans Creon has decreed death for anyone who buries
to force Oedipus to return; THESEUS, the Athenian king, Polyneices. Antigone declares her intention to bury
rescued them from the Thebans. After Oedipus’ death, Polyneices despite Creon’s edict, while Ismene suggests
Antigone and Ismene returned to Thebes. After the war that women should obey men and obey the city’s laws.
between Eteocles and Polyneices, in which the broth- As Antigone and Ismene end their argument,
ers killed each other, Creon became king of THEBES and Ismene returns to the palace while Antigone exits to
declared that anyone who buried Polyneices—who bury Polyneices. After their exit, the CHORUS, com-
had waged war against Thebes—should be put to posed of elderly Theban men, enter. They recall the
death. When Antigone managed to bury Polyneices, Theban victory over Polyneices and the other com-
Creon sealed her in a rocky cavern and left her to die, manders of the Seven against Thebes force. The elders
although she was engaged to marry Creon’s son propose that they go to the temples of the gods and
HAEMON. Creon later reversed his decision and went to dance in celebration of the victory. As their song con-
release Antigone, who had hanged herself. cludes, Creon enters and thanks the elders for their
Antigone is one of the most admired figures of loyalty and service throughout the years. He also reit-
ancient drama. Her defiant stance against an unyield- erates his decree regarding Polyneices and asks the
ing tyrant is inspirational, as is her willingness to give chorus for their support in this matter. The elders
up her life to ensure that her brother receive a proper agree, because they do not want to die.
burial, a ritual the Greeks believed was necessary to After Creon’s remarks, a fearful guard enters from
allow the deceased to reach his or her proper resting the countryside and informs Creon that someone has
place in the UNDERWORLD. Antigone regards laws estab- sprinkled dust upon the body of Polyneices. Creon is
lished by the gods as taking precedence over laws outraged and thinks that some of his political enemies
established by humans. hired someone to do this. He threatens the guard and
54 ANTIGONE

his comrades with death if they do not find out who accept defeat by a woman. Haemon does not deny
buried Polyneices. As the guard leaves, he declares that some truth in what his father says but notes that from
Creon will never see him again. After the guard’s exit, the city’s people he has heard comments of sympathy
Creon reenters the palace. The chorus then sing a now- for Antigone. Haemon urges his father to follow a more
famous ode about the wonders of human beings. The moderate course and take some advice from a younger
elders remark that humans have managed to tame sea man. Creon, however, refuses to be advised by some-
and earth, animals on land and sea, and protect them- one younger or to be subject to the will of the city. The
selves against the elements, but that they have not yet conversation then breaks down and father and son
learned to overcome death. They note that if people begin to exchange angry words. Creon threatens to
honor the laws of men and gods, then their city will summon Antigone and kill her before Haemon’s eyes,
prosper, but that a person who does not has no city. but the young man exits. Creon then declares that he
As the chorus conclude their song, they see will kill both Antigone and Ismene, but the chorus per-
Antigone being led in by the guard who left a little ear- suade him not to do that. Finally, Creon declares that
lier. When Creon arrives from the palace, the guard Antigone’s punishment will be to be placed in a cavern
describes for the king how he and his fellow guards with a small amount of food.
caught Antigone burying Polyneices. After Creon dis- After Creon concludes his remarks, the Theban eld-
misses the guard, he interrogates Antigone about her ers sing of the power of Love, which has caused rela-
actions. Antigone does not deny the deed and declares tives to be in conflict. Antigone, who has been taken
that she was acting in accordance with the laws of the from the palace, sings that her marriage will take place
gods, rather than Creon’s laws. Creon declares that in the underworld. The chorus sing in response that
Antigone will pay the penalty for her actions even she has won distinction and praise, but that the choice
though she is his niece. Creon also orders Ismene to be to oppose Creon was hers. Antigone compares herself
taken from the palace. Creon and Antigone continue to to NIOBE, who was transformed into an ever-weeping
argue about what Antigone has done and both remain stone, but the chorus suggest that Antigone’s death will
firm in the position that they are acting in accordance carry greater fame because she is a mortal and Niobe
with what is right. was born of divine stock. Antigone thinks the Theban
Soon Ismene arrives from the palace and says she is elders are mocking her and calls on them for pity. They
ready to accept some guilt in the burial of Polyneices. suggest that her trouble may be the result of Oedipus’
Antigone refuses to allow Ismene to have a share in her crimes, but they also point out that Antigone opposed
actions and suggests that Ismene has sided with Creon Creon and that her own temper has led her to ruin.
by not helping her bury Polyneices. Ismene wonders Creon, who has remained onstage during Antigone’s
what her life will be like without Antigone and won- remarks, now breaks in and orders that she be led
ders whether Creon really intends to kill the woman away. Antigone anticipates encountering her family, all
who is supposed to marry his son HAEMON. Creon’s of whom she helped to bury, in the underworld. She
mind is made up, however, and he orders his servants laments going to meet her death without having mar-
to take the young women into the palace. After the exit ried, had children, or had friends. She wonders what
of Creon and his nieces, the chorus sing of the endless divine law she has violated and hopes that Creon and
evils that have fallen upon Oedipus’ family generation his people will suffer a fate equal to hers if they are in
after generation. They note that ruin often follows the wrong.
greatness and that hope can either bless or deceive After Antigone’s departure to her cavern prison, the
human beings. chorus sing an ode that compares the situation
After the choral ode, Haemon enters. Haemon between Antigone and Creon to that between ACRISIUS
declares his loyalty to his father, who urges him to and his daughter, DANAE, whom Acrisius imprisoned,
reject Antigone, preaches to him about the need for but whom ZEUS impregnated in the form of a golden
obedience to authority, and declares that they must not rain shower. They also compare Antigone’s situation to
 ANTIGONE 55

the encounter of LYCURGUS and DIONYSUS, in which the fate of his family, wishes that he himself were dead,
Lycurgus tried to persecute Dionysus and his followers and accepts responsibility for their deaths. The play
but was eventually imprisoned himself in a rocky dun- ends with Creon being led away into the palace.
geon. Finally, they compare the harsh fate of Antigone
with that of the children of PHINEUS, whose wife COMMENTARY
blinded them and caused them to live out their life in Antigone is usually considered one of the finest of all
misery. ancient dramas. Other than the problem that Polyne-
After this, the prophet TIRESIAS informs Creon that ices is apparently buried three times (seemingly twice
the gods will not accept their prayers or sacrifices by Antigone, 245–58, 422–31; once by Creon,
because of Creon’s actions toward Polyneices. Creon 1197–1204), a detail for which many different expla-
rejects Tiresias’ advice that he reverse his decision and nations have been advanced, the staging of the play
accuses him of being interested in financial gain. An seems relatively uncomplicated and its issues seem
angered Tiresias then predicts that soon Creon and his clear. Charles Segal has compared the narrative pattern
household will suffer disaster and suggests that his of Antigone to the story of PERSEPHONE. Just as
refusal to bury the dead will start a similar trend in Antigone’s marriage was arranged by Creon and a male
other towns that will lead to universal anger against member of Antigone’s household, Persephone’s mar-
him. After Tiresias’ departure, Creon begins to ques- riage was arranged by her father, ZEUS, and HADES. To
tion his actions and turns to the chorus for advice. The the underworld, Hades carried off Persephone against
Theban elders advise him to release Antigone and give her will, as in an underground chamber Antigone is
Polyneices a proper burial. Creon agrees and, accom- imprisoned by Creon against her will. At one point,
panied by servants, sets out for the place where he has Antigone even likens her marriage to one with the
entombed Antigone. After Creon’s exit, the Theban powers of the underworld (809–14). Eventually, com-
elders pray for Dionysus to come and heal their town. plaints and threats of world famine by Persephone’s
After their prayer, a messenger enters and informs mother, Demeter, lead to a change in the arrangement
the Theban elders that Haemon has committed sui- between Zeus and Hades. Persephone will spend part
cide. News of this swiftly reaches to Creon’s wife, EURY- of the year with her mother in the upper world and
DICE, who leaves the palace to hear the messenger’s full part of the year with Hades. As Zeus does, Creon tries
report. The messenger tells Eurydice and the elders to modify the arrangement and take Antigone from her
that after Creon and his attendants buried Polyneices, rocky chamber into the upper world, but Antigone has
they set out for the prison. Inside, they saw that already committed suicide. She will not become a sec-
Antigone had hanged herself and that Haemon was ond Persephone.
weeping and embracing her body. Haemon, upon see- In addition to similarities with the story of Perse-
ing his father, was enraged, drew his sword, and phone, Antigone shares some common themes with
attempted to stab him. Creon avoided the blow and SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, which may have been staged just a
Haemon, apparently ashamed of his attempt on his few years earlier. Both plays deal with the issue of
father’s life, turned the sword on himself. allowing a friend-turned-enemy to have a proper bur-
Upon hearing this news, Eurydice returns in silence ial. Unlike in Ajax, in which the debate occurs between
to the interior of the palace. As the chorus expresses male warriors, in Antigone the character of Antigone
concern the messenger decides to follow Eurydice. changes the dynamics of the debate and allows a male-
Next, Creon, with the body of Haemon, enters. No versus-female aspect to emerge—especially from
sooner has Creon blamed himself for his son’s death Creon’s perspective, as the king is determined not to
than a messenger emerges from the palace and informs allow a woman to defeat him on the question of
Creon that Eurydice has stabbed herself to death. As Polyneices’ burial.
Creon gazes upon the face of his dead son, the corpse Whereas the argument over Ajax’s burial focuses on
of Eurydice is also brought into view. Creon laments his value to the Greek army before his madness, the
56 ANTILABE

debate in Antigone centers on mortal law versus divine logues on Athenian Drama. Edited by B. Goff. Austin: Uni-
law. Creon, who advocates obedience to the authority versity of Texas Press, 1995, 131–50.
of the city that he represents and adherence to laws Griffith, Mark. Sophocles: Antigone. New York: Cambridge
established by humans, is pitted against Antigone, who University Press, 1999.
Johnson, Patricia. “Woman’s Third Face: A Psycho-Social
is committed to upholding laws transmitted by the
Reconsideration of Sophocles’ Antigone,” Arethusa 30, no.
gods themselves. Creon and Antigone both believe
3 (1997): 369–98.
firmly that their position is correct and that they are act- Segal, Charles. “Antigone: Death and Love, Hades and
ing in accordance with piety. Although Sophocles Dionysus.” In Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of
shows that the Thebans are sympathetic to Antigone, Sophocles. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
Creon’s position is not without merit and the chorus tell 1981, 179–88.
her that she has caused her own destruction (872–76). Tyrrell, W. B., and L. J. Bennett. Recapturing Sophocles’
The issue of Polyneices’ burial is complicated by the Antigone. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998.
fact that those involved in the conflict are related to or
will be related to one another. Caught between the ANTILABE A Greek word meaning “a thing to
extremes established by Antigone and Creon are hold by” or “a handle,” in drama antilabe is a line of dia-
Ismene and Haemon. As Chrysothemis does in Sopho- logue that is broken and shared by multiple speakers.
cles’ ELECTRA, Ismene provides an opposing female per- In the plays of AESCHYLUS, with the possible exception
spective to her sister’s determination. Ismene does not of PROMETHEUS BOUND (line 980), this phenomenon
want to participate in the burial of her brother, an act does not occur. Because antilabe is not common in
that would oppose the law established by the city’s TRAGEDY, it is often thought to be used for special effect.
ruler. Ismene urges her sister to realize that they are For example, in EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS (390–91), antilabe
only women and must be obedient to men (61–64). occurs twice as ADMETUS speaks his final words to his
Antigone, however, refuses to obey Creon. She rejects dying wife. In SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA (1502–3), antilabe
the reasoning of one loved one, her sister, and buries occurs as ORESTES tries to induce AEGISTHUS to enter the
another loved one despite a mortal law to the contrary. house so that Orestes can kill him.
The conflict between the two sisters is paralleled by
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the conflict between Creon and Haemon, father and
Bonaria, Mario. “L’antilabé nella tragedia greca antica.” In
son. In Greek society, sons were expected to honor their Studi di filologia classica in onore di Giusto Monaco. I, Letter-
father, but Haemon cannot respect his father’s demand atura greca. Palermo: University di Palermo Fac. di Lettere
that he turn his back on Antigone. Haemon tries to e Filosofia, 1991, 173–88.
steer a course between his father and the laws of the city McDevitt, A. S. “Antilabe in Sophoclean Kommoi,” Rheinis-
and his allegiance to Antigone, the woman who could ches Museum 124 (1981): 19–28.
eventually produce children for his house. Thus,
Antigone reveals the aftermath of a conflict between two ANTILOCHUS The son of NESTOR, Antilochus
brothers that has disastrous effects on two sisters, father died in the Trojan War trying to rescue his father from
and son, husband and wife, uncle and niece, father-in- MEMNON. Antilochus’ name appears in fragments from
law and potential daughter-in-law. By the end of the both AESCHYLUS’ MYRMIDONS and ACCIUS’ Myrmidons. In
play, one sister has lost the other, and a father has lost the fragment from Aeschylus (138 Radt), the speaker
his son, wife, niece, and potential daughter-in-law. The (probably ACHILLES) tells Antilochus to mourn for him
city of Thebes had been ravaged by war before the rather than someone who has just died (probably PATRO-
play’s opening, but Antigone reveals the utter destruc- CLUS), because the death of Achilles has caused him to
tion of an individual house and family. lose everything. In the fragment from Accius (lines
BIBLIOGRAPHY 452–57 Warmington), Achilles appears to be respond-
Foley, Helene. “Tragedy and Democratic Ideology: The Case ing to a charge of stubbornness leveled against him by
of Sophocles’ Antigone.” In History, Tragedy, Theory: Dia- Antilochus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesi-
 ANTIOPE (2) 57

azusae 392; Homer, Iliad 23, 423, 541, 556, Odyssey LYCUS promise to punish Antiope. Accordingly, Lycus
4.188; Hyginus, Fables 112; Sophocles, Philoctetes 425] went to Sicyon, killed Epopeus, and led Antiope back
to Boeotia. Along the way, Antiope gave birth and left
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the children to die, but a shepherd rescued them.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. Upon reaching Boeotia, Antiope lived under constant
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, torment by Lycus’ wife Dirce. After many years of
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: imprisonment, Antiope finally escaped and managed
Harvard University Press, 1936. to make her way to the home of Amphion and Zethus.
Dirce traveled there and began to drag Antiope back to
ANTIMACHUS An Athenian and a “member of Boeotia. When the shepherd who had raised Amphion
one or more of the many special boards that were and Zethus informed the young men that the perse-
appointed to draft complex pieces of legislation” (Som- cuted woman was their mother, the twins caught Dirce
merstein). The CHORUS of ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS and killed her by binding her hair to a wild bull.
curse Antimachus, who has not invited them to a post- EURIPIDES wrote an Antiope that dates to between 410
production dinner. Several men named Antimachus and 408 B.C.E., of which more than 200 lines survive
were active in the 420s B.C.E., and it is uncertain which (fragments 179–227 Nauck). The play appears to have
Antimachus Aristophanes has in mind. In CLOUDS, been set at a rocky cavern that was home to the shep-
Aristophanes links Antimachus with the style of logic herd who raised the twins. Antiope probably opened
practiced by SOCRATES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- with the twins’ shepherd father’s explaining that he
phanes, Acharnians 1150, Clouds 1022] raised the twins and that he knows Antiope is their
mother but does not know Zeus is their father. The
BIBLIOGRAPHY
chorus was made up of shepherds, who had arrived to
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, hear Amphion play the lyre and to converse with him
210–11. about music and the lyre’s invention. At some point,
Amphion and Zethus debated whether the state was
ANTIOPE (1) Also called Hippolyta, Antiope better served by artists and philosophers or soldiers
was an AMAZON woman whom THESEUS abducted from and statesmen. Eventually, Antiope would have arrived
her land and took back with him to ATHENS. By on the scene, told the twins about her oppression, and
Antiope, Theseus became the father of HIPPOLYTUS. eventually been recognized by them. The happy
Theseus divorced Antiope to marry PHAEDRA and the reunion would be cut short by the arrival of Dirce and
angry Amazon tried to kill Theseus for this insult. The- a group of women worshiping DIONYSUS. They would
seus, however, killed Antiope. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- have carried off Antiope to punish her, but the twins
lodorus, Epitome 1.16; Euripides, Children of Heracles would have rescued her and killed Dirce. A lengthy
215–19; Hyginus, Fables 30, 241, 250; Seneca, Hip- fragment of some 111 lines from the end of the play
polytus 227, 927] shows that after Dirce’s death, the twins and Antiope
plotted to kill Lycus, who arrived in search of them. As
ANTIOPE (2) The daughter of Nycteus and in Euripides’ HERACLES, in which AMPHITRYON lured the
Polyxo, Antiope lived in BOEOTIA. ZEUS impregnated Theban king Lycus into the house to be killed by Her-
Antiope, who became the mother of twin boys, acles, in Antiope the shepherd lured Lycus into his cav-
AMPHION and ZETHUS. When Antiope’s father, angry at ern, where the twins awaited him. A confrontation
her pregnancy out of wedlock, threatened her with ensued and Amphion told Lycus of Dirce’s death.
violence, Antiope ran away. Later, she married Before the twins could kill Lycus, Hermes appeared,
Epopeus (or Epaphus), a man from SICYON. Nycteus explained Zeus’ affair with Antiope, and told Lycus to
was angry at the marriage, but before he could punish turn over the throne to Amphion and Zethus and, after
Antiope, he died; before his death he made his brother burning Dirce’s bones, to throw the ashes into the
58 ANTIPHON

spring of Ares, thus causing the spring to overflow and Antiphon, Sommerstein thinks, was the famous orator
create the stream of Dirce. Hermes told the twins to who was a leader during the oligarchic revolution in
establish a seven-gated city near the Ismenus River. Athens in 411 B.C.E. After the oligarchs were driven
Amphion’s musical skills would help build the city by from power, Antiphon was put to death. Antiphon was
moving stones and trees magically into place. Hermes also mocked for his wealth, greed, and enjoyment of
also announced that the twins would marry, Zethus to “good food and comfortable living” (Sommerstein).
a Theban, Amphion to a daughter of TANTALUS (see [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plato Comicus, fragment 103 Kock;
NIOBE). The fragment concludes with Lycus’ inviting Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.6]
the twins to remain and rule the land and declaring
BIBLIOGRAPHY
that he would be obedient to Hermes’ commands. Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
The Greek comic poet Eubulus also wrote an Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 232.
Antiope (fragments 10–13 Kock), but other than a ref-
erence to Amphion and Zethus in fragment 10, we ANTISTHENES Mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at
have little idea of the play’s content. Among Roman ECCLESIAZUSAE 366 and 806, three Athenians of this
authors, ENNIUS also wrote a tragic Antiope, as did name are known to have lived at the time this play was
PACUVIUS. Pacuvius’ play, from which 28 short frag- produced. Demosthenes mentions a banker named
ments survive, apparently contained a debate by Antisthenes, who retired from business in 394/3 B.C.E.
Amphion and Zethus about music and wisdom (as in Antisthenes, son of Antiphates, was a CHOREGUS,
Euripides’ Antiope), and in it the twins also encoun- landowner, priest, and commander of a warship.
tered Antiope and Dirce. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- Xenophon also mentions a wealthy Antisthenes who
lodorus, Library 3.5.5; Hyginus, Fables 7–8] won many victories as a choregus and who on one
BIBLIOGRAPHY occasion served as a general although he had never
Kambitsis, J. L’Antiope d’Euripide. Athens: Hourzamanis, 1972. served as an infantryman. Sommerstein thinks that all
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: three men are the same person. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Teubner, 1884. Demosthenes, 36.43; Xenophon, Memorabilia 3.4.1–4]
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London: Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
Heinemann, 1970. Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
Podlecki, Anthony J. “Had the Antiope of Euripides Political 173.
Overtones?” Ancient World 27, no. 2 (1996): 131–46.
Rubatto, Stefania. “L’Antiope di Euripide: proposta di ANTISTROPHE A Greek word meaning “turn-
ricostruzione.” In Quaderni del Dipartimento di filologia, lin- ing the other way,” an antistrophe is a section of a lyric
guistica e tradizione classica 1997. Bologna: Pàtron, 1998, ode that follows a STROPHE. In terms of metrical pat-
73–84. tern, the antistrophe matched the strophe. In the anti-
Slings, Simon R. “The Quiet Life in Euripides’ Antiope.” In strophe, the chorus sang while moving to the left.
Fragmenta Dramatica: Beiträge zur Interpretation der
griechischen Tragikerfragmente und ihrer Wirkungsgeschichte.
Unter Mitarb. von Harder M. Annette; hrsg. von Hof-
ANTONIUS (CA. 83–30 B.C.E.) Marcus Anto-
mann Heinz. Göttingen, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,
nius, better known as Marc Antony, was a Roman sol-
1991, 137–51. dier and statesman who rose to prominence during his
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, service with Julius Caesar in the middle of the first cen-
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: tury B.C.E. After Caesar’s assassination, Antony helped
Harvard University Press, 1936. Lepidus and Octavian (Caesar’s adopted son and the
future emperor AUGUSTUS) in their military operations
ANTIPHON (480–411 B.C.E.) A person men- against Caesar’s assassins. By 42, the assassins’ defeat
tioned by ARISTOPHANES at WASPS 1270 and 1301, this was accomplished and Antony and Octavian took up
 APIA 59

the task of reorganizing the Roman empire. Because Cyprus became sacred to her, and it was considered
Antony was in charge of the eastern part of the empire, her birthplace. Accordingly, she was also called Cypris
his work took him to Egypt, where in 41 he met the or the Cyprian. Mount ERYX in SICILY was sacred to her
Egyptian queen Cleopatra, became her lover, and and she is sometimes called Erycina.
eventually became her husband (ca. 37), although he As a love goddess, Aphrodite had numerous sexual
was married to Octavian’s sister, OCTAVIA. In addition relationships with both gods and mortals. She is often
to his relationship with the Egyptian queen, Antony’s named as the wife of HEPHAESTUS; she was unfaithful to
buildup of military assets in the region led to a show- him with ARES, by whom she became the mother of
down between him and Octavian’s force at the battle of HARMONIA, who became CADMUS’ wife. Aphrodite is
Actium in September 31. Antony and his forces were also said to have produced by DIONYSUS a child named
defeated and 11 months later Octavian entered the Priapus. By the mortal Anchises, she became the
Egyptian capital of Alexandria. Both Antony and mother of AENEAS. Aphrodite also had a love affair with
Cleopatra had committed suicide before they could be the mortal ADONIS. Some ancient sources considered
taken prisoner by Octavian. [ANCIENT SOURCES: her the mother of EROS.
Plutarch, Antony; Seneca, Octavia 518; Suetonius, Julius Aphrodite appears as a character in EURIPIDES’ HIP-
Caesar, Augustus] POLYTUS, in which she delivers the opening monologue
and reveals her plans to destroy HIPPOLYTUS, who
APATURIA An Athenian festival (lasting at least refuses to worship her. Aphrodite appeared as a char-
three days) held in the early autumn (October– acter in AESCHYLUS’ Danaids (fragment 44 Radt) and
November). The name Apaturia means “the feast of may appear in Euripides’ Alexander (fragment 45
common fatherhood” (Parke), the major functions of Snell). Two Greek comic poets, Nicophon (fragments
the festival were that male infants were registered as 1–4 Kock 1) and Antiphanes (fragment 55 Kock 2),
members of their phratries (see PHRATRY) and young wrote plays entitled The Birth of Aphrodite. The plots of
men who had reached puberty were recognized as full these plays are unknown. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
members of the phratry. For each child presented, the lodorus, Library 3.14.3–4; Apollonius Rhodius,
child’s father had to offer a sacrificial animal to provide 4.914–19; Hesiod, Theogony 203–4; Homer, Odyssey
the food for the feast. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, 8.266–367; Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite; Hyginus,
Acharnians 146, Thesmophoriazusae 558] Fables 58, 94, 164; Seneca, Hippolytus 199]
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Parke, H. W. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
University Press, 1977, 88–92. Teubner, 1880.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 164.
Teubner, 1884.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
APHRODITE A love goddess, Aphrodite Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
(Roman: Venus) was referred to in some sources as the Snell, B. Euripides Alexandros und andere Strassburger Papyri
daughter of ZEUS and a goddess named Dione and in mit Fragmenten griechischer Dichter. [Hermes Einzelschriften
others as born from the foam that surrounded the gen- 5 (1937)].
italia of URANUS, after his son CRONUS castrated him
and threw his severed members into the sea. The name APIA Another name for the region where ARGOS
Aphrodite means “she who comes from foam.” The was located. According to AESCHYLUS, Apia took its
new goddess floated along in an easterly direction past name from the healer and prophet Apis, a son of
the southern tip of Greece and the island of CYTHERA. APOLLO, who rid the land of various plagues and mon-
For this reason, Aphrodite is called Cytherean. Even- sters. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Suppliant Women
tually, she went ashore on CYPRUS. As did Cythera, 117, 128, 260–70]
60 APOLLO

APOLLO The son of ZEUS and Leto and the twin as he leaves he encounters Thanatos (Death himself).
brother of ARTEMIS. He is also called Agyieus, Loxias, Apollo tries to persuade Death to let Alcestis live, but
Phoebus, and Smithean. Apollo is sometimes called the Death refuses. Apollo then predicts that HERACLES will
Sun god, but he is most associated with prophecy, take Alcestis from him. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
archery, and music. Apollo did not seem to have had Library 1.4.1–2, 1.3.3–4, 1.7.6, 1.7.9, 3.1.2, 3.10.3–4;
any one, lasting love interest but had several sexual Aristophanes, Acharnians 875; Homer, Iliad 1.603–4,
encounters with both females and males. Apollo had Odyssey 9.576; Homeric Hymn to Apollo; Hyginus,
numerous children, among the most famous ASCLEPIUS Fables 140, 165, 191, 203; Ovid, Metamorphoses
by Coronis (or Arsinoe), ION by CREUSA, and Mopsus 1.416–567, 2.531–632, 10.162–219, 11.194–220,
by TIRESIAS’ daughter Manto. Apollo unsuccessfully 12.580–628; Pausanias, 2.7.7, 2.30.3, 3.1.3, 8.20.2,
pursued CASSANDRA, daughter of PRIAM, and Daphne, 10.5.3, 10.6.5, 10.16.3, 10.17.3]
daughter of the river Ladon. Apollo accidentally killed
his male lover Hyacinthus with a discus toss. ARABES The people who lived in ARABIA. SENECA
Apollo is one of the most frequently mentioned connects them with the worship of the SUN and with
divinities in ancient drama and is best known as the the use of poisonous arrows. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca,
god who responds to questions about the future Hercules Oetaeus 793, Medea 711, Oedipus 117]
through the DELPHIC ORACLE. Apollo’s earliest appear-
ance in extant drama (458 B.C.E.) occurs in AESCHYLUS’ ARABIA Situated at the southwestern corner of
Eumenides (see ORESTEIA), in which he champions Asia, Arabia had the Red Sea as its western border, the
ORESTES, whom Apollo had commanded to kill his Persian Gulf as its northeastern border, and the Ara-
mother. In this play, Aeschylus describes Apollo as a bian Sea as its south and southeastern borders. Ancient
deity who is incapable of telling a lie and who stands Arabia included not only the entire peninsula that is
firmly by Orestes when the FURIES pursue him and now occupied largely by modern Saudi Arabia, but
argues on Orestes’ behalf when the Furies prosecute also the modern regions of Jordan, Syria, and western
him in Athens. In EURIPIDES’ ORESTES, however, Apollo Iraq. In EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE, DIONYSUS claims his wor-
does not appear to testify on Orestes’ behalf when the ship has extended all the way to Arabia. [ANCIENT
assembly at Argos debates his fate. Only at the conclu- SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 420; Euripides,
sion of Orestes does Apollo appear, and at that point he Bacchae 16; Plautus, Persa 506, 522, 541, Three-Dollar
has rescued HELEN from being killed by Orestes and Day 845, 933–34, Truculentus 539]
prevents Orestes from killing HERMIONE.
Euripides’ Ion offers a rather controversial view of ARACHNAEUS A mountain northeast of MYCE-
Apollo. Apollo does not take the stage in this play but NAE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Agamemnon 309
is the most talked-about divinity and the force that (see ORESTEIA); Pausanias, 2.25.10]
impels the other characters. He sexually assaults and
impregnates CREUSA, who, fearing her father’s anger ARAI See CURSES.
about her having a child out of wedlock, leaves her
baby to die. At Apollo’s command, however, the infant THE ARBITRATION (EPITREPONTES)
is rescued and taken to DELPHI, where the child, Ion, is MENANDER (CA. 304 B.C.E.) Only about half
raised at Apollo’s temple. the text of this play survives. The drama’s setting is
In Euripides’ ALCESTIS, Apollo appears in a less than ATHENS, and the action occurs before the houses of
serious light. In this play, Apollo delivers the prologue Charisius (on the audience’s left) and Chairestratus (on
and tells of his servitude to the mortal king ADMETUS, a the audience’s right), both of whom are young Athen-
result of Apollo’s killing of some Cyclopes. Apollo ian gentlemen. Roughly 40 lines survive from the first
announces that he is leaving Admetus’ house to avoid act, which would have revealed that Charisius married
the pollution caused by ALCESTIS’ impending death, but Pamphile, who had a baby after five months of mar-
 THE ARBITRATION 61

riage. Charisius, upset by this, moved into Chairestra- girl, but Habrotonon does not want to become
tus’ house and began to drink heavily. The child was involved until she knows the name of the rapist.
left outside to die but was rescued by one of Chaire- Habrotonon does suggest, however, that she wear the
stratus’ servants. The lines that survive from the first ring, speak to Charisius, and pretend that she was
act consist of a conversation between Chairestratus raped and gave birth to a child. Onesimus approves of
and a music girl (musician/prostitute), Habrotonon, this plan and suggests that Charisius will buy
about Charisius’ drinking. In another dozen lines from Habrotonon’s freedom if he thinks she is the child’s
the first act Smicrines, Pamphile’s father, announces to mother. Onesimus then gives Habrotonon the ring and
Habrotonon and Chairestratus some sort of scheme she enters Charisius’ house. Onesimus worries, how-
against Charisius. ever, that Charisius will desert Pamphile and marry
In the second act, Syrus, a servant of Chairestratus, Habrotonon. When Onesimus sees Smicrines
Syrus’ wife, and Daos, a shepherd, enter. Syrus’ wife is approaching, he goes into Charisius’ house to avoid
carrying a child (that of Charisius). Syrus and Daos are the old man. In the next 50 lines, the manuscript is
involved in a quarrel over the baby and call upon Smi- damaged, but at this point Smicrines and a cook, Car-
crines to arbitrate their dispute. Daos tells Smicrines ion, both hear of the commotion caused by
that he found the baby while he was shepherding and Habrotonon’s story and believe it to be true. When the
took the child home. Afterward, Daos began to wonder manuscript resumes, Smicrines considers taking Pam-
whether he could afford to raise a child, so while he phile back home if Charisius is going to behave in such
was with his flocks the next day, he encountered Syrus a wild manner.
and told him of the problem. Syrus begged to have the In the next act, Pamphile and Smicrines discuss the
child, for his wife’s own child had just died, and finally recent turn of events. The manuscript is heavily dam-
persuaded Daos. Because Daos also found some trin- aged, but apparently Pamphile refused to go home
kets with the infant, Syrus wanted those as well, but with her father. At some point, Smicrines leaves and
Daos refused to turn those over. Syrus, on the other Habrotonon, carrying the child, arrives from Charisius’
hand, argued that he represented the interests of the house. Habrotonon tells Pamphile that she pretended
child, for whom the trinkets are a source of identifica- the child was hers and states that she recognizes Pam-
tion. Smicrines declares that the trinkets belong to the phile as the girl she saw at the festival. When the two
child, and that the child should remain in Syrus’ cus- women see Onesimus approach from Chairestratus’
tody. Daos hands over the trinkets and Syrus tells his house, they go into Charisius’ house, where
wife to take them to Chairestratus. As Syrus is handing Habrotonon promises to explain the whole story to
over a ring to his wife, one of Charisius’ servants, Pamphile. After the women’s departure, Onesimus
Onesimus, enters and recognizes the ring as belonging describes Charisius’ depression about recent events
to Charisius, who lost the ring once when he was and worries that Charisius may kill him. Charisius
drunk. After some discussion, the ring is given to emerges from the house and worries aloud about his
Onesimus. problems as Onesimus eavesdrops. Eventually,
The third act opens with an encounter between Habrotonon arrives from Charisius’ house, and,
Onesimus and Syrus. Onesimus still has not had an although the text breaks off for about 15 lines, appar-
opportunity to show his master the ring. Onesimus ently she reveals the truth to Charisius—that Charisius
tells Syrus his suspicion that Charisius raped a girl, she and Pamphile are the child’s parents.
had his baby, and she left the child to die. Onesimus is The play’s final act begins with two fragments from a
convinced that if they could find the girl and the ring, speech of Chairestratus, in which he confesses having
they would confirm his theory. Habrotonon, who has fallen in love with Habrotonon. After Chairestratus exits,
been onstage and listening to this conversation, says Smicrines enters. Pamphile’s father still does not know
she met a young woman who had been raped at a cer- the truth about Charisius and Pamphile and knocks on
tain festival. Onesimus urges that they search for the Charisius’ door. Smicrines is met by Onesimus, who
62 ARCADIA

starts to reveal the truth about Charisius and Pamphile. NADES, one of the Athenian commanders at the Battle of
Although the rest of the manuscript is lost, Smicrines ARGINUSAE, for embezzlement. Archedmus may have
would have learned the truth and become reconciled been instrumental in securing the death penalty for
with Charisius, and the play probably ended with a Erasinades and his fellow commanders at Arginusae.
celebration. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 417, 588;
Lysias, 14.25; Xenophon, Hellenica 1.7.2, 1.7.35]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, W. S. “Euripides’ Auge and Menander’s Epitrepontes,” BIBLIOGRAPHY
Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 23 (1982): 165–77. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Arnott, W. G. “The Time-Scale of Menander’s Epitrepontes,” Teubner, 1880.
Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik 70 (1987): 19–31. Lang, M. L. “Theramenes and Arginousai,” Hermes 120, no.
Iversen, P. A. “Coal for Diamonds: Syriskos’ Character in 3 (1992): 267–79.
Menander’s Epitrepontes.” American Journal of Philology Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9,
122, no. 3 (2001): 381–403. Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 193.
Primmer, A. “Karion in den Epitrepontes,” Weiner Studien 20
(1986): 123–41. ARCHEGETIS A title of ATHENA. The name,
Sisti, Francesco, ed. Menandro, Epitrepontes. Genova: Univ. which means “founder,” refers to Athena’s role as the
di Genova Fac. di Lettere, 1991.
“patron of a city or colony” (Henderson). [ANCIENT
Stockert, W. “Metatheatralisches in Menanders Epitrepontes,”
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 644]
Weiner Studien 110 (1997): 5–18.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ARCADIA A mountainous region in the northern Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
part of southern Greece. ATALANTA, PARTHENOPAEUS, Press, 1987, 156.
and TELEPHUS were born in this region and ORESTES is
said to have died there. The gods PAN and HERMES are ARCHELAUS Classical mythology mentions at
often associated with Arcadia. In one tradition the least two men named Archelaus. One, the son of AEGYP-
Arcadians were the earliest people on Earth. [ANCIENT TUS, married Anaxibia, daughter of DANAUS. The other
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.8.2, Epitome 6.28, Archelaus was the son of ELECTRYON and therefore the
7.38; Euripides, Electra 1273, Telephus fragment 696.2 brother of ALCMENA. EURIPIDES wrote an Archelaus (frag-
Nauck; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 1883, Phaedra 786; ments 1–38 Austin) that dates to 407 B.C.E. Euripides’
Strabo, 12.8.4, 13.1.3] play seems to have concerned Archelaus’ killing of Cis-
seus, king of Macedon. After the killing Archelaus left
BIBLIOGRAPHY and founded Aegae (“goats”), named after the goat that
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
led him to the site. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
Library 2.1.5, 2.4.5; Hyginus, Fables 219]
ARCADIAN BOAR Also known as the Ery- BIBLIOGRAPHY
manthean boar, this dangerous creature had to be cap- Austin, C. Nova Fragmenta Euripidea in Papyris Reperta.
tured and taken back alive as one of HERACLES’ labors Berlin: De Gruyter, 1968.
for EURYSTHEUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
2.5.4; Seneca, Agamemnon 832, Hercules Furens 229, Methuen, 1967.
Hercules Oetaeus 1536]
ARCHENOMUS An otherwise unknown person
ARCADY See ARCADIA. on whom ARISTOPHANES wishes death at FROGS 1507.

ARCHEDEMUS An Athenian statesman ARCHEPTOLEMUS The son of Hippodamus

mocked for not being (allegedly) a native Athenian and of MILETUS, Archeptolemus was an Athenian politician
for being “bleary-eyed.” Archedemus prosecuted ERASI- whom Aristophanes mentions favorably in KNIGHTS (424
 AREOPAGUS 63

B.C.E.). In this play, Archeptolemus, of foreign birth him- ARCTOPHYLAX A constellation (also known
self, seems to have opposed CLEON with respect to the as BOÖTES), Arctophylax (the bear’s guardian) was orig-
treatment of non-Athenians. In 411 B.C.E., Archeptole- inally a person named Arcas, the son of ZEUS and CAL-
mus helped lead the oligarchic revolution in ATHENS. LISTO. After his death, he was transformed into a
After the oligarchs were forced from power, Archeptole- constellation. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 176;
mus was convicted of treason and executed. [ANCIENT Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.468; Seneca, Thyestes 874]
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 327, 794]

BIBLIOGRAPHY ARCTOS From the Greek word arktos (bear), Arc-

Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2, tos can refer to either Ursa Major (the Greater Bear) or
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 161. Ursa Minor (the Lesser Bear), or both constellations.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.401–530;
ARCHITEKTON A Greek word meaning “pri- Seneca, Hercules Furens 6, 1326, Medea 405, 683,
mary builder,” architekton refers to the person who Octavia 234, Oedipus 507, 606, Thyestes 477]
served as the manager for a Greek theater. By at least
270 B.C.E., the architekton appears to have been an ARCTURUS A star in the constellation Boötes,
elected official. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Demosthenes, On the Arcturus, whose name means “watcher of the bear,”
Crown 28.5; Inscriptiones Graecae ii2 500.20–36] “watches” Ursa Major (the greater bear) move around
the pole. In PLAUTUS’ ROPE, the god Arcturus delivers
ARCHMIME A Greek word meaning “primary the prologue. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Rope 1–82;
mime,” the archmime would have the leading role in a Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos 1137]
MIME but also served as the leader of the troupe of
mimes. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Corpus Inscriptionum Lati-
narum 6.1064, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5209a,
AREOPAGUS Near the Athenian ACROPOLIS, this
place, whose name means “ARES’ hill,” was a well-
5211]
known site for murder trials both in legend and in his-
BIBLIOGRAPHY tory. According to mythology, the first murder trial,
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama. POSEIDON’s prosecution of ARES for the murder of his
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 373–75. son, Halirrhothius, occurred on this hill. ORESTES’ trial
for killing his mother also took place on the Areopa-
ARCHON The archon (Greek: leader or ruler) gus. Not only was Areopagus the name of the geo-
archons was a man who served as a public magistrate graphical site, but in historical times the court that sat
in various Greek towns. In ATHENS, an archon was sup- to hear murder cases there was also called the Areopa-
posed to hold the office only once and for only one gus. The site is also famous in the Christian tradition
year. After the year in office, the archon, if he had per- as the place where the apostle Paul first preached about
formed his duty honorably, became a lifetime member Jesus Christ to the people of ATHENS in the middle of
of a judicial board called the AREOPAGUS. Each year the the first century C.E.
Athenians selected nine archons by lot from the upper
classes of society. Three of the nine archons had special BIBLIOGRAPHY
titles and functions. Before 490 B.C.E., the archon pole- Carawan, E. M. “Apophasis and Eisaggelia: The Role of the
Areopagus in Athenian Political Trials,” Greek, Roman, and
marchos (war ruler) was in charge of military affairs.
Byzantine Studies 26 (1985): 114–40.
The archon basileus (king) was in charge of religious
Gagarin, M. “The Vote of Athena,” American Journal of Philol-
matters and legal matters connected with religion. ogy 96 (1975): 121–27.
Finally, the eponymous archon presided over lawsuits Ostwald, Martin. “The Areopagus in the Athenaion Politeia.”
involving issues of inheritance and property. The Athe- In Aristoteles and Athens: [actes de la table ronde “Cente-
nians also named each year after the name of the naire de l’Athenaion politeia”], Fribourg (Suisse), 23–25
eponymous archon. mai 1991. Edited by M. Piérart. Fribourg: Séminaire
64 ARES

d’Histoire ancienne de l’Université de Fribourg; Paris: mother. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.7.4,
de Boccard, 1993, 139–53. 1.8.2, 3.4.1, 3.6.7, 3.9.2; 3.14.2, 3.14.8, Epitome 5.1;
Sealey, R. “The Athenian Courts for Homicide,” Classical Euripides, Electra 1258–61; Seneca, Hippolytus 125]
Philology 78 (1983): 275–96.
Wallace, R. W. The Areopagus Council, to 307 B.C. Baltimore:
ARGINUSAE Three small islands southeast of
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.
LESBOS and just off the coast of modern-day Turkey. In
406 B.C.E., Arginusae was the site of a famous naval
ARES The son of ZEUS and HERA, Ares is the battle during the PELOPONNESIAN WAR. Although the
Roman god Mars (also called Mavors or Gradivus).
Athenians defeated the Spartans in this battle, adverse
Ares is a god of war, but unlike ATHENA, who seems to
weather prevented them from recovering those who
be associated with the glories of war, Ares appears to
sailed on ships that had been wrecked during the bat-
represent war’s savage and bloody side. Ares’ primary
tle. Upon returning to Athens, the Athenian com-
love was APHRODITE, although she was married to HEP-
manders were prosecuted in a mass trial (contrary to
HAESTUS, who eventually caught the adulterous couple
usual Athenian practice) and condemned to die.
making love by snaring them in an invisible net.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 33, 191;
Although caught by Hephaestus, Ares and Aphrodite
Xenophon, Hellenica 1.6.22–1.7.35]
had a daughter, HARMONIA, who became the wife of
CADMUS. Ares had numerous other children by various BIBLIOGRAPHY
women. The most famous of these are MELEAGER by Hunt, P. “The Slaves and the Generals of Arginusae,” Ameri-
ALTHAEA; two sons named CYCNUS, one by Pyrene, one can Journal of Philology 122 (2001): 359–80.
by Pelopia; DIOMEDES of Thrace by Cyrene; Skoczylas Pownall, F. “Shifting Viewpoints in Xenophon’s
Hellenica: The Arginusae Episode,” Athenaeum 88 (2000):
PARTHENOPAEUS by ATALANTA; TEREUS; and the Amazon
499–513.
PENTHESILEIA by Otrere. Although one of the major
divinities, Ares plays a prominent role in relatively few
myths. His name is mentioned frequently in tragedies, ARGIVE See ARGOS.
especially those dealing with war; however, Ares does
not appear as a character in any extant Greek dramas. ARGO The name of the ship in which JASON and
The Golden Fleece was placed in a grove sacred to the Argonauts sailed to fetch the Golden Fleece. The
Ares; the Amazon Hippolyte had her golden belt from ship was built by ARGUS (1), whose name means “fast.”
Ares. Ares was imprisoned in a bronze pot for 13 Thus, Argo is the “fast” boat, built by the “fast” man,
months by Otos and Ephialtes but was eventually res- and its crew are “those who sail on the fast boat.” The
cued by HERMES. The serpent that CADMUS killed was a ship was constructed of timber gathered from Mount
child of Ares’. To atone for this action, Cadmus served PELION and was equipped with an oracular beam for
Ares for a year, after which Ares married his daughter ZEUS’ shrine at DODONA. Thus, the ship could give
Harmonia to Cadmus. In EURIPIDES’ PHOENICIAN prophecies. Jason was killed when a piece of the Argo
WOMEN, MENOECEUS sacrifices himself to Ares to ensure struck him in the head. AESCHYLUS wrote an Argo (frag-
victory for the Thebans against POLYNEICES and the ments 20–21 Radt), but nothing of its plot is known.
Argives, as well as to atone further for Cadmus’ killing A satyric Argo is also attested, but its author is
of Ares’ serpent. At the conclusion of EURIPIDES’ ELEC- unknown and only the title survives (see Kannicht).
TRA, Euripides seems to draw a connection between [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.16; Euripi-
ORESTES and Ares, as the DIOSCOROI mention that des, Medea 1, 1386–88; Seneca, Medea]
ORESTES’ trial will take place at the AREOPAGUS, the BIBLIOGRAPHY
place where POSEIDON prosecuted ARES for the killing Kannicht, R., and Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta.
of Halirrhothius, the son of Poseidon who had raped Vol. 2. Göttingen, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981.
Ares’ daughter Alcippe. Ares was acquitted of murder, Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
just as Orestes would be acquitted of killing his Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
 ARIADNE 65

ARGOS A town near the southeastern coast of ARIADNE The daughter of MINOS and PASIPHAE,
Greece between NEMEA and LERNA. The region where Ariadne was the sister of PHAEDRA and Deucalion. Ari-
Argos is located is called the Argolid and the inhabi- adne lived on the island of CRETE, and when THESEUS
tants are called Argives, although poets often use the was there to be sacrificed to the MINOTAUR, Ariadne fell
name Argives as a synonym for Greeks in general. Argos in love with Theseus, gave him a magical thread that
is only a few miles away from MYCENAE and TIRYNS, and allowed him to escape from the labyrinth where the
poets often refer to these three towns interchangeably. Minotaur was kept, and then fled the island with him.
Several of the most famous figures in classical mythol- On the return voyage to Theseus’ home in Athens,
ogy lived in Argos—AGAMEMNON, ADRASTUS, AMPHIT- Theseus and Ariadne stopped on the island of NAXOS.
RYON, CLYTEMNESTRA, ELECTRA, EURYSTHEUS, ORESTES, to When Theseus left Naxos, however, Ariadne did not
name a few. AESCHYLUS wrote a Men of Argos (fragments accompany him. Various reasons are given for this, and
16–18 Radt); nothing about its plot is known. most involve the god DIONYSUS. The earliest account, in
HOMER’s Odyssey, indicates that ARTEMIS killed Ariadne
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, at the request of Dionysus, in whose sacred cave Ari-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. adne and Theseus may have had sexual relations. Oth-
ers indicate that Dionysus commanded Theseus to
ARGUS (1) The builder of the ship ARGO, on leave her so that the god could have her or that Diony-
which JASON and the Argonauts sailed. [ANCIENT sus took her away from Theseus and married her. The
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.16; Apollonius best-known accounts say that Theseus simply aban-
Rhodius, 1.18–19, 1.321–26] doned her. After Ariadne’s abandonment, either she
committed suicide or, the more usual version, Diony-
ARGUS (2) The son of AGENOR (or Arestor or sus married her. By Dionysus Ariadne had several sons:
Inachus, or an elder Argus) and Ismene, or perhaps Euanthes, Oenopion, Peparethus, Phlias, Staphylus,
even born from the earth, Argus was a creature who Tauropolis, and THOAS.
had numerous eyes. Ancient sources number those One quite different tradition, however, suggests that
eyes between four and 1,000, and artists often Theseus returned to Crete after the death of Minos;
depicted them as covering his body. Because not all of killed the new king, Deucaliona; and then married Ari-
Argus’ eyes ever slept at one time, he was an ideal adne. On their return to Athens, a storm drove The-
shepherd. Various sources say that Argus killed a bull seus and Ariadne, who by now was pregnant with
that was ravaging ARCADIA, a cattle-stealing SATYR, the Theseus’ child, toward the island of Cyprus. Appar-
killer of Apis, and the monster Echidna, who had ently, the storm at sea caused Ariadne to fear that the
abducted a traveler. Argus is best known as the child would be miscarried, so she asked to go ashore.
guardian of IO, one of ZEUS’ lovers. After Io was trans- Ariadne went ashore at Amathus, but the storm swept
formed into a cow, HERA arranged for Argus to keep Theseus and his ship back out to sea. The women of
constant watch over her. Zeus freed Io from Argus by Amathus cared for Ariadne, who died in childbirth and
sending HERMES, who managed to lull all Argus’ eyes to was buried there. The usual tradition, however, is that
sleep and then kill Argus. Argus’ eyes were placed in Ariadne was buried in a temple of Dionysus in ARGOS
the feathers of Hera’s favorite bird, the peacock. and that Dionysus placed the crown he gave her as a
Despite Argus’ death, his enraged spirit inhabited the wedding present in the heavens as the constellation
body of a gadfly that continued to pursue Io after she Corona.
was freed. Eventually Zeus put an end to this torment Ariadne is not a character in any surviving dramas,
as well by restoring Io to her human form. [ANCIENT although fragment 730a (Radt) from SOPHOCLES indi-
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 566 ff.; Apol- cates that Ariadne appeared in a play that dealt with
lodorus, Library 2.2.2–3; Ovid, Metamorphoses Theseus’ experience on Crete. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
1.622–723] lodorus, Library 3.15.8, Epitome 1.8–10; Catullus, 64;
66 ARIAN

Diodorus Siculus, 4.61, 5.51; Euripides, Hippolytus Aristophanes might have disliked him because he was
399; Hesiod, Theogony 947–49, Catalogues of Women a rival dramatist. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
76; HOMER, Odyssey 11.324; Hyginus, Fables 42, 43, Ecclesiazusae 128, Knights 1285, Peace 883, Wasps
Poetic Astronomy 2.5; Ovid, Heroides 10, Metamorphoses 1283; Aristotle, Poetics 1458b31; Athenaeus, 220b]
7.456, 8.175, Pausanias, 1.20.2, 1.27.9, 1.44.5,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.40.2, 10.29.2; Plutarch, Theseus 15, 19, 20; Seneca, Degani, E. “Arifrade L’Anassagoreo,” Maia 12 (1960):
Hercules Furens 18, Oedipus 448, 497, Hippolytus 245, 190–217.
662–65; Stephanus Byzantium, “Phlious”] MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1971, 298.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Armstrong, Rebecca. Cretan Women: Pasiphae, Ariadne and
Phaedra in Latin Literature. D. Phil., Oxford University, ARISTAEUS The father of ACTAEON by CADMUS’
2001. (Index to Theses 52-5464) daughter, AUTONOE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Bac-
Mills, Sophie. Theseus and the Ideals of Athens in Literature chae 1227, 1371]
from Homer to Euripides. D. Phil., Oxford University,
1992. (Index to Theses 42-5183) ARISTARCHUS (FIFTH CENTURY B.C.E.) A
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, Greek tragedian from the town of Tegea, Aristarchus is
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. said to have written 70 plays and have recorded two
victories, although only three titles are known (Ascle-
ARIAN Of or pertaining to the district of Aria in pius, Achilles, Tantalus). In the opening lines of PLAUTUS’
Persia. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Libation Bearers CARTHAGINIAN, the speaker of the prologue claims to be
423 (see ORESTEIA)] imitating Aristarchus’ Achilles. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plau-
tus, Carthaginian 1–4; Suda, “Aristarchus”]
ARIGNOTUS The son of AUTOMENES, Arignotus
BIBLIOGRAPHY
was a talented and well-known lyre player in ATHENS.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 1278, Wasps Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
1277–78; Athenaeus, 220b]
BIBLIOGRAPHY ARISTIDES (DIED CA. 463 B.C.E.) The son
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2, of Lysimachus, Aristides was an Athenian statesman
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 210. and military leader. He fought at the battle of
MARATHON against the Persians but opposed THEMISTO-
ARIMASPIANS A mythical tribe who were said CLES and was exiled from Athens in 483/482 B.C.E.
to live beyond the region of SCYTHIA, to have only one When the Persians threatened to invade Greece again,
eye, and to steal gold from creatures called GRIFFINS, Aristides was recalled and served as a commander at
with whom they were frequently at war. [ANCIENT the battles of SALAMIS and PLATAEA. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 804–7; Aristophanes, Knights 1325; Plutarch, Aristides]
Herodotus, 3.116, 4.13, 4.27; Pausanias, 1.24.6]
ARISTOPHANES (CA. 450–385 B.C.E.) The
ARIPHRADES An Athenian mentioned a few son of Philippus and Zenodora, Aristophanes, from the
times by ARISTOPHANES as someone who enjoyed the DEME of Cydathenaeum, is considered the greatest
secretions of women. He may have been a student of comic poet of ancient Greece (with the possible excep-
Anaxagoras, and Degani thinks that Aristophanes did tion of MENANDER). Aristophanes had three sons,
not like Ariphrades because of his philosophical and Araros, Philippus, and Nicostratus (or perhaps Phile-
political views, but little evidence exists to confirm taerus), all of whom became comic poets.
Degani’s opinion. ARISTOTLE mentions a comic poet Aristophanes wrote about 40 plays, of which 11 sur-
named Ariphrades, and MacDowell suggests that vive: ACHARNIANS (425 B.C.E.), KNIGHTS (424), CLOUDS
 ARISTOPHANES 67

(423), WASPS (422), PEACE (421), BIRDS (414), LYSIS- plays, the hero conceives a highly unusual plan to
TRATA (411), THESMOPHORIAZUSAE (411), FROGS (405), achieve peace. Thus, modern scholars have labeled
ECCLESIAZUSAE (392/391), and WEALTH (388). The first these works peace plays. In 404 B.C.E., Athens finally
nine plays in the list are considered examples of Old surrendered to Sparta and the two surviving Aristo-
Comedy; last two are often cited as examples of Mid- phanic plays, Ecclesiazusae and Wealth, which appear
dle Comedy (see COMEDY). Almost all of Aristophanes’ after 404, both lack the spirit of Aristophanes’ earlier
plays were produced either at the City DIONYSIA plays. In these last two plays, the role of the chorus is
(Clouds, Peace, Birds, and perhaps Thesmophoriazusae) greatly diminished and extended attacks on political
or at the LENAEA (Acharnians, Knights, Wasps, Frogs, and figures decrease, an aspect evident in the plays after the
perhaps Lysistrata), although he is known to have pro- death of Cleon in 422. One should also note that by
duced a comedy at a festival at ELEUSIS. Aristophanes’ 404 Aristophanes’ other favorite target, Euripides, had
first three plays, Banqueters (427), Babylonians (426), died. Thus, with the major military conflict over and
and Acharnians, were produced under the name of his both Cleon and Euripides dead, Aristophanes’ later
friend CALLISTRATUS. Callistratus also produced Birds comedies (not surprisingly) took on a rather different
and Lysistrata for Aristophanes, and a certain tone. Similar changes might be observed in modern
Philonides produced Frogs and two other plays. humor, as comics have altered their material and style
Aristophanes claims to have had his first three plays to go with the politicians in office at the time.
produced by others because of his own young age, but In some instances, Aristophanes’ attacks on public
it is not clear why others produced his plays after figures had effects that carried beyond the stage.
Aristophanes had become a well-established veteran of Regarding the trial of Socrates in 399 B.C.E., in Plato’s
the theater. Walton suggests that perhaps Aristophanes Apology Socrates himself mentions that these charges
“saw himself primarily as a writer and preferred to pass are not new and alludes to Aristophanes’ characteriza-
the staging to some specialist in that field.” tion of him in the Clouds, whose first production was
Of Aristophanes’ first four plays, all but the Ban- 24 years earlier. Despite the role Aristophanes’ carica-
queters appear to have won the prize in their respective ture of Socrates may have played in the charges against
competitions (cf. also Knights). Although the first four Socrates, who was found guilty and sentenced to
years of Aristophanes’ career were successful, compet- death, Plato’s Symposium, written after the deaths of
itively speaking, Aristophanes finished first only three both Socrates and Aristophanes, shows Aristophanes,
other times over the next four decades (a play in 422, at least on the surface, to be on good terms with not
perhaps the Proagon; Frogs in 405; Cocalus in 387). only Socrates, but the others at the symposium.
Banqueters, Wasps, Peace, and Birds are known to have Aristophanes’ Babylonians, produced in 426, put the
finished second, and the first production of Clouds to playwright in conflict with Cleon, who made some sort
have finished last (third place). of legal charge against Aristophanes for slandering “the
Most of Aristophanes’ plays are highly topical, often magistrates, councillors and people of Athens in the
dealing with actual persons (e.g., EURIPIDES, CLEON, presence of foreigners” (Sommerstein). Although
SOCRATES, ALCIBIADES) and issues of his own day, such as Aristophanes’ attacks on Cleon had some impact on
the PELOPONNESIAN WAR, the Athenian court system, or the playwright personally, they apparently did not have
current trends in intellectual thought. During most of much effect on the public’s opinion of Cleon, as the
Aristophanes’ career as a dramatist, his native city of Athenian people continued to entrust him with mili-
Athens was at war with the people of SPARTA and their tary commands. Likewise, despite Aristophanes’
allies. Nine of Aristophanes’ 11 extant plays were writ- embarrassing portrayal of the general LAMACHUS in
ten during the Peloponnesian War, a conflict that unde- Acharnians, Lamachus continued to hold military com-
niably shaped his writing. Acharnians (425 B.C.E.), Peace mands until his death a decade later.
(421), and Lysistrata (411) all deal directly with the war In addition to criticizing the political and intellec-
and its effects on the Athenian people. In each of these tual extremists of his day, Aristophanes shows no
68 ARISTOTLE

sympathy for people who make their living by exploit- music (which includes dramatic poetry), especially
ing certain situations or taking advantage of other peo- on the different classes who make up the spectators
ple. Those who profit from the war with Sparta, people in the theater. Aristotle’s most famous remarks on
who manipulate religion or popular superstition for drama appear in his Poetics, a short incomplete trea-
their own benefit, and professional INFORMANTS are fre- tise that may consist of notes for one of Aristotle’s
quently barred from enjoying the fruits of the reforms lectures and may not even have been written by Aris-
created by Aristophanes’ heroes, who are usually the totle at all. Despite the problems concerning the text
common people of Athenian society, such as DICAEOPO- itself and its authorship, Poetics has had a profound
LIS (Acharnians) and TRYGAEUS (Peace), both of whom influence on the way Greek TRAGEDY, even up to the
make their living by working the land. Although most present day, is read. In its own day, in many places
of Aristophanes’ plays are highly topical, the desires of Poetics responded to and challenged some of Plato’s
his leading characters are universal: a life free of war views on drama that appear in Republic. Although
and political corruption, clothing, sufficient food and Aristotle’s Poetics indicates that its intent was to dis-
drink, and a satisfying love life. cuss epic poetry, tragedy, and COMEDY, the section on
comedy is missing and the section on epic poetry
BIBLIOGRAPHY
may be incomplete. Some scholars believe that a cer-
Bowie, A. M., Aristophanes: Myth, Ritual and Comedy. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. tain document known as the Tractatus Coislinianus
Dover, K. J. Aristophanic Comedy. Berkeley: University of contains a summary of the missing section on com-
California Press, 1972. edy. Most of the material contained in Poetics, as we
Henderson, J. The Maculate Muse: Obscene Language in Attic have it, deals with tragedy. Thus, Aristotle’s Poetics
Comedy. 2d ed. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, provides information about the origins of tragedy,
1991. comedy, and epic poetry; the development of
Konstan, D. Greek Comedy and Ideology. New York: Oxford tragedy; what Aristotle considers the six constituent
University Press, 1995. parts of tragedy (plot, character, diction, reasoning,
MacDowell, D. Aristophanes and Athens. Oxford: Oxford spectacle, song); and similarities of and differences
University Press, 1995.
between tragedy and epic poetry.
Segal, Erich, ed. Oxford Readings in Aristophanes. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1996. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, Bremer, J. M. Hamartia: Tragic Error in the Poetics of Aristotle
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 3. and in Greek Tragedy. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1969.
Walton, J. M. Living Greek Theatre. New York: Greenwood Halliwell, S. Aristotle’s Poetics. Chapel Hill: University of
Press, 1987, 176. North Carolina Press, 1986.
Janko, R. Aristotle on Comedy. London: Duckworth, 1984.
ARISTOTLE (384–322 B.C.E.) Born at Sta- Lucas, D. W. Aristotle. Poetics. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
girus in northeastern Greece, the young Aristotle was 1968.
sent to ATHENS to study after his father’s death. There Rorty, A. O., ed. Essays on Aristotle’s Poetics. Princeton, N.J.:
Aristotle studied with PLATO for two decades and Princeton University Press, 1992.
became the leader of a philosophical school in
Athens known as the Academy. Aristotle wrote
ARISTYLLUS A person whom Aristophanes
numerous works, whose subjects included politics,
ridicules for taking pleasure in fecal material. He may
ethics, rhetoric, and scientific matters of the time.
have enjoyed licking or kissing the anus. [ANCIENT
Numerous references to classical drama are found
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 647, Wealth 314]
throughout Aristotle’s works; only two segments are
discussed here. The first occurs in Aristotle’s Politics BIBLIOGRAPHY
(8.7), in which the author speaks briefly about the Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
educational and emotional (see CATHARSIS) benefits of Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 159.
 ARTEMISIA 69

ARTAPHRENES (1) Also called Artaphernes, The giant Otus tried to assault her sexually, and she
Artaphrenes, according to AESCHYLUS, killed the fifth killed him. Artemis brought about the destruction of
Persian king, MARDUS. Aeschylus also names an ACTAEON when he saw her bathing, although in EURIPI-
Artaphrenes as the seventh Persian king, who was fol- DES’ BACCHAE we hear that Actaeon boasted that he was
lowed to the throne by DARIUS. An Artaphrenes is a better hunter than Artemis was. Some sources say that
known to have governed Sardes, part of the Persian when the great hunter ORION tried to rape Artemis, she
empire. Artaphrenes also had a son by the same name. sent a huge scorpion to kill him. Other sources say that
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 776, 778] Artemis cared for Orion and that he became one of her
followers. Apollo, fearing that Artemis would fall in
ARTAPHRENES (2) Also called Artaphernes, love with Orion, arranged for GAIA to send the scorpion
Artaphrenes, the son of Artaphrenes the elder, was one to attack Orion. Apollo then tricked Artemis into killing
of the losing Persian commanders (his colleague was Orion. In both traditions, Artemis transformed Orion
named Datis) at the battle of MARATHON in 490 B.C.E. and the scorpion into constellations.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 21; Herodotus, As is the punishment wreaked upon those who
6.94–7.74] attempted to enjoy Artemis’ sexual favors, other
appearances of Artemis in myth and drama are marked
ARTEMIS The daughter of ZEUS and LETO and the by violence. The sacrifice of IPHIGENIA at AULIS was
twin sister of APOLLO, Artemis has the Roman counter- demanded by Artemis in AESCHYLUS’ Agamemnon (see
part Diana and is also called Britomartis, Cynthia, ORESTEIA) and EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA AT AULIS; in Euripi-
Delia, Dictynna, Phoebe, or Trivia. Delia refers to des’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, the audience hear that the Tau-
DELOS, the island where she was born. Dictynna points rians sacrifice strangers to Artemis.
to the Greek word for net (diktuon). Because Greek In the HIPPOLYTUS plays by EURIPIDES and SENECA, she
hunters often used nets to catch their prey, Artemis, is the divinity most worshiped by HIPPOLYTUS, who
who is associated with hunting, is the goddess of the maintains his own chastity in honor of her. She appears
net. The name Trivia means “three roads,” and Artemis at the conclusion of Euripides’ play to reveal Hippoly-
appears to have been worshiped at crossroads. As her tus’ innocence to THESEUS. Artemis also promises to
brother, Apollo, is associated with the SUN, Artemis is take revenge on one of APHRODITE’s favorites for her
connected with the MOON. She is associated with destruction of Hippolytus. When NIOBE boasted that
wilderness, virginity, human sacrifice, and death of she had produced more children than Artemis’ mother,
women. Despite the association with the death of Leto, Artemis helped Apollo destroy Niobe’s children.
women, Artemis was especially revered by women and The Greek comic poet Ephippus wrote a play enti-
in COMEDY women often swear by Artemis. She is also tled Artemis, but the two lines that survive (about a
associated with childbirth and is even said to have bread-eating fellow from Thessaly named Alexander)
helped deliver her twin brother, Apollo. As a virgin tell little about the play’s content (fragment 1 Kock).
goddess, Artemis has no children, although the Roman [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.4.1, 1.8.2,
Cicero says she produced Cupid (EROS) by Mercury 1.9.15, 2.5.3, 3.4.4, 3.5.6, 3.8.2, 3.14.4, Epitome 2.2,
(HERMES). As a virgin goddess, Artemis also required 2.10, 3.21–22; Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods 3.23;
those devoted to her to be virgins. When Artemis dis- Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.401–530, 3.138–252]
covered that her follower Callisto was pregnant (the BIBLIOGRAPHY
result of a sexual assault by Zeus), ancient sources say Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
that Artemis either shot her or changed her into a bear. Teubner, 1884.
Artemis did not lack men who were attracted to her;
when Artemis’ chastity was threatened, she protected ARTEMISIA A queen of Caria who was an ally of
herself with force. The river Alphaeus tried to pursue the Persian king XERXES. Although Artemisia advised
her, and she eluded him by covering herself with mud. Xerxes against attacking SALAMIS in 480 B.C.E., she led
70 ARTEMISIUM

five ships against the Greek forces and even sank an (Cure), Hygeia (Health), and Panacea (Cure). Ascle-
enemy ship. After the Persian defeat, she advised pius does not appear as a character in any surviving
Xerxes to retreat. He accepted this advice and arranged dramas, but the Greek tragic poet Aristarchus wrote a
for Artemisia to transport some of his sons (whom he play called Asclepius (only the title is known; cf. Snell).
had with him at Salamis) to Ephesus. [ANCIENT Among the Greek comic poets, both Antiphanes (frag-
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 675, Thesmophori- ment 45 Kock) and Philetaerus (fragment 1 Kock) wrote
azusae 1200; Herodotus, 7.99, 8.68–69, 8.87–93, plays entitled Asclepius, and Alexis (fragment 24 Kock)
101–107] wrote Asclepiokleides; only one brief fragment survives
from each play. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
ARTEMISIUM A town at the northern end of 3.10.3–4; Aristophanes, Wealth 411, 640; Diodorus
the island of EUBOEA. In 480 B.C.E., a coalition of allied Siculus, 4.71.2–4; Euripides, Alcestis 3–6, 970; Hyginus,
Greeks fought an important naval battle (most of the Fables 49; Ovid, Metamorphoses 15.622–744]
ships were supplied by ATHENS) against the Persians off BIBLIOGRAPHY
the coast of Artemisium. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Edelstein, Emma, and Ludwig Edelstein. Asclepius: A Collec-
Lysistrata 1251; Herodotus, 7.175–78, 8.1–2, 8.14.1] tion and Interpretation of the Testimonies, with a New Intro-
duction by Gary B. Ferngren. 2d ed. Baltimore: Johns
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hopkins University Press, 1998.
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Press, 1987, 211–12.
Teubner, 1884.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
ARTEMON A contemporary of the Greek lyric Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
poet ANACREON (who was born around 570 B.C.E.), who
labeled him as morally corrupt. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- ASCONDAS A Greek, perhaps from BOEOTIA,
phanes, Acharnians 850; Anacreon, fragment 43.5 Page] who apparently lived during the middle of the fifth
century B.C.E. and was a champion pancratiast (skilled
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Page, D. L. Poetae Melici Graeci. 1962, Reprint, Oxford: in a sport similar to modern kickboxing). [ANCIENT
Clarendon Press, 1967. SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 1191, 1383]
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 199. Sommerstein. A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, Wasps.
Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 226.
ASCLEPIUS (Latin: AESCULAPIUS)
Asclepius was the son of APOLLO and Coronis (or Arsi- ASIA From the perspective of the ancients, a refer-
noe). Asclepius was especially revered and worshiped ence to Asia usually denoted the western half of what
at the Greek town of EPIDAURUS. When Apollo found is today Turkey. In AESCHYLUS’ PERSIANS, the whole of
that Coronis preferred the mortal Ischys to him, Apollo Asia is considered Persian territory. The wanderings of
killed Coronis but snatched the infant from her body DIONYSUS and IO took them through Asia. Playwrights
on the funeral pyre. Apollo took Asclepius to the cen- sometimes refer to the Trojans as Asians. [ANCIENT
taur CHIRON, who trained him in hunting and medi- SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 735; Euripides,
cine. Asclepius became so skilled at medicine that he Bacchae 17, 64, 1168]
was able to raise the dead. Among those Asclepius was
said to have raised from the dead was THESEUS’ son, ASINARIA See COMEDY OF ASSES.
HIPPOLYTUS, but no hint of this exists in EURIPIDES’ HIP-
POLYTUS. ZEUS, fearing that more people might acquire ASOPUS A river that flows south of THEBES. Poets
the ability to raise the dead, killed Asclepius. Asclepius sometimes refer to THEBES as the land of Asopus. The
had several children: Machaon, Podalirius, IASO personification of the Asopus is said to have had a
 ATALANTA 71

daughter, AEGINA, who produced AEACUS by ZEUS. lation Virgo. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Ovid, Metamorphoses
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 805; Euripides, 1.150; Seneca, Hercules Furens 1068, Hercules Oetaeus
Suppliant Women 383, 571, 1149, Heracles 1163, Bac- 69, Octavia 424, Thyestes 857]
chae 749, 1044, Iphigenia at Aulis 697; Hyginus, Fables
52, 155] ASTYANAX Also called Scamandrius, Astyanax,
the son of HECTOR and ANDROMACHE, was killed by the
ASPASIA A freeborn intelligent woman from Greeks after the fall of TROY. Astyanax appears as a
MILETUS, Aspasia lived with the Athenian statesman silent character in EURIPIDES’ TROJAN WOMEN, in which
PERICLES for some time, although she was not his wife. he is taken away to be killed. Later, his body is taken
Rumor labeled her a “madam” who arranged sexual back to be buried by his grandmother, HECABE. Among
liaisons between Pericles and other freeborn women or Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a tragic Astyanax, whose
someone who trained prostitutes. Aristophanes jokes approximately two dozen surviving lines indicate that
that the reason behind the PELOPONNESIAN WAR was the play was set at Troy and that Hecuba (Hecabe) and
that some young Athenians stole a Megarian prostitute the prophet CALCHAS, and probably Ulysses (ODYSSEUS)
and the Megarians retaliated by stealing two of Aspa- and MENELAUS, had speaking parts. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
sia’s prostitutes. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Apollodorus, Epitome 5.23; Euripides, Andromache
Acharnians 524–27; Plutarch, Pericles 24.3–5] 9–10, Trojan Women 577ff.; Homer, Iliad 6.390–493,
22.482–507; Hyginus, Fables 109; Ovid, Metamor-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
phoses 13.415; Seneca, Agamemnon 634, Trojan Women
Henry, M. M. Prisoner of History: Aspasia of Miletus and Her
Biographical Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press,
369ff.]
1995. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Loraux, Nicole. “Aspasia: la straniera, l’intellettuale.” In Gre- Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
cia al femminile. Edited by N. Loraux. Roma: Laterza, Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
1993, 123–54. Harvard University Press, 1936.
Vickers, M. J. “Alcibiades and Aspasia: Notes on the Hip-
polytus,” Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 26, no. 2 (2000): ATALANTA (ATALANTE) The tradition
7–17.
about the famous female hunter Atalanta is a confusing
Wilkins, John. “Aspasia in Medea?” Liverpool Classical
one, because two regions, BOEOTIA and ARCADIA, both
Monthly 12 (1987): 8–10.
claimed to be home to an Atalanta. Her mother is usu-
ally named Clymene; her father is named Iasus, Mae-
ASPIS See THE SHIELD.
nalus, or Schoeneus. Atalanta’s father wanted a son and
therefore exposed his infant daughter to die. As was
ASSEMBLYWOMEN ARISTOPHANES See PARIS, Atalanta was suckled by a she bear. Hunters res-
ECCLESIAZUSAE. cued Atalanta and raised her. She herself became a
great hunter and remained a virgin, either because she
ASTACUS The father of MELANIPPUS, who was wanted to continue her hunting activities or because
one of the SEVEN AGAINST THEBES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: she had heard an oracle that marriage would mean dis-
Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 407; Apollodorus, aster for her. Although some writers say Atalanta sailed
Library 3.6.8] with the Argonauts, her most famous adventure
occurred when she joined the hunt for the Calydonian
ASTRAEA A daughter of ZEUS and THEMIS, boar. Atalanta struck the boar first, and MELEAGER, who
Astraea, the sister of Shame (Greek: Aidos; Latin: eventually killed it, awarded her the animal’s pelt.
Pudicitia) was a goddess of justice. She and her sister Now that Atalanta had become famous, her father
lived among human beings until their wicked behavior invited her home. Hoping for grandchildren, he tried
drove her to the heavens. Astraea became the constel- to find a husband for Atalanta. She, however, wanted
72 ATÊ

to stay unmarried, and so she told her father that she Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.318, 10.565; Pausanias,
would only marry someone who could defeat her in a 3.24.2, 5.9.1, 8.45.4]
footrace. If the prospective suitor lost the race, he also
BIBLIOGRAPHY
lost his life. Several suitors challenged Atalanta, but
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
she defeated them all until the arrival of Melanion (or Teubner, 1880.
Hippomenes). This suitor, helped by Aphrodite, Mette, H. J. Die Fragmente der Tragödien des Aischylos. Berlin:
defeated Atalanta by luring her off the racecourse with Akademie-Verlag, 1959.
three golden apples that the goddess had given him. Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Each time Atalanta ran ahead of the suitor, he would Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
throw an apple, which Atalanta would leave the course Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
to retrieve. Because Atalanta lost the race, she married Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Melanion. Unfortunately, the newlyweds chose the Harvard University Press, 1936.
sacred precinct of a divinity (ZEUS or CYBELE, depend-
ing on the source) to consummate their marriage. The ATÊ The Greek word atê has many meanings,
angered divinity changed the lovers into lions. including “delusion,” “error,” “curse,” and “woe.” Thus,
Atalanta’s marriage to Melanion was brief, but she is the goddess Atê, the daughter of ERIS (strife) or ZEUS,
said to have had a son, PARTHENOPAEUS. Some, how- personifies these entities. On one occasion, Atê even
ever, make Meleager or ARES the father of the boy. Ata- deluded Zeus into taking an oath that resulted eventu-
lanta exposed Parthenopaeus on Mount Parthenius, ally in EURYSTHEUS’ becoming the master of HERACLES.
but shepherds rescued him. Coincidentally, the same This delusion led Zeus to cast Atê from OLYMPUS. Atê
shepherds rescued TELEPHUS and the two young men took up residence on the Earth, where she caused
became comrades. delusions among human beings. In AESCHYLUS’
Although Atalanta does not appear as a character in ORESTEIA, Atê appears to be associated with revenge.
any extant classical dramas, she would have appeared [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Libation Bearers 68, 381
in several plays that have not survived. AESCHYLUS is (see ORESTEIA); Euripides, Children of Heracles 607,
said to have written an Atalanta, of which only the title Electra 1307; Hesiod, Theogony 230; Homer, Iliad
survives (Mette). Aristias produced an Atalanta, of 9.503, 10.391, 19.85, 126; Sophocles, Ajax 123,
which only four, uninformative words exist (fragment Antigone 1097, Electra 1298, Oedipus Tyrannos 1284]
2 Snell). Several Greek comic poets wrote a play titled
Atalanta, of which fragments that survive give no infor- ATELLANA See FABULA ATELLANA.
mation about the plot: Alexis (title only; Kock), Callias
(fragment 1 Kock 1), Euthycles (fragments 2–4 Kock), ATHAMAS The son of Aeolus and Enarete,
Philyllius (title only; Kock), Strattis (fragments 3–9 Athamas was a king of BOEOTIA. Athamas was the
Kock 1). In the lone fragment that survives from Phile- brother of CRETHEUS. Athamas’ first wife, Nephele, was
taerus’ Atalanta, someone speaks of his or her ability in of divine stock, and by her he fathered a son and a
running, labors, and eating (fragment 3 Kock). Among daughter—PHRIXUS and Helle. For some reason,
Roman authors, PACUVIUS wrote an Atalanta (lines Nephele and Athamas parted ways. After the divorce,
49–78 Warmington), which appears to have treated a Athamas married either INO or Themisto. By Ino,
search by Parthenopaeus for his mother. One of the daughter of CADMUS and HARMONIA, Athamas fathered
fragments (lines 68–69) mentions someone’s running Learchus and Melicertes (or Melicerta). By Themisto,
past Parthenopaeus. Perhaps Parthenopaeus entered daughter of Hypseus, Athamas had two sons,
the race with Atalanta, was defeated by her, and before Orchomenus and Sphincius. According to Hyginus,
he was killed was recognized by his mother. [ANCIENT Ino left Athamas and he, thinking she had died, mar-
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.9.2; Callimachus, ried Themisto. When Athamas later learned that Ino
Hymn to Artemis 216–21; Hyginus, Fables 99, 185; was alive, he had her taken back to the palace.
 ATHAMAS 73

Themisto, thinking she was a captive, employed Ino as told Cretheus falsely that Phrixus had attempted to
a nurse not only to her children, but also to Ino’s chil- assault her sexually. Cretheus demanded that Athamas
dren, who still lived in the palace. Themisto later con- kill Phrixus; Athamas agreed to do so, but Nephele
fided to Ino that she wanted to kill Ino’s children. Ino, sent the golden-fleeced ram to rescue Phrixus.
pretending to be loyal to Themisto, entered the plot Another story about Athamas makes him and Ino
with her and told Themisto to dress one woman’s chil- caretakers of the young Dionysus. HERA, angry that
dren in black clothing and the other woman’s children Dionysus was Zeus’ child by SEMELE, tried to destroy
in white. Ino, however, later switched the clothing and Dionysus by causing Athamas to become insane. In his
Themisto killed her own children. When Themisto insanity, Athamas imagined that his son Learchus was
realized what she had done, she committed suicide. a deer and killed him. Ino, also driven mad, killed
Athamas became mad and killed Learchus, and Ino Melicertes by putting him into a boiling cauldron and
jumped into the sea with Melicertes. then hurling herself and the cauldron into the sea. Ino
Another story connected with Athamas deals with was changed into the sea divinity Leucothea. Another
Ino’s plot against Athamas’ children by Nephele. Ino tradition states that Athamas persecuted Ino’s children
wanted her own children to succeed to the kingship, because of Ino’s plot against Phrixus.
so she plotted to destroy Nephele’s son, Phrixus, first Athamas himself was exiled from Boeotia because of
in line to inherit the throne. Another tradition says that the killing of his son. After hearing an oracle that he
both Athamas and Ino plotted to kill Phrixus. Ino’s plot should live where wild animals received him as a
was extremely clever and would not cast suspicion on guest, Athamas traveled north to Thessaly, where he
her. Ino persuaded the women of the town to parch encountered wolves, who fled when he approached.
their town’s grain supply, so that the crops would fail Athamas then established his home in that region and
during the upcoming season. After the crops failed, called it Athamantia (the land of Athamas). Strabo calls
Athamas sent a messenger to consult the Delphic ora- the place Halus and says the Pharsalians later took over
cle to learn a solution for the poor harvest. Ino, how- that land. Athamas then married Hypseus’ daughter,
ever, arranged for the messenger to tell Athamas that Themisto, and fathered four sons by her: Leucon, Ery-
the only remedy for the situation would be to sacrifice thrius, Schoeneus, and Ptous. Another tradition says
Phrixus. According to Hyginus, Athamas refused to kill that Athamas adopted Haliartus and Coronus, the sons
Phrixus, but Phrixus volunteered to give up his life. As of his brother, Thersander.
the sacrifice was about to occur, Hyginus says a servant Several playwrights wrote dramas entitled Athamas.
revealed to Athamas the plot of Ino, which ended the A few brief fragments from Aeschylus’ play of this
threat to Phrixus. Athamas, however, then decided to name survive, one of which may refer to the cauldron
kill Ino and her son Melicertes, but DIONYSUS pre- into which Melicertes was thrown (fragment 1 Radt).
vented this. According to John Tzetzes, HERACLES res- To SOPHOCLES are attributed two plays entitled Athamas
cued Phrixus before he could be sacrificed. Other (fragments 1–10 Radt), but whether these deal with
sources say that Nephele sent a ram with golden fleece two different events in Athamas’ life or whether one is
to rescue Phrixus. Helle, who also happened to be a reworking of the earlier play is not clear. The Greek
present, also climbed aboard the ram. Phrixus flew tragedian Astydamas wrote an Athamas, of which only
away to safety. Helle, however, fell off the ram and the title is extant. XENOCLES wrote a satyric Athamas, of
died. The sea into which Helle plunged was called the which only the title survives. Among the Roman play-
Hellespont (the sea of Helle). Hyginus says Dionysus wrights, ENNIUS and ACCIUS both composed an
drove Phrixus and Helle mad, and Nephele sent the Athamas. Of Ennius’ play survives a single five-line
ram to rescue them in their wanderings. fragment that refers to the revelry of some worshipers
One version of Phrixus’ near sacrifice relates that of Dionysus. Four extensive fragments from Accius’
when Phrixus’ aunt, Demodice, the wife of Cretheus, Athamas that exist indicate that the play seems to have
was unsuccessful in her efforts to seduce Phrixus, she treated Demodice’s false accusation of Phrixus.
74 ATHENA

[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.7.3, 1.9.1–2, ground. This caused Mother Earth to become pregnant
3.4.3; Herodotus 7.197; Hyginus, Fables 1–3; Pausa- and subsequently produce ERICHTHONIUS, who later
nias, 1.44.7–8, 9.23.6–24.1, 9.34.6–7; Strabo, 9.5.8] became a king in Athens and whom Athena raised at
her temple.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
As a goddess of wisdom and war, Athena can often
Antò, V. d’. “L’Athamas di Ennio e di Accio,” BStudLat 1
(1971): 371–78. be found at the side of classical mythology’s great
Jocelyn, H. D. The Tragedies of Ennius. Cambridge: Cam- heroes such as ACHILLES, ODYSSEUS, HERACLES, THESEUS,
bridge University Press, 1969. and even ORESTES. In the Trojan War, Athena favored
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil- the Greek side because the Trojan PARIS had not cho-
ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard Uni- sen her as more beautiful than HERA or APHRODITE.
versity Press, 1935. Athena is sometimes mentioned as the inspiration for
the stratagem of the wooden horse, which gave the
ATHENA (Latin: MINERVA) Athena is Greeks victory at TROY. After the Trojan War, however,
also called Pallas or Pallas Athena. A virgin goddess, Athena was angry with the Greeks because Locrian
Athena is associated with weaving, wisdom, and war. AJAX raped CASSANDRA at a shrine of Athena. Accord-
She was born fully armed from the head of ZEUS after ingly, Athena arranged for a terrible storm to destroy
Zeus swallowed the pregnant goddess METIS (“wis- many of the Greek ships as they returned from Troy.
dom”) in order to avoid a prophecy that he would be Athena appears as a character in several extant
overthrown by a child of Metis’. The meaning of Metis’ plays. In AESCHYLUS’ Eumenides (see ORESTEIA), Athena
name and Athena’s method of birth help explain the presides over the trial of Orestes and ultimately casts
wisdom of both Zeus and Athena. Some sources place her vote in his favor. She then negotiates with the
Athena’s birth near a body of water (either a river or a FURIES and persuades them to take up residence in
lake, usually in Libya) called TRITON. Because of her Athens, where they will continue to be honored. In
birthplace, Athena is sometimes called Tritonia, Trito- SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, Athena appears at the beginning of
nis, or Tritogeneia (Triton-born). Athena is usually the play and reveals to Odysseus that she has driven
thought of as wearing a war helmet, carrying a spear, Ajax mad, preventing him from killing AGAMEMNON,
and having some sort of covering over her shoulders or MENELAUS, and Odysseus. Athena urges Odysseus to
chest. This covering, called the AEGIS, had on it the mock AJAX, but Odysseus declines this opportunity. A
image of a GORGON. Most sources say this was the Gor- fragment from Sophocles’ Ajax the Locrian indicates
gon MEDUSA, whom PERSEUS killed. EURIPIDES, however, that Athena appeared in that play to complain about
in the ION, says Athena’s aegis was from the skin of Ajax’s rape of Cassandra (fragment 10c Radt). Athena
another Gorgon that was produced by Mother EARTH drove AJAX mad but put an end to Heracles’ madness
and that Athena destroyed. in EURIPIDES’ HERACLES by knocking him unconscious.
Athena became the patron divinity of ATHENS by Athena appears at the conclusions of Euripides’ SUP-
defeating POSEIDON in a contest for this honor. When PLIANT WOMEN, ION, and IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, as well as
Athena created an olive tree and Poseidon produced a the beginning of his TROJAN WOMEN. In Suppliant
salt spring, CECROPS, the king of Athens, decided Women, Athena urges Theseus not to let the Argives
Athena was the divinity who would be more beneficial leave without swearing that they will not attack Athens
to his city and she was chosen. After she became and that they will help defend Athens should others
patron divinity of Athens, Athena asked HEPHAESTUS to attack the city. Athena also predicts the future victory
create for her some new armor. Hephaestus created the of the Argives’ sons over the Thebans. In Ion, Athena
armor but also tried to rape Athena. When the goddess prevents ION from asking APOLLO embarrassing ques-
fought off the aroused god, Hephaestus ejaculated on tions about his (Ion’s) birth and orchestrates a plan
Athena’s leg. The disgusted goddess wiped off the between Ion and CREUSA that will keep XUTHUS in the
semen with a piece of wool, which she threw onto the dark about Apollo’s paternity of ION (2). In Iphigenia in
 ATLAS 75

Tauris, Athena prevents King THOAS from pursuing ATHOS A mountain (almost 6,400 feet high) in
Orestes, Pylades, and IPHIGENIA and tells Orestes and the Greek region of Macedonia. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Iphigenia about their respective futures. Aeschylus, Agamemnon 285 (see ORESTEIA); Seneca,
Athena also appears in Euripides’ RHESUS. In this Medea 720; Hercules Oetaeus, 145, 1048, 1158, 1383,
play, Athena tells Odysseus and DIOMEDES that the 1730]
Greeks will be victorious in the war provided that they
kill Rhesus before dawn. Athena directs them to Rhe-
sus’ camp spot and suggests that they capture his mag-
ATLANTIDES Children of ATLAS.
nificent horses. After she has sent Odysseus and
Diomedes off to tend to Rhesus, the Trojan PARIS ATLAS The son of Iapetus and Clymene (or Asia),
approaches, and Athena, who disguises herself as Atlas was the father (by Pleione) of seven daughters
APHRODITE, tells Paris about Rhesus’ arrival and says known as the PLEIADES. He was also the father of
that Hector has gone to help him settle his encamp- CALYPSO, with whom ODYSSEUS lived for several years.
ment. After Paris exits, Athena calls to Odysseus and Additionally, Atlas fathered Maia, the mother of HER-
Diomedes, who have by now killed Rhesus and cap- MES. Atlas sided with CRONUS and the Titans in their
tured his horses, to take care to avoid the Trojans, who war against ZEUS and his brothers and sisters. After the
are pursuing them. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, war, Zeus punished Atlas by compelling him to hold
Library 1.3.6, 1.4.2, 1.6.1–2, 2.1.4–5, 2.4.1–3, 2.5.6, up the sky throughout eternity. During HERACLES’ quest
3.4.1–2, 3.6.7–8, 3.12.3, 3.14.1, 3.14.6, Epitome for the golden apples of the Hesperides, some sources
5.22–6.6, 6.20–22; Hesiod, Theogony 886–900, say that Heracles held up the sky for Atlas, so that Atlas
924–930; Homer, Iliad, Odyssey; Homeric Hymn to could retrieve the apples for Heracles (the Hesperides
Aphrodite 5.8–15; Hyginus, Fables 142, 165, 168; Pau- were Atlas’ daughters). When Atlas returned, he did
sanias 1.24.1–7, 2.30.6, 8.26.6, 9.11.2, 9.33.7; Pindar, not want to take back the sky; accordingly, Heracles
Olympian Odes 13.63–82, Pythian Odes 12.6–27] had to trick Atlas to do so, by asking him to hold the
BIBLIOGRAPHY sky momentarily, so that he could get a cushion for his
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, neck. Atlas agreed. Heracles took the apples, Atlas took
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. back the sky, and Heracles walked away with the
apples. Atlas does not appear as a character in any
ATHENS The principal city in Greece and the extant dramas, but he is mentioned many times. A few
home of most Greek dramatists during the classical SATYR PLAYS entitled Atlas were written by Greek

period. In mythology, Athens was the home of AEGEUS, authors, but the names of those authors are unknown.
CREUSA, ION, and THESEUS, to name but a few. In Greek From one of these anonymous plays, a fragment (655
TRAGEDY, Athens is often characterized as a place of Kannicht) of more than 50 lines that survives preserves
refuge for the outcast and downtrodden. HERACLES, a conversation between Heracles and Atlas that
Heracles’ children, MEDEA, OEDIPUS, and the mothers appears to occur when Atlas has returned with the
from ARGOS grieving the loss of their sons (killed in apples and refuses to take the sky back from Heracles.
battle at THEBES) all benefit from the kindness of [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound
Athens’ rulers and people. Athens is also a common 350–53, 425–30; Apollodorus, Library 1.2.2, 2.5.11,
setting for COMEDY, and most of the plays of ARISTO- 3.10.1; Euripides, Ion 1–4; Hesiod, Theogony 507–20,
PHANES, PLAUTUS, and TERENCE are set there. 938–39; Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.621–662; Seneca,
Hercules Oetaeus 12, 1599, 1905]
ATHMONIA Also called Athmone, this DEME was BIBLIOGRAPHY
about five miles north of ATHENS. In ARISTOPHANES’ PEACE Kannicht, R., and B. Snell. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta.
(line 190), TRYGAEUS states that he is from this deme. Vol. 2. Göttingen, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981.
76 ATOSSA

ATOSSA The daughter of Cyrus the Great, who helped Thyestes gain possession of the lamb. Thyestes
became the wife of DARIUS, king of Persia, and mother became king, but this act ran against the will of the
of XERXES, Achaemenes, Hystasptes, and Masistes. gods, who apparently induced Thyestes to agree that
Xerxes succeeded his father as king of Persia. Atossa he would give up the kingdom if the Sun reversed
appears as a character in AESCHYLUS’ PERSIANS, in which course in the sky. After this improbable event occurred,
she is simply called Queen. In Aeschylus’ play, Atossa Atreus became king. Atreus then exiled Thyestes but
is characterized as the worried mother of Xerxes, who later invited him back to Argos under pretense of a
is waging war against the Greeks. Atossa has had dis- reconciliation banquet. The main course for the din-
turbing dreams about her son, and when she learns ner, however, was Thyestes’ own children, whom
that Xerxes and the Persians have been defeated at Thyestes unwittingly ate. At this point, Thyestes again
SALAMIS, she and the chorus summon the spirit of her went into exile and fathered AEGISTHUS. When
dead husband, Darius, from his tomb. After Darius Aegisthus grew up, he and his father returned to Argos.
explains the reasons for Xerxes’ fall, Atossa goes to Aegisthus killed Atreus and Thyestes became king.
comfort him. Although Aeschylus’ Persians is one of Atreus is mentioned numerous times in drama, but
the least-read Greek tragedies in modern times, the fig- often only as the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus.
ure of Atossa probably influenced later playwrights’ Atreus does appear as a character in SENECA’s THYESTES,
portraits of aging and suffering queens such as the Tro- in which he serves his brother the gruesome feast
jan HECABE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Herodotus, 3.68, 3.88, described earlier. SOPHOCLES wrote a play entitled
3.133–34, 7.2–3, 7.64, 7.82] Atreus (or perhaps The Mycenaean Women), of which
the dozen words that survive give no hint as to its plot.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ACCIUS wrote a tragic Atreus, from which about three
Harrison, T. “Aeschylus, Atossa and Athens.” In Ancient Iran dozen lines survive. The play, set at Atreus’ palace,
and the Mediterranean World. Edited by E. Dabrowa.
appears to have dealt with Atreus’ killing of Thyestes’
Krakow: Jagiellonian University Press, 1998, 69–86.
sons and the gruesome banquet, as several of the frag-
Karamitrou, C. “Atossa, a ‘Barbarian’ Melancholic Queen;
ments allude to this. One fragment refers to Pelops’
Sparagmos: Identity of Passions in Aischylos,” Parnassos
38 (1996): 124–30.
acquisition of Hippodameia as his bride; two frag-
Moreau, A. “Le songe d’Atossa: Perses, 176–214: Éléments ments refer to Thyestes’ affair with Atreus’ wife,
pour une explication de textes,” Cahiers du Groupe Inter- Aerope; another refers to the golden-fleeced ram that
disciplinaire du Théâtre Antique 7 (1992–93): 29–51. appeared in Atreus’ flocks.
Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. “Exit Atossa: Images of Women in
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Greek Historiography on Persia.” In Images of Women in
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Antiquity. Edited by A. Cameron and A. Kuhrt. London: Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Croom Helm, 1983, 20–33. Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
Sider, D. “Atossa’s Second Entrance: Significant Inaction in Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Aeschylus’ Persai,” American Journal of Philology 104 Harvard University Press, 1936.
(1983): 188–91.
ATTENDANTS These are usually silent charac-
ATREUS The son of PELOPS and HIPPODAMEIA, ters in drama who accompany important mortals, such
Atreus was the father of AGAMEMNON and MENELAUS. as kings, queens, princes, and religious officials. Atten-
Atreus constantly feuded with his brother THYESTES dants (Greek: prospoloi, douloi, doulai) are sometimes
over the kingdom of ARGOS. The gods showed their called upon to perform various menial tasks, such as
favor to Atreus by giving him a lamb with golden transporting a corpse, opening doors, or escorting var-
fleece. When the people of Argos decided that the pos- ious persons. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Alcestis 607,
sessor of this lamb would become their king, Atreus’ Bacchae 1217, Electra 1007, Heracles 332, 724, ION
brother Thyestes seduced Atreus’ wife, AEROPE, who 510, 1250, Iphigenia in Tauris 638, 1205, Medea 1314,
 AUGUSTUS 77

ORESTES 629, Trojan Women 1047; Sophocles, Antigone BIBLIOGRAPHY

1214, 1320] Anderson, W. S. “Euripides’ Auge and Menander’s Epitre-
pontes,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 23 (1982):
ATTIC See ATTICA. 165–77.
Huys, Marc. “Euripides, Auge, fr. 265, 272, 278, 864 N. and
the Role of Herakles in the Play,” Sacris Erudiri: Jaarboek
ATTICA A triangle-shaped region on the eastern voor Godsdienstwetenschappen 31 (1989–90): 169–85.
coast of central Greece where such places as ATHENS, Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
ELEUSIS, and MARATHON are located. The dialect of Teubner, 1880.
Greek spoken by the inhabitants of this region is Attic ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Greek. Teubner, 1884.
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
ATTIS According to one version of Attis’ story, the Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
gods cut off the male member of a powerful hermaph-
Methuen, 1967.
rodite named Agdistis and from his blood an almond
tree arose. A river divinity named Nana was impreg-
AUGEAN STABLES One of HERACLES’ labors
nated by one of these almonds and gave birth to Attis.
was to clean (in one day) the extremely filthy stables of
After Attis grew up, the same Agdistis fell in love with
Augeas, a king of ELIS in southwestern Greece. Because
Attis. Attis, however, rejected Agdistis and, to avoid the
Augeas did not believe Heracles could accomplish the
union, castrated himself. In another version of the
task in a single day, he agreed to give Heracles some of
story a boar kills Attis. Agdistis, sorry about what had
his cattle if he were successful. When Heracles accom-
happened to Attis, prayed that ZEUS would not allow plished the task by diverting two rivers through the
Attis’ body to decay. Zeus answered Agdistis’ prayer stables, Augeus refused to give him the agreed-upon
and Attis’ body was kept in the sacred precinct of the reward. Accordingly, Heracles later returned to Elis
goddess Cybele (see RHEA) on a mountain named after and destroyed Augeas’ kingdom and, according to
Agdistis. In honor of Attis, Cybele’s priests had to some sources, Augeas himself. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
undergo castration. In the springtime, a ceremonial lodorus, Library 2.5.5, 2.7.2; Pausanias, 5.1.9–5.3.3;
mourning and search for Attis’ body were held by wor- Seneca, Hercules Furens 247]
shipers of Cybele. On the third day of this search, the
worshipers celebrated the discovery of his body. AUGUSTUS (SEPTEMBER 23, 63 B.C.E.–
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Catullus, 63; Ovid, Fasti 2.221–44; AUGUST 19, 14 C.E.) The son of Gaius Octavius
Pausanias, 7.17.10–12; Seneca, Agamemnon 686] and Atia, the niece of Julius Caesar, Augustus was orig-
inally known by the same name as his father. The title
AUGE The daughter of ALEUS of Tegea, Auge was Augustus (consecrated, majestic) was added to his
the mother of TELEPHUS by HERACLES (see Aleus and name after he became the sole ruler of the Roman
Telephus). EURIPIDES wrote an Auge (fragments 265–81 empire in 27. Augustus’ father died in the year 59 and
Nauck) that probably dates to the last five years of his Augustus was later adopted by Julius Caesar. When
life. SOPHOCLES also may have written an Auge, of Caesar was assassinated by his political enemies March
which only the title survives. Two Greek comic poets, 15, 44, Augustus worked with Marcus ANTONIUS and
Philyllius (fragments 3–6 Kock 1) and Eubulus (frag- others to wage war against the conspirators and their
ment 15 Kock 2), wrote plays entitled Auge, surviving military forces. By 36, Augustus and his allies had
fragments of which give little indication of the content. defeated the assassins and various other rebels. By this
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.7.4; Hygi- time, though, the relationship between Augustus and
nus, Fables 99–100; Pausanias, 8.4.9; Seneca, Hercules Antonius had deteriorated significantly and Antonius,
Oetaeus 367] who had allied himself politically and emotionally with
78 AULAEUM

the queen of Egypt, Cleopatra, was indicating that he AULIS A town northeast of Athens on the coast of
intended to control the Roman empire. Thus, Augus- Greece, in drama Aulis was the place where the Greek
tus now began to wage war against Antonius and his fleet gathered to set sail for TROY in their expedition to
forces. By the year 30, Antony’s forces had been rescue HELEN. Before the fleet set sail, however, they had
defeated and Antony and Cleopatra had committed to sacrifice IPHIGENIA, the daughter of AGAMEMNON, to
suicide. Although Augustus officially returned control appease the wrath of ARTEMIS, who had generated vio-
of the Roman state to Rome’s seneate and people in 27, lent winds that prevented the fleet from sailing. EURIPI-
he, aided greatly by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, contin- DES’ play IPHIGENIA AT AULIS deals with these events.
ued to operate in a position of exceptional power. The
death of Agrippa in 12 left Augustus the most power- AULOS (Plural: AULOI) A wind instrument
ful man in the empire. Because Augustus did not have that accompanied the songs in Greek drama. The aulos
a male heir by his wife, Livia, he adopted sons, includ- was played in times of joy or sadness. In EURIPIDES’
ing Gaius, Lucius, and Agrippa Postumus, the sons of HERACLES, the Libyan pipe is used to praise HERACLES.
Agrippa and Augustus’ daughter, Julia. Gaius and Elsewhere in Euripides, we find the aulos ringing out
Lucius, however, died and Augustus had a major the end of the Trojan War, consoling despair, and
falling out with Agrippa Postumus, who later died in played in celebration of the marriage of PELEUS and
exile. Augustus also adopted Tiberius, the son of THETIS. Wedding processions advanced to the tune of
Augustus’ wife, Livia, by a previous marriage. Tiberius the aulos. Lucian, writing in the second century C.E.,
eventually succeeded Augustus as ruler of the Roman suggests that the music of the aulos is typically played
empire after Augustus died in 14 C.E. After Augustus’ at funerals. Auloi made in different countries may have
death, the Roman senate decreed that Augustus should been used for different moods and circumstances. In
be recognized as a god. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Appian, Civil EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS, ADMETUS declares that he will not
War; Augustus, Res Gestae; Suetonius, Augustus; Dio sing to the Libyan aulos after ALCESTIS dies. In Euripi-
Cassius, 45ff.; Seneca, Octavia 477, 505, 528; Velleius des’ BACCHAE, however, the Phrygian aulos accompanies
Paterculus, 2.36–127] the revelry associated with DIONYSUS. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Euripides, Alcestis 347, Bacchae 128, 380,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bowersock, G. W. Augustus and the Greek World. Oxford: Helen 170, 1351, Heracles 684, Iphigenia at Aulis 1036,
Clarendon Press, 1965. Trojan Women 544; Lucian, On Funerals 19; Sophocles,
Eck, W. The Age of Augustus. Translated by Deborah Lucas Trachinian Women 641]
Schneider. New material by Sarolta A. Takacs. Malden,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mass.: Blackwell, 2003.
Bélis, A. “L’aulos phrygien,” Revue Archéologique (1986):
Hammond, M. The Augustan Principate in Theory and Practice
21–40.
during the Julio-Claudian Period. Cambridge, Mass.: Har-
Oakley, J. H., and R. H. Sinos. The Wedding in Ancient
vard University Press, 1933.
Athens. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993, 15.
Raaflaub, K. A., and M. Toher, eds. Between Republic and
Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his Principate. Con-
tributions by G. W. Bowersock et al. Berkeley: University AULULARIA See THE POT OF GOLD.
of California Press, 1990.
Southern, P. Augustus. London: Routledge, 1998. AUTOLYCUS The son of HERMES (or Baedalion)
and Chione (or Philonis), Autolycus was a famous thief
AULAEUM A Latin word (plural: aulaea) that who had the power to make himself invisible. He
denotes the curtain in the Roman theater. Unlike mod- could also make invisible the things that he stole or
ern curtains, which open and close horizontally or change the stolen items so that their owners could not
drop downward vertically, the Roman curtain moved recognize them. Autolycus also taught HERACLES to
up and out from a slot in the stage. wrestle and was the grandfather of ODYSSEUS (his
 AXIUS 79

mother, Anticleia, was Autolycus’ daughter). HOMER 1228; Hesiod, Theogony 975–78; Hyginus, Fables
says Autolycus gave Odysseus his name. It was while 179, 180; Pausanias, 1.44.5]
hunting with Autolycus on Mount PARNASSUS that
Odysseus received the scar by which Odysseus’ nurse AUXILIUM A Roman divinity who personifies
identified him when he returned from TROY. EURIPIDES help or aid. Auxilium delivers a delayed PROLOGUE in
wrote a SATYR PLAY entitled Autolycus, of which four PLAUTUS’ CASKET COMEDY.
fragments survive (282–84 Nauck, 282a Snell). The
plot of Euripides’ play is unknown; fragment 282 is a THE AWARD OF ARMS OR THE JUDG-
rather famous 27-line speech on the evils of athletes MENT OF ARMS (Greek: HOPLON KRI-
and the need to reward noble and wise men rather SIS; Latin: ARMORUM IUDICIUM)
than athletes. The Greek comic poet EUPOLIS wrote two Several dramatists took up the subject of the decision
plays entitled Autolycus, of which the two dozen brief by which the armor of ACHILLES was awarded to
fragments that survive (42–67 Kock) provide little help ODYSSEUS, rather than to AJAX, in the 10th year of the
in reconstructing the plot. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- Trojan War. AESCHYLUS, PACUVIUS, and ACCIUS com-
lodorus, Library 1.9.16, 2.4.9; Homer, Odyssey 11.85, posed plays about this contest. The six lines that sur-
19.392–466; Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.301–15; Pausa- vive from Aeschylus’ play suggest that THETIS, Ajax, and
nias, 8.4.6, 10.8.8; Plautus, Bacchides 275] Odysseus appeared as characters, and that a debate
BIBLIOGRAPHY occurred between Ajax and Odysseus over which of
Diggle, James. “Notes on Fragments of Euripides,” Classical them deserved Achilles’ armor. Some 20 short frag-
Quarterly 47, no. 1 (1997): 98–108. ments exist from Pacuvius’ play, in which AGAMEMNON
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: seems to have held a contest between Ajax and
Teubner, 1880. Odysseus, taken advice from ATHENA about how to
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, judge the contest, and on that advice impaneled a
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. group of judges. Accius’ play, from which almost three
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Supplementum. dozen lines survive, also dealt with this topic. As in
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, Ajax, Odysseus (Latin: Ulysses),
TECMESSA, the child EURYSACES, and Agamemnon appear
AUTOMENES An otherwise unknown person in the play. Unlike in Sophocles’ play, in Accius’ play,
mentioned by ARISTOPHANES, at WASPS 1275, as some- Ajax and Odysseus seem to have debated their respec-
one to be envied (the remark is sarcastic) for his three tive valor, a possibility that suggests that the play’s
sons, one of whom is the sexual pervert ARIPHRADES. action began before Achilles’ armor had been awarded.
As Sophocles did, Accius may have had Agamemnon
BIBLIOGRAPHY refuse to grant burial to Ajax, only to have Odysseus
Sommerstein. A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, Wasps. persuade him otherwise.
Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 233.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
AUTONOE The daughter of CADMUS and HAR- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
MONIA, Autonoe was the sister of AGAVE, INO, and Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
SEMELE. Autonoe became the wife of Aristaeus and the Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
mother of ACTAEON. Pausanias says Autonoe left Harvard University Press, 1936.
THEBES after Actaeon’s death, but in EURIPIDES’ BAC-
CHAE, she participates in the killing of her nephew, AXIUS A river in the Greek region of Macedonia that
PENTHEUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library arises from Mount Scardus and flows into the Gulf of
3.4.2, 3.4.4; Euripides, Bacchae 230, 681, 1130, Thermaicus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Bacchae 569]
 C BD
BABYLON This famous city, located on the banks shiped the god DIONYSUS (also known as Bacchus).
of the Euphrates River, served as a capital city for the During their worship, the women often wore animal
Assyrians; in 539 B.C.E., the Persians captured the city. skins, held snakes, and carried a THYRSUS. In classical
The city, built in a square shape, was famous among TRAGEDY, the activities of Bacchae were notorious for
the Greeks for, among other things, the huge walls turning violent, as in EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE, in which
made of sun-baked bricks that surrounded the city. women under the influence of Dionysus tear apart
At the City DIONYSIA of 426 B.C.E., ARISTOPHANES pro- PENTHEUS.
duced a play entitled Babylonians, of which numerous Euripides was not the first tragedian to write a play
brief fragments survive (64–99 Kock 1). Little is entitled Bacchae. AESCHYLUS’ Bacchae preceded Euripi-
known about the play’s plot; however, Babylonians des’ play to the stage; however, the single two-line frag-
prompted CLEON to indict (apparently unsuccessfully) ment (about swift-footed evil’s coming upon mortals)
Aristophanes “for ridiculing the elected magistrates of that survives reveals nothing about the play’s content
the city in front of an audience . . . containing many (fragment 22 Radt). In addition to the work of Aeschy-
foreign visitors” (Dover). The Greek comic poet PHILE- lus, Aelian (2.8) reports that XENOCLES’ tetralogy of 415
MON wrote a play called Babylonian; the two lines that B.C.E., which included a Bacchae, defeated Euripides’
survive (which contain a reference to the famous pros- performances of that year. Unfortunately, only the title
titute Pythonice) tell us nothing about the play’s plot of Xenocles’ work survives so it is not known whether
(fragments 16 Kock 2). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, the play dealt with the downfall of Pentheus (fragment
Persians 52; Aristophanes, Birds 552; Athenaeus, 1 Snell). SOPHOCLES also may have written a Bacchae,
13.595c; Herodotus, 1.178–79] but modern scholars have questioned this. At any rate,
only the title survives and we do not know the date of
BIBLIOGRAPHY
this play if it did exist. Sophocles’ son Iophon, who
Dover, K. J. Aristophanic Comedy. Berkeley: University of
competed against Euripides at least once (428 B.C.E.),
California Press, 1972, 13.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: also wrote a Bacchae (or Pentheus), in which AGAVE is
Teubner, 1880. the speaker of the only surviving fragment (“Even
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: though I am a woman I understand that one who seeks
Teubner, 1884. to know especially the things of the gods will be far
less than such a person”; fragment 2 Snell). Cleophon
BACCHAE Also known as Bacchants, Baccha- also wrote a Bacchae, of which only the title survives
nals, or MAENADS, the Bacchae were women who wor- (see Snell). Among Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a

80
 BACCHAE 81

Bacchae, whose several fragments (see verses 201–26 Hippolytus because of his refusal to worship her, in the
Warmington) indicate significant influence of Euripi- Bacchae, Dionysus announces the destruction of
des’ Bacchae, although Warmington says Accius’ Bac- Pentheus for his refusal to acknowledge that he is a
chae “departed widely from that poet [Euripides] in the divinity.
lyric parts.” After Dionysus’ opening monologue, the CHORUS,
In addition to the work of the tragic poets, several made up of women who have followed Dionysus from
Greek comic poets wrote plays entitled Bacchae: the East, enter and sing an ODE in which they praise
Antiphanes (fragment 56 Kock 2), Diocles (fragments him, recall his birth, and express the delight they feel
1–3 Kock 1), Epicharmus (fragment 19 Kaibel), and in worshiping him. After the choral ode, the prophet
Lysippus (fragments 1–5 Kock 1). The fragments of TIRESIAS and Pentheus’ grandfather, CADMUS, enter and
these plays are brief and are uninformative about the prepare to set out for the countryside to worship
plots of the respective plays, although it is known that Dionysus. Because the two are quite old (and Tiresias
Lysippus’ Bacchae made an attack on the seer LAMPON. is blind), their efforts to practice the energetic dances
of Dionysus are amusing. The light tone ends, though,
BIBLIOGRAPHY with the entrance of King Pentheus, who declares that
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet-
he has arrested some of the female worshipers of
arum Graecorum Fragmenta, Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann,
Dionysus and that he intends to capture the god him-
1899.
self. When Pentheus sees Cadmus and Tiresias dressed
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880.
as worshipers of Dionysus, he scoffs at them and the
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: worship of the new god. Tiresias and Cadmus try to
Teubner, 1884. persuade Pentheus to acknowledge Dionysus as a
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, divinity, but Pentheus refuses and orders some of his
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. men to go out and apprehend Dionysus. After the exit
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, of Cadmus and Tiresias to the countryside and the
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. worship of Dionysus, the chorus sing an ode that con-
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, demns Pentheus’ behavior and predicts his downfall.
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: They also long to visit Cyprus, an island sacred to
Harvard University Press, 1936. APHRODITE, who is sympathetic to the worship of
Dionysus, a god whose blessings fall upon the rich and
BACCHAE EURIPIDES (405 B.C.E.) The play’s poor alike.
name, which means “Women of Bacchus,” was first After the choral ode, one of Pentheus’ soldiers enters
staged in the year after EURIPIDES’ death. Euripides’ son with Dionysus, who speaks as if he is not the god him-
produced the play, which appeared in the same self, but simply an unnamed stranger. Pentheus pro-
TETRALOGY as IPHIGENIA IN AULIS and Alcmeon in Corinth, ceeds to interrogate the stranger about the worship and
the latter of which is no longer extant. Which SATYR rituals of Dionysus. Pentheus threatens to put the
PLAY completed the tetralogy is unknown. The setting stranger in prison, but the stranger says that Dionysus
is the palace of PENTHEUS at THEBES. In the PROLOGUE, will release him whenever he wishes. The stranger
DIONYSUS recalls his travels through the eastern part of warns Pentheus not to imprison him, but Pentheus
the world and declares that in those lands he has estab- does so anyway. After the exit of Dionysus, Pentheus,
lished himself as a god. He states that THEBES is the first and the guards, the chorus complain about Pentheus’
Greek city to which he has traveled and that he has treatment of Dionysus and call upon the god to punish
driven the town’s women mad because the sisters of his Pentheus.
mother, SEMELE, did not believe that Dionysus was the In the next EPISODE, the chorus’ pleas are rewarded as
child of ZEUS and Semele. As in Euripides’ HIPPOLYTUS, Dionysus, after escaping from Pentheus and causing his
in which APHRODITE announces that she will destroy palace to shake, appears and reports to the chorus how
82 BACCHAE

he escaped from Pentheus by transforming himself into After the departure of the messenger, Agave, still
a bull and then a phantom. Soon, an exasperated possessed with the frenzy of Dionysus, returns from
Pentheus arrives and asks the stranger how he escaped. the wilderness to the city as a triumphant hunter who
Their conversation is interrupted by a herdsman from has killed a lion, proudly displaying her son’s head on
Mount CITHAERON, who reports the activities of the her THYRSUS. Next, Agave’s father, Cadmus, accompa-
female worshipers of Dionysus. At first, the women’s nied by servants who carry the remains of Pentheus,
behavior was peaceful and strangely beautiful; when, enters. Agave rejoices in her kill, but Cadmus soon
however, they perceived that the herdsman and his restores Agave to her senses by pointing out that the
friends were going to try to apprehend them, the head she carries is that of her son. Having realized that
women went into such a frenzy that the herdsman and she has killed her son, Agave and Cadmus mourn the
his comrades fled in fear. The women proceeded to rav- loss of Pentheus and the fate that awaits them. After
age the countryside and even caused other men to flee. line 1329, the play’s manuscript has a gap of about 50
Pentheus, troubled by the herdsman’s report, prepares lines, but it is clear that in this missing section Diony-
to call out his full army to battle against the god’s wor- sus appeared, revealing himself clearly as a divinity,
shipers. The stranger warns Pentheus against this and and began to tell Agave and Cadmus of the exile that
persuades him to dress as a female worshiper, go out awaited them. When the manuscript resumes, Diony-
into the countryside, and spy on the women. As the sus tells Cadmus that in exile both he and his wife will
stranger and Pentheus enter the palace, the stranger lead a barbarian tribe and eventually be transformed
informs the chorus and the audience that Pentheus will into snakes. Dionysus notes, however, that ARES will
soon meet his doom. After this, the chorus sing an ode give them a new, everlasting existence after their life on
that raises questions about the nature of wisdom. They Earth. Cadmus begs Dionysus for mercy, but the god
point out the foolishness of fighting against the gods refuses. The play ends as Cadmus and Agave lament
and suggest that the best way to live is day by day. their fate and prepare to go into exile, to different
After the choral ode, Dionysus and Pentheus, who is lands.
dressed as a female worshiper of Dionysus, emerge
from the palace. A humorous yet sinister scene follows COMMENTARY
as Pentheus, who leaves the palace imagining that he Euripides was not the first tragedian to take up the
sees double and thinking that the stranger now subject of the Bacchae or Pentheus and Euripides’ play
appears to be a bull, proceeds to fuss with his dress. is often thought to have been influenced by the earlier
After the stranger helps Pentheus arrange his garb, the works by AESCHYLUS. Aeschylus also wrote a Bacchae
two exit for Mount Cithaeron. Upon their departure, (fragment 22 Radt); little is known about the play’s
the chorus sing an ode calling for the destruction of content. Aeschylus also wrote a Pentheus (fragment 183
Pentheus. They call for justice and urge that Dionysus Radt), whose surviving fragment is uninformative.
strike down Pentheus. Aeschylus composed a tetralogy that dealt with Diony-
In the next episode, a messenger arrives and informs sus’ travels through THRACE and focused primarily on
a delighted chorus that Pentheus is dead. The messen- the god’s encounter with LYCURGUS, whose story (as
ger explains that Dionysus led Pentheus to the woods preserved in Apollodorus, Library 3.5.1) has a number
to spy on the women. So that Pentheus could see the of similarities with that of Pentheus. As did Pentheus,
women, Dionysus placed him high in a tree. Unfortu- Lycurgus rejected Dionysus, tried to capture the god
nately for Pentheus, the women could now see him. and failed, persecuted the god’s followers, was driven
The Dionysus-possessed women, imagining that mad by the god, and then was torn apart through the
Pentheus was a lion, tore down the tree with their bare god’s agency. A few of the fragments of Aeschylus’ Edo-
hands and then went on to tear apart Pentheus himself. nians, which dealt with Lycurgus’ encounter with
Chief among the women who killed Pentheus were his Dionysus, recall Euripides’ Bacchae. The shaking of
mother, AGAVE, and his aunts, INO and AUTONOE. Pentheus’ palace in Euripides is reminiscent of a line
 BACCHAE 83

from Edonians (“Lo, the house is frenzied with the god, to describe the women in this scene evokes images of
the roof revels, Bacchant-like”; fragment 58 Radt, hunting dogs (1122–36). Euripides thus wants to cre-
Lloyd-Jones translation). Another fragment (61 Radt) ate a link between the death of Pentheus and Pentheus’
of Edonians mentions the effeminate appearance of cousin ACTAEON, the son of AUTONOE. Early in the play
Dionysus, as does Euripides several times in Bacchae. (337–40), Cadmus warns Pentheus about becoming
In addition to the work of Aeschylus, which pre- like Actaeon, who angered Artemis by claiming that he
ceded Euripides’ Bacchae to the stage, accordingly to was a better hunter than she and was eventually torn
Aelian (2.8), XENOCLES’ tetralogy of 415 B.C.E., which apart by his own hunting dogs. Just as Pentheus’ kins-
included a Bacchae, defeated Euripides’ performances man, the hunter Actaeon, after offending ARTEMIS, was
of that year. Unfortunately, only the title of Xenocles’ torn apart by dogs that he himself raised, Pentheus is
work survives so we do not know whether the play torn apart by the woman who raised him after he has
treated Pentheus’ death (fragment 1 Snell). Sophocles offended the god Dionysus. We should also note that
also may have written a Bacchae, of which only the title Pentheus’ death occurs in the same location (Mount
survives, and we do not know the date of this play, Cithaeron) where Actaeon was killed, as Cadmus notes
whose existence modern scholars have questioned. at line 1291. Furthermore, we should notice that
Sophocles’ son Iophon, who competed against Euripi- Actaeon’s mother, Autonoe, also takes part in the
des on at least one occasion (428 B.C.E.), also wrote a destruction of Pentheus (1130). Finally, it is interesting
Bacchae (or Pentheus); in the only surviving fragment that when Pentheus dies, he would have been wearing
Agave states, “Even though I am a woman I understand a fawn skin (cf. 835), which would make him resem-
that one who seeks to know especially the things of the ble a deer, the animal into which tradition says that
gods will be far less than such a person” (fragment 2 Artemis changed Actaeon before his hunting dogs
Snell). Cleophon also wrote a Bacchae, of which only killed him.
the title survives (see Snell); it is not certain whether The play also shows reversals of gender. In the first
Euripides could have known this play. half, Pentheus comments on Dionysus’ effeminate
Having considered some other tragedians who appearance; in the latter half it is Pentheus who is
wrote plays entitled Bacchae, let us now turn to Euripi- dressed as a woman. The female followers of Dionysus
des’ play. According to J. Michael Walton, “The sheer also experience a gender reversal as they engage in
power and mystery of the Bacchae is so startling that it activities that the Greeks associated with males. Their
rightly belongs in the forefront of the greatest plays presence outside the home and away from their usual
ever written.” At first, one winces in anticipation of activities as weavers of cloth leads them to the outskirts
divine punishment as Pentheus clearly sins against the of the city, a space typically visited by males. During
god by refusing to admit his worship in Thebes and their rampage through the Theban countryside, the
persecuting those who worship him. Later, however, women are described as being like warriors (752ff.) as
one may shudder at the cruelty of the god, who leads they rout the men who oppose them. After Agave’s
Pentheus to destruction. destruction of Pentheus, whom she thinks to be a lion,
Bacchae is a play of numerous reversals. In the first the messenger notes that she describes Dionysus as her
half of the play, Pentheus is characterized as the hunter, fellow hunter (1146). Later, she proudly announces to
as he tracks down Dionysus and attempts to control her father, Cadmus, that she has given up weaving for
him (cf. 434–35). In the last half of the play, the tables hunting wild animals (1235–37).
are turned as the hunter becomes the hunted. For In addition to changes of gender, Bacchae offers lit-
instance, at line 848, Dionysus notes that Pentheus is eral, figurative, and imagined changes of species. Both
moving into his net. Likewise, the women whom Cadmus and Tiresias dress in fawn skins, appearing to
Pentheus was hunting in the first half of the play be animals. By the play’s end, Dionysus predicts that
become the hunters of Pentheus in the second half. Cadmus will, in fact, become a snake (1330, 1358).
When Pentheus is killed, the language Euripides uses The play’s women, also dressed in fawn skins, are
84 BACCHIDES

described as birds (748) and dogs (731), and their Seaford, R. Euripides: Bacchae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
tearing apart of Pentheus has a canine aspect Phillips, 1996.
(1122–36). Dionysus also moves from human to ani- Segal, C. Dionysiac Poetics and Euripides’ Bacchae. Princeton,
mal form. When Pentheus tries to imprison Dionysus, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982.
Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926.
he finds instead a bull (618), with which he wrestles in
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
vain. Once Pentheus is under the god’s spell, he imag-
1971.
ines that Dionysus has become a bull (920–22). Later, Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
the chorus call upon Dionysus to appear to them in the Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
form of a bull, hundred-headed serpent, or fire-breath- Walton, J. M. Living Greek Theatre. New York: Greenwood
ing lion (1017–19). Such an invocation is also note- Press, 1987, 166–70.
worthy because both Dionysus and Cadmus are linked Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
to serpents, and both Dionysus and Pentheus are asso- Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
ciated with lions. Not only is Pentheus imagined as a Harvard University Press, 1936.
lion by his frenzied mother; he is also connected with
the serpent when the chorus recall the birth of BACCHIDES (THE TWO BACCHISES)
Pentheus’ father, Echion, who was born from the teeth PLAUTUS (189 B.C.E.) The Greek model for PLAU-
of Ares’ serpent (539–40, 1155), a serpent that Cad- TUS’ play was MENANDER’s Dis Exapaton. The action of
mus killed. Finally, we note that before Pentheus went Plautus’ play takes place before the houses of two Athe-
to spy on the Bacchae, he not only disguised himself as nians, the prostitute Bacchis (woman of Bacchus) and
a woman, but, as do all the other characters in the Pistoclerus, the son of Philoxenus. The play’s opening
play, put on the fawn skin (835). section is missing except some 30 lines of fragments, in
Finally, role reversals on a “cosmic” level also exist. which we learn that Bacchis of ATHENS has a twin sister
Dionysus is a god, but he has gone to Thebes in the (another prostitute named Bacchis), who has just
guise of a mortal. Pentheus, although mortal, sets him- arrived from her home on the island of SAMOS.
self on a level above a god by opposing Dionysus. In In the first intact scene, Athenian Bacchis and her
the previously mentioned rampage through the coun- sister try to devise a way that the sister can return to
tryside, the messenger notes that the god’s power was Samos when her time of service to the soldier Cleo-
the driving force behind the mortal women’s ability to machus (“famous warrior”) is concluded. Athenian
accomplish this. Thus, in the course of Bacchae, we see Bacchis tries to persuade Pistoclerus to help her sister,
most of the major characters (with the exception of but Pistoclerus is reluctant. As Cleomachus is due to
Cadmus and Tiresias) experience changes between arrive soon, Athenian Bacchis wants Pistoclerus to pro-
hunter and hunted, male and female, human and ani- tect them and pretend to be her boyfriend. Pistoclerus
mal, and divine and mortal. realizes this plan will cause him trouble but agrees and
BIBLIOGRAPHY at Athenian Bacchis’ prompting even agrees to host and
Dodds, E. R. Euripides: Bacchae. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon pay for a dinner party in the sister’s honor. Later, as Pis-
Press, 1960. toclerus and his TUTOR, Lydus, return with provisions
Kirk, G. S. The Bacchae. Cambridge: Cambridge University for the dinner, Lydus warns Pistoclerus about associat-
Press, 1979. ing with prostitutes and tries to lead the young man
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: away from Bacchis’ house, but Pistoclerus eventually
Teubner, 1880.
enters the house despite the tutor’s objections.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Next, Chrysalus, the slave of Nicobulus, and Nicob-
Teubner, 1884.
Oranje, H. Euripides’ Bacchae: The Play and Its Audience. Lei- ulus’ son, Mnesilochus, enter after a two-year absence
den: Brill, 1984. in Ephesus. Pistoclerus emerges from Bacchis’ house
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, and greets Chrysalus. In the course of their conversa-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. tion, we hear that Pistoclerus, Mnesilochus’ friend, was
 BACCHIDES 85

supposed to be watching out for Mnesilochus’ interest contempt, and Pistoclerus has no idea why Mne-
in Bacchis of Samos. Pistoclerus advises Chrysalus, silochus is upset. Mnesilochus accuses Pistoclerus of
whose name means “goldy,” that Mnesilochus had bet- being in love with Bacchis. When Pistoclerus declares
ter get some gold before Cleomachus arrives and steals that there are two Bacchises in the house, Mnesilochus
Bacchis of Samos from him. is skeptical but follows him into Bacchis’ house for
Soon, Nicobulus enters from his house, wondering proof.
why his son, Mnesilochus, has not arrived from the In the fourth act, Cleomachus’ PARASITE and one of
harbor. Chrysalus joins Nicobulus and tries to trick his Cleomachus’ attendants enter. The parasite has been
master in order to induce Nicobulus to leave town so sent to ask Bacchis whether she will pay back the
that Mnesilochus will be free to pursue his love affair money she owes Cleomachus or go with him. At Bac-
with Bacchis. Chrysalus tells Nicobulus that Nicobu- chis’ door, the parasite is met by Pistoclerus, who
lus’ supposed friend, Archidemides, had tried to steal angrily informs him that Bacchis loves someone else
the gold they had acquired in Ephesus. Chrysalus and that she will not go with him. After Pistoclerus
states that Mnesilochus took some of the money with chases off the parasite with threats of violence, Mne-
them to Athens but deposited most of it with Theo- silochus emerges from Bacchis’ house and expresses
timus, a priest at Diana’s temple at Ephesus. He remorse for doubting Pistoclerus and handing over all
informs Nicobulus that if he wants the rest of his his money to his father. Pistoclerus tries to console
money, he must travel to Ephesus. After Nicobulus Mnesilochus, but Mnesilochus is convinced that Cleo-
dashes off to the FORUM to find Mnesilochus, Chrysalus machus will carry off Bacchis. As the two young men
rejoices that his trickery will allow Mnesilochus to use converse, Chrysalus approaches. They eavesdrop on
and dispense the gold however he sees fit. Chrysalus Chrysalus as he congratulates himself on helping Mne-
then runs to the forum to let Mnesilochus know about silochus acquire the money he needed. Soon, Mne-
his deception. silochus approaches Chrysalus and informs him that
Chrysalus’ departure is followed by the emergence he has handed over the money to his father. Chrysalus
of Lydus from Bacchis’ house. Shocked by Pistoclerus’ is upset but agrees to help Mnesilochus find money to
behavior in the house, Lydus runs off to tell Pisto- pay off Cleomachus by tricking Nicobulus. Accord-
clerus’ father, Philoxenus. When Lydus returns, he tells ingly, Chrysalus sends Pistoclerus to get some writing
Philoxenus of Pistoclerus’ behavior. Mnesilochus, who materials. When Pistoclerus returns, Chrysalus per-
has just returned, eavesdrops and hears what Pisto- suades Mnesilochus to write a letter to Nicobulus
clerus has been doing on his behalf. Soon Lydus sees warning his father that Chrysalus will try to trick him
Mnesilochus and praises his behavior as opposed to out of some money and to tie up Chrysalus with ropes
that of Pistoclerus. Mnesilochus tells Lydus that Pisto- if he does so. Mnesilochus is puzzled as to how such a
clerus is just acting this way to help a friend (not men- letter will help him get the money, and Chrysalus tells
tioning that he is the friend) and then promises to look him not to worry. After the letter is sealed, Chrysalus
after Pistoclerus for Lydus and Philoxenus. Having prepares to take it to Nicobulus. The slave sends the
heard from Lydus, however, that how Pistoclerus and two young men to Bacchis’ house for dinner with the
Bacchis were flirting with one another, Mnesilochus sisters.
has become angered and decides to give the money he Next, Chrysalus goes to Nicobulus’ house and deliv-
took from Ephesus to his father rather than let Bacchis ers the letter. Nicobulus, who has read the letter, sum-
have it. Mnesilochus goes into his father’s house and mons a slave to tie up Chrysalus. Nicobulus declares
gives him the money, then reemerges and tells the that Chrysalus will never get his money, but Chrysalus
audience that he was able to persuade his father to par- predicts that soon Nicobulus will beg him to take the
don Chrysalus. Next, Pistoclerus, arrived from Bacchis’ money. Indeed, Nicobulus’ attitude is given incentive
house, approaches Mnesilochus. Mnesilochus, think- for change when the doors of Bacchis’ house open and
ing that Pistoclerus has betrayed him, treats him with he sees his son and Pistoclerus dining with the two
86 BACCHIDES

Bacchises. The situation is further complicated by the decide to lure them inside. After a bit of flattery from
arrival of Cleomachus, who Chrysalus claims is mar- the Bacchises, the two fathers’ passions are aroused
ried to Mnesilochus’ Bacchis. To prevent Mnesilochus and they join in the party alongside their sons.
from being caught with Bacchis by Cleomachus,
Nicobulus unbinds Chrysalus. When Nicobulus and COMMENTARY
Chrysalus overhear Cleomachus’ making threats As do AMPHITRUO , THE BRAGGART WARRIOR , and
against Mnesilochus and Bacchis unless he receives a MENAECHMI, BACCHIDES deals with the complications of
large sum of money, Nicobulus agrees to pay off the the lives of twins. In Amphitruo, one set of twins
soldier. After Nicobulus and Cleomachus make their (divine) prevents the second set of twins (mortal) from
financial arrangement, Chrysalus tells Cleomachus interfering in the seduction of ALCMENA. In Menaechmi,
falsely that Mnesilochus is on the family farm and that one twin reaps various benefits when he is mistaken
Bacchis is at the temple of Minerva (Greek: ATHENA). for his twin brother. The Braggart Warrior is more sim-
After Cleomachus’ departure to search for Bacchis, ilar to Bacchides in that the two twins are female,
Chrysalus begs Nicobulus to allow him to go into Bac- although in Braggart Warrior, Philocomasium does not
chis’ house and chastise Mnesilochus for his behavior. really have a twin but pretends she does to trick the
Several minutes later, Chrysalus emerges from Bac- soldier’s slave, Sceledrus. The trickery in Braggart War-
chis’ house with another letter, which he claims is like rior is orchestrated by a clever slave, Palaestrio, just as
a Trojan horse prepared to destroy the city of PRIAM in Bacchides the clever slave Chrysalus orchestrates
(with Nicobulus representing Priam or the city itself). much of the deception. We should note, however, that
In a lengthy speech Chrysalus continues to compare the two Bacchis twins take an active role in trying to
his exploits to the Trojan War and indicates that he fulfill their desires in contrast with Philocomasium,
needs to trick Nicobulus out of more money so that who primarily runs back and forth between two
Mnesilochus, Pistoclerus, and the Bacchises can cele- houses under Palaestrio’s direction. In both plays, the
brate their “triumph.” Next, Nicobulus arrives from his BRAGGART WARRIOR is an object of deception; in Bac-
house and Chrysalus informs him that his encounter chides Mnesilochus’ father is also deceived. Bacchides is
with Mnesilochus was productive. Nicobulus reads the also a “quest for cash” play, whereas in Braggart Warrior
letter from Mnesilochus, in which he expresses regret the financial arrangements for the prostitute have
for his behavior and begs that Chrysalus be given already been made.
money that he (Mnesilochus) has sworn he would give One point of interest in Bacchides is the play’s dou-
to Bacchis, so that he will not have to break his oath to ble plot, a feature common in TERENCE, but not in
her. Nicobulus does not want his son to have a reputa- Plautus. Usually, Plautine plays focus on one love affair,
tion as a liar, so he agrees to pay the money. After whereas the Bacchides deals with both the love affair of
Chrysalus receives the money and goes into Bacchis’ Mnesilochus and Bacchis of Samos and that of Pisto-
house, Pistoclerus’ father, Philoxenus, enters in search clerus and Athenian Bacchis. According to Clark, “The
of Mnesilochus, who was supposed to be guiding Pis- secondary love plot of Pistoclerus and the Athenian
toclerus toward a modest way of life. Bacchis provides a delaying action in the first half of
In the final act, Nicobulus, who has just learned that the play.” Thus, the seduction of Pistoclerus in the
Bacchis is a prostitute and not Cleomachus’ wife, play’s first half is balanced by the seduction of the two
expresses rage that he was tricked by Chrysalus. fathers in the second half.
Philoxenus, who has overheard Nicobulus’ tirade, Much of the scholarship on Plautus’ Bacchides has
approaches, and the two fathers commiserate about focused on comparisons of Plautus’ play and Menander’s
regarding their sons’ behavior. When the fathers go to Dis Exapaton. In particular, scholars have been con-
Bacchis’ house, the two Bacchises answer the door, cerned to determine how far Plautus deviated from
make fun of the old men, and call them sheep. The two Menander’s play and to discover, if possible, original ele-
women then change their attitude, however, and ments of Plautus’ work. The lines from Dis Exapaton that
 BACCHIDES 87

survive reveal that Plautus changed the names of fides with Pistoclerus is disrupted and he wonders how
Menander’s characters, used different METER in some to know who is trustworthy (fidelem, 491) and who is
places, and made his dialogue more lively and aimed at not. This rupture in the bond of fides between the
garnering laughs as opposed to smiles at subtle wit. One young men leads Mnesilochus to give the money back
element of Plautus’ originality appears to have been an to his father. This action, of course, causes the bond of
expanded role for the clever slave Chrysalus (Syrus in fides between Chrysalus and Nicobulus to be shattered.
Menander’s play), whose actions “dominate the stage The alleged temporary breach of fides between Mne-
action” (Clark). Because only about 50 lines of Menan- silochus and Pistoclerus comes to a head when Mne-
der’s play survive, the content of that play is uncertain. silochus accuses Pistoclerus of being in love with
With Palaestrio, as well as Pseudolus (PSEUDOLUS) Bacchis, and an indignant Pistoclerus drags him into
and Tranio (HAUNTED HOUSE), Chrysalus is among the Bacchis’ house to prove the firmness of his bond of
more delightful characters in Roman COMEDY. In some fides (570) with Mnesilochus. After Mnesilochus dis-
ways, Chrysalus resembles ODYSSEUS. As Odysseus has, covers the truth, he is angry with himself for distrust-
Chrysalus has made a lengthy journey at sea and is full ing his friend (629), especially since his distrust led
of craftiness. His letter becomes like the Trojan horse (a him to give the gold back to his father.
stratagem for which Odysseus often receives credit) Mnesilochus, who has repaired his bond of fides
prepared to destroy the city of PRIAM (with Nicobulus’ with Pistoclerus, informs Chrysalus that he must repair
representing Priam or the city itself). At one point, his bond of fides with Nicobulus. Chrysalus cannot
Chrysalus even declares that he is Odysseus (946). imagine how he can induce Nicobulus to trust him
Chrysalus goes further, declaring that he is AGAMEM- (697), and Mnesilochus even indicates that it will be
NON and this comic Agamemnon will overcome Cleo- harder than Chrysalus thinks: Nicobulus would not
machus (“famous warrior”), whom Chrysalus calls believe Chrysalus if the slave said that the Sun was the
MENELAUS (946). In addition to being a trickster and a Sun (699–700). Hearing this, Chrysalus is supremely
warrior, Chrysalus is in effect a playwright as he confident and declares that he will trick Nicobulus.
orchestrates a deception that will allow Mnesilochus to Now, Chrysalus relies on Nicobulus’ lack of fides with
acquire Bacchis. At the same time, Athenian Bacchis is him to carry out the deception. Chrysalus again estab-
also producing her own play, which aims to deceive the lishes a bond of fides with Nicobulus, who considers
soldier. Accordingly, Slater says that Chrysalus “is the him untrustworthy, by preying on Nicobulus’ belief.
playwright of the inner play . . . [while] the outer play Not only does Chrysalus reestablish his bond with
is controlled by Bacchis.” Nicobulus, but to accomplish his scheme he must
As several Roman comedies do, Bacchides contains induce Nicobulus to enter a bond of fides with Cleo-
many references to the concept of fides, a Latin word machus. Chrysalus also establishes a bond of fides with
that can mean “trustworthiness,” “credibility,” and Cleomachus when he swears that Mnesilochus is not
“faithfulness.” In Bacchides, Nicobulus runs into trou- having an affair with Bacchis. Ironically, Nicobulus, in
ble when he trusts his slave rather than his fellow citi- the midst of being deceived by Chrysalus, is able to
zen. Chrysalus himself declares himself a person full of recognize that Chrysalus is lying to Cleomachus. After
treachery (perfidia, 226) and therefore the very person Cleomachus and Chrysalus exit, Nicobulus expresses
to trick Nicobulus. Chrysalus, the last person with thanks for Chrysalus’ help, but says he still will not
whom someone should enter into a bond of fides, con- trust the slave (922), although he does trust the letter
cocts a story that makes Nicobulus distrust (924) that he does not realize the slave has fabricated.
Archidemides (275, 283, 285) and trust Chrysalus. Having duped the old man out of one pile of money,
Whereas Chrysalus’ plot leads Nicobulus to trust Chrysalus has a second letter written that will lead
him, the plans of Athenian Bacchis lead Mnesilochus Nicobulus to hand over additional money. When
to distrust his friend, Pistoclerus. When Mnesilochus Nicobulus wants Chrysalus to take the money to Mne-
hears of Pistoclerus’ flirting with Bacchis, his bond of silochus, Chrysalus declares that he does not want the
88 BACCHUS

money to be entrusted to him (1062, 1064). Even as Afghanistan. Bactra was the capital of Bactria. In
Chrysalus tells Nicobulus not to trust him, the old EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE, DIONYSUS says his journey has
man, who has declared that he will not trust him, taken him through Bactria. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschy-
insists that he take the money. This insistence, how- lus, Persians 306, 318, 732; Euripides, Bacchae 15]
ever, will lead to Chrysalus’ being caught as Nicobulus
encounters Cleomachus in the forum and discovers BANKER A stock character in NEW COMEDY, the
that again Chrysalus’ bond is false. Nicobulus and banker, or trapezita, is usually a villain. In PLAUTUS’
Philoxenus, who have both been fooled by the slave, CURCULIO, Curculio compares the banker Lyco to a PIMP.
end the play in a display of further gullibility as the [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Captives 193, 449, Comedy
two Bacchises lure them into their house. Nicobulus, of Asses 438, Curculio passim, Epidicus 143, Pseudolus
who has already entered into treacherous bonds of fides 757, Three-Dollar Day 424]
with his slave, ends the play trusting in a prostitute.
Earlier, Lydus had declared the door to Bacchis’ house BARBARIAN In Greek drama, a barbarian is
a gateway to the UNDERWORLD (368); Nicobulus now someone who is not a Greek or someone who behaves
enters that part of the underworld reserved for those in a way that is repugnant to civilized Greeks. For exam-
who do not respect the bonds of fides. ple, the Greeks regarded as barbarians people such as
MEDEA, the Phrygian messenger in EURIPIDES’ ORESTES,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barsby, J. Plautus: Bacchides. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
the Scythian archer in ARISTOPHANES’ THESMOPHORIAZUSAE,
Phillips, 1986. the AMAZONS, the Persians, and the Trojans. One of the
Clark, J. R. “Structure and Symmetry in the Bacchides of most emphatic statements on the contrast between
Plautus,” Transactions of the American Philological Associa- Greeks and barbarians is in Euripides’ IPHIGENIA AT AULIS.
tion 106 (1976): 85–96. In this play, the title character decides to allow herself to
Damen, Mark L. “‘By the Gods, Boy . . . Stop Bothering Me!: be sacrificed so that the Greeks can sail to wage war
Can’t You Tell Menander from Plautus?’: or How Dis exap- against the Trojans. Iphigenia should give up her own
aton Does Not Help Us Understand Bacchides,” Antichthon life because, as she reasons, “It is fitting for Greeks to
29 (1996): 15–29.
rule barbarians, but not for barbarians to rule
Owens, W. M. “The Third Deception in Bacchides: Fides and
Plautus’ Originality,” American Journal of Philology 115 Greeks. . . . Barbarians are slaves, but Greeks are free.”
(1994): 381–407. As among the Greeks, among the Romans those who
Slater, N. W. Plautus in Performance. Princeton, N.J.: Prince- were not Romans or did not behave in manner consid-
ton University Press, 1985, 94–117. ered civilized were regarded as barbarians (though the
Romans are more flexible with the term). Interestingly,
BACCHUS See DIONYSUS. at the conclusion of OCTAVIA, the chorus regard the treat-
ment of the Roman OCTAVIA as less merciful than that
BACIS An influential prophet from BOEOTIA who which occurs in barbaric lands, thus suggesting that the
lived during the fifth century B.C.E., Bacis was said to Roman emperor Nero was more cruel than those he
be inspired by NYMPHS. Aristophanes mentions Bacis would consider barbarians. The connotation of the term
several times in connection with oracles. [ANCIENT barbarian was not always pejorative, however: In EURIPI-
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 962, 970, Knights DES’ BACCHAE, Dionysus addresses the women who fol-
123–24, 1003–4, Peace 1070–72; Herodotus, 8.20, low him as “barbarian women” (barbaroi gunaikes).
77, 96, 9.43; Pausanias, 4.27.4, 10.12.11] [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians; Euripides, Helen,
Iphigenia in Tauris, Iphigenia at Aulis 1400, Bacchae 604;
BACTRA See BACTRIA. Plautus, Bacchides 121, 123; Seneca, Octavia 43]

BACTRIA A province in the Persian empire com- BARCA A town on the coast of northern Africa. In
prising the territory of what is today northern the middle of the sixth century B.C.E., it was colonized
 BELLEROPHON 89

by Greeks from Cyrene. Barca was famous for chariot taking him to a dinner party; however, Philocleon
driving and the training of horses. [ANCIENT SOURCES: becomes drunk, tells boorish jokes, runs off with the
Sophocles, Electra 727] party’s flute girl, and assaults someone on the way
home.
BARCAEAN See BARCA.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sidwell, Keith. “Was Philokleon Cured?: The Nosos Theme
BASSARAI As were the BACCHAE, the Bassarai
in Aristophanes’ Wasps,” Classica & Mediaevalia 41
were a group of women who worshiped DIONYSUS. The
(1990): 9–31.
Bassarai lived in Thrace, Phrygia, or Lydia. When
ORPHEUS, who considered Helios (see SUN) the greatest
divinity, refused to worship Dionysus, the scorned BELIAS A female descendant of Belus. Belus, the
wine god sent the Bassarai to tear him apart. AESCHYLUS son of POSEIDON and LIBYA, was the father of Danaus,
also wrote a Bassarai, or Bassarides (fragments 23–25 whose daughters, the DANAIDS, killed their husbands.
Radt), which was part of the Lycurgus trilogy, which [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 960]
included EDONIANS and Youths (Greek: Neaniskoi).
Aeschylus’ play seems to have been about Orpheus’ BELLEROPHON The son of Glaucus and
fatal encounter with Dionysus. Eurymede, Bellerophon was a Corinthian nobleman.
After Bellerophon killed his own brother, whose name
BIBLIOGRAPHY
was Deliades, Piren, or Alcimenes, he went to Proetus
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
for purification. Proetus’ wife, STHENEBOEA (or Anteia),
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
conceived a passion for Bellerophon and made sexual
advances to him. After Bellerophon rejected her,
BASSARIDES See BASSARAI.
Stheneboea told Proetus that Bellerophon had tried to
assault her sexually. Proetus, wanting to get rid of
BATTUS In the seventh century B.C.E., Battus col- Bellerophon but not to kill the young man himself,
onized Cyrene with people from the island of Thera.
wrote a letter to King IOBATES of Lycia. This letter
For 200 years after Battus’ death, his name continued
apparently requested that Iobates should kill
to be used as a title for every other king of Cyrene.
Bellerophon. Proetus sealed the letter and instructed
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wealth 925;
Bellerophon to deliver it to Iobates. Iobates first tried
Herodotus 4.150–63]
to kill Bellerophon by having him battle the CHIMAERA,
BIBLIOGRAPHY a creature that was part a lion, part a goat, and part a
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11, serpent. With the aid of the winged horse PEGASUS, a
Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 195. gift from ATHENA, Bellerophon destroyed the Chimaera.
Next, Bellerophon defeated the tribes of the Solymi
BDELYCLEON The son of PHILOCLEON in and Amazons. Finally, after Bellerophon killed the
ARISTOPHANES’ WASPS, his name means “hater of Lycians, who had ambushed him, Iobates, apparently
CLEON.” Like Pheidippides in CLOUDS, the son, Bdely- convinced of the young man’s nobility, married
cleon, appears sensible whereas his father, Philocleon, Bellerophon to his daughter, named Philonoe, Anticlia,
is out of control. After convincing Philocleon that he is or Cassandra. At some point, Bellerophon had a daugh-
a pawn of politicians such as Cleon, Bdelycleon ter, Laodamia (not the wife of PROTESILAUS). Eventually,
attempts to put an end to his father’s practice of sitting Bellerophon became king of the Lycians. Some sources
on jury panels by setting up a court for his father at his relate that Bellerophon tried to ride Pegasus to Mount
own home. Bdelycleon tricks his father into acquitting Olympus, but the winged horse fought him, and
the first defendant at the “home court.” Later, Bdely- Bellerophon fell off, crashed to the ground, and
cleon tries to introduce his father to refined society by became lame. Then, Bellerophon somehow wandered
90 BELLONA

the plain of Aleios and avoided contact with other BIRDS (Greek: ORNITHES; Latin: AVES)
humans. ARISTOPHANES (414 B.C.E.) The play was per-
Bellerophon occasionally turns up in ancient drama, formed at the City DIONYSIA and finished second to
both TRAGEDY and COMEDY. EURIPIDES’ Bellerophon, pro- AMEIPSIAS’ Revelers. ARISTOPHANES had Callistratus pro-
duced around 430 B.C.E., has more than 100 lines that duce the play for him. Set in an imaginary land beyond
survive (fragments 285–312 Nauck). This play’s setting the city of ATHENS, Aristophanes’ Birds opens with the
is Lycia, and its highlight seems to be Bellerophon’s ill- appearance of two Athenians, PEISETAERUS (he who per-
fated flight to Mount Olympus to confront the gods;
suades his comrades) and Euelpides (son of good
the reason for the confrontation is uncertain. From
hope), each of whom carries a bird, which he hopes
ARISTOPHANES’ remarks in ACHARNIANS, it is known that
will lead him to another bird named TEREUS. Euelpides
Bellerophon appeared onstage lame and dressed in
reveals that they have decided (because of the constant
rags. Aristophanes’ Peace contains a parody of
legal wrangling in Athens) to find a place where they
Bellerophon’s flight on Pegasus, when the hero, TRY-
GAEUS, flies to Olympus on a dung beetle. Bellerophon
may live in peace. They hope that Tereus will be able
was also a character in Euripides’ Stheneboea (staged to advise them about the existence of such a city. Soon,
before 422 B.C.E.). The tragedian Astydamas also wrote the two men approach a rock, from which emerges a
a play called Bellerophon, of which only the title sur- bird (the Plover Page) that serves Tereus. The bird
vives. On the comic stage, Eubulus wrote a Bellerophon, frightens the Athenians so much that they let go of
from which a two-line fragment survives (fragment 16 their own birds. Eventually, Plover Page summons
Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.3; Tereus, who is dressed as a featherless Hoopoe.
2.3.1–2; Aristophanes, Acharnians 427–29; Aristo- When the two Athenians ask Tereus whether he
phanes, Peace 60–179; Hesiod, Theogony 319–25; knows of a peaceful city where they can live, they
Homer, Iliad 6.155–202; Hyginus, Fables 57; Pausa- reject his suggestions as being unpleasant places. Peise-
nias, 2.4.1; Pindar, Olympian Odes 13.63–90] taerus then proposes that Tereus and the birds found
BIBLIOGRAPHY their own city in the air and argues that it could rival
Collard, C., M. J. Cropp, and K. H. Lee. Euripides: Selected the gods’ home on Mount Olympus. Peisetaerus also
Fragmentary Plays. Vol. 1. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & suggests that unless the gods pay tribute to the birds,
Phillips, 1995. 98–120. the birds should not allow the smoke from sacrifices to
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: reach the gods. Delighted by the suggestion, Tereus
Teubner, 1884. summons the rest of the birds so that Peisetaerus can
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, explain his plan to them. This prompts the entrance of
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
the chorus, composed of various birds. Initially, the
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: Methuen,
1967.
birds do not want to have any association with humans
and threaten to kill the two Athenians. After Tereus
BELLONA The sister or wife of Mars (Greek: explains their plan, however, the birds relax and prom-
ARES), Bellona is a Roman divinity associated with war. ise not to harm them. Peisetaerus convinces the birds
Her name is related to a Latin word for war, bellum. Bel- that their lineage is older and more noble than that of
lona is sometimes equated with the Greek divinity Enyo. the gods themselves and that birds once ruled the
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Amphitruo 43, Bacchides 847; world. Peisetaerus suggests that the birds build a city
Seneca, Agamemnon 82, Hercules Oetaeus 1312] and reclaim their empire from the gods. The birds are
skeptical that mortals would accept them as gods, but
BIA Bia, a Greek word meaning “strength,” “force,” Peisetaerus argues that because the birds have ample
or “violence,” in AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS BOUND is per- powers to harm or help humans (for example, destroy-
sonified as a divinity who assists in the binding of ing their crops or protecting the crops from insects),
PROMETHEUS. Bia does not speak in Aeschylus’ play. human beings will accept them as divinities.
 BIRDS 91

After hearing Peisetaerus, the birds decide to imple- in the new city. In each instance, Peisetaerus drives
ment his plan. Tereus then invites Peisetaerus and them away with blows. Finally, Peisetaerus decides to
Euelpides into his “house.” Before they exit, however, move to a different location to make the sacrifice.
the birds beg Tereus to summon his wife the nightin- After Peisetaerus’ exit, the bird chorus deliver a sec-
gale. When she appears, the Athenians admire her ond parabasis. They sing of how mortals will worship
beauty and then enter Tereus’ house. The chorus then them and how anyone who mistreats birds will surely
begin the PARABASIS with a praise of the nightingale. The be punished. They also address the judges of the dra-
birds narrate that the entire universe was brought forth matic competition and describe the blessings that they
from an egg and that winged EROS, love, was first to will receive should the play win first prize, but say that
spring forth. In turn, Eros gave birth to the birds. The they will defecate on them if they do not rank the play
birds then mention some of the blessings that they first.
offer to humans and urge the audience to accept them After this parabasis, a MESSENGER enters and informs
as divinities and thus receive even greater benefits. The Peisetaerus that the birds have completed construction
birds then invite people, particularly those whose of the city’s wall. Next, a guard enters to tell Peisetaerus
behavior was despised in Athens, to live with them and that one of the Olympian gods is approaching. Soon,
suggest some of the advantages of being able to fly. the goddess IRIS enters, and immediately Peisetaerus
After the parabasis, Peisetaerus and Euelpides enter, has the birds seize her, as he threatens to have her put
now equipped with wings. In consultation with the bird to death. Iris declares that she is traveling to Earth with
chorus, they decide to name their city Nephelokokkugia a message from ZEUS, namely, that mortals should
(“cloud-cuckooland” or “cloud-cuckoobury”). After make sacrifice to the gods. Peisetaerus, however, scoffs
naming the city, Peisetaerus sends Euelpides off to at this statement and declares that the birds are the
help the birds build a wall for their city. Next, Peise- gods now, thus threatening to attack Zeus if he bothers
taerus calls for a priest so that he can make a sacri- him again. Peisetaerus then angrily sends Iris away.
fice to the birds. When a raven priest enters, After her exit, a herald enters and offers Peisetaerus a
Peisetaerus and this winged priest begin to pray to golden crown from the people of Earth, who the her-
the various birds. Their ritual is interrupted by the ald says have started to imitate the ways of birds. The
arrival of a pitifully dressed human poet, who has herald also says thousands of mortals will soon be
come to sing a song of celebration for the new city. making their way to the new city to acquire wings and
After hearing some of his awful verses, Peisetaerus the birds’ way of life. Accordingly, Peisetaerus tells the
decides to get rid of this “cold” poet by giving him birds to get baskets of wings in preparation for the new
some clothing (thus warming the poet and ideally his arrivals.
poetry). The first person who tries to gain access is a young
Peisetaerus attempts to resume the sacrifice to the man who beats his father. Peisetaerus notes that birds do
birds, but he is again interrupted, this time by an ora- have the custom of attacking their fathers, but that birds
cle monger, who wants to offer prophecies about the also have the custom of caring for their elders. The
new city in exchange for food and clothing. Peise- young man is disappointed, and so Peisetaerus, after
taerus, however, claims he has a prophecy that predicts telling him not to beat his father, suggests that he work
the destruction of any scam artist who tries to interrupt out his aggression by joining the fighting in THRACE.
his sacrifice. After Peisetaerus drives off the oracle After the father beater agrees and exits, a dithyrambic
monger, the astronomer METON enters, hoping to per- poet named CINESIAS enters, desiring wings. Peisetaerus
form a survey of Peisetaerus’ airspace. Peisetaerus tells listens to his lofty verses and presumably drives him
Meton that their new city has a practice of driving out away, but the text is uncertain at this point. Next, a syco-
all “quacks” and then proceeds to drive Meton away phant (see INFORMANT), dressed in rags, enters in search
with blows. The interruptions continue as a commis- of wings so that he can inform on people in numerous
sioner and statute seller enter and try to make money cities. Peisetaerus tries to urge the man to practice a
92 BIRDS

more honest occupation, but when the sycophant approaching with his new bride, Basileia. The play
refuses, he flogs him with a whip and sends him away ends as Peisetaerus and Basileia enter and the bird cho-
wingless. As the sycophant departs, Peisetaerus makes rus sing a wedding hymn and the power of the birds is
the man help him gather up the wings and they exit. acknowledged.
Next, the bird chorus sing a brief ode about what they
have seen recently while flying over Earth. After the COMMENTARY
choral song, PROMETHEUS enters to tell Peisetaerus that With more than two dozen costumes of birds of various
the rise of the birds’ city has prevented sacrifices by types, Aristophanes’ Birds must have been one of the
humans from reaching the gods and thus puts Zeus’ finest visual spectacles to grace the Athenian stage.
existence in jeopardy. Furthermore, the gods of foreign Aristophanes’ poetry in this play is also quite imagina-
lands have threatened to attack Zeus unless he resolves tive, especially when the sounds of birds are represented
the situation. Prometheus says that Zeus and the foreign in Greek. Nowhere else in classical drama can one find
gods will send representatives to ask for a peace treaty, words such as tiotiotiotinx, totototototototototinx, and toro-
but that Peisetaerus should not make one unless Zeus torotorolililix. Despite these wonderful elements, how-
agrees to allow him to marry Basileia (the personifica- ever, one should note that Aristophanes was not the first
tion of sovereignty) and hand over the scepter of power Greek playwright to compose such a play. His predeces-
to the birds. sors Magnes (see Kock) and Crates (see Kock) had both
The exit of Prometheus is followed by the entrance of composed a play named Birds, of which only the title
POSEIDON; a foreign god, Triballos (see TRIBALLIAN); and remains. The notion of leaving current society and find-
HERACLES, who have been sent to arrange peace with the ing a better society was also not original to Aristophanes,
birds. Peisetaerus is ready to make peace provided that as PHERECRATES’ Savages had explored a similar premise
Zeus restore power to the birds. Poseidon is initially just four years earlier. Aristophanes’ Birds also exhibits a
reluctant, but when Peisetaerus explains that the gods structure much like that of his earlier plays, especially
will benefit from having the birds as allies, Poseidon PEACE, staged seven years earlier. As in Aristophanes’
and the other two agree. After Peisetaerus mentions the Peace, the hero of Birds makes a journey toward the
marriage to Basileia, however, Poseidon again balks. heavens. Instead of a quest for peace and a subsequent
Heracles, whose only concern is the food he will obtain return to Earth, however, in Birds no return to Earth is
through the restoration of sacrifices, is ready to agree, planned and the foundation of a new city in the skies is
but Poseidon argues that if Zeus hands over his king- realized. In both Peace and Birds, the heroes manage to
dom, then Heracles will lose his inheritance because induce the gods to allow them to proceed with their
Zeus is his father. Peisetaerus, however, argues that plans, and both plays conclude with a sacred marriage
because Heracles’ mother was mortal, he will not of the hero and a divine female.
inherit anything (a joke on the laws of inheritance As in Peace and other Aristophanic plays, in Birds
among the Athenians, who did not recognize bastards the hero experiences various challenges to the fantastic
as legitimate heirs), and that Zeus’ inheritance will go to solution he has proposed. The heroes of Peace and
Poseidon. Accordingly, Heracles votes to allow Basileia Birds both exclude oracle mongers from the benefits of
to marry Peisetaerus; Poseidon, however, votes against their social reforms; as DICAEOPOLIS does in ACHARNIANS
the marriage. Peisetaerus turns to Triballos to cast the or Chremylus does in the later Wealth, Peisetaerus
tie-breaking vote. As a foreigner, Triballos speaks gib- drives off an informant. In Acharnians and Peace, many
berish, but Peisetaerus interprets his response as voting of those excluded from the heroes’ social reforms are
for Heracles’ position. Although Poseidon objects, he driven away because they are in conflict with the
relents and agrees to all of Peisetaerus’ terms. heroes’ reforms. In Birds, admittance to the perfect
At this point, preparations for Peisetaerus’ wedding world that Peisetaerus is trying to create depends on
and a feast begin. After a brief choral interlude, a mes- whether the prospective citizen will fit in with Peise-
senger enters and announces that Peisetaerus is taerus’ vision of the proper citizen to inhabit his new
 BIRDS 93

city. Bad poets, corrupt religious and governmental possible candidate in ALCIBIADES, who bears some
officials, and vile criminals are all rejected from the city resemblance to Peisetaerus, although Dunbar rejects
in the clouds. such a comparison on the grounds of insufficient tex-
Whereas in other Aristophanic plays the Athenian tual evidence. Because Aristophanes’ fellow Athenians
heroes try to reform the existing city of Athens, in Birds had undertaken an ambitious military expedition to
the Athenian hero tries to create a completely new city— the far-away island of SICILY in 415 B.C.E., the basic
a city, however, that probably resembles a Persian city premise of Birds (staged in 414) would have had obvi-
as much as it does the Athenians’ city. One major dif- ous parallels to their own situation. One of the military
ference between Athens and the new city of the birds commanders of the Athenians’ SICILIAN EXPEDITION was
is that Athens was a democracy. In Peisetaerus’ city, he Alcibiades, who had been instrumental in persuading
may convince the birds that they will be the rulers (cf. the Athenians to undertake the expedition; the Greek
467, 482) whose new city can rival that of Zeus word root in the first part of Peisetaerus’ name is
Basileus (sovereign), but in reality Peisetaerus is the derived from a Greek verb meaning “to persuade.”
ruler and he is the one who, in accordance with Zeus’ The Birds begins with two Athenians’ desire to find
agreement, marries Basileia (the personification of sov- a new place to live in peace and quiet but soon devel-
ereignty). Thus, Peisetaerus will become the new ops into one man’s desire for absolute control over a
Basileus (sovereign), a title not only added to Zeus’ city and even for power that rivals that of the gods
name, but elsewhere in Aristophanes, especially in themselves. Peisetaerus claims to want to restore
Acharnians, used to denote the king of Persia. power to the birds, but the audience see Peisetaerus
Several times in Birds, Aristophanes mentions Per- reap most of the benefits while Euelpides and the birds
sian elements in the city. At line 277, one of the birds carry out his commands. In the case of Alcibiades,
of the chorus is described as being a Median (i.e., Per- shortly after the expedition sailed in 415 B.C.E., the
sian) bird. Although Athens was famed for its fortifica- Athenians recalled him because he was suspected of
tion walls, the walls that Peisetaerus proposes building participating in a mockery of the Eleusinian Mysteries
he compares to those surrounding the Persian city of and of participating in the mutilation of various statues
Babylon (552). At one point, Peisetaerus and Euelpides of HERMES before the expedition’s departure. THUCY-
even discuss similarities between the sovereign birds DIDES also says the Athenian people suspected that
and the Persians and suggest that the tiara worn by the those involved in these evil deeds were conspiring to
Persian Basileus is similar to the plumage of a bird overthrow the democracy and install either an oli-
(481–87). Peisetaerus also describes the Persian king’s garchy or a tyranny (6.60.1). Thucydides reports that
rule as a tyranny (eturannei, 483). Elsewhere in the Alcibiades was the primary suspect in a conspiracy
play both the rule of Zeus (urannidos, 1605) and the against the Athenian people (6.61.1). Alcibiades, how-
new kingdom of the birds (urannida, 1643) are called
ever, evaded the Athenian ship sent to take him back,
tyrannies. Finally, as the play concludes, Peisetaerus is
and the Athenians condemned Alcibiades to death. He
called a tyrant (urannon, 1708). So, at the conclusion
escaped to SPARTA and began to give military advice
of Birds, Peisetaerus is addressed joyfully by the birds
that would help the Spartans against the Athenians.
as the same sort of ruler whom the Athenians had
Thus, as Thucydides confirms and Aristophanes sug-
overthrown some hundred years earlier in favor of cre-
gests, talk of revolution and tyranny was in the air
ating democracy.
when Aristophanes produced Birds in 414 and the
The notion that Athenian democracy might be
ambitious and persuasive Peisetaerus is not completely
replaced with tyranny was probably not out of the
unlike Alcibiades.
realm of possibility when Aristophanes put on Birds.
Three years later the democracy would be overthrown BIBLIOGRAPHY
and an oligarchy of 400 leading citizens would replace Arrowsmith, W. “Aristophanes’ Birds: The Fantasy Politics of
it. If Athens could revert to tyranny, it certainly had a Eros,” Arion 1 (1973): 119–67.
94 BOEOTIA

Dunbar, N. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford University BRAGGART WARRIOR (Latin: MILES
Press, 1995. GLORIOSUS) Although the braggart warrior is a
Konstan, D. “A City in the Air: Aristophanes’ Birds,”
stock character in New Comedy, such military buf-
Arethusa 23 (1990): 183–207.
foons can be seen as early as ARISTOPHANES’ character
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 6,
Birds. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1987. LAMACHUS in ACHARNIANS (425 B.C.E.). The braggart
Vickers, M. “Alcibiades on Stage: Aristophanes’ Birds,” Histo- warrior typically exaggerates his military conquests. In
ria 38 (1989): 267–99. BRAGGART WARRIOR, Pyrgopolynices claims to have
killed 7,000 men in a single day; in CARTHAGINIAN Anta-
BOEOTIA A region in central Greece whose prin- moenides claims to have taken 60,000 lives in one day.
cipal city was THEBES. These warriors also assume a tough facade but usually
back down when confronted. The play’s other charac-
BOÖTES Another name for the constellation ARC- ters usually dislike the warrior, who is often a rival
TOPHYLAX. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Agamemnon lover or another character in the play. Several such
69–70, Medea 315, Octavia 233] warriors appear in Plautus’ plays: Therapontigonus
(CURCULIO), Cleomachus (BACCHIDES), Pyrgopolynices
BOREAS A god who represents the north wind, (Braggart Warrior), Antamoenides (Carthaginian),
Boreas abducted Oreithyia, daughter of ERECHTHEUS, Stratophanes (TRUCULENTUS), and an unnamed warrior
from ATHENS and took her to his home in THRACE. By in EPIDICUS. The most extensive role for such a warrior
Oreithyia, Boreas became the father of two daughters, occurs in Braggart Warrior, in which Pyrgopolynices’
Chione and CLEOPATRA, and two sons, Zetes and Calais, belief in his good looks leads to him lose one woman
who joined the quest for the Golden Fleece. Boreas and then be fooled into thinking a married woman
does not appear as a character in any extant dramas, wants to have an affair with him. Only one braggart
but he certainly had a speaking role in AESCHYLUS’ Ore- warrior appears in the six plays of TERENCE: Thraso in
ithyia (fragments 280–81b Radt). [ANCIENT SOURCES: EUNUCH, a warrior who considers his words, rather
Apollodorus, Library 1.9.16, 3.15.1–2; Ovid, Meta- than his deeds, as the key to his popularity. Not all
morphoses 6.675–721; Pausanias, 1.19.5, 1.38.2] warriors in surviving New Comedy are unsympathetic
figures and lose the women in whom they are inter-
BORRHAEAN GATE One of the seven gates ested. In MENANDER’s THE MAN SHE HATED (Misoumenos)
of THEBES. In AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN AGAINST THEBES, this gate Thrasonides eventually marries his beloved. Likewise,
is defended by the Theban Actor and attacked by in Menander’s THE GIRL WITH THE SHAVEN HEAD
PARTHENOPAEUS. (Perikeiromene), the warrior Polemon is reconciled with
Glycera after he has cut off her hair in a jealous rage.
BOSPORUS Two straits are called by this name. BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Thracian Bosporus connects the Propontis Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
(another body of water) to the southern part of the N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952. 264–65.
Black Sea. Near the southern end of the Thracian
Bosporus, the cities of Byzantium and Chalcedon were THE BRAGGART WARRIOR (Latin:
situated on shores opposite one another. The Cimmer- MILES GLORIOSUS) PLAUTUS (CA. 205
ian Bosporus is located at the northern end of the Black B.C.E.) The author of the Greek original is not
Sea and connects this sea with what is now the Sea of known, but its title, Alazon (The Braggart), is men-
Azov and in ancient times was known as Lake Maeotis. tioned at line 86. PLAUTUS’ play has EPHESUS as its set-
The name Bosporus, which means “cow [bos] passage ting (the only Roman COMEDY set in this city), and the
[porus],” is derived from the time when IO, a cow at the action occurs before the adjoining houses of the soldier
time, crossed the strait. Pyrgopolynices and Periplectomenus, an elderly Eph-
 THE BRAGGART WARRIOR 95

esian citizen—the only such configuration (private cit- mon Philocomasium and tell her to prepare to trick
izen living next door to a soldier) in extant Roman Sceledrus. After considerable thought, Palaestrio tells
comedy. The play’s opening act is an unusual one, in Periplectomenus that they will pretend that Philoco-
that it consists of a single scene, 78 lines long, involv- masium has an identical twin sister, who has recently
ing Pyrgopolynices and his PARASITE Artotrogus. As the arrived for a visit from Athens. After Periplectomenus
play opens, Pyrgopolynices is boasting about his goes inside to coach Philocomasium on her role in the
prowess in battle, and Artotrogus is flattering him to deception, Palaestrio encounters Sceledrus, who tells
get a free meal. The act concludes with Atrotrogus’ him about Philocomasium’s kissing of Pleusicles.
praising the soldier’s good looks. Palaestrio tells Sceledrus that he himself would get into
After Pyrgopolynices and Artotrogus exit for the trouble if he were to give false information about Philo-
FORUM to pay recruits for King Seleucus, the next act comasium. Furthermore, because Sceledrus is sup-
begins with the arrival of Palaestrio, the current slave posed to be guarding Philocomasium, he will only be
of Pyrgopolynices and former slave of Pleusicles, a reporting that he failed in his duty. When Sceledrus
young Athenian gentleman. Palaestrio delivers a informs Palaestrio that Philocomasium is at Periplec-
delayed prologue. Palaestrio informs the audience that tomenus’ house, Palaestrio goes inside to see for him-
his master, Pleusicles, was in love with a PROSTITUTE, self. When Palaestrio returns, he claims that
Philocomasium, who was in love with him. When Philocomasium is still at the soldier’s house. Sceledrus,
Pleusicles was away from ATHENS, Pyrgopolynices saw who does not know about the passageway that
Philocomasium, fell in love with her, became good Palaestrio created between the two houses, is amazed
friends with the woman’s mother, and managed to have when Palaestrio soon leads Philocomasium from Pyr-
Philocomasium shipped off to Ephesus. When gopolynices’ house. Philocomasium denies Sceledrus’
Palaestrio set sail to inform Pleusicles of the woman’s accusations, claims her name is Dicea (the just
loss, Palaestrio was captured by pirates, who turned woman), and says that she has arrived from Athens to
him over to Pyrgopolynices. When Palaestrio arrived at look for her twin sister. Even when Philocomasium
Pyrgopolynices’ house, he encountered Philocoma- threatens Sceledrus with the punishment the soldier
sium and learned that she was still in love with Pleusi- will give him for spreading lies about her, Sceledrus
cles. Palaestrio managed to send a message to still insists that he saw her at Periplectomenus’ house.
Pleusicles to return to Ephesus immediately. Upon When Philocomasium turns to leave, Sceledrus tries to
arriving in Ephesus, Pleusicles became the guest of grab her. Philocomasium struggles, manages to get
Periplectomenus, who lives next door to the soldier. away from him, and darts into Periplectomenus’
Palaestrio also informs the audience that he has created house. Palaestrio then tells Sceledrus to go into the sol-
a way for the young lovers to communicate by digging dier’s house and get him a sword so that he can go into
a hole through a wall shared by the two houses. Periplectomenus’ house and kill anyone who is kissing
Because Periplectomenus supports Palaestrio’s scheme, Philocomasium. By this time, however, Philocomasium
their only obstacle other than the soldier himself is the has used the passageway to cross back over to the sol-
servant, Sceledrus, whom the soldier has placed as a dier’s house. Thus, when Sceledrus returns, he is
guard for Philocomasium. Palaestrio tells the audience embarrassed to tell Palaestrio that Philocomasium is at
that during the course of the play Philocomasium will the soldier’s house. Then Palaestrio returns to Periplec-
pretend to be another woman so that they can trick tomenus’ house and Sceledrus continues his guard
Sceledrus. duty at the soldier’s house.
In the next scene, Periplectomenus informs In the next scene, Periplectomenus, knowing about
Palaestrio that Sceledrus, while on the roof of Pyr- Sceledrus’ accusation of Philocomasium, enters and
gopolynices’ house, had looked through the skylight of complains at the way his “guest” (Dicea/Philocoma-
their house and seen Pleusicles and Philocomasium sium) has been treated, while also threatening Scele-
kissing. Palaestrio then tells Periplectomenus to sum- drus with severe punishment. Periplectomenus
96 THE BRAGGART WARRIOR

suggests that Sceledrus look inside his (Periplec- the affair but wonders what he should do about Philo-
tomenus’) house to see proof of his guest. When Scele- comasium. Palaestrio suggests that Pyrgopolynices
drus does so, he finds Dicea/Philocomasium inside. allow Philocomasium to return to Athens with her
Periplectomenus then suggests that Sceledrus look twin sister, who has just arrived in Ephesus. Palaestrio
inside the soldier’s house to check on Philocomasium. even persuades the soldier to agree to allow Philoco-
In the meantime, Philocomasium has returned to the masium to keep any jewelry or clothing given to her.
soldier’s house. Having seen these things, Sceledrus As Palaestrio prepares the soldier for the deception,
admits to Periplectomenus that he must have been Milphidippa emerges from Periplectomenus’ house
mistaken. Sceledrus, thinking that Periplectomenus and, pretending not to notice the soldier, speaks of her
will inform the soldier of his behavior and that he will mistress’ love for the soldier. Soon, Palaestrio
be punished, decides to hide for a few days until the approaches Milphidippa and has a few words in pri-
commotion dies down. vate with her about how best to trick the soldier. After
The play’s third act opens with the appearance of Palaestrio tells her to continue building him up with
Palaestrio, Periplectomenus, and Pleusicles. After a talk of her mistress’ love, Palaestrio returns to the sol-
lengthy discussion about love and Periplectomenus’ dier and continues the flattery. Then, Milphidippa
congenial nature, Palaestrio reveals a plan for tricking approaches Pyrgopolynices and plies him with flattery.
Pyrgopolynices and allowing Pleusicles to have Philo- Palaestrio even arranges to have Milphidippa’s mistress
comasium for himself. Palaestrio borrows a ring from pay a substantial amount of money for the soldier’s
Periplectomenus and says they will find an attractive “services.” The soldier quickly agrees to the affair and
woman and her maidservant, dress the woman as a urges Milphidippa to have her mistress come out.
married woman, and have her pretend to be in love Before Milphidippa leaves, Palaestrio tells her to make
with Pyrgopolynices. Palaestrio will give the ring to sure Philocomasium goes over to Periplectomenus’
Pyrgopolynices and pretend that it is a gift from the house. Milphidippa informs Palaestrio that Philocoma-
“married woman.” Palaestrio also reminds Pleusicles to sium is already in the house and that she and
call Philocomasium “Dicea” when Pyrgopolynices Acroteleutium have been eavesdropping on the con-
returns home. versation with the soldier.
In the following scene, Palaestrio calls Sceledrus After Milphidippa’s exit, Palaestrio advises the sol-
from Pyrgopolynices’ house but learns from another dier about how to dismiss Philocomasium as his girl-
slave, Lucrio, that Sceledrus is off drinking some- friend. After Pyrgopolynices returns to his house to
where. Lucrio is quite drunk, and when Palaestrio carry out this task, Acroteleutium, Milphidippa, and
threatens to tell Pyrgopolynices, Lucrio goes off to Pleusicles emerge from Periplectomenus’ house.
hide. After Lucrio’s exit, Palaestrio sees Periplec- Palaestrio informs them of how their scheme is pro-
tomenus approaching with the prostitute Acroteleu- gressing and gives the group further instructions
tium and her maidservant, Milphidippa. Palaestrio about how he wants to proceed. Acroteleutium is to
then schools the two women about their role in this pretend that she is divorcing Periplectomenus and
scheme. He informs Acroteleutium that she will pre- that Periplectomenus’ house was part of Acroteleu-
tend to be Periplectomenus’ wife. When the women tium’s dowry on their marriage (thus, the house is
have received their instructions, they enter Periplec- Acroteleutium’s property). Pleusicles is instructed to
tomenus’ house to complete their preparations. dress as a ship master and summon Philocomasium
Palaestrio, in turn, sets out for the forum to find the to the harbor to take her to Athens. Palaestrio will
soldier. help Philocomasium take her luggage to the harbor,
In the fourth act, Palaestrio returns from the forum and then he, together with Philocomasium and Pleu-
with Pyrgopolynices. Palaestrio gives the soldier the sicles, will sail for Athens. Pleusicles agrees to the
ring and tells him it is from a beautiful married plan and promises to set Palaestrio free in return for
woman. Pyrgopolynices is excited by the prospect of his efforts.
 THE BRAGGART WARRIOR 97

After Pleusicles, Acroteleutium, and Milphidippa COMMENTARY

return to their house, Pyrgopolynices enters from his Braggart Warrior falls into two halves that have not
house, informs Palaestrio that he has broken off his been linked with the greatest care, as some modern
relationship with Philocomasium, and says that he has scholars note. Despite its structural problems, this play
given Palaestrio to Philocomasium at her request. is usually considered one of Plautus’ more amusing
Soon, Acroteleutium and Milphidippa return. They see works because of depictions of both the soldier and the
the soldier and, without going up to him, begin to slave Palaestrio. The Latin title of the play, Miles Glo-
praise him and his good looks. After they have built up riosus, was used as the name of the braggart warrior in
the soldier’s ego, they at last approach him in awe and the modern musical A Funny Thing Happened on the
in almost divine reverence. Milphidippa informs the Way to the Forum.
soldier that Acroteleutium wants the soldier to live Although the title of Plautus’ play suggests that the
with her in her house. The soldier rejects this because focal point is the braggart warrior, the onstage action is
he thinks she is married, but when Milphidippa tells dominated by the wily slave Palaestrio. As shown by
him that Acroteleutium has divorced her husband and Frangoulidis’ article, Braggart Warrior, as can several
that the house belongs to her, the soldier agrees. After other Roman comedies, can be read with a metathe-
the exit of Milphidippa and Acroteleutium into atrical perspective, with Palaestrio as the producer and
Periplectomenus’ house, Pleusicles, disguised as a ship director of the plays within the play. Palaestrio’s audi-
master, enters and pretends to seek Philocomasium. ence for his “plays” consist of the slave Sceledrus and
Palaestrio goes into the soldier’s house and returns Pyrgopolynices. In the deception of Sceledrus,
with Philocomasium, who pretends to weep bitterly Palaestrio employs Philocomasium herself as his
about having to leave the soldier. After much ado, the actress to make Sceledrus believe that he has seen her
tearful Philocomasium departs for the harbor with twin. In the deception of the soldier, Palaestrio
Pleusicles. Palaestrio, who will follow them, pretends employs a different prostitute to play the role of a wife.
to shed similar tears at having to part with Pyr- A stage property (the ring) is acquired and Palaestrio
gopolynices. Eventually, Palaestrio sets out for the har- acts in his own play as he uses it to convince the sol-
bor. Next, an unnamed servant emerges from dier that a married woman is in love with him. The
Periplectomenus’ house and summons Pyrgopolynices goal of Palaestrio’s second play is to secure the release
into the house to be with Acroteleutium. After the sol- of Philocomasium from the soldier and reunite her
dier enters the house, the slave informs the audience with Pleusicles, who takes on the role of the ship’s cap-
that Periplectomenus is inside prepared to accuse the tain and costumes himself appropriately.
soldier of adultery. Although the play’s structural unity has been criti-
The play’s final act begins as Pyrgopolynices is cized, one common factor that runs throughout the
dragged from the house by some of Periplectomenus’ play is the theme of sight. About 20 percent of Plautine
slaves. Periplectomenus accuses the soldier of adultery, references to the eyes occur in this play. This theme
which Pyrgopolynices, of course, denies. Still, links nicely with the metatheatrical analysis to the play,
Periplectomenus threatens to have his slaves beat Pyr- because successful playwrights can manipulate skill-
gopolynices. Ultimately, however, Periplectomenus fully their audience’s senses of hearing and sight. In the
releases Pyrgopolynices and makes him swear not to first half of the play, Palaestrio speaks of his trickery of
engage in such behavior again. After having been set Sceledrus in terms of affecting his eyes (148). When
free, Pyrgopolynices asks whether Philocomasium has Sceledrus insists on the reliability of his eyesight (290),
already left. He is informed that she has and learns that Palaestrio wants to have Sceledrus’ eyes gouged out
the sailor who took her was actually her lover. The play (315). Palaestrio tells Sceledrus that he has not
ends with Pyrgopolynices’ suggesting that adultery employed his eyes properly (336), and Sceledrus, the
would decrease if all adulterers were treated the way he eager spectator, is curious to know how Palaestrio will
was. convince him that he did not see what he insists he has
98 THE BRAGGART WARRIOR

seen (347). Despite Palaestrio’s attempted trickery with dress as a ship’s captain, he tells him to wear a patch
the twin Philocomasium, Sceledrus continues to insist over his eye (1178).
on what he has seen (368); eventually, however, When Acroteleutium finally arrives on the scene,
Palaestrio’s tricks prevail and Sceledrus supposes that a Milphidippa instructs her mistress to pretend that they
mist must have covered his eyes (405). The play’s sec- do not see the soldier (1217). As the women flatter the
ond act ends with Periplectomenus’ declaring that soldier, the unwitting spectator is further drawn into
Sceledrus’ eyes, ears, and mind have all gone over to Palaestrio’s play. Acroteleutium worries that the sol-
their side (589), and in the third act Sceledrus’ eyes are dier’s eyes may change his mind when he sees her
closed in a drunken stupor (827). (1234), because she may not be beautiful enough.
As Palaestrio’s goal in the play’s opening half was to Amusingly, when Acroteleutium pretends that she has
make Sceledrus believe he did not see what he saw, in caught the soldier’s scent, the soldier remarks that her
the second half of the play Palaestrio relies on the sol- nose is keener than her eyesight. Hearing this,
dier’s conceit about the way women look at him for Palaestrio quips, “She is blinded by love” (1259).
the success of this deception. In the first half of the When Acroteleutium pretends that she has finally seen
play, Palaestrio’s trickery transformed one woman the soldier, she claims she is going to faint because of
into two women. In the second half, Palaestrio will what her eyes have seen (1261). What Acroteleutium
create a woman so alluring that the soldier will give has seen also affects her speech. Initially, she remains
up Philocomasium before he has even seen the other silent and Milphidippa explains to the soldier that her
woman. First, Palaestrio tells the soldier that this new “eyes have cut off her tongue” (1271). Soon, the soldier
woman loves him more than she loves her own eyes is completely under Acroteleutium’s spell and the pros-
(984), which is to say her own life. When the prosti- titute has no trouble in convincing him that her eyes
tute’s maid, Milphidippa, enters, the soldier is imme- have been affected by his looks.
diately impressed with Milphidippa’s looks, but Interestingly, when the disguised Pleusicles enters to
Palaestrio tells him that the beauty of her mistress is retrieve Philocomasium, the soldier immediately asks
even greater. While Palaestrio is manipulating the sol- Pleusicles about what happened to his eye (1306). The
dier’s eyes, Milphidippa also uses her eyes to great soldier’s interest in Pleusicles’ falsely impaired sight
advantage, and Palaestrio observes that she is becom- makes one think of Jesus’ question in the New Testa-
ing a hunter with her eyes and a bird catcher with her ment “Why do you see the speck in your neighbor’s
ears (990). Additionally, when Milphidippa enters eye, but you do not see the beam in your own eye?”
she alters her eyesight as she pretends not to see her The soldier, whose perception of himself and his situ-
intended audience, the soldier (992). So convinced is ation is completely warped, is immediately drawn to
the soldier of the beauty of a woman he has not seen the false patch that covers Pleusicles’ properly func-
that Palaestrio marvels that the soldier can have feel- tioning eye. Even more amusing is Pleusicles’ response
ings for a woman he has not yet seen with his eyes to the soldier’s question, literally, “By Hercules, because
(1005). of the sea I do not use this eye; for if I had abstained
Palaestrio and Milphidippa so manipulate the sol- from love, I would also use this one.” Of course, the
dier that he agrees to send Philocomasium away before soldier thinks that Pleusicles means that if it were not
he has seen Acroteleutium. Palaestrio convinces the for his love of the sea, then his eyesight would not be
soldier that Philocomasium will be safe because her impaired. The audience, however, realize that Pleusi-
mother and twin sister are at the harbor waiting to take cles means that if it were not for his love of Philoco-
her home. Palaestrio tells the soldier that he has seen masium, he would not have to disguise himself in such
the twin with his own eyes (1104) but says the mother a way.
remained aboard the ship because of problems with When Philocomasium finally emerges from the
her eyes (1108). In keeping with the theme of faulty house and moves toward the harbor, she too distorts
eyesight, when Palaestrio instructs Pleusicles how to her eyes as she pretends to weep over leaving the sol-
 BRITTANICUS 99

dier. The soldier tells her not to cry, but she says she died fighting against the Athenians at the battle of
cannot stop crying when she looks at him (1324–25). Amphipolis in 422 B.C.E. (a battle that the Spartans
In keeping with the theme of eyesight, as Philocoma- won). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 475,
sium continues to bid farewell to the soldier, she Peace 274–84; Thucydides, 2.25–5.18]
addresses him as, literally, “my eye, my soul” (once
again eye is used in the sense of “life”). Eventually, BRAURON A town about 15 miles east of
Philocomasium and Pleusicles begin to move off, and ATHENS. Brauron was an important center for the wor-
she pretends to faint, thus allowing Pleusicles to catch ship of ARTEMIS, and a feast (called the Brauronia)
her and steal a quick kiss. As did his slave earlier in the devoted to the goddess was held there every four years.
play, the soldier now sees Pleusicles kissing Philoco- [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 645, Peace
masium, but Pleusicles quickly makes up an excuse so 874; Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris 1463]
that the soldier will not think he has seen what he
BIBLIOGRAPHY
thinks he has seen. Thus, Philocomasium leaves one
Antoniou, A. Brauron. Athina: Kardamitsa, 1990.
man whose vision is warped by conceit for a man Lloyd-Jones, H. “Artemis and Iphigeneia,” Journal of Hellenic
whose vision has been altered in accordance with the Studies 103 (1983): 87–102.
instructions of the slave-playwright Palaestrio. The sol- Parke, H. W. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
dier soon discovers that Acroteleutium is a false vision University Press, 1977, 139–40.
with which Palaestrio has tempted his eyes and that
the man who had the patch over his left eye (1430) BRIAREUS One of the three 100-handed crea-
was actually Philocomasium’s lover. When the soldier tures who were the children of URANUS and Gaia (see
asks how his slave knows this, the slave fittingly EARTH). SENECA includes him among the GIANTS who
reports that he saw them kissing and hugging tried to overthrow the Olympian gods. [ANCIENT
(1432–33). To which the soldier responds, “I see SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.1.1; Homer, Iliad
[video] that I have been tricked” (1434). Finally, no one 1.404; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 167]
will contest the sight of Philocomasium and Pleusicles’
kissing.
BRISEIS The daughter of Briseus, Briseis (also
BIBLIOGRAPHY called Hippodameia) was captured by the Greeks dur-
Frangoulidis, Stavros A. “Palaestrio as Playwright.” In Studies ing the Trojan War. She became the war prize of
in Latin Literature and Roman History. Vol. 7. Edited by C. ACHILLES but was taken from him by AGAMEMNON dur-
Deroux. Bruxelles: Latomus, 1994, 72–86. ing the 10th year of the war because of a quarrel
Hammond, M., A. M. Mack, and W. Moskalew. T. Macci
between the two men. After the quarrel ended,
Plauti. Miles Gloriosus. Revised by M. Hammond. Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997. Agamemnon restored Briseis to Achilles. [ANCIENT
Leach, E. W. “The Soldier and Society: Plautus’ Miles Glorio- SOURCES: Homer, Iliad 1, 9, 18; Ovid, Heroides 3;
sus as Popular Drama,” Rivista di Studi Classici 27 (1979): Seneca, Trojan Women 194, 220, 318]
185–209.
Lefèvre, E. “Plautus-Studien IV: Die Umformung des ALA- BRITOMARTIS See Artemis.
ZON zu der DoppelKomödie des Miles Gloriosus,” Hermes
112 (1984): 30–53.
Saylor, C. F. “Periplectomenus and the Organization of the BRITTANICUS (FEBRUARY 12, 44–55 C.E.)
Miles Gloriosus,” Eranos 75 (1977): 1–13. The son of the Roman emperor CLAUDIUS and MES-
SALINA, Tiberius Claudius Brittanicus Caesar was in line
BRASIDAS The son of Tellis, Brasidas was a suc- to become emperor of Rome, but his stepmother,
cessful general of SPARTA during the first decade of the AGRIPPINA, persuaded Claudius to promote her own
PELOPONNESIAN WAR, when the Athenians considered son, NERO, instead. Britannicus died in 55, probably of
him the leading warmonger of the Spartans. Brasidas poisoning arranged by Nero. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca,
100 BROMIUS

Octavia 47, 67, 166, 242, 269; Suetonius, Claudius, Micio’s casual attitude angers Demea, who storms off to
Nero; Tacitus, Annals 11–14.3] his house in the country. After Demea leaves, Micio
states that Aeschinus’ behavior does trouble him but
BROMIUS See DIONYSUS. says that he did not want to admit this to his brother.
Micio then sets out for the FORUM to find Aeschinus.
BRONTEION A device used for making the The play’s second act begins with the entrance of a
sound of thunder. Pollux says the bronteion was a bag PIMP, Sannio, who is calling upon the citizens to help
of pebbles that were rolled into copper pots behind him against Aeschinus, the kidnapper of Bacchis, one
the stage. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon of his girls (Aeschinus has stolen her for his brother).
4.127, 130] Sannio threatens to take Aeschinus to court, but the
young man ignores him and, with the help of his slave,
THE BROTHERS (Greek: ADELPHOI) Parmeno, begins to take Bacchis into Micio’s house.
TERENCE (160 B.C.E.) Staged at the funeral Sannio tries to drag Bacchis away, but Aeschinus tells
games of Aemilius Paullus, TERENCE’s sixth and final Parmeno to strike Sannio and Bacchis eventually is
play was based on a Greek original by MENANDER enti- taken into Micio’s house. Aeschinus tells Sannio that he
tled Adelphoi. The play’s setting is ATHENS, and the will pay him the same price that he paid for her but
action occurs before two houses, one belonging to declares that Sannio has no right to sell someone who
Micio, an elderly Athenian citizen, the other belonging was born free. After Aeschinus exits into Micio’s house,
to Sostrata, the mother of Pamphila. In the prologue, Sannio says he is willing to accept the price he paid for
the speaker defends Terence against the charge of using Bacchis but worries that he will not be paid anything.
in Brothers a scene that PLAUTUS deleted from one of his Next, Syrus, another of Aeschinus’ slaves, arrives from
plays. The prologue’s speaker also mentions, but does the house and tells Sannio not to worry so much about
not deny, the accusation that members of the nobility the money for one woman, especially since Sannio has
assist Terence in the writing of his plays. several women that he intends to sell on the island of
In the opening act, Micio emerges from his house Cyprus. Sannio, realizing that he will miss his business
searching for Aeschinus (his nephew and his son by opportunity on Cyprus if he does not settle the matter
adoption from his brother, Demea). Aeschinus has not quickly with Aeschinus, urges Syrus to try to arrange
returned home from a party the previous night, and some payment with Aeschinus. As Syrus and Sannio
Micio worries that something has happened to the are talking, Demea’s son, Ctesipho, enters and praises
young man. Micio explains that he himself is an his brother, Aeschinus, for his help. Soon, Aeschinus
unmarried easygoing city fellow, whereas his brother, enters, informs Ctesipho that Bacchis is waiting for
Demea, is married and strict and lives in the country. him inside, and says that he and Syrus will go to make
Micio explains that he adopted Demea’s elder son, sure Sannio receives his money.
Aeschinus, and raised him in the city. Micio admits In the third act, Sostrata and a nurse, Canthara,
that he has not been strict with Aeschinus and claims enter. Their conversation reveals that Sostrata’s daugh-
that he therefore has created a bond of friendship and ter, Pamphila, who was raped, is about to have a baby.
trust with Aeschinus. Demea, however, does not The women hope that Aeschinus, who is in love with
approve of such a lax approach and Micio is ruining Pamphila and wants to marry her, will come to their
the boy. house. Next, Sostrata’s slave, Geta, enters. Sostrata and
Soon, Demea himself approaches and tells Micio Canthara eavesdrop as Geta complains that Aeschinus
that Aeschinus has recently broken down the door of has betrayed them and fallen in love with Bacchis. Geta
someone’s house and stolen a girl. Micio dismisses is wrong about this, but he saw Aeschinus carry off
Aeschinus’ actions as typical youthful behavior. Micio Bacchis from Sannio’s house, so he assumes the worst.
tells Demea that Aeschinus is his (Micio’s) responsibil- Sostrata is upset at this news and tells Geta to inform
ity and that any wrong he does reflects on Micio. her relative, Hegio, about Aeschinus’ behavior. Sostrata
 THE BROTHERS 101

also sends Canthara to find a midwife to help Pamphila pretends that Ctesipho has beaten him and has
deliver her baby. claimed that the purchase of the music girl was Syrus’
After Geta and the women exit, an angry Demea fault. Demea is delighted by Ctesipho’s behavior and
enters. He has heard that his son, Ctesipho, was asks Syrus whether Micio is at home. Syrus gives
involved in the abduction of Bacchis. When Demea Demea false, lengthy, and impossibly complicated
sees Syrus approaching, the old man eavesdrops on the directions to Micio’s location. After Demea sets out,
slave. Demea listens as Syrus explains that Aeschinus Syrus reenters Micio’s house to enjoy the party.
told Micio about Bacchis, that Micio handed over the Next, Micio enters with Hegio; he tells Hegio that he
money to pay for Bacchis, and that he even gave them will help smooth over the misunderstanding about
some money to spend on supplies for a party. An Aeschinus and Bacchis, and the two men exit into Sos-
enraged Demea then emerges, addresses Syrus, and trata’s house. Soon, Aeschinus enters from the forum,
criticizes Micio for his extravagant mode of life. Demea worried because his most recent effort to see how Pam-
is horrified to learn that Micio intends to allow Bacchis phila was doing has been refused. Aeschinus realizes
to remain in his house. When Demea asks about Cte- that the women suspect that he is having an affair with
sipho, Syrus lies; he tells him that he saw Ctesipho at Bacchis, but he does not want to reveal his brother,
Demea’s farm in the country. Syrus lies again, telling Ctesipho’s, secret. Aeschinus decides that he must
Demea that Ctesipho criticized Aeschinus for abduct- resolve this problem and goes to Sostrata’s house. Just
ing Bacchis. Demea expresses his pride in his son when as Aeschinus knocks on the door, his adoptive father,
he hears this and attributes Ctesipho’s behavior to his Micio, emerges. Micio, realizing that Aeschinus is on
strict upbringing. After listening to Demea’s self-con- the verge of confessing his mistakes, decides to tease
gratulations, Syrus excuses himself to tend to his his son by pretending that Pamphila is going to marry
duties in the house. one of her relatives and live with him in Miletus. When
After Syrus’ departure, Sostrata’s relative, Hegio, Aeschinus hears this, he begins to cry. Micio then tells
approaches with Geta. Hegio expresses his outrage Aeschinus that he knows the truth, and he tells Aeschi-
about Aeschinus’ behavior and indicates that he nus that he has arranged for him to marry Pamphila.
intends to help Sostrata and her family. When Demea After Micio and a joyful Aeschinus exit into their
greets Hegio, Hegio informs him that Aeschinus has house to prepare for the wedding, Demea, exhausted
raped and impregnated Pamphila and then abandoned from searching for Micio, enters and announces his
her for the music girl-prostitute Bacchis. Demea is intention to wait for Micio. When Micio emerges from
shocked by Aeschinus’ behavior and promises to speak his house, Demea immediately complains to him about
to Micio about the young man. Hegio, satisfied by Aeschinus’ behavior. Micio tells his brother that he
Demea, enters Sostrata’s house, where the cries of Pam- knows everything and that Aeschinus will marry Pam-
phila, who is in labor, can be heard. Demea exits phila. Demea is outraged by the purchase of the music
toward the forum to tell Micio what he has heard. girl and is more appalled when he hears that she and
In the fourth act, Syrus informs Ctesipho that his Pamphila will both live under Micio’s roof. Micio, how-
father has gone to the country. Ctesipho also tries to ever, tells Demea to control his temper and prepare to
find some excuse to stay at Micio’s house. Suddenly, celebrate Aeschinus’ marriage.
however, Syrus and Ctesipho see Demea, who is The play’s final act begins with the appearance of an
approaching. Syrus tells Ctesipho to hide and says he intoxicated Syrus, who encounters Demea. When
will take care of Demea. Syrus and Ctesipho eavesdrop another slave, Dromo, opens the door and tells Syrus
as Demea expresses his frustration that he cannot find that Ctesipho wants him to go back inside, Demea hears
Micio and that he has also learned that Ctesipho is not and forces his way into Micio’s house. Next, Micio, fol-
at the farm. Ctesipho, worried that his father may find lowed by Demea, emerges from the house. Demea
him, begs Syrus to help him and then exits into the demands to know what Ctesipho is doing at Micio’s
house. When Demea approaches Micio’s house, Syrus house and why Micio bought Bacchis for Ctesipho.
102 THE BROTHERS

Micio defends his actions, but Demea worries that styles of the two brothers will affect the two sons.
Micio’s carefree attitude will ruin the youths. Demea Demea has been strict with Ctesipho, who has
declares that he will take Ctesipho and Bacchis to the rewarded his father by deceiving him and by having a
farm the next day and will give Bacchis difficult chores. secret love affair. Micio has not been strict with Aeschi-
After Micio reenters the house, Demea expresses his nus, who has been honest with his father. Although
desire to be easygoing and loved as Micio is. Demea Micio’s style of parenting initially appears to be supe-
decides that if being loved results from being easygo- rior, at the play’s conclusion Demea exposes the weak-
ing and free with his money, then he will do that. nesses of being too liberal with one’s children. Clearly,
Accordingly, Demea begins by acting friendly to the a style of parenting between the two extremes is
slaves he encounters, Syrus and Geta. Next, Aeschinus, needed.
anxious to get the wedding under way, arrives from the Duckworth classifies Brothers as one of five extant
house. Demea urges him to knock down the wall that Roman comedies (see also POT OF GOLD, STICHUS, THREE-
separates Micio and Sostrata’s houses and put Pam- DOLLAR DAY, and TRUCULENTUS) that focus on character.
phila’s entire household under Micio’s roof. Aeschinus One may pass over comparison with Stichus, because
is delighted by this idea and Demea is delighted by the this play bears little resemblance to anything else in
annoyance it will cause Micio. Demea then orders Roman COMEDY. The no-nonsense Demea has some
Syrus to knock down the wall and Geta to fetch Sos- similarity to Euclio in Pot of Gold, but the grouchy
trata and her household. Euclio is more concerned about his pot of gold than
When Micio hears what is happening, he goes out about his pregnant daughter. Demea is concerned with
and confronts Demea, who argues that this uniting of the behavior of his sons. Three-Dollar Day is similar to
the two families is the proper thing to do. Further- Brothers in that both plays are about young men who
more, Demea suggests that Micio should marry Pam- are engaged in riotous living and who are under the
phila’s mother. The bachelor Micio is horrified by this care of men who are not their biological father. Unlike
suggestion, but Aeschinus urges him to marry Sostrata. Lesbonicus in Three-Dollar Day, Aeschinus has not
After Micio agrees to the marriage proposal, Demea squandered his fortune, and therefore the young men
suggests that Micio do something nice for Sostrata’s have entirely different problems. As for Truculentus, the
kinsman, Hegio, namely, give him a plot of land that young Diniarchus is somewhat like Ctesipho in that
Micio owns. Again, Micio agrees, egged on by Aeschi- both men have had sexual relations with freeborn
nus’ begging. Next, Demea suggests that Syrus be women and eventually are allowed to stay with them.
given his freedom. When Aeschinus indicates his As Brothers does, Truculentus also features a “country”
approval, Micio frees Syrus. Additionally, when Syrus boy who is in love with a woman of slave status and
expresses the desire that his wife be freed as well, who ultimately will enjoy her favors. The young men in
Micio is compelled to free her. Demea also arranges for Truculentus are not brothers, however, and the fathers of
Micio to give Syrus some money so that he can support the young men are relegated to the background.
himself as a freedman. When Micio asks Demea why Although Brothers shares some common ground
he is behaving so generously, Demea says that it is to with these plays, this play is most similar to Terence’s
teach Micio a lesson. Aeschinus agrees that Demea own SELF-TORMENTOR, which appeared three years ear-
knows what is in his sons’ best interest. The play ends lier. In both plays, the two sons are involved in love
as Demea declares that Ctesipho may keep Bacchis, but affairs, one with a freeborn woman, the other with a
that she must be his last such indulgence. slave. Both plays focus on the relationship between
two fathers and two sons. As in Brothers, one of the
COMMENTARY fathers is strict with his son and the other is more
Brothers is considered Terence’s best play and one of lenient. In Self-Tormentor, however, the strict father has
the finest ancient comedies. The primary issue in repented of his earlier behavior at the beginning of the
Brothers is how the respective characters and parenting play, whereas in Brothers the strict father modifies his
 THE BROTHERS 103

attitude at the end of the play. Also, in Self-Tormentor violent as he breaks into the pimp’s house, steals the
the more lenient father tries to prevent the more strict woman, and then forcefully drives off the pimp.
father from becoming overly indulgent with his sons. Although Aeschinus appears to be a rather tough char-
Ultimately, as in Brothers, the more lenient father in acter with respect to his brother’s affair, he behaves in
Self-Tormentor discovers that his son has been deceiv- a much milder fashion about his own affair. He keeps
ing him. In both plays, the son of the more strict his word about his intention to marry Pamphila, he
father will marry the freeborn woman; however, shows concern for the distress he is causing Sostrata
whereas in Brothers the son of the more indulgent and Pamphila, and he tells them the truth despite the
father will be allowed to keep his slave-concubine, in difficulties doing so will cause for his brother. He also
Self-Tormentor the son of the more indulgent father tells his father the truth after bursting into tears.
must also marry a freeborn woman. Both Self-Tormen- Indeed, in the fourth act, Aeschinus appears very dif-
tor and Brothers have the message that fathers must ferent from the young man who smashed his way into
seek a middle ground in dealing with sons. One major a pimp’s house and abducted a woman.
difference between the two plays, as indicated in the As for the fathers, in Self-Tormentor, Chremes
title of the later play, is the concept of brotherhood. In schemes with his contemporary, Menedemus, to fund
Self-Tormentor, the two young men and the two older his son’s love affair. In Brothers, neither Demea nor
men are friends and neighbors, but not brothers. In Micio takes this sort of role in his son’s love affairs. Not
the later play, the brotherhood of Aeschinus and Cte- only are Demea and Micio separated by educational
sipho, and Demea and Micio, creates a more complex philosophy, they are also separated physically during
dynamic. Demea is concerned about his brother and most of the middle three acts of the play. In Brothers,
his two sons. Aeschinus is concerned about the feel- the fathers’ educational philosophy regarding their
ings of his father, brother, future wife, and future sons is established in the opening act and then the
mother-in-law. audience witnesses how the sons behave. In Self-Tor-
In addition to the complexities of two sets of broth- mentor, the sons are largely kept occupied with their
ers, other major differences between Self-Tormentor women offstage, while Syrus and Chremes are busying
and Brothers occur in the roles of the slave Syrus, the forming plots onstage. Self-Tormentor is, as its name
young man Aeschinus, and the fathers. The Syrus in indicates, rather tormenting for the audience, because
Self-Tormentor spends much of the play trying to the plots that Syrus and Chremes have spent most of
acquire money so that the young man Clitipho can the play concocting have little direct role in the final
carry on his love affair. The Syrus in Brothers does not resolution. The conclusion of Brothers is imminently
attempt to orchestrate deception but aids Aeschinus in more satisfying, as Demea’s reversal of behavior allows
dealing with the pimp and misdirects Demea by telling him to have the last laugh. He gives away property,
him that Ctesipho is in the country and then sending frees slaves, and arranges marriages. Demea has gone
him on a wild search for Micio. In Brothers, Syrus is from playing the angry old man to playing the indul-
given his freedom; in Self-Tormentor, Syrus is merely gent old man—and all at his brother’s expense.
pardoned for his mischief.
In Brothers, we find no such scheming as in Self-Tor- BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fantham, E. “Hautontimoroumenos and Adelphoe: A Study of
mentor, but two instances of misdirection from Syrus
Fatherhood in Terence and Menander,” Latomus 30
and force from Aeschinus. Aeschinus’ high level of
(1971): 970–98.
activity in the second act is unusual for Roman comedy Goldberg, S. M. Understanding Terence. Princeton, N.J.:
in that the young male citizen does not ordinarily take Princeton University Press, 1986, 22–29, 97–105,
charge in the pursuit of his love affairs. Typically, the 211–16.
young man sits back while his slave does the work for Grant, J. N. “The Ending of Terence’s Adelphoe and the
him. Aeschinus, however, is vigorous in helping his Menandrian Original,” American Journal of Philology 96
brother’s love affair succeed. Aeschinus appears rather (1975): 42–60.
104 BRUTTIUM

Gratwick, A. S. Terence: The Brothers. 2d ed. Warminster, BIBLIOGRAPHY

U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2000. Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
Johnson, W. R. “Micio and the Perils of Perfection,” Califor- Press, 1987, 113.
nia Studies in Classical Antiquity 1 (1968): 171–86.
Lord, C. “Aristotle, Menander, and the Adelphoe of Terence,” BUSIRIS A son of POSEIDON and Lysianassa (or
Transactions of the American Philological Association 107 Anippe), Busiris was a mythical king of Egypt. When
(1977): 183–202.
Egypt experienced famine for nine years, a certain
Martin, R. H. Terence: Adelphoe. Cambridge and New York:
prophet stated that the famine would end if every year
Cambridge University Press, 1976.
the Egyptians sacrificed a stranger to ZEUS. Busiris
began by sacrificing the prophet himself and continued
BRUTTIUM The region that occupies the “toe” to sacrifice strangers who traveled to his land. Eventu-
of Italy’s “boot.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules
ally, HERACLES arrived in Busiris’ kingdom, was cap-
Oetaeus 651, Thyestes 578]
tured, and was prepared for sacrifice. Heracles,
however, escaped and killed Busiris; his son, Amphi-
BRUTUS (CA. 85–OCTOBER 42 B.C.E.) Mar- damas (or Iphidamas); and Busiris’ attendants at the
cus Iunius Brutus was one of the principal assassins of sacrifice.
JULIUS CAESAR. Although Brutus fought against Caesar EURIPIDES wrote a satyric Busiris of which three brief
in his war with Pompey in the early 40s, Caesar par- fragments survive. In fragment 312a (Snell), a person
doned him. In 46, Brutus governed the Roman named LAMIA may be the speaker. Two women named
province of Cisalpine Gaul and two years he later par- Lamia are known from mythology. Two sources men-
ticipated in the plot to kill Caesar. After this, civil war tion a Libyan Lamia, the daughter of Poseidon and the
broke out between the assassins and their supporters first woman to chant oracles. The better known Lamia,
and those who favored Caesar, who were led by Mar- also from Libya, was the daughter of Belus. Zeus had
cus ANTONIUS and Octavian (the future emperor an affair with her that HERA discovered. Hera took
AUGUSTUS). The final showdown between the two Lamia’s children away from her, causing Lamia to
armies occurred at Philippi (northeastern Greece) on become insane and begin to kill other children. It is
October 23, 42. Brutus’ forces were defeated and Bru- unknown how Euripides might have integrated the
tus committed suicide after the battle. [ANCIENT story of Lamia with that of Busiris.
SOURCES: Appian, Civil Wars 2–4; Cicero, Brutus, Let- Several comic poets wrote plays entitled Busiris.
ters, Phillipics; Plutarch, Marcus Brutus, Comparison of Only the title survives from the younger Cratinus’ play
Brutus and Dion; Seneca, Octavia 498; Suetonius, Julius and a single, uninformative line remains from the elder
Caesar 49–85] Cratinus’ Busiris (fragment 21 Kock 1). In the single
BIBLIOGRAPHY fragment of Mnesimachus’ Busiris Heracles is the
Clarke, M. L. The Noblest Roman: Marcus Brutus and his Rep- speaker and notes his substantial appetite (fragment 2
utation. London: Thames & Hudson, 1981. Kock 2). In the lone fragment from Ephippus’ Busiris,
Radin, M. Marcus Brutus. New York and London: Oxford Heracles identifies himself as being an Argive and says
University Press, 1939. that Argive men fight all their battles while drunk
Syme, R. The Roman Revolution. London: Oxford University (fragment 2 Kock 2). Antiphanes also wrote a Busiris,
Press, 1962. whose fragments are too brief to provide information
about the play’s content (fragments 65–67 Kock 2).
BUPALUS The son of Archermus, Bupalus was a [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.5.11;
sculptor from the island of CHIOS. Bupalus’ statue of Isocrates, Speeches and Letters 11; Scholiast on Apollo-
Hipponax, a writer of iambic verse, led to his being nius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.1396; Seneca, Hercules
attacked in Hipponax’s writings. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Furens 483, Hercules Oetaeus 26, 1787, Trojan Women
Aristophanes, Lysistrata 361] 1106]
 BYZANTIUM 105

BIBLIOGRAPHY BYBLINE MOUNTAINS A mountain range

Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: through which the NILE flows in Africa. [ANCIENT
Teubner, 1880. SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 811]
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1884.
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
BYRSINE A pseudonym for Myrsine or Myrrhine,
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
the wife of the Athenian tyrant HIPPIAS. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 449]
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta: Supplementum.
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
BUSKIN A boot (as high as the calf) worn by Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 167–68.
actors in TRAGEDY, although perhaps not during the
fifth century B.C.E. Henderson says this boot “fitted BYZANTIUM A famous city on the European
either foot and was worn mainly by women.” The side of the strait that guards the southern entrance to
comic poet Philonides, who produced three of ARISTO- the Black Sea. In 478 B.C.E., a coalition of Greeks under
PHANES’ plays, staged a Buskins (Greek: Kothornoi), of the command of the Spartan Pausanias retook the city
which a few fragments survive (1–6 Kock). The Roman from the Persians. The Greek comic poet Antiphanes
term for this boot is SOCCUS (plural: socci). [ANCIENT wrote a play called Byzantios (The Byzantine man), of
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 47, 557, Lysistrata 657; which three words survive (69 Kock). [ANCIENT
Herodotus, 1.155, 6.125] SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 249, Wasps 236; Thucy-

BIBLIOGRAPHY dides 1.94.2, 1.131.1]

Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon BIBLIOGRAPHY
Press, 1993, 195. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon Teubner, 1884.
Press, 1987, 158.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880.
 C CD
CABEIRI Four divinities worshipped by the Pelas- where it lay down. After a serpent that guarded a
gians. The name Cabeiri usually referred to HADES, nearby spring killed some of Cadmus’ men, Cadmus
DEMETER, PERSEPHONE, and HERMES, and as with the killed it. As Cadmus stood marveling at the dead crea-
Greek worship of Demeter and Persephone, one could ture, ATHENA appeared and ordered Cadmus to plant
be initiated into the MYSTERIES of the Cabeiri. Initiation half of the serpent’s teeth in the ground. When Cad-
into these mysteries “was supposed to be a guarantee mus did so, a crop of armed warriors sprang up. On
that the initiate’s prayers would be answered, especially Athena’s advice, Cadmus threw a rock at the warriors.
when he was in danger at sea” (Sommerstein). The wor- The warriors, accusing each other of having thrown
ship of the Cabeiri was prominent in the islands of the the rock, began to fight among themselves. All the war-
northern AEGEAN, especially on Imbros, LEMNOS, and riors, with the exception of five, died. The survivors
SAMOTHRACE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollonius Rhodius, helped Cadmus establish his new town. Because the
1.916–21; Aristophanes, Peace 277; Herodotus, 2.51] serpent was sacred to ARES, Cadmus had to atone to
the war god for his actions. After Cadmus had atoned
BIBLIOGRAPHY for the serpent’s death, Ares married his daughter
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5, HARMONIA to him. They had four daughters (INO,
Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985, 145–46.
SEMELE, AGAVE, AUTONOE) and a son (Polydorus). After
the disaster involving PENTHEUS, Cadmus and Harmo-
CADMEIDES The daughters of CADMUS. nia were exiled from Thebes and traveled to Illyria,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Furens 758] where they ruled over a tribe called the Encheleans
and led them to victory in several wars. The Enche-
CADMUS (KADMOS) The son of AGENOR leans lost favor with Apollo, however, because they
and Argiope, Cadmus was originally from the region raided some of his shrines. The Encheleans began to
near Tyre and Sidon. After the abduction of his sister, be unsuccessful in war, and Ares turned Cadmus and
EUROPA, by ZEUS, Cadmus went in search of her. He Harmonia into serpents.
eventually made his way to Greece and the DELPHIC Cadmus is frequently mentioned in ancient drama
ORACLE, who told him not to continue his search for but appears as a character in only one surviving play—
Europa, but to found a town on the spot where he saw EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE. In that play, Cadmus is character-
a certain cow rest. After departing from the oracle, ized as the aged former Theban king, who is willing to
Cadmus saw the cow, followed it, and founded the accept the worship of DIONYSUS. At the end of Bacchae,
town that would eventually become THEBES on the spot however, Dionysus announces that Cadmus and his

106
 CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS 107

wife must go into exile and will eventually be turned BIBLIOGRAPHY

into serpents. Euripides may have written a play titled Ooms, C. W. “Studies on the Language of Caecilius Statius.”
Cadmus, from which three lines survive (fragment 448 Dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1977.
Nauck). Webster is convinced the fragment is a forgery. Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 6; Ovid, Metamor- ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1935.
phoses 3.1–137, 4.563–603; Seneca, Oedipus 712, Her-
cules Furens 261, 392, 917, Phoenician Women 125, 644]
CAENEUS Caeneus was born a woman of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY Lapith tribe, but after POSEIDON had sexual intercourse
Devereux, G. “The Psychotherapy Scene in Euripides’ Bac- with her, she asked him to make her an invulnerable
chae,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 90 (1970): 35–48. male. Poseidon granted her request, and when THESEUS
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
and PIRITHOUS battled the centaurs, Caeneus was unin-
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
jured by those who struck him and killed numerous
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Methuen, 1967.
centaurs. He died, however, when some surviving cen-
taurs surrounded him and buried him beneath a pile of
CAECIAS A name for a wind from the northeast. fir trees and rocks, which caused him to suffocate.
The Paphlagonian (CLEON) is compared to such a wind Two Greek comic poets, Antiphanes (fragment 112
in ARISTOPHANES’ KNIGHTS (437). Kock) and Araros (fragments 4–7 Kock), wrote plays
entitled Caeneus. The fragment from Antiphanes refers
CAECILIUS (DIED 168 B.C.E.) As TERENCE to the famous drinking cup of NESTOR. Araros fragment
was, Caecilius, who was born in Gaul, was taken to 4 refers to a maiden who may be Caeneus, for the
Rome as a slave (perhaps around the year 223 or 222) speaker of the fragment appears to be surprised that
and became a writer of comedies that were adapted the person is wearing women’s clothing; fragment 5
from Greek comic poets such as MENANDER. Some (“your daughter, when he cut her with [his] axe”) may
ancient critics ranked Caecilius ahead of Terence in be a reference to Poseidon’s intercourse with Caeneus
skill, and Caecilius is said to have listened to Terence’s as the verb here is used in an obscene sense. The other
ANDRIA and to have had a positive opinion of it. two fragments from Araros’ Caenus provide little
Because Andria was not produced until two years after insight into the play’s content. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
Caecilius’ death, this story has been doubted. lodorus, Epitome 1.22; Hyginus, Fables 14; Ovid,
None of Caecilius’ plays has survived intact, but Metamorphoses 12.459–532]
some 280 lines exist and 42 titles are known. About a BIBLIOGRAPHY
third of these titles indicate that Caecilius drew on Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Menander as his model. The most extensive fragments Teubner, 1884.
in Caecilius are from his Plocium (The little necklace),
which was based on a Menandrian play of the same CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (100–MARCH
name. The 45 lines that survive show that the play 15, 44 B.C.E.) The son of Gaius Caesar and Aurelia,
dealt with a young man and woman who planned to Julius Caesar rose to prominence in Rome in the 50s
get married. The woman, however, was pregnant and by his conquests when he was a governor of the
gave birth to a child. The young man’s mother thought provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Transalpine Gaul. The
her husband was the culprit, and the young man’s Roman Senate became fearful of Caesar’s power and on
paternity was proved by means of a necklace. [ANCIENT January 1, 49, voted that he should give up his com-
SOURCES: Cicero, Letters to Atticus 7.3; Horace, Epistles mand. Caesar refused and with his armies intact
2.1.59; Quintilian, 10.1.99; Suetonius, De Poetis crossed the Rubicon River in northern Italy. This hos-
11.27–34; Terence, Mother-in-Law 9–27; Volcacius tile action caused a civil war to break out between the
Sedigitus, fragment 1.5] forces of Caesar and Pompey, who had been married to
108 CALAIS

Caesar’s daughter, Julia (who died in 54). By 48, Cae- sign and declared that Troy was destined to be taken in
sar had defeated Pompey’s forces in Egypt (Pompey a period of 10 years (the birds represented nine years;
was also killed), where Caesar’s mistress, Cleopatra, the serpent’s turning to stone after consuming them
had been firmly installed in her position by Caesar. indicated victory in the 10th year). While still at Aulis,
Although Pompey was dead, Caesar continued to face when AGAMEMNON offended ARTEMIS before the Greek
military resistance from pro-Pompeian forces and he fleet sailed to Troy, Calchas prophesied that Artemis
continued to fight until 45 B.C.E., when he finally could be appeased by the sacrifice of IPHIGENIA. When
defeated Pompey’s sons and his own former legate, Apollo struck the Greek camp with a plague in the
Titus Labienus. In the early 40s, the Roman Senate had 10th year of the war, Calchas correctly predicted that
appointed Caesar to a series of temporary dictator- Agamemnon’s restoration of Chryseis to her father
ships; in 44 they made him dictator for life. Caesar’s would end the plague. In SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, Calchas pre-
life, however, did not last long: He was assassinated by dicted that AJAX would die if he left his tent on the day
political rivals (led by BRUTUS and Cassius) on March after Ajax had tried to kill ODYSSEUS, AGAMEMNON, and
15, 44. In 45, Caesar adopted his nephew, Octavian MENELAUS. Later, Calchas predicted that Troy could not
(see AUGUSTUS), as his heir. Octavian went on to avenge be captured without the help of Achilles’ son NEOP-
Caesar’s assassination and eventually became emperor TOLEMUS and the weapons of HERACLES, which were in
of Rome. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Anonymous, Bellum the possession of PHILOCTETES. Calchas may also have
Africum, Bellum Alexandrinum, Bellum Hispaniense; Cae- issued a prophecy that prompted the building of the
sar, Bellum Gallicum, Bellum Civile; Lucan, Bellum Civile; wooden horse. When the Greeks had sacked Troy and
Seneca, Octavia 500; Plutarch, Caesar; Suetonius, were preparing to sail away, Calchas prevented them
Augustus, Caesar] from leaving, saying that ATHENA was angry with them
because of the Locrian Ajax’s rape of CASSANDRA. Ironi-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
cally, prophecy eventually brought about Calchas’
Adcock, F. E. Caesar, as Man of Letters. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1956. death, as it was prophesied that he would die when a
Balsdon, J. P. V. D. Julius Caesar: A Political Biography. New better prophet appeared. When Calchas lost a contest
York, Atheneum, 1967. in prophecy to TIRESIAS’ son, Mopsus, Calchas died of
Grant, M. Julius Caesar. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, grief and was buried at Notium. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
1969. Apollodorus, Library 3.13.8, Epitome 3.15, 5.8, 6.4;
Holmes, T. Rice. The Roman Republic and the Founder of the Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis, Iphigenia in Tauris 16–21;
Empire. New York: Russell & Russell, 1923. Homer, Iliad 1–2; Hyginus, Fables 97, 98, 128, 190;
Yavetz, Z. Julius Caesar and His Public Image. Ithaca, N.Y.: Plautus, Menaechmi 748, Merchant 945; Seneca,
Cornell University Press, 1983. Agamemnon 167, Trojan Women passim; Sophocles,
Ajax 748–83; Strabo, 14.1.27; Vergil, Aeneid
CALAIS A son of BOREAS and the brother of ZETES. 2.100–185]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CALCHAS The son of Thestor, Calchas of
Degener, J. M. “The Caesura of the Symbolon in Aeschylus’
MEGARA was the main prophet of the Greek army who Agamemnon,” Arethusa 34, no. 1 (2001): 61–95.
fought at TROY to rescue HELEN. Calchas was the Elata-Alster. G. “The King’s Double Bind: Paradoxical Com-
brother of Leucippe and Theonoe. Before the Greeks munication in the Parodos of Aeschylus’ Agamemnon,”
sailed to Troy, Calchas determined that Troy could not Arethusa 18 (1985): 23–46.
be captured without ACHILLES’ help. When the Greeks Tyler, J. “Sophocles’ Ajax and Sophoclean Plot Construc-
made a sacrifice to APOLLO at Aulis, a snake emerged tion,” American Journal of Philology 95 (1974): 24–42.
from the altar, slithered up a nearby plane tree, and,
after consuming eight sparrows and their mother, CALLIAS The son of HIPPONICUS, Callias was a
turned to stone. Calchas said that ZEUS gave them this wealthy Athenian who was mocked as being extrava-
 CALYPSO 109

gant, as having a sexual appetite for both men and listo into a constellation, rescued the unborn Arcas
women (even his mother-in-law), and as being preyed from Callisto’s body, and gave the child to MAIA to
upon by flatterers. Callias fought at the battle of raise.
MARATHON and may have been the architect behind a AESCHYLUS wrote a Callisto, whose surviving two
peace treaty between ATHENS and Persia around 450, as words tell nothing about its plot. Among the Greek
well as one between Athens and SPARTA in 446/445. comic poets, Amphis wrote a Callisto, of which only
Callias had a son named Hipponicus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: the title survives (fragment 23 Kock vol. 2). Two brief
Andocides, 1.124–27l; Aristophanes, Birds 283–84, fragments (17–18 Kock vol. 1) survive from Alcaeus’
Ecclesiazusae 810, Frogs 428; Cratinus, fragments 12, Callisto, but neither gives a clue to the play’s plot or
81 Kock; Eupolis, fragment 161 Kock; Herodotus, characters. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
7.151; Plato, Protagoras; Xenophon, Symposium] 3.8.2; Hyginus, Fables 177; Ovid, Metamorphoses
2.401–530; Pausanias, 1.25.1, 8.3.5; Seneca, Hercules
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Furens 6–7, 1139]
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1995, 235–36. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880. Teubner, 1880.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
CALLIMACHUS At ECCLESIAZUSAE 809, ARISTO- Teubner, 1884.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
PHANES calls Callimachus a chorus trainer (see DIDASKA-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
LOS). The ancient commentators on the line say he had
Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926.
little money, but there is no other evidence to support Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
this claim. 1971.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Sutton, D. F. “A Handlist of Satyr Plays,” Harvard Studies in
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, Classical Philology 78 (1974): 107–43.
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
208. CALPE A mountain on the southern coast of Spain
opposite the African coast. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca,
CALLISTO The daughter of Nycteus (or Ceteus Hercules Furens 237, Hercules Oetaeus 1240, 1253,
or Lycaon), Callisto (most beautiful) was a young 1569]
woman devoted to ARTEMIS. Callisto attracted the
attention of ZEUS, who, disguising himself as APOLLO or CALYDON A town near the coast of the Gulf of
Artemis, sexually assaulted her. Callisto became preg- CORINTH in northwestern Greece. Calydon was the
nant and gave birth to a son, Arcas. Later, Zeus home of OENEUS, ALTHAEA, MELEAGER, DEIANEIRA, and
changed Callisto into a bear to trick his wife, HERA. TYDEUS and the site of the legendary hunt for the Caly-
Hera learned that Zeus had slept with Callisto and per- donian boar. PLAUTUS’ CARTHAGINIAN has Calydon as its
suaded Artemis to shoot her. Another tradition says setting.
that Artemis killed Callisto when the goddess learned
that the woman was no longer a virgin. Ovid relates CALYPSO The daughter of ATLAS, Calypso (the
that when Arcas was 15 he encountered the bear Cal- concealer) was a goddess who lived on the mythical
listo and would have killed her, but Zeus took both island of Ogygia. During ODYSSEUS’ return home from
Callisto and Arcas in to the heavens and changed them the Trojan War, he landed on the island and spent sev-
into constellations. Callisto became Ursa Major (the eral years (five or seven, depending on the source) with
bigger bear), and Arcas became Ursa Minor (the Calypso, who offered to make him immortal. Apol-
smaller bear). Other sources say that Zeus turned Cal- lodorus says Calypso produced a son, Latinus, by
110 CAMARINA

Odysseus. Other sources mention two sons. Eventu- not succeed. The commanders were tried as a group
ally, the gods arranged for Odysseus to leave Calypso’s and were executed. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
island by raft. Ecclesiazusae 1089; Xenophon, Hellenica 1.7.20–21,
Calypso does not appear as a character in any extant 34]
dramas. The Greek comic poet Anaxilas wrote a
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Calypso, of which two lines survive (fragments 10–11
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
Kock). Fragment 10 (“first the old woman will taste Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
your drink for you”) may refer to Odysseus or one of 230.
his men. It is difficult to see how fragment 11 (“Then I
realized I had a pig’s snout”) would fit in with the story CANOPUS Also spelled Canobus, Canopus is an
of Calypso because Odysseus was not changed into a African town about a dozen miles east of ALEXANDRIA
pig by CIRCE, and all his men who had been with him near the westermost mouth of the NILE River. ZEUS
on Circe’s island were dead by the time Odysseus restored IO to human form at Canopus. [ANCIENT
reached Calypso’s island. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 846, Suppliant
lodorus, Epitome 7.24; Homer, Odyssey 1, 5] Women 311]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: CANTHARUS Usually called the PEIRAEUS, Can-
Teubner, 1884. tharus was the official name for the primary harbor at
ATHENS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 145]
CAMARINA A town on the southwest coast of BIBLIOGRAPHY
SICILY. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 605] Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5,
Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985, 141.
CANCER The zodiacal constellation representing
the crab. HERACLES killed this crab during his battle CAPANEUS The son of Hipponous, Capaneus
against the Hydra, and HERA put the crab’s image in the was the husband of EVADNE, by whom he had a son,
heavens. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus Sthenelus. Capaneus fought on the Argive side in the
41, 67, 1219, 1573, Hippolytus 287, Thyestes 854] famous battle of the Seven against THEBES. While
attempting to scale the walls of Thebes with a ladder,
CANNONUS The son of Sibyrtius from the DEME Capaneus boasted that he would take the town
of Lamptrae, Cannonus was active in Athenian politics whether or not the gods were willing. ZEUS, hearing
during the first quarter of the fifth century B.C.E. Can- this boast, struck Capaneus dead with a lightning bolt.
nonus initiated “a decree making regulations for the The tragedian Timesitheus wrote a Capaneus, of which
trial of those charged with ‘injuring the Athenian peo- only the title survives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus,
ple’” (Sommerstein). Defendants who were under the Seven against Thebes 422–56; Apollodorus, Library
provisions of this decree had to remain in prison until 3.6.3–7, 3.10.8; Euripides, Phoenician Women
their trial, which was presented before the public as a 1128–86, Suppliant Women 861–71; Pausanias, 9.8.7;
whole. During the trial, these defendants had to stand Statius, Thebaid]
in their bonds and have two guards. If convicted of the BIBLIOGRAPHY
charges, the defendants were executed by being Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
thrown down into the barathron, a deep and rocky Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
ditch outside ATHENS. No instance in which Cannonus’
decree was put into practice is known. In 406 B.C.E., an CAPHEREUS A rocky promontory on the
effort to try the Athenian naval commanders at the bat- southeast end of the Greek island of EUBOEA. In
tle of ARGINUSAE by employing Cannonus’ decree did mythology, the Greek fleet, returning from the Trojan
 CAPTIVES 111

War, was wrecked off Caphereus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hegio reveals that Philopolemus is in the hands of a
Euripides, Trojan Women 90; Hyginus, Fables 116; Pau- doctor named Menarchus, Philocrates blurts out that
sanias, 2.23.1, 4.36.6; Seneca, Agamemnon 560] Menarchus is known to Tyndarus, and Tyndarus agrees
to help arrange for Philopolemus to be ransomed.
CAPITOLINE One of the famous seven hills of Hegio agrees to allow Philocrates to go to Elis to
ROME, between the Campus Martius and the Palatine arrange for the ransom. Tyndarus agrees to pay Hegio
hill. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Three-Dollar Day 84] a large sum of money if Philocrates does not return.
After Philocrates departs for Elis, a glum Ergasilus
CAPTIVES PLAUTUS (CA. 189 B.C.E.) The returns from the town, complaining of not being able
Greek original on which PLAUTUS’ play is based is to find a free meal. His departure is followed by the
unknown. The action takes place before the house of arrival of Hegio, who returns from town with a newly
Hegio in an Aetolian town. As the play opens, the audi- bought captive, Aristophontes, who happens to know
ence see two male war captives from ELIS, Philocrates Philocrates. When Tyndarus, who is pretending to be
and Tyndarus, chained to the front of Hegio’s house. Philocrates, sees Aristophontes, Tyndarus fears their
Hegio, a rich Aetolian, had two sons, Philopolemus deception will be revealed. Aristophontes, seeing Tyn-
and a child later named Tyndarus, the latter of whom darus, addresses him by that name. Tyndarus tells
was stolen when he was four by Hegio’s SLAVE, Stalag- Hegio that Aristophontes is insane, denies that he is
mus, and sold in Elis. Theodoromides Polyplusius, the the slave Tyndarus, and claims he is a free man. Even-
person who bought Tyndarus, was the father of tually, Hegio interrogates Aristophontes and discovers
Philocrates, one of the war prisoners from Elis. In turn, that Tyndarus and Philocrates have tricked him. The
Philocrates’ father gave Tyndarus to Philocrates to be angered Hegio then orders Tyndarus to be bound and
his personal servant. Years later, during a war between threatens to send him to the stone quarries.
AETOLIA and Elis, Hegio’s second son, Philopolemus After the exit of Hegio and the captives, an excited
(whose name means “lover of war”), was taken captive Ergasilus enters from the harbor and joyfully reveals to
in Elis. Therefore, Hegio began buying war captives so Hegio that he has seen his son, Philopolemus;
that he could find one to exchange for Philopolemus. Philocrates; and Stalagmus, the slave who abducted
After the play’s prologue and a monologue by the the child Tyndarus. A hopeful Hegio promises
PARASITE Ergasilus, Hegio comes from the house, Ergasilus a lifetime of free meals if his information is
unchains Philocrates and Tyndarus from the wall, and true. At this point, Ergasilus enters the house to dine,
allows them to walk around the grounds of his home. while Hegio exits for the harbor.
After a guard takes the prisoners into the house, Soon Hegio returns with Philopolemus, Philocrates,
Ergasilus, who has been eavesdropping, emerges and and Stalagmus. Hegio, delighted by his reunion with
complains to Hegio about his lack of food because his son, Philopolemus, agrees to turn Tyndarus over to
Philopolemus was captured. After the exit of Hegio Philocrates. As Philopolemus and Philocrates enter
and Ergasilus, a guard enters with the two prisoners. Hegio’s house, Hegio questions Stalagmus, who reveals
Philocrates and Tyndarus move out of earshot of the to him that he abducted Tyndarus, and sold him to
guards and discuss their plan to reverse their roles. Philocrates’ father. After Hegio summons Philocrates
Tyndarus will pretend to be the master, while from the house, Stalgmus reveals that the child he
Philocrates will act as his slave. abducted and the child who became Philocrates’ ser-
Next, Hegio arrives from the house and interrogates vant, Tyndarus, are one and the same. As Philocrates
Philocrates and Tyndarus about their respective back- confirms this, Hegio realizes that he has sentenced his
grounds. Hegio does not realize that Tyndarus is his son to the quarries. At that moment, a chained and
long-lost son. Hegio tells Tyndarus that if he helps him disheveled Tyndarus enters. Tyndarus is baffled when
ransom back his son, Philopolemus, then he will Hegio addresses him as his son, but Philocrates soon
arrange for Tyndarus and Philocrates to be freed. When explains the truth to him. As the action concludes,
112 CAPTIVES

Hegio calls for Tyndarus’ chains to be removed and free person, as, in fact, he is. Philocrates, also born free
threatens to put Stalagmus in them. and captured in war, will pretend to be the slave of his
slave, Tyndarus. Hegio’s son, Philopolemus, as was his
COMMENTARY brother, Tyndarus, was born free but has also become
Many scholars have admired Captives because it has a a captive. When Tyndarus agrees to arrange for the ran-
higher moral tone than Plautus’ other plays. This tone som of Philopolemus, he unwittingly is arranging to
has led some scholars to question whether the play was help ransom his brother. When Tyndarus pledges
actually written by Plautus. Others have defended it as money if Philocrates does not return, he is unwittingly
Plautine and noted the usual Plautine elements of negotiating with his father, but he is also pledging
trickery, farce, and word-play and the usual comic money that, as a slave, does not belong to him, but to
structure. Clearly, however, the play is different from his master, Philocrates.
other Plautine comedies. As is noted in the prologue, When Hegio discovers the deception, he is angry
the play has no pimp or prostitutes (or any female with Tyndarus, who, ironically, argues that after a sin-
characters, for that matter). Captives also lacks the gle day Hegio should not have expected him to be
lovesick young man usually found in New Comedy more loyal to a stranger than to the master he has
(see COMEDY). The introduction of the role of the para- served since childhood (717–19). Even more ironic is
site, Ergasilus, is considered a Plautine innovation and that this is exactly what will happen once Tyndarus
many scholars consider it an intrustive innovation. The discovers that he is Hegio’s son. As soon as Tyndarus’
willingness of Tyndarus to help his master is reminis- slave status ends and his freedom begins, he will
cent of the friendship of ORESTES and PYLADES. One become more loyal to his father, Hegio, than to his
wonders whether PACUVIUS’ Orestes as Slave, in which master, Philocrates. Hegio, after hearing Tyndarus’
Orestes and Pylades were captured and Pylades remark, unwittingly sends his own son off to the stone
claimed that he was Orestes so that he might be exe- quarries.
cuted instead of his friend (see Cicero, De Amicitia 24), Eventually, Hegio discovers the identities of his
might have been produced in time to have influenced sons. Interestingly, before Ergasilus informs Hegio that
Plautus’ Captives. Pacuvius would have been about 30 that he has seen his son, Philopolemus, and Philocrates
years old when Captives was staged. Even if Pacuvius’ and Stalagmus, Ergasilus says he will behave as the
play was unknown to Plautus, the relationship slaves do in comedies (778) so that Hegio will reward
between Tyndarus and Philocles does have a quality him. Captive Philopolemus is transformed from cap-
reminiscent of the relationship between Orestes and tive into a free person and is reunited with his father.
Pylades, and their friendship had been portrayed on Slave Tyndarus regains his freedom, becomes a former
stage as early as the fifth century B.C.E. (see especially captive, and is reunited with his father. Ultimately, the
EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS). little freedom in life that the slave Stalagmus does have
Two of the more prominent features of Captives are is further curtailed as he is threatened with chains at
irony and role reversal. For a play that lacks the clever the play’s conclusion.
slave found in so many other Plautine comedies, Cap-
tives has numerous references to slaves and slavery. Of BIBLIOGRAPHY
Benz, L., and Lefèvre, E., eds. Maccus Barbarus: Sechs Kapitel
course, in opposition to the slave is the master, but the
zur Originalität der Captivi des Plautus. Tübingen, Ger.:
master-slave relationship is further complicated in
Narr, 1998.
Captives by the father-son relationship, and in this play Konstan, D. “Captivi: City-State and Nation.” In Roman Com-
these relationships become reversed, confused, and edy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983, 57–72.
then untangled. Hegio’s son, Tyndarus, who was born Lowe, J. C. B. “Prisoners, Guards, and Chains in Plautus,
free, abducted by a slave, sold to Philocrates as a slave, Captivi,” American Journal of Philology 112 (1991): 29–44.
and later captured in war, will pretend to be the mas- McCarthy, K. Slaves, Masters and the Art of Authority in Plautine
ter of Philocrates. Thus, Tyndarus will pretend to be a Comedy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.
 THE CARTHAGINIAN 113

Segal, Erich. “Is the Captivi Plautine?” In Roman Laughter: BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Comedy of Plautus. New York: Oxford University MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1987, 191–214. Press, 1971, 283.
Thalmann, W. G. “Versions of Slavery in the Captivi of Plau-
tus,” Ramus 25, no. 2 (1996): 112–45. CARIA A region along the western coast of what is
modern Turkey. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
CARCINUS (1) The son of Xenotimus, Carci- Knights 173; Plautus, Curculio]
nus, from the DEME of Thoricus, was an Athenian mili-
tary commander (in 432/431 B.C.E.), dancer, and CARTHAGE (Greek: CARCHEDON;
playwright. Carcinus had produced plays at least as Latin: CARTHAGO) A powerful city-state on
early as 446 B.C.E. and had claimed a victory at the City the coast of northern Africa. In the latter part of the fifth
DIONYSIA. Because Carcinus’ name means “crab” in century B.C.E., some Athenians eyed Carthage as a pos-
Greek, in WASPS ARISTOPHANES uses this as an opportu- sible addition to their own empire. During the third and
nity to make fun of the way Carcinus’ sons danced. second centuries B.C.E., Carthage was Rome’s greatest
One of Carcinus’ sons (also named CARCINUS) was a rival. Several of PLAUTUS’ plays were written during the
playwright. Virtually nothing of the elder Carcinus’ last six or seven years of Rome’s second major war with
poetry survives (fragments 1–2 Snell). [ANCIENT Carthage (218–201): ASINARIA, MERCHANT, BRAGGART
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 1261, Peace 781, 866, WARRIOR, and CASKET COMEDY. Plautus’ CARTHAGINIAN
Thesmophoriazusae 441, Wasps 1501–12; Inscriptiones deals with the fate of some Carthaginian children who
Graecae i2 296.30–40; Plato Comicus, fragment 134.2 were abducted from Carthage and taken to CALYDON.
Kock; Thucydides, 2.23] Plautus’ play may have been modeled on MENANDER’s
Carthaginian (Carchedonius), but little of Menander’s play
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon survives (fragments 226–31 Körte). The Greek comic
Press, 1971, 326–27. poet Alexis also wrote a Carthaginian (Carchedonius), of
Olson, S. D. “Was Carcinus I a Tragic Playwright? A which only two words (“You are a eunuch of Cybele”)
Response,” Classical Philology 92, no. 3 (1997): 258–60. survive (fragment 100 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
Rothwell, K. S. “Was Carcinus I a Tragic Playwright?” Classi- phanes, Knights 174, 1303; Plautus, Casina 71]
cal Philology 89 (1994): 241–45.
Sommerstein. A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, Wasps. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 246. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1884.
Körte, A., and A. Thierfelder. Menandri Quae Supersunt. Vol.
CARCINUS (2) One of the sons of CARCINUS,
2, 2d ed. Leipzig: Teubner, 1959.
grandson of Carcinus, and son of the elder Carcinus’
son, XENOCLES. The younger Carcinus was, as were his
THE CARTHAGINIAN (Latin: POENU-
father and grandfather, a dancer and a dramatist.
LUS) PLAUTUS (CA. 194 OR 193 B.C.E.) The
About a dozen fragments and 10 or 11 titles survive
play’s date is very tentative. The author of the Greek
from the younger Carcinus’ plays. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
original may have been MENANDER. Plautus’ prologue
Aristophanes, Wasps 1501–12]
reveals that the original title of the Greek play was
BIBLIOGRAPHY Carchedonius (Carthaginian). The action of the play
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, takes place in Calydon (the only occurrence of this set-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. ting in extant Roman drama) before the houses of Ago-
rastocles, a young gentleman (see ADULESCENS), and
CARDOPION A mythological character about Lycus, a PIMP. The prologue invites the audience to
whom nothing is known. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- hurry and take their seats. Interestingly, the prologue
phanes, Wasps 1178] suggests that women were in the audience.
114 THE CARTHAGINIAN

As the prologue’s unnamed speaker informs the says she is going to show herself at a sale of prostitutes
audience, a certain Carthaginian had his seven-year- that is taking place at Venus’ temple. In vain, Agoras-
old son, Agorastocles, stolen, and he, Antidamas, died tocles tries to fondle and kiss Adelphasium. Agorasto-
six years later. The person who stole Agorastocles took cles pleads with Milphio to smooth over matters with
him to CALYDON and sold him to a childless bachelor. Adelphasium, but Agorastocles becomes jealous when
A similar fate happened to Hanno, the cousin of Ago- his slave sweetly talks to Adelphasium. Milphio is
rastocles’ father. He had two young daughters, Adel- unsuccessful, and Adelphasium leaves for the temple.
phasium and Anterastilis, who with their nurse, After the women’s departure, Agorastocles begs Mil-
Giddenis, vanished near Carthage. Their abductor phio to help him defeat Lycus. Milphio tells Agorasto-
took them to Anactorium and sold them to a pimp cles to get some witnesses, while he goes inside to
named Lycus, who later moved with them and their prime Collybiscus for the plot.
nurse to Calydon. When the pimp moved in next door The brief second act opens with the arrival of Lycus
to Agorastocles, the young man fell in love with Adel- from Venus’ temple. Lycus is upset because his sacri-
phasium. Antamonides, a soldier, fell in love with fices to Venus were not met with favorable omens. The
Anterastilis and wanted to buy her as his concubine. pimp is soon joined by the soldier Antamonides, who
The prologue also informs the audience that Hanno boasts of his military exploits. Lycus tries to get away
has been searching for his lost daughters for years and from Antamonides, but the soldier demands that
has just arrived in Calydon. Anterastilis be turned over to him that same day. Lycus
In the opening act, Agorastocles and his slave, Mil- and the soldier then enter the house.
phio, enter, and Agorastocles tells him of his love for The next act begins with Agorastocles awaiting the
Adelphasium. Milphio tells Agorastocles that he will arrival of his witnesses. Finally, the slow-moving fel-
help him acquire Adelphasium from the pimp by send- lows enter and explain for the audience’s benefit, as the
ing Agorastocles’ bailiff, Collybiscus, to the pimp’s witness point out, the plan to trick the pimp. Then,
house to hire the prostitute. While Collybiscus is Milphio and Collybiscus enter. Collybiscus is dressed
inside Lycus’ house, Agorastocles will ask Lycus as a mercenary soldier serving in SPARTA. In the pres-
whether his slave is there. Because Lycus does not ence of Agorastocles and his witnesses, Milphio
know Collybiscus, Lycus will think that Agorastocles reviews the scheme with Collybiscus, who then sends
means Milphio; when Lycus says Agorastocles’ servant Milphio and Agorastocles into the house to avoid the
is not in his house, Agorastocles will then accuse the pimp. Collybiscus and the witnesses then encounter
pimp of stealing his slave. Milphio predicts that Lycus Lycus, who is leaving his house. After the witnesses
will be taken to court and judged liable to Agorasto- and Lycus insult one another for some time, Lycus asks
cles. They believe Lycus will have to turn over his who the disguised Collybiscus is. They tell Lycus they
entire house to Agorastocles. just met him that morning leaving a merchant’s ship
Before Agorastocles and Milphio go off to make and took him to Lycus’ house, because he said he
plans with Collybiscus, Adelphasium and Anterastilis wanted to find a place where he could drink and find
approach with offerings for that day’s festival of Venus some “romance.” They also tell Lycus that the man has
(see APHRODITE). The two men eavesdrop as Adelpha- plenty of money with him. Lycus, delighted by the
sium enters discussing the difficulties of caring for two prospect of making a profit, gladly urges the foreigner
women and sermonizing on the virtues of moderation. to go into his house. As Lycus moves off toward his
While the two women discuss going to Venus’ temple, house with Collybiscus, the witnesses move off to a
where Lycus is waiting, the two men make jokes about distance to observe.
Agorastocles’ love for Adelphasium. As Adelphasium The witnesses then call Agorastocles out of his
speaks further of moderation, Agorastocles continues house to watch the proceedings. Agorastocles watches
raving about her. Finally, Agorastocles approaches as Collybiscus hands over the money to Lycus. After
Adelphasium to ask where she is going. Adelphasium Collybiscus and Lycus enter his house, Agorastocles
 THE CARTHAGINIAN 115

asks the witnesses to recite what they saw take place. Next, Adelphasium and Anterastilis enter, and Hanno
Agorastocles, planning how to confront Lycus, emerges and Agorastocles eavesdrop on their conversation,
from his house and announces his plans to spend the which concludes with Anterastilis’ remark that a
money. As the witnesses cover their faces so that Lycus prophet mentioned that soon the two women would be
will not recognize them, Agorastocles approaches and free. When Hanno approaches Adelphasium and
accuses Lycus of allowing his (Agorastocles’) slave into Anterastilis, father and daughters are reunited. Hanno
his house. When Lycus denies the accusation, Agoras- also agrees to allow Agorastocles to marry Adelphasium.
tocles calls the witnesses to take note of the denial. As the joyful reunion continues, Antamonides
Lycus, recognizing the witnesses, realizes the plot enters from Lycus’ house, sees Hanno hugging
against him. Soon, Agorastocles enters Lycus’ house to Anterastilis, and, thinking Hanno is a rival lover,
retrieve Collybiscus. Lycus, worrying what he should threatens the old man. The soldier calms down after he
do next, departs to seek advice from his friends. After learns that Hanno is the woman’s father. After this,
Agorastocles and Collybiscus emerge from Lycus’ Lycus enters and is immediately confronted by Hanno,
house, the witnesses inform Agorastocles that Lycus who informs the pimp that Adelphasium and
has gone. Agorastocles then tells Collybiscus to change Anterastilis are his daughters. Because the women are
back into his usual clothes and asks the witnesses to freeborn, Lycus cannot employ them as prostitutes. He
meet him the following day so that he can bring a suit realizes that he must give them up and agrees to make
against Lycus. financial restitution to Agorastocles. The play ends
In the fourth act, Milphio sees Lycus’ slave, with Agorastocles’ planning to auction his property
Syncerastus, who is returning from making a sacrifice and return to Carthage with Hanno and his daughters.
to Venus, and eavesdrops on him as he complains
about having to serve the pimp. Syncerastus notes that COMMENTARY
the prostitutes’ sacrifices found favor with Venus, but P. W. Harsh, living up to his name, delivered an
those of Lycus did not. Milphio then approaches unequivocal condemnation of Plautus’ play: “The
Syncerastus, who reveals to him that both Adelpha- Carthaginian is miserably constructed and is a poor
sium and Anterastilis are freeborn women from play in every respect.” Most of the scholarly attention
Carthage. Milphio is delighted to hear this and notes paid to this play has focused on the passages written in
that Agorastocles himself was born in Carthage. the Carthaginian language. Since the 1990s, however,
In the fifth act, Hanno of Carthage enters from the Carthaginian has received some fresh consideration by
harbor in search of his daughters and his now- Franko and Starks, who have considered the play in
deceased friend, Antidamas (Agorastocles’ father). terms of the relationship between the Romans and the
Hanno wants to meet with Agorastocles, who soon Carthaginians during the period when the play was
appears talking with Milphio. Hanno eavesdrops on staged (the decade after the end of Rome’s second
the pair and hears them talking about the kidnapping major war with Carthage).
of Adelphasium and Anterastilis. Eventually, Hanno As does BRAGGART WARRIOR, Carthaginian deals with
steps forward and soon learns about Agorastocles’ two men, a young freeborn gentleman and a profes-
identity. Hanno and Agorastocles also figure out that sional soldier, who are in love with prostitutes (or
Hanno is Agorastocles’ maternal uncle. Upon hearing prospective prostitutes). In Warrior, the two men are in
this, Milphio makes a plan that Hanno will tell Lycus love with the same woman; the situation leads to much
that he is the father of Adelphasium and Anterastilis. humor as the tricky slave in that play must outwit the
Hanno is happy to play along and notes, coinciden- soldier’s slave to allow his master to be with his
tally, that he had two daughters, who, along with their beloved. Whereas the soldier (Pyrgopolynices) and the
nurse, were kidnapped when they were young. The young man (Pleusicles) are in love with the same
nurse, Gidennis, emerges from Lycus’ house and rec- woman in Warrior, in Carthaginian, the soldier and the
ognizes her old master, Hanno. young gentleman are in love with different women; as
116 CARYSTIAN ALLIES

a result, little humor develops from this plot line. The they participated in the SICILIAN EXPEDITION of 415–13.
most significant humor surrounding the soldier to They also aided in replacing the Athenian democracy
arise occurs when he accuses Hanno of embracing his with the oligarchy of 400 in the year 411. [ANCIENT
beloved. Of course, the soldier soon finds out that SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 1058, 1182; Thucy-
Hanno is her father and not his rival. dides, 4.42, 7.57.4, 8.69.3]
Whereas Warrior focuses on the utter defeat and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
embarrassment of the soldier, defeat of the pimp is the
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
focal point of Carthaginian. As in Warrior, in Carthagin- Press, 1987, 191.
ian a tricky slave engineers the deception, and slaves in
both plays employ disguised accomplices to trick their CASINA PLAUTUS (185 OR 184 B.C.E.) The
opponents. Milphio’s first deception of the pimp in the play’s prologue (lines 31–34) reveals that Plautus
third act appears to be a waste of time because the legal adapted the play from Kleroumenoi (Lot drawers) of
action proposed by Agorastocles does not come to pass DIPHILUS, the author whose original PLAUTUS used in
as a result of this trick. Furthermore, in the fourth act, composing ROPE. The prologue (lines 13–14) also indi-
Milphio devises a new intrigue with the pimp’s slave,
cates that Casina had been staged successfully at an ear-
but this deception is never implemented. In the play’s
lier time. The play’s action occurs in ATHENS (the most
final act, Milphio at last engineers a plan whose results
common setting for Roman comedies) before the houses
are seen as he tells the women’s father to declare to
of two elderly gentlemen, Lysidamus and Alcesimus.
Lycus that they are his freeborn daughters and there-
As the prologue informs us, 16 years earlier one of
fore cannot be sold into slavery.
the slaves, who had seen a woman abandon the baby
Thus, as do Curculio and ROPE, Carthaginian ends
Casina, asked her whether he might have the infant.
with the ruin of the pimp. At the conclusion of Rope,
The slave then took the infant to his mistress, who
however, the pimp is forgiven and invited to dinner.
raised the child. After Casina grew up, both Lysidamus
The conclusion of Carthaginian is more like that of
and his son fell in love with her. Unknown to each
Curculio, in which the soldier apprehends the pimp, to
other, Lysidamus and his son had been attempting to
whom no forgiveness or participation in feasting will
arrange a union with Casina. Because Casina was
be granted. The planned sale of goods and departure
raised as a slave, the two noblemen could not marry
from the town are parallelled in MENAECHMI.
her, but they did want to enjoy her sexual favors.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Therefore, Lysidamus and his son were trying to
Franko, G. F. “The Characterization of Hanno in Plautus’ induce their own male slaves to marry Casina but
Poenulus,” American Journal of Philology 117, no. 3 (1996): allow Lysidamus and his son to enjoy her also. Thus,
425–52. the son’s slave, Chalinus, was commissioned to ask
Harsh, P. W. A Handbook of Classical Drama. Stanford, Calif.: Casina to marry him, and Lysidamus’ slave, Olympio,
Stanford University Press, 1944, 364. was commissioned to arrange his own marriage to
Heidelberg, M. G. Poenulus. Heidelberg: Winter, 1975.
Casina. To complicate matters more, Lysidamus was
Rosivach, V. J. “The Advocati in the Poenulus and the Pisca-
already married to Cleostrata. Because Cleostrata knew
tores in the Rudens,” Maia 35 (1983): 83–93.
Starks, J. “Nullus me est hodie poenus poenior: Balanced Eth-
that her husband loved Casina, she was trying to help
nic Humor in Plautus’ Poenulus,” Helios 27, no. 2 (2000): her son get her. After Lysidamus learned his son was in
163–86. love with Casina, he sent him abroad. Cleostrata, how-
Zwierlein, O. Zur Kritik und Exegese des Plautus. Vol. I, ever, continued to help her son in his absence.
Poenulus und Curculio. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1990. In the brief opening act, Chalinus and Olympio
argue over who will get Casina. In the second act, after
CARYSTIAN ALLIES The people of Carystus the departure of the slaves, Cleostrata encounters
were allies of the Athenians during the 420s and 410s Myrrhina, the wife of her neighbor, Alcesimus.
B.C.E. In 425, they helped ATHENS invade CORINTH, and Cleostrata complains to Myrrhina about the way Lysi-
 CASINA 117

damus has been treating her, but Myrrhina tells ing from the agreed-upon plan. Eventually, Alcesimus
Cleostrata she should tolerate her husband’s affair calms and agrees to send Myrrhina to Lysidamus’
because otherwise he might divorce her. house. Before Lysidamus can return to his house, the
After Myrrhina returns to her house, Lysidamus maidservant, Pardalisca, rushes from the house in a
enters, drunk and ecstatic from feelings of love for terror. Pardalisca’s fear, however, is an element of
Casina. Cleostrata eavesdrops while Lysidamus speaks Cleostrata and Myrrhina’s plot to trick Lysidamus.
of love. Lysidamus sees Cleostrata and tries to soothe Pardalisca tells Lysidamus that Casina has become
her, but she knows what he has been doing. When the mad, is waving two swords, and is threatening to kill
conversation turns to Casina, Lysidamus and herself, Lysidamus, and Olympio. Pardalisca claims
Cleostrata argue about whether Casina should marry Casina will not put down the swords unless the mar-
Chalinus or Olympio. Lysidamus and Cleostrata riage to Olympio is called off. Lysidamus fears for his
decide to try to persuade one of the slaves to give up life, but he insists that the wedding occur and begs
his attempt to marry Casina, but neither is successful. Pardalisca to go back into the house and try to calm
Finally, they agree that Casina’s marriage will be Casina. In the following scene, Olympio returns with
decided by the drawing of lots—a lottery that Olympio some cooks and food for the wedding feast. Lysidamus
wins. informs him of Casina’s madness, but Olympio thinks
After Olympio’s victory, a dejected Chalinus listens her actions are nonsense, and eventually both men
in while Lysidamus and Olympio plan a rendezvous enter the house.
between Lysidamus and Casina. Because Olympio lives Pardalisca opens the fourth act by reporting the
in the countryside, Lysidamus can enjoy Casina with- events inside Lysidamus’ house. She informs the audi-
out his wife’s knowledge. Lysidamus reveals that while ence that all those inside, including the cooks, are
preparations for the wedding are going on, Myrrhina doing their best to prevent Lysidamus from having
will stay at Lysidamus’ house to help Cleostrata. Alces- dinner. Cleostrata and Myrrhina have dressed Chalinus
imus, whom Lysidamus has informed of his love for as a woman and plan to pass him off as Casina. Soon,
Casina, will help Lysidamus by allowing him to use his Lysidamus, unable to have dinner, claims he want to
house for a sexual encounter with Casina that night. take his meal at his farm outside. He calls for Olympio
Then Alcesimus sends Olympio to the FORUM to buy and Casina, and after the two old men sing the wed-
some food. As Olympio departs for the forum and Lysi- ding song, Chalinus, disguised as Casina, emerges
damus enters Alcesimus’ house, Chalinus gleefully from the house. After the departure of those attending
plans to gain revenge by telling Cleostrata what her the “bride,” Lysidamus and Olympio begin to fight
husband has in mind. over the “girl.” As the two men attempt to kiss and
In the play’s third act, Lysidamus and Alcesimus caress her, she gives them all sorts of punches and
confirm their plans for the rendezvous with Casina. kicks. Eventually, the two men persuade the cross-
Lysidamus departs for the forum, while Alcesimus dressed Chalinus to enter Alcesimus’ house.
returns to his house. Next, Cleostrata, who has learned The play’s final act opens with the appearance of
of Lysidamus’ scheme, encounters Alcesimus and says Cleostrata, Myrrhina, and Pardalisca, who anxiously
that she does not need Myrrhina’s help after all. As await news of what has happened between “Casina”
Cleostrata pretends to enter her house, she listens as and the men. The three women eavesdrop as a bewil-
Alcesimus worries that Lysidamus’ plans will be dered and bruised Olympio emerges from Alcesimus’
spoiled. house. Olympio begins to tell of his efforts to make
In the next scene, Lysidamus returns from the forum love to “Casina,” when Cleostrata and Myrrhina
and finds Cleostrata, who tells him that Alcesimus approach and ask him to continue with his story.
would not allow his wife to go to their house. After Olympio goes on to explain that “Casina” beat him
Cleostrata returns to the house, Lysidamus meets when he tried to make love to her. Lysidamus, in a
Alcesimus. The two men accuse each other of deviat- condition similar to Olympio’s, arrives from Alcesimus’
118 CASINA

house. Lysidamus is soon followed by Chalinus, who Lysidamus uses this description of himself again with
mockingly invites him to return to bed. Lysidamus Olympio (331–37, 406–7). Of course, as is the Jove of
tries to get away from Chalinus, but Cleostrata blocks mythology, Lysidamus is interested in having sexual
his path. Lysidamus eventually realizes that he cannot relations with a woman other than his wife. As was
escape. He begs his wife for forgiveness and says she often the case in mythology, Juno discovered her hus-
can beat him should he try to make love to Casina band’s affairs. In mythology, however, Juno rarely, if
again. Cleostrata agrees to forgive Lysidamus, and ever, seems to have been able to retaliate directly
Chalinus jokingly complains that he married two men against Jove. Instead, the brunt of Juno’s anger was felt
but consummated neither relationship. The play’s epi- by the mistress or the offspring of the mistress. In the
logue reveals that the real Casina is discovered to be case of Juno/Cleostrata, Cleostrata is able to prevent
the daughter of Alcesimus, and she finally marries Lysi- her Jove from enjoying Casina, although Olympio suf-
damus’ son, Euthynicus. fers the physical hardship of Cleostrata’s counterplot.
The power wielded by the wife Cleostrata is another
COMMENTARY unusual feature of Casina. Usually, wives in Roman
As do COMEDY OF ASSES and MERCHANT, Casina involves a comedy do not become involved in trickery or decep-
father and son who are in love with the same woman. tion. Cleostrata is a notable exception. Slater, applying
Unlike in Comedy of Asses, the son does not appear in a metatheatrical methodology to some of Plautus’
Casina. Additionally, in Comedy of Asses, the father does comedies, has discussed Cleostrata as a trickster and
not fall in love with the woman until later in the play. In poet. Cleostrata replaces the usual clever slave who
Casina, Lysidamus’ love of Casina is known from the produces a “play” within the play. Not only is
play’s outset, and in Merchant, Demipho falls in love Cleostrata Juno to Lysidamus’ Jove, but she is also his
with Pasicompsa in the first act. In all three plays, the rival playwright. One round of dramatic competition
wife, upon discovering her husband’s plans for a secret emerges when Lysidamus tries to enlist his neighbor’s
love affair, prevents it. In Casina, the prologue reveals help in consummating the affair with Casina. His play
that Cleostrata knows of Lysidamus’ love, whereas the fails, however, as Chalinus overhears Lysidamus’ con-
wives in Comedy of Asses and Merchant discover their structing his plot and informs Cleostrata of her rival
husband’s mischief late in the play. Also, in Comedy of
playwright’s intent. Accordingly, Cleostrata has the
Asses and Casina, the young woman eventually marries
cooks and Pardalisca serve as actors in an additional
the son when she is discovered to be freeborn. In Mer-
play whose aim is to prevent the union of Lysidamus
chant, Charinus is allowed to keep Pasicompsa as his
and Casina. The cooks do everything they can to pre-
mistress, but plans for marriage are not evident. In Com-
vent Lysidamus from having his fun, and Cleostrata
edy of Asses, the wife’s treatment of the husband at the
(with the aid of her neighbor’s wife) has instructed
end of the play is harsher than in Casina. In Comedy of
Pardalisca to create a story about Casina’s madness. In
Asses, the husband is not permitted to join in the closing
this instance, however, Cleostrata’s play is not com-
celebration, whereas in Casina and Merchant the wife
pletely successful, as Lysidamus is frightened by the
forgives her husband.
woman’s madness but will not call off the wedding.
As is frequent in Roman COMEDY, the humor in these
plays depends on role reversal. Olympio’s discovery of Cleostrata’s next play is more successful, as she dresses
Chalinus’ gender role reversal is one of the funniest her male actor (Chalinus) as a woman and produces a
scenes in ancient comedy. Unfortunately, the ancient play in which her rival playwright’s actor (Olympio) is
manuscripts of the play are riddled with small gaps humiliated. Thus, in the contest of rival playwrights,
during the description of Olympio’s discovery, but the the wife defeats the husband in Plautus’ Casina.
scene remains amusing. As Slater notes, Lysidamus BIBLIOGRAPHY
elevates himself to a divine level. At line 230, he calls Franko, G. F. “Imagery and Names in Plautus’ Casina,” Clas-
Cleostrata Juno (see HERA) and himself Jove (see ZEUS). sical Journal 95, no. 1 (1999–2000): 1–17.
 THE CASKET COMEDY 119

MacCary, W. T., and M. M. Willcock. Casina. Cambridge: name means “help” or “aid,” enters, and continues the
Cambridge University Press, 1976. prologue.
O’Bryhim, S. “The Originality of Plautus’ Casina,” American Auxilium explains that at a festival of DIONYSUS, a
Journal of Philology 110 (1989): 81–103. merchant from LEMNOS became intoxicated, sexually
Slater, N. W. “The Pilots of Penance or the Slave of Lust.” In
assaulted a young woman, and then returned to Lem-
Plautus in Performance. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer-
nos. We later learn that this merchant’s name is
sity Press, 1985, 70–93.
Way, M. L. “Violence and the Performance of Class in Plau-
Demipho and that the young woman’s name is Phanos-
tus’ Casina,” Helios 27, no. 2 (2000): 187–206. trata. Phanostrata gave birth to Selenium; the infant
Williams, B. “Games People Play: Metatheatre as Perfor- was abandoned and eventually fell into the hands of
mance Criticism in Plautus’ Casina,” Ramus 22 (1993): the prostitute (Melaenis). Auxilium adds that when the
33–59. first wife of the merchant Demipho died, he moved to
Sicyon and married Phanostrata, the woman whom he
THE CASKET COMEDY (Latin: CISTEL- had assaulted years earlier. When Demipho learned
LARIA) PLAUTUS (CA. 203 OR 202 B.C.E.) that Phanostrata had a daughter, he tried to discover
The play may have been staged at the end of the who had raised the child. Demipho sent out a slave,
Romans’ second war with the Carthaginians. Discovery Lampadio, to seek Selenium’s caregiver.
of fragments of MENANDER’s Synaristosai (Women at After the exit of Auxilium, the play’s second act
luncheon) and other archaeological evidence reveal that opens with a soliloquy by Alcesimarchus, who laments
PLAUTUS’ play was based on Menander’s earlier work. his inability to be with Selenium, whom he loves dearly.
The action of the play occurs in SICYON (the only time Unfortunately, the rest of Alcesimarchus’ soliloquy has
this city is used as a setting in extant Roman COMEDY) not survived and the play’s manuscript is in fragmen-
before two houses, one belonging to two gentlemen, tary condition for several hundred lines. Alcesi-
one young, Alcesimarchus, the other elderly, Demipho. marchus, however, would have learned of Selenium’s
The play’s opening remarks occur in the form of a departure and discovered the true reason why Selenium
conversation of two PROSTITUTES, Selenium and Gym- left. Some of the surviving fragments indicate that the
nasium, with Syra, Gymnasium’s rather intoxicated distraught Alcesimarchus is eventually encouraged to
mother, who also acts as the “madam” for the two pros- ask Melaenis for information about Selenium.
titutes. In the course of their conversation, Selenium After the departure of Alcesimarchus, his father
reveals that although she is a prostitute, she has only enters, sees Gymnasium, and expresses his attraction
had a single customer, Alcesimarchus, with whom she for her. He also suspects that Gymnasium is the
is desperately in love. Alcesimarchus had promised woman with whom Alcesimarchus is in love. Gymna-
Selenium’s mother that he would marry her, but his sium, realizing she has been mistaken for Selenium,
father was forcing him to marry a relative of decides to play along with the old man’s delusion. At
Demipho’s. When Selenium’s mother learned that this point, the manuscript again has some gaps. Appar-
Alcesimarchus is going to marry someone else, she ently, Alcesimarchus’ father, after he had had sexual
ordered Selenium to return home for a few days. Sele- relations with Gymnasium, arranged to marry her
nium asks Gymnasium to look after her home while through Gymnasium’s mother and took her to his
she is away. house. At some point, Demipho’s slave, Lampadio,
After the two prostitutes exit, Gymnasium’s mother would have recognized Gymnasium’s mother as the
delivers a delayed PROLOGUE. She explains that she one who took the infant Selenium. Lampadio then fol-
found Selenium (an infant) abandoned in an alley. She lowed her back to her house. Selenium and her
then gave Selenium to another prostitute, who pre- mother, accompanied by Alcesimarchus, also would
tended that she had given birth to Selenium and raised have returned.
the child as her own. At this point, Gymnasium’s Alcesimarchus begs Selenium and Melaenis for
mother staggers offstage, and the god AUXILIUM, whose understanding but is rejected. Before Alcesimarchus
120 THE CASKET COMEDY

goes into his father’s house, he says he will kill Melae- daughter, and enters Alcesimarchus’ house. Several
nis, Selenium, and himself, if Melaenis does not send members of the acting troupe tell the audience not to
Selenium to him. Melaenis decides to watch Alcesi- expect those within the house to reappear and then
marchus to make sure he does not do anything rash, invite the audience’s applause.
but before she can act, Lampadio enters to tell Phanos-
trata that he saw Gymnasium’s mother pick up the COMMENTARY
infant Selenium; Melaenis overhears and thinks that Given the large gaps in the manuscript of Casket Com-
she herself will be in trouble. Phanostrata encourages edy, this has been one of the least-discussed Plautine
Lampadio to seek out Melaenis. plays over the past 30 years. The most-discussed
After Phanostrata departs into Demipho’s house, scholarly issue that has emerged regarding the play has
Melaenis emerges from her hiding place and speaks been the identification of Menander’s Synaristosai as
with Lampadio, who, not knowing who she is, tells her Plautus’ model. The delivery of the prologue by the
about Selenium’s background and says he was the one divinity Auxilium (who does not appear as a character
who abandoned the infant. Lampadio dashes off, not elsewhere in surviving classical drama) is relatively
wanting to be delayed by a woman whom he perceives unusual in extant Roman comedy but has parallels in
as a nuisance. Melaenis decides to restore Selenium to AMPHITRYO and ROPE. A delayed prologue given by a
her rightful family. divinity does not occur elsewhere in extant Roman
As the third act opens, Melaenis, Selenium, and comedy but does occur in Menander’s Aspis (SHIELD).
Melaenis’ maid, Halisca, enter. Melaenis leads Sele- Casket lacks the energetic fun of some of Plautus’
nium toward Demipho’s house to reunite her with her other plays, perhaps because it does not have a clever
true family. Melaenis carries a small box filled with slave such as Pseudolus or Tranio (HAUNTED HOUSE)
toys, which were left by Selenium’s real parents when and because it has a madam rather than a PIMP. Unlike
she was abandoned as an infant. When they knock on in Comedy of Asses, in which a madam also appears,
Demipho’s door, however, Alcesimarchus, still dis- Syra is thought to be the mother of one of the prosti-
traught, rushes from the house with sword in hand. tutes, and unlike others who keep prostitutes, she
The women try to prevent him from doing anything lacks the vile qualities of other Plautine flesh peddlers.
foolish, but he carries Selenium into his house. Melae- The madam in Casket is more concerned with the
nis and Halisca follow him. In the confusion, Halisca young man’s credibility than his cash.
drops the box of toys on the ground. As is evident from Casina, comic potential does exist
The play’s fourth act begins with Lampadio’s return in having both father and son in love with the same
from the house of Gymnasium’s mother and finding woman, but in Casket the father has mistaken Gymna-
the box. Phanostrata, to whom Lampadio is reporting, sium for Selenium and father and son are not actually
recognizes the box as Selenium’s own. Halisca, emerg- attracted to the same woman, as in Casina. Further-
ing from Alcesimarchus’ house, laments dropping the more, in Casket we do not enjoy the comic results of
box of toys. Lampadio, seeing Halisca, realizes that she the wife’s discovery of her husband’s infatuation with
is looking for the box. Phanostrata then calls to the prostitute as we do in Casina. Any further humor
Halisca, and she and Lampadio question Halisca about that might arise from the father-son rivals does not
the box. Eventually, they tell her they have the box, appear in Casket, and the love affair of father and pros-
and in the course of further questioning Phanostrata titute is not developed.
realizes that Selenium is her own daughter. Then, In addition to the rather serious madam, Alcesi-
Phanostrata, Lampadio, and Halisca go back into marchus, who Harsh declares is “the most violent lover
Alcesimarchus’ house. of New Comedy,” contributes to Casket’s less festive
The play’s final act and epilogue are a little more tone. In a manner that somewhat anticipates the situa-
than a dozen lines. Demipho returns, is informed by tion between Demea and Ctesipho in TERENCE’s BROTH-
Lampadio that Selenium has been discovered as his ERS (a play that also employs a Menandrian model),
 CASSANDRA 121

Alcesimarchus’ father tries to deliver his son from money must be acquired to purchase the prostitute.
temptation by keeping him in the country. Alcesi- Unlike in these other Roman comedies, the young man
marchus has been sent to the country but has obvi- in Casket must prove to the prostitute’s owner that he
ously violated his father’s wishes by returning to town possesses something more valuable than cash: If he
and his beloved. As Ctesipho has, Alcesimarchus has wants his beloved, he must prove his credibility.
been sent to the country, but he also has the physical
BIBLIOGRAPHY
aggressiveness of Ctesipho’s brother, Aeschinus, who
Gaiser, K. “Ein Fragment aus Menander Synaristosai?”
forcibly takes a prostitute from a pimp’s house. Alcesi- Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik 39 (1980):
marchus is more violent than the unarmed Aeschinus. 99–111.
Although Plautine characters occasionally talk about Harsh, P. W. A Handbook of Classical Drama. Stanford, Calif.:
using weapons such as swords, the playwright’s audi- Stanford University Press, 1944, 352.
ence rarely see them brandished. In Casina, Lysidamus Konstan, D. “Cistellaria: Noncitizen Order.” In Roman Com-
is told (falsely) that Casina has a sword and is threat- edy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983, 96–114.
ening to kill the man with whom she sleeps that night. Lange, D. K. “The Identification of Plautus’ Cistellaria with
In PSEUDOLUS, the distraught young lover, Calidorus, Menander’s Synaristosai,” Classical Journal 70, no. 3
asks Pseudolus for a sword to kill himself, but his (1975): 30–32.
Paratore, E. “La Struttura della Cistellaria di Plauto,” Atti del-
request is not taken seriously, and the audience never
l’Accademia Pontaniana 30 (1981): 429–45.
sees the sword. In Casket, however, Alcesimarchus’
Rosivach, V. J. “The Stage Settings of Plautus’ Bacchides, Cis-
sword is actually seen by the audience as he drags Sele- tellaria and Epidicus,” Hermes 114 (1986): 429–42.
nium from the house and threatens to kill himself. Thamm, G. Zur Cistellaria des Plautus. Ph.D. dissertation,
Although the tone of Casket is not as light as that of Freiburg, Germany, 1971.
other Plautine plays, the play is not without interesting
features. As Konstan and others have noted, the plot of CASSANDRA Also called Alexandra, Cassandra
Casket involves two threads, one involving romance, was the daughter of PRIAM and HECABE and the sister of
the other recognition. Eventually, the recognition of HECTOR, PARIS, POLYXENA, TROILUS, and many others.
Selenium as a freeborn woman will clear the way for APOLLO became attracted to Cassandra and promised
the romance. Just as the play’s plot has two strands, the to teach her to be a prophet in exchange for her sexual
young lover in Casket faces two obstacles. Whereas favors. Initially Cassandra agreed, but after learning
either a pimp or a father is usually the young lover’s the prophetic arts, she rejected Apollo’s advances. In
obstacle, in Casket, the young man is opposed by both Agamemnon (see ORESTEIA), AESCHYLUS describes their
his father and a madam. Not only is the young man encounter as being like a wrestling match. The angry
caught between his father and the madam, he is also Apollo then cursed Cassandra by making sure that
caught between two opposing classes and the laws that people did not believe her prophecies. The Trojans
prevented unions between those classes, as Konstan especially would come to regret not heeding Cassan-
shows. On one hand, Alcesimarchus’ father has every dra’s prophecies. Although Cassandra is usually con-
reason to believe that Selenium, a prostitute, is beneath sidered younger than Paris is, in EURIPIDES’
his son socially and thus does not want his freeborn ANDROMACHE there is a report that Cassandra declared
son to marry a prostitute. On the other hand, the that her brother Paris should be destroyed or else he
madam opposes the young man because she thinks he would become the ruin of TROY. Before the fall of Troy,
has broken his promise to Selenium. Though the pros- Cassandra also warned the Trojans about the Greeks’
titute and the madam are of lower social status than the hiding in the wooden horse. During the fall of Troy,
young man, the madam will not allow the young man Cassandra was raped by Locrian AJAX while she was
to treat her in such a way. Thus, unlike other plays clinging to a statue of ATHENA. In EURIPIDES’ TROJAN
involving young men who need to outmaneuver WOMEN, ATHENA considers Cassandra’s rape the pri-
pimps, Casket is not a “quest for cash” play in which mary reason for her wanting POSEIDON to raise a deadly
122 CASTALIA

storm against the Greek fleet on their way back from Papadopoulou, T. “Cassandra’s Radiant Vigour and the
Troy. Because, after Troy fell, Cassandra became the Ironic Optimism of Euripides’ Troades,” Mnemosyne 53,
slave and concubine of AGAMEMNON, in Trojan Women no. 5 (2000): 513–27.
Euripides has the frenzied Cassandra appear carrying Taplin, O. “Aeschylean Silences and Silences in Aeschylus,”
Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 76 (1972): 57–98.
torches as if in celebration or her marriage to Agamem-
non. During this mockery of the wedding ritual, Cas-
sandra predicts her own death as well as that of CASTALIA This spring arises at DELPHI and is
Agamemnon. She also prophesies the wanderings of noted for the purity of its waters. APOLLO’s priestess at
ODYSSEUS after the war. In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, the Delphi, the Pythia, as well as those who wanted to con-
audience see that Cassandra has returned with sult the oracle, were said to bathe in the Castalian
Agamemnon to ARGOS. Again, Cassandra is shown as spring. According to legend, Castalia was the daughter
the frenzied prophetess who predicts her own death as of the Achelous River or the spring was a gift to
well as that of Agamemnon. Ultimately, CLYTEMNESTRA Castalia from the river. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides,
kills Cassandra, whose body is displayed beside that of Iphigenia in Tauris 1256, Ion 95, 149, Phoenician Women
the slain Agamemnon. 222; Pausanias, 10.8.9; Seneca, Oedipus 229, 276, 712;
Cassandra does not appear as a character in SENECA’s Sophocles, Antigone 1130]
TROJAN WOMEN, although she does appear in Seneca’s
AGAMEMNON, in which her role is more extensive than CASTOR AND POLLUX (POLYDEUCES)
in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon. In Aeschylus’ play, Castor and Pollux were the sons of LEDA, queen of
Clytemnestra’s primary motive for revenge against her SPARTA. They were the brothers of HELEN and
husband is his sacrifice of IPHIGENIA. Seneca does not CLYTEMNESTRA. Because Leda was impregnated on the
overlook this motive but adds to Clytemnestra’s moti- same night by both ZEUS and her husband, TYNDAREUS,
vation the emphasis of Cassandra’s role as a rival for one boy (Pollux) was the son of the god, the other
the love of Agamemnon. As in Aeschylus’ play, Cassan- (Castor) the son of a mortal. Although only one of
dra predicts her own death and Agamemnon’s. Unlike them was actually Zeus’ son, the two boys were called
Aeschylus, however, Seneca has Cassandra and the Dioscoroi, the “sons of Zeus.” Castor is said to have
Agamemnon converse before they are killed. Seneca’s trained HERACLES in the art of swordplay. Pollux
Agamemnon even tries to reassure Cassandra that she appears to have had great skill in boxing. The two
has nothing to fear. After Agamemnon enters the brothers married daughters of Leucippus of Messene.
palace, Cassandra describes in detail the way in which Castor married Hilaira and had a son, Anagon; Pollux
Agamemnon is killed. In contrast to Aeschylus’ play, married Phoebe and had a son, Mnesileus. When THE-
Seneca’s Agamemnon ends with Clytemnestra’s driving SEUS kidnapped Helen, they rescued her and took The-
Cassandra into the palace. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- seus’ mother, Aethra, as a captive. Tradition says that
lodorus, Library 3.12.5, Epitome 5.17, 5.22–23, 6.23; they took part in the hunt for the Calydonian boar, as
Euripides, Andromache 297, Hecabe, Trojan Women; well as the quest for the GOLDEN FLEECE.
Homer, Odyssey 11.420; Hyginus, Fables 93, 117; Castor and Pollux met their demise after a cattle raid
Seneca, Agamemnon, Trojan Women 37, 61, 967, 977; in which they were accompanied by Aphareus’ son,
Vergil, Aeneid 2.344, 425] Idas, and LYNCEUS. When Idas tricked the brothers out
of their share of the cattle and drove the animals to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Messene, Castor and Pollux followed, recaptured the
Calder, W. M. “Seneca’s Agamemnon,” Classical Philology 71
(1976): 27–36.
cattle, and then set up an ambush for Idas and
Leahy, D. M. “The Role of Cassandra in the Oresteia of Aeschy- Lynceus. Lynceus, having exceptional powers of sight,
lus,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 52 (1969): 144–77. saw Castor and told Idas. After Idas killed Castor,
Morgan, K. A. “Apollo’s Favorites,” Greek, Roman, and Lynceus was slain by Pollux. Having suffered a head
Byzantine Studies 35 (1994): 121–43. wound in his fight, Pollux fainted before he could
 CAVEA 123

attack Idas. Zeus, however, struck Idas with a lightning Segal suggests that in OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, for example,
bolt and transported Pollux to heaven. Because Castor the audience experience catharsis in the Aristotelian
was dead, Pollux refused to accept immortality. Even- sense “at the moment of recognition, when the chorus
tually, Zeus allowed the brothers to live in heaven and first looked with horror on their blinded king.” Thus,
on Earth on alternate days. As divinities, they are usu- the pity and fear of the characters in the play invite the
ally considered protectors of sailors. audience to experience communally an emotional
In extant drama, they appear at the conclusion of response of pity and fear themselves.
EURIPIDES’ ELECTRA and HELEN. In both plays, the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
brothers appear as divinities to resolve the dramas. In
Else, G. F. Aristotle: Poetics. Ann Arbor: University of Michi-
Electra, they arrange the marriage of ELECTRA and
gan Press, 1967.
PYLADES and tell ORESTES of his wanderings, his tor- Golden, L. “Epic, Tragedy, and Catharsis,” Classical Philology
ment by the FURIES, and his eventual acquittal of his 71 (1976): 77–85.
crimes in ATHENS. In Helen, the brothers stop Theo- Oksenberg, R. A., ed. Essays on Aristotle’s Poetics. Princeton,
clymenus from pursuing their sister, Helen, and her N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992.
husband, MENELAUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Segal, Charles. “Catharsis, Audience, and Closure in Greek
Library 1.8.2, 1.9.16, 2.4.9, 3.10.7, 3.11.2, Epitome Tragedy.” In Tragedy and the Tragic: Greek Theatre and
1.23; Apollonius Rhodius, 1.146–47, 2.20, 62, Beyond. Edited by Michael Stephen Silk. Oxford: Oxford
100–2, 756, 916, 4.588–89; Seneca, Octavia 208, University Press, 1996, 149–81.
Thyestes 628] Yates, V. “A Sexual Model of Catharsis,” Apeiron 31, no. 1
(1998): 35–57.

CATAMEITUS See GANYMEDE.

CAUCASUS A mountain range and a specific
CATHARSIS One of the most controversial mountain in that range, which extends from the east-
words in the history of literary criticism. According to ern shore of Black Sea to the western shore of the
ARISTOTLE’s Poetics (1449b24–28), TRAGEDY, through Caspian Sea. Usually, Mount Caucasus is named as the
pity and fear, produces a catharsis of those emotions. location of PROMETHEUS’ binding. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
The Greek word for “emotions” (pathemata) is also dis- Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 422, 719; Appian, The
puted, and some scholars have argued that it means Foreign Wars 12.15.103; Apollodorus, Library 1.7.1,
“events.” Thus, Aristotle’s passage says that tragedy 2.5.11; Pausanias, 5.11.6; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus
brings about a catharsis of such “emotions” or of such 1378, Medea 709]
“events.” Most scholars, however, seem to take pathe-
mata as meaning “emotions.” If interpreted in this way, CAVEA A Latin word literally meaning “hollow
tragedy, through pity and fear, yields catharsis of emo- space,” cavea (plural: caveae) refers to that part of an
tions. Still, modern scholars do not agree on what the ancient theater where the spectators sit. Theatron and
word catharsis means in this context. Some, such as auditorium are synonyms for cavea. The size of the
Golden, have argued that catharsis refers to an intellec- cavea differed from town to town. Some caveae could
tual clarification either of the emotions or of the play’s have accommodated a few hundred spectators; others
events among the members of the audience. Others would have seated several thousand. In many
think that tragedy brings about a “purification” instances, especially in Roman theaters during the
(catharsis) of the emotions of pity and fear. Others, imperial period, certain sections of the cavea were
such as Yates, have noted that elsewhere in Aristotle’s reserved for specific segments of the population: sena-
works (especially Politics 8.7) catharsis can mean pur- tors, women, young men, and the like.
gation in a biological sense. Charles Segal seems to BIBLIOGRAPHY
have combined some of these views by describing Cicu, Luciano. “Spectator in fabula: ut aeque mecum sitis
catharsis as “a cleansing release . . . of pity and fear.” gnarures (Poen. 47),” Sandalion 18 (1995): 67–113.
124 CAYSTRIAN PLAINS

Small, D. B. “Social Correlations to the Greek Cavea in the eficial to the city. Consequently, she became the patron
Roman Period.” In Roman Architecture in the Greek World. divinity and the city was named after her. Poseidon,
Edited by Sarah Macready and F. H. Thompson. London: the angry loser, flooded Athena’s new town. [ANCIENT
The Society of Antiquaries of London, 1987, 85–93. SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.14.1; Euripides, Ion
1136; Hyginus, Fables 48; Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.555,
CAYSTRIAN PLAINS Between EPHESUS and 784, 797, 806; Seneca, Medea 76, Thyestes 1049]
SARDIS in what is today Turkey, these plains created the
first part of a route between the Persian capital, SUSA, CEDALION A smith from the island of NAXOS
and the AEGEAN SEA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, from whom HEPHAESTUS learned the craft. Another tra-
Acharnians 68] dition makes Cedalion the servant of Hephaestus.
BIBLIOGRAPHY When ORION sexually assaulted Merope, the daughter
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, of Dionysus’ son, Oenopion, DIONYSUS and his satyrs
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 160. blinded Orion. The sightless Orion made his way to
LEMNOS, where Hephaestus sent Cedalion with Orion
CEBRIONE (CEBRIONES) A son of PRIAM, to be his guide. Orion had learned that if he met the
Cebrione was killed during the 10th year of the Trojan rising sun, he would regain his sight. With Cedalion as
War. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 553; his guide—Orion placed Cedalion on his shoulders—
Homer, Iliad 16.775–76] Orion was successful. SOPHOCLES wrote a satyric
Cedalion, but the seven surviving fragments (none
BIBLIOGRAPHY longer than two lines) reveal little about the plot. The
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer- blinding of Orion recalls the blinding of POLYPHEMUS in
sity Press, 1995, 375–77.
the only extant SATYR PLAY, EURIPIDES’ CYCLOPS.

CECROPIA Another name for the city of ATHENS. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
See also CECROPS.
Harvard University Press, 1996.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
CECROPS The son of HEPHAESTUS and Mother Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
EARTH (Gaia) or the Earth alone, Cecrops had an Yoshida, A. “Mythe d’Orion et de Cédalion, II.” In Hom-
unusual physique: He was human from the waist up mages à Marcel Renard. Edited by J. Bibauw. Bruxelles: 60
and serpent from the waist down. Cecrops was the first rue Colonel Chaltin, 1969, 828–44.
king of ATHENS, but during his reign he named the city
after himself, CECROPIA, a name that poets sometimes CELEUS A king at ELEUSIS, Celeus was husband of
used for Athens. Similarly, poets sometimes call the Metaneira and father of TRIPTOLEMUS and Demophon.
Athenians the descendants or sons of Cecrops. Celeus became the first priest of DEMETER at Eleusis.
Cecrops’ wife was Actaeus’ daughter, Agraulos (or His daughters were the goddess’ first priestesses.
Aglauros); by Agraulos Cecrops had three daughters, ARISTOPHANES, apparently for the purposes of a comic
Agraulos the younger (or Aglauros), Herse, and Pan- genealogy, changes the genealogy and makes Celeus
drosos), and a son, Erysichthon. The most significant the son of Demeter and Triptolemus. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
event of Cecrops’ reign occurred when ATHENA and Aristophanes, Acharnians 49; Homeric Hymn to Deme-
POSEIDON quarreled over possession of the city. Accord- ter; Pausanias, 1.14.2]
ing to one tradition, Cecrops was appointed to judge
which divinity would be of greater benefit to the city. CENAEUM A promontory at the northwest end
Poseidon stuck the Athenian ACROPOLIS with his trident of the island of EUBOEA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
and produced a salt spring, while Athena planted an lodorus, Library 2.7.7; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 102,
olive tree. Cecrops judged Athena’s gift to be more ben- 782; Sophocles, Trachinian Women 238, 753, 993]
 CEPHALUS (1) 125

CENTAUR The centaurs were a race of creatures 1047, 1060; Ovid, Metamorphoses 12.219, 536;
that had the head and upper body of a human being Seneca, Hercules Furens 778, Hercules Oetaeus 503,
attached to the body and legs of a horse. According to 1049, 1195, 1925; Sophocles, Trachinian Women 680,
one tradition, IXION produced the first centaur when 831, 1141, 1162]
he had intercourse with a cloud that ZEUS had made BIBLIOGRAPHY
into the form of HERA, whom Ixion was trying to duBois, Page. Centaurs and Amazons: Women and the Pre-His-
seduce. Another tradition says that IXION’s son, Cen- tory of the Great Chain of Being. Ann Arbor: University of
taurus, produced the first centaurs when he mated Michigan Press, 1982.
with some mares on Mount PELION. With the exception Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
of the hospitable centaur Pholus and of Chiron, who Teubner, 1880.
raised and trained heroes such as ACHILLES and JASON, ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
centaurs are usually characterized as uncivilized and Teubner, 1884.
savage creatures who pose a sexual threat to Greek ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1888.
females and whom Greek males must defeat. HERACLES
Osborne, Robin. “Framing the Centaur: Reading Fifth-Cen-
battled successfully against centaurs on more than one
tury Architectural Sculpture.” In Art and Text in Ancient
occasion. He killed the centaur Eurytion, to whom
Greek Culture. Edited by Simon Goldhill and Robin
Dexamenus was going to betroth his daughter. Hera- Osborne. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge Univer-
cles also killed the centaur NESSUS, who had attempted sity Press, 1994, 52–84.
to rape his wife, DEIANEIRA. THESEUS had helped the Scobie, A. “The Origins of Centaurs,” Folklore 89 (1978):
Lapiths defeat some centaurs that had attempted to 142–47.
violate PIRITHOUS’ bride. ATALANTA killed some centaurs Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
that tried to rape her. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Just as the centaur’s nature was dual, centaurs were Stern, F. van K. “Heroes and Monsters in Greek Art,” Archae-
suited for TRAGEDY or COMEDY. The Greek tragedian ological News 7 (1978): 1–23.
Chaeremon wrote a play entitled Centaur, from which
two brief fragments survive (10–11 Snell). Fragment CEPHALE A DEME in the region of Attica, Cephale
10 refers to a group of women searching for flowers in was the site of “a large cemetery” known to ARISTO-
a meadow. Such women might have been the sexual PHANES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 476]

targets of a lusty centaur. Greek comedies entitled Cen- BIBLIOGRAPHY

taur are known from ARISTOPHANES (fragments 267–77 Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
Kock 1), Lynceus (fragment 1 Kock 3), Nicochares sity Press, 1995, 327.
(fragments 7–8 Kock 1), Theognetus (see Kock 3),
Timocles (fragment 19 Kock 2). Only the title of CEPHALLENIA An island just off the western
Theognetus’ play survives and the few fragments of coast of mainland Greece and close to the island of
Aristophanes’ and Nichochares’ plays that survive are ITHACA. Some sources regard Cephallenia as part of the
uninformative. From Lynceus’ Centaur, a 22-line frag- kingdom of ODYSSEUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides,
ment is extant in which the speaker refuses to be Cyclops 103; Seneca, Trojan Women 518; Sophocles,
served a dish of several kinds of food and demands a Philoctetes 264, 791]
dish with only one kind. Timocles’ Centaur may have
dealt with Heracles’ rescue of Dexamenus’ daughter CEPHALUS (1) From the DEME of Collytus,
from the centaur Eurytion. The comic poet Apollo- Cephalus was active in Athenian politics in the first
phanes wrote a Centaurs, of which only the title quarter of the fifth century B.C.E. Cephalus argued in
remains (see Kock 1). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, favor of Athenian military operations during this time
Library 2.5.4–5, 2.7.6, 3.9.2; Euripides, Andromache and in the year 384 led a diplomatic mission to con-
792, Heracles 181, 365, 1273, Iphigenia at Aulis 706, firm an alliance with the island of CHIOS. Comic poets
126 CEPHALUS (2)

such as ARISTOPHANES and Plato labeled him as being was a stalemate, which ZEUS resolved by changing both
mentally unstable and having a vile smell, but the ora- animals into stone. After Cephalus went into exile, he
tors Aeschines, Deinarchus, and Demosthenes show fought alongside Amphitryon in his victory over the
respect to him “as a great democrat and patriot” (Som- Taphians. For this service Amphitryon gave Cephalus
merstein). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschines, 3.194; Ando- and Heleus (another of the allies) the islands of the
cides, 1.115, 150; Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 248; Taphians, where both men founded towns that they
Deinarchus, 1.38–39, 76; Demosthenes, 18.219, 251; named after themselves. Cephalus was the founder of
Pausanias, 3.9.8; Plato Comicus, fragment 201 Kock] CEPHALLENIA. The Greek comic poet Philetaerus wrote
a Cephalus, of which only the title survives (see Kock).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.4, 2.4.7;
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880. 3.15.1; Hyginus, Fables 189; Ovid, Metamorphoses
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, 7.661–865; Strabo 10.2.14, 20, 24]
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 161. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
CEPHALUS (2) This Cephalus attracted the Teubner, 1884.
attention of the goddess EOS, who carried him off to
her bed. By Eos, Cephalus became the father of
CEPHISODEMUS An Athenian who was the
PHAETHON. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Hippolytus
father of EUATHLUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
455–56; Hesiod, Theogony 886–91; Pausanias, 1.3.1]
Acharnians 705]
CEPHALUS (3) The son of Deion and
Diomede, Cephalus became suspicious that his wife, CEPHISOPHON A friend of EURIPIDES’ who was
PROCRIS, would be unfaithful to him. Therefore, dis- said to have helped him with his writing (especially the
guising himself as a stranger, he tried to seduce her. lyric segments) and to have acted in his plays.
Procris acquiesced after Cephalus offered her a sub- Cephisophon was also rumored to have seduced
stantial bribe. When Cephalus revealed his true iden- Euripides’ wife. In ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS, the slave
tity, however, Procris left him and went to the house of who answers the door of Euripides’ house is often
MINOS on CRETE. Eventually, fearing the wrath of identified as Cephisophon in marginal annotations in
Minos’ wife, PASIPHAE, Procris returned to ATHENS and the ancient manuscripts. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
became reconciled with Cephalus. She gave Cephalus phanes, Acharnians 393–403, Frogs 944, 1408,
two gifts that she had received from Minos: a spear that 1452–53, fragment 580 Kock]
never missed its mark and a dog that always caught BIBLIOGRAPHY
what it chased. Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon
After some time, Procris began to suspect that Press, 1993, 53–54.
Cephalus was being unfaithful to her. Therefore, when Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Cephalus went out hunting, Procris followed him. Teubner, 1880.
Cephalus, hearing a rustling in a thicket, threw his Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9,
spear and unwittingly struck and killed Procris. Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 239–40.
Cephalus was put on trial in the AREOPAGUS, con-
demned, and sent into permanent exile. At some point CEPHISUS Several rivers in Greece were known
during his life, Cephalus became a friend and ally of by this name, but in classical drama Cephisus usually
HERACLES’ mortal father, AMPHITYRON, who borrowed seems to refer to a river in Athenian territory that
Cephalus’ famous dog to hunt a dangerous fox whose flowed past the town of ELEUSIS. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
destiny was that it could never be caught. Because the Euripides, Medea 835, Ion 1261; Sophocles, Oedipus at
dog was fated to catch anything it chased, the result Colonus 687]
 CEYX 127

CERAMEICUS The potter’s district of ATHENS, Kock 3) and the comic poet Plato (fragments 88–90
where, among other things, those who died in battle Kock 1) all wrote plays with titles that bear the name
received a public burial. There were actually two of these creatures. Only the title of Menippus’ play
places in Athens called Cerameicus, one inside and one exists and the brief fragments of Plato’s Cercopes indi-
outside the Dipylon or Thriasian Gate. [ANCIENT cate nothing of the play’s plot. Regarding Hermippus’
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 772, Birds 395, Frogs Cercopes, DIONYSUS was a character and drinking was
129, 1093; Pausanias, 1.3.1] involved in the play. As for Eubulus’ Cercopes, the
speaker of the first fragment mentions going to
CERBERUS The offspring of Typhon and CORINTH and losing his shirt to a prostitute. In frag-
Echidna, Cerberus is a dog with multiple heads (three ment 2, the speaker tells of going to THEBES, where
or 50) that guards the UNDERWORLD. In addition to hav- people dine all day and all night and have toilets beside
ing multiple heads, some sources state, Cerberus had the doors of their houses. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
“hair” on these heads that consisted of snakes. Some lodorus, Library 2.6.3; Athenaeus, 10.417d, 12.551a,
sources also give the Cerberus a snake for a tail. In 13.567b–c; Herodotus 7.216.1]
HERACLES’ final labor, he traveled to the underworld BIBLIOGRAPHY
and dragged the Cerberus to the upper world. After Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Heracles showed the dog to EURYSTHEUS, Heracles took Teubner, 1880.
the dog back to the underworld. SOPHOCLES wrote a ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Cerberus, whose single surviving fragment (Radt 327a) Teubner, 1884.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Leipzig:
tells nothing about the play’s plot and gives no indica-
Teubner, 1888.
tion whether the play was a tragedy or a SATYR PLAY.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.5.12; Hes-
CERCYON A mythical king of ELEUSIS, Cercyon
iod, Theogony 306–12; Seneca, Hercules Furens
was the father of ALOPE. Cercyon challenged all
782–829; Sophocles, Trachinian Women 1114]
strangers to his town to a wrestling match, during
BIBLIOGRAPHY which he would kill them. Cercyon’s reign of terror
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, ended when THESEUS killed him in a wrestling match.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. AESCHYLUS wrote a satyric Cercyon that may have dealt
Sutton, D. F. “A Handlist of Satyr Plays,” Harvard Studies in with THESEUS’ encounter with the king; only about 10
Classical Philology 78 (1974): 107–43. words survive from this play. ARISTOTLE indicates that
Cercyon’s defeat was dealt with in Carcinus’ Alope. See
CERCHNIA A river in southeastern Greece near also ALOPE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome
the town of LERNA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, 1.3; Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics 1150b10; Hyginus,
Prometheus Bound 676] Fables 187]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CERCOPES The Cercopes were two men who, Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1971.
according to one tradition, were turned into apes by Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
ZEUS. Their name appears to be related to the Greek 1971.
word kerkos, which means “tail.” Thus, the Cercopes
may have had the tails of monkeys. During HERACLES’ CERES See DEMETER.
servitude to OMPHALE, Heracles captured the Cercopes
near the town of EPHESUS. The Cercopes appear to have CEYX The son of the morning star, Ceyx was a
been a favorite subject of comic writers as the Greek hospitable king of TRACHIS who welcomed two exiles,
poets Eubulus (fragments 53–54 Kock 2), HERMIPPUS PELEUS and HERACLES, into his kingdom. With Heracles’
(fragments 35–40 Kock 1), and Menippus (fragment 1 help Ceyx was able to defeat his enemies. Ceyx
128 CHAEREAS

drowned on a journey by sea to DELPHI; his wife, Alcy- Clouds 104, 144–47, 156, 503–4, 1465, Wasps
one, was saddened by his death. Some sources say that 1408–15; Plato, Apology 20e–21, Charmides 153–54,
the gods took pity on Ceyx and Alcyone and changed Gorgias 447–48, 458d, 481b; Xenophon, Apology 14,
them into birds; others say that the gods changed them Memorabilia 1.2.48]
into birds because they were calling each other ZEUS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and HERA. Ceyx became a seagull (the meaning of his
Kraut, Bruce H. “The Reappearance of Chaerephon in
name in Greek), and Alcyone became a halcyon. Aristophanes’ Wasps,” Text and Presentation 8 (1988):
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.7.3–4; Hygi- 129–36.
nus, Fables 65; Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.268–748; Pau- Montuori, Mario. “The Oracle Given to Chaerephon on the
sanias, 1.32.6; Seneca, Agamemnon 681, Hercules Wisdom of Socrates: An Invention by Plato,” Kernos 3
Oetaeus 197, Octavia 7] (1990): 251–59.
Strycker, E. de. “The Oracle Given to Chaerephon about
Socrates (Plato, Apology 20e–21),” In Kephalaion: Studies in
CHAEREAS An unknown effeminate man whom
Greek philosophy and Its Continuation offered to C. J. de
ARISTOPHANES makes fun of at WASPS 687. Sommerstein
Vogel. Edited by J. Mansfeld and L. M. de Rijk. Assen,
thinks that the Chaereas mentioned in Eupolis (frag- Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1975, 39–49.
ment 80) “is probably unconnected” with the person
ridiculed by Aristophanes. CHAERETADES A probably fictional Athenian
BIBLIOGRAPHY mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at ECCLESIAZUSAE 51. No
Sommerstein. A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, Wasps. historical Athenian of this name is known.
Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 200. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
CHAEREPHON From the DEME of Sphettus in Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
the region of ATTICA, Chaerephon was a friend of 143.
SOCRATES’. Though some scholars doubt the truth of the
story, PLATO and Xenophon report that Chaerephon’s CHAERIS A musician whom several comic poets
inquiry of the ORACLE at DELPHI regarding who was the considered unskilled. He appears to have been active
wisest man propelled Socrates to discover the truth between 431 and 414 B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
behind this oracle. After the Spartans defeated the phanes, Acharnians 15–16, 857, Birds 857, Peace 950;
Athenians in 404 B.C.E., Chaerephon was banished Cratinus, fragment 118 Kock; Pherecrates, fragment 6
from ATHENS, but he returned in 403. He died before Kock]
Socrates’ trial and execution in 399. In CLOUDS, ARISTO- BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHANES portrays Chaerephon as being Socrates’ “star” Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
pupil, as having pale skin, and as showing an interest sity Press, 1995, 507–8.
in silly knowledge such as how far a flea could jump. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
At the conclusion of Clouds, STREPSIADES sets fire to Teubner, 1880.
Socrates’ school and expresses a desire to kill Socrates Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5,
and Chaerephon. Chaerephon appears as a silent char- Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985, 178.
acter at the end of Aristophanes’ WASPS. Here, he serves
as a witness for a woman baker who is assaulted by CHALCIDIAN See CHALCIS.
PHILOCLEON. In Memorabilia, Xenophon defends
Chaerephon and some of Socrates’ other companions CHALCIS This Athenian colony, located on the
as men who never did anything wrong, truly wanted to southwestern shore of the island of EUBOEA opposite
be good men, and behaved properly with everyone the region of BOEOTIA, was one of the most important
they encountered. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, towns on the island. The people of Chalcis were called
 CHARACTER 129

Chalcidians. The CHORUS of women in EURIPIDES’ IPHI- and what the other people in the play say about him or
GENIA IN AULIS state that they are from this town. her. In some instances, the audience can quickly deter-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 238; Euripi- mine a person’s character, especially in new COMEDY,
des, Iphigenia in Aulis 168] which employs stock characters. The title of MENAN-
DER’s DYSCOLUS (The Grouch) indicates immediately how
CHALCODON The husband of Alcyone (or Knemon will behave, and when he wants to be left
Melanippe) and the father of Elephenor, Chalcodon alone and tries to drive away everyone who goes near
was a king on the island of EUBOEA. Pausanias says his house it is no surprise. Similarly, in the plays of
AMPHITYRON killed Chalcodon during a battle between PLAUTUS and TERENCE, the audience expects a PIMP to be
the Thebans and Euboeans. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- evil or a soldier to be a braggart, and when these char-
lodorus, Epitome 3.11; Pausanias, 9.19.3; Sophocles, acters go onstage, they quickly behave in a way that
Philoctetes 489] confirms expectations. In ORESTEIA, AESCHYLUS clearly
shows AEGISTHUS is an unpleasant character and has an
CHALYBES A savage (from the Greek perspec- unpleasant character by describing him as a wolf and a
tive) race of people who lived along the coast of the cowardly lion and by clearly condemning his adultery
region of Pontus in northern Asia Minor, who were with AGAMEMNON’s wife. EURIPIDES’ Athenian audience
famous for their work with iron. [ANCIENT SOURCES: would have had little sympathy for the Spartan
Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 715] MENELAUS in that playwright’s ANDROMACHE as the Spar-
tan treats Andromache and her young son with decep-
CHAONIA A region along the coast of north- tion and brutality.
western Greece. Chaonia was home to the Chaonian Many times, however, playwrights deliberately cre-
Oaks, a grove of trees sacred to ZEUS. Some sources ate ambiguities about a person’s character. In EURIPIDES’
regarded this grove as the oldest oracle in Greece, and ALCESTIS, APOLLO, HERACLES, and the CHORUS praise the
the trees themselves (or the doves that lived in them) hospitality of ADMETUS, but elsewhere in the play
were supposed to deliver the prophecies. [ANCIENT Admetus’ father calls him a coward for allowing his
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 613, Knights 78, wife to give up her life for him. In Aeschylus’
Seneca, Oedipus 728, Hercules Oetaeus 1623] PROMETHEUS BOUND, Prometheus portrays himself as
someone who has given human beings great benefits
CHAOS According to classical tradition, Chaos and who has taught them many things, but other char-
was the first thing to exist in the universe. The ancients acters in the play criticize him for his stubbornness
disagreed, however, about exactly what chaos was and and unwillingness to be taught. In SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS
where it was located. Some considered it a state of con- TYRANNOS, one can approach the character of OEDIPUS
fusion that existed before the ordering of the world, by examining what the people of THEBES say about
others as a huge void in the universe from which EARTH him, what Oedipus says about himself, and what the
emerged, others as a part of the UNDERWORLD. [ANCIENT gods (namely, APOLLO) and their representatives (i.e.,
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 691; Hesiod, Theogony TIRESIAS) say about him (through oracles). Whereas
116–23, 814] Oedipus thinks that he is a newcomer to Thebes, the
god knows that he is a native Theban. Whereas Oedi-
CHARACTER This word can refer to a person pus regards himself as skilled in the solving of riddles,
portrayed in a play, such as CREON or ANTIGONE, but the god knows that Oedipus has not yet unraveled the
also to the combination of features and qualities that riddle of his own identity. Whereas the people of
distinguish one character from another. When Thebes regard Oedipus as their savior, they later dis-
attempting to define the character of a person in a clas- cover that he is also the cause of their current misery.
sical drama, one must notice what the person does, In addition to evaluating a person’s character through
what the person says or reveals about him- or herself, his or her deeds and words and others’ judgments, we
130 CHARES

can gain information about character from the stage SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 943; Cratinus,
properties, images, and symbols with which a person fragment 153 Kock; Hesychius, e5413; Theopompus
is associated. In Aeschylus’ SEVEN AGAINST THEBES, infor- Comicus, fragment 51]
mation about the character of various warriors is pro-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
vided by the decorations on their shields. In Sophocles’
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
AJAX, the title character is associated with a whip dur- Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998.
ing his madness; however, when ODYSSEUS first looks 220.
for AJAX, he describes him as “shield-bearing” Ajax, an
epithet that evokes his past valor rather than his pres- CHARMINUS An Athenian naval commander
ent madness. In Euripides’ HERACLES, one of the who lost a battle to the Spartans off the southwestern
weapons by which HERACLES gained fame, the bow, coast of modern Turkey in 412/411 B.C.E. Charminus
helps provide some understanding of his character. participated in the oligarchic revolution on the island
From the perspective of the evil king Lycus, the bow is of Samos in 411 and the subsequent assassination
the weapon of a coward. From the perspective of Her- there of the exiled democratic leader Hyperbolus. After
acles’ mortal father, AMPHITRYON, the bow is the the oligarchic revolution failed, Charminus lost his
weapon of the clever person as it can unleash numer- post but did manage to keep his life. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
ous arrows from a position of unseen safety. Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae 804; Thucydides,
BIBLIOGRAPHY 8.41.3–43.1, 8.73.3, 8.76.2]
Easterling, P. E. “Character in Sophocles,” Greece and Rome BIBLIOGRAPHY
24 (1977): 121–29. Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 8,
Pelling, C. B. R., ed. Characterization and Individuality in Thesmophoriazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips,
Greek Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. 1994, 206.

CHARES A person of low intelligence who may CHARON The son of EREBUS and NIGHT, Charon
have been a “relative of the Chares who served on an was a gruff, raggedly dressed sailor with a penetrating
embassy to Sparta to negotiate peace in 446/445.” gaze. For a small fee (placed in the mouth of the
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 603; deceased), Charon would transport people across the
Diodorus Siculus, 12.7] body of water in the UNDERWORLD that separated them
BIBLIOGRAPHY from their final destination. He appears as a character
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, in ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS and carries DIONYSUS in his boat.
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 186. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 180–84, Lysis-
trata 606, Wealth 278; Euripides, Alcestis 254, 361, Her-
CHARINADES The name of a fictional Athen- acles 432; Seneca, Agamemnon 752, 764, 770, Hercules
ian male. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 1155, Furens 555, Hercules Oetaeus 1072, Oedipus 166]
Wasps 232]
CHARONIAN STEPS As described by Pollux,
CHARITES See GRACES. some theaters (not earlier than the fourth century
B.C.E.) had underground passages between the orches-
CHARIXENE An Athenian woman whose name tra’s center and the stage building. Such a passage
became proverbial for the distant past. She may have would have allowed supernatural characters such as
been a prostitute, who “may have lived in the late sixth ghosts or FURIES to appear to rise up from the stage or
century [B.C.E.]” (Sommerstein). Sommerstein specu- from the orchestra. The theater at ERETRIA has such a
lates that Charixene might have been the mistress of passageway preserved. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pollux, Ono-
the tyrant Hipparchus or his brother, HIPPIAS. [ANCIENT masticon 4.128, 4.132]
 CHILDREN OF HERACLES 131

BIBLIOGRAPHY ever, they are pursued by Heracles’ enemy, Eurystheus,

Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama. who threatens to punish any town that receives them.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 82. Iolaus’ monologue ends with the arrival of Eurystheus’
herald, Copreus (“dung man”), who demands that
CHARYBDIS A whirlpool that spouted water Iolaus and Heracles’ children return to ARGOS for pun-
and sucked that water down again three times a day, ishment. When Iolaus refuses, Copreus tries to drag
Charybdis was encountered during the adventures of them from the altar. Iolaus’ cries for help are answered
both ODYSSEUS and JASON. Opposite the Charybdis was by the old men of Marathon. Iolaus explains the situa-
another deadly obstacle, the monster SCYLLA. Some tion to the aged Marathonians, who offer their support.
ancient sources believed the Charybdis was located When Copreus confronts the chorus, they inform him
between SICILY and the toe of Italy’s boot. In ARISTO- that he should take up the issue with the king in the
PHANES’ KNIGHTS, the politician CLEON is compared to region, THESEUS’ son, DEMOPHON.
the Charybdis. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library The chorus’ mention of Demophon’s name heralds
1.9.25; Epitome 7.21; Apollonius Rhodius, 4.789, 825, his arrival. Demophon’s brother, Acamas, accompanies
923; Aristophanes, Knights 248; Euripides, Trojan him but remains silent. When Demophon arrives, the
Women 436; Homer, Odyssey 73–110; 235–59; chorus explain the situation. Copreus defends his right
430–44; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 235, Medea 408, to take Iolaus and Heracles’ children because he claims
Thyestes 581; Strabo, 6.2.3; Thucydides, 4.24.5] that the people of Argos have passed a sentence of
death against them. Copreus warns Demophon that
CHERRONESUS Also called the CHERSONESE, any interference will provoke a war between Argos and
this is a long, slender peninsula that extends into the Demophon’s people. Iolaus, in contrast, argues that
AEGEAN SEA from Thrace and is opposite the north- Demophon’s people have a reputation for aiding those
western coast of modern Turkey. [ANCIENT SOURCES: in need and even argues that Theseus and Heracles
Aristophanes, Knights 262] were relatives, and therefore Demophon’s people are
obligated to Heracles’ descendants as well. Demophon,
CHILDREN OF HERACLES (Greek: swayed by Iolaus’ argument, agrees to help Heracles’
HERACLEIDAI) EURIPIDES (430 B.C.E.) children. An angry Copreus leaves and threatens to
This TRAGEDY deals with the persecution of HERACLES’ begin a war when he returns.
children by Heracles’ enemy EURYSTHEUS. AESCHYLUS After the departure of Copreus, Iolaus praises
also wrote a Children of Heracles (fragments 73b–77 Demophon and his people. Demophon urges Iolaus
Radt); little is known about this play and how it might and the children to leave the altar, but Iolaus says they
have influenced EURIPIDES’ own treatment of the myth. will not leave until Demophon and his people are vic-
Euripides sets his play at MARATHON, a small town torious. When Demophon leaves to make preparations
some 25 miles northeast of ATHENS. The CHORUS con- for war with the Argives, the chorus sing an ode in
sist of old men from Marathon. The action of the praise of their city and their determination to resist
drama takes places after the death of Heracles. violence against suppliants. The choral ode is followed
As the play opens, the audience see that the children by the return of Demophon, who announces to Iolaus
of Heracles and their relative IOLAUS have taken refuge that he has seen Eurystheus and his army. Further-
at an altar of ZEUS in Marathon. The PROLOGUE begins more, Demophon notes that through his consultation
with a monologue by IOLAUS, who sits with Heracles’ of oracles he has learned that he will gain victory only
sons on the steps of the altar. Iolaus notes that by sacrificing his own daughter to PERSEPHONE.
ALCMENA and Heracles’ daughters have taken refuge Demophon, however, states that he will not sacrifice
inside the temple. As exiles, Iolaus and Heracles’ chil- his daughter nor ask any of his citizens to make such a
dren have traveled from town to town, seeking a place sacrifice. Upon hearing this, Iolaus says he cannot
that will grant them asylum. Wherever they go, how- blame Demophon and despairs that he and Heracles’
132 CHILDREN OF HERACLES

children will die. Iolaus soon decides to offer himself to and captured him. Hearing the servant’s message,
Eurystheus in order to save Heracles’ children. Alcmena rejoices and predicts that Eurystheus will
Demophon responds that Eurystheus cares little about soon die. Alcmena wonders why Iolaus did not kill
Iolaus but wants to kill the children. Demophon suggests Eurystheus. The servant tells her that Iolaus wanted to
that they find some other remedy for their difficulty. allow her to meet her family’s enemy face to face. At
At this point, Heracles’ daughter, Macaria, enters this, the servant departs and the chorus sing an ode of
from the temple and asks what is happening. When joy. The old men note that the gods punish the pride
Iolaus explains about the sacrifice, Macaria offers to of wicked persons; they rejoice that Heracles has
give up her life. Iolaus suggests that lots should be become a god; and they observe that Athena’s people
drawn from among Macaria and her sisters, but have aided Alcmena’s family just as Athena herself once
Macaria rejects this idea. Before Macaria exits to be sac- aided Heracles.
rificed, she bids farewell to Demophon, urging him to The choral ode is followed by the return of the ser-
teach Heracles’ sons well and to honor Iolaus, vant with the captive Eurystheus. Alcmena threatens
Alcmena, and the elders of Marathon. As Macaria exits, him with death, but the chorus declare that their coun-
Iolaus praises her courage and nobility. The chorus try’s law does not permit people captured in battle to
then sing a brief ode about how it is impossible to be put to death. Despite the chorus’ remark, Alcmena
avoid one’s destiny. They urge Iolaus to endure the states her intention to kill Eurystheus. Eurystheus
gods’ will and they predict that Heracles’ daughter will himself then speaks, blaming his enmity with Heracles
be glorified for her actions. on Hera. Eurystheus warns Alcmena that his spirit will
After the choral ode, a servant of Heracles’ son HYL- haunt her if she kills him. Despite Eurystheus’ warn-
LUS enters and asks Iolaus about events. The servant ing, Alcmena persists. Eurystheus does not beg for
says that he has good news, so Iolaus calls Alcmena mercy but reveals an oracle stating that if he is buried
from the temple. The servant informs them that Hyllus in Athenian territory, then his spirit will protect the
has arrived and is arranging his troops in preparation Athenians against future attack by the offspring of Her-
for the battle with Eurystheus. Iolaus then announces acles’ children. Upon hearing this, Alcmena urges that
that he will go with the servant to the battle front and Eurystheus be led out to death. At this point, the
take part in the fighting. The servant is skeptical ancient manuscript of the play breaks off and it is
because Iolaus is an old man, but Iolaus insists and uncertain what happens to Eurystheus.
decides to wear into battle armor from the temple. The
chorus and Alcmena also urge Iolaus not to engage in COMMENTARY
the fighting. After the servant returns from the temple One recurrent theme in Children of Heracles is the supe-
with the armor, he helps Iolaus as the old man totters riority of Athenian policy over that of other cities,
off to battle. After the servant and Iolaus depart, the especially those of the Peloponnesians, with whom
chorus sing an ode in which they pray to the gods, Athens was at war when Euripides’ play was staged. In
especially ATHENA, for assistance. Euripides’ play, Heracles’ children find themselves on
After the chorus’ prayer, the servant enters and Athenian soil, and the Athens of drama and myth was
announces victory over Eurystheus. The servant tells proverbial for helping those who found themselves in
Alcmena that initially Hyllus challenged Eurystheus to difficult circumstances. In AESCHYLUS’ Eumenides (see
a one-on-one combat to settle the dispute, but that ORESTEIA), ORESTES was acquitted of killing his mother
Eurystheus was too cowardly to accept the challenge. with the help of Athena and her citizens. In Euripides’
Then, after the battle began, a miracle occurred as MEDEA, the Athenian king Aegeus had offered asylum
Iolaus prayed to HEBE and Zeus that he might be young to Medea, faced with exile from Corinth. In Euripides’
again. Iolaus’ prayer was answered and the servant HERACLES, staged a decade or so after Children of Hera-
relates that the spirits of Hebe and Heracles appeared cles, Aegeus’ son, THESEUS, offers Heracles asylum after
over Iolaus’ chariot. Iolaus then pursued Eurystheus Heracles kills his own wife and children. In SOPHOCLES’
 CHIRON 133

OEDIPUS AT COLONUS, the Athenians grant asylum to the CHIMAERA The offspring of Typhon and Echidna,
title character. In Children of Heracles, Theseus’ son, the Chimaera lived in LYCIA and was a fire-breathing
Demophon, the current ruler of Athens, will act as pro- monster whose body comprised a lion (front), goat (mid-
tector. dle), and serpent (tail). A certain Amisodaurus raised the
Children of Heracles has a different theme, however, Chimaera to torment his fellow mortals; BELLEROPHON
from the protective role usually played by Athens, as eventually killed the monster. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
Demophon is faced with the possibility of sacrificing lodorus, Library 1.9.3, 2.3.1; Hesiod, Theogony 319–25;
his daughter to save the lives of strangers to his land. Homer, Iliad 6.178–83; Seneca, Medea 828]
Unlike the AGAMEMNON of Aeschylus’ Agamemnon (see
ORESTEIA), who sacrifices IPHIGENIA to put an end to the CHIOS An island, famed for its marble and wine,
adverse weather that prevented the Greeks from sailing off the western coast of modern Turkey. From 494 to
to TROY and rescuing MENELAUS’ wife, HELEN, 479 B.C.E., Persians controlled Chios. After the defeat
Demophon himself will not make a similar sacrifice of the Persians, Chios became a staunch ally of the
nor ask that of any of his citizens. Whereas another Athenians until their unsuccessful revolt in 412 B.C.E.
Athenian ruler who appears in drama, ERECHTHEUS, [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 882; Aristo-
was willing to sacrifice his daughter to save Athens, phanes, Birds 879–80, Ecclesiazusae 1139, Peace 171,
Demophon will not do that on behalf of outsiders. For- 835; Herodotus, 6.31; Thucydides, 8.6–64]
tunately for Demophon, one of Heracles’ daughters
steps forward and relieves him of this burden. CHIRON When CRONUS transformed himself into
a horse and impregnated Philyra, the resulting child
The sacrifice of one who dies before her time com-
was the immortal CENTAUR Chiron. Chiron, whose name
monly occurs in Euripidean drama. Macaria’s self-sac-
means “hand,” was skilled in medicine and restored
rifice has a predecessor in that of ALCESTIS, in
PHOENIX’s sight after he was blinded. Chiron trained
Euripides’ play of 438 B.C.E. Yet unlike Alcestis,
several heroes (ACTAEON, ASCLEPIUS, JASON, ACHILLES) in
Macaria has neither husband nor children. Thus,
the arts of healing and/or hunting. Chiron saved PELEUS
among extant Euripidean works, Macaria, the sacrifi-
when ACASTUS abandoned him on Mount Pelion and
cial maiden, is the forerunner of Erechtheus’ daughter hid his spear. He also advised Peleus on how to seize
in Euripides’ Erechtheus (no longer extant), POLYXENA in THETIS and gave Peleus a famous spear of ash. At the
HECABE, and Iphigenia in IPHIGENIA AT AULIS. Unlike in marriage of Peleus and Thetis, Chiron predicted the
the latter plays, in Children of Heracles, there is no men- birth of their great son, Achilles, and his heroism
tion of actual sacrifice. Macaria declares her intention against PRIAM and the Trojans. Heracles accidentally
to give up her life, and presumably she does, but no wounded Chiron with one of his arrows, which nor-
description of her death is given as in other Euripidean mally caused instant death, but because Chiron was
plays that have sacrificial victims. immortal, he did not die. Eventually Chiron was able
to die when PROMETHEUS offered to trade his mortality
BIBLIOGRAPHY for Chiron’s immortality. After Chiron’s death, he was
Allan, W. Euripides: The Children of Heracles. Warminster, placed in the sky as the constellation Sagittarius. A Chi-
U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001. ron is attributed to the Greek comic poet PHERECRATES
Burian, P. “Euripides’ Heraclidae: An Interpretation,” Classi- (145–153 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
cal Philology 72 (1977): 1–21. Library 1.2.4, 2.5.4, 3.13.3–8; Euripides, Iphigenia at
Burnett, A. P. “Tribe and City, Custom and Decree in Chil-
Aulis 162–75; HOMER, Iliad 16.143–44; Seneca, Her-
dren of Heracles,” Classical Philology 71 (1976): 4–26.
cules Furens 971, Trojan Women 832, Thyestes 860]
Rehm, R. “The Staging of Suppliant Plays,” Greek, Roman,
and Byzantine Studies 29 (1988): 263–307. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wilkins, J. Euripides: Heraclidae. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
1993. Teubner, 1880.
134 CHITON

CHITON The primary garment worn by the instructor (chorodidaskalos or DIDASKALOS) with whom
Greeks, the chiton generally had one of two styles, to work and an Athenian tribe from whom the chorus
Doric and Ionic. The Doric chiton was simpler in its would be drawn. Because the chorus had to have a
appearance that the Ionic chiton. A woman’s chiton place to practice, the choregus would probably arrange
descended from her neck and covered her ankles; a for this as well. Antiphon, a contemporary of SOPHO-
man’s was worn to just above the knee. For both sexes, CLES and EURIPIDES’, says that he provided a teaching
the chiton could be draped to leave the arms bare. room (didaskaleion) in his house.
Among the Romans, during the time of PLAUTUS and
BIBLIOGRAPHY TERENCE, an official called an aedile contracted with a
Brooke, Is. Costume in Greek Classic Drama. New York: The-
choragus, who provided costumes and other stage
atre Arts Books, 1962, 18–25.
equipment to the playwright and performers. In Plau-
tus’ CURCULIO, the choragus speaks (461–86), lament-
CHLAMUS A short cloak worn primarily by ing that one character is so tricky that he fears he will
Greek messengers and warriors. not return the costume he rented for the production.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Later, in the time of SENECA, a procurator summi choragi
Brooke, I. Costume in Greek Classic Drama. New York: The- (manager of the chief chorus supplier) seems to have
atre Arts Books, 1962, 28. been an emperor-appointed position within the gov-
ernment. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschines, Against
CHLOE A title (meaning “tender plant”) for DEME- Timarchus 11–12; Antiphon, On the Choreutes]
TER. In the second century C.E., the traveler Pausanias
noted in ATHENS a shrine dedicated to Demeter Chloe. CHORODIDASKALIA See DIDASKALIA.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 835; Pausa-
nias, 1.22.3] CHORODIDASKALOS See DIDASKALOS.

CHORUS The Greek word choros can refer to a

CHOAE See PITCHER FEAST.
place for dancing, a dance in a ring, or the people who
participate in such a dance (i.e., the chorus). In
CHOEPHOROI See LIBATION BEARERS (ORESTEIA). DITHYRAMB, a chorus had 50 members. The chorus of
Greek TRAGEDY consisted of 12 members in the early
CHOREGIA The Greek word that refers to the days, but this number was increased to 15 around the
duties performed by the CHOREGUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: middle of the fifth century B.C.E. The Greek comic cho-
Thucydides, 6.16.3] rus of ARISTOPHANES’ day had 24 members. In both
tragedy and COMEDY, there are some instances of the
CHOREGUS (Latin: CHORAGUS) The chorus’ dividing into two groups and singing respon-
Athenian choregus—the name literally means “chorus sively to one another. In a few plays, we find an auxil-
driver”—was a citizen whose role involved paying for iary chorus (parachoregema) with the primary chorus.
outfitting the CHORUS and/or players with costumes. In In AESCHYLUS’ Eumenides (see ORESTEIA), produced in
ATHENS, either a citizen might volunteer financial 458, the FURIES make up the primary chorus; at the
resources for this duty or a public official called an end of the play a group of Athenian women sing a song
ARCHON might nominate him. In his speech against in praise of them. In EURIPIDES’ HIPPOLYTUS (produced
Timarchus, Aeschines says the Athenian choregus had in 428), the title character enters the play with a group
to be older than 40 years old, and thus presumably of hunters who are praising ARTEMIS. Soon, however,
mature enough not to sponsor entertainment inappro- HIPPOLYTUS sends the hunters off and the main chorus,
priate for the youth. This law does not seem to have composed of women from TROEZEN, enter.
been strictly enforced, however. Once a choregus vol- In all Greek drama, the persons who served as
unteered or was appointed, he was assigned a chorus members of the chorus were male (even if playing
 CHORUS 135

female characters) and wore masks as the actors on remarking that a group of drunken men are approach-
stage did. The main function of the chorus was to sing ing. This chorus of drunken rowdies would have sung
and dance the odes dividing a play’s EPISODES. Occa- “stock” songs as sort of a musical interlude between
sionally, the chorus and the actors would chant or sing acts. This use of readily transferable songs is attributed
in lyric dialogue. The chorus had musical accompani- to the Greek tragedian AGATHON, active in the last two
ment on the AULOS, and one of their formations for decades of the fifth century. The Roman comedies of
dance may have been rectangular (either three lines of PLAUTUS and TERENCE do not have choral parts at all,
four or three lines of five). In his speech against ALCIB- although some traces of the chorus from the Greek
IADES, Andocides, a contemporary of ARISTOPHANES’, originals can be found in Plautus’ BACCHIDES (based on
notes that members of a chorus in competition had to Menander’s Twice Deceived) and ROPE (the group of
be Athenian citizens. fishermen who appear and then disappear).
In Greek tragedy of the late sixth and early fifth cen- In a SATYR PLAY, the chorus would consist of satyrs,
turies, the chorus members constituted the principal who commonly seem to have described themselves as
characters in a play. So important was the chorus that servants to someone (e.g., the CYCLOPS in Euripides’
originally the term for playwright was chorodidaskalos CYCLOPS). An exception to this rule occurs in Euripides’
(“teacher of the chorus”); in Poetics, ARISTOTLE says the ALCESTIS, which was staged in place of a satyr play.
chorus should be regarded as one of the play’s actors There, the chorus is much like a typical chorus in
and should participate in a drama’s action. As time tragedy, as it consists of elder males from the town of
went on, the chorus’ role diminished and the chorus PHERAE. As in tragedy, the chorus in a satyr play had 12
became less integral to the play’s action. In the last members.
three surviving plays of AESCHYLUS (see ORESTEIA), In tragedy, the makeup of the chorus would vary
dated to 458 B.C.E., the chorus speak more than 45 more widely. The tragic chorus generally represent the
percent of the lines. In the following decade, however, point of view of the common person. In some plays,
in SOPHOCLES’ AJAX and ANTIGONE, the chorus deliver the chorus are women (e.g., Aeschylus’ SUPPLIANT
about 25 percent of the lines. This percentage remains WOMEN, Sophocles’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN, Euripides’
consistent with slight decreases until the 410s, when in PHOENICIAN WOMEN); in others, men (Aeschylus’
Euripides’ Orestes, IPHIGENIA AT AULIS, and BACCHAE and Agamemnon [see ORESTEIA], Sophocles’ Antigone,
Sophocles’ PHILOCTETES and OEDIPUS AT COLONUS, the Euripides’ Alcestis). The male choruses tend to consist
choruses recite roughly 20 percent. of older men, and the female choruses tend to consist
The same decreasing involvement of the chorus can of younger women who are either free women or
be seen in Aristophanes’ plays and is even more pro- slaves.
nounced. In Aristophanic plays of the 420s, the chorus Among the comic poets of Aristophanes’ day, the
delivered as many as a quarter of the lines, but by the common people’s voice could still be heard in comic
time of ECCLESIAZUSAE and WEALTH, Aristophanes’ last choruses, as the men who make up the choruses of
two extant plays (392 and 388, respectively), the cho- ACHARNIANS, PEACE, and Wealth demonstrate. Comedy,
rus would have had no more than 10 percent of the however, had far greater license for choral identity than
lines (one choral passage from Ecclesiazusae has been tragedy, as the titles of some of Aristophanes’ plays
lost from the play’s manuscripts and six choral pas- indicate: Acharnians, KNIGHTS, CLOUDS, WASPS, BIRDS,
sages are missing from Wealth). Although the last Ecclesiazusae. Additionally, the choruses in fifth-cen-
extant Greek tragedies have choral passages, the tury comedy would be more physically involved in the
ancient manuscripts of MENANDER’s comedies (first pro- action of the play than in tragedy of the same period.
duced in the late fourth and early third centuries) do The Acharnians threaten to stone DICAEOPOLIS at one
not contain choral passages, but only a note indicating point; the old men and old women in LYSISTRATA actu-
at what points the chorus sang. In several of Menan- ally do have an onstage skirmish in which the men are
der’s plays, this indication is preceded by a character doused with water. The Clouds claim that they led
136 CHRYSE (1)

STREPSIADES into foolish behavior to teach him a lesson. Greeks. When the Greeks learned the reason for the
As is also indicated in the titles of Aristophanes’ plays, plague, they persuaded Agamemnon to restore Chry-
the costumes of the comic choruses would often have seis to her father. Many years later, when ORESTES,
been wondrous to see. It must have been a delight to PYLADES, and IPHIGENIA were returning to Greece with a
see two dozen of Aristophanes’ cloud-women waft into statue of ARTEMIS they had stolen from Tauris, they
the orchestra, not to mention the two dozen different landed on Chryses’ island. When the Taurian king
birds in costumes that were enjoyed by the spectators THOAS, who had pursued them, demanded that Chry-
at Aristophanes’ Birds. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Andocides, ses hand over the three, Chryses initially decided to do
Against Alcibiades 20; Aristotle, Poetics; Plautus, Bac- so, but when he learned that Orestes and Iphigenia
chides 105–8, Rope 284–324] were Agamemnon’s children, he chose to help the trio
instead and they killed Thoas. SOPHOCLES wrote a Chry-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ses, of which virtually nothing is known (fragments
Buxton, R. W. B. The Chorus in Sophocles’ Tragedies. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1980. 726–30 Radt). Among Roman authors, PACUVIUS wrote
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama. a Chryses that dealt with Thoas’ pursuit of Orestes and
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 349–68. Pylades (lines 79–118 Warmington). [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Kranz, Walther. Stasimon: Untersuchungen zu Form und Homer, Iliad 1; Hyginus, Fables 120–21; Seneca, Trojan
Gehalt der griechischen Tragodie. Berlin: Weidmann, 1933. Women 223]
Sifakis, G. M. Parabasis and Animal Choruses: A Contribution to
the History of Attic Comedy. London: Athlone Press, 1971. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Webster, T. B. L. The Greek Chorus. London: Methuen, 1970. Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Wilson, Peter. The Athenian Institution of the Khoregia: The Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Chorus, the City and the Stage. Cambridge: Cambridge Harvard University Press, 1996.
University Press, 2000. Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
CHRYSE (1) An island in the northern AEGEAN Press of America, 1984.
near LEMNOS. PHILOCTETES was bitten by a serpent Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
while on Chryse. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Sophocles, Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Philoctetes 270] Harvard University Press, 1936.

CHRYSE (2) The name of a divinity who pro- CHRYSIPPUS The son of PELOPS and Astyoche
tected the island of Chryse. PHILOCTETES angered this (or Axioche), Chrysippus was a handsome young man
divinity and was bitten by a serpent that guarded the whom the Theban king LAIUS abducted. Because of this
divinity’s shrine. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Sophocles, act, Pelops cursed Laius and his descendants. Accord-
Philoctetes 194, 1327] ing to some sources, his stepbrothers, ATREUS and
THYESTES, rescued Chrysippus; other sources say
CHRYSEIS See CHRYSES. Pelops rescued him after attacking THEBES. Accounts of
Chrysippus’ death also vary. Some say he committed
CHRYSES King of the island of Sminthe and a suicide; others state that his stepmother, HIPPODAMEIA,
priest of APOLLO, Chryses was the father of Chryseis, fearing that he might become king rather than her
who was taken prisoner during the Trojan War by the sons, Atreus and Thyestes, persuaded Atreus and
Greeks and became the war prize of AGAMEMNON. Thyestes to kill him. After Pelops blamed Hippo-
When Chryses went to the Greek camp to try to ran- dameia for Chrysippus’ death, she committed suicide.
som his daughter, Agamemnon harshly drove him Among the Greek dramatists, Diogenes and
away. The angered Chryses prayed for revenge from Lycophron wrote plays entitled Chrysippus. From
APOLLO, who caused a plague to descend upon the Lycophron’s play, only the title survives; the five
 CIMON 137

remaining lines from Diogenes’ play provide no infor- strong awareness of the presence of the dead” (Dover).
mation about that play’s content. EURIPIDES wrote a [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 218]
tragic Chrysippus, of which about two dozen lines
BIBLIOGRAPHY
remain and which may date to before 428 B.C.E. Euripi-
Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon
des’ play appears to have treated the relationship Press, 1993, 223–24.
between Laius and Chrysippus, and in the course of its
action the young man seems to have committed sui-
CICYNNA A DEME in ATHENS. In ARISTOPHANES’
cide. The comic poet Strattis also wrote a play called
Clouds (134, 210), STREPSIADES says he is from this
Chrysippus; the six surviving lines tell little about its
deme.
content.
Among Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a Chrysippus,
CILICIA A region along the coast of what is today
from which about six lines survive; the subject matter
southern Turkey. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Miles Glo-
of the play is unknown. In one fragment, the speaker
riosus 42, Three-Dollar Day 599; Terence, Phormio 66]
refers to the possible surrender of SPARTA and Amyclae,
territories that would have been under Pelops’ control.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.5.5; Hygi-
CILISSA In AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bearers (see
ORESTEIA), Cilissa is the name given to ORESTES’ nurse.
nus, Fables 85]
BIBLIOGRAPHY CILLICON A “semilegendary traitor” whose
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: name became synonymous with evil actions. When
Teubner, 1880. suspected that he was planning to betray his city
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
(MILETUS or SAMOS) to its enemies, he was asked what
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
he was planning to do. His response was “It’s all good.”
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Methuen, 1967. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 363]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHRYSOTHEMIS The daughter of AGAMEM- Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5,
NON and CLYTEMNESTRA, Chrysothemis is the sister of Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985, 150.
ORESTES, ELECTRA, and IPHIGENIA. She appears as a char-
acter in SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA, in which she performs a CIMMERIA A land located in the northern part
function similar to that of ISMENE in Sophocles’ of the Black Sea region. In AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS
ANTIGONE, as she provides a contrast with the attitudes BOUND, PROMETHEUS tells IO that she will have to pass
of her sister Electra. Electra decides that she will make across the Cimmerian ISTHMUS in her wanderings.
an attempt to kill AEGISTHUS, but Chrysothemis does [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 730]
not want to be involved in this plot and advises her
sister to be sensible. Electra, in turn, accuses CIMOLUS An island in the southern AEGEAN
Chrysothemis of being a coward. [ANCIENT SOURCES: (just northeast of MELOS) that was famous for its chalky
Apollodorus, Epitome 2.16; Euripides, Orestes 23; soil (Cimolian earth), which was used by barbershops
Homer, Iliad 9.145] and bathhouses and in medicine. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Aristophanes, Frogs 712]
CHYTROI In ATHENS, the third and final day of
the feast of Anthesteria was called the Chytroi (the Pot CIMON The son of Miltiades and Hegesipyle,
Feast). This part of the festivities took place “at the Cimon was an important Athenian statesman and mil-
sanctuary of Dionysus in Limnais.” On this day the par- itary commander during the second quarter of the fifth
ticipants sacrificed to HERMES “as the god in charge of century B.C.E. His most important victory occurred
the passage of souls to the UNDERWORLD, and there was around 468, when his forces wiped out the Persian
138 CINESIAS (1)

navy in a military operation near the river Eurymedon Circe’s island, Odysseus and his crew received her
in what is today southern Turkey. Cimon was exiled advice about how to reach their home, including the
from ATHENS in 461 but eventually returned and died news that Odysseus would have to travel to the UNDER-
some time after 450 while leading a military expedition WORLD to accomplish his homecoming. One of
to retake the island of CYPRUS from the Persians. Odysseus’ comrades, Elpenor, died after falling asleep
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 1144] on the roof of Circe’s house and then tumbling off.
Odysseus did not know this at the time and later
CINESIAS (1) (CA. 450–CA. 390 B.C.E.) A encountered Elpenor’s spirit in the underworld.
dithyrambic poet whom ARISTOPHANES mocks on sev- Elpenor begged Odysseus to return to Circe’s house,
eral occasions for writing poems with “airy” diction, find his body, and bury it (Odysseus did). By Odysseus,
but lacking in substance. In Aristophanes’ BIRDS, Cine- Circe also gave birth to a son, named Telegonus.
sias is driven away from the new city of the birds. The Circe does not appear as a character in any extant
Greek comic poet Strattis, a contemporary of Aristo- dramas but would have been a character in several
phanes’, wrote a Cinesias, whose fragments give no plays that no longer survive. AESCHYLUS wrote a satyric
indication of the play’s plot (fragments 13–14 Kock). Circe, from which three brief, uninformative fragments
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 1372, Ecclesi- survive (113a–115 Radt). The comic poet Anaxilas also
azusae 330, Frogs 153, 1437] wrote a Circe, whose two surviving fragments (12–13
Kock) indicate that the play dealt with the transforma-
BIBLIOGRAPHY tion of Odysseus’ men. The comic poet Ephippus also
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: wrote a play entitled Circe; the two lines that survive
Teubner, 1880. give no indication of plot (fragment 11 Kock).
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 7.14–18;
CINESIAS (2) A fictional Athenian who appears Homer, Odyssey 10]
as the love-starved husband of Myrrhine in ARISTO-
PHANES’ LYSISTRATA (838ff.). Cinesias’ name is derived BIBLIOGRAPHY
from the Greek verb kinein, which can denote the Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
motion used during sexual intercourse. Teubner, 1884.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
CIRCE The daughter of Helios (see SUN) and Perse,
Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926,
Circe was an immortal witch who lived on the island of Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971.
Aeaea. During their wanderings, ODYSSEUS and his men
arrived on her island. As HOMER tells the story in CIRCUS The Latin word circus literally means
Odyssey 10, Odysseus and half of his men remained “circle” and refers to a course for racing, especially
with the ship, while the other half went out to explore chariot racing. The most famous circus is the Circus
the island. During their exploration, they entered the Maximus in Rome, which, although primarily used as
house of Circe, who turned them into pigs. Eurylochus, a racing course, was sometimes adapted for use in the-
who did not enter the house, returned to the ship and atrical productions. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Polybius, 30.14]
reported what had happened. Odysseus then set out
alone to investigate the situation for himself. On the CIRRHA A Greek town southwest of DELPHI on the
way to Circe’s house, he was met by HERMES, who gave northern coast of the Gulf of CORINTH. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
him a remedy, moly, to counteract the effects of Circe’s Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 92, 1475, Oedipus 269]
drugs. When Circe tried to transform Odysseus, her
magic failed. He drew his sword on her and she invited CISTHENE A place where the PHORCIDES were
him to sleep with her (an invitation that Odysseus supposed to live. At PROMETHEUS BOUND 793,
accepted). Circe later changed Odysseus’ comrades PROMETHEUS tells IO that she will have to pass Cisthene.
back into humans. After they had spent a year on See also CRATINUS, fragment 309 Kock.
 CLEINIAS 139

BIBLIOGRAPHY CLAUDIUS (10 B.C.E.–54 C.E.) The son of

Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Drusus the elder and Antonia the lesser, Tiberius
Teubner, 1880. Claudius Nero Germanicus was the Roman emperor
who reigned between CALIGULA and NERO. By his wife,
CITHAERON This mountain, located near Valeria Messalina, Claudius became the father of
THEBES, was the site of many tragic occurrences in drama. OCTAVIA and Britannicus. After Messalina’s death,
It was on Cithaeron that the infant OEDIPUS was to be left Claudius married his niece, AGRIPPINA, who may have
to die. ACTAEON was torn apart there by his own hunting helped kill him by giving him a dish of poisoned
dogs and PENTHEUS by his own mother in EURIPIDES’ BAC- mushrooms. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia 26, 45,
CHAE. The dead from the expedition of the Seven against 269, Apocolocyntosis; Suetonius, Claudius, Nero; Taci-
Thebes are buried on Cithaeron, and APOLLO killed tus, Annals 11–12]
NIOBE’s male children as they hunted there.
BIBLIOGRAPHY CLEAENETUS The father of CLEON. [ANCIENT
Buxton, Richard. “News from Cithaeron: Narrators and Nar- SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 574]
ratives in the Bacchae,” Pallas 37 (1991): 39–48.
Kubota, T. “On the Relation between the Scenes on CLEIDEMIDES A person mentioned by ARISTO-
Cithaeron and the Stage Actions in Euripides’ Bacchae,” PHANES at FROGS 791 about whom nothing certain is
Classical Studies (1980): 23–40. known. One ancient commentator on this line thought
Cleidemides was a son of SOPHOCLES’, and another
CLASHING ROCKS Also known as the Sym- thought that he acted in Sophocles’ plays.
plegades (those that clash together) or the Cyaneae (the
dark-blue ones), this dangerous pair of rocks guarded BIBLIOGRAPHY
the southern entrance to the Black Sea. Homer calls Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1993, 289.
them the Planktai (wandering ones), although Apollo-
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9,
nius of Rhodes makes the Symplegades and the Plank-
Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 225.
tai two different sets of rocks. Typically, the rocks
smashed anything that tried to pass between them, but
JASON and Argonauts, armed with advice from PHINEUS
CLEIGENES Mentioned in ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS,
Cleigenes, according to Dover, may have operated
and the help of the gods, were able to make it through
bathhouses. A Cleigenes served as a secretary for the
the rocks. One tradition is that after Jason passed
council in ATHENS in 410/409 B.C.E., but this person is
through these rocks they no longer smashed together,
otherwise unknown. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
but in EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, ORESTES is also said
to have passed through them and Euripides implies Frogs 709–13]
that they remained dangerous. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- BIBLIOGRAPHY
lodorus, Library 1.9.22; Apollonius of Rhodes, 2.601; Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Euripides, Medea 2, 1263, Andromache 795, 863, Iphi- 1993, 280.
genia in Tauris 241, 260, 355, 392, 746, 889–90, 1389; Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9,
Homer, Odyssey 12.61–72; Hyginus, Fables 19, 21; Pin- Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 218.
dar, Pythian 4.371; Seneca, Hercules Furens 1211, Medea
456, Hercules Oetaeus 1273, 1380] CLEINARETE A woman mentioned by ARISTO-
PHANES at ECCLESIAZUSAE 41. She is not identified with
BIBLIOGRAPHY
any historical person.
Pickard, William F. “The Symplegades,” Greece and Rome 34
(1987): 1–6.
Pocock, L. G. “The Odyssey, the Symplegades, and the Name CLEINIAS The father of ALCIBIADES. [ANCIENT
of Homer,” Studi micenei ed egeoanatolici 4 (1967): 92–104. SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 716]
140 CLEISTHENES

CLEISTHENES An Athenian political leader in king removed from office and stirring up the Arcadians
the last quarter of the fifth century B.C.E. mocked for against his fellow Spartans, Cleomenes was recalled to
his effeminacy. ARISTOPHANES mentions him by name in Sparta. Cleomenes committed suicide soon after his
most of his extant plays, and in his THESMOPHORIAZUSAE, return. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 274;
Cleisthenes is able to gain access to the female-only Herodotus, 5.39ff.]
worshipers at the THESMOPHORIA without disguising BIBLIOGRAPHY
himself as a woman. Cleisthenes is also mentioned by Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
Aristophanes’ contemporary comic poets, CRATINUS Press, 1987, 103.
(fragment 195 Kock), who says Cleisthenes would
look ridiculous playing dice, and PHERECRATES (frag- CLEON The son of Cleaenetus, a wealthy tanner,
ment 135 Kock), who compares Cleisthenes to a Cleon was an Athenian political leader and general
pigeon. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians who seems to have evoked extreme emotions from
118, Birds 831, Clouds 355, Frogs 48, 422, Knights those who encountered him. People either liked Cleon
1374, Lysistrata 1092, Thesmophoriazusae 709–13, or hated him. Cleon moved to the forefront of Athen-
Wasps 1187; Cratinus, fragment 195.1 Kock; Phere- ian politics in 431–430 by attacking the policies of
crates, fragment 135.1 Kock] PERICLES and gaining favor with the masses by orches-
trating such measures as increased pay for jurors. After
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Pericles’ death in 429, Cleon became the foremost
Teubner, 1880. political leader in ATHENS, and the historian Thucy-
dides labeled him the most violent of Athens’ citizens.
In 427, Cleon orchestrated a decree that would have
CLEOCRITUS ARISTOPHANES calls Cleocritus’
put to death all the male inhabitants of MYTILENE, a
mother an ostrich and thus indicates that Cleocritus’
town on the island of Lesbos that had tried unsuccess-
body shape was like that of animal. Dunbar tentatively
fully to revolt against Athens. Fortunately for the
suggests that Cleocritus may have been ARCHON in
Mytilenians, the Athenians decided not to carry out
413/412 “and/or the Herald of the (Eleusinian) Initi-
this decree, but in 423, Cleon proposed a similar
ates . . . whose speech in 403, after the battle of Mun- decree for the Macedonian town of SCIONE and its peo-
ychias between democrats and supporters of the Thirty ple. In Scione, the decree was enforced out—the men
Tyrants, helped to end civil strife.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: were killed, the women and children sold into slavery.
Aristophanes, Birds 873, Frogs 1437; Xenophon, Hel- Several comic poets made fun of Cleon (DIPHILUS,
lenica 2.4.20–2] EUPOLIS, HERMIPPUS, Machon, and PHILEMON), but our
BIBLIOGRAPHY knowledge of the feud between ARISTOPHANES and
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer- Cleon is the most extensive. Aristophanes had no love
sity Press, 1995, 512–13. for Cleon, because Cleon tried to prosecute Aristo-
phanes on charges of slandering Athenian citizens,
CLEOMENES From about 519 to 490 B.C.E., councilors, and magistrates before the foreigners who
Cleomenes I was one of the kings of SPARTA (the Spar- attended Aristophanes’ Babylonians at the City
tans had a two-king system). In 510, Cleomenes DIONYSIA in 426 B.C.E. Cleon’s prosecution failed, how-
helped the Athenians drive out the tyrant HIPPIAS. Two ever, and Aristophanes ridiculed him mercilessly in his
years later Cleomenes, backing the Athenian Isagoras’ plays. In KNIGHTS, Aristophanes caricatures Cleon in
effort to establish an oligarchy in ATHENS, returned to PAPHLAGON (“the blusterer”), whose evil tactics and flat-
Athens with an armed force and occupied the ACROPO- tery allow him to control DEMOS, who represents the
LIS. Those opposed to Isagoras rallied successfully, people of Athens. Cleon again tried to prosecute
however, and Cleomenes left Athens under a truce. Aristophanes after Knights, but the grounds on which
Many years later, after managing to have his fellow- the charge was based is not known. In Aristophanes’
 CLEOPATRA 141

WASPS, the playwright depicts a father named Philo- proximity to NEMEA, the home of the lion that HERACLES
cleon (lover of Cleon) and a son named Bdelycleon killed in his first labor, the Nemean lion is sometimes
(hater of Cleon); Bdelycleon demonstrates to Philo- called the Cleonaean lion. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
cleon that Cleon has enslaved him, not empowered lodorus, Library 2.5.1; Seneca, Hercules Furens 798]
him. Even after Cleon’s death, Aristophanes continued
to express his dislike of Cleon. In PEACE (261–73), CLEONYMUS A minor political figure in
Aristophanes calls Cleon a pestle that war would use to ATHENS during the last quarter of the fifth century
grind up the cities of Greece. Later in the same play B.C.E. In the first half of ARISTOPHANES’ career the play-
(313–15), Cleon is labeled a CERBERUS who will pre- wright makes fun of Cleonymus numerous times, but
vent the goddess of Peace from being raised out of the after BIRDS (414 B.C.E.) references to him end, possibly
pit into which the god War has cast her. an indication that Cleonymus had died. On one occa-
Cleon’s greatest success occurred in 425 B.C.E. at sion, Aristophanes brands Cleonymus a glutton, but
Sphacteria, a small island off the coast of PYLOS in most often the playwright mocks him for having
southwestern Greece. When the Athenian army man- thrown away his shield (through cowardice) in battle
aged to trap on Sphacteria some of the Spartans’ best (“probably some time in 425,” according to MacDow-
fighters, the Athenian commander NICIAS did not pur- ell). In 426/425 B.C.E., Cleonymus is known to have
sue the action against the Spartans vigorously enough proposed “a major decree enforcing stricter procedures
to satisfy Cleon. When Cleon criticized Nicias, Nicias for collecting tribute from the allied states,” and in 415
unexpectedly gave up his command and offered it to he proposed “a reward of 1,000 drachmas for informa-
Cleon. Challenged in this way, Cleon had little choice tion about sacrilegious mock-celebrations of the
but to accept the generalship. Not only did Cleon do Eleusinian mysteries” (Sommerstein). [ANCIENT
so, but he also boasted that he would resolve the mat- SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 88, 844, Birds
ter within 20 days. Ultimately, Cleon confirmed his 289–90, 1475, Clouds 353, 400, 673–80, Knights 958,
boast and the Athenians captured a large number of 1293, 1372, Peace 673–78, 1295, Wasps 19–20, 822]
the Spartans. Cleon’s success was short lived, however,
as he was killed at the battle of Amphipolis in 422. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Thucydides makes a point of noting that Cleon died Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
with his back to the battle. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- 1995, 238–39.
phanes, Acharnians, Knights, Wasps, Peace; Diodorus MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
Siculus, 12.72–76; Plutarch, Nicias, Pericles; Thucy- Press, 1971, 130.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
dides, Histories 3.36–5.16]
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980,
BIBLIOGRAPHY 161–62.
Andrews, James A. “Cleon’s Ethopoetics,” Classical Quarterly
44 (1994): 26–39. CLEOPATRA Not to be confused with the queen
Edmunds, Lowell. Cleon, Knights and Aristophanes’ Politics. of Egypt who had relationships with Julius CAESAR and
Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987. Marcus ANTONIUS in the first century B.C.E., Cleopatra
Lang, M. L. “Cleon as the Anti-Pericles,” Classical Philology
was the daughter of the wind god BOREAS and the
67 (1972): 159–69.
Marshall, M. H. B. “Cleon and Pericles: Sphacteria,” Greece
Athenian king ERECHTHEUS’ daughter Oreithyia. By the
and Rome 31 (1984): 19–36. Thracian king and prophet PHINEUS, Cleopatra had two
McGlew, James F. “Everybody Wants to Make a Speech: sons. When Phineus had an affair with Idaea and she
Cleon and Aristophanes on Politics and Fantasy,” Arethusa had produced two sons for him, Idaea, jealous of
29, no. 3 (1996): 339–61. Cleopatra, falsely claimed that Cleopatra’s sons had
tried to seduce her. Phineus blinded these two boys
CLEONAE A town in southeastern Greece and then imprisoned them and Cleopatra. Cleopatra
between CORINTH and ARGOS. Because of Cleonae’s was later freed by her brothers, Zetes and Calais, the
142 CLEOPHON

sons of Boreas, when the Argonauts arrived. Cleopa- a play entitled Clepsydra, of which only the title has
tra’s fate after this time is unknown. [ANCIENT SOURCES: survived (Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
Apollodorus, Library 3.15.3; Diodorus Siculus, 4.44; Acharnians 693, Birds 1695, Lysistrata 913, Wasps 93,
Hyginus, Fables 19; Scholiast on Sophocles, Antigone 857–58; Pausanias, 2.38.2]
973; Sophocles, Antigone 966–87]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
CLEOPHON (DIED 404 B.C.E.) A maker of sity Press, 1995, 740–41.
lyres and an Athenian statesman, Cleophon was the Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
son of Cleippides and a Thracian mother; as a result Teubner, 1884.
Cleophon’s right to Athenian citizenship was ques-
tioned (an earlier law required that both parents of cit-
CLOACINA An epithet of Venus (see APHRODITE).
izens be from ATHENS). ARISTOPHANES’ reference to him
According to Servius, the name is from the verb
in THESMOPHORIAZUSAE indicates that his was a recog-
cloare, “to purge” or “to purify.” [ANCIENT SOURCES:
nizable name by 411. Cleophon became prominent
Plautus, Curculio 471; Servius Honoratus on Aeneid,
after the restoration of democracy in Athens in 410,
1.720]
was an adversary of Critias and ALCIBIADES’, and
opposed Spartan offers of peace after their defeat at the
battles of Cyzicus (410) and Aegospotami (405). The CLOTHO The name of one of the FATES.
comic poet Plato wrote a Cleophon from which about
five lines survive (fragments 56–63 Kock). [ANCIENT CLOUDS ARISTOPHANES (423 B.C.E.) The
SOURCES: Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon 148, The Speech play originally placed third of the three at the DIONYSIA.
on the Embassy 75; Andocides, On the Mysteries 145; The first prize went to CRATINUS, whose Putine (Wine
Aristophanes, Frogs 678–79, 1504, 1532, Thesmophori- Flask or The Bottle) made fun of Cratinus’ own alleged
azusae 805] drinking problem. In the PARABASIS of WASPS, ARISTO-
PHANES expresses his disappointment in the audience’s
BIBLIOGRAPHY
reaction to Clouds, claiming that it was his most clever
Baldwin, B. “Notes on Cleophon,” Acta Classica 17 (1974):
play to date. It is not surprising that Aristophanes
35–47.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: would have been disappointed, because his plays had
Teubner, 1880. finished in first place the previous two years.
Renaud, R. “Cléophon et la guerre du Péloponnèse,” Les The setting of Clouds is ATHENS. The stage building
Études Classiques 38 (1970): 458–77. makes use of at least two doors, with one representing
Romilly, J. De. “L’assemblée du peuple dans l’Oreste the house of the main character, STREPSIADES, the other
d’Euripide, I,” In Studi Classici in Onore di Quintino the school run by SOCRATES. The play opens just before
Cataudella. Catania: Fac. di Lett. e Filos., 1972, 237–51. dawn at the house of Strepsiades. Onstage Strepsiades
and his son, PHEIDIPPIDES, are in bed. Strepsiades is
CLEPSYDRA A Greek word meaning “concealer awake, but Pheidippides continues to sleep. The audi-
of water,” Clepsydra is the name of several springs in ence first hears Strepsiades complain that he has fallen
Greece. In ARISTOPHANES’ LYSISTRATA, Myrrhine speaks into debt because of the expenses his son, Pheidippi-
of purifying herself in the Athenian Clepsydra, which des, has incurred through his love of horses. Plagued
was “at the foot of the cliff at the [northwest] angle of by creditors, Strepsiades plots to cheat them by having
the ACROPOLIS, in a cleft converted into a fountain Pheidippides learn a clever manner of arguing, called
house in the [fifth century B.C.E.]” (Dunbar). The word “Wrong Logic,” from Socrates. When Pheidippides
clepsydra also denotes the water clock (a sort of hour- refuses to go to Socrates’ school, the Phrontisterion
glass) that the Athenians used to time speakers’ (Thinkateria or Pondetorium), Strepsiades himself
remarks in court. The Greek comic poet Eubulus wrote decides to become Socrates’ pupil.
 CLOUDS 143

When Strepsiades goes to the school he initially creditors are gone, Strepsiades and Pheidippides enter
meets one of the students, who tells him of Socrates’ their house to have dinner. The chorus, however, pre-
astonishing mental feats and shows him some of the dict that Strepsiades will soon repent of his son’s new
subjects studied by the school’s students, who look like learning. Their prediction comes true as Strepsiades,
prisoners of war, according to Strepsiades. Finally, being beaten by his son, then rushes from his house.
Strepsiades’ student guide leaves and Socrates himself As it turns out, not only can Pheidippides foil Strepsi-
appears. Socrates enters above the stage level in the ades’ creditors, but by using “weaker logic” he also
MECHANE and claims he is walking on air and contem- argues that beating his father is proper. Strepsiades is
plating the sun. When Strepsiades tells Socrates that he unable to refute his son’s argument, but when Pheidip-
has come to learn the sort of argumentation that can pides claims he will prove he would be in the right to
help him avoid payment of his debts, Socrates agrees beat his mother as well, Strepsiades decides that this
to instruct him. Socrates also introduces Strepsiades to behavior has gone far enough. Thus, Strepsiades pro-
his patron divinities, the Clouds, who constitute the ceeds to attack the problem at its root by burning
play’s chorus. Socrates informs Strepsiades that the down the Phrontesterion. The drama concludes with
Clouds are divinities, and that ZEUS does not rule the Strepsiades’ setting fire to Socrates’ school and Socrates
gods, but, rather, a divinity named Dinos (Vortex), a himself calling out for help.
pun on Dios (Zeus or God), does. Strepsiades is made
to swear that he will reject the traditional gods and COMMENTARY
acknowledge as divinities Chaos, Clouds, and Tongue. The version of Clouds that survives to this day was
After Strepsiades takes this oath, the Clouds promise revised a few years after it was written but does not
Strepsiades that he will become a clever speaker. seem to have been performed in competition. In the
Socrates tries to teach the old man about rhythm in second version of the play, Aristophanes apparently
poetry and the gender of nouns, but Strepsiades is altered the parabasis, made some modification to the
unable to grasp these subjects. Because Strepsiades is encounter between Stronger and Weaker Logic, and
never able to satisfy him, Socrates refuses to teach him added the burning of Socrates’ school.
any longer. Strepsiades turns to the Clouds for advice, Reconstructing the staging of the Clouds poses some
and they urge him to send his son to the Phronteste- challenges. Because ancient plays were presented dur-
rion. Although Pheidippides had earlier rejected this ing the daytime, the audience of Clouds would have to
idea, he now agrees to study at the Phrontesterion. imagine that it is night when the play opens. Also, the
At the school, Pheidippides is instructed not by ancient stage is limited in its capacity to represent the
Socrates, but by Stronger and Weaker Logic (or Argu- interior of a house, so Strepsiades and his son would
mentation). Pheidippides’ initial lessons take the form lie on beds outside the stage building. Thus, the audi-
of a debate between the two Logics, with the winner of ence must imagine that they are inside Strepsiades’
the debate getting the privilege of instructing Pheidip- house.
pides. In this debate, Stronger Logic represents the tra- Usually, ancient drama made use of only three
ditional Athenian system of education and values, actors, but at two places in Clouds four are needed.
while Weaker Logic represents the opposite. When When Stronger and Weaker Logic debate, Pheidippi-
Weaker Logic, through his crafty means of argument, des and Strepsiades are both onstage. At the play’s con-
manages to convince Stronger Logic that some of the clusion during the burning of the house, Strepsiades,
most “successful” people in society are also the most Socrates, and two students speak.
corrupt and immoral, he wins the debate and Pheidip- The burning of house poses the greatest challenge to
pides becomes his pupil. staging the play. How was this accomplished? The
Pheidippides’ mastery of the new learning occurs ancient stage building was wooden, and so Strepsiades
quickly, and soon, with his son’s backing, Strepsiades could not have actually set fire to it. Strepsiades and
is able to drive away two of his creditors. After the two his slave may have carried real torches and pretended
144 CLOUDS

to touch them to the building, while people hidden tion to indulge their nature (phusis, 1078) by commit-
behind the stage building held torches or smoking bra- ting acts that violate established custom, such as adul-
ziers behind the building in such a way that the smoke tery. All men need to do is appeal to the example of
and/or flames gave the illusion of the building’s being Zeus. If the king of the gods commits adultery, then
set ablaze. why should mortal men not follow his example?
Regarding the subject matter of the play, one of the In contrast to Strepsiades, who is not able to change
focal points of Clouds is the concept of logos (plural: his phusis, Pheidippides has a phusis that is able to
logoi), whose basic meanings are “word” and “speech.” grasp this new type of argumentation. Unfortunately
Strepsiades believes that the power of logos is the key for Strepsiades, his son not only has the ability to argue
to solving his problems (see O’Reagan’s study). When his way out of the customary date for the payment of
Strepsiades fails to master the new logos taught by debts, but also declares that he enjoys the power of
Socrates, his son Pheidippides witnesses as the weaker being able to look down upon other established cus-
logos defeats the stronger logos. The weaker logos sub- toms (nomoi, 1400). When Strepsiades runs from his
verts traditional values in Athenian society. The argu- house in horror at being beaten by his son, he declares
ment weaker logos uses to defeat his opponent allows that nowhere is it customary for sons to beat their
people to justify adultery by taking Zeus and the most father (1420). His son, however, reasons that because
prominent members of society as their models. Phei- it was a man who first established this custom, he as a
dippides’ new understanding of logos proves intolera- man should be allowed to establish a new custom
ble to his father, as it runs contrary to the traditional (1421–26). Because humans do not observe the cus-
values upon which Strepsiades’ life rests. Using weaker tom of sons’ beating fathers, Pheidippides appeals to
logos, Pheidippides convinces his father that the son the world of nature, in which he claims that the off-
should be permitted to beat the father. At the end of spring of animals retaliate against their fathers. Thus,
the play, Strepsiades rejects the weaker logos and turns he should be allowed to beat his father.
to brute force as he sets fire to the Phrontesterion. One final point of interest for this play is that it pro-
In addition to the play’s concern with the power of vides us with a comic caricature of an actual figure
logos, Clouds presents the audience with the contrast from history: Socrates. Although the play was staged
between nomos (what is permitted by established cus- first in 423 B.C.E., when the real Socrates was brought
tom) and phusis (which means “nature,” “condition,” or to trial in 399, in PLATO’s Apology Socrates alludes to
“constitution”). Aristophanes shows that the danger of Aristophanes’ portrayal of him. Some of the points that
the weaker form of argumentation is that it seeks to Aristophanes’ mentions in his portrayal of Socrates are
overturn what has been established by custom (cf. line the same charges made against him in Plato’s Apology,
1040). Strepsiades wants to use the “weaker logic” to as well as Xenophon’s account of Socrates’ defense. The
avoid paying his debts when they are customarily due three charges against the real Socrates are that he was
by creating a clever loophole to show that this custom corrupting the youth of Athens, that he did not believe
is not valid. Because Strepsiades’ son initially refuses to in the divinities customarily worshiped by the Atheni-
study with Socrates, Strepsiades decides that he him- ans, and that he was introducing new divinities of his
self will. The Clouds, who are able to change their phu- own. All these charges can be found in Aristophanes’
sis (352), praise Strepsiades for his willingness to portrayal of Socrates. Of course, Aristophanes makes
change his phusis (515). However willing the old man the same suggestions about EURIPIDES in FROGS, and a
may be, he proves unable to change his nature and few links between Euripides and the Weaker Logic
forces his son, who he claims is clever by nature (phu- ascribed to Socrates are established in the Clouds. In
sis, 877), to study with Socrates. Pheidippides then lis- the latter part of the play, when Strepsiades and Phei-
tens to the argument between Stronger and Weaker dippides dine together, Strepsiades asks Pheidippides
Logos, in which the Weaker Logos argues (among to sing a song or recite some poetry. Pheidippides
other points) that men can use his form of argumenta- rejects the poets of old such as SIMONIDES and AESCHY-
 CLYTEMNESTRA 145

LUS and instead recites some lines from Euripides CASSANDRA, returned from Troy, Clytemnestra and
about the incest of a brother and sister (lines Aegisthus killed him and Cassandra and Clytemnestra
1371–72). By the time Frogs was produced, however, became Aegisthus’ queen. When Agamemnon was
Euripides was already dead, having left Athens for the killed, his son, Orestes, was living with STROPHIUS in
court of the Macedonian king Archelaus a few years the region of PHOCIS. Eventually, Orestes would return
earlier. Euripides did not live to see the defeat of from Phocis, arrange for a false announcement of his
Athens by SPARTA in 404 and the brief reign of terror death, and kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. Clytemnes-
imposed by the Spartan conquerors. Although democ- tra’s FURIES pursued and tormented Orestes until he
racy had been restored by the time Socrates was on was acquitted of his crime by ATHENA and the people
trial, Athens was not the same and Socrates became a of ATHENS.
victim of the city he loved so much. Clytemnestra, both an adulteress and a murderer, is
one of the most notorious female characters in ancient
BIBLIOGRAPHY
drama. She appears as a character in AESCHYLUS’
Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Clouds. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1989. ORESTEIA, SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA, EURIPIDES’ ELECTRA and
Havelock, E. A. “The Socratic Self as It Is Parodied in IPHIGENIA AT AULIS, and SENECA’s AGAMEMNON. In Aeschy-
Aristophanes’ Clouds,” Yale Classical Studies 22 (1972): lus’ Agamemnon, (see ORESTEIA), she is depicted as an
1–18. intelligent woman who is underestimated by the men
Marianetti, M. C. Religion and Politics in Aristophanes’ Clouds. of Argos and her husband. Aeschylus also describes
Hildesheim and New York: Olms-Weidmann, 1992. her in animalistic or subhuman terms—as a lioness
O’Regan, D. E. Rhetoric, Comedy, and the Violence of Language who beds with a wolf, a serpent, and a Fury.
in Aristophanes’ Clouds. New York: Oxford University Clytemnestra’s ghost makes a brief appearance in
Press, 1992.
Aeschylus’ Eumenides (see ORESTEIA) as she rouses the
Segal, Charles, “Aristophanes’ Cloud-Chorus,” Arethusa 2
sleeping Furies and urges them to pursue and perse-
(1969): 143–61.
Vander Waert, P. A., “Socrates in the Clouds.” In The Socratic cute her son, Orestes.
Movement. Edited by Paul A. Vander Waert. Ithaca, N.Y.: In IPHIGENIA AT AULIS, Euripides shows Clytemnestra
Cornell University Press, 1994, 48–86. as a stern but somewhat sympathetic matron who upsets
Agamemnon’s plan to sacrifice Iphigenia. Clytemnestra
CLYTEMNESTRA (CLYTAEMESTRA) also appears in both SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA and EURIPIDES’
The daughter of TYNDAREUS and LEDA, Clytemnestra ELECTRA. In both plays, Clytemnestra argues that she was
was the sister of Phoebe, CASTOR, POLLUX, and HELEN. justified in murdering Agamemnon because Agamem-
Clytemnestra was first married to THYESTES’ son, TAN- non had sacrificed Iphigenia. Euripides’ Clytemnestra
TALUS, a prince at MYCENAE. Clytemnestra had a child also condemns Agamemnon for taking CASSANDRA home
by Tantalus, but when AGAMEMNON assumed the rule of as a concubine. When Electra argues against her mother,
Mycenae, he killed Tantalus and the child. After this, Clytemnestra offers no defense and even expresses
Clytemnestra became Agamemnon’s wife. For some understanding and forgiveness toward Electra. Euripi-
time, Agamemnon and Clytemnestra seem to have des’ portrait of Clytemnestra is also more sympathetic
lived in relative harmony. They had four children than that of Sophocles because Euripides’ Electra lures
together: ELECTRA, IPHIGENIA, CHRYSOTHEMIS, and Clytemnestra to her death with the pretext of helping
ORESTES. Clytemnestra’s happiness ended, however, her make a sacrifice for the birth of a son who does not
when Agamemnon sacrificed IPHIGENIA to gain fair exist. Once inside the hut where Electra lives,
winds for sailing to TROY. After this tragic event, Clytemnestra is killed by Orestes, who is waiting inside,
Clytemnestra began to plot revenge against her hus- and Electra reports that her hand was on the blade with
band. She had an affair with AEGISTHUS, who also had his. In Sophocles’ Electra, Clytemnestra threatens to
grievances against Agamemnon and his father, ATREUS. have Aegisthus punish Electra for her criticism of and
When Agamemnon, accompanied by the prophetess impudence toward her. Sophocles also has both
146 COCALUS

Clytemnestra and Electra on hand when the announce- through the hole. When Cocalus returned and gave the
ment of Orestes’ “death” is made. Upon hearing that her threaded shell to Minos, Minos realized that Daedalus
son is dead, Clytemnestra expresses relief at the news was nearby and demanded that he be surrendered to
and continues to show no sympathy to Electra. In con- him. Cocalus said he would hand over Daedalus but
trast to Euripides’ play, when Orestes kills Clytemnestra, delayed Minos with the customary hospitality offered
Electra remains outside the house. to strangers. Cocalus’ daughters killed Minos by pour-
Sophocles wrote a Clytemnestra, of which a single ing boiling water on him as he bathed.
line survives that reveals nothing about the play’s plot. ARISTOPHANES wrote a play entitled Cocalus, from
The Greek tragedian Polemaeus also wrote a which about 50 words survive. The play was produced
Clytemnestra, of which only the title survives. Among after 388 B.C.E. by one of Aristophanes’ sons. SOPHO-
Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a Clytemnestra (234–47 CLES wrote a Men of Camicus that may have dealt with
Warmington), whose handful of surviving lines indi- Minos’ death at Camicus. Whether the play was a
cate that the play probably culminated in the murder TRAGEDY or SATYR PLAY is not known. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
of Agamemnon and Cassandra; the latter appears to be Apollodorus, Epitome 1.14–15; Hyginus, Fables 44;
the speaker in two fragments. Unlike Aeschylus’ Pausanias, 7.4.6; Strabo 6.2.6]
Agamemnon (see ORESTEIA), Accius’ play may have had
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Electra as a character, as she is in Seneca’s Agamemnon.
Cassio, A. C. “Un frammento del Cocalo di Aristofane (351
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.10.7, Epit- K.),” Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione Classica 102 (1974):
ome 2.15–16, 3.22; Homer, Odyssey 11.421–39] 164–69.
Dover, K. J. Aristophanic Comedy. Berkeley: University of
BIBLIOGRAPHY California Press, 1972, 14.
Betensky, A. “Aeschylus’ Oresteia: The Power of Clytemnes-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
tra,” Ramus 7 (1978): 11–25.
Teubner, 1880.
MacEwen, S., ed. Views of Clytemnestra, Ancient and Modern.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 1990.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Mader, G. “Fluctibus variis agor: An Aspect of Seneca’s
Clytemnestra Portrait,” Acta Classica 31 (1988): 51–70.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, COCYTUS According to HOMER, this river in the
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. UNDERWORLD, whose name means “shrieking” or “wail-
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, ing,” flowed into the ACHERON and was a branch of the
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. STYX. There was also a river named Cocytus in north-
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, ern Greece, which Pausanias describes as “very
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: unpleasant.” Pausanias thought Homer applied the
Harvard University Press, 1936. name of this actual river to the one in the underworld.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1160 (see
COCALUS After DAEDALUS’ son, Icarus, died, ORESTEIA), SEVEN AGAINST THEBES 690; Aristophanes,
Daedalus journeyed to the court of Cocalus in the Frogs 472; Euripides, Alcestis 458; Homer, Odyssey
Sicilian town of Camicus. MINOS, king of CRETE, pur- 10.513–14; Pausanias, 1.17.5; Seneca, Hercules Furens
sued Daedalus, and everywhere Minos searched he 686, 870, Hercules Oetaeus 1963]
took along a spiral shell and promised to reward the
person who could pass a thread through the shell, COESYRA The mother of MEGACLES, who may
thinking that only Daedalus would be clever enough to have been one of the Alcmeonids, an aristocratic
do this. Finally, Minos reached Camicus and showed Athenian family. Coesyra, who claimed to be
the shell to Cocalus, who gave it to Daedalus. The descended from ZEUS, was famous for her pride and
inventor threaded the shell by boring a hole through it, displays of wealth. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
tying a thread to an ant, and then letting the ant go Acharnians 614, Clouds 48, 800]
 COMEDY 147

BIBLIOGRAPHY Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,

Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Clouds. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
1968, 99–100.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, COLIAS A title of the goddess APHRODITE, who
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 187. had a temple on Cape Colias (in Athenian territory).
Henderson notes that the priestess of Aphrodite Colias
COLAENIS A title of the goddess ARTEMIS at had a reserved seat in the theater at ATHENS. [ANCIENT
Myrrhinous, about 12 miles southeast of ATHENS. SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 52, Lysistrata 2;
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 872; Pausanias, Herodotus, 8.96; Pausanias, 1.1.5]
1.31.4]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Clouds. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer- 1968, 100.
sity Press, 1995, 511–12. Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1987, 67.
COLCHIAN BULLS Fire-breathing bulls that
JASON had to yoke and with which he had to plow a COLONUS A DEME a little more than a mile
field in COLCHIS. MEDEA, having fallen in love with northwest of ATHENS, Colonus was the birthplace of
Jason, gave him a potion to protect him from the bulls’ SOPHOCLES and the setting for Sophocles’ last extant
fiery breath. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Medea 829] play, OEDIPUS AT COLONUS. At the end of his life, OEDI-
PUS took refuge at Colonus.
COLCHIS A town located near the southeastern
coast of the Black Sea in what is today the region of COLOSSEUM Construction of the Colosseum at
Georgia. In drama, Colchis is best known as the home Rome, properly known as the Flavian amphitheater, was
of ABSYRTUS, AEETES, and MEDEA and the location of the started under the emperor Vespasian and finished under
Golden Fleece. No extant play has Colchis as its setting, Titus and Domitian. The Colosseum was dedicated in
but some classical dramas would have been set there, 80 C.E. and could seat as many as 50,000 people.
particularly those dealing with JASON and Medea.
SOPHOCLES wrote a Colchides (Women of Colchis) COMEDY Our word comedy is from a Greek
[fragments 336–49 Radt], which treated the tasks word, komoidia, which is a combination of two words,
imposed on Jason by Aeetes and Jason’s acquisition of komos, meaning “revel,” “merrymaking,” or “festal pro-
the Golden Fleece. A scholiast’s remark on Apollonius cession,” and oidos, which means “song.” Thus, com-
Rhodius (Argonautica 3.1040c) informs us that in edy is a “komos song.” How comic performances
Sophocles’ play Medea instructs Jason about the tasks originated is unknown, but the theories fall along the
that Aeetes gave to Jason. In fragment 341, Aeetes following lines and some theorists combine elements
questions a messenger about armed warriors that of them. First, comedy emerged from certain fertility
sprang up from the ground (after Jason had sown the rituals in which the dancers were dressed as animals or
dragon’s teeth). In fragment 339, Medea apparently fertility rituals in which the dancers were dressed as
questions Jason about whether he will swear to do her SATYRS. Second, comedy emerged from religious rituals
a favor in exchange for the one she is going to do him. that involved the exchange of jests or obscenities by
BIBLIOGRAPHY participants. Third, comedy evolved from PHALLUS
Braund, D. C. Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and wearers or phallus bearers in dances or processions (cf.
Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC–AD 562. New York: Oxford Aristotle, Poetics 1449a10).
University Press, 1994. Not only are the origins of comedy unknown, we do
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: not know when comedy first began to be performed.
Harvard University Press, 1996. Susarion of MEGARA was credited with inventing comedy
148 COMEDY

and introducing it in Attica (the region where ATHENS addition to the chorus. As with tragedy, males played
is located) between 580 and 564 B.C.E. No existing evi- the speaking roles of both genders.
dence corroborates this tradition, however. Better evi- As in tragedy, in comedy the chorus and the actors
dence exists in a vase produced in Attica around 550 wore MASKS, but comic masks would have expressions
B.C.E., which shows men dressed as horses and carry- designed to evoke laughter from the audience rather
ing riders on their backs. A person playing the pipes than the response appropriate to tragedy. Obviously,
can also be seen. Such an illustration suggests a comic comic costumes would also differ from tragic costumes,
performance (cf. ARISTOPHANES’ KNIGHTS). Other vase especially with respect to the chorus, whose members
paintings from the sixth century B.C.E. show men who might dress as the men or women of Athens in some
are dressed as satyrs and dancing about. This, too, sug- plays and in others dress as ant-people, birds, clouds,
gests some sort of comic performance, but we cannot goats, or various bizarre creatures. Comic costumes also
be certain. Thus, although some archaeological evi- were padded to provide additional humor to the
dence for comic performances does exist in the mid- physique. Male comic costumes before the end of the
sixth century, the first known comic performances in fourth century B.C.E. also included an exaggerated PHAL-
competition in Athens are said to have occurred LUS. As in tragedy, in comedy the words the actors and
around 486 B.C.E. at the City DIONYSIA. As with Greek chorus spoke or sang followed a fixed pattern of
TRAGEDY, the surviving Greek comedies were per- rhythm (see METER) rather than rhyme and were accom-
formed at festivals that honored DIONYSUS. Unlike the panied by musical pipes (see AULOS). Although the met-
three Greek tragedians, who put on three tragedies and rical patterns of comedy could be just as complex as
a SATYR PLAY at the Dionysia, five comic poets presented those found in tragedy, the language of comedy was less
a single play. Beginning around 442 B.C.E., tragedies formal. In comparison to that in tragedy, comic diction
and comedies began to be performed at the LENAEA, employed more extensive use of alliteration, play on
another Athenian festival honoring Dionysus. In con- words, puns, invented words, and obscenity.
trast to the format of the City Dionysia, at the Lenaea Modern scholars have divided classical comedy into
only two tragedians competed and each presented two three periods: Old Comedy (ca. 500–400 B.C.E.), Mid-
tragedies. dle Comedy (ca. 400–325 B.C.E.), and New Comedy
Tragedy and comedy were performed in the same (ca. 325 B.C.E.–250 C.E.). Of these three periods, the
theater structure and used the same special effects most is known about New Comedy (represented by
devices, such as the ECCYCLEMA (a rolling platform used the roughly 30 complete plays and fragments of
to show interior scenes) and the MECHANE (a crane used MENANDER, PLAUTUS, and TERENCE) and the least about
to suspend characters above the ground). Aristophanic Middle Comedy (represented by two plays, ECCLESI-
comedy sometimes uses these devices in parody of AZUSAE and Wealth, of Aristophanes). Our knowledge of
tragedy (cf. especially ACHARNIANS, PEACE, THESMOPHORI- Old Comedy rests on the nine other surviving plays of
AZUSAE). As did tragedy, comedy had a CHORUS (24 Aristophanes and the fragments of such playwrights as
members) who sang and danced during the perform- CRATINUS, EUPOLIS, and PHERECRATES. Although only
ance. Dance styles in comedy differed from those in about 40 complete plays from four comic poets have
tragedy and could be wilder and more sexually sug- survived, the names of at least 150 comic playwrights
gestive. Usually, no more than three actors were are known.
needed to perform a play. Thus, actors would play Old Comedy is known for its sexual humor and
multiple roles. This system could have posed quite a obscenity, fantasy-filled story lines (e.g., men going to
challenge for comic actors because comedies tend to live with the birds in Aristophanes’ Birds; famous
have more speaking roles than tragedies. Aristophanes’ politicians being raised from the dead in Eupolis’
Knights has only five speaking roles besides the chorus; Demes), as well as commentary on current events,
Aristophanes’ BIRDS has 20 speaking roles. Greek intellectual trends, and the political affairs of fifth-
tragedies seldom have more than 10 speaking roles in century Athens. The sort of humor found in the televi-
 COMEDY 149

sion program Saturday Night Live provides a modern a similar pattern with mythological titles such as
parallel to Old Comedy. Just as satire of political lead- Antiope, Auge, and Daedalus, and titles that hint at New
ers is seen on the program, in the last four decades of Comedy, such as Pamphilus, the Pimp, and Chrysilla.
the fifth century B.C.E., Athenian leaders such as PERI- In the period known as New Comedy, mention of
CLES, CLEON, ALCIBIADES, and HYPERBOLUS were often political or contemporary persons has almost com-
the object of comic satire in the plays of such writers pletely vanished, mythological references have dimin-
as Aristophanes, Cratinus, and Eupolis. The Athenians ished, obscenity has greatly decreased, and the chorus’
of this period also enjoyed the sort of humor that appearance has been restricted to occur between a
transplanted people from their usual station in life into play’s five acts. In New Comedy, the plays’ plots and
situations that were completely foreign to them. In Old characters become stereotypical. New Comedy usually
Comedy, simple folk are face to face with wily politi- focuses on a subject to which everyone can relate, love
cians, intellectuals, or even the gods themselves. The and marriage. The players involved in this type of
playwrights of Old Comedy also produced plays that comedy were the common figures of society of that
offered a humorous take on stories or characters from period: the freeborn father, his nagging wife, his son,
mythology, such as Aristophanes’ Women of Lemnos, the freeborn “girl next door,” the PROSTITUTE, the PIMP,
Crates’ Lamia, and Cratinus’ Dionysus as Alexander. In the BRAGGART WARRIOR, the PARASITE, and SLAVES, COOKS,
some of these plays, mythological figures may have and NURSES. New Comedy generates its humor from
represented political leaders. In Cratinus’ Dionysus as character and situation. “Getting the girl” is often the
Alexander, Dionysus may have represented Pericles. object in these comedies; the father and son are the
Pericles may also have been behind the figure of Zeus characters who appear most frequently and the effect
in Cratinus’ Nemesis. Another feature of Old Comedy of the love affair on the relationship of father and son
was that the choruses sometimes represented unusual or son and birth family is of major interest. Many of the
beings (e.g., Pherecrates’ Ant-People) or animals (e.g., story lines in New Comedy are similar to that of
birds, frogs, goats, wasps). Aristophanes’ early come- EURIPIDES’ ION, in which CREUSA is raped, she abandons
dies also have a feature called the PARABASIS, in which her child (ION), the child is raised by someone else,
the chorus address the audience as if they are the play- and eventually mother and child recognize one
wright himself. Old Comedy also featured an AGON, another through items left with the infant. Compare
which was essentially a debate between two characters Menander’s Arbitration, in which Pamphile is raped,
(e.g., the debate between Stronger Logic and Weaker becomes pregnant, marries Charisius, and exposes the
Logic in Aristophanes’ CLOUDS). child during Charisius’ absence from home. The child
Middle Comedy represents a transitional period is found by slaves and by means of items left with the
between Old and New Comedy. The two so-called infant the baby is shown to be Pamphile’s and Chari-
Middle Comedies of Aristophanes show a marked sius is shown to be the rapist.
decrease in attacks on public figures and a diminished Beginning in the last half of the third century B.C.E.,
role for the chorus. The parabasis disappeared in this Roman playwrights began to adapt the Greek plays of
period. One of the leading representatives of this authors such as Menander for Roman audiences. Such
period was Alexis (ca. 370–270 B.C.E.), who is said to a play, called a FABULA PALLIATA, is a Greek play in which
have written 245 plays. As his predecessors in Old the characters wear Roman clothing. The plays of
Comedy did, Alexis wrote comedies about events and PLAUTUS and TERENCE are of this type. Such comedies
characters from mythology (e.g., Hesione, Orestes, continued to be written until the first century B.C.E.,
Sciron, Tyndareus), but also titles that show a greater but other kinds of comedy began to be written and
concern with the stereotypical figures in everyday life performed as well, such as MIMES, FABULA ATELLANA, and
of the time. Some of Alexis’ titles—Brothers, Parasite, FABULA TOGATA (Latin comedy in Roman dress). The fab-
Twins—are echoed in the characters or plays of Plautus ula togata were not especially popular; however, per-
or Terence. Eubulus, a contemporary of Alexis’, shows formances of mimes and the fabula atellana eclipsed
150 COMEDY OF ASSES

those of the palliata in popularity. [ANCIENT SOURCES: After Argyrippus sets out to try to find the money,
Aristotle, Poetics 1448a31–33, 1449a10, 1449b2; Libanus returns from the forum and his fellow servant,
Aristophanes, Birds 262–308; Athenaeus, Deip- Leonida, soon joins him. Together they plot how to
nosophists passim; Demosthenes, 21.10; Inscriptiones trick Demaenetus out of the 20 minae. As it turns out,
Graecae, ii2 2318; Parian Marble 71] the house steward, Saurea, had sold some asses and a
MERCHANT was on his way to Demaenetus’ house to pay
BIBLIOGRAPHY him (20 minae) for them. Leonida proposes that he
Beare, W. The Roman Stage. London: Methuen, 1950.
pose as Saurea, take the money for the asses, and then
Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy.
use that money to help Argyrippus.
2d ed. Revised by T. B. L. Webster. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1962. When the merchant arrives at Demaenetus’ house,
———. The Dramatic Festivals of Athens. 2d ed. Revised by J. Libanus describes Saurea and characterizes him as a
Gould and D. M. Lewis. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968. hot-tempered man who beats those with whom he is
Sandbach, F. H. The Comic Theatre of Greece and Rome. New angry. At that moment, Leonida, posing as Saurea,
York: Norton, 1977. arrives, angry that Libanus has not met him at the
Webster, T. B. L. Studies in Later Greek Comedy. 2d ed. Man- barber’s shop. The merchant attempts to calm
chester: Manchester University Press, 1970. Leonida as he tries to strike Libanus. After Leonida
rants for some time, he pretends at last to notice the
COMEDY OF ASSES (Latin: ASINARIA) merchant and says he will take the money owed to
PLAUTUS The play’s date is unknown; Duckworth Demaenetus. The merchant, however, insists upon
has dated it to the early part of PLAUTUS’ career. The paying the money in Demaenetus’ presence. Despite
play’s setting is ATHENS, and the action occurs before the the efforts of Libanus and Leonida to persuade the
houses of Demaenetus, an elderly Athenian gentleman, merchant to hand over the money, the merchant per-
and Cleareta, a madam (see PIMP). The prologue reveals sists. Eventually, Leonida leads the merchant off to
that the source of Plautus’ play was Demophilus’ Ona- the forum to find Demaenetus.
gos. As the play opens, Demaenetus and his slave, Next, Cleareta and her daughter, Philaenium,
Libanus, discuss the love affair of Argyrippus (“silver emerge from their house and argue about the arrange-
horse”), Demaenetus’ son, and Philaenium (“lover of ment that Cleareta has made with Argyrippus. Philae-
bronze”), the daughter of Cleareta. Argyrippus has nium loves the young man, but her mother does not
asked his father for some 20 MINAE (which Demaenetus want her attached to someone who offers sweet talk
wants to provide) to help him in his love affair. instead of money. After the women exit into their
Demaenetus asks Libanus to cheat him of the money, so house, Libanus and Leonida return from the forum
that the money can be provided without arousing sus- with the 20 minae that they have swindled from the
picion from Demaenetus’ wife, Artemona. merchant, thanks to help from Demaenetus, who
After both Libanus and Demaenetus depart for the played along with their charade.
FORUM, Argyrippus emerges from Cleareta’s house and As Libanus and Leonida talk, Argyrippus and Phi-
expresses his anger that Philaenium has rejected him laenium arrive from Philaenium’s house. The two ser-
because his gifts are not of great value, although in ear- vants listen as the two lovers tearfully part company.
lier times they were satisfactory. Cleareta follows the Eventually, the two servants greet the lovers and
young man and tosses Argyrippus’ claims of unfairness Argyrippus suggests that he will end his life if he can-
back in his face and says that if he wants Philaenium not raise the 20 minae required by Cleareta, and which
for a single night then he must pay an exorbitant price. another young Athenian gentleman, Diabolus (whose
When Argyrippus asks Cleareta how much it would name means “the enemy”), has promised to provide.
cost to have Philaenium for the next year, she names a Upon hearing this, Leonidas tells Argyrippus that he
price of 20 minae, provided that someone else not pay and Libanus will give him the 20 minae if Argyrippus
that amount before Argyrippus does. frees them from slavery. Argyrippus readily agrees, but
 COMEDY OF ASSES 151

then Leonida teases Philaenium with the money, saying with BACCHIDES, CASINA, THE MERCHANT, MILES GLORIOSUS,
that he will not hand it over until she flirts with him THE HAUNTED HOUSE, THE PERSIAN, and PSEUDOLUS. In
and Libanus. Then, Libanus makes Argyrippus carry recent years, the play has found more admirers and
him on his back as a horse carries a jockey. Next, the Konstan considered Comedy of Asses “an ingenious
two slaves playfully suggest that their master should variation on the comic archetypes.” Slater has
set up statues and altars and worship them as the gods approached Comedy of Asses as a play in which most of
Salvation and Fortune. Finally, the two slaves hand the characters function as playwrights who are trying
over the money under one condition—Argyrippus’ to gain control of the action. Ultimately, Slater con-
father, Demaenetus, wants to have dinner and spend cludes that the play is “a tale of failed improvisation,
the night with Philaenium. Argyrippus is so desperate for no one gets what he wants in full.”
to have Philaenium that he agrees to this request. Unlike in other plays about young male lovers in
After the two lovers enter Cleareta’s house and the which the slave tries to trick the father to get the
two slaves enter Demaenetus’ house, Diabolus and his money to purchase the prostitute with whom the
unnamed PARASITE arrive with a contract between Dia- young man is in love (e.g., The Haunted House), in
bolus and Cleareta. The contract guarantees that Phi- Comedy of Asses the father already knows about the
laenium will have no other male company than love affair because the son has told him about it.
Diabolus for a year. No sooner does Diabolus enter Indeed, the father in Comedy of Asses supports the love
Philaenium’s house, however, than he reemerges, angry affair; perversely, however, he helps his son because he
that Argyrippus has paid for Philaenium before he also wants to have sexual relations with the woman
could. Diabolus and his parasite decide to cause trou- (compare Plautus’ Casina and Merchant).
ble for Demaenetus, whom they have apparently seen The agreement of the young lover to allow his father
inside Cleareta’s house, by telling his wife that he and to have sexual relations with his beloved recalls to
Argyrippus are carousing with Philaenium. some extent the mythical story of PELOPS and MYRTILUS.
After the departure of Diabolus and his parasite, Myrtilus agreed to help Pelops kill HIPPODAMEIA’s
Demaenetus, Argyrippus, and Philaenium are seen in father, OENOMAUS, in exchange for the promise that
the midst of a banquet at Cleareta’s house. Argyrippus, after Pelops married Hippodameia, Pelops would allow
however, is unhappy because his father rather than he Myrtilus to have sexual relations with her. In the case
is enjoying Philaenium. The fun is soon interrupted of Hippodameia, who was unaware of this arrange-
when Diabolus’ parasite leads Demaenetus’ wife, Arte- ment, Pelops killed Myrtilus after he tried to assault
mona, past Cleareta’s house, where Artemona sees her the woman sexually. Myrtilus, just before he died, put
husband hugging and kissing Philaenium. Artemona a curse on Pelops and his descendants. As does Myr-
also hears Demaenetus make derogatory comments tilus, Plautus’ Demaenetus gives his son, who func-
about her. Eventually Artemona is unable to tolerate tions as the Pelops figure, assistance so that he can
the verbal abuse. She bursts into Cleareta’s house and acquire the woman. In exchange, the son will allow
drags off her husband to their house. Argyrippus, how- him to have sexual relations with her. In some ways,
ever, returns to Cleareta’s house and the waiting arms the COMEDY is more perverse than the tragic myth
of Philaenium. After the actors exit, the entire cast because instead of two male stranger’s agreeing to share
appears to ask the audience to save Demaenetus from the woman, a father and son agree. In both the myth
a beating by giving loud applause. and the comedy, trickery is involved: Myrtilus sabo-
taged the chariot of Hippodameia’s father to bring
COMMENTARY about the man’s death, and Demaenetus allowed him-
Comedy of Asses is not one of Plautus’ most popular self to be tricked in order to supply his son with money
plays with modern critics. Harsh branded it one of and to deceive his wife. Artemona, however, who func-
“least interesting” works. Duckworth classified Comedy tions as the Oenomaus figure, does not “perish” in the
of Asses as a play of “guileful deception” and grouped it deception and instead is able to triumph over her
152 COMITIUM

scheming husband. Thus, just as the mythical Pelops of secondary concern as the mother Artemona drags
was able to enjoy his beloved, so too the comic her delinquent husband from the party. As for Argyrip-
Argyrripus does. As Pelops killed Myrtilus, Artemona pus, no marriage with his beloved appears to be immi-
(with help from Diabolus’ parasite) will bring about nent as it so often is for young men in Roman comedy;
the destruction of Demaenetus. Although Demaenetus instead, apparently he will have to share Philaenium
does not literally die, all the same, at line 911, after with Diabolus. Argyrippus has paid for the right to
Artemona’s arrival, Pardalisca announces that enter the mother Cleareta’s house, but he apparently
“Demaenetus is dead.” does not have permission to take his beloved as his wife
Although Comedy of Asses has some similarities with into the mother Artemona’s house.
the story of Pelops and Myrtilus, this play is unique in
BIBLIOGRAPHY
that the mother will be the ultimate source of the
Bertini, F. Asinaria. Genova: Univ. di Genova Ist. di Filol.
money for the young lover, although the trickery class. e medioev., 1968.
involves the mother in an indirect way. In fact, Comedy Duckworth, G. E. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
of Asses is the most “mother-centered” Roman comedy. N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 55, 165.
Roman comedy often involves an inversion of societal Harsh, P. W. A Handbook of Classical Drama. Stanford Calif.:
roles (especially as concerns slaves); in Comedy of Asses Stanford University Press, 1944, 342.
we find the mother playing a role usually reserved for Konstan, D. “Asinaria: The Family.” In Roman Comedy.
fathers. Even the father, Demaenetus, admits that the Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983. 47–56.
tight rein that his wife keeps on their son is usually held Lowe J. C. B. “Aspects of Plautus’ Originality in the
by the father (78–83). Not only will Argyrippus have to Asinaria,” Classical Quarterly 42 (1992): 152–75.
Slater, N. W. “Six Authors in Search of a Character: Asinaria
elude his mother to gain his beloved, but instead of the
as Guerrilla Theatre.” In Plautus in Performance. Princeton,
usual male pimp a lover must defeat, he has to contend
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985, 55–69.
with a female who is both the mother and the madam Vogt-Spira, Gregor. “Asinaria oder Maccus vortit Attice.” In
of his beloved (147). To gain access to the daughter of Plautus barbarus: sechs Kapitel zur Originalität des Plautus.
one mother the lover must deceive his own. The pres- Edited by E. Lefèvre et al. Tübingen, Ger.: Narr, 1991,
ence of the two mothers also creates an interesting 11–69.
dynamic for the prostitute Philaenium. As Cleareta’s
child, she owes her mother a certain allegiance and COMITIUM The place where the Roman assem-
dutifulness (505–44). As a young woman in love with bly met. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Carthaginian 807,
a man who cannot meet the financial demands of her Curculio 403, 470]
mother the madam, Philaenium struggles against this
allegiance and dutifulness. Once the money from one
mother, Artemona, is acquired, the barriers posed by
CONISALUS A mythical creature with a large
erect PHALLUS. The Greek comic poet Timocles wrote a
the second mother, Cleareta, are eliminated. Thus, the
Conisalus, in whose two surviving lines (fragment 20
celebratory banquet with the prostitute begins. Just as
Kock 2), one person threatens to force another to tell
the dutifulness of the daughter Philaenium was tested
the truth. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata
earlier, the dutifulness of the son is now tested as
982; Athenaeus, 430ff.; Plato Comicus, fragment
Argyrippus agrees to allow his father a share in his
174.13 Kock 1]
beloved because his duty as a son requires that he do so
(831). Typically in a Roman COMEDY we expect a BIBLIOGRAPHY
deceived father to interrupt a young man’s festivities Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
with his beloved. In Comedy of Asses, however, the Press, 1987, 185–86.
father joins the party and the mother interrupts it. Usu-
ally, the father forgives a repentant son and allows him CONNUS The son of Metrobius, Connus was a
to marry his beloved, but in this play the son becomes once-successful musician who “was unable to make a
 CORINTH 153

living by playing and teaching” (Sommerstein). This COOK (Latin: COCUS) Because COMEDY
failure was apparently a result of his lack of intelli- often portrays weddings, celebrations, or feasting,
gence, and the name of Connus became synonymous cooks are stock characters in plays by authors such as
with ignorance. Two Greek comic poets, PHRYNICHUS MENANDER and PLAUTUS. Cooks are typically contract
(fragments 6–8 Kock) and AMEIPSIAS (fragments 7–12 laborers, people hired from the outside to cook in one’s
Kock), wrote plays entitled Connus. Only a few unin- house. These cooks are not wealthy individuals, and
formative words survive from Phrynichus’ play, but the because they or their helpers move in and out of peo-
fragments of Ameipsias’ play are quite interesting. ple’s houses with great freedom, they are frequently
Ameipsias’ Connus placed ahead of ARISTOPHANES’ suspected of stealing from the houses where they
CLOUDS in 423 B.C.E. and fragment 9 reveals that work. In some plays, the cooks have amusing names,
SOCRATES was a character in the play (as in Aristo- such as Anthrax (“charcoal”) and Congrio (“conger
phanes’ Clouds) and was depicted on stage in a ragged eel”) in PLAUTUS’ POT OF GOLD or Cylindrus (“mixing
cloak. Fragment 10 makes fun of DIOPEITHES, another bowl”) in PLAUTUS’ MENAECHMI. In other plays,
person whom Aristophanes mocks. [ANCIENT SOURCES: unnamed cooks appear: MENANDER’s SHIELD, Plautus’
Aristophanes, Knights 534, Wasps 675; Cratinus, frag- CASINA, CURCULIO, MERCHANT, and PSEUDOLUS.
ment 317 Kock; Diogenes Laertius, 2.28]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 262.
Teubner, 1880. Hallett, J. P. “Plautine Ingredients in the Performance of the
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, Pseudolus,” Classical World 87, no. 1 (1993–94): 21–26.
Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 198–99. Lowe, J. C. B. “Cooks in Plautus,” Classical Antiquity 4
(1985): 72–102.
Lowe, J. C. B. “The Cook Scene of Plautus’ Pseudolus,” Clas-
CONTAMINATIO The precise meaning of this
sical Quarterly 35 (1985): 411–16.
Latin word is debated by modern scholars. Kujore has
argued that with respect to TERENCE’s dramas, contami-
natio refers to the omission of details from a play from
COPAIS A lake in north central Greece (BOEOTIA)
that was famous for its eels, which the Greeks consid-
which Terence borrowed. In other instances, contami-
ered a delicacy. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Achar-
natio may involve either the fusing of two or more
nians 880, Knights 546, Peace 1005]
Greek plays to create one play or the importation into
a play of “a small portion from a second original”
COPREUS A herald who served EURYSTHEUS. See
(Duckworth). In three of Terence’s plays (ANDRIA,
EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES.
BROTHERS, and EUNUCH), the playwright combined ele-
ments from two plays of MENANDER. Many plays of
CORDAX A sexually suggestive dance performed
PLAUTUS also show evidence of contaminatio (e.g.,
in COMEDY. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds
AMPHITRUO, THE BRAGGART WARRIOR, CASINA, THE
540, 555; Athenaeus, 1.20e, 14.631d; Lucian, On
CARTHAGINIAN, PSEUDOLUS, and STICHUS), but the degree Dance 22, 26; Pausanias, 6.22.1; Theophrastus, Char-
to which Plautus’ plays are “contaminated” is vigor- acters 6.3]
ously debated. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Terence, Andria 16,
Eunuch 552, Self-Tormentor 17] CORINTH A Greek town located at the isthmus
BIBLIOGRAPHY joining the northern and southern parts of mainland
Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton, Greece. The Corinthians supported SPARTA during the
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 202–8. PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The mythical hero BELLEROPHON
Kujore, O. “A Note on Contaminatio in Terence,” Classical was from Corinth; in classical drama Corinth is the
Philology 59 (1974): 39–42. setting for EURIPIDES’ MEDEA, Alcmeon through Corinth
154 CORINTHUS

(fragment 8 Page), SENECA’s MEDEA, and MENANDER’s CORYCIAN This adjective is derived from the
GIRL WITH THE SHAVEN HEAD. Corinth was famous for its name of a NYMPH, Corycia, the mother of Lycorus by
prostitutes and the Greek comic poet Poliochus wrote APOLLO. A cave on Mount PARNASSUS was called
a Corinthiastes (The whoremonger), whose sole extant Corycian after her and the nymphs who lived in that
fragment (fragment 1 Kock) gives no indication of the cave were also called Corycian. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
play’s plot. Aeschylus, Eumenides 22 (see ORESTEIA); Euripides,
Bacchae 559; Pausanias, 10.6.5; Sophocles, Antigone
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Corinth: A 1127]
Brief History of the City and a Guide to the Excavations. Rev.
ed. Athens, 1969. CORYPHAEUS Derived from a Greek word for
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Leipzig: “head” (koruphe), the coryphaeus was the leader of the
Teubner, 1888. CHORUS in Greek drama. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941, Reprint, London: phanes, Wealth 953; Aristotle, Politics 1277a11;
Heinemann, 1970. Demosthenes, 21.60]

CORINTHUS A son of ZEUS. The expression COTHOCIDAE A DEME about 10 miles north-
“Corinthus, son of Zeus,” means “‘the same old thing west of ATHENS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Thes-
over again’ or . . . ‘back to square one’” (Dover). [ANCIENT mophoriazusae 622]
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 439]
COTHURNUS See BUSKIN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
COURTESAN See PROSTITUTE.
1993, 250.

CRANAAN CITY Another name for ATHENS.

CORYBANTES The children of APOLLO and the See also CRANAUS.
MUSE Thalia (or CRONUS or ZEUS and the Muse Cal-
liope), the Corybantes were priests or devotees of the CRANAUS A king of ATHENS who followed
goddess CYBELE. Some sources make them synony- CECROPS to the throne and was in turn driven from the
mous with the CURETES. Their worship activities kingship by Amphictyon. In drama, the name of
involved frenzied dance and wild music. The Cory- Cranaus is often used as a synonym for Athens or the
bantes are also connected with the worship of DIONY- Athenians. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Eumenides
SUS and are said to have created the timbrel (a 1011 (see ORESTEIA); Apollodorus, Library 1.7.2,
percussion instrument like a tambourine) for that god. 3.14.1, 5–6; Aristophanes, Acharnians 75, Birds 123,
In EURIPIDES’ HIPPOLYTUS, PHAEDRA’s lovesickness is Lysistrata 481; Euripides, Suppliant Women 713; Pausa-
compared to possession by the Corybantes. [ANCIENT nias, 1.2.6]
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.3.4; Aristophanes,
Lysistrata 558, Ecclesiazusae 1069; Euripides, Hippoly- CRATES A comic poet who was an elder contem-
tus 143, Bacchae 124–25; Hyginus, Fables 139; Seneca, porary of ARISTOPHANES, Crates’ first victory at the City
Hercules Oetaeus 1877; Strabo, 10.3] DIONYSIA appears to have occurred in 450 B.C.E., and
BIBLIOGRAPHY he won two other times at this festival. ARISTOTLE cred-
Dignas, B. “Priestly Authority in the Cult of the Corybantes its Crates as the first comic poet to write plays with a
at Erythrae,” Epigraphica Anatolica 34 (2002): 29–40. broad appeal in contrast to highly topical or narrowly
Ustinova, Y. “Corybantism: The Nature and Role of an focused subjects, such as the attacks on CLEON in some
Ecstatic Cult in the Greek Polis,” Horos 10–12 (1992–93): of Aristophanes’ plays. About 15 plays by Crates are
503–20. known, including Birds (compare Aristophanes’ play of
 CREON (1) 155

414 B.C.E.) and Wild Animals (Greek: Theria), in which Comedy. Edited by D. Harvey and J. Wilkins. London:
utensils and tools performed their various tasks with- Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000,
out being powered by human beings (fragments 14–15 15–21.
Kock) and animals apparently refused to allow human Revermann, M. “Cratinus’ Dionusalexandros and the Head of
Pericles,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 117 (1997): 197–200.
beings to eat them (fragment 17 Kock). [ANCIENT
Rosen, R. “Cratinus’ Pytine and the Construction of the
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 536; Aristotle, Poetics
Comic Self.” In The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athen-
1449b7–9; Athenaeus, 3.119c] ian Old Comedy. Edited by D. Harvey and J. Wilkins. Lon-
BIBLIOGRAPHY don: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000,
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: 23–39.
Teubner, 1880.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2, CREON (1) The son of MENOECEUS (1), Creon
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 172–73. was the brother of JOCASTA and the brother-in-law of
OEDIPUS. Creon married Eurydice and by her fathered
CRATHIS A river located near the toe of Italy’s HAEMON and MENOECEUS (2). On at least two separate
boot. According to legend, its waters would make one’s occasions, Creon reigned as king of THEBES. After the
hair blond. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Trojan Women death of King LAIUS, Creon appears to have been king.
228] When the SPHINX plagued the Thebans, Creon offered
the kingship and his sister, Jocasta, to anyone who
CRATINUS Along with ARISTOPHANES and EUPO- could solve the Sphinx’s riddle. When Oedipus solved
LIS, Cratinus was considered one of the greatest Athen- the riddle, he became king. Thus, in SOPHOCLES’ OEDI-
ian comic poets of his era. Cratinus’ plays appeared as PUS TYRANNOS, Creon appears as the loyal brother-in-
early as 450 B.C.E. and his last datable play was staged law of Oedipus and is wrongly accused of trying to
in 423. In Dionusalexandros, staged around 430 or 429, usurp the throne from Oedipus. After the fall of Oedi-
Cratinus made fun of PERICLES’ head. Aristophanes, in pus and the deaths of ETEOCLES and POLYNEICES, Creon
KNIGHTS (424 B.C.E.), accused Cratinus of being a again becomes king. In Sophocles’ ANTIGONE, Creon is
drunkard and a washed-up poet. The next year, Crati- characterized as the stubborn king who decrees death
nus parodied his alleged drinking problem in Putine for anyone who buries Polyneices. When ANTIGONE,
(Wine flask), which, much to Aristophanes’ chagrin, Creon’s future daughter-in-law, buries Polyneices,
defeated his CLOUDS. More than 460 fragments and 27 Creon nevertheless declares that she must die. Creon
titles are known from Cratinus’ works, which won nine later changes his mind (too late, as Antigone has com-
victories in competition (six at the City DIONYSIA, three mitted suicide).
at the LENAEA). Aristophanes’ Peace (421 B.C.E.) men- In EURIPIDES’ PHOENICIAN WOMEN, Creon first is seen
tions that Cratinus has died, but this reference may be as a rather hapless father caught up in the problems of
a joke. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians Oedipus’ household. When the Argive army marches
849, 1173, Frogs 357, Knights 400, 526, Peace 700; against Thebes, Creon is told that for Thebes to be vic-
Athenaeus 2.39c] torious, his son, Menoeceus, must be sacrificed. As
with other parents in classical TRAGEDY who face the
BIBLIOGRAPHY sacrifice of their children, the Euripidean Creon tries to
Amado Rodriguez, M. T. “Cratino en Ateneo,” Euphrosyne
prevent the loss of his child and urges him to go into
24 (1996): 53–76.
exile. Without Creon’s knowledge, however, Menoe-
Dworacki, S. “The Putine and the Date of Cratinus’ Death.”
In Vetustatis Amore et Studio. Edited by I. Lewandowski ceus sacrifices himself. At the conclusion of Phoenician
and A. Wojcik. Poznan, Poland: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Women, Creon behaves in a different way, appearing
Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza, 1995, 117–19. more like the Creon of Sophocles’ Antigone. Upon the
Luppe, W. “The Rivalry between Aristophanes and Crati- deaths of Eteocles and Polyneices, Creon has become
nos.” In The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old the new king of Thebes. He decrees exile for Oedipus,
156 CREON (2)

refuses burial to Polyneices, and rages against the defi- avenge his father’s death. The younger Cresphontes
ance of Antigone. gained entrance to the palace by disguising himself and
claiming to have killed Cresphontes. Polyphontes
BIBLIOGRAPHY allowed the younger Cresphontes to stay in the palace.
Linforth, I. M. “Antigone and Creon,” University of California
While Cresphontes was asleep, Merope, upon hearing
Publications in Classical Philology 15, no. 5 (1961):
that the sleeping man had killed Cresphontes, tried to
183–260.
kill Cresphontes, not realizing that he was her son.
Before she could do so, an old man, who had delivered
CREON (2) Creon, king of CORINTH and son of messages between Merope and Cresphontes while he
Lycaethus, was the father of Creusa (or Glauce, as she was in exile, entered, recognized Cresphontes, and
is called by some). Creon appears as a character in prevented the killing. Subsequently, Cresphontes
EURIPIDES’ MEDEA and SENECA’s MEDEA. When JASON killed Polyphontes while he performed some sort of
decides to divorce MEDEA and marry Creon’s daughter, religious ritual.
Creon declares that Medea must immediately leave EURIPIDES wrote a Cresphontes, from which some 150
Corinth. Creon grants Medea’s request to stay in lines exist, and which was staged no later than 421
Corinth for one more day, however, unwittingly allow- B.C.E. Euripides’ play deals with the return of the
ing her time to plot the destruction of his own daugh- younger Cresphontes to Messenia and his vengeance
ter. After Medea sends her a poisoned robe and against Polyphontes. The chorus consisted of old men
diadem, she dies in agony, much as Heracles does in from Messenia and the play was set at Polyphontes’
SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN. Creon, hearing the palace, formerly the house of the elder Cresphontes. At
cries of his daughter, rushes to her aid, but he too some point early in the play, a servant at the palace met
becomes entangled in the deadly clothing and dies. the disguised Cresphontes at the door. Merope also
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.28; Euripi- appeared as a character. ENNIUS also wrote a tragic Cre-
des, Medea; Hyginus, Fables 25; Seneca, Medea] sphontes, of which about 15 lines are extant. Two of the
fragments appear to be spoken by Merope. One frag-
CRESPHONTES (KRESPHONTES) ment seems to refer to Polyphontes’ marriage to
Along with his brothers, Aristodemus and Temenus, Merope; another contains a lament about the inability
Cresphontes, the son of Aristomachus, conquered the of Merope (?) to weep over, clothe, or bury the bodies
Peloponnese in the generation after HERACLES. Cre- of her loved ones. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
sphontes and his brothers divided the rule of the Pelo- 2.8.4–5; Hyginus, Fables 137]
ponnese by lottery. Cresphontes wanted Messenia as
BIBLIOGRAPHY
his territory, and when the brothers decided that
Collard, C., M. J. Cropp, and K. H. Lee. Euripides: Selected
Messenia would fall to the person whose lot was drawn Fragmentary Plays. Vol. 1. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
third, Cresphontes gained it through trickery. A pitcher Phillips, 1995, 121–47.
of water, in which to cast the lots, was used, after his Jocelyn, H. D. The Tragedies of Ennius. Cambridge: Cam-
two brothers put their lots into the pitcher, Crespho- bridge University Press, 1969, 96–98, 270–81.
ntes put a clod of dirt, which dissolved and ensured Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil-
that the lots of his brothers would rise first. In this way, ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard Uni-
Cresphontes became ruler of Messenia. The Messeni- versity Press, 1935.
ans eventually killed Cresphontes and two of his sons.
The Messenian Polyphontes married Cresphontes’ CRETE A large island due south of mainland
widow, Merope. Greece, Crete is best known as the home of MINOS and
One of Cresphontes’ sons, also called Cresphontes his family (PASIPHAE, ARIADNE, PHAEDRA). The infant
(some also call him Aepytus), who was smuggled off to ZEUS was hidden in a cave on Crete when his father,
safety in Aetolia, eventually returned to Messenia to CRONUS, was trying to kill him. Several playwrights
 CRONUS 157

wrote plays entitled Cretans or Cretan Women. In 438 scholars think these may have been the same play. The
B.C.E., EURIPIDES’ Cretan Women (fragments 460–70 two dozen lines that survive reveal nothing about the
Nauck) led off the TETRALOGY and was followed by plot. The chorus was composed of women, an old man
Alcmeon in Psophis, Telephus, and ALCESTIS. The surviv- seems to have been a character, and there was a con-
ing fragments of Cretan Women suggest that the play versation between husband and wife in which the
dealt with the affair of THYESTES and ATREUS’ wife, woman defends her desire to keep her wealth.
AEROPE, and the gruesome feast that Atreus served to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Thyestes. Euripides also wrote a Cretans (fragments
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
471–72 Nauck), about Pasiphae’s sexual union with Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
the bull and the birth of the MINOTAUR. SOPHOCLES may Harvard University Press, 1996.
have written a play titled Cretans, of which only the Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
title survives (fragment 359 Radt). The Greek comic Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
poets Apollophanes (fragments 5–8 Kock) and Nic- Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
ochares (fragment 9 Kock) each wrote a Cretans, but Press of America, 1984.
the fragments give little indication of the content of
these plays. CREUSA (2) Also called Glauce, Creusa was
daughter of the Corinthian king CREON. Creusa was
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the princess to whom JASON was to be married after his
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
divorce of MEDEA. EURIPIDES does not indicate her name
Teubner, 1880.
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, in his MEDEA, but SENECA does in his MEDEA. Medea
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. kills Creusa by means of a poisoned gown and diadem.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.28; Hygi-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. nus, Fables 25; Pausanias, 2.3.6]
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Methuen, 1967. CRIOA A DEME in Athenian territory. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 645]
CREUSA (1) The daughter of ERECHTHEUS and
Praxithea, Creusa is an Athenian queen and the wife of CRISA A town a few miles southwest of DELPHI. In
XUTHUS. After APOLLO sexually assaulted her, Creusa SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA (730), ORESTES’ death is falsely
gave birth to a male child, but she eventually aban- reported as having occured on a racing course at Crisa.
doned the infant (who was rescued by HERMES at
Apollo’s command). In EURIPIDES’ ION, Creusa travels to CRONUS (Latin: SATURN) The son of
DELPHI with her husband, Xuthus, and meets a young URANUS and GAIA (see EARTH), Cronus became ruler of
man, ION, who, unknown to her, is her son. When the gods when he overthrew his father by castrating
Xuthus decides to adopt Ion, Creusa is persuaded that him. Cronus married his sister, RHEA, and their chil-
the young man will threaten her position as queen of dren were ZEUS, POSEIDON, HADES, DEMETER, HERA, and
Athens. Accordingly, Creusa arranges to have Ion poi- HESTIA. Cronus had heard a prophecy that he would be
soned. When the plot fails, Ion threatens to kill overthrown by one of his children, so as soon as they
Creusa. The crisis is averted when Apollo’s priestess were born he swallowed them. Cronus had eaten five
reveals some items that were found with Ion when he of his children when Rhea, pregnant with Zeus,
was an infant. Creusa recognizes the items as things devised a trick. Rhea smuggled away the newborn
she left with the baby, and mother and son are Zeus to the island of CRETE for safekeeping, then gave
reunited. SOPHOCLES wrote two plays that may have Cronus a rock wrapped in swaddling clothes, which
treated the story of Creusa: one entitled Creusa (frag- the careless god swallowed. After Zeus grew up, he
ments 350–59 Radt), the other entitled Ion. Some returned unrecognized to the house of Cronus and
158 CTESIAS

gave his father a potion that caused him to vomit his surviving Roman COMEDY set in this city) before the
brothers, sisters, and the stone, which Zeus placed at two houses of Cappadox, a PIMP, and Phaedromus, a
DELPHI to mark the center of the Earth (according to young gentleman (see ADULESCENS). A temple of the god
the Greeks). After this, Zeus and his siblings waged Aesculapius (see ASCLEPIUS) can also be seen. This con-
war (known as the Titanomachy) against Cronus and figuration of buildings (house of respectable citizen,
his allies. After Zeus’ side won the war, Cronus was house of pimp, and temple) occurs only here in extant
banished to the UNDERWORLD. AESCHYLUS relates, how- Roman comedy.
ever, that after his fall Cronus cursed Zeus to suffer a In the opening act, the audience must imagine a
similar fate, but this never comes to pass. In SENECA’s nocturnal setting as Phaedromus, who is in love with
HERCULES FURENS, the title character threatens to release Planesium, enters carrying a candle. Phaedromus
Cronus from the underworld unless Zeus makes him a reveals to his slave, Palinurus, that Planesium belongs
god. In ARISTOPHANES, things or ideas that are consid- to a pimp named Cappadox, whose asking price for
ered old-fashioned are sometimes referred to as being her keeps changing. Phaedromus has sent his PARASITE,
from the time of Cronus. The Greek comic poet PHRYN- Curculio (weevil), to CARIA to acquire money with
ICHUS wrote a Cronus, whose surviving fragments indi- which Phaedromus can purchase Planesium from Cap-
cate nothing about the plot (fragments 9–13 Kock). padox. Phaedromus approaches Cappadox’s house
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound with the intention of luring out Cappadox’s old slave
199–223, 910–14, Eumenides 641 (see ORESTEIA); Apol- woman, Leaena, with a bribe of wine. In exchange for
lodorus, Library 1.1.4–7; Aristophanes, Clouds 398, the wine, Leaena agrees to arrange a meeting between
929, 1070; Hesiod, Theogony; Hyginus, Fables 118, Phaedromus and Planesium. Soon, Leaena returns
139; Seneca, Hercules Furens 965–68] with Planesium. Phaedromus and Planesium express
their mutual feelings of love, while Palinurus com-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ments on their behavior.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880. In the second act, Cappadox emerges from the tem-
ple of Aesculapius, where he has been staying during
CTESIAS An unidentifiable person mentioned by an illness. He is met by Palinurus, who is leaving Phae-
ARISTOPHANES at ACHARNIANS 839. He is spoken of in the dromus’ house. Palinurus offers Cappadox no sympa-
same breath as some INFORMANTS, so he may have been thy as the pimp complains about his ailment. When
one himself. Cappadox asks Palinurus to interpret a dream for him,
as if on cue, an unnamed cook, who happens to be
CUNEUS (Plural: CUNEI) A Latin word skilled in such matters, appears from Phaedromus’
meaning “wedge,” a cuneus is a wedge-shaped area of house. Cappadox tells the cook that he dreamed that
seating in the part of the Roman theater called the Aesculapius would not approach him. The cook inter-
CAVEA. Stairways divided the Roman theater into six or
prets this as indicating that the other gods also will not
more cunei. The Greek equivalent of the cuneus is the give Cappadox any favor. The cook then advises Cap-
kerkis (plural: kerkides). padox to return to Aesculapius’ temple and ask the god
for Peace.
BIBLIOGRAPHY After the departure of Cappadox, Curculio, who has
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama. returned from Caria, enters. In a manner typical of a
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 84, 86. parasite, Curculio acts as if he is starving and asks for
food. Phaedromus promises Curculio that lots of food
CUPID See EROS. has been prepared for him, but Phaedromus himself is
crushed when Curculio tells him that his friend in Caria
CURCULIO PLAUTUS (CA. 193 B.C.E.) The was not able to lend him the money to buy Planesium.
action of the play occurs in EPIDAURUS (it is the only Curculio reports, however, that while in Caria he
 CURCULIO 159

encountered a soldier who claims to have bought a deposited with Lyco. The soldier soon discovers, how-
woman from Cappadox and has deposited the money, ever, that Lyco has given the money to Summanus
some clothes, and jewelry with a banker, Lyco, in Epi- (Curculio). Despite the soldier’s dissatisfaction, Lyco
daurus. The soldier told Curculio that when Lyco has carried out his part of the agreement and departs.
received a letter, sealed with the soldier’s ring, Lyco Soon Cappadox appears from the temple, encounters
would arrange for the bearer of the letter to acquire Therapontigonus, and tells him that Planesium has
Planesium. Later, Curculio and the soldier had dinner been handed over to Summanus. At this point, the sol-
together, and the soldier became drunk and fell asleep. dier realizes Curculio has stolen his ring and decides to
While he was sleeping, Curculio stole the soldier’s seal search for the parasite.
ring. Upon learning this, a delighted Phaedromus, In the play’s final act, Curculio begins by noting that
accompanied by Curculio, enter Phaedromus’ house to Planesium has seen the ring that he has stolen from the
dine and write a letter on which to use this seal. soldier. Planesium and Phaedromus emerge from the
As the third act opens, the banker Lyco, enters and house, and Planesium declares that her father had
is soon met by Curculio, who claims he is the freed- worn the same ring. Curculio tells Planesium that he
man Summanus (“dripper” or “trickler”), of a soldier won the ring playing dice with a soldier. When the sol-
named Therapontigonus Platagidorus (his last name dier enters, he demands his money from Curculio or
Nixon translates as Smackahead). Curculio hands Lyco Planesium. Phaedromus, however, declares that Plane-
the letter that he and Phaedromus have written. When sium is a freeborn woman and that the trading of free-
Lyco wants to know why the soldier himself did not go born women is illegal; he threatens to take the soldier
to Epidaurus, Curculio makes up a story about the sol- to court and calls upon Curculio to serve as a witness.
dier’s staying behind in Caria to have a statue of him- The situation calms when Phaedromus asks the soldier
self made. Lyco believes the story, and he and Curculio where he got the ring. When Therapontigonus reveals
prepare to depart to settle their business. Before they that his father, Periphanes, gave it to him, Planesium
can leave, Cappadox enters from Aesculapius’ temple. recognizes Periphanes as the name of her father and
Lyco tells Cappadox to send Planesium with Curculio. greets the soldier as her brother. As Planesium subse-
The play’s fourth act begins in an unusual way, as quently reveals, when she was a little girl, she was car-
the play’s CHORAGUS, or property manager, gives a ried off by an unknown man during a storm at a
speech of some 20 lines. In the first half of the speech, festival of DIONYSUS. Planesium shows that she has a
the choragus commends Phaedromus for his trickery; ring that matches the soldier’s.
in the speech’s second half, the choragus mentions var- After the reunion of brother and sister, Cappadox
ious places in Rome (although the play’s setting is Epi- returns from the FORUM after collecting money from
daurus) where one can find specific kind of people: Lyco. As Cappadox prepares to go home, he is con-
Perjurers are found at the COMITIUM, liars and braggarts fronted by both Therapontigonus and Phaedromus,
at the temple of Venus CLOACINA, and so on. The sound who want to punish him for trying sell Planesium.
of Phaedromus’ door’s creaking sends the choragus off. Eventually, Phaedromus decides to play the role of
From the house emerge Curculio, his servant, Cappa- arbiter between Therapontigonus and Cappadox.
dox, Lyco, and Planesium. Lyco reminds Cappadox Therapontigonus reminds Cappadox that he had
that if Planesium should be discovered to be a freeborn promised to refund the money for Planesium if she was
woman, Lyco would get his money back. After Cur- discovered to be freeborn. Despite Cappadox’s denial,
culio and his slave depart with Planesium, Lyco and Phaedromus decrees that Cappadox must refund the
Cappadox make arrangements for payment for Plane- soldier’s money. Cappadox, faced with threats of phys-
sium. Upon Lyco’s exit, Cappadox returns to Aescu- ical violence from the soldier and Phaedromus, finally
lapius’ temple. hands over the money. The play ends with Phaedro-
In the next scene, the soldier Therapontigonus mus’ inviting Therapontigonus to dinner and
enters with Lyco and demands the money that he had announcing his wedding to Planesium.
160 CURETES

COMMENTARY Monaco, G. Curculio. Palermo: Palumbo, 1969.

At 729 lines, Curculio is the shortest surviving Roman Slater, N. W. “The Dates of Plautus’ Curculio and Trinummus
comedy and one that has received relatively little atten- Reconsidered,” American Journal of Philology 108 (1987):
264–69.
tion from modern scholars. The play has an interesting
topographical inconsistency in its fourth act. Although
the play’s setting is Epidaurus, at one point the chora- CURETES Mythical warriors who guarded the
infant ZEUS. They clashed their shields so that Zeus’
gus mentions various places in Rome, such as the
father, CRONUS, would not hear his voice. When IO
Comitium and the temple of Venus Cloacina. This pas-
gave birth to EPAPHUS, HERA had the Curetes steal the
sage exemplifies how PLAUTUS would adapt a Greek
child. Zeus, however, discovered this and killed the
play for his Roman audience.
Curetes. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
As for the rest of the play, Curculio has some of the
1.1.6–7, 2.1.3; Euripides, Bacchae 121, Hypsipyle frag-
typical features of Plautine comedy (a love-sick young
ment 12.76 (Page); Hyginus, Fables 139; Pausanias,
man and his beloved PROSTITUTE, an evil pimp, a BRAG-
4.33.1; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 1877]
GART WARRIOR). Among the more novel features of Cur-
culio are the absence of a father as a stumbling block to BIBLIOGRAPHY
the young man’s love affair, the discovery that the pros- Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London:
titute is the sister of the soldier (compare the modern Heinemann, 1970.
production of A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the
Forum), and the use of the parasite (rather than a wily CURSE The calling of evil or misfortune upon
slave) as the primary trickster in the play. someone or something. Curses often play an important
Although Curculio is a parasite, he does many of the role in classical TRAGEDY. In EURIPIDES’ HIPPOLYTUS, the
same things that slaves do in other Roman comedies title character is killed when his father, THESEUS, calls
such as impersonating someone else (compare PSEUDO- down a curse upon him. The deaths of ETEOCLES and
LUS) and writing a deceptive letter (compare Chrysalus
POLYNEICES were a result of a curse that their father,
in BACCHIDES). Curculio is also noteworthy for his abil- OEDIPUS, had put on them. The misfortunes that
ity to adapt to changing circumstances. Although the AGAMEMNON and his family suffered were also sup-
posed to be the result of curses on them by people of
story begins under the assumption that this will be a
earlier generations. Curses can also be personified. In
“quest for cash” play, Curculio’s initial attempt to
AESCHYLUS’ Eumenides (417) (see ORESTEIA), the chorus
secure funds for Phaedromus fails. Curculio quickly
of FURIES indicate that they are the embodiment of
adapts, however, and steals the soldier’s ring, has a
“Curses.”
false letter written, impersonates the soldier’s freed-
man, and secures Planesium.
CYANEAE See CLASHING ROCKS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arnott, W. G. “The Opening of Plautus’ Curculio: Comic CYBELE (CYBEBE) See RHEA.
Business and Mime.” In Plautus und die Tradition des Ste-
greifspiels: Festgabe für Eckard Lefèvre zum 60. Geburtstag. CYCLOBORUS A torrential stream in the
Edited by B. Lore, S. Ekkehard, and G. Vogt-Spira. Tübin- region where ATHENS is located. At KNIGHTS 137,
gen, Ger.: Narr, 1995, 185–92.
ARISTOPHANES compares CLEON’s voice to the
Goldberg, S. M. “Improvisation, Plot, and Plautus’ Curculio.”
Cycloborus.
In Plautus und die Tradition des Stegreifspiels: Festgabe für
Eckard Lefèvre zum 60. Geburtstag. Edited by B. Lore, S.
Ekkehard, and G. Vogt-Spira. Tübingen, Ger.: Narr, 1995, CYCLOPS (Plural: CYCLOPES) The
33–41. Cyclopes (“circle-eyed”) were the giant, one-eyed off-
Kruschwitz, P., J. Mulberger, and M. Schumacher. “Die Struk- spring produced by URANUS and Gaia (see EARTH).
tur des ‘Curculio,’” Gymnasium 108, no. 2 (2001): 113–21. Ancient writers often located their home beneath the
 CYCLOPS 161

volcanic mountain AETNA on SICILY. Uranus had 125; Pausanias, 2.16.5, 7.25.5; Seneca, Hercules Furens
imprisoned them in the UNDERWORLD, but ZEUS 997, Thyestes 407, 582; Vergil, Aeneid 3.680]
released them, and in gratitude they helped Zeus over-
throw his father, CRONUS, by giving Zeus thunder and BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nieto Hernández, Pura. “Back in the Cave of the Cyclops,”
lightning. After Zeus became ruler of the gods, the
American Journal of Philology 121, no. 3 (2000): 345–66.
Cyclopes continued to supply him with thunder and
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet-
lightning; these three Cyclopes, the children of Uranus
arum Graecorum fragmenta. Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann,
and Gaia, were named Arges, Brontes, and Steropes. 1899.
Other Cyclopes existed, however, such as the tribe Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
whom ODYSSEUS encountered upon his return from Teubner, 1880.
TROY. One of these Cyclopes, POLYPHEMUS, was the son ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
of POSEIDON, and Odysseus’ blinding of him resulted in Teubner, 1884.
Poseidon’s punishment, which condemned Odysseus to Scott, Shirley Clay. “Man, Mind, and Monster: Polyphemus
10 years of wandering after the Trojan War. Apollo also from Homer through Joyce,” Classical and Modern Litera-
killed some Cyclopes (perhaps the children of one of ture 16, no. 1 (1995): 19–75.
the original Cyclopes), for which Zeus forced him to Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
serve a mortal (ADMETUS) for a year. In addition to pro- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
viding Zeus with thunder and lightning, the Cyclopes
were said to have built the walls of TIRYNS and MYCENAE. CYCLOPS EURIPIDES (BETWEEN 425 AND
Among the Greek dramatists, the comic poets Cal- 408 B.C.E.) Recent scholarly opinion, based prima-
lias and Diocles wrote plays entitled Cyclopes. Only the rily on statistical analysis of certain metrical tendencies
title survives from Diocles’ play (see Kock 1), and sev- over the course of EURIPIDES’ career, suggests a date of
eral short, uninformative fragments (3–10 Kock 1) production of the play closer to 408 than 425. At only
from Callias’. In addition to EURIPIDES’ satyric CYCLOPS, 709 lines, Cyclops is one of the shortest surviving clas-
we know of a few other plays entitled Cyclops. As did sical dramas, and the only SATYR PLAY extant in its
Euripides’ play, these plays probably dealt with entirety. The play’s action occurs before the cave (cf.
Odysseus’ encounter with the Cyclops Polyphemus. SOPHOCLES’ PHILOCTETES) of the Cyclops POLYPHEMUS
The Greek tragedian Aristias produced a satyric near Mount AETNA on SICILY. SATYRS make up the cho-
Cyclops that would have predated Euripides’ play by rus. Euripides’ play is a comic version of ODYSSEUS’
several decades. The single fragment (4 Snell) that sur- encounter with the CYCLOPS, which is also preserved in
vives preserves a remark about wine’s potency and was the ninth book of HOMER’s Odyssey.
spoken by the Cyclops to Odysseus. The comic poet The play opens with the satyr SILENUS sweeping the
Epicharmus’ Cyclops also appeared before Euripides’ cave of the Cyclops, whom he and his SATYR children
play, but the three brief fragments that survive (81–83 serve. Silenus relates that when DIONYSUS was abducted
Kaibel) give little indication of the play’s plot. In the by pirates, Silenus and his sons set sail to find Diony-
first quarter of the fourth century B.C.E., the comic poet sus. A storm blew up and sent them off course to Sicily,
Antiphanes also produced a Cyclops. The surviving where Silenus and his sons were captured and enslaved
fragments (131–33 Kock 2) primarily comprise a list of by the Cyclops Polyphemus. Silenus’ PROLOGUE is fol-
foods. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.1.2, lowed by the entrance of the satyr chorus, whose open-
1.2.1, Epitome 7.3–9; Aristophanes, Wealth 290, 296; ing song indicates that they are driving Polyphemus’
Euripides, Alcestis 1–7, Cyclops, Electra 1158, Heracles flocks from the pasture. The audience also hears them
15, 944, 998, Iphigenia at Aulis 152, 265, 534, 1501, lament the absence of Dionysus. After the choral song,
Iphigenia in Tauris 845, Orestes 966, Trojan Women Silenus sees a Greek ship and soon Odysseus and his
1088; Hesiod, Theogony 139–46; Homer, Odyssey 9; men arrive. Odysseus informs Silenus that they are
Ovid, Metamorphoses 13.738–897; Hyginus, Fables returning from TROY and attempting to reach their
162 CYCLOPS

native island of ITHACA. Silenus tells Odysseus that they Cyclops says he wants to share some of the wine with
are on the island of Ithaca and near the cave of the can- his fellow Cyclopes, Odysseus persuades him not to do
nibalistic Cyclops. Odysseus tries to barter with Silenus this, because it will thwart Odysseus’ plan. As in
for food and drink, and the chief satyr is delighted that HOMER, when the Cyclops asks Odysseus what his
Odysseus’ payment will be in the form of wine. As name is, Odysseus replies, “Nobody.” While Odysseus
Silenus drinks some of the wine and begins to dance and the Cyclops converse, Silenus tries to steal some of
about in delight, his satyr sons ask Odysseus about the Cyclops’ wine. The Cyclops, however, becoming
HELEN and whether the soldiers took turns having sex- aroused sexually, begins to grope for Silenus and even-
ual relations with her. tually drags him into his cave.
The light mood soon changes when Silenus sees the After the exit of the Cyclops and Silenus, Odysseus
Cyclops approaching. Silenus directs Odysseus and his urges the satyrs to be bold and help him blind the
men to hide in the Cyclops’ cave, but Euripides’ monster. After Odysseus prays to HEPHAESTUS and
Odysseus, unlike his Homeric counterpart, refuses to SLEEP to aid him in his efforts, he reenters the cave.
do so. When the Cyclops enters and demands to know When the time arrives for the satyrs to assist Odysseus,
what is happening, Silenus lies, telling the Cyclops that however, they offer a variety of excuses why they can-
he was trying to prevent Odysseus and his men from not help him. The satyrs do sing a lyric cheer as they
taking the Cyclops’ goods. Hearing this, the Cyclops urge him to blind the monster. Soon, the blinded
threatens to eat Odysseus and his men. At this point, Cyclops emerges from the cave and laments his fate. As
Odysseus explains that he and his men were trying to in Homer, when the Cyclops complains that Nobody
trade for food and that Silenus is lying. Silenus, of has ruined him, the amused chorus responds,
course, denies this. When the Cyclops goes on to ques- “Nobody has done wrong to you.” After other similar
tion Odysseus about his journey, Odysseus answers jokes, the Cyclops begins to grope for the satyrs but
truthfully. Odysseus also begs the Cyclops not to eat bumps his head on a rock. Afterward Odysseus and his
him or his men, because they have well served the remaining men leave the cave. As in Homer, Odysseus
Cyclops’ father, POSEIDON. Silenus, however, urges the reveals his true identity to the Cyclops. The Cyclops
Cyclops to eat Odysseus. The Cyclops responds by giv- recalls the prophecy that Odysseus would blind him
ing a short speech in which he boasts that his own but also notes that Odysseus would suffer many years
power rivals that of the gods. He also states that the at sea as a result. Odysseus, however, departs for the
gifts of hospitality that he will give to Odysseus and his beach to sail away. The play ends with the Cyclops’
crew are a nice pot in which he will boil them. Hearing threatening to throw boulders at Odysseus’ ship and
this, Odysseus prays to ATHENA and ZEUS for protection. the satyrs’ declaring that they will sail away with
The Cyclops drives Odysseus and his men into the Odysseus.
cave. Inside, the chorus of satyrs sing an ode about the
impending “meal” of which the Cyclops is about to COMMENTARY
partake and note that the monster will violate the cus- As alluded to previously, Euripides’ Cyclops is intrigu-
toms of hospitality by his killing and eating of ing because one may compare it with Homer’s earlier
Odysseus’ men. After the choral ode, Odysseus version of the story in Odyssey. Other classical dramas,
emerges from the cave and reports the horrific slaugh- such as AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA)
ter and consumption of his men by the Cyclops. expand on events mentioned in the Odyssey; Euripi-
Odysseus also tells the satyrs that he gave the Cyclops des’ Cyclops is the only surviving play to dramatize a
some wine and made him drunk. When Odysseus tells complete episode from the Homeric epic. Both Homer
the satyrs that he has a plan to blind the Cyclops, the and Euripides focus on violations of hospitality in the
satyrs are delighted and offer to help. Odysseus-Cyclops encounter; however, conventions of
Before the plot unfolds, the drunken Cyclops, sup- the stage and the satyric genre require Euripides to
ported by Silenus, emerges from the cave. When the alter Homer’s story in certain respects. Homeric
 CYCNUS (2) 163

Odysseus was trapped in the Cyclops’ cave, whereas CYCNUS (2) The son of POSEIDON and Calyce,
Euripidean Odysseus must be able to move back and Cycnus was king of Colonae, a town near TROY. Cycnus
forth between the interior and exterior of the “cave.” married Proclia and their children were Hemithea and
Because Euripides is writing a satyr play, he must also Tenes, although some sources make Tenes a son of
create a story line that puts the satyrs on the Cyclops’ APOLLO. Later, Cycnus married Philonome, who fell in
island. Obviously, Euripides’ Odysseus-Cyclops love with Tenes and tried to seduce him. When Tenes
encounter ends on a happier note, as Odysseus and the rejected her advances, Philonome told Cycnus that
satyrs sail away without any allusion to the trials that Tenes had tried to rape her. She even arranged for a
await Odysseus at the hands of Poseidon. flute player, Eumolpus, to corroborate her claim. Cyc-
In addition to points of comparison between Homer nus believed Philonome and put Tenes and Hemithea
and Euripides, Euripides’ Cyclops is most valuable for into a box and cast them out into the sea. The castaways
the information it provides about the Greek satyr play. survived, landing on the island of Leucophyrs, which
As it is the only complete satyr play from antiquity, Tenes later ruled, also changing its name to Tenedos
however, we cannot tell whether it was “typical.” (Tenes’ island). Eventually, after Cycnus learned that
Cyclops does contain several elements that appear to Tenes was innocent, Cycnus ordered Eumolpus stoned
have been common in this genre: attention to the to death and Philonome buried alive. After that, the tra-
theme of hospitality (although this is also an element dition regarding Cycnus becomes unclear. Some say
in TRAGEDY), the frequent references to and consump- that he went to Tenedos to apologize to his son and that
tion of wine, jokes of a sexual nature (the satyrs’ ask- although Tenes initially rejected his father, eventually
ing about the Greeks’ having sexual relations with Cycnus settled on the island. Ovid suggests that Cycnus
Helen; the Cyclops’ sexual attraction to Silenus), the fought ACHILLES at TROY in the early days of the war,
satyrs’ seeking freedom from an oppressive master (in and that despite Cycnus’ invulnerability to conven-
this case, the Cyclops), the presence of unusual crea- tional weapons, Achilles killed him by strangling him
tures or beings with unusual powers. After one reads with the strap of his own helmet. At Cycnus’ death,
Euripides’ surviving tragedies, it is difficult to imagine Poseidon transformed him into a swan.
that the same author composed the Cyclops, but this SOPHOCLES may have written a Cycnus, although this
play shows that such a feat could be accomplished. play may have been the same as Sophocles’ Shepherds
BIBLIOGRAPHY (Poimenes), in which the death of Cycnus may have
Katsouris, A. G. “Euripides’ Cyclops and Homer’s Odyssey: played some role and that Lloyd-Jones thinks was pro-
An Interpretative Comparison,” Prometheus 23, no. 1 duced no later than 460 B.C.E. Whether Sophocles’
(1997): 1–24. Shepherds was a TRAGEDY or SATYR PLAY is not known, but
Konstan, D. “An Anthropology of Euripides’ Cyclops,” Ramus some of the 20 lines that survive have an informal tone.
10 (1981): 87–103. The play’s setting would probably have been the shore
Seaford, R. Euripides: Cyclops. Oxford: Oxford University near Troy, and Trojan shepherds may have composed
Press, 1984. the chorus. The scholiast on Lycophron 530 reports
Vickers, M. “Alcibiades on Stage: Philoctetes and Cyclops,”
that HECTOR killed PROTESILAUS in this play, and frag-
Historia 36 (1987): 171–97.
ment 498 is spoken by Hector. Fragment 500 appears
Willink, C. W. “Notes on the Parodos and Other Cantica of
Euripides’ Cyclops,” Mnemosyne Ser. 4, 54, no. 5 (2001): to refer to Cycnus’ invulnerability; in fragment 501
515–30. Cycnus boasts that he will kill an opponent and almost
literally “kick his ass.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
CYCNUS (1) The son of Sthenelus, Cycnus was Epitome 3.22–25; Ovid, Metamorphoses 64–145]
a king of the Ligurians. When Cycnus died, he was BIBLIOGRAPHY
changed into a swan; appropriately, his name means Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
“swan” in Greek. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pausanias, 1.30.3] Harvard University Press, 1996.
164 CYCNUS (3)

Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, lyre. She also defends the young god against the satyrs’
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. accusation that he stole APOLLO’s cattle.

CYCNUS (3) Tradition gives ARES two sons CYLLENE (3) A port in southwestern Greece
named Cycnus, both of whom fought with HERACLES. that served the town of ELIS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
In the pseudo-Hesiodic Shield of Heracles, Heracles phanes, Knights 1081]
encounters ARES and Cycnus while on the way to TRA-
CHIS, in southern THESSALY, and the kingdom of Ceyx, CYNALOPEX A nickname (“dog-fox”) for PHILO-
whose daughter, Themistinoe, was married to Cycnus. STRATUS, whom ARISTOPHANES labels a PIMP. [ANCIENT
After Heracles killed Cycnus, Ares attacked Heracles, SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 1069 and the scholiast
who gave Ares a wound that sent him retreating to on the line, Lysistrata 957]
Mount Olympus. In EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS, Heracles,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
while on the way to fetch the mares of Diomedes (his
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
eighth labor), seems to allude to this battle with Cyc- Press, 1987, 183.
nus; in Euripides’ HERACLES, the chorus mention a Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
Cycnus—seemingly the same as mentioned in pseudo- Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 201.
Hesiod and the Alcestis—who lived in Thessalian
Amphanae and murdered his guests. The chorus recall CYNNA A well-known PROSTITUTE in ATHENS.
that Heracles killed this Cycnus with his arrows, [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Aristophanes, Lysistrata 765, Peace
whereas pseudo-Hesiod has Heracles run Cycnus 755]
through with his spear. Apollodorus seems to have the
same Cycnus in mind when he mentions Cycnus, the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5,
son of Ares and Pelopia, whom Heracles fought and
Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985, 169.
killed near Itonus in Thessaly. Apollodorus, in describ-
ing Heracles’ return from his 11th labor, says that a dif- CYNTHIA Another name for ARTEMIS.
ferent Cycnus, the son of Ares and Pyrene, challenged
Heracles to fight near the river Echedorus in Macedo- CYPRIS Another name for APHRODITE.
nia, but that the battle was broken off when a lightning
bolt (presumably thrown by Heracles’ father, ZEUS) fell CYPRUS An island in the eastern Mediterranean
between the two combatants. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- Sea that was considered the birthplace of APHRODITE
lodorus, Library 2.5.11, 2.7.7; Euripides, Alcestis 503, and thus was especially sacred to her. AJAX’s brother,
Heracles 389–93; Hesiod, Shield of Heracles; Hyginus, TEUCER, went to Cyprus when banished by his father
Fables 31; Seneca, Hercules Furens 486] after the Trojan War. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
Lysistrata 833; Euripides, Bacchae 402–3; Hesiod,
CYLLENE (1) The highest mountain in south- Theogony 193–99]
ern Greece (in the region of ARCADIA), Cyllene is tradi-
tionally the birthplace of HERMES and the Pleiades. CYRENE A well-known PROSTITUTE in ATHENS.
SOPHOCLES’ SEARCHERS, which deals with Hermes’ birth, [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 1328, Thes-
is set on Mount Cyllene. PAN was also associated with mophoriazuae 98]
Cyllene. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
3.10.1–2] CYRUS The son of Cambyses, Cyrus was the king
of Persia who ascended to the throne in 550/549 B.C.E.
CYLLENE (2) A NYMPH who lived on Mount [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 767, 773;
CYLLENE. In SOPHOCLES’ SEARCHERS, she informs the Arrian, Anabasis 6.29.8; Herodotus, 1.71ff.; Strabo,
SATYRS of the birth of HERMES and his invention of the 15.730; Xenophon, Cyropaedia]
 CYZICUS 165

CYTHERA An island off the southern tip of CYZICUS A city on a half-peninsula of the same
Greece. The island was associated with the birth of name. Cyzicus was located northeast of TROY in what
APHRODITE, who had a temple there. Aphrodite is is today northwestern Turkey. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
sometimes called Cytherea or the Cytherean. Aristophanes, Peace 1176]
 C DD
DAEDALUS A builder and creator from the Cocalus returned and gave the threaded shell to Minos,
island of CRETE, Daedalus (“clever”) was the father of Minos realized that Daedalus was nearby and demanded
ICARUS. When MINOS’ wife, PASIPHAE, was in love with that he be turned over to him. Cocalus said he would
a bull, Daedalus built a hollow wooden cow to help hand over Daedalus but delayed Minos with the cus-
her satisfy her lust. Daedalus also built the mazelike tomary hospitality offered to strangers. Cocalus’ daugh-
labyrinth to house the offspring of Pasiphae and the ters killed Minos by pouring boiling water on him.
bull, the MINOTAUR. When THESEUS and his fellow SOPHOCLES wrote a Daedalus, but the fragments
Athenians were taken to Crete and imprisoned in the (158–64a Radt) are too brief to be informative. Aristo-
labyrinth, Daedalus gave Minos’ daughter, ARIADNE, phanes’ Daedalus (fragments 184–97 Kock) may have
(who had fallen in love with Theseus), a thread that satirized the SICILIAN EXPEDITION and cast ALCIBIADES as
would allow them to find their way out of the Icarus. The Greek comic poets Plato (fragments 19–20
labyrinth. After the Athenians and Ariadne escaped Kock 1) and Eubulus (fragment 21 Kock 2) also wrote
from the labyrinth, Minos blamed Daedalus for their plays entitled Daedalus, whose brief fragments tell us
escape and threatened to kill him. To escape the island, nothing about their plots. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides,
Daedalus constructed two pairs of wings, for himself Hecabe 838; Hyginus, Fables 39–40, 44; Ovid, Meta-
and his son, Icarus. Equipped with these wings, morphoses 8.183–235; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 684,
Daedalus and Icarus flew from Crete; despite Daedalus’ 687, Oedipus 900, Phaedra 120, 1171]
instructions, Icarus flew too close to the Sun, the wax
BIBLIOGRAPHY
that was holding his wings together melted, and Icarus
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
plunged into the sea to his death. Teubner, 1880.
After Icarus died, Daedalus went to the court of ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
COCALUS in the Sicilian town of Camicus. Minos pur- Teubner, 1884.
sued Daedalus, and everywhere Minos searched he took Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
along a spiral shell and promised to reward to the per- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
son who could pass a thread through the shell, thinking
that only Daedalus would be clever enough to do this. DANAANS Often used by the dramatists as a
Finally, Minos reached Camicus and showed the shell to synonym for the Greeks as a whole, the term Danaans
Cocalus, who gave it to Daedalus. Daedalus threaded technically refers to the descendants of Danaus, an
the shell by boring a hole through it, tying a thread to an African king who went to Greece and later became
ant, and then letting the ant go through the hole. When ruler of ARGOS. See also DANAIDS.
166
 DAWN 167

DANAE For the story of Danae, see ACRISIUS. DANAUS See DANAIDS.
SOPHOCLES wrote a Danae, which may have dealt with
Acrisius’ exposure of Danae and her infant son, DANISTA See USURER.
PERSEUS. EURIPIDES also composed a Danae, which
Webster thinks was staged between 438 and 431 B.C.E. DARDANUS A son of ZEUS and Electra (not
Among Roman authors, NAEVIUS wrote a play called AGAMEMNON’s daughter), Dardanus was a king of TROY
Danae, which may have had the same subject matter as and the father of Tros, who gave his name to Troy.
Sophocles’ play. Fragment 11 indicates that Danae has Poets sometimes call the Trojans Dardanians and Troy
been discovered to be pregnant; fragment 14, appar- Dardania. The Greek comic poet MENANDER wrote a
ently spoken by Danae, reads, “I, innocent, have been Dardanus, whose surviving 11 words give no indica-
driven unworthily from my fatherland.” tion of the plot (fragments 93–94 Körte). [ANCIENT
BIBLIOGRAPHY SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.12.1]
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Körte, A., and A. Thierfelder. Menandri Quae Supersunt. Vol.
Harvard University Press, 1996.
2, 2d ed. Leipzig: Teubner, 1959.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University DATIS One of the Persian generals (ARTAPHRENES
Press of America, 1984. was his colleague) defeated at the battle of MARATHON
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: in 490 B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace
Methuen, 1967. 289; Herodotus, 6.94]

DANAIDS The daughters of Danaus, a king of BIBLIOGRAPHY

Egypt. Danaus’ brother, AEGYPTUS, wanted his 50 sons Molitor, M. V. “The Song of Datis,” Mnemosyne 39 (1986):
to marry Danaus’ 50 daughters. The women refused 128–31.
and fled to Greece with their father. The sons of Aegyp-
tus pursued the Danaids and forced the women to DAUGHTERS OF HELIOS (HELIADES)
marry them. Danaus persuaded his daughters to mur- After the death of PHAETHON, his sisters, the daughters
der their new husbands. The Danaids married Aegyp- of Helios (see SUN) and Rhode, wept so much that
tus’ sons and killed them on their wedding night (with ZEUS, taking pity on them, changed them into poplar
one exception—Hypermnestra did not kill Lynceus). trees. The trees continued to “weep,” and their “tears”
In the UNDERWORLD, the Danaids were punished by became drops of amber. Authors differ as to the num-
being required to fill vessels with holes in them ber of the Heliades. Hesiod mentions seven daughters,
throughout eternity. The Danaids make up the chorus but AESCHYLUS names only three—Aegle, Lampetie,
of AESCHYLUS’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN. Aeschylus also wrote a and Phaethousa. In Aeschylus’ Heliades (fragments
Danaids (fragments 43–46 Radt), which probably dealt 68–72 Radt), the daughters of Helios probably formed
with the Danaids’ killing of their husbands, in which the chorus and the play may have dealt with
APHRODITE may have been a character. The Greek Phaethon’s death.
comic poet DIPHILUS wrote a Danaids, of which only the
title survives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 168; DAULIS West of DELPHI, Daulis (or Daulia) is a
Ovid, Heroides 14; Seneca, Hercules Furens 500, Her- town in north central Greece. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
cules Oetaeus 948] Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 192, Thyestes 275; Sophocles,
Oedipus Tyrannos 734]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1884. DAWN See EOS.
168 DEIANEIRA

DEIANEIRA The daughter of OENEUS and Scott, M. “The Character of Deianeira in Sophocles’ Tra-
ALTHAEA, Deianeira became the wife of HERACLES and the chiniae,” Acta Classica 40 (1997): 33–47.
mother of HYLLUS. Immediately after Deianeira’s mar-
riage to Heracles, the CENTAUR NESSUS attempted to rape DEIGMA Its name the Greek word meaning
her. Wounded by Heracles’ arrow, the centaur, with his “sample” or “specimen,” the Deigma in ATHENS was a
dying words, told Deianeira that his blood could be location at that city’s main harbor (see PIRAEUS) where
used as a charm to ensure Heracles’ love for her. When merchants displayed and sold samples of their mer-
Heracles sent home a female captive (Iole), Deianeira chandise. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights
gave her husband a robe smeared with this “love charm,” 979]
hoping to win him back. What Nessus knew, but
Deianeira did not realize, was that Nessus’ blood was DEIPHOBUS A son of PRIAM and HECABE, Dei-
mingled with a lethal poison that tipped Heracles’ phobus married HELEN after the death of PARIS. Dei-
arrows. Upon discovering that the robe stuck to Hera- phobus was killed by MENELAUS during the fall of TROY.
cles’ body and burned his skin, she committed suicide. Vergil says Helen hid Deiphobus’ weapons and then
Deianeira appears as a character in two extant opened the doors of the house for Menelaus, who was
plays, SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN and SENECA’s accompanied by ODYSSEUS. His attackers horribly
HERCULES OETAEUS. In Sophocles’ play, Deianeira is a mutilated Deiphobus’ body, and Vergil suggests that
figure worthy of pity. Unlike CLYTEMNESTRA, who in Helen herself may have done some of the damage.
AESCHYLUS’ Agamemnon (see ORESTEIA) deliberately The Roman playwright ACCIUS wrote a Deiphobus,
murders her husband, Deianeira destroys Heracles from which eight lines survive. Accius’ play was clearly
accidentally and through love, not revenge. Whereas set at Troy. The speaker of one fragment is a fisherman;
MEDEA gives her rival a poison robe with the intent of another fragment seems to refer to the capture of
destroying her and causing her former husband, SINON; another contains the dedicatory inscription to
JASON, extreme grief, Deianeira expresses sympathy Athena on the wooden horse; another speaks unfavor-
for her rival, Iole, and does not intend the robe to ably about Odysseus. The nature of the play is other-
injure Heracles. Deianeira commits suicide when he wise unknown. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
realizes she has harmed Heracles. Epitome 5.9, 22; Seneca, Agamemnon 749; Vergil,
In Hercules Oetaeus, Deianeira initially appears angrier Aeneid 6.495–534]
than she does in Sophocles’ play. In the Roman play, on
learning of the capture of Iole, she utters threats of vio- DELIA See ARTEMIS.
lence against her husband. Yet, she later decides not to
kill him and to try, as Sophocles’ Deianeira does, to win DELOS Also called Ortygia, Delos is a tiny island
back his love by using the centaur’s blood as a charm. in the AEGEAN SEA (southeast of ATHENS and north of
Ultimately, as her Sophoclean counterpart does, Seneca’s
NAXOS), the traditional birthplace of APOLLO and
Deianeira commits suicide when she learns of the injury
ARTEMIS and a major center for their worship. Accord-
the love charm has caused her husband.
ing to SENECA, Delos was a floating mass that later
BIBLIOGRAPHY became stationary at Artemis’ command. During the
Bergson, L. “Herakles, Deianeira und Iole,” Rheinisches second quarter of the fifth century B.C.E., Delos was
Museum 136, no. 2 (1993): 102–15. also home to the treasury of the Delian League, an
Hoey, T. F. “The Trachiniae and the Unity of Hero,” Arethusa alliance of Greek cities formed after the Persian inva-
3 (1970): 1–22.
sions of the first quarter of the century, whose purpose
McCall, M. “The Trachiniae: Structure, Focus, and Herakles,”
American Journal of Philology 93 (1972): 142–63. was to defend the allied Greeks from further Persian
Ryzman, M. “Deianeira’s Moral Behaviour in the Context of threats. The Greek comic poets CRATINUS (fragments
the Natural Laws in Sophocles’ Trachiniae,” Hermes 119 22–30 Kock 1) and Sophilus (fragment 2 Kock 2)
(1991): 385–98. wrote plays entitled Delian Women, and nothing is
 DEMETER 169

known about either play. The comic poet Antiphanes ple consulted the Delphic oracle about having chil-
wrote a Delian Woman, of which only four words, dren, as AEGEUS does in EURIPIDES’ MEDEA, or XUTHUS
which deal with vegetables being shredded or chopped does in Euripides’ ION.
up, survive (fragment 79 Kock). The comic poet
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Philostephanus wrote the play Delian Man, from which
Parke, H. W. Greek Oracles. London, Hutchinson, 1967.
a four-line fragment about famous cooks survives
(fragment 1 Kock 3). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus,
DELPHUS The son of APOLLO and Thyia (or
Eumenides 9 (see ORESTEIA); Aristophanes, Birds
Melaena), Delphus was a mythical king of DELPHI. One
869–70, Clouds 596, Thesmophoriazusae 333–34;
tradition gives him a son named Castalius, whose
Athenaeus, 9.373a; Euripides, Hecabe 462, Heracles
name is preserved in the spring of CASTALIA at Delphi.
687, Ion 167, Iphigenia in Tauris 1235, Trojan Women
Another tradition said Delphus’ son was Pythes, who
89; Seneca, Agamemnon 384, Hercules Furens 453]
became king of the town of PYTHO (often synonymous
BIBLIOGRAPHY with Delphi). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Eumenides
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: (see ORESTEIA); Pausanias, 7.18.9, 10.6.3–5]
Teubner, 1880.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragment. Vol. 2. Leipzig: DEME The region of Attica, of which ATHENS was
Teubner, 1884.
the principal city, was divided into more than 100
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Leipzig:
demes, most of which were outside the walls of Athens
Teubner, 1888.
Laidlaw, W. A. A History of Delos. Oxford: B. Blackwell, proper. ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS takes its name from
1933. the deme of Acharnae. In addition to those performed
Themelis, P. Mykonos-Delos: Archaeological Guide. 2d ed. at the major festivals in Athens proper, the City
Athens: Apollo Editions, 1977. DIONYSIA and the LENAEA, ancient dramas were per-
Zaphiropoulou, P. Delos: Monuments and Museum. Athens: formed at local festivals held in particular demes such
Krene Editions, 1983. as ACHARNAE, ELEUSIS, SALAMIS, and THORICUS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DELPHI See DELPHIC ORACLE. Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 121–22.
DELPHIC ORACLE When people in the
ancient Mediterranean region wanted to learn the DEMETER (Latin: CERES) The daughter of
future or the answer to a particularly difficult question, CRONUS and RHEA, Demeter (also known as Deo) is the
they consulted an ORACLE. The most famous oracle was sister of ZEUS, POSEIDON, HADES, HESTIA, and HERA.
the one at DELPHI, located northwest of ATHENS in cen- Demeter is sometimes given the title Euchlous. Deme-
tral Greece. Those who consulted the oracle believed ter is a goddess associated with the Earth, agriculture,
that they were receiving the wisdom of APOLLO, the and grain. Because she supplies mortals with food, in
god who presided over the Delphic oracle. Apollo’s EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE, Demeter is called one of the two
words were delivered through a priestess called the greatest divinities among humans (DIONYSUS is the
Pythia. Apollo’s oracles are ambiguous and enigmatic other). By Zeus Demeter was the mother of PERSE-
but always true. In extant drama, the pronouncements PHONE, who was abducted by Hades and taken to the
of the Delphic oracle frequently form the backdrop of UNDERWORLD. Demeter withdrew from the gods and
a drama. It was the Delphic oracle who made HERACLES wandered the Earth, fasting, in search of her daughter.
perform numerous labors to atone for killing his wife When she learned that Persephone was in the under-
and children. OEDIPUS attempts to run away from his world, Demeter caused the Earth to become barren.
parents because of an oracle from Delphi that said he Eventually, Zeus, Hades, and Demeter reached an
would kill his father and marry his mother. Often peo- agreement whereby Persephone would spend part of
170 DEMOPHON

every year in the underworld and the remaining part sacrifice one of his own children or to ask one of his
with Demeter. Euripides’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN opens at fellow Athenians to do so. After one of Heracles’
the temple of Demeter at ELEUSIS, the best-known site daughters offers to give up her life, Demophon praises
for the worship of Demeter and Persephone, where her courage, and at line 573 he exits and does not
throughout antiquity pilgrims traveled to be initiated appear again. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome
into the Eleusian MYSTERIES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- 1.18, 1.23, 5.22; Hyginus, Fables 59; Pausanias,
lodorus, Library 1.1.5–1.2.1, 1.5.1–3, 2.5.12, 3.6.8, 10.25.7–8]
3.12.1, 3.14.7; Apollonius Rhodius, 4.986–90; Aristo-
phanes, Thesmophoriazusae; Euripides, Helen 1301–68; DEMOS A Greek word meaning “people,” the
Hesiod, Theogony 453–506, 912–14, 969–74; Homer, term demos in ATHENS usually referred to male citizens
Odyssey 5.125–28; Homeric Hymn to Demeter 2; Hygi- who had the right to vote. Although the Athenians
nus, Fables 141, 146, 147; Ovid, Metamorphoses during the heyday of classical drama often followed the
5.341–571, 642–61, 6.118–19, 8.738–78, 9.422–23; advice of leading citizens such as PERICLES, CLEON, or
Pausanias, 1.14.1–3, 1.37.2, 2.5.8] ALCIBIADES, Athens was a direct democracy (the term
means “rule by the people”), and the people, the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
demos, were the city’s rulers. In ARISTOPHANES’ KNIGHTS,
Foley, H. P. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Princeton, N.J.:
a character named Demos personifies the citizens of
Princeton University Press, 1994.
Athens. Aristophanes describes Demos as a grumpy
master who is easily fooled by his slaves (political lead-
DEMOPHON The son of THESEUS and PHAEDRA,
ers such as Cleon) and whose favor can be gained by
Demophon was the brother of ACAMAS. As had his the slave who promises or gives him the most pleasant
father, Theseus, Demophon became a king of ATHENS. things. Aristophanes has Demos claim that he uses the
He fought in the Trojan War and rescued Theseus’ flattering slaves to get what he wants from them, but
mother, AETHRA, who had become a servant of HELEN’s. this remark may be an attempt to flatter the members
During Demophon’s return from TROY, he landed of the demos who were the spectators and judges of his
among the Bisaltians of THRACE and set a date to marry play.
Phyllis, the king’s daughter. Before the wedding,
Demophon told Phyllis that he had to leave Thrace to DEMOSTRATUS An Athenian orator who
visit his home in Athens but that he would return by advocated the SICILIAN Expedition of 415 B.C.E.
the appointed date. Phyllis gave him a box and told [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 391, 393;
him that inside was a sacrament of the goddess RHEA Plutarch, Alcibiades 18, Nicias 12]
and that he should not open the box until he had given
up hope that he would return to her. When Demophon, DENOUEMENT A French word meaning “an
delaying for some unknown reason, did not return to untying,” denouement refers to the resolution of a play
Thrace at the appointed time, Phyllis cursed after its climax.
Demophon and committed suicide. At some point,
Demophon opened the box, was terrified by what he DEO See DEMETER.
saw, jumped onto his horse (who was also terrified),
and, on being thrown from his horse, fell on his sword DEUCALION The son of PROMETHEUS, Deu-
and died. calion is the Noah of classical mythology. Deucalion
In EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES, Demophon married Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus and Pan-
functions as other Athenian kings do in Greek TRAGEDY dora. Prometheus, upon learning that ZEUS was plan-
as he goes to the aid of the oppressed. When his ning to wipe out the human race, advised Deucalion to
prophets advise him that he must sacrifice a maiden of build a boat. When Zeus sent heavy rains to flood the
noble birth to defeat EURYSTHEUS, Demophon refuses to Earth, Deucalion and Pyrrha managed to ride out the
 DICAEOPOLIS 171

storm, floating along for nine days and nights and The ancient commentators on the passage suggested
finally landing on Mount PARNASSUS. When Deucalion that Dexinicus was either a glutton, a poor man, or a
made a sacrifice to Zeus, Zeus granted him a wish. military commander, but no other sources corroborate
Deucalion’s wish was to restore the human race. When these speculations.
told to throw the bones of their mother behind them,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Deucalion and Pyrrha were initially horrified at this
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
impious act, but they soon realized that their mother’s Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 186–87.
bones were the stones of mother Earth. The stones that
Deucalion threw turned into men, and Pyrrha’s became DEXITHEUS A lyre player who had won a con-
women. Deucalion had several children by Pyrrha: a test at the Pythian games, although some Greeks con-
daughter named Protogenia and two sons, Amphic- sidered his playing uninspired. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
tyon, who became a king in Attica, and Hellen, after Aristophanes, Acharnians 14]
whom the Hellenic people are named. Deucalion does
not appear as a character in any extant dramas, BIBLIOGRAPHY
although several comic poets wrote plays about him. Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
The Greek comic poet Ophelio wrote a Deucalion, of Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980,
158–59.
which only the title survives. Epicharmus wrote a Deu-
calion (also entitled Pyrrha and Prometheus), whose
fragments contain a reference to the marriage of Deu-
DIANA See ARTEMIS.
calion and Pyrrha (fragments 114–18 Kaibel). The
Myrmekanthropoi (Ant-People) of the comic poet
DIASIA Held on Anthesterion 23 (February–
March), the Diasia was a festival honoring ZEUS Meili-
PHERECRATES dealt with Deucalion and Pyrrha’s adven-
chois (kindly or open to propitiation) with bloodless
tures (fragments 113–25 Kock). The fragments that
offerings. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 408,
survive from the Deucalion plays by Antiphanes (frag-
864; Thucydides, 1.126.6]
ments 77–78 Kock) and Eubulus (fragment 24 Kock)
are uninformative regarding their subject matter. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.7.2; Ovid, Parke, H. W. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
Metamorphoses 1.262–415; Pindar, Olympian 9.40–56; University Press, 1977, 95, 120–22, 189–90.
Seneca, Trojan Women 1039]
DIAZOMA See PRAECINCTIO.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1884.
DICAEOPOLIS The hero of ARISTOPHANES’
ACHARNIANS (425 B.C.E.), Dicaeopolis (“honest citizen”)
arranges a personal peace for himself and his family
DEUS EX MACHINA See MECHANE.
with the Spartans and their allies. As the hero of Aristo-
phanes’ earliest surviving play, Dicaeopolis is often
DEUTERAGONIST An actor who played the cited as a model for other Aristophanic heroes. He is a
supporting roles in Greek drama. [ANCIENT SOURCES: seemingly ordinary Athenian citizen, a farmer living in
Hesychius, d741] the countryside, but with a common sense that allows
him to outwit or outmaneuver urban opponents who
DEXINICUS A person mentioned by ARISTO- threaten or oppose him. As other Aristophanic heroes
PHANES at WEALTH 800 as being at the play and eager to (especially Trygaeus in PEACE) do, Dicaeopolis longs for
grab some of the figs tossed out among the spectators. peace and a return to the simple life that he enjoyed
He is not otherwise known, although Sommerstein before the war between ATHENS and SPARTA. For
speculates that he may have been a minor politician. Dicaeopolis, the good life means the freedom to worship
172 DICTYNNA

his gods and the freedom to sell products from his DICTYULCI See DICTYS.
farm and enjoy products he acquires through trade. In
Dicaeopolis’ case, wine is the embodiment of peace, DIDASKALIA A Greek word (plural: didaskaliai)
and by the end of Acharnians he is nicely intoxicated meaning “teaching,” this term can refer to (1) the
and accompanied by two attractive women who will process of training a CHORUS, which was also known as
help him as he staggers home. chorodidaskalia, (2) the plays that are produced, or (3)
lists of dramas that include such information as the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
plays’ titles, the names of the playwrights, the names of
Compton-Engle, G. L. “From Country to City: The Persona
actors, the dates of production, and the dramas’ place-
of Dicaeopolis in Aristophanes’ Acharnians,” Classical Jour-
nal 94, no. 4 (1998–99): 359–73. ment in competition. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Diogenes Laer-
Fisher, N. R. E. “Multiple Personalities and Dionysiac Festi- tius, 5.26; Plato, Alcibiades 125e, Gorgias 501e;
vals: Dicaeopolis in Aristophanes’ Acharnians,” Greece and Plutarch, Cimon 8, Pericles 5, Moralia 839d, 1096a;
Rome 40 (1993): 31–47. scholia on Aristophanes, Frogs 1155]
Olson, S. D. “Dicaeopolis’ Motivations in Aristophanes’ BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acharnians,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 111 (1991): 200–3. Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
Parker, L. P. E. “Eupolis or Dicaeopolis?” Journal of Hellenic Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 41–43,
Studies 111 (1991): 203–8. 136–37, 227–29.
Slater, N. W. “Aristophanes’ Apprenticeship Again,” Greek,
Roman, and Byzantine Studies 30 (1989): 67–82.
DIDASKALOS A Greek word (plural: didaskaloi)
meaning “teacher” or “master,” the term didaskalos can
DICTYNNA See ARTEMIS. refer to the chorus trainer or the play’s producer. The
term chorodidaskalos (chorus teacher) is also used of
DICTYS The son of Magnes, the fisherman Dictys the person who trained the chorus. Originally, the
was the brother of Polydectes, the king of the island of playwright himself would have been the chorodidaska-
SERIPHUS. After the box into which PERSEUS and DANAE los, but even in the fifth century B.C.E. this role had
had been placed washed ashore on Seriphus, Dictys, become separate from that of the poet. [ANCIENT
whose name means “net,” found the child and mother SOURCES: Antiphon 6.13; Aristophanes, Birds 628,
and took them to his brother’s palace. After the death of Ecclesiazusae 809; Plato, Laws 655a, 812e; Sylloge
Polydectes, Dictys became king of Seriphus. EURIPIDES Inscriptionum Graecarum 450.5]
wrote a Dictys, staged in 431 B.C.E. as the third play of the
tetralogy that included MEDEA, Philoctetes, and THERISTAI. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama. Ann
Webster thinks the play may have resembled in structure
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 44, 136–37.
Euripides’ later HERACLES, in which HERACLES returned to
rescue AMPHITRYON, MEGARA, and Heracles’ children, who DIEITREPHES An Athenian of a rather promi-
were being besieged at an altar by LYCUS. Webster sug- nent family (despite ARISTOPHANES’ claims to the con-
gests that in Dictys, Dictys and Danae were besieged at an trary) during the latter half of the fifth century B.C.E.,
altar by Polydectes (who was in love with Danae) and Dieitrephes held positions of military authority, related
that Perseus returned to rescue Danae, killed Polydectes, to Thracian mercenaries and in THRACE from 413 to
and then made Dictys king. AESCHYLUS wrote a SATYR PLAY, 411. In 411, Dieitrephes supported an overthrow of
DICTYULCI, about Dictys’ rescue of Perseus and Danae. the democracy on the island of Thasos by oligarchs.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.6, 2.4.1; [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 798, 1442;
Hyginus, Fables 63; Strabo, 10.5.10] Thucydides, 7.29–30, 8.64.2]
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
Methuen, 1967. sity Press, 1995, 484–85.
 DIONYSIA 173

DIKE See JUSTICE. Accompanied by the sons (the EPIGONI) of those who
died in the famous Seven against Thebes expedition,
DIOCLES A Greek from the town of MEGARA, Diomedes helped wage a second war against the The-
Diocles was a hero at both Megara and ELEUSIS. The bans. He also accompanied the Greek forces to Troy
Megarians honored him with an annual festival, the in their effort to rescue HELEN. In book five of
Diocleia. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians Homer’s Iliad, Diomedes fights against APHRODITE and
774; Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 153, 474; Plutarch, ARES. Diomedes takes the stage in one extant Greek
Theseus 10.3; Theocritus, 12.27–33] drama, RHESUS, in which he accompanies ODYSSEUS on
his nocturnal incursion into the Trojan camp to kill
BIBLIOGRAPHY RHESUS.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
After the death of ACHILLES, Diomedes is said to have
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 196.
accompanied Odysseus to the island of LEMNOS to take
back PHILOCTETES, although SOPHOCLES, in PHILOCTETES,
DIOMEA The Athenian DEME Diomea, south of
has Achilles’ son NEOPTOLEMUS accompany Odysseus.
the ACROPOLIS, had a place of worship for HERACLES
Diomedes also accompanied Odysseus when the two
and the site for a festival to that hero. [ANCIENT
journeyed to Troy to steal the statue known as the Pal-
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 651]
ladium. After the fall of Troy, Diomedes was one of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY few Greek warriors to reach his native land in a timely
Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon fashion. At some point, he eventually made his way to
Press, 1993, 53–54. Italy, where he founded the town of Arpi. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Appian, The Foreign Wars 7.5.31; Apol-
DIOMEDES (1) The son of ARES and Cyrene, lodorus, Library 1.8.5–6, 3.7.2, Epitome 3.12, 4.2, 4.4,
Diomedes was the evil king of the Bistones, a Thracian 5.8, 5.13; Euripides, Rhesus 564–641; Homer, Iliad;
tribe. He fed strangers to his man-eating horses, until Servius on Aeneid 8.9 and 11.246]
HERACLES put an end to the terror by feeding the horses BIBLIOGRAPHY
the king himself. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Stagakis, George. “Dolon, Odysseus and Diomedes in the
Library 2.5.8; Euripides, Alcestis 483; Seneca, Agamem- Doloneia,” Rheinisches Museum 130 (1987): 193–204.
non 842, Hercules Furens 226, 1170, Hercules Oetaeus Walton, J. M. “Playing in the Dark: Masks and Euripides’
20, 1538, 1790, Trojan Women 1108] Rhesus,” Helios 27, no. 2 (2000): 137–47.

DIOMEDES (2) A prince of ARGOS, Diomedes DIONYSIA An Athenian festival honoring DIONY-
was the son of TYDEUS and Deipyle. After the sons of a SUS. One Dionysia, known as the Rural Dionysia, was
certain Agrius usurped the kingdom of OENEUS, held in the month of POSEIDON (late December or early
imprisoned and tortured him, and turned over his January). In ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS, DICAEOPOLIS
kingdom to Agrius, Diomedes, accompanied by holds his own personal Rural Dionysia after he estab-
ALCMAEON, traveled from Argos and killed most of lishes his peace treaty with SPARTA. Another Dionysia,
Agrius’ sons. Because Oeneus was an old man, first held in ATHENS around the middle of the sixth cen-
Diomedes turned over the kingdom to Oeneus’ son-in- tury B.C.E., was called the Great Dionysia or City
law, Andraemon, and took Oeneus himself to Argos. Dionysia. This festival occurred in the month of
The surviving sons of Agrius ambushed and killed Elaphebolion (late March). The Great or City Dionysia
Oeneus in ARCADIA; Diomedes took his body to Argos was a festival that included a major drama competition.
and buried him on the site that later became the city of According to tradition, the first dramatic performances,
Oenoe. Upon returning to Argos, Diomedes married tragedies under the direction of THESPIS, appeared at
Aegialia, the daughter of the Argive king Adrastus (or this festival in 534 B.C.E. Competition in DITHYRAMB was
Aegialeus). Diomedes fought in two major wars. established by 590; comedies did not appear until 486.
174 DIONYSIUS I

In contrast to the LENAEA, held two months earlier, the prizes and were escorted home in a victory procession.
City Dionysia would have been attended by a signifi- Some scholars believe the dithyrambic competition
cant number of non-Athenians because the weather for occurred on Elaphebolion 10 and that the comic com-
travel was better at this time of year. petition (with five comic poets each presenting a single
During the sixth and fifth centuries, playwrights play) took place on Elaphebolion 11. It is often
who wanted to compete in the City Dionysia were cho- thought that during the PELOPONNESIAN WAR
sen by a public official called the eponymous ARCHON; (431–404) the number of comedies was reduced to
later an official called the Agonothete made the selec- three as a result of financial hardships in the city; a day
tions. Once the playwrights were determined, at some of COMEDY was followed by three days devoted to
point not long before the competition a lottery was TRAGEDY, with three playwrights each staging three
held to determine the order in which they would com- tragedies and a SATYR PLAY during a single day.
pete. No later than Elaphebolion 8, the chosen play- Other scholars think that the first day of competi-
wrights participated in a precontest event called the tion featured the boys’ dithyramb and some comedies;
Proagon, at which they, their actors, and their choruses the second day the men’s dithyramb and the remaining
appeared unmasked and without costume to gave a comedies were staged; the final three days presented
preview (see PROAGON) of their upcoming productions. the tragedies. On the last day of competition, after all
The next two days of the festival were occupied with the plays were concluded, each judge ranked the pro-
a procession, the sacrifice of hundreds of animals, and ductions on a tablet. It is usually thought that not all of
dancing and singing in honor of Dionysus. In addition the judges’ ballots were taken into account, and that
to transporting food, drink, and items for sacrifice, the the eponymous archon selected five of the ballots from
procession carried a statue of Dionysus and large phal- a jar. After the judges’ rankings were tallied, crowns of
loi (penises), a symbol of fertility. The Rural Dionysia oak leaves were given to the victorious playwrights,
also included the carrying of a PHALLUS in procession. and a victory parade escorted them home.
On arrival at the precinct of Dionysus Eleuthereus, a
feast in honor of the god was held. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Elaphebolion 10 also marked the festival’s first day Connor, W. R. “City Dionysia and Athenian Democracy,”
Classica et Mediaevalia 40 (1989): 7–32.
of competition. Before the performances, the theater
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
underwent a purification ritual: The 10 military com-
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 103–32.
manders elected for that year poured out an offering of Goldhill, S. D. “The Great Dionysia and Civic Ideology,”
wine to Dionysus; various dignitaries and those who Journal of Hellenic Studies 107 (1987): 58–76.
had served Athens well were presented to the crowd; Parke, H. W. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
the male orphans of Athenians who had died in war University Press, 1977, 125–36.
were honored with armor and allowed to sit in the Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy,
front row of the theater, along with Dionysus’ priest 2d ed. Revised by T. B. L. Webster. Oxford: Clarendon
and the god’s statue; and judges for the plays were Press, 1962, 41–126.
selected by lot (one judge from each of the 10 Athen-
ian tribes). Before the fall of Athens to SPARTA in 404 DIONYSIUS I From 405 B.C.E. until his death in
B.C.E., this time was also used to display to the specta- 367, Dionysius I ruled the city of SYRACUSE (on SICILY).
tors the various tributes that the members of the By 392 Dionysius had gained control of eastern Sicily,
Athenian empire had offered. and by 389/398 he had added most of the toe of Italy’s
The order of competition for the dithyrambs, “boot.” Dionysius was disliked in ATHENS because he
tragedies, and comedies is uncertain. For dithyramb, was a longtime ally of the Spartans. Not long after the
each of the 10 Athenian tribes supplied two choruses year 388 Dionysius’ ships reinforced a Spartan fleet
of 50 (one of men, one of boys) for the event. The whose blockade of the HELLESPONT was causing hard-
CHOREGUS and the poet of the winning chorus received ship for the Athenians during the so-called Corinthian
 DIONYSUS 175

War (395–86). The Athenians eventually had to accept Dionysus into a young goat. Hermes then took Diony-
a peace treaty on their enemies’ terms. Despite the sus to the nymphs of Mount Nysa in what is now west-
Athenian dislike of Dionysius, he appears to have been ern Turkey.
popular enough with his own people. Not only did he After Dionysus grew up, he wandered throughout
rule Syracuse, but he also wrote tragedies and even the world, seeking to prove his divinity to humans.
won a victory in Athens at the LENAEA. The titles of five During the course of his wanderings, the young god
of his plays are known (see fragments 1–12 Snell): experienced many adventures. At one point, he was
Adonis, Alcmena, The Ransoming of Hector, Leda, and a captured by pirates, but he escaped by entwining their
SATYR PLAY entitled Hunger. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- ship with vines and making them hallucinate so that
phanes, Wealth 550; Diodorus Siculus, 14.109.1–3; they jumped overboard and were changed into dol-
15.74.1–4; Lysias, 33; Xenophon, Hellenica 5.1.26–28] phins. During a pass through the island of NAXOS,
Dionysus found (or abducted) MINOS’ daughter, ARI-
BIBLIOGRAPHY ADNE, and made her his bride.
Caven, Brian. Dionysius I, War-Lord of Sicily. New Haven,
Dionysus’ entrances into various towns usually fol-
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990.
lowed a similar pattern. Initially he would be rejected,
Sanders, L. J. Dionysius I of Syracuse and Greek Tyranny. Lon-
don: Croom Helm, 1987. but he would be accepted after he caused some sort of
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, trauma to those who rejected him. When Dionysus
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. entered the realm of the Thracian king LYCURGUS, the
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11, god’s followers were captured, but Dionysus escaped
Wealth. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 174. by leaping into the AEGEAN SEA. Dionysus later
Stroheker, K. F. Dionysios I. Wiesbaden, Ger.: F. Steiner, 1958. returned and inflicted madness on Lycurgus, who mis-
took his son for a vine and killed him. This crime
DIONYSUS The son of ZEUS and the mortal caused the gods to generate hardship for Lycurgus’
SEMELE, Dionysus (also called Bacchus, Bromius, and, kingdom until Lycurgus’ subjects had him killed and
by the Romans, Liber) is best known as the god of accepted Dionysus as a divinity. The same pattern is
wine, but he is also the god of drama. played out in EURIPIDES’ Bacchae: Dionysus gives to
After Semele became pregnant with Dionysus, HERA Thebes; King PENTHEUS attempts to apprehend the god;
discovered Zeus’ affair and, disguised as Semele’s maid- Dionysus escapes and then brings about Pentheus’
servant, tricked Semele into asking Zeus to have inter- destruction at the hands of his mother and his aunts.
course with her in the same way that he did with Hera. Dionysus appears on stage in several dramas, the
Semele, not knowing that Zeus and Hera’s lovemaking most notable Euripides’ Bacchae and ARISTOPHANES’
involved thunder and lightning, asked Zeus for an Frogs. Both of these plays were first staged in Athens in
unspecified favor. After Zeus promised to grant what- 405 B.C.E., and they give completely different portray-
ever she asked, Semele made her request. Zeus could als of the god. In Bacchae, TIRESIAS describes Dionysus
not fail to honor his word, and Semele was killed. as being one of the two greatest gifts (DEMETER is the
Zeus, however, rescued the unborn child and stitched other) that mortals have, because Dionysus (wine)
him inside his thigh, from which Dionysus was even- frees humans from their cares. Despite Tiresias’ efforts
tually born. The name Dionysus may mean something to rationalize the god with soothing, beneficent wine,
like “he who was sewn in.” Pentheus’ attempts to apprehend the god and suppress
After Dionysus’ birth, Zeus still feared Hera’s wrath, his worship draw out a cunning, vengeful, and even
so he instructed HERMES to take Dionysus to live with malicious side in him. Dionysus toys with Pentheus
INO and ATHAMAS of BOEOTIA. Dionysus was disguised and ultimately lures him to a grisly death at the hands
as a woman to fool Hera, who saw through the disguise of his own mother. In Frogs, we see the comic side of
and drove Athamas insane in the hope that he would Dionysus. Dionysus’ effeminate nature is alluded to in
kill Dionysus. Dionysus escaped when Zeus changed Bacchae and is witnessed more clearly in Frogs.
176 DIOPEITHES

Several other ancient dramatists wrote plays entitled Damen, M. L. “The Comedy of Diphilos Sinopeus in Plau-
Dionysus. In that of the Greek tragedian Chaeremon tus, Terence and Athenaeus.” Dissertation, University of
the first of four brief fragments (4–7 Snell) suggest that Texas, 1985.
Friedrich, W. Euripides und Diphilos: Zur Dramaturgie der
the play dealt with the god’s encounter with Pentheus.
Spatformen. Munchen: Beck, 1953.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.4.3; Euripi-
Lefevre, E. Diphilos und Plautus: Der Rudens und sein Original.
des, Bacchae; Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.253–315, Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur,
511–700, 4.1–54, 416–562] 1984.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, DIPOLIA Also called the Bouphonia (“ox sacri-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. fice”), this annual Athenian feast honored ZEUS Polieus.
Younger Athenians may have considered it as “over-
laden with archaic ritual and devoid of the athletic and
DIOPEITHES A person of questionable sanity
artistic contests which made other festivals interesting”
according to comic poetry, Diopeithes is described by
(Dover). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 984,
Dunbar as “a minor political figure known for his
Peace 420; Pausanias, 1.28.11]
active interest in oracles.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Ameip-
sias, fragment 10 Kock; Aristophanes, Birds 988, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Knights 1085, Wasps 380; Plutarch, Pericles 32.2] Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Clouds. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1989.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1995, 549–50.
DIRCE The daughter of ACHELOUS, Dirce was the
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
wife of LYCUS, who later became king of THEBES. Dirce
Teubner, 1880. persecuted ANTIOPE, the daughter of Lycus’ brother
Nycteus. When Antiope’s sons, AMPHION and ZETHUS,
discovered Dirce’s cruelty, they tied Dirce to a bull that
DIPHILUS (BORN CA. 355 B.C.E.) A poet of
dragged her to death. Dirce’s body was thrown into a
New Comedy (see COMEDY), Diphilus was born at
nearby stream, which bore her name after that time.
Sinope in the Black Sea region but spent most of his
The demise of Dirce would have been dramatized in
life in ATHENS, where he was victorious three times at
EURIPIDES’ Antiope and PACUVIUS’ Antiopa. [ANCIENT
the LENAEA. He is said to have written about 100 plays,
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.5.5; Hyginus, Fables
of which about 60 titles are known but only some 130
7–8; Euripides, Bacchae 519–20, Heracles 27, 573,
fragments survive. Most of Diphilus’ titles sound like 784; Plautus, Pseudolus 199–200; Seneca, Hercules
the typical stuff of New Comedy (e.g., Brothers, Eunuch, Furens 916, Oedipus 177, 234, 531, 588, 714, Phoeni-
Merchant, Parasite, and Treasure); a few indicate mytho- cian Women 19, 126]
logical topics (e.g., Danaids, Hecate, Heracles, and The-
seus). Two of PLAUTUS’ plays were adapted from plays BIBLIOGRAPHY
by Diphilus, CASINA from his Kleroumenoi (Lotdrawers) Kambitsis, J. L’Antiope d’Euripide. Athens: Hourzamanis, 1972.
and ROPE from a play of unknown title. Diphilus’ Suna- Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
pathneskontes (Suicide pact) provided the basis for a
Harvard University Press, 1936.
lost Plautine play (Commorientes) and the first scene in
the second act of TERENCE’s BROTHERS.
DIS See HADES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Astorga, J. A. “The Art of Diphilus: A Study of Verbal DISCORD In SENECA’s HERCULES FURENS, this is
Humor in New Comedy.” Dissertation, University of Cali- the name of the FURY whom Juno (see HERA) calls upon
fornia Berkeley, 1990. to drive the title character insane.
 DOLOPIANS 177

DISTEGIA A second story of a theater building. DOCTOR (Latin: MEDICUS) A stock fig-
Pollux says that distegia could be used for scenes like ure in New and Roman COMEDY. In PLAUTUS’ TWO MEN-
the one in EURIPIDES’ PHOENICIAN WOMEN in which ACHMUSES, the Medicus is summoned when
ANTIGONE observes the approach of the Argive army. Menaechmeus is thought to be insane.
Pollux also states that sometimes the distegia was made
of tiles and that tiles were thrown down from it. DODONA A town in northern Greece that was
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon 4.127, 129–30] famous for its oracle of ZEUS. Unlike the DELPHIC ORA-
CLE, in which the god spoke through a single priestess,
DITHYRAMB A lyric hymn sung by a CHORUS in at Dodona, Zeus issued his oracles through an ancient
honor of DIONYSUS, who was sometimes called Dithyra- oak tree. When the wind blew through the leaves of
mbos. The dithyramb received musical accompaniment this oak, two priestesses called Peleiades interpreted
by the AULOS. Tradition says that Arion of CORINTH per- the rustling of the leaves. An oracle from Dodona plays
fected the form of the dithyramb around the year 600 a part in SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAE, in which we twice hear
B.C.E. and from Corinth the dithyramb made its way to of an oracle from Dodona about HERACLES’ ultimate
ATHENS (taken there by Lasus of Hermione), where it fate. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound
became a part of the competition at festivals honoring 658, 830–31; Aristophanes, Birds 716; Euripides,
DIONYSUS. In Poetics, ARISTOTLE claims that TRAGEDY itself Andromache 886; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 1473,
evolved from some aspect of dithyrambic poetry. How Medea 349; Sophocles, Trachinian Women 172,
this evolution took place—if it did—is unclear. The 1159–73]
earliest known victory in competition at Athens was BIBLIOGRAPHY
that in 509/508 of Hypodicus of Chalcis. Until the first Parke, H. W. Greek Oracles. London: Hutchinson, 1967.
quarter of the fifth century, the dithyramb had a corre- ———. The Oracles of Zeus: Dodona, Olympia, Ammon.
sponding STROPHE and ANTISTROPHE as in the choral Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1967.
odes of tragedy, but after this time the form began to
change. Soloists supplemented the chorus and the DOLON The son of Eumedes (or Eumelus),
musical component of the dithyramb began to take Dolon (whose name is derived from the Greek word
precedence over the words, which may have become for “trickery”) was a Trojan who fought against the
increasingly complex and lofty in their diction. In Greeks in the Trojan War. He appears in one extant
ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS, the dithyrambic poet CINESIAS is play, RHESUS, in which he volunteers to spy on the
rejected when he tries to gain entrance to the new city Greek camp in exchange for the horses of ACHILLES.
of the birds, and Aristophanes mocks the “airy” quality During Dolon’s mission, the Greeks capture him, and
of his poetry. Although dithyrambic poets continued to in exchange for his life, he gives the Greeks informa-
compete around the AEGEAN region well into the second tion about the Trojan camp. After he does, the Greeks
century B.C.E., the popularity of this poetic form had kill him anyway. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epit-
already started to decline two centuries earlier. [ANCIENT ome 4.4; Euripides, Rhesus; Homer, Iliad 10.299–464]
SOURCES: Archilochus, fragment 77; Aristophanes, Peace
829; Aristotle, Poetics 1447a14, 1447b26, 1449a11, DOLOPIANS The Dolopians were a tribe who
Politics 1342b7; Euripides, Bacchae 526; Herodotus, lived in northern Greece, who HOMER says were ruled
1.23.1; Pindar, Olympian 3.19; Plato, Laws 700b] by PHOENIX. SOPHOCLES wrote a Dolopians (Greek:
BIBLIOGRAPHY Dolopes), of which two brief fragments survive
Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. Dithyramb, Tragedy and Comedy. (174–75 Radt). Lloyd-Jones thinks that Sophocles’
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962. Dolopians may have been identical to his Phoenix,
which may have dealt with the blinding of Phoenix by
DIVINATION See PROPHET. his father, Amyntor; his subsequent healing by CHIRON;
178 DOMITIUS

and his establishment as king of the Dolopians by person against whom legal action was impending. One
PELEUS. The fragments assigned under the title Dolopi- Dracontides was present when the Athenians and the
ans, however, give us little hint of the play’s content. people of CHALCIS ratified a treaty, but the date of this
treaty is not certain (either 446/445 or 424/423); a sec-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ond Dracontides was a military commander in
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1996. 443/442; a third challenged PERICLES’ management of
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, public funds in the 430s; a fourth (from Bate) had a
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. daughter, Lysimache, who was a priestess of ATHENA
Polias; a fifth Dracontides (from Aphidna) was one of
DOMITIUS The father of the Roman emperor the Thirty Tyrants installed by SPARTA in 404/403 to
NERO. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia 249] rule Athens. Some of these Dracontides may have been
the same person, but which, if any, Aristophanes had
DORIANS A group of people who the ancient in mind is unknown. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
Greeks believed invaded Greece from the north between Wasps 157, 438; Inscriptiones Graecae i3 306.24, i3
1100 and 950 B.C.E. Legend says the Dorians invaded to 364.20; Plutarch, Pericles 32.3]
restore the children of HERACLES to power in southern BIBLIOGRAPHY
Greece. The Dorians settled in the southern part of MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
Greece in such places as ARGOS, CORINTH, and SPARTA, Press, 1971, 153.
and the term Dorian is sometimes synonymous with Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
Peloponnesian or Spartan. According to one mythical Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 166.
tradition, the Dorian people took their name from a cer-
tain Dorus, the son of XUTHUS (see ION) and CREUSA of DRACYLLUS A fictional name for one of the
ATHENS. Whereas the Athenians spoke a dialect of Greek chorus members in ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS (line
called Attic, the Dorians spoke in the Doric dialect. The 612). Some editors use instead the name Anthracyllus
name Dorian also has a connection with music and the (“little charcoal”), a name more fitting given the occu-
Dorian mode was “one of the most important of the pation of the Acharnians, who were known for their
melodic patterns . . . in which Greek music was com- production of charcoal.
posed” (Sommerstein). The Dorian mode, with its dig-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
nified and somber tones, was employed in various types
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
of music. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 183, Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 187.
486, 817; Aristophanes, Knights 989; Euripides, Electra
819, 836, Hecabe 450, 934, Ion 1590, Orestes 1372, Tro- DRAMATIC FOIL A character in drama who
jan Women 234; Herodotus, 1.56; Pausanias, 2.12–13; provides a sharp contrast to another character to high-
Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 696, 1301, Oedipus Tyran- light the latter’s views. In SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE, for
nos 775; Strabo, 8.1.2; Thucydides, 1.12.3] example, the unwillingness of ISMENE to oppose
BIBLIOGRAPHY CREON’s edict against the burial of POLYNEICES contrasts
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2, sharply with the attitude of her sister, ANTIGONE, who
Knights. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 196. favors burying Polyneices even if it means that she will
be executed.
DRACHMA A Greek coin worth six OBOLS.
DRAMATIC IRONY See IRONY.
DRACONTIDES The name of several Atheni-
ans active in public life between 450 and 400 B.C.E. In DREAMS In drama, dreams are always taken seri-
WASPS (422 B.C.E.), ARISTOPHANES mentions one as a ously and are often regarded as messages sent by the
 DYSCOLUS 179

gods or by the dead. Often dreams point to future by P. L. Rudnytsky and E. H. Spitz. New York and Lon-
events. In AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA), a don: New York University Press, 1994, 42–71.
troubling dream compels CLYTEMNESTRA to send liba- Valakas, K. “Dreams and Tragedy: The Problem of Predic-
tions to AGAMEMNON’s grave. Clytemnestra’s dream that tions in Euripides’ Iphigenia in Tauris,” Ariadne 6 (1993):
109–39.
she was suckling a snake that drew both blood and
milk from her breast was proved to refer to the return
of ORESTES and his killing of Clytemnestra. In EURIPIDES’
DRUSUS (CA. 13 B.C.E.–23 C.E.) Julius Drusus
was the son of the Roman emperor Tiberius and Vip-
HECABE, the ghost of POLYDORUS sends his mother,
sania. Drusus had a successful military career and
HECABE, a dream that leads her to the discovery of his
might have succeeded Tiberius as emperor but died of
unburied body and points to Polydorus’ murder by
poisoning, of which Drusus’ wife, Claudia LIVIA, and
POLYMESTOR. In some cases, the dreams are interpreted
her lover, Sejanus, were suspected. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
incorrectly. In Aeschylus’ PERSIANS, ATOSSA’s dream
Seneca, Octavia 887, 942]
about her son, XERXES, falling from his chariot is down-
played by the CHORUS, but it does come to pass. In
Euripides’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, IPHIGENIA incorrectly
DRYADS See NYMPHS.
interprets her dream as indicating that Orestes has died.
One of the most important remarks about dreams is in
DRYAS The father of the Thracian king LYCURGUS.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Sophocles, Antigone 955]
SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, when JOCASTA converses
with her husband, OEDIPUS, who has told her about an
oracle that warned him that he would marry his mother
DYSCOLUS (OLD CANTANKEROUS,
(he does not yet realize it is Jocasta). At lines 980–82,
THE BAD-TEMPERED MAN, OR THE
Jocasta tells Oedipus that he should not worry about
MISANTHROPE) MENANDER (316 B.C.E.)
This play won first prize at the LENAEA in ATHENS when
marrying his mother because many men, in their
Demogenes was ARCHON, and its principal actor was
dreams, have had sexual relations with their mother.
Aristodemus of Scarphe. The play’s action occurs in a
Jocasta’s remark later contributed to SIGMUND FREUD’s
village outside ATHENS called Phyle. On the audience’s
theory of the Oedipus complex. As dreams often have
left is the house of Knemon, a bad-tempered old
important functions in TRAGEDY, comic poets also make
farmer; on their right is the house of Gorgia, Knemon’s
use of them in their plays. ARISTOPHANES’ WASPS opens
stepson. Between the two houses stands a shrine dedi-
with two slaves discussing dreams that they had about
cated to PAN and the NYMPHS. A statue of APOLLO stands
CLEONYMUS and CLEON, respectively. In PLAUTUS’ MERCA-
near Knemon’s door.
TOR, Demipho’s dream about two she goats and a mon-
The PROLOGUE is delivered by Pan, who informs the
key parallels the events of the play. In Plautus’
audience about the bad-tempered Knemon, who mar-
AMPHITRUO, the confusion caused by the presence of
ried a widow and had a daughter by her. Because
twins leads some of the characters to think that they or
Knemon was so unpleasant, his wife eventually left him
others in the play are dreaming.
and went back to live with her son, Gorgias, Knemon’s
BIBLIOGRAPHY neighbor. Pan tells the audience that he has cast a spell
Devereux, G. Dreams in Greek Tragedy: An Ethno-Psycho-Ana- on Sostratus, a rich young man from the city, who has
lytical Study. Berkeley: University of California Press, fallen in love with Knemon’s daughter, Myrrhine.
1976.
After the prologue, Pan returns to his shrine. His
Lewis, N. The Interpretation of Dreams and Portents. Toronto:
Hakkert, 1976.
exit is followed by the entrance of Sostratus and the
Lieshout, R. G. A. van. Greeks on Dreams. Utrecht: HES, PARASITE Chaireas. Sostratus tells Chaireas that he is in
1980. love and has sent his huntsman, Pyrrhias, to ask
Nussbaum, M. C. “The ‘Oedipus Rex’ and the Ancient Knemon about his daughter. Soon Pyrrhias himself
Unconscious.” In Freud and Forbidden Knowledge. Edited enters, arriving from Knemon’s house, and reports that
180 DYSCOLUS

his encounter with Knemon was unsuccessful—the In the third act, Knemon emerges from his house,
old man drove him away from the farm with a barrage but because he hates crowds he goes back inside when
of clods, stones, and pears. Hearing this, Chaireas vol- he sees that Sostratus’ mother and her party are
unteers to go to talk to Knemon the next day. After approaching. Next, Getas enters from the shrine and
Chaireas exits, Sostratus accuses Pyrrhias of doing indicates that he needs to borrow a pot. When he
something to make Knemon mad, but Pyrrhias swears knocks on Knemon’s door, the old man gives him a
that he did nothing wrong. Pyrrhias then sees Knemon hostile reception. Sikon also tries the door, but
approach and exits. Knemon drives him away. Sostratus then enters
Sostratus is fearful as Knemon approaches and exhausted from the hard work. He is soon met by
moves away from him. Knemon enters and complains Getas, emerging from the shrine. When Sostratus hears
about people who go on his land and talk to him. Sos- of the sacrifice, he decides to invite Gorgias to the sac-
tratus hesitantly addresses Knemon, but when the old rificial feast. After Sostratus exits, Knemon’s aged
man maintains his surly attitude, Sostratus decides that maidservant, Simiche, enters after having dropped her
he should tell his servant, Getas, who is experienced in bucket and mattock into their well. An angry Knemon
such conversations, to talk to Knemon. As Sostratus threatens to throw Simiche down the well also. After
ponders these matters, Sostratus’ daughter enters from Knemon drives Simiche into the house, Getas sees Sos-
Knemon’s house and laments that a female servant has tratus, Gorgias, and Daos, who are approaching and
just dropped the bucket into the well while drawing preparing to attend the sacrificial feast.
water. Sostratus approaches her and offers to fill a jug The fourth act begins with the appearance of a fran-
of water for her in the shrine of the Nymphs. She tic Simiche, who calls for help, as Knemon has fallen
accepts his offer, and Sostratus soon returns with the down the well. After Gorgias hears of this, he calls Sos-
water from the shrine. This exchange is seen by Gor- tratus out of the shrine and the two men follow Simiche
gias’ servant, Daos, who worries about the young into Knemon’s house. Soon Sostratus leaves Knemon’s
woman’s safety and suggests that he should tell Gorgias house and reports the efforts to rescue Knemon from
about this. the well. Sostratus notes that as he was helping to pull
The second act opens with the entry of Daos and Knemon out of the well, he took the opportunity to lust
Gorgias, who scolds his servant because he has not after Knemon’s daughter, in anguish over her father’s
confronted Sostratus about his intentions. As they dis- predicament. The old man is rescued, but when he next
cuss the situation, Sostratus approaches, unsuccessful appears, he has to be helped from the house. Knemon’s
in his efforts to find Getas, and decides to knock on experience has caused him to regret his past behavior.
Knemon’s door. Before he does so, Gorgias suggests Knemon then adopts Gorgias as his son and asks Gor-
that Sostratus is trying to seduce an innocent girl. Sos- gias to find a husband for Myrrhine. Gorgias quickly
tratus declares that he has nothing but honest inten- arranges to have Sostratus marry her. The act concludes
tions toward her; when Gorgias hears this, he offers to with the arrival of Sostratus’ father, Callipides, who has
help Sostratus. Gorgias suggests that Sostratus help arrived for the sacrificial feast.
him with some farming so that Knemon will think Sos- In the fifth act, Sostratus pleads with his father to
tratus is an industrious country boy rather than a rich, arrange the marriage of Sostratus’ sister and Gorgias.
lazy fellow from the city. Sostratus agrees to do what- Callipides does not want his daughter to marry a poor
ever is necessary to be with her. farmer, but Sostratus eventually wins him over. Gor-
Next, Sikon, a cook who works for Sostratus’ gias, however, is also reluctant to marry someone who
mother, carries in a sheep for sacrifice to Pan. Sikon is above his social status, but Sostratus also persuades
encounters Getas and tells him that his mistress him to agree. After the arrangements for the marriages
dreamed that Pan was binding Sostratus and making are made, the men prepare for a party to celebrate the
him perform hard labor. Sikon says the sacrifice is upcoming marriages. In the next scene, Sikon learns
being performed to prevent this. from Getas that Knemon is asleep inside the house and
 DYSCOLUS 181

unable to get out of bed. Sikon proposes that Knemon demands that she open the door (454) when Sostratus’
be taken outside Sikon can torment Knemon with mother and her party enter the shrine. Knemon expe-
requests to borrow various items. Getas then takes a riences further annoyance when Sikon arrives from the
turn and vexes Knemon with requests for rugs and shrine and knocks on his door asking to borrow a pot.
curtains. After Sikon and Getas have a little more fun Once again, Knemon drives a visitor from his door and
pestering the old man, they pull him to his feet and try threatens violence for anyone else he finds near it
to make him dance. Finally, they carry Knemon into (482). Sikon will not give up, and, because he consid-
the house to join the others in celebrating. ers himself a master in the art of borrowing pots from
neighbors, he again knocks at Knemon’s door. The
COMMENTARY “master,” however, is again driven away from the door
MENANDER’S DYSCOLUS is a play that focuses on charac- by Knemon and reenters the shrine. When Sostratus
ter and social status. On one hand, we have the returns from his labor, he indicates that he will soon
grouchy lower-class Knemon, who desires to be alone. enter the shrine and join in the sacrificial feast.
On the other hand, we have affable upper-class Sostra- While people continue to be driven from Knemon’s
tus, who does not want to be alone but must prove he door and take welcome refuge inside the doors to the
is worthy of marrying Knemon’s daughter although he shrine, an additional and unlikely portal (Knemon’s
is higher in rank than Knemon socially. well) begins to become a point of focus near the end of
One of the primary themes of Dyscolus is loneliness; act 3. Earlier in the play, Sostratus and Knemon’s
intertwined with loneliness is the image of the door. daughter had a pleasant encounter there (191). The
Dyscolus makes use of three doors, one belonging to well becomes rather unpleasant, however, when
Knemon, the other belonging to the shrine of Pan and Simiche drops her bucket and mattock into it. Knemon
the nymphs, the third belonging to Knemon’s stepson; suggests that Simiche throw herself down the well;
the most used doors are those of Knemon and Pan’s Getas wants to lower her down on a rope. Finally,
shrine. Knemon, who wants to be left alone, hopes to Knemon decides to climb down the well on his own
keep people away from his door, whereas the shrine (598) but falls in (625). When Sikon hears, he refuses
constantly welcomes worshipers through its door. to go down into the well (634) and returns to the
Pyrrhias is the first to be driven from Knemon’s door shrine. Eventually, Gorgias rescues Knemon, thus let-
(97) and advises Sostratus to keep away from ting Sostratus have his second encounter with
Knemon’s door as well (87). After hearing Knemon’s Knemon’s daughter at the well.
yelling, Sostratus decides to move away from his door Knemon’s near-death experience in the well softens
(149), and after encountering the grouchy man, who the grouch, and in his next appearance, he asks Gor-
expresses annoyance at Sostratus’ proximity to his gias to ask his former wife to come to the house. He
door (167, 174), Sostratus thinks about having Getas realizes that he was wrong to keep Gorgias away from
intercede with Knemon on his behalf. The emergence his door (724) and decides to adopt him. This move
of Knemon’s beautiful daughter from the door (188) clears the way for the marriage of Sostratus and
makes Sostratus delay his exit. Knemon’s daughter. Knemon has not completely
After Sostratus returns from his unsuccessful search reformed, however. After Gorgias, his mother, and
for Getas, he decides to knock on Knemon’s door Knemon’s daughter exit the house and prepare to go
(267). Daos, however, prevents him from doing this into the shrine, Gorgias tells Sostratus that Knemon
and he and Gorgias give Sostratus advice on how to wanted Simiche to go out as well, so that Knemon
win over Knemon. After Sostratus is sent to labor for could be alone (869). When Simiche complies, she
Knemon, Sikon and Getas enter the shrine. The next declares that he can lie inside the house all alone
time Knemon appears, he emerges from his door and (874–75). Thus, while everyone else in the play has
orders his old maidservant to make sure no one enters gone into the shrine or is planning to go there,
through it (427). He reverses his command and Knemon remains in his house alone.
182 DYSCOLUS

Knemon’s loneliness is soon shattered by the emer- Goldberg, S. M. “The Style and Function of Menander’s
gence of Getas and Sikon from the shrine. They decide Dyskolos Prologue,” Symbolae Osloenses 53 (1978): 57–68.
to have some fun with the man and torment him by Keuls, E. “Mystery Elements in Menander’s Dyscolus,” Trans-
knocking on his door and asking to borrow various actions of the American Philological Association 100 (1969):
209–20.
things. To end his isolation and their torment, Knemon
Traill, A. E. “Knocking on Knemon’s Door: Stagecraft and
must respond to their knocks. When he does, the two
Symbolism in the Dyskolos,” Transactions of the American
jokers drag the grouch of his house, make him dance, Philological Association 131 (2001): 87–108.
and finally persuade him enter Pan’s shrine. Thus, at Zagagi, N. “Sostratos as a Comic, Over-Active and Impa-
the end of Dyscolus, Knemon’s loneliness and isolation tient Lover: On Menander’s Dramatic Art in his Play
end when he can no longer drive people from his door Dyskolos,” Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 36
and agrees to enter the divine door that he had scorned (1979): 39–48.
for so long.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, M. “Knemon’s Hamartia,” Greece and Rome 17
(1970): 199–217.
 C ED
EARTH This goddess was called Gaia or Ge by the monster Typhoeus, whom she sent to attack Zeus.
Greeks and Tellus or Terra by the Romans. According When Zeus destroyed Typhoeus, Earth then sent the
to Hesiod’s Theogony, Earth was one of the first divini- Giants to attack Zeus and his fellow divinities. The
ties in existence. In addition to being the goddess of Giants were destroyed with the aid of HERACLES.
the earth, she was associated with oracles, and the [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.1.1–5, 1.2.1,
famous ORACLE at DELPHI was under her control before 1.2.6, 1.3.6, 1.5.2, 1.6.1–3, 2.1.2, 2.5.11, 3.8.1; Hes-
Apollo’s arrival. iod, Theogony 116–87, 233–39, 459–97, 820–22,
Earth produced Sea, Mountains, and Sky (URANUS) 881–85; Hyginus, Fables 203; Pausanias, 1.2.6, 1.14.3,
without mating with anyone. With the Sea, Earth pro- 5.14.10, 7.25.13, 8.25.8–10, 10.5.6, 10.6.6]
duced Ceto, Eurybia, NEREUS, Phorcys, and Thaumas.
With her son, Uranus, Earth produced numerous off- ECBATANA A city (modern Hamadan, Iran) that
spring, including the CYCLOPES, the Hecatoncheires, served as the capital of Media (part of the Persian
and the Titans (among whom were CRONUS and RHEA). empire). Ecbatana’s location at a high elevation made it
When Uranus put his children by Earth back into her a good refuge for the Persian kings seeking to escape
womb, Earth made a sickle, with which one of her the summer heat of SUSA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus,
children, Cronus, castrated Uranus. Blood from Persians 16, 535, 961; Aristophanes, Acharnians 64,
Uranus’ wound fell onto Earth, who produced the Wasps 1143]
FURIES, GIANTS, and some NYMPHS who inhabited ash
trees. Earth is also called the mother of the giants ECCLESIAZUSAE (WOMEN IN ASSEM-
ANTAEUS and TITYUS, TRIPTOLEMUS, and the Athenian BLY) ARISTOPHANES (392/391 B.C.E.) The
king ERICHTHONIUS (after HEPHAESTUS’ semen had con- date of the play is not precise and is based on refer-
tact with her). ences to contemporary political and military events in
After the castration of Uranus, Earth’s activities seem it, especially the reference at lines 823–29 to a tax that
somewhat contradictory. Both she and Uranus warned had recently been proposed by HEURIPPIDES and that
Cronus that he would be overthrown by one of his own had failed. Unlike for many of ARISTOPHANES’ other
sons. Earth, however, helped her daughter, Rhea, act plays, we do not know how Ecclesiazusae ranked in
against her son, Cronus, by hiding ZEUS (the son who competition or at which festival it was staged. The
would overthrow Cronus) from his father. After Zeus play’s action occurs before two houses, one to Blepyros
overthrew Cronus, Earth then turned against Zeus and and Praxagora, the other to an unnamed neighbor and
with the aid of Tartarus (see UNDERWORLD) produced the his wife, who is also unnamed.
183
184 ECCLESIAZUSAE

The play’s action begins before dawn as PRAXAGORA After Chremes’ exit, the chorus of women return
(“effective in the assembly”), carrying a lamp, emerges from the assembly. They watch carefully for men,
from her house to deliver the prologue. She relates that because they worry that their disguises will be discov-
she and the women of Athens had convened at a recent ered. As the chorus remove their manly disguises, they
festival, the SCIROPHORIA, and planned to go to the see Praxagora, who is returning from the assembly.
assembly disguised as men. Soon, other women enter, After Praxagora removes her disguise, her husband,
with their husband’s cloaks, walking sticks, men’s Blepyrus, emerges from the house. When Blepyrus
shoes, and false beards. After the women arrive, they questions Praxagora about why she left the house and
put on the clothing and practice talking and behaving took his clothing, she claims she had to hurry out to
as men. When one woman demands to know the help a friend who was giving birth. Praxagora then lis-
details of the plot, Praxagora explains that the men’s tens as Blepyrus informs her that the assembly has
rule of the city has become so poor that the women handed over the government to the women. Praxagora
should take charge. After all, she argues (as did LYSIS- expresses her pleasure and describes some of the ben-
TRATA in the play that bears her name), women manage efits that the city will receive with women in charge.
their household efficiently, so they should be able to Praxagora goes on to propose that the people should
run the city as well. Because women produce children, share everything. All goods and property will be
they will be sensitive to sending their sons off to war. deposited in the public treasury and then be redistrib-
After some further discussion about what action they uted equally. Even marriage and sexual favors will be
will take if certain speakers object to Praxagora’s regulated. People will be required to have sexual rela-
remarks, the women exit for the assembly. In theory, tions with unattractive people before they can have
under the new government, all citizens will share relations with attractive people. Children will not
everything. know who their parents are, and the entire community
After the women’s exit, the chorus, composed of will take care of the children; the children, once they
women pretending to be men, approach the assembly. have grown up, will take care of any parent who hap-
Half the women represent the people of the city, the pens to be in need once the parents have become eld-
other half people from the countryside. They complain erly. People will always have plenty of food and
that in “the good old days” citizens attended the assem- clothing; dining will occur at communal banquets;
bly because it was their civic duty, but now they attend lawsuits, debt, and theft will end. One of the only insti-
merely because they are paid. After the chorus’ song, tutions that will not change is slavery. After Praxagora
the women exit the orchestra as if going to the assem- outlines her proposal, she exits for the AGORA so that
bly. Next, Praxagora’s husband, Blepyrus, enters she can began to arrange for people to take their prop-
dressed in his wife’s clothing. He has left his house to erty the public treasury and prepare for the first com-
“use the bathroom.” Blepyrus is soon met by one of his munal banquet. Praxagora also announces that she is
fellow citizens, to whom he explains (while defecating) going to make sure that prostitutes do not prevent free
that his wife left with his clothing. Both men were women from having the first opportunity to sleep with
planning to go to the assembly, but soon they men.
encounter another citizen, Chremes, who is returning After Praxagora’s exit, Blepyrus and Chremes depart
from the assembly. Chremes informs them that the to take their property to the public treasury. Some time
assembly was packed with many pale-skinned men later, Chremes reappears with his property. He is met
(the disguised women). Chremes relates that one by a citizen who refuses to contribute his goods. The
speaker (the disguised Praxagora) proposed that two men argue at length about whether the new sys-
women are better suited to run the government and tem of government will work. By the end of their argu-
that the assembly approved this proposal. Chremes ment, the unnamed citizen has not changed his mind.
also reveals that the men will now perform the duties Their argument is broken off by the arrival of a herald,
women usually perform. who announces that the communal banquet is ready
 ECCLESIAZUSAE 185

and invites everyone to attend. When the reluctant cit- The Athenians had lost the PELOPONNESIAN WAR to the
izen hears this, he, not wanting to be excluded from Spartans in 404 and the Spartans had made the Athe-
the banquet, indicates a change of heart. After nians dismantle their fortifications and their powerful
Chremes exits for the banquet, however, the citizen fleet. Many Athenians had died during the oppressive
announces that he wants to find a way to keep his regime of the Thirty Tyrants whom SPARTA had installed
property and still attend the banquet. after the war. These tyrants were overthrown within a
In the next EPISODE, an ugly old woman and a pretty year and democracy was restored, but Athens contin-
young woman enter. Both women are seeking to attract ued to have problems with Sparta, and when Ecclesi-
a lover. The two women then sing songs in rivalry to azusae was staged the Athenians were still involved in
achieve their aim. When a young man approaches, the military hostilities with the Spartans.
two women withdraw to watch him. When the young Thus, as did both the Athenians themselves and
man expresses his interest in finding a beautiful lover, Lysistrata of 411, the Athenians and Ecclesiazusae of
the young woman appears and sings a song to attract 392/391 lacked their former vigor and exuberance.
him. The young man sings a song that calls for the Praxagora, though an admirable figure, does not seem
young woman to come to him. Before the young to have quite the same spark as Lysistrata. The attacks
woman can, the old woman appears and declares that on and caricatures of contemporary political figures,
Praxagora’s new laws state that the young man must which were so common in Aristophanes’ early plays,
have sexual relations with her before he can go to the have disappeared to a great extent and the role of the
young woman. The young man is horrified at this chorus has been diminished. These and other factors
prospect, but the tough old woman begins to drag him have led some scholars to describe Ecclesiazusae as a
off to her house. When the young woman tries to inter- transitional play between the Old COMEDY of such plays
vene, an even uglier old woman enters and tries to as ACHARNIANS and KNIGHTS and the New Comedy of
drag the young man away. Then, a third old woman, MENANDER, which would emerge in the last quarter of
the ugliest of all, appears and also tries to carry off the the fourth century B.C.E. Thus, along with WEALTH,
young man. Eventually, the three old women drag the Ecclesiazusae is often cited as an example of Middle
young man away. Comedy.
As the young woman laments the loss of her young Although Ecclesiazusae has often been classified as a
lover, Blepyrus and his children, on their way to the transitional play, it still manifests many of the same ele-
communal banquet, approach. The young woman tells ments found in Aristophanes’ earlier plays, such as the
Blepyrus that her mistress told her to accompany him unlikely hero (or heroine), the fantastic plan to deal
to the banquet. After Blepyrus, the young woman, and with a pressing social issue or crisis, and the imple-
the children prepare to move off for the banquet, the mentation of and challenges to that fantastic plan.
chorus sing a song asking the judges of the comic con- Also, as in many Aristophanic plays, the action ends
test for victory. They conclude their song by asking with the enjoyment of food, drink, and sex of those
Blepyrus to perform a dance. As Blepyrus dances, the who embrace the hero or heroine’s reforms.
chorus sing of all the good food that will be served at Given the prominence of women in the play, Eccle-
the banquet. The play ends with the chorus’ urging siazusae is most comparable to such plays as Thes-
Blepyrus to hurry off to the banquet and hoping for mophoriazusae and Lysistrata. EURIPIDES, however, and
victory in the comic competition. not the women, is the focal point of Thesmophori-
azusae. The governmental change that occurs in Lysis-
COMMENTARY trata is most comparable to that in Ecclesiazusae. In
As did LYSISTRATA, produced almost 20 years earlier, contrast, in Ecclesiazusae the motivation for the over-
Ecclesiazusae deals with women taking over the gov- throw of the government differs from that in Lysistrata.
ernment of Athens. Since Lysistrata, however, Aristo- In Lysistrata, the women take over the government to
phanes’ Athens had undergone tremendous turmoil. create peace in all of Greece. In Ecclesiazusae, the
186 ECCYCLEMA

women persuade the men to hand over the govern- cate that they are willing to agree, provided that
ment to them because men cannot manage the city’s Praxagora’s proposed reforms turn out successfully.
affairs properly. The effects of Praxagora’s revolution At least one man appears on the scene to argue
will be local, not national. In addition, because the against Praxagora’s plan and points out that it was not
men in Ecclesiazusae offer little opposition to long ago that HEURIPPIDES had had a plan to save the
Praxagora’s revolution, we do not find the battles of the city (824). This dissenting voice, however, is reminded
sexes that occur throughout the Lysistrata. Finally, that men were in charge of the city then, but that the
unlike in Lysistrata, Praxagora’s reforms in Ecclesiazusae women will “now” manage the city’s affairs (830–31).
cause revolutionary changes in the laws (nomoi) of the Now that the women are in charge, everyone’s basic
city. needs will be met. The remainder of the play, while
In Lysistrata, the major crisis revolves around the gratifying the audience with scenes of amusing sexual
effects of war on the whole of Greece. In Ecclesiazusae, humor, most often focuses on the banquet of which all
there is much greater concern with the basic needs of cooperative citizens will partake. The warring factions
life (food, shelter, and clothing) in a single city. The alluded to in the first part of the play, such as the rich
word root deipn-, which appears in Greek words mean- and the farmers (198), will now be found side by side
ing “dine” and “dinner,” occurs 24 times in Ecclesi- at the communal banquet that Praxagora’s reforms
azusae. This same word root occurs no more than nine have provided for the city.
times in any other Aristophanic play. Unlike in Aristo- Thus, although Ecclesiazusae itself may lack the
phanes’ BIRDS, in which the hero abandons Athens and spark of Lysistrata and other plays, the communistic
builds a fantastic new city in the clouds, which will type of government proposed in the play probably pre-
exclude the elements that make Athens unbearable, in dated a similar form of government described in the
Ecclesiazusae the heroine has a fantastic plan to reshape fifth book of Plato’s Republic. Thus, “it may well be
Athens and allow all its elements to coexist. claimed that Ecclesiazusae has been in the long run the
Whereas Lysistrata’s goal was to save Greece (41, most intellectually influential of all ancient comedies”
525), Praxagora aims to save the city (Greek: polis). (Sommerstein).
Praxagora proposes that the women take over the city’s
affairs so that they can do the city some good (107–8). BIBLIOGRAPHY
Praxagora is troubled by everything that is going on in Foley, H. P. “The Female Intruder Reconsidered: Women in
Aristophanes, Lysistrata and Ecclesiazusae,” Classical Philol-
the city (175) and feels that women should run affairs
ogy 77 (1982): 1–21.
because they already manage households efficiently
Rothwell, K. S. Politics and Persuasion in Aristophanes’ Ecclesi-
(210–12). When the assembly begins, the topic of how
azusae. Leiden: Brill, 1990.
to save the city and its citizens is immediately taken up Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
(396–97, 414). After a proposal to provide clothing Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
and bedding to the poor is made, the disguised 144.
Praxagora makes her proposal about handing over the Taaffe, L. K. “The Illusion of Gender Disguise in Aristo-
city to the women (430), and this proposal wins the phanes’ Ecclesiazusae,” Helios 18 (1991): 91–112.
day because it is the only solution that has never been Ussher, R. G. Aristophanes: Ecclesiazusae. Oxford: Clarendon
tried (455–56). Press, 1973.
The men worry that conditions will change for them
once the women are in charge, but Chremylus suggests ECCYCLEMA (EKKUKLEMA) Also called
that the men should cooperate with the women’s plans, the exostra, the eccyclema, as its name (“that which is
as they will be of advantage to the city (471–72). Once wheeled out”) indicates, was a wooden platform on
Praxagora informs the men of her plans of how to rule some sort of rollers used in the Greek theater. This plat-
the city, much of which involves the fulfillment of needs form, probably made of wood and perhaps no more
for clothing and basic finances (565–66), the men indi- than two square meters in size, allowed something
 EGYPT 187

and/or someone behind the SKENE to be moved into the BIBLIOGRAPHY

view of the spectators (cf. Pollux 4.128). For example, Mette, H. J. Die Fragmente der Tragödien des Aischylos. Berlin:
because the death of a person typically occurred out of Akademie-Verlag, 1959.
the spectators’ sight on the ancient stage, the corpse
could be taken out by using the eccyclema. Whether ECHO Echo was a talkative NYMPH who had a sex-
AESCHYLUS made use of the eccyclema is debated; its use ual affair with ZEUS. HERA cursed Echo by allowing her
is clear in ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS (425 B.C.E.). When only to repeat speech she heard. Echo fell in love with
DICAEOPOLIS goes to the house of the playwright EURIPI- NARCISSUS, who rejected her advances. So lovesick was
DES, he calls for the poet to wheel himself out (line Echo that her body wasted away to the point that only
408), to which Euripides responds, “I’ll wheel myself her voice remained. Echo’s voice is heard in ARISTO-
out” (ekkuklesomai). Another explicit reference to its use PHANES’ THESMOPHORIAZUSAE, in which she echoes the

occurs in Aristophanes’ THESMOPHORIAZUSAE (411 B.C.E.). words of the captive Mnesilochus and his guardian, a
At line 96, in response to Mnesilochus’ question “What Scythian archer. Echo’s presence in Thesmophoriazusae
sort of man is he [Agathon]?” Euripides says, “That’s parodies her appearance in EURIPIDES’ ANDROMEDA, in
him; the one being wheeled out” (ekkukloumenos). which she would have echoed the title character. The
comic poet Eubulus wrote an Echo of which a single
BIBLIOGRAPHY fragment (regarding the approach of a beautiful bride)
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
survives (fragment 35 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 270–72.
phanes, Thesmophoriazusae 1056–96; Ovid, Metamor-
Dale, A. M. “Seen and Unseen on the Greek Stage.” In Col-
lected Papers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
phoses 3.339–510]
1969, 119–29. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Walton, J. M. Living Greek Theatre. New York: Greenwood Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Press, 1987, 22. Teubner, 1884.

ECHINUS A town on the coast of northeastern EDONIANS The Edonians were a Thracian tribe
Greece on the shore opposite the northwestern end of who lived near the river Strymon. AESCHYLUS wrote an
EUBOEA. The Spartans controlled Echinus when Edonians (fragments 57–67 Radt) that may have dealt
ARISTOPHANES’ LYSISTRATA was produced in 411 B.C.E. with LYCURGUS’ rejection of DIONYSUS and the subse-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 1169] quent destruction of Lycurgus by Dionysus.

ECHION When CADMUS planted dragon’s teeth BIBLIOGRAPHY

Griffith, J. “The Myth of Lycurgus, King of the Edonian
near the future site of the town of THEBES, a crop of
Thracians, in Literature and Art.” In Ancient Bulgaria. Vol.
armed men sprang up from the ground. Cadmus threw
I. Papers presented to the International Symposium on
a stone at these men, and they began to fight one the Ancient History and Archaeology of Bulgaria, Univer-
another. Five survived the battle: Chthonius, Hyper- sity of Nottingham, 1981. Edited by A. G. Poulter. Not-
enor, Pelorus, Udaeus, and Echion. Echion helped tingham, U.K.: University of Nottingham Press, 1983,
Cadmus establish his town and because of Echion’s 217–32.
valor, Cadmus rewarded him with marriage to his
daughter AGAVE, by whom Echion became the father of EGYPT From the perspective of the ancient
PENTHEUS. Echion does not appear as a character in any Greeks and Romans, Egypt consisted of the northeast-
surviving ancient dramas, although his name is fre- ern half of what is modern Egypt. According to legend,
quently mentioned in EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE. [ANCIENT the wanderings of IO began in Greece and ended in
SOURCES: Aeschylus, fragment 731a Mette; Apol- northern Egypt, and one of her son EPAPHUS’ descen-
lodorus, Library 3.4.1–2; Ovid, Metamorphoses dants AEGYPTUS, gave his name to the country. Aegyp-
3.1–137; Pausanias, 9.5.3–4] tus’ 50 sons later pursued the daughters of their uncle,
188 EILEITHYIA

DANAUS, to Greece. Thus, the Egyptian descendants of AEGISTHUS began to unfold, the lives of Electra and
the Greek Io eventually returned to Greece, and Orestes were at risk. Some sources say that Electra,
Danaus’ descendants became a dominant presence in who was several years older than Orestes, helped the
Greece. young Orestes avoid being killed by Aegisthus and
EURIPIDES’ HELEN is set in Egypt, and several Greek Clytemnestra by smuggling Orestes out of ARGOS and
playwrights (including Euripides) wrote plays about sending him to stay with his uncle, Strophius of Pho-
BUSIRIS, a mythical Egyptian king. Several Greek cis. With Orestes away from home, Electra seems to
dramatists wrote plays entitled Egyptians (Aiguptoi). have felt the brunt of her evil stepfather Aegisthus’
The Greek tragedian PHRYNICHUS wrote an Egyptians abuse. To prevent Electra from producing offspring
(fragment 1 Snell) that may have been about the same who might one day rise up against Aegisthus, either
subject as AESCHYLUS’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN. Aeschylus she is not allowed to marry or, as EURIPIDES’ ELECTRA
wrote an Egyptians, of which only a single word presents it, she is married to a local peasant so that she
(Zagreus; another name for HADES) is extant (fragment will not produce a son of noble blood (in this play
5 Radt). The Greek comic poet Antiphanes wrote an Euripides considers the issue of whether nobility is a
Egyptians, only a single word of which survives (frag- result of nature or social status). In addition to the dif-
ment 17 Kock 2). A single four-line fragment—dealing ficulties connected with her marital status or lack
with the futility of worshiping Egyptian gods—sur- thereof, Electra grows to hate her mother. In Euripides’
vives of Timocles’ Egyptians (fragment 1 Kock 2). The Electra and SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA especially, this hatred
comic poet Callias wrote an Egyptian, of which only the becomes apparent as she argues with her mother about
title is extant (fragment 1 Kock 1). why Clytemnestra killed Agamemnon.
Given her hatred of Clytemnestra, Electra supports
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Orestes in his efforts to kill Aegisthus and Clytemnes-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1884. tra. How much Electra helps him in the effort to kill
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, them depends on the source. In AESCHYLUS’ LIBATION
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. BEARERS (see ORESTEIA) and Sophocles’ Electra, Electra
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, offers verbal support to Orestes. In Libation Bearers, she
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. is inside the house when the killings take place, but
she does not speak any lines in the second half of the
EILEITHYIA The daughter of ZEUS and HERA, play. In Sophocles’ play, Electra informs her sister,
Eileithyia is goddess of childbirth. Her name is related Chrysothemis, of her plan to kill Aegisthus, but this
to the Greek noun eleuthia (the coming): This goddess plan never comes to pass, and when Orestes kills
visits women who are in labor. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Clytemnestra, Electra remains outside the house. As
Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 369, Lysistrata 742; for Aegisthus’ death, Sophoclean Electra urges Orestes
Seneca, Agamemnon 385, Medea 2, 61] to kill him, but the text gives no indication that she
will actually take a physical part in the killing. In
BIBLIOGRAPHY Euripides’ Electra, the title character is not present
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon when Orestes kills Aegisthus. Euripidean Electra plays
Press, 1987, 166.
an active role, however, in her mother’s death, as she
lures Clytemnestra to her (Electra’s) home under the
EISODOS See PARODOS (2). pretext that Clytemnestra is to participate in a birth
ritual and thus brings her to Orestes, who is waiting
ELECTRA One of the daughters of AGAMEMNON inside. Electra also follows her mother into the house,
and CLYTEMNESTRA, Electra was the sister of ORESTES, so the audience is well aware of her presence when
IPHIGENIA, and Chrysothemis. After Iphigenia was sac- Clytemnestra dies. Furthermore, Euripides’ Electra
rificed at AULIS and Clytemnestra’s affair with states that once inside she urged Orestes to kill
 ELECTRA 189

Clytemnestra and notes that her hand was beside Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA); Euripides, Electra;
Orestes’ when he did so (1224–26). In Euripides’ Hyginus, Fables 109, 122, 240; Pausanias, 2.16.7;
Orestes, Electra also says she held the sword that killed Sophocles, Electra]
Clytemnestra (1235).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Electra’s actions after the deaths of Aegisthus and
Halporn, J. W. “The Skeptical Electra,” Harvard Studies in
Clytemnestra also differ in the sources, and, in Euripi- Classical Philology 87 (1983): 101–18.
des’ case, her actions differ from one play to the next.
At the end of Euripides’ Electra, the Dioscuri (CASTOR
AND POLLUX) dissolve her marriage to the peasant and
ELECTRA EURIPIDES (CA. 415 B.C.E.) The
play’s date has been deduced from statistical analyses
arrange for her to marry Orestes’ comrade, PYLADES.
of EURIPIDES’ metrical patterns and a possible allusion
They also inform her that she will go to Pylades’ home
to the SICILIAN EXPEDITION at lines 1347–48. The play
in Phocis. In Euripides’ Orestes, the action of which
deals with the same event as AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bear-
takes place seven days after the deaths of Aegisthus
and Clytemnestra, Electra is still engaged to marry ers (see ORESTEIA), the killing of AEGISTHUS and
Pylades, but she remains in Argos to care for Orestes, CLYTEMNESTRA. Euripides, however, differs in his treat-
as his torment by the Furies has exhausted him and the ment of the story in numerous places. The play’s set-
people of Argos have prevented them from leaving the ting remains ARGOS, as in Aeschylus’ Libation Bearers,
town and are working to bring about his death. Even- but instead of the grave of AGAMEMNON and his palace,
tually, the people of Argos sentence both Orestes and the area outside the hut of an unnamed peasant and his
Electra to take their own life, but they (along with wife, who happens to be Electra, is the site of the
Pylades) decide to try to kill HELEN. Electra’s role in action. Euripides’ introduction of the peasant adds a
that plot will be to help take Helen’s daughter different dimension to the story. Unlike Aeschylus’ dis-
HERMIONE as a hostage, an action in which Electra suc- tressed but regal Electra, a princess in rags, who lives
cessfully and ruthlessly participates. When APOLLO and in the hut of a peasant with whom her marriage has
the gods thwart the effort to kill Helen, Apollo reestab- been arranged to prevent her begetting a noble son, is
lishes the planned union between Electra and Pylades presented by Euripides to the audience. Furthermore,
and states that a fortunate life awaits him (1658–59). as the peasant reveals in the monologue that opens the
Euripides, however, in his Orestes, postpones the play, he has not had sexual relations with Electra
wedded bliss of Electra and Pylades, which Apollo pre- because of respect for her nobility and in consideration
dicts. In Euripides’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, Pylades travels of his own impoverished condition.
with Orestes to Tauris to retrieve a statue of Artemis. In contrast to Aeschylus’ Electra, who takes libations
With Orestes gone, Aegisthus’ son ALETES had taken to her father’s grave, the Euripidean Electra begins the
over the kingdom. When Electra went to DELPHI to play prepared to perform the menial task of collecting
consult the ORACLE, she encountered Iphigenia, who the daily water. After Electra sets out for the spring,
had returned from Tauris with Orestes and Pylades. At ORESTES and PYLADES appear. Orestes’ first glimpse of
Delphi, someone mistakenly told Electra that Iphigenia his sister, Electra, whom he mistakes for a maidser-
had killed Orestes. Electra, grabbing a firebrand from vant, occurs as she is returning from the spring.
Apollo’s altar, tried to strike Iphigenia, whom she did Orestes and Pylades move into a hiding place to watch
not realize was her long-lost sister. Fortunately, Orestes Electra, who laments the nature of her life. Soon Elec-
arrived in time to prevent her. Iphigenia went on to tra is joined by a chorus of women who live in the
serve as a priestess of ARTEMIS at Brauron, and Electra Argive countryside, in contrast with Aeschylus’ chorus
returned to Argos with Orestes. Once back in Argos, of women from the royal palace. The Argive women
Orestes killed Aletes, and Pylades and Electra, who invite Electra to Hera’s temple with the other maidens
had two sons, Medon and STROPHIUS, appear to have to attend a sacrifice, but Electra claims she is too piti-
lived happily ever after. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, ful and has nothing to wear.
190 ELECTRA

Electra’s conversation with the chorus is cut off to question the two strangers about Orestes. When
when she sees Orestes and Pylades. Orestes recognizes Orestes and Pylades emerge from the hut, the old man
Electra as his sister but does not reveal his identity to quickly recognizes Orestes by a scar on his brow.
her. He does tell her, however, that he knows Orestes After expressions of joy by Electra and the chorus,
is alive. Electra tells Orestes of her wretched life and Orestes and Electra immediately begin planning their
asks that he inform Orestes of it. Soon Electra’s hus- revenge. The old man gives Orestes advice on how and
band returns from his work, and the courteous peasant where to approach Aegisthus, while Electra informs
invites the men into his home for a meal. Electra criti- Orestes and the old man about how she will trick
cizes her husband for inviting noblemen into their hut Clytemnestra into entering her hut.
when they have little to offer. She then sends him off to In contrast to Aeschylus’ Libation Bearers (see
find an old servant of her father’s so that he can pro- ORESTEIA), in which Aegisthus’ death barely receives
vide food suitable for Orestes and Pylades. mention, Euripides’ drama has a detailed description
After the peasant departs, the chorus sing an ode of his death. Euripides places Aegisthus not in his
about ACHILLES and his wondrous armor. One of the palace, as Aeschylus does, but in the countryside
figures described on the shield is Perseus’ triumph over preparing to make a sacrifice to the nymphs. In Liba-
the Gorgon Medusa, a reference that foreshadows the tion Bearers, Orestes altered his speech and claimed to
similarity between Orestes’ killing of his mother and have news of Orestes’ death to gain access to the
Perseus’ killing of Medusa. The chorus note that HEC- palace. Euripides also makes Orestes deceptive. In
TOR saw Achilles’ shield before he died, and the corse- Electra, a messenger reports that Orestes saw Aegisthus
let’s depiction of BELLEROPHON and Pegasus triumphing while he was making sacrifice. Aegisthus invited
over the CHIMAERA. The chorus end their ode with their Orestes and Pylades to join in the sacrifice. Orestes
hope eventually to witness the death of HELEN, whose told Aegisthus that he and Pylades were Thessalians,
adultery caused the deaths of many noble warriors. on their way to the river Alphaeus to sacrifice to Zeus
After the choral ode, Agamemnon’s aged tutor enters of Olympia. When slaughtering the sacrificial victim
with food and drink for the guests. In front of the hut, posed difficulty for Aegisthus’ man, Orestes stepped
Electra meets him and the old man tells her that on his forward and killed the beast quickly and expertly.
way he passed by Agamemnon’s grave, where he saw a Upon inspecting the victim’s entrails, Aegisthus was
sacrificed sheep and a lock of hair. The discussion disturbed by irregularities in the animal’s internal
between the old man and Electra that follows pokes organs, which he interpreted as an omen of Orestes’
fun at the tokens of recognition used by Aeschylus in presence. At this point, Orestes struck Aegisthus dead.
Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA). In Aeschylus’ play, Elec- After hearing the messenger’s report of Aegisthus’
tra had compared the lock of hair to her own. When death, Electra and the chorus hail Orestes as if he were
Euripides’ old man suggests that Electra make such a a victor in an athletic competition.
comparison, Electra dismisses that idea as foolish. Clytemnestra’s death, which occurs next, is also
When the old man suggests that Electra compare the treated differently in Electra and in Libation Bearers.
footprints on the grave with her own (another com- Euripides makes Electra much more involved in her
parison made by Aeschylus’ Electra), Euripides’ Electra mother’s death. Whereas Aeschylus had made Orestes
again rejects the idea as foolish—men have bigger feet the primary deceiver, Euripides gives Electra the spot-
than women. Finally, the old man suggests that if Elec- light in his play, as she lures Clytemnestra to her hut
tra were to be face to face with Orestes, she might be with a false story about having her mother offer sacri-
able to recognize him by clothing he wore when he fice for Electra’s fictitious newborn child.
was a little boy—the means by which Electra finally When Clytemnestra arrives at the hut, she and Elec-
does recognize him in Libation Bearers. Electra again tra argue about Clytemnestra’s killing of Agamemnon.
dismisses this notion: A person’s body grows, but one’s Clytemnestra tries to justify her actions, but Electra
clothes do not. At this point, the old man says he wants pleads her father’s case. Eventually, Clytemnestra
 ELECTRA 191

enters the hut, where Orestes is waiting. After and sister must be parted after so brief a reunion. As a
Clytemnestra enters, the chorus listen as Clytemnes- tearful Electra and Orestes depart, Castor and Poly-
tra’s cries from within the hut are soon heard. Some deuces state that they will leave to assist ships sailing
members of the chorus express pity for the woman for SICILY.
killed by her children; other members suggest that
Clytemnestra got what she deserved for killing her COMMENTARY
husband. Next, Electra and Orestes emerge from the As evidenced by the preceding paragraphs, Euripides’
house. Orestes is horrified that he has killed both Electra provides us with an opportunity to compare
Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. Both Orestes and Electra how a later playwright dealt with the material of an
wonder how they will be received by society now that earlier playwright (here, Aeschylus). Scholars have also
they have killed their mother. The chorus express been challenged to determine whether SOPHOCLES’
some criticism of Electra for forcing Orestes to kill Electra was influenced by Euripides’ play or vice versa.
Clytemnestra and wonder how she could have This question has not been settled, however, because
endured watching her mother die. Electra notes that neither play can be dated securely and the dramas are
she held Orestes’ hand while he stabbed his mother thought to have been staged within a decade of each
with the sword. other.
As does the rest of the play, Euripides’ conclusion dif- Another noteworthy aspect of Euripides’ Electra is
fers significantly from Aeschylus’, in which Orestes its concern with the violation of ritual or civic institu-
hastily departs as soon as he perceives that the FURIES are tions. As in several other plays, Euripides likes to
beginning to torment him. Euripides ends his play with involve his leading characters in rituals or institutions
an epiphany by CASTOR AND POLLUX, the now-divine that have been disrupted or perverted. The death of
brothers of Helen and Clytemnestra. Castor and Poly- Aegisthus occurs while he is making a sacrifice to some
deuces criticize Apollo’s command to kill Clytemnestra NYMPHS and Orestes slaughters Aegisthus with a blade
as unwise. They also dissolve the marriage of Electra and that was meant for the sacrificial victim.
the peasant and arrange the union of Electra and In addition to the killing of Aegisthus during a sac-
Pylades. They announce Orestes’ torment by the Furies, rificial ritual, Euripides has Electra involved in a mar-
his eventual journey to ATHENS to seek ATHENA’s protec- riage that runs contrary to custom and ritual. The
tion, his ultimate acquittal after a trial in the AREOPAGUS, marriage was arranged by the man who murdered her
and the incorporation of the Furies into Athenian wor- father with the aim of making sure that Electra did not
ship. Unlike Aeschylus, however, Euripides has Castor produce a noble son who could grow up to avenge his
and Pollux announce that Orestes will settle in the grandfather’s death. Electra’s marriage is made even
region of Arcadia and have a city named after him. The more strange because her husband has not had sexual
divine twins also state that Aegisthus will be buried in relations with her. Not only will Electra not have
Argos, and Helen and Menelaus will bury Clytemnestra. noble children, she will apparently not have any chil-
They then tell Pylades to take Electra and the peasant dren with her peasant husband. Unlike in modern
with him to PHOCIS, and for Pylades to reward the peas- U.S. culture, in which it is not uncommon for hus-
ant handsomely. band and wife to choose not to have children, in a
Although the appearance of divinity and their pro- Greek household this choice would have been virtu-
nouncements usually lead to a quick conclusion to a ally unthinkable. Thus, Electra’s marital status is
Euripidean drama, in Electra, the chorus ask Castor ambiguous at best: She is a wife, yet not a wife. When
and Polydeuces why they, as Clytemnestra’s brothers, the chorus of Argive women enter, they invite Electra
did not save Clytemnestra. They answer that Apollo’s to a sacrifice and note that all of the maidens
oracle and Necessity could not be averted. Castor and (parthenikai, 174) are going to go to Hera’s temple.
Polydeuces then reiterate that both Electra and Orestes The chorus’ use of the term parthenikai calls attention
will have to go into exile and express pity that brother to Electra’s strange marriage. Twice in her husband’s
192 ELECTRA

opening monologue, the peasant notes that Electra ual in the play and arguably the noblest in all of
was still a parthenos (44, 51), a maiden or virgin. Elec- Euripides’ surviving works.
tra refuses to go to the temple with the other maidens, By establishing the peasant as a model of nobility,
however. Not only does Electra not participate in the Euripides invites the audience to compare his nobility
usual activities of other married women; she also does with the supposed nobility of Electra, Orestes,
not participate in the activities of other unmarried Clytemnestra, or Aegisthus, all of whom were the off-
women. Later in the play, Electra perverts another cus- spring of nobles or kings and were born in palaces.
tom of married women. Electra lures her mother to Thus, Euripides prompts the audience to ask, Just how
her house by asking her to help her with a purification noble are these so-called nobles? In the case of Orestes,
ritual that would have been performed after the birth Electra regards him as a nobleman (528). The old man
of a child. As a virgin, however, Electra could not have (played by the same actor who played the peasant)
a child. Thus, lured to the house with a pretense she observes that Orestes and Pylades appear to be nobly
will assist with a purification ritual, Clytemnestra is born, but that some who are noble are wicked
killed by Orestes and Electra. (550–51). After this point, however, references to
In addition to the perversion of ritual in the play, we nobility are largely absent and for the most part Euripi-
find a concern with the question of what it means to be des leaves the audience to judge the characters by their
noble. In the first half of the play, Euripides introduces actions. Aegisthus invites Orestes to participate in a
into the story the figure of the peasant, whom the audi- sacrifice to some nymphs but then is slaughtered by
ence will quickly admire for his work ethic, his rever- him. Clytemnestra is lured into the peasant’s hut under
ence for the custom of hospitality, and his respect for a false pretenses and is cut down by Orestes and Electra.
wife who seems to have done little to merit it. As Eventually, Orestes and Electra’s maternal uncles, Cas-
noted, Aegisthus married Electra to the peasant tor and Pollux, appear and declare somewhat crypti-
because he feared she would produce a child of noble cally that Clytemnestra’s punishment was just, but that
blood (26) who would avenge Aegisthus’ killing of their actions in the matter were not just (1244). Castor
Agamemnon. The peasant is from a “good” family, but and Pollux go on to explain the various trials and
he himself says that poverty negates the benefits of a tribulations that Orestes will face, but we should also
noble birth (37–38; see also 362–63). Electra echoes note the provisions they make for the peasant. Not
his comments later as she describes her husband as only do they free him from marriage to Electra
poor, but noble (253). After hearing Electra’s descrip- (1249–50), but they also declare that Pylades must
tion of the peasant, Orestes agrees that he appears take him to his (Pylades’) native land and make the
noble and should be rewarded (262). peasant a rich man. Thus, the reward for the peasant’s
After Orestes meets the peasant, he fully recognizes nobility is perhaps the finest given in Greek TRAGEDY:
the nobility of the man and remarks that one cannot He is freed of his connection with the house of Atreus.
determine a person’s nobility by one’s parents, wealth,
clothing, or home and implies that nobility should be BIBLIOGRAPHY
judged only after one meets a person and observes the Arnott, W. G. “Double the Vision: A Reading of Euripides’
way he or she behaves. Orestes declares that the peas- Electra,” Greece & Rome 28 (1981): 179–92.
ant may be one of the common people, but his charac- Cropp, M. J. Euripides: Electra. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
Phillips, 1988.
ter shows him to be one of the best (382). When the
Denniston, J. D. Euripides: Electra. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
peasant invites Orestes and Pylades into his hut for a
1954.
meal, Electra objects because the two strangers are far Halporn, J. W. “The Skeptical Electra,” Harvard Studies in
above the peasant’s social level. The peasant persists, Classical Philology 87 (1983): 101–18.
however, and says that if they are as noble as they seem Raeburn, David. “The Significance of Stage Properties in
to be (406), then they will be comfortable in a hut or Euripides’ Electra,” Greece & Rome 47, no. 2 (2000):
in a palace. Surely, this peasant is the noblest individ- 149–68.
 ELECTRA 193

ELECTRA SOPHOCLES (BETWEEN 420 Euripides’ Electra does, Sophocles’ Electra indicates
AND 410 B.C.E.) The date of SOPHOCLES’ play is that she lives a life of poverty, but she has not been
uncertain; scholars generally agree that it was written forced into marriage, as Euripides’ Electra has. Sopho-
about the same time as EURIPIDES’ ELECTRA, but whether cles’ Electra continues to talk about the oppressive
Sophocles’ or Euripides’ play appeared first is a matter behavior of Aegisthus and Clytemnestra and informs
of debate. The play deals with the same events as the chorus that Aegisthus is presently away from the
AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA)—the killing home. When the chorus hear this, they ask about news
of AEGISTHUS and CLYTEMNESTRA—but Sophocles, as of Orestes. Electra says she has his promises that he
does Euripides, dramatizes the events in a different will come, but that they are only promises.
way than Aeschylus. As Aeschylus does and Euripides Next, Electra’s sister, Chrysothemis, emerges from
does not, Sophocles sets his play at AGAMEMNON’s the palace and criticizes Electra for her bitter lamenta-
palace at MYCENAE. Sophocles’ prologue also differs tion. As does Ismene in Sophocles’ ANTIGONE,
from those of Aeschylus and Euripides, in that ORESTES’ Chrysothemis provides a stark contrast to Electra.
tutor leads in Orestes and PYLADES, whereas in Aeschy- Electra responds by condemning Chrysothemis’ obedi-
lus’ Agamemnon Orestes is sent to live with Strophius ence to Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. As is Antigone,
of PHOCIS. Sophocles’ Tutor informs the audience that Electra is a woman of action, whereas Chrysothemis,
it was he who took Orestes away from Mycenae on the like Ismene, is a woman of words only. After the cho-
day that Agamemnon was killed. The Tutor also states rus intervene to end the quarrel, Chrysothemis
that he raised Orestes to manhood. informs Electra that (as with Antigone) a decree of
Orestes tells the Tutor that he must find out what is death has been passed against her, and (as with
happening at Agamemnon’s palace and then report to Antigone) Electra will be imprisoned alive. As
him and Pylades. Orestes tells the Tutor to pretend that Antigone does, Electra boldly faces her doom, in the
he is Pantheus of Phocis, one of Aegisthus and face of Chrysothemis’ advice to be obedient to
Clytemnestra’s friends, and that Orestes has died in a Aegisthus and Clytemnestra.
chariot accident at the Pythian games. This method of When Chrysothemis turns to leave, Electra notices
approaching Aegisthus and Clytemnestra differs from that her sister has some offerings. Chrysothemis tells
that of both Aeschylus and Euripides, as Aeschylus’ Electra that they are libations sent by Clytemnestra for
Orestes disguises his voice and informs Clytemnestra Agamemnon’s grave. Unlike Aeschylus’ Electra, who
that Orestes has died in an unspecified way and takes libations to the grave on Clytemnestra’s behalf in
Euripides’ Orestes approaches Aegisthus pretending to Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA), Sophocles’ Chrysothemis
be a traveler from Thessaly and does not mention takes the libations. Furthermore, Sophocles changes
Orestes’ death. Sophocles’ Orestes, however, tells the the content of the dream that prompted the Aeschylean
Tutor that he and Pylades will make an offering at Clytemnestra to send the libations. In contrast to
Agamemnon’s grave and then take back to the palace a Aeschylus, whose Clytemnestra dreams that she is
bronze urn, which supposedly contains Orestes’ ashes. suckling a snake that draws blood from her breast,
Before the Tutor, Orestes, and Pylades exit, they hear Sophocles’ Clytemnestra says she has dreamed that
the sound of lamentation from inside the palace. As Agamemnon has returned to life and that his scepter,
they leave, Electra enters from the palace and laments which Aegisthus was carrying, sprouted into a bough
the woes that have fallen upon her since the death of that provided shade for Mycenae. When Electra hears
Agamemnon. The chorus of Mycenaean women, who this dream, she persuades Chrysothemis to put away
sympathize with Electra’s plight, soon join her. They the libations and take instead a lock of her own hair, as
reveal that Electra has two sisters, Chrysothemis and well as a lock of Electra’s and her girdle. Chrysothemis
Iphianassa, who are alive, and they wonder where agrees to Electra’s request and departs for the grave.
Orestes may be. Electra hopes that Orestes will return, After Chrysothemis’ exit, the chorus sing an ode in
and the chorus urge her not to give up hope. As which they predict that vengeance is not far away, and
194 ELECTRA

they lament the generations of sorrow that Mycenae dom of humans, the quarrel between Chrysothemis
has witnessed. and Electra, and Electra’s plan to kill Aegisthus.
After the choral ode, Clytemnestra enters from the After the choral ode, the audience witness the entry
palace and addresses Electra, whereas in Aeschylus’ of Orestes and Pylades, the latter of whom carries a
Libation Bearers Clytemnestra and Electra do not funeral urn. Orestes asks the chorus to announce to
engage in dialogue onstage. Clytemnestra reproaches those in the palace that some men from Phocis are
Electra for her treatment of her and defends her own looking for Aegisthus. Electra, not recognizing Orestes,
part in the killing of Agamemnon. Clytemnestra claims approaches and learns that they have the ashes of
her actions were performed in retaliation for Agamem- Orestes. When Orestes allows Electra to hold the urn,
non’s sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia. Electra she gives a lengthy speech lamenting Orestes and his
responds by defending her father’s sacrifice, saying that death. By the time Electra finishes her speech, Orestes
ARTEMIS gave Agamemnon no other choice. Electra also realizes that this is his sister. Before Orestes reveals his
points out that Clytemnestra has since given birth to identity, however, he questions her about her suffering.
Aegisthus’ children. The two argue further, and even- Eventually Orestes tells her who he is and proves his
tually Clytemnestra threatens Electra with punishment identity by showing her a seal ring of Agamemnon’s.
when Aegisthus returns. Next, Clytemnestra prays to After their joyful reunion, Orestes informs Electra of
Apollo and asks for her own safety in light of her the plot against Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. Electra
recent dream and in the face of Electra’s hatred. gladly agrees to cooperate with his plan. Before they
After Clytemnestra’s prayer, the Tutor, pretending to can enter the house, however, the Tutor emerges and
be a messenger from Phanoteus of Phocis, enters and informs them that Clytemnestra is without male pro-
informs Clytemnestra of Orestes’ death. The Tutor tection in the house and that they should act against
gives an elaborate description of Orestes’ death in a her quickly. While Orestes, Pylades, Electra, and the
chariot race at Delphi. After Clytemnestra hears this Tutor enter the house, the chorus wait outside in antic-
news, she is torn between joy and grief. She tells the ipation of what will happen. Soon Electra emerges,
Tutor that she wants proof of Orestes’ death. As announces that the men will soon attack Clytemnestra,
Clytemnestra expresses relief over the news of Orestes, and says that she has gone outside to watch for
Electra laments her brother’s loss and its effect on her Aegisthus. Unlike Aeschylus, who has an extended
own fate. When the Tutor turns to leave, Clytemnestra encounter between Clytemnestra and Orestes that the
invites him into the palace. After they enter the palace, audience sees, Sophocles creates an encounter of
Electra continues her lamentation and the chorus mother and son outside the audience’s view. Sophocles
attempt to console her. Electra’s grief is interrupted by has Electra, outside the house, respond to cries from
the arrival of Chrysothemis from Agamemnon’s grave. Clytemnestra within the house. Orestes and Pylades go
In contrast to Aeschylus’ Libation Bearers, in Sophocles’ out to announce the death of Clytemnestra, then reen-
drama Chrysothemis announces that she has found at ter the house when the chorus see that Aegisthus is
the grave offerings and a lock of hair, which she approaching. Aegisthus enters and asks about the
assumes Orestes has left. Electra, however, tells strangers from Phocis and about Orestes’ death. Elec-
Chrysothemis the news of Orestes’ death. Next Electra, tra tells him that the men are inside. When Aegisthus
behaving much more forcefully than her Aeschylean or asks to see proof of Orestes’ death, he sees Orestes and
Euripidean counterparts, tries to persuade Chrysothemis Pylades, the latter of whom he does not recognize, who
to help her kill Aegisthus. Chrysothemis, however, in a are standing near Clytemnestra’s body, which is cov-
manner again reminiscent of Sophocles’ Ismene, cites ered so that Aegisthus cannot see her. Aegisthus calls
the weakness of women and the certainty of their own for Clytemnestra, but Orestes tells her that she is
death if they fail and refuses to help her sister. Electra already nearby. When the corpse is uncovered,
then decides that she will act alone. After the departure Aegisthus sees Clytemnestra. Immediately Aegisthus
of Chrysothemis, the chorus sing an ode about the wis- realizes that he is in the presence of Orestes. With Elec-
 ELECTRA 195

tra urging Orestes to kill Aegisthus, Orestes forces with a metatheatrical perspective. Batchelder views
Aegisthus to enter the house, where he will meet his Orestes and Aegisthus as “two rival dramatists, each
doom. After some struggle, Aegisthus, accompanied by competing to gain, or maintain, political control
Orestes and Pylades, enters. At this point, the chorus through poetic art. Each uses the power of words and
conclude the play by announcing that the house of the illusions of the theater to establish his authority in
Atreus has been released from its suffering. the community” (p. 2). Batchelder and Ringer both
view the opening of the Electra as a sort of “rehearsal,”
COMMENTARY in which the Tutor functions as an elder playwright,
As alluded to previously, one of the major issues con- who directs Orestes on how to construct his “play” (the
cerning the play is whether Sophocles’ Electra destruction of Clytemnestra and Aegisthus). The next
appeared before Euripides’ Electra, or vice versa. Our segment of the play, according to Batchelder, shows
present state of knowledge does not allow us to be cer- Clytemnestra and Electra “as rival poets of praise and
tain about this, but most modern scholars think that blame, each trying to establish as true her own version
Euripides’ play was the earlier of the two. of the past, the story of Agamemnon’s death” (pp. 3–4).
Some scholars have taken Sophocles’ play as an Ringer views Chrysothemis as an actor caught between
expansion on the references to Orestes’ killing of the plays that Clytemnestra and Electra are trying to
Aegisthus in HOMER’s Odyssey. These interpreters view produce. The victor in the verbal contest between
Sophocles’ interpretation of Orestes’ vengeance as an Clytemnestra and Electra, however, will be determined
act of justice that shows no signs of the pessimism that by the poetic contest between Orestes and Aegisthus.
undercuts the Euripidean Orestes and Electra. Other The third phase in Electra involves Orestes’ “play.”
scholars have found Sophocles’ play more pessimistic. With the Tutor as the principal actor and Clytemnestra
Winnington-Ingram, for example, calls Electra “a and Aegisthus as the audience, that play must convince
woman (like her mother) of violence in word and Orestes’ mother and her lover that Orestes is dead. For
deed; she is a Fury, a wrathful agent of infernal pow- Ringer, the Tutor’s speech is a “tragedy-within-a-tragedy”
ers; she is a willing matricide. She is a Sophoclean (p. 162), and the urn is a stage property that serves to
hero.” Woodard sees the play as a conflict between introduce her in Orestes’ play (p. 184). For Batchelder,
words and deeds, in which Orestes represents the male the dramatic contests reach a resolution when Orestes
world of action, and Electra represents the more femi- and Electra recognize one another. After Orestes and
nine world of speech. In the course of the play, Electra Electra are reunited, Orestes then integrates Electra into
enters Orestes’ world of deeds. his play as a mourner so that he can destroy Clytemnes-
Blundell has described thoroughly how Sophocles’ tra. Unlike Aeschylus’ or Euripides’ version of Orestes’
Electra, as other Sophoclean plays do, deals with the return, in which the death of Aegisthus precedes that of
issue of helping one’s friends and harming one’s ene- Clytemnestra, Sophocles’ drama postpones Aegisthus’
mies. For Blundell, Orestes’ revenge against death so that the play will end with “the defeat of
Clytemnestra and Aegisthus is “performed in a world Orestes’ rival dramatist” (Batchelder p. 125). At the
where the legitimacy of such revenge passes unchal- play’s end, Orestes gains control of Aegisthus and drives
lenged” (p. 150). Despite opposition to Orestes’ him from the stage. “At the moment that Orestes forces
revenge, the issue is complicated because the Aegisthus, his political and poetic rival, off the stage to
vengeance occurs between family members. Son and meet his death, he has achieved, through the play-
daughter seek revenge against mother, while their wright’s art, final and complete control over the king-
mother defends what she has done to their father by dom of Mycenae” (Batchelder p. 140).
claiming that her actions were retaliation for Agamem- BIBLIOGRAPHY
non’s killing of Electra’s sister, Iphigenia. Batchelder, A. G. The Seal of Orestes: Self-Reference and
Most recently, scholars such as Batchelder and Authority in Sophocles’ Electra. Lanham, Md.: Rowman &
Ringer have advocated studying Sophocles’ Electra Littlefield, 1995.
196 ELECTRAN GATE

Blundell, M. W. Helping Friends and Harming Enemies: A 2.4.5–6; Euripides, Heracles 17; Hesiod, Shield 1–19;
Study in Sophocles and Greek Ethics. Cambridge: Cam- Pausanias, 9.11.1]
bridge University Press, 1989, 149–83.
Davidson, J. F. “Homer and Sophocles’ Electra,” Bulletin for
the Institute of Classical Studies 35 (1989): 45–72. ELEOS According to Pollux, in the days before
Ringer, Mark. Electra and the Empty Urn: Metatheater and Thespis (ca. 550 B.C.E.?), the eleos was a table on which
Role Playing in Sophocles. Chapel Hill: University of North a man would stand and converse with the CHORUS.
Carolina Press, 1998, 127–212. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon 4.123]
Winnington-Ingram, R. P. Sophocles: An Interpretation. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980, 246.
ELEUSIN See ELEUSIS.
Woodard, T., ed. Sophocles: A Collection of Critical Essays.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1966.
ELEUSIS A town several miles west of ATHENS,
ELECTRAN GATE One of the seven gates at Eleusis was famous as the site of the Eleusinian Mys-
THEBES. Pausanias says the entrance to Thebes from teries, a ritual initiation devoted to DEMETER and PERSE-
PLATAEA is by this gate. AESCHYLUS says CAPANEUS of PHONE. According to EURIPIDES, during HIPPOLYTUS’
ARGOS made his assault on this gate during the battle of pilgrimage to Eleusis to be initiated into these myster-
the Seven against Thebes, but Apollodorus has ies THESEUS’ wife, PHAEDRA, first conceived a passion for
PARTHENOPAEUS attack this gate. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hippolytus (her stepson). Euripides’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN
Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 423; Apollodorus, has Eleusis as its setting. AESCHYLUS wrote Eleusinioi
Library 3.6.6; Euripides, Bacchae 780; Pausanias, (Eleusinian men), of which two brief fragments survive
9.8.7] (53a–54 Radt), which was presumably set at Eleusis
and may have had the same subject as Euripides’ Sup-
ELECTRYON The son of PERSEUS and ANDROM- pliant Women. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Hippolytus
EDA, Electryon was the husband of Anaxo and the 24–28]
father of numerous sons, including LICYMNIUS, and one
daughter, ALCMENA, who became the mother of HERA- ELIS A town in southwestern Greece north of
CLES. When Electryon was king of MYCENAE, PTERELAS’
OLYMPIA. PLAUTUS calls this town Alis in CAPTIVES.
sons, accompanied by some Taphians, went to Myce- [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Captives passim; Seneca,
nae and claimed their maternal grandfather Mestor’s Trojan Women 850]
kingdom. When Electryon ignored their claim, they
drove off his cattle. Electryon’s sons (with the excep-
tion of the young Licymnius) tried to prevent this and ELYMNIUM A rocky place near the northwest
were killed. The Taphians sailed away with the cattle coast of the island of EUBOEA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
and entrusted them to Polyxenus, the king of ELIS. phanes, Peace 1126; Sophocles, fragments 437, 888
Electryon, hoping to avenge the death of his sons, Radt]
departed to wage war against these murderous thieves. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Before he left, Electryon entrusted his kingdom and Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
daughter to AMPHITRYON. While Electryon was away, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Amphitryon paid Polyxenus ransom for the cattle and
took them back to Mycenae. When Electryon returned ELYSIUM See UNDERWORLD.
from the war, Amphitryon gave him the cattle. During
this transaction, one of the cows charged and Amphit- EMMELEIA A type of dance performed in
ryon threw a club at the animal. The club struck the TRAGEDY that acted out the words being spoken.
cow’s horns, rebounded, hit Electryon in the head, and [ANCIENT SOURCES: Athenaeus, 1.20e, 14.631d; Lucian,
killed him. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library On Dance 26; Herodotus, 6.129; Plato, Laws 816b]
 EPAPHUS 197

EMPUSA A bizarre female goblin that was was adapted from a play by Aristarchus of Tegea, a
thought to eat humans and was able to take on differ- contemporary of Euripides.
ent forms. In ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS, she is imagined as BIBLIOGRAPHY
changing into a cow, a mule, a beautiful woman, and Jocelyn, H. D. The Tragedies of Ennius: The Fragments. Lon-
then a dog, whose face blazes with fire and who has a don: Cambridge University Press, 1967.
bronze leg. Empusa either is sent by HECATE or is syn- Norden, Eduard. Ennius und Vergilius: Kriegsbilder aus Roms
onymous with Hecate. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- grosser Zeit. Leipzig: Teubner, 1915.
phanes, Ecclesiazusae 1056, Frogs 289–94] Skutsch, O. Studia Enniana. London: Athlone, 1968.
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin. Vol. 1. London: W.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Heinemann and Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Heil, Andreas. “Herakleiodionysos am Scheideweg: Die Press, 1935.
Empusa-Szene (Aristophanes, Ranae 285–311),” Gräzer
Beitrage 23 (2000): 53–58. ENNOSIS See POSEIDON.

ENCELADUS A son of EARTH and Tartarus, ENYALIUS The son of ARES and ENYO, Enyalius,
Enceladus was one of the GIANTS who tried to over- whose name means “warlike,” is a god associated with
throw ZEUS and the other gods but was defeated and war. Some sources used the word enyalius as an epithet
buried beneath SICILY. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, for Ares. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 457;
Library 1.6.2; Euripides, Cyclops 7, Heracles 908, Ion Sophocles, Ajax 179]
209; Seneca, Hercules Furens 79, Hercules Oetaeus
1140, 1145, 1159, 1735] ENYO Enyo was a goddess associated with war.
Some sources call her the daughter of ARES; others
make her the wife of Ares, by whom she became the
ENETOI See VENETI.
mother of ENYALIUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus,
Seven against Thebes 45]
ENNIUS (239–169 B.C.E.) Born in the Italian
town of Rudiae in the region of Calabria, this Roman EOS The daughter of Hyperion and Theia, Eos
poet produced both comedies and tragedies, as well as (called Aurora by the Romans) is the goddess of the
several other types of literature, including satiric dawn. She is the sister of the SUN, Helios, and the
poems, a poem about the Roman general Scipio MOON, Selene. By Astraeus (“starry”), Eos produced
Africanus, and an epic poem (Annals) about the history the winds and the stars. When Eos had intercourse
of Rome from the fall of TROY to Ennius’ own time. with ARES, a favorite lover of APHRODITE’s, Aphrodite
Only four lines survive from Ennius’ comedies, from cast a spell on Eos that caused her to be in love con-
Caupuncula (little hostess) and Pancratiastes. A few stantly. Accordingly, Eos became one of the most sexu-
brief fragments also survive of two fabulae praetextae. ally aggressive females in classical mythology. Eos
The Ambracia treated Marcus Fulvius’ capture of carried off ORION to the island of DELOS; she abducted
Ambracia; Ennius’ Sabine Women surely dealt with the HERMES’ son, CEPHALUS, and made him her lover. By
rape of the Sabine women (only seven words survive). Cephalus Eos had a son, Tithonus. Eos is also said to
We have numerous fragments from at least 20 of have had sexual relations with Tithonus and by him
Ennius’ tragedies: Achilles, Ajax, Alcmaeon, Alexander, borne MEMNON, who fought in the Trojan War.
Andromache, Andromeda, Athamas, Cresphontes, [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.2.2, 1.2.4,
Erechtheus, Eumenides, The Ransom of Hector, Hecuba, 1.4.4, 3.14.3, Epitome 5.3; Hyginus, Fables 125, 160,
Iphigenia, Medea, Melanippe, Nemea, Phoenix, Telamon, 189, 270]
Telephus, Thyestes. Most of these plays appear to have
been adapted from EURIPIDES; a few seem to have been EPAPHUS The son of ZEUS and IO. Epaphus was
derived from the works of AESCHYLUS. Ennius’ Achilles born near the Nile River; married Memphis, daughter
198 EPEUS

of the Nile; and had a daughter named Libya. [ANCIENT time of his mission to Persia. After he served as a del-
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 851, Suppliant egate at a peace conference in Sparta in 392, Epi-
Women 47–48, 315–16, 589; Apollodorus, Library crates’ troubles continued. When Epicrates and his
2.1.3–4; Euripides, Phoenician Women 678; Hyginus, fellow Athenian delegates rejected the peace treaty
Fables 145, 149–150] (which had already been agreed upon), they were
tried on charges of taking bribes, being disobedient,
EPEUS A Greek from the region of PHOCIS, Epeus and giving false information to the Athenian Coun-
went to TROY and is credited with building the wooden cil. To escape the trial, Epicrates and the others went
horse. EURIPIDES wrote a play entitled Epeus, of which into exile. In their absence, the Athenians con-
only the title survives (see Nauck). [ANCIENT SOURCES: demned them to death. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
Apollodorus, Epitome 5.14; Euripides, Trojan Women phanes, Ecclesiazusae 71; Athenaeus, 6.251a;
10; Homer, Odyssey 8.493, 11.523; Hyginus, Fables Demosthenes, 19.277; Lysias, 27.3–6; Pausanias,
108; Plautus, Bacchides 937] 3.9.8; Plato Comicus, fragment 119, 122 Kock;
Plutarch, Pelopidas 30.12]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hildesheim: Olms, 1964. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880.
EPHUDION A person mentioned by ARISTO- Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
PHANES as engaging successfully in the pancratium (a
144.
sport similar to modern kickboxing), despite his
advanced age. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps
1191, 1383]
EPICURUS Mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at
ECCLESIAZUSAE 645, Epicurus was apparently an Athen-
ian and, according to Tuplin, the son of an Athenian
EPICHARMUS A comic playwright from SICILY, military commander, Paches, during the PELOPON-
Epicharmus appears to have been active between 500 NESIAN WAR (428/427 B.C.E.). Sommerstein, however,
and 475 B.C.E. About 200 fragments from Epicharmus’ regards this identification as “highly speculative”
works exist, and some 30 titles are known. Many of because Paches had been dead for more than three
Epicharmus’ titles indicate that he focuses on comic decades when Ecclesiazusae was staged. Nothing else of
versions of mythological events (e.g., Amycus, Bacchae, this Epicurus is known.
Busiris, Sciron, Sirens, Sphinx, Philoctetes). [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aristotle, Poetics 1448a32; Diogenes Laertius, BIBLIOGRAPHY
3.9–15; Parian Marble 71; Plutarch, Numa 8; Theocri- Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
tus, Epigram 18] Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
195.
Tuplin, C. J. “Fathers and Sons: Ecclesiazusae 644–45,”
EPICRATES From the DEME of Cephisia, Epi- Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 23 (1982): 325–30.
crates was active in Athenian politics during the first
decade of the fourth century B.C.E. Comic poets made EPIDAMNUS A town on the eastern coast of the
fun of his long beard. Epicrates supported war with Adriatic Sea. PLAUTUS’ MENAECHMI has Epidamnus as its
SPARTA in 396/395 and went on a diplomatic mission to setting.
Persia around 393. Epicrates’ mission to Persia resulted
in accusations of his taking bribes from the Persians; EPIDAURUS A town in the southeastern part of
he was also put on trial for and acquitted of charges of Greece between CORINTH and TROEZEN. The town, a
embezzlement and bribery that allegedly occurred center for the worship of ASCLEPIUS, is the location of
during his tenure as a financial officer around the one of the best-preserved ancient theaters. PLAUTUS’
 EPIDICUS 199

CURCULIO is set at Epidaurus. A character from Plautus’ Epidicus’ help, Epidicus emerges from his hiding place
EPIDICUS, Philippa, is also said to be from Epidaurus, and greets his master. When Epidicus tells his master
where Periphanes sexually assaulted her. Three Greek that he has purchased the music girl, Stratippocles
comic poets wrote plays entitled Epidaurios (The Epi- informs his slave that he no longer cares about her.
daurian): Alexis (fragment 77 Kock), Antiphanes (frag- Stratippocles then tells Epidicus that unless he raises
ments 92–93 Kock), and Theophilus (fragment 3 the money by sundown, Epidicus will be punished.
Kock). The fragments tell us nothing about the plots of Epidicus promises his help and suggests that they may
these plays, however. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hip- be able to sell the music girl to a rich soldier from
polytus 1022] Euboea whom he knows. As Stratippocles and
Chaeribulus leave with plans to enjoy the day, Epidicus
EPIDICUS PLAUTUS (CA. 292–289 B.C.E.) decides to wage his own little war against Stratip-
References in Epidicus to a military campaign by pocles’ father.
Athens against Thebes that appears to have occurred in The second act begins with the arrival of Periphanes
either 293 or 290 would date the original to about 292 and his elderly friend, Apoecides. The two gentlemen
or 289 B.C.E. The Greek model for PLAUTUS’ play is are discussing Periphanes’ upcoming marriage to a
unknown, although the name of the actor who played poor woman who was the mother of his long-lost
Epidicus is (Titus Publilius Pellio). The action of the daughter. As the two men talk, Epidicus begins to
play occurs in ATHENS (the most common setting for enter from Charibulus’ house, prepared to “gut”
Plautus’ and TERENCE’s plays) before the two houses of Periphanes’ moneybag. Epidicus listens to the men as
Periphanes and Chaeribulus, the former an elderly Periphanes reveals that he knows about Stratippocles’
gentleman, the latter a young gentleman. business concerning the music girl. At this point,
The play opens as Epidicus, the SLAVE of Periphanes, Epidicus realizes how to get the money from
encounters Thesprio, the slave of Stratippocles. Thes- Periphanes and appears, acting as if he has been
prio has returned from the battlefront, where his mas- searching for Periphanes. Epidicus reports that the
ter purchased a young woman from the spoils of the troops have returned from Thebes, and that Epidicus
war. Epidicus is surprised to learn this, because before noticed that the music girl was waiting near the city
Stratippocles went to war, he commissioned Epidicus gate for Stratippocles. Epidicus then claims he over-
to purchase a MUSIC GIRL (unnamed) with whom he was heard some women saying that Stratippocles had bor-
in love. To make matters worse, the Theban money- rowed some money to buy the music girl’s freedom.
lender from whom Stratippocles borrowed the money This news stuns Periphanes, who asks for Apoecides’
to buy her girl has arrived to collect his money. This advice. Epidicus, however, breaks in and suggests that
situation distresses Epidicus because Stratippocles did Periphanes should find a bride for Stratippocles before
not want to see his father until after he had repaid the he marries the music girl. Epidicus also tells
interest charged by the moneylender. After the depar- Periphanes that Stratippocles has not yet returned
ture of Thesprio, Epidicus reveals that he had tricked from the war, and that Periphanes himself should pre-
Stratippocles’ father, Periphanes, into thinking that the tend to be in love with the music girl and set her free.
woman being purchased was his long-lost daughter. Epidicus also suggests that once the music girl is freed,
Epidicus fears that if Periphanes finds out that he has she should be sent from the city. Epidicus suggests that
been tricked, he will beat him. Apoecides carry the money to her owner. Epidicus also
As Epidicus considers his next move, Stratippocles says that Periphanes will be able to sell her to a soldier
and his friend, Chaeribulus, approach. Epidicus listens from Rhodes. Periphanes agrees to the plan; Apoecides
in as the two friends discuss Stratippocles’ financial sit- says he will go to the FORUM and tells Epidicus to meet
uation. Stratippocles asks Chaeribulus to lend him the him there. As Periphanes enters his house to get the
money, but Chaeribulus has his own financial prob- money, Epidicus rejoices in the success of his plan but
lems. As Stratippocles states that he would pay for wonders how he will find a music girl to fool
200 EPIDICUS

Periphanes. Epidicus then remembers that Periphanes knows Acropolistes but does not know where she lives
had told him to hire a music girl to play while because Stratippocles recently set her free.
Periphanes was making a sacrifice. Epidicus says that As the furious Periphanes sends the music girl from
he will use the same person to fool Periphanes and tell his house, Philippa, a woman from EPIDAURUS, enters
her about the scheme. and laments that her daughter has been captured. It
As the third act begins, Stratippocles and Chaeribu- turns out that the daughter, Telestis, is the captive
lus despair about whether they will receive help from woman with whom Stratippocles is in love. Periphanes
Epidicus. Stratippocles also moans that he is getting no and Philippa also recognize one another. Many years
help from Chaeribulus. Next, Epidicus enters from before, Periphanes had sexually assaulted Philippa
Periphanes’ house with a bag of money, which he soon while he was in Epidaurus, she had become pregnant,
hands over to Stratippocles. Epidicus then informs and, unknown to him, she had given birth to Telestis.
Stratippocles of his plan to fool Periphanes. Epidicus Periphanes tells Philippa not to worry: When he heard
also tells Stratippocles that he has already paid off the that the girl was captured, Periphanes had Epidicus
PIMP for the music girl, but that he will return to the pay ransom money for her. At this point, Periphanes
pimp’s house and will make sure the pimp says, if nec- summons the girl to greet her mother. The girl who
essary, that the money he took was for Stratippocles’ emerges from the house, however, is not Philippa’s
war captive. Stratippocles, delighted by Epidicus’ plan, daughter, but Acropolistis, the girl with whom the sol-
returns to his house with Chaeribulus. Epidicus dier was in love. As this strange girl baffles both
departs to hire a music girl to fool Periphanes and Periphanes and Philippa, Acropolistis reveals that
Apoecides. Epidicus had instructed her to say that she was
After some time passes, Periphanes encounters Periphanes’ daughter, Telestis. Periphanes had been
Apoecides and the music girl Epidicus hired to fool the fooled because Epidicus told him that she was his
old men. Periphanes has the girl taken inside his house daughter. At this, a tearful Philippa enters Periphanes’
but gives instructions that she be kept away from house while Periphanes promises to find their real
Periphanes’ daughter. Apoecides tells Periphanes of daughter and destroy Epidicus.
their encounter with the pimp, the masterful way in The play’s final act concludes with the arrival of
which Epidicus deceived the pimp, and the way that Epidicus from the forum. He has seen Periphanes and
he himself played along as if he was a simpleton. At Apoecides searching for him and has learned that they
this point, Apoecides departs for the forum. mean to torture him. Epidicus encounters Stratip-
Periphanes, however, soon sees a soldier and his slave pocles, whom Epidicus begs for help. Their discussion
approaching. The soldier is searching for Periphanes. is interrupted by the arrival of a moneylender and the
The soldier tells Periphanes that he has heard that captive, Telestis, whom Stratippocles had purchased.
Periphanes bought the soldier’s mistress, Acropolistes, The usurer wants to square accounts with Stratip-
and says that he wants to buy her from him. pocles. After the young man goes into his house to get
Periphanes agrees to sell her to him and makes a profit the money, Epidicus recognizes Telestis as the daugh-
in the transaction as well. When the music girl is taken ter of Periphanes and Philippa and thus the sister of
out, however, the soldier realizes she is not the person Stratippocles (compare MENANDER’s THE GIRL WITH THE
he expected. The soldier tells Periphanes that he must SHAVEN HEAD). After some prompting, Telestis remem-
have been tricked into paying money for her. At this, bers Epidicus, who informs her that she has been pur-
the soldier exits with the intent of finding his mistress. chased by her half brother (they had the same father,
Upon the soldier’s exit, Periphanes questions the music but a different mother). As Telestis excitedly asks about
girl about how she was hired, and she tells him the her father, Stratippocles returns from his house, hands
story about being hired to play during a sacrifice. over the money to the usurer, and sends the man on
Periphanes next asks the music girl about Acropolistes his way. Stratippocles is eager to embrace Telestis, but
and where she lives. The music girl reports that she she greets him as her brother. After the bittersweet
 EPIDICUS 201

reunion, Epidicus lifts Stratippocles’ spirits when he viewed as a playwright who is trying to produce a play
tells him that he has the music girl whom Stratippocles within a play. As the playwright, Epidicus is charged
had loved originally. Epidicus sends Stratippocles and with the task of convincing an audience (in this case,
Telestis back into the house but begs them to assist Periphanes), and he casts the other characters for his
him if Periphanes and Apoecides try to lay hands on play within the play and even takes on roles himself.
him. Acting is the business of pretending to be someone or
Soon the two old men return, searching for Epidicus something else, and numerous instances of pretense
and uttering threats against him. Epidicus emerges are found in Epidicus.
from the house and immediately and willingly offers to At line 195, Epidicus pretends (adsimulato) that he
be bound. The baffled Periphanes, however, hesitates has been searching for Periphanes all over town. At
to bind Epidicus, who demonstrates a false bravado. line 238, Epidicus tells the two old men that he pre-
Finally, Periphanes binds his hands. No matter how tended (dissimulabam) to hear a conversation that, in
tight he binds Epidicus, the slave pretends to feel no fact, he never actually heard, but that is part of the illu-
pain (compare Xanthias in ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS). sion he is using to fool the two men. Not only does
Periphanes interrogates Epidicus, who admits that he Epidicus himself play roles in his play, but he enlists
tricked the old man and gave the money to Stratip- the aid of many others as well. Some of Epidicus’
pocles. Epidicus sends Periphanes into the house, “actors” are aware that they are involved in his play, but
claiming that what he finds inside will convince him others are not. In the case of the first music girl, Epidi-
that Epidicus deserves to be freed from slavery. After cus integrates her into his play by instructing her to
Periphanes returns, he begs Epidicus’ forgiveness and pretend to be Periphanes’ daughter (88, 357). Unlike
grants him his freedom. several Plautine comedies, Epidicus does not have an
evil pimp who takes the stage. There is mention of
COMMENTARY Epidicus’ having dealings with a pimp, however, and
Whereas in BACCHIDES (214), Plautus suggests that in an interesting twist on the usual slave-versus-pimp
Epidicus was one of his favorite plays, modern scholars theme, in Epidicus the title character apparently has the
have not shown the same affection for the play. Most of pimp under his control and integrates him into his
the attention given to the play has been related to play within the play. At lines 364–70, Epidicus tells
determining its Greek model, and this issue remains Stratippocles that he will instruct the pimp to say, if
unsettled. Plautus’ play has some similarities to necessary, that the money he took was for Stratip-
Menander’s Girl with the Shaven Head in that in both the pocles’ war captive. Epidicus also tells Stratippocles
young man discovers that his love interest is actually that he will hire a clever music girl who will pretend
his sister (however, there is no suggestion this was the (simulet, 373) that she has been bought and will help
model for Plautus’ play). Although modern scholars trick the old men.
have not paid much attention to Epidicus for its own Whereas the music girl and pimp would be coached
merits, this brief play (only 733 lines) is not without its by Epidicus on their role in his play, the old gentlemen
charm. As with PSEUDOLUS, the play’s dominant figure is Periphanes and Apoecides would not be fully aware of
the wily slave. Whereas Pseudolus must overcome the role they would take on in Epidicus’ play. After the
both an evil pimp and a watchful father to help his music girl is acquired, Apoecides tells Periphanes how
master acquire his beloved prostitute, Epidicus’ pri- Epidicus tricked her to think that she was purchased
mary obstacle is his young master’s father, whom for Periphanes, and he seems to take great pride in
Epidicus must trick twice to carry out his young mas- relating how, as a participant in Epidicus’ scheme, he
ter’s wishes. pretended (assimulabam, 420) to be an ignorant sim-
As for several other Roman comedies, a metatheatri- pleton. The irony, of course, is that Apoecides is a sim-
cal approach (see Slater) may be employed successfully pleton and that it is not so much that Apoecides has
with Epidicus. In this methodology, Epidicus would be assimilated himself into Epidicus’ scheme, as that
202 EPIGONI

Epidicus has assimilated Apoecides into his play BIBLIOGRAPHY

within the play. Auhagen, Ulrike, ed. Studien zu Plautus’ Epidicus. Script-
In the case of Periphanes, Epidicus assimilates him Oralia Series 125, Reihe A, Altertumswissenschaftliche
into his play as he directs the old man to pretend to be Reihe 33. Tübingen: Narr, 2001.
in love with the music girl. Although it is not unusual Fantham, E. “Plautus in Miniature: Compression and Dis-
tortion in the Epidicus.” In Papers of the Leeds International
in Roman COMEDY for a young man and his father both
Latin Seminar. Edited by Francis Cairnes. Liverpool:
to have a love interest, Epidicus’ scheme that the father Cairns, 1981, 1–28.
himself should pretend to be in love with the music Goldberg, S. M. “Plautus’ Epidicus and the Case of the Miss-
girl is a novel twist on such deceptions. Epidicus not ing Original,” Transactions of the American Philological Asso-
only directs Periphanes to play the role of the aged ciation 108 (1978): 81–91.
lover, but transforms Periphanes into a pimp (contrast Slater, N. W. “Epidicus.” In Plautus in Performance. Prince-
Slater, who likens Periphanes to a BRAGGART WARRIOR). ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985, 19–36.
At lines 299–301, Epidicus suggests to Periphanes that Willcock, M. M. “Plautus and the Epidicus,” In Papers of the
he will be able to sell the music girl to the soldier. Leeds International Latin Seminar. Edited by R. Brock and
A. J. Woodman. Leeds: Cairns, 1995, 19–29.
When the soldier appears, the soldier tells Periphanes
that he wants to buy the girl from him. In a manner
worthy of a pimp, Periphanes agrees, knowing he
EPIGONI (EPIGONOI) This term, which
means “those born afterward,” denotes the sons of the
stands to turn a profit as well. When the soldier’s mis-
chieftains who participated in the famous Seven
tress is supposed to be taken out, however, Epidicus’
against THEBES expedition. At the end of EURIPIDES’ SUP-
play begins to unravel and Periphanes begins to under-
PLIANT WOMEN, ATHENA predicts that the Epigoni will
stand the unwitting role he and the music girl have
avenge their fathers’ defeat by marching on Thebes
played. After further investigation, Periphanes learns
again. The leader of this second expedition was
about the role of the other girl in Epidicus’ drama as
ALCMEON. AESCHYLUS (fragments 55–56 Radt, vol. 3)
Acropolistis reveals that Epidicus had instructed her to
wrote an Epigoni, whose extant 20 words indicate vir-
say that she was Periphanes’ daughter, Telestis. Upon
tually nothing about it. The fragments (185–98 Radt,
discovering this second strange young woman in his
Vol. 4) of SOPHOCLES’ Epigoni are more extensive; they
house, Periphanes wonders whether he is playing the indicate a hostile encounter between ERIPHYLE and her
pimp (551), given all of the women and money that son, Alcmeon, as well as an argument between
seem to be flowing in and out of his house. Alcmeon and ADRASTUS. The tragedian Astydamas also
With Periphanes’ discovery of Epidicus’ tricks, the wrote an Epigoni, of which only the title survives (see
COMEDY has collapsed into TRAGEDY (as Slater notes),
Snell 1971). Among Roman authors, ACCIUS staged a
and Epidicus (as is Pseudolus near the conclusion of play called Epigoni. Alcmeon, Amphilochus, Eriphyle,
his play) is in danger of severe punishment by the old and Eriphyle’s daughter Demonassa, appear to have
master, but the arrival of Periphanes’ real daughter had speaking roles in Accius’ play, which dealt, at least
saves him from a beating. As in the case of Pseudolus, in part, with Alcmeon’s killing of Eriphyle. [ANCIENT
his master forgives Epidicus. Pseudolus is forgiven but SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.7.2–3]
does not receive the bonus of freedom as Epidicus
does (although he appears reluctant to accept it). BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kiso, A. “Notes on Sophocles’ Epigoni,” Greek, Roman, and
Unlike in Pseudolus, though, in which the young man
Byzantine Studies 18 (1977): 207–26.
is eventually united with his beloved, the arrival of
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Telestis diffuses the young man Stratippocles’ love Harvard University Press, 1996.
intrigue. The woman with whom he was in love turns Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
out to be his sister and the woman that he had Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
arranged for Epidicus to purchase in the first part of ———. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, Vol. 4. Göttingen,
the play has been dismissed. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
 ERECHTHEUS 203

Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, and their corresponding antistrophes precede the
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. epode (876–82). In contrast to their role in the strophe
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University and antistrophe, during an epode the CHORUS is
Press of America, 1984. thought to have stood still.
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil-
ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1935.
ERASINADES An Athenian general tried and
———. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, Naevius,
executed after the battle of ARGINUSAE in 406 B.C.E.
Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Dover notes that “the trouble in fact started when
University Press, 1936. [Erasinades] was individually prosecuted by
Archedemos for embezzlement.” [ANCIENT SOURCES:
EPIGONUS A man mentioned by ARISTOPHANES, Aristophanes, Frogs 1196]
at ECCLESIAZUSAE 167, as having an effeminate appear- BIBLIOGRAPHY
ance. The ancient commentators on this line suggest Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
that other comic poets ridiculed Epigonus as com- 1993, 337.
monly found in the company of women and as being a
passive homosexual. EREBUS According to HESIOD, Erebus was the
BIBLIOGRAPHY child of CHAOS and the brother of NIGHT. Erebus mated
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, with Night and produced Aether and Day. Often, the
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, name Erebus is used as a synonym for the UNDERWORLD
152. or a part of the underworld. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
phanes, Birds 691; Hesiod, Theogony 123–25]
EPIRUS A region near the coast of far northwest-
ern Greece. ERECHTHEUS (Latin: ERECTHEUS)
Ancient sources differ as to the birth and parents of this
EPISKENION A Greek word meaning “on top of Athenian king. Some sources make him the son of Pan-
the skene,” the term episkenion refers to the second level dion and Zeuxippe, and the earliest reference to
of the stage building (SKENE). Erechtheus says that he was born from EARTH (GAIA)
and raised by ATHENA. Erechtheus’ wife was Praxithea;
EPISODE ARISTOTLE defines an episode as the they had three sons (Cecrops, Metion, and Pandorus)
part of a drama that takes place between choral songs. and numerous daughters—CREUSA, Oreithyia, and
Most extant Greek tragedies have three episodes, a few PROCRIS are the best known.
have four episodes, and SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE has five When a war broke out between the Athenians and
episodes. Regarding extant Greek COMEDY, four of their neighbors the Eleusinians, Erechtheus consulted
Aristophanes’ 11 plays have five episodes, PEACE has the DELPHIC ORACLE about how to win the war. The ora-
only two, and WEALTH has eight. [ANCIENT SOURCES: cle told Erechtheus to sacrifice one of his daughters.
Aristotle, Poetics 1452b20–21] When Erechtheus did so, some of the girl’s sisters
killed themselves. According to EURIPIDES’ ION,
EPITREPONTES See THE ARBITRATION. Erechtheus’ daughter, Creusa, did not die. In the ensu-
ing battle, Erechtheus killed the Eleusinian champion
EPODE From the Greek word epodos, meaning Eumolpus, son of POSEIDON. Poseidon retaliated by
“after song,” the epode was the part of a lyric song that making the Earth swallow Erechtheus.
followed the STROPHE and ANTISTROPHE. Multiple stro- Euripides wrote an Erechtheus, staged about 422
phes and antistrophes could precede an epode, as in B.C.E., from which roughly 200 lines survive. The set-
SOPHOCLES’, ANTIGONE 806–82, in which three strophes ting was Athens and old men of Athens made up the
204 ERETRIA

chorus. POSEIDON appeared in the prologue and men- ERGASION A fictional person—his name means
tioned his rescue of Eumolpus. A lengthy fragment “workman”—mentioned in ARISTOPHANES’ WASPS
remains from Praxithea’s speech in which she rational- (1201) as having his vine props (stakes) stolen by
izes her reasons for offering her daughter for sacrifice. PHILOCLEON.
In another lengthy fragment, Erechtheus, apparently
BIBLIOGRAPHY
on the verge of departing for the battle, gives an
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4
unnamed male heir advice on how a virtuous and Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 226.
noble person should behave. In the battle, Erechtheus
killed Eumolpus and Poseidon killed Erechtheus, and ERGINUS The son of Clymenus, Erginus was a
a fragment from a choral speech indicates that the old king of the Minyans and lived in the town of Orchome-
men experience a Poseidon-caused earthquake. The nus. When Clymenus was killed by a Theban named
play ended with an appearance by Athena. Some 45 Perieres, Clymenus, with his dying words, ordered
lines survive from her speech, in which Athena Erginus to avenge his death. Accordingly, Erginus
demands that Poseidon put an end to his threat to her waged war against the Thebans, defeated them, and
city; she instructs Praxithea about the burial of her sac- imposed a penalty upon them (every year for 20 years
rificed daughter; she informs her that the daughters the Thebans were to send 100 cattle to him). Once,
who committed suicide have been transported to when HERACLES was returning from hunting the lion of
heaven and will be called the Hyacinthids; she orders CITHAERON, Heracles encountered some heralds from
the building of a sacred precinct that will honor Posei- Erginus who were on their way to Thebes to ask for
don Erechtheus; and she makes Praxithea one of her this tribute. Heracles, apparently not liking the idea
priestesses. As the fragment breaks off, Athena begins that his fellow townspeople would have to pay the trib-
to make a pronouncement about Eumolpus’ son, also ute, cut off the noses, ears, and hands of the heralds
named Eumolpus. and hanged these body parts around their necks.
Among Roman authors, ENNIUS also wrote an Erec- When the mutilated heralds returned to Erginus, the
theus, of which two short fragments survive. [ANCIENT angry king immediately marched on the Thebans, who
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.15.4–5; Euripides, Ion should have been slaughtered because the Minyans
277–80; Hyginus, Fables 46; Lycurgus, Against had disarmed them after their previous war. In this
Leocrates 98–101] conflict, however, Heracles fought on the Theban side.
Heracles killed Erginus, drove away the Minyans, and
BIBLIOGRAPHY forced them to pay the Thebans twice that tribute.
Austin, C. Nova Fragmenta Euripidea in Papyris Reperta.
Some sources say that Heracles’ mortal father, AMPHIT-
Berlin: De Gruyter, 1968.
RYON, died in the battle against the Minyans. Among
Calder, W. M., “The Date of Euripides’ Erechtheus,” Greek,
the Greek dramatists, the tragedian Achaeus may have
Roman, and Byzantine Studies 10 (1969): 147–56.
Collard, C., M. J. Cropp, and K. H. Lee. Euripides: Selected
written an Erginus, of which only the title survives.
Fragmentary Plays. Vol. 1. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.4.11; Euripi-
Phillips, 1995, 148–94. des, Heracles 47–50, 220–21, 560; Pausanias, 9.17.2]
Jocelyn, H. D. The Tragedies of Ennius. Cambridge: Cam- BIBLIOGRAPHY
bridge University Press, 1969. Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Mikalson, J. D. “Erechtheus and the Panathenaia,” American Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Journal of Philology 97 (1976): 141–53.
ERICHTHONIUS The son of HEPHAESTUS and
ERETRIA A Greek town south of CHALCIS on the Mother EARTH. The circumstances surrounding
western coast of the island of EUBOEA. [ANCIENT Erichthonius’ birth are unusual. When ATHENA
SOURCES: Plautus, Merchant 646, Persian 259, 322–23] requested that Hephaestus create armor for her, he
 ERIPHYLE 205

attempted to assault her sexually. Hephaestus’ effort tried to kill Erigone, but, just as ARTEMIS had with Iphi-
failed, but he ejaculated on Athena, who wiped off the genia at AULIS in EURIPIDES’ play, the goddess rescued
semen with a piece of wool and then threw the wool Erigone and transported her to Attica, where she
onto the ground (Earth). Mother Earth became preg- became her priestess. Apollodorus cites some
nant and Erichthonius was born. Earth returned unnamed sources, which stated that Erigone prose-
Erichthonius to Athena, who raised him at her temple cuted Orestes for killing his mother. SOPHOCLES wrote
in ATHENS, where he eventually became king after driv- an Erigone, whose two surviving fragments reveal little
ing out Amphictyon. Erichthonius is credited with about the play. Other Greek playwrights who wrote an
instituting the festival of the Panathenaea. He married Erigone that is known only by title are Cleophon,
Praxithea and by her had a son, PANDION. The story of PHILOCLES, and Phrynichus II. Among Roman authors,
Erichthonius figures in EURIPIDES’ ION, in which the title ACCIUS composed an Erigona, of which about eight
hero’s life experience has some similarities to that of lines survive. This play may have dealt with Orestes’
Erichthonius. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library attempt on Erigona’s life. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
3.14.6–7; Euripides, Ion 21, 268, 999, 1429; Hyginus, lodorus, Epitome 6.25, 28; Hyginus, Fables 122]
Fables 166]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Robertson, N. “The Origin of the Panathenaea,” Rheinisches Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Museum 128 (1985): 231–95. Harvard University Press, 1996.
Merkelbach, R. Hestia und Erigone: Vorträge und Aufsätze.
Hrsg. v. W. Blümel, B. Kramer, J. Kramer, C. E. Römer.
ERIDANUS A river west of Greece that was even-
Stuttgart: Teubner, 1996.
tually equated with the Po. PHAETHON was supposed to
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
have died near the Eridanus and his sisters’ tears over Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
their brother to have turned into amber, which could Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
supposedly be found near the river’s mouth. [ANCIENT Press of America, 1984.
SOURCES: Euripides, Hippolytus 737; Hesiod, Theogony
338; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 186] ERINYES See FURIES.

ERIGONE (Latin: ERIGONA) The daugh- ERIPHYLE (Latin: ERIPHYLA) The daugh-
ter of AEGISTHUS and CLYTEMNESTRA, Erigone was the ter of Talaus and Lysimache (or Lysianassa), Eriphyle
brother of ALETES and had at least one child, Penthilus, was the sister of ADRASTUS, king of ARGOS, and the wife
by her half brother, ORESTES. Some sources say she also of AMPHIARAUS, a prophet of Argos. Once upon a time,
produced Tisamenus by him. After a false report of the when AMPHIARAUS and Adrastus had an argument,
deaths of Orestes and PYLADES reached Aletes, he tried Amphiaraus agreed to allow Eriphyle to decide any
to take over the kingdom. When ELECTRA went to DEL- future disagreement he might have with Adrastus.
PHI to learn whether this was true, Orestes and Iphige- When Adrastus and Amphiaraus, whose prophetic
nia also happened to be there. Before Electra saw powers told him that he would die in battle against
Orestes, she saw IPHIGENIA, and the same deceitful THEBES, disagreed about whether help POLYNEICES to
messenger told Electra that Iphigenia had killed wage war against Thebes, Polyneices gave Eriphyle a
Orestes (Electra had not seen her for years and did not necklace as a bribe so that she would persuade
realize she was her sister). Electra, hearing this, Amphiaraus to participate in the expedition against
attacked Iphigenia with a burning log from a nearby Thebes. Amphiaraus did so and died in the fighting.
altar. Orestes, however, arrived in time to stop Electra. Amphiaraus and Eriphyle had two daughters
When the brother and sisters recognized one another, (Demonassa and Eurydice) and two sons (Amphilochus
they returned to MYCENAE. Orestes killed Aletes and and ALCMEON). Alcmeon avenged the death of his
206 ERIS

father by killing Eriphyle. SOPHOCLES wrote an Eriphyle, EROS (Latin: CUPID or AMOR) Accord-
although this play may have been another name for his ing to HESIOD, Eros is one of the earliest divinities to
Epigoni. The Greek tragedian Nichomachus also wrote exist. Along with Chaos, Tartarus (see UNDERWORLD),
an Eriphyle, of which only the title survives (fragment and Gaia (see EARTH), Eros appears at the beginning of
4 Snell). Among Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote an Eri- existence and has no parent or parents. Other sources
phyla; only a single line survives: “Double-bodied Pal- make him the son of APHRODITE. Eros is usually
las draws the coils of serpents” (line 326 Warmington). depicted as a handsome young male who has wings. He
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.3, 3.6.2, carries a bow and those whom his arrows strike are
3.7.2; Homer, Odyssey 11.326, 15.247–48; Hyginus, filled with feelings of love or passion. Eros does not
Fables 73; Pausanias, 1.34.2, 3.15.6, 5.17.4; Pindar, appear as a character in any extant dramas, but his
Nemean Odes 9.57, Olympian Odes 6.21] power is often mentioned and is evident in many plays,
BIBLIOGRAPHY especially EURIPIDES’ HIPPOLYTUS (which deals with PHAE-
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. DRA’s passion for her stepson) and SOPHOCLES’ TRACHIN-
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: IAN WOMEN (which focuses on several loves of HERACLES
Harvard University Press, 1996. and DEIANEIRA’s attempt to maintain Heracles’ love).
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Hippolytus 525–41,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. 1268–82, Iphigenia at Aulis 548–51, Medea 529–30,
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, Trojan Women 840; Hesiod, Theogony 120–22, 201;
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. Menander, fragment 198 Körte; Plato, Symposium;
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University Sophocles, Antigone 781–800]
Press of America, 1984.
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Körte A., and A. Thierfelder. Menandri Quae Supersunt. Vol.
Harvard University Press, 1936, 438–39. 2, 2d ed. Leipzig: Teubner, 1959.

ERIS (Latin: DISCORDIA) The daughter of EROTES This Greek term can refer either to the
NIGHT or of ZEUS and HERA, Eris personifies strife. She twin sons of APHRODITE, EROS (Roman: Cupid) and
is often found in the company of her brother, ARES. Anteros, or the winged male creatures that are fre-
The start of the Trojan War can be traced to Eris, who, quently found in situations (such as weddings) in
angered at not being invited to the wedding of PELEUS which love may be flourishing or about to flourish.
and THETIS, threw an apple inscribed “To the fairest” The Greek comic poet Myrtilus wrote an Erotes, of
into a group of goddesses. HERA, ATHENA, and which only the title survives (fragment 1 Kock).
APHRODITE all claimed the apple and asked ZEUS to [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Bacchae 405, Medea 843;
determine which of them was the fairest. Not wanting Seneca, Hippolytus 275]
to choose among his wife and two of his daughters, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Zeus turned over the choice to the Trojan PARIS, who Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
eventually chose Aphrodite as the fairest. Paris’ judg- Teubner, 1880.
ment angered the other two goddesses, who began to
prepare their revenge against Paris and the Trojans. ERYCINA See APHRODITE.
With Aphrodite’s backing, Paris ran off with MENELAUS’
wife, HELEN, and soon afterward the Trojan War began. ERYTHRAE A Greek town south of THEBES.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis 1302; [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Bacchae 751]
Herodotus, 6.86; Hesiod, Theogony 225; Homer, Iliad
4.441–45, 5.518, 11.3, 11.73, 20.48; Hyginus, Fables ERYX (1) The son of Aphrodite and Butes, Eryx
92; Pausanias, 5.19.1] was a mighty boxer who challenged all strangers to his
 ETEOCLES 207

land (SICILY) to a boxing match. Usually Eryx killed all the various Theban champions with the enemies’
his opponents, but he himself was killed when HERA- champions. When Eteocles learns that Polyneices’
CLES defeated him. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables shield bears the image of Justice leading a golden war-
260; Seneca, Hercules Furens 481] rior and an inscription that states that Justice will
restore Polyneices to his rightful kingdom of Thebes,
ERYX (2) A mountain of western SICILY that was Eteocles scoffs at the notion that Polyneices has Justice
supposed to have been named after APHRODITE’s son, as an ally and declares that he himself will go out to
ERYX. Aphrodite is sometimes called Erycina, the god- face his brother. The chorus warn Eteocles about the
dess of Eryx. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hippolytus 199, implications of killing one’s brother, but Eteocles is
Medea 707, Oedipus 600] determined to gain victory even if it means the destruc-
tion of his own brother and his own household. The
ERYXIS The son of PHILOXENUS, Eryxis was some- chorus suggest that a sacrifice might appease the gods
one who enjoyed eating and drinking. In Greek, his that oppose Eteocles’ house, but Eteocles believes the
name means “belch” or “burp.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: gods have forsaken him and his family. The Theban
Aristophanes, Frogs 934; Aristotle, Eudemian Ethics women beg Eteocles not to go out into battle against
1231a17] his brother, but he refuses. Ultimately, Eteocles and
Polyneices kill one another in battle.
ETEOCLES The son of JOCASTA and the son and In Euripides’ play, the speaking parts of Eteocles and
brother of OEDIPUS, Eteocles was the brother of POLYNE- Polyneices are almost equal. Euripides portrays Eteo-
ICES, ANTIGONE, and ISMENE. After Oedipus blinded cles as hungry for power, but Polyneices is criticized as
himself, Eteocles and Polyneices were in line for the well and neither brother will compromise. Eteocles
kingship of THEBES. Oedipus, because of some disre- arranges for the marriage of Antigone and CREON’s son,
spect his sons had shown him, had cursed the broth- Haemon; notes that the prophet TIRESIAS should be
ers to kill one another. To avoid this, Eteocles and consulted; orders Creon not to allow Polyneices to be
Polyneices agreed to take turns ruling Thebes, each buried on Theban soil if he dies in battle; and decrees
serving for a year at a time. Eteocles ruled first but death for anyone who tries to bury him in Thebes.
refused to give up power after a year. Polyneices then Eventually, Jocasta goes to the battlefield to attempt to
gathered an army and marched on Thebes. In the bat- effect the reconciliation of the brothers, but that effort
tle, Eteocles and Polyneices killed each other in single fails and the brothers kill one another.
combat. In Seneca’s Phoenician Women, Eteocles is character-
Eteocles appears as a character in AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN ized in roughly the same way as in Euripides’ play. As
AGAINST THEBES, EURIPIDES’ PHOENICIAN WOMEN, and in Euripides’ play, Jocasta tries to persuade the broth-
SENECA’s PHOENICIAN WOMEN. Each of these plays tells of ers to make peace on the battlefield, but Eteocles
the struggle between Eteocles and his brother. Polyne- declares that Polyneices must continue in exile.
ices does not have a speaking role in Aeschylus’ play, Because the text of Seneca’s play breaks off after only
although some of his words are reported and his 664 lines, how the debate between the two brothers
corpse is carried in at the play’s conclusion, along with continued or how Seneca dealt with the battle between
that of Eteocles, who delivers almost one-quarter of the the two is unknown.
lines in the play. Thus, Eteocles is the focal point in SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS AT COLONUS (401 B.C.E.) also
Seven against Thebes, in which he is seen as a somewhat deals with the events before the battle, but Polyneices,
coldhearted political and military leader. Eteocles rather than Eteocles, appears as a character in this play.
shows little sympathy toward the Theban women who Sophocles’ ANTIGONE (442/441 B.C.E.) deals with the
worry about the impending war and threatens with events after the battle, but focuses on the edict by
death anyone who disobeys him. Much of the play Creon not to bury Polyneices. Eteocles is mentioned by
shows Eteocles as the military strategist who matches name a few times in Euripides’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN,
208 ETEOCLUS

which is about the Argive attempt to recover the bod- EUATHLUS An Athenian who prosecuted
ies of their fallen champions from the Thebans. THUCYDIDES, the son of Melesias, just before 425 B.C.E.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.6.5–6; Hygi- and may have brought a charge of impiety against the
nus, Fables 67–72; Pausanias, 9.5.11–13] sophist Protagoras, who may have been his teacher.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 710, Wasps
ETEOCLUS The son of Iphis, Eteoclus was from 592, fragment 411.2 Kock; Diogenes Laertius, 9.56;
ARGOS and one of the Seven against THEBES. His pla- Quintilian, 3.1.10]
toon attacked the Neistan Gate at Thebes. Eteoclus was
killed in battle by the Theban Leades. [ANCIENT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 458; Apol-
Teubner, 1880.
lodorus, Library 3.6.3, 3.6.8; Euripides, Suppliant
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
Women 872, 1037; Pausanias, 10.10.3] Press, 1971, 213.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
ETHIOPIA The lands in Africa south of Egypt, Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980.
but north of the equator, were often referred to as
Ethiopia. SOPHOCLES wrote an Ethiopians, whose con- EUBOEA A large island that lies roughly parallel
tent is unknown (see fragments 28–33 Radt). Because to the eastern coast of Greece. Some of HERACLES’ final
two famous figures of mythology, ANDROMEDA and hours on Earth were spent on the northern end of this
MEMNON, were from Ethiopia, some scholars think island. The evil king LYCUS, who persecuted Heracles’
Ethiopians was an alternate title for Sophocles’ Androm- family, is said to have been from Euboea. [ANCIENT
eda or Memnon. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 211, Wasps 715; PLAU-
Library 2.4.3; Pausanias, 1.42.3; Seneca, Hercules TUS, EPIDICUS 153; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus; Sophocles,
Furens 38; Terence, Eunuch 165, 471] TRACHINIAN WOMEN]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. EUBOULE The personification of “Good Coun-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: sel.” [ANCIENT SOURCES:Aristophanes, Thesmophori-
Teubner, 1884. azusae 808]
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1996.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, EUCHARIDES All that is known about this per-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. son is that he was apparently a seller of vegetables.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 680]
Press of America, 1984.
EUCHLOUS See DEMETER.
ETNA See AETNA.
EUCRATES Several Athenians of this name are
EUAEON A man mentioned by ARISTOPHANES, at known during the last quarter of the fifth century B.C.E.
ECCLESIAZUSAE 408, as being a clever public speaker, but NICIAS had a brother Eucrates; another Eucrates, from
apparently so poor that he did not have a cloak. His pro- the deme of Melite, was a minor Athenian statesman
posal in the public assembly was that people should be who made a living selling bran and hemp. The identity
provided free cloaks and blankets for their bed. Euaeon of the Eucrates ARISTOPHANES mentions in LYSISTRATA is
is not mentioned elsewhere in the ancient sources. uncertain, but Aristophanes indicates that he was a
BIBLIOGRAPHY military commander in Thrace when that play was pro-
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, duced in 411. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 177. 129, 254, Lysistrata 103, fragment 696 Kock]
 EUNUCH 209

BIBLIOGRAPHY EUMOLPIDAE The descendants of Eumolpus,

Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon the son of POSEIDON. At the town of ELEUSIS, the
Press, 1987, 79. Eumolpidae served as priests for the Eleusinian MYS-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
TERIES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Demosthenes, 59.117;
Teubner, 1880.
Plutarch, Alcibiades 22, 33; Sophocles, Oedipus at
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 150.
Colonus 1053; Thucydides, 8.53.2]

EUNUCH TERENCE (161 B.C.E.?) The date of

EUDAMUS (EUDEMUS) A seller of medi- the play is in some dispute as the play’s production
cine, magical charms, and poison. [ANCIENT SOURCES: notice and all its manuscripts say that it was TERENCE’s
Aristophanes, Wealth 884; Plato Comicus, fragment second. The play’s production notice, however, gives a
217 Austin; Theophrastus, History of Plants 9.17.2] date of 161 B.C.E., which would date it after ANDRIA and
BIBLIOGRAPHY SELF-TORMENTOR. Terence drew upon MENANDER for the
Austin, C. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta in Papyris original. The action takes place on an Athenian street
Reperta. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1973. before the houses of Demea, an Athenian gentleman,
and Thais, a prostitute. In the play’s prologue, Terence
EUELPIDES A character in ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS, warns an unnamed rival poet (who was, in fact, Luscius
Euelpides has a name that means “son of good hope.” Lanuvinus) not to attack him for staging a play that had
already been produced by NAEVIUS and PLAUTUS, as well
Euelpides joins Peisetaerus in leaving ATHENS and
as transferring characters from Menander’s Flatterer into
pursuing a life among the birds. About halfway
Menander’s Eunuch, the latter of which was the primary
through the play, Peisetaerus sends Euelpides to build
model for Terence’s play. The prologue speaker does not
walls for their city in the clouds and perform various
deny transferring the characters but does deny stealing
other administrative tasks necessary for the city’s
from the work of Naevius or Plautus.
operation. Euelpides does not return to the stage after
In the opening act, Demea’s son, Phaedria, and his
this point.
middle-aged servant, Parmeno, discuss Phaedria’s love
of Thais. Soon, Thais emerges from her house and tells
EUMELUS The son of ADMETUS and ALCESTIS, Parmeno and Phaedria that once a merchant had given
Eumelus married Icarius’ daughter, Iphthime. He Thais’ mother a young girl (who turns out to be Pam-
fought at TROY and competed in the chariot race at phila), whom pirates had stolen from SUNIUM (near
PATROCLUS’ funeral games. SOPHOCLES wrote a Eumelus, Athens). When Thais’ mother died, Thais’ greedy
whose content is unknown (fragment 205 Radt). brother sold Pamphila (who people thought was Thais’
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 3.14, 5.5; sister). A male friend of Thais’, the soldier Thraso,
Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis 217–26; Homer, Iliad whose name means “bold” or “confident,” happened to
2.713–15, 23.287–565; Hyginus, Fables 97] buy Pamphila and planned to give her to Thais as a
BIBLIOGRAPHY present, but has not yet done so. Thais, who loves
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. Phaedria, asks him to allow the soldier to spend a few
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: days with her so that she can receive the young woman
Harvard University Press, 1996. and restore her to her real family, whom she claims to
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, have found. Phaedria reluctantly agrees to this but
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. complains because he typically gives Thais anything
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University she wants. Phaedria points out that when Thais said
Press of America, 1984. she wanted a eunuch, he bought her one. Phaedria
says that he will leave town for a few days and spend
EUMENIDES See ORESTEIA. time at his house in the country. Thais praises Phaedria
210 EUNUCH

for his attitude, but before he leaves he tells Parmeno been questioning Chremes about Pamphila, who Thais
to watch over his interests while he is away. must suspect is Chremes’ brother. Soon, Chremes is
After Phaedria leaves, Parmeno witnesses the arrival taken to see Thais at Thraso’s house. After Chremes’
of Gnatho (“jaw”), PARASITE to the soldier Thraso, and a departure, Antipho, a young Athenian gentleman,
beautiful woman named Pamphila. Parmeno listens as enters in search of Chaerea, because they had agreed to
Gnatho explains how he flatters people to get invita- have dinner together and Chaerea was in charge of the
tions to dinner. Gnatho also says that he is taking Pam- arrangements. Antipho is amazed to see Chaerea,
phila to Thais’ house. After a brief conversation with dressed as a eunuch, appear at the door of Thais’
Parmeno, Gnatho enters Thais’ house with Pamphila. house. When Antipho questions Chaerea about what
After Gnatho delivers Pamphila, he emerges from her he is doing, Chaerea explains his scheme and also
house and exits. Next, Parmeno watches as a breathless informs Antipho that he has just sexually assaulted
Chaerea, the brother of Phaedria, enters in search of Pamphila. Stunningly, Antipho’s immediate response to
Pamphila. Chaerea has seen Pamphila, has fallen in this announcement is to wonder whether Chaerea has
love with her, and was following her but was delayed taken care of their dinner arrangements. Chaerea states
by one of their relatives, Archidemides. When Chaerea that he has, and the two then exit for Antipho’s house
sees Parmeno, he confesses his feelings for the young so Chaerea can change his clothes.
woman to Parmeno, who realizes that he must be look- After the departure of Antipho and Chaerea, Dorias,
ing for Pamphila. Parmeno tells Chaerea where Pam- one of Thais’ maidservants, enters and reports that
phila is and informs him of the situation between trouble broke out at Thraso’s house at the arrival of
Thraso and Thais. Upon hearing that Phaedria was giv- Chremes, who Thraso believed Thais had taken in as a
ing a eunuch to Thais, Chaerea expresses envy, because rival to him for Thais’ affections. Thus, to make Thais
the eunuch will be in close proximity to Pamphila. Par- jealous, Thraso asked for Pamphila to be taken over to
meno jokingly suggests that Chaerea should switch entertain the party. Thais, upset by this suggestion,
clothes with the eunuch so that he can be close to her. took some trinkets that were found with Pamphila
Chaerea is delighted by this idea and drags Parmeno when she was a young girl and gave them to Dorias to
into their house to make the change. take home (a gesture that Dorias took as indicating
In the play’s third act, Gnatho and Thraso arrive. Thais would soon be leaving Thraso’s house). After
After some initial bragging by Thraso about his great- Dorias’ entry into Thais’ house, Phaedria, longing to
ness and wit, they discuss how Thraso should deal with see Thais, returns from the country. Next, Pythias and
Thais’ jealousy that Thraso is attracted to Pamphila. Dorias enter; Phaedria listens in horror as Pythias tells
Thraso knows that Thais does not love him, but Gnatho Dorias that the eunuch raped Pamphila. Phaedria, not
tries to encourage him. Soon, Thais herself enters. knowing that the eunuch was his brother in disguise,
Gnatho tries to persuade Thais and Thraso to leave so approaches the two maidservants and asks about the
that they can have dinner. Parmeno, who has arrived on trouble. When Phaedria hears that the eunuch whom
the scene, tries to prevent them from moving inside by he gave to Thais has assaulted Pamphila, he does not
telling her to wait for the gifts (an Ethiopian maidser- believe such a thing could happen. Still, Phaedria
vant and the eunuch) that Phaedria has for her. Thais goes out to find the eunuch. Soon, he returns with
agrees and the maid, Pythias, and Chaerea, dressed as a the real eunuch dressed in Chaerea’s clothes. When
eunuch named Dorus, are taken over to Thais’ house. Phaedria shows the eunuch to Thais’ maidservants,
With this exchange taken care of, at last Thraso, they claim they have never seen the man before.
Gnatho, and Thais set out for Thraso’s house to dine. Dorus then explains that Chaerea switched clothes
The play’s fourth act opens with the arrival of a with him, but Phaedria, hearing of his brother’s mis-
young Athenian gentleman named Chremes, who sus- behavior, does not believe the eunuch and soon,
pects that Thais wants to cause him some trouble. threatening to torture him to find out the truth, drags
From Chremes’ speech, it becomes clear that Thais has him off to his house.
 EUNUCH 211

After Phaedria’s exit, Pythias and Dorias wonder Pythias sees Parmeno approaching and decides to scare
what they should do next. Dorias takes the box with him, because she has suspected that Parmeno had
Thais’ jewelry into the house, while Pythias remains some role in Chaerea’s earlier scheme. Accordingly,
outside and talks to an intoxicated Chremes, who is on Pythias begins complaining loudly about the outrage
his way back from Thraso’s house. Chremes tells caused by the eunuch and Parmeno. When Parmeno
Pythias of the quarrel between Thraso and Thais, who asks Pythias to explain, she tells him that the eunuch
soon arrives on the scene. Thais tells Chremes that the has sexually assaulted an Athenian citizen (a crime that
quarrel involves him, because it concerned his long- would have carried a heavier penalty than assault on a
lost sister, who, Thais says, is inside her house. Thais slave). Pythias also says that Chremes learned of it, tied
also tells Chremes that Thraso is on his way to the up the eunuch, and threatened to punish him in the
house to take the young woman to his house. Chremes way that adulterers are punished (probably castration
wants to get some other men to help him against in this instance, an ironic punishment because
Thraso, but Thais tells him that Chremes should sim- eunuchs were already assumed to be castrated). At this
ply tell Thraso that the woman is his sister and show point, Parmeno informs Pythias that Chaerea is the
him the trinkets that Thais has saved. culprit and that no harm had better come to him.
After the exit of Thais and Chremes into her house, Pythias suggests, however, that Parmeno himself may
Thraso, accompanied by Gnatho and a band of ser- find trouble because people may think that he planned
vants armed with items such as crowbars and sponges, Chaerea’s dressing as a eunuch.
enters and threatens to storm Thais’ house, take Pam- As Parmeno considers his own trouble, his master,
phila, and punish Thais. When Thais and Chremes the father of Chaerea and Phaedria, approaches. Par-
appear at a window on the second floor of the house, meno, though he realizes he may receive a beating,
Thraso complains to her that she took in someone as a decides to tell his master the truth about what has hap-
rival to him and threatens to carry off Pamphila by pened. When the father hears of the threat to Chaerea,
force. Chremes, however, declares that Pamphila is his he enters Thais’ house to intervene. Soon, Pythias
sister and a freeborn Athenian. Chremes also says that emerges from the house and laughs about the joke she
he will soon produce evidence to prove his claim. has played on Chaerea’s father. She also informs Par-
After the departure of Thraso and his “army,” the meno of the joke she has played on him. After Pythias’
play’s final act begins with a quarrel between Thais and return to Thais’ house, Parmeno eavesdrops as Thraso
Pythias, who has informed Thais about Chaerea’s sex- and Gnatho approach. Thraso states his intent to “sur-
ual assault of Pamphila. Thais chastises Pythias for render” to Thais. Before Thraso can enter Thais’ house,
allowing this to happen, but Pythias hopes they will Chaerea emerges and declares to Parmeno his delight
have some measure of revenge, as she sees Chaerea at learning that Pamphila has been discovered to be an
approaching. Chaerea is still dressed as a eunuch Athenian citizen and that she will marry him. Chaerea
because he was prevented from changing his clothes by also announces that Phaedria’s relationship with Thais
various mishaps. Thais approaches him and chastises is stable and that Thais will reject Thraso. After Par-
him as if he were the eunuch Dorus. Soon, however, meno goes to inform Phaedria of this, Phaedria
she drops her pretense and confronts him with his emerges from his house and expresses his joy to
actions. Chaerea explains his love for Pamphila and his Chaerea. Thraso, who has been eavesdropping on this
desire to marry her. Thais agrees to this and Chaerea, conversation, begs Gnatho to create a scheme to win
despite Pythias’ objection, enters the house with Thais. over Thais. Gnatho agrees to try but recognizes the dif-
In the next scene, Chremes arrives with a nurse, ficulty of fulfilling the soldier’s desire. At this point,
Sophrona, who will help prove that Pamphila is Thraso and Gnatho step forward and address the
Chremes’ sister. Pythias approaches them and learns brothers. Phaedria threatens the soldier to expect trou-
that Sophrona has recognized the items that confirm ble if he ever goes to Thais’ house again. Gnatho inter-
Pamphila’s identity. As they discuss these things, venes, however, and takes the brothers aside. Gnatho
212 EUNUCH

proposes that Phaedria “use” Thraso to keep Thais sup- beloved. We may also consider Philocrates, in Plautus’
plied with expensive gifts (because Phaedria has little CAPTIVES, who is a freeborn male but pretends to be a
money for such things) and that they allow Gnatho slave. This role, however, does not involve such an
himself to spend time with them rather than Thraso. extreme change of costume.
Gnatho tells Phaedria that he need not fear that Thais Not only is Chaerea’s change of costume extreme,
will fall in love with Thraso, and that they can get rid but his rape of the music girl seems unusually violent,
of the soldier whenever they like. The brothers agree to despite his professed love for her and desire to marry
this proposal and, as the play ends, welcome the her. Of course, several Roman comedies make refer-
unwitting soldier to join them at Thais’ house. ence to freeborn males’ raping women, but the play-
wrights seem to try to mitigate the violence of these
COMMENTARY acts by placing them in a distant past when the man
As do most of Terence’s other plays, Eunuch has a dou- was young, intoxicated, and at some festival at which
ble plot in which two lovers are ultimately united with wild behavior would not be surprising. Chaerea is not
the women they desire. Phaedria’s relationship with at a festival, he is not intoxicated, and the rape takes
Thais, however, is relegated to the background as Ter- place in the present, not in the distant past. Instead of
ence somewhat clumsily sends him off to the country. the usual mitigating elements that accompany such
Although Terence’s prologue denies stealing from Plau- rapes, in Terence’s play blame for Chaerea’s actions is
tus, this play is Terence’s most Plautine work. No other placed on the slave Parmeno (1007–8) for convincing
Terentian play contains a prominent BRAGGART WARRIOR, Chaerea to dress as a eunuch (of course, Parmeno did
and Thraso’s eventual defeat, although of secondary not tell Chaerea to commit rape). Another effort to mit-
importance in the play, recalls Plautus’ BRAGGART WAR- igate Chaerea’s violence may be Terence’s introduction
RIOR. Thraso’s army of kitchen-tool-equipped slaves of the roles of the parasite and braggart warrior.
provides an amusing scene and is reminiscent of Plau- The theme of altered clothing appears later in the
tus’ lighter comic touch. Although the title character of play as well. At lines 646 and 820, we learn that
Terence’s PHORMIO is called a parasite, Phormio bears Chaerea tore Pamphila’s hair and ripped her clothing
little resemblance to the usual food-obsessed parasites (646, 820). Thus, Chaerea has radically altered not
of Plautus’ comedies. In Eunuch, however, Gnatho’s only his clothing but the young woman’s as well.
strategy of success through flattery and his obsession Chaerea’s actions also lead to the false accusation of the
with food show him to be a parasite more in the Plau- real eunuch, who is wearing Chaerea’s clothes (671);
tine tradition. because the eunuch is no longer wearing colorful
Terence’s use of cross-dressing also seems to clothing, his appearance is unpleasant (683). Besides
embrace the bawdier style of Plautus. The dressing of tearing Pamphila’s clothing, Chaereas exchanges cloth-
the young man as a genderless eunuch is reminiscent ing with the eunuch, an exchange also described in
of Plautus’ CASINA, in which Chalinus dresses as a bride somewhat violent language as the eunuch responds in
and tricks Olympio, who tries to consumate a relation- the affirmative to Phaedria’s question, “Did Chaerea
ship with the person he thinks is the slave-woman take your clothing from you?” (707). The Latin verb
Casina. In Terence’s play, however, Chaerea is a free- used here, detrahere, can literally be translated “to drag
born male, whereas in Plautus’ Chalinus is a slave. In away.” Thus, it seems Chaerea has done violence to the
Roman COMEDY, freeborn men may behave foolishly, eunuch’s clothing as well as Pamphila’s. The false accu-
but they do not subject themselves to such an extreme sation of the real eunuch becomes even more perilous
change of costume as Chaerea’s. Such overt role play- for the eunuch when Pamphila is discovered to be an
ing is usually done by slaves, as in the example of Athenian citizen. When Chaerea raped Pamphila, she
Chalinus. Perhaps the closest example would be Pleu- was supposed to be a slave, but when the eunuch is
sicles, who in Plautus’ Braggart Warrior disguises him- alleged to have raped her, her status had changed to
self as a ship’s captain so that he can escape with his freeborn, and, as noted, in Athenian law the rape of a
 EURIPIDES 213

freeborn woman was considered a more serious offense politician HYPERBOLUS. Eupolis’ other datable plays
than the rape of a slave. include Autolycus (420), Cities (420), Dippers (Baptai;
Some measure of revenge is taken against Chaerea 424–15), and Demes (417–12). Eupolis also wrote
later in the play when he, still dressed as a eunuch, is plays entitled Abusers of Law (Hubristodikai), Comman-
chastised by Thais as if he were the eunuch Dorus. ders (Taxiarchoi), Friends, Goats, The Golden Race, Laco-
After Chaerea confesses his wrongdoings to her, he is nians, and Thefts. As Aristophanes did in WASPS,
able to return to shed his eunuch’s clothing. Chaerea’s Eupolis dealt with corrupt jurors in Abusers of Law, and
change of clothing occurs just in time, too, as he avoids his Men of Prospalta seems to have concerned litigation.
having his future brother-in-law (907) see him dressed In Commanders, DIONYSUS seems to have been trained
in such a shameful fashion. Thus, although Terence’s under the Athenian naval commander PHORMIO. In
Eunuch may contain more Plautine elements than any FROGS (405), Aristophanes may have adapted this idea
of his other plays, Terence may have needed these ele- as Dionysus has difficulties in rowing for CHARON in
ments to offset the extreme violence of his young lover the UNDERWORLD. Eupolis’ Demes may also have had
Chaerea. some influence on Frogs, as this play deals with the
four deceased leaders returning from the underworld
BIBLIOGRAPHY
to save Athens from ruin. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
Brothers, A. J. The Eunuch: Terence. Warminster, U.K.: Aris
& Phillips, 2000. phanes, Clouds 553, scholia on Clouds 551, argument
Dessen, C. S. “The Figure of the Eunuch in Terence’s to Acharnians, Peace; Athenaeus, 5.216d; Horace, Satire
Eunuchus,” Helios 22, no. 2 (1995): 123–39. 1.4.1; Inscriptiones Graecae ii2 2325.59, 126]
Konstan, D. “Love in Terence’s Eunuch: The Origins of Erotic
Subjectivity,” American Journal of Philology 107 (1986):
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Harvey, D., and J. Wilkins, eds. The Rivals of Aristophanes:
369–93.
Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. London: Duckworth and
Saylor, C. F. “The Theme of Planlessness in Terence’s
the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, 159–246.
Eunuchus,” Transactions of the American Philological Associa-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
tion 105 (1975): 297–311.
Teubner, 1880.
Smith, L. P. “Audience Response to Rape: Chaerea in Ter-
Sidwell, K. “Aristophanes’ Acharnians and Eupolis,” Classica
ence’s Eunuchus,” Helios 21 (1994): 21–38.
et Mediaevalia 45 (1994): 71–115.

EUPHEMIUS An otherwise unknown person EURIPIDES (CA. 484–406 B.C.E.) The date of
mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at WASPS 599. Euripides’ birth is uncertain. One ancient source places
it in 484; another tradition says that he was born in the
EUPHORIDES A fictional character named as year of the battle of SALAMIS, 480. Although comic poets
one of the chorus members in ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNI- characterized Euripides as having parents of little
ANS (612). His name means “son of good carrier.” wealth and low birth (they said Euripides’ mother sold
vegetables), these slanders cannot be confirmed, and
EUPOLIS (D. CA. 411 OR 410 B.C.E.) Eupolis other information about Euripides suggests that his
was a rival of ARISTOPHANES and was considered one of parents were respectable and had a healthy income.
the best comic poets of his era. Eupolis’ first play, Men Inscriptions record that Euripides served as wine
of Prospalta, was produced in 429, just two years before pourer for well-born young males who honored
Aristophanes’ first play. His Days of the New Moon APOLLO, and on another occasion he served as torch
(Noumeniai) was defeated by Aristophanes’ ACHARNIANS bearer in a procession for Apollo. Euripides is said to
at the LENAEA in 425, and his Flatterers (which attacked have been an athlete early in his career, then to have
CALLIAS’ relationship with SOPHISTS) competed against taken up painting, and finally become a poet. Euripides
Aristophanes’ PEACE at the City DIONYSIA in 421. Also was a member of the DEME of PHYLA, but his family had
in 421, at the Lenaea, Eupolis’ Maricas took aim at the property on the island of Salamis and he is said to have
214 EURIPIDES

done some of his writing there. Ancient sources often (438), MEDEA (431), THE CHILDREN OF HERACLES (ca.
stated that Euripides studied with thinkers such as Pro- 430), HIPPOLYTUS (428), ANDROMACHE (ca. 426), HECABE
tagoras and SOCRATES. Euripides’ writing also shows (ca. 424), SUPPLIANT WOMEN (ca. 422), HERACLES (ca.
that he knew something of the work of Anaxagoras and 417), TROJAN WOMEN (415), ELECTRA (ca. 415), IPHIGE-
Prodicus, and after his lifetime Euripides was called the NIA IN TAURIS (414 or 413), HELEN (412), ION (ca. 410),
philosopher of the stage. Tradition reports that Euripi- PHOENICIAN WOMEN (ca. 410), ORESTES (408), Bacchae
des was married twice (to Melito and Choirile) and had (405), Iphigenia at Aulis (405), CYCLOPS (a SATYR PLAY),
three sons, Euripides the younger, Mnesarchides, and and Rhesus (which some scholars do not believe
Mnesilochus. After Euripides died, the younger Euripi- Euripides wrote).
des produced his IPHIGENIA AT AULIS and BACCHAE for Not only did Euripides write plays, but, as alluded
competition in Athens. to, a fictional Euripides appeared as a character in sev-
According to one rumor, Euripides’ slave eral plays. Three of Aristophanes’ surviving plays have
Cephisophon, who was said to have helped Euripides Euripides as a character. In ACHARNIANS, Aristophanes
compose his plays, seduced Euripides’ wife. This can- satirizes Euripides’ practice of having major characters
not be confirmed, however, and the rumor may have on stage dressed in rags when Dicaeopolis goes to the
evolved from another stereotype about Euripides, tragedian’s house to borrow the costume of Telephus
namely, that he hated women (compare ARISTOPHANES’ from Euripides’ play of the same name. In THESMOPHO-
THESMOPHORIAZUSAE). This stereotype arises from state- RIAZUSAE, Aristophanes portrays Euripides as a hater of
ments made by characters in some of Euripides’ plays, women and has the women at the Thesmophoria
both male and female, who make remarks about the decree death for the tragedian. Finally, in FROGS,
evils of women. Euripides has an equal number of neg- DIONYSUS goes to the UNDERWORLD with the intention of
ative remarks about men, however, and one later taking back Euripides because all of the other good
writer, Athenaeus, calls him not a hater, but a lover of poets have left Athens or are dead. At the play’s con-
women. Euripides died at the court of the Macedonian clusion, however, Dionysus decides to take Aeschylus
king Archelaus, where he spent the last two years of his back to the upper world because he judges him better
life. One tradition says that Euripides died after being able to advise the Athenians than Euripides.
torn apart by dogs. This story, however, should be dis- If one compares Aristophanes’ portrayal of Socrates
missed as being modeled on the death of ACTAEON, a in CLOUDS and of Euripides’ in Frogs, one finds a great
character in mythology who died in that manner. number of similarities and none of them speaks well of
SOPHOCLES, who himself would die within another Euripides. Both are described as worshiping unusual
year, is said to have honored Euripides by wearing divinities, corrupting people with their ideas, and
mourning clothes and by summoning his chorus expressing themselves in ways that were difficult for
before the play without their usual garlands. people to understand. On several occasions, Aristo-
Although Euripides did not gain as much critical phanes quotes lines from Euripides’ plays that the
acclaim as AESCHYLUS or SOPHOCLES during his lifetime comic playwright found bizarre (e.g., “My tongue has
(Euripidean dramas had only four victories, more than sworn, my mind remains unsworn”; “What is shame-
three times fewer than those of Aeschylus), after his ful unless it seems so to those who do it?”; “Who
death Euripides’ plays continue to enjoy more popu- knows if life is death or death is life?”).
larity than those of Aeschylus or Sophocles. Euripides’ Although much of Aristophanes’ criticism of Euripi-
first known play, Peliades (The daughters of Pelias), des is exaggerated, in contrast to Aeschylus and
was staged in 455 (the year after Aeschylus’ death), Sophocles, Euripides definitely seems to have tested
and he had his first victory in 442 (with which plays is the limits of dramatic art. His expository prologues, in
unknown). Euripides put some 90 plays on the stage, which a single character appears at the beginning and
of which 19 survive (five more than the combined sur- “sets the stage” for the events that will ensue, were crit-
viving plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles): ALCESTIS icized as rather bland, but we find the same sort of pro-
 EURYBATES 215

logues in PLAUTUS. Euripides is also criticized for not married Asterius, a Cretan prince. The continent of
integrating the chorus skillfully into the action of his EUROPE takes its name from her. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
plays, but in some cases (e.g., Orestes) this may have Apollodorus, Library 2.5.7, 3.1.1; Homer, Iliad 14.321,
been done to create a particular dramatic effect or Odyssey 4.564; Hyginus, Fables 178; Ovid, Metamor-
emphasize a particular theme. Critics have often noted phoses 2.833–75; Seneca, Hercules Furens 9, Hercules
the artificial or contrived endings of many of his plays Oetaeus 550, Octavia 206, 766, Oedipus 715, Trojan
through a deus ex machina (see MECHANE). Women, Women 896]
common people, and slaves receive more attention in
Euripides’ plays than in those of the other two great EUROTAS A river in southern Greece on which
playwrights. ELECTRA’s peasant husband has more lines the town of SPARTA is located.
than CLYTEMNESTRA in Euripides’ Electra, and in Iphige-
nia in Tauris a cowherd’s speaking role is more exten- EURYALUS (1) The son of Mecisteus, Euryalus
sive than that of the Taurian king, THOAS. Euripides gained fame for sailing with the Argonauts, as well as
was interested in the psychological motivation of his serving on the Greek side during the Trojan War.
characters, and sometimes his characters seem incon-
sistently drawn as they waver back and forth between EURYALUS (2) According to Parthenius’ Erot-
courses of action (e.g., MEDEA in Medea, AGAMEMNON ica, ODYSSEUS, after he left TROY, went to Epirus and,
in Iphigenia at Aulis). They often express a cynical atti- while staying with KING Tyrimmas, impregnated his
tude toward the behavior of their fellow humans and daughter, Euippe, who produced Euryalus. When
the divinities that control the world. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euryalus grew up, he traveled to ITHACA in search of
Aristophanes, Acharnians, Frogs, Thesmophoriazusae; his father. When Euryalus arrived at his father’s house,
Aristotle, Poetics passim; Athenaeus, Deipnosophists he was met first by Odysseus’ wife, PENELOPE, who
passim; Dio Chrysostomus, Oration 52; Suda, e3695; immediately became jealous of Odysseus’ child. When
see especially Kovacs] Odysseus arrived on the scene, Penelope convinced
him that Euryalus planned to kill him and that
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burnett, A. P. Catastrophe Survived: Euripides’ Plays of Mixed Odysseus should kill Euryalus, and he did. SOPHOCLES
Reversal. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. wrote a Euryalus, of which only the title survives.
Conacher, D. J. Euripidean Drama. Toronto: University of Because Mecisteus’ son, EURYALUS (1), does not seem to
Toronto Press, 1967. be a character suited for drama, scholars generally
Kovacs, D. Euripidea. Leiden: Brill, 1994. agree that Sophocles’ play was about Odysseus’ son,
Mossman, J., ed. Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Euripi- Euryalus.
des. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: BIBLIOGRAPHY
Methuen, 1967. Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1996.
EURIPUS The narrow strait between the island of Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
EUBOEA and mainland Greece. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
EUROPA The daughter of AGENOR (or Phoenix), Press of America, 1984.
Europa was the sister of CADMUS, Cilix, Phoenix, and
Thasus. She was seduced by ZEUS (disguised as a bull), EURYBATES A herald from ITHACA who aided
who carried her from her home (TYRE) to the island of AGAMEMNON and ODYSSEUS during the Trojan War.
CRETE, where he sexually assaulted her. She gave birth Agamemnon sent Eurybates on embassies to take BRI-
to several sons by Zeus: MINOS, RHADAMANTHYS, and SEIS from ACHILLES and to try to persuade Achilles to
Sarpedon. After her experience with Zeus, Europa continue fighting in the war. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer,
216 EURYCLES

Iliad 1.318–48, 9.170, Odyssey 19.244–48; Seneca, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agamemnon 392, 421] Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1996.
EURYCLES Either a prophet or a spirit who gave
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
prophecies through other people. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Aristophanes, Wasps 1019; Plato, Sophist 252c; Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Plutarch, Moralia 414e] Press of America, 1984.

EURYDICE (1) The wife of CREON in SOPHO- EURYSACES The son of AJAX and TECMESSA,
CLES’ANTIGONE. She appears at the end of the play Eurysaces was a child no more than 10 years old when
(1180ff.) and learns that her son, HAEMON, has com- his father committed suicide at TROY. Eurysaces was
mitted suicide. In grief, Eurydice hangs herself. taken back to Ajax’s native island of SALAMIS and even-
tually became king there. Justin 44.3 relates that
EURYDICE (2) The wife of ORPHEUS, Eurydice Eurysaces’ uncle, TEUCER, founded the town of Salamis
died of a snakebite on the day she was married. on CYPRUS and later returned to the island. Repelled by
Orpheus went to the UNDERWORLD to recover her, but Eurysaces, Teucer left and later established the town of
as they were leaving, Orpheus looked back (in viola- Galicia in Spain.
tion of HADES’ command) and Eurydice returned to the SOPHOCLES wrote a Eurysaces, of which one quota-
land of the dead. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, tion survives; Lloyd-Jones thinks the play may have
1.3.2; Hyginus, Fables 164, 251; Ovid, Metamorphoses been the same as Sophocles’ Teucer. Among Roman
10.1–85; Pausanias, 9.30.6; Seneca, Hercules Furens authors, ACCIUS wrote a Eurysaces, of which some 40
569, Hercules Oetaeus 1084] lines survive. Several of the fragments, which describe
someone who appears to be an exile and wandering
EURYDICE (3) The wife of Lycurgus, king of over land and sea, may refer to Teucer. Fragment 363
NEMEA. She appears as a character in EURIPIDES’ HYP- mentions taking someone to Salamis. Fragment 367
SIPYLE and threatens HYPSIPYLE with death because Eury-
mentions a possible attack on a king, but which king
dice blames her for the death of her son, OPHELTES. is unknown. In fragment 368, the speaker (Eurysaces?)
orders two or more people, apparently servants or
BIBLIOGRAPHY guards, to drag someone (Teucer?) away quickly.
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London:
Heinemann, 1970, 77–109. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
EURYPYLUS The son of TELEPHUS and Astyoche, Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Eurypylus went as an ally to the Trojans in the 10th Harvard University Press, 1996.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
year of the war after the deaths of ACHILLES and HEC-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
TOR. Initially, Eurypylus did not want to fight, but in a
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
situation similar to the story of AMPHIARAUS and ERI- Press of America, 1984.
PHYLE, PRIAM, the brother of Eurypylus’ mother, Asty- Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
oche, bribed his sister with a golden vine to persuade Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Euryalus to enter the war. Eurypylus did so and Harvard University Press, 1936.
achieved some success but eventually was killed by
Achilles’ son, NEOPTOLEMUS. SOPHOCLES wrote a EURYSTHEUS The son of Sthenelus and PELOPS’
Eurypylus, of which 121 fragments exist, most of them daughter, Nicippe, Eurystheus is called the king of
extremely brief. One of the fragments appears to refer ARGOS, MYCENAE, or TIRYNS. He became famous for his
to the duel between Eurypylus and Neoptolemus. persecution of HERACLES, who would have become king
 EXTRAS 217

of the land were it not for the trickery of HERA. Eurys- BIBLIOGRAPHY
theus and Heracles were related: ALCMENA, Heracles’ Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
mother, was the daughter of ELECTRYON; Electryon’s Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 160.
brother, Sthenelus, was the father of Eurystheus. Also,
Eurystheus’ father, Sthenelus, and Alcaeus, the father of EXARCHON A Greek term for the leader of a
Heracles’ mortal father, AMPHITRYON, were both sons of chorus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Demosthenes, 18.260]
PERSEUS, who was a son of ZEUS, as was Heracles. When
Hera discovered that Alcmene was pregnant with Zeus’ EXECESTIDES A person mocked by ARISTO-
child, she persuaded her husband to swear that the next PHANES as a slave and a barbarian. MacDowell thought
of his descendants to be born would inherit the king- Execestides’ father may have disowned his son in
dom. Zeus, knowing that Heracles would soon be born, infancy as a bastard and that later Execestides, when he
agreed to the oath. At this, Hera delayed the birth of became an adult, may have sued to gain recognition as
Heracles and sped up the birth of Eurystheus. Because a legitimate son. Dunbar suggests that Execestides may
Eurystheus was born before Heracles, the kingdom have been an Athenian who was raised abroad and
became his. Many years later, after Heracles killed his then returned to ATHENS and tried to reclaim status as
wife and children in a fit of Hera-induced insanity, the his father’s legitimate son. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
DELPHIC ORACLE made Heracles perform 10 (or usually phanes, Birds 764, 1527]
12) labors to atone for his crime. The oracle required BIBLIOGRAPHY
that Heracles perform these tasks for Eurystheus. Eurys- Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
theus was ultimately killed by either Iolaus, Heracles’ sity Press, 1995, 137–38.
nephew, or Heracles’ son HYLLUS. Eurystheus appears as MacDowell, D. M. “Foreign Birth and Athenian Citizenship
a character in EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES and is in Aristophanes.” In Tragedy, Comedy, and the Polis: Papers
taken before Heracles’ mother, Alcmena. His fate in this from the Greek Drama Conference, Nottingham, 18–20 July
play is unclear because of the ancient manuscript breaks 1990. Edited by A. H. Sommerstein, S. Halliwell, J. Hen-
off before the conclusion. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- derson, and B. Zimmermann. Bari: Levante Editori, 1993.
lodorus, 2.8.1; Diodorus, 4.57.6; Euripides, Children of
Heracles 843 ff.; Isocrates, Panathenaicus 194, Panegyricus EXODOS The Greek word exodos means “exit
58, 60; Pausanias, 1.44.9; Pindar, Pythian Ode 9.79 ff.] song.” The exodos is the part of a drama that is not fol-
lowed by a choral song; thus, it is the play’s conclusion.
EURYTUS A king of the town of Oechalia on the [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristotle, Poetics 1452b21–22]
island of EUBOEA. Eurytus was the father of, among
others, IPHITUS and IOLE. Heracles wanted to marry EXOSTRA Another name for the ECCYCLEMA.
Iole, but Eurytus declared that he could marry her only [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon 4.127, 129]
if he defeated Eurytus and his sons in an archery con-
test. Heracles defeated them, but Eurytus still refused EXTRAS Minor participants in a drama. The
to marry Iole to Heracles. For a time, Heracles left Greek expression for “extras” is kopha prosopa (“mute
Eurytus, but just before the end of Heracles’ life, Her- persons”). SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, for example, has three
acles returned and destroyed Eurytus and his kingdom kopha prosopa: the child Eurysaces, the child’s tutor,
and took Iole as a captive in the process. [ANCIENT and a herald. This expression is somewhat misleading,
SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Furens 477, Hercules Oetaeus however, because sometimes kopha prosopa do speak.
100, 207, 221, 1490; Sophocles, Trachinian Women] Pylades has three important lines in AESCHYLUS’ Liba-
tion Bearers (see ORESTEIA), in which he gives ORESTES
EUTHYMENES An Athenian who held the advice on the question of killing Orestes’ mother. In
office of ARCHON in 437/436 B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: most cases, however, the extras consisted of slaves
Aristophanes, Acharnians 67] (who might carry things on- or offstage), ATTENDANTS
218 EXTRAS

on important persons, or those who played children’s phanes’ plays at whom men gawk and grab were
parts. In several plays (EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS, ANDRO- played by extras. In Roman comedy, the extras prima-
MACHE, and SUPPLIANT WOMEN, to name a few), children rily represent the lower classes (slaves, prostitutes, and
have brief remarks. Even divine beings could be extras. cooks). Plautus’ CARTHAGINIAN has a group of coun-
HERMES does not speak in Aeschylus’ Eumenides (see selors and his ROPE has a group of fishermen.
ORESTEIA) and in PROMETHEUS BOUND Force remains
BIBLIOGRAPHY
silent. Greek COMEDY made more extensive use of
Stanley-Porter, D. P. “Mute Actors in the Tragedies of Euripi-
extras than TRAGEDY. Although surviving tragedies usu- des,” Bulletin for the Institute of Classical Studies 20 (1973):
ally have no more than 10 prosopa, only one of ARISTO- 68–93.
PHANES’ 11 plays (KNIGHTS) has fewer than 10 prosopa. Zweig, B. “The Mute Nude Female Characters in Aristo-
In WASPS, certain boys guide the CHORUS into the phanes’ Plays.” In Pornography and Representation in Greece
orchestra. In CLOUDS, extras would have been needed and Rome. Edited by A. Richlin Amy. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
to play the various students of SOCRATES’ whom STREP- versity Press, 1991, 73–89.
SIADES is shown. Certain attractive women in Aristo-
 C FD
FABULA ATELLANA Also known as Atellana, non Suppositus and The Judgment of Arms; Novius’
Atellan farce, or Oscan farce (Oscan was a dialect in Andromache, Hercules Coactor, and Phoenician Women).
Italy), Fabula Atellana was a type of drama that was BIBLIOGRAPHY
said to have originated in the town of Atella, near Italy’s Beare, W. The Roman Stage. London: Methuen, 1950, 137–48.
western coast between Rome and Naples. Although no Frassinetti, P. Fabula Atellana. Genova: Istituto di filologia
complete Atellan play has survived, we do know of classica, 1953.
some 120 titles and 300 lines of fragments from the Lowe, J. C. B. “Plautus’ Parasites and the Atellana.” In Stu-
works of Lucius Pomponeius of Bononia and a certain dien zur vorliterarischen Periode im frühen Rom. Edited by
Novius, both of whom were active during the first two Gregor Vogt-Spira. Tübingen: Narr, 1989.
decades of the first century B.C.E. The subject matter of
the Atellana usually appears to have revolved around FABULA PALLIATA “A play in Greek clothing”
the humorous situations of everyday life in “small- (the pallium), fabulae palliatae are comedies that Roman
town” central Italy. In contrast to that of the plays of playwrights adapted or translated from Greek plays by
MENANDER, PLAUTUS, and TERENCE, the language of the such playwrights as APOLLODORUS of Carystus, DIPHILUS,
Atellana appears to have been more coarse and MENANDER, and PHILEMON. Although these plays were
obscene. As did the comedies of the authors men- performed for Roman audiences, their characters
tioned, Atellana employed broad humor and stock dressed in Greek clothing. All of the comedies of PLAU-
characters who wore MASKS. Atellan stock characters, TUS and TERENCE are examples of fabulae palliatae. Other
however, were often different from those found in the writers of fabulae palliatae include CAECILIUS Statius,
works of those playwrights. Six titles from Pomponius Gnaeus NAEVIUS, Luscius Lanuvinus, and Sextus Turpil-
and three from Novius contain the name of a character ius (died 103 B.C.E.), but only fragments of their plays
named Maccus (“buffoon”). Four titles from Pompo- survive. In Rome, fabulae palliatae were popular during
nius’ plays and one from Novius’ include the name of the last three centuries B.C.E.
a character named Pappus (“grandfather”). Fullers and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
their trade (the pressing and cleaning of cloth) also Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
appear to have been popular subjects, as two of Pom- N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952.
ponius’ plays and three of Novius’ mention fullers or Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
their trade in the title. A few of the titles indicate some Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
similarity to Greek SATYR PLAYS (Pomponius’ Agamem- Harvard University Press, 1936.

219
220 FABULA PRAETEXTA

FABULA PRAETEXTA Plays written in Latin Whether the gods controlled the Fates or vice versa
that dramatized historical events. The only extant depends on the source. In AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS
example is Octavia, attributed to the younger Seneca. BOUND 515–18, Zeus himself must abide by what the
Several other fabulae praetextae are known, however. Fates decree. The Fates could be tricked, and both
Naevius wrote a play called Clastidium, which appears AESCHYLUS, at Eumenides (see ORESTEIA) 723–24, and
to have dealt with Marcus Claudius Marcellus’ return EURIPIDES, in ALCESTIS, mention Apollo’s deception of
to Rome after a victory over Viridomarus in 222 B.C.E. the Fates, which resulted in ADMETUS being able to
Naevius also put on a Romulus (also entitled The Wolf; avoid his death provided that he could find someone
Latin: Lupus), which seems to have treated Romulus’ to die in his place.
exposure at birth and suckling by the she wolf.
FESCENNINE VERSES Named after the Ital-
BIBLIOGRAPHY ian town of Fescennium, these coarse verses were sung
Flower, Harriet I. “Fabulae Praetextae in Context: When
at weddings. They were an early form of dramatic
Were Plays on Contemporary Subjects Performed in
entertainment in Italy in which masked performers
Republican Rome?” Classical Quarterly 45 (1995): 170–90.
engaged in improvised conversations with rude or
crude language. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Catullus,
FABULA TOGATA Comedies written in Latin 61.126–55; Seneca, Medea 113]
in which the characters dressed in Roman clothing
(i.e., the toga). This type of COMEDY emerged in the sec-
ond century B.C.E. A poet named Titinius is credited
FIDICINA See MUSIC GIRL.
with inventing this type of comedy, and some 180
verses and a dozen titles of his plays have survived. FLUTE See AULOS.
Writers of togata include Lucius Afranius and Titus
Quinctius Atta (who died in 77 C.E.). Some five dozen FORTUNE Among the Greeks, this goddess, who
titles and more than 600 lines (two-thirds of which are personified chance or luck, was named TYCHE; the
from Afranius) survive from the togata, but no single Romans called her Fortuna.
play can be reconstructed. Women apparently played
greater roles in togata than in FABULA PALLIATA, but the FORUM In Roman culture, the forum was a cen-
clever slaves of the palliata were apparently not per- ter for commercial and civic business. The Greek coun-
mitted in the togata. The togata not only presented terpart is the AGORA. According to Erich Segal, business
“love affairs between young people of respectable fam- in the forum is an obstacle to the enjoyment of the fes-
ilies” (Duckworth), but also referred to same-sex rela- tival atmosphere created in Plautine COMEDY.
tionships between men.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Segal, Erich. Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. New
Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton, York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 68–70.
FRAGMENTS Of the thousands of plays written
FATES These female divinities, usually three in by the ancient Greeks and Romans, about 85 complete
number, are also called the Moerae (or Moirai) by the plays survive. In many cases, however, fragments of
Greeks or the Parcae by the Romans. In both lan- incomplete plays survive. The majority of these frag-
guages, their individual names are Clotho (“spinner”), ments are no more than two lines; many times a frag-
Lachesis (“assigner of lots”), and Atropos (“unavoid- ment may only be a single word. Occasionally, the
able”). In Theogony, HESIOD called them the daughters fragments of a play amount to more than 100 lines. In
of Night (Greek: Nyx) in one place (217–22), and the some cases, a play’s fragments are in an ancient manu-
daughters of ZEUS and THEMIS in another (901–6). script that has been damaged or broken off. In most
 FROGS 221

instances, however, they are from quotations from Freud’s psychoanalytic theories have been applied to
other ancient authors. For example, the philosopher Euripides’ MEDEA, HIPPOLYTUS, and BACCHAE, and
Plato might quote a line from a play by EURIPIDES. Aeschylus’ PROMETHEUS BOUND, just to name a few.
Athenaeus of Naucratis, living in the second century
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C.E., preserves hundreds of quotations from Greek
Derrida, J. The Post Card: From Socrates to Freud and Beyond.
TRAGEDY and COMEDY.
Translated by A. Bass. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1987.
FREUD, SIGMUND (MAY 6, 1856–SEP- Rudnytsky, P. L., and E. H. Spitz, eds. Freud and Forbidden
TEMBER 23, 1939) Born in Freiburg, Moravia, Knowledge. New York: New York University Press, 1994.
Sigmund Freud is credited with the establishment of Santas, G. X. Plato and Freud: Two Theories of Love. Oxford:
psychoanalytic theory. Freud’s theories have exerted Blackwell, 1988.
considerable influence on the interpretation of classical
drama. Freud published numerous works, but his FROGS (Greek: BATRACHOI; Latin:
work that has had the most impact on classical drama, RANAE) ARISTOPHANES (405 B.C.E.) The
The Interpretation of Dreams, in which Freud discussed play won first prize at the LENAEA over PHRYNICHUS’
this theory of the oedipus Complex, appeared in 1900. Muses and Plato’s Cleophon. The play opens as DIONY-
This theory was based upon his reading of a passage in SUS, the god of wine and drama, and his slave, Xan-
SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, in which JOCASTA thias, make their way to HERACLES’ house. Dionysus,
remarks to OEDIPUS that in their dreams many men who is on foot, wears not only his yellow robe and the
have had sexual relations with their mother. Freud boots that are traditionally worn by tragic actors, but
concluded that the reason Sophocles’ play had such a over his robe, in imitation of Heracles, he wears a lion
tremendous impact on the audience was that all men skin and carries a club. The slave Xanthias carries his
have a desire (which is repressed in most people) to master’s luggage but rides on a donkey. Heracles, upon
have sexual relations with their mother and kill their arriving at his house, is amused to see Dionysus
father (as Oedipus did). Because sons want and need dressed as he dresses and questions him about the rea-
the love of their mother, they come to view their father son. Dionysus tells Heracles that he intends to travel to
as a sexual rival. Thus, to eliminate the sexual rival, the UNDERWORLD (as Heracles did) and take back the
Freud believed, sons harbor a desire to kill their father. tragic poet EURIPIDES, because no “good” poets are left
Freud also advanced a corresponding theory with in ATHENS. Dionysus goes on to ask Heracles’ advice
respect to daughters, the Electra complex, named after about how best to reach the underworld and what he
ELECTRA, the daughter of AGAMEMNON and CLYTEMNES- might expect to encounter along the way.
TRA. In plays such as AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bearers (see After receiving advice from Heracles, Dionysus and
ORESTEIA), SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA, and EURIPIDES’ ELECTRA, Xanthias set out for the underworld. Failing to hire a
Electra has feelings of hatred toward her mother and corpse to carry their baggage, they continue until they
love toward her father, in whose murder her mother encounter CHARON, who agrees to ferry Dionysus
participated. In the Electra complex, daughters want to across the lake to the underworld. Charon refuses to
produce children by their father. Daughters also expe- carry a slave in his boat, so Dionysus tells Xanthias that
rience an envy of the father’s penis, desire to have a he must walk around the lake on foot. After Charon
penis of their own, and blame their mother for, as it and Dionysus embark, Dionysus must help row the
were, castrating them. boat. As he rows, a CHORUS, composed of the spirits of
Although most modern psychologists regard Freud’s dead frogs, sing a hymn to Dionysus and intermittently
theories in this area as simplistic, Freud’s work has croak out a rhythm to which Dionysus rows
influenced modern interpreters of classical drama, who (brekekekex koax koax). Dionysus complains about the
have tried to apply psychoanalytic methodology to pains of rowing and the noise of the frogs, which refuse
some ancient dramas. In addition to Oedipus Tyrannos, to stop their croaking.
222 FROGS

Eventually, Dionysus arrives at the opposite side of After the exit of Aeacus, Dionysus, and Xanthias to
the lake and Xanthias joins him. After the pair again Pluto’s house, the chorus deliver the PARABASIS. They
set out, they encounter the monster EMPUSA, which urge the people of Athens to restore the rights of citi-
causes Dionysus to soil his clothing. Next, another zenship to those who had been disenfranchised by the
chorus, composed of the souls of those who have been oligarch rulers a few years earlier. They also advise the
initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries (see Eleusis), Athenians to reverse their practice of making use of
enter and sing a hymn to IACCHUS. They also ward off worthless men for important tasks.
all things profane and sing processional hymns to After the parabasis, Aeacus and Xanthias enter. Xan-
PERSEPHONE, DEMETER, and Iacchus. Before their thias questions Aeacus about the commotion inside
departure, the chorus inform Dionysus that he has Pluto’s house. Aeacus informs Xanthias that AESCHYLUS
arrived at the house of Pluto (see HADES). and Euripides are quarreling over who should be rec-
Soon, Dionysus, still dressed as Heracles, knocks on ognized as the greatest tragic poet. Aeacus also relates
the door to Pluto’s house. When AEACUS answers and that Pluto has proposed a competition between the two
sees a man who he thinks is Heracles, he threatens to tragedians and that Dionysus will serve as the judge.
have him torn to pieces. After Aeacus leaves to fetch After the exit of Aeacus and Xanthias and a brief com-
some monsters to attack “Heracles,” Dionysus tells ment by the chorus in anticipation of the upcoming
Xanthias to wear the Heracles disguise. No sooner does contest, Dionysus, Aeschylus, and Euripides enter.
Xanthias put on the disguise than a maidservant from After the two poets verbally abuse each other and pray
Pluto’s house appears at the door, sees “Heracles,” and to their respective gods (Aeschylus to Demeter, Euripi-
invites him in to a huge banquet at which several des to Ether), Dionysus begins the contest.
attractive women will provide the entertainment. After Euripides complains that Aeschylus would custom-
the maidservant returns to the interior of the house, arily bring onto stage a character dressed as a mourner,
Dionysus makes Xanthias give him back the disguise. who not say anything for a long time, but when such
Next, the female keeper of a bake shop and her part- characters did finally speak, no one could understand
ner, Plathane, appear, see Heracles (Dionysus), and what they were saying because the language was so
charge him with gobbling down some of their food complex. Euripides claims he himself put the language
during his previous trip to the underworld and terrify- of TRAGEDY on a diet and slimmed it down. Further-
ing them. When the two women run off to find their more, he explained matters clearly in the opening pro-
male patrons, CLEON and HYPERBOLUS, who will bring logue and allowed characters from every social class to
lawsuits against Heracles, Dionysus again makes Xan- speak, to speak at length, and to examine the hows and
thias wear the Heracles costume. whys of things.
At this point, Aeacus returns with some attendants Aeschylus responds by declaring that his own plays,
and tells them to seize “Heracles.” Xanthias/Heracles such as SEVEN AGAINST THEBES and PERSIANS, made peo-
declares his innocence and says that he will allow his ple seek to behave more virtuously and with greater
slave (Dionysus) to be examined under torture to zeal to fight on behalf of their country. He declares that
prove his innocence. Hearing this, Dionysus declares it is a poet’s duty to teach his audience something use-
his own true identity and claims that Xanthias/Hera- ful, and not to present onstage, as Euripides does,
cles is the slave and should be flogged as well. Because women who behave wickedly. Aeschylus claims
Xanthias is a slave and is accustomed to being beaten, Euripides’ poetry has led to moral decline in society
he has no objection to this proposal. Thus, Aeacus and even to a lack of physical fitness, because young
flogs both Xanthias and Dionysus to determine which men now sit around all day and argue about philo-
is telling the truth about being a god. Unfortunately for sophical quibbles instead of exercising.
Aeacus, both the slave and the god prove themselves After a brief choral comment on the state of the
resistant to pain and Aeacus decides to take the two competition thus far and the intellectual ability of the
inside to Pluto and Persephone to determine the truth. audience to comprehend the points that the poets are
 FROGS 223

making, the two poets examine each other on the qual- phanes’ earlier plays, and Xanthias’ role has often been
ity of their prologues. Euripides complains that regarded as a precursor to the clever slaves of New
Aeschylus’ prologues contain statements that are illog- Comedy. The switching of costumes and roles by Xan-
ical and redundant, and Aeschylus argues that Euripi- thias and Dionysus is also extremely funny and fits in
des’ prologues contain statements that are factually with the theatrical theme of the play. Dionysus and
inaccurate and that his metrical patterns are so pre- Xanthias are characters in a play about the quest for a
dictable that the phrase “he lost his bottle of oil” can good poet, but they also play different roles within that
frequently be inserted at the end of a line. Similarly, play (e.g., Heracles).
Euripides charges Aeschylus with writing choral pas- The interaction of Dionysus and the chorus of croak-
sages that are monotonous metrically and contain ing frogs is brilliant, although whether the audience
bizarre words. Aeschylus responds by claiming that would have actually seen a chorus dressed as frogs or
whereas his Muse is pure, Euripides’ is a wanton whether the frogs were only heard is debated. At line
woman who plays castanets rather than a lyre and 205, Charon says that Dionysus will hear the frogs, a
whose lyrics violate the rules of meter. After this con- statement that would imply that he will not see them.
test, scales with two pans are carried out and the poets On one hand, some have thought that the Athenian
compete to see whose verses have most “weight.” economy was so pressed by the war that the cost of
Aeschylus wins this event because he includes things equipping two choruses would have been too great at
such as rivers, chariots, and death in his verses, this time. On the other hand, the main chorus in Frogs
whereas Euripides speaks of “lighter” topics. is dressed in rags (presumably inexpensive to produce),
In the play’s final contest each poet gives advice on so perhaps money would have available to provide for
how the people of Athens should deal with the states- the presumably more expensive frog costumes.
man ALCIBIADES and how the Athenians can be saved In addition to the fun of the croaking frogs, that
militarily. Eventually, Dionysus must make a choice, scene also involves the use of a boat. Certainly a boat
and, despite his earlier desire to restore Euripides, the on wheels must have been employed, but how such a
god chooses Aeschylus. After Dionysus, Aeschylus, boat would have been propelled along the orchestra is
and Pluto go back into Pluto’s house for a banquet, the not clear. Dover suggests the possibility that men hid-
chorus praises the person of intelligence who does not den out of sight in the wings pulled the boat from one
engage in philosophical babble as Socrates does (and wing to the other. This would not have taken long,
Euripides). Soon, Pluto and Aeschylus emerge from however, unless the boat were pulled at a very slow
the house and Aeschylus is sent on his way back to the pace. The distance from one wing to the other was less
upper world. Before Aeschylus leaves, he tells Pluto to than 100 feet and the choral ode itself is some 60 lines
give his chair (as best tragedian among the dead) to long. Are we to expect that this boat crept along at one
SOPHOCLES. The play ends with the chorus’ praising foot per line? Perhaps the boat around the perimeter of
Aeschylus and hoping that he can provide Athens with the orchestra was either pulled around the perimeter
good advice. by an unobtrusive extra or propelled by the foot power
of the person who played Charon. The Athenians were
COMMENTARY familiar with the construction of boats on wheels, as
Frogs is one of Aristophanes’ finest plays and contains they used one in the procession to their ACROPOLIS at
an excellent blend of humor and seriousness. The idea the City DIONYSIA, so the boat in which Dionysus trav-
of raising someone from the dead to remedy a social els would not have been a vessel whose construction
crisis in Athens was not new with Aristophanes, as was completely foreign to those who built it.
EUPOLIS had done something similar with the great Another problem of staging is the donkey that Xan-
political leaders of Athens in his Demes in the previous thias rides. Dover thinks that a real donkey was used
decade. The expanded role of the wisecracking slave, and then led off by a slave at line 44 when Dionysus
Xanthias, is a new feature in comparison to Aristo- tells Heracles to approach him. One wonders how wise
224 FROGS

it would have been to employ a real donkey onstage, poets are the teachers of adults and poets should say
because these animals can be rather temperamental things that benefit people.
and before thousands of spectators the animal might With its educational focus, Frogs has much in com-
become more unpredictable. A “stick donkey” might mon with Aristophanes’ CLOUDS, and the Euripides of
have been used to more humorous effect. At line 32, Frogs has much resemblance to the Socrates of Clouds.
Dionysus apparently tells Xanthias to pick up the don- Aristophanes links both men with babbling (lalia) non-
key and carry the animal, because Xanthias complains sensically; expressing thoughts that are difficult for
that the donkey is not helping him bear his load. At others to understand; having associations with some of
line 35, when Dionysus tells Xanthias to dismount, the more vile people in society; regarding Ether and
Xanthias could pretend to dismount the “stick donkey” the Tongue as divinities; teaching people to use tricky
and then placed the stick donkey over his shoulder, rhetoric; corrupting those who listen to them; and
thus picking up the donkey and carrying him as even being responsible for poor physical fitness of the
Dionysus suggested. society (because people no longer exercise, but sit and
Although Frogs is filled with laughs, when the play argue about philosophical nonsense). Aeschylus, in
appeared in 405 B.C.E., the political situation in Athens contrast, argues that his poetry has taught people how
was a tense one. The Athenians had been at war with to be brave in battle and loyal to one’s country and to
the Spartans and their allies since 431, and the Athen- behave in a morally upright fashion. Ultimately, when
ian political and military fortunes had been especially Dionysus chooses Aeschlyus, he does on the basis of
difficult during the decade before Frogs. The oligarchic who can give Athens the best advice in its time of cri-
revolution of 411 had defeated and democracy had sis. As Aeschylus begins his journey to the upper
been restored. Athens’ most skilled military com- world, the chorus praise him as someone who is intel-
mander, Alcibiades, had been condemned to die in ligent (1490) but take a parting shot at both Euripides
415, had escaped the Athenians and gone over to the and Socrates by saying that sitting around and bab-
Spartan side, had been taken back to Athens, and then, bling (lalein, 1492) with Socrates both contributes to
in 406, after an Athenian loss at the battle of Notion, the corruption of tragedy and is the mark of a person
been exiled again. Also of importance to Frogs was the who is mentally unstable.
battle of ARGINUSAE in 406. Here, the Athenians One final aspect of Frogs that we should not neglect
defeated the Spartans, but adverse weather prevented is Dionysus’ role in the play. If Dionysus is to be con-
the Athenians from recovering those who sailed on sidered the hero of the play, he certainly seems differ-
ships that had been wrecked. Upon returning to ent from other Aristophanic heroes. Aristophanic
Athens, the Athenian commanders were tried as a heroes are typically common mortals who try to rise up
group (contrary to usual Athenian practice) and con- against some social crisis and devise a novel plan to
demned to die. bring about reform. Although Dionysus does have a
In addition to the political background of Frogs, plan to reform a social crisis, he is the only divine hero
another important aspect of this play is that it provides in Aristophanes’ extant plays. One helpful approach to
some of the earliest extant comments on the role and understanding Dionysus’ role is that taken by Moor-
value of the poet and poetry in society. Just as in our ton, who analyzes Dionysus’ journey in terms of a rite
own times some think the subject matter of certain tel- of passage. Ancient rites of passage include traveling to
evision programs, motion pictures, or popular music a strange land, crossing a threshold, and returning
can have a negative effect on society, in the same way across that threshold. During this journey, the traveler
Aristophanes suggests (although in a manner that is must undergo various tests or challenges. If the traveler
perhaps not altogether serious) that the poets can cor- is successful in his or her journey, society will be regen-
rupt the morals of society or even influence people to erated on the traveler’s return. Dionysus’ journey to the
behave in a certain way. As Aristophanes has Aeschylus underworld, his crossing of the lake of frogs, his flog-
say at lines 1034–36, children have their teachers, but ging by Aeacus, and his judging of the contest between
 FURIES 225

Euripides and Aeschylus reflect elements of such rites the wound of the castrated divinity URANUS. In
of passage. Dionysus begins his journey with the desire Eumenides (see ORESTEIA), AESCHYLUS calls them the
to bring back Euripides, and in the course of his jour- daughters of Night. Ancient vase paintings depict them
ney, he discovers that Aeschylus will be of more value as having wings, but in Eumenides Aeschylus says they
to the city of Athens than Euripides. Just as Heracles do not have wings. Aeschylus goes on to describe them
traveled to the underworld and rescued the Athenian as being black, breathing heavily, and having eyes that
Theseus from that realm and restored him to the Athe- give off a discharge. The Furies were invoked in curses
nians, Dionysus, disguised as Heracles, travels to the and called upon to punish unavenged crimes, espe-
underworld, rescues Aeschylus, and restores him to cially those involving the killing of parents by children.
the Athenians. According to Euripides’ HERACLES, In classical drama, the Furies are best known for their
staged about a decade before FROGS, Theseus later pursuit and persecution of ORESTES after he killed his
returned the favor by granting that hero asylum in mother, CLYTEMNESTRA. In Aeschylus’ Eumenides, the
Athens after his madness. In the case of Aeschylus, his Furies make up the chorus and pursue Orestes to Del-
return to Athens would not only regenerate Dionysus’ phi and ATHENS, where they submit their grievance to
favorite artistic medium, tragedy, but regenerate ATHENA and the judgment of her citizens. After the
Athens as well. judgment rules against the Furies, they threaten to
attack Athens, but Athena manages to persuade them
BIBLIOGRAPHY to live in her city and enjoy the worship of her people.
Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
After the Furies agree to Athena’s proposal, they
1993.
change their name to Eumenides, which means “the
Moorton, R. F. “Rites of Passage in Aristophanes’ Frogs,”
Classical Journal 84 (1988–89): 308–24. kindly ones.”
Moorton, R. F. “Aristophanes on Alcibiades,” Greek, Roman The Furies are frequently mentioned in other Greek
and Byzantine Studies 29 (1988): 345–59. dramas but do not appear as characters. In EURIPIDES’
Padilla, Mark. “The Heraclean Dionysus: Theatrical and ORESTES, the title character appears to suffer from their
Social Renewal in Aristophanes’s Frogs,” Arethusa 25 torment as the play opens, but they never take the
(1992): 359–84. stage. In IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, Euripides represents some
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9 of the Furies as refusing to accept the judgment of
Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996. Athena and continuing to torment Orestes. In Roman
TRAGEDY (SENECA’s THYESTES), a Fury appears from the
FURIES Also known as the Erinyes or Semnae, UNDERWORLD to compel the ghost of TANTALUS to drive
the Furies, according to HESIOD’s Theogony, were born ATREUS to kill the sons of his brother, THYESTES, and
as a result of the spilling of blood onto the ground from cause Thyestes to eat his own children.
 C GD
GAIA See EARTH. Trojan kings (Assaracus, Erichthonius, Tros). Accius
makes him the brother of Ilus and Assaracus.
GALATEA The sea NYMPH Galatea, whose name Ganymede was abducted by ZEUS, who some sources
means “milk-white” in Greek, was the daughter of say had taken on the form of an eagle. Other sources
Nereus and Doris. Galatea was in love with Acis, and say a whirlwind whisked Ganymede away. Zeus took
the CYCLOPS Polyphemus was in love with Galatea. In a Ganymede to Mount OLYMPUS, where Ganymede
jealous rage, POLYPHEMUS killed Acis with a boulder became Zeus’ cupbearer. Zeus compensated
and Galatea changed Acis into a river in SICILY. The Ganymede’s father for the loss by giving him a golden
comic poet Nicochares wrote a Galatea, whose two grapevine, which HEPHAESTUS made, or a team of
surviving fragments indicate nothing about the play’s mares. Among the constellations, Ganymede repre-
subject matter. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library sents the water carrier Aquarius. Ganymede also
1.2.7; Hesiod, Theogony 251; Homer, Iliad 18.45; became one of Zeus’ sexual partners, and his name is
Ovid, Metamorphoses 13.738–897] often synonymous with the submissive partner in
intercourse between males. In EURIPIDES’ CYCLOPS, the
BIBLIOGRAPHY drunken and sexually aroused CYCLOPS tells SILENUS
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
that he will turn him into his Ganymede. Three Greek
Teubner, 1880.
comic poets wrote plays entitled Ganymede: Alcaeus
(fragments 2–9 Kock 1), Antiphanes (fragments 73–74
GAMOS A Greek word meaning “marriage.” Many
Kock 2), and Eubulus (fragments 17–18 Kock 2). In
dramas, especially comedies, end with some sort of
each case, however, the fragments are too brief to
union, real or symbolic, of a male and female. For
inform us of the play’s content. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
example, at the conclusion of ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS, the
Accius, fragment 653b; Aristophanes, Peace 724;
main character, PEISETAERUS, is married to Basileia, the
Euripides, Cyclops 582–85, Trojan Women 820–58,
personification of sovereignty. EURIPIDES’ HELEN con-
Orestes 1392, Iphigenia at Aulis 1053; Hyginus, Fables
cludes with a sort of remarriage of HELEN and
224, 271; Plautus, Menaechmi 143–46]
MENELAUS; in SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE, the title character
experiences a figurative marriage with death. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ambrose, Z. Philip. “Ganymede in Euripides’ Cyclops: A
GANYMEDE (Latin: CATAMEITUS) Study in Homosexuality and Misogyny,” New England
Born at TROY, Ganymede is called the son of various Classical Newsletter 23, no. 3 (1995–96): 91–95.

226
 GERYON 227

Burnett, A. “Trojan Women and the Ganymede Ode,” Yale there may have been two different persons named
Classical Studies 25 (1977): 291–316. Geres. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschines, 1.75 and the scho-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: lia; Lysias, 14.25–28 and the scholia]
Teubner, 1880.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: BIBLIOGRAPHY
Teubner, 1884. Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
GARGETTUS A DEME in Athenian territory near 218–19.
Mount HYMETTUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
Thesmophoriazusae 898] GERON An otherwise unknown man mentioned
by ARISTOPHANES at ECCLESIAZUSAE 848. His name means
GE See EARTH. “old man” in Greek. Because Geron is mentioned in the
same sentence as a young man who is enjoying the
GELA A town on the southwestern coast of SICILY. communal banquet, Aristophanes may be suggesting
AESCHYLUS died at Gela in 456 B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: that young and old alike could exist happily side by
Aristophanes, Acharnians 606] side under the new system of government.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENETYLLIS Either a goddess associated with Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
childbirth or a title of APHRODITE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998. 212.
Aristophanes, Clouds 52, Lysistrata 2, Thesmophori-
azusae 130] GERYON The son of Chrysaor and Callirrhoe,
Geryon had three heads and six arms, and his three
GERAESTUS A cape at the southern end of the upper torsos met at a single waist that branched out
island of EUBOEA. POSEIDON is sometimes called the god into six legs. ARISTOPHANES calls him “four-feathered”
of Geraestus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights (tetraptilôi), but no other tradition mentions this attrib-
561; Euripides, Cyclops 295, Orestes 993] ute and modern scholars are at a loss to explain it.
Geryon ruled over Erytheia (or Erythrea), which has
GERANOS Pollux says the geranos could be low- been identified with the town of Cadiz in Spain, or
ered from above the stage building (see SKENE) and some unknown island west of Spain. While in search of
used for raising a body from the ground, as when the Geryon’s cattle, HERACLES battled with this bizarre
goddess EOS raises up the body of MEMNON. This humanoid, killed him, and took his cattle. The trage-
device was probably not in use until after the fifth cen- dian Nichomachus wrote a Geryon, of which only the
tury B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon title survives. The comic poet Ephippus also wrote a
4.127, 130] play called Geryon, from which about three dozen lines
survive. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Agamemnon 870
GERES It is uncertain whether this person was (see ORESTEIA); Apollodorus, Library 2.5.10; Aristo-
merely a fictional character (his name hints at a Greek phanes, Acharnians 1082; Euripides, Heracles 423–24;
word for “old man,” geron) or a man active in Athens Plautus, Pot of Gold 554; Seneca, Agamemnon 841, Her-
between the 420s and 390s B.C.E. The ancient com- cules Furens 487, 1170, Hercules Oetaeus 26, 1900]
mentators on ARISTOPHANES, ECCLESIAZUSAE 932, claim
BIBLIOGRAPHY
there was a historical Geres who had little money or Burkert, W. “Le mythe de Géryon: Perspectives préhis-
hair. At ACHARNIANS 605, Aristophanes also mentions a toriques et tradition rituelle,” Il mito greco: Atti del Con-
Geres, and a historical Geres (who was bald) is known vegno internazionale (Urbino 7–12 maggio 1973). Edited by
to have participated in an embassy to northwestern B. Gentili and G. Paioni. Roma: Ed. dell’ Steneo e Biz-
Greece in the 420s. The possibility also exists that zarri, 1977, 273–83.
228 GERYONES

Davies, M. “Stesichorus’ Geryoneis and Its Folk-Tale Ori- Polemon, who had returned from war, was informed
gins,” Classical Quarterly 38 (1988): 277–90. by his slave, Sosias, sent ahead to the house, that Glyc-
era was embracing another man. What Sosias and
GERYONES See GERYON. Polemon did not know, however, was that the other
man was Glycera’s twin brother, Moschion. Apparently,
THE GHOST See THE HAUNTED HOUSE. Glycera knew that Moschion was her brother but did
not want to inform him of this. Not only did Moschion
GIANTS The offspring of EARTH, the Giants tried not know that Glycera was his sister, but he was also in
to overthrow ZEUS and the other Olympian divinities. love with her. After Polemon was led to believe that his
Zeus and his allies discovered that they could not mistress was taking up with another man, he appar-
defeat the Giants without the help of a mortal, and so ently became enraged and cut off Glycera’s hair. Not
they enlisted the aid of HERACLES, who was part mor- much of the first act survives after the departure of
tal. With Heracles as their ally, Zeus and the Misapprehension. It would appear, however, that Glyc-
Olympians destroyed the Giants. The Greek comic era took refuge at Myrrhine’s house.
poet Cratinus the younger wrote a Giants; the brief The play’s second act begins with the arrival from
fragments that survive (fragments 1–2 Kock) give no the city of Moschion and his slave, Daos, who tells his
indication of the play’s content. [ANCIENT SOURCES: master that Glycera is in his foster mother Myrrhine’s
Apollodorus, Library 1.6.1–2; Euripides, Heracles 179, house. Moschion then tells Daos to serve as his “spy,”
1191, 1272, Ion 207, 988; Hesiod, Theogony 185–86; enter Myrrhine’s house, and keep him informed of
Hyginus, Fables prologue section 4; Seneca, Hercules what is happening. Daos soon emerges and reports
Furens 976, Oedipus 91, Thyestes 806, 1084; Sopho- that Glycera is bathed and appears to be waiting for
cles, Trachinian Women 1059] him. Moschion orders Doas to go back inside and
BIBLIOGRAPHY announce his presence. When Daos returns, he reports
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: that Moschion’s mother is angry at Daos because she
Teubner, 1884. thinks he has told Moschion that Glycera took refuge
in their house. Upon hearing this, Moschion is also
THE GIRL WITH THE SHAVEN HEAD angry at Daos, as he believes the slave has ruined his
(Greek: PERIKEIROMENE) MENANDER chances with his sister. Eventually, Daos calms Mos-
(CA. 302 B.C.E.) About half of this play survives, chion and persuades him to go inside Myrrhine’s house
and more than 100 lines are missing from its opening and try to correct the situation.
act. The play’s setting is CORINTH, and the action occurs After Moschion exits, Polemon’s servant, Sosias,
before two houses, one belonging to the soldier Pole- arrives; sees Daos; and demands that Glycera be
mon, the other to Myrrhine, the foster mother of a returned to Polemon. Sosias threatens Daos and his
young man named Moschion. The play’s text picks up household with violence if she is not returned, and this
in the prologue, which is delivered by a divinity, Mis- threat sends an unnerved Daos back into Myrrhine’s
apprehension. The goddess informs the audience that house. The last part of the act is missing; apparently
the wife of an old man named Pataikos had twins, Sosias leaves to tell Polemon where Glycera has taken
Glycera and Moschion. When Pataikos’ wife died dur- refuge.
ing childbirth, Pataikos exposed the children so they The opening of the play’s third act is also missing;
would die. An old woman found the children and however, Sosias and Polemon have returned with a rag-
raised Glycera, and she gave Moschion to a wealthy tag band of slaves (and a music girl, Habrotonon) to
woman named Myrrhine. The goddess’ speech also make their assault on Myrrhine’s house. Pataikos, who
reveals that before her appearance, Glycera, the mis- will turn out to be Glycera and Moschion’s father, is
tress of Polemon, appeared onstage with her hair cut present and tries to calm the soldier and Sosias. Even-
off. The reason for Glycera’s hair’s being cut off was that tually, Polemon enlists Pataikos’ help and persuades
 GLAUCUS (1) 229

him to talk to Glycera on his behalf. Before this takes soldier in MENANDER’s play. Although his violent act
place, however, Pataikos escorts Polemon back into his carries both injustice and misfortune, as Fortenbaugh
(Polemon’s) house. As they leave, Moschion emerges has shown, Pataikos intervenes on his behalf and
from Myrrhine’s house and shouts after them. He also Glycera ultimately forgives him. Furthermore, one
begins to complain about what occurred inside the notes that in Menander’s play, the soldier “gets the
house, but the last part of the act is missing. Apparently, girl” at the play’s conclusion. Contrast Plautus’ CUR-
Myrrhine revealed to him that he could not marry Glyc- CULIO, in which the soldier and girl discover that they
era but does not appear to have told him why. are brother and sister and the young freeborn male
The fourth act’s beginning is also missing, and the will become the girl’s husband. The opposite occurs in
text picks up with a conversation between Pataikos Menander’s play. Glycera’s role in the play is also note-
and Glycera, who claims she was not trying to seduce worthy, and Konstan has discussed how throughout
Moschion. Glycera also tells Pataikos about some items much of the play she has a status in between that of
she has that will ultimately help reveal her parents’ wife and citizen. This status gives Glycera a sort of
identity. Glycera calls in to her maid Doris and asks her freedom that she will no longer enjoy once she
to carry out the box in which these items are kept. becomes the wife of Polemon.
While Pataikos is looking over the items, Moschion
BIBLIOGRAPHY
enters from Myrrhine’s house. Not noticing Glycera
Fortenbaugh, W. W. “Menander’s Perikeriomene: Misfortune,
and Pataikos, Moschion reveals that he has learned Vehemence, and Polemon,” Phoenix 28 (1974): 430–43.
that his mother exposed both him and his sister. The Karnezis, J. E. “Comments on Menander’s Perikeiromene and
continuing conversation between Glycera and Pataikos Epitrepontes,” Platon 31 (1979): 111–22.
causes Pataikos to realize that he is Glycera’s father and Konstan, D. “Between Courtesan and Wife: Menander’s
to explain why he had abandoned her and her brother. Perikeiromene,” Phoenix 41 (1987): 122–39.
Moschion overhears their conversation and realizes
that Pataikos must be his father. The last part of the act GLAUCETES An Athenian who had a ravenous
is lost, but brother, sister, and father must have recog- appetite that earned him nicknames such as “whale”
nized one another. and “turbot” (fish). He may have been the son of
The opening of the play’s final act is also missing; Peisander of ACHARNAE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
when the text resumes Polemon is relating his contin- phanes, Peace 1008, Thesmophoriazusae 1035; Plato
ued distress about Glycera to Doris, although he has Comicus, fragment 106 Kock]
learned that Moschion and Glycera are brother and sis-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ter. Doris tries to cheer up Polemon and tells him that Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
he and Glycera will be reunited. When Polemon hears Teubner, 1880.
Glycera and Pataikos leaving the house, he panics and Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5,
runs off into his own house. Soon Polemon reemerges, Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985. 181.
acting composed and declaring that he is going to make
a sacrifice in thanks for Glycera’s good luck. The play GLAUCUS (1) (GLAUKOS) The son of
ends with Pataikos’ arranging the wedding of Polemon Nereus, Glaucus was a fisherman who, after eating a
and Glycera and then exiting to set up a marriage for certain grass, was changed into a sea divinity able to
Moschion. A few lines from the play’s ending that are prophesy. Glaucus fell in love with the maiden Scylla.
lost probably dealt with preparations for a celebration. When she rejected him, he went for advice to CIRCE,
who fell in love with him. When Glaucus rejected
COMMENTARY Circe, the angered goddess poisoned the waters where
Readers of TERENCE and especially PLAUTUS, in whose Scylla bathed and she was transformed into a monster.
plays a BRAGGART WARRIOR sometimes appears, may be AESCHYLUS wrote a play, probably satyric, entitled Glau-
surprised by the fairly sympathetic portrayal of the cus Pontius (fragments 25c–34 Radt).
230 GLAUCUS (2)

BIBLIOGRAPHY took up residence, and became a teacher of the art of

Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926. persuasion. Two works that survive are attributed to
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Gorgias, The Apology of Palamedes and The Encomium of
1971. Helen. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 1701;
Pausanias, 6.17.9; Plato, Gorgias]
GLAUCUS (2) (GLAUKOS) The son of
SISYPHUS and Merope, Glaucus had mares that he had GORGON The Gorgons were creatures who lived
fed human flesh so that they would charge enemies on the fringes of the known world. The Gorgons’ head
more quickly and eagerly. When this bizarre food sup- was wreathed with serpents and their large tusks were
ply was exhausted, the mares ate Glaucus himself similar to those of a wild boar. Their hands were made
while he was attending funeral games for Pelias. A of bronze and they had wings of gold. Those who
scholiast on EURIPIDES’ ORESTES 318 says that the horses looked directly at them were turned to stone. In
had eaten a type of grass that caused them to become AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bearers and Eumenides (see
mad and turn on Glaucus. Other sources say that ORESTEIA), the FURIES are said to resemble Gorgons.
APHRODITE caused them to attack Glaucus because, Ancient sources usually mention three Gorgon sisters
hoping to make his mares run faster, he would not (Euryale, Stheno, and MEDUSA), who were the daugh-
allow them to mate. AESCHYLUS wrote a play entitled ters of Phorcys and Ceto (or Typhon and Echidna) and
Glaucus Potneius (fragments 36–42a Radt), which was the sisters of the PHORCIDES. In some sources the first
the third play of a tetralogy produced in 472 B.C.E. that two Gorgon sisters were immortal, and Medusa was
included Phineus, Persians, and Prometheus. [ANCIENT mortal. In EURIPIDES’ ION, the author speaks of a Gor-
SOURCES: Pausanias, 9.22.7; Plutarch, Life of Cicero 2] gon born from the earth, which ATHENA killed. Usually,
BIBLIOGRAPHY however, PERSEUS is said to have killed the Gorgon
Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926. Medusa and then presented the creature’s head to
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Athena. Given the Gorgons’ terrifying appearance,
1971. ancient warriors often had the face of a Gorgon on
their shield. In ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS, the Athenian
GLYCE The name of a fictional Greek slave statesman and commander LAMACHUS is said to have
woman. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae such an image on his shield. The AEGIS of the goddess
430, Frogs 1343] Athena was made from the skin of a Gorgon and had
the Gorgon’s face on it. In Euripides’ Ion, CREUSA men-
GODSCHILD See AMPHITHEUS. tions that she possesses two drops of that Gorgon’s
blood, one of which can heal, the other destroy. Creusa
GOLDEN AGE The earliest time when human tries to kill Ion with the latter drop of blood but fails.
beings lived, when no strife or evil existed. [ANCIENT Near the end of Euripides’ ALCESTIS, when ADMETUS is
SOURCES: Seneca, Medea 329, Hippolytus 525, Octavia about to reach out and take the hand of an unfamiliar
395] woman after his wife has died, he compares the expe-
rience to reaching out to kill a Gorgon. The Gorgons
GOLDEN FLEECE See JASON. do not appear in any surviving plays from antiquity
but may have taken the stage in some dramas about
GORGIAS (CA. 483–376 B.C.E.) A sophist Perseus. Perseus may have carried a Gorgon’s head
and rhetorician from the town of Leontini on the east- onto the stage in Euripides’ Andromeda. The Greek
ern coast of SICILY. In 427, Gorgias traveled to ATHENS comic poet Heniochus wrote a Gorgons; the three lines
on a diplomatic mission whose purpose was to gain aid that survive reveal only that someone is demanding a
for his town against the people of SYRACUSE. Gorgias’ drink (fragment 1 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus,
mission was a success, but he later returned to Athens, Libation Bearers 1048 (see ORESTEIA), Eumenides 48–49
 GYAS 231

(see ORESTEIA), Prometheus Bound 799–802; Apol- have produced children. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
lodorus, Library 2.4.2, 2.7.3; Aristophanes, Thes- lodorus, Library 1.3.1, 3.15.7; Hesiod, Theogony 64,
mophoriazusae 1101–3; Euripides, Ion 988–1006]. 907; Pausanias, 4.24.5, 9.35.1, 9.38.1; Pindar,
Olympian Odes 13.8, 14.7, 15; Statius, Thebaid 2.286]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1884. GRADIVUS See ARES.

GRACCHI Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and GREAT DIONYSIA See DIONYSIA.

his younger brother, Gaius Sempronius Gracchus,
were Roman statesmen who were killed. Tiberius was GREAT GODDESSES See DEMETER and
killed in 133 B.C.E. by opponents of a controversial PERSEPHONE.
property reform law that he had proposed. After the
elder Gracchus’ death, his brother took up his political GRIFFINS Large mythical creatures with a lion’s
program. Gaius managed to have a few important laws body, eagle’s wings, and four feet, the griffins were
passed, but his political work was controversial and he famous as guardians of gold in the land of the ARI-
was killed in a riot in the year 121. [ANCIENT SOURCES: MASPIANS (in the Black Sea region), who constantly
Appian, Civil Wars 1; Plutarch, Gaius and Tiberius Grac- tried to steal the gold. The Greek comic poet Plato
chus; Seneca, Octavia 882] wrote a play entitled Griffins (Greek: Grupes), from
which a few brief fragments survive (15–18 Kock).
BIBLIOGRAPHY These fragments give us little insight into the play’s
Earl, Donald C. Tiberius Gracchus: A Study in Politics. Brux-
content, however. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus,
elles-Berchem: Latomus, 1963.
Prometheus Bound 804–7; Herodotus, 3.116, 4.13]
GRACES Also known by the Greek name BIBLIOGRAPHY
Charites (the Romans called them Gratiae), the Graces Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
were goddesses who were usually said to be daughters Teubner, 1880.
of ZEUS (several different women are named as their Reed, Nancy B. “Griffins in Post-Minoan Cretan Art,” Hespe-
mother), although APOLLO or DIONYSUS was occasion- ria 45, no. 4 (1976): 365–79.
ally named as their father. The Graces are usually three
in number (usually named Aglaia, Euphrosyne, and GRYTTUS (GRYPUS) An otherwise unknown
Thalaia); sometimes two Graces are mentioned. As person whom ARISTOPHANES names at KNIGHTS 877 as
their name indicates, the Graces personified grace and being someone who enjoyed being the active partner
beauty and their presence conferred joy. They are in anal intercourse.
sometimes found in the company of the MUSES or love
divinities such as APHRODITE and EROS. Despite the GYAS A giant who battled against ZEUS and his allies.
Graces’ love of pleasure and joy, they do not seem to [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 167, 1139]
 C HD
HADES The son of CRONUS and RHEA, Hades was hanged herself. Creon, having reconsidered his deci-
the brother of ZEUS, POSEIDON, DEMETER, HESTIA, and sion, also goes to the tomb and finds Haemon.
HERA. Also known by the name Pluto or Orcus, he was Haemon, angry at his father, draws his sword and tries
the master of UNDERWORLD and his name was synony- to kill him. The father, however, sidesteps the
mous with the place over which he rules. Hades pos- attempted blow. Haemon, ashamed of his effort, then
sessed a cap that allowed its wearer to be invisible. In turns the sword on himself and dies. Another tradition
Hades’ best-known appearance in mythology, he says that Haemon died attempting to solve the riddle
abducted Zeus and Demeter’s daughter, PERSEPHONE. of the SPHINX. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
Although Demeter tried to retrieve Persephone from 3.5.8; Sophocles, Antigone]
the underworld, Hades ensured that she had to stay at BIBLIOGRAPHY
least part of the year with him by feeding her some Johnson, P. “Woman’s Third Face: A Psycho-Social Recon-
seeds of a pomegranate. Hades does not appear as a sideration of Sophocles’ Antigone,” Arethusa 30, no. 3
character in extant drama, although he is mentioned (1997): 369–98.
many times. The death of a woman who perishes before
HAEMUS A mountain in THRACE where ZEUS bat-
her time, such as ALCESTIS, ANTIGONE, or IPHIGENIA, is
tled against TYPHON. The mountain takes its name from
often referred to as marriage with Hades. [ANCIENT
Typhon’s blood (Greek: haima), which was shed on the
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 390; Homeric Hymn
mountain. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
2 (to Demeter); Ovid, Metamorphoses 5.346–571] 1.6.3; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 1280, 1383, Medea 590]

HAEMON The son of CREON and Eurydice, HALIMUS A DEME on the coast a few miles south
Haemon (whose name is derived from a Greek word of ATHENS. EUELPIDES is said to have been from Hal-
for blood) was a Theban prince. He appears as a char- imus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 496]
acter in SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE, in which he is engaged
to be married to ANTIGONE at the same time that she HALIRRHOTHIUS The son of POSEIDON,
has been condemned to death by Haemon’s father, Halirrhothius raped ARES’ daughter, Alcippe. Ares
CREON. Haemon tries to urge his father to reconsider killed him and then had to stand trial in ATHENS before
Antigone’s death sentence, but Creon angrily accuses the court of the AREOPAGUS. According to tradition,
him of siding with a woman against his own father. Ares was the first to be tried for shedding another’s
After Antigone is sealed in a rocky tomb and left to die, blood. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.14.2;
Haemon goes to this place and finds that she has Euripides, Electra 1260; Pausanias, 1.21.4, 1.28.5]
232
 HARPIES 233

HAMARTIA A Greek word used by ARISTOTLE in HARMONIA A daughter of ARES and APHRODITE
his Poetics that has become famous and controversial in (or sometimes the daughter of ZEUS and ATLAS’ daugh-
the history of literary criticism. In describing what he ter, Electra), Harmonia became the wife of CADMUS and
considers the best way to construct the plot of a had several children with him: AGAVE, AUTONOE, INO,
TRAGEDY, Aristotle observes that tragedies with the best SEMELE, and POLYDORUS. After the death of her grand-
plots involve a person who does not fall into misfor- son, PENTHEUS, Harmonia and Cadmus left THEBES and
tune because of badness or villainy, but is like OEDIPUS, became rulers in ILLYRIA, where they had another son,
THYESTES, or a person of similar family, has good for- Illyrius. Eventually, Harmonia and Cadmus were
tune and is well thought of, but experiences misfor- changed into serpents (or dragons) and taken by the
tune due to hamartia (Poetics 1453a7–12). Modern gods to ELYSIUM or the ISLANDS OF THE BLESSED.
scholars, however, do not agree about what Aristotle Perhaps more important than Harmonia herself
means by hamartia in this passage and have offered were a necklace and robe that she was given as a wed-
several possible meanings, such as “mistake of fact,” ding present when she married Cadmus. These items
“ignorance of fact,” or “moral defect.” later passed into the hands of POLYNEICES, who used
them as a bribe to induce ERIPHYLE to persuade her
BIBLIOGRAPHY
husband, AMPHIARAUS, to go to war against Thebes.
Bremer J. M. Hamartia: Tragic Error in the Poetics of Aristotle
and in Greek Tragedy. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1969. After Amphiaraus died in battle, his son, ALCMEON, was
Golden, L. “Hamartia, Ate, and Oedipus,” Classical World so angry at Eriphyle that he killed her. When Alcmeon
72 (1978): 3–12. went into exile at PSOPHIS, he gave the items to
Østerud, S. “Hamartia in Aristotle and Greek Tragedy,” Sym- Phegeus’ daughter, ARSINOE. After Alcmeon was driven
bolae Osloenses 51 (1976): 65–80. from Psophis, he went to the river ACHELOUS and mar-
Schuetrumpf, Eckart. “Traditional Elements in the Concept ried his daughter, Callirrhoe, who also wanted the
of Hamartia in Aristotle’s Poetics,” Harvard Studies in Clas- items and threatened to divorce Alcmeon if he did not
sical Philology 92 (1989): 137–56. give them to her. Alcmeon retrieved the items from
Stinton, T. C. W. “Hamartia in Aristotle and Greek Tragedy,” Phegeus, but when Phegeus learned that Alcmeon was
Classical Quarterly 25 (1975): 221–54.
taking them to Callirrhoe, he had his sons kill
Alcmeon. When Phegeus’ sons took the necklace and
HANGER-ON See PARASITE. robe to DELPHI to dedicate them to APOLLO, Alcmeon’s
sons killed Phegeus’ sons and then dedicated the items
HARMODIUS In 514 B.C.E., Harmodius and to the god. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
Aristogeiton assassinated the brother (Hipparchus) of 3.4.2, 3.6.1–2, 3.7.5–7; Aristophanes, Peace 810–11;
the Athenian tyrant HIPPIAS. They became famous as Euripides, Bacchae 1332–57, Phoenician Women 7, 822;
liberators of the Athenian people from tyranny. The Hyginus, Fables 6, 73, 148, 240; Ovid, Metamorphoses
Athenians erected bronze statues of Harmodius and 4.562–602; Pausanias, 5.17.7, 8.24.8–10, 9.41.2–3]
Aristogeiton in the center of their main marketplace
(see AGORA). A drinking song, “Harmodius,” became HARPIES The daughters of Thaumas and Electra
popular after this act and various versions of this (other parents named by the ancient sources are EARTH,
song survive. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Achar- Pontus, POSEIDON, TYPHON, and PHINEUS), the Harpies,
nians 980, 1093, Ecclesiazusae 682, Knights 786, usually named Aello, Celaeno, and Podarge (other
Wasps 1225] names include Aellopos, Acholoe, Nichothoe, Ocypode,
BIBLIOGRAPHY and Ocythoe), were the sisters of IRIS. The Harpies had
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, the head of a woman and the body of a bird, and, judg-
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 204. ing by AESCHYLUS’ comparison of their appearance to the
———. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, Ecclesiazusae. Furies’ were not attractive creatures. Their name means
Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 199. “snatchers” and the gods appointed them to punish
234 THE HAUNTED HOUSE

PHINEUS by snatching away his food anytime he tried to and the women, Tranio promises to scare Theopropides
eat. The Harpies eventually were driven away by the away from the house. Tranio sends the two young men
winged Argonauts Zetes and Calais. Some sources say and their women into Theopropides’ house and then
that they died trying to escape the winged Argonauts or prepares for the arrival of Theopropides.
arranged a truce with them whereby they would no When Theopropides arrives, he finds his house
longer harass Phineus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, locked. When he knocks on the door, he is met by
Eumenides 50–52 (see ORESTEIA); Apollodorus, Library Tranio, who informs him that his house has been
1.2.6, 1.19.21, 3.15.2; Apollonius Rhodius, 2.298; Hes- haunted by the ghost of a guest once murdered there
iod, Theogony 267; Homer, Iliad 16.149, Odyssey 1.24, by the previous owner. Tranio claims Philolaches and
14.371, 20.66, 77; Hyginus, Fables 14, 19; Ovid, Meta- the others have left the house empty for seven months.
morphoses 7.4; Vergil, Aeneid 3.210–16] When sounds from the drunken young people inside
the house are heard, Tranio pretends that this is voice
THE HAUNTED HOUSE (Latin: MOS- of the ghost and urges Theopropides to leave quickly.
TELLARIA) PLAUTUS (BETWEEN 215 AND Tranio, claiming that he has made his peace with the
184 B.C.E.) The Greek model for PLAUTUS’ play is ghost, says he will remain. After Theopropides leaves,
unknown, although Philemon, MENANDER, and Tranio enters the house.
Theognetus wrote comedies entitled Phasma that At this point, an unpleasant moneylender named
involved ghosts. Plautus’ play has Athens as its setting; Misargyrides enters. When Tranio leaves the house, he
the action takes place before the houses of Theopropi- worries because Misargyrides lent money to Philo-
des, an Athenian merchant, and Simo. In the opening laches for Philematium. As Tranio approaches Misar-
act, Grumio and Tranio, who are slaves of Theopropi- gyrides, Theopropides also approaches and tells Tranio
des’, argue about Tranio’s corruption of Theopropides’ that he has met with the man who sold him the house.
son, Philolaches. Theopropides himself has been away Theopropides informs Tranio that the man denied any
from home for three years in Egypt. After their argu- knowledge of the crimes alleged by Tranio. While
ment, Grumio departs for the family’s farm in the coun- Tranio ponders what to do about Theopropides, he
tryside, while Tranio leaves for the harbor to buy fish. approaches Misargyrides, who wants the money he is
In the next scene, Philolaches arrives and gives a owed. Tranio tells Misargyrides that he will give him
wonderful monologue in which he compares a person the money later in the day. Misargyrides, however,
to a recently built house. The parents are the builders, insists on being paid the interest he is owed and
who lay the foundation and raise the structure, but refuses to leave. Theopropides, who hears the argu-
once the child is left in charge, the house becomes ment, approaches and discovers that Philolaches owes
ruined. In Philolaches’ case, his “house” is in disrepair Misargyrides money. When Theopropides asks the
because of his love for a prostitute named Philematium. purpose of the money, Tranio lies: He tells him that he
Soon, Philematium herself and her aged attendant, has used the money as a deposit to buy a house. Theo-
Scapha, emerge from Simo’s house. Although Philo- propides is delighted to hear that his son is making a
laches has spent all his money on Philematium and wise investment and agrees to pay Misargyrides the fol-
claims he is penniless, Philematium still love him, and lowing day.
before long the two sit down to dinner and drinks. After Misargyrides leaves, Theopropides wants to
They are joined by Philolaches’ friend, Callidamates, know the location of the house that Philolaches
and his girlfriend, Delphium, who is also a prostitute. bought. Again Tranio lies, saying that he purchased the
Both Callidamates and Delphium are somewhat intoxi- next-door neighbor, Simo’s, house. Hearing this, Theo-
cated. As the four continue their party, Tranio returns propides wants to go inside and have a look at the
from the harbor and informs Philolaches that his father house. As Tranio stalls for time, Theopropides takes a
has returned from his trip abroad. As Philolaches stroll away from the house. When the house’s owner,
despairs about what his father will say about the party Simo, emerges, Tranio eavesdrops on the man. Hearing
 THE HAUNTED HOUSE 235

Simo complain about his wife, Tranio approaches Simo, for a substantial sum of money and then freed her.
who knows about Philolaches’ affairs, and begs him for Furthermore, Phaniscus informs Theopropides that
help. Tranio tells Simo that Theopropides wants to add Philolaches has not put down a deposit on Simo’s
on to his own house and wants to look at Simo’s house house. Eventually, the two slaves give up on finding
as a model. When Simo has no objections, Tranio goes Callidamates and leave. After their departure, Theo-
to get Theopropides. Tranio informs Theopropides that propides laments the financial ruin that his son has
Simo is upset about having sold the house and wants caused him. He is soon joined by Simo. Theopropi-
him to persuade Philolaches to sell the house back to des asks him about the deposit that Philolaches paid
him. Theopropides, however, refuses. Soon, with him for his house, but Simo denies having received
Simo’s permission, Theopropides and Tranio begin any money from Philolaches or Tranio. Soon, Theo-
inspecting his house. While Theopropides continues propides realizes that Tranio has tricked him and
to inspect the house, Simo informs them that he has to asks Simo to let him borrow some of his slaves and
leave to go to town on business. some whips.
After the departure of Simo for the town and of Not long afterward, Tranio enters from Theopropi-
Theopropides and Tranio into Simo’s house, a slave, des’ house and informs the audience that he has
Phaniscus, arrives. Phaniscus has been sent to take removed Philolaches and his friends from the house,
Callidamates back to his own house. Before Phaniscus but that they had rejected him as a participant in their
can knock on Theopropides’ door, one of his fellow fun. As Tranio considers confessing to Theopropides,
slaves, Pinacium, arrives and knocks on the door first. Theopropides emerges from Simo’s house and
Because nobody answers the door, Pinacium continues announces to the audience that he is going to punish
to knock. As he does, Tranio and Theopropides emerge Tranio. Theopropides confronts Tranio with his lies,
from Simo’s house and discuss the fine investment that but Tranio maintains his pretense about the deposit on
Philolaches has made. Tranio, however, tells Theo- Simo’s house. Theopropides suggests that they interro-
propides that Simo’s asking price for the house is twice gate some of Simo’s slaves under torture. Tranio agrees
as much as Philolaches owes Misargyrides. Tranio sug- to hear their testimony, but as Theopropides summons
gests that Theopropides give him the money so that he the slaves from Simo’s house, Tranio seats himself at a
can give it to Simo, but Theopropides, knowing nearby altar and says that he is sitting there to prevent
Tranio’s tricks, rejects this idea. Instead, Theopropides the slaves from seeking refuge at it. Theopropides,
tells Tranio to go to the family farm, inform Philolaches knowing that Tranio is trying to take refuge, tells him
that he has returned, and take him back to the house. that he wants the slaves to try to seek refuge, as it will
Tranio departs, as if to go to the country, but then make proving his case easier. Soon Theopropides con-
returns to Theopropides’ house. fronts Tranio about his trickery and threatens to pun-
As Tranio leaves, Phaniscus and Pinacium have ish him.
remained at Theopropides’ house, where they are As their confrontation continues, Callidamates
met by Theopropides himself, who wonders what enters to tell the audience that Philolaches has
the two men are doing. Theopropides, however, does appointed him as peacemaker between Philolaches
not reveal to them that he is the house’s owner. and his father. Theopropides continues to threaten
Phaniscus tells him that his master, Callidamates, is Tranio, while Callidamates invites Theopropides to
inside the house drinking and that they have arrived dinner. Theopropides, intent on punishing Tranio,
to fetch him. When Theopropides claims the house refuses the offer. Tranio continues to plead for
has been empty for months, Phaniscus thinks the old clemency, and after some time Callidamates switches
man is crazy and says that Callidamates has been places with Tranio at the altar. Callidamates takes the
enjoying frequent parties with Philolaches. An blame for Philolaches’ reckless behavior and offers to
alarmed Theopropides probes Phaniscus further and repay the money he owes. Callidamates also pleads for
discovers that Philolaches has bought Philematium Tranio and persuades the old man not to punish him.
236 THE HAUNTED HOUSE

COMMENTARY Tranio that the seller has completely denied the stories
The Haunted House is one of Plautus’ more delightful of haunting. To throw Theopropides off the trail and
plays, thanks largely to Tranio’s masterful handling of appease the moneylender, Tranio invents another story
the deception. As Leach and Grimal have discussed, about a house. This time Tranio pretends that Philo-
The Haunted House is organized around the image of laches has bought a house and needs money to pay off
the house. Indeed, words for house are three times the moneylender. Of course, the irony is that Philo-
more frequent in this play than in any other Roman laches needs this money to support the mode of life
COMEDY. In Philolaches’ opening song (84–156), he that has resulted in the ruin of Philolaches’ “house of
compares raising a child to building and caring for a self.” Theopropides believes that Philolaches’ decision
house. He notes that the parents lay the foundations to buy this house is a wise one, so he gladly agrees to
for a child, raise the structure, and spare no expense in pay the moneylender.
maintaining the “house” that is their child. Because Unfortunately for Tranio, Theopropides wants to see
Philolaches’ father, Theopropides, has been away, how- the house that Philolaches has bought, so now Tranio
ever, the “house” that is Philolaches has fallen on ruin. must make his imaginary house become a reality. In des-
The prostitute, Philematium, and the love Philolaches peration, Tranio claims that Philolaches has bought the
has for her are described as a torrential rainstorm on house belonging to Theopropides’ neighbor, Simo.
his heart (142–43) and a storm that stripped the roof Given this lie, Tranio must create yet another imaginary
of modesty from his house (162–65). house. So that Theopropides can look over Simo’s
In addition to the ruin of Philolaches caused by house, Tranio tells Simo that Theopropides is planning
Philematium, the slave Tranio, who has taken the place to add on to his own house and wants to look at Simo’s
of the young man’s father during Theopropides’ house as a model because, according to Tranio, Theo-
absence, has played a significant part in the young propides has heard from an architect (760) that Simo’s
man’s downfall, as Grumio notes in the play’s opening house is well shaded in every season (a rumor that Simo
(29–33). Whereas the return of Theopropides is denies). Of course, Tranio is the imaginary architect for
viewed as disastrous by both Tranio and Philolaches, the imaginary addition that Theopropides is alleged to
the more modest in Plautus’ audience, whose view is have in mind. Additionally, Tranio’s remark that Theo-
well expressed by Grumio (76–78), will see the father’s propides wants to use Simo’s house as a model (exem-
return as a blessing from the gods, because this may plum, 762, 763, 773) is somewhat ironic because the
signal the restoration of the “house” that is Philolaches. calm of Simo’s house would be the sort of setting Theo-
To prevent Philolaches and his friends from being propides would wish for in his own house. Philolaches
caught while they enjoy their drinking party, Tranio had used the same word for model, exemplum (103), in
decides to transform Theopropides’ house into a his opening song as he observed that a well-built house
haunted one. Not only has Tranio helped transform the is one that each person wants to use as a model for his
house that is Philolaches from a sturdy one to one that or her own. Of course, once Philolaches’ “house of self”
is corrupted; now the slave also tries to transform has become ruined, he has become a model that no one
Theopropides’ house into one in which a horrific crime would want to copy and not the sort of “house” that
has been committed. The imaginary dead man Tranio Theopropides would want to show off to his neighbors.
says haunts Theopropides’ house will become a real After Theopropides inspects the house that he
dead person if Theopropides discovers the Tranio- thinks Philolaches has purchased, he is quite pleased
aided mode of life that Philolaches has been enjoying. with his son’s imaginary purchase. After he sends
The arrival of the moneylender Misargyrides poses Tranio off to his house in the country to take Philo-
another threat to Tranio’s plans. Furthermore, while laches back to town, Theopropides encounters Phanis-
Tranio has been in the house trying to manage Philo- cus and Pinacium knocking at his door in search of
laches and his friends, Theopropides has questioned Callidamates. Theopropides declares that they have
the person who sold him the house. He reports to arrived at the wrong house. Soon, however, Theo-
 HECABE 237

propides learns that his perception of his house is SOURCES: Apollodorus, 1.3.1; Euripides, Children of Hera-
incorrect and that the house that he has been told has cles 851, 857, Orestes 1687; Hesiod, Theogony 949;
been empty for six months has actually been occupied Homer, Iliad 4.2, 5.722, 905, Odyssey 11.603; Ovid,
constantly by Philoloches and his party companions. Metamorphoses 9.400; Seneca, Octavia 211]
Theopropides also learns that the purchase of Simo’s
house was also a lie. Theopropides now feels he is a HEBRUS A river in THRACE that flows into the sea
stranger at his own house (993–96). When Simo con- between the towns of Doriscos and Ainos. ORPHEUS’
firms the stories of Phaniscus and Pinacium, Theo- head was thrown into the Hebrus after his death.
propides considers himself a dead man (1030–31). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 774]
Before Theopropides reclaims his house, he enters
Simo’s house to borrow some of his slaves and whips HECABE (Latin: HECUBA) The wife of
so that he can retaliate against Tranio. PRIAM, king of TROY during the Trojan War, Hecabe,
By this time, Tranio has restored Theopropides’ house according to Homer, was the mother of 19 of Priam’s
to its original condition. He has entered the house 50 sons, the most famous of whom are HECTOR and
through a backdoor and evacuated the partygoers from PARIS. Before the birth of Paris, Hecabe dreamed that
the house. Tranio’s feeling of safety is short lived, how- she gave birth to a flaming piece of wood that
ever, as Theopropides confronts him with his lies. Before destroyed TROY. The local prophets declared that the
Theopropides can apprehend him and make an example child should be killed and Paris was taken to the wilds
(exemplum, 1116) of him, Tranio, who has manipulated outside Troy and left to die, but he was suckled by a
physical space throughout the play, now takes refuge at she-bear and later retrieved by the herdsman who had
an altar. In typical comic fashion, both prodigal son and been told to abandon him. Paris, of course, grew up
wily slave are forgiven, but perhaps most important is and eventually returned to Troy. The surviving frag-
that the house of Theopropides has been reclaimed by its ments of EURIPIDES’ Alexander (see Page) indicate that
rightful owner and Tranio’s construction of imaginary upon Alexander/Paris’ return to Troy Hecabe partici-
houses has ended—at least until the next day. pated in a plot to kill Paris, who she did not realize was
her son. The plot was thwarted, however, and Paris’
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Felton, D. Haunted Greece and Rome: Ghost Stories from Clas-
true identity was revealed. Paris’ abduction of HELEN
sical Antiquity. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999. led to the Trojan War and the fall of Troy. In the course
Grimal, P. “La maison de Simon et celle de Théopropidès of the war, Hecabe’s sons were killed in battle; after the
dans la Mostellaria.” In L’Italie préromaine et la Rome répub- war, Hecabe and her daughters were enslaved by the
licaine: Mélanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon. Paris: de Boc- Greeks or suffered other horrible fates.
card, 1976, 371–86. The end of Hecabe’s life is dealt with in Euripides’
Leach, E. W. “De exemplo meo ipse aedificato: An Organizing HECABE and TROJAN WOMEN, as well as SENECA’s TROJAN
Idea in the Mostellaria,” Hermes 97 (1969): 318–32. WOMEN. After the fall of Troy, Hecabe became the slave
Merrill, F. R. Mostellaria. London: Macmillan, 1972.
of ODYSSEUS. In both Trojan Women plays, Hecabe is
Stärk, Ekkehard. “Mostellaria oder Turbare statt sedare.” In
Plautus barbarus: sechs Kapitel zur Originalität des Plautus. characterized as the suffering survivor of the Trojan War,
Edited by Eckard Lefèvre, Ekkehard Stark, and Gregor who must face the added trauma of seeing her daugh-
Vogt-Spira. Tübingen: Narr, 1991, 107–40. ters enslaved or, in the case of Polyxena, sacrificed to
appease ACHILLES’ spirit. In these plays, Hecabe also has
HEAUTON TIMORUMENOS See THE SELF- to deal with the horror of her grandson ASTYANAX being
TORMENTOR. killed by the Greeks. In Euripides’ Hecabe, she becomes
like Odysseus in his encounter with the Cyclops
HEBE A daughter of ZEUS and HERA, Hebe is a god- POLYPHEMUS as she lures the Thracian king POLYMESTOR
dess who personifies youth. After HERACLES’ death, he into her tent and blinds him. Polymestor had killed one
ascended to Mount OLYMPUS and married Hebe. [ANCIENT of Hecabe’s sons, Polydorus. As Polymestor predicts at
238 HECABE

the conclusion of Hecabe, Hecabe leaps to her death Agamemnon’s tent. The aged queen relates her dream
from Odysseus’ ship after their departure from Troy. about Polydorus and Polyxena. After the queen’s
According to another tradition, Hecabe was attacked speech, the chorus of captive Trojan women enter.
by some of Polymestor’s fellow Thracians. During the They recall that when Achilles’ spirit appeared and
attack, she was transformed into a snarling dog, which demanded Polyxena as a sacrifice, Agamemnon
the Thracians then killed. The place where she was rejected the idea out of love for Hecabe’s daughter,
buried on the Thracian coast became a landmark for CASSANDRA. In a statement that must have provoked
sailors, called Cynosema (“the dog’s grave”). Among some unsettling feelings among some in EURIPIDES’
Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a Hecuba, from which a Athenian audience, the chorus note that it was two
single line survives about a limit set by the FATES (375 Athenians, the sons of Theseus, who championed the
Warmington). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, 3.12.5, view that Polyxena should be sacrificed. That the two
8; Homer, Iliad 2.817, 16.716, 22.234, 24.495; Hygi- Athenians’ view was supported by ODYSSEUS, fre-
nus, Fables 91, 111; Ovid, Metamophoses 13.423–575; quently characterized in a negative light in Euripidean
Plautus, MENAECHMI 714, 716, BACCHIDES 963] drama, also would have indicated to Euripides’ audi-
ence that such a sacrifice should be regarded as hor-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
rific. The captive women tell Hecabe that soon
Daitz, S. G. “Concepts of Freedom and Slavery in Euripides’
Odysseus will take Polyxena away from her and urge
Hecuba,” Hermes 99 (1971): 217–26.
Mossman, J. Wild Justice: A Study of Euripides’ Hecuba. New her to beg Agamemnon for help.
York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Upon hearing this news, Hecabe despairs about
Segal, C. “Violence and the Others: Greek, Female, and Bar- what she should do and then summons Polyxena from
barian in Euripides’ Hecuba,” Transactions and Proceedings the tent. Hecabe informs Polyxena that the Greeks
of the American Philological Association 120 (1990): 109–31. have decided to sacrifice her, but the young woman
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, expresses her belief that death is a more fortunate lot
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: than her current life of shame and misery. When
Harvard University Press, 1936. Odysseus enters, Hecabe tries to persuade him not to
take Polyxena. Hecabe reminds Odysseus of a time
HECABE EURIPIDES Staged in the mid-420s when he arrived in Troy as a spy and was found out by
B.C.E., Hecabe is set before AGAMEMNON’s tent on the Hecabe, who allowed him to leave. Hecabe now claims
coast opposite TROY after its fall. The prologue is deliv- that Odysseus owes her similar consideration and
ered by the ghost of POLYDORUS, the youngest son of becomes a supplicant to him as he had been to her.
PRIAM and HECABE. Polydorus tells the audience that Odysseus, however, refuses, claiming that Achilles’
during the war, his father sent him to live with the grave deserves to be honored and that he himself
Thracian king, POLYMESTOR. Priam sent with him a wants his grave to be viewed reverently when he dies.
large sum of gold so that if Troy fell, any surviving Hecabe urges Polyxena to plead with Odysseus, but
members of Priam’s family would have money to live. the young woman says that she prefers death as a free
After Troy fell, however, Polymestor killed Polydorus person to life as a slave. Hecabe offers her own life for
to acquire his gold. Polydorus’ spirit now hovers over Polyxena’s, but Odysseus rejects her offer. After
his mother, Hecabe, in the hope that she will provide Odysseus takes Polyxena away to Achilles’ tomb, the
burial for his corpse, thrown out on the shore by Poly- captive Trojans sing an ODE in which they wonder
mestor. Polydorus’ ghost also reveals that as the Greek where they will end up as slaves.
fleet was sailing from Troy, Achilles’ ghost appeared After the choral ode, the herald, Talthybius, enters
above his tomb and demanded the sacrifice of Poly- and informs Hecabe and the chorus of the sacrifice of
dorus’ sister, Polyxena. Polyxena, the noble way in which she died, and the
With this, Polydorus’ spirit vanishes and Hecabe, admiration of the Greeks for her nobility. Hecabe then
having seen Polydorus’ spirit in a dream, emerges from laments the death of Polyxena and wonders whether
 HECABE 239

nobility is a product of one’s heredity or upbringing. women are blinding Polymestor and killing his sons.
She asks Talthybius to tell the Greek soldiers not to Hecabe emerges from the tent and is soon followed by
touch Polyxena and asks one of her servants to get sea the blinded Polymestor, who threatens to destroy her.
water so that she can wash the corpse. At this, Hecabe He calls for his fellow Thracians to help him but
returns to Agamemnon’s tent. The chorus then sing an receives no assistance. Agamemnon, however, does
ode in which they suggest that their doom was sealed return upon hearing Polymestor’s cries. Polymestor
from the time that PARIS sailed to Greece for HELEN. tells him what Hecabe has done and demands justice.
The song of the captive Trojans is followed by the At this point, Agamemnon agrees to act as arbiter
entrance of a servant, who reveals to the chorus and between Polymestor and Hecabe.
Hecabe that Polydorus is dead (the corpse of Poly- Polymestor explains how he killed Polydorus and
dorus has also been carried in). Hecabe recalls her claims he did so out of fear that eventually Polydorus
dream about Polydorus and realizes that Polymestor would gather together those who survived Troy’s fall
must have killed her son. Next, Agamemnon enters and overrun Thrace. In Polymestor’s view, his killing of
and wonders why Polydorus’ corpse is near his tent. Polydorus was a favor to the Greeks. Polymestor then
Hecabe, after some debate with herself, then kneels explains how Hecabe and the other women attacked
before Agamemnon and begs him to help her avenge him. After Polymestor’s remarks, Hecabe offers a rebut-
the murder of Polydorus. She asks Agamemnon to take tal and claims that Polymestor had no intention of
pity on her as a woman who is without a city, friends, helping the Greeks, but killed Polydorus out of greed
or children. Because Agamemnon has taken Cassandra for his gold. After hearing the two speeches, Agamem-
as his slave and concubine, Hecabe appeals to non judges in favor of Hecabe and states that Poly-
Agamemnon as a kinsman to Polydorus. Agamemnon mestor must endure his fate. Before the play ends,
is sympathetic but does not want to do anything that however, Polymestor predicts that Hecabe will be
would be criticized by his fellow Greeks. Hecabe killed by falling from the mast of Odysseus’ ship, that
promises Agamemnon that she will release him from she will be transformed into a dog, and that her grave
any risk in her plot, but Agamemnon is doubtful that will serve as a marker for sailors. Polymestor also pre-
a woman can deal with Polymestor. Hecabe, however, dicts the deaths of Cassandra and Agamemnon at the
assures Agamemnon that she and her fellow Trojan hands of CLYTEMNESTRA. When Agamemnon hears this,
captives will handle him. Hecabe then sends her atten- he orders Polymestor to be silenced and left on a
dant out to summon Polymestor to the Greek camp. deserted island. Agamemnon then tells Hecabe to go
After the exit of the attendant, Hecabe, and Agamem- and bury her two children and the other women to
non, the Trojan women lament their departure from prepare to sail from Troy.
Troy. They recall their activities on the night that Troy
fell and how they saw their husbands killed by the COMMENTARY
Greeks. They also curse Helen and hope she does not Euripides’ Hecabe has garnered more critical attention
reach her home. in recent years. Readers of the play should keep in
After the choral song, Polymestor, accompanied by mind that when the play was staged Athens had been
his two sons, enters. When questioned about Poly- at war with Sparta and its allies since 431 B.C.E. Fur-
dorus, Polymestor lies, saying that the young man is thermore, the question of how a conqueror should
still alive. Hecabe tells Polymestor that she knows of an treat the conquered was an issue with which the Athe-
additional cache of gold and that Polymestor should nians had dealt during the years before the production
tell Polydorus about it. Hecabe also says she has some of Hecabe. One thinks, in particular, of the Athenians’
things in Agamemnon’s tent that she wants Polymestor suppression of the revolt from their empire of the peo-
to take with him. With this, Polymestor and his sons ple of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos, an island not
follow Hecabe into the tent. Before long, cries for help far from Hecabe’s Troy. In 427, after the Athenians had
are heard within the tent as Hecabe and some of the conquered the Mytileneans, the Athenian assembly
240 HECABE

decided to put to death Mytilene’s entire male popula- pelling than that of Polymestor, who claims to be help-
tion and enslave their women and children. Fortu- ing him.
nately, the Athenians reversed their decision the One of the themes treated by both Hecabe and Tro-
following day and decided to execute only the primary jan Women is the idea of freedom versus slavery and
leaders of the revolt. Judith Mossman has noted the how quickly one’s fortune can change from one
political language in Hecabe and has indicated that extreme to the other. Hecabe is transformed from the
when the chorus enter they report a debate among the queen of Troy into a slave. In Hecabe’s debate with
Greek army regarding the sacrifice of Polyxena that Odysseus, she reminds him that she had set him free
must have sounded rather familiar to Euripides’ Athen- when he had been captured during a mission to Troy.
ian audience. Interestingly, Agamemnon opposed the She points out that in that instance he was her slave
sacrifice of Polyxena, and his opinion is contrasted (249) and Odysseus admits as much. After the fall of
with that of two Athenians, who argued in favor of the Troy, however, the roles are reversed and now the for-
sacrifice (122–28). Eventually, it appears that mer queen Hecabe has literally become Odysseus’
Odysseus persuades the assembled Greeks to sacrifice slave. The clever words that Odysseus used to per-
Polyxena; Odysseus, whom, in the chorus’ report of suade Hecabe to release him earlier are not present in
the debate, Euripides describes as a wily, sweet-talking Hecabe’s speech to Odysseus, who rejects his new
liar, curries favor with the mob (131–32). Such a slave’s pleas to spare her daughter. Polyxena, however,
description surely would have reminded Euripides’ boldly faces her death and even welcomes it. She states
Athenian audience of their own CLEON, who had been that even her new name of slave makes her long for
the primary advocate of the proposal to execute the death (357–58). Polyxena would rather die free, a Tro-
entire male population of Mytilene and who was noto- jan princess, than live as a slave (550–52). The Trojan
rious for currying favor with the Athenian masses (cf. women are not the only ones who have fallen from
ARISTOPHANES’ KNIGHTS and WASPS). freedom to slavery, however. After Hecabe’s supplica-
As does Euripides’ later TROJAN WOMEN, Hecabe tion of Agamemnon, she notes that even Agamemnon,
treats the horrors of war and its effects on the innocent. commander in chief of the Greek army, is enslaved to
Unlike in Trojan Women, the presence of the unsympa- the opinion of his troops. She concludes that no mor-
thetic barbarian Polymestor lightens the tone of tal is free (864). By the end of the play, however,
Hecabe. Additionally, the theme of revenge, which Hecabe proves that a woman who is a slave still has
plays a dominant role in the last third of Hecabe, is not some ability to strike out at her enemies as she blinds
present in Trojan Women. Furthermore, Cassandra and Polymestor. At line 1253–54, the barbaric Thracian
HECTOR’s wife, Andromache, do not take the stage. Nor king laments that he has been bested by someone who
do we hear of the killing of Hector’s son, ASTYANAX, as is a woman and a slave.
we do in Trojan Women. Both plays contain the slaugh- Although the theme of slavery versus freedom runs
ter of Trojan children, but Hecabe deals more exten- throughout the play, some scholars have criticized the
sively with Polyxena’s death than does Trojan Women, structural unity of Hecabe. Although Odysseus appears
and Polydorus has no part or mention in the latter play. only in the play’s opening half, the figure of Odysseus
Both plays end with burials, but in Trojan Women the looms throughout the play and provides additional
burial of Astyanax by Hecabe is dealt with at some unity. In the play’s first half, Hecabe encounters
length. Unlike the debate in Trojan Women between Odysseus and begs him for her daughter’s life. She
Hecabe and Helen, judged by MENELAUS, in which the recalls that when she discovered him in Troy he was a
audience would sympathize with Hecabe but know supplicant to her and became her slave (line 249).
that Menelaus would not punish his wife, the debate Although Odysseus was successful in his appeal to
between Hecabe and Polymestor, which Agamemnon Hecabe, Hecabe fails with Odysseus in the play’s open-
judges, has a more satisfactory result. Agamemnon ing half. In the second half of the play, however, she
finds the argument of his enemy Hecabe more com- continues her Odysseus-like tactics of supplication in
 HECTOR 241

her encounter with Agamemnon. Here, she is more HECATE The daughter of Perses and Asteria (or
successful and gains Agamemnon’s permission to take LETO), Hecate is a goddess associated with the MOON.
revenge on Polymestor. Hecabe’s attack on Polymestor She is often described as having three forms or as hold-
is modeled on Odysseus’ attack on the Cyclops ing torches. Hecate was thought to visit crossroads fre-
POLYPHEMUS, which was most famous from the ninth quently, and people often left offerings for her or built
book of Homer’s Odyssey. Some scholars also believe sanctuaries to her in these locations. She is frequently
that Euripides’ CYCLOPS was the SATYR PLAY that con- connected with women and witchcraft. In the plays of
cluded the TETRALOGY in which Hecabe appeared. This EURIPIDES and SENECA, MEDEA is linked with Hecate as
notion, however attractive, cannot be confirmed, for she considers the revenge she will take on JASON.
statistical analysis of Euripides’ metrical tendencies Hecate is also associated with madness or delusion. In
dates Cyclops to the last decade of Euripides’ career. EURIPIDES’ HELEN, when MENELAUS sees in Egypt the
Thus, in Hecabe, the title character becomes like HELEN whom he thought he had taken from Troy, he
Odysseus in his encounter with the Cyclops. Agamem- calls on Hecate to send him favorable visions. The Greek
non’s tent substitutes for the Cyclops’ cave; the Trojan comic poets Diphilus (fragment 29 Kock) and Nicostra-
women replace Odysseus’ men. Both Polymestor and tus (fragments 11–12 Kock) each wrote a Hecate, but the
Polyphemus have violated the customs of hospitality fragments reveal nothing about their content. [ANCIENT
by killing a guest—Polymestor has killed Polydorus; SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.2.4; Aristophanes, Frogs

Polyphemus kills some of Odysseus’ men. Both villains 1362; Euripides, Helen 569, Medea 396–99, Phoenecian
are blinded by an opponent from whom they expect Women 109–10; Hesiod, Theogony 404–52; Seneca, Her-
little opposition. When Polymestor emerges from the cules Oetaeus 1519, Medea 6, 577, 833, 841, Oedipus
tent, he calls for help but receives none (the same 569, Phaedra 412, Trojan Women 389]
result experienced by the Cyclops). After Poly- BIBLIOGRAPHY
mestor’s blinding, he, as the Cyclops does, gropes Berg, W. “Hecate, Greek or Anatolian,” Numen 21 (1974):
about for his attackers and threatens further vio- 128–40.
lence. Polymestor even echoes the cannibalistic Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
behavior of the Cyclops as he threatens to eat the Teubner, 1884.
Trojan women if he catches them (lines 1071–74). Marquardt, P. A. “A Portrait of Hecate,” American Journal of
Philology 102 (1981): 243–60.
Finally, whereas the blinded Cyclops recalls a
Rabinowitz, J. D. The Rotting Goddess: The Origin of the Witch
prophecy that he would be blinded by Odysseus,
in Classical Antiguity. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Autonomedia, 1998.
Polymestor becomes a prophet at the conclusion of
Hecabe and predicts the death of not only Hecabe,
HECATEA At the end of a month, Greeks would
but Cassandra and Agamemnon. leave food offerings “at places where three roads met”
BIBLIOGRAPHY (Sommerstein). Such crossroads were sacred to HECATE
Collard, C. Euripides: Hecuba. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & and the offerings were called Hecatea. [ANCIENT
Phillips, 1991. SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 366]
Gregory, J. W. Hecuba: Euripides. Atlanta: Scholars Press,
1999. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9,
Kovacs, D. The Heroic Muse: Studies in the Hippolytus and
Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 189.
Hecuba of Euripides. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1987.
Mossman, J. Wild Justice: A Study of Euripides’ Hecuba. New HECTOR The son of PRIAM and HECABE, Hector
York: Oxford University Press, 1995. was the husband of ANDROMACHE and the father of
Segal, Charles. Euripides and the Poetics of Sorrow: Art, Gen- Astyanax. Hector was the greatest of the Trojan warriors
der, and Commemoration in Alcestìs, Hippolytus, and Hecuba. who fought against the Greeks in their war to recover
Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993. HELEN. Hector killed numerous Greeks, including
242 HECUBA

ACHILLES’ comrade, PATROCLUS. In the seventh book of Metamorphoses 12–13; Seneca, Trojan Women; Vergil,
HOMER’s Iliad, Hector fought a single combat with AJAX Aeneid 2.268–97, 3.294–489]
to decide the outcome of the war, but the combat was
BIBLIOGRAPHY
declared a draw. The two warriors exchanged gifts after
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
the combat, and according to SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, Ajax Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
committed suicide with the sword Hector gave him. Redfield, J. M. Nature and Culture in the Iliad: The Tragedy of
Hector’s killing of Patroclus in the 10th year of the war Hector. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975.
prompted the return of Achilles to the fighting, and Romilly, Jacqueline de. Hector. Paris: de Fallois, 1996.
eventually Achilles killed Hector. Achilles defiled Hec- Rosivach, V. J. “Hector in the Rhesus,” Hermes 106 (1978):
tor’s body by dragging it behind his chariot. Priam 54–73.
eventually persuaded Achilles to accept ransom for Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Hector’s body so that it could be given a proper burial. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Although Hector appears only once as a character in Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil-
ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
extant drama, EURIPIDES’ RHESUS, he was the subject of
1935.
several plays. The ransom of Hector’s body was treated
———. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, Naevius,
in AESCHYLUS’ Phrygians, which is alternatively titled Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
Ransom of Hector (fragments 263–72 Radt). The Greek University Press, 1936.
playwrights Dionysius I (2a Snell) and Timesitheus
(title 2 Snell) also wrote plays entitled Ransom of Hec- HECUBA See HECABE.
tor, of which only the titles survive. Among Roman
authors, Ennius wrote a Ransom of Hector (lines HECYRA See THE MOTHER-IN-LAW.
162–201 Warmington 1). NAEVIUS wrote a TRAGEDY
entitled Hector’s Departure (Latin: Hector Proficiscens), HEGELOCHUS Active during the last quarter of
which presumably dramatizes Hector’s departure from the fifth century B.C.E., Hegelochus was an actor who
Troy before his fatal encounter with Achilles (lines made a famous mistake during the performance of
17–18 Warmington 2). EURIPIDES’ ORESTES. Hegelochus’ incorrect accenting of a
Whereas Homer’s Iliad generally depicts Hector in a word in line 279 changed ORESTES’ statement “I see a
positive light, Euripides’ Rhesus offers a negative por- calm after the storm” into “I see a weasel after the
trayal of the hero. In the early part of play, Hector storm.” Several comic poets made fun of this mistake in
incorrectly thinks that the activity in the Greek camp is their plays. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 304;
due to their preparation to leave Troy. Accordingly, Sannyrion, fragment 8; Strattis, fragments 1, 60 Kock]
Hector’s initial response is to launch an immediate
attack. AENEAS, however, provides a more cautious BIBLIOGRAPHY
suggestion (which also will fail), namely, that the Tro- Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
jans send a spy to discover precisely what the Greeks Teubner, 1880.
are doing. Later, after the arrival of RHESUS as an ally to
the Trojans, Hector initially wants to reject Rhesus’ HELEN Considered the most beautiful of women
help. After the Greeks kill Rhesus, Hector blames the in classical mythology, as well as one of the most hated,
Trojan troops who were assigned to guard the army Helen was the daughter of ZEUS and LEDA, or Zeus and
and threatens to punish them severely. Hector does NEMESIS. Helen’s mortal father was TYNDAREUS. She was
agree to take in Rhesus’ wounded charioteer and the sister of CLYTEMNESTRA, CASTOR, and POLLUX (Poly-
arrange for his healing. Hector also declares his intent deuces). Helen became the wife of MENELAUS and they
to provide a proper burial for Rhesus. [ANCIENT had a daughter, HERMIONE. Helen was abducted twice
SOURCES: Euripides, Andromache, Hecabe, Trojan in her lifetime, first by THESEUS, later by the Trojan
Women; Homer, Iliad; Hyginus, Fables 106, 112; Ovid, PARIS. In the case of Theseus, Helen’s brothers rescued
 HELEN 243

her. Helen’s second abduction sparked the Trojan War, opening monologue, informs the audience that the
in which her husband, Menelaus, spent 10 years trying gods transported her to Egypt, while a phantom in her
to free her. Sources differ as to whether Helen went likeness was at Troy. Helen has taken refuge at the
with Paris willingly or unwillingly. tomb of Proteus, whose son, Theoclymenus, is
Helen appears as a character in EURIPIDES’ TROJAN attempting to force her to marry him.
WOMEN, HELEN, and ORESTES, as well as SENECA’S TROJAN After Helen’s monologue, TEUCER, the son of TELAMON
WOMEN. The portrayal of Helen’s character differs, of and brother of AJAX, arrives on the scene. Teucer
course, from play to play. In Orestes and the two Trojan encounters Helen and is horrified to see the woman for
Women plays, Helen is viewed as an object of hatred, whom he and the Greeks spent so many years fighting
even by some of her own relatives. In Euripides’ at Troy. Teucer informs her that his father banished him
Orestes, ORESTES, PYLADES, and ELECTRA enter a plot to from home. He even notes that he saw Helen’s husband,
kill Helen. If they succeed, they reason, they will be Menelaus, dragging her away from Troy, but that
considered heroes throughout Greece for having killed Menelaus has not yet reached home, having been driven
such a hated woman. Their plot fails, however, and far off course by a storm. Teucer tells Helen that her
ironically, the woman they considered so vile is res- mother, LEDA, and her brothers, CASTOR and POLLUX, are
cued by the gods and transformed into a divinity. dead, but that her brothers have become gods. All three,
In Euripides’ Helen, however, Helen is depicted as a according to Teucer, killed themselves because of shame
cunning damsel in distress and a victim of mispercep- about Helen’s behavior. Teucer then states that he has
tion. In this play, we learn that Paris kidnapped a gone to Egypt to consult the prophetess Theonoe, Theo-
phantom of Helen, while the real Helen was trans- clymenus’ sister, about how to reach CYPRUS, where
ported by the gods to Egypt, where she suffers the APOLLO told him he should settle. Helen shows Teucer
unwanted advances of King Theoclymenus, who is try- the path but warns him to beware of Theoclymenus,
ing to marry her. After Helen’s long-lost husband, who usually kills all Greeks he encounters.
Menelaus, washes ashore in Egypt, Helen concocts the After Teucer’s exit, Helen laments her fate and sum-
scheme that allows them to escape from Egypt. mons the chorus, composed of captive Greek women
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.10.7–11.1, who serve as her attendants, to join in her lament.
Epitome 1.23, 6.29; Gorgias, Encomium of Helen; With the chorus’ offering sympathetic responses,
Herodotus, 2.112–20; Homer, Iliad 3, Odyssey 4; Pau- Helen sings of the news about her deceased mother
sanias, 2.22.6–7, 3.19.9–3.20.1] and brothers, ALEXANDER’s abduction of her phantom,
BIBLIOGRAPHY and her divine transportation to Egypt. Helen goes on
Holmberg, I. E. “Euripides’ Helen: Most Noble and Most to wish that her whole life had been different; she has
Chaste,” American Journal of Philology 116, no. 1 (1995): lost her native land and her status and suspects that
19–42. her husband is now dead; her unmarried daughter is
growing old. Helen even expresses the notion that sui-
HELEN EURIPIDES (412 B.C.E.) Evidence cide might be the best way to preserve her sense of
from ARISTOPHANES’ THESMOPHORIAZUSAE, which was shame. The chorus, urging her not to give up hope,
produced in 411 B.C.E. and preserves a parody of suggest that Menelaus may still be alive and advise her
Helen, helps date EURIPIDES’ play. Euripides’ TETRALOGY to consult Theonoe about this possibility. Helen states
also included Andromeda, which is no longer extant, that if she learns that her husband is dead, she will kill
but was also parodied by Aristophanes in Thesmophori- herself and laments the loss of life that the war over her
azusae. The action of Helen occurs in the seventh year caused. After Helen concludes her lament, accompa-
after the sack of Troy by the Greeks and takes place in nied by the chorus, she enters the palace to consult
Egypt before the palace of King Theoclymenus. A Theonoe. From the perspective of staging, this is
structure representing the tomb of Theoclymenus’ unusual, as the chorus typically does not leave the
father, Proteus, is visible. Helen, who delivers the play’s stage once they have entered. What is most unusual
244 HELEN

here, however, is that not only do they leave, but also informs Helen that she is going to send someone to tell
they enter the palace, a move that does not occur else- her brother, Theoclymenus, that Menelaus has arrived
where in classical drama. in their land. Both Helen and Menelaus plead for help
After the exit of Helen and the chorus, Menelaus and mercy from Theonoe. Menelaus tells Theonoe that
enters dressed in rags. He has been wandering the seas if she prevents him from being reunited with Helen, he
since the fall of Troy and has been shipwrecked on will try to kill Theoclymenus; failing that, he declares
Egypt’s shores. He tries to gain some hospitality from that he will kill Helen and himself. Their pleas are suc-
Theoclymenus’ house, but a bad-tempered old cessful and Theonoe agrees not to interfere with their
woman, meeting him at the gate, drives him away; she efforts to escape. She tells them, however, that they
does, however, inform Menelaus of where he is and themselves must discover a way to flee.
warns him about Theoclymenus’ hatred of Greeks. She After Theonoe exits, Helen and Menelaus begin to
also tells an astonished Menelaus that Helen is inside plot their flight. Helen conceives the idea of dressing in
the palace. After the old woman returns to the interior mourning clothes, telling Theoclymenus that she has
of the palace, Menelaus expresses his amazement at the just heard Menelaus has died, and conducting a false
news about Helen. He also states his intention to wait burial for him at sea. After Menelaus agrees to this
for Theoclymenus and make some effort to gain some plan, Helen goes into the palace to prepare herself to
help from him. Menelaus then moves into a place of look as if she is in mourning while Menelaus takes
hiding from which he can watch what happens. refuge at Proteus’ tomb. After Helen’s exit, the chorus
Next, the chorus and Helen enter with the news sing an ode that recalls the abduction of Helen and the
from Theonoe that Menelaus is not dead. Menelaus, woe that it visited on the Trojans and Greeks. The cho-
seeing Helen, is amazed and approaches Helen, who rus sing that they consider those who seek virtue
has resumed her position at Proteus’ tomb. Helen does through war to be madmen.
not recognize Menelaus at first because of his ragged After the chorus’ song, Theoclymenus enters, having
appearance but soon realizes that he is her husband. returned from a hunting expedition. He is surprised to
Husband and wife then discuss the confusion about see that Helen has left her place of refuge at Proteus’
the phantom Helen, whom Menelaus took aboard his tomb and soon sees her emerge from the palace made
ship and believed he was currently hiding in a cave on up as a mourner. Helen tells Theoclymenus that she
the Egyptian coast. Menelaus, however, is not sure that will marry him, but that she must first perform a bur-
the woman standing before him is the real Helen. ial at sea for her husband, Menelaus, of whose death,
Menelaus’ opinion changes when one of his men enters she says she has just learned from both Theonoe and
and informs him that Helen has vanished into the air. one of Menelaus’ shipmates (who Menelaus now pre-
After Menelaus and Helen express their mutual joy at tends to be). Theoclymenus questions Menelaus, who
being reunited and then lament the hardships caused informs him of the things they will need to perform the
by the events precipitated by Helen. Menelaus then ritual. Theoclymenus agrees to supply Helen with
sends the messenger back to the ship to inform the everything she needs for the ritual, including a ship.
crew to be ready for action so that they can escape After the exit of Menelaus, Helen, and Theoclymenus
from Egypt. to attend to the preparations for the ritual, the chorus
After the messenger departs, Helen warns Menelaus sing an ode about DEMETER and her search for her
of the danger to Greeks posed by Theoclymenus and daughter, PERSEPHONE, whom HADES abducted, and
tells him that Theoclymenus intends to marry her. At Demeter’s eventual reconciliation with Zeus and end to
this point, Helen and Menelaus begin to consider their her grief over the loss of her daughter.
escape from Egypt. They decide to consult Theonoe After the choral ode, Helen enters and informs the
about this matter and pledge to commit suicide chorus that Theonoe has not revealed the plot to Theo-
together should they fail to escape. Before they can clymenus. Helen also notes that Menelaus has bathed
consult Theonoe, she emerges from the palace and and put on fresh clothing. Soon Theoclymenus and
 HELEN 245

Menelaus enter from the palace. After Theoclymenus plot to escape from Tauris, Helen creates a plan to
bids what he thinks is a temporary farewell to his escape from Egypt. In both cases, the plot involves the
soon-to-be bride, Menelaus and Helen exit for the falsification of a ritual (purification in the case of Iphi-
shore. Next, the chorus sing an ode in which they genia, burial in the case of Helen). After the Greeks
anticipate the return of Helen to her home in Sparta. escape, the respective barbarian kings (Thoas, Theo-
The chorus’ song is followed by the arrival from the clymenus) threaten violence but are prevented from
shore of a messenger, who informs Theoclymenus that carrying it out by the appearance of divinities (Athena,
Menelaus and his men have overpowered and killed Castor and Pollux). In both plays, the Greeks return to
many Egyptians and sailed away with Helen. When their native land with expectation of a “happy” life.
Theoclymenus learns the truth, he considers punishing Although Helen has serious themes, this play lacks
his sister, Theonoe, for not revealing Menelaus’ presence the tension and pathos of such Euripidean plays as
to him, but this action is averted by the appearance of MEDEA and HIPPOLYTUS. We hear of threats of violence
the divine CASTOR and POLLUX. The twin divinities from Theoclymenus, death and suffering caused in the
inform Theoclymenus that Helen’s destiny requires that past as a result of Helen’s abduction, and even Helen’s
she return to her home in Greece. They also call to own consideration of suicide, but the only deaths that
Helen and tell her that eventually she herself will occur in the play are those of some nameless Egyptians
become a goddess and that an island not far off the coast and a bull. Theoclymenus’ attempt to force Helen to
from Athenian territory will be named after her because marry him fails, Theoclymenus’ reputation for killing
she first stopped there when taken from Sparta. The strangers to his land never manifests itself, and his
divinities announces that Menelaus will be rewarded threat to punish his sister, Theonoe, is also averted.
with a home on the ISLAND OF THE BLESSED after his Indeed, Helen even has a few comic elements at
death. The play ends with Theoclymenus’ responding work. The appearance of Menelaus in rags may have
that he will comply with the will of the gods. garnered some laughs. Fourteen years earlier, in
ACHARNIANS, Aristophanes had joked about Euripides’
COMMENTARY putting nobles in rags onstage in his tragedies. In
Euripides’ Helen, which has become one of the more Helen, however, the presence of rags on a mythical king
popular ancient dramas among classical scholars in of Sparta may have seemed fitting and amusing to
recent years, is another of Euripides’ more puzzling many of Euripides’ fellow Athenians, who had been at
dramas, as it contains a blend of tragic and comic ele- war with the Spartans for two decades by this time.
ments. The plot of Helen has several similarities to that The scene between the female gatekeeper of Theocly-
of IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, which was staged the year before. menus’ palace and Menelaus, in which the old hag
As has IPHIGENIA, Helen has been transported by the repels the pitiful wanderer, is reminiscent of the
gods into a land populated by barbarians who custom- exchange between Dionysus and the gatekeeper of the
arily do violence to Greek males. Just as Iphigenia is UNDERWORLD in Aristophanes’ FROGS several years later,
reunited with her brother, Orestes, Helen is reunited or of other such slapstick exchanges in New Comedy.
with her husband, Menelaus. Orestes and Menelaus The tricking of the barbarian Theoclymenus by Helen
have both experienced considerable trauma: Orestes and her Greek countrymen echoes not only the decep-
has killed his mother, has been hounded by her FURIES, tion of the barbarian Thoas by Iphigenia in Euripides’
and has suffered a dangerous sea voyage past the Iphigenia in Tauris, but Odysseus’ blinding of the bar-
CLASHING ROCKS to reach Tauris. Similarly, Menelaus baric CYCLOPS in Euripides’ CYCLOPS, a SATYR PLAY. The
had fought for 10 years at Troy and then wandered the reunion and figurative remarriage of Helen and
sea for an additional seven years before being ship- Menelaus, rather than the death of a member of this
wrecked in Egypt. In both plays, after having been married couple, anticipate the happy endings of new
reunited with their women, the Greeks must escape comedy, in which long-separated loved ones are fre-
from the barbaric land. Just as Iphigenia contrived a quently reunited.
246 HELEN

Perhaps adding to the play’s humor are its metathe- Trojan maidens cut their hair in mourning for their
atrical elements, namely that Helen contains a play dead brothers (368–69a). At last, she herself has made
within a play. After the reunion of Helen and a gesture of mourning that parallels the gestures that
Menelaus, the couple must find a way to escape from her phantom prompted.
Egypt. The same phenomenon occurs in Iphigenia in The presence of two Helens in this play calls atten-
Tauris with Iphigenia and Orestes, but in Helen the tion to another of the play’s themes, appearance versus
metatheatricality is more pronounced. As Iphigenia reality and the effects of this dual nature of one human
does, Helen functions as the poet and creates a plot being on others. In Euripides’ Helen, the title character
line that will deceive her barbarian audience. In Iphi- and those who encounter her and are connected with
genia’s case, however, Orestes already has a ship. her must deal with her dual nature. Hera caused a
Menelaus’ ship has been lost and Helen’s plot must wicked, phantom Helen to be taken to one barbarian
ensure that Theoclymenus provide them with a ship, land, while a virtuous, corporeal Helen was taken to
Egyptian rowers who will move the ship into position another barbarian land but was placed in the home of
and take orders from Menelaus, and even the bull a person whom Zeus considered the most honest of
needed for the false sacrifice. In addition to the exten- mortal men. In Egypt, the corporeal Helen preserved
sive stage properties required for Helen’s “play,” Helen her marriage to Menelaus, whereas for the phantom
tells Menelaus that he must pretend to be dead, per- Helen, the Trojan War was fought and countless lives
haps borrowing a tactic from Orestes, who pretends were lost. People curse the Helen of Troy. When Teucer
that he is dead to trick Clytemnestra and Aegisthus in encounters her, he says he would have killed her, for
AESCHYLUS’ ORESTEIA. Helen also informs Menelaus that his exile can be attributed to her. Teucer further
he must play the role of the shipwreck’s sole survivor informs the virtuous Helen that the reputation of the
and tell Theoclymenus that Menelaus is dead. wicked Helen caused Helen’s mother to commit sui-
Menelaus will not need a costume because the rags cide and that her brother’s deaths can also be linked to
with which he entered this play will serve him in this the evil Helen. We also learn later that the phantom
internal play. Helen, however, will need a costume that Helen’s reputation has cost her daughter the chance of
will convince Theoclymenus that she is now in a state marriage. Of course, Teucer also tells Helen that her
of mourning. Accordingly, she must go into the palace husband, Menelaus, is dead. The chorus warn her,
and exchange her light-colored clothing for dark, mar however, that she should not believe everything she
her face with her fingernails, and cut her hair in a sign hears and their advice turns out to be true, as Menelaus
of mourning. The beauty that Helen complains has eventually appears.
destroyed so many she will now destroy. The cutting of When the once regal king of Sparta arrives in Egypt,
Helen’s hair is an interesting phenomenon from a the- however, he certainly does not appear to be a king and
atrical point of view because ancient vase paintings is dressed in rags. When Helen first encounters him,
that show actors’ MASKS also reveal that the masks have even she does not recognize her husband. Once Helen
hair. Thus, whereas an ancient actor’s mask usually and Menelaus recognize one another, however, a mes-
remains static in expression and appearance, Euripides senger arrives to announce that the phantom Helen has
now has Helen enter the palace and alter that mask. vanished and that the evil rumors that the real Helen
Furthermore, the fact that Helen of all people would had heard about herself were untrue. Once the phan-
cut her hair seems amazing. In EURIPIDES’ ORESTES, per- tom Helen is gone, we perhaps begin to see a wholly
formed a few years after Helen, Helen cuts only the tips integrated Helen, a Helen who has much in common
of her hair in a show of mourning for her dead sister, with the trickster Odysseus. Eventually, the real Helen,
Clytemnestra. In Helen, the title character has properly whose phantom caused immense hardship, will create
shorn her fabled locks and only five lines after Helen’s the illusion of a dead Menelaus to occupy Theocly-
next entrance Theoclymenus mentions her short hair menus’ mind. The reality, however, will not match the
(1187–88). Helen recalled earlier in the play that the appearance. The real Menelaus will be before Theocly-
 HELLE 247

menus’ eyes, and the fictional, dead Menelaus will cap- Foley, H. P. Female Acts in Greek Tragedy. Princeton, N.J.:
tivate Theoclymenus’ mind and give him hope of mar- Princeton University Press, 2001, 303–31.
riage to Helen. Ultimately, Theoclymenus is deceived Podlecki, A. J. “The Basic Seriousness of Euripides’ Helen,”
by the phantom of Menelaus that Helen created in his Transactions of the American Philological Association 101
(1970): 401–18.
mind. Helen and Menelaus will return to their native
Segal, C. P. “The Two Worlds of Euripides’ Helen,” Transac-
Sparta and Helen herself will become a goddess at the
tions of the American Philological Association 102 (1971):
end of her mortal life. 553–614.
Despite the play’s comic elements, one cannot help Wolff, C. “On Euripides’ Helen,” Harvard Studies in Classical
but feel that some members of Euripides’ audience Philology 77 (1973): 61–84.
must have felt a certain sadness and heartache while
watching this play. Euripides’ Helen deals with the HELENUS The son of PRIAM and HECABE,
futility of war. After 10 years of war, Menelaus discov- Helenus was the brother of CASSANDRA, DEIPHOBUS,
ers that the real Helen was never at Troy. Countless HECTOR, PARIS, POLYDORUS, POLYXENA, TROILUS, and
lives, both Greek and Trojan, were lost, fighting over a many others. As his sister Cassandra was, Helenus was
phantom. Helen’s daughter remains unmarried and a prophet of APOLLO. Unlike those of Cassandra, how-
childless because of her mother’s poor reputation. ever, Helenus’ prophecies seem to have been believed.
Helen’s mother committed suicide because of Helen’s After the death of Paris, Helenus and his brother, Dei-
supposed affair with PARIS. The Athenians themselves phobus, became rivals for Helen. When Deiphobus
had experienced a similar futility between 415 and 413 won Helen, Helenus became angry and left TROY. Cap-
as they witnessed the almost total annihilation of the tured by the Greeks, Helenus revealed to them the
mighty fleet and the forces that their SICILIAN EXPEDI- secret of Troy’s success, a statue called the Palladium,
TION comprised. The illusion of the prize of SICILY did and told them that if they could gain possession of this
not match the reality of the crushing defeat that they statue, they could overthrow Troy.
suffered. A similar discouraging note to an Athenian
audience may have been found in the reversal of for- HELIAEA A law court located in the AGORA at
tune of the Spartans in the play: The situation of Helen ATHENS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 897;
and Menelaus, both Spartans, in the first half of the Pausanias, 1.28.8]
play was desperate; by the end of the play the Spartans
gain the upper hand. The Spartans trick the barbarians HELICON A mountain or range of mountains
through a false ritual and escape. The divinities who near the Gulf of CORINTH in the western part of BOEO-
prevent Theoclymenus from further violence were TIA. The mountain was sacred to the MUSES and
Spartans while they lived. Furthermore, these divini- APOLLO. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Heracles 240,
ties promise the Spartan Helen that she will become a 791; Hesiod, Theogony 1–2, 23; Pausanias, 9.29.5;
divinity, and that her husband, the king of Sparta, will Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos 1108–9]
be honored with a life on the Island of the Blessed in
the afterlife. As a further reminder to the Athenians of HELIUS See SUN.
the Spartans’ good fortune, an island within sight of
their territory would be named after Helen. Unlike the HELLAS The name usually used by the ancient
Spartans of Helen, who return home safely from a for- Greeks for their country.
eign land, very few of the Athenians who fought in the
Sicilian Expedition returned home. HELLE The daughter of ATHAMAS and Nephele and
BIBLIOGRAPHY the brother of PHRIXUS. When Helle and her brother
Austin, N. Helen of Troy and Her Shameless Phantom. Ithaca, were rescued by the ram with the Golden Fleece, Helle
N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994. fell into the sea and died. The sea was named Helle-
Dale, A. M. Euripides: Helen. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967. spont after her. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
248 HELLENES

1.9.1; Aristophanes, Wasps 309; Hyginus, Fables 3; when the Scamander River attacks him. In Vergil’s
Seneca, Thyestes 851, Trojan Women 1034] Aeneid, Hephaestus makes armor for Aeneas. Hephaes-
tus is also said to have supplied Heracles with a breast-
HELLENES In the works of the dramatists, the plate. Hephaestus may have given MINOS the bronze
name Hellenes is usually synonymous with the Greeks. giant Talos.
The name Hellenes is from Hellen, the name of one of Hephaestus appears in the opening of AESCHYLUS’
the sons of DEUCALION. ACCIUS wrote a play entitled PROMETHEUS BOUND as one who is assigned the task of
Hellenes, of which two lines survive (376–77 Warm- overseeing Prometheus’ binding to a peak of the Cau-
ington) but the plot unknown. casus. Among the Greek dramatists, Achaeus wrote a
satyric Hephaestus that may have dealt with Hephaes-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
tus’ return to Olympus, as the single fragment (17
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Snell) that survives preserves five lines of a conversa-
Harvard University Press, 1936. tion of Hephaestus and Dionysus in which the wine
god promises Hephaestus a banquet and says that he
HEMIKUKLION A Greek word meaning “semi- will anoint him with myrrh. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
circular,” the hemikulion, according to Pollux, was lodorus, Library 1.6.2, 1.9.16, 26, 2.4.1; Homer, Iliad
placed near the ORCHESTRA in the ancient theater with 18; Vergil, Aeneid 8]
the purpose of showing objects or persons in the dis- BIBLIOGRAPHY
tance. This device was probably not in use until after Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
the fifth century B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pollux, Ono- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
masticon 4.127, 131]
HERA The goddess Hera, whose Roman counter-
HEPHAESTUS (Latin: VULCAN, MUL- part is Juno, is a daughter of CRONUS and RHEA. She is
CIBER) Best known as the craftsman of the gods both the sister and the wife of ZEUS. She is also the sis-
and a god associated with fire, Hephaestus was the son ter of HADES, POSEIDON, HESTIA, and DEMETER. Some
of ZEUS and HERA according to some, or, according to sources make Hera and Zeus the parents of HEPHAES-
others, the child of Hera alone, born from her thigh. TUS; others say that Hera produced Hephaestus from
Hephaestus was the husband of APHRODITE, according her thigh. Hera is considered the queen of the sky and
to some; of Charis, according to others. He may have is particularly concerned with the preservation of the
fathered the Argonaut Palaemon. By Anticlia, Hep- marriage bond. She is also connected with childbirth,
haestus is said to have fathered Periphetes, whom THE- and in TERENCE’s ANDRIA (473), Glycerium calls upon
SEUS killed. He suffered an injury to his legs either at Juno Lucina as she goes into labor. She seldom appears
birth or when he was thrown from Mount OLYMPUS by as a character in extant dramas. In PLAUTUS’ Amphitruo,
Zeus or Hera. Hephaestus landed on the island of LEM- Juno (Hera) is reported to have sent serpents to destroy
NOS, an island that became sacred to him. The injured the infant Hercules (HERACLES). In EURIPIDES’ HERACLES,
god was cared for by the sea nymph THETIS, as Hep- Iris reports that Hera arranged for Madness to perse-
haestus and Thetis recall in Iliad 18 when Thetis cute Heracles; in SENECA’s HERCULES FURENS, Juno her-
arrives to request that the god make armor for her son, self speaks of her grievances against the hero.
ACHILLES. Despite Hephaestus’ injuries early in life, he
seems to have been reconciled to Zeus and Hera later HERACLES The greatest of the classical heroes,
and tradition says that DIONYSUS made Hephaestus Heracles (Roman: Hercules) was the son of ZEUS and
drunk and took him back to Olympus. After Hephaes- the mortal ALCMENA. His mortal father was AMPHIT-
tus’ return, he was recognized as a divinity. Hephaestus RYON. Heracles also had a brother, Iphicles, who was
helped the Olympian gods in their fight against the the son of Amphitryon and Alcmena. After Amphit-
GIANTS. In Iliad, Hephaestus also helps save Achilles ryon was exiled to THEBES for the killing of his uncle,
 HERACLES 249

ELECTRYON, he married Electryon’s daughter, tribute imposed on his native town and assaulted the
Alcmena. Amphitryon’s new bride refused to con- ambassadors, cutting off their ears, nose, and hands
summate the marriage until Amphitryon avenged the and hanging these body parts around their neck.
deaths of her brothers, who had been killed during a Erginus, on learning of the attack on his ambassa-
raid on their father’s cattle. When Amphitryon left dors, set out immediately to punish the Thebans. The
Thebes to battle the enemy, Zeus disguised himself as total destruction of Thebes seemed unpreventable.
Amphitryon, had intercourse with Alcmena, and After the previous war, Erginus had forced the Thebans
impregnated her. Almost immediately after Zeus left to disarm. This time, however, the Thebans had a
the house, the real Amphitryon returned from the weapon that they had not had before—Heracles. In the
war. Successful in the battle, Amphitryon wanted to ensuing battle, the Heracles-led Thebans achieved a
sleep with Alcmena, but Alcmena was puzzled by decisive victory over Erginus and his people. In grati-
Amphitryon’s presence, because she thought he had tude, the Theban king, CREON, gave Heracles his
left her bed a little earlier. Amphitryon was also trou- daughter, MEGARA, in marriage. Life for Heracles and
bled because he knew that he had not slept with his Megara was happy until Hera caused Heracles to
wife, despite her claims to the contrary. Eventually, become mad and kill Megara and his children by her.
after the prophet TIRESIAS informed the couple of Heracles journeyed to the DELPHIC ORACLE to ask what
what had happened, Alcmena welcomed Amphitryon he could do to atone for his crimes; the oracle com-
to her bed, was again impregnated, and thus became manded him to serve EURYSTHEUS, king of Mycenae,
the mother of twins. Zeus was Heracles’ father, and and perform 10 (some sources say 12) labors for him.
Amphitryon was Iphicles’ father. In EURIPIDES’ HERACLES, however, Euripides reverses the
Before Heracles was born, Zeus had boasted that his order of Heracles’ madness and labors. In this play,
next descendant to be born would become a powerful Heracles performs his labors for Eurystheus and then
king. Zeus thought that Heracles would be the benefi- becomes mad and kills Megara and his children.
ciary of this claim. HERA, hearing this boast, decided to Heracles was, of course, successful in all of his
thwart Zeus. She delayed the birth of Heracles and labors. He killed the invulnerable lion of NEMEA by
accelerated the birth of his cousin, EURYSTHEUS. Hera’s strangling it. Heracles killed the hydra of Lerna by cut-
hatred of Heracles continued after he was born, as the ting off its multiple heads and then burning the sev-
goddess sent two serpents to kill the child. Heracles ered places. He used the hydra’s venom to make his
proved his might by strangling the serpents with his own arrows extremely lethal. He diverted the courses
tiny hands. of the rivers Alpheus and Peneus to cleanse the stables
Heracles’ next challenge occurred when he was 12 of Augeas, king of ELIS. He used a bronze rattle to drive
years old, and in a fit of anger he killed his music away the birds that plagued the region around Lake
teacher, LINUS. Heracles was acquitted of murder when Stymphalus. He subdued and took back to Eurystheus
he successfully argued that he was only retaliating for the stag of Cerynea, the Erymanthean boar, the bull of
being struck wrongfully. Amphitryon, however, Crete, the flesh-eating mares of Diomedes, the cattle of
thought both Heracles and his fellow Thebans might the triple-bodied creature GERYON, and CERBERUS, the
be better off if this dangerous young man spent some multiheaded dog who guarded the UNDERWORLD. Hera-
time herding cattle in the countryside. When Heracles cles also retrieved for Eurystheus the belt of the AMA-
was 18, he gained fame for killing a lion that was rav- ZON Hippolyte and the apples of the HESPERIDES.
aging the herds of Amphitryon and Thespius, king of During this latter adventure, he performed ATLAS’ task
Thespiae. As Heracles was returning from hunting the of holding the sky on his shoulders. In the course of
lion, he encountered ambassadors from a certain king, Heracles’ labors, he performed numerous additional
ERGINUS, who had defeated his fellow Thebans in bat- deeds (or parerga). Heracles battled and defeated cen-
tle and had imposed a tribute on them. Having learned taurs on several occasions; he killed ARES’ son, CYCNUS,
the ambassadors’ business, Heracles took offense at the who killed strangers near the town of Amphanae; he
250 HERACLES

wrestled Death himself to raise ADMETUS’ wife, ALCES- cle’s sacred tripod and left to establish his own oracle.
TIS, from the dead; he rescued the maiden HESIONE of This act of sacrilege prompted the appearance of
Troy from a sea monster; he wrestled to death several APOLLO, the god of DELPHI. Heracles and Apollo would
villains, such as ANTAEUS and BUSIRIS, who killed all have fought, but their father, Zeus, stopped them and
who wrestled with them. At some point in his career, resolved this tense situation. Heracles returned
he sacked the towns of Troy and Elis. Some sources Apollo’s tripod, and Apollo told Heracles how he could
state that after his destruction of Elis Heracles estab- atone for his crime.
lished the Olympic games to honor his father, Zeus. Heracles again had to become a slave, this time of a
Heracles even fought alongside the gods to defend woman, OMPHALE, the queen of Lydia. Before Heracles
them from the Giants. went into exile, he moved his family to TRACHIS, in
After Heracles completed his labors for Eurystheus, northeastern Greece. After Heracles’ servitude to
he decided to marry again. His first choice was IOLE, Omphale, he returned to Greece; sacked the town of
daughter of EURYTUS, king of OECHALIA. Eurytus, how- Eurytus, on whom he blamed his troubles; and took
ever, refused to marry Iole to Heracles. For the time Eurytus’ daughter, Iole, prisoner. While Heracles
being, Heracles seems to have put aside this rejection remained on Eurytus’ island to make a sacrifice to
and traveled to CALYDON, where he became a suitor for Zeus, Iole was sent ahead to Trachis. When Deianeira
DEIANEIRA, the daughter of OENEUS and sister of MELEA- saw the young captive, she rightly suspected that Her-
GER. Heracles was not the only suitor interested in acles would make the young woman his concubine.
Deianeira, however, and he had to wrestle the river god Remembering the centaur Nessus’ love charm, she
ACHELOUS for the right to marry her. Heracles, after placed some of this substance on a robe that Heracles
defeating Achelous, took his new bride to Argos. On would wear while making sacrifice and sent it to him
the way to Argos, Heracles and Deianeira had to cross via the messenger Lichas. When Heracles put on the
the river Evenus, which was treacherous. At the banks robe, it became stuck to his body; trying to remove the
of the Evenus, the CENTAUR NESSUS offered to carry robe only tore off his skin. Later, after Deianeira dis-
Deianeira across the river. While Heracles made his covered her love charm’s true power, she committed
way across the stream, the centaur tried to assault suicide. Heracles managed to have himself ferried to
Deianeira sexually. Heracles shot the centaur with one Trachis, where he begged his son, Hyllus, to put him
of his venom-tinged arrows. Before Nessus died, how- out of his misery. Hyllus took his father to the top of
ever, he convinced Deianeira that his blood (now poi- Mount Oeta, where a funeral pyre was built and Hera-
soned with hydra venom) could be used as a love cles, still alive, was placed on top. He could not make
charm if Deianeira suspected Heracles of loving himself light his father’s pyre, and a passing shepherd,
another woman. Deianeira managed to collect some of PHILOCTETES, agreed to help Heracles. In exchange for
the centaur’s blood and kept it with her. this service, Heracles gave Philoctetes his bow and
After Heracles and Deianeira arrived in Argos, they arrows. Once the pyre was ignited, Heracles’ mortal
seem to have had a happy life for a number of years. part was burned away and his divine part ascended to
They had at least one child together, HYLLUS. At some Mount OLYMPUS, where he was welcomed as a god and
point during Heracles’ time in Argos, he received a visit married to HEBE, the daughter of Zeus and Hera.
from IPHITUS, the son of Eurytus, who was searching Heracles appears as a character in several extant dra-
for cattle that had been stolen from their land. Heracles mas and would have appeared as a character in dozens
helped Iphitus look for the cattle, but during their of other dramas, both tragedies and comedies, that are
search madness (caused by Hera, according to some no longer extant. In EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS, he appears as
sources) struck Heracles, and he killed Iphitus. Hera- the enduring but somewhat uncouth hero who
cles consulted the Delphic oracle about what he should becomes drunk during the funeral of Alcestis, but later
do to atone for this crime, but the oracle refused to rescues Alcestis from THANATOS, the god of death. In
answer him. The angered Heracles snatched the ora- Euripides’ Heracles, he returns from the UNDERWORLD
 HERACLES 251

and is characterized as the savior of Thebes, Greece, his concubine. Heracles’ killing of the centaur Nessus,
and even the gods themselves. He rescues his family although justifiable, eventually leads to his own death,
from persecution by the evil king Lycus but then is as the venom from Heracles’ arrow that tainted Nessus’
dashed violently from the pinnacle of his success by blood will provide the poison with which Deianeira
Hera, who sends Madness to drive him insane—and will accidentally destroy Heracles.
his insanity leads him to kill his wife and sons. After
Heracles recovers from his madness, Euripides shows HERACLES EURIPIDES (CA. 420–415 B.C.E.)
him as a broken man, who rejects the idea that Zeus EURIPIDES’ Heracles has HERACLES’ house at THEBES as its
was his father. setting. As the play opens, Heracles’ mortal father,
Euripides’ portrayal of Heracles in Heracles recalls AMPHITRYON, relates in the PROLOGUE that the current
SOPHOCLES’ treatment of AJAX in the earlier play of the king of Thebes, LYCUS, arrived there from EUBOEA;
same name. As is Ajax, Heracles is stricken with tem- killed the Theban king, CREON (father of Heracles’
porary madness and attacks those who pose no violent wife, MEGARA); and usurped his throne. Amphitryon
threat to him. Heracles’ madness leads him to his kill states that he himself went to Thebes after he was
his harmless wife and children, thinking he is attack- exiled from ARGOS for killing his uncle, ELECTRYON.
ing his enemy, Eurystheus; Ajax’s madness leads to the Additionally, he says that Heracles offered EURYSTHEUS,
destruction of harmless cattle, rather than ODYSSEUS, king of Argos, to rid the earth of various monsters in
AGAMEMNON, and MENELAUS, as Ajax had intended. exchange for allowing Amphitryon to return to Argos.
Special weapons play important roles in the portrayals At present, Heracles is in the UNDERWORLD, there to
of Ajax and Heracles. Sophocles’ Ajax mistakenly kills take CERBERUS back to the upper world. While Heracles
the cattle and then himself with a sword given to him has been in the underworld, Lycus has begun to perse-
by his enemy, HECTOR. Euripides portrays Heracles’ cute Heracles’ family and threatens to kill them. To
bow as the primary weapon that helped him accom- save themselves, Amphitryon, Heracles’ wife, and his
plish his labors, but the same bow is one of the three children have taken refuge at Zeus’ altar.
weapons used to destroy his family. Ajax rid himself of After Amphitryon’s opening monologue, Megara
the weapon of his madness by burying that weapon in addresses Amphitryon, wondering how they are going to
his own body; in the last part of Euripides’ Heracles, escape their situation. Amphitryon is uncertain but
the hero debates whether he should rid himself of the encourages her to be hopeful. Next, the chorus, com-
bow or continue to carry it. Eventually, Heracles posed of old Theban men, enter. They sing of their weak
decides that he cannot bear to discard his bow, though old age, their once glorious youth, and the great resem-
it destroyed his family. Finally, both Ajax and Heracles blance of Heracles’ children to their father. The old men’s
have a special connection with ATHENS. In Sophocles’ entry is followed by the arrival of Lycus, who scoffs at the
play, Ajax is frequently linked with the city and, in fact, group for continuing to hope for salvation. Lycus also
worshiped as a hero throughout Athenian territory. At downplays Heracles’ valor because his chief weapon is
the conclusion of Euripides’ Heracles, Theseus, the the bow, a coward’s weapon in Lycus’ view. He intends to
Athenian king, promises to take Heracles to Athens, prevent Heracles’ children from growing up and taking
give him a home and land there, and, after his death, revenge on him for the killing of Creon. Amphitryon
establish the worship of Heracles in Athens. defends Heracles’ valor and suggests that the bow is a
In Sophocles’ Trachiniaen Women, Heracles is char- clever weapon that allows the warrior to fight safely from
acterized as someone who constantly uses violence to a distance. Amphitryon wonders what Heracles’ children
achieve his goals. He wrestles and defeats ACHELOUS for have done to Lycus and criticizes the people of Thebes
the right to marry Deianeira. He kills Iphitus suddenly for not helping them, especially because Heracles once
and without explanation. Heracles destroys Eurytus’ saved their city from the Minyans.
kingdom with apparently little more motivation than a Lycus does not try to refute Amphitryon’s argu-
desire to enslave Eurytus’ daughter, IOLE, and make her ments; he calls on his servants to pile wood around the
252 HERACLES

altar to burn Amphitryon and Heracles’ family. At this, dle of a play is unusual in classical drama. Euripides
the old Thebans raise their staffs and threaten Lycus. frequently sends divinities into his dramas, but they
Megara, however, feels that their death is a certainty usually appear at the beginning or end. The unex-
and states that if they must die, they should die with pected appearance of Iris and Madness both marks and
dignity. Amphitryon asks Lycus to kill him and Megara initiates the play’s second half. Heracles has reached
before the children die so that they will not have to the height of his accomplishments as a hero by this
watch their death. Megara also asks that they be point in the play. Now, as was Job in the Old Testa-
allowed to wear funeral garments before they perish. ment, he will be toppled from the pinnacle of success.
Lycus agrees to both these requests and then departs. Iris tells the chorus that neither Zeus nor fate would
Megara takes the children into the palace and is fol- allow Hera to assault Heracles during his labors. With
lowed by Amphitryon, who questions the value of the completion of the labors, however, Hera will make
Zeus’ being Heracles’ father because the god has not Heracles kill his children. The unfairness of this action
aided Heracles’ family. is voiced by Madness herself, who notes that Heracles
While Heracles’ family is inside the palace clothing has helped not only humankind, but the gods them-
themselves for their imminent death, the Theban eld- selves. Iris dismisses Madness’ sympathy and tells her
ers sing a lengthy ode that celebrates the various labors to carry out her assignment. As with the exchange
of Heracles. They conclude the song by wondering between Power and HEPHAESTUS in PROMETHEUS BOUND,
where Heracles is. They long for the strength of their in which Hephaestus is reluctant to affix PROMETHEUS
youth, which might allow them to rescue Heracles’ to the mountain, Madness is reluctant to attack Hera-
children. After their song, Amphitryon and Heracles’ cles but says that she will do so.
family emerge from the palace wearing garments The chorus’ earlier joy is now turned to sadness as
appropriate for their impending death. As their despair the old men of Thebes mourn the loss of Heracles and
reaches its height, Heracles suddenly returns from the describe for the audience the looming attack of Mad-
underworld. Megara explains the situation to Heracles, ness and a sort of storm that shakes Heracles’ house.
who quickly decides to destroy Lycus. Amphitryon, After the choral ode, a messenger enters and describes
advising Heracles on how best to attack the king, sug- Heracles’ killing of his wife and children. This MESSEN-
gests that he enter the palace and wait for Lycus there. GER speech is one of the most horrific in extant drama.
Amphitryon also questions Heracles about his journey The perversity and horror of Heracles’ madness are
to the underworld. After this, Heracles, Amphitryon, intensified by the fact that his madness occurs while
and the family reenter the palace. Heracles is leading his family in a religious ceremony
After their exit, the aged Thebans sing an ode wish- to purify their house of the killing of Lycus. The mes-
ing for a second youth. They sing of Heracles’ victories, senger notes that Heracles was stricken with insanity in
they declare him Zeus’ son (a relationship that Hera- the midst of this ceremony. In Heracles’ madness, he
cles himself will later renounce), and praise the hero imagined that he was climbing into a chariot to go to
for securing peace and tranquility for them. Their song MYCENAE and kill Eurystheus. As Heracles imagined
is followed by Lycus’ arrival. Amphitryon, who has passing through various towns on his way to Mycenae,
emerged from the palace, then lures the unsuspecting he stopped and prepared to eat an imaginary meal; he
king into the palace. Soon, Lycus’ cries are heard from then removed his clothing and engaged in a wrestling
the palace and the chorus begin to dance in celebration match with no one. Upon arriving at the imaginary
of the tyrant’s death. They rejoice in the triumph of Mycenae, Heracles snatched up his bow and began to
Heracles and express their present certainty (previ- take aim at his own sons, thinking that they were
ously they had doubts) that Zeus was Heracles’ father. Eurystheus’ sons. Heracles killed one child with his
The chorus’ celebration, however, is interrupted by bow, a second with his club; with another arrow he
the appearance of the goddess IRIS, whom Madness killed Megara and his third son. Heracles’ rampage
accompanies. The appearance of divinities in the mid- ends when the phantom of ATHENA knocks out the hero
 HERACLES 253

with a massive boulder. While Heracles is uncon- Also unusual, as noted, is the appearance of the
scious, Amphitryon and servants tie him to a pillar. divinities in the middle of the play. As unexpected and
After the messenger’s speech, the doors of the palace unconventional as this may seem, it does fit in with
are opened and Heracles is revealed, tied to a pillar and one of the play’s themes, which Padilla has well
sleeping. Amphitryon urges the chorus to be quiet so detailed. Among the important concepts of Euripides’
that they will not wake him. Eventually, Heracles awak- Heracles are the notions of “the seen” and “the unseen.”
ens from his slumber and wonders at the corpses of his When the play opens, Heracles is in Hades, whose
family nearby. When Amphitryon explains to Heracles name means “unseen.” During Amphitryon and Lycus’
what he has done, Heracles wonders why he does not argument in the first half of the play, Amphitryon
take his own life. His self-questioning is cut short, how- defends Heracles’ use of the bow because this weapon
ever, by the entrance of the Athenian king THESEUS, allows the person who wields it to strike at enemies
who has traveled to Thebes because he had received from an unseen position. When Heracles returns from
news that Lycus had overthrown the government there the land of the unseen, he tells Amphitryon that he
and because Heracles has rescued Theseus from the entered Thebes unseen (598). Soon, Heracles will
underworld. Heracles covers his head with his cloak so enter the house and strike out at Lycus, who will not
that he will not be seen by Theseus, who coaxes him to see his assailant. The unseen Heracles who kills Lycus
uncover his head. Heracles is in great despair: He is in turn driven insane by Madness, who states that
speaks of suicide, denies that he is Zeus’ son, and she will enter Heracles’ house unseen (873). After Her-
rejects the stories told by poets about the gods’ immoral acles kills his wife and children, he becomes unseen
behavior. Theseus does manage to persuade Heracles again, this time in shame for his actions, as he covers
not to take his own life and to go with him to Athens. his head with his cloak. Near the play’s conclusion,
Before Heracles leaves, he arranges for Amphitryon Heracles considers leaving behind his bow, the weapon
to bury his family. Heracles then bids farewell to his of the unseen warrior, but cannot bear to part with the
wife and sons. He considers abandoning the bow with weapon that has served him through so many labors,
which he killed his family but decides that he cannot although he destroyed his family with this same
part with it. Heracles requests that Theseus accompany weapon.
him to verify for Eurystheus that Heracles restored Also prominent among the themes of Heracles is the
Cerberus from the underworld. As Theseus and Hera- idea of friendship, as Barlow and many other scholars
cles leave, Heracles is weeping. He promises Amphit- have pointed out. In the first half of the play, it appears
ryon that he will send for him to go to Athens. that other than Amphitryon and Heracles’ family, Her-
acles has no friends. The people of Thebes, whom Her-
COMMENTARY acles liberated from the Minyans, provide no help to
Euripides’ Heracles is not regarded as one of the him. Amphitryon accuses Zeus, Heracles’ father, of not
author’s best plays. The drama moves slowly at its being a friend to Heracles (341) and claims he himself
beginning and end but is fast-paced during its central is a better friend than the mighty god. Heracles defeats
part. Thus, much of the criticism of the play is related Lycus, but once this threat is eliminated, he is over-
to its structure. As does Euripides’ earlier ANDROMACHE, thrown by Madness, an agent of his enemy, Hera. After
Heracles begins with the seige of innocent people at an Heracles’ madness, the hero himself believes that he
altar (ANDROMACHE and child; Amphitryon, Megara, has become friendless. Theseus, the king of Athens,
and children) and is followed by the rescue of the however, proves himself a friend and promises Hera-
innocents and the repulsion of the beseiger (PELEUS cles asylum in his land.
saves Andromache and child and repels MENELAUS and In addition to the theme of friendship, another of
HERMIONE; Heracles saves his family and kills Lycus); the play’s focal points is fatherhood. The play opens
that is in turn followed by a terrible killing (NEOPTOLE- with a prologue by Heracles’ mortal father, who notes
MUS is killed; Heracles kills his wife and children). that Heracles became a slave to Eurystheus so that his
254 HERCULES FURENS

father (Amphitryon) could return to his native land. that he will leave his mortal father Amphitryon. Thus,
The audience also learns that Amphitryon must func- having no children, being rejected by his fatherland,
tion as a father figure to Heracles’ wife and children. and having rejected his ties to his divine father and
The father of Heracles’ wife was killed in the overthrow been compelled to leave his mortal father behind, Her-
of the Theban government and Heracles’ labors cause acles is beginning to resemble Lycus.
the children to miss their father. Finally, the issue of how Euripides has changed the
Whereas attention is constantly drawn to Heracles’ order of events with respect to Heracles’ killing of his
role as a father, the oppressor of Heracles’ family is wife and children seems worthy of consideration. In
seemingly fatherless and no mention is made of his hav- another version of the story Heracles kills his wife and
ing a wife or children, a highly unusual condition for a children before he performs his labors and atonement
Greek male. We learn that Lycus is a descendant of a for- for these killings is the reason for his performance of
mer Theban king, but his father’s name is never given. the labors for Eurystheus. Presenting Heracles’ killing
Amphitryon even scoffs that Lycus’ fatherland (patran, of his wife and children after the completion of his
187) would not be able to provide anyone who could labors allows Euripides to take Heracles to the pinna-
testify that Lycus had ever performed a noble deed. cle of his achievements and then push him over the
Because Lycus has killed Megara’s father and his male edge. If Heracles kills his wife and children before his
children, he now wants to put his rule of Thebes on labors, he remains a powerful figure, but he is still rel-
firmer ground by killing Heracles’ father and children. atively unknown. By the time Heracles commits these
Lycus feels he has nothing to fear from Heracles, who is murders in Euripides’ play, he has saved his city, his
surely dead in the underworld, but he does not want the country, the world, and even the gods. Madness herself
father’s children to grow up and take vengeance on him. has great respect for Heracles and what he has done.
Lycus will not become another AEGISTHUS, whose mur- After the murders, Heracles falls from almost divine
der of AGAMEMNON was avenged by his son, ORESTES. status to that of a mere mortal. Theseus, on hearing
Father Heracles does, however, return from the Heracles’ laments and thoughts of suicide, observes
underworld and destroy the man who threatened his that Heracles is talking as an ordinary person does
father and threatened to take away his own identity as (1248). Thus, in Euripides’ Heracles, the title character
a father by killing his children. Unfortunately, the vic- moves from hero to mortal.
torious return of the father is quickly countered by the BIBLIOGRAPHY
appearance of Madness, who, in her opening line, Barlow, S. A. Heracles: Euripides. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
maintains the paternal theme by noting that she was Phillips, 1996.
born of a noble mother and father (843). Madness is Bond, G. W. Euripides: Heracles. London: Oxford University
reluctant to act against Heracles because of the help he Press, 1981.
has given the gods. Still, she carries out the wishes of Gregory, J. W. “Euripides’ Heracles,” Yale Classical Studies 25
Hera, the wife of Heracles’ divine father, and causes (1977): 259–75.
Padilla, M. “The Gorgonic Archer: Danger of Sight in
father Heracles to kill his children. In his madness,
Euripides’ Heracles,” Classical World 86 (1992): 1–12.
Heracles thinks that he is killing the children of his
Vickers, M. “Heracles Lacedaemonius: The Political Dimen-
enemy, Eurystheus, an ironic parallel to what Lycus sions of Sophocles’ Trachiniae and Euripides’ Heracles,”
planned for the children of his enemy, Heracles. Dialogues d’Histoire Ancien 21, no. 2 (1995): 41–69.
After Heracles kills his wife and children, not only Worman, Nancy. “The Ties That Bind: Transformations of
can he no longer be called a father, but his relationship Costume and Connection in Euripides’ Heracles,” Ramus
with his divine father is changed in his mind. Heracles 28, no. 2 (1999): 89–107.
wonders who Zeus is and declares that he considers
Amphitryon his father and not Zeus (1265). Not only HERCULES FURENS SENECA (WRITTEN
does Heracles reject his immortal father, but as a killer BETWEEN 49 AND 65 C.E.?) The basic story of
he must leave his fatherland. Heracles’ exile also means the play is the same as that of EURIPIDES’ HERACLES. The
 HERCULES FURENS 255

play’s setting is the house of Hercules (Greek: HERA- believes that Hercules will return from the underworld
CLES) at THEBES. Unlike in Euripides’ play, in which and eventually ascend to heaven. When Lycus wonders
AMPHITRYON speaks the prologue, in SENECA’s play Juno who Hercules’ father is to make Megara have such a
(Greek: HERA), who does not appear in Euripides’ play, belief, Amphitryon defends the idea that the king of
delivers the prologue. In Juno’s lengthy speech, she the gods is Hercules’ father. Lycus, however, wonders
complains that she has left heaven because her place whether beings who were once enslaved or persecuted
has been taken by women with whom her husband, themselves can be gods. Lycus questions Hercules’
Jove (Greek: ZEUS), has had affairs. Juno has attempted bravery, noting that he behaved in an unmanly fashion
to take revenge on Hercules, the child of ALCMENA by during his servitude to OMPHALE. Lycus also notes that
Zeus. Hercules, however, has destroyed all the mon- when Hercules destroyed EURYTUS and his kingdom, he
sters that Juno has put in his path. Juno notes that now did not do so at the command of Juno or EURYSTHEUS.
Hercules has gone to and returned from the UNDER- Amphitryon defends Hercules against these accusa-
WORLD with the guardian dog, CERBERUS. Juno worries tions and declares that Lycus will meet the same fate
that because Hercules has conquered, figuratively, the that many of Hercules’ victims did. Lycus, however,
underworld, he may next attempt to overthrow ignores this threat and declares his intention to marry
heaven, his father, Zeus’, kingdom. Juno announces Megara, by force if necessary. When Megara continues
that she will prevent Hercules from doing this by caus- to refuse, Lycus orders his servants to pile up logs
ing him to become mad. She concludes by rousing the around the altar and prepare to burn Amphitryon,
female demons of the underworld to attack Hercules Megara, and the children. Lycus then exits to make a
with madness. sacrifice to Neptune (Greek: POSEIDON). After the king
Next, the chorus of Thebans enter. They greet the departs, Amphitryon prays that Hercules will save
approaching dawn and describe the various labors the them. Next, the chorus sing a lengthy song in which
people of Thebes will undertake during the day. they recall some of Hercules’ successes. They pray that
Whereas the common people labor in relative peace, the hero will return from the underworld and recall that
they note, other people, who strive after wealth and ORPHEUS was almost able to make a successful journey
the like, are faced with constant cares. The chorus back from the underworld. They hope that although
point out that all people die, and even Hercules’ time Orpheus’ music failed, Hercules’ strength will succeed.
will come. As the chorus end their speech, Hercules’ After the choral ode, Hercules, accompanied by the
father, Amphitryon; his wife, MEGARA; and his children Athenian king, THESEUS (and perhaps the dog Cer-
emerge from Hercules’ house. Amphitryon recalls berus), returns from the underworld. When Amphit-
many of the labors that Hercules has had to endure ryon informs Hercules what Lycus is planning for his
and announces that now another challenge faces him. wife and family, Hercules immediately exits to kill
Amphitryon goes on to relate that CREON, king of Lycus. During Hercules’ absence, Amphitryon ques-
Thebes, has been killed by LYCUS, who now persecutes tions Theseus about their adventures in the under-
Hercules’ family. Amphitryon and Megara express their world. Theseus gives a long description of the
fervent hope that Hercules will return soon to help geography of the underworld, the condition and its
them, because they have had to take refuge at an altar inhabitants, how Hercules made the journey and what
in fear of Lycus. he saw on the way, and how Hercules subdued Cer-
The conversation of Amphitryon and Megara is berus. As Theseus concludes his speech, the chorus
interrupted by the arrival of Lycus, who (unlike his approach, celebrate Hercules’ successful return, and
Euripidean counterpart) declares that his new kingship hope that they themselves will not see the underworld
can be established firmly if he marries Hercules’ wife, any time soon. The chorus also rejoice that Hercules
Megara. When Lycus invites Megara to become his has produced peace in Thebes.
queen, she refuses. Lycus, however, persists and threat- After the chorus’ song, Hercules enters, announces
ens to kill her if she will not marry him. Megara that he has killed Lycus, and begins to give thanks to
256 HERCULES FURENS

the gods. As Hercules prays, however, madness with its concern with friendship and the contrast
(caused by Juno) strikes him. Unlike in Euripides’ play, between the seen and the unseen, in Seneca’s play one
Hercules begins to have visions of overthrowing his of the focal points is the possible transformation of a
father, Jove. The hero also sees his own children, imag- man into a god, with the disruption of the vertical axis
ines that they are Lycus’ children, and attacks them. As (heaven–earth–underworld) that would result were
Hercules drags off his children to kill them, a horrified such a transformation to take place.
Amphitryon describes what Hercules is doing. Megara, As Hercules’ father had left heaven to impregnate
who leaves the stage to protect her children, is also Hercules’ mother (265), Hercules’ stepmother has also
killed by Hercules, who imagines that she is his enemy, left heaven for the Earth as the play opens. Juno has
Juno. Amphitryon, seeing these horrors, wishes to die descended the vertical axis because the population of
and offers himself to Hercules for slaughter. At this heaven produced by Jove’s concubines has driven her
point, however, the madness leaves Hercules and he out (4–5). Juno claims to be concerned that Hercules,
falls to the ground in exhausted slumber. His weapons who has already demonstrated his ability to hold
are removed to prevent further bloodshed. After this, heaven on his shoulders (69, 73) and whose fame has
the chorus lament Hercules’ misfortune, pray that reached heaven (194), scorning the things of Earth
sleep will comfort him, and hope that his madness will (89), will seize heaven’s throne (64). To prevent Her-
depart. They also pray that Hercules’ slain children will cules from being admitted to heaven, she will drive
reach their final destination in the underworld. him to commit a horrific crime on Earth.
After the choral ode, Hercules, now in his right Despite Juno’s fears and plans, when the play begins
mind, awakens to find that he has killed his wife and Hercules is as far from heaven as he can be. As Juno
children. He wants to kill himself and suggests that he notes that Hercules held the weight of heaven on his
will destroy his weapons as well. Amphityron urges shoulders, Megara declares to Lycus that although Her-
Hercules to seek pardon for his crime, but the hero cules is in the underworld, the man who held up
doubts that Jove will forgive him. He calls for his heaven will not be pressed down by the weight of the
weapons so that he can kill himself, but Theseus urges Earth (425). In contrast to heaven’s queen, who worries
him to endure his adversity. When Hercules threatens that Hercules will usurp Jove’s throne, the earthly king,
to hurl the entire city of Thebes onto himself, Amphit- Lycus, doubts that Hercules has the lineage to claim a
ryon gives him back his weapons. At this point, place in heaven (438), does not believe that those who
Amphitryon threatens to kill himself. Because Her- dwell in heaven have sexual relations with those who
cules’ hands are stained with his family’s blood, he dwell on Earth (448), and does not believe that Her-
does not want to touch his father, so he calls for The- cules will return to Earth from the underworld.
seus to help Amphitryon. After Amphitryon’s suicide is Lycus’ skepticism will soon be refuted, however,
prevented, Hercules calls upon Theseus to help him. when Hercules ascends the vertical axis and moves
As does Euripides, Seneca ends the play with Theseus’ from underworld to upper world. After emerging from
promise to grant Hercules asylum in Athens. darkness, Hercules addresses his first words to APOLLO,
who rules the light and the glory of heaven (592), and
COMMENTARY Jove, who rules the heavenly gods (597). Although the
During the first half of the first century B.C.E., Seneca hero has triumphed over the lower world, he returns
witnessed the further solidification of Rome’s transition to find trouble in the upper world and regaining con-
from a republic governed by many to an empire ruled trol of his family’s situation on Earth becomes his first
by one man. When the lives of these emperors ended, priority. Killing Lycus will accomplish this. Soon, Her-
or sometimes even during their lifetime, Rome’s cules causes the evil king to descend the vertical axis to
emperors were worshiped as gods. Seneca himself the land from which Hercules just returned.
served as tutor to the emperor NERO, who himself After killing Lycus, Hercules plans to honor the
would be deified. Thus, unlike in Euripides’ Heracles, heavenly gods with prayers and sacrifices. Hercules’
 HERCULES OETAEUS 257

prayers (926–38) show that he does not intend to WOMEN. Unlike Sophocles’ play, which is set TRACHIS,
usurp Jove’s throne, as Juno had feared. In the midst of the play apparently begins near the town of OECHALIA
these prayers, however, the vertical axis seems to be on the island of EUBOEA. In Sophocles’ play, DEIANEIRA
reversed in Hercules’ mind. The light is replaced by delivers the PROLOGUE, whereas Seneca has Hercules
darkness and night’s stars appear during the day. As (Greek: HERACLES) recite it. Hercules begins with a
Amphitryon observes, Hercules’ perception of heaven prayer to his father, Jove (Greek: ZEUS), wondering
is changing (954), and in the hero’s madness, he why he has not yet ascended to heaven: He has com-
declares that he will seek heaven (957) and the stars pleted his labors and overcome all obstacles placed in
his father promised him. He even threatens to take Sat- his path. Next, the hero tells his herald, LICHAS, to pro-
urn from the underworld to help him overthrow claim abroad that he has overthrown Oechalia, the
heaven and to pile mountains on top of one another to kingdom of EURYTUS, and to prepare for a sacrifice to
reach heaven (972). Jove.
As a result of Hercules’ madness, he kills his wife After Hercules’ exit, the CHORUS enter. Unlike in
and children and thus sends them to the underworld. Sophocles’ play, in which women from Trachis consti-
Amphitryon is so distraught by Hercules’ actions that tute the chorus, in this drama the chorus is a group of
he wants to descend the vertical axis as well, either by captive women from Oechalia. They lament their cap-
his son’s hand or by his own. When Hercules awakens tivity and complain about the cruelty of Hercules. The
from his madness, he is unsure where he is. He imag- chorus’ song is followed by a lament by another cap-
ines that Jove has descended from heaven (1157) and tive, Eurytus’ daughter, IOLE, whom Hercules intended
begotten a new son, who has overcome him. When to make his concubine. Whereas Sophocles’ Iole does
Hercules realizes what he has done, the hero whose not speak, Seneca’s Iole gives a lengthy speech in
fame had touched the stars wishes that he could return which she compares her fate to that of other unhappy
to the depths of the underworld. His crime is so great women in mythology. She recalls with horror Hercules’
that earth and sky move away from him (1332–34). He killing of her father and other family members.
begs Theseus to take him back to the underworld Next, the NURSE of Hercules’ wife, DEIANEIRA, enters.
(1338–39), but instead Theseus will take him to The nurse relates the behavior of Deianeira when she
Athens, a place on Earth where even the gods above learned that Hercules was going to take Iole to their
can be cleansed of bloodshed (1344). home as a concubine. Unlike Sophocles’ Deianeira, who
looks upon Iole with some pity, Seneca’s Deianeira has
BIBLIOGRAPHY virtually become insane with anger and jealousy. When
Billerbeck, M. Seneca: Hercules Furens. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999.
Deianeira enters, she calls on Juno (Greek: HERA) to take
Lawall, G. “Virtus and Pietas in Seneca’s Hercules Furens,” In
Seneca Tragicus: Ramus Essays on Senecan Drama. Edited
vengeance against Hercules. She worries that Iole’s chil-
by A. J. Boyle. Berwick, Australia: Aureal, 1983, 6–26. dren by Hercules will become rivals to her own chil-
Motto, A. L., and J. R. Clark. “Maxima Virtus in Seneca’s dren. Deianeira’s nurse asks her how she is planning to
Hercules Furens,” Classical Philology 76 (1981): 100–17. avenge herself. The nurse warns Deianeira that any vio-
Rose, A. “Seneca’s HF: A Politico-Didactic Reading,” Classical lent act she commits will result in her death, but
Journal 75 (1979–80): 135–42. Deianeira is not swayed by this argument. The nurse
Shelton, J. A. Seneca’s Hercules Furens: Theme, Structure and also points out that Hercules has encountered many
Style. Göttingen, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978. women in his life, but has not loved them intensely. She
suggests that Hercules will not prefer Iole, a slave and
HERCULES OETAEUS SENECA (?) (WRIT- the daughter of his enemy, to her. Deianeira, however, is
TEN BETWEEN 49 AND 65 C.E.?) Although tra- convinced that Hercules seeks a new woman to love and
dition attributes the authorship of the play to SENECA, declares that she will kill Hercules. The nurse suggests
most modern scholars doubt this. The main plot of the that a magic charm might make Hercules love Deianeira.
story is the same as that of SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAN In turn, Deianeira informs the nurse that she has a
258 HERCULES OETAEUS

potion that she acquired from blood of the centaur NES- Orpheus and his failed journey to the UNDERWORLD to
SUS, who had once tried to rape her. When Hercules rescue his wife. They go on to suggest that Hercules’
killed the centaur with an arrow tinged with venom fall indicates that someday the gods, heaven, and Earth
from the Lernaean hydra, the venom became intermin- will collapse. The chorus conclude their song by won-
gled with Nessus’ blood. Nessus, knowing that deadly dering what single place will contain the realms of
hydra venom was in his blood, told Deianeira that she heaven, Earth, and underworld when this happens.
could use that blood as a love charm for Hercules by After the choral ode, Hercules enters in extreme
placing it on one of Hercules’ garments. anguish. As in Sophocles’ play, Seneca’s Hercules
Deianeira then sends the nurse to get the centaur’s laments the irony that he was able to overcome so many
blood, which she keeps in a hidden place, and smear monsters and difficult labors, but that he is ultimately
it on one of Hercules’ robes. After this is done, Her- being destroyed by a mortal woman. Hercules also
cules’ herald, Lichas, enters, and Deianeira gives the complains that his death will not be a glorious one,
robe to Lichas and instructs him to give it to Hercules. wonders about the actual cause of his torment, and
After Lichas’ exit, Deianeira returns to the palace to wonders why his pain has caused him to shed tears. He
pray to Venus. also prays to his father, Jove, to have pity on him and
As Deianeira departs, she instructs a second chorus, put him out of his misery. At this point, unlike in
composed of women who accompanied her from her Sophocles’ play, Hercules’ mother, ALCMENA, enters and
native land of AETOLIA, to lament her misfortune. Not questions her son about what has happened to him.
only do the Aetolian women express sorrow about Hercules informs her of Deianeira’s treachery and the
Deianeira’s situation, they also complain about the greed poisoned robe. He says that he has given up hope that
of humankind and the brevity of life. They suggest that he will live any longer. Alcmena tries to encourage her
women who do not have extravagant weddings are son, but Hercules cannot be consoled and even moves
more likely to be happy because those who stray from to kill himself with his own weapons. After Alcmena
the “middle course” are likely to suffer ruin. As they end has them moved out of his reach, she herself begins to
their ode, Deianeira and her nurse enter. Deianeira wor- feel despair and expresses thoughts of suicide.
riedly reveals that she has now discovered that the At this point, Hyllus enters and informs Hercules
potion that she put on Hercules’ robe ignites when that Deianeira has committed suicide in grief over
exposed to sunlight. At this point, Deianeira’s son, HYL- what she has done. Hyllus also tells his father that the
LUS, enters and informs his mother that Hercules is centaur Nessus had tricked Deianeira to use the poi-
being tormented by the ravages of the poison. Hyllus son. Hercules then realizes that this must be true,
describes in detail how the poison attacked Hercules because an oracle once told him that he would be
while he was making a sacrifice to Jove and how Her- killed by one whom he had killed. Next, Hercules
cules, in his madness, hurled Lichas, who gave the poi- orders that a pyre be built on Mount Oeta so that he
soned robe to Hercules, into the sea. Hyllus notes that at can place his poison-ravaged body on it and have it
present Hercules is being taken to the palace. Upon consumed by fire. Unlike Sophocles’ play, in which
hearing this, Deianeira begins to consider suicide. Hyllus is ordered to carry out this horrible task, the
Unlike Sophocles’ Hyllus, who is angry at his mother for Latin play removes the possibility of a son’s killing his
what she has done to her husband, Hyllus tries to per- father by having this order given to PHILOCTETES, who
suade Deianeira not to kill herself. Deianeira cannot be appears to have been onstage, although no indication
swayed from her purpose, however, and even begs Hyl- of his presence has been given up to this point. As in
lus to kill her. Eventually, in a burst of passion, Deianeira Sophocles’ play, however, Hyllus’ father orders him to
rushes out, still voicing her suicidal intent. Hyllus, hop- marry Iole. Hercules then bids farewell to Alcmena and
ing to prevent this act, hurries after her. sets out for the pyre.
After Hyllus’ exit, the chorus sing a lengthy ode in After Hercules’ departure, the chorus sing an ode in
which they recall the powerful and magical songs of which they wonder who will protect the world once
 HERCULES OETAEUS 259

Hercules is gone. They predict that the hero’s spirit will mother, Juno, is concerned that Hercules will rise to
achieve high status in the underworld and that his heaven; only in Hercules’ madness does the hero imag-
image will be placed among the stars. They also pray ine reaching the pinnacle of the vertical axis. In Her-
to Jove for protection from the monsters and tyrants of cules Oetaeus, the title character has overcome creatures
the world. Their ode concludes as the chorus hear a on land, on sea, and beneath the earth. Now, he aims
sound that they interpret as Jove’s mourning for his for the sky.
son. Next, Philoctetes enters and describes to the cho- Hercules is prevented from reaching heaven
rus how Hercules faced his death on the pyre. because, in some sense, the vertical axis has been
Philoctetes also reports that Hercules gave him his bow inverted. Juno has transformed into stars the animals
and arrows as a gift for his assistance and that his club that Hercules defeated so that Hercules might fear
and lion skin were burned with him. He describes Her- heaven (75–76). She tries to make heaven worse than
cules’ prayer to his father, Jupiter, and then states that both Earth and the underworld (77–78). Whereas
the hero called for him to give him a torch. Though he Juno opposes Hercules’ reaching heaven, his wife,
was reluctant to do so, Philoctetes tells them, he Deianeira, wavers between wanting to send him to the
applied the torch to the pyre and watched as Hercules underworld and wanting to send herself to the under-
calmly and bravely allowed the fire to burn his body. world. Although Hercules is a man who held heaven
After Philoctetes’ speech, Alcmena enters, carrying an on his shoulders (282) and whose fame reaches the sky
urn that contains Hercules’ ashes. She laments her son (316), Deianeira’s passion rages to heaven (285). She
and wonders what she herself will do and where she will declares that whereas the wrath of the gods will make
go. Upon hearing this, Hyllus tries to comfort his grand- a person miserable, the wrath of a human being (her
mother, but Alcmena continues her lamentation and own wrath) will destroy him or her completely (441).
calls upon all the nations of the world to mourn the loss Although Deianeira’s anger appears to outstrip even
of Hercules. After Alcmena concludes, the voice of the that of the queen of heaven herself, Deianeira wavers
dead Hercules is heard. He tells his mother not to about the course of action she wants to follow. Thus,
lament because he has arrived at the kingdom of Deianeira turns to her nurse’s magic arts for help. In
heaven. She doubts the reality of what she has heard, some ways, the nurse is even more powerful than Her-
but Hercules again encourages her to cease mourning, cules. Hercules has conquered land, sea, and under-
for he has triumphed once again over the underworld. world; the nurse boasts that her magic arts have
Alcmena, finally convinced, decides to depart for THEBES conquered land, sea, underworld, and heaven (461).
to announce the existence of a new divinity. The play Deianeira agrees to her nurse’s plan, but her ruin is
concludes with the chorus rejoicing and praying that foreshadowed in the chorus’ song about those who fail
Hercules be with them and protect them. to pursue a middle course, such as PHAETHON and
ICARUS, both of whom did not follow a path between
COMMENTARY heaven and Earth (675–91). Light from the sky touches
Unlike Sophocles’ play on this subject, which focuses some wool on which the centaur’s blood has been
on the failure of communication between mortals, Her- smeared and Deianeira realizes that she will destroy her
cules Oetaeus is much more concerned with the vertical husband. Once again the vertical axis is inverted as the
axis along which the ancient cosmos is ordered dead (Nessus) will destroy the living (Hercules). The
(heaven–earth–underworld). Hercules has overcome report of Hercules’ being afflicted by the poison pro-
all the obstacles that have been placed in his path and duces another inversion of this axis. When Hercules
believes that he should ascend to heaven. Unlike kills Lichas, he hurls the man to the stars and spatters
Seneca’s HERCULES FURENS, in which Hercules is in the the clouds with his blood (816–17). Hercules seeks the
underworld most of the play, Hercules Oetaeus shows stars, but Lichas reaches them before he does.
the hero on earth and wondering why he has not yet Deianeira, upon hearing news of Hercules’ demise,
reached heaven. In Hercules Furens, Hercules’ step- decides that she wants to descend the vertical axis, in
260 HERMES

order, she believes, to join her husband. The fall of mother’s emotional outburst. Once again, Hercules
Hercules also makes the chorus think that the world prays to Jove to admit his spirit to the stars (1703–4)
itself is vulnerable and that someday the sky itself will or allow him to enter the underworld (1711–12).
sink into the underworld (1112). If Hercules can fall, After the pyre’s flames consume Hercules’ mortal
they imagine, eventually the stars, sea, and underworld body, his mother returns to her emotional state and
will all become one (1126–27). When the agonized wonders what will become of her. As his father did,
Hercules enters, he too speaks as if the vertical axis is Hyllus tries to persuade Alcmena to compose himself.
being inverted and the heavens are being cast into the She mourns her son and wonders why Hercules has
underworld (1131–50). Hercules wishes that, if he had not inherited the heavenly realms that Jove promised
to be destroyed by a woman’s hand, he would have him (1910). She imagines that Hercules’ spirit is now
fallen at the hands of a woman who rules heaven throwing the underworld into confusion. Finally,
(1183). Hercules began the play thinking he was wor- Alcmena’s emotional outbursts end when Hercules
thy of the stars, but now he shows his earthly side. He himself addresses her from heaven (1940–44). She
doubts that the ruler of heaven, Jove, is his father and believes his voice is from the underworld, but he
says Amphitryon will be thought to be his father declares that again he has conquered the land below.
(1247–48). Hercules calls upon Jove to release him Finally, Alcmena is convinced and exits to announce a
from his torment, or, if Jove is unwilling to do so, then new god in heaven (1980). Thus, in true Stoic fashion,
he asks that the powers of the underworld be allowed the virtue of Hercules triumphs over the underworld
to kill him (1311–12). He even prays to Juno to end (1982) and Hercules’ expectations about his place in
his misery (1317–19). the vertical axis have come to pass. The inversions of
Even if Seneca is not the author of Hercules Oetaeus, the vertical axis have not occurred, despite the best
modern scholars have detected Stoic elements in the efforts of the nurse, Deianeira, the centaur, and Juno.
play. Upon the arrival of Hercules’ mother, Hercules
BIBLIOGRAPHY
begins to speak in the manner of a Stoic. He invites
Etman, A. M. The Problem of Heracles’ Apotheosis in the Tra-
Death to attack him (1373) and declares he would not chiniae of Sophocles and in Hercules Oetaeus of Seneca: A
cry out even if he suffered the torments of PROMETHEUS, Comparative Study of the Tragic and Stoic Meaning of the
were crushed by the famous Clashing Rocks, or the sky Myth. Athens: University of Athens, 1974.
itself fell onto him (1377–88). After hearing that King, C. M. “Seneca’s Hercules Oetaeus: A Stoic Interpretation
Deianeira has descended the vertical axis, Hercules of the Greek Myth,” Greece & Rome 18 (1971): 215–22.
perceives that he is being called to ascend the axis, but Larson, V. T. “The Hercules Oetaeus and the Picture of the
then he imagines that the stars are being withheld Sapiens in Senecan Prose,” Phoenix 45 (1991): 39–49.
again (1431–47). Hercules seems to move away from Marcucci, S. Analisi e interpretazione dell’Hercules Oetaeus.
the ideal Stoic as his anger at Deianeira boils over, but Pisa: Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali, 1997.
his emotions come under control when his son
explains the centaur’s treachery. HERMES The son of ZEUS and the goddess Maia,
As Hercules regains his composure, he commands daughter of ATLAS and Pleione. Hermes (Latin: Mer-
his mother to do likewise (1507). He orders his son to cury) is best known as the messenger of the gods. He
prepare a pyre for him, as he expects to descend to the also functioned as a guide both above and below the
underworld (1514). Philoctetes attests to Hercules’ ground. He gained fame for killing the multieyed
bravery in death when the chorus ask him whether Argus, who guarded IO. As indicated in the opening
Hercules joyously faced the fires (1609–10). Hercules’ lines of PLAUTUS’ AMPHITRUO, Hermes is also a god asso-
fearlessness is contrasted with the emotional break- ciated with commerce. Hermes is associated with
down of Alcmena, whose cries of lamentation contrast thieves, because the day he was born he stole some of
with Hercules’ composed silence. Faced with the APOLLO’s cattle. On the same day, the infant Hermes
flames of his funeral pyre, Hercules again calms his killed a tortoise and used its shell to invent the lyre and
 HERMIPPUS 261

plectrum. Eventually, Apollo tracked down the infant AMPHITRUO, Mercury acts as the servant of Jupiter (see
thief, who mischievously denied stealing the cattle. ZEUS) and helps him carry out his father’s seduction of
Apollo then took the infant to Zeus for arbitration of ALCMENA. The Greek playwright Astydamas wrote a
the dispute. Zeus ordered Hermes to return the cattle, Hermes, possibly a SATYR PLAY, whose four surviving
and he eventually did, trading Apollo the lyre he had lines tell us little about its subject matter. [ANCIENT
invented for the cattle. SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.16, 2.4.2, 2.4.11,
Hermes frequently aided various gods and heroes. 3.4.3, 3.10.2, 3.14.3; Epitome 2.6; Euripides, Antiope
Occasionally, Hermes kept the young DIONYSUS safe 64–97; Page, Ion 1–81; Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes;
from HERA. Hermes gave HERACLES a sword and guided Sophocles, Searchers 278 ff.]
him in the UNDERWORLD. He also provided PERSEUS with
the sickle that the hero used to cut off the head of the HERMIONE The daughter of MENELAUS and
GORGON MEDUSA. HELEN. According to Apollodorus, when Menelaus
Hermes had numerous children by different was fighting at TROY, he promised to marry Hermione
women, both mortal and immortal. Two of his sons, to ACHILLES’ son, NEOPTOLEMUS. ORESTES, however,
Eurytus and AUTOLYCUS, joined Jason’s quest for the married Hermione, but, when Orestes became mad
Golden Fleece. His son Cephalus (by Herse) became after killing his mother, Neoptolemus carried off
the lover of EOS, goddess of the dawn. Another son, Hermione, who became his wife. After Orestes
MYRTILUS, played an important role in the death of regained his sanity, he again regained Hermione as his
OENOMAUS and the curse on the house of PELOPS. wife, for Neoptolemus was killed at DELPHI (Orestes
Hermes takes the stage in five surviving dramas. In may have had some role in Neoptolemus’ death).
AESCHYLUS’ EUMENIDES (see ORESTEIA), Hermes does not Hermione appears as a character in Euripides’ ANDRO-
speak, but is called upon by Apollo to escort ORESTES MACHE and ORESTES. In Andromache, she has not pro-
to ATHENS. In Aeschylus’ PROMETHEUS BOUND, Hermes, duced children for Neoptolemus and accuses his
on behalf of Zeus, appears at the end of the play to Trojan slave, ANDROMACHE, who has, of using witch-
demand that Prometheus reveal who will overthrow craft against her. Andromache, fearing that Hermione
Zeus. In EURIPIDES’ Ion, Hermes delivers the prologue intends to have her killed, takes refuge at an altar.
and reports that, acting at the behest of Apollo, he When Neoptolemus’ grandfather, Pelias, goes to
transported the infant Ion to DELPHI. In ARISTOPHANES’ Andromache’s rescue, Hermione begins to fear for her
PEACE, Hermes encounters Trygaeus on Mount OLYM- own life. Accordingly, when her cousin, Orestes,
PUS and informs him that the gods have left for a higher passes through the town, Hermione begs him to take
region of heaven. In Aristophanes’ WEALTH, Hermes her with him, and he does. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
goes to Chremylus’ house as a beggar, because the lodorus, Epitome 6.14; Euripides, Andromache]
result of Plutus’ redistribution of wealth is that no one
makes offerings to the gods anymore. HERMIPPUS A Greek comic poet who was an
The surviving fragments of Euripides’ Antiope indi- elder contemporary of ARISTOPHANES. Hermippus was
cate that Hermes appeared at the conclusion of that victorious at the City DIONYSIA at least once (436/435
play to prevent Amphion from killing Lycus, to explain B.C.E.) and four times at the LENAEA (one victory
what should be done with Dirce’s body, and to give around 430). As Aristophanes did in his early career,
instructions to Amphion and Zethus about their Hermippus, in his plays, touched upon contemporary
respective futures. SOPHOCLES’ SEARCHERS provides a politics and politicians such as PERICLES, CLEON, and
comic dramatization of the search for Apollo’s cattle, HYPERBOLUS. Hermippus also staged humorous ver-
which Hermes stole as an infant. The fragments of the sions of stories of mythology, such as his Fates
satyric Inachus of Sophocles indicate that Hermes had (Moirae), Cercopes, and Gods. About 100 fragments sur-
a significant stage presence in attempting to acquire for vive and 10 titles are known. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
Zeus IO, who had been changed into a cow. In PLAUTUS’ phanes, Clouds 557]
262 HESIOD

BIBLIOGRAPHY HESIONE (2) The daughter of LAOMEDON and

Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: sister of PRIAM, Hesione was offered as a sacrifice to a
Teubner, 1880. sea monster that harassed TROY. HERACLES, on his
return from the land of the AMAZONS, rescued Hesione
HESIOD (LATE EIGHTH OR EARLY SEVENTH and killed the sea monster. Laomedon had promised
CENTURY B.C.E.) A Greek farmer who lived in the
Heracles horses in exchange for his help, but he
town of Ascra in the region of BOEOTIA, Hesiod was one
rescinded the offer after Heracles succeeded. Some
of Greece’s greatest epic poets. His best-known poems
time later, the angered Heracles returned to Troy,
are Theogony and Works and Days. In only 1,022 lines,
sacked the town, and gave Hesione to his comrade,
Theogony deals with the origin of the divinities and
Telamon, as a prize of war. The hero put to death most
Zeus’ rise to power. The subject matter of Works and
Days ranges from advice on when to do various agri- of the Trojan males, but spared Priam at Hesione’s
cultural activities to justice. Both of these poems have request. She later produced for Telamon a son, TEUCER.
stories about PROMETHEUS that could have provided Among the Greek dramatists, the tragedian
source material for AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS BOUND. A Demetrius wrote a SATYR PLAY entitled Hesione, no
poem entitled Shield, which deals with HERACLES’ longer extant (see SNELL); the comic poet Alexis wrote
shield and his battle with ARES’ son CYCNUS, is also a Hesione, of which two brief fragments survive (85–86
attributed to Hesiod, but this attribution was proved Kock). These reveal that Heracles was depicted eating
incorrect even in ancient times by Aristophanes of and drinking heavily in the play. Among Roman
Byzantium. Another poem, Catalogue of Women (or authors, Naevius wrote a TRAGEDY entitled Hesione,
Ehoiae), on which tragic poets may have drawn for mate- which may have been about the events surrounding
rial about their female subjects, was also attributed to Hesione’s sacrifice and rescue. The single surviving line
Hesiod in ancient times, but in reality seems to have been appears to be spoken by Hercules: “so that I may not
written no earlier than the sixth century B.C.E. Other seem to do my will by word rather than the sword.”
works attributed to Hesiod are Astronomy (Astronomia), [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.5.9, 3.12.7;
Divination by Birds (Ornithomanteia), Precepts of Chiron Athenaeus, 9.367f. 11.470e; Hyginus, Fables 89]
(Cheironos Hupothekai), Great Works (Megala Erga), Idaean
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dactyls (Idaioi Daktuloi), The Great Eoiae (Megalai Eoiae), Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
The Marriage of Ceyx (Keukos Gamos), Melampodia Teubner, 1884.
(Melampodeia), and Aegimius (Aigimios). Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
BIBLIOGRAPHY Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Edwards, G. P. The Language of Hesiod in Its Traditional Con- Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
text. Oxford: Blackwell, 1971. Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Lamberton, R. Hesiod. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Harvard University Press, 1936.
Press, 1988.
Nelso, S. A. God and the Land: The Metaphysics of Farming in HESPERIDES Ancient sources offered numer-
Hesiod and Vergil. With a translation of Hesiod’s Works and ous possible parents of the Hesperides, whose name
Days by David Grene. New York: Oxford University Press, means “the daughters of evening.” Some call them the
1998. children either of NIGHT or of Erebus; others, the chil-
Pucci, P. Hesiod and the Language of Poetry. Baltimore: Johns
dren of ATLAS and Hesperis, Phorcys and Ceto, or even
Hopkins University Press, 1977.
Solmsen, F. Hesiod and Aeschylus. With a new foreword by G.
ZEUS and THEMIS. The number of Hesperides also
M. Kirkwood. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995. varies: three, four, or seven. They lived in a garden
near the western edge of the world and guarded golden
HESIONE (1) A daughter of OCEANUS and apples that Mother EARTH had given to HERA as a wed-
TETHYS, Hesione was the wife of PROMETHEUS. [ANCIENT ding present. After HERACLES took the golden apples as
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 560] one of his labors, the Hesperides themselves changed
 HIPPIAS 263

into trees. This transformation seems to have been HIERO A man mentioned at ECCLESIAZUSAE 757,
temporary, however, because they later helped JASON Hieron is called a herald (kerux) by ARISTOPHANES.
and the Argonauts by showing them a spring that Her- Nothing else is known about him.
acles had made in the desert. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
lodorus, Library 2.5.11; Euripides, Hippolytus 742; BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
Hyginus, Fables 30, Poetica Astronomica 2.3]
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 206.
HESPERUS The son of EOS and Astraeus (or
CEPHALUS), Hesperus represented the evening star; HIERONYMUS (1) A composer of tragedies
some equated him with the morning star as well. and dithyrambs. ARISTOPHANES makes fun of Hieron,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Medea 72, 878, Phaedra son of Xenophantus, for his wild, tangled hair. Hieron
750, Hercules Furens 821, 883, Hercules Oetaeus 149, was known for plots that were emotionally charged to
Phoenician Women 87] an excessive degree and for the terrifying masks that
some of his characters wore. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
HESTIA (Latin: VESTA) The daughter of phanes, Acharnians 389, Clouds 349]
CRONUS and RHEA, Hestia was the sister of ZEUS, POSEI-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DON, HADES, HERA, and DEMETER. The Greek word hes-
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
tia means “hearth” and Hestia is the goddess of the Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 172.
hearth, the fire on the hearth, and activities within the
house. A virgin goddess, Hestia does not have off- HIERONYMUS (2) A military commander
spring. Hestia does not appear as a character in any who served the Athenians during the latter half of the
extant drama, although ALCESTIS has a close affinity 390s B.C.E. Hieronymus was opposed to the Athenians’
with her in EURIPIDES’ play. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripi- making peace with SPARTA in the year 392/391.
des, Alcestis 162; Hesiod, Theogony 453–506; Homeric
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 201;
Hymn to Aphrodite 5.21–32; Homeric Hymns to Hestia
Diodorus Siculus, 14.81.4]
24, 33; Pausanias, 5.14.4; Vergil, Georgics 1408]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HETAIRA A Greek word meaning “female com- Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
panion,” hetaira (plural: hetairai) is a euphemism for Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 156.
“prostitute” or “courtesan.” The hetaira becomes a
stock character in New Comedy (see PROSTITUTE). HIPPIAS From 527 to 510 B.C.E., Hippias, the son
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Alciphron, Epistles 4; Aristophanes, of Pisastratus, was the absolute ruler, or tyrant, of
Wealth 149; Athenaeus, Deipnosophists 13; Lucian, Dia- ATHENS. His rule began peacefully enough, as he low-
logues of the Courtesans] ered taxes and made reconciliatory gestures toward
various prominent clan groups. As Hippias’ rule grew
HEURIPPIDES A person mentioned by ARISTO- harsher, however, his enemies multiplied and tried to
PHANES at ECCLESIAZUSAE 825, Heurrippides was an remove him from power. These enemies assasinated
Athenian statesman active in the last decade of the fifth his brother, Hipparchus, in 514. One of the clan
century and the first decade of the fourth century B.C.E. groups who opposed Hippias, the Alcmaeonidae,
Heurripides’ father was Adeimantus and he was from the orchestrated a Spartan-backed military assault on Hip-
DEME called Myrrhinus. Not long before the production pias and his forces that eventually resulted in Hippias’
of Ecclesiazusae, Heurripides proposed a 21/2 percent tax political downfall. He and his family went into exile
that was supposed to bolster the Athenian treasury. and eventually found refuge at the court of the Persian
BIBLIOGRAPHY king, Darius. When the Persians invaded Greece in
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, 490 B.C.E., Hippias guided them to MARATHON, where
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 210. they were defeated. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
264 HIPPOCRATES (1)

Knights 448, Lysistrata 617, 1153, Wasps 502; 450 B.C.E., he created the design for the main harbor at
Herodotus, 5.55–96, 6.102–21] ATHENS (see PIRAEUS). In 443, Hippodamus went as a
colonist to the Italian town of Thurii, where he was
HIPPOCRATES (1) The son of Ariphon, Hip- probably responsible for the design of that town.
pocrates was the nephew of PERICLES and served the [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 327; Aristotle,
Athenians as a military commander in the 420s B.C.E. He Politics 1267b22–30; Strabo, 14.2.9]
was killed at the battle of Delion in 424 B.C.E. [ANCIENT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 1001, Thesmophoriazusae
Burns, A. “Hippodamus and the Planned City,” Historia 25
273; Diodorus Siculus, 12.66–69, 13.66; Eupolis, frag- (1976): 414–28.
ment 103 Kock; Thucydides, 4.66–101]
BIBLIOGRAPHY HIPPOLYTUS The son of THESEUS and an AMA-
Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Clouds. Oxford: Clarendon Press, ZON woman named ANTIOPE (or Hippolyta), Hippoly-
1989, 221. tus was devoted to the goddess ARTEMIS. He therefore
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: rejected the love of women and thus the goddess
Teubner, 1880.
APHRODITE. Some sources say Hippolytus lived in
ATHENS; others make his home TROEZEN. Because of
HIPPOCRATES (2) A man mentioned by Hippolytus’ devotion to Artemis, Aphrodite decided to
ARISTOPHANES at THESMOPHORIAZUSAE 273. If this Hip- destroy him. She brought this about by causing Hip-
pocrates was not same as HIPPOCRATES, son of Ariphon polytus’ stepmother, PHAEDRA, to fall in love with him.
(and he does not appear to be, because Ariphon’s son When Phaedra made a sexual proposition to Hippoly-
had died some 13 years earlier), then he is not other- tus, he rejected her advances. Phaedra then hanged
wise known. Aristophanes indicates that this Hip- herself and wrote a note accusing Hippolytus of raping
pocrates was the wealthy owner of a run-down block her. After Theseus read the note, he cursed his son and
of housing. sent him into exile. As Hippolytus drove away in his
BIBLIOGRAPHY chariot, a bull roared up out of the sea and scared his
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: horses. The terrified animals galloped wildly and
Teubner, 1880. tossed Hippolytus from the chariot. Hippolytus
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 8, became tangled in the reins and was dragged to his
Thesmophoriazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, death. EURIPIDES says that maidens from Troezen dedi-
1994, 174–75. cated locks of their hair to Hippolytus before they mar-
ried. Some sources indicate that APOLLO’s son,
HIPPODAMEIA The daughter of OENOMAUS, ASCLEPIUS, raised Hippolytus from the dead and that he
king of Pisa. Hippodameia became the bride of PELOPS went on to become a king in the Italian town of Aricia.
after he defeated (and killed) her father in a chariot The people of SPARTA had a hero shrine dedicated to
race. By Pelops, Hippodameia became the mother of Hippolytus, and the people of Troezen claimed that
ATREUS and THYESTES. Sophocles is said to have written Hippolytus was transformed into the constellation
a Hippodameia, but this appears to have been an alter- Auriga (the “charioteer”).
nate title for his Oenomaus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripi- Hippolytus appears as a character in two extant
des, Iphigenia in Tauris 825; Hyginus, Fables 84–85] plays, the HIPPOLYTUS plays by EURIPIDES and SENECA.
Several classical myths deal with young men as the vic-
HIPPODAMUS The son of Euryphon, Hippo- tims of sexual advances by married women; Hippoly-
damus of Miletus lived during the fifth century B.C.E., tus may be the only one among them who rejected the
gained fame for his designs of city layouts, and was woman’s advances because of devotion to Artemis. The
especially noted for his grid pattern for streets. Around Greek tragedian Lycophron (fragment 1g Snell) also
 HIPPOLYTUS 265

wrote a Hippolytus, as did the Greek comic poet Sopa- Theseus went into exile at Troezen, after his destruc-
ter (fragment 8 Kaibel). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- tion of the sons of Pallas (one of Theseus’ political
lodorus, Epitome 1.18–19; Euripides, Hippolytus; rivals in Athens), Phaedra went with him and now is
Hyginus, Fables 47; Ovid, Metamorphoses 15.497–546; wasting away with love for Hippolytus. Before her
Seneca, Hippolytus; Pausanias, 1.22.1–3, 2.27.4, monologue concludes, Aphrodite announces that The-
2.32.1–4; Vergil, Aeneid 7.761–82] seus will learn of Phaedra’s love, Phaedra will perish,
and Theseus will cause Hippolytus’ death by employ-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ing one of three wishes that his father, POSEIDON,
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet-
arum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann, granted him.
1899. Upon the approach of Hippolytus, Aphrodite leaves
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, the ORCHESTRA. Hippolytus, attended by a group of
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. hunters, enters and offers a greeting and a garland to
Artemis, whose statue stands before the house. A statue
HIPPOLYTUS EURIPIDES (428 B.C.E.) The of Aphrodite stands opposite that of Artemis, and one
version of Hippolytus that is extant was staged in 428 of Hippolytus’ servants urges him to pay his respects to
B.C.E. as part of one of the few Euripidean productions Aphrodite as well. Hippolytus, however, says that he
to win first place in competition. EURIPIDES also pre- greets Aphrodite from a distance. The servant advises
sented Hippolytus onstage at an earlier date (see frag- Hippolytus not to scorn Aphrodite, but the prince
ments 428–47 Nauck). The first production of the ignores his advice. As Hippolytus enters the palace, the
play, however, seems to have met with little success, servant asks Aphrodite to forgive Hippolytus.
perhaps because of Euripides’ shocking characteriza- Next, the CHORUS, composed of women from
tion of PHAEDRA, who was apparently much more Troezen, enter. They sing of the sufferings of Phaedra
brazen and direct in her attempts to seduce HIPPOLYTUS and wonder whether they were caused by a divinity,
(as was the Phaedra of SENECA’s HIPPOLYTUS) than in the specifically, Artemis; or whether Theseus has been
second version of the play. The second production of unfaithful; or, whether perhaps Phaedra has received
the drama apparently shows Phaedra in a much more bad news from her homeland of Crete. The choral ode
sympathetic light. In antiquity, the first version of the is followed by the arrival of Phaedra and her NURSE
play was called Hippolytus Kaluptomenos (Hippolytus from the palace. Phaedra’s lovesickness causes her to
veiled), because Hippolytus may have covered his face speak wildly about going to the hills and hunting. The
in shame after Phaedra tried to seduce him. The sec- Nurse, baffled by Phaedra’s words, tries to discover
ond production of the play was called Hippolytus what is causing them. When the chorus question the
Stephanephoros (Hippolytus the bringer of garlands), Nurse about Phaedra’s sickness, she tells them that she
because Hippolytus carries garlands for Artemis when has not eaten in three days and that she intends to
he enters. commit suicide. The Nurse also notes that Phaedra has
The play’s setting is the home of Theseus at TROEZEN, hidden her sufferings from Theseus, who is not in
a small town opposite ATHENS on the shores of the Troezen at the present time.
Saronic Gulf. Hippolytus opens with a monologue by The Nurse then turns her attention to Phaedra, and
APHRODITE, who explains that Hippolytus, the illegiti- questions her about the cause of her sufferings. Phae-
mate son of THESEUS and an AMAZON, is a devoté of the dra does not want to tell the Nurse her secret, but the
goddess ARTEMIS. As such, Hippolytus remains chaste persistent nurse finally compels Phaedra to admit that
and refuses to worship Aphrodite, who therefore she is in love with Hippolytus. The Nurse and the cho-
intends to punish him. While Hippolytus was in rus are horrified when they hear the truth. Phaedra
Athens to witness and to be initiated into the myster- then explains that she attempted to control her pas-
ies of DEMETER, Aphrodite caused Theseus’ wife, Phae- sions but finding that they were too strong, decided
dra, to fall in love with her stepson, Hippolytus. When that suicide was the best course of action for her. The
266 HIPPOLYTUS

Nurse, however, having had time to consider the situ- ders at Phaedra’s death, and asks Theseus to explain
ation, decides that because the gods themselves do not the situation. When Theseus accuses Hippolytus of
resist illicit love, Phaedra also should yield to her pas- betraying him by trying to seduce Phaedra, Hippolytus
sion. Phaedra is shocked by the advice but eventually tries to explain himself to his father. He reminds his
agrees to let her approach Hippolytus on her behalf. father of his chastity and his devotion to Artemis and
After the Nurse goes into the house, the chorus sing swears by Zeus that he did not assault Phaedra. The-
an ode about the deadly power of love and its mastery seus, however, refuses to believe Hippolytus and
over people such as HERACLES and ZEUS. After the orders him to leave Troezen. Hippolytus pleads, but to
choral ode, Phaedra listens in horror as she hears Hip- no avail. After Theseus exits, Hippolytus laments his
polytus shouting at the Nurse, who apparently has fate and bids farewell to Athens and Troezen. The cho-
revealed Phaedra’s love for him. Soon Hippolytus and rus then sing an ode about the ever-changing fortunes
the Nurse emerge from the house. Their conversation of humans. They lament the loss of Hippolytus, the
indicates that Hippolytus has sworn not to reveal Phae- hunting he enjoyed, and the music of his lyre, express-
dra’s proposition to his father. Hippolytus then delivers ing anger at the gods for Hippolytus’ exile.
a lengthy speech about the evils of women. He regrets After the choral ode, a MESSENGER enters to tell The-
giving his word not to tell his father but says that he seus and the chorus that Hippolytus is near death. The
will keep his oath. After Hippolytus’ tirade, he exits. messenger relates that as Hippolytus was driving his
The chorus and Phaedra then lament the situation. chariot along the coast outside Troezen, a bellowing
Phaedra realizes that she is doomed if Theseus or Pit- bull rose from the sea and frightened his horses. Hip-
theus finds out about the situation. The Nurse apolo- polytus was thrown from his chariot and dragged for
gizes to Phaedra for her attempt to proposition some distance after becoming tangled in the reins.
Hippolytus. Phaedra then angrily dismisses the Nurse After hearing the messenger’s story, Theseus expresses
from her sight. After the Nurse’s exit, Phaedra tells the mixed feelings about the news of his son’s accident.
chorus to remain silent about what they have heard. Theseus orders the messenger to have Hippolytus
The chorus swear (ironically, by Artemis) that they will taken to the palace. Subsequently, the chorus sing a
keep silent. Phaedra then states her intention to kill brief ode about the all-conquering power of Aphrodite
herself and exits into the palace. and EROS. After the chorus’ song, Artemis appears and
After Phaedra’s departure, the chorus wonder where reveals to Theseus the truth about the incident
they can go to escape the horrific situation that has between Phaedra and Hippolytus, namely, that Phae-
developed. They also describe how Phaedra will hang dra’s accusation was false and that Hippolytus was
herself, a description that is soon confirmed by a cry innocent of wrongdoing. Artemis explains that the sit-
from within the house. As the chorus wonder what to uation was caused by Aphrodite, and that she herself
do, Theseus arrives and wonders what is happening. will retaliate against one of Aphrodite’s favorites. After
After the chorus inform him of Phaedra’s death, the Artemis’ announcement, Hippolytus, on the verge of
doors of the house are opened and Phaedra’s corpse is death, is carried in on a litter. Hippolytus, lamenting
revealed. Theseus and the chorus then lament Phae- his fate, longs for death. His lamentation then alter-
dra’s death. Upon closer examination of her body, The- nates with sympathetic responses from Artemis and
seus finds in her hand a note that accuses Hippolytus her comments about Aphrodite’s wrath. Hippolytus
of trying to assault her sexually. Upon reading this, expresses sorrow for Theseus’ error. He even wishes
Theseus uses one of the wishes that Poseidon has given that the curses of humans could work against the gods,
him and curses his son. The chorus urge Theseus to but Artemis rebukes this speech, consoling him with
reconsider his words, but just as Hippolytus earlier her vengeance against one for whom Aphrodite cares.
refused to acknowledge Aphrodite, Theseus refuses to Artemis also tells Hippolytus that the women of
retract his words and states that he will send Hippoly- Troezen will honor him in the future by cutting off a
tus into exile. Soon Hippolytus himself enters, won- lock of their hair before they marry. Before Artemis
 HIPPOLYTUS 267

departs, she urges Hippolytus not to hate his father. play’s major themes, speech versus silence. Phaedra’s
Hippolytus obeys the goddess, and just before he dies, concern with revealing too much through speech is
he forgives his father. echoed by Hippolytus’ silence about her proposition.
Ironically, the letter that Phaedra writes accusing Hip-
COMMENTARY polytus of raping her is a silent witness that Theseus
Not only was Hippolytus highly regarded when it was accepts and one that, unlike a human witness, cannot
produced in 428, it remains universally considered be cross-examined. Phaedra’s breaking of silence leads
one of Euripides’ finest plays. The story of Phaedra’s to an indecent proposal; Hippolytus’ oath to remain
sexual advances toward her stepson has often been silent about that proposal prevents him from refuting
compared to the story in Genesis 39 of the sexual the silent yet vocal testimony that condemns him. The-
advances of Potiphar’s wife to Joseph. In both stories, seus’ assumption that the letter’s testimony must be
the married woman’s attempt to seduce the young man true prompts him also to violate the bounds of moder-
fails and the rejected woman claims the young man has ate speech and thus curse his own son.
tried to rape her. In both stories, the husband drives The crossing of boundaries or borders is a promi-
the young man from his household. Hippolytus is nent theme in the play. Phaedra’s lust for Hippolytus
exiled from Troezen, and Joseph is imprisoned. On the compels her to long for the wilds of Troezen, a place
other hand, Joseph is later released from prison and where Artemis and Hippolytus are comfortable, but
becomes even more powerful than before, and whereas where one would not expect to find a married Greek
Phaedra commits suicide, the fate of Potiphar’s wife is woman. The spatial boundary she desires to cross is
not mentioned in Genesis 39. matched by a boundary of moral law that she tries to
Similar stories can be found in other cultures. avoid crossing. As a married woman, Phaedra should
Among the Egyptians, Anubis’ wife tried unsuccess- not have such feelings for another man, much less her
fully to seduce Anubis’ brother, Bata, and claimed that stepson. Phaedra initially considers suicide, but her
he tried to rape her. Anubis tried to kill his brother, but nurse temporarily prevents her from entering the realm
the god Ra prevented him. Bata swore that he had not of the dead by persuading her to cross the boundary of
raped Anubis’ wife and cut off his penis to confirm his moral decency and make an advance toward Hippoly-
assertion. Bata then bled to death and a saddened Anu- tus. Hippolytus wishes that such speech had never
bis returned to his house and killed his wife. Several passed the boundary of his ears and has taken an oath
other similar stories appeared in Greek mythology as that this proposal will not breech the boundary of his
early as the time of HOMER, who in Iliad 6 tells the story lips. Interestingly, Theseus, whose temporary exile
of Anteia, the wife of Proetus, who failed to seduce from Athens has led him to take up residence in
BELLEROPHON and then claimed that he raped her. Troezen and thus put Phaedra in closer contact with
PROETUS himself did not want to kill Bellerophon, so he Hippolytus, returns to find that his wife has crossed
sent off Bellerophon to Lycia to the court of Iobates, over into the land of the dead. Thinking that Hip-
who was instructed to kill Bellerophon. Bellerophon polytus has corrupted his wife, Theseus, the exile,
overcame all of the dangerous tasks that Iobates banishes his son beyond the borders of Troezen.
imposed on him and eventually Iobates gave him his Once outside Troezen, Hippolytus is mortally
daughter in marriage. Euripides himself took up the injured. On the verge of passing into the UNDER-
story of Bellerophon but changed Anteia’s name to WORLD, Hippolytus is taken back into Troezen, for-
STHENEBOEA, and Euripides’ play (staged before 422 gives his father, and dies.
B.C.E.) about their conflict bore her name. Linked with and underlying the themes of speech
As for Euripides’ Hippolytus, the play’s structure is versus silence and the crossing of figurative and literal
exceptionally well balanced. Aphrodite’s appearance at borders is the Greek concept of sophrosune, whose
the play’s opening is matched by Artemis’ epiphany at meanings include “chastity,” “discretion,” “modera-
the play’s end. This balance is also seen in one of the tion,” and “self-control.” No extant Euripidean play has
268 HIPPOLYTUS

more references to sophrosune than Hippolytus and in women. For Aphrodite, sophrosune connotes behavior
some ways Euripides’ Hippolytus probes this range of that respects and accepts her divine power.
meanings as Hippolytus’ concept of sophrosune conflicts
BIBLIOGRAPHY
with Aphrodite’s attitude toward his sophrosune and Barrett, W. S. Euripides: Hippolytus. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Phaedra’s desire to maintain her sense of sophrosune. 1964.
In Hippolytus, the title character goes to the extreme Goff, B. E. The Noose of Words: Readings of Desire, Violence
of avoiding love and embracing chastity, and Aphrodite and Language in Euripides’ Hippolytus. Cambridge: Cam-
drives an unwilling Phaedra to the extreme of illicit bridge University Press, 1990.
love. Phaedra struggles to maintain her sense of sophro- Kovacs, D. P. The Heroic Muse: Studies in the Hippolytus and
sune (399), but when she realizes that the power of Hecuba of Euripides. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
love is too great she decides to end her life. She Press, 1987.
declares that she hates people who are moderate in Segal, Charles. Euripides and the Poetics of Sorrow: Art, Gen-
der, and Commemoration in Alcestìs, Hippolytus, and Hecuba.
their words, but not in their deeds (413–14). Whereas
Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993.
Phaedra wants to maintain her sense of discretion or
Zeitlin, F. I. “The Power of Aphrodite: Eros and the Bound-
end her life, the Nurse advises a more expedient aries of the Self in the Hippolytus.” In Directions in Euripi-
course and persuades her to continue living and to try dean Criticism: A Collection of Essays. Edited by Peter Burian.
to have love. The Nurse advises Phaedra to violate Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1985, 52–111.
sophrosune.
Once Phaedra oversteps the bounds of moderation, H I P P O LY T U S S E N E C A ( W R I T T E N
Hippolytus wishes that someone could teach women BETWEEN 49 AND 65 C.E.?) This TRAGEDY, some-
to be moderate (667). Phaedra curses her nurse, who times entitled Phaedra, follows essentially the same
laments that she did not act in a moderate fashion plot as EURIPIDES’ HIPPOLYTUS, although SENECA does dif-
(704). As Hippolytus wished that women could learn fer in several places from his Greek predecessor.
to have sophrosune, Phaedra’s last spoken remarks on Seneca’s setting is THESEUS’ palace at ATHENS, not
stage are a declaration that her revenge against Hip- TROEZEN, as in the Euripidean play. Unlike Euripides,
polytus will cause him to learn to be moderate (731). Seneca does not have the divinities APHRODITE and
In Theseus’ subsequent accusation that Hippolytus ARTEMIS take the stage in his play. HIPPOLYTUS, who
has crossed the bounds of moderation by raping Phae- delivers the prologue in Seneca’s play (contrast
dra, Theseus scoffs at Hippolytus’ moderation and Aphrodite in Euripides), opens with instructions to
purity (949) and exiles him, despite the young man’s those who will hunt with him that day and a prayer to
declaration that no person on Earth has more sophro- Diana (Greek: Artemis) to assist him in his hunting.
sune than he (995; see also 1100, 1365). Hippolytus As Hippolytus sets out for the forest, Phaedra
realizes, however, that his sophrosune does not con- emerges from the palace. Her husband, Theseus, is in
vince Theseus that he did not rape Phaedra (1007), so the UNDERWORLD (contrast Euripides, in which Theseus
he tries to defend himself on other grounds. As Hip- is away consulting an oracle) with his friend, PEIRIT-
polytus ends his defense, he laments that Phaedra was HOUS. The queen indicates that she is in love and has
unable to exercise sophrosune despite her efforts to do traded her work at the loom for a hunting spear. She
so and that he himself, who does have sophrosune, has recalls her mother PASIPHAE’s illicit love for a bull and
not profited from it. After Hippolytus’ accident and the wonders whether any cure exists for her own affliction,
appearance of Artemis, the goddess tells the dying man which she attributes to Venus (Greek: Aphrodite).
that Aphrodite hated Hippolytus’ sophrosune. Ulti- Unlike the Nurse in Euripides’ Hippolytus, Seneca’s
mately, Hippolytus discovers his mortal understanding Nurse tries to persuade Phaedra not to yield to her pas-
of sophrosune is not the same as the divine understand- sion. Phaedra knows the Nurse is right but claims the
ing of sophrosune. For Hippolytus, sophrosune means illogic of love drives her to these feelings. The Nurse
complete abstinence from sexual relations with correctly argues that Hippolytus, being devoted to
 HIPPOLYTUS 269

chastity, will never yield to temptation, but Phaedra Nurse acts as Phaedra’s go-between, although in
says she will pursue him to the ends of the Earth. She Euripides’ first staging of Hippolytus the playwright
even states that if she fails to win Hippolytus’ love, she apparently had Phaedra herself approach Hippolytus.
will commit suicide. Ultimately, the Nurse agrees to When Seneca’s Hippolytus hears this confession, he
approach Hippolytus on Phaedra’s behalf and persuade is horrified. He wishes that he were dead and curses
him to accept this horrific union. After the Nurse and Phaedra, who declares that she will follow him wher-
Phaedra’s conversation, the CHORUS, composed of ever he goes. Hippolytus even draws his sword and
Athenian citizens (unlike Euripides’ chorus of threatens to kill Phaedra, but he refrains from doing so.
Troezenians), sing an ode about the power of Venus At this point, the Nurse, realizing Phaedra’s situation is
and Cupid (Greek: EROS). The chorus note that love out of control, decides the best way to save Phaedra’s
has mastered many divinities and nature’s mightiest honor is to accuse Hippolytus of a crime. Accordingly,
creatures. she cries out for help and claims Hippolytus is trying
The second act begins with a conversation between to rape Phaedra, who has fainted by this time. At some
the Nurse and chorus. The Nurse tells the chorus that point, Hippolytus has fled the scene and left behind
Phaedra’s passion allows her no comfort or satisfaction. his sword, which the Nurse claims is evidence of his
Soon, Phaedra is seen in the interior of the house, assault on Phaedra. After the Nurse arranges for Phae-
expressing her wish to have her hair unbound and to dra to be carried back inside the palace, the chorus
take up a spear and bow. The Nurse prays to Diana and sing a lengthy ode about beauty. They praise the beauty
HECATE that Hippolytus will yield to Phaedra’s love for of the goddess Diana and of Bacchus (Greek: DIONYSUS)
him. Now, Hippolytus enters and the Nurse but lament that mortal beauty fades with time and pray
approaches him. He realizes that something is bother- that the gods will spare Hippolytus, whose beauty has
ing her. She claims she is worried about his chaste caused him nothing but trouble.
mode of life and urges him to seek the joys of Venus. The play’s third act opens with Theseus’ arrival from
Hippolytus argues that his life in the country allows the underworld. The king notes that he has been away
him to avoid the worries and burdens of life in the city, from home for four years and that Hercules (Greek:
and that his present life rivals that of those who lived HERACLES) rescued him from the underworld. His joy
in the GOLDEN AGE. Hippolytus eventually declares that at his return soon turns to grief when the Nurse tells
women are the cause of all evil and cites MEDEA as an him that Phaedra has decided to kill herself. Soon, the
example. The Nurse wonders that Hippolytus can con- palace doors open and Phaedra converses with The-
demn all women on the basis of one woman’s behavior, seus, who begs her to tell him of her problems. She
and Hippolytus declares that he despises women. The claims Hippolytus has raped her and reveals Hippoly-
Nurse points out that Hippolytus’ mother knew love, tus’ sword as proof (contrast Euripides’ Phaedra, who
but Hippolytus coldly notes that his mother’s death hangs herself first and leaves a note accusing Hippoly-
means that he no longer has any women whom he is tus of rape). Theseus is enraged and, as in Euripides’
required to love. play, uses one of the three wishes granted to him by his
At this point, Phaedra emerges from the palace and father, Neptune (Greek: POSEIDON), to request the
asks to speak with Hippolytus in private. She offers death of Hippolytus. After Theseus’ remarks, the cho-
herself to Hippolytus as a servant and asks that he take rus sing a brief ode in which they wonder why the
pity on a widow. Hippolytus claims Theseus will gods do not help the good or punish those who are evil
return from the underworld, but Phaedra does not and why people should live a virtuous life when sin-
believe him. She then tells him that a mad love is rag- ners are unpunished.
ing in her heart, which Hippolytus assumes is love for In the fourth act, a MESSENGER arrives with news of
Theseus. Soon, however, Phaedra confesses to Hip- Hippolytus’ death. As in Euripides’ play, Hippolytus
polytus that she loves him. This admission differs has left town, driving his chariot along the coast road.
much from that of the Euripidean play, in which the His horses were terrified by a creature (part bull and
270 HIPPOLYTUS

part sea monster) that cast up from the sea and pulled his friend Pirithous’ mad attempt to acquire Hades’
the chariot off the path. Hippolytus, thrown from the wife. The madness that has compelled Pirithous and
car, became tangled in the reins and was dragged and Theseus to cross this forbidden boundary is paralleled
torn apart (unlike in Euripides’ play). Also, unlike the in that of Phaedra, whose love madness drives her
Theseus of Euripides’ play, Seneca’s Theseus immedi- from the house and into the forests (112). Phaedra
ately expresses remorse that his curse caused Hippoly- knows that following her nurse’s advice is correct, but
tus’ death. madness compels her to ignore it (178), for mad pas-
The play’s final act begins with the emergence of a sion has overcome the ability to reason properly (184).
maddened Phaedra from the palace. Unlike Euripides’ For the Stoics, people could be truly happy only when
Phaedra, Seneca’s Phaedra laments Hippolytus’ death their lives were guided by reason (ratio), so clearly
and mourns over his broken body, which has now Phaedra’s emotions are leading her away from any sort
been taken back to the palace. She declares that she of happiness.
will follow Hippolytus in death. Whereas Euripides’ The Nurse argues that mad passion has caused peo-
Phaedra hanged herself before Hippolytus’ death and ple to transform Venus and Cupid into divinities
made no such lamentation over his body, Seneca’s (197–202) and urges Phaedra to help herself by put-
Phaedra falls on a sword after her lamentation. The- ting an end to this madness (248; cf. also 268). Despite
seus, witnessing this, now mourns for his dead wife, the Nurse’s prudent advice, Phaedra’s madness persists.
wishes that he himself were dead, and wonders how he At 361, the Nurse declares that there will be no end to
might accomplish the deed. The chorus, however, the insane flames (flammis . . . insanis) that engulf
interrupt Theseus and urge him to bury Hippolytus. Phaedra and notes that her face betrays her madness
He mourns over his son’s torn body, while the chorus (furor, 363). The image of fire returns later as Phaedra
tell him that he must reassemble the body parts in the reveals to Hippolytus that love scorches her mad heart
proper order. After Theseus does so, he calls upon the (pectus insanum, 640) and declares she will follow Hip-
people of Athens to mourn, prepare a pyre, and search polytus even over the mad sea (mare insanum, 700).
for any other parts of Hippolytus that have not yet Unfortunately for Phaedra, the object of her mad
been found. Whereas Hippolytus’ body will be cre- passion suffers from his own madness. Earlier in the
mated, he announces that Phaedra will be buried in play, Hippolytus had declared that someone who, as he
the ground. does, leads the solitary life of a hunter is unaffected by
the madness (furor, 486) of greed. Later, however, he
COMMENTARY admits that his hatred of women may be madness
Whereas Seneca’s MEDEA focuses on the consequences (furor, 567), reason (ratio), or just part of his nature.
of passion contaminated by anger, Seneca’s Hippolytus Phaedra hopes confessing her love will cure her of
highlights passion that is intertwined with madness. madness (sanas furentem, 711). Phaedra’s confession
Seneca’s Hippolytus has more references to madness only serves to inflame Hippolytus’ own madness, how-
than any other Senecan play, including HERCULES ever, and when Hippolytus flees his stepmother for the
FURENS, in which the title character is afflicted by mad- sane refuge of the forest, the chorus compare him to a
ness and kills his wife and children. As a proponent of raging (insanae, 736) storm. The chorus conclude this
STOICISM, Seneca, as did his fellow Stoics, contended lengthy ode by wondering what Phaedra’s madness
that intense emotion must be controlled to achieve (furor, 824) would leave untried.
happiness. In Seneca’s Hippolytus, Phaedra and Hip- The chorus’ question is soon answered when Phae-
polytus suffer from different kinds of madness that dra tells Theseus that Hippolytus tried to rape her. A
ultimately cause disaster for both. shocked Theseus marvels at his son’s alleged behavior
Phaedra is not the only person in Hippolytus afflicted and the madness (furor, 909) of the Amazon race (a part
by madness. At line 96, Phaedra notes that her hus- of Hippolytus’ heritage), as these female warriors reject
band has gone to the underworld as an accomplice to the customs of Venus. Theseus, believing Phaedra’s
 HOMER 271

accusation, curses Hippolytus, and this curse results in HIPPONOUS This king of OLENUS had a daugh-
the young man’s horses’ being afflicted by madness ter, Periboea, who became pregnant when she was not
(furor, 1070) that leads to Hippolytus’ death. This death married and gave birth to a son, Tydeus. Hipponous
leads to another death and at 1156 Theseus wonders sent Periboea away (and perhaps the child as well) to
what madness (furor) drives Phaedra to emerge from be killed. Both Periboea and Tydeus survived. What
the palace, a sword in hand. Before Phaedra commits eventually became of Hipponous is not known. SOPHO-
suicide, she confesses to Theseus the madness (demens) CLES wrote a Hipponous, of which about five lines sur-
of her insane behavior (insano, 1193). Phaedra ends the vive (fragments 300–4 Radt), but the play’s overall
flames of her madness with a suicidal blade; the play content is unknown. One fragment (300) is spoken by
concludes with Theseus’ composing the scattered limbs someone (perhaps Periboea) from Olenus. [ANCIENT
of Hippolytus and preparing to consign his body to the SOURCES: APOLLODORUS, LIBRARY 1.8.4; Pausanias, 9.8.7]
flames of a funeral pyre (1274, 1277).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Boyle, A. J. “In Nature’s Bonds: A Study of Seneca’s Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Phaedra,” Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 32, Harvard University Press, 1996.
no. 2 (1985): 1,284–1,347. Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Leeman, A. D. “Seneca’s Phaedra as a Stoic Tragedy.” In Mis- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
cellanea Tragica in Honorem J. C. Kamerbeek. Edited by J. Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
M. Bremer, S. L. Radt, and C. J. Ruijgh. Amsterdam: Press of America, 1984.
Hakkert, 1976, 199–212.
Paschalis, M. “The Bull and the Horse: Animal Theme and HISTER Now called the Danube, this river origi-
Imagery in Seneca’s Phaedra,” American Journal of Philology nates in Germany and flows into the Black Sea.
115 (1994): 105–28.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos 1227]
Segal, Charles. Language and Desire in Seneca’s Phaedra.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986.
HISTRIO See ACTOR.

HIPPOMEDON Hippomedon’s father was HOMER (EIGHTH CENTURY B.C.E.) Little

TALAUS (or Aristomachus); his mother is usually called
is known about the life of Homer, whom the Greeks
Metidice. Hippomedon of ARGOS married Evanippe and
consider their greatest poet. Dates for his life vary by
by her fathered Polydorus. Hippomedon was one of the
as much as 500 years, though he does not appear to
Seven against THEBES; Ismarus killed him in the battle.
have lived later than 700 B.C.E. His place of birth also
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 488;
is disputed, but two places along the western coast of
Euripides, Phoenician Women 126, 1113, Suppliant
Turkey (Smyrna and the island of Chios) remain the
Women 881; Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1317]
most likely candidates. Tradition says that Homer
was blind. This cannot be verified but neither can it
HIPPONAX (SIXTH CENTURY B.C.E.) A be disproved.
writer of iambic poetry from the town of EPHESUS. Two surviving epic poems, Iliad and Odyssey, are
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 661] attributed to Homer, although many scholars believe
that two different poets wrote these poems. Iliad deals
HIPPONICUS The name of the father of CALLIAS with a period of some 40 days during the 10th year of
as well as of Callias’ son. The younger Hipponicus the Trojan War, focusing on a violent argument
served ATHENS as a military commander during the between ACHILLES and AGAMEMNON; Achilles’ with-
first part of the PELOPONNESIAN WAR and was killed at drawal from the war; the killing of Achilles’ friend,
the battle of Delium in 424 B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: PATROCLUS, by HECTOR; Achilles’ return to the battle;
Aristophanes, Birds 283] and the latter’s killing of Hector. Odyssey deals with the
272 HOMOLOEAN GATE

return of ODYSSEUS from the Trojan War and hardships events, the use of the chorus and music, SATYR PLAYS,
faced by his family as a result of his absence. the origins of drama, the sort of educational training a
Numerous ancient dramas, especially tragedies, poet should have, the level of excellence for which a
were influenced by the two Homeric epics. EURIPIDES’ poet should strive, and the necessity for poets to
RHESUS is based on the 10th book of Iliad and Euripi- behave in a moderate fashion. Ars Poetica is an impor-
des’ Cyclops used as its source the ninth book of tant document in the history of classical drama
Odyssey. Although only two surviving plays are based because it preserves remarks on writing poetry by a
directly on Iliad and Odyssey, numerous other dramas poet. The accuracy of Horace’s remarks on the history
drew upon Homer’s works or his characters (e.g., and origins of Greek drama is generally doubted by
AESCHYLUS’ ORESTEIA; SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, PHILOCTETES; modern scholars, who prefer that such statements be
Euripides’ ANDROMACHE, HECABE, IPHIGENIA AT AULIS, corroborated by inscriptional or archaeological evi-
TROJAN WOMEN; SENECA’s AGAMEMNON, TROJAN WOMEN). dence.
Additionally, at least 10 ancient dramas contain the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
name of Achilles in their title; two of them are by
Brink, C. O. Horace on Poetry. II, The Ars Poetica. Cam-
comic poets (Anaxandrides and Philetaerus). About bridge, Mass.: Cambridge Univeristy Press, 1971.
the same number of ancient dramas contain Odysseus’ Frischer, B. Shifting Paradigms: New Approaches to Horace’s
name in the title, equally divided between tragic and Ars Poetica. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991.
comic poets. Golden, Leon. “Ars and Artifex in the Ars Poetica: Revisiting
the Question of Structure,” Syllecta Classica 11 (2000):
BIBLIOGRAPHY 141–61.
Camps, W. A. An Introduction to Homer. London: Oxford
Trimpi, W. “Horace’s Ut Pictura Poesis: The Argument for
University Press, 1980.
Stylistic Decorum.” Traditio 34 (1978): 29–73.
Griffin, J. Homer. 2d ed. London: Bristol Classical, 2001.
Kirk, G. S. Homer and the Oral Tradition. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1976. HOUSEHOLD GODS In Roman religion,
McAuslan, I., and P. Walcot, eds. Homer. Oxford: Oxford each household had a set of family gods known as the
University Press, 1998. Penates and Lares. In TERENCE’s PHORMIO (lines
Wace, A. J. B., and F. H. Stubbings, eds. A Companion to 311–12), when Demipho returns from abroad, he
Homer. New York: Macmillan, 1962. announces that he will enter his home and greet his
Penates.
HOMOLOEAN GATE One of THEBES’ seven
gates. The gate was defended by LASTHENES and HUBRIS A common reason that characters are
attacked by AMPHIARAUS, according to AESCHYLUS, but punished in TRAGEDY is an act of hubris, a word that
attacked by Tydeus, according to EURIPIDES. [ANCIENT connotes extreme arrogance or outrageous behavior.
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 570; Euripi- Acts of hubris would include committing rape, perse-
des, Phoenician Women 1119] cuting innocent people, injuring a guest, mistreating
one’s parents, claiming that one is better than a divin-
HORACE (DECEMBER 65–NOVEMBER 27, ity, or refusing to worship a divinity. In EURIPIDES’ HIP-
8 B.C.E.) Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace) was a POLYTUS, for example, the title character’s refusal to
Roman poet who wrote, among other works, a brief worship APHRODITE would be considered hubris; con-
letter (476 lines) entitled Ars Poetica (The art of sequently, Aphrodite causes Hippolytus’ death. Proba-
poetry). Composed in the 10s B.C.E., this letter, bly the most famous remark about hubris occurs in
addressed to certain members of the Piso family, gives SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS TYRANNOS (872): “Insolence [hubris]
advice on how plays should be constructed. The letter breeds the tyrant.” Sophocles wrote a SATYR PLAY enti-
discusses the unity of plays, diction, meter, consistency tled Hubris, of whose only five words survive (fragment
of story and character, methods to set forth a play’s 670 Radt).
 HYMEN 273

BIBLIOGRAPHY Melite, who lived among the Phaeacians. When Hyllus

Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. grew up, he led a band of Phaeacians to the northeast-
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: ern coast of the Adriatic Sea, founded a city, and called
Harvard University Press, 1996. the people Hylleans. Hyllus was killed defending his
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, cattle against a raid by the Mentores. The best-known
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
tradition is found in SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
and SENECA’s HERCULES OETAEUS, in which Hyllus prom-
Press of America, 1984.
ises his father, Heracles, that he will marry Heracles’
concubine, IOLE, and kill Heracles himself, who was
HYADES Originally seven NYMPHS whom ZEUS
being tormented by the poisoned robe sent to him by
transformed into stars. According to one tradition,
Deianeira. Although Hyllus took the pain-wracked
they cared for the young DIONYSUS until they (and the
Heracles to the top of Mount Oeta and had a funeral
god) were chased into the sea by LYCURGUS; another
pyre built for him, he could not make himself light his
tradition is that the death of their brother, Hyas,
father’s pyre; PHILOCTETES performed that task. Hyllus
caused them to die of sorrow. The ancients associated
did, however, marry Iole, and, according to one tradi-
the setting of these stars (located in the head of the
tion, she produced for him a son, Cleodaeus. Some
constellation Taurus) with rain and storms. [ANCIENT
sources indicate that Hyllus, rather than IOLAUS, killed
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.4.3; Euripides, Electra
EURYSTHEUS in a battle to protect Heracles’ children. In
468, Ion 1156; Homer, Iliad 18.486; Hyginus, Fables
EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES, we find that Hyllus
192; Seneca, Medea 312, 769, Thyestes 853]
challenged Eurystheus to a single combat, but that
Eurystheus was too cowardly to accept the challenge.
HYBRISTES A mythical river past which IO wan-
Hyllus himself was killed by Echemus when Hyllus led
dered. [ANCIENT SOURCES:Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound
Heracles’ children in an attempt to reclaim Heracles’
717]
kingdom in MYCENAE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
Library 2.7.7–2.8.2; Euripides, Children of Heracles;
HYDRA See LERNA.
Pausanias, 1.4.2, 1.4.10, 3.15.10, 4.2.1, 8.5.1; Sopho-
cles, Trachinian Women]
HYLAS (1) The son of Thiodamaus, Hylas was a
handsome young man who accompanied JASON and HYMEN (HYMENAEUS) Hymen is the god
the Argonauts on the quest for the Golden Fleece. of marriage and the marriage song, which is called the
Hylas was the beloved of HERACLES but vanished after hymenaeus. Various divinities are named as his parents:
he was abducted by water nymphs in the land of APOLLO and one of the MUSES, DIONYSUS and
Mysia. Heracles left the journey to continue looking for APHRODITE, a mortal named Magnes and the Muse Cal-
Hylas but never found the young man. [ANCIENT liope. The marriage hymn was sung when the bride left
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.19; Apollonius her house for the house of her future husband. In
Rhodius, 1.1207–1357; Hyginus, Fables 14; Seneca, EURIPIDES’ TROJAN WOMEN, CASSANDRA, in frenzied antic-
Hippolytus 780, Medea 647; Theocritus, 13] ipation of becoming AGAMEMNON’s concubine, sings a
hymn to Hymen and then predicts Agamemnon’s
HYLAS (2) The name of a fictional slave at death. At the conclusion of ARISTOPHANES’ PEACE, a
ARISTOPHANES, KNIGHTS 67. Historical slaves of that hymn to Hymen is sung in anticipation of TRYGAEUS’
name are known. marriage. See also PLAUTUS’ CASINA, in which Olympio
and Lysidamus sing a hymn to Hymen before Olym-
HYLLUS In the most common tradition Hyllus is pio’s marriage to Casina (Chalinus in disguise).
the son of HERACLES and DEIANEIRA; Apollonius of [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 1332–59;
Rhodes makes him the son of Heracles and the nymph Euripides, CHILDREN OF HERACLES 917, Trojan Women
274 HYMN

310–42; Plautus, Casina 799–809; Seneca, Medea 116, lus ostracized instead. Apparently, the Athenians con-
300; Terence, Brothers 905, 907] sidered the process of ostracism so corrupt that after
this time they no longer resorted to the process. Thus,
HYMN Derived from the Greek humnos, the word Hyperbolus became the last Athenian to be ostracized.
hymn refers to a song, often of praise or thanksgiving, In exile, Hyperbolus went to the island of SAMOS,
to a divinity. The best-known hymns from antiquity are where political revolutionaries killed him. [ANCIENT
the so-called Homeric Hymns, which are written in a SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 846, Knights 1304,
style similar to that of HOMER and praise various Greek 1363, Clouds 551, 557, 558, 623, 876, 1065, Frogs
divinities. These poems range in length from just a few 570, Peace 681, 921, 1319, Thesmophoriazusae 840,
lines to several hundred. In classical drama, hymns Wasps 1007; Plutarch, Alcibiades 13, Nicias 11; Thucy-
sung by the CHORUS, such as the famous hymn to ZEUS dides, 8.73]
in the opening choral song of AESCHYLUS’ Agamemnon
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(see ORESTEIA), are not uncommon. In SOPHOCLES’
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, the chorus of Theban elders enter Teubner, 1880.
singing a hymn to APOLLO, ARTEMIS, and ATHENA, in Woodhead, A.G. “I.G., I2, 95, and the Ostracism of Hyper-
which they pray for help in the face of the plague that bolus,” Hesperia 18 (1949): 78–83.
afflicts their city. In EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, at
lines 1234–57, the chorus sing a hymn about Apollo’s HYPERMESTRA See DANAIDS.
triumph over the Python and the establishment of his
power at DELPHI. HYPNOS See SLEEP.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Furley, W. D. “Praise and Persuasion in Greek Hymns,” Jour- HYPOCRITES See ACTOR.
nal of Hellenic Studies 115 (1995): 29–46.
Smith, P. M. On the Hymn to Zeus in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon. HYPORCHEME A song or hymn (accompanied
Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1980. by dance and pantomimic action) in honor of APOLLO.
The hyporcheme was thought to have originated on
HYPERBIUS The son of Oenops, Hyperbius CRETE. Occasionally, SOPHOCLES inserts one of these lively
(whose name means “passionate” or “excessive” in hymns immediately before the CATASTROPHE. [ANCIENT
Greek) was a Theban nobleman who sided with ETEO- SOURCES: Plato, Ion 534c; Sophocles, Ajax 693–717,
CLES against his brother, POLYNEICES. In the battle of the Antigone 1115–54; Oedipus Tyrannos 1086–1109]
Seven against THEBES, Hyperbius was matched against
HIPPOMEDON and defeated him. [ANCIENT SOURCES: HYPOTHESIS A hypothesis usually contains a
Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 504–18] brief summary of the play’s plot and sometimes
includes additional useful information about the play.
HYPERBOLUS (DIED 411 B.C.E.) An Athen- In the case of some classical plays, one or more
ian political leader mentioned negatively by the histo- hypotheses accompany the play’s text. ARISTOPHANES’
rian Thucydides, ARISTOPHANES, and other comic poets. BIRDS, for example, has four hypotheses that range
The Greek comic poet Hermippus attacked Hyperbo- between 10 and 40 lines. EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS is accom-
lus and his mother in a play entitled Artopolides (Baker panied by two hypotheses. One contains a summary of
women). Another Greek comic poet, Plato, who the play’s plot; the other not only has a plot summary,
Plutarch suggests was sympathetic to Hyperbolus, but also reveals when the play was produced, which
wrote a Hyperbolus (fragments 166–72 Kock). playwright won first place in the competition, and
In 417 (or 415) B.C.E., Hyperbolus tried to engineer titles of the other plays that Euripides staged in that
the ostracism of ALCIBIADES or NICIAS (or PHAEAX), but festival. It also includes some comments on the tone of
the two joined forces and managed to have Hyperbo- Euripides’ Alcestis.
 HYSIAE 275

HYPSIPYLE The daughter of THOAS, Hypsipyle bought her and she served as nurse to his son
was the ruler of LEMNOS. When JASON and the Arg- Opheltes, who was killed by a deadly snake while she
onauts went to Lemnos, Jason slept with Hypsipyle was showing a spring to those who participated in the
and by her had two sons, Euneus and Nebrophonus Seven against THEBES expedition. EURIPIDES wrote a
(or Deipylus). When Hypsipyle became queen, she Hypsipyle, which was staged about 410 B.C.E. [ANCIENT
and the women of her island killed almost all of the SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.17]
island’s male inhabitants. The lone male survivor of BIBLIOGRAPHY
this slaughter was Hypsipyle’s father, whom she herself Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
saved by putting him in a vessel and setting him adrift Methuen, 1967.
in the AEGEAN SEA. When the Lemnians learned she
had saved Thoas, they sold her into slavery or pirates HYSIAE A village on the outskirts of THEBES.
captured her. The king of NEMEA, Lycurgus (or Lycus), [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Bacchae 751]
 C ID
IACCHUS A divinity sometimes equated with BIBLIOGRAPHY
DIONYSUS. In the Eleusinian Mysteries, Iacchus “was the Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
god who was carried in procession from his sanctuary in Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Sutton, Dana. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Athens to Eleusis when the Mysteries were celebrated,
Press of America, 1984, 62–63.
and his name is the name of the processional song”
(Dover). In ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS (323–400), Iacchus is IBYCUS A Greek lyric poet from Rhegium in
found in the UNDERWORLD, “called upon to come and southern Italy. Ibycus was active in the middle of the
dance with his worshippers . . ., brandish his torches . . . sixth century B.C.E. and known for his love poetry and
and lead them to the flowery plain . . ., and summoned love of nature. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Thes-
to join the procession ‘to the goddess’” (Dover). mophoriazusae 161]
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Bowra, C. M. Greek Lyric Poetry from Alcman to Simonides. 2d
1993, 61.
rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961.

IAPETUS The brother of CRONUS and the father of ICARUS See DAEDALUS.
PROMETHEUS, Iapetus’ name became synonymous with
“old-fashioned” things. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- ICHNEUTAE See THE SEARCHERS.
phanes, Clouds 998]
IDA (1) A mountain or mountain range near the
town of TROY. PARIS was a shepherd on Ida when he
IASO One of the daughters of ASCLEPIUS (Panacea is
judged the beauty of the goddesses HERA, ATHENA, and
the other). Iaso’s name means “healer.” [ANCIENT APHRODITE. This event, known as the JUDGMENT OF
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wealth 701]
PARIS, led to the Trojan War. Paris chose Aphrodite as
the most beautiful after she promised him HELEN. Hera
IBERIA Either a name (after the river Iberus) used and Athena, angered at not being selected, joined
by the ancients for Spain or an Asian country along the forces and sided against the Trojans in the war.
southern shores of the Black Sea (occupying now what
is Russian Georgia). SOPHOCLES (or perhaps his son) IDA (2) A mountain in central CRETE, Ida claimed
wrote an Iberians (see Radt), of which only the title sur- to be the birthplace of ZEUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
vives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 1522] phanes, Frogs 1355]
276
 INACHUS 277

IDMON The son of APOLLO and Asteria, Idmon light and darkness pervade AESCHYLUS’ ORESTEIA, SOPHO-
was a prophet who accompanied JASON and the Arg- CLES’ AJAX, and SENECA’s OEDIPUS. In PLAUTUS’ cOMEDY,
onauts in the search for the Golden Fleece. According military imagery is common, as that author’s slaves
to Seneca, Idmon died of a bite from a serpent; other often become like commanders who marshal their
sources report that a boar killed him. [ANCIENT troops for attack against an opponent such as a PIMP.
SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 18; Seneca, Medea 652]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barlow, S. A. The Imagery of Euripides. London: Methuen,
ILION See TROY. 1970.
Fowler, B. H. “Aeschylus’ Imagery,” Classica et Mediaevali 28
ILIONA A daughter of PRIAM and HECABE, Iliona (1967): 1–74.
Mastronarde, D. J. “Iconography and Imagery in Euripides’
was the wife of POLYMESTOR of Thrace. When Iliona’s
Ion,” California Studies in Classical Antiquity 8 (1975):
brother POLYDORUS was sent to live with Polymestor
163–76.
and Iliona, Polymestor killed Polydorus for the fortune Paschalis, M. “The Bull and the Horse: Animal Theme and
that he took with him. PACUVIUS wrote an Iliona, from Imagery in Seneca’s Phaedra,” American Journal of Philology
which about two dozen lines survive and the events of 115 (1994): 105–28.
which would have overlapped to some extent those of Stanford, W. B. “Light and Darkness in Sophocles’ Ajax,”
EURIPIDES’ HECABE (although Iliona is not mentioned in Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 19 (1978): 189–97.
Euripides’ play). One fragment from Pacuvius’ play
recalls the opening of Euripides’ play, as Pacuvius has IMBROS An island in the northeastern AEGEAN
the ghost of the deceased Polydorus call upon Hecabe and located east of LEMNOS. MENANDER wrote a play
to awaken and bury him. In another fragment, Iliona entitled Imbrians, whose fragments reveal little about
may express the wish to gouge out Polymestor’s eyes, a the content (212–14 Körte).
deed performed by Hecabe in Euripides’ play. The frag-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ments do suggest, however, that Iliona did take revenge
Körte, A., and A. Thierfelder. A. Menandri Quae Supersunt.
on Polymestor. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 109] Vol. 2, 2d ed. Leipzig: Teubner, 1959.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, IMITATION See MIMESIS.
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1936.
INACHUS The son of Oceanus and Tethys, the
river Inachus flows through ARGOS. Inachus fathered
ILIUM See TROY. IO by Melia, the nymph of an ash tree. According to
AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS BOUND, when Io told her father
IMAGERY With respect to the craft of the ancient about the sexually charged dreams that ZEUS had been
dramatist, imagery is use of vivid descriptions to create causing her to have, Inachus banished her from the
in or suggest to the audience’s mind objects or events house. Zeus then impregnated Io; she was transformed
that they could ordinarily perceive with the five senses. into a cow (by Zeus or HERA); and in that form she was
In the plays, imagery most commonly occurs in pas- guarded by the multieyed ARGUS.
sages containing lyric poetry (such as choral passages) SOPHOCLES wrote a satyric Inachus from which
or in messenger speeches (especially those of EURIPI- numerous fragments survive. In fragment 269a,
DES). Images of animals, especially serpents, bulls, and Inachus and the chorus appear to be discussing Zeus’
birds, are common. In SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE, for exam- rape of Io and Io’s transformation into a cow. In frag-
ple, the poet evokes in his audience’s mind the image of ment 269c the chorus encounter HERMES, who appears
an eagle as he describes POLYNEICES’ attack on THEBES as in the play, probably to battle Argus. The scholiast on
being like the flight of that bird over the city. Images of Prometheus Bound 574a says Argus enters the stage
278 INDIA

singing. Lloyd-Jones suspected that Hermes might of the birds is driven away by whips. In Aristophanes’
challenge Argus in a musical contest. Tradition says WEALTH, the informant is wrapped up in the ragged
that Hermes charmed Argus’ eyes to sleep by his cloak of a honest man who has now become wealthy
music. Fragment 272 suggests that IRIS may appear in and has the honest man’s old shoes nailed to his fore-
the play. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Libation Bearers head. In PLAUTUS’ THREE-DOLLAR DAY, a sycophanta
6 (see ORESTEIA), Prometheus Bound 590, 663, 705, Sup- appears. His role, however, is not that of an informant;
pliant Women 497; Apollodorus, Library 2.1.1–4; instead, he has been hired to swindle Charmides out of
Euripides, Suppliant Women 372, 629, 645, 890; Ovid, some money.
Metamorphoses 1.568–746]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Muecke, F. “Names and Players: The Sycophant Scene of the
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. Trinummus (Trin. 4.2),” Transactions of the American Philo-
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: logical Association 115 (1985): 167–86.
Harvard University Press, 1996.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, INO The daughter of CADMUS and HARMONIA, Ino
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
was the sister of AGAVE, AUTONOE, SEMELE, and Poly-
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
dorus. Ino married ATHAMAS, a king in the central part
Press of America, 1984.
of northern Greece. With Athamas, Ino helped raise
the young Dionysus. (For more on Ino’s marriage, see
INDIA For the ancient Greeks and Romans, the
ATHAMAS.) In EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE, Ino, in a Bacchic
land of India represented one of the eastern boundaries
frenzy, helps kill her nephew, PENTHEUS. Euripides
of the world as they knew it. The Greek playwrights
wrote an Ino of which some 80 lines survive (fragments
knew that gold could be found in India, and Roman
398–423 Nauck). Webster thought Euripides’ play
playwrights knew that the people of India had darker
dealt with Ino’s divorce of Athamas, his marriage to
skin than theirs and that India possessed its share of
Themisto, Ino’s subsequent return to Athamas’ house,
elephants. DIONYSUS was also said to have introduced
her employment as a nurse to the children of Athamas,
the people of India to his worship. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
and Ino’s trickery, which resulted in Themisto’s killing
Apollodorus, Library 3.5.2; Catullus, 11.2, 45.6,
her own children. In ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS, refer-
61.109a; Hyginus, Fables 131, 133; Plautus, Curculio
ence is made to the rags in which Euripides apparently
439, Miles Gloriosus 25; Seneca, Hippolytus 345, 392,
costumed his Ino. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Bac-
753, Medea 484; Sophocles, Antigone 1038; Terence,
chae; Hyginus, Fables 2, 4]
Eunuch 413]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INFORMANT A stock character in ancient COM- Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
EDY, an informant (Greek: sycophantes; Latin: syco- Methuen, 1967.
phanta) was usually someone who made a living by
revealing to the local authorities the illegal importation IO The daughter of Inachus and Melia, Io was a
of goods. Such people are always excluded from the priestess of HERA. Io had the misfortune of being one
benefits that result from the fantastic plans of the of ZEUS’ many lovers. After Zeus impregnated Io, Hera
heroes in ARISTOPHANES’ plays. In ACHARNIANS, for discovered the relationship. According to some
example, the poet suggests that informants are so sources, such as Ovid, Zeus changed Io into a cow to
prevalent in ATHENS that they themselves could serve hide her from Hera. Other sources, such as PROMETHEUS
as an export. Indeed, in this play DICAEOPOLIS packs up BOUND, state that Hera transformed her into a cow.
one of the informants who appear in Acharnians and After Io’s transformation, she was placed under the
trades him to a Boeotian merchant. In Aristophanes’ watch of a multieyed creature named ARGUS. When
BIRDS, the informant who tries to infiltrate the new city HERMES (at Zeus’ instigation) killed Argus, Io was freed,
 IOLCUS 279

but then Argus’ FURY tormented her. In a state of frenzy, Bellerophon to his daughter and gave his new son-in-
the cow Io wandered the earth. Eventually she reached law half his kingdom. Sophocles wrote an Iobates; the
Egypt, where Zeus restored her to human form. There, few surviving lines do not give any indication of the
she gave birth to Zeus’ son, EPAPHUS, who became king play’s content. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
of Egypt. 2.3.1–2; Hyginus, Fables 57, 243; Servius Honoratus
In PROMETHEUS BOUND, Io’s wanderings lead her past on Aeneid, 5.118]
the site where PROMETHEUS is chained. Prometheus tells
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Io of her impending wanderings and ultimate release
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
from torment. He also prophesies that one of her Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
descendants, HERACLES, will release him from his tor- Harvard University Press, 1996.
ment. Eventually, Io will make her way to Egypt, be Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
restored to human form by Zeus’ touch, and give birth Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
to a son named EPAPHUS. Although Io does not appear Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
as a character in AESCHYLUS’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN, the Press of America, 1984.
name and image of Io are evoked frequently in the play
by the chorus of DANAUS’ daughters, who liken Io’s suf- IOCASTA See JOCASTA.
ferings to their own.
Io’s sufferings at the hands of Zeus and Hera cer- IOLAUS The son of HERACLES’ son Iphicles, Iolaus
tainly made her a fitting subject for TRAGEDY, as exem- accompanied his uncle, Heracles, on some of his labors
plified by the plays cited, and by an Io by the Greek as his charioteer. Iolaus is best known for helping Her-
tragedian Chaeremon (fragment 9 Snell). Additionally, acles kill the HYDRA of Lerna. Apollodorus wrote that
several Greek comic poets wrote an Io: Titles only sur- after Heracles completed his labors he gave his wife,
vive from Anaxilas and Anaxandrides; a single line MEGARA, to Iolaus to be his wife. Euripides and Seneca,
(fragment 55 Kock) from Plato the comic poet; four however, in their plays on Heracles’ madness, say that
words from Sannyrion (fragments 10–11 Kock). We Heracles killed Megara while she was still his wife. In
know nothing about the plots of these plays, however. EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES, after the death of Her-
Among Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote an Io, from acles, Iolaus serves as the protector of Heracles’ chil-
which three lines survive. One fragment refers to dren, a role similar to that played by AMPHITRYON later
Argus’ guarding Io; another refers to Io’s expulsion in Euripides’ HERACLES. Unlike Amphitryon, however,
from home by her father. in Euripides’ Children of Heracles, during a battle with
Eurystheus and his army, the aged Iolaus prays to HEBE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and ZEUS that he will regain his youth for a single day
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880. so that he can take vengeance against his enemies.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: Amazingly, Iolaus regains his youth and captures EURYS-
Teubner, 1884. THEUS. Eurystheus’ ultimate fate is not clear in Euripi-
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, des’ Children (because the conclusion of that play is
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. lost). Pausanias, however, says Iolaus killed Eurystheus.
Pausanias also reports that Iolaus himself died at Sardis
IOBATES The king of LYCIA, Iobates fathered in Asia Minor. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
STHENEBOEA (also called Anteia), who became the wife 2.5.2, 2.6.1; Euripides, Ion 194–200; Hesiod, Shield of
of Proetus, king of TIRYNS. After Stheneboea accused Heracles, Theogony 316–18; Ovid, Metamorphoses
BELLEROPHON of raping her, Proetus sent Bellerophon to 9.394–401; Pausanias, 1.44.10, 5.8.4, 9.23.1]
Iobates in the hope that Iobates would kill him. Iobates
created several challenges for Bellerophon, all of which IOLCUS A town on the northeastern coast of
Bellerophon overcame. Eventually, Iobates married mainland Greece, Iolcus was the birthplace of Pelias,
280 IOLE

ACASTUS, ALCESTIS, and JASON. It was at Iolcus that where she was raped. At Apollo’s command, HERMES
Jason and the Argonauts began their quest for the took the infant Ion to DELPHI, where Ion was raised by
Golden Fleece. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Alcestis Apollo’s priestess. Many years later, Ion, who became a
249, Medea 7, 484, 551; Seneca, Medea 457, Trojan servant of Apollo’s at Delphi, encountered Creusa and
Women 819] her husband, XUTHUS, at the ORACLE. The couple had
traveled to consult the oracle about the possibility of
IOLE The daughter of EURYTUS, king of OECHALIA. having children. Xuthus, told that the first person he
HERACLES sacked Eurytus’ town and took Iole captive encountered after exiting the shrine would be his son,
with the intent of making her his concubine. Heracles encountered Ion. When Creusa, however, discovered
died before he was able to enjoy her, and one of his Xuthus’ intention to adopt Ion, she arranged to have
dying wishes was to have his son HYLLUS marry the Ion poisoned. Her plot failed and then Ion threatened
princess. Iole appears as a silent character in SOPHO- to kill her. This catastrophe was averted when Apollo’s
CLES’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN; she has a brief speaking role priestess carried out some items that had been found
in SENECA’s HERCULES OETAEUS, in which she laments her with Ion when he was taken to Delphi as an infant.
fate as a captive and recalls seeing her father and Creusa recognized the items and convinced Ion that
brother killed. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library she was his mother. After their joyful reunion, Ion
2.6.1, 2.7.7, 2.8.2; Euripides, Hippolytus 545; Hygi- returned to Athens with Creusa and Xuthus. Ion mar-
nus, Fables 35; Ovid, Heroides 9] ried Helice and had four sons, Aegicores, Argades,
Geleon, and Hoples, from whom the four Ionian tribes
were descended. When Helice’s father, Selinus, a king
ION (1) (CA. 480–BEFORE 421 B.C.E.) A of Aegialea in the Peloponnese, died, Ion ruled the
Greek poet from the island of CHIOS who wrote several
Aegialeans. Just as his foster father Xuthus had gone to
different types of poetry. Ion competed in ATHENS in Athens as an ally of the Athenians, Ion went to the
both TRAGEDY and DITHYRAMB. His first competition in Athenians’ aid in one of their wars with the people of
tragedy was around 451. In 428 EURIPIDES’ production ELEUSIS. Upon defeating the Eleusinians, Ion also
(which included HIPPOLYTUS) defeated Ion’s offerings. became king of Athens.
About 75 fragments of Ion’s plays survive, none longer Ion appears as a character in EURIPIDES’ ION, which
than five lines. The play titles attributed to Ion are deals with Ion’s adoption by Xuthus, his near death
Agamemnon, Alcmene, Argeioi, Eurytidai, Laertes, Mega through Creusa’s plot, his near killing of Creusa, and
Drama, Omphale (a SATYR PLAY), Teucer, Phoenix, and his discovery that Creusa was his mother and Apollo
Phrouroi (Guards). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, his father. To SOPHOCLES is attributed an Ion of which
Peace 835] four brief, uninformative fragments survive (319–22
BIBLIOGRAPHY Radt), but this play may have been confused with
Dover, K. J. “Ion of Chios: His Place in the History of Greek Sophocles’ Creusa. The Greek comic poet Eubulus also
Literature.” In Chios: A Conference at the Homereion in wrote an Ion, about nine of whose lines survive (frag-
Chios 1984. Edited by J. Boardman and C. E. ments 37–39 Kock). The fragments contain references
Vaphopoulou-Richardson. Oxford: Clarendon Press, to various foods and banqueting but reveal nothing
1986, 27–37.
about the play’s plot. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. Library 1.7.3, Epitome 3.15.1; Pausanias, 1.31.3]
West, M. L. “Ion of Chios,” Bulletin of the Institute of Classical BIBLIOGRAPHY
Studies 32 (1985): 71–78. Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
ION (2) The son of APOLLO and CREUSA, Ion was Teubner, 1884.
born in ATHENS after Apollo raped Creusa near the Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Athenian ACROPOLIS. Creusa exposed Ion in the place Harvard University Press, 1996.
 ION 281

Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, them where they are from. Soon Creusa enters, and Ion
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. addresses her, wondering why she has tears on her face
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University when most people take pleasure at Apollo’s temple.
Press of America, 1984. Creusa responds by alluding to the outrage Apollo
Zeitlin, F. I. “Mysteries of Identity and Designs of the Self in committed against her. Ion does not understand what
Euripides’ Ion,” Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological
she means, but goes on to question her about her name
Society 35 (1989): 144–97.
and background. When Ion asks about the “Long
Rocks,” the place in Athens where POSEIDON killed
ION EURIPIDES (CA. 420–410 B.C.E.) The Creusa’s father, Erechtheus, this question prompts
play’s date is uncertain and based primarily on metri- Creusa’s memory that Apollo had attacked her there.
cal and thematic tendencies compared with those of Creusa does not explain further but goes on to tell Ion
other Euripidean plays of the same period. The drama’s about her marriage to Xuthus and points out that her
setting is the temple of APOLLO at DELPHI (compare the husband has stopped at the oracular shrine of TROPHO-
opening of AESCHYLUS’ Eumenides [see ORESTEIA]. The NIUS before going to Delphi. When Ion pities their
play opens with a monologue by HERMES, who explains childlessness, Creusa asks about Ion’s parents, but he
that Apollo had raped CREUSA, the daughter of the says he does not know his parents’ identity. He won-
Athenian king, ERECHTHEUS. Creusa gave birth to a ders whether he was born of some shameful act, and
male child and exposed the child in a basket at the foot Creusa again recalls her own injury. When she tells Ion
of the Athenian ACROPOLIS. At Apollo’s instruction, Her- of a “friend” of hers who claims to have had sexual
mes rescued the child and took him to Delphi, where relations with Apollo and to have produced a child by
Apollo’s priestess raised him. When the child grew up, the god, Ion dismisses this suggestion as impossible.
the Delphians made him guardian of Apollo’s treasury. Creusa says she wants to find out whether the child is
As Hermes’ monologue ends, the god reveals that the still alive. Ion, however, suggests that no one will take
young man’s name is ION (2). Hermes also informs the such a question to Apollo’s oracle, because the god
audience that Creusa later married XUTHUS, who had would be offended. Creusa, however, maintains that
served as an Athenian ally during a recent war. Because Apollo has wronged this unknown woman and her
Creusa and Xuthus did not have children of their own, child. Creusa’s reproach of the god ends as her hus-
they were traveling to Delphi to inquire about the pos- band, Xuthus, enters.
sibility of offspring. Hermes tells the audience that Xuthus tells Creusa that Trophonius’ oracle had told
Apollo will give Ion to Xuthus as his son, and that Ion’s him that he and Creusa would not leave Apollo’s ora-
descendants will eventually found the Ionian race, who cle without a child. Xuthus soon enters the temple,
would live in what is today western Turkey. while Ion and Creusa remain outside. When Creusa
After Hermes’ monologue, Ion emerges from steps off to the side of the temple, Ion wonders aloud
Apollo’s temple and sings a joyful MONODY about his at Creusa’s questions and comments. Ion himself
service at Apollo’s temple. He sweeps the temple area, chides Apollo for assaulting a maiden. After Ion’s exit,
pours cleansing water on it, and chases away birds that the chorus pray to ATHENA and ARTEMIS for fertility for
threaten to soil the shrine. Next, the CHORUS, consist- Creusa. They praise having children but lament
ing of Athenian women, enter and begin describing the Apollo’s rape of Creusa and imagine that the exposed
mythological images they see carved on Apollo’s tem- child was killed by animals. Soon after the choral ode,
ple. They see a portrayal of HERACLES killing the Hydra, Xuthus emerges from Apollo’s temple and immediately
BELLEROPHON killing the CHIMAERA, and the gods, greets Ion as his son. Ion is puzzled by Xuthus’
including their own patron divinity Athena, battling remarks, and Xuthus reveals that Apollo’s oracle has
the GIANTS. The women want to enter the sanctuary, told him that Ion is his son. Xuthus recalls that many
but Ion prevents them, because they have bare feet. years earlier he traveled to Delphi, became drunk at a
The chorus question Ion about the temple and he asks festival of DIONYSUS, and had intercourse with a young
282 ION

Delphian woman. Xuthus assumes that Ion was born plot fails, she will commit suicide. They express shame
of this union. Ion accepts the god’s oracle but worries that a foreigner should witness in Athens the celebra-
about how he will be accepted by the Athenians and tion of the MYSTERIES of Dionysus, DEMETER, and PERSE-
Creusa. He asks Xuthus to allow him to continue liv- PHONE. Finally, the women vent their wrath at those
ing at Delphi. Xuthus, however, rejects this idea. He who sing of women’s love affairs, and reproach men for
tells Ion that he will take him to Athens as a “sightseer,” their love affairs. The chorus’ ode is followed by the
and will reveal the truth about him when the time is arrival of a servant, who relates that the plot against
right. Xuthus then tells Ion to prepare a sacrifice and Ion has failed. After a lengthy description of the images
tells the chorus not to reveal any of this to Creusa. on the tent in which the ceremony took place, the slave
After Ion’s departure, the chorus predict the Creusa relates that during the ceremony Ion poured some of
will be upset by the news that Ion is Xuthus’ son, his wine onto the ground as a libation, and a bird
although she herself remains childless. They wonder drank some of the wine and died. Ion realized that
about Ion’s true origin, state that they will tell Creusa someone had poisoned the wine and was trying to kill
about what Xuthus is doing, and pray that Xuthus may him. Ion apprehended the aged tutor and forced him
come to ruin. They also pray Ion will not go to Athens to reveal Creusa’s plot. At that point, the prominent cit-
and pray for his death. After the choral ode, Creusa izens of Delphi voted that Creusa should be stoned to
enters with an old man, who was once the TUTOR of her death, but Creusa herself could not be found.
father, Erechtheus. The chorus inform Creusa that When the chorus hear this news, they fear for their
Apollo has given Ion to Xuthus as his son. Creusa is dis- own lives and wonder where they can go to escape.
turbed by this news, and the old tutor predicts that the Next, Creusa, trying to escape, enters. The chorus advise
young man will eventually go to Athens. The tutor says her to take refuge at Apollo’s altar. Ion enters and threat-
that Xuthus probably had the child in secret when he ens to pull her from the altar and throw her down the
realized that Creusa could not have children, arranged slopes of Mount Parnassus. Before Ion can commit this
for a Delphian woman to raise the child, and then violent act, Apollo’s priestess emerges from the temple,
decided to take the child to Athens when he grew up. carrying the basket in which Ion was found when he
The tutor tells Creusa that she should kill Xuthus and was an infant. The priestess states that Apollo had
Ion before she herself is killed. At this point, Creusa inspired her to take out the basket at this particular
sings a monody in which she recalls Apollo’s assault on time. She urges Ion to seek out his mother and then
her. She recalls giving birth to her son, and exposing returns to the temple. As Ion wonders what he should
him, expresses anger at Apollo, and, as did the chorus do with the basket, Creusa sees the vessel and recog-
earlier, imagines that animals killed the child. The tutor nizes it. She leaves Apollo’s altar and proceeds to
is puzzled by Creusa’s outburst, but then she explains to describe the items that she put inside the basket when
him in plain language about Apollo’s assault on her and she exposed Ion years earlier—a weaving with a Gor-
its consequences. The tutor suggests that Creusa burn gon, a golden snake necklace, and a garland of olive. As
down Apollo’s temple or kill Xuthus, but she rejects soon as Ion realizes that she has described the items cor-
these ideas. Creusa does, however, agree to the tutor’s rectly, he greets Creusa as his mother. Creusa explains
urging that she kill Ion. She decides that she will use that he was born as a result of her union with Apollo
some GORGON’S poison, contained in a bracelet passed and that she had exposed him when he was an infant.
down by Athena to her ancestor, ERICHTHONIUS, who Ion, however, is still troubled by the combination of
eventually gave it to her father, Erechtheus. The tutor Creusa’s story and Apollo’s giving him to Xuthus as his
agrees to put the poison into Ion’s cup during the offer- son, so he decides to enter the temple and question
ing of libations at the sacrifice. Apollo about his real father’s identity. At this point,
After the departure of Creusa and the tutor, the cho- however, Athena appears and prevents Ion from asking
rus sing an ode in which they pray that Ion never Apollo potentially embarrassing questions. Athena tells
become the ruler in Athens. They predict that if her Ion that Apollo arranged for his rescue from Creusa’s
 ION 283

plot and that eventually he would have revealed Ion’s Overall, the tone of the play appears serious.
true parentage in Athens. Athena tells Creusa and Ion Creusa’s attempt on Ion’s life and Ion’s own threats to
to go to Athens and says that eventually Ion will kill Creusa are certainly the stuff of tragedy, yet both
become king, and from him will be born four sons attempts fail. Ion’s threat to question Apollo directly
who will be the ancestors of the four tribes of Athens. about the god’s actions and intent would put Ion in a
Athena also predicts that Xuthus and Creusa will have dangerous relationship with the god, as he himself
two sons, Doris, founder of the Dorian race, and realizes (1385–86). This, too, never comes to pass.
Achaeus, founder of the Achaean race. Athena then Apollo’s rape of Creusa is of great concern in the play
tells Creusa and Ion that they should keep secret the and is treated with seriousness. By the play’s end, how-
fact that Ion is Creusa’s son. Ion accepts that he is ever, even Apollo’s victim, Creusa, understands the
Creusa’s son by Apollo, and Creusa now expresses her god’s actions and joyfully clings to the knocker on the
approval of Apollo’s actions. The play concludes as door of Apollo’s temple (1611–13).
Creusa and Ion plan to return to Athens. The play’s most dominant image, the serpent (either
protective or destructive), is frequently linked with one
COMMENTARY of the play’s most prominent themes, autochthony
In recent years, Ion has become one of the more popu- (originating from the earth). The root of the second
lar plays among Euripidean scholars. The action is fast- half of the word autochthony, chthon, is a Greek word
paced, the characters of Ion and Creusa are for “earth,” and the people of Athens had a tradition
compellingly drawn, and the play’s imagery is perhaps that their ancestors sprang up from the earth. In the
the most vibrant of any Euripidean drama, with exqui- play’s prologue, Hermes informs the audience that
site detail given especially to Apollo’s temple at Delphi Creusa abandoned Ion in the same cave in which
and the tent in which Ion will celebrate his adoption. Apollo assaulted her. Thus, when Hermes rescues Ion,
Controversy regarding the play has surrounded Euripi- Ion experiences a figurative rebirth from the ground.
des’ portrayal of Apollo as well as the play’s genre: Additionally, Creusa leaves a golden necklace with two
Some consider it a COMEDY, others a TRAGEDY, and oth- intertwined serpents with Ion when she abandons
ers a blending of the two. him. She gives this necklace to him in accordance with
The figure of Xuthus is quite comic. His efforts to a custom established by Athena, who placed two real
embrace Ion after discovering that the young man will be serpents into a basket in which she had placed the
his son and Ion’s homophobic reaction to Xuthus’ actions infant ERICHTHONIUS, the future Athenian king (14–27).
could have been quite amusing. A touch of humor may Not only does the serpent necklace serve as a protec-
be found in Xuthus’ threat to the Athenian women that tive charm for Ion, but it also links him with a past
death awaits them if they do not keep quiet about Ion king of Athens who Euripides also tells us was born
(666–67). The women immediately tell Creusa what has from the earth (20). Interestingly, Ion’s foster father,
transpired between Xuthus and Ion. The circumstances Xuthus, also experiences a sort of birth from the
surrounding Xuthus’ recollection of how Ion might have ground: His visit to the oracle of Trophonius is men-
been conceived (545–53) have many parallels in the tioned several times in the play (300, 393, 405), and
New Comedy of later years, in which it is quite common Euripides’ audience was probably aware that a visit to
for a child to be born after a young man, drunk at a reli- this oracle involved a subterranean descent and
gious festival, sexually assaults a maiden (compare espe- reemergence. Note also that Xuthus’ predecessor as
cially PLAUTUS, THE CASKET COMEDY 156–87). The words king of Athens, Creusa’s father, Erechtheus, was swal-
and deeds of the aged tutor, with his complaints about lowed up by the earth (281–82) when Poseidon killed
the difficulty of making it up the mountain at Delphi and him for killing his (Poseidon’s) son, Eumolpus.
the laughter that he drew while serving the guests at Ion’s Ion, figuratively reborn from the earth and under
banquet (1172), are balanced by the potentially tragic the protection of a golden-serpent necklace, is taken to
plot of which he is a part. Delphi, a place that also has several connections with
284 IONIAN SEA

serpents. Though the point is not mentioned in Euripi- the serpent protects Creusa. When Apollo’s priestess
des’ play, his audience would have been aware that carries out the items that were left with Ion at his birth,
Delphi’s lord, Apollo, was famous for killing a serpent Creusa identifies, among other things, a blanket that
known as the Python. On Apollo’s temple, the chorus has the image of a Gorgon on it (1421) and the golden
observe a depiction of Heracles’ battling and defeating serpent necklace (1427–29). Thus, as did his father,
the HYDRA of Lerna, a dangerous water snake. Also on Apollo, Ion overcomes the serpent, his mother, in a fig-
the temple, the chorus note a representation of Athena, urative way by avoiding being killed by the Gorgon’s
who brandishes her shield at the Giant Enceladus. The poison. At the same time, however, the images of the
women recognize the goddess from the protective Gorgon and serpent protect Creusa herself.
image of a Gorgon, whose hair was composed of
snakes (210). Later, Ion points out to the chorus Del- BIBLIOGRAPHY
phi’s navel stone, which marked the center of the Burnett, A. P. “Human Resistance and Divine Persuasion in
Euripides’ Ion,” Classical Philology 57 (1962): 98–103.
world as the Greeks knew it. This stone was ringed
Goff, B. “Euripides’ Ion 1132–1165: The Tent,” Proceedings
with the protective images of Gorgons (224).
of the Cambridge Philological Society 34 (1988): 42–54.
Thus, surrounded by the images of protective ser- Lee, K. H. Euripides: Ion. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips,
pents, Ion grew up at Delphi. After he learns that he 1997.
will be adopted by Xuthus, Ion has further encounters Loraux, N. “Autochthonous Kreousa: Euripides, Ion.” In The
with serpents. Some of the earliest Athenians were also Children of Athena. Translated by C. Levine. Princeton,
said to be part human, part serpent. The cloth that cov- N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993, 184–236.
ers the tent in which Ion celebrates his adoption has Wolff, C. “The Design and Myth in Euripides’ Ion,” Harvard
near its doorway the image of the early Athenian king Studies in Classical Philology 69 (1965): 169–94.
CECROPS, whose dual aspects as a serpent and human Zeitlin, F. I. “Mysteries of Identity and Designs of the Self in
are depicted on the tent’s fabric and who, according to Euripides’ Ion,” Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological
Society 35 (1989): 144–97.
tradition, emerged from the earth (1163–64). As with
the earlier necklace of Erichthonius, the image of
Cecrops links Ion with another earth-born Athenian IONIAN SEA The body of water by the coasts of
king. Furthermore, as with the necklace that protected southwestern Greece, southern Italy, and SICILY.
Ion after his figurative rebirth from the cave in Athens, According to legend, it took its name from IO, who
the image of Cecrops will protect Ion as he experiences traveled to this sea in the course of her wanderings.
a figurative rebirth from the tent as Xuthus’ son and the [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 840;
future king of Athens. Ion will need this protection Euripides, Phoenician Women 208; Seneca, Agamemnon
because his mother, Creusa, plots to take his life. 506, 565, Hercules Oetaeus 731, Hippolytus 1012, Oedi-
According to Creusa, the poison she uses against him is pus 603, Phoenician Women 610, Thyestes 478]
from the blood of the serpentine Gorgon, which Athena
killed whose skin she used for her shield (991–96). IONIANS One of the two major groups (the
Furthermore, at line 989, Creusa notes that this Gorgon DORIANS were the other) who made up the Greek peo-
was born from the earth (or the goddess EARTH). ple. The Ionians spoke the Ionic dialect of Greek and
For Ion, however, the death-bearing poison from inhabited the region around Athens, the island of
this serpentine creature is counterbalanced by the EUBOEA, several AEGEAN islands, and the central part of
other protective serpent images at Delphi. A bird the western coast of modern Turkey. The people of
drinks the poison instead of Ion. When Ion realizes ATHENS regarded the Ionians as having descended from
that Creusa has tried to poison him, he is enraged and ION, the son of APOLLO, although even some ancients
calls her both an echidna (a monster that was part recognized that this lineage was inaccurate. Sometimes
female, part serpent) and a serpent (1262–63). Now, the playwrights make the name Ionians synonymous
Ion threatens to kill his mother. Eventually, however, with Athenians. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians
 IPHIGENIA 285

771; Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 883, 918, Peace 46, After escaping from Tauris with Orestes, Pylades,
577, 930, 933, Thesmophoriazusae 163; Euripides, Ion and the statue, Iphigenia returns to Greece and pays a
1588; Herodotus, 1.455–48; Plautus, Persian 826, visit to the DELPHIC ORACLE. Iphigenia’s sister, Electra,
Pseudolus 1275, Stichus 769; Thucydides, 1.12] also happens to be at Delphi because she had heard a
rumor that Orestes and Pylades had been sacrificed in
IOPHON Son of the tragic poet SOPHOCLES, Tauris. When someone sees Iphigenia and tells Electra
Iophon himself also wrote tragedies (perhaps as many that she is the woman who had sacrificed the two men,
as 50), although his father was thought to have helped Electra tries to blind Iphigenia. Fortunately, Orestes
him in his writing. Iophon won a victory in competi- arrives in time to prevent her, and the three family
tion in the 430s and finished second to EURIPIDES’ HIP- members are reunited. Iphigenia takes the statue of
POLYTUS in 428 B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Argument to Artemis to Brauron, a town not far east of Athens. At
Euripides’ Hippolytus; Aristophanes, Frogs 73–79; Life Brauron, Iphigenia resumes her life as a priestess of
of Sophocles; Suda on “Iophon”] Artemis and there she dies.
As one would expect, the characterization of Iphige-
IPHIANASSA A daughter of AGAMEMNON and nia differs given the situation in which she finds her-
CLYTEMNESTRA, Iphianassa was the sister of ELECTRA, self. In Iphigenia at Aulis, Iphigenia is a noble young
ORESTES, CHRYSOTHEMIS, and IPHIGENIA, although in the woman who willingly gives up her life to save Greece
earliest reference to Iphianassa in Greek literature (in from the threat of Trojan aggression. In this respect,
HOMER’s Iliad), Iphianassa was probably another name she most recalls two of Euripides’ other sacrificial
for Iphigenia. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer, Iliad 9.145; maidens: Macaria in CHILDREN OF HERACLES and POLYX-
Sophocles, Electra 157]. ENA in HECABE. In Iphigenia in Tauris, Iphigenia serves as
perhaps the prototype for HELEN in Euripides’ play of
IPHIGENIA The daughter of AGAMEMNON and the same name, which was performed in the year after
CLYTEMNESTRA, Iphigenia was the sister of CHRYSOTHEMIS, Iphigenia in Tauris. Iphigenia loyally serves as priestess
ELECTRA, and ORESTES. AESCHYLUS wrote an Iphigenia of Taurian Artemis, but when she discovers that her
(no longer extant), which presumably dealt with the brother, Orestes, will be sacrificed to the goddess she
same subject matter as EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA AT AULIS. serves, she constructs a clever plot that takes advantage
The fate of Iphigenia differs from playwright to play- of the superstition of the barbarian king, Thoas. In
wright. In AESCHYLUS’ AGAMEMNON, Agamemnon sacri- Euripides’ HELEN, the title character tricks the barbar-
fices Iphigenia at Aulis. In Euripides’ IPHIGENIA AT AULIS, ian king, Theoclymenus, by concocting a false burial
Iphigenia is rescued at the last moment by ARTEMIS’ ritual that will allow her to escape with her husband,
substitution of a deer at the altar. In Euripides’ IPHIGE- Menelaus, just as Iphigenia is able to escape with her
NIA IN TAURIS, the events of which occur after Iphige- brother in the earlier play.
nia’s sacrifice, in which she vanishes as the blade falls In addition to the plays by Aeschylus and Euripides
on her neck, Iphigenia is alive and serves as the priest- mentioned, works of several other playwrights treated
ess of Artemis in the kingdom of Thoas, ruler of the Iphigenia’s story. Aeschylus is said to have written an
Taurians. After her brother, ORESTES, and his friend, Iphigenia, but only a single line survives (fragment 94
PYLADES, arrive in Tauris and are captured by the Tau- Radt); Lloyd-Jones thinks the play was about Iphige-
rians, the two men are taken to Iphigenia, who will nia’s sacrifice at Aulis. The Greek comic poet Rhinthon
participate in a ritual that will culminate in their sacri- wrote both Iphigenia at Aulis and Iphigenia in Tauris, of
fice to Artemis. Before this horrific event happens, which only the title survives from the former play and
however, Iphigenia discovers their true identity and a single line from the latter (fragment 7 Kaibel).
agrees to help them escape. Furthermore, she helps Among Roman authors, NAEVIUS wrote an Iphigenia, of
them steal a statue of Artemis that APOLLO’s oracle had which four lines survive. Warmington thinks Naevius’
instructed Orestes to retrieve. play may have dealt with the events in Euripides’
286 IPHIGENIA AT AULIS

Iphigenia in Tauris, and the few fragments that survive the women’s song, MENELAUS drags in Agamemnon’s
support this idea. family servant, whom he has prevented from deliver-
ing his message. Menelaus and Agamemnon then
BIBLIOGRAPHY
debate whether Iphigenia should be sacrificed.
Cropp, M. J. Euripides: Iphigenia in Tauris. Warminster, U.K.:
Aris & Phillips, 2000, 43–56.
Agamemnon decides to preserve his daughter’s life,
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet- rather than yield to the desire of Menelaus and other
arum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann, Greeks to wage war against Troy. After Menelaus
1899. departs, a messenger enters, announcing the impend-
Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926. ing arrival of Clytemnestra and Iphigenia. After this
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, announcement, Agamemnon again wavers in his
1971. resolve. Menelaus, after listening to his brother’s con-
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, cerns, changes his mind and now urges Agamemnon
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: not to kill Iphigenia. Upon hearing Menelaus, how-
Harvard University Press, 1936. ever, Agamemnon has decided that the wishes of the
army and the persuasive tongue of ODYSSEUS will com-
IPHIGENIA AT AULIS EURIPIDES (405 pel them to sacrifice Iphigenia.
B.C.E.) EURIPIDES wrote Iphigenia at Aulis during the After Agamemnon and Menelaus depart to discuss
final years of his life. Euripides’ son first staged the the situation further, the chorus sing an ODE to
play after his father’s death. The play deals with the APHRODITE in which they note the goddess’ power and
gathering of the Greek fleet at AULIS, from which they pray that she visits them in moderation. They also sing
would launch their expedition against TROY to recover of the glories of virtue and recall PARIS’ judgment of the
HELEN. After the Greeks assembled, adverse weather goddesses, which caused the impending war. As their
prevented them from sailing. AGAMEMNON, com- song concludes, they note the arrival of Iphigenia and
mander of the Greek forces, consulted the prophet Clytemnestra in their carriage.
CALCHAS to discover a remedy for the weather. Calchas The women are soon met by Agamemnon, whom
predicted ARTEMIS, the offended divinity, could be Iphigenia greets excitedly in anticipation of her wed-
appeased only by the sacrifice of Agamemnon’s daugh- ding to Achilles. Iphigenia notes that her father
ter, IPHIGENIA. appears troubled, but Agamemnon does not reveal the
The action of the play occurs outside Agamem- truth. He does tell her, however, that before he departs
non’s tent in the Greeks’ camp at Aulis. The play for Troy he must offer a sacrifice at which Iphigenia
opens just before dawn, as Agamemnon discusses will be present. At this, Agamemnon begins to break
with a family servant the dilemma of the prophecy down into tears and sends his daughter into his tent.
about his daughter. Caught between his feelings as a Next, Agamemnon turns to converse with his wife.
father and the clamor of the Greek army, Agamem- Clytemnestra questions him about Achilles’ ancestry
non had sent a messenger to ARGOS to summon Iphi- and background and the preparations for the wedding.
genia to Aulis with the pretext that she was to marry When Clytemnestra hears that Agamemnon intends to
ACHILLES; Achilles himself knew nothing about this perform some of the roles customarily taken care of by
plot. Agamemnon now sends the family servant to the mother of the bride and that Agamemnon wants
Argos to tell CLYTEMNESTRA not to send Iphigenia to Clytemnestra to return to Argos, Clytemnestra is out-
Aulis. raged by this potential breach of custom. Clytemnestra
After the departure of the family servant, the CHO- refuses to leave and enters Agamemnon’s tent to make
RUS, consisting of women from Chalcis on the island of preparations for the wedding. Agamemnon, confused
Euboea, enter. They have arrived to see the assembly of as to his next move, exits to consult with the prophet,
the Greek forces and sing an ode of almost 150 lines, Calchas. After Agamemnon’s exit, the chorus sing an
in which they describe various Greek warriors. After ode that anticipates the arrival of the Greek army at
 IPHIGENIA AT AULIS 287

Troy and the death and hardship the Greeks will inflict Helen, which has in turn led to Iphigenia’s current
on the Trojans. The chorus also pray that they never dire situation.
experience abduction, as Menelaus’ wife, Helen, has. After Iphigenia’s song, Achilles approaches and
After the choral ode, Achilles enters and encounters informs Clytemnestra and Iphigenia that the army is
his future mother-in-law, Clytemnestra. Agamemnon’s clamoring for the sacrifice of Iphigenia. Achilles states
plan now moves closer to disaster as Clytemnestra that he tried to argue against the sacrifice, but the army
questions a baffled Achilles about his upcoming mar- threatened to stone him. Still, Achilles tells Clytemnes-
riage to her daughter. When Achilles expresses igno- tra that he is willing to fight the entire army single-
rance of the wedding, Clytemnestra becomes troubled. handedly, although the soldiers, led by Odysseus,
Their ignorance ends, however, when an old servant of intend to seize Iphigenia and drag her to the altar by
Clytemnestra’s enters from Agamemnon’s tent and force. At this point, Iphigenia breaks in, announces
informs Achilles and Clytemnestra that Agamemnon that she should not oppose the will of the gods, and
intends to sacrifice Iphigenia. Clytemnestra is horrified states that for Greece to be saved she must give up her
by this news and asks Achilles for help. Achilles is life. Achilles praises Iphigenia’s nobility and tells her
angered to hear that he has been implicated in this plot that he will be ready to defend her if she changes her
without his knowledge and vows to help Iphigenia. mind. Clytemnestra weeps for her child, but Iphigenia
Clytemnestra is pleased by the words of Achilles, who tells her mother that her (Iphigenia’s) sacrifice will
urges Clytemnestra to beg Agamemnon not to kill yield glory for both her and her mother. Clytemnestra
Iphigenia. If Agamemnon rejects Clytemnestra’s plea, wants to accompany Iphigenia to the altar, but Iphige-
then Clytemnestra should call in Achilles to help. nia persuades her to stay behind. After Clytemnestra
These matters agreed upon, Achilles and Clytemnestra exits into Agamemnon’s tent, Iphigenia, accompanied
exit. The chorus then sing an ode that recalls the mar- by the chorus, sings a song of procession as she pre-
riage of Achilles’ parents, PELEUS and THETIS. At the pares to depart for the altar.
wedding, which was attended by the gods themselves, Not long after Iphigenia exits to be sacrificed, a mes-
APOLLO predicted that the couple would bear a son senger enters, calls Clytemnestra from the tent, and
(Achilles), who would wage war successfully against informs her of the amazing events that occurred at the
the Trojans. The chorus then contrast the marriage of sacrifice. The messenger reports Iphigenia’s bravery
Peleus and Thetis with the “marriage” that Iphigenia and noble words before the sacrifice and the various
will soon experience. aspects of the ritual. When Calchas, however,
After the choral ode, Clytemnestra emerges from attempted to strike Iphigenia, the young woman van-
Agamemnon’s tent and notes that Iphigenia has been ished from sight and a slain deer appeared on the altar.
informed of what her father intends. Agamemnon Upon seeing this, Calchas announced that Artemis was
himself soon emerges and informs his wife that prepa- appeased and they could now sail for Troy. The mes-
rations have been made for the marriage sacrifice to senger declares that Iphigenia must have been taken
ARTEMIS. Iphigenia, accompanied by the infant ORESTES, up by the gods. Soon, Agamemnon enters, tells
is summoned from the tent. At this point, Clytemnes- Clytemnestra to be happy in Iphigenia’s fate, and to
tra confronts Agamemnon about his true purpose and take Orestes back to Argos, and says that it will be a
forces him to admit the truth. Clytemnestra goes on long time before he sees her again. The play ends as the
to plead for Iphigenia’s life and Iphigenia pleads for chorus wish Agamemnon good fortune at Troy.
compassion. Agamemnon, however, states that he
must sacrifice her for the sake of all Greece. Hearing COMMENTARY
this, Iphigenia sings a lament that recalls that Paris When he wrote Iphigenia in Aulis, Euripides was more
should have died after his birth but was rescued and than 70 years old and had recently left Athens to live
eventually grew up to judge the beauty of goddesses, at the court of the Macedonian king, Archelaus. Athens
a judgment that eventually led to PARIS’ abduction of was in the third decade of its war with Sparta and its
288 IPHIGENIA AT AULIS

allies, and in 404 Athens would surrender. With its structure of the Iphigenia hangs on the performance of
subjects of war and the sacrifice of a young, unmarried a sacrificial ritual that is disguised for a large part of the
person, Iphigenia at Aulis bears many similarities to ear- action as a fictitious marriage rite.” Throughout the
lier Euripidean plays such as CHILDREN OF HERACLES, play, one finds references to unusual marriages. The
HECABE, PHOENICIAN WOMEN, and the no-longer extant marriage of Helen and Menelaus has some unusual fea-
Erechtheus. Iphigenia at Aulis differs, however, tures. At lines 68–69, Agamemnon recalls that Helen’s
because its title character is miraculously rescued at father, TYNDAREUS, allowed his daughter to choose
the play’s conclusion. More than 50 years earlier, whichever suitor she wanted as a husband. This choice
Aeschylus had treated the sacrifice of Iphigenia in would have been unusual for a Greek woman, because
Agamemnon (see ORESTEIA), but in that play Agamem- a marriage was usually arranged by the father and
non kills Iphigenia. prospective husband and the woman had virtually no
As did Euripides’ earlier HECABE, Iphigenia at Aulis say in the matter. A further unusual feature of Helen
gives much attention to slavery versus freedom. At line and Menelaus’ marriage was that Helen’s father, Tyn-
330, Menelaus rejects his brother Agamemnon’s out- dareus, persuaded Helen’s suitors to take an oath that
rage at his meddling by declaring that he is not his they would go to Menelaus’ aid if anything happened
brother’s slave. After Agamemnon decides that he will to her (77–79). Such an oath would not have been a
sacrifice his daughter, he laments that this sacrifice will usual part of a marriage of Greeks.
occur because he, a nobleman and king, is actually a Not only were the circumstances surrounding Helen
servant to the masses (449–50). Eventually, it is a slave and Menelaus’ marriage unusual, but then that mar-
whom Clytemnestra gave to Agamemnon as part of her riage bond was breached and the Trojan War was
dowry who reveals to Clytemnestra Agamemnon’s plan caused when their marriage was disrupted by the
to sacrifice Iphigenia (858ff.). After learning this, abduction of Helen by Paris, whom Agamemnon
Clytemnestra appeals to Achilles for help. Achilles says describes as a barbarian shepherd (71–77). Agamem-
he will assist her and declares that his free nature (930) non also faults Helen, who he claims was in love with
allows him to fight both at Troy and at Aulis because Paris (75). In Greek mythology, marriage unions
Agamemnon has ceased to behave in a proper manner. between Greeks and barbarians are invariably doomed
When he agrees, Clytemnestra recognizes him as her to failure and/or disaster. To repair the breach in
powerful protector, and the queen of Argos declares Menelaus and Helen’s marriage, Agamemnon will lead
that she must become a servant to Achilles (1033). to Troy a coalition of Greeks, whose chief warriors
Later, when Agamemnon is confronted with the truth, were former suitors of Helen and who were bound to
he explains to Iphigenia and Clytemnestra that it is not fight by their oath to Tyndareus.
Menelaus who has enslaved him to this course of When adverse weather prevents the Greeks from
action, but Hellas (Greece) itself who demands Iphige- sailing, Calchas prophesies that Agamemnon must sac-
nia’s sacrifice whether he is willing or not and that he rifice his daughter to Artemis to resolve the situation.
must preserve the freedom of Greece from the barbar- To achieve his purpose, Agamemnon decides to lure
ians (1269–75). Ultimately, Iphigenia decides that she Iphigenia to Aulis under the pretense that she is to
must lose her life. Setting the Greeks free from the bar- marry Achilles (100–5), a marriage that Agamemnon
barians will ensure her great fame (1383–84). Further- expects will actually be a marriage with the lord of the
more, Iphigenia declares that Greeks should rule UNDERWORLD, Hades. Agamemnon’s primary opposi-
barbarians rather than the converse because barbarians tion will be his wife, Clytemnestra. The marriage of
are slaves and Greeks are free (1400–1). Clytemnestra and Agamemnon was not harmonious
Another of the prominent topics dealt with in Iphi- from the start. As Clytemnestra reminds Agamemnon
genia at Aulis, as Foley has well discussed, is marriage: at lines 1149–52, she did not marry him of her own
the marriage ritual and the similarity between the mar- free will; he forced her to marry him after he killed her
riage ritual and the sacrificial ritual. Foley writes: “The husband, Tantalus. Agamemnon also killed Clytemnes-
 IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS 289

tra’s child by Tantalus. Thus, not only does Agamem- lands. Accordingly, once Iphigenia learns of and
non’s brother, Menelaus, have a marriage that was the accepts her role in this perverse marriage, she herself
result of unusual circumstances, but Agamemnon’s calls for flowers to crown her (1477–78). A purifying
marriage to Helen’s sister, Clytemnestra, also began in ritual bath was part of both the Greek wedding ritual
a bizarre way. and animal sacrifices and such a bath is alluded to sev-
Agamemnon further perverts the marriage process eral times in the play. Once Iphigenia discovers what
by not informing Iphigenia’s supposed future groom her father actually has in mind for her, she bravely and
about the wedding. Achilles himself, as we learn in a willingly accepts her role in the sacrifice and calls for
choral ode (1036–79), was the product of an unusual water for the bath (1479), although she now knows
union. Achilles’ father was a mortal, and his mother that the water anticipates a deadly, not a happy ritual.
was immortal. The chorus recall that their wedding Typically, the new bride would live in the house of
was attended by, among others, gods and centaurs. her new husband, but because Iphigenia will die, the
Earlier in the play Clytemnestra was astonished to home of her new husband will be the underworld.
learn that the wedding occurred in the place where the Iphigenia’s marriage will not result in the birth of her
centaurs lived (706). own children, but in the salvation of the children and
When Clytemnestra and Iphigenia arrive at Aulis, marriage of all Greece.
their first encounter with Agamemnon is a happy one
for the women, but bitter and filled with irony for BIBLIOGRAPHY
Foley, H. P. Ritual Irony: Poetry and Sacrifice in Euripides.
Agamemnon. Before he leaves for Troy, he tells his
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985, 65–105.
daughter that he must offer a sacrifice at which Iphige-
Luschnig, C. A. E. Tragic Aporia: A Study of Euripides’ Iphige-
nia will be present. Offering a sacrifice before marriage nia at Aulis. Berwick, Australia: Aureal, 1988.
was a common part of the Greek ritual (Artemis herself Schmidt, J. “Iphigenie in Aulis: Spiegel einer zerbrechenden
received such sacrifices), and Iphigenia innocently Welt und Grenzpunkt der Dichtung?” Philologus 143, no.
wonders whether she will lead the dance around the 2 (1999): 211–48.
altar (676). As we learn later, the altar will be circled, Siegel, H. “Self-Delusion and the Volte-Face of Iphigenia in
but Achilles, Iphigenia’s false husband, will circle it Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis,” Hermes 108 (1980): 300–21.
and pray to Artemis to accept the Greeks’ sacrifice of Zeitlin, F. I. “Art, Memory, and Kleos in Euripides’ Iphigenia
Iphigenia (1568–76). in Aulis.” In History, Tragedy, Theory: Dialogues on Athenian
The fact that the alleged wedding of Iphigenia and Drama. Edited by B. Goff. Austin: University of Texas
Achilles will be held in the midst of the Greek army also Press, 1995, 174–201.
is unusual. Clytemnestra notes but accepts the neces-
sity that the usual feast for the women will occur near IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS EURIPIDES (414
the ships (722–24). Clytemnestra, however, is more OR 413 B.C.E.) The play concerns the reunion of
troubled by Agamemnon’s intention to give away the IPHIGENIA and her brother, ORESTES. The drama’s action
bride and for her to return to Argos (728–32). When occurs before the temple of ARTEMIS at Tauris, a town
Agamemnon also indicates that he will replace located in the Black Sea region. The play opens as
Clytemnestra in carrying the bridal torch, Clytemnestra Iphigenia enters from the temple and traces her
declares, “This is not customary” (732–36). Clytemnes- descent from PELOPS. She also recalls her near-sacrifice
tra is so upset by Agamemnon’s perversion of marriage by her father, AGAMEMNON, at Aulis, and her miracu-
customs that she storms out and leaves Agamemnon lous transportation by Artemis to Tauris, a barbaric
worrying whether his scheme will succeed. land where the king, Thoas, sacrifices to Artemis all
Ultimately, as Agamemnon’s scheme begins to Greek males who land on his shores. Saved by Artemis
become reality, perversions of the marriage ritual con- at Aulis, Iphigenia in Tauris now serves the goddess as
tinue. Animal victims were decked with garlands and her priestess by consecrating the human victims for
flowers before sacrifice and new brides also wore gar- sacrifice. Iphigenia also informs the audience of a
290 IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS

dream she had about her home in ARGOS. The house Greeks from Argos, questions them about various
was destroyed except a single pillar that had golden hair events and people (Helen, MENELAUS, CALCHAS,
and a human voice. Iphigenia dreamed that she conse- ODYSSEUS, and ACHILLES; her father, Agamemnon; her
crated the pillar for death in her usual way. Iphigenia mother, CLYTEMNESTRA; her sister, ELECTRA). Iphigenia
concludes that the dream refers to her long-lost brother, also questions Orestes about Orestes, but he does not
ORESTES, and that she has participated in his sacrifice. reveal his identity. Hearing that Orestes knows so
After Iphigenia’s monologue, she returns to the inte- much about people in her family, she tells Orestes she
rior of the temple. Next, Orestes and PYLADES enter from will save him if he takes her letter to Argos. Orestes,
the direction of the sea and state their intention to steal however, refuses, because that would require Pylades’
the statue of Artemis, a task commanded of Orestes by death. After Iphigenia says she will send Pylades with
the DELPHIC ORACLE. The two Greeks then exit to a hid- the letter, she reenters the temple to get the letter.
ing place from which they can make their next move. Upon Iphigenia’s departure, Orestes and Pylades mar-
After their exit, Iphigenia and the chorus, composed of vel at how much Iphigenia knows about Greek affairs.
female Greek captives who serve Iphigenia, enter. When Pylades also notes that he cannot allow Orestes to die
the chorus ask Iphigenia why she has summoned them, and declares that he will stay with him. Orestes, how-
she informs them about her dream and her belief that ever, convinces Pylades that he (Orestes) should die
her brother, Orestes, is dead. Iphigenia then proceeds to and Pylades return to Argos and to Electra, Orestes’ sis-
pour a libation to Hades for her brother and laments ter, to whom Pylades is married.
that she will not make offerings at his grave. The chorus At this point, Iphigenia returns from the temple
and Iphigenia then sing laments in turn for the troubles with the letter. After making Pylades take an oath that
experienced by Iphigenia’s ancestors, such as ATREUS he will take her letter back to Argos, she recites the let-
THYESTES, and by Iphigenia herself at Aulis, and by ter’s contents in case the letter is lost. In the letter, Iphi-
Orestes. genia informs Orestes that she is alive and begs him to
After their lament, a Taurian herdsman enters and rescue her from Tauris. When Iphigenia gives Pylades
informs Iphigenia that they have captured two Greeks the letter, Pylades immediately turns to Orestes and
whom they soon will be take to Artemis’ temple for hands it to him. Orestes quickly greets Iphigenia as his
sacrifice. The herdsman says the name of one is sister and tries to embrace her. Iphigenia, however, is
Pylades, and the other’s name is unknown. The not convinced that he is her brother. After further
unknown Greek, however, experienced an attack by interrogation, however, Iphigenia recognizes Orestes as
the FURIES that helped him and the other herdsman to her brother (Orestes’ knowledge of a spear that Iphige-
subdue the two Greeks. Upon hearing this story, Iphi- nia had in her bedroom convinces her).
genia tells the herdsman to take the Greeks to her. After a joyful reunion, Iphigenia’s expression of hor-
After the herdsman’s departure, the thought of sacrific- ror that she had almost participated in the sacrifice of
ing these two Greeks reminds her of her own near sac- her brother, and the introduction to Iphigenia of
rifice. She complains that Artemis does not permit Pylades, who she now learns is her brother-in-law,
someone who has had contact with blood or death to Orestes tells her further of his killing of their mother,
approach her altars yet demands human sacrifice in his persecution by the Furies, and the reason why he is
Tauris. After this, Iphigenia returns to the temple’s in Tauris. Upon hearing this, Iphigenia ponders how to
interior and the chorus sing an ode in which they won- help Orestes acquire Artemis’ statue, avoid the wrath of
der who the two captive Greeks are and how they Thoas, and escape from Tauris. Much as Helen does in
managed to make the dangerous voyage to the land of Euripides’ play of the next year, Iphigenia devises a plot
the Taurians. The women wish that HELEN had arrived to trick the barbarian king, Thoas. Iphigenia will tell
in Tauris and been sacrificed. Thoas that Orestes, who had killed his mother, defiled
After the choral ode, the two Greeks are taken in the statue. Accordingly, Iphigenia will say that she must
and meet Iphigenia, who, on learning that they are take the statue and Orestes to be purified in the sea.
 IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS 291

After the men agree to her plan, the trio enter the tem- pathos of other plays about Orestes and his family.
ple. The chorus then sing an ode in which they recall Orestes is not faced with the horrific prospect of killing
their enslavement and express their desire to return to his mother and her lover, as in AESCHYLUS’ Libation
Greece and rejoin their friends in their native land. Bearers (see ORESTEIA) or the Electra plays by SOPHOCLES
After the choral ode, Thoas enters in search of Iphi- or Euripides; nor will Orestes experience the tension of
genia, who soon enters from the temple with the statue a trial for his mother’s death at the hands of the Furies,
of Artemis in her arms. She tells Thoas that the statue as in Aeschylus’ Eumenides (see ORESTEIA). At the con-
turned on its base and averted its eyes because the two clusion of Iphigenia in Tauris, Athena reveals that
Greeks were defiled. When Iphigenia explains the Orestes has already undergone this trial, but elsewhere
need to purify the statue and the two Greeks, Thoas in the play we hear that the Furies continue to pursue
agrees to let this ritual take place. Iphigenia also warns Orestes. Other than the short episode in the first part
Thoas to make sure that he and the Taurians remain of the play (282–308), in which the Taurian herdsman
inside their houses and avoid approaching the place of describes Orestes’ Fury-induced fit, the Furies have lit-
the ritual. At this point, Iphigenia instructs Thoas to tle visible role in the play and do not appear onstage as
cover his eyes while the Greeks are taken from the tem- in Eumenides. Similarly, Iphigenia does not face the
ple. After Iphigenia and Greek men leave the temple, prospect of being sacrificed by her father, as alluded to
they exit toward the seashore. After their departure, several times in Aeschylus’ AGAMEMNON and dramatized
the chorus sing an ode in which they recall the birth of by Euripides himself several years after Iphigenia in
Apollo, his arrival at DELPHI and his destruction there Tauris.
of the Python, and his wresting of the Delphic oracle Many scholars have noticed that the plot of Iphigenia
from the goddess THEMIS. To thwart Apollo’s prophetic in Tauris has several similarities to that of HELEN, staged
powers, Themis sent dreams to human beings. When the year after Iphigenia. Both plays involve women who
Apollo complained about this to his father, ZEUS, Zeus have been transported by the gods into a land popu-
put an end to Themis’ sending dreams to mortals. lated by barbarians who customarily do violence to
After the chorus’ song, a messenger enters from the Greek males. In both plays, the women are reunited
shore and informs the chorus and Thoas that Iphigenia, with their loved ones. After the reunion, Greeks must
Orestes, and Pylades have taken the statue aboard escape from barbaric lands. In both plays, the women
Orestes’ ship and attempted to sail away after battling a contrive the plot, which involves the falsification of a
group of Taurians. The messenger also informs Thoas ritual, to escape the barbaric land. After the Greeks
that an adverse sea and wind were preventing the ship escape, the respective barbarian kings threaten vio-
from getting away, despite Iphigenia’s prayers to Artemis. lence but are prevented from carrying it out by the
Upon hearing this, Thoas gives orders to pursue the appearance of divinities. In both plays, the Greeks
Greeks, but any further hostility is prevented by the return to their native land with expectation of a
appearance of ATHENA, who stops Thoas. Athena also “happy” life.
instructs Orestes to set up in Athenian territory a temple Helene Foley has classified Iphigenia, just as ALCESTIS
to house Artemis’ statue on his return to Greece. Athena and Helen, as an anodos drama. Foley thoroughly dis-
tells Iphigenia that she will be Artemis’ priestess at this cusses this approach to the play with respect to Alces-
new temple. Finally, Athena orders Thoas to return the tis and Helen but does not elaborate on Iphigenia as an
chorus to Greece. The play concludes with Thoas agree- anodos drama. The Greek word anodos means “a way
ing to all that Athena orders and the chorus wishing the up,” and Foley compares the plots of Alcestis and Helen
Greeks a successful voyage and offering praise to Athena. to the experience of PERSEPHONE, her abduction by
Hades, her eventual return from the UNDERWORLD, and
COMMENTARY her reunion with her mother, DEMETER. Thus, Iphige-
Iphigenia in Tauris is a drama whose action is lively but nia, as does Persephone, has a traumatic experience in
whose tone and themes lack the seriousness and which she is whisked away to a different world. This
292 IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS

world is unlike her homeland and is a land where a was a trick (1316). The near purification of Orestes
cruel king (Thoas substitutes for Hades) detains a and Pylades for sacrifice and their false purification for
young woman. Eventually, the gods intervene and the salvation are ironic when considered in light of Iphige-
young woman is restored to loved ones. We may note, nia’s sacrifice at Aulis, another purification ritual (861),
however, that Iphigenia in Tauris does not correspond and the fact that both rituals are but preludes to rescue
to the anodos drama model as well as Alcestis and Helen and transport to safety.
do. Although Tauris is a land of barbarians, Iphigenia’s In addition to the focus on purification, Iphigenia in
miraculous journey to Tauris saved her life; it did not Tauris, as does Helen, provides some ironic contrasts
end it. In addition, unlike in the case of Hades and between Greeks and barbarians. As the play pro-
Persephone or THEOCLYMENUS and Helen, Thoas does gresses, we may wonder whether the Greeks are really
not want to marry Iphigenia. more civilized than the so-called barbarians. At line 31,
One focal point in Iphigenia is salvation. Iphigenia’s Iphigenia states that Thoas is a barbarian who rules a
presence in Tauris is a result of Artemis’ rescue of her barbaric people. Iphigenia suggests that the Taurians
at Aulis, a story to which reference is made several are barbarians because they sacrifice Greeks to
times in the play. In Iphigenia in Tauris, Euripides Artemis. Ironically, Iphigenia is a Greek whom Greeks
reverses the sequence of events at Aulis. At Aulis, the tried to sacrifice to Artemis. After Iphigenia is reunited
male tries to sacrifice the female. In Tauris, the female with her brother and Pylades, she prays to Artemis to
will sacrifice the male. Ironically, Orestes will be saved accompany them “from the barbaric land” (1086) and
by Iphigenia in exchange for Pylades’ taking her letter thus live with them in Greece. For Artemis to join the
to Orestes (594). After the reunion of brother and sis- Greeks, Iphigenia must create a false story that will
ter, Pylades, whom Orestes calls his savior (923), urges convince the barbarian king that Artemis’ statue has
Iphigenia and Orestes to consider how to effect their been defiled by Orestes and Pylades. Thoas wonders
salvation from Tauris (905). Now Iphigenia comes to whether perhaps they killed one of the barbarians at
the rescue as she devises a plan to trick the king and the shore (1170). It would appear that Thoas consid-
acquire Artemis’ statue, the key to Orestes’ ultimate ers his own people to be barbarians. Iphigenia’s story is
salvation from the Furies (979–80). Although Iphige- not a complete fabrication, however, as she tells Thoas
nia’s plan works, Iphigenia sees no hope of salvation that the statue was desecrated by Orestes, who killed
(1412–13) if the sea and winds are not calmed. Even- his mother. A shocked Thoas says such an act would
tually, Athena saves the Greeks as she arranges for not even occur among barbarians (1174). Among
POSEIDON to calm the storm. The goddess even Greeks, however, such an act has taken place. Thoas
arranges for the rescue of the chorus from the Taurians. believes that Iphigenia has acted correctly and remarks
Added to the theme of salvation, we find several that Greece raised her to be wise (sophe, 1180),
noteworthy references to purification and cleansing. although the Greek word here can also denote a sort of
Iphigenia’s role in Tauris is to perform a purification cleverness or cunning. In this instance, Iphigenia’s
ritual for those who will die. When Orestes and Greek cunning preys upon the barbarian’s gullibility.
Pylades are first captured, the herdsmen were washing Iphigenia’s Greek cunning leads her to tell the king a
their cattle at the seashore. The herdsmen take the further partial truth when she declares that she hates
Greeks to Iphigenia for purification and sacrifice, but all Greece, which destroyed her (1187). In a further
when she learns their true identity, she concocts a fake ironical remark, Iphigenia, while using her Greek
purification ritual to secure their escape. Interestingly, cunning against the barbarian, warns the king to bind
she returns to the same seashore where they were cap- Orestes and Pylades because Greeks cannot be
tured to cleanse both them (1191) and the statue trusted (1205).
(1199). Additionally, Iphigenia will keep Thoas busy Although Iphigenia’s life has been preserved in a
by instructing him to purify Artemis’ sacred precinct barbarian land, she tries to return to the land that
(1216). Eventually, Thoas learns that the purification destroyed her and begins to set her scheme in motion.
 IRIS 293

Artemis’ statue is taken from the barbaric land and marry and talked to Eurytus to try to arrange a wed-
placed in the hold of a Greek ship (1292; cf. also ding to Iole. Eurytus agreed, provided that Heracles
1345). Iphigenia goes to the shore and begins to chant, could defeat him and his sons in an archery contest.
in the words of the barbarian messenger, barbaric Heracles won the contest and Iphitus supported Hera-
songs (1337). Thus, in the course of a false ritual, the cles’ claim to Iole, but Eurytus would not give Iole to
Greek Iphigenia’s words become those of a barbarian. Heracles because he was afraid that Heracles would kill
As the Greeks try to sail away, Iphigenia prays to any children he might have by Iole (Heracles had
Artemis to save her from the barbaric land (1400) and killed his children by his previous wife, MEGARA).
take her back to Greece. At the same time, however, Eventually, Heracles left Eurytus’ kingdom without
she begs the goddess to forgive her theft of the statue Iole and took up residence in TIRYNS. Not long after
(still another act one might consider barbaric). Once this, the notorious thief AUTOLYCUS stole cattle from
the theft of the statue is discovered, Thoas summons Eurytus’ kingdom and Eurytus thought Heracles, nurs-
the citizens of “this barbaric land” (1422) to pursue the ing a grudge, was the culprit. Iphitus, however, did not
Greeks. The appearance of the Greek goddess, how- believe this allegation and went to question Heracles
ever, stops pursuit by the barbarians, and even this so- himself. Iphitus encountered Heracles and asked the
called barbarian king realizes that it is madness to hero to help him look for the cattle. Heracles agreed
struggle against the gods. The Greek Agamemnon and took Iphitus to his house at Tiryns. At some point
launched ships to recover Helen; the barbarian Thoas during the search, however, Heracles was again
will not launch ships to recover Iphigenia. afflicted by insanity and threw Iphitus from the walls
Thus, in Iphigenia in Tauris, the barbarians have been of Tiryns. According to SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN,
duped by the “civilized” Greeks, in particular a virgin Heracles killed Iphitus in a fit of anger, not insanity.
priestess of Artemis who lies and creates a false reli- [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.6.1–2; Pau-
gious ritual in order to steal the statue of a virgin god- sanias, 10.13.8; Plutarch, Theseus 6.5; Sophocles, Tra-
dess. Once in “civilized” Greece, the “barbarian” aspect chinian Women 38, 270, 357]
of Artemis will not be completely wiped away: A tem-
ple called Taurian will be built to house Artemis’ statue IRIS The daughter of Thaumas and Electra (not
and a ritual will be established that will not kill the vic- AGAMEMNON’s daughter), Iris was the sister of the
tim, but merely draw a small amount of blood. HARPIES and is the goddess who represents the rain-
bow; she also serves as a messenger for the gods. She
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burnett, A. P. Catastrophe Survived: Euripides’ Plays of Mixed
appears in two extant plays, EURIPIDES’ HERACLES and
Reversal. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971, 47–75. ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS. In Heracles, Iris, accompanied by
Cropp, M. J. Euripides: Iphigenia in Tauris. Warminster, U.K.: MADNESS, goes to THEBES on behalf of HERA to make
Aris & Phillips, 2000. sure Madness attacks Heracles. The exchange between
Foley, H. P. Female Acts in Greek Tragedy. Princeton, N.J.: Iris and Madness is reminiscent of the exchange
Princeton University Press, 2001, 303–31. between Power and HEPHAESTUS in PROMETHEUS BOUND.
O’Brien, M. J. “Pelopid History and the Plot of Iphigenia in Just as Hephaestus was reluctantly driven by Power to
Tauris,” Classical Quarterly 37 (1988): 98–115. his task of binding PROMETHEUS to the mountain, Mad-
Platnauer, M. Euripides: Iphigenia in Tauris. Oxford: Claren-
ness is reluctant to attack HERACLES. Iris, however,
don Press, 1938.
Tzanetou, Angeliki. “Almost Dying, Dying Twice: Ritual and compels Madness to carry out the assignment. In Birds,
Audience in Euripides’ Iphigenia in Tauris,” Illinois Classical Iris tries to pass through the birds’ city on her way to
Studies 24–25 (1999–2000): 199–216. Earth, but she is stopped by PEISETAERUS, who informs
her that the gods she represents are no longer being
IPHITUS The son of EURYTUS, king of Oechalia, worshiped by humans and that birds are the new mas-
Iphitus was the brother of IOLE. After HERACLES had ters of the heavens. Peisetaerus then drives Iris away.
completed his labors for EURYSTHEUS, he decided to The Greek comic poet Achaeus wrote a SATYR PLAY
294 IRONY

entitled Iris; the brief extant fragments (19–23 Snell) trast with the boldness of her sister, Antigone. Whereas
reveal little about the play’s content. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Antigone advocates the burial of Polyneices, despite a
Apollodorus, Library 1.2.6; Aristophanes, Birds 575, decree promising death to anyone who does so,
1202–61; Euripides, Heracles 822–74; Hesiod, Ismene is unwilling to violate this decree. In Oedipus at
Theogony 266, 775; Homer, Iliad 8.409, 18.166; Ovid, Colonus, Ismene warns Oedipus and Antigone of
Metamorphoses 4.479, 845; Pausanias, 4.33.6; Vergil, CREON’s evil intentions.
Aeneid 5.620]
ISMENIAS A stereotyped name for a person from
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOEOTIA, probably coined from the ISMENUS River of
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. that region. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharni-
ans 861, Lysistrata 697]
IRONY The occurrence of double meanings in BIBLIOGRAPHY
words or deeds. In SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, for Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
example, King OEDIPUS puts a curse on the person who Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 200.
killed LAIUS, the previous king. The audience knows
that Oedipus killed Laius, but the character Oedipus ISMENUS A river, arising from Mount CITHAERON
does not discover this until later in the play. Irony can and flowing into Lake Hylica, that has its course east
also occur in COMEDY. In PLAUTUS’ AMPHITRUO, several of the town of THEBES. Pausanias says the river got its
instances of irony occur because two gods, Jupiter/Jove name from APOLLO’s son Ismenus. The river is men-
(Greek: ZEUS) and Mercury (Greek: HERMES), are dis- tioned several times by the tragedians, especially
guised as the mortals Amphitruo (see AMPHITRYON) and EURIPIDES and SENECA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pausanias,
Sosia. At one point, for example, Sosia (in an 9.10.6]
encounter with Mercury/Sosia) swears by Jove that he
is the real Sosia. Mercury/Sosia answers that he swears ISTER The child of Tethys and OCEANUS, the
by Mercury that Jove does not believe him. The audi- mythic river Ister is identified with the modern
ence knows what the real Sosia does not know—that Danube, Europe’s longest river (more than 1,700
Sosia is in the presence of Mercury, the son of Jove. miles). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hesiod, Theogony 339;
Seneca, Medea 585, 736, Thyestes 629, Hercules Oetaeus
86, 515, 1365; Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos 1227]
ISLAND OF THE BLESSED A mythical
land (free of sorrow) to which a few lucky persons ISTHMUS In Greek geography, Isthmus refers to
(especially the heroes who fought in the Trojan War) the strip of land that connects the northern and south-
might go after death. CRONUS was said to have ruled ern halves of mainland Greece. CORINTH is the town
this land. At the conclusion of EURIPIDES’ HELEN, it is usually associated with the Greek Isthmus and some-
predicted that MENELAUS will go to the Island of the times the word Isthmus is synonymous with Corinth.
Blessed after his death. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hesiod, [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Agamemnon 564, Hercules
Works and Days 171: Josephus, The Wars of the Jews Furens 336, Hercules Oetaeus 83, Medea 45, 299,
2.154] Phoenician Women 375, Thyestes 112, 124]

ISMENE The daughter of OEDIPUS and JOCASTA, ITHACA A small island (modern-day Thiaki),
Ismene was the sister of ETEOCLES, POLYNEICES, and about 50 square miles in size, off the western coast of
ANTIGONE. Ismene has brief speaking parts in several Greece. Ithaca was the home of ODYSSEUS, whom poets
extant dramas (AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN AGAINST THEBES, sometimes call “the Ithacan.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripi-
SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE and OEDIPUS AT COLONUS). In des, Cyclops 103, Trojan Women 277; Seneca, Trojan
Antigone, Ismene’s main function is to provide a con- Women]
 IXION 295

ITYS See TEREUS. after the death of Protagoras in 420 B.C.E., because
Philochorus identified a reference to his death in
IXION A king in the region of Thessaly, Ixion was Euripides’ play. Surviving fragments reveal little about
the son of Phlegyas (or Antion or ARES or Peision) and the play’s subject matter, though Webster supposes
Perimela. Ixion married Dia, daughter of Eioneus (or Ixion had already killed his father-in-law. SOPHOCLES
Deioneus), and fathered PEIRITHOUS (although HOMER also wrote an Ixion, but only a single word survives
says ZEUS was Peirithous’ father). When Ixion failed to from the play (fragment 296 Radt). The tragedians Cal-
deliver to his father-in-law, Eioneus, the bridal gifts that listratus and Timesitheus both composed an Ixion, of
he had promised, Eioneus took some horses from Ixion which only the titles remain (see Snell). The comic
instead. Later, Ixion, hoping to get back his horses, poet Eubulus wrote a play called Ixion, of which four
invited his father-in-law to his house, pretending he uninformative lines survive (fragment 36 Kock).
would give him the bridal gifts he had promised. When [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Eumenides 441, 718;
Eioneus arrived, however, Ixion killed him by making Apollodorus, Library 1.8.2, Epitome 1.20; Hyginus,
him fall into a pit filled with fire, thus making Ixion, Fables 62; Pindar, Pythian 2; Seneca, Hercules Furens
according to tradition, the first mortal to kill one of his 750, Medea 744, Octavia 623]
relatives. Ixion also became the first mortal to be puri- BIBLIOGRAPHY
fied of murder when Zeus cleansed him of his crime. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Zeus even took Ixion to Mount OLYMPUS, but the evil Teubner, 1884.
fellow lusted after Hera and hoped to seduce her. Zeus, Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
however, created a cloud Hera and Ixion had inter- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
course with the cloud. According to some traditions, ———. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
the impregnated cloud gave birth to a CENTAUR. Zeus Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Smyth, H. W., and Lloyd-Jones, H. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926.
then punished Ixion by sending him to the UNDER-
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
WORLD and binding him to a wheel that always turns.
1971.
AESCHYLUS wrote an Ixion (fragments 90–93 Radt), Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
which Lloyd-Jones thinks dealt with the purification of Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Ixion. EURIPIDES also wrote an Ixion (fragments 424–26 Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Nauck), which is thought to have been staged shortly Methuen, 1967.
 C JD
JASON Famous for leading the quest for the Jason then invited the heroes of Greece to join him
Golden Fleece, Jason was the son of Aeson and Poly- in his quest. A shipbuilder named ARGUS was commis-
mede (or Alcimede). Jason’s uncle, Pelias, usurped the sioned to build the ship, which was subsequently
kingdom of Iolcus from Aeson, and then Pelias named Argo (“fast”) after its builder. The boat was
watched Aeson and his family closely. Pelias had heard equipped with an oracular beam, which Jason could
a prophecy that he would be killed by a descendant of consult in times of crisis. Thus, Jason’s ship could actu-
Aeson’s, so when Aeson’s wife became pregnant, Pelias ally speak to him. To pull this magical ship’s 50 oars,
planned to kill the child as soon as it was born. When an equal number of heroes were assembled, called Arg-
Aeson’s wife pretended the child was stillborn, Pelias onauts, “those who sail on the Argo.” Sources differ as
did not investigate the matter carefully. The child, to the names of the 50, but most accounts include
Jason, was smuggled out of Iolcus and taken to the HERACLES; the famed musician ORPHEUS; ALCESTIS’ hus-
centaur CHIRON, who raised the boy. band, ADMETUS; ACHILLES’ father, PELEUS; the keen-
After Jason grew up, he returned to Iolcus in an sighted LYNCEUS; Zetes and Calais, the winged sons of
attempt to regain the kingdom for his father. By this BOREAS; the helmsman Tiphys; and perhaps even THE-
time, Pelias had been warned by another prophecy to SEUS and ATALANTA.
beware of a man wearing one sandal. While Jason was During the voyage to Colchis, Jason and the Arg-
traveling to Iolcus, he had helped an old woman (HERA onauts faced many obstacles and experienced many
in disguise) cross the Anaurus River. While crossing adventures. After sailing from Iolcus, the Argonauts
the river, Jason lost a sandal but gained Hera as an ally. landed on LEMNOS, an island where the women had
When Jason arrived in Iolcus, he went to Pelias’ palace recently killed almost the entire male population. By
and claimed the restoration of his father’s kingdom. this time, however, the Lemnian women had decided
Pelias noticed Jason was wearing only one sandal and in favor of male companionship and welcomed the
thought quickly of how to get rid of him. Pelias asked Argonauts to their island. The Argonauts paired off
Jason what he would do if he were standing face to face with various women, and efforts to repopulate the
with the person destined to kill him. Jason stated that island were soon under way. Jason impregnated HYP-
he would send the person to fetch the Golden Fleece SIPYLE, the leader of the Lemnian women, and by him
from COLCHIS. Pelias then gave Jason this assignment she had two sons, Euneus and Nebrophonus (or
and promised to restore the kingdom to Jason’s father Deipylus). Jason, however, may have left Lemnos
were he successful. before these children were born, as Heracles eventually

296
 JASON 297

persuaded the Argonauts to end their delay on the and plant the dragon’s teeth. When the armed men
island and continue their voyage. sprang up, he threw at them a boulder, which caused
After leaving Lemnos, Jason did not play an espe- them to fight among themselves. Jason killed them
cially prominent role in the journey to Colchis. Jason after they had wounded one another.
accidentally killed Cyzicus, earlier their host, when Although Jason accomplished the tasks, Aeetes did
bad weather drove them back to Cyzicus’ land during not hand over the fleece but continued to plan to
the night. In the dark, the Argonauts defended them- destroy the Argonauts. Medea, however, who knew her
selves against an attack from Cyzicus’ people, who did father’s intentions, warned the Argonauts and guided
not realize they were attacking the Argonauts. Jason them during the night to the grove in which the fleece
also won a rowing contest against the other Argonauts, was hanging. A dragon guarded the fleece, but Medea
but only because Heracles’ oar broke. When the Arg- overcame this obstacle by giving it a potion that put it
onauts landed at the Mysia to find fresh timber for to sleep. Jason then snatched the fleece and the Arg-
Heracles’ oar and collect fresh water, Heracles’ com- onauts, accompanied by Medea, made their way to the
rade, Hylas, was abducted by water nymphs. When Argo and sailed away. The escape of Jason and com-
Heracles refused to continue on the voyage to search pany was not easy, as Aeetes gave chase. How Jason
for Hylas, Jason was only too happy to leave Heracles managed to end or avoid Aeetes’ pursuit differs from
behind. Many of the other Argonauts, however, did not source to source. The most common account is that
want to set sail without Heracles. Fortunately, mutiny either Jason or Medea killed Medea’s brother, ABSYRTUS.
was averted by the appearance of the sea god Glaucus, SENECA (MEDEA 131–32, 911–12) follows the tradition
who told them that Heracles was not destined to reach that Absyrtus was taken aboard the Argo, and then, as
Colchis. Aeetes’ ship was closing in on the Argo, Medea killed
Jason’s next significant appearance in the story does her brother, cut apart his body, and scattered the pieces
not occur until the Argonauts reach Colchis. There across the sea in the expectation—one that ultimately
Jason met the Colchian king, AEETES, and requested proved correct—that Aeetes would stop and collect the
the Golden Fleece. In exchange, Jason promised Aeetes body parts for a proper burial. Other sources indicate
that the Argonauts would help the Colchians wage war that Aeetes’ pursuit did not end until Jason and Medea
against their enemies, the Sauromatians. Aeetes, how- reached the island of Alcinous and Arete, where they
ever, said that he would hand over the fleece if Jason were married. As Jason’s wife, Medea was no longer
would perform several tasks. First, Jason would yoke a under her father’s “control,” and therefore Aeetes gave
pair of fire-breathing bulls; next, he would plough a up his pursuit.
certain field and sow it with dragon’s teeth. From the The return voyage from Colchis to Iolcus held many
dragon’s teeth, armed men would spring up, and Jason other adventures for Jason and his crew. As did
would have to deal with them. If Jason failed, Aeetes ODYSSEUS, Jason encountered CIRCE, the SIRENS, SCYLLA
threatened him and his comrades with death. Aeetes, and CHARYBDIS, and the cattle of Helios (see SUN).
of course, had no intention of handing over the fleece, Jason’s encounters with these persons or creatures were
even if Jason did succeed, and began to plot the far less eventful than those of Odysseus: Circe actually
destruction of the Argonauts. drove the Argonauts from her island; Orpheus pre-
Fortunately for Jason and the Argonauts, Hera vented the Argonauts from being tempted by the
arranged for APHRODITE to cause Aeetes’ daughter, Sirens; Thetis saved the ship from Scylla and Charyb-
MEDEA, to fall in love with Jason. Medea helped Jason dis; and they left the cattle of Helios untouched. When
in his tasks by giving him a potion that would protect a strange storm drove them into the Libyan desert,
him against the fiery breath of the bulls and advice POSEIDON’s son, TRITON, eventually pushed their ship
about how to deal with the warriors who would spring back into the sea. When the giant Talus attacked their
up from the dragon’s teeth. With the help of Medea’s ship as they sailed past Crete, Medea’s magic caused
magic, Jason was able to yoke the bulls, plow the field, this creature’s demise.
298 JOCASTA

Upon reaching Iolcus, Jason handed over the ment 1a Snell). The Greek comic poet Antiphanes also
Golden Fleece to Pelias. Pelias, however, did not turn wrote a Jason, of which only the title is extant (frag-
over the kingdom as he had promised. Jason, still ment 107 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
determined to acquire the throne, enlisted the help of Library 1.9.16–28; Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica;
Medea to destroy Pelias. Medea went to Pelias’ house Hyginus, Fables 13–25; Ovid, Heroides 6, Metamor-
and pretended that she had left Jason. Pelias’ daughters phoses 7.1–403; Pindar, Pythian 4; Valerius Flaccus,
took Medea into the house and into their confidence. Argonautica]
Medea convinced them that she could restore Pelias’
BIBLIOGRAPHY
youth by cutting up an aged ram, throwing his limbs
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
into a magic cauldron, and then causing a frisky young Teubner, 1884.
lamb to emerge. Medea told Pelias’ daughters to do Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
that to their father. Unfortunately, when Pelias’ daugh- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
ters killed their father, Medea and her magic cauldron
were nowhere to be found. With Pelias dead, Jason JOCASTA (IOCASTA) The daughter of
expected he would become king of Iolcus, but his MENOECEUS, Jocasta (also known as Epicasta) was first
hopes were thwarted when Pelias’ son, ACASTUS, man- the wife of LAIUS, king of THEBES. Despite a warning
aged to drive Jason and Medea from the town. from the ORACLE at DELPHI, Laius had a child by Jocasta
Jason and Medea then made their way to Corinth (OEDIPUS), but the child was to be exposed at its birth.
and took up residence in the realm of CREON. Jason and The shepherd charged with exposing Oedipus did not
Medea appear to have lived happily for some time and do so, however, and Oedipus grew up in CORINTH.
had two sons. Eventually, however, Jason’s desire for After Laius died (killed by Oedipus), Jocasta’s brother,
kingship resurfaced, and he decided to divorce Medea CREON, reigned as king. When Thebes was confronted
and marry Creon’s daughter. When Medea discovered by the SPHINX and no remedy could be found, Creon
this, she killed Creon’s daughter with a deadly gown announced that whoever defeated the Sphinx would
and diadem. Creon himself died when he tried to save become not only king of Thebes but also the husband
his daughter from the lethal clothing. Medea also killed of Jocasta. When Oedipus arrived in Thebes and
her children by Jason and then flew away to ATHENS on solved the Sphinx’s riddle, he became Jocasta’s hus-
her grandfather, Helios’, chariot. After the horrific band. By Oedipus, Jocasta was the mother of two sons
events at Corinth, Jason was a shattered man. He wan- (ETEOCLES and POLYNEICES) and two daughters
dered from town to town before finally returning to the (ANTIGONE and ISMENE). She appears as a character in
place where he had beached the Argo. As Jason lay Sophocles’ OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, Euripides’ PHOENICIAN
upon the shore beneath the ship’s rotting hulk, he WOMEN, SENECA’s OEDIPUS, and Seneca’s PHOENICIAN
decided to kill himself. Before he could do so, a gust of WOMEN. In Sophocles’ play, Jocasta hangs herself when
wind blew the ship onto Jason’s head (as Medea pre- she realizes that Oedipus is on the verge of discovering
dicts at the conclusion of EURIPIDES’ MEDEA). his true identity. In Euripides’ play, Jocasta remains
Jason appears as a character in two extant dramas: alive after Oedipus’ blinding and tries to persuade her
Euripides’ Medea and SENECA’s MEDEA. In each of these sons to reconcile their differences. When her efforts
plays, he is characterized as a weakling, whose success fail, however, the sons fight in battle and kill one
in acquiring the Golden Fleece is a more the result of another, and Jocasta commits suicide when she dis-
Medea’s magic than of his own courage or prowess. In covers their bodies. Jocasta also plays the role of medi-
Euripides’ play, the complaint most frequently made ator in Seneca’s Phoenician Women, but her fate is
about Jason is that he has broken the oaths and prom- unknown because that play’s manuscript breaks off
ises to Medea that led her to leave her native land and during her negotiations with her sons. [ANCIENT
go to Greece. The Greek tragedian Antiphon wrote a SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.5.7, 9; Homer,
Jason; only a single word of this play survives (frag- Odyssey 11.271–80; Hyginus, Fables 66, 67]
 JUSTICE 299

BIBLIOGRAPHY Although Justice does not appear as a character in

Hind, J. “The Death of Agrippina and the Finale of the Oedi- any extant classical dramas, justice is a concept that
pus of Seneca,” Journal of the Australasian Universities Lan- figures prominently in both Greek TRAGEDY and COM-
guage and Literature Association 8 (1972): 204–11. EDY. This is not surprising given the civic climate of
Scharffenberger, Elizabeth Watson. “A Tragic Lysistrata? ATHENS, the birthplace of the extant Greek dramas,
Jocasta in the ‘Reconciliation Scene’ of the Phoenician
where court proceedings were common. The Athenian
Women,” Rheinisches Museum 138, nos. 3–4 (1995):
interest in justice was so commonplace that ARISTO-
312–36.
PHANES names one of his heroes DICAEOPOLIS (“honest
citizen”). ATHENS was a town in which courts were in
JOVE See ZEUS.
session so frequently that Aristophanes portrays
another of his characters, PHILOCLEON, as addicted to
JUDGMENT OF PARIS When the Trojan jury service. In Aristophanes’ BIRDS, its heroes leave
PARIS was living as a shepherd outside TROY and was
Athens because they are tired of their fellow citizens’
unaware that he was the son of PRIAM, HERMES. Three
constant legal wrangling. Aristophanes’ CLOUDS has
goddesses, HERA, ATHENA, and APHRODITE, took him.
much of its focus on justice, as that play’s hero, STREP-
Paris was to make a judgment as to which of the god-
SIADES, wants to become the best speaker in Greece so
desses was most beautiful. Each goddess offered Paris
that he might defeat his creditors when they try to take
a bribe if he would choose her. Hera offered kingship,
him to court. By the play’s end, Strepsiades fears for his
Athena prowess in war, and Aphrodite HELEN, the most
life as his son has become such a clever speaker that he
beautiful woman in all the world. Paris’ selection of
persuasively argues that it is just (dikaios) for him to
Aphrodite led to the Trojan War.
beat his father.
Among the Greek dramatists, SOPHOCLES appears to
The question What is justice? figures prominently in
have taken up this subject in his Judgment. Athenaeus
certain Greek tragedies, particularly those related to
writes that in Sophocles’ play Aphrodite appeared on
AGAMEMNON and ORESTES. In fact, AESCHYLUS’ ORESTEIA
stage, anointed herself with perfume, and toyed with a
may be considered an examination of the evolution of
mirror, while Athena anointed herself with olive oil
justice. Of course, in such dramas the answer to the
and behaved as an athlete at a gymnasium would.
question depends on the situation and the author. In
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 3.2;
Aeschylus’ Agamemnon (see ORESTEIA), CLYTEMNESTRA
Athenaeus, 15.687c; Euripides, Helen 23–30, Iphigenia
thinks that the murder of her husband is in accordance
at Aulis 178–84; Hyginus, Fables 92]
with justice because he had sacrificed their daughter.
In Aeschylus’ Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA), however,
JUNO See HERA. Orestes, ELECTRA, and the chorus think justice will be
served by Orestes killing Clytemnestra and AEGISTHUS
JUPITER See ZEUS. for their role in the death of his father. In Aeschylus’
Eumenides (see ORESTEIA), the FURIES think they are act-
JUSTICE The daughter of ZEUS and THEMIS, this ing in accordance with justice by persecuting Orestes
divinity personifies and oversees justice and its admin- for killing his mother. Eventually, the Furies agree to
istration. Her Greek name is Dike, which is often trans- allow justice to be achieved not by violence, but in a
lated as “justice”; the Greek adjective dikaios means legal proceeding in which persuasion will be the means
“just.” Among Roman authors, the noun iustitia means by which it is attained. Of course, Aeschylus’ definition
“justice,” and the adjective iustus means “just.” Note, of justice differs from that of SOPHOCLES or EURIPIDES.
however, that the Greek noun dike can also mean Euripidean Orestes and Electra believe that killing
“vengeance.” Thus, although justice and vengeance their mother is in accordance with justice, but at the
seem to be completely different concepts to most mod- end of Euripides’ ELECTRA the DIOSCURI declare that
erns, the ancient Greeks considered them intertwined. although Clytemnestra has received justice, Orestes
300 JUSTICE

has not acted justly. Euripides’ ORESTES deals with the whom are not even citizens of Argos, the town where
trial of Orestes in a much more realistic and cynical the trial occurs. In contrast to Aeschylus’ Libation Bear-
way. Although at the end of the play APOLLO himself ers (see ORESTEIA) and Euripides’ Electra, Sophocles’
appears and declares Orestes will successfully undergo ELECTRA looks at justice from a more feminine perspec-
the sort of trial that Orestes underwent in Aeschylus’ tive. Sophocles’ Clytemnestra declares that Justice killed
Eumenides (see ORESTEIA), for most of the play Orestes’ Agamemnon, and Electra argues that her actions were
killing of his mother is viewed in a negative light. TYN- unjust. When Electra declares that she will avenge her
DAREUS argues that with respect to Clytemnestra father’s death, her sister, CHRYSOTHEMIS, declares that
Orestes should have pursued legal channels and had such justice will cause her harm. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
her banished from their house. Absent from Euripides’ Aeschylus, Agamemnon 733, 773–81, 911–13, 1431–32
Orestes are the Furies as the prosecution, Athena as the (see ORESTEIA); Libation Bearers 983–90 (see ORESTEIA);
judge, Apollo as Orestes’ key witness, and the civilized Eumenides 511–15 (see ORESTEIA); Apollodorus, Library
Athenian citizens as the jury. Instead, Orestes is sen- 1.3.1; Aristophanes, Clouds 1331–1438; Euripides, Elec-
tenced to death in a trial by a disorganized mob who are tra 771; Hesiod, Theogony 901; Sophocles, Electra 528,
easily influenced by clever human speakers, some of 560–61, 1041–42, Orestes 500–3]
 C KD
KATHARSIS See CATHARSIS. the other slaves, making them pay money to prevent
Demos from beating them.
The fortunes of Demosthenes and Nicias seem so
KERAUNOSKOPEION A device used to pro-
bleak that they consider suicide, then decide to
duce lightning. Pollux says the keraunoskopeion was a
become drunk. In their intoxication, the two decide
swiveling panel (see PERIAKTOS) positioned above the
to steal some of Paphlagon’s oracles. From these
stage. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon 4.127, 130]
prophecies they learn that ultimately Paphlagon will
be bested by the lowest person in society—a sausage
KNIGHTS (Greek: HIPPEIS; Latin: EQUI- seller. Just as Demosthenes and Nicias wonder where
TES) ARISTOPHANES (424 B.C.E.) Knights they will find such a man, in walks the Sausage Seller,
was staged at the LENAEA in ATHENS and won first prize. whom they hale as the savior of Athens. The Sausage
It was ARISTOPHANES’ first play that he produced in his Seller, of course, does not believe he can guide
own name. The play’s action occurs near the PNYX in Athens, but Demosthenes points out that his lack of
ATHENS. The SKENE represents three houses: that of pedigree, education, character, and manners provides
Demos in the center, that of Paphlagon on one side, exactly the qualities that make a good politician.
and that of the Sausage Seller on the other. Demos per- When the Sausage Seller wonders who among Athen-
sonifies the Athenian people; Paphlagon (blusterer) ian society will support him, Demosthenes points out
represents CLEON, an Athenian leader, who, the year that Paphlagon/Cleon’s enemies, the Knights, will
before the production of Knights, had astonishingly back him.
defeated the Spartans at the island of Sphacteria (near Soon Paphlagon bursts from the house and threat-
PYLOS). The CHORUS consist of well-to-do young Athen- ens to kill Demosthenes and Nicias for plotting against
ian men who compose the city’s cavalry. him. This threat prompts Demosthenes to call the
As the play opens, two SLAVES, DEMOSTHENES and Knights to help them. After the Knights enter, they and
NICIAS, the names of an Athenian politician and a mil- Paphlagon battle verbally. The Sausage Seller, spurred
itary commander of the time, complain about beatings on by yelling, a familiar part of his trade, enters the
they received from Paphlagon, a new slave in Demos’ fray. Now Paphlagon and the Sausage Seller trade
house. After Demos bought Paphlagon, the latter insults, while the chorus of Knights serve as commen-
quickly became the master’s favorite by flattering him tators for the action. After several rounds of verbal
and by satisfying Demos’ love of hearing oracles. sparring, Paphlagon realizes he has met his match in
Paphlagon also began to run a protection scheme with the Sausage Seller. Their first battle ends as the two
301
302 KNIGHTS

depart to denounce each other before the Athenian Demos. In their absence, Demos tells the chorus that
assembly. he is making the Sausage Seller and Paphlagon com-
After Paphlagon and the Sausage Seller exit, the cho- pete for his affection in order to receive more good
rus deliver the PARABASIS. First, the chorus, speaking in things. Thus, Demos is not as gullible as he appears.
the voice of Aristophanes himself, address the question When the two rivals return, the banquet that the
of why Aristophanes does not produce plays under his Sausage Seller provides for Demos defeats Paphlagon’s
own name. They state that Aristophanes has seen the feast when the Sausage Seller actually steals some food
fates of other playwrights, whose plays are initially that Paphlagon had cooked and gives it to Demos.
viewed with favor but later become unpopular. Next, When Paphlagon protests, the Sausage Seller tells him
the chorus sing a hymn to POSEIDON, patron divinity of that was what he (Cleon) did at Pylos (Cleon was
the Knights; they praise their forefathers, who served accused of stealing the victory there from Demosthenes
Athens so well in war; they sing a hymn to ATHENA; and, to a lesser extent, Nicias). Paphlagon then learns
and they end the parabasis with a song of thanksgiving of the oracle regarding the Sausage Seller and realizes
for the service their horses have given them in war. that he has been beaten. After Paphlagon’s departure,
After the parabasis, the Sausage Seller returns tri- Demos entrusts himself completely to the Sausage
umphant from the assembly. The delighted Knights Seller’s care.
offer their congratulations and ask him to explain how At this point, Demos and the Sausage Seller exit
he defeated Paphlagon. The Sausage Seller reveals that behind the skene and a second parabasis of about 50
he proved himself more popular than Paphlagon by lines occurs in which the Knights, speaking on Aristo-
promising the assembly cheap sardines and then giving phanes’ behalf, defend his practice of making fun of
them free seasonings when they bought the fish. The public figures and, in the process, mock several promi-
Knights praise the Sausage Seller for his tricks and nent Athenians.
promise him their support. The play moves toward its conclusion with the
At this point, an enraged Paphlagon returns from reemergence of the Sausage Seller, who informs the
the assembly. Immediately, the Sausage Seller and audience that he has restored Demos to the good old
Paphlagon renew their threats and verbal abuse of one days by boiling him in a magical potion (the tale is
another. They decide to have a contest to see which of meant to recall MEDEA’s rejuvenation of JASON’s father,
them can win over Demos, who insists that the contest Aeson). Next, Demos, dressed in a costume fit for a
be held at the PNYX. For every benefit (financial and king, is wheeled out on the ECCYCLEMA and hailed by
military) that Paphlagon claims he has conferred on the Knights as the ruler of the Greeks. Demos repents
Demos, the Sausage Seller points out a fault. of his foolish behavior in the past, but the Sausage
Paphlagon argues that with his leadership Demos will Seller blames the men who tricked Demos. As at the
rule all Greece, but the Sausage Seller claims that conclusion of Aristophanes’ ACHARNIANS, in which
Paphlagon will benefit only financially while Demos is DICAEOPOLIS ends the play with a pretty young woman
not paying attention. The Sausage Seller accuses under each arm, in Knights the Sausage Seller leads out
Paphlagon of not providing Demos with such basic two beautiful women, who represent peace treaties
comforts as shoes and clothing. After the Sausage with SPARTA, and gives them to Demos. The sexually
Seller promises Demos food, employment, and health aroused Demos is eager to go back inside and enjoy his
care, Demos is persuaded and gives the Sausage Seller new-found “peace.” Before Demos and the Sausage
a ring that marks him as his favorite. The competition Seller exit, the Sausage Seller says Paphlagon will now
between the Sausage Seller and Paphlagon is not over, perform the Sausage Seller’s former job.
though, as the two next turn to oracles to win Demos’
favor. COMMENTARY
After Demos prefers the Sausage Seller’s oracles, the With only five speaking characters in the play other
two combatants leave to prepare food and drink for than the chorus (compare, for example, 18 in Acharni-
 KNIGHTS 303

ans and 11 in CLOUDS), Aristophanes’ Knights seems to suasion to enlist the Sausage Seller’s help (177, 195,
be a rather simple play in terms of tension between the 211). The Sausage Seller is impressed by the oracle but
characters. Although a struggle obviously occurs wonders how the ordinary huckster he is can be stew-
between the Sausage Seller and Paphlagon, we must ard of the Athenian people (211–12). Demosthenes
not lose sight of the fact that these two men are striv- tells him that it can be accomplished through elegant
ing to be the favorite of Demos, the Athenian people. and clever speech (216). Furthermore, Demosthenes
So powerful is Paphlagon/Cleon’s influence on Demos tells him that he has all the other requisite qualities to
that we almost forget that Demos is the master and lead the people (217), such as having “a repellent voice
Paphlagon is the slave. Although Demos does not [and] low birth” (Sommerstein at line 218) and being a
make his appearance until the play is at its midpoint, product of the marketplace (see AGORA).
the Athenian people have been a primary topic of con- When Paphlagon revives from his drunken stupor
versation and are as much a focal point of Knights as and roars out of Demos’ house, he accuses Demosthenes
Paphlagon/Cleon. Interestingly, about one-quarter of and the Sausage Seller of being in a conspiracy against
the occurrences of the word demos in Aristophanes’ the Athenian people (236). When the Knights defend
plays occur in Knights. the Sausage Seller from Paphlagon’s attacks, Paphlagon’s
Thus, although considerable attention in Knights is attempt to manipulate the Knights with speech fails
paid to Aristophanes’ attack on Cleon and much good (266–72), and when the Knights turn to attack he calls
fun is had as a professional politician is outwitted by on the Athenian people (273) to protect him. Once the
the lowest huckster from the marketplace, one should Sausage Seller and Paphlagon square off against one
not lose sight of the more subtle and, arguably, impor- another, the scene literally disintegrates into a war of
tant issue of the play, namely, that the Athenian people words, as the Sausage Seller can match Paphlagon insult
can be easily manipulated by a single clever speaker. for insult. Although the two combatants say nothing of
Cleon may have been defeated, but the Athenian peo- substance, Aristophanes’ emphasis is on speech. For
ple have been persuaded by someone who has an infi- example, as the two begin their argument, between lines
nitely less impressive pedigree than Cleon and is 337 and 50 forms of the Greek verb legein (to speak)
equally capable of slinging verbal mud. occur seven times. Despite the Sausage Seller’s ability to
Accordingly, Aristophanes focuses not merely on the match Paphlagon’ insults, Paphlagon says he has noth-
Athenian people, but in particular on their manipula- ing to fear from him as long as the Athenian people
tion by the speech of others. Added to this is the issue (396) maintain their ignorant ways.
of how Athenian politicians could manipulate the peo- Although the Sausage Seller defeats Paphlagon
ple with words supposedly issued from the mouths of when they appear before the Athenian Council,
their gods, that is, oracles. In Aristophanes’ 11 surviv- Paphlagon feels confident that he can get justice
ing plays, more than half the references to oracles against the Sausage Seller from the Athenian people
occur in Knights. (710). The Sausage Seller is equally confident that his
As the play opens, Demosthenes notes that verbal skills will be sufficient to defeat Paphlagon
Paphlagon gained control of Demos with flattering (711), but Paphlagon feels confident that he can make
words (46–54) and the recitation of oracles (61) favor- a fool of the Athenian people (713) because he knows
able to Demos, whose ignorance prevents him from the sort of flattery on which they feed (714–15). The
seeing through Paphlagon’s verbal tricks. Demosthenes Sausage Seller realizes that Paphlagon even chews
believes, however, that they can be saved if they steal Demos’ food for him and swallows most of it before
some of Paphlagon’s oracles (116–54). Once the words handing over the remainder (716–18). Paphlagon even
of the gods are out of Paphlagon’s control, then Demos- boasts that he “can make Demos expand and contract”
thenes and Nicias can save themselves and the city (Sommerstein) through his clever ways (719–20).
(149). Once Demosthenes learns of the oracle about the Accordingly, Paphlagon confidently declares, “Let’s go
Sausage Seller, he uses the oracle and his powers of per- to the demos” (723); when he calls Demos from his
304 KOMMOS

house Paphlagon summons him with the sort of flat- When the Knights chastise Demos for being so
tering language that a lover might use with a beloved gullible, Demos reveals that he just pretends to be fool-
and at 726 addresses him as “Most beloved little ish and that he is manipulating the two combatants for
Demos” (Demidion . . . philtaton). his own benefit. Upon hearing this, the Knights praise
Once Demos emerges from his house, the Sausage Demos’ wisdom and remark that he is fattening up
Seller presents himself as a rival for the love of political leaders who try to manipulate Demos as if
Demos (733) and says he wants to do things that will they are animals to be sacrificed for a public feast
benefit Demos. Paphalagon, of course, argues that he (demosious, 1136). Thus, whereas demogogues such as
himself treats Demos well (741) and declares that no Cleon think they can prosper by fattening up Demos,
one has ever defended or loved Demos as much as he Demos is actually fattening them up for his own meal.
has (790). The Sausage Seller, however, hopes that The Sausage Seller ultimately proves the winner of
someday Demos will realize that Paphlagon is the final contest for Demos’ favor. When he shows
manipulating him and using war as a means to pre- Demos that his basket of goodies is empty and
vent him (802) from discovering those tricks. As the Paphlagon has held many things back in his basket,
Sausage Seller’s arguments against Demos begin to Demos declares the empty basket of the Sausage Seller
have an effect, he feels confident enough to address has in mind “the things of the demos” (1216). After the
Demos with the same sort of flattering language that defeated Paphlagon is sent off, a new and revitalized
Paphlagon used earlier. At line 827, the Sausage Demos goes forward. The Sausage Seller lectures
Seller addresses Demos as “my dear little big Demos” Demos about being gullible and promises to punish
(Demakidion; Sommerstein’s translation) and accuses those who try such tricks on him in the future.
Paphlagon of doing financial damage to the public So, although Aristophanes’ attack on Cleon certainly
treasury (826) and to the Athenian people (831). The seems to be the primary focus of Knights, the play also
Sausage Seller reiterates that Paphlagon does not love suggests that the Athenian people are susceptible to the
Demos (848) and asserts that Paphlagon is so tricky manipulation of individual politicians, who influence
that Demos could not punish him if he wanted to them with flattery on both the human and the divine
(850). level. Aristophanes has every major character in the
When the Sausage Seller begins to provide Demos play comment on the foolishness and gullibility of the
with the basic necessities of life, food and clothing, Athenian people, but he softens his criticism by having
Demos moves closer allowing himself to move away Demos claim that he knows what the politicians are
from Paphlagon’s influence. Upon receiving a new pair doing to him and that he allows them to manipulate
of shoes from the Sausage Seller, Demos declares him him verbally for his own advantages. Although Demos
the best man for Demos (873). The Sausage Seller also triumphed over Cleon in the fantasy world of Aristo-
says that Demos (882) should have a nice cloak at his phanes’ Knights, in the real world of Athens, the people
age and then gives him one. When Paphlagon protests, again elected Cleon as one of their military command-
the Sausage Seller quips that he is simply using the ers the next year.
same sort of tactics that Paphlagon uses. The manipu-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
lative use of divine utterances in the form of oracles
Bennett, L. J., and W. B. Tyrrell. “Making Sense of Aristo-
begins again as the play approaches its conclusion phanes’ Knights,” Arethusa 23 (1990): 235–54.
(997–1099). Once again, the Sausage Seller beats Edmonds, L. Cleon, Knights, and Aristophanes’ Politics. Lan-
Paphlagon at his own game, manipulating the oracles ham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987.
as much as Paphlagon has. For every oracular utter- Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
ance that Paphlagon issues, however, the Sausage Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981.
Seller produces one that is even more favorable to
Demos. Accordingly, Demos expresses his desire to KOMMOS A Greek word derived from the verb
entrust himself to the Sausage Seller’s care. koptein, “to beat” or “to strike,” kommos (plural: kom-
 KORE 305

moi) refers to the beating or striking of the breast in BIBLIOGRAPHY

lamentation. In drama, the kommos is a song of wild Conacher, D. J. “Interaction between Chorus and Characters
lament in which the actor and CHORUS sing alternately. in the Oresteia,” American Journal of Philology 95 (1974):
Kommoi occur twice in SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, for example. 323–43.
McDevitt, A. S. “The First Kommos of Sophocles’ Antigone,”
In the first instance, TECMESSA and the chorus respond
Ramus 11 (1982): 134–44.
to the madness of Ajax. In the second, Ajax laments the Scott, W. C. “Musical Design in Sophocles’ Oedipus
calamity that has befallen him as the chorus try to Tyrannus,” Arion 4, no. 1 (1996–97): 33–44.
comfort him. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Sophocles, Ajax
201–62, 348–429] KORE A name, meaning “maiden,” for PERSEPHONE.
 C LD
LACEDAEMON See SPARTA. 60–63 Kock 2), and Nichochares (Kock 1)—wrote
plays entitled Laconians. Only the title of Nichochares’
LACEDAEMONIA See SPARTA. play survives and the short extant fragments of the
plays of Cratinus and Eupolis reveal nothing of their
LACHES (1) Not to be confused with the Athen- content. Eubulus’ play had the alternate title Leda,
ian statesman Laches Laches is a fictional character in which indicates that the play had some relation to
the plays of some comic poets after the time of ARISTO- HELEN’s mother. The fragments, however, give little
PHANES, such as MENANDER’s Perinthia and TERENCE’s indication of the content. From Plato’s Laconians (also
MOTHER-IN-LAW. known by the title Poets) about 20 lines survive, and
three-quarters of these are found in fragment 69, in
LACHES (2) An Athenian statesman who served which two people, apparently slaves, discuss the din-
as a military commander in the early years of the PELO- ing that is ending and the entertainment that is begin-
PONNESIAN WAR. After Laches’ mission in SICILY, CLEON ning. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 74,
prosecuted him for financial improprieties. ARISTO- 269, 345, Lysistrata 1076ff., Peace 212, 282, 478, 622,
PHANES parodies this prosecution in his WASPS in a trial Wasps 1158–62]
involving two dogs, one of whom is named Labes
(“snatcher”). In this mock trial, the dog Labes is pros- BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
ecuted for stealing a Sicilian cheese from Philocleon’s
Teubner, 1880.
kitchen. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 240, Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
836, 895] Teubner, 1884.

LACONIA A region in southern Greece of which

SPARTA was the principal city. The Spartans are often
LACRATEIDES Perhaps a fictional character
named as a member of the chorus in Aristophanes’
called Laconians and a character called simply the
Acharnians (220), although there was a historical
Laconian appears in ARISTOPHANES’ LYSISTRATA. On a few
Lacrateides who was an ARCHON in ATHENS during the
occasions, Aristophanes mentions popular shoes,
last 20 years of the fifth century B.C.E.
called Laconians, that were produced in this region.
Several Greek comic poets—CRATINUS (fragment 95 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock 1), EUPOLIS (fragment 179 Kock 1), Plato the Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
Comic (fragments 67–73 Kock 1), Eubulus (fragments Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 167.

306
 LAIUS 307

LAERTES The son of Arcesius, Laertes was the LAIUS A king of THEBES, Laius was the son of Lab-
king of ITHACA and by Anticlea became the father of dacus. Laius married JOCASTA, but at some point in his
ODYSSEUS; however, sometimes Odysseus is called the life he was attracted to CHRYSIPPUS, the son of PELOPS,
son of the notorious trickster SISYPHUS. In extant and abducted him. Apparently the gods did not
drama, Laertes’ name is heard almost exclusively in ref- approve of their relationship: Some sources indicate
erence to Odysseus, whom the playwrights often call that Laius and his fellow Thebans were punished by a
“Laertes’ son.” Ancient sources indicate that Laertes visitation from the SPHINX; others say that Laius’ pun-
participated in the hunt for the Calydonian boar and ishment was to father a son, Oedipus, who would kill
JASON’s quest for the Golden Fleece. [ANCIENT SOURCES: him. After hearing an oracle that he would be killed by
Apollodorus, Library 1.9.16, Epitome 3.12; Homer, his son, Laius avoided having intercourse with Jocasta.
Odyssey; Hyginus, Fables 95, 125] Jocasta, however, made Laius drunk one night, when
Oedipus was conceived. After the child was born,
LAIS A famous prostitute who, at the age of seven, Laius decided to expose the infant and gave him to a
was taken by the Athenian military from SICILY (ca. 422 shepherd for this purpose. The Theban shepherd,
B.C.E.) She was sold into slavery in CORINTH and
however, gave the child to a Corinthian shepherd, who
became a prostitute. Apparently, Lais was still working turned the child over to his masters, Polybus and
in the profession in the 360s. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- MEROPE, the king and queen of Corinth. Polybus and
phanes, Wealth 178; Epicrates, fragment 3 Kock 2; Merope called the child Oedipus, “swollen foot,”
Pausanias, 2.2.5; Philetaerus, fragment 9.4 Kock 2; because Laius had arranged for the child’s ankles to be
Plato Comicus, fragment 196; Plutarch, Nicias 15.4; bound together to ensure that he would not survive
Strattis, fragment 27 Kock 1] exposure. When Oedipus grew up, his parentage was
questioned and he went to Delphi to ask Apollo’s ora-
BIBLIOGRAPHY cle about his identity. Told that he would kill his father
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: and marry his mother, Oedipus decided not to return
Teubner, 1880. to Corinth. Instead, he traveled south from Delphi
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: toward Thebes. At a place where three roads met,
Teubner, 1884.
Oedipus encountered Laius. When the king tried to
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
force Oedipus off the road and struck him with his
Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 148.
staff, Oedipus, not realizing he was his true father,
lashed out and killed Laius and most of his party.
LAISPODIAS An Athenian statesman and mili- Aeschylus wrote a Laius (the first play of his Oedipus
tary commander who helped lead a military raid tetralogy, which included SEVEN AGAINST THEBES); only
against Spartan territory in southeastern Greece in 414 two words survive (fragments 121–22 Radt). In
B.C.E. In 411, the oligarchic government of the Four SENECA’s OEDIPUS, CREON reports to Oedipus that the
Hundred sent Laispodias to SPARTA as a diplomatic ghost of Laius, conjured from the underworld,
envoy. The comic poets made fun of Laispodias revealed that Oedipus was his killer and had married
because of something unusual about the calves of his his mother. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against
legs. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 1569; Thebes; Apollodorus, Library 3.5.5–8, 3.15.7; Euripi-
EUPOLIS, fragment 102 Kock; Thucydides, 6.105.2] des, Phoenician Women; Hyginus, Fables 66–67; Seneca,
Oedipus; Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer- BIBLIOGRAPHY
sity Press, 1995, 716–17. Halliwell, S. “Where Three Roads Meet: A Neglected Detail
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: in the Oedipus Tyrannus,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 106
Teubner, 1880. (1986): 187–90.
308 LAMACHUS

Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, Between the extremes of Aristophanes’ and
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. Plutarch’s portrayals of Lamachus, Aristophanes’ con-
temporary, Thucydides, gives a rather neutral picture
LAMACHUS (DIED 414 B.C.E.) Lamachus, son of Lamachus. In 415, Lamachus, though well along in
of Xenophanes, was an Athenian general who lived in the age, was appointed as one of the generals with Alcibi-
latter half of the fifth century B.C.E. Forming a clear pic- ades and Nicias in the Athenians’ expedition to SICILY,
ture of Lamachus is difficult because he is characterized where Lamachus died in battle at Syracuse. At no point
by both historians and comic poets. By the mid-430s, does Thucydides explicitly condemn Lamachus when
Lamachus had been elected strategos (general), and in his he does not experience success or praise him when he
earliest appearance, described by THUCYDIDES, Lamachus does. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 1038,
sailed with 10 ships into the Pontus but subsequently Peace 304, 1270–90; Diodorus Siculus, 12.72.4,
lost his fleet in a flood on the river Calex. By the mid- 12.84.3; Plutarch, Alcibiades 18.2, 21.9, Nicias 12.3–4;
420s, Lamachus was a recognizable enough figure to be Thucydides, 4.75.1–2, 5.19.2, 5.24.1, 6.8.2, 6.101.6]
a prominent character in ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS (425
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B.C.E.) and to be mentioned several times in his PEACE
Ketterer, R. C. “Lamachus and Xerxes in the Exodus of the
(421 B.C.E.). Lamachus’ name also appears in a fragment Acharnians,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 32
of Aristophanes’ Georgoi (Farmers). Aristophanes’ Achar- (1991): 51–60.
nians and Peace represent Lamachus as a warmonger
who wants to continue the prosecution of the war with LAMENTATION An expression of sorrow or
Sparta and its allies. In Peace, Aristophanes even puts grief. In Greek culture, lamentation was often
onstage a young warrior who calls himself the son of expressed by certain gestures and practices. In the case
Lamachus and has him sing about the glories of war—a of lamentation of the dead, Greek mourners would
performance that the play’s peace-loving hero, Trygaeus, extend their hand in a gesture of farewell. Women cus-
mocks. Although Thucydides mentions Lamachus as tomarily made cries of wailing, tore at their face with
among the Athenians who signed the Peace of NICIAS in their fingernails, and beat their breasts with their fists.
421, in Peace Aristophanes describes the peace as a “day Given the nature of tragic poetry, in these plays lamen-
hateful to Lamachus” (O’Neill’s translation). tation about a person’s lot in life or about those who
In contrast to the negative portrayal by Lamachus’ have died is common. Sometimes laments are sung by
contemporary Aristophanes, the biographer Plutarch the CHORUS alone, as in EURIPIDES’ HERACLES, at lines
presents a fairly positive view of Lamachus. Plutarch 1016–38, in which the chorus lament HERACLES’ mur-
says Lamachus “was a good soldier and a brave man; der of his wife and children. Sometimes individual
but he lacked authority and prestige because he was characters make lamentation, as in SOPHOCLES’ AJAX,
poor” (Perrin’s translation). Plutarch also contrasts where at lines 974–1039, the title character’s brother,
Lamachus’ “roughness” or “ruggedness” with ALCIBI- TEUCER, laments the fate that awaits him after AJAX’s
ADES’ daring and Nicias’ caution. The combination of death. In some cases, the chorus sang a responsive
Lamachus’ lack of financial resources and “ruggedness” lament with another character in the play. In SOPHO-
and his high profile as a military commander would CLES’ OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, at lines 1297–1368, the chorus
probably have made him an easy target for Aristo- and OEDIPUS lament antiphonally over his blinding and
phanes. Because Lamachus’ name contains the root the discovery of his crimes. In other cases, the chorus
machus-, which means “warrior,” Lamachus also would divided into two groups and lamented responsively, as
have been a logical candidate for Aristophanes’ stereo- at the conclusion of AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN AGAINST THEBES.
typical warmonger. Despite Aristophanes’ characteriza- BIBLIOGRAPHY
tion of Lamachus in his early plays, a decade after Foley, H. P. “The Politics of Tragic Lamentation.” In Tragedy,
Lamachus’ death, Aristophanes’ character Aeschylus Comedy and the Polis. Edited by Alan H. Sommerstein et
singles out Lamachus as a fine example of a warrior. al. Bari: Levante, 1993, 101–43.
 LAODAMEIA 309

LAMIA The Lamiae were vampirelike creatures Photius’ lexicon, at lambda 206.21, also says Lamius’
who were women from the waist up and serpents from real name was Mnesitheus, a common name in ATHENS.
the waist down. Their face glowed with fire, their body Nothing else about this Lamius/Mnesitheus is known.
was smeared with blood, and some sources indicate BIBLIOGRAPHY
they had feet made of either lead or iron. Some sources Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
make them blind; others say they had a single eye. Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
Lamiae are typically found in Africa or THESSALY (in 144–45.
which there was even a town called Lamia), where they
attack those who travel along the main roads. They LAMPON An Athenian soothsayer who helped
appear to have been attracted especially to the blood of lead a group to colonize Thurii. The Greek comic poet
young human beings, and they could either change Antiphanes wrote a Lampon from which two brief frag-
their shape or hiss seductively to attract their victims. ments (138–39 Kock) survive—the former about mul-
According to one tradition, Lamia, daughter of lets, the latter about mixing of wine. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
POSEIDON, was a beautiful African queen. When HERA Aristophanes, Birds 521, 988, PEACE 1084; Athenaeus,
discovered that Lamia had had an affair with ZEUS, 7.307d]
Hera destroyed her children. After that, Lamia killed
the children of other women. Because of Lamia’s cruel BIBLIOGRAPHY
actions, the gods changed her into a wild animal. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1884.
Lamia is mentioned a few times in the plays of ARISTO-
PHANES, who seems to consider Lamia a male creature,
twice referring to its unwashed testicles. EURIPIDES
LAOCOON Famous for saying “I fear Greeks
even bearing gifts,” Laocoon was a Trojan priest who
wrote a Lamia, of which only the title survives. In
warned his fellow citizens not to take into their city the
Euripides’ Busiris (see BUSIRIS) a character named
wooden horse, which the Greeks had left. Vergil says
Lamia is a speaker. The comic poet Crates also wrote a
Laocoon threw his spear at the horse, which was dedi-
Lamia, of which three brief fragments survive (19–21
cated to ATHENA, and that later Laocoon and his sons
Kock). Fragment 19 suggests that Thessaly may have
were killed by two sea serpents. The Trojans took this
been the play’s setting. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
as an omen that the gods were angry that Laocoon had
Wasps 1035, Peace 758; Pausanias, 10.12.1]
struck the horse and took it into their city. SOPHOCLES
BIBLIOGRAPHY wrote a Laocoon of which more than a dozen lines sur-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: vive (fragments 370–77 Radt). Fragment 371 may be a
Teubner, 1880. prayer to POSEIDON, perhaps by Laocoon. Fragment
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, 373, spoken by a messenger, refers to Aeneas’ carrying
Hildesheim: Olms, 1964. his father and leading a group of Trojans from the city.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta: Supplementum. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 135; Vergil, Aeneid 2]
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LAMIUS The name or nickname of the husband Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
of a woman mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at ECCLESI-
Harvard University Press, 1996.
AZUSAE 77. The ancient commentators on Ecclesiazusae
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
77 say that he was a poor man who made a living by Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
carrying wood. These commentators also indicate that Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Lamius was the name of a jailer in COMEDY. The lexi- Press of America, 1984.
cographer Hesychius, at lambda 252, says Lamius was
called the “Saw” (priona) or the “Axe” (pelekus) and that LAODAMEIA The daughter of ACASTUS, Lao-
a certain comic poet also called him Mnesitheus. dameia married PROTESILAUS. After Protesilaus died in
310 LAOMEDON

the Trojan War, the gods pitied Laodameia’s grief and Apollodorus, Library 2.5.4, 2.7.7; Euripides, Andro-
allowed Hermes to take him back from the UNDER- mache 791; Hyginus, Fables 33; Ovid, Metamorphoses
WORLD for three hours. After conversing with his wife, 12.210–535; Seneca, Hercules Furens 779]
Protesilaus returned to the underworld and Laodameia
committed suicide. Other sources indicate that Lao- LAR Among the Romans, a Lar was a divinity who
dameia missed her husband so much that she had a watched over a particular house. In PLAUTUS’ POT OF
statue made of him. Laodameia placed the statue in her GOLD, the Lar of Euclio’s house delivers the PROLOGUE.
bed and spoke to it, caressed it, and even kissed it.
When a servant saw Laodameia doing this, the servant, LARISA A town in northeastern Greece in the
thinking Laodameia unfaithful to Protesilaus, reported region of THESSALY, Larisa would presumably have been
her behavior to Acastus. Acastus had the statue burned, the setting for SOPHOCLES’ Men of Larisa (fragments
and Laodameia, unable to bear her grief, threw herself 378–83 Radt), a play that may have dealt with PERSEUS’
into the same flames and died. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- killing of his grandfather, ACRISIUS.
lodorus, Epitome 3.30; Hyginus, Fables 103–4]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
LAOMEDON The son of Ilus, Laomedon was a
Harvard University Press, 1996.
king of TROY and the father of, among others, PRIAM
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
and HESIONE. APOLLO and POSEIDON built walls for TROY Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
during Laomedon’s kingship but then inflicted hard- Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
ship on the town when Laomedon did not give them Press of America, 1984.
the reward he had promised for this work. When a
Poseidon-sent sea monster tormented the Trojans, LASTHENES A Theban whom ETEOCLES
Laomedon consulted an oracle about what to do. The matches against AMPHIARAUS in the battle of the Seven
oracle declared that Laomedon must sacrifice his against THEBES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven
daughter to the monster. Laomedon was obedient to against Thebes 620]
the oracle, but HERACLES arrived in time to save Hes-
ione and kill the monster. Again, however, Laomedon LASUS From the town of Hermione in southeast-
did not give Heracles the reward (horses) on which ern Greece, the poet Lasus lived during the last half of
they had agreed. Accordingly, Heracles later returned the sixth century B.C.E. He went to ATHENS between
to Troy, sacked the town, killed Laomedon, and took 527 and 514 and may have helped institute competi-
Hesione captive. Laomedon does not appear as a char- tions in dithyrambic poetry there. Lasus was famous
acter in any surviving dramas, but he appears to have for his wit and wisdom, as well as his research in
been a character in the Greek tragedian Demetrius’ acoustics and innovation in musical technique.
SATYR PLAY HESIONE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 1410;
Library 2.5.9; Euripides, Trojan Women 814, 822; Athenaeus, 8.338b–d, 10.455c; Herodotus, 7.6.3;
Hyginus, Fables 89; Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.194–220; pseudo-Plutarch, Moralia 1141c; Suda, “l” 139]
Seneca, Agamemnon 864; Sophocles, Ajax 1302]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 241.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.

LAPITHS A Greek tribe living in northeastern LATONA See LETO.

Greece. The Lapiths had a feud with the CENTAURS.
PIRITHOUS was a member of the Lapith tribe when they LEDA The daughter of THESTIUS and Eurythemis,
fought and defeated the centaurs. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Leda married TYNDAREUS after he took refuge in her
 LENAEA 311

land of AETOLIA. Later, Tyndareus returned to his native classical mythology. Not long after the killings, the
SPARTA and became king. Their first child was Timan- Argonauts arrived, were received hospitably by the
dra (or Phoebe). Later, ZEUS and Tyndareus had inter- Lemnian women, and helped repopulate the island by
course with Leda on the same night—Zeus impregnating them. JASON himself fathered at least one
impregnated her when he appeared in the form of a child by their leader, HYPSIPYLE. ARISTOPHANES wrote a
swan—and Leda gave birth to four children, two boys Women of Lemnos (Lemniai), from which 13 brief frag-
and two girls. Polydeuces (or POLLUX) and HELEN were ments survive (356–75 Kock). What aspect of the
the children of Zeus; CASTOR and CLYTEMNESTRA were Lemnian women’s story the play treated is not clear.
Tyndareus’ children. In EURIPIDES’ HELEN, the play- The comic poet Nicochares also wrote a Women of Lem-
wright says Leda committed suicide in shame about nos that may have dealt with the encounter of the Arg-
Helen’s reputation. The Greek comic poet Sophilus onauts and the Lemnian women (fragments 11–14
wrote a Leda (alternatively entitled Tyndareus), of Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer, Iliad 1.468–69, 593;
which only the title survives. The comic poet Eubulus Seneca, Agamemnon 566, Hercules Oetaeus 1362]
also wrote a Leda, whose four short fragments (60–63
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock) reveal little about the play’s plot. [ANCIENT
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
SOURCES: Apollodorus, 3.10.6–7; Euripides, Iphigenia at
Teubner, 1880.
Aulis 49–51; Seneca, Agamemnon 125, 234, Hercules
Furens 14, Octavia 205, 208, 764]
LENA The lena, a madam or procuress, is a stock
BIBLIOGRAPHY character in New Comedy. In two of PLAUTUS’ extant
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: comedies, COMEDY OF ASSES (Cleareta) and BASKET COM-
Teubner, 1884. EDY (Melaenis), a lena appears.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
LEIPSYDRIUM A place in Athenian territory
Morenilla Talens, C. “De lenae in comoedia figura,” Helman-
where, in the next-to-last decade of the sixth century tica 45 (1994) 81–106.
B.C.E., the military forces of the tyrant, HIPPIAS,
beseiged Athenians sympathetic to the Alcmeonid
LENAEA This Athenian festival, which honored
exiles. The sympathizers were defeated, but Hippias
the god DIONYSUS, took place on Gamelion 12 (roughly
was eventually overthrown in 511/510. [ANCIENT
January). The festival was held at the Lenaeum, which
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 665]
was an important sanctuary of Dionysus in ATHENS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY The derivation of the word Lenaea is not certain. Some
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon think it was derived from lenos (wine vat); others think
Press, 1987, 159. it was related to Lenai, a name for female worshipers of
Dionysus. The Lenaea included a feast for the people
LEMNOS An island in the northern AEGEAN, that was paid for by the city. After the feast, the partic-
Lemnos was the site of several tragic occurrences in ipants had a procession through the town, and, begin-
Greek mythology. The god HEPHAESTUS, to whom the ning around 442 B.C.E., festival goers were entertained
island was sacred, convalesced on the island after he by the performance of tragedies and beginning around
was thrown from MOUNT OLYMPUS. PHILOCTETES was 432, by commedies. In contrast to the City DIONYSIA, at
abandoned on this island for several years after the which three tragedians staged three tragedies and a
Greeks grew tired of the odor and commotion that SATYR PLAY, the Lenaea was a competition of two trage-
occurred in connection with his snake-bitten foot (see dians, each presenting two tragedies. In the case of
SOPHOCLES, PHILOCTETES). The most famous occurrence comedy, five playwrights each put on one play, as at the
on the island took place when the wives of Lemnos City Dionysia. Unlike the City Dionysia (held two
killed the husbands, one of the most notorious acts in months later), at which a large number of non-Athenians
312 LENO

would have been present, the Lenaea apparently did ARISTOPHANES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds
not attract significant numbers of outsiders because the 1406; Hermippus, fragment 35.3 Kock]
weather at that time of year was not conducive to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
travel. Although several of ARISTOPHANES’ plays were
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
staged at the Lenaea (ACHARNIANS, KNIGHTS, WASPS, Teubner, 1880.
FROGS, and probably LYSISTRATA), Pickard-Cambridge
writes that the “great tragic poets seldom appeared” at
this festival and it is clear that a victory at the Lenaea
LEPREUS (LEPREON) A town in south-
did not carry as much prestige as victory at the City western Greece south of Olympia. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Dionysia. Competition in TRAGEDY occurred at the Aristophanes, Birds 149; Thucydides 5.34.1]
Lenaea at least until 200 B.C.E., and competition in
comedy is attested even after 150 B.C.E. LERNA A town on the southeastern coast of
Greece, a few miles south of ARGOS, Lerna is famous in
BIBLIOGRAPHY
mythology as the home of the deadly Lernaean Hydra.
Parke, H. W. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
University Press, 1977, 104–6.
This monster, the offspring of Typhon and Echidna,
Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy, was a serpent that had numerous heads and haunted
2d ed. Revised by T. B. L. Webster. Oxford: Clarendon the swamps near the town of Lerna. Heracles was given
Press, 1962, 22–40. the task of killing the Hydra as his second labor.
Whenever Heracles tried to cut off one of the monster’s
LENO See PIMP. heads, two more heads sprang up. Eventually, with the
aid of his nephew, Iolaus, Heracles put an end to this
LEO After HERACLES killed the lion of NEMEA, the exponential growth and killed the monster by cutting
animal’s image was placed in the heavens as the zodia- off a head and then burning the place where the head
cal constellation Leo (the Latin word for “lion”). had been. After the Hydra’s death, Heracles dipped his
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Furens 69, 83, 945, arrows into the monster’s venom, an act that caused
Thyestes 855] the arrows to cause certain death. Eventually Heracles
himself was destroyed by venom from his own arrows.
LEOGORAS A rich Athenian aristocrat who
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Sophocles, Trachinian Women;
lived during the fifth century B.C.E. He was connected
Seneca, Hercules Furens 241–43; Seneca, Hercules
by marriage to PERICLES, and the famous orator Ando-
cides was his son. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Oetaeus]
Clouds 109, Wasps 1269; Plato Comicus, fragment
106.2 Kock] LESBOS An island off the northwest coast of what
is today Turkey. The island was famous for its wine.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The island’s principal city was MYTILENE. [ANCIENT
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 882; Aristophanes, Eccle-
Teubner, 1880.
siazusae 920; Plautus, Carthaginian 699; Seneca, Oedi-
LEONIDAS (DIED 480 B.C.E.) The Spartan pus 496, Trojan Women 226]
king who died at Thermopylae leading a valiant
defense of the coastal route there against a numerically LETHE A body of water in the UNDERWORLD.
superior Persian army. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Drinking the water of Lethe (which means “forgetful-
Lysistrata 1254; Herodotus, 7.205.2] ness” in Greek) causes one to forget all memories of the
upper world. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules
LEOTROPHIDES A thin, weak-looking, and Furens 680, 777, Hercules Oetaeus 936, 1162, 1208,
untalented playwright who was a contemporary of 1550, 1985, Hippolytus 1202]
 LICHAS 313

LETO The daughter of Coeus and Phoebe, the of the dead at their grave or on their tomb. AESCHYLUS’
goddess Leto (Latin: Latona) was the sister of Asteria. Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA) opens with the pouring
Some sources make Leto the sister of HECATE, although of libations at the grave of AGAMEMNON. In EURIPIDES’
EURIPIDES calls her Hecate’s mother. By ZEUS Leto ION, ION discovers that his wine has been poisoned
became the mother of twins, APOLLO and ARTEMIS. when he pours the liquid onto the ground as a libation
When HERA discovered Leto’s affair with Zeus, Leto and a bird that drinks some of it dies. [ANCIENT
was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis. Wanting to SOURCES: Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris 165; Sophocles,
punish Leto, Hera sent a giant serpent, the Python, to Oedipus at Colonus 466–90]
pursue her. The pregnant Leto fled and wandered the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
world in search of refuge. She finally arrived at the Brown, A. A New Companion to Greek Tragedy. London:
island of DELOS, where she gave birth to Artemis, who Croom Helm, 1983, 120.
then helped her mother deliver Apollo. After the birth
of the twins, the three divinities, still harassed by the LIBATION BEARERS See ORESTEIA.
Python, traveled to DELPHI. There, Apollo killed the
Python. While at Delphi, Leto was attacked by TITYUS, LIBRA The constellation of the zodiac that repre-
but Apollo and Artemis killed Tityus. Leto does not sents a balance or scales. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca,
appear in any extant dramas, although she would have Hippolytus 839, Thyestes 858]
figured in some way in plays that dealt with NIOBE,
who boasted that she was blessed with more children LIBYA A region of northern Africa; sometimes the
than Leto. This boast drew Leto’s wrath on Niobe and ancients used the name as a synonym for the entire
Leto sent her two children, Apollo and Artemis, to kill continent of Africa. According to legend, the region
Leto’s children (who were at least 12 in number). took its name from Libya, the child of EPAPHUS and
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.2.2, 1.4.1; Memphis. HERACLES’ labors took him through Libya.
Euripides, Phoenician Women 109–10] [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Suppliant Women 279,
317; Apollodorus, Library 2.1.4; Euripides, Helen 170,
LEUCOLOPHUS (LEUCOLOPHIDES) 404, 786, 1211, 1479; Seneca, Hercules Furens 482,
Probably the son of Adeimantus of Scambonidae. 1171, Hercules Oetaeus 24]
Adeimantus was one of the few Athenian commanders
not executed after the battle of Aegospotami in 405 LICHAS A messenger who appears as a character
B.C.E. In 352/351, Leucolophus was honored for serv- in SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN and SENECA’s HER-
ice to the island of Imbros, which the Athenians had CULES OETAEUS. Lichas does not have a speaking role in
colonized. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesi- Seneca’s play. In both plays, Lichas delivers to HERA-
azusae 645, Frogs 1513; Eupolis, fragment 210.2 Kock] CLES the poisoned robe from DEIANEIRA that causes

BIBLIOGRAPHY Heracles’ destruction. In each play, Heracles, in a

Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: frenzy of pain-generated madness, kills Lichas. In
Teubner, 1880. Sophocles’ play, which focuses to a great extent on
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, communication and the accuracy of information,
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 195. Lichas plays a more integral role with respect to the
play’s theme, as Sophocles’ Lichas gives Deianeira
LIBATION A liquid OFFERING (honey, milk, water, false information about Heracles’ actions against
or wine), poured out on many solemn occasions. After EURYTUS and his kingdom. Given Sophocles’ concern
a meal, for example, three libations were poured onto with the accuracy of information, that the messenger
the ground—“The first to Olympian Zeus, the second Lichas, who delivers the poisoned robe, should meet
to the heroes, and the third to Zeus the Saviour” his death seems only fitting. Lichas is the only mes-
(Brown). Libations were also poured out to the spirits senger in extant TRAGEDY who dies.
314 LICYMNIUS

LICYMNIUS (LIKYMNIOS) Licymnius, enraged Heracles struck his teacher and killed him.
the son of ELECTRYON and Midea, survived the cattle Later, the young Heracles was acquitted of Linus’ mur-
raid by the TELEBOANS that killed his brothers. After der because he convinced his judges that he had been
AMPHITRYON killed ELECTRYON, Licymnius traveled with struck wrongfully. Among the Greek dramatists,
Amphitryon and ALCMENA to THEBES. There, he grew Achaeus wrote a satyric Linus, whose only surviving
up and eventually married Perimede, who was the fragment (26 Snell) suggests that the play dealt with
daughter either of CREON or of Amphitryon and Linus’ encounter with Heracles. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Alcmena. Licymnius had several sons, and he and his Apollodorus, Library 2.4.9; Hyginus, Fables 161, 273]
family were staunch supporters of HERACLES. While BIBLIOGRAPHY
participating in an attack on ARGOS by Heracles’ Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
descendants, one of Heracles’ sons, Tlepolemus, killed Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Licymnius accidentally or in a fit of anger. EURIPIDES
wrote a Licymnius (fragments 473–78 Nauck) that was LIVIA (CA. 13 B.C.E.–CA. 31 C.E.) Also known
staged before 448 B.C.E. XENOCLES also wrote a Licym- as Livilla, Claudia Livia was a Roman woman who was
nius; in the surviving fragment of this play (2 Snell), the wife of Drusus, the son of the emperor, Tiberius.
Alcmena laments the death of Licymnius at the hands Livia had an affair with Sejanus, the commander of
of Tlepolemus. Tiberius’ Praetorian Guard, and the lovers poisoned
BIBLIOGRAPHY Drusus, who died in 23 C.E. After the plot was discov-
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, ered, both Livia and Sejanus were put to death.
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia 942]
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. LIVIUS See DRUSUS.
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Methuen, 1967. LOGEION The logeion, Greek for “talking place,”
is the wooden platform that forms the roof of the
LIGURIA A region near the coast of northwestern PROSKENION. Thus, it is the stage. The Latin equivalent
Italy. The Romans called those who lived in this region is pulpitum. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plutarch, Theseus 16;
Ligurians; the Greeks called them Ligyes or Ligystini. Vitruvius, On Architecture 5.7.2]
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Trojan Women 437]
LOTUS A plant that, according to legend, caused
LIMNAE A marshy area of uncertain location those who consumed it to be forgetful. During the
(perhaps south of the ACROPOLIS) in Athenian territory. return of ODYSSEUS from TROY, he and his crew arrived
The place had a sanctuary dedicated to DIONYSUS. in the land of the Lotus Eaters. Some of Odysseus’ crew
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 217] ate lotus and forgot their goal of returning home.
Odysseus, however, forced the affected crew members
BIBLIOGRAPHY to return to the ship and continue the voyage. [ANCIENT
Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press, SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 7.3; Euripides, Phoeni-
1993, 223. cian Women 1571, Trojan Women 439; Herodotus, 2.92,
4.177–78; Homer, Odyssey 9.82–104]
LINUS Various and numerous males (Amphi-
marus, APOLLO, Oeagrus) and females (Aethusa, Cal- LOVE See EROS.
lipe, Psamathe, Urania) are named as the parents of
Linus, a skilled musician, whose most famous pupil LOVES See EROTES.
was the young HERACLES. Once, when Heracles was 12
years old, Linus struck him for playing poorly. The LOXIAS See APOLLO.
 LYCURGUS (2) 315

LUCINA See EILEITHYIA. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1993, 192.
LUCRETIA A beautiful and virtuous Roman
woman who was the wife of Tarquinius Collatinus. She
LYCOMEDES A king on the island of SCYROS.
was sexually assaulted by Sextus Tarquinius, son of the
When ACHILLES was trying to avoid fighting at TROY, he
Roman king, Tarquinius Superbus. Lucretia told her
hid at the court of Lycomedes. Achilles later impreg-
husband and father what had happened and urged
nated Lycomedes’ daughter, Deidamia, and fathered
them to avenge her; she then committed suicide. Anger
NEOPTOLEMUS. Eventually Achilles was discovered hid-
about the assault on Lucretia led to expulsion of Tar-
ing at Lycomedes’ palace and compelled to go to Troy.
quinius Superbus as king in 510 B.C.E. [ANCIENT
While Achilles was at Troy, Lycomedes served as a foster
SOURCES: Diodorus Siculus, 10.20–21; Hyginus, Fables
father to Neoptolemus. Elsewhere in classical mythol-
256; Livy 1.57–59; Seneca, Octavia 302]
ogy, Lycomedes does not seem to have been a pleasant
fellow, as he is credited with killing THESEUS. [ANCIENT
LUNA See MOON. SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 96; Sophocles, Philoctetes 243]

LYCABETTUS A rather tall hill (more than 900 LYCON From Thorikos (not far southeast of
feet high) situated east of the ACROPOLIS in ATHENS. ATHENS), Lycon was the husband of Rhodia. Although
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 1056] Lycon appears friendly with SOCRATES in Xenophon,
PLATO makes him one of Socrates’ accusers in the trial
LYCAEAN PRECINCT A sacred area dedi- that led to his condemnation to death. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 270, Wasps 1301;
cated to Zeus Lycaeus on Mount Lycaeon, between
OLYMPIA and ARGOS in southern Greece. [ANCIENT Eupolis, fragment 215, 273 Kock; Plato, Symposium
SOURCES: Euripides, Electra 1274]
23e, 36a; Xenophon, Symposium 9.1]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LYCAEUS See APOLLO. Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1987, 102.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
LYCAON A son of ARES and the nymph Pyrene, Teubner, 1880.
Lycaon is mentioned by EURIPIDES, at ALCESTIS 502, as
having been overcome in battle by HERACLES. Other LYCURGUS (1) A king of NEMEA. Lycurgus was
details about this encounter are unknown. the husband of EURYDICE and the father of OPHELTES.
EURIPIDES’ Hypsipyle was set at the palace of Lycurgus.
LYCIA A region near the southwestern coast of
BIBLIOGRAPHY
what is modern-day Turkey. APOLLO and ARTEMIS were
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London:
especially associated with this region. In the Trojan Heinemann, 1970, 77–109.
War, the Lycians were allies of the Trojans. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Libation Bearers 346 (see ORESTEIA); LYCURGUS (2) The son of Dryas, Lycurgus
Aristophanes, Knights 1240; Euripides, Rhesus 29, 224, was the king of a Thracian tribe called the Edonians.
543; Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos 208] When DIONYSUS passed through Lycurgus’ kingdom
and attempted to introduce his rites, Lycurgus rejected
LYCIS A comic playwright whom ARISTOPHANES him and took prisoner some of the god’s followers.
mocks at FROGS 14 for using the same old jokes in all Dionysus himself jumped into the sea and took refuge
his plays, although he may have won at the DIONYSIA in with NEREUS’ daughter, THETIS. Eventually Dionysus
the latter part of the fifth century B.C.E. returned and caused Lycurgus to become mad. In his
316 LYCUS (1)

insanity, Lycurgus killed his son, Dryas, thinking the LYDIA A region near the western coast of what is
lad was turning into a vine. Lycurgus’ killing of his son modern-day Turkey. Poets sometimes make the Lydi-
put a curse on his kingdom, which caused the land to ans synonymous with the Trojans.
be barren. Dionysus, however, revealed to the Edo-
nians that their land’s fertility would return if Lycurgus LYDIAS A river in the region of Macedonia, north
were killed. The Edonians then took Lycurgus to of Greece.
Mount Pangaeum and had him torn apart by horses.
AESCHYLUS wrote an EDONIANS, which seems to have LYNCEUS The son of Aphareus, Lynceus was the
been about this story. He also wrote a Lycurgus, which brother of Idas. Lynceus sailed with JASON and the Arg-
was the SATYR PLAY that rounded off the Lycurgus trilogy onauts on their quest for the Golden Fleece. Lynceus
of Edonians, Bassarai, and Neaniskoi. NAEVIUS wrote a had exceptional powers of sight and could see objects
TRAGEDY entitled Lycurgus, from which about three that were far away or even underground. CASTOR and
dozen lines survive. Naevius’ play dealt with Lycurgus’ POLLUX died after a cattle raid on which Lynceus and
encounter with Dionysus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Idas accompanied them. When Idas tricked the broth-
Fables 132; Seneca, Hercules Furens 903, Oedipus 471] ers out of their share of the cattle and drove the ani-
BIBLIOGRAPHY mals to Messene, Castor and Pollux followed,
Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926. recaptured the cattle, and then set up an ambush for
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971. Idas and Lynceus. Lynceus saw Castor and told Idas,
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, who killed Castor. Pollux then pursued Lynceus and
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: killed him. Pollux, who had suffered a head wound in
Harvard University Press, 1936. his fight with Lynceus, fainted before he could attack
Idas. Zeus, however, struck Idas with a lightning bolt.
LYCUS (1) A mythical person from the island of The Greek tragedian Theodectas wrote a Lynceus, of
EUBOEA who took over the kingdom of THEBES by which only the title survives (3a Snell). [ANCIENT
killing King CREON. He appears as a character in two SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.8.2, 1.9.16; Aristo-
plays, EURIPIDES’ HERACLES and SENECA’s HERCULES phanes, Wealth 210; Hyginus, Fables 14, 80; Pausanias,
FURENS. In both plays, Lycus tries to diminish the 3.13.1, 3.14.7, 4.2.7, 4.3.1; Seneca, Medea 232]
heroic status of HERACLES and threatens to kill Heracles’
BIBLIOGRAPHY
family but is killed by Heracles when the hero returns
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
from the UNDERWORLD. EURIPIDES and SENECA give Lycus
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
different motivations for the threats against Heracles’
family. In Euripides’ play, Lycus wants to kill Heracles’ LYRE A stringed musical instrument that is similar
children so that they will not grow up and avenge his to a harp. The lyre had a base (usually round, and
killing of their uncle, Creon (their mother was Creon’s resembling a turtle’s shell), to which were attached two
daughter). In Seneca’s play, Lycus uses threats against arms in a U shape that had a connecting cross bar. The
the children to persuade their mother, a woman of lyre’s number of strings could vary; strings were seven
royal blood, to marry him. MEGARA, however, rejects most common. Softer tones were made by plucking
the proposed marriage. the strings with the left hand; louder tones were pro-
duced by striking the strings with a plectrum (a stick,
LYCUS (2) A person worshipped at ATHENS as a often of ivory or gold, whose function was similar to
hero. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 389, 819] that of the modern guitar pick). According to legend,
BIBLIOGRAPHY the lyre was invented by HERMES soon after he was
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, born. Hermes later traded the lyre to his brother,
Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 180. APOLLO, who became the divinity most associated with
 LYSISTRATA 317

the instrument. ORPHEUS and AMPHION were mythical most powerful noblewoman to take a leading role in
mortals famous for playing the lyre. Those who recited COMEDY up to the date of LYSISTRATA’s production (411
poetry often sang to the accompaniment of the lyre, B.C.E.). Henderson and others have noted that Lysis-
hence the term lyric poetry (although not all lyric trata may have been modeled on an actual Athenian
poetry was accompanied by the lyre). [ANCIENT woman, Lysimache (“the dissolver of battle”), who
SOURCES: Homeric Hymn 3, 4; Sophocles, Searchers] served as a priestess of ATHENA Polias at this time. Note
also that Lysistrata is a more urban-centered hero than
LYSICLES An Athenian sheep dealer who, after Dicaeopolis and Trygaeus, both of whom are explicitly
PERICLES died in 429 B.C.E., lived with PERICLES’ mis- linked to the Athenian countryside. As does that of the
tress, ASPASIA. In 428, Lysicles lost his own life in Caria heroes of earlier plays, Lysistrata’s proposed social
while in command of Athenian troops. [ANCIENT reform involves a cessation of war between her native
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 765; Plutarch, Pericles ATHENS and SPARTA. Unlike that of Dicaeopolis, whose
24.6; Thucydides, 3.19.2] peace treaty is only between him and the Spartans, and
like that of Trygaeus, Lysistrata’s goal is peace for all
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Greeks. Whereas Dicaeopolis enlists the god
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 150–51. Amphitheus to arrange his peace treaty and Trygaeus
flies on a dung beetle to heaven to return the goddess
LYSICRATES In BIRDS (414 B.C.E.), ARISTOPHANES Peace to Earth, Lysistrata relies on the women of
mentions a Lysicrates and suggests that he was an Greece and the power of love to effect her reform. In
Athenian statesman who had taken bribes. The ancient the case of Dicaeopolis and Trygaeus, after the estab-
commentator on the passage in Birds says Lysicrates lishment of their peace treaties, Aristophanes primarily
was a military general, but no other ancient sources examines the economic impact of their reforms. Lysis-
confirm this. In ECCLESIASUZAE of 392/391 B.C.E., trata’s peace plan does have an economic component,
Aristophanes mentions a Lysicrates who had an in that she has the older women seize the Athenian
unusually shaped nose and who dyed his hair black. treasury, but the main challenges to the success of her
Whether the two men are the same is not certain. Dun- peace depend on overcoming the desires of the flesh.
bar notes that if Lysicrates had been a general around The success of Lysistrata’s plan depends on the
the time Birds was produced, he would have been at women’s being able to control their physical desires
least 52 years old by the date of Ecclesiazusae. [ANCIENT and the men’s being unable to control theirs. The
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 513, Ecclesiazusae 630,
women triumph. Just as Trygaeus entered into a sacred
736; Apostolius, 10.97] marriage with the personification of the harvest season
at the conclusion of Peace, at the conclusion of Lysis-
BIBLIOGRAPHY trata, the title character summons a women named
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer- Reconciliation. The Athenians and Spartans are ready
sity Press, 1995, 513. to embrace, literally, Reconciliation. Unlike Dicaeopo-
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
lis and Trygaeus, both of whom can expect the sexual
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
favors of a new woman (or women, in the case of
193–94.
Dicaeopolis), Lysistrata and the other Greek women
are to be reunited with their husband.
LYSISTRATA Compared with ARISTOPHANES’
heroes, Lysistrata (“the dissolver of armies”) is most BIBLIOGRAPHY
similar to DICAEOPOLIS (ACHARNIANS) and TRYGAEUS Dover, K., and S. Tremewan. Aristophanes: Clouds, Acharni-
(PEACE). The most obvious difference between Lysis- ans, Lysistrata: A Companion to the Penguin Translation of
trata and these two heroes is that she is a woman and Alan H. Sommerstein. Bristol, U.K.: Duckworth Publishing,
they are men. In fact, Lysistrata may have been the 1989.
318 LYSISTRATA

Foley, H. P. “The ‘Female Intruder’ Reconsidered: Women in The play opens with Lysistrata’ (“disolver of armies”)
Aristophanes’ Lysistrata and Ecclesiazusae,” Classical Philol- impatiently waiting for the women of Greece to gather
ogy 77 (1982): 1–21. near the Athenian ACROPOLIS. When the women finally
Henderson, Jeffrey. “Older Women in Attic Old Comedy,” assemble, Lysistrata announces her radical plan for
Transactions of the American Philological Association 117
peace between the warring Athenians and Spartans—
(1987): 105–29.
women must stop having sexual intercourse with their
Konstan, D. “Aristophanes’ Lysistrata: Women and the Body
Politic.” In Tragedy, Comedy and the Polis. Edited by A. H. husbands. The women are initially reluctant to give up
Sommerstein, S. Halliwell, J. Henderson, and B. Zimmer- sex but decide that peace is worth the effort. To con-
man. Bari, Italy: 1993, 431–44. firm their commitment, the women take an oath on a
Martin, R. P. “Fire on the Mountain: Lysistrata and the large bowl of wine (humorously appropriate because
Lemnian Women,” Classical Antiquity 6 (1987): Italy: Lev- women were stereotyped as fond of alcoholic bever-
ante Editori, 77–105. ages). After the women drink of the wine, they hear a
Vaio, John. “The Manipulation of Theme and Action in sound of triumph in the distance as the older women
Aristophanes’ Lysistrata,” Greek Roman and Byzantine Stud- have captured the Acropolis. At this, Lysistrata sends
ies 14 (1973): 369–80.
the women off to their respective cities to put their
Westlake, H. D. “The Lysistrata and the War,” Phoenix 34
plan into effect.
(1980): 38–54.
Wysocki, L. “Aristophanes, Thucydides, b. VIII, and the
After the women’s departure, a chorus of old Athen-
Political Events of 413–411 B.C.,” Eos 76 (1988): ian men enter, carrying firewood and something to
237–48. ignite it. They intend to smoke the women out of the
Acropolis and smash through the gates of the citadel,
LYSISTRATA ARISTOPHANES (411 B.C.E.) but they are met by a chorus of old Athenian women,
We do not know at which festival ARISTOPHANES who fight back by pouring water on them. An Athen-
staged Lysistrata or how it placed in competition. The ian magistrate enters to check on the old men’s
play appeared in the same year as Aristophanes’ THE- progress and finds them thoroughly drenched by the
MOPHORIAZUSAE, but whether Lysistrata was performed women. Lysistrata meets the magistrate, who threatens
earlier in 411 than Thesmophoriazusae is not known. to arrest her. The women, however, fight back and pre-
Most scholars think that the Lysistrata was performed vent any of their number from being captured.
at the LENAEA, but others favor the DIONYSIA. Because Eventually, the magistrate begins to question Lysis-
the Lysistrata (with its focus on sexual relations) trata about why the women have seized the Acropolis.
would be understood by a broader audience than Lysistrata explains that they have seized it so that they
Thesmophoriazusae (with its focus on the playwright can control the city’s money, which Lysistrata suggests is
EURIPIDES), it might seem logical that Thesmophori- the cause of the war. Furthermore, Lysistrata says the
azusae would have been performed at the LENAEA women will act as the city’s treasurers. The magistrate
(where the spectators were predominantly Atheni- scoffs at this idea, but Lysistrata explains that because
ans), whereas Lysistrata would have been performed women manage their household budget, they should be
at the City DIONYSIA (at which more non-Athenians able to manage the city’s finances just as well. Lysistrata
would have been present). Because the Lenaea was compares the problems of Athens to a knotted and dirty
held about two months before the Dionysia, the Thes- tangle of thread and wool, which women, being experts
mophoriazusae should be the earlier of the two plays. in weaving, will untangle, wash, and weave into a gar-
Still, Henderson writes that internal evidence from ment that harmoniously incorporates all of the city’s
Lysistrata “very strongly favours” its appearance at the various constituents. When the magistrate rejects Lysis-
Leneaea, especially because Lysistrata shows little trata’s logic, the women dress him as if he were going to
awareness of the oligarchic revolution that was about be buried and drive him from their midst.
to occur and the plans for which would have been Next, the chorus of old men worry that the Spartans
known by the time of the Dionysia. are somehow behind the women’s plot. The women’s
 LYSISTRATA 319

chorus respond that they have even more at stake than with them when they could just as easily be friends.
the men because they contribute their sons to the city. The women then help the men arrange their clothing
They complain that the men have wasted the city’s properly and brush annoying insects away from their
money. The men threaten to retaliate physically against eyes. The old men then decide to make peace with the
the women, but the old women stand firm and women.
threaten to fight back. After the two choruses join to sing a song of cele-
The struggle between the men and women is broken bration, ambassadors, who have erections, enter from
off by the entrance of Lysistrata, who complains that Sparta. They are soon met by some Athenian men who
the younger women are trying to desert from the ranks are experiencing the same affliction. The two parties
because they want to have sex with their men. At this quickly note the need to make peace and summon
point, several women, eager to join their men, emerge Lysistrata to resolve the quarrel. Lysistrata, accompa-
and give various excuses at to why they need to leave nied by her maidservant, Reconciliation, enters and
the Acropolis. Lysistrata, however, rejects each of the chastises the men for fighting against one another
deserting women’s excuses and sends them back to the when the two states had helped each other in the past.
Acropolis. After Lysistrata puts an end to the women’s The men agree with Lysistrata’s reasoning but still
efforts to desert, the two choruses engage in brief ver- squabble over various territories that each wants
bal and physical abuse. restored. Lysistrata, however, manages to reconcile the
The choruses’ wrangling ends when Lysistrata sees a two parties and then invites everyone to the Acropolis
sex-starved male approaching. One of Lysistrata’s com- for a feast and a reunion with his wife.
panions, Myrrhine, recognizes him as her husband, After the exit of the men, the unified choruses
CINESIAS, whose name is derived from the Greek word rejoice about the approaching celebration and promise
kinein, a verb that can denote the motion of sexual fine clothes and food to anyone in need. The choruses
intercourse. Cinesias’ erection is visible, so Myrrhine also arrange for a porter to drive away from the feast
decides to torture her husband for a few moments. some lazy fellows from the Athenian AGORA who try to
Cinesias begs his wife to return home, but Myrrhine sneak into the feast. Next, some Athenians and a Spar-
refuses unless Cinesias promises to help put an end to tan emerge from the feast in good spirits. The Atheni-
the fighting with the Spartans. Cinesias wants to have ans express interest in seeing the Spartan dance and
sexual relations with his wife immediately, but the Spartan obliges them with a dance and a song that
Myrrhine torments him by gathering together a mat- recalls the successful Athenian and Spartan alliance
tress, a pillow, ointment, and other things. Just as against the Persians and celebrates the new peace.
Myrrhine is about to satisfy her husband’s lust, he After the Spartan’s dance, Lysistrata enters and calls for
expresses hesitation about voting for peace with the Athenian and Spartan men to pair off with their
Sparta. Thus, Myrrhine leaves her husband writhing in respective women and dance in honor of the gods. The
torment on the ground. play ends with celebratory songs to the gods from the
As the male chorus sympathize with Cinesias’ united choruses and a song from the Spartans in praise
plight, a Spartan herald, who also has an erection, of their native land and divinities.
enters in search of the Athenian assembly. He is met by
the Athenian magistrate who appeared earlier in the COMMENTARY
play. The Spartan tells the magistrate about the sexual Lysistrata is Aristophanes’ most popular play with
strike in Sparta and says that the Spartans are now modern audiences, and its appeal is easily understood
ready to make peace. The Athenian magistrate agrees, from the universality of its sexual content. The staging
and the two men exit for their respective political of the play is relatively unproblematic for scholars to
assemblies. After their exit, the two choruses again reconstruct, but modern readers of the play should be
square off. The men express their hatred of women, aware that the ancient comic costume for men was
but the women suggest that they are foolish to fight equipped with an exaggerated PHALLUS (penis) and the
320 LYSISTRATA

visual humor of a play such as Lysistrata would have who resemble women or consciously dress as women.
benefited greatly from this exaggerated appendage. Lysistrata also would have derived humor from men’s
Although women take over the Athenian govern- playing women’s roles (all of the speaking actors were
ment in the play, Lysistrata should not be read as men) but does not make use of men who deliberately
Aristophanes’ endorsement of women’s actually taking dress as women or are so effeminate that they are mis-
over the government or being empowered politically in taken for women as does Thesmophoriazusae. Lysistrata
any way. Aristophanes uses a female-controlled gov- is most similar to the later Ecclesiazusae, in which the
ernment and a peace treaty engineered by women to women take on men’s roles and overthrow the Athen-
show the foolishness and stubborness of the men in his ian government but transform the city into a commu-
society, rather than highlight the plight of women in nist society in which food, possessions, and even men
his society. Modern readers of Lysistrata should also be are shared. Note, however, that Lysistrata’s reforms
aware of one additional point: Although the success of appear to be temporary, whereas PRAXAGORA’s, in Eccle-
a sexual strike between husbands and wives would be siazusae, appear to be permanent. After Lysistrata’s aim
extremely far-fetched in our modern society, it might of peace between Athens and Sparta is achieved, rela-
have been even more unlikely to be effective in ancient tions between men and women return to normal. In
Greek society, in which married men were free to sat- Praxagora’s case, Praxagora’s communistic reforms
isfy their lust with prostitutes. Furthermore, sexual remain.
contact between two men was also common in Greek As a “peace play,” as do Acharnians and Peace, Lysis-
society, even if the men were married. Aristophanes, trata deals with the war between Athens and Sparta.
however, asks his audience to play along with his sce- Lysistrata follows a pattern seen in several other Aristo-
nario and does not raise the topics of prostitutes and phanic plays: An unlikely hero creates a fantastic plan
male lovers. to correct some social crisis, the plan is implemented,
Aristophanes’ primary concern in Lysistrata is not the plan is challenged (e.g., the women try to desert;
women, but war, just as it had been for almost two Cinesias tries to tempt Myrrhine), and eventually the
decades, and specifically an interest in ending the war fantastic plan achieves its aim and those who embrace
between Athens and Sparta. Although Athens had been it are treated to food, drink, and a sexual encounter
weakened by the deaths of generals like NICIAS and with a member of the opposite sex. Regarding the sex-
LAMACHUS, the defection of ALCIBIADES to the Spartans, ual aspect, Lysistrata differs from other Aristophanic
and the destruction of the SICILIAN EXPEDITION in 413, plays because it is expected that the men will ulti-
the Athenians remained resilient and in 411 gave little mately have sexual relations with their own wife. As
indication of being in jeopardy of losing the war to does Peace, with the appearance of Opôra, Lysistrata
Sparta. Although an oligarchic revolution overthrew concludes with the appearance of an allegorical
Athenian democracy in 411, it occurred after Lysistrata woman, Reconciliation. Whereas Trygaeus will enter
was produced and, as stated, Aristophanes shows little into a sacred marriage with Opôra, the men of Lysis-
awareness of such a major change in Lysistrata. trata merely gawk at and fondle Reconciliation.
Lysistrata can be compared with several of the play- The union of Trygaeus with the personification of
wright’s other works. On one level, Lysistrata warrants the harvest points to another difference between Lysis-
comparison with Aristophanes’ other two “women’s trata and Aristophanes’ other peace plays. The earlier
plays,” THESMOPHORIAZUSAE (411 B.C.E.) and ECCLESI- peace plays have rustic heroes and are especially con-
AZUSAE (392/391). On another level, Lysistrata has cerned with the effects of the war on the folk of the
much in common with Aristophanes’ other two “peace Athenian countryside. Lysistrata has a more urban
plays,” ACHARNIANS (425) and PEACE (421). As a aspect and Lysistrata seems more sophisticated than
“women’s play,” Lysistrata bears the least resemblance Dicaeopolis or Trygaeus.
to Thesmophoriazusae, which primarily focuses on In contrast to Acharnians, in which DICAEOPOLIS
EURIPIDES and derives much of its humor from men arranges for a personal peace between him and the
 LYSSA 321

Spartans, Lysistrata’s aim is, as is that of TRYGAEUS in during the play. The names of APHRODITE and EROS,
Peace, peace for all Greeks. Unlike the challenges to the however, are mentioned frequently. Thus, in some
hero’s plan in Acharnians and Peace, which mainly ways divine power is more evident in Lysistrata than in
focus on the economic impact of peace upon those the other peace plays, because the power of Love pro-
who benefit from war, in Lysistrata the main obstacle to duces peace between the Athenians and Spartans.
the success of the title character’s plan is the sexual
BIBLIOGRAPHY
drive of the respective genders. To be sure, for Lysis-
Dillon, M. “The Lysistrata as a Post-Dekeleian Peace Play,”
trata’s plan to succeed, the women must gain control of Transactions of the American Philological Association 117
the Athenian treasury, but otherwise economic obsta- (1987): 97–104.
cles to the hero’s plan, such as informants (see espe- Henderson, J. “Lysistrate: The Play and Its Themes,” Yale
cially Acharnians), will not trouble Lysistrata. Classical Studies 26 (1980): 153–218.
Lysistrata also has a different divine aspect from that ———. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
of Peace or Acharnians. In Acharnians, Dicaeopolis 1987.
employed the divinity AMPHITHEUS to arrange peace Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 7,
between him and the Spartans. In Peace, Trygaeus had Lysistrata. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1990.
to fly to heaven and negotiate with HERMES to take
Peace back to Earth. In Lysistrata, no divinities speak LYSSA See MADNESS.
 C MD
MACARIA A daughter of HERACLES, Macaria is MAENADS Related to the Greek verb mainomai
assumed to be the name of the woman who appears in (to rave or to be beside oneself with madness), Maenads
EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES and, in accordance are female worshipers of DIONYSUS. The term Maenads
with an oracle, sacrifices herself to ensure victory over is often synonymous with BACCHAE or Bacchants.
EURYSTHEUS. Women in a state of madness or frenzy are often com-
pared to Maenads and sometimes maenad is used as an
MACISTUS A town in southwestern Greece. adjective (see especially EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE, in which
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Agamemnon 289 (see the women who kill PENTHEUS are frequently called
ORESTEIA)] Maenads). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus
243, Medea 383, Oedipus 436, Trojan Women 674]
MADNESS In EURIPIDES’ HERACLES, HERA sends
the goddess Madness (Greek: Lyssa) to drive HERACLES
MAENALUS A mountain in southern Greece,
insane. As with HEPHAESTUS’ binding of PROMETHEUS in Maenalus is associated with the stag that HERACLES had
to capture as one of his labors. The divinities PAN and
AESCHYLUS’ play, in Euripides’ play Madness is reluctant
ARTEMIS are also associated with this mountain.
to punish Heracles, but she does so in accordance with
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Phoenician Women 1162;
Hera’s wishes. Madness also seems to have appeared as
Seneca, Hercules Furens 222]
a character in AESCHYLUS’ Xantriai (fragment 169 Radt),
a play that concerned some aspect of DIONYSUS’ travels
through mainland Greece and an instance of madness MAENIANUM In the Roman theater, a maeni-
that resulted from opposition to the god. anum (plural: maeniana) is the lower, horizontal section
of seats. The maenianum is also called the cavea ima.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, MAEONIA A region near the coast of western
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. Turkey and south of TROY. Maeonia is sometimes syn-
onymous with the region of LYDIA. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
MAEANDER The Meander River, some 250 Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 665]
miles long, is located in western Turkey and flows into
the AEGEAN SEA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules MAEOTIS North of the Black Sea, Maeotis is a
Furens 684, Phoenician Women 606] body of water (often called a lake) that is today called
322
 THE MAN FROM SICYON 323

the Sea of Azov. The AMAZONS and SCYTHIANS are some- MALIS A region along the northeast coast of
times said to live near Maeotis. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Greece in which the town of TRACHIS was located.
Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 419, 731; Aristophanes, PHILOCTETES was from this region. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Clouds 273; Euripides, HERACLES 409] Sophocles, Philoctetes 4, Trachinian Women 635]

MAGNES A Greek comic poet who won more MANES A common name of male slaves. [ANCIENT
victories (11) at the City DIONYSIA than any other SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 1311, 1329, Lysistrata
comic poet. Only some 50 words by Magnes survive 1211, Peace 1146]
(see Kock) and seven titles are known: Barbiton-Playing
Frogs, Birds, Dionysus, Gall-Flies, Grass-Cutters, Lydians, THE MAN FROM SICYON (Greek: SIKY-
and Titakides. One of Magnes’ plays appeared in 472 ONIOS) MENANDER (DATE UNKNOWN)
B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 520; At least one of the five acts is completely missing. The
Aristotle, Poetics 1448a34] play’s setting is ELEUSIS, and the action takes place before
two houses, one belonging to a soldier, Stratophanes,
BIBLIOGRAPHY and the other to an elderly private citizen, Smicrines.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
The PROLOGUE of the first act may is delivered by a
Teubner, 1880.
divinity (perhaps DEMETER), who relates that
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 170. Philoumene, the daughter of Kichesias, and Dromon,
servant of Kichesias, were kidnapped by pirates and
taken by Stratophanes. After Philoumene grew up,
MAGNESIA One region and two towns in the Stratophanes fell in love with Philoumene. In the play,
classical world had this name. The region of Magnesia Stratophanes has returned home from a foreign mili-
was east of THESSALY along the northeastern coast of tary campaign (as does Thrasonides in MAN SHE
Greece. There were two towns called Magnesia in what HATED). Other fragments from this act indicate that
is today western Turkey: one located roughly between Philoumene and Dromon have taken refuge from
Mount SIPYLUS and the town of SARDIS, the other, south Stratophanes at an altar and that a young man named
of the first, south of EPHESUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Moschion, son of Smicrines, is also in love with
Aeschylus, Persians 492; Sophocles, Electra 705] Philoumene. A fragment from another act, a conversa-
tion between Stratophanes and his PARASITE, Theron,
MAIA The daughter of ATLAS and Pleione, Maia is reveals that Stratophanes’ property is in danger of
a divinity (her name means “mother” in Greek) who falling into the hands of a Boeotian creditor. The two
joined with ZEUS to produce HERMES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: men are joined by Stratophanes’ slave, Pyrrhias, who
Apollodorus, Library 3.10.1–2; Homeric Hymn to Her- informs Stratophanes that his mother died while he
mes 4] was abroad, but that she was not actually his mother.
Pyrrhias gives Stratophanes documents that will help
MALIAN GULF A body of water on the north- him resolve his financial situation and items that will
help him learn his true identity.
eastern coast of Greece. The town of TRACHIS is on the
In the fourth act, of which about 150 lines survive,
southern shore of this gulf. During the PELOPONNESIAN
a man named Eleusinos tells Smicrines about a crowd
WAR, the Spartans had strongholds in this area.
who had gathered around Philoumene and Dromon at
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 1169;
the altar. When people asked who the young woman’s
Thucydides, 3.92–93, 8.3, 8.92.8]
guardian was, Stratophanes stepped forward and
BIBLIOGRAPHY claimed her. Stratophanes, however, agreed to place
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon her under the protection of Demeter’s priestess while
Press, 1987, 205. her family could be sought. Stratophanes also told the
324 MANIA

crowd about the items he had recently acquired. from the god of the underworld. Moschion, however,
Stratophanes believed they would lead to proof that he must put aside his Demeter-like qualities when he dis-
was a citizen of Eleusis. If her father were found, covers that he is Stratophanes’ brother. With Moschion
Stratophanes said that he would ask him for the right no longer a threat, a second Demeter-figure appears in
to marry Philoumene. Apparently, Moschion was in the the form of Kichesias, who, like Demeter, is reunited
crowd and had expressed his doubts about the soldier’s with his long-lost daughter. As in the case of Demeter, in
claims to Eleusinian citizenship. After Eleusinos leaves, which an arrangement is reached that will allow Perse-
Moschion enters and tries to arrest Stratophanes. At phone and Hades to marry but still allow Persephone
this point, however, the manuscript contains a gap. access to her parent, in Menander’s play, Stratophanes
Apparently, Stratophanes told Moschion he was look- and Philoumene will become as husband and wife and
ing for Smicrines; Moschion said Smicrines was his Philoumene will renew her relationship with her parent.
father; eventually, Stratophanes and Moschion discov-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ered that they were brothers. Coles, R. A. “Notes on Menander’s Sikyonios.” Emerita 34
In the play’s final act, Philoumene’s father, Kich- (1966): 131–37.
esias, and Theron quarrel. Theron apparently is try- Handley, E. W. “Notes on the Sikyonios of Menander.”
ing to bribe Kichesias to say he knows who Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 12 (1965):
Philoumene’s father is. Theron does not know who 38–62.
Kichesias is and Kichesias does not know Theron is ———. “Another Fragment of Menander’s Sikyonios.” Bul-
talking about his daughter. Identifying Philoumene as letin of the Institute of Classical Studies 31 (1984): 25–31.
Kumaniecki, K. “Bemerkungen zu den neuentdeckten Frag-
an Athenian will allow Stratophanes (by now proved
menten des Sikyonios von Menandros.” Athenaeum 43
to be an Athenian citizen) to marry her. Theron, in
(1965): 154–66.
supplying Kichesias with a story about the young Lloyd-Jones, H. “Menander’s Sikyonios.” Greek, Roman, and
woman, tells him the real history of Philoumene’s Byzantine Studies 7 (1966): 131–57.
abduction, which makes Kichesias think of his
daughter. Kichesias soon discovers his daughter
when Dromon arrives and recognizes Kichesias. MANIA A name of a female slave. [ANCIENT
Stratophanes enters, meets Kichesias, and proposes to SOURCES:Aristophanes, Frogs 1346, Thesmophoriazusae
marry Philoumene. The remainder of the play is 728, 739, 754]
largely missing. At one point, Moschion laments that
he has to accept losing Philoumene to his brother. THE MAN SHE HATED (Greek: MISOU-
The play ends with Theron’s calling for the wedding MENOS) MENANDER (DATE UNKNOWN)
of Stratophanes and Philoumene to begin. The surviving fragments are not in good condition.
The play’s setting may be ATHENS; the action takes
COMMENTARY place before two houses, one belonging to a soldier,
The play’s setting in Eleusis and the likelihood that Thrasonides; the other, to a private citizen, Cleinias.
Demeter spoke the prologue invite an interpretation of Fragments of the first act primarily involve a con-
the play that connects its characters and plot to the story versation between Thrasonides and his slave, Getas.
of Demeter, her daughter PERSEPHONE, and HADES. In Thrasonides has returned from a military campaign on
Menander’s play, Philoumene obviously functions as the CYPRUS and has taken back a captive woman, Krateia.
Persephone figure, and her abduction by pirates creates The soldier loves her, but she will not sleep with him.
a rough parallel with Persephone’s abduction by Hades. Thrasonides and Getas puzzle over the reason for this.
Stratophanes’ acquisition of Philoumene casts him in the From the second act, only about 18 lines survive. Most
role of Hades. Moschion, in attempting to rescue of these involve a conversation between Cleinias’ slave,
Philoumene/Persephone from Hades/Stratophanes, Syra, and Demeas, in which Demeas discovers his
would parallel Demeter’s efforts to rescue her daughter daughter’s whereabouts.
 MARPSIAS 325

The text of the opening of the third act is in poor MARATHON The site of one of the most famous
shape. Krateia’s nurse may have attempted some sort of battles in Greek history, Marathon is located about 25
reconciliation of Krateia and Thrasonides. Geta miles northeast of ATHENS. At Marathon, in 490 B.C.E.,
describes seeing two men drinking and singing. some 5,000 Athenians and fewer than a thousand
Another 50 lines reveal the reunion between Krateia other troops, the majority from the town of PLATAEA,
and Demeas, whom Getas initially mistakes for a rival decisively defeated a force of Persians that was at least
lover. Krateia tells her father that she is sure her four times as numerous. This battle not only prevented
brother is dead and that Thrasonides killed him. After the Persians from becoming the masters of Greece, but
Krateia and Demeas enter Thrasonides’ house to also vaulted Athens into prominence in Greece. In
decide their next move, Thrasonides and Getas arrive. ancient drama, Marathon also has some significance.
Getas has told him of the arrival of Krateia’s father, and EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES has Marathon as its
Thrasonides thinks this could be fortunate or unfortu- setting. Aristophanes often refers to Marathon in his
nate for him. The two men then enter Thrasonides’ comedies as an example of Athens’ finest hour. Some
house. In the last few lines of the act, Cleinias is anx- of ARISTOPHANES’ characters are described as veterans of
ious about a dinner party that will include him, the battle of Marathon. PHILOCLEON and the chorus of
Demeas, and a young woman. WASPS are veterans of Marathon.
In the fourth act, Getas tells Demeas about Thra-
sonides’ confession to Demeas that he loves Krateia. MARDIANS A nomadic tribe who are mentioned
Thrasonides, however, received no sympathy from as part of the Persian force who invaded Greece under
Demeas or Krateia, and Demeas demanded Krateia’s XERXES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 993;
return. The surviving part of the act reveals a despon- Herodotus, 1.125]
dent Thrasonides, who may be planning to pretend to
kill himself. The surviving fragments from the play’s MARDUS AESCHYLUS calls him Mardus;
final act indicate that Krateia’s brother turned up alive, HERODOTUS calls him Smerdis. Smerdis had the same
and his appearance led to Demeas’ giving Krateia in name as and a resemblance to the son of the Persian
marriage to Thrasonides. king Cyrus. When Cyrus’ son died, the other Smerdis
pretended to be his son and ruled for only seven
BIBLIOGRAPHY months before being murdered by Cambyses. [ANCIENT
Davis, G. “Ovid’s Metamorphoses 3.442 ff. and the Prologue
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 774; Aristotle, Politics
to Menander’s Misoumenos,” Phoenix 32 (1978): 339–42.
1311b; Herodotus, 3.30–75]
Jarkho, V. N. “Menander’s Hated Man,” Vestnik Drevnej Istorii
(Revue d’Histoire ancienne) 148 (1978): 24–40. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Katsouris, A. “Menander’s Misoumenos: Problems of Interpre- Hall, E. Aeschylus: Persians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
tation,” Dodone 14 (1985): 205–29. Phillips, 1996, 162.
Turner, E. G. The Lost Beginning of Menander, Misoumenos.
London: British Academy, 1979.
Webster, T. B. L. “Woman Hates Soldier: A Structural
MARILADES A fictional character who is a
Approach to New Comedy,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine member of the chorus of ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS
Studies 14 (1973): 287–99. (609). His name means “son of coal dust” (Sommer-
stein’s translation).
MANTO The daughter of the prophet TIRESIAS, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Manto was also a prophet. She appears as a character in Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
SENECA’s OEDIPUS. In this play, she accompanies her Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 187.
father to THEBES and acts as Tiresias’ eyes, describing for
her father the sacrificial victim they will use to try to MARPSIAS An orator, whose name means “grip-
determine who killed OEDIPUS’ father, LAIUS. [ANCIENT per,” who was said to be a noisy, argumentative,
SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 128; Seneca, Agamemnon 319] speaker of nonsense. EUPOLIS labeled him as a flatterer
326 MARS

of a rich man named CALLIAS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- In the ancient literature, a few references to masks
phanes, Acharnians 701; Eupolis, fragment 166 Kock] being used in some plays during this period exist, but
modern scholars have disputed this idea and think that
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the Romans did not use masks until after 130 B.C.E.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 191. Duckworth, however, notes several references to
masks in Plautus’ plays. Furthermore, plays involving
MARS See ARES. twins, such as AMPHITRUO and MENAECHMI, would be
much easier to manage by using masks than by any
MASKS In Greek drama, the actors and CHORUS sort of cosmetic alterations. Accordingly, Duckworth
members wore masks made of linen that covered the argues that “the evidence for the late introduction of
face and even the entire head of those who wore them. masks in Roman comedy is weak” and asserts that they
The appearance of the masks ranged from realistic were used as early as the plays of Plautus.
looking, in the case of Greek TRAGEDY, to various levels
BIBLIOGRAPHY
of distortion in the case of COMEDY. Several vase paint-
Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
ings, from the days when AESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES, and N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 92–94.
EURIPIDES were producing tragedies, show persons Johnson, M. B. “The Mask in Ancient Greek Tragedy: A
holding masks, whose features do not differ much Reexamination Based on the Principles and Practices of
from those of the people holding them. The masks for the Noh Theater in Japan.” Dissertation, University of
players in comedy had features that were exaggerated Wisconsin at Madison, 1984.
for humorous effect. One can well imagine that a mask Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy,
representing the Athenian statesman CLEON or the 2d ed. Revised by T. B. L. Webster. Oxford: Clarendon
philosopher SOCRATES would have to be crafted to Press, 1962, 177–212.
allow the audience to recognize the person and to
evoke laughter. Of course, making a mask of a power- MATRONA The Latin word matrona (plural:
ful Athenian political figure might be perilous, and matronae) refers to a woman who is married. In Roman
ARISTOPHANES, at KNIGHTS 230–33, quips that no mask COMEDY, the matrona is a stock character, who is often
maker would dare to make the Cleon mask. stereotyped as a nag and an impediment to her hus-
Occasionally, actors would have to change or alter band’s ability to enjoy himself with another woman
masks during a performance. Someone who had been (compare Artemona in the COMEDY OF ASSES, Cleostrata
blinded, such as OEDIPUS, the Cyclops POLYPHEMUS, or in CASINA, Matrona in MENAECHMI, Nausistrata in
POLYMESTOR in Euripides’ HECABE, would need to repre- PHORMIO). Typically, the matrona catches her husband,
sent blindness in some way. Sometimes in ancient puts an end to his affair, and forgives him. In
drama people cut their hair as a sign of mourning (e.g., Menaechmi, however, Menaechmus of Epidamnus sails
ORESTES, ADMETUS in Euripides’ ALCESTIS). Accordingly, away with his brother and leaves his wife at the play’s
the hair on the mask would have to be altered. With conclusion. Not all matronae are characterized as nags,
regard to Greek New Comedy, which evolved after the and as do most mothers they show great concern for
end of the fourth century B.C.E., Pollux mentions 44 dif- their children (compare Phanostrata in CASKET COMEDY,
ferent kinds of masks that are used; archaeological evi- Philippa in EPIDICUS, and the Sostratas in TERENCE’s
dence reveals that masks either are realistic in the case BROTHERS, MOTHER-IN-LAW, and SELF-TORMENTOR). In
of women and young men or have exaggerated features Mother-in-Law, Sostrata even offers to move away from
with a large mouth in the case of the other characters. home to ensure the happiness of her daughter-in-law.
Also, with the advent of New Comedy, the crown of the Duckworth calls the faithful Alcmena in AMPHITRUO
forehead on some masks increasingly tapers upward. “Plautus’ most noble woman character,” although
This “crown” is called an oncus (swelling). Christensen has recently cast some doubt on this char-
Regarding Roman drama, the evidence for the use of acterization. The wives in STICHUS have remained faith-
masks in the time of PLAUTUS and TERENCE is unclear. ful to their husband, despite their long absence and
 MEDEA 327

despite their father’s advice that they divorce their hus- Mastronarde, D. J. “Actors on High: The Skene Roof, the
band and remarry. Crane, and the Gods in Attic Drama,” Classical Antiquity 9
(1990): 247–94.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Newiger, H. “Ekkyklema e mechané nella messa in scena del
Christenson, David. “Grotesque Realism in Plautus’ dramma greco,” Dioniso 59 (1989): 173–185.
Amphitruo,” Classical Journal 96, no. 3 (2000–1): 243–60. ———. “Ekkyklema und Mechané in der Inszenierung des
Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton, griechischen Dramas,” Würzburger Jahrbücher für die Alter-
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 255–58. tumswissenschaft 16 (1990): 33–42.
Robkin, A. L. H. “That Magnificent Flying Machine: On the
MAVORS See ARES. Nature of the Mechane of the Theatre of Dionysus at
Athens,” Archaeological News 8 (1979): 1–6.
MECHANE (Latin: MACHINA) In Greek
drama, the mechane is a cranelike apparatus with which MEDEA One of the most notorious figures of clas-
a character could be raised above the roof of the SKENE sical mythology, Medea was the daughter of AEETES and
or swung out in front of the skene from behind that Chalciope, king and queen of COLCHIS. When JASON
structure. Pollux, writing in the second century C.E., arrives in Colchis in search of the Golden Fleece,
says the device was called a mechane in TRAGEDY, but a Medea falls in love with him and helps him in the tasks
krade in COMEDY. The term krade refers to the end of a that her father, Aeetes, assigns him. Medea gives Jason
fig tree’s branch, so some ancients conceived of the a potion to protect him against the fiery breath of the
apparatus as having that appearance. Zenobius bulls he must yoke, gives him advice about how to deal
describes the apparatus as having a hook and ropes that with the armed warriors who spring up from the
attached to the actor’s waist. The entrance of Socrates in dragon’s teeth he plants, and later charms to sleep the
ARISTOPHANES’ CLOUDS, however, indicates the use of a dragon that guards the Golden Fleece. EURIPIDES and
basket (kremathra) to hold the actor. In some case, two SENECA make Medea the killer of her brother, ABSYRTUS,
persons (or a person and perhaps a manikin of some a brutal act that helps Jason and the Argonauts escape
type) may have been in this basket, such as CASTOR and the pursuit of Aeetes.
POLLUX at the conclusion of EURIPIDES’ ELECTRA and After their arrival in Greece, Jason’s men hand over
HELEN or APOLLO and HELEN at the end of Euripides’ the Golden Fleece to Pelias, who is supposed to turn
ORESTES. A clear example of the use of the mechane over the kingdom of Iolcus to Jason. Pelias reneges on
occurs in Aristophanes’ PEACE (421 B.C.E.), in which the his promise, however, and Jason is deprived of the
hero, TRYGAEUS, flies to Mount OLYMPUS on a dung bee- kingdom. At this point, Medea goes to Jason’s aid and,
tle. In this play, Trygaeus actually urges the operator of pretending that she and Jason have had a quarrel, infil-
the mechane to be careful not to swing him too vigor- trates the hearts and house of Pelias’ daughters. Medea
ously. PLATO and ARISTOTLE criticized tragedians for convinces Pelias’ daughters that she can make their
their frequent use of the mechane to introduce a divin- father young again through her magic. This rejuvena-
ity who would resolve a crisis in a rather artificial way. tion, however, requires that Pelias be cut to pieces.
Euripides was especially fond of using the mechane. Medea persuades Pelias’ daughters to do this, but
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 218, Peace when they expect Medea to use her magic to restore his
173–76, fragment 188 Kock; Aristotle, Poetics life and youth, Medea is nowhere to be found. Thus,
1454a36–b5; Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2742.3–19; Plato, with Pelias dead, Jason expects to become king of Iol-
Cratylus 425d; Pollux, Onomasticon 4.128–29; Scholiast cus. The people of Iolcus, however, led by Pelias’ son,
on Lucian, Lover of Lies 7; Zenobius, Proverbs 3.156] ACASTUS, drive Jason and Medea from their town.
After leaving Iolcus, Jason and Medea travel to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Foesel, K. R. Der Deus ex machina in der Komödie. Erlangen, CORINTH. They live happily there for several years and
Ger.: Palm & Enke, 1975. have two sons. Jason, still longing for a kingdom,
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: decides to divorce Medea and marry the daughter of
Teubner, 1880. CREON, king of Corinth. An enraged Medea decides to
328 MEDEA

take revenge on Jason, so she kills Creon’s daughter the defeat of Athens. The play finished third (and last)
(and Creon) by means of poisoned clothing. As an in the competition that year. First place went to
additional way of injuring Jason, Medea kills her sons AESCHYLUS’ son, Euphorion, and SOPHOCLES received
by him. Medea then escapes from Corinth by means of second prize. The other plays that accompanied
the chariot of the SUN (her grandfather). Euripides’ Medea in its TETRALOGY in 431 are also
After leaving Corinth, Medea travels to ATHENS, known but have not survived to our time: Philoctetes,
where she marries King AEGEUS and has a child by him, Dictys, and the SATYR PLAY Theristai.
MEDUS. When Aegeus’ son, THESEUS, appears in The action of the play occurs before the palace of
Athens, Medea realizes that Theseus would stand to King CREON of CORINTH. With the exception of CYCLOPS
inherit the kingdom before her son, Medus, and plots and ALCESTIS, Medea is the only extant Euripidean play
to kill Theseus. She convinces Aegeus that Theseus that can be performed by only two actors.
plans to assassinate him and arranges for Aegeus to As the NURSE reveals in her opening monologue,
invite Theseus to a banquet, at which Aegeus will offer MEDEA and JASON arrived in Corinth after they were
him poisoned wine. Before Theseus can drink the exiled from IOLCUS. The daughters of Pelias, king of
wine, however, Aegeus realizes that Theseus is his son Iolcus, killed their father as part of Medea’s plot. Medea
and dashes the cup of poison from his hand. and Jason’s life in Corinth was a happy one until Jason
Once again Medea escapes. She and her son return decided to divorce Medea and marry Creon’s daughter.
to her native land of Colchis, where her father has lost Medea, who has learned of this, has become dis-
his kingdom. With Medea’s help, Aeetes regains his traught, and the nurse worries she has some terrible
throne. Medea’s fate after this time becomes rather elu- deed in mind. After the nurse’s monologue, a TUTOR
sive. Some sources indicate that she becomes a goddess enters with Jason and Medea’s two sons. The tutor
after her death; others say that she marries ACHILLES in informs the nurse that Creon intends to exile Medea
the afterlife. and her sons from Corinth. As the tutor and nurse talk,
The Greek comic poet Strattis wrote a Medea, from cries of anguish from Medea are heard from the palace.
which a few fragments survive (33–35 Kock). Frag- The tutor takes the boys into the house as Medea con-
ment 34 suggests that Creon was a character in the tinues to wail inside.
play. Among Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a Medea, After the departure of the tutor and the children, the
about 30 of whose lines survive. The play’s setting CHORUS of Corinthian women enter in response to

seems to have been Colchis. The fragments indicate Medea’s cries. The nurse informs the chorus of the situ-
that Jason and Medea had speaking roles. Aeetes and ation, as Medea cries out a threat of suicide from within
Absyrtus also may have appeared, and Absyrtus’ death the house. The chorus urge her not to let anger over-
seems to have occurred during the course of the play. whelm her. Medea breathes threats against Jason and
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.16–28; Apol- his new bride and laments the loss of her father, her
lonius Rhodius, Argonautica; Hyginus, Fables 3, 12–25; native land, and the brother, ABSYRTUS, whom she killed
Ovid, Heroides 6, 12, Metamorphoses 7.1–403; Pindar, after leaving Colchis. The chorus urge Medea’s nurse to
persuade her to go outside so they can try to calm her
Nemean 3, Pythian 4; Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica]
temper. After a few moments, the nurse returns with
BIBLIOGRAPHY Medea, who complains of the difficulties facing women,
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: particularly barbarian women such as she, in their rela-
Teubner, 1880. tionships with men. She states that the pain of child-
birth is far worse than the dangers men face in war.
MEDEA EURIPIDES (431 B.C.E.) The date of Medea informs the chorus that she wants to avenge
the play is significant as Medea was produced when herself on Jason and asks the chorus to tell no one—a
EURIPIDES’ fellow Athenians were in the initial stages of request to which the Corinthian women agree.
the PELOPONNESIAN WAR with SPARTA, a conflict that Next, Creon enters and informs Medea that she
would last almost three decades and would end with must leave Corinth. First, she successfully begs Creon,
 MEDEA 329

who threatens to exile her and her children from gone to Delphi to inquire about the possibility of having
Corinth, for one more day in town. After Creon’s exit, children, Medea, skilled in the ways of magic, promises
Medea informs the Corinthian women that she pur- to help him have children if he will allow her to stay at
posely fawned on Creon as part of her plot to destroy his house in Athens. Aegeus agrees but tells Medea that
him, his daughter, and Jason. Medea then wonders she will have to make her own way to Athens, as he does
how she will destroy them and in what city she can not want to cross purposes with Creon.
seek refuge after she carries out her plot. Medea After the departure of Aegeus, Medea’s plot against
remains on stage as the Corinthian women sing an ode Jason begins in earnest. She begs Jason to arrange for
in which they comment on the reversal of roles her children to be allowed to stay in Corinth. Then she
between men and women that appears to be unfold- arranges to have her children give Jason’s new bride a
ing—men, not women, are deceptive; stories of faith- present—a gown and a diadem—both of which Medea
less women will fall out of favor and women will write has secretly poisoned. Ironically, the persuasive powers
poems about infamous men. The chorus lament that of Jason himself convince his new bride that she
men’s oaths are no longer valid and that a new woman should put aside her anger, allow the children to stay
occupies Medea’s bed. in Corinth, and accept Medea’s gift. Soon, a messenger
After the choral ode, Jason enters and criticizes enters and announces the death of Creon’s daughter
Medea’s words against Creon and his daughter. He and of Creon, who tried to help his daughter when she
promises to make sure that Medea and their children put on the fatal garments and became stuck to the gar-
are provided for. Medea, filled with rage, calls him a ments himself and was destroyed by their poison.
coward and recalls all she has done for him: In Colchis, After the messenger’s speech, Jason demands that
she helped him master the fire-breathing bulls and the palace doors be opened so that he can see the hor-
killed the dragon that guarded the Golden Fleece. She rors that Medea has wrought and kill her. Medea, how-
deceived her father, accompanied Jason to Iolcus, and ever, appears above the palace in the chariot of her
brought about the death of Pelias. Medea recalls Jason’s grandfather, Helios (see SUN). Jason curses Medea and
oaths to her and his begging her for help. Now, she will wonders how she could have inflicted such injuries on
be exiled and friendless, although she saved Jason’s life. her own sons. Medea retorts that Jason should have
Jason, in response, claims his success was due to the know better than to abandon her for another woman.
favor of APHRODITE, not Medea. He argues that he has After the two verbally abuse one another, Medea
done her a favor by taking her from a land of barbar- announces that she will bury her children in the
ians to Greece, where she is now famous. Jason also precinct of Hera Acraea, that she will also establish an
suggests that his marriage to Creon’s daughter is actu- annual feast in their honor, and that she will depart for
ally in the best interest of Medea and the children, Athens. Medea then predicts that Jason will be killed
because such a marriage would allow them to live a life when his head is crushed by a beam from his ship,
of wealth and privilege. After Jason exits, the Corinthian Argo. Jason and Medea continue to argue; the play ends
women sing an ode about the powers of Aphrodite. with Jason’s continuing to complain bitterly about
They hope that Aphrodite will never drive them to Medea, while she flies away in Helios’ chariot.
leave an old love for a new one and that they will never
experience exile. They conclude their ode by sympa- COMMENTARY
thizing with Medea and expressing the hope that the Although Medea placed third in the competition in
man who disowns his friend will meet with ruin. which it was staged, modern readers and critics almost
The choral song is followed by the arrival of AEGEUS, universally rank it as one of the finest plays in extant
king of Athens, who happens to be passing through Greek drama. The ancient HYPOTHESIS to the play (the
Corinth on his way home after consulting the DELPHIC information that accompanies the play in the ancient
ORACLE. Aegeus is traveling to Troezen to ask his wise manuscript) says Euripides’ Medea owed much to the
friend, Pittheus, about the mysterious answer that the Medea of Neophron, but Page, arguing on the basis
oracle gave him. When Medea hears that Aegeus had of the language, meter, and style of the surviving
330 MEDEA

fragments of Neophron’s play, demonstrates that but 25 lines later he yields to her request for one more
Neophron’s Medea was actually written after Euripides’ day in Corinth. Having used supplication and appeal
play. Euripides’ play surely has some debt to AESCHY- to Creon’s child to manipulate the king of Corinth,
LUS’ Agamemnon (see ORESTEIA). Both CLYTEMNESTRA, at Medea will use the same technique on the king of
Agamemnon 1233, and Medea, at Medea 1343, Athens. Although scholars have criticized the appear-
described as being like Scylla. Both women are also ance of Aegeus as unmotivated, from a thematic point
described as lionesses (Agamemnon 1258 (see of view the scene does make sense. Medea’s technique
ORESTEIA), Medea 1342). Additionally, Medea destroys of supplication and manipulation will destroy Creon’s
the woman who becomes her sexual rival, just as child and even the king himself. Aegeus, however, has
Clytemnestra destroys CASSANDRA. Medea, however, no children (that he knows of). Medea’s powers help
uses magic, whereas Clytemnestra strikes down Cas- him; at lines 709–13, she becomes a supplicant, beg-
sandra with a blade, albeit one wielded by her own ging Aegeus for asylum in his kingdom. In exchange,
hands. Furthermore, Clytemnestra helps kill her hus- she promises to put an end to his childlessness through
band, whereas Medea’s punishment of Jason may be her knowledge of drugs or remedies (pharmaka, 718).
worse in some ways—she allows him to live. To many in Euripides’ Athenian audience, the word
The use of the poisoned robe in Euripides’ Medea is pharmaka would have been ironic, because according
also seen in SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAE, as DEIANEIRA to tradition Medea herself became the remedy for
destroys HERACLES by the same means. Unlike Medea’s Aegeus’ childlessness by bearing his son, MEDUS.
act, however, Deianeira’s destruction of Heracles was By this time, the chorus know that Medea is consid-
not intentional. One should also note that Deianeira ering killing her children as well as the princess. At
delivers the robe to Heracles through the messenger 853–55, the chorus try to use supplication and manip-
Lichas (whom Heracles kills), whereas Medea has her ulation to dissuade her from killing her sons. They beg
children (whom she kills) deliver the robe to her rival. her by holding her knees not to kill them. At 862–65,
Whether Sophocles’ play preceeded Euripides’ play, or they even predict that she will not be able to kill them
vice versa, is unknown. when they are supplicants. Medea, however, has now
Finally, the killing of children in Medea anticipates become immune to the tactic she has used so success-
the killing of children in a later Euripidean play, HERA- fully against the two kings. Even her own children’s
CLES, in which the title character kills his children. In supplication will not succeed. With her plot approach-
contrast to Medea, however, Madness, sent by HERA, ing fulfillment, Medea must now stoop to the most
leads Heracles to kill his children. Medea kills her chil- degrading supplication yet. For her plan to succeed,
dren because she does not want them to be mocked she must appeal to the person she hates most—Jason.
and killed by her enemies after she has killed her rival Her opening words to her former husband at lines
in Corinth. Note, however, that in both Medea and Her- 869–70 are “Jason, I beg you to forgive me for what I
acles, the title characters find refuge in Athens after their said.” Medea wins over Jason and then sends her chil-
crimes have been committed. King Aegeus will take in dren as supplicants to the princess (971) to persuade
Medea, and Aegeus’ son THESEUS will take in Heracles. her to accept the gifts that will cause her death. Thus
The themes of parenthood and supplication are Medea, who has used supplication and the promise of
intertwined throughout Medea, and Jason and Medea’s children to manipulate the Athenian king, makes her
past, present, and future can be seen unfolding along children employ the same tactic to destroy the
the lines of these themes. At lines 496–98, Medea Corinthian princess.
recalls that in Colchis, Jason gained her help by his The playwright’s portrait of Medea is both sympa-
supplications. Now, in Corinth, Medea successfully thetic and terrifying. Because one way a woman in the
employs the same tactic to achieve her violent aims. At Greek world would be regarded as a “good” wife was
line 324, she begs Creon by his knees and his newly- through bearing male offspring, Medea succeeds from
wed daughter. Creon says she will never persuade him, that perspective. Additionally, she has not been
 MEDEA 331

unfaithful to Jason. In Medea’s view, she saved Jason’s brink of war with Sparta and its allies, a war into which
life when he was faced with various deadly forces in many Athenians would send their sons to die, Euripi-
Colchis. One would not expect that many in Euripides’ des presented his fellow citizens with the image of a
audience would have been sympathetic to Jason’s argu- childless king who has unwittingly granted asylum to
ment that his success was due to Aphrodite rather than a child killer.
Medea. As Laurel Bowman’s recent discussion of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
play points out, Euripides’ predominantly male audi-
Bowman, Laurel. “Women and the Medea.” In Approaches to
ence of Athenians would probably have noticed that Teaching the Dramas of Euripides. Edited by R. Mitchell-
the union of the Greek Jason and the barbarian Medea Boyask. New York: Modern Language Association of
could not have produced children who would recog- America, 2002.
nized as citizens under Athenian citizenship laws. Fur- Mastronarde, D. J. Euripides: Medea. Cambridge: Cambridge
thermore, because Greek marriages were arranged by University Press, 2002.
the bride’s father and the prospective husband, the McDermott, E. A. Euripides’ Medea: The Incarnation of Disor-
union of Jason and Medea would not accord with der. University Park and London: Pennsylvania State Uni-
Athenian custom. Medea has betrayed her native land versity Press, 1989.
and left without her father’s permission. Page, D. L. Euripides: Medea. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1938.
Although much about Medea could have prompted Pucci, P. The Violence of Pity in Euripides’ Medea. Ithaca, N.Y.:
the audience’s sympathies, we must not forget that she Cornell University Press, 1980.
has committed numerous atrocities. By helping Jason,
she has betrayed her father and her native land. When MEDEA SENECA (WRITTEN BETWEEN 49
leaving Colchis, she also killed her brother. In Iolcus, AND 65 C.E.?) The plot of SENECA’s Medea follows
she tricked Pelias’ daughters into killing their own basically the same line as EURIPIDES’ MEDEA. The play is
father. Although one could understand Medea’s desir- set at CORINTH before the palace of that land’s king,
ing to kill Jason, she instead directs her final revenge at CREON. Unlike in Euripides’ play, in which Medea’s
Jason’s new bride, the innocent object of a marriage nurse delivers the opening monologue, in Seneca’s play
arranged by Creon and Jason. As Bowman points out, Medea herself delivers the prologue and explains that
Medea’s destruction of Creon’s daughter ensures that her husband, JASON, is divorcing her to marry Creon’s
Jason will not be able to produce further male offspring daughter. Medea calls for the gods to take vengeance
to bear his name and maintain his family’s reign in on Creon and his daughter and prays that Jason will
Corinth. Indeed, Medea destroys a woman who was experience harsh exile. Medea also hints at her inten-
going to have the sort of marriage that she should have tion to kill her children as part of her revenge on Jason.
had—one approved of and arranged by her father. Unlike in Euripides’ play, where the Corinthian cho-
Finally, and most horrifically, Medea kills her own chil- rus are more sympathetic to Medea than Jason, in
dren. Even the chorus of Corinthian women, who are Seneca’s the Corinthians enter and sing a marriage hymn
generally sympathetic to her, beg her not to do this and in celebration of the marriage of Jason and Creon’s
at one point even express the belief that she will not be daughter. They praise the beauty of Creon’s daughter
able to go through with the deed when she sees her and approve of Jason’s divorcing a barbarian. After
own children begging for their lives. But Medea does Medea hears their song, she again indicates that she will
kill her children. Then, perhaps most chilling of all for take vengeance against Jason, his new bride, and Creon.
Euripides’ Athenian audience, she flies away to Athens, Medea’s nurse tries to calm her and urges her to leave
where she will be taken in by Athens’ king, Aegeus. Corinth. As Medea considers her next move, Creon
Surely many in Euripides’ audience would have been enters and threatens to exile Medea, who pleads with
aware of the tradition that Medea later tried to kill him to grant her a place to live in his kingdom. Initially,
Aegeus’ son, Theseus, the greatest of Athenian heroes. Creon insists that Medea leave Corinth; later he grants
Thus, in 431 B.C.E., as Euripides’ audience stood on the her a one-day reprieve (as in Euripides). After Creon’s
332 MEDEA

exit, the chorus sing of the dangers encountered by ders whether she should continue to wreak vengeance
sailors. They then describe the various obstacles that on Jason by killing her children. After a lengthy mental
Jason and his crew overcame and note sarcastically that struggle with herself, Medea decides that she will.
other than the Golden Fleece, the only “prize” acquired Medea summons her children and kills one of them.
by the Argonauts was Medea. They conclude by noting When she hears Jason and some of the Corinthians,
that the sea no longer poses serious challenges to human who are searching for her to kill her, she drags away
beings and that the world’s unexplored and unpopu- her second son and the corpse of his brother. After
lated regions are becoming smaller and smaller. Medea enters the palace, Jason appears and tells the
After the choral ode, a furious Medea appears and Corinthians to tear down the house. Medea, however,
again complains bitterly about her treatment by Jason appears on the roof of the palace in the chariot of the
and Creon. As Medea utters threats against her ene- SUN. Medea has the corpse of one son with her and
mies, her nurse again tries to calm her. Next, Jason again debates with herself about killing the other.
enters; he knows that Medea is furious and considers When Jason sees her, he urges the Corinthians to burn
how to soothe her anger. Medea complains about the the palace. The play ends, with Medea’s killing her sec-
exile she faces and recalls to Jason all the help that she ond son, throwing the sons’ bodies down to Jason, and
gave him and all that she has sacrificed for him during flying away in the Sun’s chariot.
his adventures and since his return to Greece. Jason,
COMMENTARY
however, does not retreat from his stance that Medea
As noted earlier, many similarities can be found in the
should accept exile and avoid the wrath of Creon, as
Medea plays of Euripides and Seneca. Both playwrights
well as that of Acastus, the son of Pelias, whose death
examine the dangers of love’s being tainted by anger,
Medea orchestrated in IOLCUS. Medea begs Jason to
but for Seneca this combination has a particular signif-
help her resist these enemies, but Jason refuses. Medea
icance. As a proponent of the Stoic philosophy (which
then asks to take her children into exile with her—
did not exist in Euripides’ day), Seneca, along with his
again Jason refuses. After Jason’s exit, Medea announces
fellow Stoics, believed that controlling anger was
her plan to have her children take a poisoned gown important to a happy life. Seneca’s Medea perversely
and crown to Creon’s daughter. Next, the chorus sing tries to achieve her aims by embracing anger.
an ode about the dangerous effects of love. They pray As the play opens, when Medea speaks of girding
that Jason will be safe and worry that Neptune (Greek: herself with anger (51), Seneca uses language that
POSEIDON) is angry with Jason for sailing to Colchis and invokes the image of girding oneself with a conven-
thus figuratively defeating the sea. The chorus recall tional weapon, such as a sword. Later, however, she
that many of Jason’s crew met a horrible fate during or denies that anger drove her to any of the crimes she
since their participation in the voyage. has committed; she claims love drove her to them
After the chorus’ song, Medea’s nurse enters and (136). As Medea’s enemies corner her, her nurse urges
describes Medea’s preparations and prayers for destroy- her to control her anger (153, 381), but she recognizes
ing Jason’s new bride. Soon, Medea herself appears and in Medea the signs of an old anger that will soon burst
prays to the divinities (especially HECATE), who she forth (394). As Jason and his sailors conquered the
hopes will assist her in her plot. After Medea prays over seas; Medea, however, declares that the fury of no sea
the deadly gown and crown, she instructs her sons to could equal her wrath (414).
take the gifts to Creon’s daughter. The children’s depar- Jason recognizes Medea’s anger and attempts to
ture is followed by a choral ode in which the Corinthians soothe her with prayers (444). He urges her to go into
marvel at Medea’s savage behavior and wonder what the exile and avoid the wrath of Creon (494), and he urges
result of her anger will be. The chorus do not have long her to calm her wrath (506) for their children’s sake.
to wait for an answer: Soon, a messenger from the palace Medea cannot be moved, although as part of her plot
announces that both Creon and his daughter are dead. to ruin Jason she pretends that she will put aside her
Next, Medea enters carrying a sword. At first, she won- anger and asks Jason to forget her outburst (556).
 MEDUSA 333

After Jason exits, Medea sets her plan in motion and MEDIA See MEDES.
the chorus note that love spurred on by anger cannot
be controlled (591). They recall that MELEAGER’s angry MEDUS The son of MEDEA and AEGEUS, Medus
mother killed her own son (646), just as Medea will kill was born in ATHENS and would have been the heir to
her children. As Medea prepares to kill her children, Aegeus’ throne had his half brother, THESEUS, not
the chorus observe the anger on her face (853) and the returned to Athens and driven out his mother and him.
deadly combination of love and anger present in her After they had been driven from Athens, Medus and
(866–68). When Medea wavers in her resolve to kill her Medea returned to Medea’s native land of COLCHIS,
children, as at the play’s outset, she calls upon her anger although apparently by separate paths. Apollodorus
to drive her toward the horrific deeds that will punish states that Medus traveled east, defeated various bar-
Jason (902). The wavering Medea wonders where her barian tribes, and called the conquered land Media
anger is going (916; cf. 927, 938). Earlier Medea’s anger after himself. Apollodorus also says Medus died fight-
was more dangerous than a violent sea; now her anger ing against the natives of India.
and love are in conflict, as the winds and seas are. As The Greek comic poet Theopompus wrote a Medus,
Medea’s anger conflicts with her maternal feelings whose six extant lines tell us nothing of its plot.
(943–44), she considers not killing her children. Ulti- Among Roman authors, PACUVIUS wrote a tragic Medus,
mately, the anger she feels toward her husband over- of which some two dozen fragments (mostly of a sin-
comes the love she has for her children. After killing gle line) survive. The setting for Pacuvius’ play appears
one child, Medea again wavers and wonders that her to be Colchis, its theme Medus’ search for Medea.
anger has subsided (989). The sight of Jason again Medea’s brother, Perses, had a speaking role in the play,
causes her wrath to seethe and she kills her other child. and when Medus approached him, he was pretending
For the Stoics of Seneca’s day, mastering one’s anger to be Hippotes, the son of CREON. At some point in the
could lead to happiness; for Seneca’s Medea, harnassing play, a description detailed Medea’s arrival in the ser-
her anger gives her the perverse pleasure of revenge. pent-drawn chariot of the SUN. Medea met with Perses
and apparently told him that Hippotes was dead and
BIBLIOGRAPHY that her son, Medus, was in his custody. At some point,
Hine, Harry M. Medea: Seneca. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Medea encountered her father, AEETES, who did not
Phillips, 2000. recognize her at first. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus
Nussbaum, Martha C. “Serpents in the Soul: A Reading of
1.9.28; Diodorus Siculus 10.27.1; Pausanias 2.3.8]
Seneca’s Medea,” In Medea: Essays on Medea in Myth, Liter-
ature, Philosophy, and Art. Edited by James J. Clauss and BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sarah Iles Johnson. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Press, 1997, 219–49. Teubner, 1880.
Ohlander, S. Dramatic Suspense in Euripides’ and Seneca’s Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
Medea. New York: Lang, 1989. Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1936.
MEDES Often referred to by dramatists synony-
mously with Persians, the Medes were a group of peo- MEDUSA Phorcys and Ceto had two sets of
ple who inhabited the land of Media in what is today daughters, one known as the Graiae (Dino, Enyo,
the northern part of Iran. At one time, the Medes had Pephredo [or Pemphredo]), and the other known as the
actually ruled the Persians; later the Persians overcame GORGONS (Euryale, Sthenno, and Medusa). Of the Gor-
the Medes and made Media one of their provinces. gons, Medusa was the only mortal. According to some
According to legend, the Medes took their name from sources, Medusa was a beautiful woman until she
MEDEA, who fled to the area after her failed attempt to angered the goddess ATHENA when she had sexual rela-
kill THESEUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians tions with POSEIDON in one of Athena’s sanctuaries.
236; Herodotus, 5.77; Pausanias, 2.3.8] Athena, in anger, changed Medusa into a hideous
334 MEGABAZUS

creature with snake-filled hair, savage tusks, and wings. MEGAENETUS A man branded as ignorant by
Medusa’s appearance was so horrible that people who ARISTOPHANES at FROGS 965, but about whom nothing
saw her were turned to stone. Eventually, PERSEUS cut is known. Sommerstein suggested that he may have
off Medusa’s head and gave it to Athena, who put been “a military officer.”
Medusa’s terrifying face on her aegis or shield to
frighten her enemies. Medusa was pregnant by POSEI- BIBLIOGRAPHY
DON when Perseus killed her, but from Medusa’s body
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9,
Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 242.
two creatures were born. The first was the male warrior
Chrysaor. The second was the winged horse PEGASUS, of
which BELLEROPHON later became the master. Medusa
MEGAERA Born when blood from the castrated
genitalia of URANUS fell onto the Earth, Megaera was one
does not appear as a character in any extant dramas,
of the FURIES. She was the sister of Tisiphone and Allecto.
although her story would have been a focus of AESCHY-
In SENECA’s HERCULES FURENS, Juno (see HERA) summons
LUS’ Phorcides (fragments 459a–461b Mette). [ANCIENT
Megaera to make HERACLES become mad. In the same
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.3.2, 2.4.2–3; Hesiod,
author’s THYESTES, ATREUS calls upon Megaera to help him
Theogony 270–81; Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.612–5.249]
take revenge on his brother. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
BIBLIOGRAPHY lodorus, Library 1.1.4; Seneca, Hercules Furens 102, Her-
Mette, H. J. Die Fragmente der Tragödien des Aischylos. Berlin: cules Oetaeus 1006, 1014, Medea 963, Thyestes 252]
Akademie-Verlag, 1959.
MEGALENSIAN GAMES The Megalensian
MEGABAZUS A person mentioned by ARISTO- Games, first celebrated in April 204 B.C.E., were held in
PHANES as a king of Persia. Dunbar, however, points out honor of a divinity known as the Magna Mater (“great
that no Persian king by this name existed, and that a mother”). Beginning in 194 B.C.E., these games were
Megabazus had been a Persian military commander in arranged annually by the curule aediles; however, the
the 510s B.C.E. and another Megabazus was a naval com- production notice for PLAUTUS’ PSEUDOLUS indicates that
mander during the second Persian invasion of Greece in the urban praetor arranged the games in 191 B.C.E. In
480 and in 456 may have tried to bribe the Spartans to addition to Pseudolus, these games were the occasion for
attack the Athenians so that they would leave Egypt. four other extant plays: TERENCE’s ANDRIA, MOTHER-IN-LAW,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 484; Herodotus, SELF-TORMENTOR, and EUNUCH. Dramatic performances
4.143–4, 5.1–26, 7.97; Thucydides, 1.109.3] may have been held on as many as six days of the games.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
MEGARA (1) A town located a few miles west of
sity Press, 1995, 331–32.
ATHENS, which played a critical role in the outbreak of
the PELOPONNESIAN WAR. In ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS
(425 B.C.E.), a trader from Megara arrives and does
MEGACLES A man whom ARISTOPHANES calls
business with DICAEOPOLIS. The war has caused the
the uncle of STREPSIADES’ wife. His name means “very
Megarian such hardship that in exchange for
famous” and because Aristophanes is trying to portray
Dicaeopolis’ wares, the Megarian trades him his daugh-
Strepsiades’ wife as a member of a wealthy family, this
ters (who are dressed as pigs). In 424/423, Megarians
Megacles is unlikely to have been identified with the opposed to Athens destroyed the walls that connected
Athenian Megacles who served as a treasurer for Megara and Nisaea (a town under Athenian control
ATHENA in 428/427 B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- just northwest of Megara). The Greek comic poet
phanes, Clouds 46, 70, 124, 815] Simylus wrote a Megarian Woman, of which a single
BIBLIOGRAPHY word survives (fragment 1 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Clouds. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Aristophanes, Acharnians, Lysistrata 1170, Peace 246,
1989, 99. 481, 500, 609; Thucydides, 4.109.1]
 MELANIPPE 335

BIBLIOGRAPHY Melanion; only two lines (about drinking to the goddess

Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon of health) survive (fragment 149 Kock). [ANCIENT
Press, 1987, 205. SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.9.2; Aristophanes,
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: LYSISTRATA 785, 796, 806; Xenophon, Cynegeticus 1.2.7]
Teubner, 1884.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MEGARA (2) The daughter of the Theban king Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
CREON, Megara was given as a bride to HERACLES as a Teubner, 1884.
reward for his valor in leading the Thebans to victory
over the MINYANS. Heracles later became insane and MELANIPPE The daughter of Aeolus and CHI-
RON’s daughter, Hippo, Melanippe, whose name means
killed Megara and his children by her. Megara appears
as a character in two extant plays, EURIPIDES’ HERACLES “black horse,” produced two sons, Aeolus and Boeotus,
and SENECA’s HERCULES FURENS. Although both plays by POSEIDON. Melanippe’s father, enraged by her pro-
treat the same general subject, Heracles’ return from ducing the children out of wedlock, blinded and
the UNDERWORLD, his killing of LYCUS, and his madness imprisoned Melanippe and had the two boys exposed.
and killing of Megara and the children, the two play- A cow suckled the boys, however, and herdsmen
wrights treat the character of Megara in quite different raised them. When the Icarian king, Metapontus,
ways. In Euripides’ play, Megara is depicted as a belea- threatened to divorce his wife, Theano, because she
guered wife, who despairs that Heracles will return had not borne children, Theano enlisted the same
from the underworld. Seneca seems to integrate cowherds to find a child for her, and they gave her
Megara into the action of his play in a more adept way Aeolus and Boeotus, whom she raised as her own.
than Euripides. For Seneca, Megara becomes the moti- Later, she had two children by Metapontus, but Aeolus
vation for Lycus’ threats against her and the children, and Boeotus remained in the house. When Metapontus
as Lycus desires to marry Megara so that he can pro- showed favor to Aeolus and Boeotus, Theano became
duce royal offspring. Megara staunchly resists Lycus’ jealous and told her own children to kill them. Posei-
threats and remains loyal to Heracles. don, their father, prevented this and in the fight that
occurred among the four young men, Theano and
MEGAREUS The son of CREON and Eurydice, Metapontus’ sons died. Theano, in grief, committed
Megareus was the older brother of HAEMON. Megareus suicide. Poseidon then told Aeolus and Boeotus to help
is mentioned in AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN AGAINST THEBES as one their mother, Melanippe, who remained imprisoned by
of those chosen to defend THEBES’ seven gates against her father. Melanippe’s sons rescued her and killed her
POLYNEICES’ invading army. Megareus was matched father, and Poseidon restored her sight. When Aeolus
against Eteoclus (not to be confused with ETEOCLES, and Boeotus returned with Melanippe to Icaria and
OEDIPUS’ son) and killed him. In SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE, told Metapontus what had happened, he married
we find references to Megareus’ death and Creon’s Melanippe and adopted Aeolus and Boeotus as his
being blamed for his death. How Megareus died, how- legitimate heirs. The brothers later founded towns that
ever, is not clear. Perhaps he died in battle against they named after themselves, Aeolia and Boeotia.
Polyneices’ forces, or he may be synonymous with EURIPIDES wrote two plays about Melanippe, Mela-
MENOECEUS, who sacrificed himself to ensure that the nippe Sophe, which means “Melanippe the wise” (frag-
Thebans would be victorious (see EURIPIDES’ PHOENI- ments 480–88 Nauck), and Melanippe Desmotis, which
CIAN WOMEN). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven means “Melanippe in chains” (fragments 489–513
against Thebes 474; Sophocles, Antigone 1303] Nauck). Melanippe Sophe apparently was about the
birth, exposure, and recovery of Aeolus and Boeotus.
MELANION A mythical person who hated As the play’s title implies, Melanippe Desmotis seems to
women and spent his time hunting in the hills and have treated Melanippe’s imprisonment by Aeolus and
countryside. The Greek comic poet Antiphanes wrote a her subsequent rescue by her sons. Among Roman
336 MELANIPPUS

authors, Ennius wrote a Melanippa, which Webster Meleager, who refused to fight longer. With Meleager
thinks was based on Euripides’ Melanippe Sophe. out of the fighting, the Curetes began to smash their
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 186]. way into Calydon. Meleager’s mother and father
begged him to help the Calydonians, but he refused.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: Finally, at the pleas of his wife, Cleopatra, Meleager
Methuen, 1967. subdued his anger and returned to the fight. Most
sources, except HOMER, say that Meleager died while
MELANIPPUS A son of Astacus, Melanippus of repelling the Curetes, either because Althaea had
THEBES killed Mecisteus and mortally wounded TYDEUS in cursed him or because APOLLO helped the Curetes.
the battle of the Seven against Thebes. Some say that Although Meleager does not appear as a character in
AMPHIARAUS killed Melanippus, cut off his head, and then any extant dramas, several dramatists, both tragedians
persuaded the dying Tydeus to eat Melanippus’ brain. and comic poets, wrote plays entitled Meleager. SOPHO-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 414; CLES wrote a Meleager from which a few fragments sur-
Apollodorus, Library 1.8.5–6, 3.6.8; Pausanias, 9.18.1] vive (401–6 Radt); fragment 401 refers to the boar sent
by Artemis. EURIPIDES wrote a Meleager (fragments
MELEAGER The son of OENEUS (or ARES) and 515–39 Nauck) known to date to before 414 B.C.E.
ALTHAEA, Meleager was a prince of CALYDON and the hus- because it is quoted in ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS. Euripides’
band of Cleopatra. When Meleager was born his mother play seems to have opened just before the hunt for the
heard a prophecy that as long as a certain log on her Calydonian boar and concluded with the death of
hearth remained intact, Meleager would remain alive. Meleager and the suicide of Althaea. Webster thinks
Upon hearing this, Althaea took the log from the hearth that Atalanta appeared and asked for Meleager’s help in
and hid it inside a chest. Many years later, after Oeneus getting the boar’s hide. Meleager then went out and
forgot to sacrifice to ARTEMIS, and Artemis sent a boar to killed Althaea’s brothers when they refused to give the
ravage Calydon, Meleager was credited with dealing the hide to a woman. Webster thought Meleager returned,
fatal blow to the dangerous Calydonian boar. The famous tried to defend himself to Althaea, announced that he
female hunter ATALANTA had been first to wound the wanted to marry Atalanta, and debated with Althaea
boar, however, and Meleager wanted to present the boar’s about the marriage. Althaea left after this debate and
pelt to Atalanta, with whom he had fallen in love (some burned the log that preserved Meleager’s life. Webster
sources say that Meleager had a son, PARTHENOPAEUS, by thinks that the play concluded with the appearance of
Atalanta). Two of Meleager’s uncles, brothers of his a divinity, who prophesied that TYDEUS would eat the
mother, Althaea, opposed this, and when they tried to head of MELANIPPUS (fragment 537).
prevent Meleager from awarding the pelt to Atalanta, The tragedian Antiphon wrote a Meleager, from
Meleager killed them both. According to some sources, which the single brief surviving fragment refers to peo-
when Althaea heard of her brother’s deaths, she took the ple chosen from among the Aetolians who went to the
log from the chest and burned it, thus causing Meleager’s hunt for the Calydonian boar as witnesses to Meleager’s
death. Althaea, upset by her son’s death, then committed valor (fragment 2 Snell). The tragedian Sosiphanes also
suicide, as did Meleager’s wife. Meleager’s sisters composed a Meleager, of which a single, two-line frag-
mourned so much at their brother’s death that Artemis ment survives (fragment 1 Snell); it refers to the ability
changed them into guinea birds—the Greek name for of every Thessalian maiden to charm the MOON down
these birds, meleagrides, is traced to Meleager’s name. from the sky. The Roman ACCIUS also wrote a TRAGEDY
Other sources say that after the boar hunt, some of entitled Meleager, which may have taken Euripides’
Calydon’s neighbors, the Curetes, waged war against play as its model. The play’s 20 or so surviving lines
the Calydonians. The Calydonians held out while indicate that the play concerned the hunt for the boar,
Meleager fought for them, but when Meleager killed the awarding of the hide to Atalanta, Meleager’s killing
his maternal uncles, Althaea cursed him. This angered of Althaea’s brother, and Althaea’s killing of Meleager.
 MELOS 337

Among the Greek comic poets, Antiphanes wrote a MELISTICHE A woman mentioned by ARISTO-
Meleager, from which a four-word fragment about a PHANES at ECCLESIAZUSAE 46 as the wife of an Athenian
leather canteen survives (fragment 150 Kock). In named SMICYTHION. Sommerstein thinks that both Smi-
Philetaerus’ Meleager, the only surviving fragment is cythion and Melistiche were real persons, but nothing
about an unnamed girl who is being told to return her else is known about Melistiche.
home. Rhinthon wrote a Slave Meleager (Doulos Melea-
gros), whose single surviving line gives no hint at the BIBLIOGRAPHY
play’s content (fragment 8 Kaibel). Sciras also wrote a Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
Meleager, whose single surviving fragment mentions a Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
142.
wild boar (fragment 1 Kaibel). Dinolochus may have
written a Meleager, of which only the title survives
(fragment 78.6 Austin). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- MELITE The name of a DEME in Athenian territory
lodorus, Library 1.8.2; Homer, Iliad 9.527–599; Hygi- where a well-known sanctuary dedicated to HERACLES
nus, Fables 14, 70; 171–74; Ovid, Metamorphoses was located. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 501]
8.268–546; Seneca, Medea 644, 779] BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Austin, C. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta in Papyris 1993, 256.
Reperta. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1973.
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet- MELITIDES The meaning of this name is uncer-
arum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann,
tain. Stanford thinks it may be connected with the
1899.
DEME of MELITE; Sommerstein says, “Melitides was a
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: proverbial fool.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs
Teubner, 1884. 991; Menander, Shield 269]
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Harvard University Press, 1996.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9,
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 243.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Stanford, W. B. Aristophanes: Frogs. London: Bristol Classical
Segal, C. “Sacrifice and Violence in the Myth of Meleager
Press, 1958, 160.
and Heracles: Homer, Bacchylides, Sophocles,” Helios 17
(1990): 7–24.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, MELOS An island in the southern AEGEAN, due
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. south of SERIPHUS. During the PELOPONNESIAN WAR, the
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University Melians tried to remain neutral. The Athenians, under
Press of America, 1984.
NICIAS’ command, attacked Melos in 426 B.C.E. and in
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Methuen, 1967. 416, after starving them into submission, slaughtered the
men of the island and enslaved the women. Some schol-
MELETUS A Greek who wrote erotic poetry and ars believe that the events depicted in EURIPIDES’ TROJAN
drinking songs. He may have lived during the sixth WOMEN allude to the destruction of Melos. Others, such
century B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs as Peter Green, argue that Euripides’ play was composed
1302; Epicrates, fragment 4 Kock] before the destruction of Melos. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Aristophanes, Birds 186; Thucydides, 5.84–116]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: BIBLIOGRAPHY
Teubner, 1884. Green, Peter. “War and Morality in Fifth-Century Athens:
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9, The Case of Euripides’ Trojan Women,” Ancient History Bul-
Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 273. letin 13, no. 3 (1999): 97–110.
338 MEMNON

MEMNON The son of Tithonus and EOS (Dawn), pened to be the grandfather’s name. When the merchant
Memnon was a handsome Ethiopian king who became from Epidamnus died, his money went to the Menaech-
an ally of the Trojans in their war against the Greeks. mus whom he had abducted.
Memnon killed NESTOR’s son, Antilochus, and ACHILLES As the first act opens, the PARASITE Peniculus (whose
killed him soon after. Eos asked ZEUS to grant Memnon name means “little brush”) is going to Menaechus of
immortality. AESCHYLUS wrote a Memnon (fragments Epidamnus’ house. The two intend to have lunch at the
127–30 Radt Vol. 3) that was part of a trilogy that home of a prostitute, Erotium (lovey). As Peniculus
included PSYCHOSTASIA (the third play is not known). approaches Menaechmus’ house, Menaechmus emerges
The fragments from Aeschylus’ play give little indica- in the midst of an argument with his wife, Matrona
tion of its content. To SOPHOCLES is also attributed a (matron or wife; see MATRONA). Menaechmus resents her
Memnon, from which only the title survives; this drama, constant questions about where he is going, what he is
however, may be identical to his Ethiopians. The Greek doing, and the like. When Menaechmus’ tirade drives
tragedian Timesitheus also wrote a Memnon, of which his wife back into the house, Menaechmus rejoices and
only the title survives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, displays an item of women’s clothing—which he hap-
Library 3.12.4; Hesiod, Theogony 984–85; Homer, pens to be wearing—that he has stolen from his wife
Odyssey 11.522; Ovid, Metamorphoses 13.576–622; and intends to give to Erotium. At this point, Peniculus
Seneca, Agamemnon 212, Trojan Women 239] steps forward, Menaechmus reveals the stolen clothing,
and the two men discuss their plans for dinner at
BIBLIOGRAPHY Erotium’s house. Once they arrive at Erotium’s house,
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. the prostitute herself greets them at the door. Menaech-
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: mus gives her the stolen garment and requests that she
Harvard University Press, 1996.
have dinner prepared for the three of them. Then,
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
Menaechmus and Peniculus leave for the FORUM to have
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
———. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, a few drinks before dinner. Erotium summons her cook,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. Cylindrus (mixing bowl), and gives him money to buy
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, ingredients for the meal.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. The second act opens with the arrival of Menaech-
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University mus Sosicles and his slave, Messenio. Sosicles has been
Press of America, 1984. searching for his long-lost brother for six years. As
Sosicles and Messenio discuss their dwindling funds,
MENAECHMI (THE BROTHERS MENAE- the cook Cylindrus arrives and sees, he thinks,
CHMUS or THE TWO MENAECHMUSES) Menaechmus of Epidamnus. Cylindrus speaks to Sosi-
PLAUTUS (CA. 200 B.C.E.) The action takes place in cles as if he knows him and wonders where his para-
Epidamnus (the only occurrence of this setting in an site is. Sosicles thinks Cylindrus is insane, but
Roman COMEDY) before two houses, one belonging to a Cylindrus attributes this to Sosicles’ sense of humor.
young nobleman named Menaechmus, the other to the The cook goes inside Erotium’s house to tell his mis-
prostitute Erotium. As the unnamed character who deliv- tress that Menaechmus is already back from the forum.
ers the prologue explains, a merchant from Syracuse had Next, Erotium emerges from the house, addresses Sosi-
identical twin sons, Menaechmus and Sosicles. When the cles as if she knows him, and invites him to dinner.
boys were seven years old, their merchant father took Erotium also mentions the garment that Menaechmus
them to Tarentum. During a crowded festival, another had given her, which further baffles Sosicles, who
merchant abducted Menaechmus and took him to Epi- denies having a wife or giving her the clothing. When
damnus. The merchant from Syracuse soon died of a bro- Erotium, however, tells Sosicles his family history,
ken heart. Sosicles was raised by his grandfather, who Sosicles is amazed and decides that playing along with
changed the boy’s name to Menaechmus, which also hap- her may be of some advantage. Sosicles decides to
 MENAECHMI 339

enter her house and tells Erotium not to allow the par- tle earlier. When Menaechmus denies that he was
asite to enter if he arrives. Erotium also asks Sosicles to given the garment, Erotium is angered and shuts the
have the garment that he stole from his wife altered by door in his face. Menaechmus, welcome neither at
an embroiderer. Sosicles agrees to this request, because home nor at his girlfriend’s, leaves to consult his
he hopes he can get some money for the garment. friends about what he should do.
The third act begins with the arrival of Peniculus The play’s final act begins with the arrival of Sosicles
from the forum. In the confusion of a public meeting, from the forum. As Sosicles looks for Messenio,
Peniculus and Menaechmus became separated, and Menaechmus’ wife sees him and notices that he has the
now Peniculus worries that he will miss the dinner at stolen clothing. Matrona, thinking Sosicles is her hus-
Erotium’s house. Peniculus’ fears seem to be confirmed band, questions him about the clothing, and Sosicles is
when he sees Menaechmus Sosicles’ emerging from baffled. When Matrona threatens to divorce Sosicles,
Erotium’s house, giving every indication that the feast he says he could not care less what she does. The infu-
has ended. Furthermore, Peniculus notices that Sosi- riated wife then sends a servant to get her father and
cles is carrying the clothing that Menaechmus had take him to the house. When her aged father, named
given to Erotium. As Sosicles leaves Erotium’s house, Senex (“old man”; see SENEX) arrives, Matrona com-
rejoicing in his good fortune, Peniculus angrily con- plains about Menaechmus’ treatment of her. Senex,
fronts him. Sosicles, of course, has no idea who however, defends Menaechmus’ visits to Erotium’s
Peniculus is. When Peniculus threatens to tell his wife house as the result of Matrona’s nagging. Senex sympa-
about the stolen garment, Sosicles denies having a thizes with his daughter about the theft of her clothing
wife, giving the clothing, or stealing it. As Peniculus and speaks to Sosicles about this charge. When Sosi-
storms off to Menaechmus’ house, a maidservant cles denies knowing Senex, the old man pronounces
arrives from Erotium’s house, gives Sosicles a bracelet, him insane. Hearing this claim, Sosicles pretends to be
and asks him to take it to the jeweler for refurbishing. insane and threatens Matrona and Senex with bodily
After the maidservant returns to the house, Sosicles harm. Matrona exits into the house, and Senex runs off
again rejoices in his good fortune, as he plans to steal to call a doctor. Sosicles himself decides to leave the
the bracelet. area to avoid further trouble.
In the following act, Menaechmus’ wife, Matrona, After the arrival of the doctor, whose name is
and Peniculus emerge from the house and discuss Medicus (“doctor”), the real Menaechmus arrives.
Menaechmus’ behavior. Soon, Menaechmus of Epi- Senex and Medicus eavesdrop on Menaechmus as he
damnus arrives, angry that he has been delayed in the describes the misery he has experienced. Hearing this,
forum on business. Matrona confronts him about the Medicus approaches Menaechmus and begins to ques-
theft of her clothing, and Peniculus claims Menaech- tion him about his health. Menaechmus is so angered
mus was going to take the garment to the embroiderer’s by the Medicus that the doctor, soon convinced that
shop and that he saw him at Erotium’s house. Menaechmus is insane, tells Senex to call for servants
Menaechmus denies all wrongdoing and tries to soothe to carry Menaechmus to his house. After the Medicus
his wife’s feelings. Menaechmus tells Matrona that he leaves to make preparations and Senex departs to
let someone borrow the garment and promises to assemble the servants, Menaechmus remains onstage
retrieve it. Menaechmus’ wife tells him not to return near his house to wait for nightfall, when he believes
home without the garment. As Matrona reenters the that he will be allowed inside. Next, Messenio arrives
house, Peniculus asks for a reward from her but is and goes to Erotium’s doorway in search of Sosicles.
refused. Peniculus then departs for the forum. Before Messenio can knock, however, he witnesses the
Menaechmus, believing Erotium will welcome him, arrival of Senex and some slaves, who try to haul
calls at the prostitute’s door. Erotium invites him Menaechmus away to the doctor’s house. Messenio,
inside, but when Menaechmus asks for the clothing he thinking this is his master, goes to the aid of Menaech-
had given her, Erotium says she just gave it to him a lit- mus. With Messenio’s help, Senex and the slaves are
340 MENAECHMI

driven away. When Messenio addresses Menaechmus that he can have sexual relations with Amphitruo’s
as master and suggests that he should set him free for wife. Mercury is a twin so that he can prevent the real
saving his life, Menaechmus denies that he is his mas- Amphitruo and Sosia from interfering with his father’s
ter. However, he humors the slave and tells him that he activities. In Menaechmi, the twins are unaware of one
is free as far as he is concerned. Hearing this, the joy- another until the conclusion.
ful Messenio thanks Menaechmus and departs to In both Amphitruo and Menaechmi, married women
retrieve his master’s luggage and money. At the men- become victims of the confusion created by the twins.
tion of money, Menaechmus, as his profit-hungry Unlike in Amphitruo, however, in which the deceived
brother was earlier, is excited. After Messenio departs, wife, ALCMENA, is clearly a sympathetic figure,
Menaechmus decides to go to Erotium’s house to ask Menaechmus’ nameless nagging wife would have
for the stolen garment. received less sympathy than Alcmena from Plautus’
Soon Messenio returns with Sosicles, telling him audience. Even Menaechmus’ father-in-law has little
about how he rescued him from the slaves and how sympathy for his daughter until he finds out that
Sosicles had set him free. Before the two can argue Menaechmus has been stealing from her. Not only
about this, Messenio sees Menaechmus, who is leaving does the confusion created by the twins baffle the mar-
Erotium’s house. Messenio immediately recognizes ried woman, but, unlike Amphitruo, Menaechmi adds a
Menaechmus as the double of Sosicles, but the broth- prostitute who will also fall victim to the confusion.
ers, with Messenio’s help, take almost 80 lines to reach Erotium, however, maintains some sense of control
the same conclusion. The play concludes with Messe- throughout the confusion and by the play’s end has
nio’s being granted his freedom by Sosicles, the broth- essentially “broken even.”
ers’ deciding to return to their native land, and Unlike in Amphitruo, in which the arrival of the
Menaechmus’ deciding to auction off all his property, twins from abroad leads to their constantly being
including his wife. rejected from the house, in the Menaechmi, the intro-
duction of a twin into Epidamnus creates instances of
COMMENTARY both acceptance and rejection. The foreign Menaech-
Menaechmi is usually considered one of PLAUTUS’ best mus stumbles into acceptance as a result of the plans
plays, and its influence on Shakespeare’s Comedy of of the native Menaechmus, whereas the native
Errors attests to its excellence. The scenes at the play’s Menaechmus is rejected because his brother has
end in which Sosicles pretends to be insane to scare already enjoyed the fruits of preparations made by his
away the father-in-law and the appearance of the brother. As Amphitruo does, Epidamnian Menaech-
quack doctor are funny even “on paper” and would mus knows how it feels to be shut out of a house in
surely have been even more humorous on stage. The which he is accustomed to finding welcome. Epi-
play is not perfect, however, and understanding why damnian Menaechmus’ exclusion is even worse than
identical twins should take so long to recognize one Amphitruo’s, however, because Menaechmus is even-
another, especially because the goal of Sosicles’ voyage tually shut out not only from his wife’s house, but also
was to find his long-lost twin, is difficult. from the house of his lover. Much of the audience’s
As AMPHITRUO does, Menaechmi exploits the comic amusement in Menaechmi arises from the native
possibilities of identical twins. As in Amphitruo, in Menaechmus’ being shut out and the foreign Menaech-
Menaechmi a master and slave enter from abroad and mus’ reaping the unexpected benefits of the delights
soon find themselves in a confusing situation caused that his twin brother has arranged. Also amusing is the
by the presence of a twin. Of course, in Amphitruo the zest with which Sosicles delves into the opportunities
confusion is multiplied exponentially because Jupiter for pleasure and profit that present themselves. Epi-
(Greek: ZEUS) is Amphitruo’s twin and Mercury (Greek: damnian Menaechmus clearly illustrates Erich Segal’s
Hermes) is the slave, Sosia’s, twin. In Amphitruo, the principle that much of Roman COMEDY concerns the
twins have two primary functions. Jupiter is a twin so goal of avoiding business in the forum. Activities in
 MENANDER 341

this area of the city prevent Epidamnian Menaechmus tine references to “lunch” occur in Menaechmi. Because
from enjoying the day that he has planned, and his prandium and not matrimonium (marriage) is Epidamn-
presence in the forum gives his twin brother the ian Menaechmus’ goal, there is no need for Erotium to
opportunity to usurp the kingdom of pleasure that he be discovered to be a freeborn woman as so many other
wants to establish for himself. beloved prostitutes in Roman comedy are. Unlike at the
Another result of the presence of twins in Epidamnus conclusion of Plautus’ CARTHAGINIAN, in which the
is the charge of insanity; Menaechmi has more references young man and his beloved, who was just liberated
to sanity and insanity than any other Roman comedy, from prostitution by proof of her freeborn status, will
and Amphitruo also touches upon this theme as the hus- sail away to Carthage, at the end of Menaechmi, Erotium
band Amphitruo questions the sanity of his slave and his will retain her status as a prostitute and Epidamnian
wife and eventually even his own sanity. Eventually, the Menaechmus will sail away with his brother. Whereas
god Jupiter must heal Amphitruo and his household of Erotium’s social status will remain the same, Messenio
insanity. No such divine intervention takes place in will change from slave to free, and Epidamnian
Menaechmi. As with Amphitruo, the twin who enters Menaechmus will be liberated from his oppressive wife.
from abroad in Menaechmi encounters many people he
BIBLIOGRAPHY
thinks are insane (Cylindrus, Erotium, Peniculus, the Gratwick, Adrian S. Menaechmi: Plautus. Cambridge: Cam-
Matrona, the Matrona’s father) and who think that he is bridge University Press, 1993.
insane. Unlike Amphitruo, who is separated from his Jocelyn, H. D. “Anti-Greek Elements in Plautus’
wife and his house by the insanity he perceives, Sosicles Menaechmi?” In Papers of the Liverpool Latin Seminar. Vol.
is able to play along with the mistakes being made about 4. Liverpool: Cairns, 1984, 1–25.
his identity, and the lack of obstacles (such as the divini- Leach E. W. “Meam Quom Formam Noscito: Language and
ties faced by Amphitruo) allows him to benefit. Not only Characterization in the Menaechmi,” Arethusa 2 (1969):
does Sosicles take advantage of the Epidamnians’ “insan- 30–45.
Moore, T. J. “Facing the Music: Character and Musical
ity,” he also uses “insanity” to escape from danger, as his
Accompaniment in Roman Comedy,” Syllecta Classica 10
pretense of insanity helps him elude Matrona’s father.
(1999): 130–53.
Once Sosicles escapes, the charge of insanity falls (as Segal, E. W. “The Menaechmi: Roman Comedy of Errors,”
does all the other bad luck in the play) on Menaechmus, Yale Classical Studies 21 (1969): 77–93.
whom the doctor tries to carry away. Eventually, the
insanity that plagues Menaechmus and his twin, Sosi- MENANDER (342–292 B.C.E.) The source of
cles, is healed, not by a divinity (as in Amphitruo) or a much of our knowledge about COMEDY between the
doctor, but by the slave Messenio, who cures them with time of ARISTOPHANES and that of PLAUTUS is from
the remedy of recognition. Menander, a writer of New Comedy. Before 1900,
In addition to the great emphasis placed on insanity, however, our knowledge of Menander was limited to
Menaechmi differs from other Roman comedies in that fragments and no complete plays existed. During the
it has no lovesick young bachelor who is desperately 1900s, various ancient manuscripts and bits of manu-
seeking a way to be with his beloved. Unlike most other scripts (some used as packing material for the cases of
young men in Roman comedy, Menaechmus is married mummies) began to emerge from Egypt. These manu-
(as is Amphitruo), and his relationship with the prosti- scripts yielded a virtually complete text of DYSCOLUS
tute is well established. No PIMP will keep him away and substantial portions of four other plays. Not only
from the prostitute, and he has no intention of marry- were these discoveries important for what they reveal
ing her, as other young men in comedy do. Other about Menander’s art, but they also help us gain a bet-
young lovers in comedy seek the cash necessary to have ter understanding of New Comedy and the art of PLAU-
their beloved prostitute; Menaechmus already has the TUS and TERENCE, who were influenced by Menander.
money. His goal is “lunch” (prandium) and all of its Menander, son of Deiopeithes and Hesgestrate,
accompanying pleasures. Almost one-third of the Plau- was from the DEME of Cephisia. He may have studied
342 MENANDER

philosophy with Theophrastus and the art of writing Later authors (even Saint Paul at 1 Corinthians 15.33)
plays with PHILEMON. Although Menander is linked often quoted individual lines from his plays as exam-
with noble instructors, rumors about his personal life ples of sensible thought, good advice, or moral truths.
tended toward the ignoble, as tradition makes him the Both PLAUTUS and TERENCE adapted Menander’s plays
lover of various high-class prostitutes (such as Glycera for the Roman stage. Plautus’ BACCHIDES, CASKET COMEDY,
and Thais). Modern scholars doubt the truth of this; and STICHUS were adapted from (respectively) Menan-
however, because Menander’s plays so frequently por- der’s Double Deceivers, Women at Luncheon, and Brothers.
tray prostitutes (the names Glycera and Thais are even Plautus’ POT OF GOLD may have been adapted from
the titles of two Menandrian plays), it is not surprising Menander’s Apistos (The distrustful man). Two-thirds of
that Menander should be linked with prostitutes. More Terence’s plays were based on Menandrian originals
credence is given to the story that Menander was pros- (ANDRIA, BROTHERS, EUNUCH, and SELF-TORMENTOR). The
ecuted (unsuccessfully) in the Athenian courts for Menandrian Brothers on which Terence drew was a dif-
being a friend of the pro-Macedonian Demetrius of ferent Brothers from the one Plautus used for Stichus.
Phalerum, who was driven out of Athens in 307 after Menander’s comedies were popular for a number of
governing the city for a decade. Menander is said to reasons. As stated, the plays contain a good bit of mor-
have died during a swim in the PIRAEUS. alizing, so they were educational as well as entertain-
Both ancient and modern writers seem to make ing. The literary critic Aristophanes of Byzantium
much of the fact that although Menander is said to placed only HOMER ahead of Menander in skill, and an
have written as many as 109 plays (97 titles have sur- ancient commentary on Hermogenes wondered
vived), he achieved only eight victories in competition. whether Menander copied life or life copied Menander.
Consider, however, that this surpasses the number of Menander’s plots are praised for their elegant construc-
victories achieved by EURIPIDES and that being victori- tion, and his characters exhibit greater consistency
ous in comedy was more difficult because five comic than their Aristophanic predecessors. In addition to
poets competed at the City DIONYSIA and the LENAEA, the perceived realism in Menander’s plays, their appeal
whereas three tragedians competed at the City is to a broad audience. Compared with the plays of
Dionysia and only two at the Lenaea. Menander’s first ARISTOPHANES, Menander’s plays contain relatively little
play, Anger (Orge), appeared between 323 and 320 obscenity. Furthermore, unlike Aristophanes’ plays,
B.C.E. and may have won first prize. Undisputed, how- Menander’s plays contain few contemporary and topi-
ever, is Menander’s victory with Dyscolus in 317/316 at cal references. Menander’s stock characters of fathers,
the Lenaea. Dyscolus is the only complete play that we sons, slaves, prostitutes, soldiers, parasites, and cooks
possess from Menander, although Samia (The girl from appear in play after play. So enduring and broad has
Samos) and Epitrepontes (THE ARBITRATION) are almost been the appeal of the scenarios and characters in these
complete. From the following plays more than 200 plays that Peter Brown has described Menander as “the
lines survive: Aspis (SHIELD), Perikeiromene (GIRL WITH founding father of European comedy.” [ANCIENT
THE SHAVEN HEAD), Misoumenos (MAN SHE HATED), and SOURCES: Aristophanes of Byzantium, Commentaria in
Sikyonios (MAN FROM SICYON). Fewer than 200 lines sur- Callimachi Pinaces 5.1; Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 2.23,
vive from Dis Exapaton (Twice a swindler), Heros (Hero), 3.16, 17.4; Plutarch, Comparison of Aristophanes and
Kitharistes (Lyre player), Georgos (Farmer), Phasma Menander; Suda, “m” 589; see Arnott, Vol. 1, xiii–xxiii]
(Apparition), Kolax (Flatterer), Theophoroumene (Girl BIBLIOGRAPHY
possessed), Leukadia (Girl from Leukas), Perinthia (Girl Arnott, W. G. Menander. 3 vols. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
from Perinthos), Karchedonios (Man from Carthage), and University Press, 1979.
Koneiazomenai (Women drinking hemlock). Balme, M. Menander: The Plays and Fragments. Introduction
Perhaps the perception that Menander was not suc- by P. Brown. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
cessful during his lifetime is due to the fact that his Frost, K. B. Exits and Entrances in Menander. Oxford: Oxford
work was extremely popular with later generations. University Press, 1988.
 THE MERCHANT 343

Gomme, A. W., and F. H. Sandbach. Menander: A Commen- comic figure as he washes ashore in Egypt after he has
tary. London: Oxford University Press, 1973. been shipwrecked. The Spartan king, dressed in rags,
Webster, T. B. L. Studies in Menander. 2d ed. Manchester: makes his way to THEOCLYMENUS’ house in search of
Manchester University Press, 1960. assistance but is driven away by the old woman who
answers the door. Later, Menelaus is baffled as he
MENELAUS The son of ATREUS (or Plisthenes) encounters his wife, Helen, whom he thought he had
and AEROPE, Menelaus is the brother of AGAMEMNON taken back from Troy with him. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
and the husband of HELEN, by whom he had a daugh- Apollodorus, Epitome 2.15–16; Seneca, Agamemnon
ter, HERMIONE. After his marriage to Helen, Menelaus 273, Thyestes 327, Trojan Women 923].
eventually became the king of SPARTA. After Menelaus’
cousin, AEGISTHUS, killed Menelaus’ father, ATREUS (an BIBLIOGRAPHY
act that allowed Aegisthus’ father, THYESTES, to become Galeotti Papi, D. “Victors and Sufferers in Euripides’ Helen,”
king of MYCENAE), Menelaus and Agamemnon went American Journal of Philology 108 (1987): 27–40.
into exile. Eventually the brothers, with the backing of Kyriakou, P. “Menelaus and Pelops in Euripides’ Orestes,”
Menelaus’ future father-in-law TYNDAREUS, drove Mnemosyne 51, no. 3 (1998): 282–301.
Thyestes from the kingship and into exile. After the
expulsion of Thyestes, Agamemnon and Menelaus MENOECEUS (1) The father of CREON and
married Tyndareus’ daughters, CLYTEMNESTRA and JOCASTA.
Helen, respectively. Agamemnon became king of
Mycenae; Menelaus lived in Sparta and became king MENOECEUS (2) Menoeceus was the son of
when Tyndareus turned over the throne to him. CREON, king of THEBES. In EURIPIDES’ PHOENICIAN
Menelaus appears as a character in several dramas. WOMEN, Menoeceus sacrifices himself in accordance
Because almost all the surviving Greek dramas were with a prophecy by TIRESIAS so that the Thebans will
defeat the Argives in battle.
written by Athenian playwrights for Athenians during
a time in which either strained relations or war existed
between ATHENS and Sparta, Menelaus, the king of
MEN OF CAMICUS See COCALUS.
Sparta, is depicted (not surprisingly) in a negative
light. In SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, Menelaus and Agamemnon
MEN OF ELEUSIS See ADRASTUS.
oppose the burial of AJAX, whom Sophocles constantly
MEN OF LARISA See LARISA.
links with Athens in that play. In EURIPIDES’ ANDRO-
MACHE, Menelaus tricks ANDROMACHE to leave the altar
MEN OF PROSPALTA See EUPOLIS.
at which she has taken refuge and threatens to kill her
and her son, Molossus. In Euripides’ TROJAN WOMEN, MEN OF SCYROS See SCYROS.
Menelaus becomes the judge in a debate between
HECABE and Helen over whether Helen should be put to MEN OF SERIPHUS See SERIPHUS.
death. In Euripides’ ORESTES, Menelaus is characterized
as the somewhat spineless uncle of ORESTES, as his sup- THE MERCHANT (Latin: MERCATOR)
port of his nephew buckles when pressure from his PLAUTUS (206 B.C.E.?) The play’s setting is
father-in-law, Tyndareus, becomes too great. In Euripi- ATHENS (as is most common in Roman COMEDY), and its
des’ IPHIGENIA AT AULIS, Menelaus at first ruthlessly drives action occurs before the houses of two elderly citizens,
his brother, Agamemnon, to sacrificing his niece, IPHI- Demipho and Lysimachus. The prologue informs the
GENIA; later he reverses his position and urges Agamem- audience that Philemon (also the author behind the
non not to sacrifice his child. Among the extant dramas, original of PLAUTUS’ THREE-DOLLAR DAY) wrote the Greek
only Euripides’ HELEN includes any degre of sympathetic original, which was entitled Emporos. The prologue is
treatment of Menelaus. In this play, Menelaus is a rather delivered by Demipho’s son, Charinus, who relates that
344 THE MERCHANT

he has fallen in love with an Athenian prostitute and will play out but says that he just met the beautiful
that by spending much of his father’s money to gain “she goat” down at the harbor and has fallen in love
her favors enraged his father, Demipho, a conservative with her.
gentleman trained through hard work on a farm. After Demipho’s revelation about his dream, his
When Demipho’s father dies, Demipho takes his inher- neighbor, Lysimachus, leaves his house and makes a
itance, becomes a merchant, and recommends that remark, which Demipho overhears, about castrating a
Charinus enter the same line of work. Charinus, real- goat. Demipho suspects that is what his wife will do to
izing that his riotous living made him hateful to his him. As Lysimachus leaves for the harbor, Demipho
father, decides to respect Demipho’s wishes. Accord- reveals to his neighbor that he has fallen in love. After
ingly, Demipho builds a ship, loads it with merchan- Lysimachus leaves, Charinus returns from the harbor.
dise, and gives Charinus a talent of silver. Demipho At first, Demipho eavesdrops while his son laments the
sends along with Charinus a slave named Acanthio. latest developments. Before Charinus reveals anything
Charinus and Acanthio sail to Rhodes and sell their specific about his problems, he sees his father and con-
cargo at a fine profit. While in Rhodes, Charinus verses with him. Eventually, Demipho questions his
encounters a friend, who invites him to dine and to son about the maid whom Charinus bought for his
lodge at his house. Later that night, Charinus’ host mother. Demipho claims, however, that this maid’s
sends to him a beautiful woman, who spends the night looks are not compatible with their household and that
with him. The next day, Charinus, captivated by the she should be sold to a friend of his. Charinus
woman, buys her from his host and then takes her responds that he has a young friend who wants to buy
back to Athens. Charinus’ father, however, does not her. Father and son then take turns outbidding one
know about the young woman, whom Charinus has another for the young woman on behalf of their
left at the harbor with his servant, Acanthio. “friend.” When Charinus claims he has shared owner-
After Charinus’ opening monologue, Acanthio runs ship of the woman with another man, Demipho says
in from the harbor and tells Charinus that Demipho he does not care and declares he will go down to the
saw the woman aboard the ship and asked questions harbor and sell her. Demipho also forbids Charinus to
about her. Acanthio told Demipho that Charinus had go to the harbor. Demipho exits, telling the audience
bought her as a maid for Charinus’ mother. Acanthio that he will arrange for Lysimachus to buy the woman.
reveals, however, that Demipho is attracted to the Charinus, after his father’s departure, says he will kill
woman as well. Charinus worries that Demipho sus- himself. Before Charinus can act, his friend, Eutychus,
pects the woman is his mistress, but Acanthio assures son of Lysimachus, emerges and tells Charinus that he
Charinus that Demipho believed his story. After the knows everything. Eutychus offers to buy the young
exit of Charinus and Acanthio, Demipho arrives and woman for Charinus; Charinus, however, is not sure
relates a strange dream he had the previous night. In how he will find the money to pay Eutychus.
Demipho’s dream, he bought a beautiful she goat and As the play’s third act opens, the audience learn that
entrusted her to a monkey so the she goat would not Eutychus was too late, and that his father, Lysimachus,
have problems with a she goat that he already had at has bought the young woman, Pasicompsa (“totally
home. The monkey later told Demipho that the she elegant”). When Lysimachus tells Pasicompsa that he
goat had consumed the dowry of the monkey’s wife. has purchased her to give her to her master, she thinks
The monkey then told Demipho that unless he took he means Charinus. After Lysimachus describes her
the she goat, the monkey would reveal the she goat to master as old, married, and toothless, Pasicompsa is
Demipho’s wife. Next, a young male goat appeared and angry and puzzled. Before the conversation can pro-
told Demipho that he had taken the beautiful she goat ceed further, the two exit into Lysimachus’ house. Soon
from the monkey, and started making fun of Demipho Demipho returns and goes to Lysimachus’ house to
for lamenting the she goat’s abduction. Demipho tells check on Pasicompsa. Lysimachus, however, delays
the audience that he cannot imagine how this dream Demipho and persuades his friend to go with him to
 THE MERCHANT 345

the market, purchase supplies, and arrange for a cook Charinus that Pasicompsa is inside the house. When
to prepare a fine meal. Demipho agrees and they leave Charinus hears this, he takes off his traveling cloak and
for the market. Next, Charinus returns, again laments sword, puts down his luggage, and prepares to enter
his situation, and wonders how Eutychus is faring. the house. When Eutychus delays him, Charinus puts
Eutychus enters and informs him that Pasicompsa has on his traveling cloak and sword, picks up his luggage
been sold, but that he does not know who bought her. again, and threatens to leave. Finally, Eutychus calms
Charinus then declares his intention to go into exile. his friend and informs him of the trouble between his
Eutychus tries to dissuade his friend, but Charinus’ mother and father, and Charinus agrees to set matters
resolve is fixed. right between them.
In the next act, Lysimachus’ wife, Dorippa, accom- After Eutychus and Charinus enter the house,
panied by the aged servant Syra, returns from their Demipho and Lysimachus enter from the forum. As
farm in the country. Syra enters Lysimachus’ house but Demipho promises to rescue Lysimachus from his
soon returns, shrieking about the presence of a strange problem with his wife, Eutychus emerges from his
woman in the house. Syra suggests to Dorippa that the house and encounters the two older men. Eutychus
woman is Lysimachus’ mistress. Such remarks herald informs Demipho that Pasicompsa was actually Chari-
the arrival of Lysimachus, who has returned from the nus’ love. When Lysimachus hears this, he and Euty-
market, but without Demipho. Lysimachus sees his chus together criticize Demipho for trying to steal his
wife emerge from the house, hears her complaints, and own son’s woman friend. Demipho then begs Eutychus
realizes he is in trouble. Dorippa confronts Lysimachus to patch up matters between Charinus and him. Euty-
about Pasicompsa, and Lysimachus lies, telling her that chus promises to help Demipho and informs Lysi-
he has been made an arbitrator in a legal case con- machus that he has smoothed conditions over with
cerning the woman. Lysimachus’ lie is undermined, Dorippa. After the two older men enter the house,
however, by the arrival of a cook, the cook’s helpers, Eutychus proposes a law that old men who pursue
and the supplies for dinner. The cook mistakes young women shall be considered fools; if they waste
Dorippa for the woman for whom Lysimachus was their fortune, they shall live in need. Young men, Euty-
holding the dinner party. Lysimachus, of course, denies chus proposes, shall be allowed to have love affairs.
this and sends the cook away. Dorippa, who has heard
enough by this time, sends Syra to summon her father. COMMENTARY
Lysimachus again tries to explain, but both Syra and Plautus’ Merchant has attracted little attention from
Dorippa exit before he has a chance. Then Lysimachus, modern critics, although it is one of Plautus’ more
cursing Demipho, leaves for the FORUM to find his amusing plays. Duckworth classified Merchant as a
neighbor. When Syra returns, unable to find Dorippa’s play of “guileful deception” and grouped it with ASI-
father, she encounters Eutychus, who has been NARIA, BACCHIDES, CASINA, THE BRAGGART WARRIOR, THE
searching for Pasicompsa. Syra informs Eutychus of HAUNTED HOUSE, THE PERSIAN, and PSEUDOLUS. Merchant
what has been going on in the house. When Eutychus is most like Asinaria, Bacchides, and Casina, in that it
hears that the young woman is inside the house, he deals with a father and son who are rivals for the same
goes in to see her. woman. Unlike Asinaria, in which the father knows
The play’s final act begins with the arrival of Chari- about the son’s love affair and even supports it finan-
nus, who continues to threaten to go into exile. His cially, Merchant is more typical in that the son tries to
words are heard by a joyful Eutychus, who, for a few conceal the affair from his father. By hiding the love
lines, listens from the balcony as Charinus pledges his affair, however, the young man almost loses the young
love for Pasicompsa. Eutychus responds as if he were woman to his father.
the forerunner of Shakespeare’s Juliet. Finally, Euty- Unlike in many Roman comedies, in which money
chus recognizes Charinus and speaks with him. Euty- must be acquired to purchase the beloved prostitute, in
chus, true to his name (“good fortune”), informs Merchant the woman has been paid for by the young
346 THE MERCHANT

lover only to be purchased again by the old lover. The son both claim to have friends, one old and the other
young lover’s goal in Merchant is to reacquire his pur- young, who want to buy the woman and then make
chase. Thus, instead of the usual PIMP whom the lover imaginary bids for their friend. This bidding war never
must defeat, in Merchant the young man’s father must takes place in reality because Lysimachus buys Pasi-
be overcome. Eventually, as in Asinaria and Casina, the compsa before Eutychus can even make a bid. Charinus’
father is defeated once his wife becomes aware of the loss of his purchase causes him great distress, but his
old man’s love affair. Unlike in Asinaria and Casina, in claims that he will go into exile will not be realized.
Merchant it is the neighbor’s wife (Dorippa) who The theme of knowledge and reality continues with
becomes aware of her old neighbor’s (Demipho’s) love, the arrival of Pasicompsa. She thinks the man who owns
not the old lover’s own wife (although Dorippa initially her is a handsome young man, whereas in reality he is a
thinks that Pasicompsa is her husband’s mistress). As rather ugly old man. Lack of accurate knowledge about
in Casina, we encounter forgiveness between the wife the woman’s purpose also leads to trouble for Lysi-
and husband, but in Merchant the forgiveness is differ- machus. Syra does not know who the strange woman is,
ent because it primarily involves Dorippa and Lysi- but she incorrectly thinks that Pasicompsa is Lysi-
machus, who are only indirectly involved with machus’ mistress and informs his wife of her suspicion;
Pasicompsa. In fact, we learn that Demipho’s wife will as do Charinus and Demipho, Lysimachus creates a false
not find out about Demipho’s activities (1004). Thus, story about her. The reality of the situation is revealed
the criticism of Demipho at the play’s conclusion is not when Lysimachus’ lie is undermined, when the cook
voiced by his own wife or even his own son; this task mistakes Dorippa for Pasicompsa, a mistake that paral-
is primarily performed by Lysimachus’ son, Eutychus, lels Pasicompsa’s earlier mistaking of Demipho for Char-
who chastises the old man for behaving as a young inus. Lysimachus then seems resolved to inform his wife
man. The replacement of the wife as the person who about the reality of the situation (789), but Dorippa,
chastises the husband with the son of the neighbor is who is also determined to acquire accurate knowledge
perhaps in keeping with the play’s conflict of old ver- about Pasicompsa (720), exits before he can provide
sus young, but some of the humorous tension is lost by accurate information about the strange woman.
the removal of Demipho’s wife because Eutychus has Charinus’ proposed journey into exile is postponed
little connection with Demipho. temporarily when Eutychus gives Charinus information
In addition to the conflict between the older and about Pasicompsa’s whereabouts. When Eutychus asks
younger generations, much of the play’s humor and Charinus to delay awhile because of the quarrel between
unity revolves around commerce, knowledge, and real- his parents, Charinus becomes frenzied and, as does the
ity. Initially, Charinus’ father does not know that Pasi- mad HERACLES in EURIPIDES’ HERACLES, begins an imagi-
compsa has been purchased to be his son’s mistress. nary journey into exile, until Eutychus agrees to let him
Once Demipho begins inquiring about the woman, enter the house. Although Charinus had become like
Acanthio gives Demipho false information about Chari- the mad Heracles, he tells Eutychus that he will restore
nus’ purchase. The situation becomes more complicated harmony between his friend’s parents as if they were
as father and son both reveal their true feelings about Jupiter (Heracles’ father) and Juno (see ZEUS and HERA).
the purchase to a friend. Demipho makes Lysimachus One should also note that Charinus’ madness here
aware of his intention in this purchase and Charinus matches his father’s declaration that he is madly in love
makes Eutychus aware of his intentions. Although father with Pasicompsa earlier in the play (262–65). Not only
and son make outsiders aware of their feelings for Pasi- are father and son merchants and lovers, they also lose
compsa, they continue to conceal this knowledge from sanity. Also noteworthy is Eutychus’ remark that Chari-
one another. Because both father and son are merchants, nus’ madness seems to be the stuff of dreams (951),
they create an imaginary business deal that they hope which parallels Demipho’s earlier bizarre dream.
will become real (compare the situation in Demipho’s Once Charinus gives Dorippa accurate knowledge
dream, which will also turn out to be real). Father and about the situation, marital harmony between Lysi-
 MESSENGER 347

machus and Dorippa is restored. Interestingly, at line MESSALINA (24/25–48 C.E.) Messalina was a
960, Demipho indicates to Lysimachus that he intends wife of the Roman emperor CLAUDIUS. Claudius
to patch up matters between Lysimachus and Dorippa. divorced Messalina and had her put to death after he
While Demipho is on his way to relay accurate infor- learned of her numerous sexual affairs and her mar-
mation about his affair to Dorippa, Eutychus emerges riage to Gaius Silius, performed when she was married
from the house and becomes a source of accurate infor- to Claudius. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia 10,
mation for the two old men. He relates that Dorippa 258, 265, 974; Suetonius, Claudius 26–39; Tacitus,
has been placated (965)—although later Lysimachus Annals 11.2–13.32]
will ask his son to confirm this statement (1012)—and
that Demipho has lost his woman friend (966). When MESSAPIUM A mountain north of Greece.
Eutychus declares truly that Demipho had tried to take [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Agamemnon 293]
away his son’s girlfriend, Demipho indicates that he
was unaware that she was Charinus’ beloved and MESSENE A town in southern Greece to the west
of SPARTA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata
recites the false story Charinus had fed him earlier
1142]
about her being a maid for his mother (975). By now,
however, Demipho knows that his deception is fin- MESSENGER In classical drama, the messenger
ished and confesses his wrongdoing (983). Demipho reports events that ordinarily cannot be portrayed on
also begs Eutychus to persuade Charinus to forgive stage. In TRAGEDY, messengers often give vivid reports of
him and even offers to let Eutychus and Lysimachus miraculous occurrences (e.g., the rescue of IPHIGENIA
beat him as if he were a slave. When Eutychus declares from death in EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA AT AULIS), violent
that he will let Demipho’s wife do that, Demipho is ter- actions (e.g., the blinding of OEDIPUS in SOPHOCLES’ OEDI-
rified. Eutychus calms the old man’s fears by telling PUS TYRANNOS), or deaths (HERACLES’ killing of his wife
him that his wife need not know about Demipho’s and children). These reports, called messenger speeches,
affair (1004). Thus, just as Merchant began with one are often quite lengthy. The report of NEOPTOLEMUS’ death
young man’s concealing the truth from Demipho, the in Euripides’ ANDROMACHE is 81 lines. SENECA’s messenger
play will end with another young man’s concealing the in HIPPOLYTUS spends 104 lines describing HIPPOLYTUS’
truth about Demipho. Unlike the wives in Asinaria and death. Typically, a messenger speech is delivered by an
Casina, Demipho’s wife will never know the truth. otherwise nameless person called Messenger (Greek:
BIBLIOGRAPHY angelos or exangelos; Latin: nuntius). Characters called
Lowe, J. C. B. “Notes on Plautus’ Mercator,” Weiner Studien Messenger appear in 14 of the 19 plays attributed to
114 (2001): 143–56. EURIPIDES, five of the seven extant tragedies of SOPHOCLES,
O’Bryhim, S. “The Originality of Plautus’ Casina,” American and two of the seven plays of AESCHYLUS. One should
Journal of Philology 110 (1989): 81–103. note, however, that not every messenger speech is given
Woytek, E. “Sprach- und Kontextbeobachtung im Dienste by someone with the title angelos. Sometimes household
der Prioritdtsbestimmung bei Plautus: Zur Datierung von servants give speeches that function as messenger
Rudens, Mercator und Persa,” Weiner Studien 114 (2001): speeches, as in EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS, when the title charac-
119–42. ter’s maidservant reports the activities of her mistress
before her death. In Sophocles’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN, HER-
MERCURY See HERMES. ACLES’ son, HYLLUS, gives a messenger speech. That play
is also interesting in that a messenger speech given by
MERETRIX See PROSTITUTE. LICHAS is shown to be false by a second messenger. Mes-
senger speeches also occur in COMEDY. In ARISTOPHANES’
MEROPE The wife of King POLYBUS of CORINTH, CLOUDS, for example, Strepsiades’ speech about how his
who OEDIPUS incorrectly believed was his mother. son struck him functions as a messenger speech. In Plau-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Oedipus 272, 661, 802; tus’ Amphitruo, Bromia’s speech about the labor of
Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos 775, 990] ALCMENA also does.
348 METATHEATER

BIBLIOGRAPHY slaves in particular become playwrights as they

Buxton, R. G. A. “The Messenger and the Maenads: A deceive other characters in the play.
Speech from Euripides’ Bacchae (1043–1152),” Acta Anti-
qua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 32 (1989): 225–34. BIBLIOGRAPHY
De Jong, Irene J. F. Narrative in Drama: The Art of the Euripi- Barrett, James. “Pentheus and the Spectator in Euripides’
dean Messenger-Speech. Leiden: Brill, 1991. Bacchae,” American Journal of Philology 119, no. 3 (1998):
Rijksbaron A. “How Does a Messenger Begin His Speech?: 337–60.
Some Observations on the Opening Lines of Euripidean Batchelder, A. G. The Seal of Orestes: Self-Reference and
Messenger Speeches.” In Miscellanea Tragica in Honorem J. Authority in Sophocles’ Electra. Lanham, Md.: Rowman &
C. Kamerbeek. Edited by J. M. Bremer, S. Radt, and C. J. Littlefield, 1995.
Ruijgh. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1976, 293–308. Dobrov, G. W. Figures of Play: Greek Drama and Metafictional
Poetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Ringer, Mark. Electra and the Empty Urn: Metatheater and
METATHEATER A term used by modern Role Playing in Sophocles. Chapel Hill: University of North
scholars for references in plays to the theater, plays that Carolina Press, 1998.
are about plays, and “plays” that occur within a play. Slater, N. W. Plautus in Performance. Princeton, N.J.: Prince-
For instance, in PLAUTUS’ AMPHITRUO, Mercury (Greek: ton University Press, 1985.
HERMES), who is disguised as the slave Sosia, runs in
yelling for people to make way for him. In so doing, METER Derived from a Greek word meaning
Mercury says it is fitting for him to behave as does the “measure,” meter is the arrangement of words in a pat-
slave in comedy who runs in and announces that the tern determined by the long and/or short syllables of
ship has arrived safely or the arrival of an angry old each word. All classical drama is written in some met-
man (896–98). In Plautus’ BACCHIDES (214–15), the rical pattern, and the classical playwrights used many
slave Chrysalus makes reference to the pleasure he different patterns. Although modern translators of
feels from another of Plautus’ plays, EPIDICUS. classical drama sometimes compose translations that
In addition to references to theater within the plays, rhyme at the end of the line, as many English poems
metatheater involves disguise, role playing, and do, the verse of classical playwrights does not have the
schemes designed to deceive others in the play. Thus, regular end-of-line rhymes. Greek and Latin verse is
a character in a play can become a playwright, direc- one of rhythm, not rhyme. The meter most commonly
tor, actor, or audience within it. EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA IN found in Greek dramatic dialogue is iambic trimeter,
TAURIS and HELEN provide examples. In both plays, a which consists, in theory, of six iambs (a short syllable
female character contrives a scheme to trick a barbar- followed by a long syllable) that fall into three units
ian king. Thus, the female becomes a playwright and (metra) of two iambs each. In the case of EURIPIDES, ten-
the king becomes an audience. Those who assist the dencies observed in his iambic trimeters over his
female become her actors. In the case of HELEN, the career have helped modern scholars to date some of
title character even changes her clothing and cuts her his plays with greater accuracy. Various types of
hair to carry out her deception. ARISTOPHANES’ plays tetrameters (lines that are divided into four metrical
have numerous examples of such role playing. In units) are also common in drama. In choral passages,
Acharnians, Dicaeopolis goes to the playwright Euripi- metrical patterns can be extremely complex, and not
des’ house in order to borrow a costume for a “play” uncommonly more than a half-dozen different meters
that he wants to stage for the Acharnians, who become are used in a single choral passage. As their Greek
his audience within the play. Aristophanes’ THES- predecessors do, Latin comic playwrights commonly
MOPHORIAZUSAE contains a series of plays within the employ iambic rhythms, such as iambic senarius
play. Euripides and Mnesilochus play several different (based on six iambs), iambic septenarius (based on
roles from Euripides’ tragedies during Thesmophori- seven iambs), and iambic octonarius (based on eight
azusae. Many of Plautus’ and Terence’s plays can be iambs). The episodes in SENECA’s tragedies commonly
read with a metatheatrical perspective, as the clever employ the iambic senarius, whereas he relies prima-
 MILETUS 349

rily on anapests (two short syllables followed by a long Pritchett, W. K. “The Calendar of the Athenian Civic
syllable) for his lyric passages. Administration,” Phoenix 30 (1976): 337–56.

BIBLIOGRAPHY MICON The son of Phnomachos, Micon was a

Dale, A. M. The Lyric Metres of Greek Drama. 2d ed. London:
Cambridge University Press, 1968.
painter and sculptor who was active in ATHENS in the
Halporn, J. W., M. Ostwald, and T. G. Rosenmeyer. The second quarter of the fifth century B.C.E. Among his
Meters of Greek and Latin Poetry. Norman: University of most famous paintings were those of THESEUS battling
Oklahoma Press, 1980. the CENTAURS and the AMAZONS. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Lindsay, W. M. Early Latin Verse. London: Oxford University Aristophanes, Lysistrata 679; Pausanias, 6.6.1]
Press, 1968.
Maas, Paul. Greek Metre. Translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962. Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
West, M. L. Greek Metre. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Press, 1987, 160.
1982.
MIDAS (1) Also spelled Mida, Midas is the name
METIS (1) Another name for PROCNE, the wife of of a fictional slave from the region of PHRYGIA (after the
TEREUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Suppliant Women legendary King MIDAS, who ruled in that region).
61] [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 433; Terence,
Phormio 862]
METIS (2) A daughter of OCEAN, Metis (Pru-
dence) had sexual relations with ZEUS and became MIDAS (2) A mythical king who received from
pregnant. When Zeus discovered that a son by Metis DIONYSUS the ability to change into gold whatever he
would overthrow him, he swallowed the pregnant touched. When Midas’ golden touch began to cause
Metis. Eventually the child, ATHENA, was born by him great hunger and sorrow, he repented of his wish
springing from Zeus’ head. In AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS and Dionysus allowed him to rid himself of the golden
BOUND, Metis is also called the mother of PROMETHEUS. touch by bathing in a certain river. Midas also heard a
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.2.1, 1.3.6; musical contest between Pan and APOLLO; when he
Hesiod, Theogony 471, 886; Plato, Symposium 203] declared Pan the better player, APOLLO changed the
king’s ears into those of an ass. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
METON An Athenian astronomer of the fifth cen- Aristophanes, Wealth 287; Hyginus, Fables 191; Ovid,
tury B.C.E. who gained fame for observations on the Metamorphoses 11.85–193]
summer solstice and his efforts to reconcile the lunar
and solar calendars. Meton appears in ARISTOPHANES’ MIDDLE COMEDY See COMEDY.
BIRDS to survey the land of the new city in the clouds.
Meton’s interest in celestial matters, coupled with the MIDWIFE A person who helps someone who is
fact that Meton’s name recalls the Greek word metron about to give birth. In classical drama, midwives are
(measure or rule), makes Meton the perfect character always women. A midwife named Lesbia appears
to survey the city. As he does to the others who try to briefly in TERENCE’s ANDRIA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus,
infiltrate the new city, PEISETAERUS drives away Meton. Captives 629, Casket Comedy 141; Terence, Andria 299,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 992–1020] 459–89, 515, Brothers 292, 354, 618, 620]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Depuydt, Leo. “The Egyptian and Athenian Dates of Meton’s
MILETUS A town on the western coast of what
Observation of the Summer Solstice (431),” Ancient Soci- is today Turkey. In 494 B.C.E., the Greek tragedian
ety 27 (1996): 27–45. PHRYNICHUS staged a historical drama entitled Destruc-
Dunn, Francis M. “The Council’s Solar Calendar,” American tion of Miletus. The play caused the Athenians such
Journal of Philology 120, no. 3 (1999): 369–80. grief that they fined the playwright 1,000 drachmas.
350 MILTIADES

ARISTOPHANES notes the Milesians’ production of wool sources believed invented mime in the fifth century
blankets. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 543, B.C.E., are extant. Some of Sophron’s mimes featured
Knights 361, 932, Lysistrata 108, 729; Herodotus, women’s roles (such as his Mother-in-Law); others fea-
6.21; Terence, Brothers 654–55] tured male roles (such as his Tunnyfish-Catcher).
Sophron’s son, Xenarchus, also composed mimes, but
MILTIADES (CA. 550–489 B.C.E.) The son of none of his work remains. About a dozen literary
CIMON, Miltiades was an Athenian statesman. Around mimes from the third-century-B.C.E. writer Herodas (or
524 B.C.E., the Athenian tyrant, HIPPIAS, made Miltiades Herodes) are also extant, although some are in frag-
tyrant over the Thracian Chersonese, and during his mentary form. The complete mimes of Herodas range
rule Miltiades married Hegisipyle, the daughter of a between 80 and 130 lines, involve conversations of
Thracian king. Hegisipyle produced for him a son (also two or three characters, and have titles such as Match-
named Cimon). Miltiades returned to Athens in 493 maker, Brothel Keeper, Schoolmaster, Offerings and Sacri-
and led forces to victory against the PERSIANS at fices, Jealous Lady, Private Chat, The Cobbler, The Dream,
MARATHON in 490. Militiades died of a wound received and Breaking Fast.
while he was leading a naval attack on the island of In Rome, mime (also called fabula riciniata)
Paros. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 1325; appeared as early as the third century B.C.E. and
Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades; Herodotus, 4.137–38, became more popular than traditional stage plays. In
6.34–41, 6.103–40; Pausanias, 1.15.3] some mimes, female characters (played by prostitutes)
appeared nude. Among the known Roman writers of
MIMAS (1) The child of EARTH, Mimas was one mime are Decimus Laberius, Gnaeus Matius, and
of the GIANTS who unsuccessfully waged war against Publilius Syrus, all of whom lived during the first cen-
ZEUS and the other gods. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- tury B.C.E. Only fragments of their mimes survive,
lodorus, Library 1.6.1–2; Euripides, Ion 215; Seneca, however, only a handful of lines and two titles (Mur-
Hercules Furens 981, Hercules Oetaeus 730, 1384] murco, Pruners) survive from Syrus. About a dozen
lines and no titles of Matius’ mimes survive. More than
MIMAS (2) A mountain opposite the island of 180 lines from Laberius exist; his numerous titles
CHIOS on the coast of what is today western Turkey. include Maiden, Poverty, Lake Avernus, Prison, The Pot of
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 273] Gold, and Anna Peranna. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristotle,
Poetics 1447b8–13; Athenaeus, 14.621c; Plato, Repub-
MIME Derived from the Greek word mimos, mean- lic 396b; Plutarch, Quaestiones Conviviales 712e]
ing both “imitation” and “imitator,” mime can refer to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
a performance or performer that imitates something. Beare, W. The Roman Stage. London: Methuen, 1950, 149–58.
Some mimes performed dances that imitated certain Bonaria, M. Romani Mimi. Rome: In aedibus Athenaei, 1965.
actions; others used gestures to imitate, as do modern Cunningham, I. C. Herodas: Mimiambi. Oxford: Clarendon
mimes, who often imitate walking against the wind, Press, 1971.
pulling a rope, or being inside a box. Unlike modern Heitsch, E. Die griechischen Dichterfragmente der römischen
mimes, who do not speak, ancient mimes could. Some Kaiserzeit. Vol. 1, 2d ed. Göttingen, Ger.: Vandenhoeck &
mimes wore masks when they performed; some did Ruprecht, 1963.
not. In Greece, troupes of mimes composed of both Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet-
arum Graecorum fragmenta. Vol. 6.1. Berlin: Weidmann,
male and female performers performed scenes from
1899.
mythology or daily life or stock comic routines. The Knox, A. D. Herodes, Cercidas, and the Greek Choliambic
primary mime in a performance was called the arch- Poets. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967.
mime (masculine: archmimus, feminine: archmima). Wiemken, H. Der griechische Mimus; Dokumente zur
About 150 brief fragments (see Kaibel) exist from Geschichte des antiken Volkstheaters. Bremen: Schunemann
the mimes of Sophron of Syracuse, who ancient Universitatsverlag, 1972.
 MINOS 351

MIMESIS A Greek word whose basic meanings through pity and fear, brings about a CATHARSIS of such
are “imitation” and “representation.” With respect to emotions. Thus, whereas Plato worries that poetic rep-
literary criticism, when modern scholars speak of the resentation could create a harmful emotional response
concept of mimesis, they usually have in mind refer- in the guardians of his ideal city-state, Aristotle in Poet-
ences to mimesis in Books 2, 3, and 10 of Plato’s Repub- ics indicates that the form of mimesis known as tragic
lic and in ARISTOTLE’s Poetics. PLATO and ARISTOTLE often poetry can produce a catharsis of such emotions,
mean different things when they employ the term which, Aristotle implies, is beneficial. [ANCIENT
mimesis. In Republic, Plato’s concept of mimesis is SOURCES: Plato, Republic 392–400, 597–607]
shaped by the fact that Plato is theorizing about an BIBLIOGRAPHY
ideal city-state. In the ideal city-state, Plato argues, Golden, Leon. Aristotle on Tragic and Comic Mimesis. Atlanta:
poets (he primarily has HOMER in mind) should not Scholars Press, 1992.
represent gods or heroes behaving in an unseemly Halliwell, Stephen. “Aristotelian Mimesis Reevaluated,” Jour-
manner. When poets let their tales unfold through var- nal of the History of Philosophy 28 (1990): 487–510.
ious characters, they are engaging in mimesis, as they Woodruff, Paul. “Aristotle on Mimesis.” In Essays on Aristo-
imitate or represent what certain characters will say or tle’s Poetics. Edited by Rorty Amélie Oksenberg. Princeton,
do in a certain situation. Because poets often represent N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992, 73–95.
gods or people who are speaking or behaving in
unseemly ways, Plato suggests that those who will take MINA In the Athenian monetary system, a mina
a lead in governing the ideal state should not be (plural: minae) was a coin of substantial value. One
exposed to vile representations, but rather representa- mina was worth one-tenth of a talent (or 6,000 OBOLS
tions that will promote excellence, nobility, virtue, and or 600 DRACHMAS). In PLAUTUS’ CAPTIVES, Tyndarus’
the like. Plato also criticizes representations by persons young son is sold as a slave for six minae. In the same
such as poets. He claims that these representations playwright’s EPIDICUS, a MUSIC GIRL is purchased for 40
cannot be accurate because poets are neither divinities minae. In TERENCE’s PHORMIO, 30 minae are needed to
nor experts in what they are attempting to represent. purchase a music girl; in BROTHERS, Aeschinus says the
Poets are not experts in the gods or religion, yet they PIMP, Sannio, paid 20 minae for a music girl.
offer representations of what the gods and virtuous
behavior are like, and the poets’ audiences often accept MINERVA See ATHENA.
what the poets say as accurate and true.
Aristotle’s concept of mimesis responds and reacts to MINOS The son of ZEUS (or Asterius) and EUROPA,
the earlier view of Plato. Aristotle says epic poetry, Minos was the brother of Sarpedon and RHADAMAN-
TRAGEDY, COMEDY, DITHYRAMB, most music, and even THYS. Minos became a king of CRETE, married PASIPHAE,
painting are representations (mimeseis). With respect to and by her fathered Acacallis, Androgeus, ARIADNE,
representations in drama, Aristotle says comedy tends Catreus, Deucalion, Glaucus, PHAEDRA, and Xenodice.
to represent people who are worse than those in “real” After the death of Asterius, Minos became king by
life, and tragedy tends to represent people who are bet- driving Sarpedon and Rhadamanthys from the land.
ter. In Plato’s Republic, poetic mimesis could deceive When rivals vied for the kingdom, Minos ended their
people about the truth, but Aristotle says that mimesis claims by demonstrating that POSEIDON favored him.
is natural to humans and that people take pleasure in Claiming that the god would answer any request he
and learn from representations. Aristotle’s most famous made, Minos prayed for Poseidon to send him a bull,
remarks on mimesis occur at Poetics 1449b24–29. which Minos promised to sacrifice. Poseidon sent the
Here, Aristotle defines tragedy as a representation bull, but the animal was so perfect that Minos kept it
(mimesis) of action that is serious and complete, and and sacrificed another in its place. Poseidon, angered
possesses magnitude; that employs embellished lan- by this act, caused Minos’ wife to fall in love with the
guage; that shows people who are acting; and that, bull. Pasiphae, with the help of a hollow wooden cow
352 MINOTAUR

built by DAEDALUS, managed to have intercourse with relationship with the bull. Sophocles wrote a Minos
the bull, became pregnant, and produced the creature (which may be identical to his Daedalus), but the sin-
known as the MINOTAUR (“the bull of Minos”), which gle line that survives (regarding fortune’s not aiding the
Minos concealed beneath his palace in a mazelike inactive) tells nothing of the play’s content (fragment
structure called the Labyrinth. Some sources say that 407 Radt). Two Greek comic poets, Antiphanes (frag-
Poseidon caused the bull that he sent to become ment 158 Kock) and Alexis (see Kock 2), wrote plays
enraged and thus a great danger to Minos’ people. entitled Minos. Only the title of Alexis’ play survives
HERACLES, however, later subdued the bull and took it and the phrase about eating the root of a plant called
to mainland Greece. molochê that survives from Antiphanes’ play indicates
When Athenians killed Minos’ son, Androgeus, after nothing of that play’s plot. Minos also is a character in
he had defeated them in athletic competition, Minos ARISTOPHANES’ Polyidos (fragments 1–4 Meineke). In
waged war against ATHENS and was victorious. He then fragment 2, Minos is apparently offering Phaedra in
imposed a terrible tribute: Every nine years for a period marriage to someone. Among Roman authors, ACCIUS
of 27 years, they were required to send him a tribute of (see Warmington) wrote a Minos (also called Minotaur),
seven young men and seven young women. These of which a single line survives (“Was the beast begot-
young people were imprisoned in Minos’ Labyrinth, ten from the seed of a bull or a human being?”).
where the Minotaur would kill them. When the tribute [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.5.7, 3.1.1–4,
fell due for the third time, the Athenian hero THESEUS 3.15.7–9, Epitome 1.12–15; Hyginus, Fables 40–44;
volunteered to go to Crete; there, with help from Minos’ Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.152–262; Seneca, Agamemnon
daughter, Ariadne, and DAEDALUS, who had built the 24, Hercules Furens 733, Hippolytus 127, 149, 174,
Labyrinth, Theseus killed the Minotaur and escaped 245, 649, 1171, Thyestes 23]
from Crete with Ariadne and his comrades.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Minos was apparently most angry with Daedalus, so
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
he imprisoned him. Daedalus managed to escape the
Teubner, 1884.
prison and Crete as well. Upon discovering Daedalus’ Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
escape, Minos pursued him. Wherever Minos searched, Harvard University Press, 1996.
he took a conch shell and promised to reward the per- Meineke, A. Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum. Vol. 2.2.
son who could pass a thread through the shell, think- 1840. Reprint, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1970.
ing that the clever Daedalus would not be able to resist Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London:
this challenge and would thus reveal himself. Upon Heinemann, 1970.
reaching SICILY and the kingdom of COCALUS, where Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
Daedalus was hiding, Minos showed the shell to Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
Cocalus. Cocalus gave it to Daedalus, who threaded it. ———. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
When Cocalus showed the shell to Minos, he realized Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Daedalus was nearby and demanded of Cocalus that Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
Daedalus be turned over to him. Cocalus agreed to do Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1936.
so but stalled for time by inviting Minos to a banquet.
Daedalus escaped Minos, however, because Cocalus’
daughters killed Minos (some sources say they poured MINOTAUR See MINOS.
scalding water onto him). After Minos’ death, he
became a judge in the UNDERWORLD. MINYANS A mythical tribe who lived in north
Minos does not appear as a character in any com- central Greece. HERACLES, before his labors, led THEBES
plete plays but is a character in EURIPIDES’ Cretans (see to victory over the Minyans. JASON is sometimes
the fragments in Page), in which he speaks of impris- referred to as a Minyan. The Greek tragedian Chaere-
oning his wife, Pasiphae, and discovering her sexual mon wrote a Minyans; the single fragment (12 Snell)
 MOON 353

that survives gives no hint as to the play’s plot. [ANCIENT to destroy humankind by fathering a woman over
SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 14; Seneca, Medea 233] whom men would fight. A scholiast on HOMER, Iliad
1.5, says that Zeus’ original plan of destruction had
BIBLIOGRAPHY
involved flood or lightning, but Momus found fault
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. with this idea and suggested that Zeus produce the
destructive woman. EURIPIDES’ HELEN suggests that
Zeus had caused the Trojan War to thin out the Earth’s
MITYLENE A town on the island of LESBOS. In
population; therefore, Lloyd-Jones’ idea that the child
427 B.C.E., the people of Mytilene revolted against the
produced was HELEN may well be correct. Sophocles’
Athenians, the revolt was put down, and initially the
contemporary, Achaeus, also wrote a Momus, whose
Athenians, persuaded by CLEON, proposed to put the
only surviving fragment contains a reference to the
entire male population of Mytilene to death. This deci-
plundering ARES (fragment 29 Snell).
sion was reversed, however, and only the leaders of the
revolt were executed. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Knights 834; Thucydides, 3.2–51] Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
MOIRAI See FATES. Harvard University Press, 1996.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
MOLON An actor of large bodily proportion. Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 55; Demos- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
thenes, 19.246] Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America, 1984.
MOLOSSIA A region in northwestern Greece
that, according to legend, took its name from MOLOS- MONODY A song delivered by a single character.
SUS, the son of NEOPTOLEMUS and ANDROMACHE, who An example is CREUSA’s song about her sexual assault
became a king in the region. The region was famous by APOLLO in EURIPIDES’ Ion. In ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS,
for its hunting dogs. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Euripides is criticized for inserting “Cretan monodies”
Prometheus Bound 829; Euripides, Alcestis 594, Andro- into his plays. This label appears to concern the sub-
mache 1244, 1248; Plautus, Captives 86; Seneca, Hip- ject matter of some of his plays (sexually “loose”
poltyus 32] women from CRETE such as PASIPHAE and PHAEDRA)
rather than the composition of monodies using the
MOLOSSUS The son of NEOPTOLEMUS and meter called Cretic. Dover doubts “whether any
ANDROMACHE, Molossus appears as a young boy in Euripidean TRAGEDY contained anything which on for-
EURIPIDES’ ANDROMACHE, in which Neoptolemus’ wife, mal grounds would be called ‘a Cretan monody.’”
HERMIONE, threatens to kill him and Andromache. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Eventually, Andromache and Molossus are rescued by Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Neoptolemus’ grandfather, PELEUS. Molossus went on 1993, 298–99.
to become a king in a region in northwestern Greece
that bore his name (MOLOSSIA). [ANCIENT SOURCES: MOON Both the Greeks and the Romans wor-
Apollodorus, Epitome 6.12; Pausanias, 1.11.1–2] shiped a goddess of the Moon. Among the Greeks, her
name was Selene or Phoebe; the Romans called her
MOMUS Momus was the personification of fault- Luna or Phoebe. The name Phoebe is sometimes used
finding. SOPHOCLES wrote a satyric Momus from which for APOLLO’s sister, ARTEMIS, who was considered a
six fragments survive. The play’s plot is unknown; moon goddess. HECATE is also associated with the
Lloyd-Jones thinks it may have involved ZEUS’ decision Moon. The Moon is often imagined as driving a chariot
354 MOPSUS

across the night sky and is also connected with witch- ances survive. In the former prologue, the speaker
craft. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 608, 614, notes that a competing performance by a tightrope
Peace 406; Seneca, Oedipus 44, 253, Hippolytus 309–10, walker distracted the audience from Terence’s play. The
422, 785, 790, Thyestes 838] latter prologue begins by relating the difficulties the
playwright has had in holding his audience’s attention.
MOPSUS The son of the nymph Chloris and This prologue also recalls the distractions that led to the
Ampyx (or Ampycus), Mopsus accompanied JASON demise of the first production and adds that a similar
and the Argonauts on their quest for the Golden Fleece. attraction, rumor of a gladiatorial show, lured away the
During the journey (in Libya), Mopsus was bitten by a audience of the second performance, which took place
snake and died. SENECA indicates that Mopsus lived in at the funeral games of Lucius Aemilius Paulus. On this
THEBES; other sources make him a member of the LAP- third occasion, however, the prologue’s speaker says, no
ITH tribe in northeastern Greece. Pindar describes such distractions exist, and he urges the audience to
Mopsus as a prophet; as a result, he is sometimes con- give the deserving playwright their quiet attention.
fused with the prophetic Mopsus, who was the son of The play’s setting is ATHENS (as in most Roman come-
APOLLO and MANTO. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pindar, Pythian dies), and the action occurs before three houses: those
Odes 4.191; Seneca, Medea 655; Strabo, 9.5.22] of the elderly Athenian Laches, the elderly Athenian
Phidippus, and a PROSTITUTE named Bacchis. This three-
MORSIMUS The son of the Greek tragedian house configuration also appears in Phormio, the other
PHILOCLES, Morsimus himself was a Greek tragedian. Terentian play based on an original by Apollodorus,
ARISTOPHANES suggests that he was an unsuccessful although in Mother-in-Law the house of the prostitute
playwright; as it happens, none of his work (or that of has replaced the house of the PIMP. In the play’s opening
his father) survives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, scene, a prostitute named Philotis and an old woman
Frogs 151, Knights 401, Peace 803] named Syra discuss Pamphilus, son of Laches and Myr-
rina, who has married Philumena despite his promise
MORYCHUS A person known only for his love that he would not marry as long as Bacchis was alive.
of food and drink. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, As they are talking, Parmeno, a slave in Laches’ house-
Acharnians 887, Peace 1008, Wasps 506, 1142; Plato hold, emerges and announces that he is going to the
Comicus, fragment 106 Kock] harbor to find out when Pamphilus will arrive. Par-
BIBLIOGRAPHY meno encounters Syra and Philotis, who informs him
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: that she has spent the last two years in CORINTH in the
Teubner, 1880. company of a vile soldier. When Philotis questions Par-
meno about Pamphilus’ marriage, he informs her that
MOSCHUS A lyre player and singer. [ANCIENT Pamphilus is not happy about the marriage and that his
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 13] father, Laches, forced it on him. Furthermore, Parmeno
tells Philotis that Pamphilus has not yet had sexual rela-
MOSTELLARIA See THE HAUNTED HOUSE. tions with his new wife (compare ELECTRA’s husband in
EURIPIDES’ ELECTRA) and that Pamphilus is hoping that
THE MOTHER-IN-LAW (Latin: HECYRA) Philumena will divorce him. Parmeno also notes that
TERENCE (160 B.C.E.) A Greek play by Apol- Pamphilus continued to see Bacchis, but that she natu-
lodorus provided the original for this play (as well as rally resisted him after he was married.
PHORMIO). The Mother-in-Law had a receptive audience Because Bacchis was rejecting Pamphilus and Philu-
after two unsuccessful productions. The play’s first per- mena was tolerating Pamphilus’ behavior in a noble
formance occurred at the MEGALENSIAN GAMES in 165 fashion, Pamphilus’ affections gradually turned to
B.C.E.; the second and third performances were both in Philumena. Just as matters were settling down between
160 B.C.E. Prologues for the second and third perform- Pamphilus and Philumena, Pamphilus’ father, Laches,
 THE MOTHER-IN-LAW 355

forced him to go to the island of Imbros to settle the else. Myrrina also noted that if a child were born, she
affairs of a relative who had recently died. Pamphilus would arrange for the baby to be exposed (left to die).
left Philumena with his mother, Sostrata; however, Pamphilus told Myrrina that he would keep Philu-
during his absence, Philumena began to hate Sostrata mena’s secret but tells the audience that he does not
and to refuse to see her. When Laches learned of Philu- think it would be right for him to keep Philumena as
mena’s behavior, he complained to her father, Phidip- his wife.
pus. Parmeno, however, does not know the result of As Pamphilus ponders what he will do, he sees Par-
the conversation between Laches and Phidippus, so he meno approach and worries that Parmeno will hear
tells Philotis he must leave to carry out his errand. Philumena’s cries and realize that she is in labor. Pam-
Philotis and Syra also depart. philus decides that he must get Parmeno out of the way
In the play’s second act, Laches complains about his until the baby is born. Accordingly, he sends him on an
wife, Sostrata’s, relationship with Philumena, while errand to find one of his traveling companions. After
Sostrata claims she has done nothing wrong. Soon Parmeno exits, Pamphilus sees his father, Laches, and
Phidippus emerges from his house, where Philumena Phidippus approach. Pamphilus eavesdrops and hears
is currently staying, and he and Laches discuss the his father say that because Pamphilus has returned,
breakdown in relations between Sostrata and Philu- Philumena can return to their house; Pamphilus, how-
mena. Phidippus reports that Philumena refuses to stay ever, wonders what he can say to prevent her return.
in Laches’ house as long as Pamphilus is absent. Therefore, Pamphilus tells Laches and Phidippus that
Because Phidippus has business to attend to at the because Philumena and his mother cannot reconcile
FORUM, Laches accompanies him, leaving Sostrata their differences, his duty as a son requires that he side
alone to declare again her innocence in the matter. with his mother. Laches and Phidippus urge Pamphilus
The third act begins with the arrival of Pamphilus to take Philumena back, but Pamphilus dashes off into
and Parmeno from the harbor. Pamphilus laments the his house. After this, Laches and Phidippus quarrel about
situation that has developed between his mother and what to do next. Phidippus declares that Pamphilus must
his wife and wonders what could have caused their decide whether he wants Philumena or not so that
quarrel. As they pass Phidippus’ house, they hear a Phidippus can find another husband for his daughter if
scream from inside. Parmeno suggests that the scream necessary. After Phidippus returns to his house, Laches
may be related to a fever that Philumena claimed to enters to discuss the situation with his wife.
have. Pamphilus declares that he will find out the truth In the play’s fourth act, Myrrina emerges from
and enters Phidippus’ house. Next, Sostrata enters, Phidippus’ house and expresses her worries that
wonders about the commotion from Phidippus’ house, Phidippus will find out that Philumena has just had a
and declares her intention to enter Phidippus’ house to baby. Soon, an angry Phidippus emerges and questions
find out what is going on. Parmeno, however, tells Sos- his wife about the newborn child. Phidippus even
trata not to bother because they will not allow her into accuses Myrrina of planning to expose the baby
the house. Sostrata is discouraged but is glad to hear because she was angry that Pamphilus had kept Bac-
that her son, Pamphilus, has returned. Soon Pam- chis as his mistress after he was married to Philumena.
philus emerges from the house and tells them that Therefore, Phidippus gives orders not to take the baby
Philumena has a mild fever. After Pamphilus sends his outside their house. After Phidippus returns, Myrrina
mother back to their house and sends Parmeno to the laments her situation: the possibility of having to raise
harbor to help the other slaves with his baggage, Pam- the child of an unknown father and the difficulty of
philus informs the audience that he has discovered Pamphilus keeping Philumena’s secret. Myrrina does
that Philumena was pregnant (she was raped before note, however, that Philumena’s rapist stole a ring that
they were married) and is now in labor. Philumena’s she was wearing at the time of the assault.
mother, Myrrina, had begged Pamphilus to keep Philu- After Myrrina returns to her house, Sostrata and Pam-
mena’s condition a secret from Laches and everyone philus enter from their house. Sostrata tells Pamphilus
356 THE MOTHER-IN-LAW

that she has decided to live with Laches at their home in done. Next, Pamphilus enters with Parmeno. Pam-
the country so that she will not be an obstacle to his philus is delighted because he has realized that Philu-
marriage to Philumena. Pamphilus, however, does not mena is the woman he assaulted and that he is the
want his mother to do this. At this point, Laches, who father of her child. Pamphilus sees Bacchis, who indi-
has been eavesdropping, confronts Sostrata about her cates that she has not informed Laches and Phidippus
plan to move to the country. As Pamphilus and his fam- about Pamphilus’ actions. Pamphilus is relieved to hear
ily discuss what they should do, Phidippus enters. this because he wants to keep them secret if possible.
When Laches tells Phidippus of Sostrata’s plans to move Myrrina, of course, knows the secret, but she will not
to the country, Phidippus states that Sostrata, not his tell Phidippus. It is assumed that Pamphilus will take
wife, Myrrina, was to blame for the current trouble. Philumena back and raise the child. The play ends
Phidippus also declares that Pamphilus must take Philu- with Pamphilus’ thanking a puzzled Parmeno for
mena’s child. Laches then urges Pamphilus to take doing him a great favor.
Philumena back and to raise the child. When Pamphilus
blurts that he does not want to raise a baby whose father COMMENTARY
has disowned the child, Laches takes this remark as an Unlike Mother-in-Law, Terence’s other five plays have a
excuse to reject Philumena because she has had an affair double plot in which two men pursue their beloved. In
and as an opportunity to resume his relationship with many other ways, Mother-in-Law differs not only from
Bacchis. Pamphilus vigorously denies this and rushes Terence’s usual style, but also from that of other Roman
out after his father urges him to take Philumena’s child. comedies. In fact, contradicting the audience’s expecta-
After Pamphilus’ exit, Laches says that Phidippus can tions may well have been one of Terence’s aims in this
give him the child. Phidippus also suggests that they play.
question Bacchis about the situation. Laches states that In the case of the slave, Parmeno, the audience of a
he will question Bacchis and sends Phidippus off to find Roman COMEDY would expect the slave to be the archi-
a nurse for the baby. tect of deception. In Terence’s Eunuch, it is Parmeno
The play’s final act opens with an encounter who has the scheme of having Chaerea impersonate the
between Bacchis and Laches. Bacchis denies that she eunuch. In Mother-in-Law, Parmeno plays no such role;
has had anything to do with Pamphilus since he mar- he is relegated to helping explain the plot and running
ried. When Laches requests that Bacchis inform their errands. Moreover, in the third act, Pamphilus sends
women of this, Bacchis agrees, as she does not want Parmeno on a false errand that will keep him busy for
Pamphilus to be suspected falsely. Before Bacchis can more than 350 lines. Contrast Terence’s BROTHERS, in
exit, Phidippus enters with a nurse, whom he sends which the slave, Syrus, sends Demea on a similiar
into his house. Phidippus is doubtful that Bacchis will errand. At the end of the play, when Syrus returns,
tell the truth and exits into his; Bacchis soon follows Pamphilus’ affairs have been resolved, the slave has had
Phidippus. After their departure, Parmeno arrives after no part in that resolution, and that is one reason why
his unsuccessful attempt to find Pamphilus’ traveling Pamphilus succeeds. Although the slave has had no
companion. He is soon met by Bacchis, who orders part in the young man’s success, Pamphilus is overjoyed
him to go find Pamphilus and tell him to go to Philu- with Parmeno, as young men typically are when their
mena. Bacchis also tells Parmeno to inform Pamphilus slave helps them succeed. Such slaves are usually
that Myrrina recognized a ring that Pamphilus once rewarded in some way. In Mother-in-Law, Pamphilus
gave to Bacchis. After Parmeno exits, Bacchis informs himself raises the subject of a reward without prompt-
the audience that nine months earlier an intoxicated ing from Parmeno. Unlike the typical slave in comedy,
Pamphilus had entered her house with the ring and who would immediately take up his master on such an
admitted that he had raped a woman. The ring was in offer, Parmeno says he does not want anything (851).
Bacchis’ possession, Myrrina questioned her about it, Moreover, the reward is not mentioned again and at the
and Bacchis told Myrrina about what Pamphilus had end of the play Parmeno has received nothing.
 THE MOTHER-IN-LAW 357

In addition to the audience’s expectations with In addition to overturning stereotypical expecta-

respect to Parmeno, expectations with respect to the tions about the matrona, Terence has some surprises
relationship between the young man and the prostitute about the father (see SENEX) for his audience. Com-
are thwarted. In the opening act, Syra complains about monly, the father in Roman comedy finds out about his
the difficulty of finding a lover who will remain faith- son’s mischief. Sometimes, the son himself confesses
ful to his prostitute mistress. Typically, in Roman com- his wayward behavior. As with other Roman comedies,
edy, the lover remains hopelessly devoted to the in Mother-in-Law we find a contrast between knowing
prostitute even if she is involved with another lover. and not knowing, but as with other stereotypes in this
Furthermore, the prostitute’s affections are more likely play, Terence frustrates the audience’s expectatations. In
to go to the highest bidder or the person who offers Mother-in-Law, the father is kept in the dark about
money or presents. Additionally, in Roman comedy, a Pamphilus’ actions. At the end of the play, Bacchis tells
married man might cheat or attempt to cheat on his Pamphilus that she has not revealed anything and Pam-
wife with a prostitute (cf. Menaechmus in TWO philus wants to continue that way. In a metatheatrical
MENAECHMI), but the audience would not expect him to moment, Pamphilus says he does not want what hap-
leave a willing mistress for his wife. Thus, Mother-in- pens in comedies, in which everyone finds out every-
Law contradicts the stereotypes. Pamphilus rejects the thing, to happen in his situation. Pamphilus has no
prostitute for his wife, with whom he is in love. intention of revealing his actions to everyone (865–68).
Mother-in-Law is unique because, unlike other This lack of knowledge extends to other characters
Roman comedies, it focuses on the conflict between as well. Sostrata swears she has no idea what she has
two wives. Additionally, whereas many Roman come- done to make Philumena unhappy (579–81). The
dies end with the marriage of a young man, Mother-In- slave, Parmeno, the only person who knows Pamphilus
Law is about events that have occurred after a young has not consummated his marriage to Philumena, is
man has already married. Whereas many Roman sent off so that he will not reveal this knowledge. When
comedies present the struggle of a son torn between he returns, Pamphilus thanks him for all his help, but
dutifulness (pietas) to his father and love of a prospec- the slave has no knowledge of how he has helped his
tive bride, Mother-in-Law depicts Pamphilus as master. This also contradicts the common practice;
enmeshed in a quarrel between his mother and his wife slaves are often the most aware characters in Roman
inclined to dutifulness (pietas, 481) to his mother, comedy. They have to know everything because they
despite his father’s advice that he rethink his attitude. are orchestrating plots against fathers or pimps. Par-
Because of that dutifulness (pietati, 584), his mother meno, with the father, does not find out about Pam-
decides to move to the country so that Pamphilus’ wife philus’ actions. At the play’s conclusion, he exits with
will return. Usually, the wives (see MATRONA) of elderly no idea how he has helped Pamphilus.
gentlemen in Roman comedy are nags; Sostrata defies Pamphilus is unaware that he has impregnated
expectations. At the beginning of the second act, Philumena. In Terence’s Eunuch, Chaerea is fully aware
Laches complains that all mothers-in-law are alike and that he has raped Pamphila and he intends to marry
hate their daughters-in-law (201). Later, Laches says her. In Brothers, Aeschinus knows full well that he
all mothers want their sons to marry, but after they seduced Pamphila and wants to marry her. In Mother-
have pushed them into marriage, they drive them out in-Law, Terence changes the situation. Pamphilus does
again. Earlier in the play, however, the audience has not know that he has raped Philumena. When she goes
been told that Laches himself was the one who pushed into labor, he is already married to her, but he does not
Pamphilus into marry Philumena (116–24). Thus, Ter- intend to take her back. Both mothers and both fathers
ence raises the expectation of a nagging wife only to plead with Pamphilus to take Philumena back; none of
undercut that expectation. Sostrata is willing to move these four is successful. Usually in Roman comedy, a
out of her own house to keep Philumena happy. Such young man agrees to marry his beloved instantly. He
selflessness is rare in comedy, in either men or women. has been waiting for this the entire play. Pamphilus
358 MOTHON

refuses to take back the woman he loves until a prosti- describes a certain Phoenicides salivating over a seafood
tute and fortune intervene. On two earlier occasions, casserole. Fragment 31 from Phrynichus’ play praises
Terence’s Mother-in-Law had been interrupted by unex- Sophocles; fragment 32 refers to a counting of votes.
pected occurences. Finally, on his third attempt to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
stage the play, Terence found an audience. It could not
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
have been what they expected. Teubner, 1880.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Leipzig:
Gilula, D. “Terence’s Hecyra: A Delicate Balance of Suspense Teubner, 1888.
and Dramatic Irony,” Scripta Classica Israelica 5 Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
(1979–80): 137–57. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Goldberg, S. M. “The Price of Simplicity.” In Understanding
Terence. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986, MUSIC GIRL A minor character in New Com-
149–69. edy, the music girl (Latin: fidicina or tibicena) is occa-
Ireland, S. Terence: Hecyra. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & sionally beloved by a male character. Because the music
Phillips, 1990. girl is not a freeborn person, a citizen could not enter a
Konstan, D. “Hecyra: Ironic Comedy.” In Roman Comedy. legal marriage with her unless she were freed or shown
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983, 130–41. to be freeborn. Thus, music girls are much like the
Slater, N. W. “The Fictions of Patriarchy in Terence’s prostitutes who appear in these comedies. In PLAUTUS’
Hecyra,” Classical World 81 (1988): 249–60.
EPIDICUS, plans are made to purchase the music girl,
Acropolistis, from a PIMP, just as in other comedies pros-
MOTHON A wild, sexually suggestive dance. titutes are purchased. In TERENCE’s BROTHERS, Ctesipho’s
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 635, Wealth beloved is a music girl owned by the pimp Dorio.
279; Pollux, Onomasticon 4.101]
MYCALE A Thessalian witch who was supposed
MULCIBER See HEPHAESTUS. to be able to charm the moon down from the sky.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 525]
MUNICHUS A hero whose name was connected
with Munichion, a port at ATHENS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: MYCENAE Located close to the towns of ARGOS
Euripides, Hippolytus 760–61] and TIRYNS near the southeast coast of Greece, Mycenae
is famous in mythology as the home of AGAMEMNON;
MUNYCHION According to the Athenian calen- sometimes poets use the names Argos, Tiryns, and
dar, Munychion was the 10th month of the year. Mun- Mycenae interchangeably.
ychion had 29 days and corresponds roughly to April
in the modern calendar. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- MYCONOS One of the most beautiful islands in
phanes, Birds 1046–47] the southwestern AEGEAN SEA, Myconos is one of the
Cycladic islands, a few miles east of DELOS. [ANCIENT
MUSES The daughters of ZEUS and Mnesmosyne, SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 885; Euripides, Trojan
the Muses were nine women who each inspired a dif- Women 89]
ferent type of writing. To SOPHOCLES is attributed a
Muses, of which two uninformative fragments MYRMEX An otherwise unknown person on
(407a–408 Radt) totaling seven words survive; how- whom ARISTOPHANES wishes death at FROGS 1506. The
ever, this play may be identical to his Thamyras. Among Greek word murmex means “ant.”
the Greek comic poets, PHRYNICHUS (fragments 31–35
Kock 1) and Euphro (fragment 8 Kock 3) each wrote a MYRMIDONS A tribe of northeastern Greece,
play entitled Muses. The fragment from Euphro the Myrmidons are best known as the soldiers of
 MYSIANS 359

ACHILLES in the Trojan War. AESCHYLUS wrote a Myrmi- only did the tree exude Myrrha’s tears (drops of
dons (fragments 131–42 Radt), which was part of a tril- myrrh), but eventually it split open and an infant
ogy that included Nereids and Phrygians (also known as (ADONIS) emerged. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables
Hector’s Cleansing). Aeschylus’ Myrmidons would have 58; Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.311–518; Seneca, Her-
been set at TROY and appears to have dealt with the cules Oetaeus 196]
death of PATROCLUS at the hands of HECTOR. As the
play’s title implies, Achilles’ Myrmidons would have MYRSINE See BYRSINE.
made up the play’s chorus. Among the Greek comic
poets, Strattis also wrote a Myrmidons; only a single MYRTILUS The son of HERMES, Myrtilus was the
two-line fragment (fragment 36 Kock vol. 1), which servant of OENOMAUS. Myrtilus was in love with Oeno-
mentions bathing rooms and armies of iron, survives. maus’ daughter, HIPPODAMEIA, but Oenomaus would
Only the title survives from Philemon’s Myrmidons allow her to marry only the man who defeated him
(fragment 45 Kock vol. 2). (Oenomaus) in a chariot race. If Oenomaus won, then
he would kill the suitor. When PELOPS became a suitor
BIBLIOGRAPHY
for Hippodameia, he realized that Myrtilus was in love
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
with her and offered him a deal—he would allow Myr-
Teubner, 1880.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: tilus to have sexual intercourse with Hippodameia if
Teubner, 1884. Myrtilus would help him defeat Oenomaus. Myrtilus
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, agreed and sabotaged OENOMAUS’ chariot. During the
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. race with Pelops, Oenomaus’ chariot fell apart and he
was killed in the crash. After Myrtilus tried to collect
MYRONIDES The son of Archinus, Myronides his “reward” by force from Hippodameia, Pelops killed
was an Athenian statesman and military commander him. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 2.6–8;
between 458 and 456 B.C.E. He led the Athenians to Euripides, Orestes 991b, 1548; Hyginus, Fables 58, 84;
victory over the Corinthians in the year 457. Seneca, Thyestes 140, 660; Sophocles, Electra 509]
Myronides was known for being a tough soldier, but an
honest and generous politician. Myronides’ ghost may MYSIANS A tribe who lived near the northwestern
coast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). The territory of the
appear in EUPOLIS’ Demes (fragments 90–134 Kock).
Mysians was home to TELEPHUS and the location where
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 304a,
water nYMPHS abducted Hylas. AESCHYLUS wrote a Mysians
Lysistrata 801; Plutarch, Aristides 10.8, 20.1, Pericles
(Greek: Mysoi), which may have treated Telephus’ search
16.2, 24.6; Thucydides, 1.105.4]
for his true parents, a search that led him to Mysia (frag-
BIBLIOGRAPHY ments 143–45 Radt vol. 3). SOPHOCLES also wrote a
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon Mysians, which was about some aspect of the Telephus
Press, 1987, 171. myth. The tragedians Agathon (fragment 3a Snell) and
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Nicomachus of Alexandria (fragment 6 Snell) also wrote
Teubner, 1880. plays entitled Mysians, of which only the titles survive.
Among the comic poets, Eubulus wrote a Mysians, in
MYRRHA The daughter of Cinyras, Myrrha con- whose lone fragment someone addresses Heracles, who
ceived a passion for her father and managed to sleep has left THEBES (fragment 66 Kock).
with him (she entered his bed at night and pretended BIBLIOGRAPHY
to be someone else). Myrrha became pregnant, and Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
when Cinyras discovered what she had done, he tried Teubner, 1884.
to kill her. She fled from him, and before he caught up Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
with her the gods changed her into a myrrh tree. Not Harvard University Press, 1996.
360 MYSTERIES

Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, group of divinities. Persons who wanted to participate
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. in these ceremonies had to be “initiated” into the mys-
———. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, teries and were not to reveal the knowledge, practices,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
or skills that they acquired to the uninitiated. People
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
who were initiated into a divinity’s mysteries expected
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University special privileges, especially after they died. The most
Press of America, 1984. famous mysteries in the classical world, which hon-
ored DEMETER and PERSEPHONE, were called the
MYSTERIES In the ancient world, mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries, because they took place at the
consisted of knowledge, practices, and skills that were town of ELEUSIS (see also CABEIRI). [ANCIENT SOURCES:
possessed by worshipers of a particular divinity or Aristophanes, Frogs 420]
 C ND
NAEVIUS A Roman poet who lived during the BIBLIOGRAPHY
last three quarters of the third century B.C.E., Gnaeus Goldberg, S. M. “Saturnian Epic: Livius and Naevius.” In
Naevius composed an epic poem (Bellum Poenicum) Roman Epic. Edited by A. J. Boyle. London and New York:
Routledge, 1993, 19–36.
about the First Punic War (264–241 B.C.E.), in which
Marmorale, E. Naevius Poeta. Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1953.
he himself served. Naevius had a falling out with the Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
powerful Metelli family (because of a remark made Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
onstage about their unworthiness for office), may have Harvard University Press, 1936.
been jailed in the year 204, and died at Utica (perhaps
in exile) in 201. NAIAD A naiad (plural: naiads) is a minor female
Naevius also wrote tragedies, comedies, and FABU- divinity who inhabits a body of water. A Naiads is
LAE PRAETEXTAE. The titles of 28 of Naevius’ comedies attributed to SOPHOCLES, of which only the title sur-
are known, but only 100 or so verses survive. Two of vives (fragment 424 Radt). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca,
Naevius’ titles (The Circumcised and A Play about Tes- Hippolytus 780]
ticles) suggest that Naevius’ comedies were much
BIBLIOGRAPHY
bawdier than those of PLAUTUS. Names in the titles of
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
two Naevian comedies, Lampadio and Stalagmus, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
appear as the names of slaves in Plautus’ CASKET COM-
EDY and C APTIVES , respectively. From Naevius’ NAIS See LAIS.
tragedies, seven titles and about 60 verses have sur-
vived. More than half the verses are from Lycurgus NAUPACTUS An important harbor, southwest
(LYCURGUS was the Thracian king who had a deadly of DELPHI, on the northern shore of the Gulf Corinth.
encounter with DIONYSUS). Of the fabulae praetextae, [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Braggart Warrior 102, 116]
two titles and three verses are extant. Romulus, alter-
nately titled Wolf, would have dealt with the birth of NAUPLIA A port located on the southeastern
the title character; Clastidium is known to have coast of Greece, Nauplia served such towns as ARGOS,
treated the return of the Roman general Marcellus MYCENAE, and TIRYNS. Tradition regarded POSEIDON’s
after his triumph over the Gaul Viridomarus in 222 son, NAUPLIUS, as the founder of this port. [ANCIENT
B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aulus Gellius, 1.24, 7.8.6, SOURCES: Euripides, Electra 1278, Helen 1586, Iphigenia
17.21.45; Cicero, Against Verres 1.29, Brutus 60] in Tauris 804, Orestes 242, 369, 472]

361
362 NAUPLIUS

NAUPLIUS The son of POSEIDON and AMYMONE, servants stumbled on him while they were at the shore
Nauplius was the father of PALAMEDES and Oeax by washing clothes and playing a game with a ball. Nau-
Clymene, Hesione, or Philyra. After Palamedes was sicaa helped Odysseus make his way to the palace of
killed by his fellow Greeks at TROY, Nauplius her parents, who eventually arranged for him to be
demanded satisfaction. When the Greeks refused, he taken back to his native land. SOPHOCLES wrote a
sailed to Greece and encouraged Greek wives to be Nausikaa (also titled The Women Washing Clothes),
unfaithful to their husbands. Furthermore, Nauplius which may have been a SATYR PLAY. The few fragments
lighted a false beacon that caused several of the Greeks’ that survive, however, indicate nothing about the play’s
ships to run aground on the rocks near the southern plot (439–41 Radt). The Greek comic poet Eubulus
end of Euboea at Cape Caphereus. also wrote a Nausicaa, whose single fragment (68
Four Greek tragedians wrote a Nauplius, of which Kock) refers to a person, presumably Odysseus, who
only the titles survive from the plays of PHILOCLES, has been washing himself for four days and has had
Astydamas, and Lycophron. To SOPHOCLES are attrib- nothing to eat. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer, Odyssey 6]
uted two plays about Nauplius, Nauplius Pyrkaeus
(Nauplius lights a fire) and Nauplius Katapleon (Nau-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
plius sails in), although some scholars believe that only
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
one play existed. In either case, the fragments for the Teubner, 1884.
two plays are not grouped separately (fragments Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
425–38 Radt). The title of the first play suggests that it Harvard University Press, 1996.
was about Nauplius’ lighting the false beacon. The sub- Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
ject matter of the second play is less certain; some Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
think it treated the voyage of Nauplius to Troy; others Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
think that it may have dealt with Nauplius’ traveling to Press of America, 1984.
various parts of Greece to encourage the Greek women
to be unfaithful. The fragments from the plays give lit- NAUSICYDES A wealthy Greek grain manufac-
tle help in establishing the subject of either play turer from Cholargus (just north of ATHENS). [ANCIENT
because, with one exception (fragment 432), they con- SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 426; Plato, Gor-
sist of no more than a dozen words. In fragment 432, gias 487c; Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.7.6]
Nauplius describes the various innovative contribu-
tions that Palamedes made to the Greek army. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.1.5, 2.7.4, 3.2.2, Epit-
NAXOS A small island (about 215 square miles in
size) in the southern AEGEAN, east of Paros and south
ome 6.7–8; Pausanias, 2.38.2, 4.35.2, 8.47.7; Seneca,
of MYCONOS. The island was famous for its wine and
Agamemnon 567, Medea 659; Strabo, 8.6.2]
almonds. THESEUS is said to have left (or lost) ARIADNE
BIBLIOGRAPHY on Naxos. She was later rescued (or perhaps taken
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. away) by DIONYSUS, who was devoutly worshiped by
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: the people of Naxos. During the last three-quarters of
Harvard University Press, 1996. the fifth century B.C.E., Naxos was part of the Athenian
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
empire. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 884;
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Aristophanes, Peace 143, Wasps 355; Eupolis, fragment
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America, 1984.
253.1–2 Kock; Phrynichus Comicus, fragment 68.3
Kock; Thucydides, 1.98]
NAUSICAA The daughter of Alcinous and Arete, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nausicaa was a princess of Phaeacia. When ODYSSEUS Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
was shipwrecked on Phaeacia, Nausicaa and her maid- Teubner, 1880.
 NEOPTOLEMUS 363

NEANISKOI See LYCURGUS (2). Hyginus, Poetica Astronomica 2.8; Pausanias, 1.33.2–8,
7.4.2–3; Sophocles, Electra 792]
NEISTAN GATE One of the seven gates at the BIBLIOGRAPHY
town of THEBES. The gate was defended by MEGAREUS of Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Thebes and attacked by ETEOCLUS in the battle of the Teubner, 1880.
Seven against Thebes. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Körte, A., and A. Thierfelder. Menandri Quae Supersunt. Vol.
Seven against Thebes 460; Pausanias, 9.8.4, 9.25.1, 2, 2d ed. Leipzig: Teubner, 1959.
9.25.8]
NEOCLEIDES A frequent speaker in the assem-
NELEUS A king of PYLOS and the father of bly at ATHENS, Neocleides is accused by ARISTOPHANES
NESTOR. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Helen 849; of embezzlement and obstruction of public procedure.
Menander, Arbitration 326] Aristophanes also says he had poor vision or even was
blind. The ancient commentary on Aristophanes
NEMEA A town in southeastern Greece that is a reports that Neocleides was an INFORMANT of foreign
few miles northwest of ARGOS, MYCENAE, and TIRYNS. ancestry. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae
Nemea was the site of HERACLES’ first labor, against the 254, 398, Wealth 665; scholiast on Wealth, 665]
Nemean lion, whose image was placed in the heavens
BIBLIOGRAPHY
as the constellation Leo after Heracles killed the crea-
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
ture. AESCHYLUS wrote a Nemea, which may have dealt Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 181.
with the institution of the Nemean Games by the Seven
against Thebes after the death of Opheltes, son of NEOPTOLEMUS The son of ACHILLES and
Eurydice and Lycurgus. The Greek comic poet LYCOMEDES’ daughter, Deidamia. In the 10th year of the
Theopompus wrote a Nemea; nothing of its plot can be Trojan War, it was prophesied that the Greeks could
derived from the surviving 11-line fragment, in which not capture TROY without the help of Neoptolemus. At
a man named Spinther (the son of HEPHAESTUS?) tries some point, Neoptolemus married HERMIONE, the
to force an old woman named Theolyte to kiss him. daughter of MENELAUS and HELEN. After the war, Neop-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.6.4; Pausa- tolemus was awarded HECTOR’s wife, ANDROMACHE, as a
nias, 2.15.2–3; Seneca, Hercules Furens 224, Hercules captive. By Andromache, Neoptolemus fathered
Oetaeus 1193, 1235, 1665, 1885, Oedipus 40] Molossus. Neoptolemus was killed while consulting
BIBLIOGRAPHY the DELPHIC ORACLE regarding the death of Achilles.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: The death of Neoptolemus is related in great detail
Teubner, 1880. in EURIPIDES’ ANDROMACHE, although he does not appear
Mette, H. J. Die Fragmente der Tragvdien des Aischylos. Berlin: as a character in that play. In SOPHOCLES’ PHILOCTETES,
Akademie-Verlag, 1959. Neoptolemus is characterized as a thoughtful young
man who must make a choice between duty to the
NEMESIS The daughter of Night, Nemesis per- Greek army and deception of an unfortunate man,
sonifies both unmerited good fortune and retribution Philoctetes. In this play, Neoptolemus characterizes
for evil actions. According to one tradition, ZEUS himself as someone prepared to use force, bia, but not
impregnated Nemesis, who produced HELEN. This deception, dolos (90–91). He states that he prefers to
story appears to have been the subject of CRATINUS’ fail and act nobly, rather than succeed and act in an evil
Nemesis (fragments 107–20 Kock). MENANDER also manner (94–95). Eventually, Neoptolemus takes
wrote a Nemesis, of which only the title survives (291 Philoctetes’ bow from him by trickery, but then he
Körte). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, 3.10.7; Euripi- changes his mind, returns the bow to Philoctetes, and
des, Phoenician Women 182; Hesiod, Theogony 223–24; promises to take him back to his native land.
364 NEPHELE

BIBLIOGRAPHY character in any extant dramas, but two Greek comic

Belfiore, E. “Xenia in Sophocles’ Philoctetes,” Classical Journal poets, Anaxilas and Anaxandrides, wrote plays entitled
89 (1993–94): 113–29. Nereus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
Blundell, M. W. “The Phusis of Neoptolemus in Sophocles’ 1.2.6–7, 2.5.11; Hesiod, Theogony 233–39]
Philoctetes,” Greece and Rome 35 (1988): 137–48.
Hamilton, R. “Neoptolemus’ Story in the Philoctetes,” Ameri-
NERIENE A Roman goddess who is called the
can Journal of Philology 96 (1975): 131–37.
wife of Mars (see ARES). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Tru-
Roisman, H. M. “The Appropriation of a Son: Sophocles’
Philoctetes,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 38, no. 2
culentus 515]
(1997): 127–71.
Rose P. W. “Sophocles’ Philoctetes and the Teachings of the NERO (DECEMBER 15, 37–JUNE 68 C.E.)
Sophists,” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 80 (1976): The son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and AGRIP-
49–105. PINA, Nero was emperor of Rome from the year 54 until
his death. He followed CLAUDIUS as emperor. Nero’s
NEPHELE When IXION was in love with HERA, rule was greeted with optimism at first, and for some
ZEUS took a cloud (Nephele) and shaped it to resemble time the young man showed promise. As time passed,
Hera. Ixion had intercourse with this “cloud-woman.” however, Nero’s cruelty became manifest. In 59, Nero
The cloud became impregnated, and produced a CEN- killed his mother, Agrippina, and married his stepsis-
TAUR, whom some sources name NESSUS. [ANCIENT ter, OCTAVIA. Nero later divorced Octavia, had her
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 1.20; Diodorus Siculus, murdered, and then married POPPAEA, the daughter of
4.69.3–5; Pindar, Pythian Odes 2.21–48; Seneca, Her- the future emperor Otho. The events surrounding
cules Oetaeus 492] Nero’s divorce of Octavia are dramatized in OCTAVIA, a
play incorrectly attributed to SENECA, although Seneca
NEPTUNE See POSEIDON. did write his tragedies during Nero’s reign and did
serve as Nero’s tutor and political adviser for some time
NEREIDS The 50 daughters of NEREUS and Doris (he retired in 62 after about a dozen years of service).
were minor sea divinities called Nereids. The most In 65, Seneca himself was forced to commit suicide by
famous Nereid was THETIS, the mother of ACHILLES. Nero after he was implicated in a plot to assassinate
AESCHYLUS wrote a Nereids that may have dealt with him. In Octavia, both Seneca and Nero appear as char-
the death of PATROCLUS, the reconciliation of AGAMEM- acters, Seneca in the role of Nero’s adviser. In the play,
NON and Achilles, and Achilles’ subsequent killing of Nero is shown as a savage ruler and a thoroughly arro-
HECTOR. Nereids probably would have made up the gant man, who brutally eliminates both citizens and
chorus. family who oppose him.
By the year 64, unpopular economic policies that
NEREUS The son of Pontus (Sea) and EARTH, Nero had crafted for his own benefit, as well as a fire
Nereus was a sea divinity. He was sometimes called the in 64 that destroyed much of Rome (and that rumor
Old Man because he was gentle, trustworthy, and said Nero himself started), led to a widespread hatred
righteous. He had two brothers (Phorcus and Thau- of the emperor. Nero, who loved its culture and art,
mas) and two sisters (Ceto and Eurybia). Nereus mar- toured Greece in 67 but was recalled to Rome
ried Doris and had numerous children, known as the because of a severe famine there. By the time Nero
NEREIDS. Nereus himself does not play a prominent returned to Rome in 68, several prominent Roman
role in many myths. As were many aquatic divinities, governors were in open revolt against him, and when
Nereus was able to change his form. This power, how- Nero’s elite guard, the Praetorians, abandoned him,
ever, did not prevent HERACLES from wrestling Nereus Nero committed suicide. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Dio Cas-
into submission and forcing him to reveal the location sius, 61–63; Seneca, Octavia; Suetonius, Nero; Taci-
of the HESPERIDES’ garden. Nereus does not appear as a tus, Annals 13–16]
 NICIAS (1) 365

BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Champlin, E. Nero. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
Harvard University Press, 2003. Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
Elsner, J., and J. Masters, eds. Reflections of Nero: Culture, Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
History, and Representation. Chapel Hill: University of Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
North Carolina Press, 1994.
Grant, Michael. Nero: Emperor in Revolt. New York: Ameri- NEW COMEDY See COMEDY.
can Heritage Press, 1970.
Holland, Richard. Nero: The Man behind the Myth. Stroud, NICARCHUS An otherwise unknown INFORM-
U.K.: Sutton, 2000.
ANT who is described as small in stature, he appears as
Warmington, B. H. Nero: Reality and Legend. New York: Nor-
a character in ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS (908–58) to
ton, 1969.
denounce the trading between DICAEOPOLIS and the
Theban trader. Dicaeopolis packs up Nicarchus as a
NESSUS A CENTAUR who tried to rape HERACLES’
piece of pottery and trades him to the Theban.
wife, DEIANEIRA. Heracles killed Nessus, but before the
centaur died he persuaded Deianeira to take some of
his blood and use it as a love charm on Heracles. Sev-
NICIAS (1) (CA. 470–413 B.C.E.) The son of
Niceratus, Nicias was wealthy and a leading Athenian
eral years later, when Heracles’ love for a female war
statesmen and military commander during the first half
captive, IOLE, came to light, Deianeira, hoping to
of the PELOPONNESIAN WAR. Nicias largely opposed the
regain Heracles’ love, smeared some of the centaur’s
war with the Spartans and clashed especially with
blood on one of Heracles’ robes. Unfortunately, the
CLEON on this issue. In 425, Nicias relinquished his mil-
centaur’s blood contained venom from the Lernaean
itary command to Cleon at PYLOS, when Cleon accused
HYDRA, which Heracles had smeared on his arrows.
him of not prosecuting an attack on the Spartans
This venom caused Heracles extreme torment when it
quickly enough. Cleon went on to achieve a major vic-
touched his skin and eventually Heracles had himself
tory in this battle. In the next year, ARISTOPHANES’
burned alive to escape the torment of the poison.
KNIGHTS portrayed Nicias as a slave oppressed by Cleon.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 34; Seneca, Hercules
After Cleon’s death in 422, Nicias was able to craft a
Oetaeus; Sophocles, Trachinian Women]
peace treaty with SPARTA in 421 B.C.E., a treaty that is
NESTOR The son of Neleus and Chloris, Nestor alluded to in ARISTOPHANES’ PEACE. This agreement disin-
was king of PYLOS. By his wife, Eurydice, Nestor had tegrated, however, a few years later, when the Athenians
nine children. In his youth, Nestor was the only one of made a military expedition against SICILY in 415. Nicias
the brothers not killed by HERACLES. Nestor gained was one of the Athenian commanders of this expedition,
fame for killing a giant named Ereuthalion, fighting in and his reliance on the advice of soothsayers about a
the battle of the CENTAURS and LAPITHS, sailing with lunar eclipse prevented the Athenians from escaping
JASON and the Argonauts, and fighting in the Trojan from Sicily in 413. Because Nicias took the soothsayers’
War. Nestor’s son, Antilochus, saved his father’s life at advice that he should not move for 27 days, the Athen-
Troy when Nestor was about to be killed by MEMNON. ian forces were surrounded and eventually destroyed.
Nestor’s greatest fame, however, was due to his speak- Nicias lost his life in the massacre. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
ing ability and wisdom. After the fall of TROY, Nestor Aristophanes, Birds 363; Diodorus Siculus,
was one of the few Greeks who returned home safely. 12.65–13.32; Eupolis, fragment 181 Kock; Phrynichus,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.9, 2.7.3, fragment 22, 59; Plutarch, Alcibiades, Nicias; Teleclides,
3.10.8, Epitome 3.12, 3.32, 6.1; Aristophanes, Clouds fragment 41.3 Kock; Thucydides, 3.54–7.86]
1057; Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis 273, fragment 899 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nauck; Homer, Iliad, Odyssey; Sophocles, Philoctetes Adkins, A. W. H. “The Arete of Nicias: Thucydides 7.86,”
422, fragment 144a1, 855 Radt] Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 16 (1975): 379–92.
366 NICIAS (2)

Kagan, D. The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition. zsche published extensively on philosophy and reli-
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981. gion; his first book, The Birth of Tragedy, published in
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: 1872, when Nietzsche was 28, has been of interest to
Teubner, 1880. scholars of classical drama and was criticized by schol-
Tompkins, D. P. “Stylistic Characterization in Thucydides:
ars such as Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff. In this
Nicias and Alcibiades,” Yale Classical Studies 22 (1972):
work, Nietzsche suggested that the source of all reality
181–214.
Westlake, H. D. Individuals in Thucydides. London: Cam-
and creativity is a nonrational “Dionysian” energy.
bridge University Press, 1968. Nietzsche considered this a healthy force that emerged
from Greek culture but argued that after the heyday of
NICIAS (2) A handsome but pale-faced young the Greeks this “Dionysian” creative force had given
Athenian whom ARISTOPHANES mentions as making a way to the more logical and formal “Apollonian”
speech in favor of handing over the Athenian govern- forces, which he viewed as exerting an unhealthy dom-
ment to women. He may have been the grandson of inance over European culture. Thus, Nietzsche
the more famous NICIAS (see NICIAS (1)). [ANCIENT believed, cultural rebirth could occur if society
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 428] embraced its Dionysian side.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NICOMACHUS A person on whom ARISTO- Lenson, D. The Birth of Tragedy: A Commentary. Boston:
PHANES wishes death at FROGS 1506. According to Twayne, 1987.
Dover, Nichomachus was an anagrapheus (secretary), Nietzsche, F. W. The Birth of Tragedy. Translated by D. Smith.
whose tasks in 410 B.C.E. and 403 were “the codifica- Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
tion and public inscription of the laws.” The Greek Sallis, J. Crossings: Nietzsche and the Space of Tragedy.
orator Lysias (speech 30) mentions a person of this Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Silk, M. S., and J. P. Stern. Nietzsche on Tragedy. Cambridge:
name who was prosecuted in 399/398.
Cambridge University Press, 1980.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Tanner, M. Nietzsche: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford:
Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Oxford University Press, 2000.
Press, 1993, 382.
NIGHT (Greek: NUX; Latin: NOX)
NICOSTRATUS (DIED 418 B.C.E.) The son According to the Greeks, Night was one of the earliest
of Dieitrephes, Nicostratus was an Athenian military things to exist in the universe. Night emerged from
commander at least five times between 427 and 418 Chaos and (with EREBUS) produced Day and Upper Air
B.C.E. and “may have been a close associate of Nicias” (Ether). By herself, Night produced Death (Thanatos),
(Sommerstein). Nicostratus died at the battle of Manti- Doom (Moros), the FATES, NEMESIS, and Sleep (Hyp-
nea. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 81; Thucy- nos). Night is also said to be the mother of CHARON.
dides, 3.75, 4.53, 4.119.2, 4.129.2, 4.133.4, 5.74.3] [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Eumenides 745 (see
BIBLIOGRAPHY ORESTEIA); Euripides, Electra 54; Hesiod, Theogony
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon 123–25, 211–25, 744–66; Homer, Iliad 14.256–61;
Press, 1971, 140–41. Seneca, Octavia 18; Sophocles, Electra 203]
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 159. NIKE (Latin: VICTORIA) The daughter
of the river STYX and a divinity named Pallas, Nike is
NIETZSCHE, FRIEDRICH WILHELM the goddess of victory. She is often connected with
(OCTOBER 15, 1844–AUGUST 25, 1900) Born ZEUS or ATHENA, to the latter of whose name Nike is
near Leipzig, Germany, Nietzsche not only was a sometimes added. Nike is the sister of Emulation
philosopher, but a scholar of classical literature. Niet- (Zelus), Force (Bia), and Strength (Cratus). The
 NISUS 367

poets themselves sometimes invoke Nike in their Apollodorus, Library 3.5.6; Aristophanes, Frogs
plays to help them win dramatic competition. 911–13; Homer, Iliad 24.602–20; Hyginus, Fables 9;
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 574, Knights Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.146–312; Pausanias, 1.21.3;
589, Lysistrata 317; Euripides, Ion 1529, Iphigenia in Seneca, Agamemnon 392–94, Hercules Furens 390, Her-
Tauris 1497, Orestes 1691, Phoenician Women 1764; cules Oetaeus 185, 1849, Oedipus 613]
Hesiod, Theogony 383–88; Menander, Dyscolus 969,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Man She Hated 466, Samia 737, Man from Sicyon
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
423; Plautus, Amphitruo 42, Merchant 867; Sopho- Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
cles, Philoctetes 134] Harvard University Press, 1996.
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London:
NILE At almost 4,200 miles in length, the Nile, Heinemann, 1970.
located in Africa, is the longest river in the world. The Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Nile has two sources: The White Nile originates from Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Lake Victoria, the Blue Nile originates from Lake Tana. Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Eventually these two branches connect in Sudan and Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
the Nile’s seven mouths eventually flow into the Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Mediterranean Sea. References to the Nile are common Press of America, 1984.
in AESCHYLUS’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN and EURIPIDES’ HELEN.
IO’s torment eventually ends near the Nile. [ANCIENT NIPTRA See ODYSSEUS.
SOURCES: Herodotus, 2]
NIREUS A handsome suitor of HELEN, Nireus
NIOBE The daughter of TANTALUS and Dione, fought in the Trojan War. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides,
Niobe was the sister of PELOPS and became the wife of Iphigenia at Aulis 205]
ZEUS’ son, AMPHION, who was later king of THEBES.
Niobe was a proud queen who boasted that she had NISUS The son of PANDION, Nisus was the brother
more children than LETO, the mother of APOLLO and of AEGEUS, Lycus, and Pallas. While Nisus, king of
ARTEMIS. The offended Leto sent her divine twins to kill MEGARA, was at war with the Cretan king, MINOS,
Niobe’s children, usually 12 or 14 in number (six or Nisus’ daughter, Scylla, fell in love with Minos. Nisus
seven boys, six or seven girls). After the death of her had a purple lock of hair on his head; as long as this
children, Niobe left Thebes and went to Mount Sipy- lock of hair remained, Nisus would live. Furthermore,
lus. When she prayed to the gods to relieve her of her as long as Nisus was alive, Minos was unable to defeat
grief, she was transformed into a stone, from which her him. Scylla, however, hoping to win the favor of
tears continued to flow. Both AESCHYLUS and SOPHOCLES Minos, cut off her father’s lock of hair, thus killing him,
wrote plays entitled Niobe. As indicated by ARISTO- and presented it to Minos as a token of her love.
PHANES’ FROGS, Niobe remained silent for an extended Minos, appalled by this woman who had killed her
period in Aeschylus’ play. A fragment from Aeschylus’ father, rejected Scylla’s advances. After Minos defeated
Niobe indicates that the children have been dead for Nisus’ army and was on the point of sailing away,
three days when the play’s action occurs. Sophocles’ Scylla tried to swim after him and cling to his ship. She
play dealt with the destruction of Niobe’s children by failed, however, and was transformed into a bird, the
Apollo and Artemis. In FROGS, ARISTOPHANES appears to Ciris. Her father, Nisus, was changed into a sea eagle,
mention Aeschylus’ play as an example of that drama- who constantly tries to strike at the Ciris because of
tist’s practice of having a character onstage who does her crime against him. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus,
not speak for an extended period in order to build sus- Libation Bearers 613–22 (see ORESTEIA); Apollodorus,
pense. The Greek tragedian Melito also wrote a Niobe, Library 3.15.5; Ovid, Metamorphosis 8.1–151; Pausa-
of which only the title survives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: nias, 1.19.4]
368 NOCTURNUS

NOCTURNUS A Roman god of the NIGHT. NYMPHS The Greek word nymphe means “young
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Amphitruo 272] woman;” a nymph is a minor female divinity who lives
in certain natural phenomena, objects, or places. Some
NURSE A character in both ancient TRAGEDY and nymphs, leimoniades, live in meadows; NAIADS live in
COMEDY, the Nurse (Greek: trophos; Latin: nutrix) would bodies of water; oreads live in hills and mountains;
have been a slave who helped raise a child and stayed others, such as meliae, dryads, and hamadryads, live in
with that child throughout his or her life. The earliest trees. The daughters of oceanus (OCEANIDS) and the
extant nurse (that of ORESTES) who has a speaking role daughters of NEREUS (NEREIDS) were also nymphs. The
appears in AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA). In nymphs of Mount Nysa cared for the young DIONYSUS.
EURIPIDES’ extant plays, HERMIONE’s nurse appears briefly In EURIPIDES’ ELECTRA, ORESTES kills AEGISTHUS while he
in Euripides’ ANDROMACHE; MEDEA’s nurse has a more is making a sacrifice to certain rock nymphs. [ANCIENT
extensive role. She delivers the prologue of MEDEA and SOURCES: Aeschylus, Eumenides 22 (see ORESTEIA);
tries to calm the rage of her mistress, as she also does in Euripides, Cyclops 68, Helen 1317, Heracles 784, Iphi-
SENECA’s MEDEA. In HIPPOLYTUS, PHAEDRA is persuaded to genia at Aulis 1292; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 1053,
reveal her love for her stepson, HIPPOLYTUS, by her nurse, Hippolytus 784; Sophocles, Antigone 1128, Philoctetes
who attempts to arrange a love affair between them. In 725, 1454, 1470]
contrast, in Seneca’s HIPPOLYTUS, Phaedra’s nurse initially
tries to persuade her to suppress her feelings for Hip- NYSA A name given to several places that were
polytus but later intercedes with Hippolytus on Phae- sacred to DIONYSUS. Some sources make Nysa a moun-
dra’s behalf. In SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN, tain in what is today western Turkey, where Dionysus
DEIANEIRA’s nurse appears briefly. OCTAVIA, incorrectly was said to have been raised. Towns called Nysa were
attributed to Seneca, is noteworthy in that two nurses known in India, northern Africa, and central Greece
appear in that play (the nurse of OCTAVIA and the nurse (near the town of Thebes, where Dionysus was con-
of POPPAEA) and both erroneously predict that the ceived). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.4.3;
women will fare well at the hands of NERO. Euripides, Bacchae 556, Cyclops 68; Homeric Hymn,
26.5; Sophocles, Antigone 1131]
NYCTELIUS A name for DIONYSUS. Nyctelius is
related to the Greek word for night (nux), when the NYX A Greek word for NIGHT.
mysteries of Dionysus took place. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Seneca, Oedipus 492]
 C OD
OBOL In the Athenian monetary system, the obol play is one of the most spectacular in extant drama, as
was the coin with the least value—one-sixth of a he appears from above in a hippogriff (a creature that
DRACHMA, one-six-hundredth of a MINA, and one-six- was part horse and part GRIFFIN). In that play, Oceanus
thousandth of a talent. By the time of ARISTOPHANES’ offers to help PROMETHEUS, but Prometheus refuses the
WASPS (422 B.C.E.), jury pay in ATHENS was three obols offer, saying that he does not want Oceanus himself to
per day. Similarly, in Aristophanes’ ECCLESIAZUSAE risk offending ZEUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hesiod,
(392/391 B.C.E.), we hear that those attending the Theogony 133; Hyginus, Fables 182]
assembly in Athens received three obols per day. At the
end of the fourth century B.C.E., in MENANDER’s ARBI- OCTAVIA (D. JUNE 9, 62 C.E.) Claudia
TRATION, two obols per day is enough to feed someone Octavia was the daughter of the Roman emperor
who is starving. CLAUDIUS and his wife, Messalina. In 53 C.E., Octavia
married her stepbrother, NERO, who had become
OCEANIDS The daughters of OCEANUS and emperor after the death of Claudius in 54. Nine years
TETHYS, these minor divinities make up the CHORUS in later, Nero, claiming Octavia was sterile, divorced her,
AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS BOUND. Apollodorus names married POPPAEA, and exiled Octavia from Rome. Ini-
seven Oceanids, but Hesiod says there were 3,000. tially, Octavia remained on the Italian mainland in the
Perhaps the best-known of the Oceanids is STYX. region of Campania, but the Roman people’s sympathy
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.2.2; Hesiod, for her plight and her popularity with them led Nero
Theogony 346–66] to send her to the island of Pandateria, where he had
her killed. Octavia appears as a character in and is the
OCEANUS (OKEANOS) The son of EARTH subject of a TRAGEDY entitled Octavia, of which SENECA
and URANUS, Oceanus was the brother of CRONUS, is incorrectly named as the author. The play is highly
RHEA, and many others. Oceanus personifies the sympathetic to Octavia and deals with Nero’s divorce
ocean, which the ancients usually regarded as a river of her in favor of Poppaea.
that encircled the world’s various landmasses.
Oceanus’ wife was his sister, Tethys; they produced the OCTAVIA (CA. 68–69 C.E.) Octavia is the only
world’s rivers as well as several thousand water NYMPHS extant FABULA PRAETEXTA (Roman historical drama). Tra-
known as OCEANIDS. Oceanus appears as a character in dition makes SENECA the author, although he clearly was
AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS BOUND. His entrance in that not because the play has some details of the death of the

369
370 OCTAVIA

Roman emperor NERO, which occurred three years after some of his enemies. Seneca tries to counsel Nero
Seneca’s death. The play’s setting is Nero’s palace at against this violent behavior, but Nero arrogantly
Rome, and the action deals with events of 62 C.E. in the rejects his advice. Nero argues that just as bloodshed
life of Octavia, the wife and stepsister of Nero. eventually led to AUGUSTUS’ triumphing over his ene-
Octavia delivers an opening monologue and com- mies and becoming a divinity, he will follow a similar
plains of her fate, which is worse than that of her path. Seneca then urges Nero to be reconciled with his
mother (MESSALINA) and father (the previous emperor wife, Octavia, because she is of divine stock and can
CLAUDIUS), and of the cruelty of her husband, Nero (he give Nero divine children. Nero claims that he never
has taken a woman named POPPAEA as his mistress). loved Octavia and that he has now found a woman
After her lament, Octavia goes back inside the palace. worthy of him, who is as beautiful as Venus (see
Next, Octavia’s nurse enters, comments about the mis- APHRODITE). Seneca warns Nero that beauty fades and
fortune suffered by members of Octavia’s family, and that if Nero underestimates the power of love, then he
notes that they have tried to console Octavia. After will lose “love.” Nero denies this and hopes that Love
hearing additional lamentation about her fate from himself will bear the wedding torch at his marriage to
within the palace, the Nurse is soon joined by Octavia, Poppaea. Seneca argues that the Roman people do not
who suggests that her death is imminent. The Nurse want such a union and urges Nero to accede the peo-
encourages her to be calm and try to win over her hus- ple’s will. Nero, of course, rejects this argument and
band with gentle behavior. Octavia, however, does not leaves, suggesting that his wedding to Poppaea will
believe she will be able to win him over and notes that take place the next day.
because her father, mother, and brother (Britannicus) The third act begins with the appearance of the
are dead, she has no one to whom she can turn. Fur- ghost of AGRIPPINA, Nero’s mother; who recalls her
thermore, Octavia fears Nero’s mistress, Poppaea, will murder by Nero and expresses her hatred of her son.
try to bring about her death. Octavia calls upon her Agrippina’s ghost imagines that she sees the ghost of
father Claudius’ spirit to help her, but the nurse tells her dead husband, Claudius, who threatens her
her that such prayers are useless. Octavia suggests that because she brought about his death and demands that
she might try to kill Nero, but the nurse again urges Nero be killed. Agrippina concludes her speech by
her to save herself by bending to Nero’s will and taking regretting that she ever gave birth to Nero. After
some comfort in the people’s concern for her. Again, Agrippina’s ghost disappears, Octavia returns and
however, Octavia rejects the idea that she will accept announces that Nero has divorced her. Before she
Nero’s will and wishes for Nero’s death. The nurse sug- departs from the palace, she worries what will happen
gests that some god may yet go to her aid, but Octavia to her. Next, the chorus enter and express their dis-
doubts this will happen. pleasure with Nero’s marriage to Poppaea and consider
After Octavia and her nurse return to the palace’s violence against Poppaea and Nero.
interior, a chorus of Romans enters and wonders at the The fourth act opens with the entrance of a tearful
rumors that Nero plans to take a new wife. They Poppaea and her nurse. Poppaea tells her nurse that she
lament the loss of the Roman virtues of old and recall has had a troubling dream in which she saw her mar-
that Nero’s unsuccessful attempt to kill his own mother riage bedroom crowded with mourners and Agrippina
was followed by her assassination. After the chorus’ carrying a bloody torch. She then dreamed that the
song, the aged Seneca, former tutor and current earth opened and swallowed up her marriage bed. She
adviser of Nero, enters. He recalls the peace and pros- imagined that she saw her previous husband, Crispi-
perity of the Golden Age untold generations earlier and nus, and her son, Rufrius Crispinus. When the elder
describes how humankind has become immoral, war- Crispinus tried to embrace her, Nero suddenly
like, and greedy. appeared and killed him. When Poppaea asks her nurse
The play’s second act opens with Seneca’s being what this dream could mean, the nurse erroneously
joined by Nero, who sends out his prefect to execute explains the dream as having positive implications for
 OCTAVIA 371

her future with Nero. Poppaea, however, is not so con- events. Although based on historical events, Octavia
fident and sends the nurse out to make offerings to the still interweaves references and allusions to mythology
gods so that she will not have more of such dreams and with the playwright’s representation of history. The
that her fears may become those of her enemies. After play also employs some of the conventions of mytho-
the exit of Poppaea and her nurse, a chorus of Roman logically based tragedies, such as the presence of a cho-
women, who sympathize with Poppaea, praise her rus of citizens, an AGON (the debate between Nero and
beauty above that of the most beautiful women in Seneca), messenger speeches, the appearance of a
mythology. Next, a messenger enters and informs the ghost, and the presentation of information through
chorus that a mob of citizens, who favor Octavia, are dreams.
planning to overthrow Nero. The mob has toppled The focal point of Octavia is the perversion of mar-
Poppaea’s statues and are preparing to burn Nero’s riage within the house of Nero. Nero’s divorce of
palace. After the messenger exits to inform Nero, the Octavia in favor of Poppaea bears some resemblance to
chorus comment briefly on the power of love. JASON’s divorce of MEDEA for CREON’s daughter and
The play’s final act begins with the entrance of Nero, THESEUS’ divorce of his AMAZON wife for PHAEDRA. Like
who expresses his anger at the mob for their love of Medea and the Amazon, Octavia has no relatives to
Octavia and states that he will punish Octavia in a whom she can turn after her husband divorces her.
manner worse than death; he will also punish the mob. Unlike Medea, who kills her rival, Octavia does not
After this, Nero’s prefect enters and announces that the possess magical power and has little chance of retaliat-
mob has been put down forcefully and its leaders exe- ing against Nero. Nero is more cruel than Jason in that
cuted. When Nero tells the prefect that he wants the emperor plans to have Octavia killed. In this
Octavia to be executed as well, the prefect is horrified respect, Octavia is closer to Theseus’ Amazon wife,
and tries to dissuade him from this order. Nero, how- who tried to kill Theseus but is instead killed by him.
ever, refuses to yield and orders that Octavia be taken Still, the author of Octavia makes his title character
far away and killed. After the exit of Nero and the pre- appear much more helpless than the warrior princess
fect, the chorus lament that the favor of the people has to whom Theseus was married.
often proved the ruin of many. Like Phaedra and the ill-fated unions in which her
Next, Octavia is dragged in by some of Nero’s mother, PASIPHAE, and sister, ARIADNE, were involved,
guards. Her lament about her impending punishment Octavia has a family tradition of doomed marriages.
is answered sympathetically by the chorus, who recall Octavia recalls that her cruel stepmother (Agrippina)
that many royal Roman women have met a similar fate. led the way to Octavia’s bridal chamber (24) with Sty-
The play ends with Octavia’s declaring that she is ready gian torches. Just as Octavia’s marriage was perverted
to meet her fate and the chorus’ praying that she will by Agrippina’s Stygian bridal torches, when Agrippina’s
be rescued as IPHIGENIA was when she was at AULIS. ghost appears later in the play, she announces that she
is carrying a Stygian torch to Nero’s accursed marriage
COMMENTARY (thalamis, 595) with Poppaea. Thus, the tradition of
Octavia is an intriguing play for two major reasons: Nero’s cursed marriages will continue with Poppaea,
Because it is known that Seneca did not write the play, who, as the ancient audience of Octavia would have
the question of who did compose it remains. This can- known, was killed by Nero in 65 C.E.
not be answered with certainty; the name of one Not only did the cruel stepmother’s torches defile
Maternus, a person sympathetic to Octavia who had Octavia’s bedchamber, but the spirit of Octavia’s
been present during these events, has been suggested. deceased brother (Britannicus), who carries dark
Perhaps more important than the question of author- torches, takes refuge there (120). As the audience of
ship, however, is the fact that Octavia is the only sur- Octavia would have known, Nero was probably
viving fabula praetexta, a Roman drama whose plot is responsible for Britannicus’ death by poison in 55 C.E.
derived from historical rather than mythological Octavia also notes that Nero, who killed his own
372 ODE

mother, now threatens her own bedchamber (131). As tionally, she notes the presence of Agrippina, who
did Phaedra’s mother, who was possessed by a mad again carries a blood-spattered marriage torch
passion, Octavia’s mother, Messalina, defiled her bridal (722–23). Whereas the audience of the Octavia would
chamber (252) by marrying Gaius Silius although she have known that Poppaea’s dream would refer to her
was already married to Octavia’s father, Claudius. This own doom, Poppaea’s nurse interprets the dreams
drove an enraged Claudius to have Messalina killed incorrectly in a way that will soothe Poppaea. The
and thus extinguish with blood the wedding torches nurse urges Poppaea to set aside her fear and return to
stolen from his bridal chamber (264). her bridal chamber (755). Poppaea, however, will not
Although Octavia’s family has had little happiness in return and decides to sacrifice to the gods instead.
marriage, the chorus is optimistic and pray that Pop- After Poppaea’s exit, a messenger announces news of
paea will not enter the bridal chamber of the emperor the people’s anger against Nero and their attempt to
(276). They note that Juno (see HERA) continues to burn his palace. The perverse imaginary wedding
occupy the bedchamber (282) of Jove (see ZEUS) and torch (facem, 723) of Poppaea’s dream has become real
wonder why Octavia would be driven from Nero’s torches (faces, 822) which threaten to destroy Nero’s
house. palace. Eventually, however, the emperor suppresses
Although Octavia’s nurse considered Nero unwor- the people, and the killing of their leaders ends their
thy of Octavia’s bridal chamber (252), Nero tells destructive flames. Furthermore, Nero makes Octavia
Seneca that he has finally found someone worthy of his a scapegoat for the people’s rage and orders that she be
(544). Seneca tries to instruct Nero about the qualities killed. As Nero’s guards drag Octavia away she imag-
a person should look for in a wife, but Nero is capti- ines herself being carried away from Nero’s bedcham-
vated by Poppaea, who he thinks is superior to Juno, ber (909) on the same vessel that carried Nero’s mother
Venus (see APHRODITE), and Minerva (see ATHENA). to her doom. The play ends with Octavia appearing to
Thus, with such a statement, Nero clearly characterizes be a second Agrippina as she prays for Nero’s destruc-
himself as someone more powerful than Jove, and, tion and calls upon the FURIES to carry out his punish-
unlike the real Jove, he will expel his Juno (Octavia) ment on her behalf.
from the bridal chamber. Seneca reinforces the chorus’
BIBLIOGRAPHY
earlier desires when he notes that the people will not
Ferri, R. “Octavia’s Heroines: Tacitus, Annales 14, 63–64 and
stand for such a marriage (thalamos, 572), but Nero is
the ‘Praetexta Octavia,’” Harvard Studies in Classical Philol-
determined and decides that the marriage (thalamis, ogy 98 (1998): 339–56.
592) will occur the following day. Poe, J. P. “Octavia Praetexta and its Senecan Model,” Ameri-
On that day, Octavia notes that she will no longer can Journal of Philology 110 (1989): 434–59.
have to use the bedchamber in which she was treated Williams, G. “Nero, Seneca and Stoicism in the Octavia.” In
as a slave (657). After Octavia departs, the chorus pity Reflections of Nero: Culture, History, and Representation.
Octavia, who is being driven from the bedchamber of Edited by Jas Elsner and Jamie Masters. Chapel Hill: Uni-
cruel Nero (671–72). Several of the wedding torches in versity of North Carolina Press, 1994, 178–95.
this play have been perverse; the chorus of Roman
people, angered by Nero’s perversion of his marriage to ODE Its name derived from a Greek word meaning
Octavia, now threaten to assail Nero’s palace with, “song,” an ode is a song by the chorus. A song by an
among other things, flame (688). individual is called a MONODY. Choral odes are divided
After one wife has left Nero’s bedchamber, a second into sections; the most common terms for the divisions
wife makes her first appearance in the play from this are STROPHE, ANTISTROPHE, and EPODE. A typical pattern
same place (690) in a state of fear. As Octavia’s bridal is strophe a, followed by antistrophe a; this pattern is
chamber was tainted by Agrippina’s Stygian torches repeated once. Sometimes the choral ode ends with an
and visited by her brother’s ghost, Poppaea dreams that epode (concluding song). Some of the most famous
her bridal chamber is visited by mourners (718). Addi- choral odes are found in SOPHOCLES. At ANTIGONE
 ODYSSEUS 373

332–83, the Theban elders sing of humans’ mastery of married he should make the suitors take an oath to
the world but note that humans have not devised a defend her should anything happen to her. The suit-
way to avoid death. In OEDIPUS AT COLONUS, lines ors, including Odysseus, took this oath. Tyndareus
668–719, the elders of Colonus sing a lovely song in married Helen to MENELAUS, but when PARIS abducted
praise of the beauties of their city and the region where Helen a few years later, all the suitors had to go to TROY
they live. to help recover Menelaus’ wife. Though Odysseus had
taken the oath, when the Greeks went to ITHACA to get
ODEUM Built by PERICLES around 445 B.C.E. as a him, he tried to avoid military duty by pretending to
place for musical performances, the Odeum, east of the be insane. The Greeks found Odysseus plowing a field
Theater of DIONYSUS at ATHENS, was also used for other with a horse and an ox and throwing salt into the fur-
civic functions, such as a law court. [ANCIENT SOURCES: rows. The Greek PALAMEDES suspected Odysseus of
Aristophanes, Wasps 1109; Demosthenes, 34.37; trickery, so he took Odysseus’ infant son, TELEMACHUS,
Xenophon, Hellenica 2.4.9–10] and placed him in the plow’s path. When Odysseus
swerved to miss his son, his deception was uncovered
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and Odysseus was forced to go to Troy.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 221–22. Odysseus soon had many opportunities for trickery,
because ACHILLES was also trying to avoid going to Troy
by disguising himself as a woman and hiding in the court
ODOMANTI A tribe living in THRACE east of the of Lycomedes on SCYROS. Odysseus, however, tricked
river Strymon and north of Mount Pangaeum. In
Achilles into revealing his true gender by arranging to
ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS (155–73), some of the
have a battle trumpet blown while all the women of the
Odomantians are hired by the Athenians as mercenar-
court were gathered. When Achilles snatched up some
ies to help them in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR. Aristo-
arms that Odysseus had placed conveniently nearby, his
phanes describes the Odomanti as being circumcised
identity was revealed. When at Aulis AGAMEMNON was
(a practice that the Athenians considered barbaric).
told that he had to sacrifice his daughter, IPHIGENIA, to
The Odomanti in Acharnians steal DICAEOPOLIS’ garlic.
gain favorable weather for sailing to Troy, Odysseus was
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Herodotus, 5.16.1; Thucydides,
involved in the plot to lure Iphigenia to Aulis with the
2.101.3, 5.6.2]
pretense that she was to marry Achilles.
Not only was Odysseus cunning, but he could also be
ODRYSIA The Odrysians were a tribe who lived cruel. After the Greeks sailed from Aulis and landed on
in central Thrace. The name Odrysia is sometimes Tenedos, PHILOCTETES was bitten by a snake. When the
used as a synonym for Thrace. [ANCIENT SOURCES: injured hero’s wound caused him to cry out in pain con-
Seneca, Thyestes 273] stantly—cries that became bothersome to the Greeks—
Odysseus is often said to have been the person who
ODYSSEUS (Latin: ULYSSES) Odysseus, urged that Philoctetes be abandoned on LEMNOS.
the son of the Ithacan king, Laertes, and Anticleia, was During the Trojan War, Odysseus proved instru-
the father of Telemachus by PENELOPE. By CIRCE mental at several critical moments. In the 10th year of
Odysseus fathered Telegonus. As a young man, the war, he played a major role in the nocturnal raid on
Odysseus became one of HELEN’s many suitors; when the Trojan camp that resulted in the slaughter of
he realized he was not her favorite, he gave up his pur- numerous enemy soldiers and the capture of the RHE-
suit and offered Helen’s father, TYNDAREUS, advice SUS’ fabulous horses. It was prophesied that if these
about choosing the correct husband on the condition horses had fed on Trojan food first, the Trojans would
that Tyndareus would persuade his brother, Icarius, to win the war. Later in the same year, Odysseus and
allow him to marry his daughter, Penelope. Tyndareus Diomedes managed to sneak into Troy and steal the
agreed and Odysseus told Tyndareus that before Helen Palladium. As long as the Trojans had this statue in
374 OEA

their possession, their empire would remain intact. OEAX The son of NAUPLIUS and Clymene, Oeax
Finally, Odysseus is often given credit for the stratagem was the brother of PALAMEDES and Nausimedon. Oeax
of the wooden horse, which led to Troy’s destruction. was one of those who opposed ORESTES after he killed
Odysseus, the versatile hero made famous in the his mother. Oeax wanted revenge on Orestes because
verses of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, remained equally he blamed Orestes’ father, AGAMEMNON, for the death
versatile on the Greek stage. In SOPHOCLES’ PHILOCTETES, of his brother, Palamedes. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
he is portrayed as an unscrupulous trickster, who is lodorus, Library 2.1.5; Euripides, ORESTES 432]
willing to say or do anything to accomplish his mission
of acquiring PHILOCTETES’ bow. In EURIPIDES’ CYCLOPS, OECHALIA A town on the island of EUBOEA,
Odysseus remains a trickster, but in this SATYR PLAY he where EURYTUS, father of IOLE and IPHITUS, was king
is the trickster who triumphs over an uncivilized mon- when HERACLES destroyed the town by war. [ANCIENT
ster. In Sophocles’ AJAX, Odysseus is shown in a differ- SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.6.1, 2.7.7; Euripides,
ent light: Although Ajax has tried to kill him, Odysseus Heracles 473, Hippolytus 545; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus;
pities Ajax, his enemy (121–22), and intervenes on his Sophocles, Trachinian Women]
behalf at the end of the play to secure his burial, which
Agamemnon and Menelaus oppose. OECLES (OCLEUS) The father of AMPHIA-
Many other dramas, tragedies, comedies, and satyr RAUS, who was one of the Seven against THEBES. SOPHO-
plays were written about Odysseus. Sophocles’ Niptra CLES appears to have written an Oecles, but the brief
(Foot Washing) and Odysseus Akanthoplex (Odysseus fragments (468–69 Radt) that survive give no indica-
Wounded by the Spine) may have been the same play. tion of the play’s subject matter. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Sophocles also wrote an Odysseus Mainomenos (The Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 382, 609; Euripides,
Madness of Odysseus), which was probably about Suppliant Women 925; Hyginus, Fables 70]
Odysseus’ attempt to avoid fighting at Troy by pre-
tending to be insane. The Greek tragedian Chaeremon BIBLIOGRAPHY
wrote an Odysseus, whose extant two-line fragment (13 Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Snell) describes women (NAUSICAA and her compan- Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
ions?) who have roses in their hair. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
BIBLIOGRAPHY Press of America, 1984.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. OEDIPUS The son of LAIUS and JOCASTA, Oedipus
is one of the best known, most notorious characters of
OEA A place of uncertain location in the region of classical mythology. When Laius, king of THEBES,
Attica, of which ATHENS is the principal city. [ANCIENT learned that he was destined to have a child who
SOURCES: Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1059] would kill him, he tried to avoid sexual relations with
Jocasta. Jocasta, however, determined to have a child,
OEAGRUS Apparently an actor in tragedies in made Laius drunk and had intercourse with him. Laius
ARISTOPHANES’ day. Aristophanes suggests that Oeagrus tried to get rid of the child by giving him to one of his
was a defendant in a court proceeding and that his shepherds, who was to leave the child on Mount
acquittal resulted from his quoting lines from the play CITHAERON to die. To ensure that the infant would not
Niobe, probably the one by AESCHYLUS, although Sopho- be able to crawl to safety, Laius had the child’s feet
cles also wrote a Niobe. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, pierced with a metal fastener. This fastener was later
Wasps 579] removed, however, but the injury gave the child his
BIBLIOGRAPHY name—Oedipus (“swollen foot”). The Theban shep-
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon herd gave Oedipus to a Corinthian shepherd, who in
Press, 1971, 210–11. turn gave him to POLYBUS and MEROPE, the king and
 OEDIPUS 375

queen of CORINTH. Having no children of their own, however, as the aged shepherd who had given him to
they raised Oedipus. the Corinthian herdsman was taken to the palace.
When Oedipus grew up, he was taunted by a Oedipus appears as a character in several extant dra-
drunken companion, who suggested that Polybus and mas: EURIPIDES’ PHOENICIAN WOMEN, SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS
Merope were not really his parents. Oedipus ques- TYRANNOS and OEDIPUS AT COLONUS, and SENECA’s OEDI-
tioned his foster parents about the truth of this taunt PUS. In Phoenician Women, Oedipus’ blinding has
and was told that he was their child. Unconvinced, already taken place and he appears at the end of the
Oedipus left home to consult the DELPHIC ORACLE. The play, after the death of his sons, and goes into exile.
oracle told Oedipus that he would kill his father and Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannos and Seneca’s Oedipus both
marry his mother. Wishing to avoid this horrific fate, treat Oedipus’ discovery that he has had sexual rela-
Oedipus decided never to return to Corinth. As he tions with his mother and his blinding of himself.
traveled south from Delphi, he almost literally ran into Oedipus at Colonus deals with the arrival in Athenian
his real father, Laius. At a narrow place in the road, territory of the blind and exiled Oedipus, the struggle
Laius and his attendants had a traffic altercation with between Polyneices and Eteocles to acquire Oedipus’
Oedipus. When Laius struck Oedipus, the young man favor so that they can be victorious in war over one
retaliated, killing not only Laius, but almost all of his another, Oedipus’ rejection of his sons, and his even-
party (except one person). tual disappearance from the Earth. AESCHYLUS wrote an
Oedipus, not realizing he had killed his father, con- Oedipus, which was the second play of the tetralogy
tinued on to Thebes, where he became an instant hero that included Laius, Seven against Thebes, and Sphinx.
by solving the riddle of the SPHINX, the monster who Aeschylus’ Oedipus may have been about roughly the
had been tormenting the Thebans. The Sphinx killed same events as Sophocles’ Oedipus the King—Oedipus’
itself once its riddle was solved. The acting king of discovery that he had killed his father, Laius. [ANCIENT
Thebes, CREON, had decreed that anyone who could SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 742–1084;
solve this riddle would become king and marry Apollodorus, Library 3.5.7–9; Homer, Odyssey
Jocasta, whose husband, Laius, had recently died. 11.271–80; Hyginus, Fables 66–67; Pindar, Olympian
Thus, Oedipus became king and married his mother, Odes 38–42]
though neither knew the truth. The initial years of
Oedipus’ kingship and marriage seem to have been OEDIPUS SENECA (WRITTEN BETWEEN
trouble-free. He and Jocasta had four children—ETEO- 49 AND 65 C.E.?) The play follows the same story
CLES, POLYNEICES, ANTIGONE, and ISMENE. as SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, but SENECA intro-
Eventually Oedipus’ happiness was shattered when duces several innovations before the final outcome is
a plague ravaged the Thebans. Oedipus sent Creon to reached. The setting is THEBES at the palace of OEDIPUS
consult the Delphic oracle and learned that the crisis and JOCASTA. The action of the play begins at dawn
could be resolved by driving out the killer of Laius, near an altar, as King Oedipus recalls APOLLO’s
who the oracle declared was among the Thebans. prophecy that he would kill his father and marry his
Oedipus, determined to save his people from the mother. Oedipus has difficulties that are more pressing
plague, called upon the prophet TIRESIAS to reveal at present, however, as he relates that his people are
Laius’ killer; unfortunately for Oedipus, Tiresias suffering through a terrible plague. Oedipus prays that
declared that he was Laius’ killer. Oedipus, thinking he will not outlive all his citizens. Oedipus’ wife,
that Tiresias and Creon were plotting to overthrow Jocasta, urges him not to make the situation worse by
him, accused them of being in league with one lamentation, but to face the crisis boldly. Oedipus,
another. That same day, a messenger arrived from recalling his defeat of the SPHINX, declares that he never
Corinth and informed Oedipus that Polybus had died. has and never will act as a coward does. He predicts
For a moment, Oedipus believed that he had avoided that only Apollo can deliver them from the current
Delphi’s prophecy. Oedipus’ relief was short-lived, trouble. Next, the chorus sing an ode in which they
376 OEDIPUS

lament the destruction of the noble citizens of Thebes. his parents are Polybus and Merope of CORINTH. Fur-
They describe the stages by which the plague attacked thermore, Oedipus believes that Tiresias and Creon
the town, the symptoms of those who have the disease, have conspired to make up this story so that Creon can
and the prayers of those who long for death. become king. Creon denies this, and urges Oedipus to
The play’s second act opens with the arrival of give up the kingship and go into exile. Oedipus
CREON from DELPHI. As in SOPHOCLES’ play, Creon tells refuses, however, and, despite Creon’s claims of inno-
Oedipus that Apollo’s oracle has declared that to save cence, Oedipus has Creon arrested and imprisoned.
the city from the plague they must expel the murderer After the exit of Oedipus and Creon, the chorus sing an
of LAIUS, the previous king, because the killer (Oedi- ode in which they blame Oedipus’ troubles on the
pus) remains within the city limits and is causing pol- gods’ anger against Oedipus’ family, an anger that the
lution of the city. Oedipus declares that he is prepared chorus trace to CADMUS’ killing of the serpent of Mars
to carry out what Apollo’s oracle has commanded and (Greek: ARES). They also mention the destruction of
puts a curse on Laius’ killer (thus, unwittingly cursing Cadmus’ grandson, ACTAEON, by the goddess Diana
himself). When Oedipus asks Creon to explain how (Greek: ARTEMIS).
Laius was killed, Creon does so. Before Oedipus can The drama’s fourth act opens with a speech by Oedi-
react to this story, the blind prophet TIRESIAS, accom- pus (who is joined on stage by Jocasta), in which he
panied by his daughter, MANTO (also a prophet), recalls killing a man at a crossroads between Delphi
enters. Unlike in Sophocles’ play, Tiresias states that to and Thebes. When Jocasta tells Oedipus the details of
discover the killer of Laius, they must sacrifice a snow- Laius’ death, Oedipus begins to suspect that he may
white bull that has never been yoked and examine the have been Laius’ killer. Oedipus soon gains further
heifer entrails. After the sacrifice of the heifer, Manto information about his past when an old man from
describes to her father the animal’s entrails. In a Corinth arrives and informs him that Polybus, who
lengthy description, Manto relates in gruesome detail Oedipus thinks is his father, has died. The old man
the bull’s internal organs, including the presence of a informs Oedipus that Polybus’ wife, Merope, who
fetus in the womb of the animal, which was supposed Oedipus thinks is his mother, was not, in fact, his
to be a virgin. Despite this drawn-out ritual, Tiresias is mother. The old man goes on to reveal that he himself
unable to tell Oedipus who was Laius’ killer. Accord- had given the infant Oedipus to Polybus and Merope
ingly, Tiresias declares that they must now raise the after he had received Oedipus from a Theban shep-
spirit of Laius from the UNDERWORLD so that he himself herd. As the old man tries to recall the shepherd’s
can name his killer. Because Tiresias says the king must name, the person in question, Phorbas, enters. The old
not gaze on the dead, Oedipus sends Creon with Tire- man questions Phorbas about his past, and Phorbas
sias. After their departure, the chorus sing to Bacchus admits that he gave an infant to the old man. Phorbas
(Greek: DIONYSUS) a hymn, in which they summon also notes that an iron bolt pinned together the infant’s
him to Thebes. They also recall his birth, persecution feet. When Oedipus demands to know who the child’s
by Juno (Greek: HERA), travels throughout the world, mother was, Phorbas does not want to answer. After
triumph over those who opposed him, and eventual Oedipus threatens him with torture, Phorbas reveals
marriage to ARIADNE. that Jocasta was the child’s mother. On hearing this,
In the play’s third act, Creon returns from consult- Oedipus is horrified and realizes that he killed his
ing the spirit of Laius. Creon describes in great detail father, Laius, and married his mother, Jocasta. Then,
the ritual that Tiresias performed to conjure up Laius, Oedipus and Jocasta exit into the palace.
who named Oedipus as his killer, stated that Oedipus In the final act, a messenger enters and describes to
had married his own mother, and declared that Oedi- the chorus Oedipus’ blinding of himself by tearing out
pus must be driven from Thebes and that his exile his eyes with his bare hands (unlike Sophocles’
would be a miserable one. Oedipus, of course, is method of blinding, in which he plunged Jocasta’s
shocked by this revelation but continues to believe that brooches into his eyes). After the chorus lament that
 OEDIPUS 377

unalterable Fate has caused events, a blinded and These actions won Oedipus the kingship of Thebes,
bloody Oedipus emerges from the palace. In contrast but after becoming king, Oedipus has different con-
to Sophocles’ play, in which Jocasta commits suicide cerns, because his city suffers from a terrible plague.
before Oedipus’ blinding, Seneca’s reverses the order of Jocasta, sounding as if she is a Stoic, advises him to be
events. In Seneca’s play, Jocasta now enters from the brave and not to run away from Fortune (86). Oedipus
palace and addresses Oedipus but does not know declares that his valor (virtus, 88) knows no fear, as his
whether she should call him her son. Oedipus, how- battle with the Sphinx proved. Still, Oedipus, speaking
ever, does not want to respond to her and suggests that to himself, seems to long for death.
never again should they have contact. Soon, Jocasta When Creon returns from Delphi, Oedipus expresses
takes up a sword, the same one that killed her hus- fear (horrore . . . timens 206) about what Creon will say
band, Laius, and stabs herself in the womb. After and where fate will turn next. His unsure spirit longs to
Jocasta’s suicide, Oedipus laments that he has been the know, despite his fears (timet, 209). When Creon
cause of one more death than Fate had decreed. The explains that Laius’ killer must be expelled so that the
play ends with the departure of Oedipus into exile. plague will end, Creon suggests that their fear of the
Sphinx prevented them from searching for Laius’ killer
COMMENTARY earlier (245–46). Oedipus, behaving now as a fearless
Although readers of Seneca’s play will note compar- leader, declares that he will drive out Laius’ killer.
isons and contrasts with Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannos, After Tiresias and Manto perform their examination
one should also keep in mind the political context in of the entrails, Oedipus still sounds confident as he
which Seneca’s Oedipus was composed: NERO’s rule at declares that he will listen to their interpretation of the
Rome. Thus, a Roman who encountered Seneca’s Oedi- ritual without fear (non timida, 385). This ritual has
pus would be tempted to make connections between failed, however, and Oedipus quickly and decisively
Laius and Nero’s predecessor, CLAUDIUS, whose murder orders Creon to carry out the ritual that will raise Laius’
is usually ascribed to Nero’s mother, AGRIPPINA. Thus, spirit. Upon Creon’s return, Oedipus orders him to
Seneca would also have linked Oedipus and Nero, who speak what fear (metus, 511) would prefer to remain
committed horrific atrocities such as having his mother silent. Compelled by Oedipus, Creon explains the terri-
murdered (59 C.E.). fying ritual, which frightened both Creon and Manto,
In addition to the fascinating political background although Tiresias was unafraid (intrepidus, 596) because
against which Seneca’s play is set, Seneca’s Oedipus pro- he could not see the horrific beings who were being
vides a dramatic examination of the effects of fear on a conjured up (such as Horror, 591, and Fear, 594).
person. As a Stoic, Seneca believed that emotions such Oedipus had been confident before the ritual; the
as fear would impede a person’s ability to be truly declaration from his father’s ghost now causes him to
happy. For the Stoics, true happiness involved embrac- fear (660) that he had done that which he was
ing one’s fate and living one’s life in acceptance of and accused of doing. All the same, Oedipus then tries to
in harmony with fate. Most people, however, would shift the blame for Laius’ death to Tiresias and Creon.
not be aware of their fate, and, even if they were to Upon hearing this accusation, Creon protests that he
possess such awareness, few would have a fate as hor- is innocent, but Oedipus retorts that kings usually
rific as that of Oedipus. fear doubtful things as certain (700). Creon responds
Oedipus, however, is aware of his fate and tries to that a person who trembles over empty fears deserves
escape it. Leaving the kingdom of the man he thought real fears (700–1), and Oedipus argues that fear
was his father allowed him to leave behind his cares keeps kingdoms intact (704). Creon observes that
(curis, 13), because Oedipus feared (timeo, 15; timor, when a tyrannical king fears his subjects (who fear
22) that he would kill Polybus. Upon arriving in him), then eventually the fear rebounds on the king.
Thebes, Oedipus displayed his courage and lack of fear Oedipus’ fears of conspiracy prevail, however, and he
by facing the deadly Sphinx and solving its riddle. has Creon arrested.
378 OEDIPUS AT COLONUS

As with Oedipus’ previous appearance, when he next Konstan, D. “Oedipus and his Parents: The Biological Fam-
emerges from the palace he notes that his fears have been ily from Sophocles to Dryden,” Scholia 3 (1994): 3–23.
renewed (764). When he asks Jocasta to explain the cir- Mastronarde, D. J. “Seneca’s Oedipus: The Drama in the
Word,” Transactions of the American Philological Association
cumstances surrounding Laius’ death, he seems to recog-
101 (1970): 291–315.
nize that the oracle has been fulfilled (782). The arrival
Poe, J. P. “The Sinful Nature of the Protagonist of Seneca’s
of the old Corinthian, however, initially allays Oedipus’ Oedipus,” Ramus 12 (1983): 140–58.
fears. Polybus’ kingdom will dispel his fears (793), the Tochterle, K. Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Oedipus: Kommentar mit
old man suggests. Oedipus explains that despite Polybus’ Einleitung, Text und Ubersetzung. Heidelberg: Universi-
death, he still fears marriage to his mother (791–92, tatsverlag C. Winter, 1994.
794). The old man again tries to allay Oedipus’ fears by
informing him that Merope was not his mother (801). OEDIPUS AT COLONUS SOPHOCLES (401
Once the old man explains how he knows this, Oedipus B.C.E.) SOPHOCLES wrote this play, first produced by
orders the Theban shepherd summoned to the palace. his son five years after his father’s death. The drama’s
The old man, who sounds as if he is a Stoic, urges Oedi- setting is COLONUS, just north of ATHENS, where Sopho-
pus to let the Fates unfold themselves (832), but Oedi- cles himself was born. The play’s PROLOGUE opens with
pus is determined to discover the truth. the arrival of the blind OEDIPUS, dressed in rags, and
After Oedipus learns the truth, his mind turns to his daughter, ANTIGONE, who serves as his guide. After
thoughts of suicide, a form of death permissible for a Oedipus sits down and wonders where they are, a cit-
Stoic in extreme circumstances. Fear, it seems, turns izen from Colonus approaches and tells Oedipus that
Oedipus from this course of action (933) and he he must not sit on ground sacred to the Eumenides
decides to blind himself. Upon hearing of Oedipus’ (see FURIES). When Oedipus hears this, he declares
blinding, the chorus remark that fear itself causes harm himself a suppliant of these goddesses. Oedipus soon
for many people and that many have met their fate learns from the man that he is in Colonus and that the
while fearing it (992–94). The suicide of Jocasta com- king in the region is THESEUS. Hearing this, Oedipus
pounds Oedipus’ misery. Because he blames himself asks the man to summon the king to him. After the cit-
for her death, he observes that he is now more guilty izen departs, Oedipus prays to the Eumenides and
declares that once APOLLO told him that after he had
than he feared (1044), because he has, in essence,
wandered many years the Eumenides would eventually
killed both of his parents.
give him rest and that the land in which he stopped
Thus, Oedipus, by discovering his worst fears, has
would be blessed by his presence, and the land that
relieved his fellow Thebans of their fears, as his exile
rejected Oedipus would be cursed.
will mark the end of the plague. Oedipus departs as
After Oedipus’ prayer, the chorus, composed of old
Tiresias enters, with a step that is slow and unsteady
men from Colonus, enter in search of Oedipus. The
(289, 1047). Tiresias enters and departs with his
chorus tell him that no one will drive him from his
daughter, Manto, as his companion (290); Oedipus
place of refuge against his will, but when they learn
will leave with violent Fates, Disease, Pestilence, Grief,
that he is Oedipus, they order him to leave their terri-
and Wasting as his companions (1059–61). Now, both
tory. Antigone pleads with the chorus, but they repeat
men are blind. Earlier in the play, Tiresias’ blindness that must Oedipus leave. Oedipus questions the repu-
seems to have prevented him from being subject to the tation that their land has for hospitality to strangers
fear that gripped Manto and Creon. Henceforth, we and begs them to grant him a place of refuge. The cho-
might expect Oedipus to be fearless as well. After all, rus, however, state that they will defer to their king,
what more has he to fear? whom a messenger has gone to seek.
BIBLIOGRAPHY As Oedipus anticipates the arrival of Theseus, his
Bishop, J. D. “Seneca’s Oedipus: Opposition Literature,” Clas- daughter ISMENE arrives from THEBES. She informs
sical Journal 73 (1978): 289–301. them that Oedipus’ sons, ETEOCLES and POLYNEICES,
 OEDIPUS AT COLONUS 379

whom Oedipus had cursed to be fated to destroy each refuses and declares that his spirit will haunt the The-
other, have quarreled over the kingdom. Eteocles has bans. Oedipus orders Creon to leave, but Creon
driven Polyneices from Thebes; Polyneices has gone to informs Oedipus that his men have seized Ismene and
ARGOS, has acquired allies there, and will march on are preparing to seize Antigone. As the Thebans drag
Thebes to reclaim the throne. Ismene also reports that away Antigone, Oedipus calls for help. Soon, Theseus
she has heard an oracle that Thebes will want to have returns and sends out some of his men to rescue
Oedipus (whether dead or alive) returned to them Ismene and Antigone. Creon, however, declares that he
because the power of Thebes will fall to whomever was just in his actions. Creon expresses his surprise
Oedipus supports. Ismene also informs Oedipus that that Theseus’ people would harbor a man who has
CREON is now approaching to see him and to take him committed incest and killed his father. Oedipus
back to Theban territory—the Thebans will be blessed defends himself by stating that he did these acts unwit-
if Oedipus is buried near Thebes, but cursed if he is tingly and suggests that if Creon had been assaulted by
not. Ismene also says the oracle has indicated that someone as he was, Creon would have killed his father
someday the Thebans will be defeated in a battle near as well. After this debate, Theseus urges that they set
Oedipus’ grave when they invade Athenian territory. out in search of Oedipus’ daughters and asks Creon to
When Ismene reports that both Eteocles and Polyne- help show him the way.
ices are aware of these prophecies, Oedipus is outraged After the departure of Creon and Theseus, the cho-
that his sons now want him back only to achieve their rus sing an ode in which they anticipate the fight
goal of kingship, yet they did nothing to help him between Theseus and those who took hostage Oedi-
when he was exiled from Thebes. Oedipus praises his pus’ daughters. They boast of the fearsome nature of
daughters for their help and declares that he has no their warriors and of Theseus but worry that Oedipus’
intention of returning to Thebes. daughters may suffer something awful. No sooner have
The chorus, upon hearing these things, now take pity they prayed to the gods that matters will turn out well
on Oedipus and indicate that they will try to help him. than Theseus returns with Antigone and Ismene. After
They tell him that first he must perform a ceremony of the joyful reunion of the father and his daughters,
atonement to the Eumenides for profaning their sacred Oedipus thanks Theseus for his help. Theseus also
grove and pray for their aid. Because of Oedipus’ blind- informs Oedipus that one of his relatives is now in the
ness, he cannot carry out all of their instructions, so he region and wants to speak with him. From Theseus’
sends Ismene to attend to the ritual. After Ismene description of the man, Oedipus realizes that it is
departs, the chorus ask Oedipus to recall the misfor- Polyneices. Oedipus does not want to speak with him,
tunes that he has suffered. After Oedipus’ recollection of but Antigone urges her father to listen to Polyneices.
incest with his mother and his killing of his father, King Oedipus yields to Antigone’s wishes and Theseus
Theseus enters. Oedipus informs Theseus that his land departs (apparently to inform Polyneices that Oedipus
will be blessed if they bury Oedipus there and that the will speak with him).
Thebans will encounter destruction in Theseus’ territory After Theseus’ exit, the chorus sing an ode about the
if they do not take Oedipus back to Thebes. After The- inevitability of death and the hardship of the life of
seus pledges to help Oedipus, he exits to make a sacri- human beings, especially Oedipus. The choral ode is
fice to POSEIDON. The chorus then sing an ode in which followed by the arrival of Polyneices, who describes to
they praise the land to which Oedipus has travelled for Oedipus how Eteocles drove him from Thebes, and
refuge. They praise its beauty, its close association with how he traveled to Argos, married Adrastus’ daughter,
the gods, the valiant men who are nurtured there, the and enlisted the Argives’ help in making a march on
benefits of ATHENA’s olive tree, the might of the horse Thebes. Polyneices begs Oedipus for help because, as
and sea that Poseidon has granted them. he tells his father, he has heard an oracle that victory
After the choral ode, Creon enters and begs Oedipus will go to the side that has Oedipus as an ally. Further-
to return with him to Thebes. Oedipus, of course, more, Polyneices promises to reinstate Oedipus at
380 OEDIPUS AT COLONUS

Thebes if he is victorious. Oedipus rejects his son’s plea tomb. The play ends with Antigone’s acceding to his
and criticizes him for not helping him long ago. He refusal and stating her intention to return to Thebes
declares that Eteocles and Polyneices are not his sons, and deal with the strife between her brothers.
and that Antigone and Ismene treat him as sons
should. Additionally, Oedipus restates his curse that COMMENTARY
the brothers will kill each other in battle. The staging of the play presents few difficulties. Oedi-
Hearing his father’s harsh words, Polyneices departs pus spends most of the drama at or near the altar in the
in despair. He begs his sisters that if he falls in battle, center of the orchestra to which the chorus direct him
they make sure he receives a proper burial. Antigone at 194–95 (they call it a block of natural stone). The
begs Polyneices not to lead his army against Thebes; door of the stage building would probably serve as the
Polyneices, however, does not want to continue living entrance to the grove. As for the thunder and lightning
in exile and being mocked by his younger brother. that accompany Oedipus’ disappearance at the play’s
After Polyneices’ exit, the chorus hear thunder, conclusion, Pollux, writing 600 years after Oedipus at
which signals to Oedipus that his life will soon end. As Colonus, thought the Greeks of Sophocles’ day had
the thunder continues, Oedipus sends Antigone to machines to create these effects, but modern scholars
summon Theseus. Upon Theseus’ arrival, Oedipus doubt the existence of such devices in Sophocles’ day.
informs him that his (Oedipus’) death is approaching Such effects, however, could have been created offstage
and proceeds to explain the blessings that he will con- by striking a blunt instrument on a metal surface. How
fer Theseus’ people. Oedipus tells Theseus, however, three actors could have performed the play is difficult
that what he tells him must remain a secret. After this, to imagine. For example, at lines 322–26, Antigone,
Oedipus, Theseus, and Oedipus’ daughters depart. Ismene, and Oedipus appear to be on stage together.
The chorus then pray that the powers of the under- At the end of the play, Antigone, Ismene, and Theseus
world will be kind to Oedipus. seem to be on stage. At lines 1252–83, Antigone, Oedi-
After the chorus’ prayer, a messenger enters and pus, and Theseus appear together. Obviously, the same
informs the chorus that Oedipus, accompanied by his actor could not have played the parts of Oedipus and
daughters, went to a certain rocky place, performed a Theseus; nor could the same actor play Antigone and
ritual bathing, and bade farewell to his daughters. After Ismene. It appears that a fourth actor was needed for
his daughters mourned for him, a mysterious voice this play.
called Oedipus to hurry to meet the end of his life. As can most other surviving Sophoclean plays, Oedi-
Hearing this, Oedipus called for Theseus and made pus at Colonus can be studied with Blundell’s “helping
him promise to protect his daughters. Oedipus then friends and harming enemies” method. After Oedipus’
sent his daughters out and allowed only Theseus to exile from Thebes, most of his loved ones (philoi), with
remain. The messenger helped escort Oedipus’ daugh- the exception of his daughters, treat him as an enemy.
ters away, but when he looked back, he saw only The- After Oedipus’ sons, desirous of kingship, discover
seus, who was shading his eyes from something he had that they need Oedipus’ help to gain mastery over
seen. Thebes, they try to reestablish their bond of friendship
After the messenger’s speech, Antigone and Ismene (philia) with him. In this sense, Oedipus at Colonus
enter. Antigone expresses astonishment at her father’s recalls Sophocles’ Philoctetes, produced in 409, but
vanishing and Ismene wonders what fate has in store written within about five years of the Oedipus at
for her. Antigone then wants to go to the place where Colonus. In both plays, friends turned enemies try to
her father vanished and to die there herself, but Ismene reestablish their bond of philia with an exiled person
dissuades her. As Antigone wonders where they will go for the purpose of gaining victory in war. In
next, Theseus enters. Antigone asks to see her father’s Philoctetes’ case, however, he will eventually leave his
tomb; Theseus tells her that Oedipus, before he died, place of exile and help the Greeks who exiled him win
commanded him not to allow anyone to approach his the Trojan War. Oedipus, however, will not return to
 OEDIPUS AT COLONUS 381

help either of his sons. Oedipus establishes a bond of the failure of speech of Oedipus’ sons. After his fall
friendship not with his son, but with the stranger The- from power, they did nothing in word or deed to help
seus, and the stranger and his land will receive Oedi- him. Although Oedipus had no political power, he did
pus’ blessing. retain the power of speech, and with his curse he
Another major focal point of Oedipus at Colonus is doomed the brothers to destroy one another.
the city: In Oedipus Tyrannos, Oedipus discovers that to The chorus, upon hearing the exchange between
save his city he has to leave it; In Oedipus at Colonus, Oedipus and Ismene, is further moved to pity and now
Oedipus learns that to save himself he must find a new move to integrate him in their society. They explain the
city. Unfortunately, because of Oedipus’ past, no city in ritual he must perform for the Eumenides and detail
Greece will grant him asylum. Oedipus is a man with- the words that he must speak in prayer to them. Oedi-
out a city, as he himself states at line 207. The oracle pus is delighted to hear these words, but when prepa-
that declares that victory for the brothers depends on rations for this ritual are being made, the chorus
Oedipus causes this man without a city suddenly to be compel Oedipus to recount the horrors of his life.
courted by representatives from the city that drove him The arrival of Theseus ends Oedipus’ painful speech
out. One representative defends the city, the other and the fact that Theseus himself was an exile once
attacks the city, and victory will go to the side that creates a bond between the two men. Accordingly,
gains the favor of the man without a city. Oedipus will Oedipus feels he needs to offer little explanation and
side with neither of his sons and adopts a new city, quickly explains what he wants from Theseus. The-
Athens. The city that in drama had granted asylum to seus’ words in response prompt Oedipus to declare
the child killer MEDEA in EURIPIDES’ MEDEA and the that he has no need for Theseus to take an oath to sup-
child killer HERACLES in Euripides’ HERACLES, will now port his promise (650) and Theseus indicates that an
become the final resting place for the man who killed oath would carry no less force than his word (651).
his father and married his mother. Theseus’ word is put to the test when Creon arrives.
In Oedipus’ search for a city that will grant him a Theseus’ revelation that he, like Oedipus, was an exile
place to rest, he moves from space that is uncivilized to created a bond between the two men. Creon tries to
space that is civilized, as Segal describes it. One facet establish a bond between with Oedipus by noting that
of civilized society is ability to communicate with one’s he (like Oedipus) is an old man, that he is related to
fellow human beings, and Segal shows that logos, Oedipus, and that he pities Oedipus (732–47). Creon
speech, is one of the major concerns in the play. Oedi- declares that he was sent to persuade Oedipus to
pus’ crimes, however, make him reluctant to speak. return to Thebes (736). Creon’s rhetorical strategy fails,
When confronted by the chorus about his identity, however, and Oedipus sees the hard thoughts that
Oedipus does not want to reveal it. After he does Creon has wrapped in soft words (774). Creon’s
speak, the men are horrified and demand that he leave. hypocrisy is revealed when he exchanges soft words
The desperate pleas of Antigone and Oedipus, how- for harsh actions as he takes Ismene and Antigone
ever, move the chorus to pity, and they refer the mat- hostage. Fortunately, Theseus is true to his word and
ter to their king. Creon has failed in his mission.
As Oedipus’ words to the chorus reveal his horrific Although the aged Creon’s words fail to move Oedi-
identity, his words on the arrival of Ismene show the pus, the young Polyneices’ words repel Oedipus. Even
love of this old blind man for his daughter. The daugh- before Polyneices meets his father, Oedipus does not
ter Ismene’s words, however, inform Oedipus of the want to hear what his son will say (1173–74).
quarrel between his sons and the words of the gods Antigones’ words, however, persuade Oedipus to listen
regarding Oedipus, whose eagerness to hear Ismene to what Polyneices has to say. As is Oedipus (and as was
reveal the oracle recalls the eagerness with which the Theseus at one point in his life), Polyneices points out
chorus wanted to know Oedipus’ identity. The assis- that he is an exile. This attempt to create a bond with
tance that Ismene’s words give Oedipus contrasts with Oedipus does not succeed as it had in Theseus’ case.
382 OEDIPUS TYRANNOS

Initially, Oedipus remains silent and turns away from SPHINX, Athens had been instrumental in repelling the
his son despite the young man’s pleas to say something Persian invasions during the first quarter of the cen-
(1271–72). Antigone, however, urges Polyneices to tury. As had Oedipus, Sophocles and his fellow Athe-
explain his sufferings. Polyneices’ detailed remarks on nians had survived a plague that ravaged their town.
his quarrel with his brother do not move Oedipus, who They had witnessed war, exile, and political upheaval.
reiterates his earlier curse. These are the last words from Sophocles died before Athens finally surrendered to
Oedipus that his son will ever hear and words that Sparta in 404. As Oedipus would not have to witness
Polyneices will not dare to repeat to his Argive allies, the suffering of his daughter, Antigone, after the death
lest they turn back from their march upon Thebes of Polyneices, Sophocles would not have to witness the
(1402–4). fall of his beloved city.
Unmoved by the deceptive words of aged Creon and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the pitiful words of young Polyneices, Oedipus at the
Bernidaki-Aldous, E. A. Blindness in a Culture of Light: Espe-
play’s end responds to divine sounds from the skies. cially the Case of Oedipus at Colonus of Sophocles. New
The gods themselves are calling to him (1511), Oedi- York: Lang, 1990.
pus tells Theseus. Unlike Creon and Polyneices, who Blundell, M. W. Helping Friends and Harming Enemies: A
were unable to persuade Oedipus, Oedipus persuades Study in Sophocles and Greek Ethics. Cambridge: Cam-
Theseus and Theseus urges him to speak (1516–17). bridge University Press, 1989, 226–59.
Oedipus does speak, telling Theseus things that must Edmunds, L. Theatrical Space and Historical Place in Sopho-
remain unspoken afterward. Oedipus will not even cles’ Oedipus at Colonus. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Little-
allow Ismene or Antigone to know the mysteries that field, 1996.
he would reveal to Theseus. In Oedipus’ farewell to his Minadeo, R. “The Thematic Design of the Oedipus at
Colonus,” Studi Italiani di Filologia Classica 8 (1990): 60–85.
daughters, he does, however, speak one word to them
Segal, C. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sopho-
that will wipe away all the sufferings that they have
cles. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981,
experienced: love (1617). After expressing his love for 362–408.
his daughters, Oedipus again responds to a mysterious Travis, R. M. Allegory and the Tragic Chorus in Sophocles’
divine sound. This time, Oedipus does not need to Oedipus at Colonus. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield,
interpret the sound of thunder, for the voice is intelli- 1999.
gible to all. Oedipus sends his daughters away, and his
final moments are spent in prayer in the presence of OEDIPUS TYRANNOS SOPHOCLES (CA.
Theseus, the last person to hear Oedipus’ words. 430–425 B.C.E.) The date of the play is not certain
Antigone wants to see her father’s tomb, but Theseus but is thought to be between the years 430 and 425
honors the words of his pledge to her father and does B.C.E. the plague that affects THEBES in SOPHOCLES’ play
not allow her to see it. Oedipus, the man who had is often thought to be the plague in ATHENS that
committed unspeakable acts of horror, leaves the occurred soon after the beginning of the PELOPON-
world after instructing Theseus with words that must NESIAN WAR in 431. Sophocles’ play is set at Thebes at
not be spoken. the palace of OEDIPUS and JOCASTA. As the play opens,
Oedipus at Colonus holds a special place in the his- Oedipus hears the pleas about the plague of the The-
tory of classical drama, because it is the last surviving ban elders, who compose the chorus. Oedipus prom-
play written by one of the three great Athenian trage- ises to do everything he can to help his people and
dians (AESCHYLUS, Sophocles, and EURIPIDES). As was notes that he has sent his brother-in-law, Creon, to the
the aged Oedipus, Sophocles himself was an old man Delphic oracle to learn how to remedy the plague.
(more than 80 years of age) when he wrote Oedipus at Soon CREON returns from Delphi and informs Oedi-
Colonus. As had Oedipus and Sophocles, Athens itself pus that Thebes suffers from the plague because the
had undergone many trials and tribulations during the killer of their previous king, Laius, remains within the
previous 80 years. As Oedipus had defeated the town’s borders. The plague can only be remedied if
 OEDIPUS TYRANNOS 383

Laius’ killer is driven from the town. Oedipus promises his son to others to leave on a hillside to die. Accord-
to do all in his power to discover Laius’ killer. After ingly, Jocasta tells Oedipus that he should pay no
Creon and Oedipus exit to begin the investigation, the attention to such oracles because they have turned out
chorus sing an ode in which they pray to the gods for to be false. When Oedipus hears Jocasta mention the
guidance in their present crisis. crossroads, however, and describe Laius’ appearance,
After the choral ode, Oedipus returns and calls he begins to suspect that he has unwittingly cursed
upon the people of Thebes to reveal any information himself. When Oedipus asked whether any of Laius’
they have about Laius’ killer. He even invokes a curse traveling companions survived the assault, Jocasta says
against the murderer (that the killer will live out his life that one man did. Oedipus desires to interrogate this
in misery and suffer a miserable doom). The chorus man, and Jocasta says that he can be recalled.
swear that they have no information about Laius’ killer When Jocasta probes Oedipus further about what is
and that they did not kill the king. They urge Laius to troubling him, Oedipus recalls growing up in Corinth
summon the prophet TIRESIAS for consultation. Oedi- at the home of their king and queen, Polybus and
pus has anticipated this and soon Tiresias arrives. Merope. Once, during a dinner, a drunken fellow sug-
Oedipus asks Tiresias for help in the present crisis, but gested to Oedipus that he was not the child of Polybus
Tiresias, who knows that Oedipus killed Laius, does and Merope. When the king and queen denied such a
not want to reveal what he knows. Oedipus, angered charge, Oedipus went to DELPHI to consult the oracle.
by Tiresias’ reluctance, eventually prods him to make a The oracle told Oedipus that he would have sexual
statement. When Oedipus hears himself accused as relations with his mother and kill his father. To avoid
Laius’ killer, he is outraged and accuses Tiresias and this oracle, Oedipus decided to leave Corinth. As he
Creon of plotting against him. An angry Tiresias also traveled, Oedipus recalls, he arrived at a place where
declares that Oedipus has married his mother and pre- three roads meet and had a violent encounter with an
dicts that he will become a blind and miserable exile. old man and his traveling party. Oedipus states that he
After this, both Oedipus and Tiresias exit. Next, the killed the old man and those with him and wonders
chorus sing an ode in which they wonder who has fearfully whether he could have killed Laius and then
killed Laius. They wonder at Tiresias’ words and state married his widow. The chorus urge Oedipus to wait
that they cannot deny or approve of what he said. As until he has heard from the slave before he reaches any
their ode concludes, they remain faithful to Oedipus final conclusions. Oedipus agrees and declares that he
and demand solid proof if they are to believe the wants to question the man. Jocasta mentioned that sev-
charges leveled against their king. eral men attacked Laius, and Oedipus wants to verify
After the choral ode, Creon enters in response to the accuracy of this report. Jocasta confidently declares
Oedipus’ accusation. Oedipus soon enters and repeats the truth of the servant’s story and says she will send
his charge against Creon, who tries to defend himself. for the man.
Eventually, Jocasta emerges from the palace and chas- After Oedipus and Jocasta depart, the chorus pray
tises both men for airing their private griefs while the that they will always live in accordance with the laws
city is in crisis. Creon takes an oath and even curses of the gods; insolent people eventually are ruined. The
himself if he is guilty of Oedipus’ accusation. Both chorus hope that those who are impious and prosper
Jocasta and the chorus urge Oedipus to accept Creon’s unjustly receive a terrible doom. Finally, however, the
oath and he does so reluctantly. chorus express some doubt about the oracles concern-
After Creon exits, Jocasta remains with Oedipus and ing Laius.
questions him about why he was so angry. Oedipus After the choral ode, Jocasta, concerned for Oedipus,
relates to her Tiresias’ declaration that he killed Laius. enters with an offering for the gods, especially APOLLO. As
Jocasta recalls a prophecy that Laius would be killed by she stands there, a messenger from Corinth enters and
his son but says Laius died at the hands of foreign rob- informs her that the man Oedipus thinks is his father,
bers at a place where three roads meet and that he gave Polybus, has died and that the people of Corinth want
384 OEDIPUS TYRANNOS

Oedipus to be their king. When Oedipus is informed of Soon, the blinded Oedipus appears. A horrified
this, he is initially relieved and scoffs at the validity of the chorus gaze on their fallen king as he gropes to find his
oracles concerning him. Oedipus also tells the messenger way. The chorus and Oedipus lament his fate and
that he fears a prophecy concerning the woman he express the wish that Oedipus had died in infancy. The
believes is his mother, Merope of Corinth. The messen- chorus state that he would have been better off dead
ger then informs Oedipus that Polybus was not Oedipus’ than living and blind, but Oedipus says that when he
father and that he, the messenger, gave Oedipus to Poly- reached the underworld he would not want to see
bus when Oedipus was a small child. The messenger Laius or Jocasta, so he blinded himself. Because he
states that once he was a shepherd in Polybus’ service remains alive, he also does not want to be able to see
and that he received Oedipus from another shepherd his children (who are also his brothers and sisters), his
who served Laius. When Oedipus asks whether anyone city, or the city’s people.
knows the shepherd in question, the chorus suggest that As Oedipus begs the chorus to cast him from their
he may be the same servant whom Oedipus summoned land, Creon, who will take Oedipus’ place as king,
earlier. Jocasta, on being questioned about this, begs enters and orders a servant to take Oedipus inside the
Oedipus not to investigate the matter further. Hearing palace so that the Sun will not be defiled by gazing on
that Oedipus is determined to continue to investigate, Oedipus. Oedipus begs Creon to cast him from Thebes
Jocasta exits into the palace. The chorus worry that and to bury Jocasta; he begs Creon to allow him to be
Jocasta’s departure heralds some trouble, but Oedipus is with his daughters for a few moments, and the young
determined to learn the secret of his birth. In Oedipus’ women, ANTIGONE and Ismene, soon arrive from the
presence, the chorus then sing a brief ode in which they palace and weep over their father. Oedipus expresses
wonder who Oedipus’ parents were. sorrow for his daughters because he expects no one
After the choral ode, the aged herdsman, earlier will marry them, given their father’s crimes. After this,
summoned by Oedipus, arrives. Both the messenger Creon orders Oedipus to let go of his daughters and
and the chorus confirm that this is the man for whom return the palace. After Creon, Oedipus, and his
Oedipus was looking. After considerable prodding and daughters return to the palace, the chorus call upon
even threats of physical violence, Oedipus compels the the people of Thebes to gaze on Oedipus, who once
herdsman to reveal that he received a child from was looked on with envy and is now looked on with
Jocasta with instructions to take him away to die. The horror.
herdman also relates that in pity for the child he gave
it to another man, the messenger. Hearing this, a hor- COMMENTARY
rified Oedipus realizes that Apollo’s oracles have been Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannos is probably the most
fulfilled and exits into the palace. After Oedipus’ famous classical drama. Some of its fame is due to the
departure, the chorus lament Oedipus’ fate. They recall opinion of ARISTOTLE in the Poetics. This work, written
his success in solving the SPHINX’s riddle and receiving about 100 years after the staging of Sophocles’ play,
the highest honors in Thebes and note that now none occasionally characterizes the play as a model for the
has a worse fate than Oedipus. way that a TRAGEDY should be constructed. At
As the chorus conclude their lamentation for Oedi- 1453b3–7, Aristotle says a play’s plot “should be so
pus, another messenger arrives from the palace and constructed that even without seeing the play anyone
informs the chorus that Jocasta has hanged herself with hearing of the incidents happening thrills with fear and
a rope in her bedroom. The messenger also reports that pity as a result of what occurs.” Aristotle goes on to cite
an enraged Oedipus had taken up a sword and was the story of Oedipus as one capable of generating such
threatening to kill Jocasta, but by the time he broke fear and pity in the audience. A dozen lines later Aris-
through the doors to her bedroom, Jocasta was already totle praises Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannos as a skillfully
dead. Oedipus then took the golden brooches from constructed play because Oedipus commits his crimes
Jocasta’s gown and plunged them into his eyes. unwittingly and discovers the horrifying truth later. At
 OEDIPUS TYRANNOS 385

1454b6–10, Aristotle says that in constructing a play fate or destiny, and that Oedipus is merely trapped in
anything that is inexplicable should remain outside the the inescapable clutches of his fate. Such interpreters
play, as in Oedipus Tyrannos. At 1455a16–18, Aristotle seem to feel that no matter what Oedipus does, he can-
also considers Sophocles’ handling of Oedipus’ learn- not avoid killing his father and marrying his mother.
ing of the truth about his crimes the best way to deal Oedipus is a mere plaything of the gods. Other mod-
with discovery (see ANAGNORISIS). ern scholars, however, have found this answer unsatis-
Aristotle’s most controversial remark about Oedi- fying and simplistic.
pus, however, occurs at Poetics 1453a7–12, in which In a famous essay on the play, E. R. Dodds wrote
Aristotle says the best sort of tragedy involves a person, that “what fascinates us [about Oedipus Tyrannos] is the
such as Oedipus or THYESTES, who falls from good to spectacle of a man freely choosing, from the highest
bad fortune, not because of a vice or wickedness, but motives, a series of actions which lead to his own
because of a major error (megale hamartia). Unfortu- ruin.” For Dodds and others, Sophocles’ play examines
nately, Aristotle does not elaborate on what he means a person who must deal with appearance versus reality,
by HAMARTIA, and the problem is made more complex a person who is face to face with the sort of man that
because the play about Thyestes that Aristotle has in God, in this case Apollo, has said he would be. The
mind has not survived. Early critics of Sophocles’ play central question for Sophocles, in this line of interpre-
thought that Aristotle’s hamartia referred to a moral tation, becomes, What is a man? or How does one
fault (the so-called tragic flaw) in Oedipus, such as his define a human being? Oedipus had solved the riddle
pride, overconfidence, or bad temper. In recent years, of the Sphinx with the answer “Man.” In Sophocles’
however, critics have understood Aristotle’s hamartia as play, Oedipus learns that a human being’s true defini-
an error committed in ignorance. From the beginning tion lies in the divine view of that person, not in his or
of the play, Oedipus is a good man in the eyes of the his peers’ definition of him. In the play, the audience
chorus, who regard him as the savior of their city. view the character of Oedipus from at least three dif-
Thus, Dodds writes, “The hamartia of Oedipus did not ferent perspectives: Oedipus’ view of himself, his peers’
lie in losing his temper with Tiresias: it lay quite sim- (Creon, Jocasta, and the people of Thebes) view of
ply in parricide and incest—a megale hamartia indeed, him, and the divine view of him, as represented by
the greatest a man can commit.” Apollo and Tiresias. For example, Oedipus and his
Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannos has also received con- peers think that he was born at Corinth, and the gods
siderable attention as a result of SIGMUND FREUD’s inter- know that Oedipus was born at Thebes. At the begin-
est in the play. In his Interpretation of Dreams, Freud ning of the play, Oedipus and his peers do not think
wrote that Oedipus’ fate captivates the male audience, that he killed Laius, but the gods know that he did.
who secretly feel that Oedipus’ fate might have been Oedipus regards himself as the husband of Jocasta, but
their own fate, namely, that every man subconsciously the gods know that he is also her son. Oedipus believes
desires to take his father’s place and have sexual rela- that he sees himself and his situation clearly, but Tire-
tions with his mother. Freud’s theory was prompted by sias, God’s representative, declares that Oedipus does
Jocasta’ remark to Oedipus at lines 980–82 that he not see the calamity in which he lives.
should not worry about marrying his mother because In the course of the play, Oedipus relentlessly pur-
many men, in their dreams, have had sexual relations sues the question of who killed Laius but discovers that
with their mother. Nothing in Sophocles’ play, how- the truth of that mystery also contains the truth about
ever, gives any hint that Oedipus wanted to kill his who he is in the eyes of God. Throughout the play, peo-
father or marry his mother. The drama gives every ple around Oedipus attempt to dissuade him from
indication that Oedipus was trying to avoid these very seeking this truth. First, Tiresias resists Oedipus’ probe
events. into the matter of Laius’ death. Later in the play, Jocasta
Modern students of the play have often been taught begs him not to investigate further the question of his
that Sophocles’ play shows the human struggle against birth (1056–68). Next, the herdsman, interrogated by
386 OENEUS

Oedipus, begs the king not to ask him more questions lone surviving fragment (14 Snell) contains a rather
about the child that he was given. Despite the warn- erotic description of Oeneus’ gazing at some women
ings, Oedipus continues to seek the truth about ques- (perhaps worshipers of Dionysus) who are asleep in
tions that people have sought and will always seek: the moonlight. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
Who am I? Unlike most people, however, Oedipus dis- 1.8.1; Aristophanes, Acharnians 418]
covers in his own lifetime the truth about himself in
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the eyes of God. This is a self that Oedipus cannot bear
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
to see. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Dawe, R. D. Oedipus Rex. Cambridge: Cambridge University Methuen, 1967.
Press, 1982.
Dodds, E. R. “On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex.” In OENOMAUS The son of Alxion (or ARES) and
Oxford Readings in Greek Tragedy. Edited by E. Segal. Harpina (or Asterope), Oenomaus, king of PISA, was
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983, 177–88. the husband of Evarete (or Asterope) and the father of
Knox, B. Oedipus at Thebes: Sophocles’ Tragic Hero and His Leucippus and HIPPODAMEIA. Oenomaus tried to pre-
Time. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1957. vent his daughter from marrying, either because he
Segal, C. Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and the Limits of was in love with her or because a prophecy told him
Knowledge. 2d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. that her husband would kill him. Accordingly, Oeno-
Vernant, J. P. “Ambiguity and Reversal: On the Enigmatic maus challenged to a chariot race any man who pre-
Structure of Oedipus Rex.” In Oxford Readings in Greek
sented himself as a suitor for Hippodameia. Defeating
Tragedy. Edited by E. Segal. Oxford: Oxford University
Oenomaus was difficult because Ares had given him a
Press, 1983, 177–88.
team of divine horses, and because he also made the
suitor take Hippodameia in the chariot with him dur-
OENEUS The son of Porthaon (or Portheus) and ing the race. The penalty for losing to Oenomaus was
Euryte, Oeneus, the husband of ALTHAEA, was the king death. Indeed, Oenomaus killed several suitors and
of CALYDON. By Althaea Oeneus became the father of then nailed the heads to his house. Oenomaus’ reign of
four sons, Clymenus, Thyreus, Toxeus (whom Oeneus terror ended when PELOPS, with the help of Oenomaus’
himself killed because he jumped over a certain ditch), charioteer, MYRTILUS, defeated him. Oenomaus also
and MELEAGER (although some say his father was ARES). died during the race as a result of a fall from the char-
Oeneus also had two daughters, Gorge and DEIANEIRA. iot. Sophocles wrote an Oenomaus that appears to have
When Oeneus forgot to sacrifice to ARTEMIS, the treated Oenomaus’ chariot race against Pelops. To
angered goddess sent a boar to ravage his land. Euripides an Oenomaus is also attributed, but the frag-
Oeneus’ son Meleager not only killed the boar, but ments that survive (571–77 Nauck) provide little
killed his maternal uncles, Toxeus and Plexippus, information about the plot. The Greek comic poets
when they tried to prevent him from awarding the Antiphanes and Eubulus also wrote plays entitled
boar’s hide to ATALANTA. In retaliation, Meleager’s Oenomaus (or Pelops); the single brief fragment that
mother, Althaea, killed him and then committed sui- survives from each play provides no indication of their
cide. After Althaea’s death, Oeneus married Periboea, content. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome
and by her he fathered TYDEUS. 2.4–7; Hyginus, Fables 84]
Although Oeneus does not appear as a character in
BIBLIOGRAPHY
any extant dramas, among the Greek dramatists Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Sophocles may have written an Oeneus, but evidence Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
for such a drama is not firm. Euripides staged an Teubner, 1884.
Oeneus that was produced by 426 B.C.E. at the latest. Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
The tragedian Chaeremon also wrote an Oeneus, whose Harvard University Press, 1996.
 OMPHALE 387

Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, OLYMPUS (1) A musician, perhaps legendary,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. from PHRYGIA. According to tradition, Olympus
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
founded “Greek flute music, and to him were attrib-
Press of America, 1984.
uted many famous melodies of great antiquity” (Som-
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Methuen, 1967.
merstein). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 8,
Lysistrata 1131; pseudo-Plutarch, Moralia 1133d,
1135b]
OENOPS A Theban, who was the father of HYPER-
BIUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES:Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes BIBLIOGRAPHY
504] Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 145.
OEONICHUS A musician or poet mentioned by
ARISTOPHANES at KNIGHTS 1287. He is otherwise OLYMPUS (2) Located in northeastern Greece,
unknown. Olympus is the country’s tallest mountain and was
considered the home of the gods.
OETA A mountain in northeastern Greece, Oeta
was the site of HERACLES’ death. [ANCIENT SOURCES: OMEN An occurrence thought to indicate some-
Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus; Sophocles, Trachinian thing that will happen in the future or reveal the nature
Women] of something or someone. The activities of certain ani-
mals (especially birds and snakes) were often consid-
OGYGIAN According to legend, the founder of ered omens. In EURIPIDES’ ELECTRA, a deformity in a
THEBES was named Ogyges, and so the Thebans are sacrificial animal serves as an omen of impending dan-
sometimes called Ogygians. DIONYSUS, whose mother, ger to AEGISTHUS. Dreams, words spoken at the wrong
SEMELE, was from Thebes, is also sometimes called moment, and even sneezes were also considered
Ogygian. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Oedipus 437, 589] omens. In AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS BOUND, PROMETHEUS
claims that he taught humans how to interpret omens.
OILEUS The father of AJAX, who committed sui- BIBLIOGRAPHY
cide during the Trojan War. At MEDEA 662, SENECA uses Peradotto, J. J. “Cledonomancy in the Oresteia,” American
the name Oileus to refer to Ajax himself. Journal of Philology 90 (1969): 1–21.

OLD COMEDY See COMEDY. OMPHALE After HERACLES killed IPHITUS, to

atone for his crime Heracles was sold as a slave to the
OLENUS A town in northwestern Greece. The Lydian queen, Omphale (whose name means “navel”).
Olenian goat, better known as Amalthea, was born in During Heracles’ servitude to Omphale, the queen
this area but was later taken to CRETE, where it suckled often dressed in his lion skin and carried his club,
ZEUS when he was an infant. The goat’s image was later while Heracles was made to wear the queen’s clothing
set in the sky as the constellation Capricorn. [ANCIENT or that of one of the queen’s subjects, whom the Greeks
SOURCES: Seneca, Medea 313, Oedipus 283, Trojan regarded as barbarians. The Greek playwright Achaeus
Women 826] wrote a SATYR PLAY entitled Omphale, whose few brief
fragments give no indication of the plot (fragments
OLYMPIA A town in southwestern Greece, 32–25 Snell). Two Greek comic poets, Antiphanes
Olympia was the home of the famous Olympic Games. (fragments 176–78 Kock) and the younger Carcinus
Olympia was also a major center for the worship of (fragments 4–5 Kock), wrote plays entitled Omphale,
ZEUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 1131, but little if anything about their plots can be estab-
Wasps 1382, 1387; Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos 901] lished. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Furens
388 ONCA

465–71, Hercules Oetaeus 371, 573, Hippolytus 317; Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Sophocles, Trachinian Women 252, 356] Teubner, 1880.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: ORACLE In ancient times, a person who wanted
Teubner, 1884. to inquire into the future consulted an oracle. The
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, most famous oracles were those of APOLLO at DELPHI
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. and ZEUS at DODONA. The oracle of Trophonius, which
was not far away from Delphi, is also mentioned occa-
ONCA A title given to the goddess ATHENA. sionally in Greek drama (see especially EURIPIDES’ ION).
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 164, Several Greek tragedies involve the consequences of
487, 501] inquiries to oracles. In drama, oracles were often ques-
tioned about the possibility of having children. In
OPHELTES The infant son of LYCURGUS and Euripides’ MEDEA, we hear that AEGEUS has traveled to
EURYDICE of NEMEA. He died of a snakebite while under Delphi to ask about having children, as does XUTHUS,
the care of HYPSIPYLE, who was blamed for his death. in Euripides’ Ion. Oedipus’ question to the Delphic ora-
BIBLIOGRAPHY cle about his real parents led him to avoid his foster
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London: parents and encounter his real parents. ORESTES kills
Heinemann, 1970, 77–109. his mother, CLYTEMNESTRA, in obedience to the Delphic
oracle.
OPHION When CADMUS first arrived at the town
of THEBES, he planted the ground with the teeth of ORCHESTRA Named from a Greek word mean-
ARES’ dragon. A crop of men sprang up; one of these ing “place for dancing,” the orchestra in a Greek the-
men was Ophion. The Thebans are sometimes referred ater is a flat area (usually circular), in which the chorus
to as Ophion’s race. The death of the Theban PENTHEUS and actors move and dance. The size of an orchestra
is once referred to as “Ophion’s slaughter.” [ANCIENT would vary from theater to theater. The orchestra in
SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Furens 268, Oedipus 485]
the theater of Dionysus in Athens was about 85 feet in
diameter, the theater at Aigai was about 93 feet in
OPHIUCHUS Also known as Anguitenens, diameter, and the theater at Megalopolis was almost
Anguifer, or Serpentarius, this constellation represents 100 feet in diameter. In a Roman theater, the orchestra
a man who is grasping a serpent near its head. Origi-
was semicircular and may not have been used by the
nally, Ophiuchus was a man named Phorbas whom the
performers after the days of PLAUTUS because Roman
people of Rhodes called in to rid their island of snakes.
senators were allowed to sit in this space. [ANCIENT
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Diodorus Siculus, 5.54; Seneca,
SOURCES: Aristotle, Problems 901b30; Heniochus, frag-
Medea 693]
ment 5.6–8 Kock; Juvenal, 7.47; Suetonius, Caesar 39,
Augustus 35, 44, Claudius 21; Vitruvius, 5, 6]
OPS See RHEA.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
OPUNTIUS A man mocked in Greek COMEDY as Gebhard, E. R. “The Form of the Orchestra in the Early
having one eye and “a large, beaky nose” (Dunbar). Greek Theater,” Hesperia 43 (1974): 428–40.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 152, 1294; Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Eupolis, fragment 282 Kock] Teubner, 1884.
Ley, G., and M. Ewans. “The Orchestra as Acting Area in
BIBLIOGRAPHY Greek Tragedy,” Ramus 14 (1985): 75–84.
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer- Tanner, R. G. “Problems in Plautus,” Proceedings of the Cam-
sity Press, 1995, 641. bridge Philological Society 15 (1969): 95–105.
 ORESTEIA 389

West, M. L. “Heniochus and the Shape of the Athenian whether Clytemnestra has jumped to conclusions
Orchestra,” Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 130 about the end of the war.
(2000): 12. The chorus’ doubts, however, are put to rest as a
Wiles, D. Tragedy in Athens: Performance Space and Theatrical messenger enters and announces the Greek victory.
Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997,
Clytemnestra reproaches the chorus for not believing
44–52.
her earlier. When the chorus question the messenger
about the fate of Menelaus, the messenger tells them
ORCUS See HADES; UNDERWORLD. that a storm struck his ship and that he has not
returned home. After the messenger’s departure, the
ORESTEIA AESCHYLUS (458 B.C.E.) The chorus sing an ode about Helen, whom they compare
Oresteia was originally a TETRALOGY that was comprised to a lion cub raised in captivity by human beings.
of AGAMEMNON, LIBATION BEARERS, EUMENIDES, and the Although cute and harmless at first, eventually the cub
SATYR PLAY Proteus. The three tragedies that begin this grew up and destroyed even those who had raised it.
tetralogy constitute the only TRILOGY that survives from In the same way, Helen caused the destruction of both
classical drama. Greeks and Trojans. The chorus also warn about the
sorrow that riches and pride ultimately produce.
AGAMEMNON Righteousness, they declare, thrives in the houses of
The first play of the tetralogy, Agamemnon, deals with simple folk.
the return of the title character after the Trojan War. After the choral ode, Agamemnon, riding in a char-
The play’s setting is the town of ARGOS, and the action iot, enters with his war captive, CASSANDRA, who is a
occurs at the palace of King AGAMEMNON. The play prophet of the god APOLLO. After the chorus offer him
opens with a watchman looking for a signal fire that their greeting, Agamemnon greets his native land and
will indicate that the Greeks have captured TROY. Upon divinities, recalls the Greeks’ destruction of Troy, and
seeing this signal, the watchman rejoices, but he ends declares that he will now take steps to heal whatever ills
his speech with an allusion to trouble within the house. may plague Argos. Next, Clytemnestra greets Agamem-
After the watchman’s departure, the chorus of eld- non. She claims she spent many sleepless nights worry-
erly male Argives enter. In a lengthy and symbolically ing about him while he was at war. She also informs
complex song, they recall the abduction of HELEN by Agamemnon that their son, ORESTES, is staying with
ALEXANDER (Paris) and the war waged by AGAMEMNON, Strophius of PHOCIS, a friend of the family’s.
MENELAUS, and the Greeks to recover her. The chorus As she ends her speech, Clytemnestra urges
also sing how CALCHAS prophesied that to obtain fair Agamemnon to step down from his chariot onto certain
winds for sailing to TROY, Agamemnon had to sacrifice red tapestries that she has prepared. Agamemnon fears
IPHIGENIA to the goddess ARTEMIS. During the chorus’ what the people will think about this behavior and
song, Agamemnon’s wife, CLYTEMNESTRA, has entered. balks at accepting an honor he considers reserved for
The chorus conclude their speech by asking the gods, but he eventually is persuaded. After
Clytemnestra what news she has heard about the war. Agamemnon, accompanied by Clytemnestra, enters the
When Clytemnestra informs the men that the Greeks house, the chorus express their amazement at seeing
have captured Troy, they are skeptical at first, but they Agamemnon home again. The chorus, however, worry
seem more convinced when Clytemnestra describes because they fear that misfortune will soon occur. After
the elaborate torch relay that she had orchestrated to the chorus’ speech, Clytemnestra arrives from the
carry her news of this event. The chorus then sing an palace and urges Cassandra to enter the house. Cassan-
ode of thanksgiving to ZEUS for the victory over dra, however, knowing that death awaits her inside the
Alexander and the Trojans. They lament the extensive palace, refuses. Clytemnestra, angry with Cassandra,
loss of Greek life—all for the sake of a single woman; returns to the house, and Cassandra remains outside
the chorus also express some lingering doubt about the palace for some time. In the presence of the chorus,
390 ORESTEIA

Cassandra predicts Agamemnon’s and her deaths at the sees the lock of hair and the footprints near her father’s
hands of Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus. grave, she suspects that they are those of her brother,
Eventually, Cassandra also enters the house and her Orestes.
predictions are fulfilled. The chorus, who remain out- After Orestes and Pylades emerge from their hiding
side, hear the cries of anguish within, but before they place, Electra is skeptical at first that Orestes is her
can settle on a course of action Clytemnestra emerges brother, but then he shows her weaving that she her-
from the house, with the bodies of her husband and self made as a young girl. After Electra recognizes
Cassandra. Clytemnestra justifies her actions by saying Orestes, Orestes prays to Zeus for guidance. He also
that she has retaliated against Agamemnon for the tells Electra and the chorus about APOLLO’s oracle,
killing of their daughter, Iphigenia. Soon, Clytemnes- which directed him to kill his mother or otherwise suf-
tra’s lover, Aegisthus, emerges from the house and fer great torment and even death. Next, the chorus,
explains his role in the murders. Aegisthus recalls that Orestes, and Electra take turns singing prayers to the
Agamemnon’s father, ATREUS, fed his father, THYESTES, gods (especially Zeus) and the spirit of Agamemnon.
his own children at a banquet. This horrific action led They mourn Agamemnon and pray for guidance and
Thyestes, who grew up in exile from Argos, to plot strength in the vengeance that will be taken against
revenge on Agamemnon. As the play closes, Aegisthus Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.
and his attendants prepare to battle the chorus. After their prayers, Orestes wonders why
Clytemnestra, however, intervenes and further vio- Clytemnestra sent the libations to Agamemnon’s grave.
lence is averted. The chorus tell him that Clytemnestra had a terrifying
dream: that she had given birth to a snake, that the
LIBATION BEARERS (Greek: CHOEPHOROI) snake suckled her breast, and that it drew out milk
The second play in the Oresteia trilogy, Libation Bearers, intermingled with blood. Clytemnestra, thinking that
like Agamemnon, is set in ARGOS. The play opens near Agamemnon’s angry spirit had caused the dream, sent
the grave of Agamemnon and concludes before drink offerings to Agamemnon’s grave to appease his
Agamemnon’s palace, which is now occupied by spirit. Orestes realizes that he is the snake in the dream
Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. While Clytemnestra and and that he will kill Clytemnestra.
Aegisthus were plotting the murder of Agamemnon, Next, Orestes announces his plot to enter the house
Agamemnon and Clytemnestra’s son, ORESTES, was of Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. Orestes knows that
sent to live with a kinsman, Strophius of Phocis. After Aegisthus and Clytemnestra will be on guard against
Agamemnon’s murder, Orestes returns to Argos with him, so he and Pylades will enter the palace disguised
the son of Strophius, PYLADES. As Libation Bearers as strangers, imitating the dialect of Phocis. They will
opens, the audience see Orestes and Pylades at try to gain entry to the palace and, once inside, will
Agamemnon’s grave. Orestes places a lock of his hair make their attack. Orestes tells Electra to return to the
on the grave as an offering to his father. When Orestes palace and keep silent about the plot. After Orestes,
and Pylades see a group of female mourners who are Pylades, and Electra exit, the chorus sing an ode in
approaching, carrying liquid offerings from which they recall several instances when women have
Clytemnestra to Agamemnon’s grave, they conceal committed horrific actions. They sing of ALTHAEA’s
themselves nearby to watch the women. ELECTRA, killing of her son, MELEAGER; Scylla’s killing of her
daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra and father, NISUS; and the women of LEMNOS, who killed
Orestes’ sister, leads the group. Upon arriving, Electra their husbands. They conclude by noting that at last
prays to the gods for pity for her and her absent vengeance has returned Orestes to his home.
brother, Orestes; she also prays for vengeance against After the choral ode, Orestes and Pylades call at the
Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. After her prayer, Electra gates of the palace. When Clytemnestra answers the
notices a lock of hair on the grave, which her brother, door, the disguised Orestes informs her that Orestes is
Orestes, has placed there as an offering. When Electra dead. Clytemnestra expresses sadness at this news and
 ORESTEIA 391

admits the “strangers” to the palace. After Orestes and EUMENIDES

Pylades’ entrance into the palace, a woman named The third play of Aeschylus’ tetralogy in 458 B.C.E.,
Cilissa, who was Orestes’ NURSE when he was a child, Eumenides, has two settings—it opens at Apollo’s tem-
enters and expresses her sadness at the news of ple at DELPHI, then moves to ATHENS. As the play
Orestes’ death. Cilissa informs the chorus that she will opens, APOLLO’s priestess emerges from the temple at
inform Aegisthus. The chorus urge Cilissa not to give Delphi in horror at the sight of ORESTES, defiled by the
up hope that Orestes is still alive and tell her to blood of his mother, and the sleeping FURIES who sur-
encourage Aegisthus to go to the palace as quickly as round him. Apollo goes to Orestes’ aid and instructs
possible and without his bodyguards. After Cilissa’s him to travel to Athens and embrace the statue of the
exit, the chorus sing a prayer to Zeus, asking the god goddess ATHENA. Orestes, with HERMES as his guide,
to protect and strengthen Orestes and for the blood exits for Athens. After his departure, the ghost of
feud in the house to end. CLYTEMNESTRA appears and urges the Furies to pursue
After the choral ode, Aegisthus enters in response to him. After the Furies rouse themselves, Apollo con-
the news that Orestes is dead. He expresses his con- fronts them, tells them to leave his temple precinct,
cern about this report and asks the chorus whether this and accuses them of defiling his temple by their pres-
news is true. The chorus send him into the palace to ence. The Furies argue that Apollo himself has pol-
question “the strangers.” After Aegisthus enters the luted his shrine by allowing Orestes, who killed his
palace, the chorus wonder what will happen next. mother, to take refuge there. The Furies state that their
Soon, they hear the cry of Aegisthus, who is being persecution of Orestes is in accordance with their
killed in the palace. Soon, one of Aegisthus’ followers divine prerogative and express their intent to continue
emerges and announces Aegisthus’ death. Clytemnes- pursuing Orestes. After the departure of the Furies and
tra also arrives from the palace, questions Aegisthus’ Apollo, the scene changes to Athens, where the audi-
man, and begins to realize what is happening. No ence see Orestes, a supplicant at Athena’s idol. Soon,
sooner does she call for someone to give her an ax than the Furies enter and see Orestes, who calls on Athena
Orestes and Pylades enter. Clytemnestra pleads with to help him. The Furies surround Orestes, begin to
Orestes not to kill her, and Orestes wavers in his dance around him, and sing a lengthy choral ode in
resolve. Pylades, however, advises him not to make the which they state their prerogatives as divinities and
gods his enemies and to keep in mind Apollo’s oracle. their function as goddesses.
Orestes accepts his advice and despite continued pleas After the choral ode, Athena enters and asks the
by Clytemnestra, Orestes and Pylades eventually drag Furies the reason for their presence. After the Furies
her back into the palace, where Orestes kills her. explain the reason for their persecution of Orestes,
After their exit, the chorus comment on the justice Athena asks Orestes to explain why he killed his
of Orestes’ actions and express the hope that in time mother. Because Athena realizes that both the Furies
Agamemnon’s house will be cleansed of its blood feud. and Orestes have valid reasons for their actions, the
After the chorus’ remarks, Orestes emerges from the goddess decides to conduct a legal trial to decide the
palace and displays the dead bodies of Aegisthus and matter and appoints the finest Athenian men to act as
Clytemnestra, as well as the cloth that was used to kill jurors for the case. The Furies follow with a song in
his father. Orestes comments on their death and the which they protest Athena’s decision as an encroach-
cloth. He is both satisfied and troubled by the killing ment on their rights as divinities. They urge people to
of Clytemnestra, but the chorus approve of his actions. respect their parents and strangers to their home. Peo-
As Libation Bearers approaches its conclusion, Orestes, ple who violate these customs will be punished.
imagining that he sees the FURIES, who will torment After this ode, Athena calls the trial to order. The
him for killing his mother, flees Argos. The chorus end Furies begin the prosecution by questioning Orestes,
by recounting the course of the blood feud and won- who admits that he killed his mother, tells how he killed
der where it will end. her, and states that he did so at Apollo’s command. The
392 ORESTEIA

Furies claim that they have the advantage thus far in the Furies new crimson robes to replace their black ones;
trial, and Orestes appeals to Apollo for help. Apollo, after the Furies don their new clothing, Athena leads
who has followed Orestes to Athens, then testifies on them from the stage. As they exit, a group of Athenian
Orestes’ behalf. Apollo states that his oracle to Orestes women sing a hymn of praise to the Furies, who not
was the result of Zeus’ command to Apollo. Apollo only wear new clothing, but also are addressed by a
argues that Clytemnestra’s killing of Agamemnon was of new name—Eumenides, which means “the kindly
greater consequence than Orestes’ killing of Clytemnes- goddesses.”
tra: that the killing of a male is worse than the killing of
a female. The Furies then ask Apollo whether it is just COMMENTARY
for a son to kill his mother and then inherit his father’s AESCHYLUS’ Oresteia is important for several reasons:
house. Apollo argues that men are the source of life and First, it is the only surviving trilogy from antiquity.
that women are merely nurses for the man’s seed. As Although modern editors of collections of translations
proof of his argument, Apollo points to Athena herself, often group SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS THE KING, ANTIGONE,
who he says was born from Zeus alone without the ben- and OEDIPUS AT COLONUS, one should keep in mind that
efit of a mother. At this point, Athena calls for the jurors these plays were staged in three different years over a
to vote on the guilt or innocence of Orestes. Before the period of four decades. All three plays of the Oresteia
vote is taken, Athena explains the importance of the vot- were staged on the same day in 458. The Oresteia gives
ing procedure to the history of the Athenian people and us an idea of how ancient playwrights could have
notes that henceforth the location of this trial, the hill of linked their plays when they grouped first three plays
ARES, or AREOPAGUS, will be site of such trials. of a tetralogy. Note, however, that not all playwrights
As the jurors advance and cast their ballots into the based the first three plays of the tetralogy on a single
two voting urns that stand on stage, the Furies threaten extended story line. For example, EURIPIDES’ tetralogy of
the jurors that the consequences for Athens will be dire 431 B.C.E. was composed of MEDEA, Philoctetes, Dictys,
if they acquit Orestes. Apollo tells the Furies that he and the satyr play Theristae, four plays that would have
will triumph over them. After this bickering, Athena been taken from widely divergent mythological material.
tells Orestes that she will cast her vote in favor of The ORESTEIA is also important because its charac-
Orestes, because she was swayed by Apollo’s argument ters, content, and subject matter exerted considerable
that the woman’s death cannot be considered of more influence on later playwrights, especially Euripides.
importance than that of the man. Athena then urges Regarding the matter of character, for example,
that the ballots be counted. The result of the count is a Aeschylus’ portrayal of Clytemnestra surely had some
tie vote, which, in accordance with Athenian law, influence on Euripides’ portrayal of MEDEA. Both
allows the defendant to be set free. Orestes celebrates women set out to destroy their husband, although
his victory and promises the Athenian people that he Medea leaves JASON alive. Clytemnestra kills Agamem-
and his descendants will always be their allies. The non’s concubine, Cassandra; Medea kills Jason’s new
Furies, enraged by this verdict, lament their defeat by bride, CREON’s daughter. Both poets characterize the
the younger divinities and the disrespect shown to women as savage animals or monsters. At Agamemnon
their powers and threaten to release a plague on the 1233, Clytemnestra is compared to the monster
Athenian land. Athena then tries to appease the Furies. SCYLLA; Euripides also compares Medea to Scylla
She invites them to live in Athens and promises them (Medea 1343), the only reference to the Scylla in
that the Athenian people will show them great respect, Euripidean poetry. At Agamemnon 1258, Cassandra
but the Furies repeat their previous laments and likens Clytemnestra to a lioness, and Medea is com-
threats. Eventually, however, Athena prevails upon the pared to a lioness four times in Euripides’ play (187,
Furies and persuades them to accept a plot of sacred 1342, 1358, 1407).
ground within Athens and the honor of the Athenian In the area of content and subject matter, we are for-
people. Athena tells some of her servants to give the tunate to possess an Electra by both Sophocles and
 ORESTEIA 393

Euripides, which have the same events as Aeschylus’ ness of such vengeance by portraying those who take
Libation Bearers and reflect an awareness of Aeschylus’ revenge in animalistic terms. Although custom allowed
play but handle the material in a different manner. The people to take revenge on those who had wronged
recognition scene between Orestes and Electra in them, Aeschylus blurs the line between right and
Euripides’ Electra, though staged some 40 years after wrong as the avengers are often portrayed in language
Libation Bearers, shows a clear awareness of Aeschylus’ related to animal; thus, Aeschylus dehumanizes the
play. In Euripides’ play, Electra rejects the very tokens avengers to some extent.
(hair, footprints, clothing) that Aeschylus’ Electra In Agamemnon, we find several references to the
accepts as evidence or proof of her brother’s presence. feud between Agamemnon’s father, Atreus, and
The trial of Orestes as presented within Eumenides is Aegisthus’ father, Thyestes. According to tradition,
handled in quite a different way in Euripides’ Orestes, Atreus’ feeding of Thyestes’ children to him was the
as the latter playwright imagines that the people of result of Thyestes’ seducing Atreus’ wife and robbing
Argos would not have allowed Orestes to escape from him of the kingship. That feud continues and its
town. Accordingly, Euripides has Orestes tried by the actions are echoed in the conflict of Agamemnon,
people of Argos rather than the people of Athens, as Aegisthus, and Clytemnestra. Another example of
Aeschylus does. The result is much different, as Euripi- vengeance alluded to several times in Agamemnon is
dean Orestes is found guilty and condemned to death. the story of the title character’s fighting at Troy to lib-
Similarly, in Euripides’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, some of erate his brother Menelaus’ wife, Helen, from the
Euripides’ Furies do not accept the solution arranged clutches of Paris. Such revenge by Agamemnon and
by Athena in Aeschylus’ Eumenides and continue to the Greeks was perfectly within their rights and was
persecute Orestes. even approved of by the gods. In abducting Helen
The major question raised by the ORESTEIA, one that from Menelaus, in whose house Paris was a guest at the
still vexes us today, is, What is justice? During Aeschy- time, Paris had violated the Greek custom of xenia
lus’ day, the poet had witnessed some significant (guest friendship). Zeus himself was the divinity who
changes in the way that his fellow Athenians adminis- presided over this custom. The same custom would
tered justice. In 461 B.C.E., just three years before the have been violated when Atreus served Thyestes the
production of the ORESTEIA, changes to the Athenian flesh of his own children.
system placed court cases before juries that were com- Agamemnon, however, in attempting to carry out
posed of a much broader group of the Athenian citi- divinely sanctioned vengeance against Paris and the
zenry than before. The ORESTEIA itself examines Trojans, finds himself faced with an extremely difficult
changes in the way that justice is meted out. In the first choice. Adverse weather prevents the Greek fleet from
two plays, we see a system of justice in which crimes sailing to Troy. An oracle, however, states that the
are avenged by someone closely connected to the winds will cease if Agamemnon sacrifices his daughter,
injured party (e.g., mother’s avenging daughter, son’s Iphigenia, to the goddess Artemis. What does one do
avenging father), and the shedding of blood is avenged when a divinity calls for the killing of one’s child?
by the shedding of blood. This cycle of vengeance con- Abraham faced the same question regarding Isaac in
tinues from one generation to the next and in theory Genesis. Unlike Abraham, whose sacrifice of Isaac was
could continue without end. One stranger’s killing averted at the last minute, Agamemnon sacrifices Iphi-
another stranger is one matter, but Aeschylus further genia. This sacrifice, however, leads to conflict
complicates this type of justice by creating close ties between Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. While
between those who seek revenge. Where does one Agamemnon is away at Troy, Clytemnestra takes up
draw the line between justice and injustice when with Aegisthus, just as Aegisthus’ father had had an
brother takes vengeance against brother, wife against affair with Atreus’ wife. Clytemnestra and Aegisthus
husband, or son against mother? Aeschylus further have a shared hatred of Agamemnon. The wife wants
complicates the audience’s ability to evaluate the right- to kill the husband for the sacrifice of their daughter;
394 ORESTEIA

the cousin, Aegisthus, wants to kill Agamemnon mother was equally as savage. Recall that Aeschylus
because of what Atreus did to Thyestes. Custom may also compared Aegisthus to a wolf in Agamemnon.
justify their vengeance, but Aeschylus dehumanizes Later, in Libation Bearers (550), Orestes himself realizes
Aegisthus and Clytemnestra by descriptions that com- that he is the snake about which Clytemnestra
pare them to animals. Cassandra describes Aegisthus dreamed and that he would draw both milk and blood
as a weak lion (Agamemnon 1224) and Clytemnestra as from her breast. The serpent image of Orestes seems
a fawning dog (1228–30), a serpent, and a SCYLLA appropriate, as Orestes later describes his mother in
(1233–34). Later, Cassandra describes the pair as a serpentine terms as well (994–96). The chorus also
wolf and a lioness who bed together (Agamemnon remark that by killing Aegisthus and Clytemnestra,
1258–59). Not only are they described as savage ani- Orestes decapitated two snakes with one stroke
mals, but the perversity of their sexual relationship is (1047). Although Apollo, Justice, and public opinion
made to cross the boundaries of species. On Agamem- appear to be on Orestes’ side, we note the irony that
non’s return from Troy, the two avengers strike. To the serpent Orestes, who kills his serpent mother and
recall the encounter between Atreus and Thyestes and her serpent lover, will eventually be tormented by her
create a link between Agamemnon and Aegisthus, Cas- Furies, whom Orestes describes as being entwined
sandra speaks of Atreus’ actions against Thyestes after with serpents (1049–50).
Agamemnon has entered the house. Not only is As the Furies note several times in Eumenides, the
Agamemnon killed, but Cassandra falls as well. purpose of their existence is to persecute those who
The cycle of violence does not end, however, and it commit actions such as those of Orestes. Their torment
continues in Libation Bearers. Orestes is well within his of Orestes is well within their rights and prerogatives as
rights to take vengeance on someone who has killed divinities. In Eumenides, however, the mythical ances-
his father. The killing of Aegisthus presents little legal tors of Aeschylus’ audience, the citizens of Athens, and
difficulty as Orestes points out at lines 989–90: not the Furies end the cycle of blood vengeance. In
Aegisthus is an adulterer and as such he could be killed Eumenides, instead of Orestes’ blood being shed as a
without any questions being asked by the community. result of the vengeance cycle, the Furies follow Orestes
Orestes’ vengeance becomes complicated, however, by to Athens, where they agree to a trial, presided over by
the fact that the other of his intended victims is his Athena and judged by a group of Athenian citizens. Vic-
mother. Just as Artemis had called for Agamemnon to tory in this contest will not be determined by physical
shed the blood of Iphigenia, Artemis’ brother, Apollo, strength, but by the persuasive power of one’s words,
has called for Orestes to kill his mother. Orestes relates just as in the Athenian court system of Aeschylus’ day.
that Apollo has threatened him with terrible suffering Eventually, Apollo’s persuasion wins the day for
and even death if he does not kill his mother (Libation Orestes, as the god convinces Athena that the death of
Bearers 276–82). Of course, we also know that after the woman, Clytemnestra, should not be considered to
Orestes kills his mother, her Furies torment him. be of the same importance as the death of the man,
Aeschylus further complicates the audience’s per- Agamemnon (Eumenides 736–40). To modern readers
ception of Orestes’ vengeance on his mother by com- of the play, Apollo’s argument (that a woman is only the
parisons of Orestes and Electra to animals: The chorus’ nurse of the child who grows within her womb,
description of the vengeance of Orestes and company whereas the man is the one who plants the seed) is non-
as being like a double lion (Libation Bearers 938) could sense. One should also note that half the jury in
be taken as positive; Agamemnon was described as a Aeschylus’ play voted to condemn Orestes. Most
proud lion in the previous play (1259). The Greek important, however, persuasion rather than violence
army who overwhelmed Troy was described as being effects a resolution to the conflict that had torn apart
like a hungry lion (827–28), who lapped at the blood the family of Orestes. Such a resolution could not have
of kings. Electra, at Libation Bearers 421–22, compares been achieved under the custom of blood vengeance
herself and her brother to bloody, savage wolves whose until every person involved in the feud lay dead. The
 ORESTES (2) 395

system of justice based on persuasion was not without Sommerstein, A. H. Aeschylus: Eumenides. Cambridge: Cam-
its flaws, but it did achieve its goal without violence. bridge University Press, 1989.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ORESTES (1) A highway robber noted for being

Oresteia insane, drunk, and stealing clothing from people at
Bloom, H., ed. Aeschylus’s Oresteia. New York: Chelsea
night. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians
House, 1988.
Conacher, D. J. Aeschylus’ Oresteia: A Literary Commentary.
1167, Birds 712, 1491]
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987.
Goldhill, S. Language, Sexuality, Narrative, the Oresteia. Cam- ORESTES (2) The son of AGAMEMNON and
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. CCLYTEMNESTRA, Orestes is one of the characters who
———. Aeschylus: The Oresteia. Cambridge: Cambridge appear most often in ancient drama. In EURIPIDES’ Tele-
University Press, 1992. phus (no longer extant), the title character took the
Lebeck, A. The Oresteia: A Study in Language and Structure. infant Orestes hostage and threatened to kill him. In
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971.
Euripides’ IPHIGENIA AT AULIS, Orestes is taken as an
Agamemnon
Denniston, J. D., and D. Page. Aeschylus: Agamemnon.
infant to Aulis with his sister, IPHIGENIA. Orestes is best
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957. known, however, for avenging the murder of his father,
Fraenkel, E. Aeschylus: Agamemnon. Oxford: Clarendon Agamemnon, a story that occurs as early as HOMER’s
Press, 1950. Odyssey. The most famous dramatization of this action
Lloyd-Jones, H. “The Guilt of Agamemnon,” Classical Quar- occurs in AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA),
terly 12 (1962): 187–99. and was treated later by both Euripides (in his Electra)
Morrell, K. S. “The Fabric of Persuasion: Clytemnestra, and SOPHOCLES (in his Electra). In these plays, Orestes,
Agamemnon, and the Sea of Garments,” Classical Journal
commanded to avenge his father’s murder by Apollo’s
92, no. 2 (1996–97): 141–65.
oracle at DELPHI, must kill his mother. He kills his
Smith, P. M. On the Hymn to Zeus in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon.
Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1980. mother’s lover, AEGISTHUS, as well. In Euripides’ Electra,
Libation Bearers Orestes appears in perhaps a more savage light than
Garvie, A. F. Aeschylus: Choephoroi. Oxford: Clarendon Press, when he kills Aegisthus in Aeschylus’ Libation Bearers.
1986. In Euripides’ play, Orestes’ killing of Aegisthus takes
Halporn, J. W. “The Skeptical Electra,” Harvard Studies in place during a sacrifice that Aegisthus is making to the
Classical Philology 87 (1983): 101–18. NYMPHS of that locale. Furthermore, the unsuspecting
Heath, J. “Disentangling the Beast: Humans and Other Ani- Aegisthus has invited Orestes to join him in the sacri-
mals in Aeschylus’ Oresteia,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 119
fice. In the course of this ritual, Orestes “sacrifices”
(1999): 17–48.
O’Neill, K. N. “Aeschylus, Homer, and the Serpent at the
Aegisthus.
Breast,” Phoenix 52, no. 3 and 4 (1998): 216–29. After killing his mother, Orestes is tormented by her
Podlecki, A. J. “Four Electras.” Florilegium 3 (1981): 21–46. Furies. In Aeschylus’ Eumenides, the Furies pursue him
Eumenides to Delphi and then to ATHENS, where they agree to have
Brown A. L. “The Erinyes in the Oresteia: Real Life, the their grievance against him judged by Athena and a
Supernatural, and the Stage,” Journal of Hellenic Studies jury of Athenian citizens. In Aeschylus’ play, Orestes is
103 (1983): 13–34. freed from the Furies’ torment through this trial.
Henrichs, A. “’Why Should I Dance?’: Choral Self-Referen- In Euripides’ Orestes, however, the playwright has
tiality in Greek Tragedy,” Arion 3, no. 1 (1994–95):
Orestes examined by the assembly at ARGOS, before he
56–111.
Podlecki, A. J. Aeschylus: Eumenides. Warminster, U.K.: Aris goes to Athens. The assembly at Argos decrees that
& Phillips, 1992. Orestes must be put to death. Euripides’ Orestes, how-
Seaford, R. “Historicizing Tragic Ambivalence: The Vote of ever, is much more savage and erratic in his behavior
Athena.” In History, Tragedy, Theory: Dialogues on Athenian than Aeschylean Orestes. In Orestes, the title character
Drama. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995, 202–21. then enters into a plot with PYLADES to take MENELAUS’
396 ORESTES

daughter, HERMIONE, hostage and kill his wife, HELEN. and condemn him to death. Furthermore, unlike that
Apollo intervenes to rescue Helen; however, at the of Aeschylus’ play, in which the Furies compose the
conclusion of Orestes, he appears on the roof of the chorus who prosecute Orestes in his trial and whom
palace threatening to kill Hermione. Apollo also ATHENA later incorporates into Athens and Athenian
resolves this situation by declaring that Orestes will worship, Euripides’ play’s audience only hear about the
marry Hermione. Furies and do not see them on stage. Euripides’ chorus
Orestes appears again in Euripides’ Iphigenia in Tau- consist of women from Argos, who have little part in
ris. The events of this drama, perhaps invented by the play’s action. Additionally, because Orestes is kept
Euripides independently of any previous mythological within Argos, Euripides has removed Athena as judge
tradition, occur after Orestes is put on trial in Athens. of Orestes’ trial. Instead, Euripides’ trial takes place in
Some of the Furies refused to accept the verdict the Argive assembly without any clear presiding mag-
reached in Athens and therefore continue to pursue istrate. In contrast to Aeschylus’ divine judge, jury of
Orestes. To free himself of their torment, Orestes must Athenian citizens, Furies as prosecutors, and APOLLO’s
travel to Tauris, steal a statue of ARTEMIS, and take it appearance as a witness for Orestes’ defense, Euripides’
back to Athens. Arriving in Tauris with Pylades, trial has no single judge and no formal citizen jury, but
Orestes is stricken with madness (induced by the a prosecution by the mob in which various speakers
Furies) and captured by the Taurians, who sacrifice all give opinions, and in which Apollo does not arrive to
strangers to Artemis. Eventually Orestes escapes Tauris speak on Orestes’ behalf.
with the help of his sister, Iphigenia. As the play opens, Orestes’ sister, ELECTRA, watches
After he is freed from the Furies’ torment, we hear over her brother, who has fallen asleep in exhaustion
little of Orestes. In Euripides’ Andromache, he takes from his torment by his mother’s Furies. By having
Hermione from the town of Pharsalus and seems to Orestes sleep, Euripides reverses the opening of
have some role in the murder of NEOPTOLEMUS. After Aeschylus’ Eumenides, in which the Furies are asleep
the events described in Andromache, Orestes and around Orestes, who scampers away to Athens and the
Hermione appear to have married. Other sources say protection of Athena. Electra tells the audience of the
that Orestes married ERIGONE. Orestes fathered numerous horrific acts in her family’s history. Electra
Tisamenus, and he died of snakebite at the town of also informs the audience that the Argives have
Oresteum (or Oresthasium) in the region of ARCADIA. decreed that Orestes and Electra are to be shunned and
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Oresteia; Apollodorus, not given the basic necessities of life. Electra notes the
Epitome 6.24–28; Euripides, Electra, Iphigenia in Tauris, Argives will decide whether she and Orestes will be
Orestes; Sophocles, Electra] stoned to death and states that their only hope lies in
help from their uncle, MENELAUS, who has just arrived
ORESTES EURIPIDES (408 B.C.E.) A scho- from Troy. Electra says HELEN has already arrived at the
liast’s note informs us that the play was staged in the palace under the cover of darkness, so that she herself
archonship of Diocles, thereby securely dating the play. would not be stoned by those who lost sons at Troy.
The drama’s setting is ARGOS, and its action occurs six Electra also indicates that Helen and Menelaus’ daugh-
days after ORESTES has killed his mother, CLYTEMNES- ter is also within the palace.
TRA, and her lover, AEGISTHUS. As does AESCHYLUS’ Electra is then joined on stage by Helen, who
Eumenides (See ORESTEIA), Orestes deals with the trial of laments Orestes’ fate, as well as her own. Helen
the title character after his killing of Clytemnestra. requests that Electra go to Clytemnestra’s grave and
EURIPIDES, however, has removed much of the super- make an offering on her behalf. Electra, however, does
natural element from the story. Euripides does not not want to go to her mother’s grave, so Electra sug-
allow Orestes to escape the FURIES and travel to gests that Helen send Hermione instead. When
ATHENS, as Aeschylus did. Instead, Euripides has the Hermione emerges from the palace, Helen gives her
people of Argos prevent Orestes from leaving the town daughter the offerings, which include some short locks
 ORESTES 397

of her hair (a common offering to the dead among the Clytemnestra benefited all of Greece, for it checked a
Greeks). After Hermione exits for Clytemnestra’s grave, potential trend of women killing their husbands with-
Helen returns to the palace. After Helen leaves, Electra out punishment. Orestes points out that if he had not
notes that Helen cut off little of her hair and curses her avenged his father, his father’s Furies would have per-
aunt. secuted him. Finally, he notes that Apollo ordered him
At this point, the chorus of Argive women approach. to kill Clytemnestra. Tyndareus, angered by Orestes’
When Euripides’ chorus enter, Electra tells them to words, states that he is all the more eager to speak
keep quiet so that they do not wake her brother. This against him in the Argive assembly. Tyndareus also
call for silence to an entering chorus is unique in threatens Menelaus, saying that if he supports Orestes,
extant drama and contrasts with Aeschylus’ Eumenides, he should not return to Sparta.
in which the ghost of Clytemnestra, enraged by the After Tyndareus leaves, Menelaus begins to express
sleeping Furies, appears and rouses the slumbering doubts about helping Orestes. The troubled young
creatures. As the Argive women enter, they quietly ask man continues to beg him for help, and Menelaus
how Orestes is faring and express their pity for the agrees to try to persuade Tyndareus and the Argives to
young man. As Orestes stirs, Electra continues to call calm their anger. As Menelaus exits, he states that he
for quiet from the women. Eventually Orestes awakens will not use force, however. After Menelaus’ departure,
from his sleep in a state of confusion. Electra comforts Orestes criticizes his uncle’s cowardice and despairs
him and cleans his face and hair. No sooner does that no hope exists for salvation from death. Next,
Orestes reorient himself than he begins to imagine that Orestes’ best friend, PYLADES, arrives. Orestes informs
he sees the Furies’ tormenting him. He even imagines him of the situation, and Pylades notes that his father,
that Electra is a Fury. Orestes’ hallucinations pass and Strophius, banished him because of his helping
he slumps down to the ground in exhaustion. Orestes Orestes kill Clytemnestra. Pylades, however, promises
urges Electra to rest, but she states her intention to stay to support Orestes despite any consequences from the
by his side. At this point, the Argive women sing an Argives. After a discussion with Pylades, Orestes
ode begging the Furies to release Orestes from his tor- decides that he will address the Argive assembly. Thus,
ment; they lament that happiness among humans is with Pylades supporting him, Orestes and his friend
fleeting, even in a family descended from ZEUS. exit to the assembly. After their departure, the Argive
After the choral ode, Menelaus arrives from the har- women sing an ode about the feud over the kingdom
bor. He is soon met by Orestes, who begs him for help. of Argos of ATREUS and THYESTES, Orestes’ grandfather
Menelaus is horrified by Orestes’ ghastly appearance. and his grand uncle, respectively, that resulted in
Orestes explains his torment by the Furies and men- Atreus’ feeding Thyestes some of his own children.
tions his persecution by the people of Argos, in partic- This crime was followed by Orestes’ killing of his
ular Oeax (an enemy of AGAMEMNON’s at Troy) and the mother, a deed by which the chorus is horrified.
friends of Aegisthus. As Orestes continues to beg his The choral ode is followed by Electra’s emergence
uncle for help, TYNDAREUS, the father of Helen and from the palace. She is soon joined by a messenger,
Clytemnestra and father-in-law of Menelaus, arrives. who announces that the Argive assembly has con-
Tyndareus urges Menelaus not to help Orestes and demned her and her brother to die. The messenger
argues that Orestes should have prosecuted also describes the speeches that were made in the
Clytemnestra by legal means and banished her from assembly. Orestes’ speech echoed his earlier statements
the palace. Orestes, echoing the argument of APOLLO in to Tyndareus, namely, that his killing of Clytemnestra
Aeschylus’ Eumenides, argues that his loyalty was to his would prevent other women from murdering their
father rather than his mother because the man is the husbands. The speech that was most persuasive was
prime giver of life. Orestes also claims his acts were given by someone friendly to Tyndareus. This speech
justified because Clytemnestra was committing adul- lacked substance but was full of charm and therefore
tery with Aegisthus. Orestes declares his killing of was supported by the assembly. The brother and sister,
398 ORESTES

however, will be given the opportunity to commit sui- be prosecuted by the Furies in a trial in which, as in
cide rather than be stoned to death. Upon hearing this, Aeschylus’ Eumenides, he will be acquitted.
Electra sings a MONODY lamenting her fate and that of
her ancestors (TANTALUS, PELOPS, Atreus, Thyestes, and COMMENTARY
Agamemnon). Orestes is another Euripidean play that has puzzled
Although Euripides has removed the Furies as those who have encountered it. One problematic point
speakers in the play, he has added the prominent sur- of consideration is the puzzling statement in the play’s
viving members who are connected with Agamemnon’s ancient hypothesis, which suggested that Orestes was
family: Helen and Menelaus; their daughter, rather like a SATYR PLAY. Of course, the members of the
Hermione; and Tyndareus, Helen’s father. In the play’s chorus are not satyrs, but the play does contain a few
first half, each of these characters crosses the stage and humorous elements. The entry of the chorus is rather
reveal his or her true self. As Electra notes, Helen cut amusing as Electra tries to silence them so that they
off little of her hair as a sign of mourning for will not awaken her sleeping brother. This silent entry
Clytemnestra. Orestes eagerly anticipated the arrival of becomes more humorous when compared with
Menelaus, but Tyndareus’ threats to Menelaus if he Aeschylus’ Eumenides, in which Clytemnestra had to
helps Orestes reveal Menelaus’ unwillingness to sup- wake the sleeping chorus. Another clearly humorous
port his nephew. element occurs later in the play in the MESSENGER
Pylades, who has a far more extensive speaking part in speech delivered by the effeminate Phrygian slave. To
Orestes than in any of his other extant appearances in describe the play’s ending as a happy one would be to
drama, does prove himself a true friend to Orestes: He push the definition of happy ending to its limits. No
decides that he also will commit suicide. Before the three one actually dies in Orestes and Apollo does arrange
kill themselves, Pylades suggests that they kill Helen and two marriages at the play’s conclusion, although
thus gain a glorious name for themselves. Pylades’ plan Apollo’s final speech does indicate that before Orestes
proves agreeable and is soon set into motion. marries Hermione, NEOPTOLEMUS, who intends to
The horrific mood established thus far in the play is marry her, will be killed.
soon confounded when an effeminate male slave from Other than a few elements, however, little about the
Phrygia rushes from the house to inform the audience play seems especially humorous, and Orestes is one of
of the attempt on Helen’s life inside. The slave, terrified Euripides’ more depressing plays. Talk of death domi-
by the brutality of Orestes and Pylades, relates how the nates the drama. Consider that the Greek word root
attempt was made on Helen’s life. The attempt was not than-, which is found in the noun thanatos (death) and
successful, however, because Apollo saved her from the verb thanein (to die), occurs about once every 19
Orestes. Because the attempt to kill Helen fails, lines in Alcestis and once every 26 lines in Orestes
Hermione is taken hostage; Orestes climbs to the roof (compare Euripides’ PHOENICIAN WOMEN at once every
of the palace with her, threatens to kill her, and 70 lines and Euripides’ Medea at once every 79 lines).
instructs Pylades to begin setting fire to the palace. In this respect, Orestes is similar to Euripides’ ALCESTIS,
Meanwhile, Menelaus arrives and tries to stop Orestes. which was staged 30 years earlier and occupied the
Before the standoff can proceed further, Apollo position usually reserved for a satyr play.
appears with Helen and tells Orestes and Menelaus to Both Alcestis and Orestes deal with a cycle of death.
end their quarrel. Helen, the god says, will be taken to In the prologue of Alcestis, we hear that Zeus killed
live with the gods and protect sailors such as her Apollo’s son, ASCLEPIUS, Apollo retaliated against his
brothers, CASTOR and POLLUX. Apollo tells Menelaus to father by killing some CYCLOPES, and then Apollo, sen-
find another wife; he tells Pylades to marry Electra; and tenced to become a servant to ADMETUS, arranged for
finally he tells Orestes to marry Hermione. Apollo him to avoid death by finding someone (ALCESTIS) to
informs Orestes that he will spend a year in exile in the die in his place. In Orestes, we find a far more extensive
land of PARRHASIA before eventually going to Athens to cycle of death mentioned directly or alluded to: Tanta-
 ORESTES 399

lus killed his son, Pelops; Pelops, who was resurrected tion to the madness caused by the Furies, Orestes is
by the gods, killed Myrtilus; Atreus killed Thyestes’ being vexed by the philoi of Aegisthus (435–36). Elec-
sons; Agamemnon had to kill his daughter, IPHIGENIA, tra certainly proves her bond of philia with Orestes,
to sail to Troy and wage war to rescue Helen, a mission and Pylades does as well. These philoi can provide
that cost countless lives; Clytemnestra and Aegisthus Orestes comfort and support, but they have no politi-
killed Agamemnon; and Orestes (in accordance with cal power in Argos. Orestes is counting on the philia of
Apollo’s command) killed his father’s murderers. Note his paternal uncle, Menelaus (450–55), but Menelaus
also that at the conclusion of the play Apollo finds himself caught between two philoi, Tyndareus and
announces that ACHILLES’ son, Neoptolemus, will die. Orestes. Tyndareus’ threats lead Menelaus to turn his
As at the beginning of Alcestis the title character was back on Orestes. For Tyndareus, the bond of philia is
faced with death, in the opening of Orestes, the title superseded by respect for the law, which he considers
character faces death. Alcestis will die a glorious death Orestes to have broken, and accordingly Tyndareus
that will elevate her to an almost divine status. In warns his son-in-law not to choose an ungodly person
Orestes’ case, however, he and his sister face death and as his friend rather than a righteous person (672–28).
are treated as criminals. After Orestes’ trial at Argos, he Ultimately, Menelaus does not provide Orestes with
and Electra will be allowed to commit suicide rather any sort of useful friendship and in the Argive assem-
than be stoned to death, and this sentence prompts bly the speaker under the control of Tyndareus gains a
Pylades to indicate that he also will take his life. Orestes death sentence for Orestes and Electra. Pylades also
careens off in an unexpected direction when Pylades declares that he will die with his friend (1095–96).
proposes the killing of Helen. Electra chimes in and Although the death of these three friends might have
suggests that they take Hermione hostage and kill her gained them some measure of honor, they taint their
if necessary. Whereas Alcestis’ death would earn her bond of philia by entering into a plot to kill one of their
glory, Pylades thinks that they will win glory by either supposed philoi, Helen, in order to drive mad another
killing Helen or by killing themselves if they fail of their supposed philoi, Menelaus. If necessary, they
(1151–52). None of these deaths takes place. Orestes, will kill another of their philoi, Hermione. Their rally-
Pylades, Electra, Hermione, Menelaus, and Helen all ing cry appears at line 1244: “For three friends, one
escape Pylades’ proposed assault. Whereas Alcestis’ struggle, one just vengeance.” To gain access to Helen,
death is reversed when HERACLES wrestles her away Orestes can employ his bond of philia with Helen,
from the god of death, at the conclusion of Orestes, which has not been completely disrupted; his aunt has
Apollo does what he himself did not do for Alcestis not turned her back on him completely. The murder-
and saves Helen from death. Unlike Helen, Alcestis ous and destructive intent of the three friends is
was an eminently virtuous woman, and her husband, thwarted by Apollo, who reorganizes and re-forms the
ADMETUS, although not an especially admirable figure, bonds of philia among Electra, Orestes, Pylades,
had certainly not committed or even contemplated Hermione, and Menelaus. Pylades and Electra will now
committing the same deadly acts that Orestes had. become philoi in a different sense, as husband and wife.
In addition to the frequent talk of death in Orestes, Philia by marriage will also be created between Orestes
we find a focus on the concept of friendship (Greek: and Hermione as husband and wife, and between
philia). For the Greeks, philia was expected from per- Orestes and Menelaus as son- and father-in-law.
sons related to one another by marriage or blood. One final theme we shall mention is connected to
Thus, Electra, Orestes, Helen, Menelaus, and Tyn- Burnett’s idea that Orestes is a play that makes failure
dareus should be friends (philoi). These relations have its object. Everything Orestes attempts in the play fails:
become strained or broken by Clytemnestra’s killing of His effort to secure Menelaus’ help, his effort to con-
Agamemnon and Orestes’ killing of Clytemnestra. vince Tyndareus of the merits of his actions, his effort
Although philoi have killed one another, Orestes still to win over the Argive assembly, and his attempt to kill
hopes that his philoi will go to his aid, because in addi- Helen all fail. Inherent in many of Orestes’ failures is
400 OREUS

the failure of speech. In Aeschylus’ Eumenides, Apollo’s Orestes makes another attempt to persuade Menelaus
defense of Orestes was able to convince enough Athen- to speak on his behalf to the Argive assembly (1610).
ian jurors and Athena to allow Orestes to go free. This time, Orestes makes his demand with a sword at
Athena was even able to persuade the Furies to put the throat of Menelaus’ daughter. Menelaus still is
aside their anger and take up residence in Athens. not persuaded by Orestes’ words, but the standoff
In contrast, Orestes focuses on mortal speech, and in ends when Apollo appears and insists that the two
this play speech is often cut short, curbed, or altered or men listen to his words (1628). Both Menelaus and
fails to achieve its object. Not only does Orestes fail to Orestes are obedient to the god’s words, and the two
win support through his speech, but Menelaus also adversaries will, through divine arrangement,
fails to defeat Tyndareus’ arguments. In the PROLOGUE, become in-laws.
Electra checks her own speech and refuses to elaborate
BIBLIOGRAPHY
on the some of most horrific aspects of her family’s his-
Euben, J. P. “Political Corruption in Euripides’ Orestes.” In
tory. Orestes is onstage but does not speak until some
Greek Tragedy and Political Theory. Edited by J. P. Euben.
200 lines have passed. When the chorus enter, Electra Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986, 222–51.
commands them to be quiet several times. Interest- Parry, H. “Euripides’ Orestes: The Quest for Salvation,”
ingly, later in the play, after Orestes and Pylades have Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological
attacked Helen, the chorus tell themselves to keep Association 100 (1969): 337–53.
quiet (1311) so they can hear what is going on. We Porter, J. R. Studies in Euripides’ Orestes. Leiden, New York:
also note that in Orestes the chorus only speak about Brill, 1994.
11 percent of the play’s lines (20 to 25 percent is more Willink, C. W. Euripides: Orestes. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
usual). Interestingly, Pylades, who speaks a total of 72 1986.
lines in Aeschylus’ Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA), Zeitlin, F. I. “The Closet of Masks: Roleplaying and Myth-
Making in the Orestes of Euripides,” Ramus 9 (1980):
SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA, and Euripides’ ELECTRA and IPHIGE-
51–77.
NIA IN TAURIS, speaks 110 lines in Orestes (only 84 fewer
than the chorus).
When Orestes is trying to decide whether to plead OREUS A town on the northern end of the island
his case before the assembly, he concludes that sitting in of EUBOEA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Oeace
silence and not pleading his case would be cowardly 1047, 1125]
(789) but decides not to tell Electra his plan in order to
prevent her making a scene with her tears. After ORION Most sources make Orion the son of POSEI-
Orestes’ speech in the assembly fails to persuade, DON and Euryale; however, in one strange account
Pylades persuades Orestes to try to kill Helen. Pylades Orion sprang up from the ground after a Thracian king
proposes that they gain access to Helen through clever named Hyrieus urinated on a bull’s hide and buried it
speech (they will pretend to be suppliants), and Orestes in the ground. The child was named Orion, which is
declares that they will lock up the servants and kill any similar to the Greek verb that means “to urinate.” While
of them who does not keep quiet (1128). Ironically, the Orion was a suitor for the daughter of Oenopion, king
MESSENGER speech is delivered by one of these very ser- of CHIOS, Oenopion blinded Orion for an alleged sexual
vants, and when Orestes threatens the Phrygian with transgression with the young woman. Orion was later
death and asks him whether he was calling on healed of his blindness by the SUN. Next, Orion went to
Menelaus for help, the Phrygian lies: He says he was CRETE, where he became a hunting partner of ARTEMIS.
calling for help for Orestes. Orestes realizes that the Apollo was not pleased by the relationship and tricked
Phrygian’s words are designed to win him over and lets his sister into killing Orion. Other sources say that
the man live because of his clever speech (1524); that, EARTH, upon hearing Orion boast that he would rid the
too, is ironic, because earlier Orestes had failed to save Earth of animals, sent a giant scorpion to kill him. After
his own life with clever speech. At the end of the play, Orion’s death, his image and that of the scorpion were
 OURANOS 401

placed in the heavens as constellations. [ANCIENT other males. At some point, a group of women became
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.4.3–5; Euripides, wild and tore Orpheus apart. Some say that DIONYSUS
Cyclops 213, Helen 1476, Ion 1107; Homer, Odyssey sent the women to destroy Orpheus because he honored
5.121–24, 11.572–75; Hyginus, Fables 195, Poetica Helios (see SUN) or did not honor Dionysus. Others state
Astronomica 2.21, 2.26, 2.33–34; Seneca, Hercules the women were angry with Orpheus because he
Furens 12] refused to love anyone other than Eurydice, because he
loved only men, or because they were fighting over him.
ORNEAE A town in southeastern Greece north- The Muses buried Orpheus’ body; his head, which had
west of ARGOS. In 416/415 B.C.E., the Athenians and been thrown into the river Hebrus, continued to sing as
Argives attacked Orneae, whose people had aided the it floated down the river.
Spartans, in a nighttime siege, but the people actually Orpheus does not appear as a character in any
escaped “under cover of night, leaving [the town] to be extant dramas, but his name is mentioned by EURIPIDES
demolished by the Argives” (Dunbar). Thus, in 414 about a dozen times. Often characters wish that they
B.C.E., ARISTOPHANES mocks the “gallant” fighting at had the voice of Orpheus so that they could accom-
Orneae at BIRDS 399. The resemblance of the town’s plish various aims. The Greek tragedian Aristias wrote
name to a Greek word for birds (ornea) gives Aristo- an Orpheus; the only surviving line (fragment 5 Snell)
phanes the opportunity for added humor. [ANCIENT mentions a wrestling ground and running ground. The
SOURCES: Thucydides, 6.7.1–2] Greek comic poet Antiphanes also wrote an Orpheus,
from which a five-word fragment (about a “plug” of
BIBLIOGRAPHY leaves) is extant (180 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer- Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1629 (see ORESTEIA); Aristo-
sity Press, 1995, 289. phanes, Frogs 1032; Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.1–85,
11.1–84; Seneca, Hercules Furens 571, Hercules Oetaeus
ORPHEUS The most famous musician and singer 1034, 1080, 1087, 1092, Medea 228, 348, 358]
of classical mythology, Orpheus was the son of the Thra-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
cian king Oeagrus (or APOLLO) and the MUSE Calliope.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Orpheus was such a skilled musician that his music was
Teubner, 1884.
able to charm wild animals, as well as cause rocks and Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
trees to move. He is said to have accompanied the Arg- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
onauts on their quest for the Golden Fleece; his most
famous adventure involves his journey to the under-
ORTHIAN NOME According to Sommerstein,
world. On the day that Orpheus married EURYDICE, his
this was “a famous melody composed by Terpander,” a
new bride was bitten by a serpent and died. Orpheus
poet and singer from the island of LESBOS who went to
traveled to the underworld and with his music charmed
SPARTA in the mid-seventh century B.C.E. [ANCIENT
the inhabitants and persuaded HADES and PERSEPHONE to
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 16]
release Eurydice. The rulers of the underworld did make
one condition—Orpheus was not to look back as he BIBLIOGRAPHY
traveled to the upper world. Unfortunately, Orpheus Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
had cause to look back when he thought Eurydice had Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980. 159.
stumbled. When he turned Eurydice vanished, and
Orpheus was unable to persuade Hades and Persephone OSSA A mountain in northeastern Greece that the
to release his wife again. After returning from the GIANTS used in their assault upon the gods of OLYMPUS.
underworld, Orpheus was so saddened by the loss of [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Electra 446]
Eurydice that he refused to marry again. Some sources
say that Orpheus turned his attention to the love of OURANOS See URANUS.
 C PD
PACTOLUS A river in the region of LYDIA (south- Aristophanes, Acharnians 1212, Wasps 874; Euripi-
western Turkey today). The river’s sands were suppos- des, Alcestis 92, 220, Heracles 820, Ion 125, 141;
edly made of gold. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Oedipus Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 92; Sophocles, Oedipus
467, Phoenician Women 604; Sophocles, Philoctetes Tyrannos 154, Trachinian Women 222]
393]
PAEDAGOGUS See TUTOR.
PACUVIUS (CA. 220–CA. 130 B.C.E.)
A
Roman playwright who composed tragedies and at PALAEMON Originally a mortal named
least one FABULA PRAETEXTA. None of his plays survives Melicerta, the child of ATHAMAS and INO, Palaemon
complete, but 13 titles are known and about 440 lines was transformed into a sea divinity after his mother
of fragments exist. Pacuvius also wrote satires, but lit- (driven mad by Hera) jumped into the sea holding
tle is known about these. The known titles of Pacuvius’ him. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Ovid, Metamorphoses
tragedies are Antiope, Atalanta, Chryses, Orestes as a 4.416–562; Plautus, Rope 160; Seneca, Oedipus 448]
Slave (Dulorestes), Hermione, Iliona, Medus, The Washing
(Niptra), Pentheus, Periboea, Protesilaus, Teucer. Pacu- PALAMEDES The son of NAUPLIUS and Clymene
vius’ known fabula praetexta, entitled Paulus, must (or Philyra or Hesione), Palamedes sailed with the
have treated Lucius Aemilius Paulus’ victory at Pydna Greek forces who fought in the Trojan War. According
over the Macedonian king Perseus. to tradition, Palamedes was a great designer, inventor,
and discoverer of skills previously unknown. He is said
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Manuwald, G. ed. Identität und Alterität in der frührömischen
to have invented numbers, weights, and measures. He
Tragödie. Würzburg, Ger.: Ergon-Verl., 2000. taught the Greek army how to count as high as 1,000
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, and how to use beacons. He designed the defensive
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: wall that the Greeks built at TROY and methods for
Harvard University Press, 1936. marshalling their troops. He also learned the move-
ments of stars and revealed many facts previously
PAEAN A paean can be any sort of song or chant, unknown. ODYSSEUS, who hated Palamedes, plotted to
but is best known as a song in honor of APOLLO. kill him. In one version of the story Odysseus and
Sometimes Apollo is even called Paean. [ANCIENT DIOMEDES drown Palamedes; in another account,
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Agamemnon 146 (see ORESTEIA); Palamedes, searching for treasure in a well, is crushed

402
 PANAETIUS 403

by stones. In a third version, Odysseus, having per- narrowly avoided being captured on AEGINA by the
suaded Agamemnon to move the Greek camp for a sin- Spartans in 389 B.C.E. and the Athenians later tried and
gle day, secretly hides a large amount of gold in the fined him for misappropriation of public funds. A
ground where Palamedes had pitched his tent. Addi- famous painter named Pamphilus (from SICYON) also
tionally, Odysseus made one of their captives write a lived during the time of the politician Pamphilus, and
letter to Priam, which stated that Palamedes would ARISTOPHANES may refer to both of them in WEALTH.
betray the Greek camp to the Trojans for a certain [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wealth 173, 385;
amount of gold. Demosthenes, 40.22; Lysias, 15.5; Pliny, Natural His-
AESCHYLUS wrote a Palamedes, from which a few frag- tory 35.75–77, 123; Xenophon, Hellenica 5.1.2–5]
ments survive. In one fragment, the speaker, appar-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ently Palamedes, describes his contribution to the
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
organization of the Greek army. In another, Nauplius Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 146–47,
(?) asks ODYSSEUS why he killed his son. EURIPIDES also 165–66.
composed a tragic Palamedes, produced in 415 B.C.E. as
part of the tetralogy that included Alexandros, TROJAN PAN The son of HERMES and PENELOPE (or the
WOMEN, and Sisyphus. ARISTOPHANES, who criticized the daughter of Dryops) or ZEUS and HUBRIS, Pan is a shep-
play as “frigid,” parodied Euripides’ Palamedes in his herd god usually associated with the wilds of ARCADIA.
THESMOPHORIAZUSAE. Euripides’ play also dealt with the Pan has the legs and horns of a goat but an otherwise
destruction of Palamedes through the efforts of human physique. Pan is associated with singing, danc-
Odysseus. In Thesmophoriazusae, Aristophanes paro- ing, and playing the pipes, which he is said to have
dies the Euripidean scene in which Palamedes’ brother, invented after a woman (Syrinx) he was pursuing was
Oeax, writes the news of Palamedes’ death on oar transformed into reeds. In some situations, Pan was
blades and throws them into the sea. [ANCIENT SOURCES: thought to cause people to behave in unusual ways.
Hyginus, Fables 105; Seneca, Agamemnon 568] The poisoned clothing MEDEA gives to CREON’s daugh-
BIBLIOGRAPHY ter makes the young woman’s servants think that Pan
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: has afflicted her. Pan delivers the PROLOGUE in MENAN-
Methuen, 1967. DER’s DYSCOLUS and a shrine dedicated to the god is rep-
resented onstage. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
PALLANTIDS The sons of an Athenian, Pallas, Frogs 230, Lysistrata 2, 721, 912, 998, Thesmophori-
who was the brother of AEGEUS, the Pallantids were azusae 978; Euripides, Bacchae 952, Electra 709, Helen
political rivals of Aegeus and his son THESEUS. The Pal- 190, Hippolytus 142, Ion 492, 938, Iphigenia in Tauris
lantids opposed Theseus’ right to succeed Aegeus as 1126, Medea 1172, Rhesus 36; Sophocles, Oedipus
king of ATHENS, and Theseus fought against and killed Tyrannos 1100]
them. EURIPIDES, at HIPPOLYTUS 35, attributes HIPPOLY-
TUS’ presence in TROEZEN as the result of his exile for PANACEA A daughter of ASCLEPIUS. [ANCIENT
killing the Pallantids. SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wealth 702]

PALLAS Another name for ATHENA. PANAETIUS It is uncertain whether Panaetius

was a fictional or historical person. ARISTOPHANES indi-
PAMPHILUS Not to be confused with the fic- cates he was a member of the Athenian cavalry. A
tional young man who is a character in New Comedy wealthy Athenian named Panaetius, who lived during
(see TERENCE’s ANDRIA and MOTHER-IN-LAW), this Pam- Aristophanes’ lifetime, is known. In 415 B.C.E., this
philus was an Athenian politician and military com- Panaetius, as was ALCIBIADES, was implicated in the des-
mander from the DEME of Ceiriadae. Pamphilus ecration of the Herms and profaning of the MYSTERIES of
404 PANATHENAEA

DEMETER. Panaetius went into exile and his property emperors such as AUGUSTUS, Tiberius, and NERO all
was taken away, but he returned to ATHENS and his exiled family members to Pandataria. To marry POP-
property had been restored by the year 400. [ANCIENT PAEA, Nero exiled his wife, OCTAVIA, at Pandataria in 62
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 243] C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia 972; Tacitus,
Annals 1.53]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 155–56. PANDELETUS A minor Athenian politician
who initiated malicious legal prosecutions against oth-
PANATHENAEA This annual festival, held in ers. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 924]
July of the modern calendar, honored ATHENS’ patron
divinity, ATHENA. That the Panathenaea was the oldest BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 3,
and most important of Athenian festivals is attested to by
Clouds. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1982, 206.
Athenians’ tracing its origin to the mythical king
ERICHTHONIUS. Every fourth year, from 566 B.C.E., the
Panathenaea expanded to almost a week and became the PANDION The mythological tradition regarding
Great Panathenaea, when athletic and musical competi- this king of ATHENS is confusing. Some make him the
tions were held. Unlike winners at other major games son of ERICTHONIUS and Praxithea and identify his chil-
such as those at Olympia, in which the prize was a crown dren as PHILOMELA, PROCNE, ERECHTHEUS, and Butes.
of vegetation, winners in the musical competitions at the Other sources call Pandion the son of CECROPS and
Great Panathenaea received a valuable golden crown, Metiadusa, and some sources say Pandion was the
while the athletes received a crown of olive and large jar father of AEGEUS, Lycus, Nisus, and Pallas. Pandion had
of olive oil. A major sacrifice to the goddess was made, a statue in the AGORA at ATHENS, where he was regarded
and fire for this sacrifice was obtained via a relay torch as one of the city’s 10 eponymous heroes. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 1183; Pausanias,
race at night. Those present at the sacrifice received meat
from the sacrificial animals. Athena’s statue was given a 1.5.2–4; Seneca, Octavia 8]
new robe (peplos) on the next-to-last day of the festival,
which was considered Athena’s birthday. Scenes such as PANDORA After PROMETHEUS stole fire from ZEUS
the gods’ victory over the GIANTS were woven onto this and gave it to mortals, Zeus decided to punish not only
robe. A grand procession transported the robe to the Prometheus, but mortals. To punish the human race,
Athenian ACROPOLIS via a ship on wheels, the robe hang- Zeus had the gods create the first woman, Pandora,
ing from the ship’s mast as a sail would. [ANCIENT whose name indicates that all (pan-) the gods had
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.14.6; Aristophanes, given her gifts (-dora). Hephaestus crafted her body,
Clouds 386, 988, Frogs 1090, Peace 418; Pausanias, Athena taught her arts and crafts, and Hermes gave her
1.29.1; Plato, Euthyphro 6b; Plutarch, Theseus 24] cunning. After Pandora was created, Zeus gave her to
Prometheus’ dim-witted brother, Epimetheus. Pandora
BIBLIOGRAPHY had with her a jar, filled with various plagues and evils.
Neils, J. Goddess and Polis: The Panathenaic Festival in Ancient
Pandora was given instructions not to open the jar, but
Athens. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Olson, S. D. Aristophanes: Peace. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
eventually curiosity got the better of her, she gave in to
1998, 160–61. temptation, and all manner of evils were released into
Parke, H. W. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell the world. Only delusive hope managed to be kept
University Press, 1977, 33–50. within the jar. The fate of Pandora is murky after this
point. Pandora and Epimetheus are called the parents
PANDATARIA (PANDATERIA) A small, of Pyrrha and Deucalion.
desolate island off the western coast of central Italy, Sophocles wrote a Pandora (also entitled Hammerers;
Pandateria is best known as a place for exiles. Roman Greek: Sphyrokopoi), which was surely a SATYR PLAY.
 PARABASIS 405

One fragment probably refers to molding the clay for PAPHOS A town on the island of Cyprus, Paphos
Pandora’s body; another mentions a male who, after was a center for the worship of APHRODITE, who was
drinking lots of wine, will have his penis massaged. said to have been born on the island. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
The comic poet Nicophon also wrote a Pandora, but Aeschylus, Persians 891; Aristophanes, Lysistrata 833;
the 20 or so words that survive tell nothing about the Euripides, Bacchae 406]
play’s plot (fragments 5–11 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Hesiod, Theogony 570–612, Works and Days 47–105] PARABASIS A Greek word meaning “coming
BIBLIOGRAPHY forward,” the parabasis is an extended song in old
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. COMEDY that was performed by the CHORUS and directly
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: addressed the audience. No actors were onstage during
Teubner, 1880. the parabasis. The only surviving examples of the
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: parabasis appear in ARISTOPHANES’ plays, and two of his
Harvard University Press, 1996. plays, KNIGHTS and BIRDS, contain two parabases. Some
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, Aristophanic plays do not contain a parabasis (ECCLESI-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. AZUSAE, WEALTH). The parabasis often contains the fol-
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University lowing structural elements: a farewell to the characters
Press of America, 1984.
leaving the stage; a section in anapestic METER, in
which the chorus leader speaks to the audience as if he
PANHELLENES A name given to the Greeks as were the poet; an ode to the gods; an epirrhema, in
a united group. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace which the chorus leader gives advice to the audience;
302; Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis 350, 414, Suppliant an antode, which has the same metrical pattern as the
Women 526, 671, Trojan Women 413, 721; Homer, Iliad ode; and an antepirrhema, which has the same metri-
2.530] cal pattern as the epirrhema.
The content of the parabasis varies from play to
PANOPTES Another name for the multieyed play; an Aristophanic parabasis often contains remarks
ARGUS, the guardian of IO. The name Panoptes means on Athenian politicians or politics. In some instances,
“all-seeing.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Suppliant such as in WASPS, the parabasis contains a complaint
Women 304; Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 80; Euripides, from Aristophanes about the audience’s reception of
Phoenician Women 1115] his previous play. In PEACE, the chorus argue that
Aristophanes should be praised for not resorting to
PANTOMIME A type of dramatic performance, tired old routines in his comedies. Not all parabases
popular among the Romans, that combined dancing focus on political matters or Aristophanes’ concerns as
and the acting of stories from mythology. The actor in a poet. The first parabasis in Birds presents an account
pantomime wore a mask, danced, and acted but did of the creation of the universe in which birds play a
not sing. The actor was accompanied, however, by a central role.
chorus, whose words explained the actor’s gestures. In BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lucian’s On the Dance (67–68), the author marvels at Bowie, A. M. “The Parabasis in Aristophanes: Prolegomena,
how the actor in pantomime acted out all the various Acharnians,” Classical Quarterly 32 (1982): 27–40.
parts in a story, pretending to be ATHAMAS at one Dover, K. J. Aristophanic Comedy. Berkeley: University of
moment, INO the next, or ATREUS one moment and California Press, 1972, 49–53.
Hubbard, T. K. The Mask of Comedy: Aristophanes and the
THYESTES the next.
Intertextual Parabasis. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
BIBLIOGRAPHY Press, 1991.
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama. Sifakis, G. M. Parabasis and Animal Choruses: A Contribution to
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 369–89. the History of Attic Comedy. London: Athlone Press, 1971.
406 PARALUS (1)

PARALUS (1) A special Athenian ship used for PARASKENION A Greek word (plural: Paraske-
public business. The sailors on this ship were called nia) that means “beside the SKENE (stage building).”
the Paraloi. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds The term paraskenion can refer either to the space on
1204, Frogs 1071; Thucydides, 3.77, 8.73–74, 8.86] stage to the sides of the skene or structures that proj-
ect forward from either side of the skene. Pollux uses
PARALUS (2) A coastal district in Athenian ter- the term paraskenion in reference to a member of the
ritory. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 58; chorus who serves as a fourth actor. [ANCIENT
Euripides, Suppliant Women 659] SOURCES: Demosthenes, 21.17; Pollux, Onomasticon
4.109]
PARASITE (Greek: KOLAX, PARA- BIBLIOGRAPHY
SITOS; Latin: PARASITUS) Although para- Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
sites are usually thought of as stock characters only in Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 80–84.
New Comedy, those who behaved as parasites appeared
in earlier Greek drama as well (for example, EUPOLIS’
PARCAE A Roman name for the FATES.
Flatterers of 421 B.C.E.). The Greek word parasitos liter-
ally means “food beside.” Accordingly, the primary goal
of the parasite is to find a free meal whenever possible. PARIS (ALEXANDER) Paris was the son of
When a parasite takes the stage, the audience can PRIAM and HECABE. Immediately before Hecabe gave
expect to hear several jokes about food and the para- birth to Paris, she dreamed that she gave birth to a
site’s voracious hunger. In PLAUTUS’ STICHUS, the first blazing torch that was wriggling with serpents. When
word the parasite Gelasimus speaks is hunger, who he the dream was reported to the local prophets, they told
claims is his mother. The cook in Plautus’ TWO Hecabe to kill the child because it would destroy the
MENAECHMI (222–23) quips that a parasite can easily eat kingdom. Accordingly, after Paris’ birth, he was
as much as eight people. In exchange for food, the par- exposed, but he was later rescued by a shepherd, who
asite often performs various odd jobs for a patron. In pitied the infant.
Plautus’ CURCULIO, for example, the parasite, Curculio, Once, after Paris grew up, HERMES took three god-
helps his patron, Phaedromus, in his efforts to acquire desses (HERA, ATHENA, and APHRODITE) to him as he
the young woman Planesium. In Plautus’ CAPTIVES, the tended flocks on Mount Ida. Paris was told that he was
parasite, Ergasilus, characterizes himself as something to choose which goddess was the fairest. Each goddess
of a witty jester and humorist whose delightful com- tried to bribe Paris to choose her: Hera offered Paris
pany would serve as “payment” for the food he would the power of a king, Athena success as a great warrior,
consume. In Plautus’ PERSIAN, the appetite of the para- and Aphrodite the most beautiful woman in the world,
site, Saturio, so rules his life that he is willing to sell his HELEN of SPARTA, the wife of MENELAUS. When Paris
daughter (albeit temporarily) to satisfy his belly. chose Aphrodite as the fairest, the other two divinities
left angry and began to plot Paris’ ruin. Although Paris
BIBLIOGRAPHY had chosen Aphrodite, he was still a simple shepherd
Damon, C. The Mask of the Parasite: A Pathology of Roman living in the Trojan countryside, while Helen lived on
Patronage. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, the other side of the AEGEAN SEA at Sparta. That would
1997.
soon change, however.
Frangoulidis, Stavros A. “The Parasite as Poet-Playwright
Not long afterward, Paris returned to Troy to com-
and the Slave as Parasite in Terence’s Phormio,” Bolletino di
Studi Latini 25, no. 2 (1995): 397–425. pete in some funeral games that were held in honor of
———. “(Meta)theatre as Therapy in Terence’s Phormio,” one of Priam’s sons—ironically, Paris himself. Because
Classica et Mediaevalia 47 (1996): 169–206. the prize was to be a bull that Paris himself had raised
Leach, E. W. “Ergasilus and the Ironies of the Captivi,” Clas- and cared for, the young shepherd did not want to lose
sica et Mediaevalia 30 (1969): 263–96. it. When Paris defeated the competition (ironically, his
 PARODOS (1) 407

own brothers), they became enraged and threatened to Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
kill him. After Paris took refuge at a nearby altar of Harvard University Press, 1996.
Zeus Herceius (Zeus of the Oath), the prophetess CAS- Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
SANDRA revealed that Paris was her brother. At this,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Priam accepted Paris as his son and welcomed him to
Press of America, 1984.
the royal palace.
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecil-
As a Trojan prince, Paris now had the financial ius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: and London: Harvard Uni-
resources at his disposal to sail to Sparta. Once there, versity Press, 1935.
Paris made his way to Menelaus’ home. The unsus- Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
pecting Menelaus entertained the exotic foreigner in Methuen, 1967.
his home and eventually left him alone with Helen
when he attended a relative’s funeral outside Sparta. PARNASSUS Both a mountain range and a twin-
With Menelaus out of the way, Paris abducted Helen peaked mountain (almost 8,000 feet in height) in
and sailed with her to TROY. north central Greece. The town of DELPHI and APOLLO’s
During the ensuing Trojan War fought to recover temple and oracle are located on the southern slopes of
Helen, we hear relatively little about Paris. In the war’s Parnassus. For two extant plays, audiences must imag-
10th year, he fought a one-on-one combat with ine Parnassus as the backdrop: AESCHYLUS’ Eumenides
Menelaus, which would have decided the war and (see ORESTEIA) opens at Apollo’s temple on Parnassus;
which Menelaus would have won had Aphrodite not Euripides’ ION is set at Apollo’s temple at Delphi, and
rescued Paris. Eventually, PHILOCTETES killed Paris with ION threatens to have CREUSA thrown from Parnassus
a volley of arrows from the bow of HERACLES. after she tries to kill him. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus,
Although Paris is one of the most-often mentioned Eumenides 11 (see ORESTEIA; Aristophanes, Frogs 1057;
figures in classical mythology, he does not appear as a Euripides, Ion 1267; Seneca, Oedipus 227, 281]
character in any extant classical drama. Paris would
BIBLIOGRAPHY
have been a character in tragedies, comedies, and SATYR McInerney, J. “Parnassus, Delphi, and the Thyiades,” Greek,
PLAYS. Both EURIPIDES and SOPHOCLES wrote plays entitled Roman, and Byzantine Studies 38, no. 3 (1997): 263–83.
Alexander. Euripides’ play was part of the trilogy of 415
B.C.E. that included Palamedes (?) and Trojan Women. PARNES A well-forested mountain on the north-
Sophocles’ play seems to have treated the return of Paris ern edge of Athenian territory. Parnes was close to the
to Troy and his recognition as Priam’s son. ENNIUS wrote DEME of ACHARNAE, and charcoal producers would have
a tragic Alexander, of which about 40 lines are extant used timber from Parnes to make their product. In the
(fragments 17–26 Jocelyn). An 11-line fragment, per- second century C.E., Pausanias noted a few altars to
haps the words of Cassandra in the prologue, mentions Zeus on Parnes and wrote that people hunted bears
Hecabe’s dream before Paris’ birth and a prophecy by and wild boar on the mountain. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Apollo that Paris would be the ruin of Troy. Other frag- Aristophanes, Acharnians 348, Clouds 323; Pausanias,
ments suggest that Ennius’ play dealt with Paris’ return 1.32.1–2]
to Troy for the games and his subsequent recognition as
Priam’s son. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
3.12.5–6, Epitome 3.1–5, 5.8, Cypria 1, 9, 10; Euripides,
Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 171.
Andromache 274–308, Helen 22–30, Trojan Women
920–32; Hyginus, Fables 91, 92, 110; Homer, Iliad 3, 6,
7.347–64, 11.368–83, 22.355–60; Little Iliad 1] PARODOS (1) The song sung by the chorus
when they first enter the ORCHESTRA. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
BIBLIOGRAPHY Aristotle, Poetics 1452b22; Plutarch, Old Men in Public
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. Affairs 785a]
408 PARODOS (2)

BIBLIOGRAPHY Scharffenberger, E. W. “Parody, Satire, Irony, and Politics:

Calame, Claude. “From Choral Poetry to Tragic Stasimon: From Euripides’ Orestes to Aristophanes’ Frogs,” Text and
The Enactment of Women’s Song,” Arion 3, no. 1 Presentation 19 (1998): 111–22.
(1994–95): 136–54.
Davidson, J. F. “The Parodos of Sophocles’ Ajax,” Bulletin of PAROS A small island (with a circumference of
the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London about 36 miles) in the AEGEAN SEA west of NAXOS is
22 (1975): 163–77.
famous for its marble. In the early fifth century B.C.E.,
Hoey, T. F. “Sun Symbolism in the Parodos of the Trachiniae,”
the island fell to the Persians; later in the century, after
Arethusa 5 (1972): 133–54.
Verdenius, W. J. “Notes on the Parodos of Euripides’ XERXES’ defeat, it was under ATHENS’ control. [ANCIENT
Bacchae,” Mnemosyne 34 (1981): 300–15. SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 884; Aristophanes, Wasps
Zimmermann, B. “The Parodoi of the Aristophanic Come- 1189]
dies: Thoughts on the Typology and on the Function of
the Entrance of the Chorus in the Comedies of Aristo- PARRHASIA A town in Arcadia (a region in
phanes,” Studi Italiani di Filologia Classica 2, no. 3 (1984): southern Greece). Sometimes poets use the name Par-
13–24. rhasia as a synonym for Arcadia. According to one tra-
dition, ORESTES spent some time in exile in Parrhasia
PARODOS (2) Also called an eisodos, a parados is after he killed his mother. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides,
one of the two entry paths (plural: parodoi) into the Orestes 1645; Seneca, Agamemnon 831, Hercules
ORCHESTRA from the sides of the theater. With the
Oetaeus 1281, Hippolytus 288]
exception of entries and exits to and from the skene,
entries and exits to the acting space occur via the par- PARTHENOPAEUS The son of Melanion (or
odoi. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics Hippomenes) and ATALANTA or MELEAGER and Atalanta,
1123a23; Pollux, 4.108; Plutarch, Precepts of Stagecraft Parthenopaeus was exposed at birth on Mount Parthe-
805d] nius, but he survived and grew up to fight in the battle
of the Seven against THEBES. Parthenopaeus died during
PARODY Imitation of an author’s style or work for the battle, but his son (variously named Promachus,
comic effect. ARISTOPHANES’ plays frequently employ
Stratolaüs, Thesimenes, or Tlesimenes) later marched
parody, especially of EURIPIDES and his plays. In ACHAR-
against the Thebans and was victorious. The Greek
NIANS, for example, DICAEOPOLIS’ taking some charcoal
tragedian Astydamas wrote a Parthenopaeus, of which
hostage parodies Euripides’ Telephus, in which the title
only the title survives (fragment 5b Snell). [ANCIENT
character takes AGAMEMNON’s son, ORESTES, hostage.
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 547; Apol-
Aristophanes’ THESMOPHORIAZUSAE contains a series of
lodorus, Library 1.9.13, 3.6.3; Euripides, Suppliant
parodies of Euripidean plays. Not only is parody found
Women 889, Phoenician Women 150, 1106; Hyginus,
in COMEDY, but tragic poets could also employ this
Fables 70, 71, 100; Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1320]
technique. Euripides’ ELECTRA contains a parody of the
recognition scene of ELECTRA and Orestes in AESCHYLUS’ BIBLIOGRAPHY
Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA). Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hammond, N. G. L. “Spectacle and Parody in Euripides’
PASIAS The name of a person mentioned by
Electra,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 25 (1984):
ARISTOPHANES at CLOUDS 21 as one of the people to
373–87.
Marianetti, M. C. “Socratic Mystery-Parody and the Issue of
whom STREPSIADES owes money. Later in the play, at
Asebeia in Aristophanes’ Clouds.” Symbolae Osloenses 68 line 1224, an unnamed creditor arrives and demands
(1993): 5–31. money from Strepsiades; some manuscripts of the play
Nesselrath, H. “Parody and Later Greek Comedy,” Harvard name this creditor Pasias. Pasias has not been identi-
Studies in Classical Philology 95 (1993): 181–95. fied with any actual historical person.
 PAUSON 409

BIBLIOGRAPHY PATROCLEIDES An Athenian statesman men-

Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Clouds. Oxford: Clarendon Press, tioned by ARISTOPHANES as someone who defecated in
1989, xxix–xxxii. his clothes while watching theatrical productions.
Dunbar suggests that he may have proposed a decree
PASIPHAE A daughter of Helius (see SUN) and in the 420s about trade with Aphytis, an ally of the
Persies, Pasiphae, queen of Knossos, was the wife of Athenians’ in Chalcidice, and in 405 proposed restora-
MINOS and by him the mother of numerous children: tion of citizens’ rights to many who had been disen-
Androgeus, Catreus, Deucalion, Glaucus, Acacallis, ARI- franchised. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 790]
ADNE, PHAEDRA, and Xenodice. The most important of
these children in drama are Ariadne and Phaedra. Hav- BIBLIOGRAPHY
ing conceived a passion for a certain bull in the herds Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
of MINOS, Pasiphae apparently related her feelings to 1995, 482.
the artisan DAEDALUS, who built a hollow wooden cow McDevitt, A. S. “Andocides I,78 and the Decree of Patroclei-
des,” Hermes 98 (1970): 503–05.
that Pasiphae could enter. With the aid of this wooden
cow, Pasiphae was able to have her lust satisfied. She
became pregnant and produced the MINOTAUR, a crea- PATROCLES A wealthy miser mentioned by
ture that was part human and part bull. ARISTOPHANES in WEALTH. Because several persons
Pasiphae does not appear as a character in any named Patrocles were active when Wealth was staged,
extant play, although she is the speaker in a fragment this Patrocles cannot be identified. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
of almost 40 lines from EURIPIDES’ Cretans (see Page’s Aristophanes, Wealth 84, fragment 455 Kock]
edition). In this fragment, Pasiphae defends her pas- BIBLIOGRAPHY
sion for the bull and claims it was a madness caused by Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
POSEIDON, whom Minos had offended. Thus, Pasiphae Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 140.
eventually blames her husband for her relationship
with the bull and defiantly urges him to kill her if he PATROCLUS The son of Menoetius and
wishes. Minos accepts her challenge, orders her to be Sthenele (or Periopis or Perimele), Patroclus was
imprisoned, and threatens her with death. Unfortu- famous as ACHILLES’ best friend and, according to
nately, the rest of the play is lost and we do not know some, his lover. During the final year of the Trojan War,
what eventually happened to Pasiphae in Euripides’
Patroclus was killed by HECTOR after Patroclus, to
play. Other sources indicate that she survived and
frighten the Trojans and to stem their rampage in the
released Daedalus from a similar imprisonment. The
Greek camp, went into battle wearing Achilles’ armor.
Greek comic poet Alcaeus wrote a Pasiphae, whose two
After Achilles’ death, the ashes of Achilles and Patro-
lines that survive indicate nothing of the plot (frag-
clus were buried together. Patroclus does not appear as
ments 26–27 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
a character in any surviving plays, but in AESCHYLUS’
Library 1.9.1, 3.1.2, 4, 3.15.1, 8; Euripides, Hippolytus
Myrmidons Patroclus and Achilles are portrayed as
337–38; Hyginus, Fables proem 36, Fables 40]
lovers. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.13.8,
BIBLIOGRAPHY Epitome 4.6–7, 5.5; Aristophanes, Frogs 1041;
Kerényi, Karl. Töchter der Sonne: Betrachtungen über griechis- Athenaeus, 13.601a–b, 13.602e; Homer, Iliad; Hygi-
che Gottheiten. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1997. nus, Fables 106, 114; Plato, Symposium 180a; Sopho-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: cles, Philoctetes 434]
Teubner, 1880.
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London:
Heinemann, 1970, 70–77. PAUSON A painter of caricature “and . . . novelty
Reckford, K. J. “Phaedra and Pasiphae: The Pull Backward,” pictures that could be viewed upside down . . . or that
Transactions of the American Philological Association 104 gave the illusion of three-dimensionality” (Sommer-
(1974): 307–28. stein). ARISTOPHANES mocks Pauson for his poverty,
410 PEACE

jokes, and riddles. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, of Athens). Riot soon returns and informs War that
Acharnians 854, Thesmophoriazusae 949, Wealth 602; Cleon is dead. War sends Riot to Sparta to borrow their
Aristotle, Metaphysics 1050a19, Poetics 1448a6; Lucian, pestle, the Spartan leader, BRASIDAS, but he is also dead.
Encomium of Demosthenes 24; Plutarch, Moralia 396e] Therefore, War goes off to make himself a pestle. Try-
gaeus, horrified by the prospect of another “pestle” like
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cleon or Brasidas, calls on the people of Greece to help
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
him pull Peace out of her cavern.
Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 178.
Trygaeus’ call is answered by the CHORUS, who rep-
resent a group of farmers. Upon hearing what Trygaeus
PEACE (Greek: EIRENE; Latin: PAX) intends, the chorus gladly and excitedly agree to help
ARISTOPHANES (421 B.C.E.) The second of him dig Peace out of her prison. As Trygaeus and the
ARISTOPHANES’ three peace plays (see also ACHARNIANS chorus begin the excavation, Hermes arrives and
and LYSISTRATA), Peace received the second prize at the threatens them with death for what they are doing.
City DIONYSIA. The play opens at the country house of When Trygaeus, however, tells Hermes that the Moon
an Athenian farmer, Trygaeus. As in KNIGHTS and WASPS, and Sun are plotting to betray Greece to the barbar-
Aristophanes begins to unfold the plot through the con- ians, who do not sacrifice to gods such as Hermes and
versation of two slaves, both unnamed in Peace. These Zeus, Hermes agrees to help Trygaeus and his fellow
slaves, who serve TRYGAEUS, have been given the task of farmers dig out Peace. After a LIBATION and prayers to
preparing cakes of dung that are to be fed to a giant the gods against warmongers, the group (who are
dung beetle. Trygaeus, upset by the hardships of the imagined to include men from several different Greek
war between ATHENS and SPARTA, has grown angry with towns) begin to haul out Peace. Although some of the
the gods. Thus, on the back of the giant dung beetle, he cities provide little or no help, Peace is eventually res-
wants to fly to Mount OLYMPUS to try to arrange peace cued when the farmers take the lead in the effort.
for the Greeks. Trygaeus has chosen the beetle because, When the beautiful Peace emerges, she is accompa-
according to one of AESOP’s fables, the beetle was the nied by two beautiful attendants, Opôra (season for
only winged creature ever to reach the gods. harvesting fruit) and Theoria (spectacle or delegation).
After bidding his household farewell, Trygaeus As Trygaeus rejoices in Peace’s sweet breath and fra-
mounts the dung beetle and is raised into the air (using grance, Hermes notes that the various cities are begin-
the MECHANE). When he lands, the audience must imag- ning to be reconciled. They also note, however, that
ine that the scene has shifted to Mount Olympus and those in the audience who work in professions that
the palace of ZEUS, where Trygaeus is met by HERMES. profit from war are unhappy, but those who work in
Hermes informs him that the other gods have gone far- professions that profit from farming are in good spir-
ther up into heaven because they do not want to see its. Next, the farmers are sent back home to return to
the Greeks’ waging war. Hermes also tells Trygaeus that their fields and the pleasures of peace. After the farm-
War has buried Peace in a deep cavern. Furthermore, ers rejoice in anticipation of all of life’s simple pleas-
War is planning to use a giant mortar to grind the ures to which they will return, they ask Hermes to
Greek cities to bits. Soon, War himself emerges with explain why Peace has been absent for so long. On the
his giant mortar and begins throwing various cities Athenian side, Hermes blames the start of the trouble
into it as if he were making a salad (PRASIAE, which rep- largely on the Athenian leader, PERICLES, and the
resents the salad greens; MEGARA, famous for its garlic; Megarian Decree. On the Spartan side, Hermes sug-
SICILY, synonymous with cheese; and the region of gests that they were bribed to enter the conflict by
Attica, known for its honey). After War throws the city cities who were tired of paying tribute to the Atheni-
ingredients into the mortar, he needs a pestle. Lacking ans. The Spartans ravaged the Athenian countryside,
one, War calls upon his slave, Riot, to go to Athens and compelling the rural population to seek refuge within
get him a pestle (the demagogue CLEON is the “pestle” the city walls of Athens, where clever Athenian politi-
 PEACE 411

cians, especially Cleon, were able to hold the simple Peace. Their ritual concludes with a lengthy prayer that
folks’ attention. asks Peace to allow the Greeks to get along with one
After Hermes’ explanation, Trygaeus notices that another. Trygaeus then sends his servant into the house
Peace herself has remained silent and asks Hermes the to sacrifice the sheep, because he claims Peace does not
reason. Hermes states that Peace is angry with the peo- like the sight of blood. While the servant is gone, Try-
ple in the audience because they rejected earlier oppor- gaeus prepares a fire to roast the sheep, with which the
tunities to make peace with the Spartans. With Hermes servant soon arrives.
speaking on her behalf, Peace then asks about the As the servant begins to roast the sheep, an ORACLE
politicians currently in favor with the citizens and how monger named Hierocles approaches and wants to
some of the poets are faring. Hermes then tells Try- know to whom Trygaeus and his servant are making
gaeus that he will arrange to have Opôra marry him so sacrifice. Trygaeus tries to ignore the man, but the ora-
that together they can produce grapevines. Hermes cle monger begins to help them roast the various parts
asks that Theoria be given back to the town council in of the sheep. When the oracle monger learns that they
Athens, because she belonged to them long ago. With are sacrificing to Peace, he calls them fools and with
this, Hermes and Trygaeus prepare to leave. Zeus, bizarre language prophesies that this is not the time for
however, is now using Trygaeus’ dung beetle to pull his Peace. All the same, the oracle monger wants to par-
chariot, so Hermes tells Trygaeus that Peace will trans- take of some of the sacrifice. Trygaeus, however, finally
port him back to his home. manages to drive away the pesky fellow.
Upon the departure of Hermes and Trygaeus, After the oracle monger’s exit, the chorus deliver a
accompanied by Peace and her two attendants, the second parabasis. They rejoice in the simple pleasures
chorus deliver the PARABASIS. Here, the chorus argue of a life free of war, especially the fruits of the
that Aristophanes deserves praise because he has not grapevine. They make fun of the man who dresses as a
resorted to tired old routines in his comedies. Instead, warrior but acts as a coward once a battle begins. They
he has injected lofty thought and diction into his sympathize with the poor men from the countryside
comedies. Furthermore, they note that Aristophanes who are called upon to face the hardest fighting and
has taken on the most powerful men of the day complain about shameless people from the city who
(namely, Cleon). The chorus go on to urge that Aristo- fare better in military service.
phanes be awarded the prize for this play. Next, the After the second parabasis, Trygaeus enters and pre-
chorus invite the Muse to join them in a song, in which pares to enjoy his wedding feast. He is joined by a
the chorus urge the Muse not to help Aristophanes’ sickle maker and a seller of storage vessels for wine,
rival poets. whose businesses have been improved dramatically by
After the parabasis, the scene returns to Earth and the arrival of Peace. After these two men thank Try-
the house of Trygaeus, who is met by one of his ser- gaeus and give him wedding presents of sickles and
vants. The servant questions Trygaeus about his adven- storage vessels, Trygaeus invites them to join his cele-
tures and about the divine women who are with him. bration. Next, a parade of men, whose livelihood
Trygaeus informs the slave that he is going to marry depended on war (e.g., a breastplate maker, a helmet
Opôra and tells him to prepare a bath for her and a maker), enter and complain to Trygaeus that their
marriage banquet and couch. Trygaeus says he will businesses have been ruined. Trygaeus mockingly tries
give Theoria back to the town council. As Trygaeus to appease these men by suggesting new ways in which
turns Theoria over to the men in the audience who their products could be used (e.g., breastplates can be
occupy the seats reserved for the councilors, he gives a used as chamber pots). Eventually, however, those who
speech laced with sexual innuendo that anticipates the profited from the business of war depart in anger from
fun they will have with Theoria (“spectacle”). After the banquet.
Theoria is turned over to the council, Trygaeus and his After the rejection of the war profiteers, Trygaeus
slave perform a ritual to inaugurate the worship of calls upon the boys who have accompanied his guests
412 PEACE

to come out and practice their singing. After hearing being, but that the women who attend her were played
the warlike song of the first boy, however, Trygaeus by actors. It is uncertain, however, whether these
discovers that the boy is the son of the general actors were males dressed as women or women who
LAMACHUS and drives him from the banquet. A second would not have been Athenian citizens.
boy, the son of CLEONYMUS, sings a poem by the poet As noted, Peace is one of three surviving Aristo-
Archilochus about a coward who (as did Cleonymus phanic peace plays. As in Lysistrata, 10 years later, Try-
himself) threw away his shield in battle. Trygaeus also gaeus’ peace extends to all Greeks, in contrast to the
does not like this song and chastises the boy for personal peace treaty into which Dicaeopolis entered
singing about a person who shamed his parents by in Acharnians. In other respects, however, Peace more
being a coward. The play concludes with Trygaeus’ closely resembles Acharnians. Both plays have heroes
urging his guests to partake of the feast. They chorus who are rustic males, both have choruses composed of
then call for Trygaeus’ bride, Opôra, to be summoned, rustic men, and both plays have an agrarian focus that
and then she and Trygaeus process out as Trygaeus is lacking in Lysistrata.
sings the marriage hymn to the god HYMEN. As Acharnians does, Peace focuses on the economic
implications of war and peace. Lysistrata has more
COMMENTARY emphasis on the impact of war on husbands and wives;
Of Aristophanes’ three extant peace plays, Peace has Acharnians and Peace focus on the economic benefits of
received the least attention from modern scholars. In peace. In Peace, Aristophanes pays some attention to
some ways, the play may have been anticlimactic those who benefit economically from the peace but
because the Athenians and Spartans were on the verge spends more time allowing his audience to view the
of concluding a peace treaty when it was produced. challenges that peace might create for those who have
The chief warmongers on the Athenian and Spartan profited from war (the sickle maker, crest maker,
sides (Cleon and Brasidas, respectively) had both died breastplate seller, helmet seller, spear burnisher, and
in the previous year, so public feeling in Athens must trumpeteer). Of course, Aristophanes has little sympa-
have been quite optimistic. thy for those who profit from the war-driven economy,
The staging of the play is problematic because of the and such men are not allowed to benefit from Try-
travel between Earth and heaven and because the stage gaeus’ peace.
directions are not extant. Trygaeus uses the mechane to The opening premise of Peace, Trygaeus’ flying to
reach heaven, but where would heaven have been heaven on a dung beetle, is far more humorous than
located in the Athenian theater? The wooden stage the scheme of the personal peace treaty that Dicaeopo-
building had a second story, but how many characters lis arranges. The humor of this scheme has the addi-
could this second level have accommodated for the tional fun of being a parody of EURIPIDES’ character,
more than 500 lines that Trygaeus spends in heaven? BELLEROPHON, who attempted to fly to Olympus on the
Perhaps Hermes stands on the second story, while Try- winged horse PEGASUS. Whereas Bellerophon’s flight
gaeus and the remaining characters appear below in failed, Trygaeus’ succeeds.
the orchestra. Thus, in Trygaeus’ ascent from the Trygaeus’ journey between heaven and Earth also
orchestra and then descent back into it, the spectators gives Peace an orientation different from that of Achar-
must simply imagine the change of scene as they were nians and Lysistrata. Other than the mission of the god
called upon to do in so many other Aristophanic plays. between Dicaeopolis and the Spartans, the events of
The rescue of Peace and the way she was excavated Acharnians generally move along an axis between the
from the “pit” are also somewhat problematic, but Athenian city and the Athenian countryside. In Lysis-
these actions probably would have been accomplished trata, the action begins with non-Athenians entering
by workers’ hauling Peace through the front doors of the city of Athens, returning to their respective towns
the SKENE by using the ECCYCLEMA. Regarding Peace, it to initiate the sex strike, and then sending their males
appears that a statue was used rather than a human back to the city of Athens. Trygaeus’ journey from
 PEISANDER 413

Earth to heaven and back again gives a vertical dimen- allies of the Spartans, refused to sign the treaty. The
sion to Peace that is not present in the other peace peace was supposed to last for 50 years, but actually
plays. Dicaeopolis’ peace was bought with money, and lasted only about five years. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Lysistrata’s peace was achieved through sexual depriva- Plutarch, Nicias 9.7; Thucydides, 5.17]
tion. Trygaeus’ peace is acheived through negotiation
with a representative of the gods and the unified effort PEGASUS The child of POSEIDON and MEDUSA
of farmers (georgoi). Trygaeus’ peace is much more an and the brother of Chrysaor, Pegasus was a famous
accord between heaven and Earth, a notion given more winged horse that helped BELLEROPHON. In ARISTO-
attention in Peace than in the other plays. Further- PHANES’ PEACE, TRYGAEUS compares the dung beetle that
more, whereas Acharnians and Lysistrata conclude with he will fly to heaven to Pegasus. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
the promise of sexual relations between men and Apollodorus, Library 2.4.2; Aristophanes, Peace 76,
women as a result of peace, Peace ends with a sacred 135, 154; Seneca, Trojan Women 385]
marriage between Trygaeus and the divine Opôra. This
union promises more than just physical pleasure: It PEIRAEUS The name of the main harbor at
points to a restoration of the fertility of the fields, ATHENS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 145,
whose fruits war destroyed and peace will allow to 165]
flourish again.
Although Aristophanes’ Peace starts with an amus-
PEIRENE A famous spring at the town of
ing premise, perhaps because its second half follows
CORINTH. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pausanias, 2.3.2; Euripi-
several of the formulae already seen in earlier Aristo-
des, Medea 69, Trojan Women 205; Plautus, Pot of Gold
phanic plays, the play seems to lack the vitality and
559; Seneca, Medea 745]
liveliness of Acharnians. Thus, Walton observes that
despite the play’s promising beginning, “the idea tails
off. There is no confrontation with War, no follow-up
PEISANDER The son of Glaucetes, Peisander,
from the DEME of ACHARNAE, was a prominent Athenian
to Hermes’ conversion to the peace party, no new
in the last quarter of the fifth century B.C.E. Comic
development in the plot to have purpose to any of the
poets mocked him as a warmonger who was clumsy,
second half.”
fat, gluttonous, and cowardly. In 415, Peisander served
BIBLIOGRAPHY as a commissioner “to bring to justice those responsi-
McGlew, J. F. “Identity and Ideology: The Farmer Chorus of ble for mutilating the statues of Hermes [on the eve of
Aristophanes’ Peace,” Syllecta Classica 12 (2001): 74–97. the SICILIAN EXPEDITION] and parodying the Mysteries”
Newiger, H. J. “War and Peace in the Comedy of Aristo- (Dunbar). In 411, Peisander took part in the oligarchic
phanes,” Yale Classical Studies 26 (1980): 219–37. revolution that overthrew the democracy in ATHENS;
Olson, S. D. Aristophanes: Peace. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
after the fall of the oligarchs Peisander left Athens and
1998.
in his absence was sentenced to die. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5,
Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985.
Aelian, Varia Historia 1.27; Andocides 1.27, 36, 43;
Walton, J. M. Living Greek Theatre. New York: Greenwood Aristophanes, Birds 1556, Lysistrata 490, Peace
Press, 1987, 195. 395–99; Eupolis, fragments 31, 182 Kock; Phryn-
ichus, fragment 20 Kock; Thucydides, 8.49–56,
PEACE OF NICIAS Several days after ARISTO- 63–68, 98.1; Xenophon, Symposium 2.14]
PHANES’ PEACE was staged in 421 B.C.E., the Athenians BIBLIOGRAPHY
and Spartans entered into a peace agreement known as Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
the Peace of NICIAS (the treaty’s chief architect). This sity Press, 1995, 484–85.
treaty put a temporary halt to the PELOPONNESIAN WAR. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
The people of BOEOTIA, CORINTH, MEGARA, and ELIS, Teubner, 1880.
414 PEISETAERUS

Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5, con originally may have meant “stork’s nest.” [ANCIENT
Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1985, 151. SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 832; Herodotus, 5.64.2;
Woodhead, A.G. “Peisander,” American Journal of Philology Thucydides, 2.17.1]
75 (1954): 131–46.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PEISETAERUS Peisetaerus (“he who persuades Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1995, 497–98.
his comrades”) is the hero of ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS (414
B.C.E.). The spelling of his name has been debated and
some editors have “Peisthetaerus.” Peisetaeurs and his PELASGIA See PELASGUS.
friend, EUELPIDES, leave ATHENS and decide to live with
the birds. Peisetaerus persuades the birds to build a PELASGUS According to some sources, Pelasgus
city that will rival the home of the gods and cause the was born from the earth itself. Other sources say Pelas-
gods to hand over sovereignity to them. The birds gus was the son of Palaechthon, the son of Phoroneus,
the son of POSEIDON and Larissa, or the son of ZEUS and
agree to Peisetaerus’ plan, and the gods eventually sub-
a woman named Niobe, who was the first mortal
mit to Peisetaerus. Some scholars have seen similarities
woman with whom Zeus had sexual relations. Pelasgus
between Peisetaerus and the Athenian statesman ALCIB-
was a king of ARGOS, who married Ocean’s daughter,
IADES, who persuaded the Athenians to undertake an
Meliboea (or the nymph Cyllene), and had a son
expedition to SICILY in 415. For more on the similari-
named Lycaon. This region and the entire region of the
ties between Alcibiades and Peisetaerus, see the Com-
Peloponnese is sometimes named Pelasgia, and its peo-
mentary section in the entry on Aristophanes’ Birds.
ple Pelasgians, after him. Pausanias reports that the
BIBLIOGRAPHY people of Arcadia considered Pelasgus the first to
Dunbar, Nan. “Sophia in Aristophanes’ Birds,” Scripta Classica inhabit their land. Pelasgus was also credited with
Israelica 15 (1996): 61–71. inventing huts and sheepskin coats, teaching people
Epstein, P. D. “The Marriage of Peisthetairos to Basileia in how to identify and avoid poisonous food, and teach-
the Birds of Aristophanes,” Dionysius 5 (1981): 6–28. ing people to feed upon acorns from oak trees.
Pozzi, D. C. “The Pastoral Ideal in the Birds of Aristo- Pelasgus appears as a character in AESCHYLUS’ SUPPLI-
phanes,” Classical Journal 81 (1986): 119–29.
ANT WOMEN. In this play, Pelasgus, although king of
Argos, appears as the precursor of such later Athenian
PEISIAS, SON OF An otherwise unknown kings as Theseus in EURIPIDES’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN and in
person whom ARISTOPHANES, at BIRDS 766, character- SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS AT COLONUS, or Theseus’ son,
izes as someone who would betray the city of the birds DEMOPHON, in Euripides’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES. As
to its enemies. The son of Peisias may have been such, Pelasgus must choose between granting asylum
involved in the mutilation of the Herms at Athens in in his land to the daughters of Danaus or risking attack
415 B.C.E. He has also been identified with a person from the sons of AEGYPTUS, who pursue them for mar-
named Cleombrotus, whose nickname was “the son of riage. Eventually, Pelasgus takes the women’s case
Partridge” (a fitting nickname for someone criticized in before the people of Argos and persuades them to vote
Birds). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Athenaeus, 389a] to allow Danaus and his daughters to enjoy the protec-
BIBLIOGRAPHY tion of Argos. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer- 2.1.1, 3.8.1; Pausanias, 1.14.2, 2.14.3, 8.1.4–5]
sity Press, 1995, 473.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burian, P. “Pelasgus and Politics in Aeschylus’ Danaid Tril-
PELARGICON The name for the ancient walls ogy,” Weiner Studien 8 (1974): 5–14.
that surrounded the ACROPOLIS at ATHENS. ARISTO- Tarkow, T. A. “The Dilemma of Pelasgus and the Nautical
PHANES uses the name at BIRDS 832 in reference to the Imagery of Aeschylus’ Suppliants,” Classica & Mediaevalia
potential walls for the city of the birds because Pelargi- 31 (1970): 1–13
 PELEUS 415

Turner, Chad. “Perverted Supplication and Other Inversions learned of a prophecy that Thetis’ son would be more
in Aeschylus’ ‘Danaid’ Trilogy,” Classical Journal 97, no. 1 powerful than his father, Zeus arranged for her to
(2001–2): 27–50. marry a mortal man, Peleus. Because Thetis was able to
change her form, Peleus would have a difficult time
PELEUS The son of AEACUS and Endeis, Peleus catching her, but Chiron told Peleus to grab Thetis and
was the king of PHTHIA. Peleus was born on AEGINA, hold her while she changed her shape. Although Thetis
where his father was king. After Peleus and his brother, changed into fire, water, and a wild animal, Peleus held
TELAMON, killed their stepbrother, Phocus, Peleus on to the goddess. Eventually, she returned to her
exiled them. Telamon went to SALAMIS, and Peleus to human form and married Peleus. Their wedding took
Phthia, where he was purified of the murder. In Phthia, place on Mount Pelion and was attended by the gods.
Peleus married Antigone, the daughter of Actor, who Chiron gave Peleus a spear made from an ash tree on
some sources say purified Peleus. Peleus and Antigone PELION and Poseidon gave him a pair of immortal
had a daughter, Polydora. horses, Balius and Xanthus.
Later, while Peleus was in the town of TRACHIS, Peleus accompanied the Argonauts on their quest
Psamathe, a sea nymph and the mother of the deceased for the Golden Fleece. After marrying Thetis, Peleus
Phocus, caused a wolf to ravage Peleus’ herds. Peleus became the father of ACHILLES, but Thetis left Peleus at
tried to appease Psamathe by various means, but he some point not long after Achilles was born. At the end
did not succeed. Eventually, Peleus’ future wife, THETIS, of EURIPIDES’ ANDROMACHE, in which Peleus saves the
one of Psamathe’s sisters, persuaded Psamathe to stop title character from the cruelty of HERMIONE, Thetis
the wolf; Psamathe did so by turning it to stone. appears and tells Peleus that he can live with her and
Peleus participated in several important adventures. attain immorality.
First, he joined in the hunt for the Calydonian boar, In addition to his appearance in Euripides’ Andro-
although he accidentally killed one of his fellow mache, Peleus would have appeared in numerous classi-
hunters, Eurytion. Perhaps some further disgrace fol- cal dramas. Euripides wrote a play entitled Peleus
lowed for Peleus, as he was defeated in wrestling by a (fragments 617–24 Nauck), to which ARISTOPHANES
woman, ATALANTA, at the funeral games held in honor appears to refer in the revised version of CLOUDS. The
of Pelias. After this time, Pelias’ son, ACASTUS, exiled fragments give little indication of the play’s content;
Peleus from THESSALY. Apollodorus relates that Acastus’ Webster thinks the play most likely treated Astydameia’s
wife, Astydameia, fell in love with Peleus and tried to attempted seduction of Peleus. SOPHOCLES, before 424
seduce him. When Peleus refused, Astydameia told B.C.E., wrote a Peleus (fragments 487–96 Radt), which
Peleus’ wife (this was before his union with Thetis) that appears to have been about the aged Peleus’ exile from
Peleus was planning to marry Acastus’ daughter, Iolcus by ACASTUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
Sterope. Hearing this, Peleus’ wife hanged herself. Library 1.8.2, 3.9.2, 3.13.1–5; Aristophanes, Clouds
Astydameia also informed Acastus that Peleus had 1063; Euripides, Trojan Women 1127–38; Hyginus,
attempted to rape her. Acastus took Peleus to hunt on Fables 14; Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.221–409]
Mount Pelion, and when Peleus fell asleep, Acastus,
hoping Peleus would be killed, hid Peleus’ sword and BIBLIOGRAPHY
left him on the mountain. When the defenseless Peleus Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
awoke, CENTAURS attacked him, but the centaur CHIRON
Harvard University Press, 1996.
saved him and gave him back his sword.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
After this, Peleus married Polydora and had a son, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Menesthius; Menesthius, however, was actually the Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Sperchius River’s son. Peleus later married NEREUS’ Press of America, 1984.
daughter, Thetis. ZEUS and POSEIDON had wanted to Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
have sexual relations with Thetis, but when they Methuen, 1967.
416 PELION

PELION A mountain near the northeast coast of PERICLES, the leading stateman in Athens, advised the
mainland Greece in the region of Thessaly. In drama Athenians to leave the countryside for the protection of
Pelion is perhaps most associated with PELEUS and his the city’s walls. Pericles also advised the Athenians to
son, ACHILLES, whose spear was said to have been made avoid fighting the Spartans on land, and to rely on
from an ash tree cut from Mount Pelion. The pines of their superior navy to make raids on Spartan territory
Mount Pelion also provided the timber for JASON’s ship, and put a stranglehold on the ports on which the land-
ARGO. locked Spartans relied.
In the first years of the war, both Athens and Sparta
PELLENE A Greek town on the southern coast of followed their initial strategy. When Athens became
the Gulf of CORINTH. They sided with the Spartans in crowded with people from the countryside and a hor-
the PELOPONNESIAN WAR. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- rific plague broke out in the city, of which Pericles
phanes, Birds 1421] himself died in 429, the Athenians began to waver in
their resolve to pursue Pericles’ strategy. The Athenians
PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431–404 B.C.E.) also faced trouble within their empire, as the Spartans
The Peloponnesian War was between ATHENS and its were encouraging those of the empire to revolt. Thus,
allies and SPARTA and its allies (notably CORINTH and not only did the Athenians have to deal with the Spar-
THEBES). The causes of the war were various; one was tans’ ravaging their territory every summer, but they
that the rising power of Athens in the region caused also had to suppress revolts within their empire (such
great alarm among the other cities in Greece. In the late as at MYTILENE in 428/427).
430s Corinth and Corcyra quarreled over the Cor- The plague and revolts within their empire had
cyrean colony of Epidamnus. When the Corcyreans hampered the Athenians’ ability to defeat the Spartans;
appealed to Athens for aid, the Athenians accepted, the Spartans had their own problems as earthquakes in
and soon the Corinthians and Athenians were involved their territory in 426 postponed military operations.
in military hostilities. Likewise, when the Athenians The Spartans also suffered a severe setback in 425 as
suspected that the Corinthian colony of Potidaea, the Athenians established a garrison in their territory at
which they had made part of their empire, was plan- PYLOS and captured a large number of Sparta’s finest
ning to revolt and insisted that they expel various soldiers on the island of Sphacteria (just off the coast
Corinthian public officials from Potidaea, the Poti- from Pylos). So damaging was this setback that the
daeans refused, revolted against Athenian control, and Spartans tried to make peace with the Athenians.
appealed to Corinth for military assistance (which they Athens’ most influential statesman at this time, CLEON,
received). After the Athenians beseiged Potidaea in persuaded his fellow citizens to reject this proposal
432, the Corinthians appealed to the Spartans for help. and continue the war. In 422, however, Cleon and
Additionally, in ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS, one of the Brasidas (the leading proponent of war on the Spartan
primary causes given was the Megarian decree, a side) were killed in battle at Amphipolis, and in 421
decree passed by the Athenian assembly that prevented the Athenians and Spartans agreed to the so-called
the people of Megara from trading in Athenian mar- PEACE OF NICIAS.
kets. This decree severely damaged the Megarian econ- The peace was a tenuous one, as the Corinthians
omy, and the Megarians also appealed to Sparta for and Thebans would not agree to the treaty. Further-
help at that time, when the Spartans and Athenians more, some military hostilities continued between the
were in the midst of a 30-year peace treaty (agreed Athenians and Spartans, such as the battle at Mantinea
upon in 445). Sparta, however, decided that Athens in 418, at which the Spartans were victorious. In 416,
had broken that treaty and the Spartans and their allies the Athenians destroyed the male population on the
decided to go to war with Athens. island of Melos, enslaved the women and children, and
Because it was common practice for the Spartans to occupied the island because the Melians had remained
ravage their enemy’s countryside during times of war, neutral in the conflict between Athens and Sparta. In
 PELOPS 417

415, the Athenians, persuaded by their leading states- clear because only seven Sophoclean plays survive, but
man, ALCIBIADES, undertook the SICILIAN EXPEDITION, certainly PHILOCTETES, which was produced during
whose ultimate aim was nothing less than the conquest this time (409 B.C.), shows an awareness of the Athe-
of that island. Alcibiades himself, because he was nians’ dilemma about their statesman and military
implicated in a scandal that occurred on the eve of the commander A LCIBIADES . Sophocles’ TRACHINIAN
expedition’s departure, was recalled to Athens, but he WOMEN, which may have been produced during the
escaped and made his way to Sparta. The Athenian war’s first decade, demonstrates some concern with
forces at Sicily were destroyed in 413. Meanwhile, the effects of war on the household of HERACLES.
Alcibiades advised the Spartans to establish a perma- [ANCIENT SOURCES: Diodorus Siculus, 12.30–13.107;
nent garrison in Athenian territory so that they could Plutarch, Alcibiades, Lysander, Nicias, Pericles; Thucy-
inflict hardship on the Athenians through the year. dides, History of the Peloponnesian War; Xenophon,
By now, the Peace of Nicias was all but forgotten and Hellenica 1–2.2]
hostilities between Athens and Sparta began again in
BIBLIOGRAPHY
earnest. Despite the destruction of the Sicilian Expedi-
Kagan, D. The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. Ithaca,
tion, the Spartans’ establishment of a garrison in N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1969.
Athenian territory (also in 413), and an oligarchic rev- ———. The Archidamian War. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univer-
olution in 411 that briefly overthrew the Athenian sity Press, 1974.
democracy, the Athenians continued to wage war effec- ———. The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition. Ithaca,
tively against the Spartans. The oligarchic revolution of N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981.
411 led to the recall of Alcibiades, who helped the ———. The Fall of the Athenian Empire. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
Athenians achieve some success. After an Athenian loss University Press, 1987.
at Notium in 406, however, Alcibiades was again ———. The Peloponnesian War. New York: Viking, 2003.
exiled from Athens. Despite Alcibiades’ absence, in
405 the Athenians inflicted a defeat so crushing at PELOPS The son of TANTALUS and Dione, Pelops
ARGINUSAE that the Spartans were prepared to pursue experienced death and resurrection. After his father
peace. As after the battle at Sphacteria, the Athenians killed him, he served him as food to the gods.
refused the offer and the war continued. In 405, the Although most of the gods did not partake of this vile
Spartans defeated the Athenian navy at Aegospotami meal, DEMETER ate Pelops’ shoulder. The gods later
and laid seige to Athens. In 404, the Athenians were restored Pelops to life and gave him an ivory shoulder.
forced to surrender, tear down their fortification walls, The rejuvenated Pelops was so handsome that he
and dismantle what was left of their navy. attracted the attention of POSEIDON. Later, when Pelops
The Peloponnesian War had an important impact on became a suitor for HIPPODAMEIA, daughter of OENO-
classical drama, especially on the works of EURIPIDES MAUS, Poseidon gave Pelops a special team of horses
and ARISTOPHANES. Of the 18 plays accepted as gen- and a chariot that could travel over land or sea.
uinely Euripidean, 17 (ALCESTIS is the exception) were Because Hippodameia’s father challenged all of her
written during this war or on the eve of it (MEDEA was suitors to a chariot race and killed all those that he
produced in 431). Euripidean plays such as ANDRO- defeated, Poseidon’s gift was quite useful.
MACHE, HECABE, SUPPLIANT WOMEN, TROJAN WOMEN, and To ensure victory, however, Pelops enlisted the help
PHOENICIAN WOMEN all focus on the hardships of war of Oenomaus’ servant, MYRTILUS, who Pelops noticed
and are especially concerned with its effects on the was also attracted to Hippodameia. In exchange for
lives of the noncombatants. Of the 11 surviving plays Myrtilus’ help, Pelops promised Myrtilus that he could
of Aristophanes, nine were produced during the war sleep with Hippodameia if he were victorious in the
and three (ACHARNIANS, PEACE, and LYSISTRATA) focus on chariot race. Myrtilus agreed and sabotaged his mas-
the war and its effects on the Athenians in particular. ter’s chariot, and in the middle of the race with Pelops,
The influence of this war on SOPHOCLES’ plays is less the chariot fell apart and Oenomaus was killed. Later,
418 PENELOPE

however, when Myrtilus tried to collect his “reward” was revealed to the suitors by one of her own maidser-
from Hippodameia by force, Pelops went to his new vants. Although Penelope’s trickery was uncovered,
bride’s rescue and eventually killed Myrtilus by hurling she continued to keep her suitors at bay and remained
him into the sea. As Myrtilus died, he cursed the faithful to her husband during his 20-year absence
descendants of Pelops. Pelops and Hippodameia seem from home. AESCHYLUS wrote a Penelope, of which a
to have lived happily after this time, as Pelops ruled single line survives (fragment 187 Radt). The Greek
over the region of southern Greece that bears his name tragedian PHILOCLES also wrote a Penelope, of which
to this day, the Peloponnese, which means “the island only the title survives (fragment 1 Snell). The Greek
of Pelops.” Pelops had numerous children. ATREUS and comic poet Theopompus also wrote a Penelope, of
THYESTES are the most famous; Pelops is also said to which we have two brief, uninformative fragments
have been the father of three daughters, Astydamia, (47–48 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer, Odyssey;
Lysidice, Nicippe, and five other sons, Alcaeus, Ovid, Heroides 1]
CHRYSIPPUS, Copreus, Pittheus and SCIRON.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pelops does not appear as a character in any surviv-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
ing dramas, but several ancient plays, both comedies Teubner, 1880.
and tragedies, dealt with him. The comic poet Nic- Radt, T. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
ochares wrote a Pelops, of which only the title survives. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
Among Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote Pelops’ Sons Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
(Pelopidae), which may have been about the murder of Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Pelops’ son Chrysippus. The surviving fragments (lines
513–19 Warmington) tell us little about the play’s con- PENTHEUS The son of Echion and AGAVE,
tent. Lines 516–17 refer to a man who seems to be Pentheus became king of THEBES while his grandfather,
coming to the realization of who his real father is; line CADMUS, was still alive. In EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE, the play-
518 refers to someone whose spouse has just died. wright connects his name with the Greek word penthos,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.5.1, 3.12.7, which means “pain.” In the same play, Pentheus incurs
3.15.6; Aristophanes, Frogs 1232; Euripides, Helen the wrath of the god DIONYSUS for rejecting his worship
387, Iphigenia in Tauris 1, Orestes 991a; Hyginus, Fables and is punished by being torn apart by his mother and
83; Seneca, Thyestes 139–44] aunts. Both Thespis and Aeschylus wrote plays entitled
Pentheus; from each a single line survives (Thespis frag-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ment 1c; Aeschylus fragment 183 Radt). Lycophon also
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: wrote a Pentheus, of which only the title has survived.
Harvard University Press, 1936. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Bacchae; Hyginus, Fables
184; Plautus, Vidularia 17b; Ovid, Metamorphoses
PENELOPE The daughter of Icarius and Peri- 511–733]
boea, Penelope, the wife of ODYSSEUS and mother of
Telemachus, was a model of virtue for Greek wives. PERGASAE Two DEMES of uncertain location,
While Odysseus was involved in the Trojan War, Pene- which were probably “about eight miles north of”
lope remained on ITHACA and fended off a vast number ATHENS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 321]
of men who wanted to marry her. At one point, she BIBLIOGRAPHY
told these men that she would marry as soon as she Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
finished weaving a funeral garment for her father-in- Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 160.
law, Laertes. For three years she managed to deceive
her suitors by weaving during the day and unraveling PERIAKTOS The Greek word periaktos (plural:
her work at night. Eventually, Penelope’s deception periaktoi) refers to something that turns on a center or
 PERIPETEIA 419

pivot. In the theater, Pollux indicates that a periaktos lived in the country moved to the city for protection.
was placed near each of the entrances to the playing Not only did this cause crowded conditions in the city,
space. Pollux says the periaktos could display sea gods, but the country folk also longed for their former home.
things too heavy for the MECHANE, or changes of The influx of country people into the city led to
scenery. Vitruvius says the periaktoi were shaped as a increasingly unsanitary conditions, and not long after
three-sided prism. Use of the periaktoi probably did the war began a horrible plague broke out in Athens.
not occur until after the fourth century B.C.E. [ANCIENT Pericles received some blame for these hardships, and
SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon 4.160, 130, 131; Vitru- in 430 he was removed from office, tried for misap-
vius, On Architecture 5.6.8] propriation of funds, and assessed a fine. In 429, Peri-
cles was again chosen as a military commander, but he
PERICLEIDAS A Spartan who was sent to himself contracted plague and died.
ATHENS to ask for aid when the Spartans’ slaves, the Pericles had some connections with ancient drama
Helots, and their allies attacked the Spartans after the and dramatists. He served as a CHOREGUS in 472 and
earthquake of 464 B.C.E. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- had a close relationship with SOPHOCLES, with whom
phanes, Lysistrata 1138; Plutarch, Cimon 16.7] he had served as a military commander in 440 during
the suppression of a revolt on SAMOS. Pericles died
PERICLES (CA. 495–429 B.C.E.) The son of before ARISTOPHANES began producing plays; Aristo-
Xanthippus and Agariste, Pericles was the most promi- phanes’ Acharnians is critical of Pericles “Olympian”
nent public figure in ATHENS during the last three behavior with respect to the Megarian Decree. Aristo-
decades of his life. He served Athens as both a military phanes’ criticism may have echoed a comment by the
commander and a political leader. Pericles’ building comic poet CRATINUS, who described Pericles as a ZEUS
program on the Athenian ACROPOLIS resulted in the with a peaked head. During the 410s, the comic poet
construction of the famous Parthenon and other mag- EUPOLIS, in his Demes, had Pericles as a character.
nificent structures. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 530,
Although Pericles guided and shaped Athenian poli- Clouds 213, 859, Knights 283, Peace 606; Cratinus,
cies for some time, he was sometimes opposed. In fragment 71 Kock; Eupolis, fragment 98 Kock;
451/450, he had proposed a law that required that both Plutarch, Pericles; Thucydides 1.111–2.65]
of a person’s parents be native Athenians in order for BIBLIOGRAPHY
that person to be an Athenian citizen, but he later ran Burn, A. R. Pericles and Athens. London: English Universities
afoul of that very law. After Pericles divorced his wife, he Press, 1948.
lived with his mistress, ASPASIA, during the last 15 years Delcourt, M. Pericles. 3d ed. Paris: Gallimard, 1940.
or so of his life. Pericles and Aspasia had a son, but Ehrenberg, V. Sophocles and Pericles. Oxford: Blackwell,
because Aspasia was not a native Athenian, their son 1954.
Kagan, D. Pericles of Athens and the Birth of Democracy. New
was not recognized as a citizen during Pericles’ lifetime.
York: Free Press, 1991.
Some Athenians blamed Pericles for the outbreak of
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
the PELOPONNESIAN WAR, and his Megarian Decree Teubner, 1880.
(which prevented the Megarians from trading in Schubert, C. Perikles. Darmstadt, Ger.: Wissenschaftliche
Athenian markets) certainly contributed to the out- Buchgesellschaft, 1994.
break of war as the Megarians appealed to the Spartans
for help. Athens’ initial strategy during the first years of PERIKEIROMENE See GIRL WITH THE SHAVEN
the war was crafted by Pericles, and it also drew oppo- HEAD.
sition. Pericles wanted Athens to rely on its naval supe-
riority and the protection of its city walls. When the PERIPETEIA In drama peripeteia (reversal) is a
Spartans raided the Athenian countryside, those who rapid change of circumstances or events. For example,
420 PERRHAEBIA

in EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, IPHIGENIA is on the quently mentioned in drama but does not appear as a
verge of sending her brother, ORESTES, to his death character in any extant drama. Often, women who die
when they recognize that they are brother and sister. “before their time,” such as ALCESTIS, ANTIGONE, or IPHI-
The two then scheme as to how to escape together GENIA, are called brides of Hades. In EURIPIDES’ CHIL-
from the land of the Taurians. DREN OF HERACLES, Demophon’s daughter was to be
sacrificed to Persephone to ensure victory over EURYS-
PERRHAEBIA A town in the region of THESSALY THEUS and the Argives. The narrative pattern of the
in northeastern Greece. AESCHYLUS wrote a Women of myth of Hades and Persephone—abduction, descent,
Perrhaebia; however, this may be an alternate title for and return—has been applied by modern scholars to
Aeschylus’ Ixion (184–86 Radt). The first two frag- various Greek dramas. Charles Segal has read SOPHO-
ments are about drinking cups; the third mentions CLES’ ANTIGONE with this pattern and Helene Foley has
someone who has died a wretched death. applied this method to the study of Euripides’ ALCESTIS,
HELEN, and IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
BIBLIOGRAPHY lodorus, Library 1.1.5–1.2.1, 1.5.1–3, 2.5.12, 3.6.8,
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
3.12.1, 3.14.7; Apollonius Rhodius, 4.986–90; Aristo-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
phanes, Thesmophoriazusae; Euripides, Helen 1301–68;
Hesiod, Theogony 767–74, 908–11; Homer, Iliad
PERSEPHASSA Another name for PERSEPHONE. 9.457, 568, Odyssey 10.492–95, 10.510, 11.213–18,
10.225–27, 10.632–35; Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 2;
PERSEPHONE (Latin: PROSERPINA) Hyginus, Fables 141, 146, 147; Ovid, Metamorphoses
The daughter of ZEUS and DEMETER, Persephone is the 5.341–571, 642–61, 6.118–19, 8.738–78, 9.422–23;
wife of HADES and queen of the UNDERWORLD. While gath- Pausanias, 1.14.1–3, 1.37.2, 2.5.8; Seneca, Hippolytus
ering flowers with some female companions, Persephone 94, 244, 831, 1235
was abducted by Hades, who took her off to the under-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
world to be his bride. Although Hades had Zeus’ per-
Foley, H. P. Female Acts in Greek Tragedy. Princeton, N.J.:
mission to do this, Persephone’s mother, Demeter, was Princeton University Press, 2001, 303–31.
unaware of this arrangement and missed her daughter. Segal, C. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sopho-
Demeter searched the world for Persephone, and when cles. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981,
she learned that her daughter was in Hades’ kingdom, 179–88.
she created barrenness on the Earth. Zeus, fearing the
destruction of the human race, agreed to try to arrange PERSEUS The son of ZEUS and DANAE, Perseus
for Persephone’s release from the underworld. Hades, was famous for beheading the Gorgon MEDUSA. When
however, had fed Persephone pomegranate seeds. Perseus was born, his grandfather, Acrisius, who had
Apparently once Persephone ate food in the kingdom of been told by an oracle that Perseus would destroy him,
the dead, she was required to remain in Hades’ house. put Perseus and Danae into a wooden box and threw
Zeus did, however, manage to arrange for Persephone to them into the sea. The box washed up on the island of
spend part of the year with Hades and part with Deme- SERIPHUS, where a fisherman, Dictys, found it. Dictys
ter. Despite this arrangement, references to Persephone took Perseus and Danae to the house of his brother
after this time show her in the underworld and seem- Polydectes who was king of Seriphus. Polydectes
ingly content in her role as queen of the underworld. raised Perseus and over the years fell in love with
Aside from the story of her abduction by Hades, Danae. After Perseus grew up, Polydectes wanted to
Persephone seldom appears in myths. THESEUS and marry Danae, but to get Perseus out of the way, he pre-
PIRITHOUS traveled to the underworld in the hope of tended that he instead wanted to marry Oenomaus’
abducting Persephone and making her Pirithous’ daughter HIPPODAMEIA. As part of Polydectes’ plan, he
bride, but Hades thwarted this attempt. She is fre- required all the nobles of his island give him horses to
 THE PERSIAN 421

offer as an engagement present to Hippodameia. phus; he then left for Argos with Danae and Androm-
Perseus boasted that he would get even the GORGON eda. When Acrisius heard of Perseus’ return, he left
Medusa’s head for Polydectes. When Perseus was Argos and went into exile in LARISA. Some time later,
unable to provide the horses, Polydectes sent Perseus Perseus happened to go to Larisa to compete in the
to take the Gorgon Medusa’s head. Although this task funeral games for the father of Teutamides, king of Lar-
was considered impossible because the sight of isa. Acrisius, who happened to be among the specta-
Medusa would turn a person to stone, Perseus had the tors, was hit in the foot and killed by an errant discus
gods on his side. Guided by HERMES and ATHENA, throw by Perseus.
Perseus made his way to Phorcys’ daughters, three old After burying Acrisius, Perseus returned to Argos,
women who were the Gorgons’ sisters and who also but, given the way that his grandfather had died, he
knew the location of certain NYMPHS. Phorcys’ daugh- did not want to be king of the town. Therefore, Perseus
ters were unusual in that they had only one eye and arranged for an exchange of kingdoms with his cousin,
one tooth, which they shared. When Perseus took their Megapenthes, who ruled nearby Tiryns. Thus,
eye and tooth, they revealed to him the nymphs’ loca- Megapenthes became king of Argos, while Perseus
tion. After leaving Phorcys’ daughters, Perseus made ruled Tiryns. Perseus is also said to have fortified the
his way to these nymphs, who provided him with towns of Midea and Mycenae. Perseus and Andromeda
winged sandals, HADES’ helmet of invisibility, and a seem to have lived happily after this time. They had a
special knapsack in which he could carry Medusa’s daughter, Gorgophone, and several sons, Alcaeus,
head. Hermes gave Perseus a sickle made of ADAMANT. ELECTRYON, Heleus, Mestor, Perses, and Sthenelus.
Aided by this equipment, Perseus made his way to the Perseus does not appear as a character in any extant
Gorgons’ lair. They were asleep when he found them, dramas, unless we include Aristophanes’ parody of
and he cut off Medusa’s head with the aid of Athena Euripides’ Andromeda in Thesmophoriazusae, but
and by looking at Medusa’s reflection in a bronze Perseus was a character in TRAGEDY, COMEDY, and SATYR
shield. When Perseus cut off Medusa’s head, the PLAYS. The tragedian Pratinas wrote a Perseus, of which
winged horse PEGASUS and a creature named Chrysaor only the title survives. The title of a satyric Perseus sur-
were born from her body. After Perseus beheaded vives, but the name of its author does not. Aeschylus
Medusa, he put her head into the special knapsack. wrote a trilogy about Perseus: Diktuoulkoi (The net
The other Gorgons woke and chased Perseus, but he draggers), Polydectes, and Phorcides (The daughters of
eluded them by putting on the helmet of invisibility. Phorcys). The first play would have treated Perseus’
After Perseus left the land of the Gorgons, he trav- arrival on Seriphus, the second Polydectes’ sending
eled to ETHIOPIA, where he found CEPHEUS’ daughter, Perseus to get Medusa’s head, the third his encounter
ANDROMEDA, exposed as a sacrifice to a sea monster. with the daughters of Phorcys. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
Perseus immediately fell in love with Andromeda and lodorus, Library 2.4.2–5; Ovid, Metamorphoses
told Cepheus he would rescue her if he would allow 4.604–803, 5.1–249]
him to marry her. Cepheus agreed, and Perseus res-
cued Andromeda and killed the monster. Afterward, THE PERSIAN (Latin: PERSA) PLAUTUS
however, when Cepheus’ brother, Phineus, to whom (CA. 186 B.C.E.) The play’s date is uncertain and the
Andromeda had been promised, tried to kill Perseus, author of the Greek original for PLAUTUS’ is not known.
Perseus turned him and his allies to stone by showing The play’s setting is ATHENS, and the action occurs before
them Medusa’s head. After leaving Ethiopia, Perseus a house belonging to the PIMP, Dordalus, and a house
and Andromeda returned to Seriphus. There, Perseus belonging to the master of the slave Toxilus (compare
found his mother and Dictys besieged by Polydectes at CARTHAGINIAN, COMEDY OF ASSES, and CURCULIO).
an altar. Polydectes’ threat was soon ended, as Perseus In the opening scene, Toxilus enters from the FORUM
used Medusa’s head to turn Polydectes to stone. After and complains about the difficulty of obtaining a loan.
Polydectes’ death, Perseus made Dictys king of Seri- He is soon met by a slave owned by another family,
422 THE PERSIAN

Sagaristio. Toxilus informs him that he is in love, but errands after learning that each carries a letter to the
that he needs money to buy the prostitute Lemnisele- beloved of their respective masters. After their depar-
nis, whom he loves, because the pimp, Dordalus, owns ture into the houses, Sagaristio enters and happily
her. Sagaristio, however, cannot help Toxilus, so he announces that his master has given him some money
departs, leaving Toxilus to plot how to defeat the pimp. to buy some oxen, but that he plans to spend the
After Toxilus returns to his house, the PARASITE, Saturio, money on something else. Sagaristio is soon met by
enters; he talks about the tradition in his family of Paegnium, who is returning from delivering the letter
being a parasite and complains about professional to Lemniselenis. Sagaristio wants to know where Tox-
informants. As Saturio approaches Toxilus’ house in ilus is, but Paegnium refuses to tell him and exits into
search of food, Toxilus emerges and informs the audi- Toxilus’ house. Sagaristio is rewarded, however, when
ence that he has discovered a way to trick Dordalus out Toxilus and Sophoclidisca emerge from his house. Tox-
of the money he needs to purchase Lemniselenis. Tox- ilus tells her to inform Lemniselenis that he has made
ilus also says he needs Saturio to help him with his plot arrangements to purchase her from the pimp. After
and calls back to the slaves in his house to continue Sophoclidisca’s departure, Sagaristio approaches Tox-
preparing a banquet. Saturio, hearing of the banquet ilus, who notices that Sagaristio has a wallet bulging
preparations, immediately takes interest. with money. Sagaristio then turns the money over to
Soon, Saturio and Toxilus begin conversing. Toxilus Toxilus, who Sagaristio mentions had recently begged
asks Saturio to allow him to borrow his daughter to him for the loan of some money. Toxilus gleefully
pretend to sell her to Dordalus. Saturio is horrified by accepts the money and promises that he will soon
this idea, but when Toxilus threatens that he will not return it to him after he has tricked Dordalus out of
allow Saturio to have any of their food, Saturio agrees Lemniselenis and even more money. As Toxilus exits,
to Toxilus’ proposal. Before Saturio leaves to get his he tells an agreeable Sagaristio that he needs his help
daughter, Toxilus instructs him that his daughter is to in the plot.
dress as a Persian and pretend that she was abducted The third act opens with the arrival of Saturio and
from her birthplace and taken to Athens. Furthermore, his daughter, who is dressed as a Persian woman. Sat-
Toxilus tells Saturio that he must dress as the merchant urio’s daughter is appalled that her father will sell her
who will sell the young woman to Dordalus. After for the sake of his appetite, but Saturio argues that it is
Dordalus gives the money for her to Saturio, Saturio his right to do so and reminds her that the situation
will give it to Toxilus. After Toxilus buys Lemniselenis will only be temporary. Although Saturio’s daughter
from Dordalus, Saturio (now out of disguise) will claim tries to reason with her father, he persists and eventu-
that the woman, Dordalus, is freeborn and therefore ally she agrees to obey him. After Saturio and his
cannot legally be bought and sold. daughter exit toward Toxilus’ house, Dordalus emerges
In the play’s second act, Lemniselenis and her maid- from his house. He is soon met by Toxilus, who abuses
servant, Sophoclidisca, emerge from Dordalus’ house. him verbally then angrily prepares to hand over the
Sophoclidisca is frustrated by her mistress’ lovesick- money that he owes Dordalus for Lemniselenis.
ness, which is causing her to be angry (without good Dordalus, in turn, verbally abuses Toxilus and
cause) at her. Sophoclidisca, however, soon exits with demands his money. Eventually, Toxilus hands over the
a letter from Lemniselenis that she will deliver to Tox- money and Dordalus promises to take Lemniselenis to
ilus. In the next scene, Toxilus and his fellow slave, him soon.
Paegnium (plaything), enter from their house. Toxilus After Dordalus exits, Toxilus expresses satisfaction
gives a letter to Paegnium and tells him to deliver it to that matters are proceeding according to his plan. He
Lemniselenis. After Toxilus returns to the house, Paeg- then calls Sagaristio from the house with Saturio’s dis-
nium and Sophoclidisca encounter one another on the guised daughter and a letter that Toxilus pretends is
street. The two slaves, who dislike one another, wran- from his master in Persia. Next, Dordalus enters and
gle verbally for some time but finally continue their informs Toxilus that he has set Lemniselenis free and
 THE PERSIAN 423

that she is currently at his house. In gratitude, Toxilus CASINA, MERCHANT, BRAGGART WARRIOR, HAUNTED HOUSE,
tells the pimp that his master has sent a certain female and PSEUDOLUS. As in Pseudolus, the play’s action
captive (Saturio’s daughter) from Persia to be sold in revolves around the overthrow of a pimp by a wily
Athens and that he would like to sell the Persian slave. Both plays have the slaves employ disguised
woman to Dordalus. Initially, Dordalus is skeptical characters to fool the pimp, and in the final act of both
about this transaction, but he changes his mind when plays we find the wily slaves celebrating their triumphs
he sees the woman. After several questions to her about over the pimp. Unlike in Pseudolus, in which the slave
her background and name (which she says is Lucris, is helping a young citizen acquire his beloved, who is
meaning “profit”) and some wrangling with Sagaristio a prostitute, in Persian we find a situation that Slater
about her price, Dordalus agrees to buy her. After notes is “quite unparalleled in Plautus”: The slave is
Dordalus departs to get the money, Toxilus congratu- both the helper and the lover, and his scheme aims to
lates Saturio and his daughter on their performance. free his beloved, who is a prostitute. Thus, in Persian,
Soon Dordalus returns with the money and hands it we lack the sense of the forbidden that creates tension
over to Sagaristio, who states that he is eager to con- in so many Roman comedies. If a slave is in love with
tinue on his way and search for his twin brother, who a prostitute, who cares? Indeed, Persian is unusual in
was said to be in Athens. Toxilus takes Sagaristio’s hint its exclusively lower-class characters. In Persian, the
and says he thinks he has seen this person. After slave has slaves who serve him, and, as Slater points
Sagaristio leaves, Toxilus congratulates Dordalus on his out, “In his newly adopted role as master Toxilus must
purchase, and the pimp thanks Toxilus for his help and endure abuse from the slaves who serve him.” Unlike
returns to his house. Next, Saturio enters and Toxilus in the several Roman comedies in which a parasite is
prepares him to confront Dordalus. Soon after the pimp devoted to a citizen, in Persian a parasite is devoted to
emerges from his house, Saturio rushes up and declares a slave. The most noble character in Persian is the par-
that he will destroy the pimp. When Saturio’s daughter asite’s virgin daughter (also unique in Roman COMEDY).
greets him as her father, Dordalus realizes that he is in Indeed, behavior in Persian has sunk to such depths
trouble for buying a free woman. With daughter and that the daughter of a parasite chides her father about
pimp accompanying him, Saturio sets out to find a gov- proper behavior. Interestingly, however, Toxilus’ plot,
ernment official who will deal with this crime. for all its success, does seem to have one flaw: He
The play’s final act begins with Toxilus’ giving arranges for his beloved to be freed. Thus, whereas in
thanks to the gods for a successful outcome to his Roman comedy it often turns out that the enslaved
scheme. He then invites Lemniselenis, Sagaristio, and woman with whom the freeman is in love is actually
his other fellow slaves to leave the house and begin freeborn and thus they are of the same social status and
celebrating. As their celebration begins, a thoroughly able to marry, in Persian Toxilus’ beloved is freed, but
dejected Dordalus enters and laments his loss of he remains a slave at the end of the play.
money. By this time, Toxilus and the others have Although several similarities exist between Persian
become somewhat intoxicated and invite Dordalus to and Pseudolus, the wily slave Toxilus lacks Pseudolus’
join in their revelry. Dordalus, however, is quite angry liveliness, and the playwright’s description of Toxilus is
and refuses, so Toxilus and the others taunt, insult, and less elaborate than that of Pseudolus. Although both
physically harass the pimp. The play ends with slaves have the potential to become kinglike, Toxilus’
Dordalus’ departing in frustration at the treatment he royal status is a result of his master’s absence (see line
has received and Toxilus’ expressing delight in the 31), whereas Pseudolus’ royal status will be a result pri-
destruction of the pimp. marily of his trickery. The military imagery and language
associated with Pseudolus are less extensive and more
COMMENTARY subtle in the case of Toxilus. As Persian opens, Toxilus
Duckworth labels The Persian a play of “guileful decep- describes his struggle against Love as more difficult than
tion” and groups it with COMEDY OF ASSES, BACCHIDES, the labors of HERACLES, but this characterization is not
424 PERSIANS

maintained throughout the play. As Pseudolus does, Woytek, E. T. Maccius Plautus, Persa. Einleitung, Text, Kom-
Toxilus becomes like a poet (although he is never called mentar. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akad. der Wis-
this in the play as Pseudolus is). In Pseudolus, the title senschaften, 1982.
character impersonates the pimp’s slave and then
arranges for another to impersonate the soldier’s agent. PERSIANS AESCHYLUS (472 B.C.E.) The
In Persian, the tricky slave arranges for Sagaristio and only surviving Greek play that dramatizes a historical
Saturio’s daughter to play the roles of Persians. Before event, Persians was the second play of a TETRALOGY that
the two “Persians” depart for the pimp, the “poet” Tox- won first prize at the City DIONYSIA. The other plays in
ilus makes sure they know their roles and Sagaristio the tetralogy were Phineus, Glaucus of Potniae, and the
responds that no tragedian or comedian has ever known SATYR PLAY Prometheus the Fire-Maker. Persians deals
his role as well as they do (465–66). Both Pseudolus and with the aftermath of the Battle of SALAMIS, fought by
Toxilus rely on letters to help them make their “plays” a the Persians and Greeks in 480 B.C.E. The play’s
success (compare also the wily Chrysalus in BACCHIDES). hypothesis is that Aeschylus modeled his Persians on
Pseudolus acquires his letter from the soldier’s agent by the Phoenician Women of PHRYNICHUS, which was also
impersonating the pimp’s slave, whereas Toxilus himself about the fall of XERXES. In contrast to those in Phryn-
composes the letter that will defeat his pimp and even ichus’ play, Aeschylus’ CHORUS are aged Persian men.
gives the pimp direction as Dordalus reads the letter Aeschylus’ Persians is set in the Persian city of SUSA.
(500). Perhaps as the mythical BELLEROPHON unwittingly Structures representing a meeting place for the Persian
delivers a letter that calls for his own destruction, elders and a tomb of Xerxes’ father, DARIUS, are visible
Dordalus unwittingly reads a letter that will bring about to the audience. The play opens with the Persian cho-
his own ruin. After Toxilus’ “play” deceives the pimp, rus worrying about the fortunes of Xerxes and the Per-
the two slaves and the freed prostitute have a “cast sian army in their war with the Greeks. They recite a
party,” as Slater describes it, and invite the pimp to join lengthy catalog of the warriors and allies in the Persian
them (792, 849). Dordalus, however, refuses and thus army, noting the power of the army and the valor of
rejects the realm of comedy, as Slater comments. Just as Xerxes, whom they equate with a god. Still, the old
in the final scene of ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS the audi- men worry about the outcome of the war and sit down
ence simultaneously watch DICAEOPOLIS enjoy a round of to await news of the war.
drinking and the company of women and the soldier, Next, a woman described as Xerxes’ mother and
LAMACHUS, suffer through the miseries of war, in Plautus’ Darius’ wife enters. The chorus call her “Queen,” but
Persians Toxilus and his companions enjoy the fruits of other ancient sources identify her as ATOSSA. The
their comic victory while the defeated pimp is mired in queen tells the Persian elders that she has had trou-
“the world of tragedy” (Slater). bling dreams, which clearly indicate the defeat of the
Persians by the Greeks and the fall of Xerxes. The Per-
BIBLIOGRAPHY sian elders, however, tell the queen that they think
Faller, S., ed. Studien zu Plautus’ Persa. Tübingen, Ger.: Narr, matters will turn out well for her and advise her to
2001.
pray to the gods and pour libations to EARTH and to
Hughes, D. “The Character of Paegnium in Plautus’ Persa,”
her deceased husband, Darius. The queen agrees and
Rheinisches Museum 127 (1984): 46–57.
then asks the Persian elders to tell her about the peo-
Lowe, J. C. B. “The Virgo Callida of Plautus, Persa,” Classical
Quarterly 39 (1989): 390–99.
ple of ATHENS, their style of fighting, and their form of
Marshall, C. W. “Shattered Mirrors and Breaking Class: Satu- government.
rio’s Daughter in Plautus’ Persa,” Text & Presentation 18 The Persian elders’ report on the Athenians is fol-
(1997): 100–9. lowed by the arrival of a Persian MESSENGER, who
Slater, N. W. “The Ruse of Persia, or, The Story-Telling describes in detail the Greek victory over the Persians
Slaves.” In Plautus in Performance. Princeton, N.J.: Prince- at Salamis. The messenger relates how a certain Greek
ton University Press, 1985, 37–54. had fooled Xerxes into thinking that the Greeks would
 PERSIANS 425

try to escape in the night. Instead, the Greek fleet had of Greece and predicts that the Persians will suffer an
attacked at dawn and had thoroughly routed the Per- additional defeat at the town of PLATAEA. Darius sends
sian fleet. The messenger also reports that the Greek the queen home to find fresh robes for Xerxes, who will
infantry had routed the Persians on another island near soon arrive with his royal robes in tatters.
Salamis. The messenger tells how Xerxes, upon wit- After Darius’ ghost vanishes, the queen exits to fetch
nessing the Persian defeat, tore his robes (the fulfill- clothing for her son. The Persian elders then recall the
ment of one of the queen’s dreams) and ordered his glorious achievements of Darius at home and in war.
forces to retreat. After a brief lament by the queen over They detail the extent of his empire and praise his wise
the fate of the Persians, the messenger tells her about rule.
the retreat of the Persian fleet. The chorus’ words are followed by the arrival of
After the messenger’s exit, the queen again laments Xerxes. The Persian king laments his fate and his grief
the army’s defeat and complains that the Persian elders is echoed by the chorus. The Persian elders ask Xerxes
misinterpreted her dreams. She tells the elders of her what has happened to his friends and allies, and he
intention to pray to the gods and pour libations to the notes that they have died at Salamis. Xerxes also points
Earth and Darius. She instructs the elders to comfort out that his royal robes are in tatters and that his
Xerxes if he arrives before she returns. arrows are gone. The play approaches its end with
The queen departs and the Persian elders sing an alternating lines of lamentation by Xerxes and the Per-
ode in which they lament ZEUS’ destruction of the Per- sian elders and concludes with Xerxes’ being escorted
sian army and the sorrow that the Persian women will from the ORCHESTRA by the elders.
feel at the loss of their men. They lament the loss of life
and worry that the defeat will weaken the Persians’ COMMENTARY
grip on various parts of their empire. Because Aeschylus’ Persians is the earliest surviving
After the choral ODE, the queen enters. In her first classical drama, the play deserves consideration for its
entrance, she had been dressed in royal robes and car- position in the development of drama. Echoes of the
ried in a chariot. Now, she enters on foot and in cloth- grieving barbarian mother and queen, Atossa, may be
ing that may have been dark as an indication of detected in the figure of EURIPIDES’ HECABE (HECABE,
mourning. She tells the Persian elders of her intent to TROJAN WOMEN). The use of dreams as a forewarning of
pour libations and summon her husband’s spirit from future events can also be seen in later plays (e.g.,
the grave and calls on them to join her in her prayers. Aeschylus’ Libation Bearers (see ORESTEIA), Euripides’
The elders call on the gods to allow Darius’ spirit to Hecabe and, IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS). The appearance of a
appear and to guide them in their present distress, ghost occurs in Euripides’ Hecabe and SENECA’s
because Darius was a wise leader in both civic and mil- AGAMEMNON and THYESTES. In Seneca’s OEDIPUS, the
itary matters. murderer of Laius is discovered by conjuring up Laius’
After the CHORUS’ invocation, Darius’ ghost appears ghost from the dead. Whereas ARISTOPHANES, in ACHAR-
and asks to be informed about the crisis that faces the NIANS, ridicules Euripides’ presenting his leading char-
Persians. The chorus are afraid to speak to their former acters in rags, Aeschylus’ Xerxes, who enters with his
king, so the queen tells him about the defeat of Xerxes robes torn, indicates that Euripides was not the first to
and the Persians. Darius informs her that Xerxes’ defeat reduce a king to ruined clothing. Xerxes himself also
can be attributed to his arrogance and his angering of provides a “textbook” example of someone who has
the god POSEIDON by trying to cross the Hellespont. committed acts of HUBRIS (808, 821), as his army
Darius relates that Xerxes’ youth has led him to act destroyed temples and other sacred objects during
impetuously and unwisely. Darius also tells the Persian their invasion of Greece, and as someone whom the
elders that they should not try to invade Greece again. gods will punish for these acts.
Darius notes that Xerxes’ army committed numerous In addition to the importance of Persians in the his-
atrocities against the Greeks’ gods during their invasion tory of drama, the play, as noted, is the only surviving
426 PERSIANS

Greek drama based on a historical event. Aeschylus’ Greeks are juxtaposed not only with the disorderly
brother died fighting against the Persians at MARATHON Persian fleet, but also with the chariots of the Persians
in 490, and Aeschylus himself is also thought to have (29, 46, 82). We also note Atossa’s dream about the
fought at both Marathon and Salamis. chariot, to which Xerxes failed to yoke the woman who
Persians is unique in that it is the only extant drama represented Greece and from which Xerxes falls (190).
whose characters are all non-Greek. The play takes its When Xerxes enters, it is not in a chariot, but in some
name from the male Persian elders who make up the sort of covered vehicle.
chorus. Other than the chorus, only four actors speak: In addition to the contrast of Xerxes’ clothing, we find
an unnamed Persian Messenger; Atossa, widow of DAR- contrasts in the two groups’ military equipment. The Per-
IUS, former king of Persia; Darius’ ghost; and XERXES, sians fight with bows, which allow them to attack their
the son of Atossa and Darius and the king of Persia. enemy from a distance, whereas the Athenians fight pri-
The play’s characters are all Persian, and Aeschylus fre- marily with spears (contrast 460), which require that
quently contrasts them with the Greeks (especially the they fight at close quarters (compare the discussion of
Athenians). The Athenians are ruled by their citizens, the bow’s being the coward’s weapon in Euripides’ HERA-
whereas the Persians are ruled by one man. We also CLES). When the chorus ask for information about the
find a contrast between order (kosmos) and disorder outcome of the battle, they wonder whether the bow or
(akosmos). The Greeks prepare for battle in an orderly the spear has won (147–49). After the battle, the mes-
manner (374), and their ships advance in an orderly senger announces that the Persian bows were useless in
fashion (400). In contrast, the Persias fleet is cast into the battle (278). When the broken Xerxes enters at the
disorder (422) and the Persians retreat in disorder end of the play he calls attention to his quiver, which is
(470, 481). Interestingly, the word kosmos can also probably empty of arrows (1020–22).
refer to clothing, and at the end of the play Xerxes’ We also have a numerical contrast between the two
mother is told to get appropriate kosmos for her son groups. The Greeks have plenty of men who can inflict
because he has torn the robes he was wearing in his damage on the Persians (235); the Athenians have a
anguish about the defeat (833). Thus, the Persian dis- sufficent number of men to defend their city (349),
order is also manifested in the disorder of the clothing despite the numerical superiority of the Persian army
in which the Persian leader appears when the audience (533). As for the Persians, under the rule of Xerxes’
first see him. father, their land was rich in men and had an army of
The disarray of Xerxes’ clothing has been prepared men who never rested (897–902). Because Xerxes has
for earlier in the play. When the chorus enter, they invaded Greece, however, Persia is empty of men
describe the dark robes of their heart as being torn (59–60, 119, 133, 166); the Persian defeat at Salamis
with fear (115). In Atossa’s dream (182–83), she sees a will leave Persia empty of men, and thousands of Per-
woman dressed in Persian clothing (which would have sian men have been killed (289, 730, 915, 920, 927,
been brightly colored) and a woman dressed in Greek 993). The numerous references to Persia’s being with-
clothing (which would have been monochrome). She out men also carry a double connotation: The Greek
dreams that after Xerxes’ fall from his chariot, Xerxes words anandros and anandria, which occur several
sees his father and tears at his clothing (199). Later, times in the play (119, 166, 289, 298, 730, 755), can
when Xerxes sees that the Persians are being defeated, denote not only a numerical lack of men, but a lacking
he tears his robes (468). When the defeated Xerxes of manly qualities. Thus, the underlying tone of some
enters at the play’s conclusion, he notes that he has of Aeschylus’ remarks may suggest Persian cowardli-
torn his robes (1016, 1030). As Xerxes and the chorus ness. At 755, Atossa says accusations of anandria,
lament the defeat, Xerxes urges the chorus to tear at unmanliness, led him to invade Greece. Thus, the
their robes as well (1060). charge of lacking manliness prompted Xerxes to empty
Also interesting is the play’s contrast in modes of Persia of men, and Xerxes’ defeat will cause Persia to
transportation. The victorious and orderly ships of the remain empty of men.
 PHAEDRA 427

BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Broadhead, H. D. Aeschylus: Persians. Cambridge, Mass.: Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Cambridge University Press, 1960. Teubner, 1880.
Griffith, M. “The King and Eye: The Role of the Father in Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
Greek Tragedy,” Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 218.
Society 44 (1998): 20–84.
Hall, E. Aeschylus: Persians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & PHAEDRA Phaedra was the daughter of MINOS
Phillips, 1996. and PASIPHAE and the sister of ARIADNE. Phaedra mar-
Harrison, T. The Emptiness of Asia: Aeschylus’ Persians and the
ried THESEUS after he divorced the AMAZON Antiope (or
History of the Fifth Century. London: Duckworth, 2000.
Hippolyta). In EURIPIDES’ HIPPOLYTUS, Phaedra becomes
Michelini, Ann M. Tradition and Dramatic Form in the Per-
sians of Aeschylus. Cincinnati Classical Studies. Leiden:
the victim of Aphrodite’s wrath against Theseus’ bas-
Brill, 1982. tard son, HIPPOLYTUS. In Hippolytus, Phaedra falls in
love with her stepson, Hippolytus, and confesses her
feelings to her NURSE. The nurse then reveals Phaedra’s
PHAEACIANS The Phaeacians were a mythical feelings to Hippolytus. When Phaedra learns of Hip-
people who lived on the island of Scherie. ODYSSEUS
polytus’ furious reaction to this news, Phaedra hangs
encountered them on his return from TROY, and JASON
herself, but before doing this she writes a letter to her
encountered them on his return from COLCHIS. The
husband, Theseus, accusing Hippolytus of sexually
Phaeacians eventually transported Odysseus back to
assaulting her.
his native island of ITHACA and helped put an end to
Phaedra’s story is also taken up in SENECA’s HIPPOLY-
the Colchians’ pursuit of Jason and MEDEA. SOPHOCLES TUS. Seneca changes some of the details of Euripides’
wrote a play entitled Phaeacians, whose four surviving play: Seneca’s Phaedra is bolder in her feelings about
words indicate nothing of its content (fragments Hippolytus than Euripides’ Phaedra; in Seneca’s play,
675–76 Radt). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer, Odyssey Phaedra’s nurse tries to persuade Phaedra not to reveal
5–13; Apollonius Rhodius, 4.539–1211] her love to Hippolytus, and Phaedra rejects her advice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Furthermore, in Seneca’s play, Phaedra has a face-to-
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. face, onstage encounter with Hippolytus in which she
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: confesses her love for him. In Senecan Phaedra’s
Harvard University Press, 1996. defense, however (unlike in Euripides’ play, in which
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, Theseus was very much alive and merely absent from
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. home), in Seneca’s play Theseus has been in the under-
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University world for four years and is not expected to return. Fur-
Press of America, 1984.
thermore, unlike Euripides’ Phaedra, who accuses
Hippolytus of rape and then commits suicide, in
PHAEAX The son of Erasistratus, Phaeax was Seneca’s play the Nurse accuses Hippolytus of rape.
from the DEME of ACHARNAE and was a prominent fig- Also, in Seneca’s play, Theseus returns and converses
ure in Athenian politics between 425 and 416 B.C.E. with his wife before she commits suicide. At this point,
Phaeax had served as a diplomat to SICILY in 422 and Phaedra tells Theseus that Hippolytus tried to rape her.
even rivaled ALCIBIADES in popularity. Some of the Whereas Euripides’ Phaedra hanged herself before
Athenian people did not like Phaeax, however, and he Hippolytus’ death and made no lamentation over his
was almost sent into exile. After the year 416, noth- body, Seneca’s Phaedra falls on a sword after her
ing more is heard about Phaeax. [ANCIENT SOURCES: lamentation.
Aristophanes, Knights 1377; Eupolis, fragment 95 SOPHOCLES wrote a play entitled Phaedra that may have
Kock; Plutarch, Alcibiades 13; Andocides, 4; Thucy- treated the same subject as Euripides’ Hippolytus. Sopho-
dides, 5.4–5] cles’ play appears to differ from Euripides’ Hippolytus,
428 PHAEDRA

however, in that Sophocles has Theseus return from the king, who believes Phaethon is his son. In fragment
underworld during the drama. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- 773, the conversation of Clymene and Phaethon reveals
phanes, Frogs 1042, Thesmophoriazusae 547] that the young man is preparing to go to Helios’ house.
The exit of Clymene and Phaethon into Merops’ palace
BIBLIOGRAPHY
is followed by the entrance of the chorus, who are ser-
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: vants in Merops’ palace. Their song indicates that
Harvard University Press, 1996. Phaethon is to be married on that day and concludes by
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, announcing the entrance of Merops and Phaethon; then
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. a herald calls for silence. After this, Merops gives a
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University lengthy speech to Phaethon that has not survived. The
Press of America, 1984. remainder of the play’s fragments are less complete.
Fragment 779 contains a description of Phaethon’s dif-
PHAEDRA SENECA See HIPPOLYTUS SENECA. ficulty in controlling the chariot and indicates that
Helios was following Phaethon and giving him instruc-
PHAETHON The son of the sun god (either tions. In fragment 781, Clymene’s speech indicates that
HELIOS or APOLLO) and Clymene, Phaethon (“shining”) Phaethon’s burned body is being taken into Merops’
became famous for his tragic attempt to drive his father’s palace and hidden from Merops. After Clymene and her
chariot. When one of Phaethon’s playmates suggested attendants take Phaethon’s body into the palace,
that Phaethon was not really Helios’ son, Phaethon Merops and the chorus enter. The chorus, who do not
questioned his mother about the claim. Clymene swore know of Phaethon’s death, sings a hymn in anticipation
that the Sun was his father and urged her son to ask his of Phaethon’s marriage. Soon, a servant emerges from
father himself. Phaethon traveled to the Sun god’s palace the palace and informs Merops that a fire of unknown
and asked his father for some favor that would prove he origin appears to be burning in the palace. When
was his child. The sun god swore to grant whatever Merops enters the palace to investigate, he discovers
favor he might request. Unfortunately for Phaethon and that Phaethon has been killed by Zeus’ lightning. Frag-
the world, Phaethon asked to drive the chariot that his ment 781a contains a lament by Merops. The content of
father used to pull the Sun across the sky. The Sun god the play after this point is uncertain. Merops would
tried to persuade Phaethon to ask for something else, have been enraged on discovering that Phaethon was
but Phaethon insisted on driving his father’s chariot. not his son, but Collard thinks that a divinity would
During the flight that followed, Phaethon lost control of have prevented any harm to Clymene, verified that
the chariot and was in danger of setting the entire world Phaethon was Helios’ son, and made some prophecy
ablaze. EARTH complained to ZEUS, who struck Phaethon about Phaethon’s future. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plato,
with a lightning bolt, thus putting an end to him and his Timaeus 22c–d; Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.751–2.400;
wild ride. Phaethon’s sisters, known as the Heliades, Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 677–82]
were so upset by their brother’s death that they wept
continuously. Eventually, the sisters were transformed BIBLIOGRAPHY
Collard, C., M. J. Cropp, and K. H. Lee. Euripides: Selected
into poplar trees, from which their tears (now drops of
Fragmentary Plays. Vol. 1. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
amber) continued to ooze.
Phillips, 1995.
EURIPIDES wrote a Phaethon that appears to have been
Diggle, J. Phaethon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
composed around 420 B.C.E. and from which fragments 1970.
totaling some 300 lines exist (771–786 Nauck). The Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
fragments reveal that Euripides’ play follows roughly Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
the same story line outlined previously. Euripides, how- Reckford, K. J. “Phaethon, Hippolytus, and Aphrodite,”
ever, introduces a few twists. The play’s setting is the Transactions of the American Philological Association 103
palace of Clymene’s husband, Merops, an Ethiopian (1972): 405–32.
 PHEIDIPPIDES 429

PHALES Mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at ACHARNI- PHASIS A river in the Black Sea region on which
ANS 263 in connection with DIONYSUS, the Greek word the town of COLCHIS (the location of the Golden
phales means “penis.” In Acharnians, DICAEOPOLIS, Fleece) was situated. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides,
about to conduct a procession honoring Dionysus in Andromache 651; Seneca, Agamemnon 120, Hercules
which a phales would be carried, addresses Phales as if Oetaeus 950, Hippolytus 907, Medea 44, 211, 451, 762;
he were a god. Thus, Phales “is the personification of Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos 1227]
the processional phallus” (Sommerstein).
BIBLIOGRAPHY PHAYLLUS A prize-winning athlete from the
Sommerstein. A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, Achar- town of Croton in Italy, Phayllus won the pentathlon
nians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 169. twice and the stadion (a foot race of about 200 meters)
once at the Pythian Games. Phayllus commanded a
PHALLUS The actors in SATYR PLAYS and COMEDY ship at the battle of SALAMIS in 480 B.C.E. A statue of
had costumes that had stitched onto them an oversized him existed at DELPHI, as well as a monument on the
leather phallus (penis). The phallus does not seem to ACROPOLIS at ATHENS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
have been erect ordinarily. In SOPHOCLES’ SEARCHERS, Acharnians 215, Wasps 1206; Herodotus, 8.47.1;
Cyllene tells one of the satyrs to stop extending his Inscriptiones Graecae i2 655; Pausanias, 10.9.2;
“smooth phallus in delight” (368). In ARISTOPHANES’ Plutarch, Alexander 34]
WASPS, PHILOCLEON offers his phallus as a rope a flute BIBLIOGRAPHY
girl may hold (1342–43). In Aristophanes’ LYSISTRATA, MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
in which CINESIAS appears in a state of tremendous sex- Press, 1971, 287.
ual excitement, the play’s humor would have been
enhanced by this exaggerated appendage. The over- PHEIDIPPIDES A character in ARISTOPHANES’
sized phallus was not part of the comic costume in CLOUDS, Pheidippides is the son of Strepsiades. Phei-
New Comedy. dippides’ name, which seems to mean something like
BIBLIOGRAPHY “son of thrifty horse,” alludes to the “disease” that
Calder, W. M. “Aristophanes Vespae 68–69: An Unnoticed Aristophanes gives his character—he loves horses and
Obscenity,” Classical Philology 65 (1970): 257. horse racing. This expensive interest causes his father
Dickie, M. W. “A Joke in Old Comedy: Aristophanes Frag- much financial hardship. As other Aristophanic sons
ment 607 PCG,” Classical Philology 90, no. 3 (1995): do, Pheidippides shows more restrained behavior than
241–45.
his father, the opposite of what a Greek audience
Seaford, R. A. “Silenus Erectus: Euripides, Cyclops 227,” Liv-
would expect. Initially, Pheidippides refuses his
erpool Classical Monthly 12 (1987): 142–43.
father’s request to become one of SOCRATES’ pupils, but
later he does submit to instruction by “Right Logic” and
PHANUS A friend of CLEON’s, Phanus apparently “Wrong Logic.” Once indoctrinated into this new
aided Cleon in some of his prosecutions. [ANCIENT learning, Pheidippides becomes something of a mon-
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 1256, Wasps 1220]
ster and starts behaving in a manner that his father
BIBLIOGRAPHY detests. Having learned Wrong Logic’s method of argu-
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon ing, Pheidippides attempts to convince his father that
Press, 1971, 289. the son is within his rights to beat his father and pro-
ceeds to do so, and then also argues that the son is per-
PHARSALUS A Thessalian town near the coast mitted to beat his mother as well. Tarrant and Vickers
of northeastern Greece. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- think that Aristophanes’ audience would have identified
phanes, Wasps 1271; Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis 812] Pheidippides with the Athenian statesman ALCIBIADES.
430 PHERAE

BIBLIOGRAPHY Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000,

Tarrant, H. “Alcibiades in Aristophanes’ Clouds I and II,” 135–50.
Ancient History 19 (1989): 13–20. Urios-Aparisi, E. “Old Comedy Pherecrates’ Way,” Itaca
Vickers, M. “Alcibiades in Cloudedoverland.” In Nomodeik- 12–13 (1996–97): 75–86.
tes: Greek Studies in Honor of Martin Ostwald. Edited by R.
Rosen and J. Farrell. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan PHERES The son of CRETHEUS and TYRO, Pheres
Press, 1993, 603–18. was the brother of Aeson and Amythaon. Pheres is said
to have founded the town of Pherae. By his wife, Per-
PHERAE A town near the coast of northeastern iclymene, Pheres was the father of ADMETUS, Lycurgus,
Greece. Pherae was the home of ADMETUS, ALCESTIS, Idomene, and Periopis. Pheres was a king of Pherae,
and PHERES and the setting for EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS. but after he became old he turned over the kingship to
his son, Admetus. When Apollo gave Admetus the
PHERECRATES A Greek comic poet who was opportunity to avoid death, provided that he could find
active in the latter half of the fifth century B.C.E. Phere- someone to die in his place, Admetus asked his father
crates’ first victory in competition is dated to 437. and mother, but they refused. Eventually, Admetus’
wife, ALCESTIS, agreed to die in his place. Pheres’
Some 250 fragments survive and 17 or 18 titles are
appearance in EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS has led him to be con-
known (Cheiron may not have been written by Phere-
sidered one of the more unpleasant characters in Greek
crates). A fragment from Cheiron contains a speech by
TRAGEDY. Pheres arrives at his son’s house after the death
Music to Justice about the way Music has been treated
of Admetus’ wife, Alcestis, carrying items of finery for
by recent musicians. Pherecrates’ Savages (Agrioi), pro-
Alcestis’ burial. Because Pheres was unwilling to give up
duced at the LENAEA in 420 B.C.E., in which some men
his life for Admetus, Admetus rejects Pheres and his
leave civilization for a life among the savages, may have
gifts. Pheres responds to his son by declaring that he
influenced ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS (414 B.C.E.), in which
has given him everything a father should give a son;
two men leave ATHENS to live among the birds. Phere-
that he values life just as much as his son does and
crates’ Ant-People (Myrmekanthropoi) dealt with DEU-
therefore should not have to die before his time; and
CALION and PYRRHA’s survival of the flood. Pherecrates
that Admetus, and not he, is responsible for Alcestis’
appears to have been something of a pioneer in the death. Pheres declares that he would be making a mis-
realm of creating female characters in comedy (as his take if he died for his son. Pheres leaves with the decla-
Old Women attests) and is often credited with inventing ration that someday Alcestis’ relatives will avenge her
comedies that centered around a hetaira (high-class death and punish Admetus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
PROSTITUTE). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata lodorus, Library 1.9.11, 1.9.14, 3.10.4, 3.13.8; Euripi-
158; pseudo-Plutarch, Moralia 1141d–42a] des, Alcestis; Homer, Odyssey 11.258–59]
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ceccarelli, P. “Life among the Savages and Escape from the Bradley, E. M. “Admetus and the Triumph of Failure in
City.” In The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Euripides’ Alcestis,” Ramus 9 (1980): 112–27.
Comedy. Edited by D. Harvey and J. Wilkins. London:
Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, PHERSEPHATTA A name for PERSEPHONE.
453–71.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 671]
Dobrov, G. W., and E. Urios-Aparisi. “The Maculate Muse:
Gender, Genre, and the Chiron of Pherecrates.” In Beyond
Aristophanes: Transition and Diversity in Greek Comedy. PHIDIAS (CA. 490–432 B.C.E.) The son of
Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995, 139–74. Charmides, Phidias was the greatest of Athenian sculp-
Henderson, J. “Pherekrates and the Women of Old Com- tors. The gleam from Phidias’ 30-foot high statue of
edy.” In The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old ATHENA Promachus (ca. 456) was so bright that it
Comedy. Edited by D. Harvey and J. Wilkins. London: could be seen from miles away, and EURIPIDES alludes
 PHILIP (2) 431

to this statue in the opening of ION. Phidias also created PHILEMON (2) This person, who has not been
the sculpture for the PROPYLAEA and the Parthenon in identified, may have been an Athenian who was
ATHENS, as well as the colossal gold and ivory statue of “accused . . . of not being a true-born citizen . . . or
ATHENA (completed in the year 438) in the Parthenon. may have been a respectable citizen who bred or sold
Phidias was later exiled from Athens for stealing mate- birds” (Dunbar). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
rial from these projects and went to the town of ELIS in Birds 763]
southwestern Greece, where he made another colossal
statue, this time of ZEUS (437–432 B.C.E.). He was again BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
accused of stealing material from the project and was
sity Press, 1995, 472.
put to death. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace
605, 616; Pausanias, 1.24.5; Plutarch, Pericles 13.4]
PHILEPSIAS This Athenian politician, from the
BIBLIOGRAPHY DEME of Lamptrae, was tried and jailed for misappro-
Olson, S. D. Aristophanes: Peace. Oxford: Clarendon Press, priation of public funds. Philepsias was apparently a
1998, 160–61. clever public speaker who incorporated stories from
Waldstein, C. Essays on the Art of Pheidias. 1885. Reprint, mythology into his political speeches so that he could
Washington, D.C.: McGrath, 1973. become popular with the people and thus become
powerful politically. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
PHILAENETE A fictional Athenian woman
Wealth 177 and the scholia; Demosthenes, 24.134]
mentioned at ARISTOPHANES, ECCLESIAZUSAE 42.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHILBALIS A Greek district famous for its figs. Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 802] Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 148.

BIBLIOGRAPHY PHILIP (1) (PHILIPPUS) Although Philip is

Sommerstein. A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, Achar-
called the son of the famous sophist and rhetorician
nians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 196.
GORGIAS of Leontini, he may not have been Gorgias’
child, but rather an imitator or student of his. Philip
PHILEMON (1) (CA. 365–CA. 265 B.C.E.) A
Greek playwright whose plays, as are those of MENAN- supposedly made a living by making malicious legal
DER, are classified as New Comedy. Philemon was from
accusations against people. This Philip may also have
SICILY or Cilicia and traveled to ATHENS, where he won prosecuted or denounced in writing “the anti-demo-
a victory at the DIONYSIA in 327. Philemon is said to cratic intellectual and speech-writer Antiphon” (Som-
have written 97 plays; only some 60 titles and 200 merstein). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds
fragments survive. At least two of PLAUTUS’ plays were 1694–1705, Wasps 421; Isocrates, 15.156]
adapted from Philemon. Plautus’ MERCHANT was based BIBLIOGRAPHY
on Philemon’s Emporos (Merchant) and Plautus’ THREE- MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
DOLLAR DAY was adapted from Philemon’s Thesauros Press, 1971, 192.
(Treasure). Plautus’ HAUNTED HOUSE may have been Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
adapted from Philemon’s Phasma (Ghost). Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 185.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fantham, E. “Philemon’s Thesauros as a Dramatisation of
PHILIP (2) The name of several kings of the
Peripatetic Ethics,” Hermes 105 (1977): 406–21. region of Macedon. The most famous of these was
Hunter, R. “Philemon, Plautus and the Trinummus,” Museum Philip II, who ruled from 359 to 336 B.C.E. and was the
Helveticum 37 (1980): 216–30. father of Alexander the Great. Under the rule of Philip
Lefevre, Eckard. Plautus und Philemon. Tubingen, Ger.: G. II, the Macedonians conquered Greece. At the age of
Narr, 1995. 46, Philip was preparing an attack against the Persians
432 PHILIPICS

when he was assassinated. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Demos- returning home from jury duty is his daughter’s fishing
thenes, Phillipics; Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library his jury pay out of his mouth with her tongue (605–9).
16; Isocrates, Philippus; Plautus, Pot of Gold 86, 704] Philocleon also expresses pleasure in the power he
exerts over defendants in court and is always prepared
BIBLIOGRAPHY
to condemn a defendant even before he has heard the
Bradford, A. S. Philip II of Macedon: A Life from the Ancient
Sources. Illustrated by P. M. Bradford. New York: Praeger, case. Philocleon irreverently claims his life as a juror
1992. gives him dominion on the same level as that of ZEUS
Cawkwell, G. Philip of Macedon. London: Faber & Faber, (620–21). Eventually, when Bdelycleon proves to his
1978. father that he is a slave to the demagogue CLEON,
Ellis, J. R. Philip II and Macedonian Imperialism. London: Philocleon agrees not to go to the law courts. Bdely-
Thames and Hudson, 1976. cleon’s cure, however, does not appear to work. Philo-
Hammond, N. G. L. Philip of Macedon. Baltimore: Johns cleon steals the MUSIC GIRL from the dinner party they
Hopkins University Press, 1994. are attending, assaults a baking girl on the way home
Hatzopoulos, M. B., and L. D. Loukopulos. Philip of Mace- from the party, and ends the play by dancing wildly.
don. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon, 1980.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHILIPICS Named after the Macedonian king Bowie, A. M. “Ritual Stereotype and Comic Reversal. Aristo-
phanes’ Wasps,” Bulletin for the Institute of Classical Studies
Philip, this gold coin (mentioned frequently in the
34 (1987): 112–25.
plays of PLAUTUS), was worth 20 DRACHMAS.
Sidwell, Keith. “Was Philokleon Cured?: The Nosos Theme
in Aristophanes’ Wasps,” Classica et Mediaevalia 41 (1990):
PHILIPPI A town in THRACE, Philippi was famous 9–31.
as the site where the forces of Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and Vaio, J. “Aristophanes’ Wasps: The Relevance of the Final
Marcus ANTONIUS defeated the forces of Brutus and Scenes,” Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 12 (1971):
Cassius, the assassins of Julius CAESAR. [ANCIENT 335–51.
SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia 516]
PHILOCLES The son of Philopeithes, Philocles
PHILOCLEON As are other leading Aristo- was a Greek tragic poet and a nephew of AESCHYLUS’.
phanic characters such as DICAEOPOLIS, STREPSIADES, Philocles’ son, MORSIMUS, was also a tragic poet. Philo-
and TRYGAEUS, Philocleon, the focal point for the action cles is reported to have written some 100 plays and
in ARISTOPHANES’ WASPS, is depicted as an unsophisti- even defeated the production of SOPHOCLES that
cated older man. Unlike other Aristophanic heroes, included OEDIPUS TYRANNOS. Comic poets made fun of
though, Philocleon has a “disease”—he is addicted to Philocles’ style, however, calling him “son of briny”
serving on juries. Although Philocleon’s son, Bdely- (almion) and “gall” (chole). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
cleon, tries to prevent his father from doing so, Philo- phanes, Thesmophoriazusae 168, Wasps 462; Cratinus,
cleon keeps escaping from the house. Also unlike fragment 292 Kock; scholiast on Aristophanes, Birds
DICAEOPOLIS, STREPSIADES, and TRYGAEUS, Philocleon 281; Suda on “Philocles”; Teleclides, fragment 14
does not create a fantastic plan to solve some social Kock]
problem, but he is the object of his son, Bdelycleon’s, BIBLIOGRAPHY
fantastic plan to cure him of his addiction to serving on Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
juries. Not only is Philocleon not a social reformer, he Teubner, 1880.
may also be more uncouth and wild than these previ- Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
ously mentioned fellows. When his son asks him to Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 185.
recall the most manly deed of his youth, Philocleon
responds that it was stealing the vine props of Ergasion PHILOCRATES An Athenian bird seller about
(1201). Elsewhere, Philocleon says the best part of whom ARISTOPHANES has two of his characters com-
 PHILOCTETES 433

plain. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 13–16, distressed by his odor. Fragment 701 described a staff
1076–83] that may have belonged to the healer ASCLEPIUS.
Several other Greek tragedians composed a Philoctetes.
PHILOCTETES The son of Poeas and Only titles survive from the plays of Antiphon (fragment
Demonassa, Philoctetes was the king of the Malians, 3 Snell) and Philocles (fragment 1 Snell). One brief
who lived near Mount OETA in northeastern Greece. phrase survives from Theodectas’ Philoctetes, a command
Philoctetes made a brief appearance in the latter part of to more than one person to “cut off my hand” (fragment
SENECA’s HERCULES OETAEUS. In Seneca’s play, when the 5b Snell). From Achaeus’ Philoctetes, a four-line fragment
hero, HERACLES, was in torment after he put on the poi- (37 Snell) survives, in which AGAMEMNON appears to be
soned robe given to him by his wife, DEIANEIRA, he told calling Greek troops to aid someone.
Philoctetes to build a pyre on Mount Oeta and then AESCHYLUS (fragments 249–57 Radt) and EURIPIDES
light it. As a reward, Heracles gave Philoctetes his bow (fragments 787–803 Nauck) also wrote plays entitled
and arrows. Philoctetes, which had the same subject matter as
When the Trojan War began, Philoctetes joined the Sophocles’ play. Fortunately, Dio Chrysostomus (born
other Greeks on the expedition because he had been 40 C.E.) compared the three plays by Aeschylus,
one of HELEN’s suitors. While he was on the island of Euripides, and Sophocles. Concerning Aeschylus’ play,
Tenedos, just off the coast from TROY, a serpent bit the chorus consisted of men from Lemnos and
Philoctetes in the foot. Hyginus reports that HERA DIOMEDES accompanied Odysseus to Lemnos. In
sent the serpent because she was angry that Aeschylus, Philoctetes’ disease prevented him from
Philoctetes was helping Heracles. When Philoctetes’ recognizing Odysseus, who told him a false tale that
wound did not heal, his cries of anguish and the Agamemnon and Odysseus were dead and the Greek
stench of the wound were unbearable to the rest of army was in disarray. Dio reports that Aeschylus’
the army, who then abandoned him on the island of Odysseus made such a persuasive argument that
LEMNOS. Later, when the Greeks learned that they Philoctetes willingly went to Troy with the Greeks.
could not defeat Troy without the help of Philoctetes Euripides’ Philoctetes appeared in the TETRALOGY of
and the bow and arrows of Heracles, which 431 with MEDEA. As in Aeschylus’ play, Euripides’ cho-
Philoctetes carried, some of the Greeks, led by rus consisted of Lemnians. Euripides appears to have
ODYSSEUS, traveled to Lemnos to take Philoctetes back added to the cast a Lemnian named Aktor, who may
to Troy. Because Odysseus had been instrumental in have been a supplier of food and information for
the decision to abandon Philoctetes on Lemnos, Philoctetes (Webster). In Euripides’ play both the
Philoctetes did not want to return with the Greeks. In Greeks and the Trojans sent teams (the former led by
SOPHOCLES’ play, the divine Heracles appeared and Odysseus, the latter by Paris) to Lemnos to try to per-
persuaded Philoctetes to return to Troy. After suade Philoctetes to aid their respective side. Appar-
Philoctetes returned to Troy, he was healed of his ently the Greeks, with the exception of Odysseus, did
wound and then killed PARIS in battle with arrows not enter until late in the play. Furthermore, Odysseus
from Heracles’ bow. After the war, Philoctetes traveled appears to have been in disguise as a Greek warrior
to Italy and eventually settled on SICILY at the town of returning from Troy. In this guise, Odysseus would
Crimissa, where he established a shrine to APOLLO have befriended Philoctetes and argued against Paris,
and dedicated Heracles’ bow to the god. who tried to persuade Philoctetes to aid the Trojans
In addition to the extant PHILOCTETES, Sophocles with the promise of riches. Near the play’s conclusion,
wrote a play entitled Philoctetes at Troy, which was prob- Odysseus would have revealed his true identity and
ably about the healing of Philoctetes’ wound on his Philoctetes would have left with the Greeks, but how
return to Troy and Philoctetes’ subsequent killing of Euripides brought this about is unknown.
Paris (fragments 697–703 Radt). Fragment 697, spoken Among the Greek comic poets, Antiphanes wrote a
by Philoctetes, begged more than one person not to be Philoctetes; the two lines that survive (fragment 219
434 PHILOCTETES

Kock)—regarding wisdom in old age—tell us nothing on Lemnos. Philoctetes has been on the island nine
about the play’s plot. Strattis also wrote a Philoctetes, years when the Greeks learned through prophecy that
from which two fragments (43–44 Kock 2) survive. Troy could not be captured without his aid and that of
The first is about not casting treasure into dung; the the weapons that he carried: a bow and arrows given to
second mentions people’s entering a marketplace and him by the great hero HERACLES.
buying fish and eels from COPAIS. Epicharmus also As the action of SOPHOCLES’ play opens, the Greek
wrote a Philoctetes (fragments 132–34 Kaibel), whose hero ODYSSEUS, accompanied by NEOPTOLEMUS, the son
fragments are uninformative. of ACHILLES, are searching for Philoctetes’ cave. After
Among Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a Philoctetes they find it, Odysseus reveals to Neoptolemus that he
(522–72 Warmington), in which DIOMEDES rather than wants Achilles’ son to trick Philoctetes into giving him
NEOPTOLEMUS accompanied Odysseus to Lemnos. A Philoctetes’ weapons. Without Philoctetes’ bow,
Lemnian shepherd also appears to have been a character Odysseus says, the Greeks will never capture Troy.
in Accius’ play. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library Because Odysseus was one of the Greeks primarily
3.10.8, 3.12.6, Epitome 3.14, 3.27, 5.8, 6.15–15b; Dio responsible for Philoctetes’ abandonment on Lemnos,
Chrysostomus, Orations 52, 59; Homer, Iliad 2.716–25; Odysseus has enlisted Neoptolemus to try to trick
Hyginus, Fables 102; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus Philoctetes to give his weapons to him. Neoptolemus
1603–1757; Sophocles, Philoctetes; Strabo, 6.1.3] would prefer even force to trickery, but Odysseus tells
him that Philoctetes’ arrows are too dangerous. Neop-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
tolemus still does not want to lie to Philoctetes, but
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet-
arum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann, Odysseus again tells him that without the bow Troy
1899. cannot be taken. Odysseus also reveals that the pres-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: ence of Neoptolemus is also required for victory at
Teubner, 1880. Troy. Eventually, Neoptolemus agrees Odysseus’ plan.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: Before leaving Neoptolemus at the cave, Odysseus tells
Teubner, 1884. him that if he is taking longer than expected, he will
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen, send a scout disguised as the captain of a merchant
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985. ship to check on his progress.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, After Odysseus’ exit, a CHORUS of sailors from the
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
island of Scyros (where Neoptolemus was raised) enter
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
and ask what orders Neoptolemus has for them. Neop-
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1936. tolemus tells his sailors to watch for his signal and be
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: ready to help him should the need arise. As Neoptole-
Methuen, 1967. mus and his crew wait for Philoctetes, they express pity
for the condition in which he lives. Soon they hear
PHILOCTETES SOPHOCLES (409 B.C.E.) moaning, Philoctetes appears, and he asks the strangers
The action of Philoctetes takes place near a double- who they are. When Philoctetes hears that Neoptole-
mouthed cave on the island of LEMNOS (the only mus is Achilles’ son, he is happy to meet the son of his
instance in extant drama in which this island serves as a old friend. When Neoptolemus feigns surprise on hear-
setting). Nine years before to the play’s action, the Greek ing that Philoctetes was a member of the force who
archer Philoctetes was abandoned on the island of Lem- sailed to Troy, Philoctetes is equally surprised that
nos by the Greek army as it was sailing to fight at TROY. Neoptolemus has never heard of him. Philoctetes then
When the Greek fleet had taken the island of Tenedos, a explains to Neoptolemus who he is, how the serpent bit
snake bit Philoctetes. When his wound did not heal, the him on the island of Chryse, and how AGAMEMNON,
stench of the wound and Philoctetes’ moans became so MENELAUS, and Odysseus abandoned him on Lemnos.
annoying to his fellow Greeks that they abandoned him Philoctetes also tells how he was able to survive for the
 PHILOCTETES 435

past 10 years. Neoptolemus claims (again falsely) that spasm of pain, he asks Neoptolemus to hold his bow
he too has suffered at the hands of Agamemnon, until the pain passes and makes him promise not to let
Menelaus, and Odysseus. Neoptolemus then tells of his anything happen to it. Neoptolemus takes the bow and
father, Achilles’, death—of which Philoctetes was watches in amazed horror as another spasm wracks
unaware—and of how his father’s guardian, Phoenix, Philoctetes. The wounded hero alternates between
had sailed to Scyros and told him of the prophecy that longing for death and begging Neoptolemus not to
Neoptolemus would be the conqueror of Troy. Neop- leave him. Eventually, after Philoctetes falls asleep, the
tolemus then says that he sailed for Troy, but when he chorus wonder whether they should now leave with
arrived, his father’s weapons had been given to the bow. Neoptolemus, however, says Troy cannot be
Odysseus. Neoptolemus claims he was insulted by this; taken without Philoctetes. The chorus again urge
argued with Odysseus, who refused to give up Achilles’ Neoptolemus to leave, however. Soon Philoctetes
arms; and then sailed for Scyros. wakes and asks Neoptolemus to lift him up and take
Philoctetes is not surprised by the trickery of him to the ship. As they prepare to leave, Neoptolemus
Odysseus and asks about some of the other warriors at confesses that his mission is to take Philoctetes to Troy.
Troy. Neoptolemus tells Philoctetes about the deaths of Philoctetes is horrified by Neoptolemus’ trickery and
AJAX; NESTOR’s son, Antilochus; and Patroclus. begs the young man for his bow.
Philoctetes finds bitter irony in the fact that Thersites, Just as it seems that Neoptolemus will return the
who could never keep his mouth shut, was still alive. bow to Philoctetes, Odysseus appears and demands
When Neoptolemus then states his intention to set sail that Neoptolemus give the bow to him. Odysseus also
from Scyros, Philoctetes begs to be taken along. After demands that Philoctetes accompany them.
Neoptolemus agrees, two men, disguised agents of Philoctetes, furious at this turn of events, threatens to
Odysseus’, approach and tell Neoptolemus that the hurl himself from a cliff but is restrained. After
Greeks have sent out Phoenix and THESEUS’ sons to Philoctetes laments his fate and the trickery of Neop-
track him down. When the disguised Merchant sees tolemus and Odysseus, Odysseus agrees to leave
Philoctetes, he urges Neoptolemus to flee. When Philoctetes on the island, but says they will take the
Neoptolemus tells the Merchant that he and bow. Odysseus turns to go, but Neoptolemus tells his
Philoctetes are friends, the Merchant tells him that crew to stay with Philoctetes until he gives orders for
Odysseus and Diomedes have gone to track down them to go to the ship. After the departure of Odysseus
Philoctetes. The Merchant explains that Odysseus had and Neoptolemus, Philoctetes wonders how he will
captured a son of PRIAM, HELENUS, who had informed survive. The chorus, however, tell him that he could
the Greeks that they would not capture Troy without have left with Odysseus and Neoptolemus. Philoctetes
Philoctetes’ help. When Philoctetes hears this, he sug- continues to lament his lost bow and to wonder how
gests that he would never go with Odysseus. Upon he will survive. The chorus try to persuade Philoctetes
hearing this, the Merchant exits. Philoctetes then urges to go to Troy, but Philoctetes refuses and begs the cho-
Neoptolemus to set sail, but the young man delays, rus to kill him.
saying that the winds are not yet favorable. Neoptole- After Philoctetes crawls back into his cave,
mus tells Philoctetes to collect anything that he needs Odysseus and Neoptolemus return. Neoptolemus
for the voyage. When Philoctetes mentions his bow states his intention to return the bow to Philoctetes.
and arrows, Neoptolemus asks to touch the bow. Odysseus threatens Neoptolemus, saying that he and
Philoctetes lets Neoptolemus handle the bow, and then the entire Greek army will prevent him. The two men
the men enter Philoctetes’ cave. Next, the chorus then draw swords and threaten one another, but
lament the sufferings of Philoctetes and express joy Odysseus backs down and exits for the ship. With
that Neoptolemus will help him. Odysseus gone, Neoptolemus calls Philoctetes from
After the choral ode, Neoptolemus and Philoctetes the cave and gives him the bow. When Odysseus
emerge from the cave. When Philoctetes experiences a returns, Philoctetes threatens to shoot him with the
436 PHILOCTETES

bow, but Neoptolemus prevents him. After Odysseus Philoctetes, whose sufferings were attributed to his vio-
runs away, however, Neoptolemus and Philoctetes are lation of a sacred shrine). Alcibiades escaped from the
reconciled. Neoptolemus urges Philoctetes to go to Athenians and went to SPARTA, where he aided the
Troy, promising that he will be healed if he does and Spartans in their war against the Athenians. After
that he and Philoctetes will triumph over Troy. Alcibiades’ departure, the Athenian military was not
Philoctetes, however, does not want to face Agamem- successful and despite the help he gave to the enemy,
non, Menelaus, and Odysseus again and urges Neop- the Athenian navy restored Alcibiades (compare
tolemus to return to Scyros. The two continue to Philoctetes) as commander, and in 410 (the year before
argue, and Philoctetes asks Neoptolemus to take him Philoctetes) he led the Athenians to an important vic-
home, a request to which Neoptolemus eventually tory over Sparta.
agrees. In the case of Alcibiades, he had been a friend of the
Just as they are about to leave, however, the divine Athenians, he then became their enemy, and he then
Heracles appears and tells Philoctetes that he must go became their friend again. Instances when friends
to Troy, be healed of his wound, kill Paris in battle, and become enemies and enemies become friends had
conquer Troy. Heracles also tells Neoptolemus that been of great interest to Sophocles. This is clear from
Philoctetes will not be successful without his help. As his earliest extant play (AJAX), and, as Blundell has
Heracles vanishes, Philoctetes and Neoptolemus agree shown, such instances are important to almost all of
to obey. After Philoctetes bids farewell to his island Sophocles’ plays. Philoctetes also explores such rela-
home, the chorus pray for smooth sailing. tionships. The Greeks and Philoctetes had been
friends, but after they abandoned him on Lemnos they
COMMENTARY became enemies. An enemy of the Greeks, the Trojan
Sophocles’ Philoctetes is one of the more beautiful yet prophet Helenus revealed to the Greeks that they
less appreciated plays in classical drama. The story of could not capture Troy without Philoctetes and his
Philoctetes is mentioned briefly in HOMER, but Sopho- bow. To take Philoctetes back to Troy, the Greeks send
cles may have modeled the mission to Philoctetes on out Odysseus, the person whom Philoctetes regards as
the embassy to Achilles in Iliad 9, a mission in which his greatest enemy and holds most responsible for his
Odysseus played a key role that failed to achieve its abandonment on Lemnos. Odysseus realizes that
aim of drawing Achilles back into battle. For the char- Philoctetes regards him as an enemy and thus enlists
acter of Neoptolemus, Sophocles may have drawn on the aid of a person unknown to Philoctetes to trick
the Homeric portrait of Odysseus’ son, TELEMACHUS, in him. To acquire the bow, Neoptolemus must gain
Odyssey. Just as Telemachus is educated in the ways of Philoctetes’ trust and convince him that he is his
words and war in Odyssey, Neoptolemus learns how to friend.
seek a balance between persuasion and force in To win over Philoctetes, Neoptolemus employs both
Philoctetes. trickery and persuasion. As noted in the entry on
Although the more educated members of Sophocles’ Philoctetes, AESCHYLUS and EURIPIDES also wrote plays
audience may have caught Sophocles’ references to entitled Philoctetes. In each of the three dramas the way
Homer, it is difficult to see how an Athenian audience in which Philoctetes is compelled to depart Lemnos
in 409 B.C.E. would not draw parallels between depends on persuasion. In Aeschylus, Odysseus made
Philoctetes and their own statesman ALCIBIADES, the such a persuasive argument to Philoctetes that he will-
most charismatic statesman and capable military com- ingly went to Troy with the Greeks. In Euripides,
mander in ATHENS during the last two decades of the Odysseus, disguised as another Greek warrior,
fifth century B.C.E. In 415 B.C.E., Alcibiades was sent to befriended Philoctetes and argued against Paris, who,
SICILY as one of the commanders of a military expedi- with the promise of riches, tried to persuade
tion, but he was soon recalled when he was implicated Philoctetes to aid the Trojans. Thus, in contrast to
in some religious crimes at Athens (compare Aeschylus and Euripides, Sophocles sends Odysseus
 PHILONIDES 437

into the background to some extent and places Neop- manner of his predecessors Aeschylus and Euripides.
tolemus opposite Philoctetes. Because human beings do not succeed in winning over
Interestingly, whereas Odysseus was a persuader in Philoctetes, Sophocles turns to divine persuasion in
the plays of Aeschylus and Euripides, Sophocles’ the person of Heracles, although the use of the divine
Odysseus rejects this tactic when Neoptolemus sug- appearance at the conclusion of the play was a favorite
gests using persuasion rather than trickery (102–3). Euripidean practice. Ironically, Heracles, whose fame
Sophoclean Odysseus is convinced that trickery will be rested almost solely on his use of force, turns to the
the only way to overcome Philoctetes. When Odysseus’ power of persuasion to convince Philoctetes and Neop-
scheme of having the disguised sailor approach tolemus that they should return to Troy, and as the play
Philoctetes is set in motion, the sailor declares that ends they both declare that they have been persuaded
Odysseus and Diomedes are planning to take by his words (1447–48).
Philoctetes by persuasion or force (593–94). When
BIBLIOGRAPHY
this sailor reports the words of the prophet that
Blundell, M. W. Helping Friends and Harming Enemies: A
prompted about this fictional mission of Odysseus’, Study in Sophocles and Greek Ethics. Cambridge: Cam-
the fictional words of the prophet are that the Greeks bridge University Press, 1989, 184–225.
could not capture Troy until Philoctetes was taken to Poe, J. P. Heroism and Divine Justice in Sophocles’ Philoctetes.
Troy by persuasion (612). Philoctetes, of course, can- Leiden: Brill, 1974.
not believe that Odysseus swore he would take Roisman, H. M. “The Appropriation of a Son: Sophocles’
Philoctetes back to Troy by persuasion (623) and Philoctetes,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 38.2
declares that he will not be persuaded by Odysseus (1997): 127–71.
(624) to return to Troy. Rose P. W. “Sophocles’ Philoctetes and the Teachings of the
Eventually, however, the actors in Odysseus’ play Sophists,” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 80 (1976):
49–105.
within the play fool Philoctetes, and he is persuaded to
Webster. T. B. L. Philoctetes. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
place his bow in Neoptolemus’ hands. Now, however,
sity Press, 1970.
Neoptolemus must be persuaded to hand over the bow
to Odysseus, and he refuses to do so. Neoptolemus
PHILODORETUS A probably fictional Athen-
repents of his earlier trickery (1228) and tries again to
ian mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at ECCLESIAZUSAE 51.
win over Philoctetes, but the latter is wary after earlier
No historical Athenian of this name is known.
having been persuaded to his detriment (1269). When
Neoptolemus finds that he cannot persuade Philoctetes BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1278–80), he ceases his attempt and returns the bow to Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
him. The appearance of Odysseus, who declares his Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
intent to take Philoctetes back to Troy by force (1297), 143.
prompts the bow-wielding Neoptolemus to use force,
but Neoptolemus, who earlier in the play expressed a PHILOMELA See TEREUS.
preference for force over trickery (90–91), now returns
to persuasion to convince Philoctetes that the use of PHILONIDES An Athenian from the DEME of
force would not be the proper course of action; Neop- Milite, the wealthy Philonides was mocked by comic
tolemus fails in a further attempt to persuade Philoctetes poets as ugly, uncouth, and ignorant and a lover of a
to return with him to Troy; instead, the two decide to Corinthian prostitute named Nais (or Lais). The comic
return to Greece, where Philoctetes promises that the poets also suggested he was the son of a camel or a
force of Heracles’ bow will protect them from anyone in donkey. The comic poet Aristophon wrote a play enti-
the Greek army who might use force against them. tled Philonides, from which a five-line fragment sur-
Ultimately, force, trickery, and persuasion are at an vives (14 Kock). In this fragment, the speaker relates
impasse. Sophocles will not resolve his plot in the that his master gave him a special drinking bowl for his
438 PHILOSTRATUS

valuable service and then set him free after dousing onauts’ encounter with Phineus. To Sophocles are
him with wine. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wealth attributed two plays entitled Phineus (fragments
179, 303; Nicochares, fragment 3 Kock; Philyllius, 704–17a Radt), although Lloyd-Jones thinks that one
fragment 23 Kock; Plato Comicus, fragment 64.5 of these plays may have been the same as Drummers.
Kock; Theopompus, fragments 4–5 Kock] The Greek comic poet Theopompus also wrote a
Phineus (fragment 62 Kock); the five lines that survive,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
in which a speaker gives another dietary advice, reveals
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880. nothing about the play’s plot. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11, Aeschylus, Eumenides 50 (see ORESTEIA); Apollodorus,
Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 148. Library 3.15.3; Apollonius Rhodius, 2.178–489;
Diodorus Siculus, 4.43.3–4.44.7; Sophocles, Antigone
PHILOSTRATUS See CYANOPLEX. 969ff.]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHILOXENUS See ERYXIS. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1880.
PHINEUS The son of Agenor (or Agenor’s son, Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Phoenix, or POSEIDON), Phineus was king of Salmy- Harvard University Press, 1996, 334.
dessus, a town in THRACE. Phineus first married Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
BOREAS’ daughter CLEOPATRA by whom he fathered Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
Plexippus and Pandion. Later, Phineus divorced
Cleopatra and married Dardanus’ daughter Idaea. PHLEGETHON A river of flames by which the
When Idaea falsely accused Plexippus and Pandion of UNDERWORLD was bounded. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca,
trying to seduce her, Phineus, believing the accusation, Agamemnon 753, Hippolytus 848, 1227, Oedipus 162,
blinded both his sons. In ANTIGONE, SOPHOCLES says Thyestes 73, 1018]
Idaea blinded her stepsons. Some sources say that the
Argonauts and Boreas, who was the grandfather of
PHLEGRA A plain where a battle between the
Phineus’ sons, saved the boys and blinded Phineus.
gods and a certain group of Giants took place. Some
The Argonauts then sent Idaea to her father, Dardanus,
sources thought Phlegra was a volcanic area near
who sentenced her to die.
Naples in Italy; others thought it was near Pallene in
Other sources say that ZEUS blinded Phineus
northeastern Greece. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
because he told mortals the future. As an additional
Library 2.7.1; Aeschylus, Eumenides 295 (see ORESTEIA);
punishment, the HARPIES were sent to steal Phineus’
Aristophanes, Birds 824; Euripides, Heracles 1192, Ion
food anytime he tried to eat. His torment by the
988; Seneca, Hercules Furens 444, Thyestes 881]
Harpies, however, ended after the arrival of JASON and
the Argonauts. In exchange for information on how to
reach COLCHIS, the Argonauts agreed to help Phineus, PHOCIS A region in north central Greece. The
and the Harpies were driven away by the winged Arg- principal town of Phocis is DELPHI, and occasionally
onauts, Zetes and Calais, who also happened to be the dramatists use Phocis as a synonym for Delphi.
Cleopatra’s brothers. After this, Phineus told the Arg- Perhaps the most famous Phocians in drama are
onauts the route and dangers they would face on the STROPHIUS and his son, PYLADES, with whom AGAMEM-
way to Colchis. Some sources say that POSEIDON NON’s son, ORESTES, lived for some time.

blinded Phineus for revealing this information.

AESCHYLUS wrote a Phineus (fragments 258–59a PHOEBE See ARTEMIS.
Radt), which appeared on the stage before PERSIANS in
472 B.C.E. The play appears to have dealt with the Arg- PHOEBUS See APOLLO.
 PHOENICIAN WOMEN 439

PHOENICIAN WOMEN EURIPIDES (CA. rus then summon Jocasta from the palace. Jocasta
411–409 B.C.E.) At 1,766 lines, this is the longest embraces Polyneices, tells him of Oedipus, and asks
extant Euripidean play. The play’s action takes place about Polyneices’ marriage to Adrastus’ daughter,
before the royal palace at THEBES. The general subject which Jocasta criticizes as marriage to a foreigner.
is the same as in AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN AGAINST THEBES : the Polyneices does not respond to this criticism and notes
struggle between the sons of OEDIPUS, ETEOCLES and how much he has missed Thebes. Jocasta asks him
POLYNEICES, for the Theban kingdom. Unlike in about the life of an exile, and Polyneices explains the
Aeschylus’ play, of which a substantial portion is occu- hardships of this life. He also tells Jocasta about his
pied with describing the shields of the seven captains marriage to Adrastus’ daughter and Adrastus’ agreeing
who march against Thebes, in EURIPIDES’ more of the to help restore him to his native land.
focus is on the family of Oedipus. In SOPHOCLES’ OEDI- At this point, Eteocles enters and urges that the dis-
PUS TYRANNOS, staged some two decades earlier than cussion between him and Polyneices begin quickly,
Euripides’ play, JOCASTA commits suicide as Oedipus is because he is busy with preparations for war. Jocasta
discovering the truth about his identity. In Euripides’ urges Eteocles to relax and engage in face-to-face dis-
play, Jocasta is alive and frequently onstage during the cussion with his brother. Polyneices speaks first and
first three-quarters of the drama, delivering the play’s explains his side of the quarrel. He complains that
PROLOGUE, interacting with and mediating between Eteocles has not fulfilled the promise that he made—
Polyneices and Eteocles, and informing Antigone of namely, to share the kingdom with him. Eteocles
the single combat between the brothers. Only the cho- responds that his love of power compels him to hold
rus have more lines than Jocasta in Euripides’ play. on to the kingship and that it would be cowardly to
As the play begins, Jocasta tells of her family history: hand it over because of the threat of war from Polyne-
the horrific events that involved her, LAIUS, and Oedi- ices and his allies from ARGOS. Jocasta responds to
pus and the quarrel between her sons, Eteocles and Eteocles’ remarks and tries to persuade him to give up
Polyneices, that occurred after Oedipus had blinded his ambition for power. She also criticizes Polyneices
himself. Jocasta informs the audience that she has per- for marching on his native land. She states that Polyne-
suaded her sons to agree to mediation before the bat- ices’ conquering Thebes will gain him no glory and
tle. After Jocasta’s monologue, she exits. Next, that his defeat would make him unpopular should he
ANTIGONE and her TUTOR appear and gaze on Polyne- return to Argos. Despite their mother’s arguments,
ices’ advancing army. Over the next 70 lines, they com- Eteocles and Polyneices refuse to compromise. At this
ment on the captains of this force: Hippomedon, point, the negotiation breaks down into name-calling
TYDEUS, PARTHENOPAEUS, Polyneices, ADRASTUS, AMPHIA- by the two brothers, and the brothers threaten to kill
RAUS, and CAPANEUS. Antigone prays that ZEUS will one another in battle. After the departure of Eteocles
destroy Capaneus, who Antigone suggests has boasted and Polyneices, the Phoenician women sing an ode
that he will enslave Theban women. At this, the tutor that recalls Cadmus’ arrival in Greece and his founding
urges Antigone to go back indoors. of Thebes, the birthplace of Dionysus. They recall Cad-
After Antigone and her tutor leave, the chorus, com- mus’ killing of ARES’ serpent, his planting of the ser-
posed of war captives from a Phoenician island chosen pent’s teeth, and his battle with the armed warriors
to serve in APOLLO’s temple at DELPHI, make their entry. who sprang up from the teeth. To protect and save
These women were on their way to Delphi, but the Thebes, the women also call upon EPAPHUS, Zeus’ son
outbreak of war apparently stopped their journey. After by their ancestor IO, PERSEPHONE, DEMETER, and GAIA.
the chorus’ entry, Polyneices approaches. He worries After the choral ODE, Eteocles enters and summons
that the meeting with his brother is a trap. He ques- his uncle, CREON, who informs him that Polyneices
tions the Phoenician women about who they are, and and his army are preparing an immediate attack on the
they ask him his name as well. When Polyneices tells city. The two men discuss possible strategies for attack-
them who he is, the women bow before him. The cho- ing the enemy, who heavily outnumber the Thebans.
440 PHOENICIAN WOMEN

Because Creon has been told that the Argives plan to dle. They, praising Menoeceus for his valor, hope that
send each of their seven captains against one of they may have such noble sons.
Thebes’ seven gates, Creon advises choosing seven The chorus’ song is followed by the arrival of a MES-
men to lead the opposition against them. Before Eteo- SENGER, who summons Jocasta from the palace. The
cles leaves to see to these matters, he arranges for the messenger states that Thebes remains safe and both her
marriage of Antigone and Creon’s son HAEMON. Eteo- sons are alive, but that Creon’s son is dead. The mes-
cles also notes that the prophet TIRESIAS should be con- senger goes on to describe the seven commanders who
sulted, and that Creon’s son, MENOECEUS, should take lead forces from Argos to Thebes (Parthenopaeus,
Tiresias to the palace because he, Eteocles, and Tiresias Amphiaraus, Hippomedon, Tydeus, Polyneices, Capa-
do not get along. Eteocles also orders Creon not to neus, and Adrastus), the designs on their shields, and
allow Polyneices to be buried on Theban soil if he dies the various Theban gates against which they will make
in battle and decrees death for anyone who tries to their assault. Next, the messenger describes the battle
bury him. The departure of Eteocles and Creon is fol- that takes place. First, Parthenopaeus is killed, then
lowed by another choral song, in which the Phoenician Capaneus, struck by a lightning bolt from Zeus. At this
women sing of the intrusion of ARES, war, on the point, the messenger informs Jocasta that the Argive
peaceful worship of divinities such as DIONYSUS and the army has retreated and Eteocles and Polyneices have
Graces. The women lament the exposure of the infant agreed to fight in single combat to decide the result of
Oedipus, the horrors of the SPHINX, and the new battle the war and determine who will become king. When
between brothers. They again recall the men who arose Jocasta hears this, she summons Antigone from the
from the dragon’s teeth, the gods attending the wed- palace and asks her to accompany her to the battlefield
ding of Cadmus and Harmonia, and the construction to try to persuade the brothers not to fight. After
of the walls of Thebes through the power of AMPHION’s mother and daughter depart, the Phoenician women
music. sing an ode of pity for a mother’s misery. They wonder
After the choral song, Creon’s son, Menoeceus, and which of the brothers they will have to mourn and beg
Tiresias, neither of whom appears in AESCHYLUS’ Seven Fate for rescue from this vengeance.
against Thebes, enter. Tiresias notes that he had warned After the choral ode, Creon enters, mentions that his
Oedipus’ sons not to be disrespectful to their father son has died, and expresses the hope that his sister,
after the revelation of his crimes. Tiresias mentions the Jocasta, will help prepare his corpse for burial. No
curse that Oedipus had placed on his sons and says sooner do the chorus tell Creon that Jocasta has gone
that the brothers are destined to kill each other in bat- to the battlefield than a messenger enters and
tle. Tiresias also prophesies that Creon must sacrifice announces that Eteocles and Polyneices have killed
his son MENOECEUS to save Thebes. Because Menoeceus one another in battle and that Jocasta, who witnessed
is descended from the men who arose from the ser- their deaths, committed suicide on the battlefield with
pent’s teeth, Tiresias states, he must be sacrificed to a sword that she found near her sons’ bodies. After the
appease Ares for the killing of his serpent. If Ares is deaths of the brothers, the Theban army routes the
appeased, he will help the Thebans. After Tiresias’ Argives. After the messenger’s speech, Antigone and
departure, Creon says he himself will die to save the some attendants enter, bearing the bodies of Eteocles,
city and urges his son to go into exile. Initially Menoe- Polyneices, and Jocasta. Antigone laments over her
ceus agrees, but his agreement is meant to trick his mother and brothers, as well as the sufferings of her
father. Menoeceus, as do many other sacrificial victims father. After Antigone’s lament, Euripides has one final
in Euripides, states his intent to choose death and his surprise for audience members who might have been
country’s salvation rather than his own safety. When familiar with Aeschylus’ or SOPHOCLES’ treatment of this
Menoeceus leaves, the Phoenician women sing an ode myth: The blinded Oedipus emerges from the house.
that recalls the horrors of the Sphinx and Oedipus’ Once Antigone and Oedipus have mourned and
ending the monster’s reign of terror by solving his rid- Antigone tells him how Jocasta died, Creon enters;
 PHOENICIAN WOMEN 441

announces that he is now king; informs Oedipus of the other. A mother tries to reconcile the two brothers, but
engagement of his son, Haemon, to Antigone; and ban- finds them both unbending in their desire for power.
ishes Oedipus from Thebes. Oedipus, recalling his Eventually, the mother will add to her own the pleas of
horrific past, wonders who will accompany him into her daughter to stop the brothers from facing each
exile and tells Creon that his edict is like a death sen- other in combat. The effort of mother and daughter
tence. As in Sophocles’ ANTIGONE, Creon decrees that will fail, however. The mother will see her sons kill
Eteocles be given proper burial, but that Polyneices be each other and the sister will see her brothers kill each
thrown out beyond the city’s boundaries and left other. Furthermore, the daughter will then see her
unburied. Antigone declares her intent to bury Polyne- mother kill herself in her grief about the sons’ deaths.
ices, but Creon meets this with threats of arrest and In addition to the three corpses of Oedipus’ imme-
severe punishment. Antigone says she will refuse to diate family, the conflict between the brothers spills
marry Haemon, but Creon says he will make sure she over into the family of his former brother-in-law. As in
does. Antigone then decides to accompany her father other classical dramas (e.g., Aeschylus’ Agamemnon or
into exile. Before they depart, Oedipus notes the Euripides’ fragmentary Erechtheus), in Phoenician
prophecy that he would die on Athenian soil at Women the father, Creon, must choose between saving
Colonus. Antigone also mentions that she will bury his country or city and sacrificing his child. Unlike in
Polyneices secretly. As they exit, Oedipus urges these other plays, in Phoenician Women the sacrificial
Antigone to appeal to Dionysus for help, but Antigone virgin is a male rather than a female. From the Greek
suggests that that would be useless. standpoint, the sacrifice of a male would have been
more horrific than that of a female because, as another
COMMENTARY Euripidean sacrificial victim (IPHIGENIA) expresses it, “It
Phoenician Women has not received much attention is better that one man see the light than ten thousand
from modern scholars, although the play appears to women” (Iphigenia at Aulis 1394). As do his female sac-
have been popular in antiquity. A few lines in the pro- rificial counterparts, the son, rejecting his father’s sug-
logue and much of the last 180 lines of the play have gestion that he flee the country, kills himself.
often been thought to be written by someone other With four lives lost, a new king appears and begins
than Euripides. In general, scholars have criticized wielding his power in a most unpleasant way. Oedipus’
these lines either for not being Euripidean in style and former brother-in-law declares that the old blind man
METER or for having content that does not bear the mark must go into exile. He threatens death to his future
of the skilled and veteran dramatist that Euripides was. daughter-in-law if she should try to bury her brother.
Modern readers of the play should note that ATHENS In turn, the daughter-in-law threatens to kill her new
was still involved in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR when husband, thus leading the new king to allow her to go
Phoenician Women was produced. Furthermore, Euripi- into exile with her blind father/brother.
des produced this play when Athens either was in the Theban kings and princes had come and gone, but
midst of or had just emerged from an internal revolu- the city of Thebes remained intact. Another approach to
tion that had witnessed both the overthrow and the this play might be entitled “Salvation and the City.” In
restoration of its democracy within the space of a year the course of Phoenician Women, we hear of their efforts
(411). Thus, the concern in Phoenician Women with to avoid killing one another or being killed by one
war and strife between brothers is not surprising given another, and the members of Oedipus’ family have fled
the period in which the play was produced. the city, only to return to the city and destroy one
The futility of war and war’s impact on the entire another. While the members of the family have died, the
family appear to be the play’s focus. The curse of a city has managed to ride out the cycle of death and vio-
father has put his two sons into a conflict that will ulti- lence. When the son, Oedipus, killed the father/king,
mately result in the death of both. A sister watches as LAIUS, the Sphinx threatened the city (46). Oedipus
the army of one brother advances against that of the entered and saved the city by his wits.
442 PHOENICIAN WOMEN

After the father/king Oedipus was removed from the begs Jocasta and Antigone to bury him in his father-
throne and badly treated by his sons, he cursed his sons. land and intercede on his behalf if the city is angry
To avoid their father’s curse, the sons decided to share with him (1448). Creon, however, declares that
the kingship. One son remained in the city; one son left Polyneices must not be buried and his corpse will
the city. When Polyneices returned, he found himself experience a sort of second exile, for it will be cast
barred from it and thus decided to try to force his way beyond the borders of the land (1630). A defiant
back into the city. Whereas the unwitting exile Oedipus Antigone insists that she will bury his body, even if the
became king of Thebes through his wits, the unwilling city opposes the burial (1657). She begs Creon to
exile Polyneices will try to become king by force allow her at least to bathe his body, but he declares that
(629–30). His brother, Eteocles, will try to retain control this would be forbidden by the city (1668).
of the city by meeting his brother with force. Their An outraged Antigone, who is engaged to Creon’s
mother tries to persuade them to listen to reason. Unlike son, Haemon, declares that their marriage night will
their father, who saved the city and then ruled it, the make her one of the DANAIDS, thus indicating that she
brothers will achieve their own destruction through intends to murder Creon’s son. Interestingly, the
their desire to rule. Polyneices, who leaves his city with Danaids lived in Argos when their infamous murders
the expectation of kingship and the goal of self-preser- took place. So, just as Polyneices allied himself
vation, will lose the kingship and his life. Eteocles, who through marriage with the Argive king, Adrastus, and
hopes to preserve his kingship and save the city (783) took a destructive Argive force to Thebes, Antigone
by force, will also lose the kingship and his life. threatens to become like the occupants of that city
In addition to trying to save the city by military (Argos) and cause the destruction of a prince of her
force, Eteocles turns to the interpreter of the gods’ will, native city (Thebes). Upon hearing Antigone’s threats,
Tiresias, to save the city (864). Tiresias declares that Creon declares that she must go into exile. As the play
the city will be destroyed (884) and Oedipus’ sons will ends, Antigone and Oedipus go into exile. As must the
destroy it (888). When Creon asks what means of sal- exiled Polyneices, Oedipus will have to rely on another
vation (898) is available to the city and its citizens, he city to grant him shelter—Euripides’ own Athens.
learns that to save the city (912) he must sacrifice his As had the mythical Thebes of Euripides’ play,
son. Creon, of course, does not want to do this, but which had suffered through scandal, internal strife
Tiresias repeats his advice: “Either save your son or the among its leading citizens, and war, Euripides’ Athens
city” (952). Creon urges that his son go into exile, but experienced similar hardships around the time Phoeni-
unlike Polyneices, Menoeceus has no expectation of cian Women was produced. While the major political
kingship and refuses to go into exile just to save his players come and go, the city will survive. At the end
life. He declares that he will save the city (997). After of the play, the seven towers of Thebes remain intact,
Menoeceus departs to sacrifice himself for the city, we just as the city of Athens, behind its massive fortifica-
hear of the onslaught of Polyneices’ army, which has tion walls, continues to press onward.
arrived to destroy the city. All these efforts fail and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Thebes stands strong. While the seven towers of
Craik, E. Euripides: Phoenician Women. Warminster, U.K.:
Thebes remain intact thanks to the sacrifice of Creon’s
Aris & Phillips, 1988.
son, the two sons of Oedipus destroy one another. Luschnig, C. A. E. The Gorgon’s Severed Head: Studies of
Although the city has been saved from Oedipus’ Alcestis, Electra, and Phoenissae. Leiden: Brill, 1995.
sons, the new king, Creon, has been informed of an Mastronarde, D. J. Euripides: Phoenissae. Cambridge: Cam-
additional threat to the city if Oedipus remains in the bridge University Press, 1994.
city. Thus, to save the city from further trauma (1591), Saïd, S. “Tragedy and Politics.” In Democracy, Empire, and the
Creon orders Oedipus to go into exile. Although Arts in Fifth-Century Athens. Edited by D. Boedeker and K.
Polyneices is dead, even in this state he will pose a A. Raaflaub. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
threat to the city’s order. Before Polyneices dies, he 1998.
 PHOENIX 443

Scharffenberger, E. W. “A Tragic Lysistrata? Jocasta in the At this point, a change of scene takes place and
‘Reconciliation Scene’ of the Phoenician Women,” Rheinis- Jocasta, now on the battlefield between her sons, begs
ches Museum 138, no. 3/4 (1995): 312–36. them to end their quarrel. The brothers are reluctant,
but she does prevail upon ETEOCLES to put down his
PHOENICIAN WOMEN SENECA (WRIT- weapons. Jocasta then gives a lengthy speech in which
TEN BETWEEN 49 AND 65 C.E.?) Only 664 lines she urges Polyneices not to wage war against his native
survive from this play. The play’s action takes place land. Polyneices, however, thinks that if he gives in he
three years after OEDIPUS blinded himself. What will have to remain in exile or live in Thebes as if he is
remains of the play opens with the appearance of the a servant to his brother. Jocasta argues that if he wants
blind Oedipus, now wandering in exile in the wilds to be a king he can conquer a foreign land, and that he
outside THEBES and being guided by his daughter, should not acquire a kingdom through civil war. When
ANTIGONE. Oedipus laments his fortune; imagines that Polyneices complains that Eteocles receives no punish-
he sees his dead father, LAIUS; and wonders why he con- ment for driving him from the kingdom, Jocasta argues
tinues to live. Antigone responds by declaring that she that the burden of kingship is his penalty. Eteocles also
will not abandon him and encourages him to overcome breaks in and declares that Polyneices must continue
his sorrow. Oedipus praises his daughter but begs her his exile. Jocasta declares that exiling Polyneices will
to help him die. Antigone, however, refuses and con- make Eteocles hated by the people. Jocasta and Eteo-
tinues to urge him to calm himself and face adversity cles continue to argue, but the text of the play ends at
with courage. Oedipus will not take her advice, how- this point.
ever, and continues to dwell on the horrific acts of his
past. After he speaks of the war for the Theban throne PHOENIX The son of Amyntor, Phoenix was
that will take place between his sons, Antigone urges born at the foot of Mount PELION. When Phoenix’s
him to try to prevent the conflict. Oedipus argues that father took a concubine, Phoenix’s mother became jeal-
his sons have no care for him or Thebes and that they ous and persuaded Phoenix to seduce the concubine.
are both mad with a lust for power. Phoenix did so, his father learned of it, and he cursed
At this point, a gap in which a choral ODE would his son so that would have no children. Phoenix con-
have taken place occurs. The play resumes with an sidered killing Amyntor but left home, escaping from
announcement to Oedipus that the army of Oedipus’ his relatives, who had surrounded the house. Some
son POLYNEICES and his allies surround Thebes. Oedipus sources say that Amyntor blinded Phoenix, and when
is called upon to help prevent the war, but he refuses. Phoenix went into exile, PELEUS, granting him shelter,
After this, another gap occurs and the next speech that took him to the centaur CHIRON to heal him. After-
appears may be from a different play. In this speech, ward, Peleus made Phoenix king of the DOLOPIANS.
JOCASTA laments the strife between her sons and gives Phoenix also served as the tutor of Peleus’ son,
some of the background to Polyneices’ exile and his ACHILLES, and accompanied Achilles to TROY. Phoenix
march on Thebes. Next, a MESSENGER enters, announc- outlived his pupil but died on the voyage back from
ing that the battle between the Thebans and Polyneices’ Troy.
forces is about to take place. The messenger urges Although Phoenix does not appear as a character in
Jocasta to resolve the quarrel between her sons. any surviving plays, he appeared in several ancient
Antigone, who, although she earlier said she would not dramas. EURIPIDES wrote a Phoenix (fragments 804–18
leave Oedipus, now appears with her mother and Nauck), which was staged before ARISTOPHANES’ ACHAR-
echoes the messenger’s words. As in EURIPIDES’ play, NIANS (425 B.C.E.). The fragments indicate that Euripi-
Jocasta agrees to try to persuade the brothers to make des’ play dealt with Phoenix’s seduction of Amyntor’s
peace. After Jocasta departs, the messenger relates that concubine and the blinding of Phoenix. Aristophanes
Jocasta has approached the brothers and that they have, indicates that Phoenix appeared dressed in rags in
for the moment, lowered their weapons. Euripides’ play, and this would have been his condition
444 PHORCIDES

when he arrived at the house of Peleus. To SOPHOCLES the Phorcides and took the sisters’ eye and tooth.
is attributed a Phoenix (718–20 Radt), although Lloyd- Perseus gave the eye and tooth back to them only after
Jones thinks this may be the same play as Dolopians. they had given him directions to some NYMPHS who
Phoenix also appeared as a character in Sophocles’ possessed some equipment that he would need to deal
SATYR PLAY The Lovers of Achilles (fragment 53 Radt). with Medusa. AESCHYLUS wrote a Phorcides, which
Two other Greek tragedians, Astydamas (fragment 5d seems to have dealt with Perseus’ encounter with
Snell) and Athenodorus (fragment 1 Snell), wrote plays them. The Greek tragedian Timocles wrote a SATYR PLAY
entitled Phoenix, of which only the titles survive. We that dealt with the Phorcides, of which only the title
also know that Phoenix appeared as a character in survives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus
Chaeremon’s Achilles Thersitoktonos (Achilles, the killer Bound 794; Apollodorus, Library 1.2.6, 2.4.2; Hesiod,
of Thersites) (see fragments 1c–3 Snell). The Greek Theogony 270; Hyginus, Fables proem 9]
comic poet Eubulus also wrote a Phoenix (fragment
BIBLIOGRAPHY
114), whose single extant line (about the importation
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
of peacocks) tells us nothing about the play’s plot. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
Among Roman authors, ENNIUS wrote a Phoenix, whose Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
fragments (306–18 Warmington) indicate that it was Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
about the strife between Phoenix and Amyntor.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.13.8, Epit- PHORMIO (1) (D. CA. 429/428 B.C.E.) The
ome 4.3, 5.11; Aristophanes, Acharnians 421–22; son of Asopius, Phormio was an Athenian who had
Homer, Iliad 9.437–84] several successes as a naval commander in the first few
BIBLIOGRAPHY years of the PELOPONNESIAN WAR. Phormio appeared as
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: a character in Taxiarch, by ARISTOPHANES’ contempo-
Teubner, 1884. rary, EUPOLIS (fragments 1–12 Meineke). In this play,
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: Phormio “tried to teach the unwarlike and effeminate
Harvard University Press, 1996, 336. Dionysus how to be a soldier and perhaps also how to
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, row” (Sommerstein). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. Knights 562, Lysistrata 804, Peace 348; Thucydides,
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, 2.83–92, 3.7.1]
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. Meineke, A. Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum. Vol. 2.1.
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and Caecilius. 1839. Reprint, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1970.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1935.
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 174–75.
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Wilson, A. M. “A Eupolidean Precedent for the Rowing
Methuen, 1967, 84–85.
Scene in Aristophanes’ Frogs,” Classical Quarterly 24
(1974): 250–52.
PHORCIDES The daughters of Phorcys and
Ceto, the Phorcides, whose names were Dino, Enyo, PHORMIO (2) The fictional title character of
and Pephredo, were the sisters of the GORGONS. The TERENCE’s PHORMIO. See PHORMIO.
Phorcides are sometimes called the Gray Ones because
they were already old when they were born. Among PHORMIO TERENCE (161 B.C.E.) Performed
the three of them, the Phorcides had only one eye and at the ROMAN GAMES, this play is set in ATHENS, and the
one tooth, which they had to pass back and forth when action occurs before three houses: those of Demipho
they wanted to see or eat. PERSEUS, on a mission to (an elderly Athenian), Chremes (Demipho’s brother),
acquire the Gorgon MEDUSA’s head, went to the lair of and the PIMP Dorio. In the prologue, TERENCE defends
 PHORMIO 445

himself against the attacks of the veteran playwright Antipho. Phaedria promises to do so but instead
Luscius Lanuvius. Terence also announces that he has sneaks into the pimp Dorio’s house, where his own
adapted his play from a play entitled The Claimant love, Pamphila, is. Demipho says he will pay respect to
(Greek: Epidikazomenos) by Apollodorus of Carystus, his household gods and then go to the FORUM to con-
the same author who provided a model for Terence’s sult some friends about the current situation.
MOTHER-IN-LAW. Next, Geta informs Phormio of Antipho’s departure
In the opening act, Davus enters and gives Geta, a and Demipho’s anger. Phormio declares he will rectify
slave of Demipho (“people’s voice”), money that he the situation by diverting Demipho’s wrath onto him-
owes him. He suspects Geta needs the money to buy a self. Soon, Demipho, accompanied by three advisers
present for his master’s son, who has recently married. (Cratinus, Crito, and Hegio), returns from the forum.
After Davus gives him the money, Geta informs Davus Phormio, knowing that Demipho can hear him, ques-
that when Demipho and his brother, Chremes, were tions Geta about Demipho’s denial that Phanium is
out of the country, Geta was supposed to watch over related to him and that he knows Phanium’s father
their sons. Unfortunately, Chremes’ son, Phaedria, fell (Stilpo, an alias for Chremes). Phormio also accuses
in love with a music girl (Pamphila), whom the pimp Demipho of being greedy and of not acting as a gen-
Dorio owned, but Phaedria did not have enough money tleman would. Eventually, Demipho interrupts, denies
to purchase her. One day, Phaedria saw another young knowing Stilpo (who is actually his brother, Chremes),
woman (Phanium, who is actually Chremes’ daughter) and demands to know how he, Demipho, is related to
crying over the death of her mother. When Phaedria Phanium. Phormio has no answer for this but chal-
told Demipho’s son, Antipho (“opposing voice”), they lenges Demipho to take up the matter in court.
went to see the woman. As soon as Antipho saw her, he Demipho tries to pay off Phormio to secure a divorce,
fell in love and approached her guardian, an old but Phormio refuses Demipho’s money. Ultimately,
woman named Sophrona, about her. Sophrona rejected Demipho threatens to throw Phanium out of his house
Antipho, who then turned to help from the PARASITE, unless Phormio will take her. Phormio, in turn, threat-
Phormio. Phormio devised a scheme (based on a law ens to sue Demipho if he uses force against a freeborn
that required orphaned young women to marry a rela- woman. After Phormio exits, Demipho sends Geta to
tive) that allowed Antipho to marry Phanium. find Antipho. Demipho then consults his advisers, but
In the next scene, Antipho and Phaedria discuss their opinions are divided about whether Demipho’s
Antipho’s situation, as he is worried what will happen case will stand up in court. Demipho then decides to
when his father finds out that he has married without wait for his brother, Chremes, and goes to the harbor
his permission. Phaedria, however, says Antipho to try to find out when he will return from abroad.
should be happy; he has the woman he loves, whereas In the third act, Antipho, repenting of having run
the pimp is keeping Phaedria away from the MUSIC away from his responsibilities, returns. Geta informs
GIRL, Phanium. The two young men are interrupted by him of the situation and tells him that Demipho has
the arrival of Geta, who informs them that Antipho’s decided to follow Chremes’ advice in the matter. Next,
father, Demipho, has returned from abroad. Upon Phaedria enters from Dorio’s house. Geta and Antipho
hearing this, a terrified Antipho runs away. As Phaedria listen as Phaedria begs the pimp, who has sold Pam-
and Geta wonder what they will do next, Demipho phila to a soldier, to wait three days before completing
enters. Phaedria and Geta eavesdrop as Demipho the sale. Because the soldier is supposed to deliver the
angrily discusses the rumor he has heard of Antipho’s money the following day, Dorio says that if Phaedria
marriage. Soon, Phaedria and Geta approach Demipho can raise the money sooner, he can have Pamphila.
and try to defend themselves and Antipho against the Antipho and Geta sympathize with Phaedria and agree
old man’s wrath. Demipho, however, is determined to to help him find the money to buy Pamphila. Geta is
put a stop to the marriage and demands to be taken to appointed to devise a scheme to trick Demipho out of
Phormio’s house. He also sends off Phaedria to find the money. After Geta and Phaedria send Antipho into
446 PHORMIO

his house to look after his wife, Phanium, Geta and her never to call him by that name again, because he
Phaedria exit toward Phormio’s house. used it long ago to prevent his wife from finding out
The fourth act opens with the arrival of Demipho the truth about his affair. Sophrona informs Chremes
and his brother, Chremes, from the harbor. Chremes that his daughter’s mother is dead and that his daugh-
had been on the island of LEMNOS to take back his ter, Phanium, is married to Antipho. When Chremes
daughter (a child by a woman other than his wife), but hears this, he thinks that Antipho has two wives.
when he arrived on Lemnos, Chremes learned that she Sophrona, however, informs him that Phanium and
had already returned to Athens. Chremes worries that the woman supposed to be Antipho’s relative are the
his wife will find out about this daughter, Phanium, same person. Chremes is delighted to learn that his
and that he will have to leave home if she does. As the daughter is married to Antipho but does not want any-
two brothers discuss these matters, Geta, who has one to find out that Phanium is his daughter. After
returned from Phormio’s, enters and informs the audi- Sophrona and Chremes exit, Demipho and Geta enter.
ence that he and Phormio have created a scheme to get Demipho complains about the money that they have
the money from Demipho. When Geta sees Chremes, paid Phormio. As Demipho departs, he tells Geta to go
he announces that he will try to trick him if the plot to Demipho’s house and advise them that Chremes’
against Demipho does not succeed. Soon, Antipho, wife should talk with Phanium. After Demipho exits
looking for Geta, emerges but steps back unseen when into Chremes’ house, Geta informs the audience that
he catches sight of his father and Chremes. As Antipho Phormio has dropped his lawsuit and that they have
eavesdrops, Geta approaches Demipho and Chremes found money for Phaedria to buy Pamphila.
and, to trick the old men out of some money, tells them In the next scene, Demipho and Chremes’ wife,
that he has encountered Phormio. Geta claims he has Nausistrata, emerge from Chremes’ house. Nausistrata
persuaded Phormio to accept a cash settlement to drop agrees to talk with Phanium about going with
his lawsuit and accept a dowry to marry Antipho’s Phormio. As they set out, they see Chremes, who is
wife. Although Antipho is furious that Geta has agreed leaving Demipho’s house. Chremes takes Demipho
to pay Phormio a substantial sum of money, Chremes aside and tells him that Phanium is a relative of theirs
decides that he will help Antipho raise the money. and that she should not be handed over to Phormio. At
After Chremes and Demipho exit into Chremes’ house, this point, Nausistrata is dismissed from the previous
Antipho emerges from his hiding place and demands errand and reenters Chremes’ house. After she leaves,
to know what Geta has done. Geta tells him that he has Chremes takes Demipho into Demipho’s house to
tricked the old men out of their money. When Antipho inform him that Phanium is his daughter. After the
objects that Phormio will have to marry Phanium if he brothers exit, Antipho enters and expresses his pleas-
accepts the dowry, Geta tells him that Phormio will not ure that Phaedria will have Pamphila. Next, Phormio
actually marry Phanium, but that the preparations for enters and informs the audience that he has paid off
the wedding will give Phaedria’s friends time to deliver the pimp and arranged for Phaedria to have Pamphila.
the money they promised. Using this money, Phormio Phormio tells Antipho that Phaedria is going to
will pay back the money Phaedria owes. In the act’s Phormio’s house to do some drinking and asks
final scene, Demipho and Chremes emerge from Antipho to make an excuse to Chremes for him.
Chremes’ house. Demipho, who carries a bag of money, At this point, an excited Geta arrives from
tells Geta to take him to Phormio’s house. Chremes Demipho’s house. He informs Antipho that he has
instructs Demipho to see his wife after he finishes with learned that Chremes has been revealed as Phanium’s
Phormio so that they can explain that Phormio will father and that both Chremes and Demipho have
marry Antipho’s wife. agreed that Antipho can marry Phanium. After Geta
In the final act, Sophrona, agitated and looking for takes a delighted Antipho into Demipho’s house,
Chremes, emerges from Demipho’s house. Sophrona, Phormio announces that he now has the chance to
seeing Chremes, addresses him as Stilpo. Chremes tells trick Chremes and Demipho out of the money and give
 PHORMIO 447

it to Phaedria. Next, Chremes and Demipho enter and pointed out that Terence’s play influenced Molière’s Les
announce their intention to get their money back from Fourberies de Scapin (Scapin’s cheating) of 1671. Duck-
Phormio, who tells Demipho that he is ready to receive worth categorized Phormio as a play of “Mistaken Iden-
Phanium as his bride. Demipho and Chremes make tity and Deception” (compare PLAUTUS’ CAPTIVES,
various excuses why they do not want to give Phanium CARTHAGINIAN, CURCULIO, and EPIDICUS; Terence’s ANDRIA,
to him. Phormio says he will agree not to marry Pha- SELF-TORMENTOR, and EUNUCH). Konstan read the play
nium, but that he will keep the dowry because he had as dealing with the tension between passion and the
to break off an engagement with another woman to social code, as the lovesick sons have little concern for
marry Phanium. the social conventions that their fathers feel should
When Chremes and Demipho threaten to take separate them from their desired women. As shown
Phormio to court, Phormio threatens to reveal Chremes’ by Frangoulidis’ article, Phormio can be read by view-
relationship with the woman on Lemnos. Upon hearing ing Phormio as a playwright who is attempting to
this, Chremes quickly agrees to let Phormio keep the produce a play within Terence’s play. Phormio’s audi-
money. Furthermore, Demipho suggests that Chremes ence become the two fathers and Phormio himself,
tell his wife about the affair before she finds out from the slaves, and to a lesser extent the young men serve
others. Phormio, hearing this, recognizes that his case as the actors. For example, when Antipho wonders
will be weakened if Nausistrata knows the truth. how Phaedria will be able to spend time with his
Accordingly, Phormio declares that he will undermine beloved, Phormio speaks in theatrical terms as he
any attempts to smooth matters over with Nausistrata. informs him that Phaedria “is going to play your role”
Hearing this, Chremes is furious, and he and his brother (partis tuas acturus est, 835) and run away from his
try to haul Phormio off to court. When Phormio cries father.
out for Nausistrata, Chremes’ wife responds, and she As commonly occurs in Terence’s plays (except
soon hears from Phormio about Chremes’ secret love MOTHER-IN-LAW), Phormio has a double plot with the
affair and daughter. Nausistrata is furious, but Demipho two love affairs of the two young men providing the
tries to calm her temper by explaining that Chremes was two strands, although Chremes’ love affair may be con-
drunk at the time, that they only had sexual relations sidered to provide a third plot line. The play’s most
once, and that now the woman is deceased. As Nausis- unique feature is the title character. As does Plautus’
trata seems on the verge of forgiving Chremes, Phormio Curculio, Terence’s Phormio takes its name from a para-
breaks in and reveals that their son, Phaedria, has pur- site. Although Phormio is twice called a parasite (27,
chased a prostitute. Chremes is enraged, but Nausistrata 122), he is unlike any other parasite in Roman COMEDY,
says he will not be able to chastise him because he him- and Duckworth calls him “one of the cleverest
self has had two wives. Nausistrata then declares that scoundrels in ancient comedy.” Usually, parasites in
Phaedria will be allowed to have his mistress, but that Roman comedy are interested only in the source of
whether she forgives Chremes will be Phaedria’s deci- their next meal and food and drink dominate their
sion. Nausistrata also expresses her appreciation to conversation, but Phormio makes little mention of
Phormio and at his suggestion invites him to dinner. food (although by play’s end he does receive a dinner
The play ends with Phormio’s arranging to have invitation). Geta speaks with seriousness of his bravery
Phaedria summoned to the house to act as arbiter (324–25), a trait seldom exhibited by parasites. Thus,
between Chremes and Nausistrata. with respect to the character Phormio modern transla-
tors usually prefer to translate parasitus as “adven-
COMMENTARY turer.” More appropriate is Konstan’s description of
Phormio is usually considered one of Terence’s better Phormio as “a fixer, who bends the rules and softens
plays, and Duckworth says that from a structural per- the lines that define the social structure” (129). When
spective it is “perhaps the best of Roman comedies.” Geta worries that Phormio’s bravery will land him in
Harsh noted the play’s influence on modern drama and jail, Phormio expresses a lack of concern and asks Geta
448 PHORMISIUS

(327–28), “How many men do you think I’ve beaten to Barsby, J. Terence. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-
the point of death, foreigners and citizens?” (Barsby versity Press, 2001, 49.
translation). One wonders how seriously to take this Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
statement, but it makes Phormio seem more than an N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 156–60.
Frangoulidis, S. A. “The Parasite as Poet-Playwright and the
“adventurer.”
Slave as Parasite in Terence’s Phormio,” Bollettino di Studi
In addition to the character of Phormio, this play is
Latini 25, no. 2 (1995): 397–425.
noteworthy for its frequent references to anxiety and Harsh, P. W. A Handbook of Classical Drama. Stanford, Calif.:
fear, which help link the play’s dual plots and affect its Stanford University Press, 1944, 389–92.
major characters. Davus’ lack of awareness of the fear Konstan, D. “Phormio: Citizen Disorder.” In Roman Comedy.
and danger that he and Geta face motivates Geta to Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983, 115–29.
reveal the crisis involving their respective households. Martin, R. H. Phormio: Terence. London: Methuen, 1959.
Geta later reveals that Antipho is prevented from mar-
rying his beloved because he is afraid of his father PHORMISIUS A person mocked by the comic
(118). Geta even warns Antipho that his apprehension poet Plato for taking bribes from the Persians and by
threatens to expose the affair to his father (205). Note ARISTOPHANES for being a disciple of EURIPIDES and per-
also that apprehension prevents Antipho from deliver- haps having a face resembling the female genitalia. If
ing a speech that was already prepared (284, 294). Not this Phormisius is the same person mentioned in a
only does Antipho fear his father, but he also fears his speech from Lysias, then he would have introduced a
uncle when he learns that his father will follow the resolution (around 403 B.C.E.) that allowed Athenians
advice of the uncle (482). Ironically, when the fearful exiled by the Thirty Tyrants to return but would grant
Antipho listens to Geta’s worries (555) about how he citizenship only to those had land. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
will help Phaedria, Antipho tells Geta not to be afraid Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 97, Frogs 965; Plato Comi-
(556) and says that the two young men will support cus, fragment 119.1 Kock; Lysias, 34]
him. After Geta collects his wits, he sends off Antipho
to calm the fears of his beloved (564). Ultimately, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon
Phormio will find the money for the woman and
Press, 1993, 313.
Phaedria’s anxiety will be relieved (823).
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
As Antipho fears his father will find out about the Teubner, 1880.
woman, the father, Chremes, fears his wife will find
out about his extramarital affair (743). After Phormio
alleviates the anxiety of Phaedria, he turns to relieving
PHRATRY The phratry (brotherhood) was a reli-
gious association in which “in theory all male members
Antipho’s fears. To accomplish this, Phormio intensi-
were descended from a common male ancestor”
fies the anxiety of Chremes. Once Phormio learns of
(Parke). In Athens, under the constitution of SOLON,
Chremes’ affair, he threatens to reveal his knowledge to
Chremes’ wife. When Phormio, threatened by the original four tribes were each divided into three
Chremes and Demipho, summons Chremes’ wife from phratries, thus making 12 phratries. The members of a
the house, Chremes’ fear is mentioned four times in phratry were called frateres.
two lines (998–99). Once Chremes’ secret is revealed, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Antipho can be relieved of his fear. Even the young Parke, H. W. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
man’s mother declares that he cannot be faulted for University Press, 1977, 89.
having one mistress when his father has two wives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY PHRIXUS The son of ATHAMAS and Nephele,
Arnott, W. G. “Phormio Parasitus: A Study in Dramatic Meth- Phrixus was a noble young man who became the vic-
ods of Characterization,” Greece & Rome 17 (1970): tim of his stepmother, INO’s, plot against him—a plot
32–57. that eventually led to his almost being sacrificed by his
 PHRYNICHUS (2) 449

father, Athamas. At the last second, however, Phrixus’ BIBLIOGRAPHY

mother, Nephele, sent a ram with golden fleece to res- Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
cue him. Phrixus flew away to safety in the land of Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Colchis, where he sacrificed the ram; gave the fleece to Harvard University Press, 1996.
the local king, Aeetes; and took up residence. Phrixus Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
married Aeetes’ daughter, Chalciope, and had several
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
children by her: Argus, Cytisorus, Melas, and Phrontis.
Press of America, 1984.
Both SOPHOCLES (fragments 721–23a Radt) and
EURIPIDES (fragments 819–38 Nauck) wrote plays enti-
PHRYNICHUS (1) The son of Polyphrasmon,
tled Phrixus. Regarding Sophocles’ Phrixus, Lloyd-Jones
Phrynichus was a Greek tragedian whose first victory
thinks it may have been identical to one of Sophocles’
in competition occurred in 510 B.C.E.; his last victory
two plays about ATHAMAS. The few brief fragments that probably occurred around 476, the year in which the
survive of Sophocles’ Phrixus give us little indication of famous statesman THEMISTOCLES served as his CHORE-
the play’s content. As for Euripides, he is known to GUS. Only about two dozen short fragments exist and
have produced a Phrixus on two occasions. Webster the titles of nine plays (see Snell). Phrynichus’ Phoeni-
thinks that Phrixus A dealt with the title character’s cian Women was thought to be a model for AESCHYLUS’
experiences in Colchis, and Phrixus B treated Ino’s plot PERSIANS. Phrynichus’ Alcestis may have influenced
against Phrixus and the young man’s rescue by the EURIPIDES’ play of the same name. Phrynichus’ histori-
ram. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.1; cal drama Destruction of Miletus was said to have caused
Hyginus, Fables 3; Plautus, Bacchides 242; Seneca, the Athenian audience such grief that Phrynichus was
Agamemnon 565, Hercules Oetaeus 776, Medea 471, fined. In ARISTOPHANES’ day, the plays of Phrynichus
Trojan Women 1034] were considered old-fashioned and therefore were
favored by the older generations. Aristophanes
BIBLIOGRAPHY
described Phrynichus’ passages of lyric poetry as being
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: like honey, and his dance steps were supposed to be
Harvard University Press, 1996, 338–39. quite varied and innovative in their day. [ANCIENT
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 748–51, Frogs 910, Thes-
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. mophoriazusae 164, Wasps 220, 269, 1490, 1523–24;
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, Plutarch, Themistocles 5.5]
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
Press of America, 1984.
Press, 1971, 160–61.
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Methuen, 1967, 131–36.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.

PHRYGIANS The Phrygians lived in what is PHRYNICHUS (2) The son of Eunomides,
today western Turkey. In classical drama, Phrygian is Phrynichus was a Greek comic poet and a rival of
often synonymous with Trojan. One Greek stereotype ARISTOPHANES’. Phrynichus’ first play appeared in 429
of the Phrygians was that Phrygian men were not very B.C.E., and he gained his first victory in competition in
masculine. This is evident from ZEUS’ abduction of that year or the next. His last known production date
GANYMEDE and the effeminate Phrygian slave who is 405. In that year, Phrynichus’ Muses finished second
delivers the messenger speech in EURIPIDES’ ORESTES. to Aristophanes’ FROGS. Some 90 short fragments and
SOPHOCLES wrote a Phrygians, from which a few frag- 10 titles survive from Phrynichus’ works. [ANCIENT
ments survive. Lloyd-Jones (339) suggests that this SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 556; Inscriptiones Grae-
play may have been identical to Sophocles’ Priam. cae ii2 2325.124]
450 PHRYNICHUS (3)

BIBLIOGRAPHY is definitely known. Lloyd-Jones seems inclined to

Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: identify the young man as Neoptolemus.
Teubner, 1880.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 3, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Clouds. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1982, 190. Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1996.
PHRYNICHUS (3) An Athenian statesman
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
from the deme of Deiradiotae, Phrynichus, son of Stra- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
tonides, was a major player in the oligarchic overthrow Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
of that city’s democracy in 411 B.C.E. He was murdered Press of America, 1984.
in the same year and his bones were removed from
Athenian territory. Phrynichus’ murder appears to have PHYLE A DEME in the northern part of Athenian
led to the fall of the so-called Four Hundred oligarchs. territory. In 403 B.C.E., the Athenian general THRASYBU-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 689; Lycurgus, LUS’ occupation of Phyle eventually led to the over-
Against Leocrates 112–14; Lysias, 13.70–72; Thucy- throw of the government that the Spartans had
dides, 8.68.3, 8.92.2] installed in ATHENS after the PELOPONNESIAN WAR.
BIBLIOGRAPHY [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 1023,
Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon 1028, Wealth 1146]
Press, 1993, 73.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 9,
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
Frogs. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1996, 216.
Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 212.

PHRYNONDAS Although it is unclear whether PHYROMACHUS An Athenian mentioned by

Phrynondas was a real or fictional person, his name
ARISTOPHANES, apparently for mispronouncing a word.
was synonymous with wicked behavior. [ANCIENT
The circumstances for this blunder are unknown. It may
SOURCES: Aeschines, 3.137; Aristophanes, Thesmophori-
have occurred during a speech in the public assembly or
azusae 861, fragment 26, 484 Kock; Eupolis, fragment
when Phyromachus was an actor in a TRAGEDY. [ANCIENT
45 Kock; Isocrates, 18.57; Plato, Protagoras 327d]
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 22]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
Teubner, 1880.
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 140.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 8,
Thesmophoriazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips,
1994, 213. PIMP A stock character in New Comedy. Although
our knowledge of pimps (Latin: leno; plural: lenones) in
PHTHIA A Thessalian town near the coast of drama is gained primarily from the Roman comedies of
northeastern Greece. Phthia was famous as the home PLAUTUS and TERENCE, pimps appeared in Greek come-
of PELEUS and ACHILLES. Achilles’ son, NEOPTOLEMUS, dies as early as the middle of the fourth century B.C.E.
became a king of Phthia, EURIPIDES’ ANDROMACHE is set The Greek counterpart of the leno was the pornoboskos
in this area, and women from Phthia make up the cho- (plural: pornoboskoi), and two Greek comic poets wrote
rus. SOPHOCLES wrote a Women of Phthia (Greek: Phthi- plays entitled Pornoboskos: Eubulus (fragments 88–89
otides), of which a handful of lines survive (fragments Kock 1) and Posiddipus (fragment 22 Kock 3). The
694–96 Radt). Sutton thinks that the fragments indi- Greek comic poet Anaxilas (fragments 27–29 Kock 2)
cate that two old men and a young man were among wrote Hyakinthos Pornoboskos (Hyacinthus the pimp),
the play’s characters, but nothing else about its content and Dioxippus (fragment 1 Kock 3) wrote Antiporno-
 PINDAR 451

boskos (The pimp’s enemy). Unfortunately, the frag- the contrary, they are each paid in full for their girls”
ments of these Greek plays are so brief that compari- (Duckworth).
son with pimps in the later plays of Plautus and Not all lenones were men, and in Plautus’ COMEDY OF
Terence is impossible. Additionally, the character of the ASSES and CASKET COMEDY, women (Cleareta and Syra,
pornoboskos is largely absent from the plays of MENAN- respectively) take on this role (lena; plural: lenae). In
DER (with the exception of Colax), which influenced Casket Comedy, Syra has a relatively minor role and is
both Plautus and Terence. portrayed as a rather kindly old drunk. In Comedy of
In Roman comedy, lenones appear in two plays by Asses, Cleareta’s behavior is more like her male coun-
Terence (Sannio in BROTHERS, Dorio in PHORMIO) and terparts’ as she stands between Argyrippus and the
five plays by Plautus (Lycus in CARTHAGINIAN; Cappa- prostitute Philaenium, the woman he desires. Cleareta’s
dox in CURCULIO; Dordalus in THE PERSIAN; Ballio in role in this play is complicated, however, by the fact
PSEUDOLUS; Labrax in ROPE). Although the buying and that she is also Philaenium’s mother. Thus, Cleareta is
selling of other humans were considered vile, the leno both pimp and parent. In Comedy of Asses, the money
was involved in legal business and expected to be paid to buy Philaenium is acquired easily enough and no
for his service. Thus, as Duckworth notes, the term tricking of the lena is required, unlike in other plays.
leno might be better translated as “slave dealer.” How-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ever one translates leno, these persons are generally
Barsby, J. Terence. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-
unpleasant fellows. Regarding Plautine pimps, Erich versity Press, 2001, 271.
Segal writes, “Of all the people in the happy-go-lucky Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
Plautine world, only the leno arouses the playwright’s N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 262–64.
genuine indignation; Plautus hates this kind of spoil- Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
sport” (79). In Plautus’ Curculio, the title character Teubner, 1884.
comments on lenones: “In my humble opinion, the ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Leipzig:
whole pimp tribe occupies the social position of flies, Teubner, 1888.
gnats, bugs, lice, and fleas: you are a pest, a plague, a Nixon, P. Plautus. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-
general nuisance, of no good to anybody, and no versity Press, 1938, 243.
Segal, Erich. Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. New
decent person dares stand beside you in the FORUM. If
York: Oxford University Press, 1987, 79–92.
anyone does, he is censured, eyed, condemned”
(Nixon translation). Sometimes, even the lenones
PINAKES The Greek word pinax (plural: pinakes)
themselves are made to admit their evil nature. In TER-
can refer to boards, planks, or tablets on which things
ENCE’s BROTHERS, the leno, Sannio, states, “I’m a pimp, I
were written, drawn, or painted. In the classical theater
admit it, the bane of all young men, a perjurer, a
(after the fifth century B.C.E.), wooden pinakes, painted
plague” (Barsby translation). As hinted at by Sannio’s
to represent various types of scenery, could be inserted
statement, the cause for hatred of the leno is that he is
between pillars on the lower front (see PROSKENION) of
an obstacle to a man and the woman he loves. Accord-
the stage building (see SKENE). The theater at Aphro-
ingly, the leno must often be tricked (e.g., Ballio) or
disias (western Turkey) has spaces for pinakes more
overcome in some way (e.g., Labrax) so that the man
than eight feet tall and almost five feet wide. [ANCIENT
can have the woman. After the defeat of the leno, a cel-
SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon 4.131]
ebration from which the leno will be excluded usually
occurs. In two instances (Persian, Rope), the leno is BIBLIOGRAPHY
invited to join the revelers, although in Persian, Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
Dordalus rejects the invitation. In contrast to Plautine Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 86–87.
lenones, the two lenones in Terence’s plays have minor
roles, and in contrast to the common practice in Plau- PINDAR (518–438 B.C.E.) A famous Greek
tus “neither is cheated of money nor taken to court; on lyric poet from BOEOTIA. Pindar wrote many different
452 PINDUS

types of poetry, but his only surviving poems (called reluctance about leaving Pirithous in the underworld.
epinician odes) celebrate the victors at the four major The tragedian Achaeus also wrote a Pirithous, but the
athletic festivals of Greece (i.e., the games at OLYMPIA, two words that survive tell us nothing about the plot.
DELPHI, NEMEA, and CORINTH). [ANCIENT SOURCES: The comic poet Aristophon also wrote a Pirithous, from
Aristophanes, Birds 939] which four lines are extant. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
lodorus, Library 1.8.2, 2.5.12, Epitome 1.21–23;
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Diodorus Siculus, 4.70.3; Hyginus, Fables 33; Ovid,
Bowra, C. M. Pindar. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964.
Race, W. H. Pindar. Boston: Twayne, 1986. Metamorphoses 12.210–535; Pausanias, 5.10.8;
Plutarch, Theseus 30; scholiast on Homer, Odyssey
PINDUS A mountain range in northern Greece 22.295; Servius on Vergil, Aeneid 7.304]
that separates the regions of THESSALY and EPIRUS. The BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pindus is mentioned frequently in Senecan TRAGEDY, Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
especially in HERCULES OETAEUS. Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London:
PIRITHOUS The son of IXION, Pirithous of LAR- Heinemann, 1970.
ISA was the good friend of THESEUS. When Pirithous’ Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
bride, Hippodameia (or Deidameia), was killed on the Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
day of their wedding during a fight between some CEN-
TAURS and Pirithous’ tribe of Lapiths, Pirithous and
PITALLUS Employed by the Athenian govern-
Theseus, whose wife PHAEDRA had committed suicide, ment, Pitallus was a doctor who treated his patients at
both set out to find a wife. The two men decided that no charge. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians
they would settle for no less than daughters of ZEUS. 1032, 1221, Wasps 1432]
After their abduction of HELEN, Theseus’ situation was BIBLIOGRAPHY
settled. When Theseus and Pirithous could not find Sommerstein, A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, Achar-
another daughter of Zeus’ in the upper world, they nians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 207.
traveled to the UNDERWORLD. Pirithous hoped that he ———. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, Wasps.
could somehow acquire PERSEPHONE, wife of HADES, as Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 242.
his bride. Hades, however, trapped Theseus and Pirit-
hous inside his house. HERACLES eventually rescued PITCHER FEAST (Greek: CHOAE) The
Theseus from the underworld, but an ominous earth- Pitcher Feast occurred on the second day of a festival
quake prevented Heracles from rescuing Pirithous. called the Anthesteria, which was held in about Febru-
Although Pirithous does not appear as a character in ary of the modern calendar. In ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNI-
any extant drama, several playwrights did treat his ANS, DICAEOPOLIS becomes drunk and feasts at the
story. A TRAGEDY entitled Pirithous, from which more Choae, while LAMACHUS suffers through the toils of
than 50 lines survive, is attributed to EURIPIDES, war. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 961]
although in antiquity some doubted Euripides wrote BIBLIOGRAPHY
the play (some assigned it to Critias). The play clearly Parke, H. W. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
deals with Pirithous’ entrapment in the underworld University Press, 1977, 107–20.
and probably begins with a monologue by Pirithous. Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
At some point, Heracles arrives on his quest to fetch Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 203.
CERBERUS and has an encounter with AEACUS, a meeting
that ARISTOPHANES probably parodied in the FROGS. PLATAEA A Greek town southwest of THEBES. In
Another fragment reveals a discussion between The- 490 B.C.E., the Plataeans had helped the Athenians
seus and Heracles, in which Theseus seems to express defeat DARIUS’ Persian forces at MARATHON. In 479,
 PLAUTUS 453

Plataea was the site of an important Greek victory over Roman scholars suspected that many plays attributed
the Persian forces of Darius’ son, XERXES. During the to Plautus were actually written by others. In the first
PELOPONNESIAN WAR (427), the Spartans and their allies century B.C.E., a scholar named Varro, trying to sort out
destroyed Plataea. Afterward, the Athenians granted this confusion, divided the so-called Plautine works
the male Plataeans limited rights of citizenship. into three lists. One of these lists, which contained 21
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 817; Aristo- plays, he considered the genuine works of Plautus. As
phanes, Frogs 694; Demosthenes, 59.104; Herodotus, it turns out, 20 of these plays survive complete, and
9.19–75] 120 lines survive from Plautus’ VIDULARIA. The com-
plete plays are AMPHITRUO, COMEDY OF ASSES (Asinaria),
PLATO (CA. 429–347 B.C.E.) The most famous POT OF GOLD (Aulularia), BACCHIDES (Two Bacchises),
of SOCRATES’ students, Plato is the most extensive source CAPTIVES, CASINA, CASKET COMEDY (Cistellaria), CURCULIO,
on Socrates. Plato’s numerous philosophical writings EPIDICUS, MENAECHMI (Two Menaechmuses), MERCHANT
contain frequent references to and quotations from (Mercator), HAUNTED HOUSE (Mostellaria), BRAGGART
ancient drama. The comic poet ARISTOPHANES and the WARRIOR (Miles Gloriosus), THE PERSIAN, THE CARTHAGIN-
tragedian AGATHON are portrayed in Plato’s Symposium. IAN (Poenulus), PSEUDOLUS, THE ROPE (Rudens), STICHUS,
Plato’s most conversial remarks on classical drama THREE-DOLLAR DAY (Trinummus), TRUCULENTUS, and
occur in his Republic, in which he discusses the role of Vidularia. Only three of Plautus’ plays can be dated
poetry in an ideal society. In such a society, Plato writes, securely: Braggart Warrior (205), Stichus (200), and
drama can corrupt its audience, because it portrays Pseudolus (191). None of Plautus’ surviving plays
emotions that stir up such strong feelings that people appears to be earlier than the year 212 (Comedy of
have difficulty in maintaining control of their own emo- Asses), and he seems to have been producing plays
tions. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plato, Laws 2.658, 2.667–70, until the time of his death.
11.935–36; Republic 3.394–95, 3.398, 10.605–6] The plays of Plautus, as those of TERENCE, were orig-
BIBLIOGRAPHY inally written by Greek playwrights and then adapted
Annas, J. An Introduction to Plato’s Republic. Oxford: Claren- for Roman audiences. Unlike for Terence, for whom
don Press, 1981. the Greek authors of all six of his plays’ antecedents are
Else, G. F. Plato and Aristotle on Poetry. Edited with an intro- known, for Plautus, only about half the Greek authors
duction by P. Burian. Chapel Hill: University of North are known. Asinaria was adapted from a play by
Carolina Press, 1986. DEMOPHILUS; Casina and Rope were adapted from plays
Field, G. C. The Philosophy of Plato. With appendix by R. C. by PHILEMON. Plays from MENANDER provided the mod-
Cross. 2d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969. els for Bacchides, The Casket Comedy, and Stichus, and
Janaway, C. Images of Excellence: Plato’s Critique of the Arts.
Philemon’s originals also provided the source for three
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.
Melling, D. J. Understanding Plato. Oxford: University Press,
plays: Haunted House, Merchant, and Three-Dollar Day.
1987. How much material in Plautus’ plays is his own work
and how much is taken directly from his Greek sources
PLAUTUS (CA. 254–184 B.C.E.) Titus Mac- are subject to debate. Clearly, however, Plautus did
cius Plautus was born in the Umbrian town of Sarsina more than merely translate Greek originals into Latin.
but later went to Rome, where he performed some sort Compared with Terence, he is thought to have taken
of work in the theater (perhaps as an actor or pro- more liberties with the Greek plays.
ducer). After making some money, he lost it all in a Although staged for Roman audiences, almost all of
commercial venture and returned to Rome. After this, Plautus’ plays have settings on mainland Greece (Rope
he is said to have worked in a baker’s mill. He escaped is the exception), and two-thirds of the plays are set in
this menial labor by writing plays, and as many as 130 ATHENS. The action of Plautus’ plays usually takes place
plays were attributed to him, but even in ancient times before two houses, although in two plays (Amphitruo,
454 PLAUTUS

Captives) only a single structure is represented, and in times, Plautus makes certain parts of a play much too
two others three houses are present (Pseudolus, long, such as Mercury’s (see HERMES) prologue (152
Stichus). In four plays, a temple or altar dedicated to a lines) in Amphitruo. Plautus is also criticized for insert-
divinity is presented (Pot of Gold, Curculio, Merchant, ing Roman references into his Greek settings. For
Rope). In eight of the plays, one of the houses is occu- example, 21 times in Plautus’ plays we find mention of
pied by a PIMP or one or more PROSTITUTES. a Roman magistrate called the praetor.
The primary building blocks of Plautus’ plays are For all of Plautus’ faults—his plot construction,
the stereotypical young Greek citizen (see ADULESCENS), character development, and style of language are cer-
the stereotypical old Greek citizen (see SENEX), and a tainly less polished than those of TERENCE—his lan-
male slave. Often the citizens are father and son and guage (filled with word play and alliteration), use of
the slave is a member of their household. Usually the lyric passages, and overall tone are much more festive
son is in love with a prostitute and spends his time try- than Terence’s. In terms of Plautus’ brand of humor, he
ing to acquire her (contrast the double plots in most of is closer to ARISTOPHANES than Terence. Of course,
Terence’s plays, in which two young men seek to be Plautus’ comedies contain little political humor, but we
united with two different women). Because the young do find instances of the coarser sort of humor present
man has little money, this lack is often an obstacle to in Aristophanes: the belching of the drunken Pseudo-
purchasing the woman. Additional major obstacles to lus; men who gawk at and playfully paw a beautiful
enjoyment of the beloved are the young man’s father women; the use of coarse language (e.g., cinaedus,
and/or the slave dealer (see PIMP) who owns her. which means “sodomite” and never occurs in Terence).
Accordingly, the young man must have the assistance Plautus’ humor also involves mistaken identity and
of the slave, who in some way will trick the father or deception. In several plays, the presence of twins
the pimp so that his young master can be united with causes confusion. Often, to carry out their schemes,
his beloved. Ultimately, the prostitute often turns out the slaves pretend to be other people or arrange for
to be freeborn, so the young man can marry her. their accomplices to pretend to be other people. Some
Of course, variations on and complete divergences modern scholars approach Plautus’ plays as having
from this basic pattern occur. Sometimes the senex plays within plays, as one character, usually the slave,
and/or adulescens is in love with the same woman (e.g., produces a “play” whose aim is the deception of
Casina). Sometimes a play has no love intrigue (e.g., another character or characters within the play.
Captives). In Stichus, the main goal of the play seems to Although Plautus may not have been the most mas-
be the title character’s obtaining a meal. Sometimes a terful playwright to grace the ancient stage, more of his
PARASITE rather than a slave aids the young man (e.g., plays survive than of any other ancient playwright.
Curculio) or a BRAGGART WARRIOR stands in the way of Furthermore, his type of COMEDY influenced the likes
the young man and his beloved prostitute (e.g., Brag- of Shakespeare, Molière, and Ben Jonson. So fre-
gart Warrior). In Menaechmi, the twin brothers are quently redone was Plautus’ Amphitruo that Jean
reunited and leave behind Epidamnian Menaechmus’ Giraudoux entitled his version Amphitryon 38. The
wife and his prostitute mistress. modern musical A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to
In addition to being criticized for his often stereo- the Forum is a reworking of several of Plautus’ plays.
typical characters, Plautus produces expository pro-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
logues, in which a single character explains the
Duckworth, G. E. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
situation of the play, that are less elegant than those of
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952.
Terence, who prefers to allow the story to unfold Fraenkel, Edward. Elementi plautini in Plauto (Plautinische im
through the dialogue between the characters. Plautus’ Plautus). Translated by Franco Munari. Firenze: La Nuova
plot construction is also careless in some instances Italia, 1960.
(e.g., Stichus), as he stitched together two Greek come- Konstan, D. Roman Comedy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
dies to create a single play (see CONTAMINATIO). Some- Press, 1983.
 POLYIDUS 455

Segal, Erich. Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. 2d ed. society. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Thesmophori-
London: Oxford University Press, 1987. azusae 299; Hesiod, Theogony 969–74]
Slater, N. W. Plautus in Performance. Princeton, N.J.: Prince-
ton University Press, 1985. PLUTUS See WEALTH.

PLEBEIAN GAMES The Plebeian Games, cel- PNYX Mentioned frequently in ARISTOPHANES’
ebrated at least as early as November 220 B.C.E., were plays (especially KNIGHTS and ECCLESIAZUSAE), the Pnyx
held in honor of Jupiter (see ZEUS). The games were was a rocky plateau near the Athenian ACROPOLIS that
arranged annually by the plebeian aediles. PLAUTUS’ was the location for meetings of the assembly. In Eccle-
STICHUS was performed at these games in 200 B.C.E. In siazusae, PRAXAGORA says she lived on the Pnyx and
the second century B.C.E., dramatic performances there learned how to speak by listening to the orators
appear to have been held on at least three days of the in the assembly. In that play, the women take over the
games. government in Athens by dressing as men and infil-
trating a meeting on the Pnyx. In the opening of
PLEISTHENES The name of several males with Aristophanes’ Knights, DEMOSTHENES says his master is
connections to the house of ATREUS. Some sources “Demos [i.e., the Athenian people] of the Pnyx.”
make Pleisthenes, rather than Atreus, the husband of
AEROPE. Accordingly, MENELAUS and AGAMEMNON are POEAS The father of PHILOCTETES. [ANCIENT
sometimes called the sons of Pleisthenes rather than SOURCES:Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 1485, 1604, 1649;
Atreus. Another tradition says that Pleisthenes was a Sophocles, Philoctetes]
son of Atreus, who killed him accidentally. In SENECA’s
THYESTES, Pleisthenes is a child of THYESTES. Atreus kills POENULUS See THE CARTHAGINIAN.
Pleisthenes and serves him as food to Thyestes. EURIPI-
DES wrote a Pleisthenes, which may have been produced
POLIAS A title of the goddess ATHENA as she
in the final decade of the poet’s life (fragments 625–33 was worshiped on the ACROPOLIS in ATHENS. The
Nauck). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.2.2; name Polias means “guardian of the city.” [ANCIENT
Bacchylides, Dithyramb 1.48; Hyginus, Fables 86, 88; SOURCES : Aristophanes, Birds 828; Sophocles,
Seneca, Thyestes 726] Philoctetes 134]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, POLLUX See CASTOR AND POLLUX.
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
POLYBUS The king of CORINTH, who, along with
PLUTO Another name for HADES. his wife, MEROPE, raised OEDIPUS and who Oedipus
mistakenly thought was his real father. [ANCIENT
PLUTUS The son of DEMETER and Iasion, Plutus, SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 1192; Euripides, Phoeni-
the god of wealth, appears as a character in ARISTO- cian Women 28, 45, 1607; Hyginus, Fables 67; Seneca,
PHANES’ WEALTH. In this play, Plutus is initially blind (an Oedipus; Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos]
attribute not found in other ancient sources) and
because of this he gives his blessings to those who do POLYDEUCES See CASTOR AND POLLUX.
not deserve them. Plutus’ blindness, however, is reme-
died when an Athenian citizen named Chremylus POLYIDUS The son of Coeranus, Polyidus was a
decides that society’s problems could be solved if Plu- prophet from ARGOS. Other than his assistance of
tus could see. Accordingly, Chremylus takes Plutus to BELLEROPHON to tame PEGASUS, most of Polyidus’ story is
a temple of ASCLEPIUS for treatment. Once Plutus can connected with MINOS and his son, Glaucus, who disap-
see, he bestows his blessings on the “good” people in peared while chasing a mouse. When Minos consulted
456 POLYMESTOR

the DELPHIC ORACLE to learn of Glaucus’ whereabouts, the ing the young man’s gold, murdered his guest. As the
oracle told him that the person who could find Glaucus Greek fleet was preparing to sail from Troy, Polydorus’
would be the one to make the most appropriate simile to corpse was discovered near the shore. When HECABE,
describe the strange occurrence on Crete. When Polydorus’ mother, learned of her son’s death, she
Polyidus compared one of Minos’ recently born calves, lured Polymestor into her tent with the promise of
which every day had been changing colors from white to more gold and then blinded him. Polymestor appears
red to black, to the changes of a ripening mulberry, as a character in EURIPIDES’ HECABE. He is portrayed as
Minos sent Polyidus to find his son. When Polyidus saw a barbarian, and his blinding by Hecabe is modeled on
some bees harassing an owl that was sitting on a wine ODYSSEUS’ blinding of the CYCLOPS POLYPHEMUS. He
cellar, Polyidus found Glaucus. Because bees make appeals to AGAMEMNON for help after HECABE blinds
honey and the Greek word for owl, glaux, recalls the him, but Agamemnon rejects Polymestor’s appeals. At
name Glaucus, Polyidus looked into a large jar of honey the conclusion of that play, Polymestor predicts that
and discovered the body of Glaucus. Hecabe will die before she reaches Odysseus’ home on
Despite Glaucus’ death, Minos refused to give up his ITHACA.
son for dead. Therefore, Minos enclosed Polyidus and
Glaucus’ body in a tomb and told the prophet to res- POLYMNESTUS From the town of Colophon
urrect Glaucus. When a snake approached the body, (on the western coast of modern Turkey), Polymnestus
Polyidus killed it. Soon, however, another snake was a musician who lived during the seventh century
appeared and used an herb to revive the first snake. B.C.E. ARISTOPHANES suggests that he lacked moral
Polyidus took some of this same herb and revived restraint. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights
Glaucus. After Glaucus returned to life, Minos made 1287; Cratinus, fragment 305 Kock; pseudo-Plutarch,
Polyidus teach his son the art of prophecy. Polyidus Moralia 1132d, 1133a, 1134b–d, 1141b]
did so, but just before his ship sailed from Crete,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Polyidus told the boy to spit into his mouth. When
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Glaucus did so, he lost the prophetic art. The angered Teubner, 1880.
Minos then pursued Polyidus and invaded MEGARA, Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
where Polyidus had gone to cleanse Alcathous of the Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 212.
killing of his own son, Callipolis. EURIPIDES wrote a
Polyidus (fragments 634–46 Nauck), which appears to POLYNEICES The son of JOCASTA and the son
have dealt with Polyidus’ discovery of Glaucus’ body and brother of OEDIPUS, Polyneices was the brother of
and his subsequent resurrection. [ANCIENT SOURCES: ETEOCLES, ANTIGONE, and ISMENE. The name Polyneices
Apollodorus, Library 3.3.1; Aristophanes, Frogs 1477; means “much strife,” and this meaning characterizes
Hyginus, Fables 136] his life. After his father, Oedipus, discovered that he
had killed his father and married his mother, Polyne-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ices and his brother, Eteocles, did not treat him very
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. kindly. This led Oedipus to curse his sons. To avoid
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: this curse, Polyneices and Eteocles decided to share the
Methuen, 1967, 161–62. kingship abdicated by their father. The brothers would
take turns ruling THEBES. One brother would rule for
POLYMESTOR Polymestor was a Thracian one year, while the other went into exile. Eteocles
king. During the Trojan War, Polymestor was friendly assumed the kingship first and Polyneices went into
to TROY’s king, PRIAM, who sent his son, POLYDORUS exile at ARGOS. During that time, Polyneices stayed at
(and a large sum of gold), to stay with Polymestor so the palace of King ADRASTUS and eventually married
that the young man might not perish in the war as so Adrastus’ daughter, Argia (or Aegialeia), by whom he
many of his brothers had. Polymestor, however, desir- had a son (Thersander).
 POLYPHEMUS 457

When Eteocles, after a year, did not hand over the Thebans (an ORACLE had indicated that Oedipus’ sup-
throne, Polyneices appealed to his father-in-law, Adras- port would determine the victor). Polyneices tries to
tus, for help and with backing gathered an army and gain his father’s sympathy, emphasizing his plight as an
marched on Thebes. In the battle, Eteocles and Polyne- exile. Oedipus, however, knows that his son has gone
ices killed each other in single combat. After the broth- to him because of the oracle and angrily rejects Polyne-
ers’ deaths, it was decreed that Polyneices would not ices’ pleas and curses him. Antigone tries to persuade
be buried and that anyone who buried him would be Polyneices not to march against Thebes, but Polyneices
put to death. The person or persons who issue this refuses because doing so would undermine his author-
decree varies. According to AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN AGAINST ity in any future war.
THEBES a group of Theban nobles make the decree. In Polyneices also appears in SENECA’s PHOENICIAN
SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE, the new Theban king, CREON, WOMEN. As in Euripides’ play, he attends negotiations
issues the decree. with his brother over which his mother presides. In
Several extant plays deal with the strife between Seneca’s play, Jocasta does most of the talking, but the
Polyneices and Eteocles. Although Polyneices does not brief portrayal of Polyneices shows, as in Euripides, a
have a speaking role in either Aeschylus’ Seven or mistrust of Eteocles, a loathing of exile, and a condem-
Sophocles’ Antigone, he is, of course, much discussed nation by Jocasta of his march against his native land.
in these plays, and in Aeschylus’ play his words are [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.5.8–3.7.2;
reported. The story of Polyneices and the aftermath of Hyginus, Fables 68–72; Statius, Thebaid]
his death from the Argive perspective are touched
upon in EURIPIDES’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN but are not the POLYPHEMUS This CYCLOPS is the son of POSEI-
focal point of that play. DON and the nymph Thoosa. Polyphemus’ encounter
In Euripides’ PHOENICIAN WOMEN, whose plot follows with ODYSSEUS is famous from HOMER’s Odyssey but was
roughly the same lines as Aeschylus’ Seven, Polyneices dramatized three centuries later in EURIPIDES’ CYCLOPS.
does have a substantial speaking role. In this play, After Odysseus and his men near Polyphemus’ home
Polyneices goes to Thebes for face-to-face negotiations near Mount AETNA on SICILY, Polyphemus eats some of
with his brother, which are mediated by their mother, Odysseus’ men. Odysseus retaliates by making the
Jocasta. Euripides portrays Polyneices as extremely Cyclops drunk and then blinding him. In Euripides’
suspicious of his brother, hating the experience of Cyclops, the playwright makes the intoxicated Cyclops
exile, and longing to return to his native Thebes. Once exhibit a sexual passion for SILENUS, the father of the
Polyneices meets Eteocles, he claims nothing more SATYRS who had been serving Polyphemus. After
than to share the throne in accordance with their Polyphemus’ blinding, Odysseus and his surviving
arrangement and says he will send his army back if men escape from the monster’s cave and make their
Eteocles will agree. Even the chorus of Phoenician way to their ship. In Homer’s version of the story,
women think Polyneices’ claim is reasonable, although Odysseus and his men escape the cave by tying them-
his mother condemns his march on his native land. selves to the underbellies of Polyphemus’ sheep. Such
Furthermore, after Eteocles proves fixed in his resolve an escape would be difficult on the ancient stage, so
for war, Polyneices becomes angry with his brother this method obviously does not occur in Euripides’
and declares his intent to kill him and become king of play. Instead, Odysseus and his men manage to slip
Thebes. Only part of Polyneices’ declaration comes to past Polyphemus. Additionally, in Euripides’ play, the
pass, though, as he does kill his brother, but only after satyrs leave with Odysseus. As Homer relates it,
he has received a mortal wound from him. Odysseus, as he was sailing away, taunted the Cyclops
Polyneices also makes an appearance toward the and revealed his name to the monster. This led
end of Sophocles’ OEDIPUS AT COLONUS. In Sophocles’ Polyphemus to throw large rocks at the ship and pray
play, Polyneices goes to his father at Colonus and tries to his father, Poseidon, to destroy Odysseus. In Euripi-
to gain his support so that he can gain victory over the des’ play, no rocks are thrown, but Polyphemus does
458 POLYXENA

predict that Odysseus will spend much time wander- prefect of the praetorian guard of the emperor,
ing the sea. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer, Odyssey 9; Hygi- CLAUDIUS. Next, she married Otho (before he became
nus, Fables 125] emperor), but by 58 C.E. she had become NERO’s mis-
tress and is thought to have exerted considerable influ-
POLYXENA As the Greek fleet was preparing to ence on him. In 59, Poppaea may have instigated Nero’s
sail from TROY, the ghost of ACHILLES appeared and murder of his mother, AGRIPPINA, and, as suggested by
demanded the sacrifice of Polyxena, daughter of PRIAM SENECA’s OCTAVIA, Poppaea was behind the divorce,
and HECABE. The wish of Achilles’ ghost was granted exile, and execution of Nero’s wife, OCTAVIA. Once
and Polyxena was subsequently sacrificed at Achilles’ Octavia was out of the way, Nero married Poppaea and
grave. Details of Polyxena’s death are given in three the couple had a daughter, but the infant died at four
extant plays—EURIPIDES’ HECABE, and TROJAN WOMEN months of age. Poppaea died in 65 after an angry Nero
and SENECA’s TROJAN WOMEN. is said to have killed her (she was pregnant at the time).
Polyxena has a fairly significant speaking role in Poppaea was honored as a goddess after her death.
Euripides’ Hecabe, appears as a silent character in In Seneca’s Octavia, Poppaea dreams that the earth
Seneca’s play, and does not appear (but is talked about) opens and swallows her marriage bed. She also dreams
in Euripides’ Trojan Women. In Euripides’ Hecabe, that she has seen her previous husband, Crispinus, and
Polyxena gives a moving speech in which she expresses her son, Rufrius Crispinus. When the elder Crispinus
her preference to give up her life as a free Trojan tries to embrace her, Nero suddenly appears and kills
woman rather than live as a slave among the Greeks. Crispinus. When Poppaea asks her NURSE what this
Two other tragedians wrote plays entitled Polyxena. dream could mean, her nurse incorrectly explains the
Only the title survives from the Polyxena of Nicarchus; dream as having positive implications for her future
several fragments are extant from SOPHOCLES’ Polyxena with Nero. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia; Sueto-
(522–27 Radt). As in Euripides’ Hecabe, Achilles’ ghost nius, Nero 35; Tacitus, Annals 11, 13–16]
has a speaking role in Sophocles’ play. Unlike in
Euripides’ play, Menelaus appears as a character in PORPHYRION A son of EARTH, Porphyrion was
Sophocles’ play. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epit- a Giant, who, along with his brothers, tried to over-
ome 5.23; Hyginus, Fables 110; Ovid, Metamorphoses throw ZEUS and the other gods. The gods, with the
13.439–80] help of HERACLES, eventually destroyed Porphyrion and
the other GIANTS. In ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS, in which the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
birds rival the gods for power, the playwright takes
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. advantage of the fact that a porphyrion is also a bird.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, Thus, at Birds 553, when Aristophanes mentions Por-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. phyrion, his reference evokes both the name of the
giant and that of the bird. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
PONTUS (1) Another name for the Black Sea. In lodorus, Library 1.6.1; Aristophanes, Birds 707, 881,
Greek, the word pontos means “sea.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: 1249, 1252; Pindar, Pythian Ode 8.17]
Aeschylus, Persians 877]
POSEIDON The son of CRONUS and RHEA, Posei-
PONTUS (2) A region along the southern shore don (Latin: Neptune) is the brother of ZEUS, HADES,
of the Black Sea in what is today northern Turkey. DEMETER, HERA, and HESTIA. After the overthrow of
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 700; Plautus, CRONUS, Poseidon, Zeus, and Hades drew lots to divide
Three-Dollar Day 933–34, Truculentus 540] the realms of the world, and Poseidon acquired the
sea. Although Poseidon rules the waves, the Greeks
POPPAEA (CA. 31–65 C.E.) The daughter of also considered him the god of earthquakes. Accord-
Titus Ollius, Poppaea first married Rufrius Crispinus, ingly, Poseidon is also called Ennosis, which means
 THE POT OF GOLD 459

“earth shaker.” Poseidon was also a god associated with people revolted against the Athenians, but the town
horses and chariot racing. was retaken in 429. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
Poseidon’s wife is Amphitrite, but he had affairs with Knights 438; Thucydides, 2.70]
others. After sexually assaulting AMYMONE, Poseidon
showed her LERNA’s springs. By TYRO, Poseidon THE POT OF GOLD (Latin: AULU-
fathered JASON’s nemesis, Pelias. By the nymph Thoosa, LARIA) PLAUTUS (CA. 191 B.C.E.) The
Poseidon also fathered the CYCLOPS POLYPHEMUS, whom Greek model for PLAUTUS’ play is unknown. Given
ODYSSEUS blinded. As were several Greek divinities, Plautus’ focus on the distrustful Euclio, MENANDER’s
Poseidon seems to have been attracted to both females Apistos (The distrustful man) is thought to have pro-
and males. PELOPS, the grandfather of AGAMEMNON, vided the source for Plautus’ play. Several Greek comic
attracted Poseidon’s attention and Poseidon later gave poets, however, wrote plays entitled Thesaurus (Trea-
the young man a splendid team of horses with which sure), including DIPHILUS, MENANDER, and PHILEMON,
Pelops was able to defeat Oenomaus and win the hand all of whom Plautus is known to have drawn upon.
of his daughter, HIPPODAMEIA. Poseidon was also famed Few fragments of these plays survive.
as the father of the Athenian hero THESEUS. Although Plautus’ play deals with a miser named Euclio, who
Poseidon does not appear as a character in EURIPIDES’ is constantly on the lookout for anyone who might
Hippolytus, he does affect the outcome of that play, as steal a pot of gold he keeps hidden in his house. The
Theseus uses one of three wishes given to him by action takes places in ATHENS, before the houses of
Poseidon to curse his son, HIPPOLYTUS. This curse leads Euclio and Megadorus, both older gentlemen. The pro-
to Hippolytus’ death. logue is a little unusual in extant Plautine plays in that
Poseidon and APOLLO are said to have built the walls it is delivered by a divinity, the Lar Familiaris (HOUSE-
of TROY for King Laomedon. When Laomedon did not HOLD GOD) of Euclio’s house. When Euclio’s rich neigh-
show the proper gratitude for this service, Poseidon bor, Megadorus, proposes that he marry Euclio’s
sent a sea monster to ravage the town. Despite Laome- daughter, Phaedria, Euclio suspects that Megadorus
don’s disrespect, Poseidon favored the Trojans in the wants his gold. Euclio, however, agrees to marry his
Trojan War, and Poseidon appears as a character in the daughter to Megadorus, provided that Megadorus not
prologue of EURIPIDES’ TROJAN WOMEN. In this play, he is expect her to provide a dowry. Megadorus, eager to
leaving the ruined city when ATHENA approaches him marry, agrees, and the two men set the wedding for
and arranges for him to create a storm that will wreck that very day.
the Greek fleet as they sail for home. Megadorus goes to the market and hires two cooks
Poseidon also appears as a character in ARISTOPHANES’ and two flute girls and orders food for the two families.
BIRDS, in which he, HERACLES, and a foreign god, Tribal- When the provisions are taken to Megadorus’ house,
los, have been sent to arrange a peace with the birds. they are divided between the two houses. Euclio, who
Poseidon opposes the peace treaty but eventually agrees also goes to the market, returns with only incense and
to all of its terms. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds flowers for his daughter’s wedding. When Euclio
1565; Hyginus, Fables 157; Plautus, Rope] returns, he overhears one of the cooks’ talking about a
pot, thinks that the cook refers to his pot of gold, and
POSTSCAENIUM The part of the theater dashes into his house to confront the cooks, whom he
behind the stage building (see SKENE). chases from the house. Euclio, having retrieved his pot
of gold, then allows the cooks to return to work.
POT FEAST See CHYTROI. Euclio then conceals his pot of god at the shrine of
Fides (“faith” or “trust”) but is overheard addressing
POTIDAIA A town in northeastern Greece on the the divinity by Strobilus, a servant of Lyconides, the
peninsula of Pallene. During the fifth century B.C.E. son of Eunomia and nephew of Megadorus. As it hap-
Potidaia was part of the Athenian empire. In 432, its pens, Lyconides, who is in love with Euclio’s daughter
460 THE POT OF GOLD

and had impregnated her nine months earlier, has just that Strobilus has stolen Euclio’s gold. Strobilus then
learned that Euclio has betrothed his daughter to his suggests to Lyconides that he wants to buy his freedom
uncle. Lyconides’ slave enters the shrine, intending to with the gold. Lyconides rejects this idea, however, and
steal the gold, but Euclio catches him before he can do demands that Strobilus hand over the gold. Unfortu-
so. Euclio then decides to hide his gold in a grove of nately, at this point the manuscript breaks off. We
Silvanus, and Lyconides’ slave decides to observe the expect, however, that Lyconides managed to retrieve
old man. the pot of gold and return it to Euclio, who forgave
After the exit of Euclio and Strobilus for the grove of Lyconides’ transgressions and gave the gold for his
Silvanus, Lyconides and Eunomia enter. Lyconides has daughter’s wedding dowry.
told his mother of his love for Euclio’s daughter and
begs her to tell Megadorus that he is the father of COMMENTARY
Euclio’s daughter’s child. As the two talk, Euclio’s Duckworth classifies Pot of Gold as one of five extant
daughter begins to cry out with labor pains. Hearing Roman comedies (see also STICHUS, THREE-DOLLAR DAY,
this, Eunomia urges Lyconides to go into Megadorus’ TRUCULENTUS, and TERENCE’s BROTHERS) that focus on
house, so they can tell his uncle at once. After Euno- character. As Duckworth points out, however,
mia and Lyconides go to Megadorus’ house, Strobilus although while the character of the miser Euclio is the
enters, carrying Euclio’s pot of gold. Strobilus exits play’s chief interest, Plautus has not created a study of
when he hears a frantic and enraged Euclio approach. avarice, but allowed comic situations to arise from
As Euclio rants about the loss of his gold, Euclio’s suspicion of those in his household and among
Lyconides enters. Perceiving Euclio’s anger, Lyconides his neighbors. Of the plays mentioned, Three-Dollar
thinks that Euclio is angry about his daughter’s preg- Day is probably most similar to Pot of Gold. In addition
nancy. Before Lyconides can escape, Euclio hears him, to the concern with character, both plays have pro-
and Lyconides approaches the old miser. Soon logues that are delivered by divinities and both have
Lyconides is confessing to some unspecified crime, hidden treasures that are ultimately used to provide
but Euclio thinks he is confessing to stealing the gold. marriage dowries. Unlike in Three-Dollar Day, in which
When Euclio says he wants back what Lyconides the treasure is unknown to the wasteful young Les-
took, Lyconides is puzzled. When Euclio tells him bonicus and is of secondary importance, in Pot of Gold
about the pot of gold, Lyconides denies stealing it. the old miser is fully aware of the gold (of primary
When Lyconides continues to act ignorant about the importance to the play) and spends all his effort keep-
gold, a desperate Euclio even offers him half the gold ing others away from it.
and promises not to take him to court. Lyconides One of the major focal points of Pot of Gold is the
denies taking the gold and manages to change the concept of fides, a Latin word that embodies the con-
subject to Euclio’s daughter. Lyconides informs Euclio cepts of trustworthiness, credibility, faithfulness, and
that he is Megadorus’ nephew and that Megadorus the like. As Konstan points out, for the Romans fides
wants to break his engagement to Euclio’s daughter. was one of the bonds that linked the individual to
Euclio is furious at this news and curses Megadorus. the community, and Euclio’s inability to enter into
Lyconides goes on to confess that he impregnated bonds of fides with others represents his withdrawal
Euclio’s daughter. He also informs Euclio that she has from the social life of his community. So important
given birth and expresses his hope to marry her. An was fides to the members of Plautus’ Roman audience
even angrier Euclio then goes into his house to find that almost two centuries later the Roman poet Ovid,
out the truth of the situation. at Metamorphoses 1.90, would list it as one of the
The play’s final act begins with the arrival of Stro- qualities that characterized people who lived during
bilus. Lyconides, who has been trying to decide his the Golden Age. Ovid also mentions that fides was
own next move, approaches his slave. When Strobilus absent during the Iron Age (1.129). In Pot of Gold,
claims he has found a pot of gold, Lyconides realizes fides is a quality that Euclio values greatly but is
 PRAMNIAN WINE 461

incapable of fully embracing in others. Although it is gold, Euclio demands that he give him his word (liter-
not surprising that Euclio would not trust the ally, “speak with good fides,” 772), an ironic statement
unknown cooks who enter his house, he does not from a person who does not even trust the divinity
trust that his wealthy neighbor, Megadorus, does not Fides. In this instance, however, Euclio does seem to
want to acquire his gold even though Euclio trust (777) that Lyconides has not taken the gold. Any
acknowledges that his prospective son-in-law, credibility Lyconides had with Euclio is shattered,
Megadorus, is a person of good fides (213). Not only however, when the young man reveals his uncle’s
does Euclio not trust his fellow human beings, he desire to end the engagement to Euclio’s daughter and
does not even trust the gods. then informs Euclio about the sexual assault. Although
The suspicious Euclio, not believing that his gold the rest of the play is lost, Lyconides apparently would
will be safe under the protection of his household god, have been able to regain his lost fides with Euclio by
eventually entrusts it to the divinity Fides. Euclio’s lack returning to him the gold that Strobilus has again
of faith in the fides of his household god and the trans- stolen. Euclio, in turn, would have reciprocated this
fer of the gold to a different divinity, however, result in trust by giving the gold to Lyconides and his daughter
the loss of the gold. While Euclio has prayed to Fides as a wedding gift.
to watch over his gold, Strobilus has overheard his
BIBLIOGRAPHY
prayer and utters a counterprayer to the Fides that the
Arnott, W. G. “The Greek Original of Plautus’ Aulularia,”
divinity not be more faithful (fidelis, 618) to Euclio Weiner Studien 101 (1988): 181–91.
than to him. Fortunately for Euclio, after Strobilus Hunter, R. L. “The Aulularia of Plautus and its Greek Origi-
steals the gold, the old miser catches Strobilus and nal,” Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 27
regains the gold. This theft, however, prompts Euclio (1981): 37–49.
not even to trust the divinity Fides—he does not even Konstan, D. “Aulularia: City-State and Individual.” In Roman
trust Trust. Accordingly, Euclio perversely decides that Comedy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983,
he will entrust the gold to the care of the divinity Sil- 33–47.
vanus rather than the divinity who represents trust Marcovich, M. “Euclio, Cnemon, and the Peripatos,” Illinois
(676). Thus, Euclio has gone from mistrusting a Classical Studies 2 (1977): 197–218.
household divinity, to mistrusting a divinity of the city,
to entrusting “his gold to the uncultivated precinct of a PRAECINCTIO In the seating area of the Roman
god of the wilderness. . . . And there, outside the city, theater, the praecinctio was a horizontal walkway that
he is treated like the outcast he has made himself” separated a lower block of seating from an upper block
(Konstan). (see MAENIANUM). The Greek equivalent of praecinctio is
When Strobilus steals the gold a second time, diazoma. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Corpus Inscriptionum Grae-
Euclio’s character breaks down the invisible barrier carum 2755; Vitruvius, On Architecture 5.3.4, 5.6.2]
that separates actor from spectator and begs the audi- BIBLIOGRAPHY
ence for help. He tells one audience member that he Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
trusts him because he has an honest face (719). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 432.
Although Euclio does not trust his neighbor or the
gods, his desperation is so great that he goes outside PRAMNIAN WINE A famous wine produced
the bounds of the play to find someone in whom he in the eastern AEGEAN that was “noted for its strength
can have trust. and dryness.” The meaning of the name Pramnian is
When the distraught Euclio accuses Lyconides of not known. The Greek comic poet Ephippus (fragment
breaking the bonds of trust, the confused Lyconides 28 Kock 2) praised Pramnian wine made on the island
almost confesses that he has sexually assaulted Euclio’s of LESBOS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights
daughter. When Lyconides realizes what Euclio is 107; Athenaeus 1.30c; Homer, Iliad 11.639, Odyssey
accusing him of and swears that he did not steal the 10.235; Phrynichus Comicus, fragment 65 Kock]
462 PRASIAE

BIBLIOGRAPHY Ussher, R. G. Aristophanes: Ecclesiazusae. Oxford: Clarendon

Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Press, 1973.
Teubner, 1880.
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: PREPIS Perhaps the son of Eupherus, in 421 a
Teubner, 1884. Prepis may have served as secretary of the Athenian
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2, council during the year’s first PRYTANY. [ANCIENT
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 150. SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 843]

PRASIAE A town in southern Greece. The Athe- BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sommerstein, A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, Achar-
nians attacked the town in 430 B.C.E. and planned to
nians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 198.
attack it again in the year 414. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Aristophanes, Peace 242; Thucydides, 2.56.6]
PRIAM The son of LAOMEDON and Strymo (or Leu-
BIBLIOGRAPHY cippe or Placia), Priam was the husband of HECABE and
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5, the king of TROY during the famous Trojan War. Priam
Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985, 144. had 50 sons, 19 by Hecabe. The most famous of
Priam’s sons were PARIS, HECTOR, and POLYDORUS.
PRAXAGORA The heroine of ARISTOPHANES’ Priam and Hecabe also had many daughters, the best
ECCLESIAZUSAE, Praxagora (“active in the marketplace”) known of whom are CASSANDRA and POLYXENA. When
is a fictional Athenian woman who is similar to LYSIS- Priam was young, HERACLES conquered Troy and put
TRATA in Aristophanes’ play of the same name. As does most of the males to death. For the sake of Priam’s sis-
Lysistrata, Praxagora arranges for the women to take ter, Hesione, however, Heracles spared Priam’s life. In
over the local government. Unlike Lysistrata, though, the course of the Trojan War, almost all of Priam’s sons
who aims to put an end to warfare between ATHENS were killed. In the final year of the war, ACHILLES killed
and SPARTA, Praxagora is interested in social reform of Hector, defiled his body, and threatened to leave the
Athens only, and the women Praxagora organizes are corpse to be eaten by dogs and birds. Priam, however,
Athenians. Praxagora establishes a social system in managed to make his way to the Greek camp and ran-
which the people will share everything equally—food, som Hector’s body. After Hector’s death, when Priam
property, sexual partners, and even children. Addition- purified the Amazon Penthesileia of murdering one of
ally, whereas the sex strike that Lysistrata organizes will her fellow AMAZONS, Penthesileia agreed to fight for the
end when peace is achieved, Praxagora’s reforms will Trojans. She, too, was killed by Achilles. During the fall
be permanent. Rothwell compares Praxagora with PER- of Troy, Priam himself was killed, cut down by Achilles’
ICLES’ mistress, ASPASIA, and finds Praxagora a skilled son, Neoptolemus, while he was clinging to an altar
speaker who is also skilled in the ways of love. This and begging for his life. Priam would have appeared as
portrait also contrasts with Lysistrata, who is rather a character in many Greek dramas but is seldom seen
serious and chaste (appropriately so if she was mod- in the extant plays. SOPHOCLES wrote a Priam; only six
eled on Lysimache, a priestess of ATHENA). words survive from the play (fragments 528a–32
Radt). The Greek tragedian Philocles also wrote a
BIBLIOGRAPHY Priam, of which only the title survives (fragment 1
Foley, H. P. “The Female Intruder Reconsidered: Women in
Snell). This play was the second in a TETRALOGY that
Aristophanes, Lysistrata and Ecclesiazusae,” Classical Philol-
ogy 77 (1982): 1–21.
included Penelope, Tereus, and Philoctetes (only the
Rothwell, Kenneth S. Politics and Persuasion in Aristophanes’ titles survive). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds
Ecclesiazusae. Leiden: Brill, 1990, 77–101. 512; Euripides, Hecabe, Trojan Women; Homer, Iliad;
Taaffe, Lauren K. “The Illusion of Gender Disguise in Aristo- Plautus, Bacchides 926–78; Seneca, Trojan Women;
phanes’ Ecclesiazusae,” Helios 18 (1991): 91–112. Vergil, Aeneid 2]
 PRODICUS 463

BIBLIOGRAPHY Sophocles wrote a Procris, but the three words that

Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. survive tell us nothing about the play’s plot (fragment
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: 533 Radt). The Greek comic poet Eubulus also wrote a
Harvard University Press, 1996. Procris (fragments 90–92 Kock); and one of the frag-
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, ments (90) describes how Procris’ dog is to be treated
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
in a royal fashion. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Library 1.9.4, 2.4.7, 3.15.2; Athenaeus, 12.553b;
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Hyginus, Fables 189; Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.661–865;
Press of America, 1984. Pausanias, 1.37.4]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRINIDES A fictional character from ACHARNAE. Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
His name means “son of holm oak.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Aristophanes, Acharnians 612] Teubner, 1884.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
BIBLIOGRAPHY Harvard University Press, 1996.
Sommerstein, A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, Achar- Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
nians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 187. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
PROAGON In the proagon (precontest), the play- Press of America, 1984.
wrights made a public appearance to give a little infor-
mation about their upcoming production. Aristophanes PROCRUSTES Also called Damastes or Polype-
wrote a play entitled Proagon (461–70 Kock), of which mon, Procrustes, son of POSEIDON, was an evil man
little is known. who lived near the town of ELEUSIS. Procrustes had a
lodge for travelers, whose bed or beds were unusual: If
BIBLIOGRAPHY a traveler’s limbs were too long for the bed, Procrustes
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
would cut the traveler down to the bed’s size. If the
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 432.
traveler were not tall enough for the bed, Procrustes
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
would hammer them out to make them fit. During
Teubner, 1880.
THESEUS’ journey from TROEZEN to ATHENS, Theseus
encountered Procrustes and made the villain “lie in his
PROCNE See TEREUS.
own bed”: Theseus killed Procrustes in the same way
he had killed others. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
PROCRIS The daughter of ERECHTHEUS, Procris Epitome 1.4; Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 1021; Bac-
was an Athenian princess who married CEPHALUS. chylides, Dithyramb 4.27–30; Hyginus, Fables 38; Pau-
According to one story about Procris, Cephalus left sanias, 1.38.5; Plutarch, Theseus 11.1; Seneca,
home for a lengthy period and then returned in disguise Hippolytus 1170, Thyestes 1050]
to test whether Procris would be faithful to him. As Pro-
cris was on the point of giving in to the temptation, PRODICUS From the island of Ceos, Prodicus
Cephalus revealed his true identity. Another story says was best known for his interest in the proper use of
that when Cephalus went hunting, he was accustomed words and, according to Sommerstein, “especially of
to rest in the forest and call upon Aura (“a breeze”) or distinguishing the meanings of near-synonyms.” Prod-
Nephele (“a cloud”) to refresh him. Procris, who had icus’ writings also deal with “ethics, the origin of reli-
heard rumors of Cephalus’ having an affair, followed her gion, and apparently . . . human physiology.” Prodicus
husband on one of his hunts. Cephalus, while taking his also may have written about the universe’s origins.
accustomed rest, heard rustling near him. Cephalus [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 692, Clouds 361,
threw his spear at the noise and fatally wounded Procris. fragment 490.2 Kock; Plato, Protagoras]
464 PROHEDRIA

BIBLIOGRAPHY tion between two prostitutes, but after their exit one
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: prostitute’s mother delivers a delayed prologue of some
Teubner, 1880. two dozen lines, then leaves stage before explaining the
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 3, situation fully. Accordingly, the god Auxilium appears
Clouds. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1982, 180. and continues the prologue for another 50 lines.
TERENCE’s prologues are the most unusual and in
PROHEDRIA This Greek word can refer either to some ways the most interesting in the extant classical
front seats in the theater or to the privilege of sitting in dramas. In each of the six Terentian plays, the prologue
these seats. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights does not introduce the audience to the plot of the play,
575, 702, Thesmophoriazusae 834; Herodotus, 1.54, but rather focuses on the difficulties that the play-
9.73] wright has had with critics or the staging of his play.
Thus, Terence’s prologues are more like the PARABASIS in
PROLOGUE According to ARISTOTLE (Poetics some of Aristophanes’ comedies than a prologue.
1452b), the prologue is the part of the drama that Goldberg has shown that Terence’s prologues were
takes place before the CHORUS’ entrance (PARODOS). In modeled on Roman oratorical practice of the time.
some cases, however, the chorus is onstage from the After Terence’s prologues, the play begins in a manner
play’s outset, so these plays do not have a prologue in more reminiscent of most of Aristophanes’ plays, as the
the Aristotelean sense of the word (compare AESCHYLUS’ background to the plot is explained through the con-
PERSIANS, and SUPPLIANT WOMEN and EURIPIDES’ RHESUS). versation of two characters.
In TRAGEDY, especially Euripidean tragedy, prologues
usually begin with a monologue in which a character BIBLIOGRAPHY
Goldberg, S. M. “The Style and Function of Menander’s
provides a brief introduction to the characters and to
Dyskolos Prologue,” Symbolae Osloenses 53 (1978): 57–68.
events that have preceded the action of the play. This ———. “Terence, Cato, and the Rhetorical Prologue,” Clas-
monologue may also point to themes that will emerge sical Philology 78 (1983): 198–211.
in the drama. Euripides’ opening monologues are typ- Hamilton, R. “Prologue Prophecy and Plot in Four Plays of
ically followed by dialogue between two characters Euripides,” American Journal of Philology 99 (1978):
about the emerging conflict in the play. In tragedy, a 277–302.
mortal usually delivers the opening speech, and some-
times a divinity leads off the play. Divinities who PROMETHEUS The son of Iapetus and Cly-
deliver prologues rarely return to the stage later (see mene (or THEMIS), Prometheus was famous for stealing
DIONYSUS in EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE for an exception). fire from the gods and giving it to mortals. For this
In Aristophanic COMEDY, the prologues are not expos- crime, ZEUS had Prometheus bound to a mountain and
itory, as in Euripidean tragedy. Aristophanes begins sent an eagle to peck continually at his liver (which
most of his plays with a conversation between two regrew every day). Eventually, Prometheus was freed of
characters and the crisis of the play emerges in a more his bonds (and the eagle) by HERACLES.
natural way. Comedy after the time of Aristophanes, He appears as a character in two surviving plays,
however, tended to revert to the Euripidean model. The AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS BOUND and ARISTOPHANES’
prologues of both MENANDER and PLAUTUS are usually BIRDS. In Aristophanes’ Birds, Prometheus appears
expository in nature, and occasionally a divinity (PAN in briefly to inform PEISETAERUS that Zeus is in danger of
DYSCOLUS; Euclio’s household divinity in POT OF GOLD) being overthrown. Prometheus Bound deals with
or the personification of some abstract concept (Misap- Prometheus’ punishment for giving fire to human
prehension in Menander’s GIRL WITH THE SHAVEN HEAD) beings. Despite this, Prometheus is confident that Zeus
makes the speech. In some cases, a play contains a will someday need his help, because he knows how
delayed expository prologue, as in Plautus’ CASKET COM- Zeus will eventually be overthrown and that he will
EDY. The first 119 lines of the play involve a conversa- eventually be freed from his punishment.
 PROMETHEUS BOUND 465

In addition to Prometheus Bound, Prometheus’ name PROMETHEUS BOUND AESCHYLUS?

appears in three other plays attributed to Aeschylus: (DATE UNCERTAIN) West has argued that the
Prometheus Unbound (fragments 190–204 Radt), play was staged between 445 and 435 B.C.E. on the
Prometheus the Fire Bearer (fragment 208 Radt), and basis of staging techniques and the configuration of the
Prometheus the Fire Kindler (fragments 204a–07 Radt). Theater of Dionysus in ATHENS that would have been
The last of these plays may have been satyric and have required to perform the play. The play is attributed to
completed the TETRALOGY of 472 B.C.E., preceded by AESCHYLUS, but many modern scholars doubt this, and
Phineus, PERSIANS, and Glaucus Pontios. Prometheus the West dates the play to a time after Aeschylus’ death.
Fire Kindler dealt with Prometheus’ theft of fire, by The play’s setting is a peak of the CAUCASUS Mountains.
which the satyrs would have been excited and amazed. The CHORUS are OCEANUS’ daughters. The play opens
Examination of the fragments of Prometheus Unbound with the entrance of Might, Violence, and HEPHAESTUS,
reveals a chorus of TITANS, freed by Zeus from the who have PROMETHEUS with them. Might reveals that
underworld. As in Prometheus Bound, the chorus of the task Zeus has given to his trio is to bind
Prometheus Unbound walk by and talk with Prometheus, Prometheus to a mountain peak because Prometheus
who is still bound and tortured during the first part of has stolen fire and given it to humans. Hephaestus,
the play. Also as in Prometheus Bound, in Unbound however, is reluctant because he sympathizes with
Prometheus describes he sufferings and the benefits he Prometheus as a fellow divinity. Nevertheless, Hep-
has conferred on humankind. Eventually, Heracles, haestus knows that disobedience to Zeus is dangerous.
during his quest for the apples of the HESPERIDES, Might and Hephaestus continue to argue about
appears. Presumably in exchange for information Prometheus as they bind him to the rock. Might
about his quest, Heracles shoots the eagle that tor- believes that Prometheus is getting what he deserves,
ments Prometheus and releases him from his chains. whereas Hephaestus continues to express pity for
The subject matter of Prometheus the Fire-Bearer is Prometheus.
uncertain; Lloyd-Jones thinks that it may have pre- After Prometheus is bound, the trio of divinities
ceded Aeschylus’ Prometheus Bound. leave. Prometheus then laments his fate but recognizes
Among Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a Prometheus, that he must endure. He states that his punishment
from which two brief fragments survive (606–8 Warm- results from his helping humans. Prometheus’ speech
ington). Lines 606–7 refer to the eagle that pecked is cut short by the arrival of Oceanus’ daughters, who
away at the hero. Line 608 appears to refer to the win- express sorrow and sympathy for Prometheus. In the
try weather that plagued the region where Prometheus course of their encounter, Prometheus reveals to these
was bound. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library immortal women that he has information about how
1.2.3, 1.3.6, 1.7.1–2, 2.5.4, 2.5.11, 3.13.5; Aristo- Zeus will lose his kingdom. Prometheus declares that
phanes, Birds 1494; Hesiod, Theogony 507–616, Works he will not reveal this information until Zeus sets him
and Days 47–105; Hyginus, Fables 54, 144, Poetica free. Oceanus’ daughters worry that Prometheus’
Astronomica 2.6, 2.15, 2.42; Pausanias, 1.30.2, 2.19.5, speech is too arrogant, but Prometheus predicts that
2.19.5] one day Zeus will relent. Oceanus’ daughters then ask
Prometheus to explain how his conflict with Zeus
BIBLIOGRAPHY occurred.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
Prometheus explains that when the gods argued
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
about whether Cronus or Zeus should rule,
Smyth, H. and Lloyd-Jones, H. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926.
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Prometheus advised those who supported Cronus to
1971. use cunning to defeat Zeus. When this advice was
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, rejected, Prometheus, on the advice of THEMIS, joined
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Zeus’ cause and helped him defeat Cronus and his sup-
Harvard University Press, 1936. porters. After Zeus rose to power, he gave mortals no
466 PROMETHEUS BOUND

privilege or power and intended to destroy them. will eventually lead her to Egypt, where her descen-
Prometheus helped mortals and thus was punished by dants will found a colony. Furthermore, there Zeus will
Zeus. The chorus sympathize with Prometheus but restore Io to her human form and his touch will cause
urge him to recognize his mistake of opposing Zeus. her to bring forth a child, EPAPHUS. Eventually, a
Next, the father of the chorus, Oceanus, enters and descendant of Epaphus’, HERACLES, will free
asks Prometheus how he can help him. Prometheus Prometheus from his chains. After she hears this, Io’s
urges Oceanus not to become involved in his affairs, lest spasms of torment return and she departs.
Oceanus also experience Zeus’ wrath. Oceanus urges Upon Io’s departure, the chorus pray that they will
Prometheus to behave with greater moderation, but never find themselves the object of Zeus’ lust.
Prometheus persists in his self-pity. Given Prometheus’ Prometheus comments that Zeus’ downfall will result
attitude, Oceanus departs. After the god’s exit, the cho- from one of his sexual unions. The chorus warn
rus lament Prometheus’ fate and compare his misfortune Prometheus that Zeus might inflict an even worse pun-
to that of ATLAS. After their song, Prometheus recalls all ishment on him, but Prometheus remains defiant.
the benefits that he gave to human beings and hints to Next, Hermes, sent by Zeus, appears and demands
the chorus that even Zeus himself will not be able to that Prometheus reveal how Zeus will fall from power.
escape what the FATES have in store for him. The chorus Prometheus, however, refuses to divulge what he
then hope that they never have conflict with Zeus and knows regardless of what Zeus does to him. Hermes
note that they have learned not to oppose Zeus through states that Zeus will send his lightning to shatter the
the punishment Prometheus suffers. mountain and hide his body; furthermore, Zeus will
After the chorus’ comments, IO, a woman whom send an eagle to tear at Prometheus’ body and feed on
HERA has transformed into a cow, enters in a frenzy. She his liver. Although the chorus urge Prometheus to
has been wandering the Earth, driven mad by a gadfly repent, Prometheus declares that Zeus can do whatever
that is possessed by the Furies of a deceased herdsman he likes but he will never destroy him. Hermes warns
named ARGUS. Prometheus recalls that she was a young the chorus to depart, since if they remain, they may be
woman with whom Zeus fell in love and whom Zeus’ terrified by the thunder, but they assert their intention
wife, Hera, is now helping to torment. Prometheus to remain with Prometheus. After Hermes exits, the
tells Io about his sufferings and then agrees to tell her play concludes with Prometheus noting the onset of
what awaits her. At the chorus’ request, Io tells how an thunder and lightning and calling on his mother to see
oracle directed her father to drive her from her home. the injustice that he suffers.
After this, she was transformed into a cow and pursued
by the multieyed herdsman Argus. After Argus was COMMENTARY
killed (by HERMES according to other sources), a gadfly In addition to the issue of its authorship and date,
tormented her and drove her throughout the world. Prometheus Bound is unusual for several reasons. First,
After Io’s speech, Prometheus gives a lengthy Prometheus is the only central figure in extant drama
description of the various dangerous lands through who remains on stage from the beginning of the play
which Io will wander. Upon hearing this, Io declares until its conclusion. Next, the action is unusual in that
that she would be better off dead. Prometheus, how- the play’s central character, Prometheus, remains
ever, says Io’s sufferings are nothing compared to his, immobile throughout the drama, chained to the moun-
which will only end when Zeus falls from power. Io is tain peak. This also raises a question about the staging
astonished to hear that Zeus will lose power and of the play: Where was the “rock” to which Prometheus
declares that the only way Zeus can avoid this is by was bound, and how was this rock constructed? Some
releasing Prometheus from his punishment. Prometheus scholars believe that the ancient theater in Athens, sit-
also notes that one of Io’s descendants will bring about uated on the slopes of the ACROPOLIS, had a rock for-
Prometheus’ release. When Io and the chorus beg to mation that jutted into the side of the ORCHESTRA and
know more, Prometheus explains that Io’s wanderings that Prometheus was attached to this rock and was able
 PRONOMUS 467

to disappear behind this rock at the play’s conclusion. has passed on to them (505–6). For all of Prometheus’
Others believe that Prometheus was bound to the great knowledge, however, Might notes that
THYMELE, a structure in the center of the orchestra. Prometheus’ knowledge is nothing compared to that of
In addition to the unique challenges of staging this Zeus (62). Prometheus’ knowledge caused him to be in
play, with the exception of Io, all of the play’s charac- conflict with Zeus that same knowledge will comfort
ters are divinities. This fact calls attention to the con- others and lead to both his torment and his freedom.
trast between gods and mortals that occurs in the play. In the case of Io, when she enters she says she is unable
The Greek divinities live forever, whereas the play to discover how to escape her sufferings (609). Though
describes mortals as beings who live for a day. Zeus Prometheus tells Io that not knowing her future is bet-
wants to destroy mortals, whereas Prometheus has ter than knowing it (624), Io still craves Prometheus’
helped them. When Io enters, we witness how Zeus’ knowledge; indeed, this knowledge gives Io some
sexual intrusion into the world of mortals has caused comfort as she begins to understand the nature of her
not only the disruption of her father’s house, but also sufferings and their limit.
the transformation of her physical self and extreme Just as Io takes comfort in Prometheus’ knowledge,
mental anguish. Interestingly, one of Io’s descendants, Prometheus is confident that his knowledge will pro-
Heracles, the person who will free Prometheus from tect him because he knows how Zeus will be over-
his torment, will be the product of another union thrown. When this happens, Prometheus declares,
between Zeus and a mortal woman. Thus, the child of Zeus will learn what it means to change from ruler to
a mortal woman will become the savior of Prometheus, servant (926–27). Unfortunately for Prometheus, Zeus
who claims to be the savior of humankind in this play. is aware that he possesses this knowledge and threat-
Although Prometheus Bound is filled with mythical ens him with additional punishment if he does not
divine characters, the play still speaks to those who live reveal what he knows to Hermes. Even the chorus
in the modern world, especially the corporate world. As think that Prometheus would be wise to take Hermes’
does Prometheus, modern workers may often feel that advice not to be so stubborn and argue that it is not
they are subject to tyrannical employers who wield wise to continue being in error (1038–39). Stubbor-
absolute power over their employees. Zeus has saddled ness, however, is a trait shared by Prometheus and
Atlas with the weight of the heavens (349–52) and Zeus (see 907), and at the play’s conclusion Zeus’
crushed TYPHON beneath Mount Aetna (353–74), and power and Prometheus’ knowledge remain at odds,
Io is like a sexually harassed employee who finds her- although the audience is led to expect that ultimately
self oppressed by her boss. Might and Hermes are the Prometheus’ knowledge will lead Zeus to relent.
corporate “yes men,” who carry out the company pres-
ident’s orders even if those orders mean hardship for a BIBLIOGRAPHY
fellow employee. Hephaestus is the compassionate but Conacher, D. J. Aeschylus’ Prometheus Bound: A Literary Com-
spineless middle manager who follows the company mentary. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980.
Davidson, John. “Prometheus Vinctus on the Athenian Stage,”
president’s orders. Prometheus is like a middle manager
Greece and Rome 41 (1994): 33–40.
who is caught between those he manages and the com-
Griffith, Mark. The Authenticity of Prometheus Bound. Cam-
pany’s president. Unlike Hephaestus, however, bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Prometheus rebels against the company president and Hubbard, T. K. “Recitative Anapests and the Authenticity of
is punished for his insubordination. Prometheus Bound,” American Journal of Philology 112
Juxtaposed with the tyrannical power of Zeus is the (1991): 439–60.
knowledge of Prometheus. As for his modern counter- West M. L. “The Prometheus Trilogy,” Journal of Hellenic
parts in the corporate world, Prometheus’ success and Studies 99 (1979): 130–48.
failure can be connected to his knowledge. Prometheus
boasts that everything that human beings know and PRONOMUS An Athenian who Aristophanes
every skill they possess is a result of knowledge that he jokes had his beard stolen by AGYRRHIUS. Sommerstein
468 PROPHET

conjectures that he may have been a “politician whose self-serving individuals, they are usually treated in a
sudden disappearance from the public eye (through harsh way in ARISTOPHANES’ plays (see especially PEACE
death or exile) had coincided with a marked increase and BIRDS).
in the length of Agyrrhius’ beard, leading to the joking
suggestion that Agyrrhius’ beard really belonged to PROPYLAEA In ATHENS the Propylaea (gate-
Pronomus.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesi- way), was the western entrance to the ACROPOLIS. In
azusae 102] ARISTOPHANES’ LYSISTRATA, the Propylaea must be imag-
ined as the backdrop for much of the play. [ANCIENT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 1326, Lysistrata 265]
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998,
148. PROSERPINA See PERSEPHONE.

PROPHET A prophet (also called a seer or diviner) PROSKENION Called the proscaenium in Latin,
is one who is able to foresee events that have not hap- the proskenion is the raised platform in front of the
pened or reveal things that are hidden. The process or stage building (see SKENE). The roof of the proskenion is
art of discovering the future or revealing such secrets is the STAGE. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Vitruvius, On Architecture
called divination. The ancient Greeks and Romans 5.7.1]
used various methods of divination, such as casting
lots, intepreting dreams, and observing the behavior of PROSTITUTE (Greek: HETAIRA; Latin:
birds, atmospheric phenomena (such as lightning or MERETRIX, PUELLA) Prostitutes (also called
thunder), patterns in flame, or the entrails of animals courtesans) are stock characters in New Comedy (see
(see TIRESIAS in SENECA’s OEDIPUS). COMEDY). Music girls, who also appear in New Comedy,
Prophets are connected with many plays in classical are essentially prostitutes who have musical skills. In
TRAGEDY. A female prophet named THEONOE appears as the 26 complete plays of PLAUTUS and TERENCE, some
a character in EURIPIDES’ HELEN. Calchas is referred to in 20 prostitutes are listed in the cast. Prostitutes appear
plays about the Trojan War, such as AESCHYLUS’ Agamem- in about half of both authors’ plays. In four of Plautus’
non (see ORESTEIA), SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, and EURIPIDES’ IPHI- plays, two prostitutes appear (BACCHIDES, BRAGGART
GENIA AT AULIS. The prophecies of Calchas and the Trojan WARRIOR, CASKET COMEDY, CARTHAGINIAN, ROPE). In some
prophet HELENUS play an important role in Sophocles’ comedies (e.g., Terence’s BROTHERS), prostitutes do not
PHILOCTETES. Regarding the battle of the Seven against appear onstage but remain behind the scenes. Prosti-
THEBES, AMPHIARAUS participated both as a prophet and tutes are of slave status and usually the property of a
as a warrior. Usually, prophets are among the few peo- slave trader or PIMP. Some prostitutes, however, seem to
ple who escape unscathed from tragedy, but in the case operate independently of a pimp, such as Erotium in
of Amphiaraus his foreknowledge of his army’s defeat Plautus’ MENAECHMI. Although the woman may be the
did not allow him to save his own life and he died in property of a pimp, in a few plays she has not yet been
battle (see Aeschylus, SEVEN AGAINST THEBES; Euripides, sold to anyone and therefore her virginity remains
PHOENICIAN WOMEN). The most famous prophet of all, intact (e.g., Planesium in CURCULIO; Adelphasium and
Tiresias, appears as a character in several surviving dra- Anterastilis in Carthaginian).
mas: Sophocles’ ANTIGONE and OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, Many times in comedy, a young freeborn man (see
Euripides’ PHOENICIAN WOMEN and BACCHAE, and ADULESCENS) is in love with a prostitute. Because she is
SENECA’s OEDIPUS. In the Greek plays, he is almost a slave, he cannot marry her, but often she is discov-
always accused of making his forecasts for some finan- ered to be freeborn, and as a result a marriage can
cial gain and his advice is often rejected, but his pre- occur. In some cases, however, the prostitute is simply
dictions ultimately are fulfilled. Because prophets in an object of affection and the male lover has no inten-
actual society were often thought to be corrupt and tion of marrying her. As Duckworth notes, prostitutes
 PROTEUS (1) 469

in Roman comedy are usually either mercenary (for however, and protagonists do make their initial
example, the Bacchis sisters, Phronesium in TRUCULEN- entrance into the ORCHESTRA from places other than the
TUS, or Thais in Terence’s SELF-TORMENTOR) or devoted central door (e.g., ORESTES in AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bear-
to their male suitors (for example, Pasicompsa in Plau- ers (see ORESTEIA)).
tus’ MERCHANT). In Braggart Warrior, the prostitute
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acroteleutium works to trick the soldier so that Pleusi-
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
cles can run away with another prostitute, Philocoma- Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 223.
sium. Sometimes a prostitute in comedy has “a heart of
gold,” the so-called bona meretrix (the noble prosti- PROTESILAUS Regarding the Trojan War, an
tute). Terence’s Thais (EUNUCH) and Bacchis (MOTHER- ORACLE had stated that the first Greek to set foot on Tro-
IN-LAW) are of this sort. Duckworth observes that some
jan soil would die. Unfortunately, Protesilaus, the son of
of Plautus’ prostitutes are bonae meretrices in the pas- Iphiclus and Diomedeia, violated that prophecy and
sive sense (they are eager to please their lover); how- was killed by HECTOR. After Protesilaus’ death, his wife,
ever, Terence’s Thais and Bacchis are active in their LAODAMEIA, missed him so much that she had a statue
kindness. Bacchis succeeds in effecting the reconcilia- made of him. She would place the statue in her bed and
tion of Pamphilus and his wife. caress it. EURIPIDES wrote a TRAGEDY entitled Protesilaus
BIBLIOGRAPHY (fragments 647–57 Nauck), which was probably staged
Duckworth, G. E. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton, before 428 B.C.E. and probably dealt with Laodameia’s
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 258–61. grief after Protesilaus’ death. Harmodius staged a satyric
Edwards, C. “Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance Protesilaus, of which only the title survives. Heliodorus
and Prostitution in Ancient Rome.” In Roman Sexualities. (fragment 474 Lloyd-Jones) also wrote a Protesilaus,
Edited by J. P. Hallett and M. B. Skinner. Princeton, N.J.:
whose single extant line gives no indication of the plot.
Princeton University Press, 1997, 66–95.
The comic poet Anaxandrides also wrote a Protesilaus,
Fantham, E. “Sex, Status, and Survival in Hellenistic Athens:
A Study of Women in New Comedy,” Phoenix 29 (1975): from which two fragments (40–41 Kock) totaling 73
44–74. lines survive. Brief fragment 40 is about perfume; in the
Konstan, D. “Between Courtesan and Wife: Menander’s lengthy fragment 41 Anaxandrides makes fun of the
Perikeiromene,” Phoenix 41 (1987): 122–39. symposium at the wedding of a person named Iphi-
Wiles, David. “Marriage and Prostitution in Classical New crates and lists the food served at the banquet. Among
Comedy.” In Themes in Drama. Vol. 11. Women in Theatre. Roman authors, PACUVIUS wrote a Protesilaus, of which
Edited by J. Redmond. Cambridge: Cambridge University only the title survives. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
Press, 1989, 31–48.
Epitome 3.30; Athenaeus, 553d–e; Hyginus, Fables
103–4; Ovid, Heroides 13]
PROTAGONIST His characterization derived
from the Greek words protos (first) and agonistes BIBLIOGRAPHY
(fighter, defender), the protagonist plays the leading Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1884.
role in a drama (e.g., OEDIPUS in SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS
Lloyd-Jones, H. and Parsons, P. Supplementum Hellenisticum.
TYRANNOS; LYSISTRATA in ARISTOPHANES’ LYSISTRATA). The
Berlin: De Gruyter, 1983.
term protagonist can also refer to the first actor who Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
converses with the CHORUS or the top-rated actor in an Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
acting troupe. Csapo and Slater note that “only the Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
protagonists could form contracts with the archon, Methuen, 1967.
receive payment from the state, or win the actor’s
prize.” It is also said that the audience could usually PROTEUS (1) Proteus was a shape-shifting sea
identify a play’s protagonist because he entered from divinity whom MENELAUS encountered on his return
the central door in the SKENE. This is not a strict rule, from TROY. Menelaus wrestled Proteus to make him tell
470 PROTEUS (2)

him which divinity was preventing him from reaching Telecleides wrote a Prytaneis, from which several brief
his native land. Proteus told Menelaus that he must fragments survive (22–30 Kock). Nothing of this play’s
travel to Egypt and sacrifice to all the gods in order to plot is known.
return home. Other sources make Proteus an Egyptian
BIBLIOGRAPHY
king (see PROTEUS (2)). AESCHYLUS wrote a Proteus, which
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
was the SATYR PLAY for the ORESTEIA trilogy of 458 B.C.E. Teubner, 1880.
The fewer than 20 words that survive indicate nothing
about the plot. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Homer, Odyssey 4]
PSEUDOLUS PLAUTUS (191 B.C.E.) The
BIBLIOGRAPHY play was performed at the Megalensian Games in the
Smyth, H. and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926. city praetorship of Marcus Junius. The author of the
Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Greek original for this play is not known. The action
1971. occurs in Athens before the houses of Simo, an elderly
gentleman, and the PIMP Ballio. The house of Simo’s
PROTEUS (2) Proteus was an Egyptian king, the friend, Callipho, may also be visible.
father of Theoclymenus. In EURIPIDES’ HELEN, HELEN As the play opens, Simo’s son, Calidorus, tells the
takes refuge at the tomb of Proteus when Theocly- SLAVE, Pseudolus (“liar”), that Ballio has sold Phoeni-
menus tries to force her to marry him. cium, the woman he loves, to a Macedonian soldier,
and that the transaction will be completed the next
PROXENIDES A person known for his boasting day. Calidorus begs Pseudolus for help. The slave
and physical weakness. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- agrees to assist his young master and promises to get
phanes, Birds 1126, Wasps 325; Telecleides, fragment 20 MINAE so that he, not the soldier, can buy her. Before
18] the plan can progress further, the pimp, Ballio,
BIBLIOGRAPHY emerges from his house with a group of slaves. Pseudo-
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, lus and Calidorus eavesdrop as Ballio abuses the slaves
Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 228. physically and verbally. After the slaves depart for the
FORUM, Ballio’s prostitutes appear and the pimp tells
PRYTANAEUM A building in ATHENS that them that unless they earn a lot of money for him he
served as a sort of town hall. The Prytanaeum takes its will prostitute them to the general populace. As Ballio
name “from the presiding prytaneis of Council and continues to threaten the women, Calidorus becomes
Assembly” (Dover). Certain distinguished persons, angry and more worried about losing his beloved.
such as athletes who had won victories at the ancient When Ballio begins to move off toward the forum,
Olympic Games, were honored with the privilege of Pseudolus greets him. Pseudolus tells Ballio that Cali-
having free meals at the Prytanaeum. [ANCIENT SOURCES: dorus plans to pay him the money for the woman he
Aristophanes, Acharnians 125, Frogs 764, Knights 167] loves in a few day, but does not have the money at that
BIBLIOGRAPHY moment. Ballio has no pity on Calidorus despite
Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Pseudolus’ promises that they will obtain the money.
Press, 1993, 287. Ballio continues to show no mercy to Calidorus and
notes that he has sold Phoenicium to the Macedonian
PRYTANY The people of Athens divided their soldier. When Calidorus complains that Ballio had
legislative calendar into 10 prytanies of 36 days (the agreed to sell her to him, Ballio admits this but implies
first four prytanies of the year) or 35 days (the last six that the soldier’s payment superscedes any promise
prytanies of the year). During each prytany, one of the that he made to Calidorus. Finally, Calidorus per-
10 Athenian tribes would supply 50 men to preside suades Ballio to agree to sell Phoenicium to him if he
over governmental business. The Greek comic poet can acquire the money.
 PSEUDOLUS 471

After Ballio departs for the forum, Pseudolus whom Calidorus has enlisted to help them trick Ballio.
expresses his determination to defeat the pimp and Pseudolus arranges for Charinus to dress as one of his
tells Calidorus they need some clever, tricky fellow to father’s slaves, Simia. Pseudolus also arranges to bor-
help them. Pseudolus tells Calidorus to find such a row from Charinus enough money to pay off Ballio.
person. After Calidorus’ departure, Callipho and Simo, Pseudolus tells Charinus to dress up Simia, give him
Calidorus’ father, arrive. Pseudolus decides that he will the letter and token from the soldier, and tell him to go
trick Simo to obtain the necessary money, but first he to Ballio’s house to make the final payment on Phoeni-
eavesdrops on the two gentlemen’s conversation. Simo cium, who will then be taken to Calidorus. After
laments that the whole city knows that Calidorus is describing what he wants done, Pseudolus exits for the
trying to raise money to buy Phoenicium. Callipho forum and the banker, Aeschinus; there he will meet
points out, however, that many young men have done Simia and go over the scheme.
the same sort of thing. Simo, however, thinks that The third act opens with the appearance of an
fathers should set a good example for their sons. Soon, unnamed slave boy from Ballio’s house. The slave com-
Simo sees Pseudolus (who he knows is helping Cali- plains about the difficulties of working for the pimp
dorus). Pseudolus, knowing the old men are wary of and worries that he does not yet have a present for the
him, approaches them. Simo confronts Pseudolus with pimp’s birthday (that same day). As the slave reenters
Calidorus’ situation and declares that he will not pro- Ballio’s house, Ballio, accompanied by a cook and the
vide any money to finance his son’s love affair, but cook’s helpers, arrives. After Ballio complains about the
Pseudolus boldly declares that Simo will give him the cook he has hired, the cook defends himself and
money. Pseudolus goes on to explain that he will trick argues that people will not hire him because he is the
Ballio to hand over Phoenicium and says he will need best and is therefore quite expensive. The cook even
Callipho’s help in his scheme. The act ends with Simo’s claims that those who eat his food can live for 200
leaving for the forum, Callipho’s returning to his years. After some further petty arguing between the
house, and Pseudolus’ returning to Simo’s house to col- cook and Ballio, the group finally exits into the pimp’s
lect his wits. house to prepare dinner. Before Ballio enters, however,
The second act opens with the appearance of he notes that Simo has recently told him to be on
Pseudolus, who announces that everything has been guard against the tricks of Pseudolus.
prepared for his assault on Ballio. Unexpectedly, how- In the fourth act, Pseudolus and Simia, disguised as
ever, Harpax (“snatcher”), the servant of the soldier, Harpax, enter. As the two slaves discuss the final
Polymachaeroplagides, arrives in search of Ballio’s details of Pseudolus’ scheme, Ballio emerges from his
house. Pseudolus, eavesdropping on Harpax’s com- house. At this, Simia approaches him and gives him
ments, decides to change his strategy. Before Harpax the letter from the soldier. After Ballio reads the letter,
can knock on Ballio’s door, Pseudolus emerges from his which instructs him to accept the money from Harpax,
hiding place; pretends to be Ballio’s slave, Surus; and Ballio and Simia enter the pimp’s house. Pseudolus
asks Harpax whether he has arrived to pay the balance worries that the real Harpax will arrive, but eventually
of the money he owes for Phoenicium. Harpax is sur- Simia and Phoenicium appear, and they set off with
prised that Pseudolus knows about his business but Pseudolus to find Calidorus. Next, Ballio emerges,
does not want to hand over the money he has when declares his contentment now that Phoenicium is
Pseudolus asks for it. Harpax says he will only give the gone, and expresses his pleasure that Pseudolus has
money to Ballio himself and tells Pseudolus to give him not tricked him. Ballio is soon joined by Simo, who
a letter and token from the soldier. arrives from the forum. Ballio tells Simo that his
After Harpax exits to rest at a local inn, Pseudolus (Simo’s) money is safe and says he will pay him 20
rejoices that he has had the good fortune to encounter minae and give him Phoenicium if Pseudolus tricks
him and that his scheme will be successful. Pseudolus him. When Simo agrees, Ballio announces that the sol-
is soon joined by Calidorus and his friend, Charinus, dier’s slave has just taken the woman away.
472 PSEUDOLUS

Their conversation, however, is cut short by the the pimp. Some critics have found fault with Callipho’s
arrival of the real Harpax. Ballio and Simo eavesdrop as failure to reappear in the play after line 560, despite his
Harpax complains that Syrus (Pseudolus earlier) did desire to continue watching Pseudolus’ games
not go to the inn to get him when Ballio returned. (551–54). Harsh thought Plautus should have com-
Harpax also notes that he has money to give the pimp bined the roles of Callipho and Charinus. At 1,334
for a woman. Upon hearing this, the money-hungry lines, Pseudolus is one of the longest Plautine plays; the
Ballio emerges from his hiding place and approaches first act, at more than 570 lines, testifies to the struc-
Harpax, who declares that he is ready to hand over the tural unwieldiness of the play. In the first act, Ballio
money from the soldier and take possession of Phoeni- spends almost 100 lines organizing his slaves and giv-
cium. Ballio, however, thinks that Harpax has been ing them orders (133–228). Although this emphasis
sent by Pseudolus and after some interrogation con- contributes to the development of Ballio as a character,
fronts him with this change. An angry and confused the audience already know that he is a pimp and there-
Harpax denies that he knows Pseudolus and declares fore expect a specific type of behavior from him. Fur-
that earlier he gave the soldier’s letter and token to Bal- thermore, these lines contribute little to the plot other
lio’s slave, Syrus. This information frightens Ballio, than to inform the audience of Ballio’s birthday and to
who (after questioning Harpax further) realizes that introduce them to Phoenicium. Additionally, the entire
Pseudolus was pretending to be Syrus. Ballio wants third act, with its 100-line scene between Ballio and
Simo to hand over Pseudolus to him for punishment, the cook, could have been omitted with virtually no
but Simo refuses. Ballio and Harpax then exit for the damage to the plot.
forum to settle their business. Simo is left marveling at Despite these shortcomings, the slave, Pseudolus, is
Pseudolus’ trickery and says he will get the 20 minae one of the most delightful characters in ancient com-
that he promised Pseudolus. edy and well illustrates Erich Segal’s principle of rever-
In the play’s final act, an intoxicated Pseudolus sal of social status in Roman comedy. In the course of
enters from a party with his master and Phoenicium. Pseudolus’ efforts to defeat the pimp, this slave
Soon, Simo enters and faces an assault of belches from becomes a wise man, a king, a poet, and a soldier. At
Pseudolus, who also claims the money Simo promised. lines 464–65, Simo compares Pseudolus to SOCRATES.
Simo begs Pseudolus not to make him pay the entire A few lines later (480), Pseudolus tells Simo to regard
sum, but Pseudolus refuses. The play ends with an answer from him as if it were an answer from the
Pseudolus’ inviting Simo to the party from which he ORACLE at DELPHI. The slave Pseudolus even achieves
has just arrived. kingly status in the play. At line 458, Pseudolus stands
before Simo and Callipho in a royal fashion (basilicum),
COMMENTARY and at line 532, Simo says Pseudolus will outdo King
Pseudolus is one of Plautus’ most enjoyable plays, pri- Agathocles if he accomplishes his aims. Pseudolus’ ele-
marily because of its lively title character, who inspired vation to kingly status is matched by the pimp, Ballio,
the character of Pseudolus in the modern musical A who declares that he will have so much grain that the
Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum. With its city will change his name to King Jason (not the JASON
wily slave, destruction of an evil pimp, duped father, who sailed on the ARGO, but a tyrant in THESSALY).
and young man who seeks money to buy his prostitute At line 404, Pseudolus declares that he will turn
sweetheart, Pseudolus is a stereotypical Roman COMEDY. himself into a poet in order to acquire the money his
Duckworth labels Pseudolus a play of “guileful decep- master needs. At line 388, Pseudolus acts as an onstage
tion” and groups it with COMEDY OF ASSES, BACCHIDES, poet by refusing to recount material already mentioned
CASINA, MERCHANT, BRAGGART WARRIOR, HAUNTED HOUSE, in the play to Callipho because “plays are already long
and PERSIAN. enough.” Similarly, at line 720, when Charinus and Cal-
Despite its entertaining qualities, Pseudolus has some lipho are uninformed about the trickery that Pseudolus
problems, including varying sums of money owed to has carried out against the soldier, Pseudolus refuses to
 PULPITUM 473

explain because the spectators already know about the connection between himself and Venus (see
trickery and he does not want them to have to sit APHRODITE), who favored the Trojan side in the war.
through the explanation. At lines 562–73a, Pseudolus Thus, in Pseudolus, we see the ever-changing slave
turns to the audience and tells them that he will carry defeat two towns, those of Ballio and Simo.
out the tricks that he promised and directs them to lis-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ten to a flute player while he collects his thoughts.
Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
The dominant image of Pseudolus, however, is that N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 160.
of a military leader, a characterization that he shares Goldberg, S. M. “Plautus on the Palatine,” Journal of Roman
with several other Plautine slaves (e.g., Epidicus, Studies 88 (1998): 1–20.
Palaestrio in BRAGGART WARRIOR, Chrysalus in Bacchides, Harsh, P. W.. A Handbook of Classical Drama. Stanford, Calif.:
and Tranio in Haunted House). At line 447, Simo calls Stanford University Press, 1944, 365.
Pseudolus his son’s leader (dux), thus making a free Lefevre, E. Plautus’ Pseudolus. Tubingen, Ger.: G. Narr, 1997.
person subordinate to a slave. At lines 586 and 761, Lowe, J. C. B. “Pseudolus’ ‘Intrigue’ against Simo,” Maia 51,
Pseudolus speaks of marshalling his legions. At line no. 1 (1999): 1–15.
384, Pseudolus transforms Ballio into a town to which Segal, E. Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. 2d ed.
London: Oxford University Press, 1987, 99–136.
he wants to lay siege. The meaning of the pimp’s name
Sharrock, A. R. “The Art of Deceit: Pseudolus and the
(derived from the Greek verb ballô, which can be used
Nature of Reading,” Classical Quarterly 46, no. 1 (1996):
in relation to hurling of weapons) is well suited to this 152–74.
military imagery, and at 585 Pseudolus declares that he Wright, J. “The Transformation of Pseudolus,” Transactions of
will “ballistify” (exballistabo) Ballio. A few lines later, the American Philological Association 105 (1975): 403–16.
the house of Simo becomes “the old town” against
which Pseudolus will lead his troops. Not only does PSOPHIS A town northeast of Olympia in south-
Pseudolus plan to sack these two “towns,” he also western Greece. Psophis was the setting for EURIPIDES’
wants to plunder them. On several occasions, Pseudo- Alcmeon at Psophis, which survives only in fragments.
lus speaks of the plunder he will try to acquire (426,
588, 1029, 1138). At line 1198, Ballio describes PTERELAS (PTERELAUS) A mythical king
Harpax as a military rival to Pseudolus as Ballio of the TELEBOANS (or Taphians). According to PLAUTUS’
declares that Harpax (“snatcher”) has reached the AMPHITRUO, AMPHITRYON and his Theban forces battled
plunder before Pseudolus. Unfortunately for Ballio, Pterelas’ forces and Amphitryon killed Pterelas. Other
Pseudolus became the “snatcher” before the arrival of sources say that POSEIDON had given Pterelas a lock of
the real snatcher and at line 1037, when Simia appears golden hair and that as long as Pterelas possessed it he
with Phoenicium, Pseudolus declares himself victor would remain alive. At the arrival of Amphitryon,
over those who have been guarding against him. Not Pterelas’ daughter, Comaetho, fell in love with the
surprisingly, Pseudolus is twice compared to the con- enemy commander, cut off her father’s golden hair, and
summate Greek trickster-warrior, Ulysses (see presented it to Amphitryon as a token of her love.
ODYSSEUS; see also Chrysalus in Bacchides 946–58). At Amphitryon, horrified by her killing her own father,
1063–64, Simo compares Pseudolus’ trickery to put Comaetho to death. With Pterelas dead, his forces
acquire the woman to Ulysses’ theft of the Palladium were no longer able to withstand Amphitryon’s army
(see also Chrysalus in Bacchides 958) during the Trojan and were defeated. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
War, and TROY becomes “Ballio’s citadel” in Simo’s 2.4.5–7; Plautus, Amphitruo 252ff.]
words. Simo makes a similar comparison at 1244 as
Pseudolus is again compared with Ulysses; this time PULPITUM The Latin word (plural: pulpita) for
the trick alluded to seems to be that of the wooden the STAGE.
The Greek equivalent is LOGEION. [ANCIENT
horse (see also Chrysalus in Bacchides 936–44). Inter- SOURCES: Horace, Epistles 1.19.40, 2.1.174, Ars Poetica
estingly and perhaps coincidentally, Ballio makes a 215, 279; Suetonius, Nero 13]
474 PYLADES

PYLADES The son of STROPHIUS and Anaxibia, while plotting against Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. In
the sister of AGAMEMNON, Pylades is famous as the Pacuvius’ play, Pylades pretends to be Orestes so that
steadfast friend of Agamemnon’s son, ORESTES. While his friend will not be killed (see 163–66 Warmington).
Agamemnon was away during the Trojan War, his wife, In SENECA’s AGAMEMNON, Pylades appears as a silent
CLYTEMNESTRA, took AEGISTHUS as a lover. Orestes, who character. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Libation Bearers
posed a threat to Aegisthus, was sent (or smuggled (see ORESTEIA); Apollodorus, Epitome 6.24–28; Euripi-
away, according to some sources) to live with Strophius des, Electra, Iphigenia in Tauris, Orestes; Hyginus, Fables
in the region of PHOCIS. Orestes and his cousin, 119–20, 122; Pausanias, 2.16.7, 2.29.4; Seneca,
Pylades, became inseparable, and when Orestes Agamemnon 941; Sophocles, Electra]
returned to his home to kill his mother, Pylades BIBLIOGRAPHY
accompanied him. After Clytemnestra’s death and dur- Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
ing the FURIES’ pursuit of Orestes, Pylades remained Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
with Orestes. In EURIPIDES’ ORESTES, when the people of Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
ARGOS condemn Orestes to take his own life, Pylades Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
declares that he will commit suicide as well. In Orestes, Harvard University Press, 1936.
Pylades appears more bloodthirsty and desperate than
in any of his other appearances in extant drama, as it is PYLOS A town on the southwestern coast of
he who proposes that, instead of killing themselves, Greece. In 425/424 B.C.E., the Athenians, under the
he, Orestes, and Electra try to kill HELEN. Failing that, command of DEMOSTHENES, captured the town and
Pylades suggests that they burn down the palace and established a garrison there from which they could
kill themselves in the blaze. In Euripides’ IPHIGENIA IN attack the Spartans. In mythology, Pylos is famous as
TAURIS, Pylades travels with Orestes to Tauris to help the home of NESTOR. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
him steal the statue of ARTEMIS. When Orestes and Clouds 185, Knights 55, 76, 355, 703, 846, 1058,
Pylades first arrive in Tauris, Pylades even appears 1167, Lysistrata 104, 1163, Peace 219, 665]
more brave than Orestes, who suggests that they leave
before they are killed (102–3). Pylades, however, PYRILAMPES (CA. 480–420 B.C.E.) The son
reminds him that they are not accustomed to avoid-
of Antiphon, Pyrilampes was the father of a certain
ing danger and that they must be obedient to
Demos (by his first wife) and then another son,
APOLLO’s oracle. In this play, Pylades also expresses
Antiphon (by his second wife). Pyrilampes’ second
his willingness to die at Orestes’ side. At some point
wife, Perictione, had a child, PLATO, by a previous mar-
after the death of Clytemnestra, Pylades married
riage, and so Pyrilampes was the stepfather of the
Orestes’ sister, ELECTRA, by whom he had two chil-
famous philosopher. Pyrilampes was on friendly terms
dren, Medon and Strophius. Although Pylades
with PERICLES, served ATHENS as an ambassador, and in
appears as a character in five extant plays, he speaks
424 B.C.E. may have fought (and been wounded) at the
a total of 182 lines in these plays. In AESCHYLUS’ Liba-
tion Bearers (see ORESTEIA), Pylades has only three battle of Delium. Pyrilampes also gained notoriety for
lines (900–2), but with those three lines he con- a collection of birds that included peacocks, which he
vinces Orestes that he must be obedient to Apollo’s received as a gift from the king of Persia while he was
oracle and kill his mother. on a diplomatic mission there. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Other than in the plays of Aeschylus, SOPHOCLES, and Aristophanes, Wasps 98; Athenaeus, 397c; Plato,
Euripides, in Greek drama Pylades’ name appears only Charmides 158a; Plutarch, Pericles 13.15, On the Sign of
in the title of a play by the Greek Timesitheus (Orestes Socrates 581d]
and Pylades), from which no fragments survive. Among BIBLIOGRAPHY
Roman authors, PACUVIUS wrote a Dulorestes (Orestes MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
the slave) in which Orestes and Pylades are captured Press, 1971, 143–44.
 PYTHON 475

Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 160–61. Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 192.
PYRRHA The daughter of Epimetheus and PAN-
DORA, Pyrrha married her cousin, DEUCALION. After sur- PYTHANGELUS A Greek tragic poet active
viving a flood that destroyed the world, she and her apparently during the last decade of the fifth century
husband helped repopulate the Earth by throwing B.C.E. ARISTOPHANES mentions his name in a mildly con-
stones behind their backs. These stones changed into temptuous way at FROGS 87, but nothing else is known
human beings. Deucalion and Pyrrha had two sons, of this playwright.
Amphictyon and Hellen, and a daughter, Protogenia.
The Greek comic poets Diphilus (fragment 68 Kock)
and Epicharmus (fragments 114–18 Kaibel) each
PYTHIA The title given to APOLLO’s priestess at
DELPHI. She appears as a character in AESCHYLUS’
wrote a play entitled Pyrrha; the surviving fragments
Eumenides (see ORESTEIA) and EURIPIDES’ ION.
are uninformative about their content. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.7.2; Hyginus, Fables
153; Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.313–415; Seneca, Trojan PYTHO Another name for the town of DELPHI or
Women 1038] the ORACLE at Delphi.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet- PYTHON A giant serpent that the young APOLLO
arum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann, killed when he established himself as master of DELPHI.
1899. Tradition says that Apollo founded the Pythian Games
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: to celebrate his defeat of the serpent. Some ancient
Teubner, 1884. sources said Pytho, a name sometimes given to Delphi,
was derived from a Greek verb meaning “to rot”
PYRRHANDER An unknown Greek. Some because Python’s body was left to rot there. [ANCIENT
modern scholars think Pyrrhander may have been SOURCES: Apollodorus, 1.4.1; Hyginus, Fables 140;
another name for CLEON, but no proof of this exists. Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.438, 460; Seneca, Hercules
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 901] Oetaeus 94, Medea 700]
 C RD
RED SEA In the fifth century B.C.E. the Greeks URANUS and EARTH (Gaia) and both the sister and the
called the Indian Ocean by this name. [ANCIENT wife of Uranus. By Uranus, Rhea became the mother of
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 145, Knights 1088; ZEUS, POSEIDON, HADES, HESTIA, HERA, and DEMETER.
Herodotus, 1.202.4] When Uranus swallowed Rhea’s first five children,
Rhea, upon giving birth to Zeus, wrapped a stone in
REVERSAL See PERIPETEIA. swaddling clothes and gave that to Uranus; she then
had Zeus taken away to safety on the island of CRETE.
RHADAMANTHYS The son of ZEUS and
Rhea is often called the Great Mother (Latin: Magna
EUROPA and the brother of MINOS and Sarpedon,
Mater), and her worship involved frenzied ritual.
Rhadamanthys grew up on the island of CRETE, had a
Rhea’s priests were castrated. Her worship often took
son named Gortys, and was a lawgiver for the people of
place on mountaintops and the rituals associated with
the island. Later, he left Crete, went to BOEOTIA, and
married ALCMENA after AMPHITRYON died. They lived in DIONYSUS are often said to have been derived from
the town of Ocaleae. After Rhadamanthys’ death, he those of Rhea. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library
became a judge in the UNDERWORLD because of the jus- 1.1.3–7, 3.5.1; Hesiod, Theogony 135, 453–506;
tice and discretion that he exhibited during his lifetime. Homer, Iliad 14.201–4; Pausanias, 5.7.6, 8.8.2–3,
EURIPIDES wrote a Rhadamanthys (fragments 658–60 8.36.2–3; Seneca, Hippolytus 1136]
Nauck), but the 12 lines that survive tell us nothing
about the play’s plot. Fragment 658 contains a reference RHESUS The son of an unnamed MUSE and
to the island of EUBOEA, and Strabo recalls a line from Eioneus, Rhesus was a Thracian king who went to
HOMER’s Odyssey (7.324) that mentions that Rhadaman- TROY in the 10th year of the war as an ally of the Tro-
thys went to talk to TITYUS on Euboea. [ANCIENT jan forces. According to one prophecy, the Trojans
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.4.11, 3.1.1, 3.1.2; Pau- would win the war if Rhesus’ horses tasted Trojan food
sanias, 8.53.4–5; Plato, Laws 948b–c; Strabo, 9.3.14] first. On the day that Rhesus arrived at Troy, the Greeks
BIBLIOGRAPHY ODYSSEUS and DIOMEDES made a nighttime raid on the
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, Greek camp, killed Rhesus, and led away his horses. As
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. a result, the horses first were fed by the Greeks, who
thus ensured that they would win the war. Rhesus
RHEA Also known as Cybele (or Ops among the appears briefly as a character in EURIPIDES’ RHESUS.
Romans), the goddess Rhea was the daughter of Although the play bears Rhesus’ name, he speaks only

476
 RHESUS 477

61 lines. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Rhesus; Homer, means “trickery”) volunteers to undertake the mission
Iliad 10; Seneca, Agamemnon 216, Trojan Women 8] in exchange for the horses of ACHILLES. After Hector
agrees, Dolon announces that he will return to his
RHESUS EURIPIDES? (CA. 450? B.C.E.) Rhe- home to fetch a wolf skin, with which he will cover
sus is one of the more challenging plays in Greek himself during his mission. As Dolon departs, he
drama because the drama’s authorship and date are boasts that he will return with the head of ODYSSEUS.
uncertain. Tradition assigns the play to EURIPIDES, but After Dolon’s exit, the chorus pray to APOLLO to aid
many modern scholars doubt this, primarily because Dolon’s mission and hope that Dolon will kill several
they think that its quality is not worthy of Euripides. of the leading Greeks. After the chorus’ song, a shep-
Those who believe EURIPIDES did write the play attrib- herd enters and informs Hector that Rhesus, a Thra-
ute its lack of quality to its being an early effort by cian ally of the Trojans’, has just arrived at Troy. The
playwright, and thus assign it to the early years of his shepherd notes especially the magnificent horses that
career. Those who believe Euripides did not write the draw Rhesus’ chariot. Hector, however, suggests that
play date it to the fourth century B.C.E. the Trojans have no need of Rhesus’ help, but the cho-
Although TROY is not an unusual setting for classical rus and the shepherd urge Hector not to reject it. After
TRAGEDY, the events of this play occur during the night. Hector agrees, the chorus sing a song of welcome to
Nighttime action may have presented a slight challenge Rhesus and pray that he will destroy Achilles. As the
for the playwright and the audience, because Greek chorus’ song concludes, Rhesus himself enters and is
dramas were performed in outdoor theaters during the met by Hector, who chastises him for not aiding the
day. The play’s events are drawn from the 10th book of Trojans earlier in the war. Rhesus apologizes for not
HOMER’s Iliad. In this book, set in the 10th year of the helping sooner but notes that an attack on his own
Trojan War, the Thracian hero RHESUS has arrived as an kingdom prevented him from traveling to Troy. Rhe-
ally of the Trojans. sus promises that he will now destroy the Greeks.
Rhesus opens near the tent of the Trojan warrior Because it is night, Hector urges Rhesus to make camp
HECTOR, who is camped with the rest of the Trojan and rest. Before he and Rhesus exit, Hector tells the
army on the plain outside their city. The audience must chorus to be on the lookout for Dolon. The chorus
also imagine that the Greek army is camped near the take up the watch, but after some time they leave to
Trojan seashore. If Euripides did write the play, its lack summon the Lycians, who are supposed to take up the
of a prologue would be unique for a Euripidean play, next watch. The departure of the chorus from the
and some scholars have thought that the prologue was stage in the middle of a play occurs only a few times
lost. In Rhesus, the play’s opening lines are spoken by in Greek tragedy.
the CHORUS, who consist of Trojan soldiers. They have After the chorus’ departure, the Greeks ODYSSEUS
gone to Hector’s tent to urge him to prepare the sleep- and DIOMEDES enter. As they make their way to the Tro-
ing army for battle. These soldiers have noticed jans’ camp, their conversation indicates that they have
numerous fires throughout the Greek camp and worry encountered and killed Dolon, who gave them the
that the Greeks may be preparing something unusual. watchword required to enter the Trojan camp. As they
Hector, however, thinks that the Greeks are preparing search for the camp and consider whether they should
to leave Troy and return to Greece. attack or return to their own camp, they are met by the
Hector is soon joined by AENEAS, DOLON, and goddess ATHENA, who informs them that the Greeks
unnamed Trojan warriors. Hector tells Aeneas to arm will be victorious in the war provided that they kill
for an attack on the Greeks, but Aeneas is skeptical that Rhesus before dawn. Athena directs them to the place
the Greeks are leaving Troy. Aeneas suggests that they where Rhesus is camped and suggests that they capture
send someone to spy the Greek camp and learn their his magnificent horses. As the two Greeks converse
true intent. Hector approves of this suggestion, and with Athena, the Trojan Alexander (see PARIS)
Dolon (whose name is derived from a Greek word that approaches Hector’s tent. Athena directs Odysseus and
478 RHESUS

Diomedes to pursue Rhesus while she, disguising her- that he had any responsibility in Rhesus’ death and
self as APHRODITE, deals with Alexander. states that he is prepared to conduct a magnificent
After Odysseus and Diomedes’ exit, Athena informs funeral for Rhesus. Before the Muse departs, she
Alexander of the arrival of Rhesus as an ally for the Tro- laments that she will not see her son again and predicts
jans and tells him that Hector has gone to help him set- that THETIS’ son, ACHILLES, will die soon. As the Sun
tle his encampment. After Alexander exits, Athena tells rises, the play reaches its conclusion as the chorus and
Odysseus and Diomedes, who have by now killed Rhe- Hector prepare to go to battle with the Greeks.
sus and captured his horses, to take care to avoid the
Trojans, who are pursuing them. Next, Odysseus enters COMMENTARY
with the chorus of Trojans pursuing and threatening to Besides the debate about over the play’s authorship and
kill him. When Odysseus gives the Trojans the watch- date, Rhesus is of interest because it is the only surviv-
word, however, they end the pursuit. Odysseus then ing play derived from events in HOMER’s Iliad. The 10th
creeps away from the Trojan chorus, who are left won- book of this epic was the model on which the author
dering who the man was and what scheme Odysseus of Rhesus drew. Rhesus does not change the basic story
might be contriving. The chorus also worry that Hec- (the Greek raid on the Trojan camp, the killing of Rhe-
tor will blame them for what has happened. sus, and the capture of his horses), but the playwright
As the chorus ponder these events, Rhesus’ does choose different focal points for his version. First,
wounded charioteer enters, lamenting the loss of Rhe- in contrast to Homer, the playwright focuses more on
sus. The charioteer describes how Rhesus was killed, Hector and his poor decisions as a military com-
his horses were taken, and he, the charioteer, was mander. Additionally, Homer gives much more atten-
wounded. The charioteer also voices his suspicion that tion (about 20 percent of Book 10) to Dolon than the
the Trojans themselves were responsible for the attack. playwright does. Rhesus appears only briefly in the
At this point, Hector enters and blames the Trojan cho- play; he does not speak in Iliad 10 and his mother does
rus for Rhesus’ misfortune. Both the chorus and Rhe- not appear as a character.
sus’ charioteer deny the charge, however, and the Although the Homeric elements of Rhesus are note-
charioteer goes so far as to blame Rhesus’ death on Hec- worthy, one should observe that the tone of the play is
tor himself. Hector responds correctly that Odysseus is not especially tragic. Burnett has discussed a number
responsible for the deed. Because the charioteer of humorous touches in Rhesus. The virgin goddess
remains distraught, Hector takes him to stay at his own Athena’s disguising of her voice as that of the love god-
house in the city and gives orders that those killed by dess Aphrodite surely would have prompted some
the Greeks be buried. smiles in the audience. Most of the Trojans and their
After the exit of Hector and the charioteer, the cho- allies seem completely inept. Hector has his amusing
rus lament Troy’s fortune. Their lamentation is inter- moments as he incorrectly assesses the Greeks’ inten-
rupted, however, by the appearance of the Muse, who tions at the first of the play and incorrectly interprets
is Rhesus’ mother. She laments her son’s death and Rhesus’ purpose on his arrival. Dolon’s disguising him-
curses Odysseus and Diomedes for their actions. The self as a wolf may have been humorous as well,
Muse recalls Rhesus’ infancy and military prowess in because in Homer Dolon wears the wolf’s skin only on
Thrace. Though she was aware of Rhesus’ fate, she did his head. Dolon boasts that he will kill Odysseus, but
not warn him against going to Troy. The Muse goes on he fails and is killed.
to blame Athena for Rhesus’ death and threatens not to Rhesus, decked in gold armor and hymned as if he
inspire anyone else in Athena’s favorite city, ATHENS. were a god, has been described as a BRAGGART WARRIOR
Upon hearing the Muse’s speech, the chorus note that by several scholars, and, as does Dolon, Rhesus prom-
Hector and Rhesus’ charioteer had falsely accused ises to cause the destruction of the Greeks, but he too
them of plotting Rhesus’ death. Hector, who has also is killed. The fact that Rhesus is a Thracian also may
heard the Muse, defends himself against the charge contribute to the humor of his characterization, if we
 ROME 479

compare him to the treacherous yet gullible barbarian Olympian scheme for the war and rescued Greece from
POLYMESTOR in Euripides’ HECABE. The GORGON on Rhe- a Thracian invasion, [but also] repulsed an exotic reli-
sus’ shield (306) may carry both humorous and ironic gion that rivaled accepted Greek beliefs.”
significance. In ACHARNIANS, ARISTOPHANES often mocks
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the warrior LAMACHUS for the Gorgon on his shield; yet,
Bond, R. S. “Homeric Echoes in Rhesus,” American Journal of
as the shepherd in Rhesus points out, Athena also has a Philology 117 (1996): 255–73.
Gorgon on her shield. In this play, only the truly divine Burnett, A. P. “Rhesus: Are Smiles Allowed?” In Directions in
bearer of the Gorgon will survive. Euripidean Criticism: A Collection of Essays. Edited by P.
The chorus of Rhesus are simpletons. When they Burian. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1985,
become sleepy (555–56), they leave their assigned 13–51.
posts and go off to find their replacements, an action Kitto, H. D. F. “The Rhesus and Related Matters,” Yale Classi-
that allows the Greeks to enter the camp and kill Rhe- cal Studies 25 (1977): 317–50.
sus. Later, of course, when threatened with punish- Ritchie, W. The Authenticity of the Rhesus of Euripides. Cam-
ment from Hector, they swear that they have not fallen bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964.
Walton, J. M. “Playing in the Dark: Masks and Euripides’
asleep (824–28). The chase scene between Odysseus
Rhesus,” Helios 27 no. 2 (2000): 137–47.
and the Trojan chorus is also amusing as they fail to
catch Odysseus and then worry that Hector will blame
them for Rhesus’ death. The entrance of the chorus in RHIPAE Mythical mountains (also called
their pursuit of Odysseus would also have been Rhipaean) that were located far to the north of Greece
humorous, as their opening lines contain a chant that and Italy. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Sophocles, Oedipus at
sounds rather ludicrous. At line 675, the pursuing Colonus 1248]
chorus cries out, “Strike, strike, strike, strike, wound,
wound” (bale, bale, bale, bale, thene, thene). The lines RHODOPE A high Thracian mountain range.
could be modeled on the FURIES’ pursuit of ORESTES at DIONYSUS, ORPHEUS, and DIOMEDES (whom HERACLES
Eumenides 130 (see ORESTEIA): “Seize, seize, seize, seize” killed) were sometimes associated with this range.
(labe, labe, labe, labe). The lines have a closer parallel in [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 144, 1032,
COMEDY at ACHARNIANS 281–82 as the chorus pursue 1050, 1538]
DICAEOPOLIS: “Strike, strike, strike, strike, hit, hit the
wicked man” (balle, balle, balle, balle, paie, paie ton ROMAN GAMES Every September the Romans
miaron). Although the chorus do not catch Odysseus, honored Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Jupiter the Best
they set an ambush for and capture one of their own and Greatest (see ZEUS). The games were arranged by
allies, Rhesus’ charioteer (730–37). the curule aediles and in 364 B.C.E. dramatic competi-
Although the appearance of the Muse at the play’s tion was added to the existing program of events that
conclusion does belong to the realm of tragedy, Burnett took place in the circus, especially chariot racing. Dra-
takes the Muse’s threats “as mean and ugly, as Dolon mas were performed on four days of the festival by 214
is.” Furthermore, Burnett argues that the Muse’s threats B.C.E. TERENCE’s PHORMIO in 161 B.C.E. and the third
against Athens are actually amusing as the Muse production of MOTHER-IN-LAW took place at these
declares she will deprive Athens of “the supply of mys- games. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Livy, 24.43]
tics that have been coming down from Thrace.” Thus,
Burnett reasons that “by bringing about the death of ROME Located on the Tiber River near the western
Rhesus, the plot of this play has defeated an influx into coast of Italy, Rome has been one of the world’s most
Athens of a Thracian religion identified with the ora- important and powerful cities for more than 2,000
cles of Musaeus, the mysteries of Orpheus, and the years. According to tradition, Rome was founded in
worship of Bacchus-Zagreus.” Burnett further remarks 753 B.C.E., but the site had been inhabited as early as
that the killing of Rhesus has “not only supported the the Bronze Age. The government of Rome had three
480 THE ROPE

phases: Until 509 kings ruled Rome; after their expul- Shelton, J. As the Romans Did: A Source Book in Roman Social
sion a republican form of government developed; History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
finally, in the last half of the first century B.C.E., Rome
was ruled by emperors. By the middle of the second THE ROPE (Latin: RUDENS) PLAUTUS
century B.C.E., Rome had become the unrivaled power (CA. 189 B.C.E.) At line 32, we learn that the origi-
in the Mediterranean region. nal Greek play was authored by DIPHILUS. The title of
As Roman power expanded, the culture of those Plautus’ Greek model is not certain; it may have been
conquered by Rome began to influence the con- Pera. The play’s setting, the coast of northern African,
querors. Greek culture, in particular, had a powerful near Cyrene, before a temple of Venus (see APHRODITE)
impacts. One aspect of Greek culture, literature, began and the cottage of Daemones (“guardian spirit”), an
to take hold in Rome in the middle of the third century exile from ATHENS, is surely the most exotic among
B.C.E. Tradition maintains that in 240, a Greek COMEDY extant examples of Roman comedy. The play is slightly
and a TRAGEDY were translated into Latin. Most of sur- unusual for new comedy in that a divinity, Arcturus,
viving Latin drama appeared in the two centuries that delivers the PROLOGUE. In Plautus, this occurs also in
followed, as writers such as ENNIUS, CAECILIUS, PLAU- AMPHITRUO (Mercury; see HERMES), POT OF GOLD (the
TUS, TERENCE, NAEVIUS, PACUVIUS, and ACCIUS began to Lar), and THREE-DOLLAR DAY (Luxury and her daughter,
adapt Greek plays for Roman audiences. Although Poverty). Arcturus opens by discussing the power of
only FRAGMENTS remain from most of these authors, 26 Jupiter (see ZEUS) and especially his relationship with
complete comedies from Plautus and Terence are people who are good and evil. Arcturus informs the
extant. Additionally, 10 tragedies (all attributed to audience that Daemones’ daughter was abducted and
SENECA) that were written about the middle of the first sold to a PIMP, Labrax (“ravenous seafish”), who trans-
century C.E. survive. Although Roman audiences ported her to Cyrene. A young Athenian, Plesidippus,
enjoyed the productions of such authors, one should saw the young woman, fell in love with her, and
note that the earliest theaters in Rome were temporary arranged with Labrax to buy her. Labrax, however, did
structures. The first permanant stone theater in Rome not honor his agreement, and when a certain Sicilian,
was not built until the 50s B.C.E. Charmides, who was visiting Labrax, heard about the
Along with adaptations of Greek tragedy and comedy woman, he promised Labrax that he could make a lot
for Roman audiences, the Romans enjoyed MIME, PAN- of money and persuaded him to go to SICILY. The pimp,
TOMIME, and other types of theatrical productions. FAB- after gathering his possessions and his women, then set
ULA ATELLANA, said to have originated in the Italian town sail for Sicily. When Arcturus saw Labrax sailing away,
of Atella, appears to have revolved around the humor- the divinity caused a storm to arise and wreck the ship.
ous situations of everyday life in “small-town” central Labrax, Charmides, and the women swim to shore but
Italy. FABULAE PRAETEXTAE were plays written in Latin that take the stage at different times.
dramatized historical events (e.g., OCTAVIA). FABULAE As the first act opens, Daemones’ slave, Sceparnio,
TOGATAE were comedies written in Latin in which the leaves the cottage to inspect the damage done by the
characters dressed in Roman clothing (i.e., the toga). storm. Next, Plesidippus and some companions enter
in search of the temple of Venus (see APHRODITE),
BIBLIOGRAPHY where Labrax had told Plesidippus he was going to
Beare, W. The Roman Stage. London: Methuen, 1950.
offer a sacrifice before he set sail for Sicily. Plesidippus
Brooks, R. A. Ennius and Roman Tragedy. New York: Arno
Press, 1981.
and his party are soon met by Daemones. Plesidippus
Duckworth, G. E. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton, asks Daemones whether he has seen Labrax, but Dae-
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952. mones says he has not. Soon, Daemones sees Labrax,
Kenney, E. J., ed. The Cambridge History of Classical Litera- Charmides, and two women. The exit of Daemones
ture. Vol. 2, Latin Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- and Sceparnio is followed by the entrance of the ship-
versity Press, 1982. wrecked Palaestra (“wrestling ground”), who laments
 THE ROPE 481

her fate. Palaestra is soon joined by Ampelisca, who is Charmides tries to get some hospitality from Sceparnio;
in equally poor condition. As they make their way to the gruff slave will give him a covering but refuses to
Venus’ shrine, Ptolemocratia, a priestess of Venus, allow him into his house. When Sceparnio goes into his
leaves the temple. The two women see Ptolemocratia house, Charmides enters the temple to find out what
and beg her for help. The priestess promises to help Labrax is doing.
them and accompanies them into the temple. The next act opens with Daemones’ reporting a
The second act begins with the arrival of a group of dream that he had had the previous night. In his
fishermen, who approach Venus’ temple in the hope dream, Daemones saw a monkey, representing Labrax,
that the goddess will favor their efforts to catch fish. trying to pull some swallows, representing Ampelisca
Next, Plesidippus’ slave, Trachalio, enters in search of and Palaestra, out of a nest. When the monkey failed,
his master. Trachalio asks the fishermen about Plesidip- it asked Daemones for a ladder, but Daemones refused
pus, but they have no information. After the fishermen to contribute to the injury of the birds. The angry
exit, Trachalio expresses his belief that Labrax has left monkey then threatened Daemones and took him to
the country. Upon seeing Ampelisca emerge from the court, but Daemones managed to grab the monkey and
temple, Trachalio approaches her. Ampelisca recognizes put the animal in chains. Daemones does not under-
Trachalio as Plesidippus’ servant, tells him about the stand the meaning of his dream; that soon changes
shipwreck, and relates how Venus’ priestess had helped when Plesidippus’ slave, Trachalio, rushes from the
them. She also informs him about Labrax’s attempt to temple and calls upon the people of Cyrene for help,
sail for Sicily and states the belief that Labrax probably as Labrax is trying to drag Ampelisca and Palaestra
drowned. When Trachalio asks to see Palaestra, from Venus’ statue. Hearing this, Daemones calls for
Ampelisca tells him that she is inside the temple and is additional servants and enters the temple. Soon,
upset because Labrax took from her a box with some Ampelisca and Palaestra emerge from the temple and
items that would have helped her identify her long-lost tell of Labrax’s actions. Trachalio approaches them and
parents. Ampelisca presumes that the box, which was tries to offer comfort, seating the young women at an
aboard the ship, was lost at sea. After Trachalio enters altar and promising to defend them. Next, Daemones
the temple, Ampelisca approaches Daemones’ house emerges from the temple with Labrax, whom his ser-
and asks for water. Sceparnio answers the door and vants are holding. Labrax complains that the women
tries to fondle the attractive stranger. Ampelisca fights belong to him, but Daemones does not recognize his
Sceparnio off and finally persuades him to take the claim. When Trachalio points out that the women were
pitcher she carries and go inside to fill it with water. freeborn and that Palaestra was born in Athens, Dae-
After Sceparnio leaves, Ampelisca sees that Labrax is mones notes that he is also from Athens and thinks
approaching and rushes off to the temple to inform that Palaestra would be about the same age as the
Palaestra. When Sceparnio returns, he finds that three-year-old daughter he had lost a number of years
Ampelisca is gone. Then he also goes to the temple to earlier. Before this thought goes any further, Labrax
return the pitcher to Ptolemocratia. After Sceparnio’s continues to threaten violence against the women and
departure, Labrax enters with Charmides. Labrax Trachalio exits to retrieve his master, Plesidippus. After
laments that he attempted the voyage to Sicily and Trachalio’s departure, Labrax and Daemones continue
looks for Palaestra and Ampelisca. Charmides suspects to argue over the women. Daemones reenters his house
that the women have drowned. Labrax worries that Ple- but leaves two of his slaves to guard Labrax. Soon, Ple-
sidippus will cause him trouble if he sees him. Next sidippus and Trachalio enter. When Plesidippus sees
Sceparnio emerges from Venus’ temple and reports that Labrax, he tells Trachalio to go to the harbor and fetch
he saw Ampelisca and Palaestra clinging to Venus’ his friends so that they can help Plesidippus punish
statue. Labrax overhears Sceparnio and realizes that the Labrax. Then Plesidippus puts a rope around Labrax’s
two women are his women. Then Labrax enters the neck and starts to haul him off to court. Labrax calls
temple to retrieve the women. During Labrax’s absence, for help, but even Charmides rejects him.
482 THE ROPE

The fourth act opens with Daemones leaving his and complains to Daemones about the loss of the
house and announcing that Ampelisca and Palaestra trunk. Daemones sermonizes on greed but does not
are safe inside. He wonders where his servant, Gripus, give in to Gripus’ hopes of having the trunk’s contents.
is, as Gripus had left for his fishing trip some time ear- After Gripus and Daemones exit, Plesidippus and Tra-
lier. After Daemones goes back inside to lunch, Gripus chalio enter, discuss the impending marriage of Ple-
arrives, carrying a trunk that he caught while fishing. sidippus and Palaestra, and enter Daemones’ house.
Gripus imagines the great riches that the trunk must In the play’s final act, Labrax enters, complains
contain and plans to buy his freedom with the money. about the loss of Palaestra, and sets out for Venus’
As Gripus starts to drag the trunk away, Trachalio sees temple to find Ampelisca. Before Labrax exits, he
him; recognizes the trunk as property of his master, hears Gripus, who is still complaining about the
Plesidippus; and begins negotiating with Gripus about trunk. Labrax, who claims the trunk as his property,
the trunk. Gripus does not want to give up the trunk, approaches Gripus and tells him about the trunk that
and the negotiation deteriorates into a physical battle. he lost. Gripus then bargains with Labrax for a
Finally, Trachalio proposes that they submit their argu- reward for telling him where the trunk is. When the
ment to Daemones for arbitration. Trachalio does not two agree on a price, Gripus leaves to retrieve the
realize that Daemones is Gripus’ master, so Gripus trunk from Daemones’ house. After Gripus leaves,
agrees to the arbitration because he expects Daemones Labrax expresses his intent to give him no money.
will rule in his favor. Soon Daemones enters, followed by Gripus with the
Next, Daemones emerges from his house with trunk, which Labrax immediately claims as his own.
Ampelisca and Palaestra. He wants to help them but Daemones also reveals that Palaestra, it has turned
fears the wrath of his wife. Before this matter can pro- out, is his daughter. When Labrax receives the trunk,
ceed further, Gripus approaches Daemones and greets he refuses to pay Gripus the agreed-upon sum. After
him. When Trachalio realizes that Gripus is Daemones’ some argument, Labrax suggests that they choose an
slave and tells him about the trunk, Trachalio tells Dae- arbitrator for their quarrel. When Daemones serves as
mones that inside the trunk is a box that belonged to arbitrator, Labrax admits he promised money to Gri-
Ampelisca. Trachalio tells Gripus that he will renounce pus. Eventually, Daemones persuades Labrax to agree
any claim to anything else in the trunk, that he merely to allow half the money he promised Gripus to be
wants Ampelisca’s box, and he asks that Ampelisca and used to buy Ampelisca, and the other half to be given
Palaestra be allowed to identify the trunk. Gripus to Daemones himself to buy Gripus’ freedom. After
protests, but eventually the women are called over, and Labrax and Daemones conclude their agreement, Gri-
they immediately identify the trunk. Palaestra then pus still wants his money, but Daemones says he has
proceeds to identify the contents of the box in ques- the money and makes Gripus excuse Labrax’s oath. As
tion. One of the items is a little gold sword inscribed the play ends, Gripus ponders hanging himself, while
with the names of Daemones and his wife, Daedalis. At Daemones invites the pimp and Gripus to dine with
this, Daemones realizes that Palaestra is his daughter, him.
and Gripus curses his luck because he was seen find-
ing the trunk. After the reunion of Palaestra, Dae- COMMENTARY
mones, and Daedalis, Daemones emerges from the Plautus’ Rope has long been admired as one of the
house, expresses his delight at finding his daughter, author’s best plays and one of his most unique. The
and announces his plan to marry her to Plesidippus. buildings that the audience must imagine are also
Soon Trachalio enters and Daemones sends him out to unusual. Instead of a house or houses that belong to
find Plesidippus. Trachalio agrees and persuades Dae- elderly gentlemen on an urban street, the setting of
mones to arrange for Plesidippus to set him free and Rope is a seaside cottage and a shrine to Venus. The
marry him to Ampelisca once he is freed. After the play is also unusual in that it contains a remnant of the
departure of Trachalio, Gripus emerges from the house original Greek chorus in the song of the fisherman at
 THE ROPE 483

290–305. As in CASKET COMEDY, the recognition as a substitute divinity. As Arcturus points out in the
depends on items contained in a certain box. prologue, Jupiter employs him and other divinities to
With its rather exotic setting on the northern coast watch over the deeds of mortals. Arcturus ensures the
of Africa and rescue from the perils of the sea, Plautus’ audience that the gods will punish people who behave
Rope is in some ways reminiscent of the story of in evil ways. Accordingly, when Arcturus saw the pimp
PERSEUS and DANAE, who were cast out to sea by ACRI- trying to make away with the women, he raised a
SIUS, washed ashore on the island of SERIPHUS, and res- storm that wrecked the pimp’s ship but allowed the
cued by a fisherman named DICTYS (“net”). Many years women to reach safety on the shore.
later, the king of Seriphus, Polydectes, tried to force The storm that Arcturus claims to have raised is
Danae to marry him; she took refuge at an altar and attributed to Neptune elsewhere in the play, and more
was eventually rescued by her son, Perseus, who than half the occurrences of Neptune’s name in Plau-
turned Polydectes to stone by showing him the head of tus’ plays appear in Rope. When asked what happened
MEDUSA. We may also compare Rope with EURIPIDES’ to the pimp, Ampelisca answers that he died of drink-
HELEN. Just as Helen was transported by the gods to ing and that Neptune gave him a lot to drink during
Egypt and oppressed by King THEOCLYMENUS, Palaestra the storm the previous night (361–62). When Labrax
is rescued by the god Arcturus, arrives in northern first enters, having washed ashore at last, he declares
Africa, and is then beseiged by the pimp Labrax. Helen that anyone who wants to end up poor and miserable
takes refuge at the tomb of Theoclymenus’ father, PRO- should entrust himself to Neptune (485–86). At 527,
TEUS; Palaestra takes refuge from Labrax in the temple Labrax shivers because of the cold bath that Neptune
of Venus. Eventually, Palaestra is protected from the has given him, and at 588 Labrax’s friend, Charmides,
pimp by Daemones, who she does not realize is her complains about the dousing that Neptune gave them
father. Whereas Helen is ultimately rescued by her during the night.
own wits and some help from MENELAUS, who has Neptune has taken away everything that Labrax had
arrived in Egypt after being shipwrecked, Palaestra is and has entrusted Labrax’s goods to others; the trunk
ultimately saved through the discovery of the trunk that contained the tokens has also been preserved by
that washes ashore and her ability to identify its con- Neptune, and after discovering it, Gripus praises Nep-
tents. The contents of the trunk lead to the discovery tune as his patron (906). The women are preserved by
that Daemones is Palaestra’s father. Just as the god-res- Neptune and enter Venus’ temple, where they will
cued Helen is eventually reunited with her husband, remain safe. Just as the name of Neptune appears more
Menelaus, the reunion of Daemones and Palaestra will often in Rope than in any other extant Roman COMEDY
lead to her marriage to Plesidippus, who had actually (10 times), likewise Rope also contains more references
arranged to purchase her from the pimp before the to Venus than any other Roman comedy (50 times: 15
shipwreck. Finally, just as Helen’s divine brothers more than in the second, Plautus’ Carthaginian). Thus,
appear at the end of the play to prevent Theoclymenus whereas Neptune ruins Labrax and preserves the
from pursuing Helen and Menelaus after their escape women at sea, Venus shelters the women on land.
from Egypt, Palaestra’s father, Daemones, acts as a Indeed, the plight of the women invites some compar-
divine rescuer and achieves a reconciliation with the ison to Venus’ birth. Venus was born from the sea after
pimp at the play’s conclusion. an act of violence (the castration of URANUS) and
Despite its exotic setting, the main focus of Rope, as stepped ashore safely on the island of Cyprus. In Rope,
of Carthaginian and Persian, is the defeat of an evil the pimp’s violent attempt to carry the women off to
pimp. Rope differs, however, in that in this play the Sicily results in their being cast into the sea and then
pimp is not opposed by a wily slave (comparable to stepping ashore near Cyrene and taking refuge in
Milphio in Carthaginian or Toxilus in Persian), but by Venus’ temple. Interestingly, when Sceparnio first sees
the gods themselves (especially Arcturus, Neptune [see Ampelisca, he compares her to Venus (420–21). Most
POSEIDON], and Venus) and Daemones, who functions importantly, however, at line 704, Trachalio compares
484 RUDENS

the birth of Venus to the plight of Ampelisca and After Labrax, who has lost his case, returns from
Palaestra. court, the pimp encounters Gripus and strikes a deal to
When Labrax learns that his women are in Venus’ reward him in exchange for the trunk. Ironically, Gri-
temple, he declares that he will burst into the temple pus makes Labrax swear to uphold his agreement by
(570). This violence prompts Trachalio to call for help. swearing to Venus, the very divinity whom Gripus has
When Daemones responds (true to the meaning of his so opposed during the play. Labrax even prays that if he
name, “guardian spirit”), Trachilo reports that Venus’ violates his oath, Venus will cause all pimps to be mis-
priestess has been badly treated and that the women erable (1348–49). Of course, as soon as Gripus exits to
are clinging to Venus’ statue (644–48). Upon hearing retrieve the trunk, Labrax declares that he will not pay
this, Daemones enters the temple with two of his burly Gripus anything. Fortunately for Gripus, the guardian
slaves and drives Labrax out. After Labrax is expelled spirit Daemones arbitrates the dispute between Gripus
from the temple, Trachalio promises to defend the and Labrax and arranges for Gripus to be set free. Dae-
women with the aid of Venus (693). In turn, Palaestra mones then forces Gripus to release Labrax from his
prays to Venus for protection (694). When Daemones oath and invites both the evil pimp and Gripus to din-
declares that he will defend the women, Labrax shows ner. Although the play ends happily, during most of the
his opposition to Venus by threatening to burn Venus’ action Labrax has been buffeted severely by Neptune,
temple because Vulcan (fire) is the enemy of Venus Venus, and the guardian spirit Daemones.
(761). Labrax’s effort to appropriate the weapon of BIBLIOGRAPHY
Vulcan, however, is thwarted by Daemones. Still, Henderson, M. M. “Structural Anomaly in Plautus’ Rudens,”
Labrax shows his opposition to the gods again when he Akroterion 22 (1977): 8–14.
declares that he will drag the women away from the Konstan, D. “Rudens: City-State Utopia.” In Roman Comedy.
altar by the hair even if Venus and Jupiter are unwill- Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983, 73–95.
Leach, E. W. “Plautus’ Rudens: Venus Born from a Shell,” Texas
ing (783). Once again, the guardian spirit Daemones
Studies in Literature & Language 15 (1974): 915–31.
arranges to protect them with two men whom Labrax
Lefèvre, E. Diphilos und Plautus: Der Rudens und sein Original.
compares to Hercules (822). The opposition that Wiesbaden, Ger.: Steiner, 1984.
Labrax faces from heaven’s representatives on Earth Lowe, J. C. B. “Plautus’ Choruses,” Rheinisches Museum 133
intensifies when Plesidippus learns that Labrax has (1990): 274–97.
tried to drag his beloved from Venus’ temple. Thus,
Plesidippus in turn drags Labrax off to court. RUDENS See ROPE.
 C SD
SABAZIUS A god worshiped especially in the effect, and in the Greek theater victims were sacrificed
region of PHRYGIA, who was known in ATHENS in before the performances of plays to purify the theater.
ARISTOPHANES’ day. In a play of Aristophanes that no Offerings could consist of an animal (e.g., sheep or
longer survives, perhaps Seasons, Sabazius “and other bulls), some sort of food, or drink (see LIBATION). When
foreign gods are tried and expelled from the state” making a sacrifice, often only part of the offering
(MacDowell). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds would go to the divinity or spirit, and those making
873–75, Lysistrata 388, Wasps 9–10, fragment 566; the offering would consume the rest of it. In some
Cicero, On Laws 2.37] cases the offering would be burned so that the smoke
from the sacrifice would rise to the sky (the home of
BIBLIOGRAPHY the gods). In ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS, the city built by the
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
birds in the clouds prevents sacrifices from reaching
Press, 1971, 128–29.
the gods, who begin to starve.
People who wanted to make an offering did not
SACAS Another name for the land of SCYTHIA. have to hold any religious office, although the Greeks
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 31] and Romans did have priests who presided over cer-
tain sacrifices. In the plays, those who offer and preside
SACRIFICE Among the Greeks and Romans, a over sacrifices are often important males or females in
sacrifice was usually an offering to a divinity or the a household. In EURIPIDES’ HERACLES, Heracles leads his
spirit of a dead person. Whereas modern scholars family and household in a sacrificial ritual; then, after
debate the purpose of offerings, in the plays they are madness strikes him, he kills his family. In Euripides’
made to gain the favor of a divinity (e.g., the sacrifice IPHIGENIA AT AULIS, the prophet, CALCHAS, wields the
of IPHIGENIA at AULIS) or spirit (e.g., the sacrifice of blade for the sacrifice of Iphigenia, but ACHILLES offers
POLYXENA at ACHILLES’ grave), to offer thanks to a divin- a prayer to ARTEMIS before the blade is used. Sometimes
ity (HERACLES’ sacrifice to ZEUS in SOPHOCLES’ TRACHN- one person would have another make an offering on
IAN WOMEN), to ratify a treaty or agreement (see his or her behalf, as in AESCHYLUS’ Libation Bearers (see
ARISTOPHANES’ LYSISTRATA), and even to achieve a ORESTEIA), when CLYTEMNESTRA sends ELECTRA to pour a
prophetic purpose (e.g., TIRESIAS in SENECA’s OEDIPUS). libation at AGAMEMNON’s grave.
In some cases, people swear that they will make offer- During sacrifices decorum was observed. Silence
ings if the gods answer their prayers. The shedding of had to be maintained during the sacrifice, and often
blood from a sacrifice was thought to have a purifying someone present would call for holy silence to be
485
486 SALABACCHO

observed before a prayer to the divinity or spirit was Orestes kills him. In Euripides’ Heracles, Heracles’ sac-
spoken. The participants in the sacrifice cleansed rifice to purify his house of his killing of Lycus is
themselves with water beforehand. Fire, considered to turned upside down when Heracles is inflicted with
have purifying elements, was often nearby. In the case madness and kills his wife and children.
of an animal sacrifice, the blade was initially placed in
BIBLIOGRAPHY
a basket of barley meal and some of the barley was
Burkert, W. Homo Necans. The Anthropology of Greek Sacrifi-
scattered upon the victim and the altar before the cut cial Ritual and Myth. Translated by P. Bing. Berkeley: Uni-
was made. The sacrificial victim had to be without versity of California Press, 1983.
blemish and had to move willingly toward the altar. Foley, H. P. Ritual Irony: Poetry and Sacrifice in Euripides.
After the scattering of barley, some of the victim’s Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985.
hair was cut and an initial nonfatal cut into the victim
was made to signify that the victim was being conse- SALABACCHO A well-known Athenian PROSTI-
crated for death. The next cut was intended to kill, and TUTE.[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 765,
failure to kill with this blow was considered a bad Thesmophoriazusae 805]
omen. The victim was raised above the altar before the
blow; when the blow was struck, the blood would spill SALAMINIA Like PARALUS, the Salaminia was a
into a vessel on the altar. Unlike the elaborate altars in special Athenian ship used for public business.
some modern churches and cathedrals, ancient altars [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 147, 1204]
did not have to be elaborate (and could even consist of
piled-up turf) and could be made almost anywhere. SALAMIS A small island off the coast of ATHENS,
Once the fatal blow was struck, the animal would be Salamis was the site of a famous naval battle between
cut open and its entrails inspected for defects (see the Greeks and Persians in 480 B.C.E.—a battle in
especially Tiresias in Seneca’s Oedipus). Internally which the Greeks were victorious, as described in
blemished animals would be a cause for alarm, as in AESCHYLUS’ PERSIANS. In legend, Salamis’ most famous
the case of the sacrifice made by AEGISTHUS in Euripi- inhabitants were AJAX and TEUCER, the sons of TELA-
des’ ELECTRA, and would necessitate that another vic- MON. In SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, the chorus consist of Ajax’s
tim be killed. Once a healthy victim was killed and the comrades from Salamis. AESCHYLUS wrote a play enti-
entrails inspected successfully, the animal would be tled The Women of Salamis (Salaminiai), which may
carved up. The participants in the sacrifice would eat have dealt with the return of Teucer to Salamis after the
the “good” meat, and the animal’s thigh bones would fall of TROY. The 10 words that survive from this play
be wrapped in its fat and burned. give us no indication of the plot (see fragments 216–20
Whereas animal were common sacrifices in actual Radt). As the title indicates, the play’s chorus was prob-
practice, in the ancient tragedies the sacrificial victim ably composed of women from Salamis. Lloyd-Jones
was often a human, usually a young woman. Several of thinks that in the play Telamon, grief-stricken by Ajax’s
Euripides’ plays involve a deliberate human sacrifice: death, banished Teucer from Salamis.
Heracles’ daughter in CHILDREN OF HERACLES, Polyxena
BIBLIOGRAPHY
in HECABE and TROJAN WOMEN, Iphigenia in Iphigenia at Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
Aulis, MENOECEUS in PHOENICIAN WOMEN. In such Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
human sacrifices, the victim had to have the character- Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus Vol. 2. 1926.
istics and behavior of an animal victim. The victim had Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
to be pure (i.e., unmarried) and had to go to the altar 1971.
willingly. In addition to the sacrifice of human victims,
Euripides likes to pervert sacrificial rituals by the shed- SALMONEUS The son of AEOLUS, Salmoneus
ding of human blood. During AEGISTHUS’ sacrifice to fathered TYRO by Alcidice. When Alcidice died,
the local nymphs of ARGOS in Euripides’ ELECTRA, Salmoneus married Sidero. When Tyro produced
 SAMIA 487

Neleus and Pelias by POSEIDON, Salmoneus did not Although about two dozen lines are missing at this
believe Tyro’s claim that the god was their father, and point, Moschion apparently explained that Chrysis
subsequently Salmoneus and Sidero treated Tyro in a became pregnant and Demeas instructed Moschion to
cruel manner. Although Salmoneus was born in Thes- get rid of the child when it was born. When the man-
saly, at some point he became king of ELIS in south- uscript resumes, Moschion says their neighbor, Nicer-
western Greece. Salmoneus tried to convince his atus, had a daughter named Plangon, whom Moschion
subjects that he was ZEUS by driving through town in a impregnated during a celebration of the festival of
chariot and dragging behind him bronze cauldrons, ADONIS. After Moschion learned of the child, he prom-
whose noise he claimed was thunder. Zeus himself ised to marry Plangon, who Moschion notes has
blasted Salmoneus with a lightning bolt. SOPHOCLES recently given birth to their child. Moschion also states
wrote a satyric Salmoneus, of which a few fragments that Chrysis has given birth to a child by his father,
survive (537–41 Radt). Two of the fragments seem to Demeas. At this point, the manuscript breaks off again.
refer to the thunder and lightning that Salmoneus It is thought that Moschion mentioned that the child of
manufactured. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library Chrysis died, and that Chrysis was given Plangon’s
1.9.8; Hyginus, Fables 61; Vergil, Aeneid 6.585–94] child to nurse. In the missing lines, Moschion con-
cluded his speech and Chrysis entered.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
When the manuscript resumes, Parmenon, a servant
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: of Demeas and Moschion’s, has joined Moschion and
Harvard University Press, 1996. Chrysis. Moschion and Parmenon discuss Moschion’s
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, upcoming marriage with Plangon and assert that Chry-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. sis should be allowed to continue nursing Plangon’s
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University child. Here, another two-dozen-line gap in the manu-
Press of America, 1984. script occurs. When the text resumes, Moschion con-
cludes a speech about the difficulties of his situation
SALMYDESSUS A town in the northeastern and then exits. Demeas and Niceratus then enter and
part of THRACE near the entrance to the Black Sea. IO is start to make plans for Moschion’s wedding to Plangon.
said to have wandered past Salmydessus. [ANCIENT The play’s second act opens with an encounter
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 726; Sophocles, between Moschion and his father, Demeas. Demeas is
Antigone 970] upset about the child whom he has seen Chrysis nurs-
ing, but then the manuscript becomes garbled again.
SAMIA (THE GIRL FROM SAMOS) Apparently, Moschion persuaded his father to raise the
MENANDER (315–309 B.C.E.) The action takes child. When the manuscript becomes legible again,
place in ATHENS before two houses, one belonging to Moschion and Demeas confirm plans for the marriage
Demeas, the adoptive father of a young Athenian gen- of Moschion and Plangon that day. The manuscript
tleman named Moschion, and the other belonging to remains spotty for the remainder of the act, but the
Niceratus, Demeas’ neighbor. Although the text of the dozen or so lines that survive involve a discussion
first two acts is damaged, it seems clear that Moschion involving Demeas, Parmenon, and Niceratus about
delivered the prologue. preparations for the wedding.
The existing manuscript picks up in the prologue In the third act, Demeas emerges from the house
with Moschion’s speech. The young man speaks of and reports that a conversation he has overheard has
how he grew up well treated by his father, Demeas, led him to doubt that the baby is Chrysis’ and that
and how he behaved himself in return. Moschion Moschion may be the child’s father. Demeas soon ques-
explains that Demeas fell in love with a young woman tions Parmenon about this possibility and compels his
named Chrysis from Samos and that Moschion per- slave to admit that Moschion is the father. Demeas
suaded him to allow her to stay in their house. incorrectly concludes however, after Parmenon exits,
488 SAMIA

that Chrysis seduced Moschion and that she will have COMMENTARY
to leave the house. Accordingly, Demeas drives Chrysis One problem in MENANDER’s play involves the identity
from the house but does not specifically accuse her of of the baby. It is not clear whether Chrysis was the
having relations with Moschion. Niceratus, who is mother of Demeas’ child or whether Chrysis might
leaving his house while this argument is taking place, have stolen the child from Plangon or whether two
takes Chrysis and the baby into his house. babies existed. Because much of the play is lost, this
As the fourth act begins, Niceratus encounters Mos- issue will continue to be debated. Recent scholarly
chion and tells the young man what Demeas has done. opinion seems to favor Chrysis’ pretending to be the
When Demeas arrives from his house, Moschion con- mother of Plangon’s baby.
fronts his father. Moschion admits that the child is his, Regarding themes, as with many other plays in New
but the initial conversation between the two does not Comedy, the relationship between father and son is
confirm that Chrysis is not the child’s mother. Nicera- central. Clearly, father and son care for one another
tus overhears and thinks that Moschion and Chrysis and do not want to upset each other. Both men have
have slept together. Niceratus is horrified by this idea done things of which they are ashamed (27, 47).
and threatens to throw Chrysis out. When Niceratus Unfortunately for Moschion, although the young man
reenters his house, Moschion reveals to Demeas that had intended to tell his father the truth about his rela-
Niceratus’ daughter is the child’s mother. Niceratus tionship as soon as his father returned from abroad,
also discovers the truth. He emerges from the house Moschion’s first encounter with his father confuses him
and reports that he has just found Plangon nursing the and he leaves Demeas apparently thinking that his
child. Niceratus rushes back into the house uttering father knows the truth. Whereas the father’s absence
threats against the child. When Niceratus returns, he from home led to the son’s gaining accurate informa-
reports that Plangon and his wife will admit nothing, tion about his father’s affair, the son’s absence led the
and that Chrysis refuses to hand over the baby. Soon father to obtain inaccurate information about his son’s
Chrysis (with the baby) rushes from Niceratus’ house affair.
and is directed back to Demeas’ house. This events In contrast to the mythical father THESEUS, however,
puts Niceratus and Demeas on the brink of blows. The who curses his son immediately when HIPPOLYTUS is
two fathers resolve the situation, however, when charged with raping his wife and declares that the
Demeas persuades Niceratus to act as if ZEUS were the young man must go into exile, Demeas’ wrath falls not
child’s father. on his son, but on his mistress, and he drives her from
The play’s final act begins with the entrance of Mos- the house. The wrath of the other father, Niceratus, has
chion, who tells the audience that he will trick his a more Theseus-like quality, as he wants Demeas to
father and pretend that he is leaving town, so that his punish him severely and then drives Chrysis from his
father will not doubt his word. As Moschion speaks, house. Although Demeas does believe Moschion when
Parmenon enters. Moschion asks Parmenon to get him the young man finally reveals the truth, Moschion is
a cloak and sword, as if he is preparing to leave town. still upset by his father’s thinking that he had slept with
Demeas emerges from the house and thinks Moschion Chrysis. Thus, Moschion takes on the role of a comic
intends to leave. He apologizes to his son for doubting Hippolytus and pretends to go into exile in order to
him and urges him to forgive him. Niceratus enters, make his father treat him more fairly in the future.
sees Moschion dressed for traveling, and threatens to Moschion’s ruse works. Unlike Hippolytus, Moschion
arrest Moschion as an adulterer. This threat is half- does not go into exile; as Theseus and Hippolytus are
hearted, however, and soon Niceratus summons Plan- at the conclusion of EURIPIDES’ play, Moschion and his
gon from the house and gives her to Moschion as his father are reconciled. Hippolytus, unfortunately, died
wife. The play ends with the marriage of Moschion and after he was reconciled with his father. Moschion will
Plangon. marry his beloved Plangon.
 SARDIS 489

Another prominent theme in the play is anger, Jaeger, G. Menander: Samia. Bamberg, Ger.: Buchner, 1979.
whose importance to the play Groton has well out- Lloyd-Jones, H. “Menander’s Samia in the Light of the New
lined. For example, when Demeas incorrectly thinks Evidence,” Yale Classical Studies 22 (1972): 119–44.
that Chrysis seduced Moschion, he angrily drives
Chrysis from the house. Demeas’ anger at Chrysis cre- SAMOS A Greek island in the AEGEAN SEA less
ates a feeling of pity for the woman; when the cook than a mile off the coast of modern Turkey. The people
recognizes Demeas’ anger (383) and tries to mediate, of Samos were allies of the Athenians in the fifth cen-
Demeas turns that anger on him. The anger at the cook tury B.C.E. and had been incorporated into the Athen-
provides comic relief from the tense anger at Chrysis. ian empire but had unsuccessfully tried to revolt
Additionally, Demeas’ anger drives the woman from against ATHENS in 440/439. In 411, an attempt to over-
the house but drives the cook back into it. throw the democracy on Samos, encouraged by the
Demeas’ wrong conclusions lead to his wrath against exiled Athenian ALCIBIADES, also failed. [ANCIENT
Chrysis; the play’s other father becomes angry when he SOURCES: Aeschylus, Persians 882–83; Aristophanes,
also incorrectly thinks that Moschion and Chrysis have Lysistrata 313; Thucydides, 8.46–81]
slept together. At line 463, Niceratus had concurred
with Moschion’s advice to Demeas that he should not SAMOTHRACE An island off the coast of
give in to anger; by line 499, however, Niceratus is urg- THRACE between Thasos and Imbros. Samothrace was
ing Demeas to allow his anger to reach a level heard of home to the mysteries of the CABEIRI. The Greek comic
only in mythology and blind his son. Now the angry poet Athenio wrote a Samothracians, from which a 46-
Niceratus drives Chrysis out of his house and threatens line fragment survives (fragment 1 Kock). The frag-
to kill her and the child. When Demeas tries to calm ment, spoken by a COOK, lectures someone of a
Niceratus, Niceratus becomes even angrier and thinks nationality different from his own about the civilizing
Demeas is involved in the deception. Fortunately, benefits that the cook’s arts have given to humankind.
before Niceratus and Demeas come to blows, the two [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 277; Athenaeus,
fathers reach a mutual understanding. 14660e–661d; Herodotus, 2.51]
Whereas the fathers have quelled their rage, young
Moschion is angry at his father’s accusations against him BIBLIOGRAPHY
(621) and decides to pretend to leave town. Moschion Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Leipzig:
worries, however, that perhaps his father will be so Teubner, 1888.
angry (683) with him that he will let him go. When
Demeas perceives Moschion’s intention he states, SARDANAPALUS Living in the seventh cen-
“Because you are angry, I love you” (695) and goes on to tury B.C.E., Sardanapalus was a famous effeminate
become reconciled with his son. Now that the anger Assyrian king who, after his enemies beseiged him for
between father and son has ended, Demeas and Mos- two years at Nineveh, assembled his wives, concu-
chion decide to have a bit of fun with Niceratus and stir bines, and treasures and burned both them and him-
up his anger by pretending that Moschion is leaving self. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 1021;
town. When Niceratus’ rage begins to boil, Demeas Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 5.35.101; Diodorus Sicu-
orders his son not to stir up Niceratus further (720–21). lus, 2.21]
BIBLIOGRAPHY SARDIS Located in what is now western Turkey,
Grant, John M. “The Father-Son Relationship and the End-
Sardis, on the Pactolus River at the foot of Mount TMO-
ing of Menander’s Samia,” Phoenix 40 (1986): 172–84.
LUS, was the principal city of the region of Lydia. Sardis
Groton, A. “Anger in Menander’s Samia,” American Journal of
Philology 108 (1987): 437–43. was said to possess extensive deposits of gold and was
Ireland, S. Menander, Dyskolos, Samia and Other Plays: A famous for its dye. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Per-
Companion to the New Penguin Translation by Norma Miller. sians 45, 321; Aristophanes, Peace 1174, Wasps 1139;
Bristol, U.K.: Classical Press, 1992. Euripides, Bacchae 463; Sophocles, Antigone 1037]
490 SARDO

SARDO Another name for the island of Sardinia. AESCHYLUS was producing satyr plays at least as early
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps 700] as 472 B.C.E.
Thus, beginning at some point during the late sixth
SARONIC GULF This horseshoe-shaped body or early fifth century B.C.E., at the City DIONYSIA (satyr
of water is located on mainland Greece’s east central plays were not staged at the LENAEA), after a Greek
shore. The city of ATHENS is on its northern shore, the tragedian had put on the stage three tragedies, he pre-
town of TROZEN on its southern shore. According to sented a fourth play, a satyr play. Why the Greeks
some sources, THESEUS’ wife, PHAEDRA, while sitting in wanted or felt a need to put on a satyr play after three
Athens, lustfully watched her stepson, HIPPOLYTUS, as tragedies is not clear. A common reason given is the
he exercised in Trozen. desire for comic relief after sitting through three
tragedies over several hours. Such a motive is under-
SATURN See CRONUS. standable, but no proof of this notion exists.
Knowledge of the satyr play is also hampered
SATYR A satyr is a semidivine creature that has the because we have only one complete satyr play, Euripi-
horns and legs of a goat and the tail of a horse. The rest des’ CYCLOPS, although 400 lines survive from SOPHO-
of the body is human. Satyrs live in fields and forests CLES’ SEARCHERS. Satyr plays were generally humorous
and are depicted as lusty creatures and even thieves. in content (again with the exception of Euripides’
Satyrs are typically found in the company of the wine Alcestis) and, to be sure, provided a contrast to the
god DIONYSUS. A satyr named SILENUS was often called tragedies that preceded them to the stage. Besides these
the father of these creatures. In the SATYR PLAY, satyrs two plays, numerous extant titles and fragments of
usually made up the chorus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripi- satyr plays help us gain a better understanding of this
des, Cyclops; Sophocles, Searchers] elusive genre’s themes.
In addition to the frequent portrayal of lusty sexual-
SATYR PLAY One of the more controversial and ity and the consumption of or eagerness to consume
elusive kinds of ancient drama was the satyr play, so wine, in many satyr plays, the satyrs appear to have
called because typically the chorus was comprised of sought liberation from an oppressive master (e.g.,
SATYRS. EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS, which occupies the position Euripides’ CYCLOPS). Also common seems to have been
usually reserved for a satyr play, provides an exception the satyrs’ encounter with some sort of novelty (e.g.,
to this rule. Satyr plays have essentially the same fea- HERMES’ lyre in SEARCHERS) or new person (e.g., the
tures as tragedies (PROLOGUE, PARODOS, EPISODE, AGON, infant Hermes in Searchers). Athletic activities, espe-
choral songs, and an EXODUS). cially wrestling (cf. Aeschylus’ Cercyon; HERACLES and
In the fourth chapter of Poetics, ARISTOTLE says Death in Euripides’ Alcestis), seem to have been com-
TRAGEDY developed from the satyr play, but modern mon in satyr plays, although the satyrs themselves
scholars doubt the accuracy of this assertion, and the were spectators to the events rather than participants.
earliest satyr plays seem to have been staged after the Encounters with persons going to or from the UNDER-
appearance of tragedy. According to tradition, the WORLD also appear to have been common, as reflected
first person to compose satyr plays was the tragedian by Euripides’ Alcestis. Heracles, ORPHEUS, and SISYPHUS,
Pratinas of Phleius, who is said to have written 32 all of whom had journeyed to the underworld, were
satyr plays, although only four titles are known and common subjects of satyr plays. In addition to the
only one of these can positively be identified as satyrs, other sorts of unusual creatures or beings with
satyric (Wrestling Satyrs). Additionally, only four frag- unusual powers were the subjects of satyr plays (cf.
ments of Pratinas’ works survive, although one of Aeschylus’ Circe, Proteus, Sphinx; Euripides’ Cyclops).
these fragments (3 Snell) is clearly from a satyr play. Heracles was a frequent character in satyr plays, and
The only known date for Pratinas in competition is one can imagine that this brawny, ever-hungry, wine-
between 499 and 496 B.C.E. We also know that loving fellow would be at home in humorous situa-
 SCIRON 491

tions. Also, in the case of Sophocles’ Searchers, one SCELLIAS’ SON An Athenian named Aristo-
can easily see that the subject matter of that play, the crates was the son of Scellias. Aristocrates signed the
infant HERMES’ theft of APOLLO’s cattle, might be PEACE OF NICIAS in 421 and 10 years later became one
humorous. In some instances, however, the subject of of the 400 oligarchs who replaced the democracy in
a satyr play might not seem to lend itself to humor. ATHENS; he later participated in removing extremist oli-
Euripides’ Cyclops humorously recasts the story made garchs. In 406, an Aristocrates was one of the com-
famous by Homer in Odyssey 9, in which the Cyclops manders executed after the battle of ARGINUSAE, but it
brutally kills and eats several of Odysseus’ men. is not certain whether this was the same Aristarchus.
Odysseus then makes the Cyclops drunk and blinds [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 126; Thucy-
the monster by driving a stake into his single eye. As dides, 5.19.2, 8.9.2, 8.89, 8.92; Xenophon, Hellenica
Odysseus escapes from the Cyclops’ land, he foolishly 1.7.2, 1.7.34]
reveals his name to the Cyclops, who prays to his
father, POSEIDON, to destroy Odysseus. Accordingly, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
Poseidon causes Odysseus great hardship during his
sity Press, 1995, 173.
efforts to return to his native land. In Euripides’ play,
however, satyrs are introduced into the story as slaves
of the Cyclops; the monster’s drinking is accompa- SCHOLIA Scholia (singular: scholion), is a Greek
nied by an aroused sexual passion for the father of the word that means “crooked” or “bent,” are comments
satyrs, SILENUS; and the play ends with Odysseus and written in the margins of the manuscripts of ancient
the satyrs’ sailing away happily without any reference dramas. The writers of these comments are called
or allusion to the trials that await Odysseus at the scholiasts.
hands of Poseidon.
SCIONE A town in northeastern Greece on the
BIBLIOGRAPHY westernmost peninsula of Chalcidike. In 423 B.C.E. the
Krumeich, R., N. Pechstein, and B. Seidensticker. Das gri- people of Scione revolted against the Athenian empire.
eschische Satryspiel. Darmstadt, Ger.: Wissenschalftliche The Athenians beseiged the Scionians, who surren-
Buchgesselschaft, 1999.
dered in 421. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Wasps
Seaford, Richard. Euripides: Cyclops. Oxford: Oxford Univer-
210; Thucydides, 4.120–34, 5.32.1]
sity Press, 1984. 10–44.
Sutton, D. F. “A Handlist of Satyr Plays,” Harvard Studies in
Classical Philology 78 (1974): 107–43. SCIRA See SCIROPHORIA.
———. The Greek Satyr Play. Meisenheim am Glan, Ger.:
Hain, 1980. SCIRON The son of PELOPS or POSEIDON, Sciron
was a cruel and powerful man who lurked about the
SAUSAGE SELLER See AGORACRITUS. rugged cliffs near MEGARA. These cliffs were called the
Scironian Rocks. When people passed by, Sciron
forced them to wash his feet; after they finished, Sciron
SCAENA See SKENE.
kicked them down the cliffs into the water below. If the
fall did not kill them, then some sort of creature (some
SCALES A constellation of the zodiac. The Scales say a dangerous turtle) ate them. Sciron’s reign of ter-
represent the time of the year when the lengths of day ror ended when THESEUS threw him down the same
and night are balanced equally. [ANCIENT SOURCES: cliffs. Euripides wrote a SATYR PLAY entitled Sciron, of
Seneca, Hercules Furens 842] which a few uninformative fragments survive (675–81
Nauck). The comic poet Epicharmus wrote a Sciron,
SCAMANDER One of two rivers (the other is whose single two-line extant fragment tells nothing
the SIMOIS) near the town of TROY. about the play’s plot (fragment 125 Kaibel). [ANCIENT
492 SCIROPHORIA

SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 1.2; Euripides, Children mothers (Crataeis, Echidna, Hecate, or LAMIA) are
of Heracles 860, Hippolytus 979, 1208; Hyginus, Fables named as Scylla’s parents. Scylla had been a beautiful
38; Seneca, Hippolytus 1025, 1225] woman, but CIRCE, who was jealous because the sea
divinity GLAUCUS fell in love with Scylla, changed her
BIBLIOGRAPHY
into a monster. The Scylla had her lair opposite the
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet-
arum Graecorum Fragmenta, Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann, whirlpool CHARYBDIS, and these obstacles were often
1899. thought to be located between the toe of Italy’s boot and
Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, SICILY. Both ODYSSEUS and JASON passed the Scylla dur-
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. ing their adventures. AESCHYLUS compares CLYTEMNES-
TRA to a Scylla; EURIPIDES compares MEDEA to a Scylla.
SCIROPHORIA This Athenian festival, held on [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1233 (see
the 12th day of the month Scirophorion (June–July), ORESTEIA); Euripides, Medea 1343, 1359; Homer,
honored Athena (or, according to some, DEMETER and Odyssey 12.85–110, 222–59; Ovid, Metamorphoses
PERSEPHONE), who was called Sciras, after Sciron, a 13.730–41, 13.898–14.74; Seneca, Hercules Furens
place on the Sacred Way between ATHENS and ELEUSIS. 376, Hercules Oetaeus 235, Medea 408, Thyestes 579]
The name Scirophoria is derived from the large white
sunshade (skiron) beneath which Athena’s priestess, the SCYROS An island in the western AEGEAN, Scyros
priest of ERECHTHEUS, and the priest of Helios (see SUN) was the site of several unusual events in mythology.
traveled to Sciron to offer sacrifice. The sunshade sym- THESEUS died on Scyros when LYCOMEDES pushed him
bolized divine protection from the sun, whose heat off a cliff. The same Lycomedes raised ACHILLES when
was more intense during the month of the festival. In he was hidden on Scyros so that he could avoid fight-
this, as in other festivals of invocations, offerings of ing in the Trojan War. When Achilles eventually did go
atonement also took place; for this reason they carried to TROY, Lycomedes also raised Achilles’ son, NEOP-
in the procession the hide of a ram that had been sac- TOLEMUS, on this island, and it is from there that Neop-
rificed to Zeus. In ARISTOPHANES’ ECCLESIAZUSAE, tolemus arrives in SOPHOCLES’ Philoctetes.
PRAXAGORA’s plan for the women to take over the Sophocles wrote a play entitled The Men of Scyros,
Athenian government is launched during the whose the subject matter is uncertain (fragments
Scirophoria. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Thes- 553–61 Radt). Some have thought the play dealt with
mophoriazusae 834, Ecclesiazusae 18, 59] the departure of Achilles to the Trojan War. Because
Neoptolemus addresses an elderly man in one frag-
SCITALOI A name called upon as the “powers of ment, the more accepted view is that the drama was
impudence.” Sommerstein translates the word as about Neoptolemus’ departure for the war.
“Saucies.” [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 634] BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2, Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 178. Harvard University Press, 1996, 29.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
SCORPION A constellation of the zodiac whose Sutton, Dana. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: The Univer-
stars represent the scorpion that ORION killed. [ANCIENT sity Press of America, 1984.
SOURCES: Seneca, Thyestes 859]
SCYTHIA The region of Scythia was located in
SCYLLA A monster with six heads on long necks the Black Sea. From an Athenian perspective, the
or a woman’s head and six dogs in the place of legs. Var- nomadic Scythians were barbarians. Some Scythians
ious fathers (Phorcys, Trienus, TRITON, or Typhon) and were enslaved by the Athenians and employed as a sort
 THE SELF-TORMENTOR 493

of police squad. In ARISTOPHANES’ THESMOPHORIAZUSAE, a has been watching over Hermes, emerges from the
Scythian, who speaks broken Greek, guards Mne- cave and asks the satyrs about the noise they are mak-
silochus. SOPHOCLES wrote a Scythians (Greek: Skythai), ing. The satyrs tell Cyllene of their search for the stolen
which may have treated MEDEA’s killing of her brother, cattle and she tells them of the birth of Hermes and his
ABSYRTUS, after Argo left COLCHIS (fragments 546–52 invention of the lyre. The news of this wondrous child
Radt). Lloyd-Jones suggests the possibility that this leads the satyrs to believe that Hermes has stolen the
play may have formed a trilogy with WOMEN OF COLCHIS cattle, but Cyllene denies this and defends the young
and Root Cutters. god. The satyrs and Cyllene continue their argument,
and the manuscript breaks off at this point.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1996, 275. Harvard University Press, 1996.
Pinney, G. F. “Achilles, Lord of Scythia.” In Ancient Greek Art Zagagi, N. “Comic Patterns in Sophocles’ Ichneutae.” In
and Iconography. Edited by W. G. Moon. Madison: Univer- Sophocles Revisited: Essays Presented to Sir Hugh Lloyd-Jones.
sity of Wisconsin Press, 1983, 127–46. Edited by J. Griffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, 1999, 177–218.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Sutton, Dana. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: The Univer- SEER See PROPHECY.
sity Press of America, 1984.
SELENE See MOON.
SEARCHERS (Greek: ICHNEUTAI)
SOPHOCLES The date of this play is unknown. SELEUCIA The name of several cities in western
Other than EURIPIDES’ CYCLOPS, the remains of SOPHO- Asia. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Three-Dollar Day 112,
CLES’ Searchers (a little fewer than 400 lines) provide 771, 845, 901]
the most extensive example of a Greek SATYR PLAY. The
action of the play occurs near a cave (compare Euripi- THE SELF-TORMENTOR (Greek: HEAU-
des’ Cyclops) on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia and SATYRS TON TIMOROUMENOS) TERENCE The
constitute the CHORUS. Sophocles’ play deals with the attached production notice (see DIDASCALIA) reveals
theft of APOLLO’s cattle by the infant HERMES, a subject that the play was performed at the MEGALENSIAN
covered by the earlier Homeric Hymn to Hermes. GAMES in 163 B.C.E., that the original was MENANDER’s
As the surviving fragment opens, Apollo is searching Self-Tormentor, and that this was TERENCE’s third play.
for his stolen cattle. He encounters SILENUS and a group The drama’s setting is a rural town in the region of
of SATYRS and asks for their help in searching for the Attica; the action takes place before two houses,
cattle. Apollo promises the satyrs freedom (although it belonging to Chremes and Menedemus. The play’s pro-
is not clear from what, because the ancient manuscript logue, delivered by an unnamed old man, explains that
is muddled at this point), and they agree to undertake the drama has been transformed into a “double play”
the search. In Euripides’ Cyclops, the satyrs were slaves from “a single plot” (line 6). The speaker of the pro-
of the CYCLOPS until the arrival of ODYSSEUS, and his tri- logue says Terence has enlisted him to try to refute
umph over the Cyclops led to release from their rumors that the author has “contaminated” (see CONT-
bondage. AMINATIO) many Greek dramas but has produced few
Silenus and the satyrs begin their search and see Latin dramas. The prologue’s speaker urges the audi-
reversed hoofprints on the ground (Hermes has driven ence to be open-minded about the play they are about
the cattle backward to disguise his course), and then to see and not to interrupt the actors.
an unfamiliar sound (the young Hermes has invented The drama opens with the appearance of two old
the LYRE) frightens them. Next, the NYMPH Cyllene, who farmers, Chremes and Menedemus. Menedemus
494 THE SELF-TORMENTOR

explains that his son, Clinia, fell in love with Antiphila, tipho’s mother, Sostrata, for safekeeping. Clitipho is
the daughter of a poor old Corinthian woman. skeptical about the plan, but eventually he agrees to it.
Menedemus states that his constant criticism of Clinia As Clitipho and Syrus finalize their plans, Antiphila
for treating the woman as if she were his wife caused and Bacchis approach. Clitipho wants to embrace Bac-
the young man to leave as a mercenary for military chis, but Syrus restrains him because doing so might
service in Asia, where he has been for three months. undermine their plan. After Syrus sends Clitipho back
Menedemus felt so bad about his son’s leaving that he into his father’s house, Bacchis, Antiphila, and their
decided to punish himself by selling all his goods and servants enter. Bacchis commends Antiphila for
buying a humble farm. Chremes tries to comfort remaining faithful to Clinia and keeping other poten-
Menedemus and invites him to celebrate the Rural tial lovers at a distance. Clinia, eavesdropping on the
DIONYSIA with him at his house. Menedemus, however, conversation, notes his approval of Antiphila’s behav-
insistent on tormenting himself, refuses the invitation. ior to Syrus. Soon, the women see Clinia. He
After Menedemus exits into his house, Clitipho, the approaches and embraces Antiphila, and then Syrus
son of Chremes, emerges from his. Clitipho encounters sends them into Chremes’ house.
his father and reveals to him that Clinia has returned Whereas the action of most classical plays takes
from Asia and is staying in their house. Chremes wants place during a single day, the third act of Terence’s play
to tell Menedemus, but Clitipho rejects this idea. Cli- begins at daybreak on the morning of the next day.
tipho mentions that Clinia is worried about Menede- Chremes emerges from his house and decides to tell
mus’ anger and Antiphila’s feelings about him. Clitipho Menedemus that Clinia has returned, despite the
adds that Clinia has sent his servant to take Antiphila young man’s wish to keep this news quiet for the
to Chremes’ house. Clitipho worries that Menedemus moment. When Menedemus hears this, he is eager to
will lose his temper with Clinia, but Chremes defends become reconciled with Clinia and says he intends to
Menedemus’ right to be strict with his son. Chremes be less strict with his son. Chremes, however, urges
then reenters his house. Menedemus not to go to extremes because doing so
As the second act opens, Clitipho complains that will cost him a substantial amount of money, as
fathers expect sons to behave as if they were born into Chremes informs Menedemus that Clinia’s young
maturity. He notes that he too has a girlfriend (the woman has expensive taste. Chremes recommends
prostitute Bacchis), but that he has not told his father finding some clever way of supplying Clinia with a
about her. Clinia, who is worried about his situation modest amount of money. Menedemus agrees with
with Antiphila, soon joins Clitipho. His worries are Chremes’ reasoning but urges him to tell Clinia and his
allayed, however, as Dromo (Clinia’s servant) and friends to speed up their scheme to deceive him so that
Syrus (Clitipho’s servant) approach and say that he and his son can be reconciled as quickly as possi-
Antiphila will soon arrive. Clinia worries that Antiphila ble. Chremes agrees and then sends Menedemus back
has been living a luxurious mode of life in his absence, to his own house.
but Syrus tells him not to worry. Syrus has seen that Chremes then meets Syrus, who is arriving from
Antiphila is living a life of moderation and sensibility. Chremes’ house. Syrus, trying to acquire money for
Syrus adds that the old woman who was said to be Clinia, sets out to try to trick Chremes, who is already
Antiphila’s mother was not her mother and has died. aware of this scheme. Chremes, accordingly, urges
Syrus also notes that when he told Antiphila of Clinia’s Syrus to trick Menedemus so that Clinia can find
return, the young woman was overjoyed. Syrus has money to support his girlfriend. Chremes exits into his
also mentioned that another young woman (Bacchis) house, then returns dragging Clitipho with him.
will accompany Antiphila. Clitipho worries about how Chremes is angry with Clitipho, because he saw the
his father will react, but Syrus says he has a plan for young man fondling a woman (Bacchis) who he thinks
outwitting Chremes. They will pretend that Bacchis is is Clinia’s girlfriend. After some argument, Clitipho
Clinia’s beloved, and they will take Antiphila to Cli- exits and Chremes and Syrus return to their plot
 THE SELF-TORMENTOR 495

against Menedemus. Syrus tells Chremes that his mis- 10 MINAE and that if Syrus does not honor his promise,
tress lent an old Corinthian woman 1,000 DRACHMAS, she will take revenge on him. As she is talking, Bacchis
but when the old woman died, she left a young sees Clinia and Syrus but pretends that she does not
woman, Antiphila, as collateral for the debt. According and decides to trick them. Accordingly, Bacchis sends
to Syrus, Bacchis wants Clinia to pay her and says she Phrygia off to find a certain soldier to tell him that she
will not give him Antiphila until he does so. Syrus then is being kept there against her will. Syrus, hearing this,
says he will go to Menedemus, tell him that Antiphila fears punishment by the soldier, approaches Bacchis to
is a captive from Caria, and try to persuade him to buy tell her to call Phrygia back, and says he will give her
her. When Chremes says Menedemus will never agree, the money that he promised. Syrus then arranges for
Syrus says this will actually play into his plan. Chremes Bacchis and her attendants to go over to Menedemus’
is baffled, but before Syrus can explain, Chremes’ wife, house so he can arrange for the payoff.
Sostrata, and a NURSE emerge from the house. After the transfer of Bacchis, Chremes emerges from
Sostrata and the nurse are examining a ring, which his house and talks with Syrus, who informs him that
is the one Sostrata’s daughter (who is Antiphila) was Clinia has told Menedemus that Bacchis is Clitipho’s
wearing when she was given away at birth. Chremes girlfriend and that Clinia took Bacchis along so that
approaches and Sostrata confesses that she once gave Chremes would not discover Clitipho’s secret. Syrus
an infant daughter of theirs to an old Corinthian also tells Chremes that Clinia is pretending that he is
woman to raise (Chremes had ordered that the child be in love with Chremes’ daughter, Antiphila, and wants
exposed). Chremes is angry but forgives Sostrata. Sos- to marry her. When Chremes says he does not want to
trata then shows Chremes the ring that the nurse gave marry Antiphila to Clinia, Syrus suggests that Chremes
her. Sostrata and Chremes are eager to learn more pretend to allow Clinia to marry her. Chremes, how-
about the ring, so they enter the house to question ever, rejects this idea. After Syrus reminds Chremes
Antiphila. After they leave, Syrus worries that Chremes about the money owed to Bacchis for Antiphila,
will be angry if he finds out that Bacchis is Clitipho’s Chremes declares that he himself will take the money
girlfriend. After Syrus announces that he has just to her. Syrus, however, urges Chremes to tell Clitipho
thought of a plan to save himself, Clinia enters and to take the money to Bacchis, as this will help the
announces that he will marry Antiphila, who has been scheme he has in mind. Chremes agrees to this and
discovered to be Chremes’ daughter. Syrus tells Clinia returns to his house to get the money.
that they must now make sure that Clitipho’s situation Next, Clitipho enters and is met by Syrus. At first,
turns out well. To accomplish this, Syrus tells Clinia Clitipho is angry with Syrus because his scheming has
that he cannot leave Bacchis behind at their house, separated him from Bacchis. Clitipho’s mood changes,
because if he does, Chremes will discover the truth. however, when Syrus informs him that he will be able to
Clinia, however, does not want to take Bacchis with give Bacchis the money, which Chremes will soon give
him, because he is set to marry Antiphila. Clinia won- them. At this point, Chremes emerges from his house
ders how his father would view this behavior. When and gives the money to Clitipho, whom Syrus accom-
Syrus suggests that Clinia tell Menedemus the truth, panies into Menedemus’ house. After their departure,
Clinia thinks that Syrus is insane. Syrus says this is part Chremes complains about the money that Antiphila has
of his plan, because he thinks that when Menedemus cost him and about the money she will cost him in the
tells Chremes that Bacchis is Clitipho’s girlfriend, future. Next, Menedemus, reconciled with Clinia,
Chremes will not believe him. Clinia does not want to emerges and tells Chremes that Clinia wants to marry
do this, because this will ruin his plan to marry Antiphila. Chremes, however, tells Menedemus that he
Antiphila. Syrus argues that they will keep up this pre- has been tricked and that Clinia is just pretending to
tense only one day. want to marry to get money from Menedemus. Chremes
As Clinia agrees, Bacchis and her maid, Phrygia, suggests that they try to trick Clinia by telling him that
enter. Bacchis mentions that Syrus has promised her Chremes agreed to Menedemus’ proposal that Clinia
496 THE SELF-TORMENTOR

and Antiphila marry. According to Chremes, this will ble play” from “a single plot” has vexed modern schol-
make Clinia ask for the money he wants sooner. After ars. Because Menander’s Self-Tormentor must have cen-
Menedemus agrees, he and Chremes exit into their tered around Menedemus, Clinia, and Antiphila, some
respective houses. scholars have surmised that Terence himself added the
A short time later, Menedemus emerges and Clitipho-Bacchis relationship. A. J. Brothers has argued
announces his realization that Chremes has been that removing Clitipho and Bacchis would cause the
tricked. When Chremes enters, he still believes that play’s plot to disintegrate and suggests, therefore, that
Menedemus is the one who has been tricked. Chremes in Menander’s play Antiphila and Bacchis were silent
soon discovers the truth when Menedemus informs characters. Thus, when Terence gives them speaking
him that Bacchis is Clitipho’s girlfriend and not Clinia’s. roles, he “doubles” the play in this way.
Chremes is furious at this news and Menedemus play- When we consider Terence’s play on its own merits,
fully gives him the same advice on how to deal with his we find that Self-Tormentor is most similar to his
son that Chremes gave him earlier in the play. Given the BROTHERS, which would appear three years later. In
change in situation, Chremes now agrees to Menede- both plays, the sons are involved in love affairs. In both
mus’ proposal to marry Clinia to Antiphila. Chremes plays, one of the women is freeborn, and the other is
declares that he will chastise his son and give Syrus a of slave status. As does Brothers, Self-Tormentor focuses
proper beating. Soon, Menedemus takes Clitipho and on the relationships between two fathers and two sons.
Syrus from his house. Chremes expresses his anger at As in Brothers, one of the fathers is strict with his son
Clitipho and Syrus and then exits into his house. Cli- and the other is more lenient. In Self-Tormentor, how-
tipho, prompted by a comment from Syrus, begins to ever, the strict father has repented of his earlier behav-
suspect that his parents may try to get rid of him ior at the beginning of the play, whereas in Brothers the
because they have found their long-lost daughter, strict father does not moderate his strictness until the
Antiphila. At Syrus’ urging, Clitipho reenters the house end of the play. Also, in Self-Tormentor the more lenient
to confront his parents and find out whether he is actu- father tries to prevent the more strict father from
ally their son. Syrus then sets out for Menedemus’ becoming too indulgent with his son. Ultimately, as in
house to ask him to help him with Chremes. Next, Brothers, the more lenient father discovers that his son
Chremes and Sostrata enter and argue about Clitipho. has been lying to him. In both plays, the son of the
Sostrata is concerned that Chremes’ treatment of Cli- more strict father will marry the freeborn young
tipho will alienate their son. Clitipho himself soon woman; however, whereas in Brothers the son of the
enters and questions Chremes and Sostrata about the more indulgent father will be allowed to keep his
identity of his parents. Sostrata tries to convince Cli- slave-concubine, in Self-Tormentor the son of the more
tipho that he is their son. Chremes, however, expresses indulgent father will have to take a wife and marry a
his anger with Clitipho about his trickery and demands freeborn woman. Both Self-Tormentor and Brothers
that the young man change his ways. Menedemus have the message that fathers must seek a middle
enters and reconciles Chremes and Clitipho. Chremes ground in dealing with sons.
says he will forgive Clitipho on the condition that he The major difference between Self-Tormentor and
marry the daughter of their neighbor, Archonides. Cli- Brothers is the role of the slave, Syrus, who is much
tipho agrees, provided that Chremes will forgive Syrus. more prominent in Self-Tormentor. In Brothers, Syrus
Chremes’ agreement concludes the play. aids the young men, but he is not an architect of
deception as in Self-Tormentor. As in several Roman
COMMENTARY comedies, a metatheatrical approach may be useful in
As commonly occurs with Terence’s plays, scholars the analysis of the Self-Tormentor. In this play, we may
have been at pains to determine how Terence altered consider Syrus, Chremes, and Bacchis (to a lesser
his original Greek material. The statement in the pro- extent) as the rival playwrights. Syrus’ first attempt to
logue that the play has been transformed into a “dou- produce a play within the play occurs in the second act
 THE SELF-TORMENTOR 497

as Syrus plots to outwit Chremes. In Syrus’ initial play, becoming a husband and casting aside the role of
they will pretend (adsimulabimus, 332; adsimulet, 358) young man (see ADULESCENS). Just as Chremes did not
that Bacchis is Clinia’s girlfriend and Clitipho’s mother think Syrus’ modification of his (Chremes’) plot would
will literally and figuratively keep Antiphila offstage. succeed against Menedemus, Clinia does not think
The illusion of Syrus’ play is almost dissolved when Syrus’ suggestion that Clinia tell Menedemus the truth
Clitipho wants to embrace Bacchis, but Syrus prevents will work. Syrus, insisting that he can fool both fathers
him from shattering the illusion and sends Clitipho and the young man, reluctantly agrees to play the role
back into his father’s house. Syrus has in mind.
In the play’s third act, Chremes’ play begins to take At this point, however, Syrus’ play is again threat-
shape as he directs Menedemus on how to play the role ened as Bacchis emerges as a rival playwright. Because
of father. Menedemus wants to play the indulgent Syrus has not paid her for her services, she sets out to
father, but Chremes directs him instead to play the trick Syrus. Bacchis’ play involves a fictional BRAGGART
moderate father. Chremes knows that he wants to WARRIOR who will punish Syrus for not paying her.
incorporate trickery into his play so that Clinia can Bacchis’ impromptu play fools Syrus, who agrees to
have some money, but this part of his play has not yet pay her. While taken in by Bacchis’ play, Syrus also
developed fully. Thus, Chremes sends Menedemus off- keeps sight of his own play and tells Bacchis and her
stage so that he can develop his plot. attendants to go to Menedemus’ house in accordance
At this point, the two rival playwrights meet and the with the recent revisions to his play.
playwright Syrus treats Chremes as if he is the typical Syrus continues to try to produce his play as
gullible father of comedy and wants to trick him out of Chremes emerges from his house. Syrus lies to
some money. The playwright Chremes, however, will Chremes, telling him that Menedemus has been told
not allow himself to be cast in this role and, already that Bacchis is Clitipho’s mistress, but he tells Chremes
aware of Syrus’ plot, decides to incorporate Syrus into that Clinia is pretending to want to marry Antiphila.
his own play. Thus, Chremes tells Syrus that Menede- Chremes does not want this marriage but rejects Syrus’
mus will play the role of gullible father and directs suggestion that Chremes pretend to allow Clinia to
Syrus to trick him. Chremes’ play appears to be mov- marry her. Chremes, however, will not allow himself to
ing forward nicely, but he is becomes entangled in be cast in this role. Ironically, the playwright Chremes
Syrus’ play when he sees Clitipho fondling Bacchis. remarks that pretense (simulatio, 782) is not in his
After father and son argue, Chremes and Syrus return nature. Chremes is eager to play the role of “bag man”
to their plot. Syrus offers a suggestion to Chremes on as he offers to take the money to Bacchis. Syrus, how-
how to construct the plot of his play (tell Menedemus ever, wants Clitipho to play this part and Chremes
that Antiphila is a captive from Caria and try to per- agrees to take him the money.
suade him to buy her), but Chremes does not think Just as Syrus’ play is on the verge of succeeding, one
their intended audience (Menedemus) will be fooled of his cast members, Clitipho, becomes enraged at his
by that. Syrus argues that this will work, but before playwright. Syrus quickly calms his cast member, and
their collaboration can advance Chremes again Clitipho reintegrates himself into Syrus’ play as he goes
becomes entangled in Syrus’ play as the presence of off with the money for Bacchis. After surviving this
Antiphila in his house will lead to the discovery that threat, Syrus’ play meets an additional challenge as
she is his daughter. Chremes again takes on the role of playwright. When
The playwright Syrus does not yet know this, how- Chremes tells Menedemus that Clinia pretended
ever, and decides to rewrite his play. Clinia will con- (adsimulat, 888) to be happy at the prospect of mar-
tinue to play the role of the young man in love with the riage in order to get money from Menedemus,
prostitute, but they must change the setting of the play Chremes devises the plot of tricking Clinia. Menede-
to Menedemus’ house. Clinia is not the same actor he mus agrees to play the role of the agreeable father to
was earlier in the play, though. He is on the verge of make Clinia ask for the money.
498 SEMELE

Chremes’ second play fails, however, when Menede- guised Hera told Semele that this would prove to
mus realizes that Chremes has been playing the Semele that Zeus was the god he claimed to be, but in
gullible father. In turn, Chremes thinks that Menede- reality it would result in Semele’s death because Hera
mus has been playing that role, but Menedemus soon and Zeus’ lovemaking involved thunder and lightning.
convinces him otherwise. Upon learning the truth, When Semele asked Zeus for a favor, he swore an invi-
Chremes moves into a new role, senex iratus, the angry olable oath to grant her request before she had speci-
old man (see SENEX), as he threatens to chastise his son fied the favor she wanted. Semele was destroyed by
and beat his slave. Zeus’ lightning, but Zeus rescued the unborn Dionysus
In danger of physical punishment, Syrus tries one from her body and sewed Dionysus into his thigh,
last desperate attempt as a playwright. This time, how- from which he was later reborn. According to some
ever, Syrus’ play is not a comedy, but a TRAGEDY, as he sources, after Dionysus became a god, he rescued
prompts Clitipho to confront his parents and find out Semele from the underworld and she joined him on
whether he is actually their son. Syrus’ latest play Mount OLYMPUS.
causes conflict between Chremes and Sostrata, as well Semele does not appear as a character in any exist-
as between Chremes and Clitipho. Fortunately, ing plays, but much of her story is told in the prologue
Menedemus defuses Syrus’ final play by reconciling of EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE. AESCHYLUS wrote a Semele, also
Chremes and Clitipho. Now, the play reverts to com- titled Hydrophoroi, but only seven words survive (frag-
edy and Clitipho will enter a proper marriage. ments 221–24 Radt). Three other Greek tragedians
Chremes forgives Syrus, but the play ends with the also wrote plays whose title includes Semele’s name.
failure of all of Syrus’ efforts as a playwright. Only the title survives of Spintharus’ Semele Struck by
Thunder (see Snell). Two brief fragments (2–3 Snell) of
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carcinus Junior’s Semele survive. An 11-line fragment
Brothers, A. J. “The Construction of Terence’s Heautontimo-
rumenos,” Classical Quarterly 30 (1980): 94–119. (1 Snell) of Diogenes’ Semele is extant. In this fragment,
———. Terence: The Self-Tormentor. Warminster, U.K.: Aris the speaker reports hearing about the ecstatic style of
& Phillips, 1988. the worship of Cybele (see RHEA) and ARTEMIS.
Fantham, E. “Heautontimorumenos and Adelphoe: A Study of [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.4.4, 3.5.3;
Fatherhood in Terence and Menander,” Latomus 30 Aristophanes, Birds 559, Thesmophoriazusae 991;
(1971): 970–98. Euripides, Hippolytus 454, Phoenician Women 1754–55;
Goldberg, S. M. “The Duplex Comoedia.” In Understanding Hyginus, Fables 167, 179; Ovid, Metamorphoses
Terence. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986, 3.253–315; Pausanias, 2.31.2, 9.2.3]
135–48.
Jocelyn. H. D. “Homo Sum: Humani Nil a Me Alienum Puto BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Terence, Heauton Timorumenos 77),” Antichthon 7 (1973): Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
14–46. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
Konstan, D. “Self-Tormentor.” In Greek Comedy and Ideology. Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, 120–30. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Lowe, J. C. B. “The Intrigue of Terence’s Heauton Timoru- Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926.
menos,” Rheinisches Museum 141 (1998): 163–71. Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1971.
SEMELE The mortal daughter of CADMUS and
HARMONIA, Semele was the mother of DIONYSUS by SEMNAI THEAI Sometimes referred to as the
ZEUS. When Semele was pregnant with Dionysus, Zeus’ Semnai, these two (or three) “Revered Goddesses” were
wife, HERA, discovered her husband’s affair, disguised worshiped at ATHENS, where they, as did the
herself as Semele’s maidservant, and persuaded Semele EUMENIDES, lived in a cave beneath the AREOPAGUS.
to ask Zeus to have sexual intercourse with her in the Classical works sometimes equate the Semnai Theai
same way that he did with his wife, Hera. The dis- with the FURIES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus,
 SENEX 499

Eumenides 1041 (see ORESTEIA); Sophocles, Oedipus at scholars to debate whether Seneca’s plays were written
Colonus 458] to be performed. For example, Senecan choruses enter
and exit much more frequently than in Greek TRAGEDY.
SENATE In Rome senators were former holders of Staging them may have been possible, however, if the
public office. In theaters, senators had reserved seats in Senecan chorus was smaller than the Greek chorus.
the orchestra. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Dio Cassius, 58.4.4; Indeed, some scholars believe the Senecan chorus was
Livy, 33.44.5; Suetonius, Augustus 44.1] no more than half the size of its Greek counterpart. If
Seneca’s plays were not performed, they may have been
SENECA (BORN BETWEEN 4 B.C.E. AND 1 composed for private recitation. They were performed
C.E.; DIED 65 C.E.) Lucius Annaeus Seneca, son of a after Seneca’s lifetime, however, and are occasionally
father of the same name, was born in Corduba (Cór- performed today. Senecan tragedy differs from Greek
doba), Spain. An author of tragedies, Seneca was also a tragedy in its use of a five-act structure and asides
Stoic philosopher. When he went to Rome is not clear, (some of which are extended monologues).
but in 39 C.E. he is said to have offended the emperor, Seneca’s plays are marked by an extreme psycholog-
Caligula, and in 41 he was exiled to the island of Corsica ical darkness and despair. He frequently makes
under the charge of committing adultery with Caligula’s obscure mythological references that seemingly serve
sister, Julia Livilla. Seneca returned from exile in 49, and little purpose other than to demonstrate his vast learn-
from 51 he served as tutor (and later political adviser) to ing and the depth of his reading of ancient literature.
NERO. Seneca retired from this service around 62. In 65 Seneca’s tragedies often contain lengthy descriptions
Nero accused Seneca of being involved in a conspiracy that do not advance the plot. In Oedipus, for example,
against him and forced him to commit suicide. the playwright lengthily describes a ritual undertaken
In addition to several philosophical works, 77 epi- by TIRESIAS that fails to determine the killer of LAIUS;
grams, and Apocolocyntosis (a satire of the deification of accordingly, another ritual must be performed. In Her-
the emperor CLAUDIUS), 10 tragedies attributed to cules Furens, THESEUS’ extensive description of the
Seneca have survived: AGAMEMNON, HERCULES FURENS, UNDERWORLD is valuable for its information but does
HIPPOLYTUS, MEDEA, OEDIPUS, PHOENICIAN WOMEN (of not make for “good” drama. Whereas modern scholars
which only 664 lines survive), THYESTES, TROJAN WOMEN, have a lower opinion of Seneca’s tragedies than those of
HERCULES OETAEUS, and OCTAVIA (however, most scholars his Greek predecessors, his plays exerted significant
do not believe Seneca wrote the last two plays). With influence on Elizabethan drama. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Dio
the exception of Octavia, which is based on actual Cassius, 59.19–62.25; Suetonius, Nero 7, 35, 52; Tac-
events in Roman history, and Thyestes, eight of the itus, Annals 13–15]
plays attributed to Seneca were influenced by earlier
BIBLIOGRAPHY
plays by Greek authors. AESCHYLUS wrote an Agamem-
Anderson, W. S. Anger in Juvenal and Seneca. Berkeley: Uni-
non; SOPHOCLES wrote a play about Oedipus’ fall from
versity of California Press, 1964.
power (OEDIPUS TYRANNOS) and HERACLES’ final hours Griffin, Miriam. Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics. 2d ed.
on Earth (TRACHINIAN WOMEN); and EURIPIDES com- Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992.
posed a MEDEA, PHOENICIAN WOMEN, TROJAN WOMEN, a Segal, Charles. Language and Desire in Seneca’s Phaedra.
play about HERACLES’ madness (HERACLES), and a play Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986.
about PHAEDRA’s lust for HIPPOLYTUS (HIPPOLYTUS). The Veyne, P. Seneca: The Life of a Stoic. Translated by D. Sulli-
dates of composition for Seneca’s plays are uncertain; van. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Octavia, which was written a few years before his
death, is the exception. The other plays may tentatively SENEX His name the Latin word for “old man,” the
be dated between the years 49 and 65. senex (plural: senes) is one of the most common charac-
Instances that seem to have little regard to visual ters in Roman COMEDY. Only three of the surviving
plausibility before an audience have led some modern Roman comedies (AMPHITRUO, CURCULIO, and PERSIAN)
500 SERIANS

do not have a senex listed among their cast of charac- PERSEUS and his mother, DANAE, washed ashore on this
ters. Although the senex is a stock character, senes island; were found by a fisherman, DICTYS; and were
behave in a variety of ways. The relationship of primary cared for in the palace of the local king, POLYDECTES
interest to the senex is that with his son (see ADULESCENS), (Dictys’ brother). During ARISTOPHANES’ time, the peo-
who is often in love with a woman of lower social class. ple of Seriphus were allies of the Athenians. Aristo-
In PLAUTUS’ COMEDY OF ASSES, the senex knows about his phanes’ contemporary and rival comic poet CRATINUS
son’s affair and even helps him achieve his desires; how- wrote Men of Seriphus (205–14 Kock), whose frag-
ever, the senex usually opposes to his son’s quest for a ments give little indication of the play’s content.
good time. This sort of senex is the senex iratus (“the [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.6, 2.4.1–2;
angry old man”; see especially Demea in TERENCE’s Aristophanes, Acharnians 542; Hyginus, Fables 63]
BROTHERS), although not all senes (e.g., Euclio in POT OF
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GOLD) are angered by their son’s love affair. Accordingly,
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
the son, aided by a SLAVE or PARASITE, tries to conceal his Teubner, 1880.
affair from the senex while he is authorizing that decep-
tion to acquire money to continue the affair. Senes are SEVEN AGAINST THEBES (Greek:
often portrayed as foolish; such a senex is the senex HEPTA EPI THEBAS; Latin: SEPTEM
credulus (gullible old man; e.g., Periphanes in EPIDICUS). CONTRA THEBAS) AESCHYLUS (467
Eventually, the senex discovers his son’s affair and B.C.E.) This play was the third in a Theban TETRAL-
becomes angry, but then forgives him because he OGY that included Laius, Oedipus, and the SATYR PLAY
behaved the same way when he was young. In some Sphinx. The setting is the ACROPOLIS at THEBES, but what
cases, the senex and his son are in love with the same the stage building represented (if there was one for this
young woman (e.g., PLAUTUS’ Casina). In such situations, play) is not clear. Apparently, statues of the gods were
the senex is called the senex amator (old lover) and must used either in front of the stage building or around the
be on guard against his wife, who will spoil his fun. Some edge of the ORCHESTRA farthest from the audience.
senes are facilitators of other people’s love affairs (e.g., The play’s subject is the war between OEDIPUS’ sons,
Alcesimus for Lysidamus in Casina; Periplectomenus in ETEOCLES and POLYNEICES, for control of the Theban
BRAGGART WARRIOR). Another common role for the senex throne. The prologue begins as the king of Thebes,
is that of the father who searches for and is ultimately Eteocles (the son of Oedipus and JOCASTA), addresses a
reunited with a long-lost son or daughter (e.g., Hanno group of Theban citizens about the status of their cur-
in CARTHAGINIAN, Hegio in CAPTIVES, Daemones in ROPE). rent war with his brother, Polyneices, and his allies
BIBLIOGRAPHY from ARGOS. Eteocles says that a recent prophecy indi-
Cody, J. M. “The Senex Amator in Plautus’ Casina,” Hermes cates that the Argives are preparing an attack on the
104 (1976): 453–76. walls of Thebes and urges the people to prepare to
Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton, defend them. Next, a Theban scout enters and
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 242–49. describes what he has seen in the Argive camp. He
Ryder, K. C. “The Senex Amator in Plautus,” Greece and Rome declares that the army is led by seven chieftains who
31 (1984): 181–89. are prepared to destroy Thebes or die trying. The chief-
tains had drawn lots to determine which would attack
SERIANS A nation of eastern Asia famous for each of Thebes’ seven gates. After the scout departs,
their silken fabrics. They are now identified as the Chi- Eteocles prays to the gods that Thebes will be saved.
nese. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 414, After the exit of Eteocles and the Theban citizens, a
Hippolytus 389, Thyestes 379] CHORUS of distraught Theban women enter and express
their fear at the approach of the enemy. They pray to
SERIPHUS A small Greek island in the southern the gods to protect them and repel the enemy. After
AEGEAN SEA, south of Cythnos and north of Siphnos. their prayers, Eteocles enters and chastises the chorus
 SEVEN AGAINST THEBES 501

for behaving in such an agitated manner and causing raus, a man of deeds and not boasts, carries a shield
panic in the city. Eteocles threatens death to anyone that has no decoration. The scout warns Eteocles about
who disobeys him. The women try to explain their the danger of having a man devoted to the gods as an
actions, but Eteocles suggests that they rely on their enemy. Eteocles responds that he has no fear of
might and weapons to save them rather than the gods. Amphiaraus and sends Lasthenes against him.
He also tells them not to become overly troubled if The final champion described by the scout is Eteo-
they hear the horrific sounds of war and to remain cles’ brother, Polyneices, who declares that he will
quiet. Eteocles then vows sacrifices to the gods if the retake the kingdom and either kill Eteocles or send
Thebans are victorious and announces his intention to him into exile. Polyneices’ shield bears the image of
lead six Theban champions against the seven Argive Lady JUSTICE leading a golden warrior and an inscrip-
chieftains. tion that states that Justice will restore Polyneices to his
After Eteocles exits, the chorus worry about the rightful kingdom of Thebes. Eteocles scoffs at the
impending battle and again call upon the gods to help notion of Polyneices having Justice as an ally and
their city. They are also concerned that Theban women declares that he himself will go out to face his brother.
may be taken captive and subjected to violence. As The chorus warn Eteocles about the implications of
their song ends, Eteocles, accompanied by the six The- killing one’s brother, but Eteocles is determined to gain
ban champions, and the scout enter from opposite victory even if it means the destruction of his own
directions. The scout announces the approach of the brother and his own household. The chorus suggest
Argive army and begins to describe their seven chief- that a sacrifice might appease the gods who oppose
tains. After the scout describes TYDEUS and his shield in Eteocles’ house, but Eteocles believes the gods have
some detail, Eteocles declares that he has no fear of forsaken him and his family. The Theban women beg
what a person has on his shield and then sends out Eteocles not to go out into battle against his brother,
MELANIPPUS to match up with Tydeus. but he refuses.
The scout then describes Argive CAPANEUS and men- After Eteocles exits, the chorus recall Oedipus’ curse
tions his boast that he will take the city even against that his sons would destroy each other. They wonder
the will of the gods. He describes Capaneus’ shield, how the stain of brother’s killing brother can be
which declares Capaneus’ intention to burn the city. cleansed; the women recall APOLLO’s warning to Oedi-
Again, ETEOCLES scoffs at Capaneus’ proud attitude, pus’ father, LAIUS, that he should remain childless, and
and he sends out Polyphontes to face his attack. Next, Laius’ having sexual relations with his wife and pro-
the scout describes Eteoclus of ARGOS, whose shield ducing the child Oedipus, whose curse has led them to
shows a man scaling city walls; against him Eteocles the current crisis. The women wonder how their city
sends MEGAREUS. The scout then describes the Argive can be saved now. They remember that Oedipus saved
HIPPOMEDON, whose shield is emblazoned with the the city when they were faced with the threat of the
image of the fire-breathing monster TYPHON. Eteocles Sphinx, but that after Oedipus’ murder and incest were
matches against him Hyperbius, whose shield bears discovered his sons barred him from the company of
the image of ZEUS, who, according to legend, defeated their table and he cursed them.
TYPHON. After the choral ode, the scout enters and informs
The fifth Argive chieftain is PARTHENOPAEUS, whose the Theban women that the Theban army has held, but
shield has an image of the SPHINX, the monster that that Eteocles and Polyneices have killed one another in
harassed the Thebans before Oedipus caused its down- battle. Hearing this news, the Theban women wonder
fall. Against him Eteocles sends Hyperbius’ brother, how they should react. They are happy that Thebes is
ACTOR. Next, the scout describes the Argive warrior- safe but lament the deaths of the brothers and the ful-
prophet AMPHIARAUS, who the scout says opposed the fillment of Oedipus’ curse. As the chorus continue
war against Thebes and predicted disaster for himself their lament, the bodies of Polyneices and Eteocles are
and his fellow Argives. The scout notes that Amphia- carried in. The brothers’ sisters, ANTIGONE and ISMENE,
502 SEVEN AGAINST THEBES

accompany the mourners who have entered. The The- the word brother (adelphos, kasignetos) 11 times in the
ban women express their sorrow for the sisters’ loss play, whereas the word city (polis) is spoken more than
and make a lengthy lamentation over the brothers. 60 times. In Seven, the goal is the defense of the city
Eventually, the sisters join in the lamentation. and the play focuses on how Eteocles will defend
After this lament, a herald enters and informs the Thebes. The city’s king likens himself to an alert cap-
mourners that the Theban councilors have decreed tain of a ship (nautical and water imagery is commonly
that Eteocles, as a defender of the town, will be buried used in Seven) and begins the drama by calling upon
with all appropriate honor, but that Polyneices, as one the Theban citizens and the gods to defend the city. In
who waged war against Thebes, will not be given bur- contrast to Eteocles, who is confident, the Theban
ial and his body will be left out for the wild animals. women are terrified for their city.
Upon hearing this, Antigone declares that she will bury Eteocles may be an alert ship’s captain, but the cho-
Polyneices whatever the penalty the Thebans impose rus view the approaching army as like a rushing river
on her. The herald warns her against this, but Antigone (80). They wonder who will save them and their city
persists. and pray to the gods. Eteocles chastises them and sug-
After the herald’s exit, the play reaches its conclu- gests that their panic does not help the city (183). The
sion as half the chorus wonder what they should do panicked cries of the women within the city are juxta-
with respect to Polyneices, while the other half declare posed with the sounds of war outside the city. Within
that they will mourn him. They also state that they will the city, Eteocles tries to silence the women so that they
accompany his body to the grave because he helped will not spread their fear to others. Although Eteocles
save them from falling into the hands of the enemy. prayed to the gods to protect the city earlier, he criti-
cizes the women’s frenzied worship of the gods. Eteo-
COMMENTARY cles argues that men should conduct sacrifice and
As noted, Seven against Thebes followed Laius and Oedi- consult the gods in an orderly fashion. Still, after Eteo-
pus to the stage. Although neither of the first two plays cles departs to select six other Theban champions to
has survived, the fragments give some indication of defend the gates from those who threaten the city from
their content. In Laius, Oedipus had apparently been the outside, inside the city the women continue to call
born, and his birth violated an ORACLE in which Laius upon the gods to save the city and imagine what will
had been directed not to have a child. This play may happen to the city’s inhabitants if it is captured.
have dealt with Laius’ death but did not reveal that While the chorus focus on affairs inside the city, the
Oedipus was the killer. As did SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS messenger and Eteocles now give their full attention to
some four decades later, Aeschylus’ Oedipus apparently business outside the city and the seven gates of Thebes.
treated the discovery of Oedipus as Laius’ killer, his The Argive champions do not speak; their shields
blinding, and his curse on Eteocles and Polyneices. speak for them. The perceived arrogance of the various
How and/or when Polyneices’ exile to Argos and his Argive champions is contrasted with the nobility of the
marriage to Adrastus’ daughter was made known to the Thebans who will oppose them. Capaneus, for exam-
audience is not clear. Perhaps Aeschylus expected the ple, has boasted that he will sack the city whether the
audience to know of these events already. What images gods will it or not (427–28), and his shield bears the
or themes connected Seven with the two plays that pre- inscription “I shall burn the city” (434). As Capaneus
ceded it are unknown. We might guess that in each does, Parthenopaeus threatens to destroy the city even
play the king (Laius, Oedipus, Eteocles) was faced with if he opposes Zeus’ will (531–32). Furthermore, the
an oracle that would lead to his own downfall and dan- image of the Sphinx on his shield serves as an insult to
ger to the city. the city (539).
Oedipus’ sons are the principal individuals in this The arrogance of the Argive champions Capaneus
play; however, the city of Thebes could well be con- and Parthenopaeus is contrasted with the attitude of
sidered a character: The audience of Seven would hear Amphiaraus, who is not concerned with the destruc-
 THE SHIELD 503

tion of the Theban city, but of the Argive city. He labels honor with burial someone whom the city hates
TYDEUS a source of confusion to the Argive city (572) (1046). Just as Polyneices used force against his native
and criticizes Polyneices for waging war against his land, Antigone is now determined to wage her own
native city (581). Even Eteocles recognizes Amphia- sort of war against Thebes. Earlier Eteocles had tried to
raus’ piety and, in keeping with the nautical imagery silence the Theban women and persuade them to
elsewhere in the play, likens him to a pious sailor who return to their home. Now Eteocles’ own sister will not
travels with rascals. Ultimately, the pious and the impi- be silent and threatens to involve herself in the affairs
ous will perish together (602–8). of the city, an uncommon role for a Greek female. As
Finally, Eteocles’ brother is described and the mes- Polyneices visited violence on the city from the out-
senger notes how Polyneices curses the city (632). side, Antigone’s intent to defy the city’s decree causes a
Polyneices wants to take control of the city and either rift within the city. The women of the chorus now
kill or exile Eteocles in the process. Polyneices also become divided, some opposing the city (1066–67)
calls upon the gods to help him take the city, and his and others speaking in favor of the city’s decree
shield’s inscription bears the words of the goddess Jus- (1072–73).
tice: “I will escort this man and he will have his father’s
BIBLIOGRAPHY
city and the occupation of his house” (647–48). Eteo- Adkins, A. W. H. “Divine and Human Values in Aeschylus’
cles has been rational and methodical in his previous Seven against Thebes,” Antike und Abendland 28 (1982):
selection of champions; with full awareness of his 32–68.
father’s curse he decides to stand against his brother. Cameron, H. D. Studies on the Seven against Thebes of Aeschy-
Earlier in the play, Eteocles had criticized the women lus. Den Haag: Mouton, 1971.
for their irrational behavior; now the women beg Eteo- Hutchinson, G. O. Aeschylus: Seven against Thebes. Oxford:
cles to reject the madness that is driving him on. Clarendon Press, 1985.
Thalmann, W. G. Dramatic Art in Aeschylus’ Seven against
Eteocles will not accept the women’s advice, how-
Thebes. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1978.
ever, and goes out to defend his city. Just as his father, Zeitlin, F. I. Under the Sign of the Shield: Semiotics and
Oedipus, saved the city but experienced his own Aeschylus’ Seven against Thebes. Roma: Edizioni dell’ Ate-
downfall, Eteocles’ strategy helps save the city but neo, 1982.
results in his own death. The city sails on smooth
water again (795–96), but it has lost its captain. The THE SHIELD (Greek: ASPIS) MENAN-
city prospers, but the brothers have perished DER (DATE IS UNKNOWN) Most of the final
(816–18). Earlier in the play, the women were emo- two acts is lost. The drama’s setting is ATHENS, and its
tional, but were certain about what sort of prayers they action takes place before the houses of Smicrines, the
would address to the gods. Now they are not sure uncle of Cleostratus, and Chairestratus, the younger
whether to rejoice for the city’s safety (826) or mourn brother of Smicrines. The first act opens with the
for Eteocles and Polyneices. The arrival of Antigone appearance of Daos, a servant of Smicrines and the for-
and Ismene determines their decision, and the women mer tutor of Cleostratus. Daos has returned from Lycia
mourn the brothers. with Lycian captives and various spoils of war. Daos,
The concerns of the city return, however, with the who carries Cleostratus’ shield, informs the audience
arrival of the herald. The city’s counselors (1006) have that he thinks Cleostratus has died in battle. Smicrines
decided that Eteocles will be buried on the city’s soil, overhears this declaration and asks Daos to explain
but that Polyneices’ body will be unburied because he how he died. Daos explains how Cleostratus acquired
led an army against the city (1019). This announce- the spoils of war and describes an unexpected attack
ment upsets Antigone, who declares she will bury by the Lycians. A number of Greeks were killed, and
Polyneices in defiance of the city (1030). The herald Daos presumes that Cleostratus was among them, but
responds, “I forbid you to exert force on the city in this he could not identify his body because the corpses
matter” (1042). He also marvels that Antigone will were already a few days old. Daos did, however, find
504 THE SHIELD

Cleostratus’ shield beside one of the bodies. After this, to die suddenly. With Chairestratus dead, Smicrines
Smicrines and Daos enter their respective houses to will forget Cleostratus’ sister and attempt to marry
break the news of Cleostratus’ death to the others. Chairestratus’ daughter, who stands to inherit more
After their departure, the goddess Chance (Greek: money than Cleostratus’ sister. Chairestratus agrees to
TYCHE) appears and delivers a delayed prologue. She Daos’ plan, and Chaireas offers to help. The act closes
informs the audience that Cleostratus is not dead and as the three plan to put the scheme into action.
that another man grabbed his shield in the confusion In Act 3, Daos arrives from Chairestratus’ house,
of the sudden Lycian attack and was killed. The god- sees Smikrines, and begins to lament the illness of
dess tells the audience that Cleostratus will soon Chairestratus. Soon one of Chaireas’ friends, pretend-
return. She also points out that Smicrines is an evil ing to be a doctor, arrives and enters Chairestratus’
person who wants to get his hands on the spoils of war house. After a short time, the doctor emerges and
and will try to do so by arranging a marriage with informs Smicrines of Chairestratus’ illness and
Cleostratus’ sister (heir to the spoils of war and living impending death. At this point, the manuscript breaks
in Chairestratus’ house). Cleostratus’ sister, however, off for more than 200 lines. As Daos predicted earlier,
has already been engaged to Chaireas, Chairestratus’ however, Smicrines apparently decides to marry
stepson. The goddess, however, lets the audience Chairestratus’ daughter.
know that she will prevent Smicrines from carrying out Most of the fourth act is also lost; it appears that
his evil plot and will reveal his true nature. Chairestratus’ “death” occurred, and that Smicrines
After the goddess exits, Smicrines enters from his agreed to the marriage of Chaireas and Cleostratus’ sis-
house and goes to speak with Daos, who has emerged ter. About a dozen lines that do survive reveal that
from Chairestratus’ house. Smicrines complains to Cleostratus returned alive from the war and was met
Daos about Chairestratus’ treatment of him, including by a stunned Daos. The last dozen lines of act 4 are
not consulting him about the man to whom Chaire- lost; presumably Daos explained the plot against Smi-
stratus will marry Cleostratus’ sister. Smicrines sug- crines to Cleostratus. The final act is also largely miss-
gests that he himself should marry Cleostratus’ sister. ing, but presumably Cleostratus would have married
Daos, however, does not want to become involved in Chairestratus’ daughter, Chaireas would have married
Smicrines’ business and returns to Chairestratus’ Cleostratus’ sister, and Smicrines, discovering that
house. Smicrines departs for the city to seek further Chairestratus was not dead, would have had neither a
advice on the matter. After his exit, a cook and his wife nor the financial rewards for which he hoped.
waiter are run out of Chairestratus’ house by Daos,
because the apparent death of Cleostratus has can- COMMENTARY
celled the wedding of Chaireas and Cleostratus’ sister The issues at the forefront of scholarly discussion of
that was to occur. MENANDER’s Shield are the role of Tyche (“fortune” or
The play’s second act begins with the arrival of Smi- “chance”) and the playwright’s treatment of the law.
crines; his brother, Chairestratus; and Chairestratus’ Although the divinity Tyche delivers the play’s pro-
stepson, Chaireas. They discuss arrangements for logue of the play and does not appear again, the god-
Cleostratus’ funeral and Smicrines’ proposal to marry dess and her power drive the play’s development.
Cleostratus’ sister. Chairestratus is opposed to the plan When Smicrines chances to overhear Daos lamenting
because Smicrines is much older than Cleostratus’ sis- the death of Cleostratus, this leads him to question the
ter and is engaged to Chaireas. The debate, however, is slave about the fate of Cleostratus and he learns about
not settled. An angry Smicrines exits to his house, the plunder with which Daos has returned. This
while Chairestratus and Chaireas lament the current knowledge leads Smicrines to plot to marry Cleostra-
situation. Daos then emerges from Chairestratus’ house tus’ sister. When Daos leans of Smicrines’ plan, the
and tells Chairestratus that he has a scheme for thwart- slave laments that Tyche intends to give him an awful
ing Smicrines. Chairestratus will pretend to be ill and master (Smicrines) and wonders how he has wronged
 SICINNIS 505

the goddess (213–15). In the second half of the play, SICILIAN EXPEDITION In 415 B.C.E., the
Smicrines again chances to overhear Daos lamenting a Athenians sent a substantial naval force to SICILY. On the
death. This time, however, Daos knows that Smicrines surface, the expedition’s aim was to provide support to
is listening and has concocted a false death that he the people of Egesta (also known as Segesta), with
hopes will lead Smicrines away from his plan to marry whom the Athenians had an alliance, against any Sicil-
Cleostratus’s sister. Ultimately, Daos’ creation of a false ian cites that might try to aid the Spartans. The city of
occurrence of Tyche prevents Smicrines’ from carrying Syracuse, which had a large fleet, posed the greatest
out his evil plan. threat to the Athenians. In reality, the Athenians proba-
In addition to the play’s concern with Tyche, the bly hoped to exploit the vast natural resources of the
issue of law has dominated scholarly modern criticism island, as well as its strategic trading location in the
of the Shield. In 1977, Karnezis posited that Menan- Mediterranean Sea. The expedition started badly, as its
der’s representation of inheritance law in the Shield did most skilled military commander, ALCIBIADES, was
not correspond completely to actual practice in Athen- recalled to Athens for an inquiry into his involvement
ian law. In 1982, MacDowell argued that although in a scandal about the MYSTERIES of Demeter. Alcibiades
Smicrines had a legal right to pursue Cleostratus’ sister eluded the ship sent to take him back and escaped to
and thus acquire the property of her brother, Shield SPARTA. In 414, another of the expedition’s command-
reveals Menander’s opposition to Athenian laws ers, Lamachus, was killed. This left the mission in the
regarding inheritance. In the following year, Brown charge of NICIAS, a capable but overly cautious com-
attempted to rebut MacDowell’s argument, returning to mander. In 413, when it became clear that the Atheni-
the line of argument first set forth by Karnezis, namely ans could not win, Nicias decided to leave SICILY. As the
that because the characters in Shield do not accurately Athenians were preparing to sail away, a lunar eclipse
cite Athenian law on inheritance, the play does not occurred. This prompted Nicias to consult the army’s
show that Menander opposes Athenian law on this soothsayers, who recommended that they not move for
matter. 27 days. Nicias followed their advice and the Athenian
BIBLIOGRAPHY fleet was surrounded and eventually destroyed.
Brown, P. G. M. “Menander’s Dramatic Technique and the
Law of Athens.” Classical Quarterly 33 (1983): 412–20. SICILY A large, triangular island in the Mediter-
Groton, A. H. A Commentary on Menander’s Aspis 1–163. ranean Sea located just off the toe of Italy’s boot. The
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, island had been colonized by Greeks as early as the
1982. eight century B.C.E. AESCHYLUS lived in Sicily for some
Karnezis, J. E. “Misrepresentation of Attic Laws in Menan- time, produced a few of his plays there, and died there.
der’s Aspis.” Platon 29 (1977): 152–55. In classical drama, Sicily and its volcanic mountain
Lloyd-Jones, H. “Menander’s Aspis.” Greek, Roman, and Aetna were the setting for EURIPIDES’ CYCLOPS. In 415
Byzantine Studies 12 (1971): 175–95. B.C.E., the Athenians launched a military expedition to
MacDowell, D. M. “Love Versus the Law. An Essay on the island, which was defeated two years later.
Menander’s Aspis.” Greece and Rome 29 (1982): 42–52.
SICINNIS A type of dance in SATYR PLAYS.
SIBYL (SIBYLLA) A female prophet who Athenaeus says a barbarian named Sicinnus invented
made frenzied prophecies under the inspiration of the dance. A person who danced the sicinnis was called
APOLLO. She became so famous that eventually the a sicinnistes. According to Eustathius’ source, the Phry-
name Sibyl was applied to other female prophets; the gians originally performed this dance in honor of
best known of these was on the eastern coast of Italy DIONYSUS Sabazius, and it was named after a nymph,
at Cumae. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace Sicinnis, a follower of Cybele (see RHEA). [ANCIENT
1095, 1116; Pausanias, 10.12.1–7; Plato, Phaedrus SOURCES: Athenaeus, 1.20e; Euripides, Cyclops 37;
244b] Eustathius on Iliad, 16.617; Lucian, On Dance 22]
506 SICYON

SICYON A town on the Greek coast northwest of and the Cyclops drags Silenus into his cave to have his
CORINTH. ZEUS’ lover ANTIOPE is said to have fled here way (sexually) with the old satyr. Silenus also appeared
after her father, Nycteus, discovered that she was preg- as a character in SOPHOCLES’ satyr play SEARCHERS.
nant with Zeus’ children. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.5.4; Hygi-
phanes, Birds 968] nus, Fables 191; Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.90, 99;
Seneca, Oedipus 429]
SIDON A Phoenician town just north of TYRE on
the coast of the eastern Mediterranean. Playwrights SILVANUS A Roman god of forests. [ANCIENT
sometimes mention Sidon as the birthplace of EUROPA SOURCES: Plautus, Pot of Gold 674, 676, 766]
and CADMUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs
1225; Euripides, Bacchae 171; Seneca, Oedipus 163, SIMAETHA A prostitute supposedly loved by
713, Octavia 206] ALCIBIADES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians
524]
SIGEUM The name of the harbor at TROY. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Sophocles, Philoctetes 355; Seneca, Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
Agamemnon 436, Trojan Women 75, 141, 932] Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 182.

SIKYONIOS See MAN FROM SICYON. SIMOIS One of two rivers (the other is the SCA-
MANDER) near the town of TROY.
SILANUS, L. JUNIUS A Roman politician
engaged to OCTAVIA, who was killed so that she could SIMON (1) An Athenian, perhaps fictional, who
marry NERO. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Octavia 145] may have been a cavalry commander. One known
Simon “wrote a treatise on horsemanship and . . . ded-
SILENUS (SILEN) The son of HERMES, PAN, or icated a bronze statue of a horse at the Eleusinium in
Gaea (see EARTH), Silenus is often called the father of Athens with his . . . achievements . . . displayed in
the SATYRS. One source makes him the father of the relief on the plinth” (Sommerstein). [ANCIENT SOURCES:
centaur Pholus by a Melian NYMPH. As were satyrs, Aristophanes, Clouds 351, Knights 242; Xenophon, On
Silenus was part human, but had the horns and legs of Horsemanship 1.1]
a goat and the tail of a horse. He was quite lusty and BIBLIOGRAPHY
usually quite drunk. Unlike the satyrs, though, Silenus Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
had a gift for prophecy. Some sources attribute the Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 155.
invention of the pipes to Silenus, and some refer to
multiple Sileni. SIMON (2) An Athenian, probably a politician and
Silenus was a common character in the SATYR PLAY. a supporter of CLEON, whom the comic poets labeled a
Silenus appears as a character in EURIPIDES’ CYCLOPS. In debtor, embezzler, and perjurer. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
this play, Silenus is loyal to DIONYSUS and had searched Aristophanes, Clouds 351; Eupolis, fragment 218 Kock]
for the god when pirates abducted him, but is also a BIBLIOGRAPHY
double-crossing, cowardly fellow. When ODYSSEUS and Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
his men arrive at the CYCLOPS’ cave, where Silenus and Teubner, 1880.
his sons are slaves, Silenus agrees to trade Odysseus Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 3,
some food in exchange for Odysseus’ wine. When the Clouds. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1982. 179.
Cyclops returns, however, Silenus, fearing his evil mas-
ter will punish him, claims that Odysseus and his men SIMONIDES (556–457 B.C.E.) From the
were trying to steal the food. Eventually, Silenus is island of Ceos, Simonides wrote various types of lyric
punished, when Odysseus makes the Cyclops drunk poetry. Sometime before 514 B.C.E., Simonides went to
 SIRENS 507

ATHENS, where he is said to have been victorious 56 BIBLIOGRAPHY

times in competitions for dithyrambic poetry (see Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
DITHYRAMB). In 514 Simonides traveled to THESSALY, but Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
he had returned to Athens by 490 B.C.E., and his epi- Harvard University Press, 1996.
taph written in honor of those who died at the battle of Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
MARATHON was selected instead of that composed by
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
AESCHYLUS. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 919,
Press of America, 1984.
Clouds 1356, 1362, Knights 406, Peace 697–98, Wasps
1410; Eupolis, fragment 139.1 Kock]
SINOPE An important Greek colony on the Black
BIBLIOGRAPHY Sea’s southern coast. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus, Cur-
Bowra, C. M. Greek Lyric Poetry from Alcman to Simonides. 2d culio 443]
rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: SIPARIUM (Plural: SIPARIA) A curtain
Teubner, 1880. before which MIMES performed; according to Csapo
and Slater, it “blocked the view of the stage.”
SINIS The son of Polypemon (or Lytaeus) and
Sylea, Sinis was an outlaw who lived near the town of BIBLIOGRAPHY
CORINTH and whose nickname was the Pine Bender. Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
According to some sources, Sinis forced those who Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995.
passed by to bend pine trees. The trees then snapped
back and threw the people into the air. Other sources SIPYLUS A mountain in what is today western
say that Sinis made people bend two pines or tied their Turkey. NIOBE was said to have been transformed into
limbs to two bent pines, and then let the pines snap a stone that was on Sipylus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol-
back, tearing people apart and killing them when they lodorus, Library 3.5.6; Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis
fell to the ground. THESEUS, however, ended Sinis’ reign 952; Pausanias, 1.21.3; Seneca, Agamemnon 394, Her-
of terror by forcing him to bend his own pines. Pausa- cules Furens 391, Hercules Oetaeus 185; Sophocles,
nias says that Theseus was related to Sinis through Antigone 825]
Theseus’ grandfather, Pittheus, and that Theseus had a
son, Melanippus, by Sinis’ daughter, who Plutarch says SIRENS The daughters of the river ACHELOUS, the
was named Perigune. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Sirens were a group of creatures who had the body of
Library 3.16.2; Baccylides, Ode 18.19–24; Euripides, a bird and the face of a woman. Apollodorus gives their
Hippolytus 977–78; Pausanias, 1.37.4, 2.1.4, 10.25.7; names as Aglaope, Pisinoe, and Thelxiepia. When
Plutarch, Theseus 8.2–3, 25.6, 29.1; Seneca, Hercules sailors ventured past their island, they sang an alluring
Oetaeus 1393, Hippolytus 1169, 1223] song that would cause the sailors to venture too close
to their island, which was ringed by treacherous reefs
SINON The son of Aesimus, Sinon was a spy left that wrecked the ships. Some sailors jumped off their
behind by the Greeks after they deposited the wooden ship and were killed by smashing on the reefs.
horse outside TROY and pretended to sail for Greece. ODYSSEUS’ encounter with the Sirens on his journey
Sinon allowed the Trojans to capture him and told home from TROY is the best-known story involving
them a false tale to persuade them to taken the horse these creatures. Odysseus managed to save his crew
into their city. Sophocles wrote a Sinon, of which four from the Sirens by telling them to put wax into their
words survive (fragments 542–44 Radt). [ANCIENT ears before they sailed past. Odysseus told his crew to
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 5.15–19; Hyginus, tie him to the ship’s mast and thereby heard their song.
Fables 108; Seneca, Agamemnon 626, Trojan Women 39; It was prophesied that the Sirens would die if a ship
Vergil, Aeneid 2.57–198] escaped them and some traditions say they perished
508 SISYPHUS

after Odysseus sailed past. The comic poet Nicophon Nauck) back. [ANCIENT SOURCES Apollodorus, Library
wrote a Sirens, whose three brief extant fragments tell 1.9.3, 3.12.6; Euripides, Heracles 1103; Homer,
nothing about the play’s plot or characters (fragments Odyssey 11.593–600; Hyginus, Fables 60; Pausanias,
12–14 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 2.4.3]
7.18–19; Ovid, Metamorphoses 5.552–562]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
Teubner, 1880. Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
SISYPHUS The son of AEOLUS and Aenarete, Sisy- Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1926.
phus was the husband of MEROPE and the father of Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1971.
GLAUCUS, Ornytion, Thersander, and Almus. Sisyphus
was also credited with founding CORINTH. Because the
name of Sisyphus was synonymous with deception,
SITALCES (DIED 424 B.C.E.) King of a Thra-
cian tribe called the Odrysae, Sitalces was an ally of
ODYSSEUS is sometimes called the son of Sisyphus. In
ATHENS in the first years of the PELOPONNESIAN WAR. In
EURIPIDES’ MEDEA, MEDEA links JASON, who had reneged
the year 429/498, the Athenians did not give Sitalces
on his oath to her, with Sisyphus. When Sisyphus
the naval support he needed to invade Macedonia, and
revealed to the river Asopus that ZEUS had carried off
the cordial relations of the Athenians and Sitalces
his daughter, Aegina, Sisyphus was punished in the
appear to have ended. After Sitalces’ death, his
UNDERWORLD, where he was forced to push a rock up a
nephew, Seuthes, who was well disposed toward the
hill, only to have it roll down again once he reached
Macedonians, succeeded him. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
the top. Another story about Sisyphus is that he bound
Aristophanes, Acharnians 134; Thucydides 2.95–101]
Death himself and that people ceased to die. ARES
released Death, captured Sisyphus, and took the rascal BIBLIOGRAPHY
to the underworld. Sisyphus, however, who had Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
instructed his wife not to make proper offering to Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 164.
HADES, persuaded the underworld’s ruler to allow him
to return to the upper world to arrange for appropriate SKENE (SCAENA) (Plural: SKENAI/
offerings. After he was above ground, however, Sisy- SCAENAE) The skene is the stage building that is
phus refused to return to the underworld. situated at the side of the ORCHESTRA that is farthest
Sisyphus was the subject of several dramas that are from the audience. The English word scene is derived
not extant. Aeschylus may have written two plays from this Greek word, which literally means “tent.” In
about him, Sisyphus Drapetês (The runaway) and Sisy- the fifth century B.C.E., the skene was made of wood; it
phus Petrokylistês (The stone roller) (fragments 225–34 appears to have been in use as early as AESCHYLUS’
Radt); Lloyd-Jones seems inclined to think that they ORESTEIA of 458 B.C.E. Around 430 B.C.E., permanent
were actually the same play. The few fragments that skenai of stone were first built. The skene was rectan-
survive indicate that Aeschylus’ Sisyphus was a SATYR gular, and its width would have varied from theater to
PLAY about Sisyphus’ return from the underworld. theater but could have been more than 60 feet. The
Sophocles may also have written a Sisyphus, but only skene had as many as three doors; the surviving Greek
one uninformative fragment survives (fragment 545 tragedies probably needed only one door, whereas the
Radt). Euripides also wrote a Sisyphus, in which HERA- surviving Greek comedies seem to have made use of
CLES seems to have been a character and perhaps three doors. The skene had an opening in the roof of its
encountered Sisyphus when Heracles journeyed to the lower story that allowed actors access to the skene’s
underworld to take CERBERUS (fragments 673–74 roof. In the fifth century B.C.E., the roof appears to have
 SLAVES 509

been flat, but as stone theaters were built second levels Townsend, R. F. “The Fourth Century Skene of the Theater
with roofs, sides, and doors were constructed. of Dionysos at Athens,” Hesperia 55 (1986): 421–38.
In Greek TRAGEDY, the skene usually represents the
palace of a ruler but can also represent a temple (e.g., SKENOGRAPHIA Skenographia, scene painting,
EURIPIDES’ ION, IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS) or cave (e.g., was, according to ARISTOTLE, introduced in drama by
SOPHOCLES’ PHILOCTETES, Euripides’ Cyclops). Among SOPHOCLES. Vitruvius, however, writing in the last
the surviving Greek tragedies, change of scene is not quarter of the first century B.C.E., says it first appeared
common. Aeschylus’ Eumenides (see ORESTEIA) opens in ATHENS during the time of AESCHYLUS and that an
at the temple of APOLLO at DELPHI, then moves to artist named Agatharchus introduced it. Apparently,
ATHENS. Sophocles’ Ajax begins near Ajax’s tent, but the front of the stage building (see SKENE) had an appa-
Ajax kills himself near the seashore. How these ratus that allowed panels to be attached to its front.
changes would have been represented—if they These panels could be painted so that the stage build-
were—on stage is not clear. The skene may have been ing might better represent a palace, temple, cave, or
equipped with slots into which painted panels could other setting required by a particular play. According
be placed and removed as the scene required, but it is to Vitruvius different forms of scene painting were
doubted whether such panels were available in the used in TRAGEDY, COMEDY, and the SATYR PLAY. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aristotle, Poetics 1449a11; Vitruvius, On
fifth century B.C.E.
Architecture 5.6, 7 preface 11]
Although changes of scene did occur in Greek
tragedy, in Aristophanic COMEDY, the audience must
SKENOTHEKE (SKANOTHEKA) An area
have had to pay more careful attention, as what the
near or within the stage building (see SKENE) used for
skene represented might change multiple times in a
dressing or storage. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Inscriptions de
play. In ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS, the audience must Délos 444 B 103, 104; Inscriptiones Graecae 5(1).879.2,
imagine DICAEOPOLIS at the meeting place of the Athen- 5(2).469.5]
ian assembly, at his own house in the country, at the
house of Euripides, and at an imaginary marketplace. SLAVES In the Greek and Roman world, slaves
In Aristophanes’ PEACE and FROGS, the scene changes were usually people captured through the conquest of
between the Earth and heaven in the former play and their land, victims of abduction by slave traders or
between Earth and the UNDERWORLD in the latter. In pirates, or persons whose financial situation led them
New Comedy, the skene most often represents two to sell themselves into slavery. Slaves included not only
houses (usually either the houses of two citizens or the those who performed manual labor, such as herders of
house of a citizen and that of a PIMP or PROSTITUTE). Less cattle, but also tutors and nurses in classical drama. In
often in New Comedy, the skene represents one or Greek drama of the fifth century, especially TRAGEDY,
three houses. Sometimes, New Comedy has a temple slaves usually do not have extensive speaking roles. In
or altar near the “houses” (e.g., PLAUTUS’ CURCULIO, POT the seven surviving plays attributed to AESCHYLUS,
OF GOLD, ROPE). slaves deliver fewer than 100 total lines. After the time
of Aeschylus, however, the speaking roles for slave
BIBLIOGRAPHY characters increased. In ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS, EURIPIDES
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
is criticized for expanding the speaking roles of mem-
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 79–88.
Mastronarde, D. J. “Actors on High: The Skene Roof, the
bers of the lower classes in tragedy. Euripides’ surviv-
Crane, and the Gods in Attic Drama,” Classical Antiquity 9 ing plays (some of which have no speaking roles for
(1990): 247–94. slaves), however, suggest that Aristophanes exagger-
Taplin, O. “Sophocles in His Theatre.” In Sophocle. Edited ated. It is true, however, that slaves speak more than
by J. de Romilly. Geneva: Vandœuvres Fondation Hardt, 15 percent of the lines in HIPPOLYTUS, ION, and IPHIGE-
1982, 155–83. NIA IN TAURIS.
510 SLEEP

In Aristophanes’ early plays, slaves have fairly lim- kings, generals, or heroes of mythology. Some modern
ited speaking roles. WASPS and PEACE both begin with scholars have characterized Plautus’ plays as contain-
dialogues between slaves that help introduce the sub- ing plays within plays in which one character, usually
ject matter of the play, but these slaves have no signif- the slave, produces a “play” whose aim is the deception
icance after the PROLOGUE. In Aristophanic comedy of another character or characters within the play.
slaves seem to have had more speaking parts as time
BIBLIOGRAPHY
went on. The wise-cracking slave Sosias, who accom-
Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
panies DIONYSUS to the UNDERWORLD in Frogs (405 N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 249–53.
B.C.E.), and the rather clever Cario in Aristophanes’ Ehrenberg, V. The People of Aristophanes: A Sociology of Old Attic
WEALTH (388 B.C.E.) are often regarded as predecessors Comedy. 2d rev. ed. Oxford: Blackwells, 1951, 165–91.
of the wily slaves who would become commonplace in Fitzgerald, William. Slavery and the Roman Literary Imagina-
the centuries after Aristophanes. tion: Roman Literature and Its Contexts. Cambridge: Cam-
Although slaves appear frequently in MENANDER’s bridge University Press, 2000.
comedies, they usually do not have the cleverness and MacCary, W. T. “Menander’s Slaves: Their Names, Roles, and
trickery that would become a hallmark of Plautine Masks,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philo-
comedy. Three of PLAUTUS’ comedies, Epidicus, PSEUDO- logical Society 100 (1969): 277–94.
McCarthy, K. Slaves, Masters and the Art of Authority in Plau-
LUS, and STICHUS, take their name from slaves. In sev-
tine Comedy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
eral Plautine plays, slaves control and dominate the
2000.
action: Chrysalus (BACCHIDES), Palaestrio (BRAGGART
WARRIOR), Tranio (HAUNTED HOUSE). None of TERENCE’s
six plays is named after a slave, but Terence does have
SLEEP (Greek: HUPNOS; Latin: SOM-
important roles for slaves (e.g., Davus in ANDRIA; Par-
NUS) The son of NIGHT, this divinity personifies
sleep. In EURIPIDES’ CYCLOPS (601), when ODYSSEUS pre-
meno in EUNUCH; Geta in PHORMIO).
pares to blind the monster, he prays to HEPHAESTUS, a
Most slaves in Roman comedy, although they often
god of fire, and to Sleep to help him in his task. In
grumble about their job and fear punishment, do
SOPHOCLES’ PHILOCTETES (827), the chorus pray for Sleep
attend to their duties, are loyal to their master and mis-
to fall upon the eyes of PHILOCTETES. See also SENECA’s
tress, and reject improper or immoral behavior. The
HERCULES FURENS (1066), in which the chorus invoke
most memorable slaves in Roman comedy, however,
Sleep after Hercules’ (see HERACLES) fit of madness.
are that small number who, although loyal to at least
their master or their mistress, engage in trickery and
deception. Terms used to describe such slaves are SMICYTHION Sommerstein suggests that this
servus callidus (shrewd slave) and servus dolosus (tricky man, whom ARISTOPHANES calls the husband of MELIS-
slave). The most common target for these slaves’ TICHE and suggests was impotent, may have been a fre-

deceptions is either an old citizen (SENEX) or a PIMP. The quent prosecutor in the Athenian court system and
clever slave usually embarks on such deceptions at the identical with Smicythion of Halae, who “was secretary
request of a young man (ADULESCENS) who is the son of to the board of control for Eleiusis in 407/6 [B.C.E.].”
his master. Thus, to be loyal to his young master the Aristophanes’ elder contemporary the comic poet Phere-
slave must deceive his old master. Often, to carry out crates mentions a gluttonous Smicythion. [ANCIENT
their schemes, slaves pretend to be other people or SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 46, Wasps 401;

arrange for their accomplices to pretend to be others. Pherecrates, fragment 32]

In carrying out their schemes, the clever slaves often BIBLIOGRAPHY
reverse their social roles in literal and figurative ways. Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
They order freeborn people to perform tasks and take Teubner, 1880.
on roles to help them accomplish their schemes. In a Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10,
figurative sense, the slaves are often characterized as Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, 142.
 SOCRATES 511

SMICYTHUS (SMICYTHES) A person cover the meaning behind the response that
mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at KNIGHTS 969, who the Chaerephon was given (that no one was wiser than
ancient commentators on the line say was effeminate. Socrates). Accordingly, Socrates began to question his
In the Athenian inscriptions of that time, the name fellow Athenians to determine whether he was, in fact,
Smicythus occurs twice—once in reference to a coun- wiser than they were. Socrates’ questioning of his fel-
cilor of 427/426 B.C.E. and once in 424/423 in reference low citizens also attracted the attention of numerous
to a “secretary to the Treasurers of Athena” (Sommer- young men (such as ALCIBIADES and PLATO), who found
stein). Which Smicythus Aristophanes had in mind is Socrates’ method of inquiry into the wisdom of others
unknown. They may have been the same person. fascinating. This activity angered many of Socrates’ fel-
low citizens, who no doubt felt that he was trying to
BIBLIOGRAPHY subvert societal values. Eventually, Socrates’ enemies
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
prosecuted him in court on charges of corrupting the
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 195.
youth of ATHENS, not believing in the divinities wor-
shiped by the Athenian state, and introducing new
SMINTHEUS An epithet of APOLLO.
divinities. In 399, Socrates was put to death by the
Athenians.
SMOIUS A man mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at
The charges against Socrates in 399 were not new, as
ECCLESIAZUSAE 846 as someone who performed oral sex
Socrates himself mentions in Plato’s Apology. In ARISTO-
on women. No other information about Smoius exists,
PHANES’ CLOUDS (first staged in 423 B.C.E.), Aristo-
however.
phanes characterizes Socrates along these same lines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY In Clouds, Socrates’ first entrance depicts him as “walk-
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 10, ing on air.” In this play, he also advocates the worship
Ecclesiazusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1998, of unusual divinities (such as Vortex, Chaos, and
211. Tongue) and is shown as being involved in unusual
intellectual inquiry into matters above and below the
SOCCUS (Plural: SOCCI) A special slipper Earth. This Socrates also advocates the use of a sort of
or shoe worn by the actors in comedy. The soccus fit argumentation that would allow the person who
both feet. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Horace, Ars Poetica 80; employed it to defeat an opponent’s argument even if
Pliny the Elder, 7.30.31; Pliny the Younger, Letters the opponent’s argument were stronger. Aristophanes
9.7.3; Quintilian, 10.2.22] has Socrates teaching this sort of argumentation to
young men at a school called the Phrontesterion. The
SOCRATES (469–399 B.C.E.) The son of real Socrates had no such school and was not the head
Sophroniscus and Phaenarete, Socrates was an Athen- of any philosophical school, although his follower,
ian citizen from the DEME of Alopece. Socrates fought Plato, did become the head of a school of philosophi-
bravely during the 420s in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR, cal thought. At the conclusion of Clouds, STREPSIADES,
opposed the motion to try as a group the generals at blaming Socrates for teaching his (Strepsiades’) son the
ARGINUSAE (406), and avoided being linked with the sort of lessons that led him to behave unbearably, tries
crimes of the Thirty Tyrants who ruled Athens after its to kill Socrates by burning down his school. Although
fall to SPARTA in 404. Socrates was married to Xan- Aristophanes’ portrayal of Socrates is clearly comic and
thippe, who gained a reputation (probably unde- should be regarded as a caricature, this portrayal did
served) as a difficult person with whom to live. have a lasting impression on some members of the
At some point in his life, perhaps before the Pelo- Athenian public, and in Plato’s Apology the author has
ponnesian War, Socrates, prompted by his friend Socrates make a few remarks to discount Aristophanes’
CHAEREPHON’s question to the DELPHIC ORACLE (“Is any- portrayal of him. If Socrates and Aristophanes did have
one wiser than Socrates?”), made it his mission to dis- entertain hard feelings about each other, they are not
512 SOL

readily apparent in Plato’s Symposium. Symposium is set SOMNUS See SLEEP.

at a dinner party in 416 B.C.E. (nine years after the ini-
tial appearance of Clouds), at which both Aristophanes SOPHISTS Around the middle of the fifth cen-
and Socrates participate in the conversation. tury B.C.E. in Greece, some men began to make their
BIBLIOGRAPHY living by traveling from town to town and charging
Benson, H. H., ed. Essays on the Philosophy of Socrates. New young men for lessons in how to succeed in public life.
York: Oxford University Press, 1991. These teachers became known as sophists, and their
Gooch, P. W. Reflections on Jesus and Socrates: Word and primary subject of instruction was rhetoric, although
Silence. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996. not all sophists taught the same subjects or skills. One
Kraut, R. Socrates and the State. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton sophist, Hippias of ELIS, taught people to improve their
University Press, 1984. memory (among other attributes). Protagoras claimed
Smith, N. D., and P. B. Woodruff, eds. Reason and Religion in to be able to teach people how to be virtuous. Other
Socratic Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, sophists taught astronomy, geometry, grammar, history,
2000.
mathematics, music, philosophy, poetry, and a host of
Taylor, C. C. W. Socrates. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
other subjects and skills. After some time, sophists
1998.
began to gain a reputation for teaching people to win
arguments by using rhetorical strategies and tactics
SOL See SUN.
that the sophists considered clever, but that others
would term as irrelevant. The orator Demosthenes, in
SOLON An Athenian poet and statesman, Solon
his speech Against Aphobus (29.32), speaks of sophists
held the office of the chief archon in 594/593 B.C.E.
in the same breath as magicians. PLATO, in Sophist
Solon is credited with introducing sweeping social,
(234e), compares the sophist to a juggler. In CLOUDS,
legislative, judicial, and economic reforms, many of
ARISTOPHANES described their technique as making the
which benefited the lower classes. Although his
weaker argument stronger. In this play, Aristophanes
reforms did not solve all the problems of his day, later
portrays SOCRATES as a sophist (although he was not)
generations regarded him as one of ATHENS’ wisest cit-
who teaches young men this line of argumentation, as
izens. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 1660,
well as other subjects such as astronomy, geology,
Clouds 1187; Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians;
geography, grammar, meteorology, and natural history.
Diogenes Laertius, 1.45–67; Plutarch, Solon]
Aristophanes was not the only comic poet to attack
BIBLIOGRAPHY sophists, as shown by the comic poet Plato’s Sophists
Gerber, D. E., ed. Greek Elegiac Poetry: From the Seventh to (fragments 134–47 Kock). Aristophanes also links
the Fifth Centuries B.C. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer- EURIPIDES with the sophists; although Euripides was
sity Press, 1999. not a sophist, some of his characters make remarks
Linforth, I. M. Solon the Athenian. Berkeley: University of
that sound like those of sophists. The sophist GORGIAS
California Press, 1919.
of Leontini composed as a rhetorical exercise a defense
Rexine, J. E. Solon and His Political Theory. New York:
William-Frederick Press, 1958. of MENELAUS’ wife, HELEN (Encomium of Helen), which
Woodhouse, W. J. Solon the Liberator. London: Oxford Uni- may have influenced the defense that Euripides’ Helen
versity Press, H. Milford, 1938. offers in TROJAN WOMEN (914–65). [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Plato, Hippias Major, Hippias Minor, Protagoras, Sophist]
SOMATION A padded garment worn by an actor BIBLIOGRAPHY
on the upper body. In COMEDY, the somation would be Conacher, D. J. Euripides and the Sophists. London: Duck-
used to make an actor appear grotesquely overweight. worth, 1998.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Lucian, Juppiter Tragoedus 41; Pol- Guthrie, W. K. C. The Sophists. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
lux, Onomasticon 2.235, 4.115] versity Press, 1971.
 SOPHOCLES 513

Kerferd, G. B. The Sophistic Movement. London: Cambridge of Trachinian Women ranges between 450 and 425; most
University Press, 1981. scholars now favor a date in the last decade of that
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: period. The date of Searchers is unknown.
Teubner, 1880. Tradition and inscriptional evidence confirm that
Romilly, J. de. The Great Sophists in Periclean Athens. Trans-
Sophocles won first prize in competition 18 times, per-
lated by Janet Lloyd. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York:
haps more than AESCHYLUS and Euripides combined.
Oxford University Press, 1992.
Sophocles is said never to have finished in last place in
a dramatic competition. His first victory was in 468
SOPHOCLES (CA. 496–406 B.C.E.) The son
(with the no longer extant Triptolemus) against Aeschy-
of Sophilus, Sophocles was born at COLONUS, a DEME a
lus. Early in his career, Sophocles took roles in some of
little more than a mile northwest of ATHENS. Sophocles
his own plays, but he is said to have stopped because
was not only a playwright, he also served as a priest on
of a weak voice. According to ARISTOTLE in Poetics,
several occasions, was head of the Athenian treasury in
Sophocles was the first to use three actors and scene
443/442 B.C.E., was elected to a military command in
painting (see SKENOGRAPHIA). Sophocles is also credited
440 (supposedly on the success of his ANTIGONE), and
with increasing the number of the chorus from 12 to
was appointed to a special commission after disaster
15. The effects of increasing the choral number are not
befell the SICILIAN EXPEDITION in 413. Sophocles had
clear, and scene painting would not have added much
two sons (Iophon and Sophocles the younger) by to the powerful messages contained in Sophocles’ sur-
Nicostrata and a third son (Ariston) by Theoris. Both viving plays; however, the use of a third actor did allow
his sons by Nicostrata were playwrights. Sophocles Sophocles to explore his heroes and heroines from an
had a reputation as being good-natured and being a additional perspective. Instead of only ANTIGONE ver-
true gentleman. After the death of EURIPIDES, Sophocles sus CREON, we have ISMENE’s added perspective on
is said to have honored Euripides by wearing mourn- Antigone’s actions. Instead of only Electra versus
ing clothes and by presenting his chorus before the CLYTEMNESTRA, we have CHRYSOTHEMIS’ view of Electra’s
play without their usual garlands. In ARISTOPHANES’ attitude.
FROGS, Sophocles is portrayed as not contesting the Other than their inclusion of a third actor, Sopho-
recognition of AESCHYLUS as the greatest of tragedians. cles’ surviving plays seem fairly conventional with
In that play, after Aeschylus leaves the underworld, he respect to staging and spectacle. His Ajax, however, is
turns over his title of best tragedian to SOPHOCLES one of two Greek tragedies that have a change of scene
rather than EURIPIDES. (Aeschylus’ Eumenides [see ORESTEIA] is the other);
Sophocles wrote 123 plays, of which seven survive: some scholars think the title character may have com-
AJAX, Antigone, TRACHINIAN WOMEN, OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, mitted suicide before the audience rather than dying
ELECTRA, PHILOCTETES, and OEDIPUS AT COLONUS. We also offstage and his death later being reported. Sophocles’
have some 400 lines from a Sophoclean SATYR PLAY, Ich- plays seem fairly conventional when compared with
neutae (SEARCHERS). The dating of Sophocles’ plays is the numerous problems that occur in Euripides’. Pow-
difficult, and the preceding list reflects a likely order of erful visual images do occur in Sophocles, to be sure,
production. Only the dates of Philoctetes (409), and such as AJAX’s sword, PHILOCTETES’ bow, and Electra’s
Oedipus at Colonus (produced in 401, after Sophocles’ urn, but Sophocles does not have Euripidean extremes
death) are securely established. Antigone is usually of spectacle. Divinities appear before the audience only
dated to 442/441, but this date is based on the anec- twice in Sophocles’ tragedies (Ajax, Philoctetes), and
dote about the link between Sophocles’ military com- only one of Sophocles’ tragedies (Philoctetes) ends with
mand in 440 and the success of Antigone. Ajax is usually the appearance of a divinity; in contrast, Euripides
dated to the 440s, Oedipus Tyrannos to around the time ends many of his plays in this way.
of the plague in Athens (430/429), Electra to about the Sophocles also lets the action of his plays unfold in
same period as Euripides’ ELECTRA (420–410). The date a more natural way than Euripides and avoids the
514 SOSTRATE

expository prologues of his contemporary. The seven Electra oppose their mother; PHILOCTETES is rejected
tragedies show a more consistent use of the chorus and then sought out by his fellow Greeks; OEDIPUS is
than do the works of Euripides; Sophoclean choruses rejected and then sought out by his sons. Such oppo-
deliver between 15 and 25 percent of the lines. Five of sitions cause the questions taken up by Sophocles’ play
Sophocles’ seven tragic choruses represent men (the to become far more complicated and tension filled. In
exceptions are Trachinian Women and Electra). Two of Ajax and Antigone, Sophocles poses the following ques-
Sophocles’ choruses (Ajax, Philoctetes) represent tion: “Does a deceased person have a right to be
sailors, unlike in the tragedies of Aeschylus or Euripi- buried?” The answer seems simple, but the question
des. Sophocles’ choruses are also considered to deliver becomes far more complex when the deceased person
some of the finest lyric poetry, such as the beautiful lit- has tried to wage war against his native land or kill his
tle ode to the beauty of Athens in Oedipus at Colonus commanding officers. Similar complex questions are
and the famous ode in Antigone on the wonders of raised in Oedipus at Colonus: “Should a country grant
humankind. asylum to a refugee?” “If so, how far should that coun-
Whereas Euripides was stereotyped as allowing a try go to protect that refugee?” The answer becomes
greater stage presence to women, common people, and more complicated when the refugee is Oedipus, one of
slaves, Sophocles relegates most of his commoners to the most abhorrent figures in mythology. Further com-
the chorus or to the function of MESSENGER; however, plicating the issue is that this abhorrent figure must be
the role of the messenger, Lichas, in Trachinian Women defended by the host nation’s military might. Finally,
is an important one and the unnamed guard in Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannos may ask the most pro-
Antigone adds some levity to an otherwise serious play. found and complex question of any ancient work:
Only one NURSE (Trachinian Women) and one TUTOR “What is the definition of a man?” [ANCIENT SOURCES:
(Electra) have speaking roles in Sophocles’ extant Anonymous, Vita Sophoclis; Aristophanes, Birds 100,
tragedies. Sophocles’ tragedies have several prominent Frogs 82, Peace 531, 695; Aristotle, Poetics, Rhetoric
female roles, especially Antigone, Electra, and Trachinian 1419a25; Athenaeus 13.603e–604d; Diodorus Siculus,
Women, but none of Sophocles’ surviving plays has 10.103.4; Inscriptiones Graecae ii1202, ii22325; Parian
onstage a seductive PHAEDRA or STHENEBOEA, as do Marble 56; Plutarch, Cimon 8, Nicias 15, Numa 3, Per-
Euripides’. In the lost plays, however, Sophocles did icles 8; Suda, s815]
treat wicked women such as ERIPHYLE and MEDEA.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sophocles’ primary interest are kings, queens,
Blundell, M. W. Helping Friends and Harming Enemies: A
princes, and princesses and the struggles they experi-
Study in Sophocles and Greek Ethics. Cambridge: Cam-
ence within themselves, with their fellow human bridge University Press, 1989.
beings, and with the gods. Whereas Euripides’ charac- Knox, B. M. W. The Heroic Temper. Berkeley and Los Ange-
ters often express a cynical attitude about the behavior les: University of California Press, 1964.
of their fellow humans and the divinities, Sophocles is Segal, Charles P. Sophocles’ Tragic World: Divinity, Nature, Soci-
usually perceived as less pessimistic and more accept- ety. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995.
ing of the religious system of his day. Scholars often ———. Tragedy and Civilization. Cambridge, Mass., and
think of Sophocles as a pious person, and he even London: Harvard University Press, 1981.
helped introduce the cult of Asclepius to Athens. Most Segal, Erich (ed.). Oxford Readings in Greek Tragedy. Oxford:
of Sophocles’ plays contain prophecies that lead the Oxford University Press, 1983.
play’s characters to grapple with their own relationship Winnington-Ingram, R. P. Sophocles: An Interpretation. Cam-
to the gods. As Blundell’s study shows, most of Sopho- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
cles’ surviving plays deal with instances in which
expected friends become one’s enemies. AJAX turns SOSTRATE A woman mentioned by ARISTO-
against his fellow Greeks at TROY; Antigone and CREON, PHANES at ECCLESIAZUSAE 41. She is not identified with
niece and uncle, oppose one another; ORESTES and any historical person.
 STAGE 515

SPARTA Located in the central part of southern dle would be given the kingdom of Thebes and be
Greece in the region of Laconia, Sparta (also called allowed to marry Laius’ widow, Jocasta. When OEDIPUS
Lacedaemon or Lacedaemonia) was one of that country’s provided the correct answer to the riddle (“a human
two most important cities (the other was ATHENS) in being”), the Sphinx hurled itself from the Theban
ancient times. The Spartans were known for their aus- citadel and died. AESCHYLUS’ SATYR PLAY Sphinx com-
tere mode of life and military prowess. The most famous pleted the TETRALOGY in which the extant SEVEN AGAINST
Spartans in mythology are TYNDAREUS; his wife, LEDA; THEBES was staged (fragments 235–37 Radt). Unfortu-
and their children, CASTOR, POLLUX, HELEN, and nately, little is known about the content of this play.
CLYTEMNESTRA. Because MENELAUS married Helen, he Presumably it dealt with Oedipus’ solution of the
became king of Sparta. During the fifth and fourth cen- Sphinx’s riddle. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus,
turies B.C.E., Sparta vied with Athens for supremacy in Library 3.5.8; Euripides, Phoenician Women 45–54,
Greece, and from 431 to 404 Sparta and their allies 806–11; Hesiod, Theogony 326–27; Pausanias,
waged war with and eventually defeated the Athenians 9.26.2–4; Seneca, Oedipus; Sophocles, Oedipus Tyran-
(see PELOPONNESIAN WAR). Accordingly, some plays writ- nos 130]
ten during this time that have characters from Sparta are BIBLIOGRAPHY
regarded as having a negative view of the Spartans (e.g., Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
EURIPIDES’ ANDROMACHE). Three of ARISTOPHANES’ come- Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.
dies (ACHARNIANS, PEACE, LYSISTRATA) deal with aspects of Smyth, H. W., and H. Lloyd-Jones. Aeschylus. Vol. 2. 1026.
this war and reveal some Athenian stereotypes of the Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
Spartans. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Herodotus 1, 5–9; Homer, 1971.
Odyssey 4; Pausanias, 3.11–20; Plutarch, Agis, Agesilaus,
Cleomenes, Lycurgus, Apophthegmata Laconica; Strabo, SPINTHARUS An unknown man from PHRYGIA
8.4–6; Thucydides, Histories; Xenophon, De republica mentioned by ARISTOPHANES at BIRDS 762.
Lacedaemoniorum, Hellenica]
SPONGER See PARASITE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jones, A. H. M. Sparta. Oxford: Blackwell, 1967.
SPORGILUS A barber with whom Athenian
audiences were familiar. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
SPHINX The offspring of the monsters Echidna phanes, Birds 300 and the scholia on 299a; Plato
and Typhon (or the dog Orthus), the Sphinx had a Comicus, fragment 144 Kock]
woman’s face, a lion’s body, an eagle’s wings, and a ser-
pent’s tail. HERA, angered at the Theban king LAIUS for BIBLIOGRAPHY
his violation of his marriage to JOCASTA, sent the Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Sphinx to terrorize the people of THEBES. The Sphinx Teubner, 1880.
sat upon Mount Phicium outside the town and asked
those who passed by a riddle: “What creature walks on STAGE The Greek word for “stage” is logeion; the
four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and three Latin is pulpitum. In Greek productions of the late sixth
legs in the evening?” Another version of the riddle is, and the first half of the fifth century, it is not clear
“What has one voice, but becomes four-footed, two- whether the theater had a stage. Thus, in the early days
footed, and three-footed?” An ORACLE had told the The- of Greek drama, both the chorus and the actors per-
bans that if they solved the Sphinx’s riddle, they would formed in the ORCHESTRA or occasionally an actor
be rid of the monster. If the person could not answer appeared on top of the stage building (see SKENE). By
the riddle, the Sphinx would kill him. After several had the time of ARISTOPHANES’ WASPS (422 B.C.E.), some sort
died in this way, CREON, who became king after Oedi- of stage, raised a few steps above the orchestra, does
pus killed Laius, declared that whoever solved the rid- seem to have been used. At Wasps 1341–44, Philocleon
516 STAGE DIRECTIONS

leads a slave woman toward his house (the skene) and on which most of the drama takes place), this cannot be
orders her to “come up here” (anabaine deuro), an known for certain, and is inferred in modern theories.
instruction that seems to indicate the presence of some-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
thing above the level of the orchestra. If a stage did exist
Wiles, D. Tragedy in Athens: Performance Space and Theatrical
in the fifth century, the center of the orchestra, rather Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997,
than the stage, appears to have been the focal point of 158–60.
the action. By the fourth century B.C.E., however, a
wooden stage in the Greek theater was well established STASIMON (Plural: STASIMA) A stasi-
and occupied by the actors, while the chorus remained mon (standing or stationary) was an ode sung by the
in the orchestra. The second phase of the theater con- CHORUS that occurred after their entry song, PARODOS,
struction at Epidaurus, 170–60 B.C.E., had a stage that and before their exit song (EXODOS).
was almost 66 feet wide and about 13 feet deep.
No doubt exists about the presence of a stage in the STENIA Celebrated in October of the modern cal-
Roman theater, although Rome’s first permanent the- endar, the Stenia was a nighttime festival (two days
ater did not exist until the middle of the first century before the THESMOPHORIA), in which only women par-
B.C.E. Because the Roman orchestra was semicircular, ticipated. The Stenia honored DEMETER, and the
rather than circular as in the Greek theater, and occu- women engaged in jokes about and verbal abuse of one
pied by seating for dignitaries, the stage would need to another in imitation of a woman named Iambe, who is
be larger to accommodate the performers. Csapo and said to have made Demeter laugh (when she was sad-
Slater estimate that the average Roman stage during the dened by the loss of PERSEPHONE). [ANCIENT SOURCES:
imperial period was about 160 feet wide and 25 feet Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae 833]
deep. The stage at Aphrodisias (in western Turkey),
built in the first century B.C.E., was almost 100 feet STHENEBOEA See BELLEROPHON or IOBATES.
wide and stood almost 12 feet above the orchestra.
BIBLIOGRAPHY STICHOMYTHIA Stichomythia (“line talking”)
Arnott, P. D. Public and Performance in the Greek Theatre. usually involves single-line exchanges of dialogue
London: Routledge, 2003. between two characters but can include half-line, two-
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama. line, and three-line conversation.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 79–88.
Dover, K. J. Aristophanic Comedy. Berkeley: University of
STICHUS PLAUTUS (200 B.C.E.) PLAUTUS’
California Press, 1972, 18–19.
play, staged at the PLEBEIAN GAMES in the plebeian
Webster, T. B. L. Greek Theatre Production. 2d ed. London:
Methuen, 1970. aedileship of Gnaeus Baebius and Gnaeus Terentius, in
Wiles, D. Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction. Cam- the consulship of Gaius Sulpicius and Gaius Aurelius,
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, 104. was adapted from MENANDER’s Adelphoi (Brothers) and
another Adelphoi by an unknown poet. Plautus’ play
STAGE DIRECTIONS The ancient manu- was produced by Titus Publilius Pellio and its musical
scripts of dramas rarely contain stage directions. These accompaniment on the pipes by a certain Marcipor. The
are provided by modern editors, sometimes on the play’s setting is Athens, and the action occurs before
basis of evidence from the text itself. For example, in three houses: that of Antipho, an elderly Athenian gen-
EURIPIDES’ ALCESTIS, we know APOLLO carries a bow tleman, and the two houses of Epignomus and Pam-
because Thanatos mentions it at line 35. Sometimes phillipus, young Athenian gentlemen who are brothers.
ancient commentators on texts tell us of a gesture, state The play opens at the house of Epignomus with a
property, or the like. As for the direction from which a conversation between Panegyris and her sister
character enters the ORCHESTRA (the flat, circular space (unnamed). Panegyris and her sister are the daughters
 STICHUS 517

of Antipho. Panegyris is married to Epignomus; her journey, and discuss preparations to celebrate their
sister is married to Pamphillipus. The sisters lament return. After these two exit into Epignomus’ house,
that their father has been behaving badly and that their Gelasimus arrives and encounters Epignomus.
husbands have been away from home for three years. Gelasimus wants to dine at Epignomus’ house, but
As the sisters sympathize with one another, their Epignomus tells him that he already has plans to enter-
father, Antipho, emerges from his house. The women tain some public speakers from Ambracia. At this,
greet their father, who tells them that his friends are Epignomus returns to his house and an upset
advising him that his daughters should move back into Gelasimus departs.
his house (because their husbands have been gone for The following act begins with the entrance of
so long). The sisters, however, resist this idea because Antipho and Pamphillipus. Antipho expresses his
they both remain true to their husband. After their delight that Pamphillipus has returned home. The two
father departs, the unnamed sister exits to Pamphilli- are soon joined by Epignomus, who discusses dinner
pus’ house, and Panegyris send her maid, Crocotium, plans with Pamphillipus. Before the brothers leave,
to find the PARASITE, Gelasimus, whom Panegyris wants Antipho asks them to give him one of the MUSIC GIRLS
to send to the harbor to find out whether any ship has who have accompanied them. After making his request,
arrived with news of her husband. In the next scene, which Antipho assumes will be granted, Antipho leaves
Gelasimus enters, describing his constant hunger and to congratulate his daughters on the arrival of their hus-
the origin of his name, which is derived from the bands and to prepare for dinner. After Antipho’s exit,
Greek word for laughter. Crocotium sees Gelasimus Epignomus tells Pamphillipus that he will grant their
and eavesdrops on his conversation, which involves
father-in-law’s request. Then, as the brothers see
further complaints about his hunger. Finally, Cro-
Gelasimus approach, they decide to tease the parasite.
cotium steps forward and asks him to go to Panegyris’
Because Epignomus had rejected Gelasimus as a dinner
house. After Crocotium exits, Gelasimus promises to
companion, Gelasimus tries to get an invitation from
follow but stops when he sees Panegyris’ male servant,
Pamphillipus. Pamphillipus claims that he also has a
Pinacium.
previous dinner engagement that he cannot break. After
The second act opens as Gelasimus eavesdrops on
much teasing of the parasite, the two brothers exit and
Pinacium, who indicates that he has good news for
Panegyris. Pinacium knocks on the door of Panegyris’ leave Gelasimus out in the street. Gelasimus departs,
house, but before the door is answered Gelasimus threatening to kill himself.
approaches and wants to know what Pinacium is The play’s fifth act starts with the arrival of Stichus,
doing. At this point, Panegyris herself enters from the who is waiting for his fellow slave, Sangarinus, on
house. Pinacium tells Panegyris that he has just arrived whose behalf Stichus was supposed to greet Stepha-
from the harbor, where he claims he has seen her hus- nium, a female friend of Sangarinus and Stichus’. When
band, Epignomus, and his servant, Stichus. Pinacium Sangarinus arrives, Stichus informs him that dinner is
also says that the ship in which they were traveling is being prepared for them in Pamphillipus’ house. After
loaded with gold, silver, wool, purple cloth, various the two exit into Pamphillipus’ house, Stephanium
female musicians, and even a few parasites. Further- emerges from Epignomus’ house, where she has been
more, Pinacium says that Pamphillipus, her sister’s helping to clean. After she exits to Pamphillipus’ house,
husband, is with Epignomus. Delighted by this news, Sangarinus and Stichus reemerge from it. Both men are
Panegyris tells Pinacium to go inside and prepare a sac- fairly well intoxicated and enjoying themselves. Soon,
rifice. After Panegyris reenters the house, Gelasimus they summon Stephanium from the house to dance for
expresses disappointment, as it appears that he will not them. Stephanium, more than happy to please the two
be fed. men, indulges their flirtation. As the play ends the two
In the third act, Epignomus and Stichus arrive, men are trying to steal kisses from Stephanium and the
express thanks to the gods for their safe and profitable three are taking turns dancing.
518 STICHUS

COMMENTARY Menaechmus’ being thwarted in his desire to attend a

Stichus is one of Plautus’ most unique plays, and Duck- dinner party by his unwitting twin brother, Stichus gen-
worth rightly noted that it “almost defies classification; erally involves a substantial amount of complaining by
there is nothing quite like it in Roman comedy.” The the parasite about not having dinner and being threat-
play is unique in its initial premise of the reunion of ened with the possibility of not having dinner.
two husbands with their wives. Thus, in this play we Indeed, Gelasimus, who complains that he has car-
shall not find the lovestruck young man, the scheming ried hunger in his belly for more than 10 years (160),
slave, the befuddled father, or the treacherous PIMP. sounds more “Odyssean” than the brothers who have
Trickery and misdirection are lacking from Stichus. The been absent for three years. If the wives in the play are
concept of two husbands’ and two wives’ reuniting the Penelope figures, then Gelasimus is more of an
could have opened the door for a play involving Odysseus figure than the brothers. For the last three-
twins—the return of AMPHITRUO from war and his quarters of the play, the audience watch as Gelasimus
reunion with ALCEMA in Plautus’ AMPHITRUO has excel- struggles as Odysseus does to reintegrate himself into
lent use of twin husbands and twin slaves, but no twins the home on which he depended for his meals.
are present in Stichus. Even without twins, the play’s Gelasimus is rejected by the maidservant, Crocitium;
opening allusion to ODYSSEUS’ faithful and enduring the fisherman, Pinacium; and the matron, Panegyris.
wife, PENELOPE, hints at the success that the reunion The return of Epignomus improves Gelasimus’ for-
premise could have. The only potential threat to the tunes as Epignomus endorses the parasite’s plans for
success of this reunion, the father of the women, is dinner with Stephanium and Sangarinus, but when
removed quickly, however, and Antipho never poses Epignomus decides to dine with his brother, hunger
much of a threat at any rate. In contrast to Odysseus’ again threatens Gelasimus. As Gelasimus despairs, din-
Penelope, there are no suitors for Plautus’ wives to pro- ner plans for the other males in the play are shaping up
vide dramatic tension; no sons searching for their long- nicely as Antipho and Pamphillipus make plans to dine
lost father as Odysseus’ son does for him; and no together. Finally, Gelasimus must face both Epignomus
obstacles to the return of the husbands such as threaten and Pamphillipus, who decide that they will torment
Odysseus. By the third act, the husbands have returned him a little longer, and as the fourth act closes neither
and the audience does not even witness the reunion brother has extended Gelasimus a dinner invitation.
with the wives. Neither the husbands nor the wives Despite this rejection, however, the audience soon wit-
even take the stage in the play’s final act. Thus, any ness Gelasimus’ having a grand time dining, dancing,
unity of subject matter the play might have is extremely and singing with his fellow slaves, Stephanium and
difficult to discern, and Harsh rightly notes that the Sangarinus. Thus, although Gelasimus may not have
play “has less plot than any other Roman comedy.” enjoyed the company of the upper-class brothers, the
The play’s greatest concern is whether Geta will eat parasite has no lack of enjoyment at the dinner party
dinner. Even this theme, however, does not emerge until he does attend.
the arrival of Gelasimus. Although it is one of the short-
est of the Roman COMEDY plays, Stichus has far more ref- BIBLIOGRAPHY
erences to dining and hunger than any other Roman Arnott, W. G. “Targets, Techniques, and Tradition in Plautus’
Stichus,” Bulletin for the Institute of Classical Studies 19
comedy. Compared with Plautus’ CURCULIO, the other
(1972): 54–79.
Plautine play named after a parasite and of comparable
Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
length with Stichus, Stichus has almost 10 times more ref- N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 146.
erences to dining. Unlike Curculio, though, who is quite Harsh, Philip Whaley. A Handbook of Classical Drama. Stan-
busy helping young Phaedromus win his beloved, ford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1944, 369.
Stichus is busy with nothing other than begging for his Owens, William M. “Plautus’ Stichus and the Political Crisis
dinner. Additionally, in contrast to Plautus’ MENAECHMI, of 200 B.C.,” American Journal of Philology 121, no. 3
which successfully exploits the comic potential of (2000) 385–407.
 STREPSIADES 519

Petersmann, H. von T. Maccius Plautus: Stichus. Heidelberg: could never be taken. SENECA, both a tragedian and the
Winter, 1973. author of treatises on Stoicism, called virtus “perfect
Petrone, G. Morale e Antimorale Nelle Commedie di Plauto: Reason.” Because a person’s virtus could never be taken
Ricerche Sullo Stichus. Palermo: Palumbo, 1977. away, the Stoics were taught not to fear death, but to
welcome it as a release from the body, which is subject
STILBIDES (DIED 413 B.C.E.) A prophet of to anxiety. If Stoics found themselves in such dire emo-
considerable fame during the first half of the PELOPON- tional circumstances that they were prevented from
NESIAN WAR. Plutarch says that the Athenian statesman pursuing a life in accordance with nature, then they
NICIAS relied on Stilbides, who accompanied Nicias on were allowed to commit suicide to separate themselves
the SICILIAN EXPEDITION. Stilbides died, however, before from the burden of the body. Seneca himself, under
a critical prophetic moment in the expedition. After a pressure from the Roman emperor, NERO, committed
lunar eclipse on August 27, 413, the other prophets rec- suicide in 65 C.E. Because Seneca was a Stoic, his
ommended to Nicias that the Athenian army delay leav- tragedies often examine characters who struggle with
ing SICILY for 27 days. Nicias took their advice and the the sort of emotions and passions against which the
delay led to the Athenians’ being trapped and slaugh- Stoics battled.
tered. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 1031;
Eupolis, fragment 211 Kock; Plutarch, Nicias 23.5] BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bobzien, S. Determinism and Freedom in Stoic Philosophy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Ierodiakonou, K., ed. Topics in Stoic Philosophy. New York:
Teubner, 1880. Oxford University Press, 1999.
Platnauer, M. Aristophanes: Peace. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Rist, J. M. Stoic Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
1964, 153. sity Press, 1969.
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 5, ———. “Seneca and Stoic Orthodoxy,” Aufstieg und Nieder-
Peace. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Philips, 1985, 182. gang der römischen Welt 36, no. 3 (1989): 1993–2012.
Rosenmeyer, T. G. “Seneca and Nature,” Arethusa 33, no. 1
STOICISM This philosophical school of thought (2000): 99–119.
emerged around 300 B.C.E. and Zeno of Citeum is
regarded as its founder. The Stoics’ name was derived STRATO (STRANTON) A man with an
from their original meeting place in ATHENS, a public effeminate appearance who is linked with CLEISTHENES
building called the Stoa Poikile. The key to happiness in ARISTOPHANES’ Knights. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
for the Stoics was to live in harmony with nature, phanes, Acharnians 122, Birds 942, Knights 1374]
which was synonymous with God and became mani- BIBLIOGRAPHY
fest in the form of fate and divine providence. For the Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1,
Stoics, nature was not random and unpredictable, but Acharnians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 163.
perfect, ordered, and rational. Because fate was a part
of nature, and nature was rational, the Stoics were not STREPSIADES The central character of ARISTO-
supposed to struggle against fate, but try to live in PHANES’ CLOUDS, Strepsiades has a name derived from
harmony with it and by so doing have an ordered and the Greek verb that means “twist.” The name is fitting,
rational life. The major obstacle to such an ordered and as his goal in the play is to “twist” his way out of debts
rational life was anxiety. To rid oneself of anxiety, the that he owes to people who have lent him money to
Stoics constantly struggled to master emotions such as support his son’s love of horses. As several Aristo-
anger, fear, and passion. The weapon of the Stoics phanic heroes are, Strepsiades is portrayed as a simple
against these emotions was virtus (which embodies man from the Athenian countryside. Aristophanic
courage, excellence, and valor), which the Stoics heroes often concoct a grand scheme to solve a press-
regarded as a person’s only true possession, which ing social problem. Strepsiades, however, aims to avoid
520 STROPHE

paying his creditors by telling his son, Pheidippides, to STRYMODORUS A name given to a farmer at
enroll in SOCRATES’ school and learn how to argue his way ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS 273, one of PHILOCLEON’s fel-
out of the money Strepsiades owes. Initially Pheidippides low jurors at WASPS 233, and a member of the CHORUS
refuses to study with Socrates, so Strepsiades decides to of old men at LYSISTRATA 259. The orator Demosthenes
attend the school himself. Unlike other Aristophanic (36.29) mentions a Strymodorus who was a banker
heroes, such as DICAEOPOLIS or LYSISTRATA, Strepsiades is from AEGINA, and Aristophanes may have known of
not clever enough to carry out his scheme. Strepsiades’ this person.
actions at the conclusion of Clouds are unusually violent
in comparison to those in other Aristophanic plays. Most BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
Aristophanic plays end with intoxication, dancing, and
Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 170.
the expectation of sexual pleasure. At the conclusion of
Clouds, Strepsiades sets fire to Socrates’ school in an effort
to kill Socrates and CHAEREPHON.
STYGIAN Pertaining to the river STYX.

BIBLIOGRAPHY STYMPHALIA A town located west of Argos in

Green, P. “Strepsiades, Socrates and the Abuses of Intellec- southern Greece, Stymphalia was the site of HERACLES’
tualism,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 20 (1979): encounter with the Stymphalian birds. These unusual
15–25.
creatures had metallic feathers and fed on the flesh of
Reckford, K. J. “Strepsiades as a Comic Ixion,” Illinois Classi-
human beings. Heracles drove the birds from the
cal Studies 16 (1991): 125–36.
region by using a bronze rattle (made by HEPHAESTUS)
STROPHE A strophe (turning) is a section of a given to him by ATHENA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca,
lyric ODE that precedes an ANTISTROPHE. In the strophe, Hercules Furens 243–44]
the chorus sang while moving to the right.
STYX The Styx (“hated”) is a river or marsh in the
STROPHEION A revolving device used to trans- UNDERWORLD. Styx was a daughter of OCEANUS and
port deceased heroes to the gods or to represent per- TETHYS’. Styx’s union with the Titan Pallas produced
sons’ dying at sea or in battle. The stropheion was not Bia (Force), Cratus (Power), NIKE (Victory), and Zelus
in use until after the fifth century B.C.E. [ANCIENT (Emulation). Divinities who wished to take an
SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon 4.127, 132] unbreakable oath swore by the Styx. When such an
oath was broken, the divinity fell into a coma for a year
STROPHIUS The father of PYLADES, who was and on awaking had to spend nine years in exile from
the cousin and best friend of ORESTES. Strophius lived the other divinities. When a person died, his or her
in the region of PHOCIS and took care of Orestes, who soul descended to the underworld and was usually
was in danger from his mother, CLYTEMNESTRA, and said to have to cross the Styx (some sources mention
her lover AEGISTHUS. Strophius appears as a character another body of water such as the ACHERON). [ANCIENT
in SENECA’s AGAMEMNON, in which he goes to congrat- SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 470; Hesiod, Theogony

ulate AGAMEMNON on his success at TROY only to find 360–63, 383–403, 775–806; Homer, Iliad 2.751–55,
that the king has been murdered. ELECTRA then Odyssey 10.513–15; Seneca’s tragedies, passim, but
arranges for Strophius to take Orestes to safety, especially Hercules Oetaeus; Sophocles, Oedipus at
because Agamemnon’s son will probably be the next Colonus 1564]
target of Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Agamemnon 880 (see ORESTEIA), SUBSELLIA (SINGULAR: SUBSELLIUM)
Libation Bearers 679 (see ORESTEIA); Euripides, Electra In Roman theaters, subsellia (low steps) were located in
18, Iphigenia in Tauris 60, 917, 921, Orestes 765, the orchestra and were reserved as seats for persons
1403; Sophocles, Electra 1111] of special importance. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plautus,
 SUPPLIANT WOMEN 521

Amphitruo 65, Carthaginian 5; Suetonius, Augustus 43, time is usually thought to be 12 in number. The drama
44, Claudius 41, Nero 26] begins with the chorus explaining that with their father
they have left Africa to avoid marriage to their cousins,
SUN (Greek: HELIOS; Latin: SOL) The the 50 sons of AEGYPTUS, king of Egypt. They have cho-
son of Hyperion and Theia and the brother of EOS sen Argos because they are related to an Argive
(Dawn) and Selene (Moon). The Sun had a wife, Perse woman, IO. The women’s opening ode also calls upon
(or Perseis); by her he had a son, AEETES, and two Io, ZEUS, and other gods for protection. The women
daughters, CIRCE and PASIPHAE. The Sun was also the threaten to kill themselves if the gods do not hear their
father of PHAETHON by OCEANUS’s daughter, Clymene. prayer.
He is sometimes synonymous with APOLLO. Each day After the choral ode, Danaus, perceiving that the
the Sun drove his four-horse chariot across the sky leader of Argos is approaching, urges his daughters to
from east to west. Because the Sun saw everything from take up positions as suppliants at a nearby altar. After
this vantage point, he was often invoked as a witness Danaus’ daughters do so, PELASGUS, king of Argos,
to oaths and other events. In the evening, the Sun arrives with a band of armed men and questions the
would return to his starting point in a cauldron that women about why they have taken refuge in Argos.
sailed upon the ocean. The Sun allowed HERACLES to The chorus explain that they are descended from Io,
use this cauldron during his quest for the cattle of state that they have fled to avoid marriage with Aegyp-
GERYON and his journey to the garden of the Hes- tus’ sons, and beg Pelasgus not to turn them over to
perides. After MEDEA kills her children, she flees Aegyptus’ sons. Pelasgus wants to help the women,
CORINTH in the Sun’s chariot (he was her grandfather because suppliants are protected by the gods, but does
through Aeetes). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, not want his land to suffer any military hardships that
Library 1.6.1, 2.5.10–11, Epitome 2.12; Apollonius might result from war with Aegyptus’ sons. Pelasgus
Rhodius, 4.964–74; Hesiod, Theogony 371–74, wavers as to whether to act, and the women eventually
956–62; Homer, Odyssey 1.8–9, 8.270–71, 8.302, threaten to kill themselves at the altar if he will not
11.104–115, 12.260–419; Homeric Hymn to Demeter help them. Pelasgus does not reject the women, how-
2.26–27, 62–89; Hyginus, Fables 154; Ovid, Metamor- ever, and urges Danaus and his daughters to leave their
phoses 1.750–2.400; Pausanias, 2.1.6, 2.3.10, 2.4.6, present location and to place suppliant branches at
8.29.4, 9.25.5; Pindar, Olympian Odes 7.54–76] other altars throughout the land.
At this point, Pelasgus exits to assemble his people
SUNIUM The cape on the southeastern coast of so that they can consider the course of action they
Athenian territory. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, should follow. Danaus accompanies Pelasgus to help
Clouds 401; Euripides, Cyclops 293; Sophocles, Ajax make their case before the assembly. Once again, the
1220] chorus call upon Zeus for help and recall the sufferings
of their ancestor, Io. After the choral ode, Danaus
SUPPLIANT WOMEN AESCHYLUS (CA. returns and announces that the Argive assembly have
463 B.C.E.) The date of the play is uncertain; Suppli- decreed that the women should receive protection
ant Women was the first play of a TETRALOGY and was from Aegyptus’ sons. The chorus respond with an ode
followed by Egyptians, Danaids, and the SATYR PLAY of praise and gratitude to Pelasgus and his people.
Amymone. AESCHYLUS’ production defeated those of They pray that war will not descend on the land and
SOPHOCLES and Mesatus. The play’s action centers that Zeus will shower Pelasgus’ people with blessings.
around an altar to the gods at ARGOS. The CHORUS con- The chorus’ happiness is short lived, however, as
sist of the daughters of DANAUS, an African king. The Danaus announces that he has seen Aegyptus’ sons’
number of members in this particular chorus has been ship in the harbor. The women are fearful, but Danaus
debated: Ancient sources state that Danaus had 50 encourages them to trust Pelasgus and his people.
daughters, but the CHORUS in ancient TRAGEDY at this After Danaus exits to seek help from Pelasgus’ people,
522 SUPPLIANT WOMEN

the women fearfully wonder what will happen next Greek civilization is the marriage of a man and a
and what will become of them. Their ode is cut short woman, but the Danaids refuse marriage with Aegyp-
as they catch sight of a herald from the Egyptian ship. tus’ sons because they consider such marriage abhor-
The herald enters and attempts with threats to force rent. Thus, the Danaids threaten to become like
the women to board the ship. The arrival of Pelasgus Hippolytus, inclined toward Artemis to the exclusion
prevents this, as the king declares that he will protect of Aphrodite. The Danaids are strangers to the Argives,
the women and drives off the herald. yet they also claim to be related to them.
After the women thank Pelasgus for his help, the As does Children of Heracles, in which IOLAUS tries to
king exits and Danaus enters. Danaus tells his daugh- persuade the Athenian king, DEMOPHON, son of THE-
ters to give thanks to the people of Argos and regard SEUS, to protect HERACLES’ children by demonstrating
their chastity as more precious than life itself. The play how they are related to Demophon’s family, Aeschylus’
concludes as the Danaids and their maidservants, who Suppliant Women often calls attention to family links.
form a secondary chorus, praise the Argives and ask On one hand, the Danaids want to avoid marriage
the gods for protection from marriage with Aegyptus’ because the prospective grooms are related to them.
sons. On the other hand, they argue that the Argives should
protect them because they are related to them. Their
COMMENTARY argument is based on their being descendants of Io,
Suppliant Women has received little attention in modern who was originally from Argos but later went to Africa.
times; perhaps the appearance of Charles L. Mee’s Big In the case of the Danaids, they seek to avoid becom-
Love, a modern adaptation of the play, will renew inter- ing like their ancestor, Io. Zeus’ sexual relationship
est in Aeschylus’ work. Aeschylus’ play is, however, an with Io caused her tremendous pain and suffering, and
important example of early Greek tragedy. The chorus the Danaids want to avoid the pain and suffering that
deliver more than 60 percent of the play’s lines and marriage to Aegyptus’ sons might cause them. At the
only three other characters have speaking parts. same time, the Danaids long for the aid that Zeus gave
Despite the lack of attention of modern readers, the to Io when he freed her from her distress with the
play clearly influenced EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES touch of his hand.
and SUPPLIANT WOMEN. Several other extant tragedies The concept of touch is an interesting one in this
also deal with suppliants, such as SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS play. Zeus’ touch freed Io from her torment, but Zeus’
AT COLONUS and Euripides’ ANDROMACHE, HERACLES, and initial sexual touching of Io enraged HERA, who trans-
HELEN. The figure of the “good king” would appear formed the young woman into a cow. Thus, Zeus’
again in Children of Heracles, Suppliant Women, and touch had both dangerous and liberating conse-
Oedipus at Colonus. These kings would be from ATHENS; quences for Io. The Danaids face a similar conflict with
Argive Pelasgus is similar to these Athenian kings, as respect to touch: They long for the liberating hand of
he is also a protector of suppliants. Zeus, the god who planted their race with his own
Like Aeschylus’ PERSIANS, Suppliant Women is a play hand (592), but abhor the violent touch of Aegyptus’
of contrasts: Greek versus barbarian, civilized versus sons (392, 756, 820–21), who threaten to sow their
uncivilized, male versus female, stranger versus kins- seed within them. They regard the violent touch of
man, purity versus impurity, chastity versus love. In Aegyptus’ sons as impious (9, 755–56) and pray to the
some instances, however, these contrasts become gods for help, but they threaten violence against them-
blurred, especially with respect to the Danaids. From selves if the gods will not help.
the Greek perspective, the Danaids are people of a bar- Not only do the Danaids pray for the touch of the
barian land. At the same time, these barbarian women divine male and abhor the touch of their mortal male
claim that Aegyptus’ sons threaten them with bar- cousins, but also they flee the barbarous hands of their
barous violence, and they seek the civil protection of fellow Africans for the civilized hands of the Argives,
the Greeks. One of the primary relationships within who are simultaneously strangers and kinsmen. The
 SUPPLIANT WOMEN 523

Danaids will welcome the hands of the Argives, who, employing their hands in violent ways; later in the trilogy
in this play, use their hands not for sexual purposes, women will use their hands violently. The civilized right
but in the context of civil assembly and the righteous hand of the male Argives raised to protect the women
protection of suppliants. The Danaids benefit from the will be replaced by the violent right hand of the women.
Argives’ hands when Danaus reports that the Argive Io’s human hands would have been perversely altered
assembly supported the proposal to help the Danaids when Hera transformed her into a cow. The Danaids’
by holding their right hands in the air (607–8, 621). hands will be perverted by shedding the blood of Aegyp-
Eventually, the hands of civil assembly must become tus’ sons on their wedding night.
protective when the herald of Aegyptus’ sons tries to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
drive the Danaids by force to the Egyptian ship. The
Caldwell, R. S. “The Psychology of Aeschylus’ Supplices,”
words of the king that persuaded his fellow citizens to Arethusa 7 (1974): 45–70.
vote to protect the Danaids now threaten serious force Gantz, T. “Love and Death in the Suppliants of Aeschylus,”
if the herald touches the women (925). Phoenix 32 (1978): 279–87.
The civil and righteous hands of the Greeks protect Garvie, A. F. Aeschylus’ Supplices: Play and Trilogy. Cam-
the Danaids in Suppliant Women; later in Aeschylus’ bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969.
tragic TRILOGY hands would play a much different role. Rehm, Rush. “The Staging of Suppliant Plays,” Greek,
Eventually the sons of Aegyptus would marry the Roman, and Byzantine Studies 29 (1988): 263–307.
Danaids and attempt to place their hands on them. The
Danaids, however, would respond with violence to per- SUPPLIANT WOMEN EURIPIDES (CA. 421
ceived violence against their bodies. Aeschylus’ audi- B.C.E.) The subject matter of EURIPIDES’ Suppliant
ence probably would have known the legend of the Women differs from AESCHYLUS’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN.
Danaids’ murder of Aegyptus’ sons when they saw Aeschylus’ play deals with the flight of DANAUS and his
Aeschylus’ production, but Aeschylus hints at the hor- daughter from Africa to Greece; Euripides’, with the
ror ahead early in Suppliant Women. When the Danaids burial of the Argive warriors who died in battle against
arrive in Argos, they carry suppliant boughs in their Thebes. The action of the play occurs before the temple
hands. At line 21, Aeschylus uses the word encheiridia of DEMETER in ELEUSIS, a town several miles west of
to refer to these boughs. This word can refer to any- Athens. This play treats the aftermath of the famous
thing carried in the hand, but it sometimes means “dag- expedition known as the Seven against Thebes. The
ger.” Additional foreshadowing occurs when the chorus consist of mothers of the deceased Argive cap-
Danaids hear the song of the nightingale, which tains and their attendants. The Argive mothers are also
reminds them of TEREUS’ wife, who was transformed accompanied by the sons of the deceased men. After
into this bird after she killed her son by Tereus with her the battle, the mothers of the deceased Argive warriors
own hand (66). This reference foreshadows the attempt to recover the bodies of their sons for burial,
vengeance that the Danaids will take on Aegyptus’ sons. because the victorious Thebans had refused to allow
Later in the trilogy, the Danaids, with one exception, this rite. Aethra, mother of the Athenian king, THESEUS,
would strike down Aegyptus’ sons with their hands. The delivers the play’s opening monologue from the altar
suppliant boughs the Danaids hold in the trilogy’s first steps at Demeter’s temple. Aethra describes the circum-
play will be replaced with death-dealing blades later. It is stances, and notes that she has been urged by the
also interesting that when the Danaids hold the boughs Argive king, ADRASTUS, to take up the cause of the
of supplication, they grasp them in the left hand (193), Argive mothers. Aethra and Adrastus urge Theseus to
in contrast with right hand (607) raised by the Argives to help the Argives. Aethra also mentions that she has sent
approve of the proposal to protect the Danaids. When a herald to summon Theseus either to help the Argive
the Danaids killed their husbands later in the trilogy, they mothers or to send them from Athenian territory.
would have held the blade in their right hand. Suppliant After Aethra’s speech, the CHORUS beg her for help and
Women frequently raises the anticipation of men’s ask her to urge Theseus to march against the Thebans so
524 SUPPLIANT WOMEN

that their sons can have a proper burial. The women’s SENGER enters and announces the victory of Theseus
lament is heard by Theseus, who enters after their song. and the Athenians. The messenger explains that The-
Aethra explains who the women are and points out that seus did not enter Thebes, but simply demanded the
Adrastus is with them. Theseus questions Adrastus, who Argive dead for burial. The messenger also informs
explains about why he and his fellow Argives marched Adrastus that Theseus buried the fallen Argives on the
on Thebes. Adrastus begs Theseus for help in recovering slopes of Mount CITHAERON. After the messenger’s
the bodies of his fallen comrades. Theseus criticizes announcement, the chorus comment on the intermin-
Adrastus’ decision to march on Thebes and initially gled joy and sorrow created by the Athenian victory
rejects Adrastus’ plea for help. Adrastus then tells the and the burial. They regret that they had children
Argive women to leave the altar and go. The Argive because now they have to face the sorrow of losing
women plead with Theseus and argue that because The- them. The chorus and Adrastus then exchange laments
seus’ grandfather, Pittheus, was of the same blood as about the death of their loved ones and the sorrow that
they are, he should not refuse them. Then Theseus’ they must endure.
mother, Aethra, takes up the Argives’ case and charac- After this exchange, Theseus enters and asks Adras-
terizes her son as a coward for rejecting Adrastus and tus to comment on the several dead captains whose
the Argive women. Theseus, won over by his mother, bodies lie before them. Whereas AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN
decides that he will try to persuade the Thebans to AGAINST THEBES provided a detailed description of the
return the Argives’ dead to them. If persuasion fails, shields of these warriors as they marched on Thebes,
then, Theseus states, he is prepared to use force. Adrastus now describes the qualities of the fallen lead-
At this, Theseus, Aethra, and Adrastus depart to con- ers: CAPANEUS, ETEOCLUS, Hippomedon, Parthenopaeus,
sult the assembly of Athenian citizens. After their depar- and TYDEUS. After Adrastus’ comments, Theseus
ture, the Argive women sing a song that prays for declares that most of the captains will be burned on a
Theseus’ success. They also pray that Justice will go to common pyre, but that Capaneus will be burned sep-
their aid. After the choral song, Theseus, Adrastus, and arately because he died when struck by a lightning bolt
an Athenian herald enter. Theseus instructs the herald to from Zeus. At this point, the funeral procession begins
go to CREON and request that he give up the Argive dead to move the bodies toward the funeral pyres. While
for burial. If Creon refuses this request, then the Thebans they do so, the Argive women lament the loss of their
should expect an attack by the Athenians. Before the sons and the joyless life that awaits them.
Athenian herald can set out, a Theban herald enters. As the Argive women conclude their lament, they
Before the herald states his business, he and Theseus notice Capaneus’ wife, Evadne, who is standing above
engage in a debate on the virtues of kingship versus the funeral pyre of her husband. She announces her
democracy. After the argument, the Theban herald states intention to throw herself upon into the same flames
that the Athenians should expel Adrastus from their land that burn her husband’s body. Before Evadne can act,
and should not threaten to use force to remove the her father, Iphis, enters and tries to prevent her from
Argive corpses for burial. Theseus, refusing to be threat- killing herself. Unfortunately, he cannot persuade
ened by the Thebans, argues that the Thebans should not Evadne, who views her death as a noble victory and
deny the right of burial to the Argives (a right granted by throws herself into the flames. After Evadne’s death,
all Greeks). Theseus declares that he and his citizens will Iphis laments the loss of his daughter, as well as of his
take up arms to defend the Argives’ right to bury their son, Eteoclus, who also died while fighting against the
dead. The Theban herald, however, states that the Athe- Thebans. Iphis grieves that he will have no one to care
nians will never take the Argive dead from Theban soil. for him in his old age. After the departure of Iphis, the
After the herald departs, Theseus calls his citizens to sons of the dead Argive captains approach, carrying the
arms and tells them to prepare to march on Thebes. ashes of their fathers in urns. The Argive women and the
After Theseus departs, the Argive women are fearful, young men exchange lamentation for the loss of their
wondering what the outcome of the struggle will be. sons and the loss of their fathers. The young men boast
They pray to ZEUS for aid. After the choral song, a MES- that they will someday avenge their fathers’ deaths.
 SUPPLIANT WOMEN 525

After the Argive mothers and sons bid farewell to war, the suicidal grief of a wife who has lost her hus-
their loved ones, Theseus calls Adrastus and the band, the grief of a father whose daughter has com-
Argives to witness the gift that Athens has given to mitted suicide because she lost her husband, and the
them and urges Adrastus to teach his people to remem- grief of sons who have lost their fathers. Other “war”
ber what Athens has done for them. Adrastus expresses plays usually deal with the hardships of war for the
his thanks and Theseus prepares to allow the Argives female and child survivors; Suppliant Women adds the
to depart when ATHENA suddenly appears. Athena component of the downtrodden king and his state.
urges Theseus not to allow the Argives to leave until Thus, in Euripides’ play, we see the grief not only of
they swear that they will not march on Athens and that individuals, but also of entire communities. As must
they will help defend Athens should others attack the Danaus in Aeschylus’ Suppliant Women, Adrastus must
city. Athena also tells Theseus to inscribe the oath on a turn to another king for help. Euripides’ play, however,
tripod and deposit the tripod at APOLLO’s temple at reverses the situation of Aeschylus’ play. Whereas
DELPHI. Athena then predicts the future victory of the Aeschylus’ Danaus sought help from the king of Argos,
Argives’ sons over the Thebans. After Theseus prom- Euripides’ Adrastus, king of Argos, seeks help from the
ises to obey Athena’s commands, the chorus promise king of Athens. Although the cities that Aeschlyus’
they will give Theseus the oath prescribed by Athena. Pelasgus and Euripides’ Theseus represent are differ-
ent, the democratic forms of government that they rep-
COMMENTARY resent are essentially the same. Pelasgus and Theseus
The staging of Euripides’ play poses little challenge may be kings, but they represent themselves as repre-
until the unexpected arrival of Evadne. How her sui- sentatives of the people’s will.
cide would have been staged is a matter of debate. The As Aeschylus’ Suppliant Women, Euripides’ Children
actor playing Evadne apparently would have appeared of Heracles, Andromache, Heracles, and Helen, and
on top of the stage building and would have had to SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS AT COLONUS do, Euripides’ Suppliant
drop onto the “pyre” (which appears to be within the Women treats a group of people taking refuge at an
spectators’ view). Perhaps a hollow structure crafted to altar. Unlike Helen, however, Euripides’ Suppliant
resemble a pyre with padding in the middle would Women is completely serious in its tone and subject
have allowed an athletic actor to jump down from the matter. The evil oppressor in Euripides’ Suppliant
upper level of the stage building. An opening in the Women is the Theban king, Creon, who does not take
back of this structure could allow the actor to exit the the stage in the play. Unlike in other plays of supplica-
“pyre” unseen by the audience. tion, the Argive suppliants in Euripides’ play are not
Euripides’ Suppliant Women is one of at least five physically threatened by Creon, but the corpses of
extant plays within about a 10-year period that com- their loved ones are. As in other suppliant plays, the
ment on the subject of war. As do CHILDREN OF HERA- refugees seek the assistance of a protector, and, as in
CLES, HECABE, and TROJAN WOMEN, and, to a lesser other such plays (especially Children of Heracles and
extent, ANDROMACHE, Suppliant Women deals with the Oedipus at Colonus), the Athenians are the protectors.
effects of war on the loved ones of fallen warriors. At Additionally, just as in Children of Heracles, the protec-
the time Suppliant Women was produced, Euripides’ fel- tors in Suppliant Women will fight a battle against the
low Athenians were involved in a war with the Spar- oppressors to secure the wishes of the suppliants.
tans and their allies. Because the people of Thebes were Unlike in Children of Heracles, however, in which one
also fighting Athenians in this war, the hostilities of the suppliants, the aged Iolaus, undergoes a mirac-
between the mythical Athenians and Thebans also ulous rejuvenation and plays a key role in the battle,
would have been quite real to Euripides’ audience. no Argive males in Suppliant Women will contribute to
Indeed, Suppliant Women would have touched on sev- the battle in which Theseus and his fellow Athenians
eral themes to which Euripides’ audience could relate. show their valor and attain victory.
In Suppliant Women, Euripides allows the audience to For all the superficial praise of Theseus and the
see the grief of mothers who have lost their sons in Athenian way of government and conducting of
526 SUPPLICATION

military operations, Euripides’ audience would have for her children to be supplicants to Creon’s daughter
recognized many of their own actions in those of so that she will receive the deadly gifts that Medea has
Adrastus and the Argives. Early in the play, Theseus prepared for her.
asks Adrastus whether he consulted prophets before
going to war against the Thebans. Adrastus says he did, SUSA The capital city of Persia. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
but that he ignored the warnings of the prophets and Aeschylus, Persians]
was carried away by the clamor of the younger men for
war (160). Later, at lines 737–41, Adrastus notes that SYBARIS A Greek town in southern Italy whose
the Theban leader, ETEOCLES, had offered them fair inhabitants were famous for their ignorance and their
terms of peace, but that because they were young and luxurious mode of life. The Sybarites were supposed to
superior in number, they did not accept the offer. Such be so foolish that people told humorous stories about
statements surely would have reminded some of them, comparable to the jokes people make today.
Euripides’ audience of the Athenian demagogue [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 344, Wasps 1259,
CLEON. In 425 B.C.E., when the Athenians had a signif- 1427, 1435, 1438; Herodotus, 5.44, 6.21, 6.127.1]
icant number of Spartans pinned down at Sphacteria,
the Spartans tried to negotiate a peace, but the coun- SYCOPHANT See INFORMANT.
terdemands of Cleon and the Athenians were excessive
SYMPLEGADES See CLASHING ROCKS.
and the war continued. It was certainly no coincidence
that after Cleon’s death a peace agreement between SYNAGONIST (Greek: SYNAGONISTES;
Athens and SPARTA was reached in 421. Plural: SYNAGONISTAI) A synagonist (one
BIBLIOGRAPHY with whom one competes) was the actor who served as
Burian, P. “Logos and Pathos: The Politics of the Suppliant either the DEUTERAGONIST or the TRITAGONIST, as opposed
Women.” In Directions in Euripidean Criticism: A Collection to the PROTAGONIST, in the dramatic company.
of Essays. Edited by P. Burian. Durham, N.C.: Duke Uni-
versity Press, 1985, 129–55. SYNCHOREGIA (Plural: SYNCHORE-
Goff, B. “The Women of Thebes,” Classical Journal 90, no. 4 GIAI) A Greek word used to refer to two or more
(1994–95): 353–65. people who perform the duty of a CHOREGIA.
Scully, S. P. “Orchestra and Stage in Euripides’ Suppliant
Women,” Arion 4, no. 1 (1996–97): 61–84. SYRA A common name of female slaves. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Peace 1146; Plautus, Merchant;
SUPPLICATION The act of begging someone. Terence, Mother-in-Law]
In Greek custom, the person who begs, the suppli-
cant, kneels on the ground, places one arm around SYRACUSE An important city on the eastern
the other person’s knees, and with the other arm coast of SICILY. In PLAUTUS’ MENAECHMI, one of the
reaches up and touches the person’s chin. Supplica- Menaechmus twins grew up in Syracuse.
tion plays an important role in Greek TRAGEDY. Extant
plays by both AESCHYLUS and EURIPIDES are entitled SYRIA A country near the eastern shore of the
SUPPLIANT WOMEN. In Euripides’ MEDEA, the title char- Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks’ conception of Syria’s
acter uses supplication to achieve mastery over JASON, borders changed over time. AESCHYLUS’ description of
who had originally been a supplicant to her in Syria suggests that its borders were rather close to
COLCHIS (cf. lines 496–98). MEDEA is a supplicant to northern Africa. By the days of SENECA, Syria was a
CREON to gain one more day in CORINTH (324); she is Roman province, whose borders were similar to, but
a supplicant to AEGEUS to secure a place to stay when more expansive than, those of the modern country of
she leaves Corinth (709–11); and finally she arranges Syria. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Suppliant Women 5]
 C TD
TAENARUS (TAENARUM) A place near in EURIPIDES’ HECABE and TROJAN WOMEN and delivers
the southern tip of Greece. According to legend, one messages between the Greek army and the Trojan cap-
could gain entrance to the UNDERWORLD through a cav- tives. In Euripides’ ORESTES, Talthybius’ speech against
ern at Taenarus. SOPHOCLES wrote a play whose title ORESTES is reported by a MESSENGER. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
may have been Satyrs at Taenarus (fragments 198a–e Apollodorus, Epitome 3.9, 3.22; Euripides, Iphigenia at
Radt); however, this may have been an alternate title Aulis 95, 1563, Orestes 888; Plautus, Stichus 305;
for Sophocles’ Heracles, Infant Heracles, or Cerberus. Seneca, Trojan Women 164]
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 510, Frogs BIBLIOGRAPHY
187; Euripides, Cyclops 292, HERACLES 23] Dyson, M., and K. H. Lee. “Talthybius in Euripides’
BIBLIOGRAPHY Troades,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 41, no. 2
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: (2000): 141–74.
Harvard University Press, 1996, 98–99.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, TANAUS A river located in the southern part of
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. mainland Greece that formed a border between Argive
and Spartan territory. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides,
TAGUS A river in Spain in which sand of gold was ELECTRA 410; Seneca, Agamemnon 680, Hercules Furens
supposed to be found. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca, Her- 1323, Hercules Oetaeus 86, Hippolytus 715, Trojan
cules Furens 1325, Hercules Oetaeus 626, Thyestes 354] Women 9]

TALAUS Talaus was the father of ADRASTUS TANTALUS (1) The son of ZEUS and a woman
(according to some sources) or HIPPOMEDON (according named Pluto, Tantalus had a son named PELOPS, and
to others). Both Adrastus and Hippomedon were some sources make him the father of NIOBE, although
members of the Seven against THEBES expedition. others call Niobe the daughter of Pelops. Tantalus suf-
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.6.1, 3; fered one of the more fascinating punishments in the
Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis 245, Phoenician Women UNDERWORLD. After having the privilege of sharing in
422; Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1318] the feasts of the gods, Tantalus gave some of the food
to his fellow humans. Furthermore, when the gods
TALTHYBIUS The primary herald for the Greek dined at the house of Tantalus, he killed his son,
army during the Trojan War. He appears as a character Pelops, and mixed his flesh with the food. For this, the

527
528 TANTALUS (2)

gods killed Tantalus, and in the underworld he was TANTALUS (3) This Tantalus was CLYTEMNES-
compelled always to be hungry and thirsty. Tantalus TRA’sfirst husband, who was killed by AGAMEMNON,
was immobilized in a pool of water and positioned who also killed Clytemnestra’s child by him. [ANCIENT
near a fruit tree; whenever Tantalus tried to get a drink, SOURCES: Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis 1148–52]
the water receded; whenever he tried to reach for fruit,
a gust of wind whisked it from his grasp. Thus, he was TAPHIANS Another name for the TELOBOIANS.
always “tantalized” (SENECA, THYESTES 149–75).
In Greek drama, Tantalus does not appear as a char- TARTARUS Another name for the UNDERWORLD.
acter in any surviving plays, although he appears to
have been a character in AESCHYLUS’ Niobe. Several TARTESIAN LAMPREY A type of eel from
dramatists wrote plays entitled Tantalus. Among the Tartessos (in the southwestern part of the Iberian
Greek tragedians, a single word survives from PHRYN- peninsula). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 475]
ICHUS’ Tantalus (fragment 7 Snell); a title is known from
Pratinas (fragment 2 Snell); and five lines (that the wise TAURIS The land of Tauris was located on the
know no more than those who are not wise) survive peninsula on the northern part of the Black Sea.
from Aristarchus’ Tantalus (fragment 1b Snell). SOPHO- According to one tradition, IPHIGENIA, just as she was to
CLES wrote a Tantalus; its two brief extant fragments, be sacrificed by her father, AGAMEMNON, was miracu-
about the brevity of life and the revelation of an ORACLE lously transported to Tauris. There, she became a priest
by HERMES, indicate little about the play’s content (frag- of ARTEMIS and prepared human victims for sacrifice to
ments 572–73 Radt). Among Roman works, Tantalus’ the goddess. Tauris provides the setting for EURIPIDES’
ghost appears as a character in SENECA’s Thyestes. In IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, which deals with Iphigenia’s
that play, a FURY drives Tantalus’ ghost to goad the reunion with her brother, ORESTES, and escape from
brothers ATREUS and THYESTES to savage and brutal that land.
conflict. Tantalus does not want to do this, but even-
tually such madness does manifest itself in the play, TAUROPOLIA A festival in ATTICA (the region
although Tantalus’ ghost does not take the stage again where ATHENS is located) that honored ARTEMIS.
after line 121. [ANCIENT SOURCES Hyginus, Fables 82; [ANCIENT SOURCES: Menander, Arbitration 451, 472,
Seneca, Thyestes] 477, 517, 863, 1119]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. TAUROPOLOS An epithet of ARTEMIS which
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: refers to her mastery over bulls (taur-). [ANCIENT
Harvard University Press, 1996. SOURCES: Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris 1457; Sopho-
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, cles, Ajax 172]
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, TAURUS The constellation representing the bull.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. Tradition says that this bull was the form adopted by
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University ZEUS when he abducted EUROPA from CRETE. [ANCIENT
Press of America, 1984. SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Furens 9, 952, Thyestes 852]

TANTALUS (2) A son of THYESTES, this Tantalus TAYGETUS A mountain located southwest of
appears as a character in SENECA’s THYESTES, as a young SPARTA. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 117,
man who tries to persuade his father to trust his 1296]
brother, ATREUS, and to sieze the opportunity to
become king. Atreus later kills this Tantalus and serves TECHNITES (Plural: TECHNITAI) From
him as food to his father. the latter half of the fourth century B.C.E. onward, a
 TELEPHUS 529

technites (artist) was a member of an acting guild. BIBLIOGRAPHY

[ANCIENT SOURCES: Inscriptiones Graecae 9.1.694, 76ff., Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
12.9.207, and p. 176, 12 Supplement p. 178; Sylloge sity Press, 1995, 189.
Inscriptionum Graecarum 3.690]
TELEBOANS (TELOBOIANS) Also
TECMESSA This woman became the war prize known as the Taphians, the Teleboans were a mythical
of AJAX during the Trojan War and by him produced tribe who lived in the so-called Taphian islands off the
a son, EURYSACES. Tecmessa appears as a character in western coast of Greece. AMPHITRYON and his Theban
SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, in which she gives a speech mod- forces defeated the Teleboans and their king, PTERELAS
eled on that of ANDROMACHE to HECTOR in the sixth (or Pterelaus), in a war that was prompted by the Tele-
book of HOMER’s Iliad, as Tecmessa worries about boans’ theft of cattle that belonged to Amphitryon’s
what will happen to her and her son if Ajax dies. In uncle, ELECTRYON. Electryon’s sons were killed while
Sophocles, however, the dynamic differs from that of trying to fend off the raiders. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Plau-
the Homeric Andromache and Hector because tus, Amphitruo 101ff]
Tecmessa is a war captive rather than a legitimate
bride; she is also a Trojan woman who has come to TELEPHUS Telephus was the son of HERACLES
care for a Greek man, rather than a Trojan woman and AUGE. Telephus was born in the Greek town of
involved with a fellow Trojan. Tegea and left to die after his birth. He survived by
being suckled by a deer. Upon the Greeks’ first attempt
TEIRESIAS See TIRESIAS. to sail for Troy to recover HELEN, they landed in Mysia
and fought with Telephus and his people, in the course
TELAMON Telamon accompanied HERACLES of which ACHILLES wounded him. The Greeks then
when that hero sacked TROY during the reign of LAOME- returned to Greece in need of someone to guide them
DON. After the battle, Heracles gave Laomedon’s daugh- to Troy. Later, when Telephus’ wound would not heal,
ter, HESIONE, as a battle prize to Telamon. By his Telephus went to Greece in accordance with an ORACLE,
concubine, Hesione, Telamon became the father of which stated that he could only be healed by the one
TEUCER; by his wife, Eriboea, he became the father of who had wounded him. Telephus made his way to
AJAX. ENNIUS wrote a Telamon, from which about a ARGOS and the court of AGAMEMNON. When Telephus
dozen lines survive. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, did not receive the help he desired from Agamemnon,
Library 2.6.4, 3.12.6–7; Euripides, Helen 87–94; Hygi- he took Agamemnon’s infant son, ORESTES, hostage and
nus, Fables 89; Pindar, Isthmian Odes 6.26–54, Nemean threatened to kill him. Ultimately, Agamemnon
Odes 3.36–39; Pausanias, 8.15.6–7] relented and Telephus was put in contact with
ACHILLES, who healed him with the rust from his spear.
TELEAS The son of Telenicus, Teleas was a In thanks, Telephus agreed to guide the Greeks to Troy.
wealthy Athenian who served as “Secretary . . . of the EURIPIDES wrote a play entitled Telephus, which was
Treasurers of Athena for 415/4” (Dunbar) but who produced in 438 B.C.E. along with Alcmeon in Psophis,
must have been familiar to the Athenian public as early Cretan Women, and Alcestis. We possess rather substan-
as 421 B.C.E. ARISTOPHANES calls him a fickle person, an tial fragments from the play that give us some under-
embezzler, and a glutton. The ancient commentators standing of it. Our knowledge of Euripides’ Telephus is
on Aristophanes noted that the comic poets also also augmented by ARISTOPHANES’ parody of the
mocked Teleas as a coward and a passive homosexual. hostage scene in his ACHARNIANS and THESMOPHORI-
The comic poet PHRYNICHUS calls him a big ape. AZUSAE. In Acharnians, DICAEOPOLIS takes charcoal
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Birds 168 and the hostage and threatens to “kill” it if the Acharnians do
scholia at 167, 1025, Peace 1008; Inscriptiones Graecae not end their threats to stone him. In Thesmophori-
i3.331.23, 370.62; Phrynichus, fragment 20.2 Kock] azusae, Mnesilochus takes hostage a woman’s baby—
530 TEMENUS

which turns out to be a skin of wine—and threatens to the Peloponnesians and killed ORESTES’ son,
kill it if the women do not leave him alone. In Euripi- Tisamenus. After establishing their mastery over the
des’ Telephus, Telephus apparently took the infant Peloponnese, Temenus and three other chieftains (CRE-
Orestes hostage and threatened to kill him. SOPHOCLES SPHONTES and Aristodemus’ sons, EURYSTHENES and
is also said to have written a Telephus and appears to Procles) drew lots to determine who would rule which
have treated Telephus’ story in Mysians. [ANCIENT city (ARGOS, Messenia, and SPARTA). They cast their lots
SOURCES: Hyginus, Fables 101] into a pitcher of water. Temenus and Aristodemus’
sons used stones as lots, but Cresphontes, who wanted
BIBLIOGRAPHY
to obtain Messenia as his kingdom, used a clod of dirt
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1996. as his because the clod’s dissolution would cause the
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, other two lots to be taken first.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. After the lottery, in which Cresphontes won Messe-
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University nia, Aristodemus’ sons won Sparta, and Temenus won
Press of America, 1984. Argos, Temenus began to show favor to his daughter,
Hyrnetho, and her husband, Deiphontes, over his
TEMENUS The son of Aristomachus, Temenus sons, Agelaus, Callias, and Eurypylus. This behavior
was one of the descendants of HERACLES known as the angered Temenus’ sons, who hired men to kill their
Heraclids. When Heracles’ son, HYLLUS, trying to father. After Temenus’ murder, however, his army
restore the Heraclids to the kingdom of the Pelopon- decided to hand over the kingdom to Deiphontes and
nese, led an army against ORESTES’ son TISAMENUS, Hyrnetho.
Temenus’ father, Aristomachus, was killed in battle. EURIPIDES wrote a Temenus (fragments 742–51
Temenus blamed his father’s death on an ORACLE of Nauck) that probably dates to the last five years of his
APOLLO, with which Temenus claimed the Heraclids life. Fragment 742 may refer to the lottery of the three
had complied in attacking the Peloponnesians. Apollo, lands; fragments 743–44, which refer to the qualities
however, declared that the Heraclids had misinter- of a good general, may point to Deiphontes, who was
preted the oracle. When Temenus learned the proper the general of Temenus’ army. Euripides also wrote a
interpretation of the oracle, he assembled an army and Daughters of Temenus (fragments 728–41 Nauck),
built a fleet at the town of Naupactus. which may have been part of a trilogy with his Temenus
While at Naupactus, Temenus’ army suffered terri- and Archelaus and may have dealt with the death of
ble hardship. At one point, a soothsayer appeared, Hyrnetho, whose brothers tried to carry her off from
reciting oracles. The army thought the soothsayer was Deiphontes. Deiphontes pursued the brothers and in
a magician sent by their enemies to cause their ruin, the subsequent battle they and Hyrnetho were killed.
and one of the soldiers, Hippotes, killed him. Because [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.8.2–5; Hygi-
of this killing, the sailors and the fleet were destroyed nus, Fables 219; Pausanias, 2.18.7–2.19.1, 2.26.2,
and the army fell apart after a terrible famine. Temenus 2.28.3–7]
again consulted the oracle and learned that the sooth-
sayer’s death had caused the disaster and that his killer, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hippotes, must be exiled for 10 years. Furthermore, Harder, M. Annette. “Euripides’ Temenos and Temenidai.” In
Fragmenta Dramatica: Beiträge zur Interpretation der
Temenus learned that he and his surviving forces
griechischen Tragikerfragmente und ihrer Wirkungsgeschichte.
should use “the Three-Eyed One” as their guide. After
Edited by M. A. Harder. Göttingen, Ger.: Vandenhoeck &
Hippotes’ exile, Temenus and his companions Ruprecht, 1991, 117–35.
searched for the Three-Eyed One. Upon encountering Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint,
Oxylus, a man sitting on a one-eyed horse, they real- Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964.
ized he must be the one meant by the oracle. With Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Oxylus as his guide, Temenus and his army defeated Methuen, 1967.
 TEREUS 531

TERENCE (CA. 190–159 B.C.E.) According to against his critics and comments on the challenges he
tradition, Publius Terentius Afer was born in the north faces in winning over an audience. Whereas Plautus
African town of CARTHAGE. At a young age he went to usually explains the background to a play in the rather
Rome as the slave of a senator, Terentius Lucanus. This artificial, expository fashion, Terence allows the back-
senator, apparently impressed by the young Terence, ground to his plays to emerge in a more natural way
provided him with an education and later freed him. through the conversation of the play’s characters. Ter-
Eventually, Terence made his way into a literary circle ence also differs from Plautus in his avoidance of song
that formed around the Roman statesman Scipio and lyric passages. Terence’s language is regarded as
Aemilianus and the comic poet CAECILIUS, to whom closer to everyday speech than that of Plautus and his
Terence is said to have read his first play. Terence is characters as more realistically and sensitively drawn
said to have died on a trip to Greece, but the exact date than those of Plautus. Although they were more ele-
his death is not known. gant in style and realistic in characterization than those
The six surviving plays that we have represent Ter- of Plautus, Terence’s plays were not as popular as Plau-
ence’s entire output: Eunuchus (EUNUCH), Adelphoi tus’. They lack the spirited fun of Plautus’ plays and
(BROTHERS), Andria (GIRL FROM ANDROS), PHORMIO, some of Plautus’ stock characters (e.g., the evil PIMP
Hecyra (MOTHER-IN-LAW), and Heauton Timorumenos and the aged male lover). In fact, Terence’s most pop-
(SELF-TORMENTOR). The plays of Terence, like those of ular play, Eunuch, is Terence’s most Plautine play in its
PLAUTUS, were originally written by Greek playwrights content, as it includes a stereotypical food-obsessed
and then adapted for Roman audiences. All of Terence’s PARASITE and a BRAGGART WARRIOR. Terence’s dramas
plays are set in ATHENS. Unlike Plautus, though, who had significant influence on Augustine, given their lack
inserted Roman references and terms into his plays, of moral value in Augustine’s opinion. Likewise, the
Terence does not allow Roman elements to intrude in plays of the medieval writer Hrothswitha tried to coun-
his Greek setting. teract the perceived immorality in Terence’s work.
MENANDER provided models for four of Terence’s
BIBLIOGRAPHY
plays (Andria, Brothers, Eunuch, Self-Tormentor); Ter-
Arnott, W. G. Menander, Plautus, and Terence. Oxford:
ence took the other two from Apollodorus of Carystus Clarendon Press, 1975.
(Mother-in-Law, Phormio). As did Plautus, Terence took Buchner, K. Das Theater des Terenz. Heidelberg: Winter,
liberties with his Greek sources. In the prologue of his 1974.
Andria (13–14), for example, Terence admits that he Forehand, W. E. Terence. Boston: Twayne, 1985.
has combined elements from Menander’s Perinthia Goldberg, S. M. Understanding Terence. Princeton, N.J.:
(Woman of Perinthos) and Menander’s Andria. Whereas Princeton University Press, 1986.
Terence was criticized in his own day for this practice Norwood, G. The Art of Terence. Oxford: Blackwell, 1923.
(see CONTAMINATIO), modern scholars usually praise his
relatively seamless integration of such material, espe- TEREUS The son of ARES, the Thracian Tereus
cially when compared to that of Plautus. The plots of committed one of the greatest atrocities recorded in
Terence’s plays are generally more complicated than of classical mythology. Tereus, who had married Pan-
those of Plautus. With the exception of Mother-in-Law, dion’s daughter, PROCNE, and fathered a son, Itys, by
Terence’s plays have a double plot, in which two lovers her, raped Procne’s sister, PHILOMELA; cut out her
pursue their love interests. tongue and then imprisoned her in a hut in the Thra-
Terence’s PROLOGUES are certainly different from cian countryside. Eventually, however, Philomela was
those of Plautus. Plautus’ were usually expository in able to reveal what had happened to her by weaving a
nature, with a character appearing at the beginning of cloth depicting her horrific experience and arranging
the play to explain the background to the action. Ter- for the cloth to be smuggled to Procne. When Procne
ence’s prologues are slightly reminiscent of the PARABA- understood what had happened to her sister, she man-
SIS in ARISTOPHANES as Terence often defends himself aged to release her from her confinement. After she
532 TETHYS

had taken Philomela into her own house, Procne pro- that several tetralogies comprised are known. The clos-
ceeded to kill her own son, Itys, and serve the child as est to a complete tetralogy is AESCHYLUS’ ORESTEIA. The
food to her husband. When Tereus realized that he had first three plays of the tetralogy (Agamemnon, Libation
consumed the vile dish, he tried to kill Procne and Bearers, and Eumenides [see ORESTEIA]) are extant, but
Philomela. The women, however, who had prayed to the satyr play that followed them, Proteus, has not sur-
the gods for salvation, were changed into birds. Procne vived. The plays that constitute some tetralogies, such
became a nightingale, and Philomela became a swal- as Aeschylus’ Theban tetralogy (composed of Laius,
low. Tereus also became a bird—the hoopoe. Oedipus, Seven against Thebes, and the satyr play
SOPHOCLES wrote a Tereus, of which about a dozen Sphinx), have clear connections in subject matter.
fragments survive (581–95b Radt). Because ARISTO- Other tetralogies, however, seemingly have little con-
PHANES jokes about Sophocles’ Tereus in his BIRDS of nection in the subject matter of the various plays. We
414 B.C.E., Sophocles’ play appeared before this date. shall never know what, if any, connections Aeschylus
Among Roman authors, ACCIUS wrote a Tereus (lines might have established in the tetralogy that consisted
639–55 Warmington). Shakespeare’s Titus Andronicus of Phineus, Persians, and Glaucus Potnieus and its satyr
was heavily influenced by the story of Tereus. [ANCIENT play, Prometheus Pyrkaeus.
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 3.14.8; Aristophanes,
Birds 15, 201, 665, Lysistrata 562; Euripides, Heracles TEUCER The son of TELAMON and PRIAM’s daugh-
1021; Hyginus, Fables 45; Ovid, Metamorphoses ter, HESIONE, Teucer is the half brother of AJAX. Teucer,
6.401–674; Seneca, Thyestes 56] a skilled archer, fought on the Greek side during the
BIBLIOGRAPHY Trojan War. Teucer appears as a character in SOPHO-
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. CLES’ AJAX and EURIPIDES’ HELEN. In Ajax, the title char-
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: acter gives Teucer custody of his son, EURYSACES, before
Harvard University Press, 1996. he commits suicide. After Ajax’s death, Teucer argues
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, unsuccessfully with AGAMEMNON and MENELAUS about
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. the burial of Ajax. Eventually, ODYSSEUS intervenes and
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University secures burial for Ajax, but Teucer prevents Odysseus
Press of America, 1984.
from participating in the burial because he feels this
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus,
would not have been in accordance with Ajax’s wishes.
Naevius, Pacuvius, and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1936. Euripides’ Helen is about the life of Teucer after the fall
of TROY. Apparently, when Teucer returned to his
TETHYS The daughter of URANUS and Gaia (see native island of SALAMIS, his father, Telamon, blaming
EARTH), Tethys became the wife of her brother, Teucer for the fate of Ajax, banished him from Salamis.
OCEANUS. With Oceanus, Tethys had some 3,000 chil- Accordingly, Teucer set out to find a new home.
dren. Sometimes playwrights use the name of Tethys as According to Euripides’ Helen, Teucer makes a stop in
a synonym for the sea. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Egypt to consult the female prophet THEONOE. Eventu-
Library 1.1.3; Hesiod, Theogony 136, 337; Seneca, Her- ally, Teucer arrives at the island of Cyprus, where he
cules Furens 887, 1328, Hercules Oetaeus 1252, 1902, settles and founds a town called Salamis, after his
Hippolytus 571, 1161, Medea 378, Trojan Women 879] native land. SOPHOCLES wrote a Teucer, from which
about a dozen lines survive (fragments 576–79 Radt);
TETRALOGY This term refers to a group of four Telamon seems to have appeared as a character.
plays offered by Greek tragedians at a single dramatic [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 1041; Homer,
festival. The first three plays of the tetralogy were Iliad 8.266–344, 12.370–403, 13.169–85, 15.437–83,
tragedies; the last play was usually a SATYR PLAY. No 23.859–83; Pausanias, 1.3.2, 1.28.11, 2.29.4,
extant tetralogy survives, but the names of the plays 8.15.6–7; Vergil, Aeneid 1.619–22]
 THEATRON 533

BIBLIOGRAPHY Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:

Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. Teubner, 1884.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1996. Harvard University Press, 1996.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America, 1984. Press of America, 1984.

TEUCRIAN Pertaining to Teucer, an early king THANATOS The personification of death,

in the region where TROY is located. The classical play- Thanatos appears at the beginning of EURIPIDES’ Alcestis.
wrights sometimes call Troy either Teucria or the Teu-
crian land. The Trojans are sometimes called Teucrians.
THEAGENES The identification of this Greek is
uncertain, as the name is common in ATHENS. ARISTO-
PHANES makes fun of a person named Theagenes on sev-
TEUMESSUS A mountain or range of hills near eral occasions and labels him a braggart, a person with
THEBES. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Phoenician Women filthy habits, and someone who had suffered the penalty
1100; Pausanias, 9.19] for adultery. Thucydides mentions two people named
Theagenes, one a “fact finder” (Dunbar), the other one
THALES A Greek scientist of the sixth century of those who in 421 B.C.E. ratified the PEACE OF NICIAS.
B.C.E. whom ARISTOTLE considered one of the Seven Xenophon mentions a Theagenes who in 409 had a
Sages of the world. Thales was regarded as the founder diplomatic mission to Persia. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
of geometry and was said to have predicted correctly a phanes, Birds 822, 1127, 1295, Lysistrata 64, Peace 928,
solar eclipse in the year 585. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- Wasps 1183–84, fragment 582 Kock; Thucydides,
phanes, Clouds 180, Birds 1009; Aristotle, Metaphysics 4.27.3, 5.19.2, 5.24.1; Xenophon, Hellenica 1.3.13]
983b20; Herodotus, 1.74; Plautus, Bacchides 122]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
THAMYRIS (THAMYRAS) The son of Phil- sity Press, 1995. 492–93.
ammon and Argiope, Thamyris was a handsome musi-
cian who had a musical contest with the MUSES. The THEATRON (Plural: THEATRA; Latin:
goddesses agreed that if Thamyris won, he could have CAVEA [sg.], CAVEAE [pl.]) The theatron
sexual relations with them, but if he lost, then they (“place for viewing”) was the space from which the
would take away from him whatever they wished. spectators watched a play. In the early days of Greek
When the Muses won the contest, they blinded him drama, the theatron was nothing more than the side of
and robbed him of his musical ability. SOPHOCLES wrote a hill or wooden bleachers on a hillside. From the
a Thamyras, of which a few fragments survive (237–45 fourth century B.C.E. onward, the theatra became per-
Radt). The fragments have many references to music manent structures made of stone. By 160 B.C.E., the
and musical instruments but reveal little else about the theatron at EPIDAURUS had been expanded to 55 rows of
play’s content. The Greek comic poet Antiphanes also seats, which could accommodate about 12,000 specta-
wrote a Thamyras, from which three lines (fragment tors. The theatron at Aphrodias (in western Turkey),
105 Kock) about someone who will be named after the which was dedicated in 28 B.C.E., could seat 8,000
STRYMON River survive. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, spectators.
Rhesus 924–25]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 79–88.
534 THEBES

THEBES A town about 30 miles northwest of some of the revenue from their silver mines to build up
ATHENS. Two foundation stories are connected with their navy. Themistocles commanded the Athenian
Thebes. The better involves CADMUS, whom the DEL- naval forces that helped repel the Persian invasion of
PHIC ORACLE told to follow a cow until it stopped walk- 480. After this, Themistocles persuaded the Athenians
ing and on that site found a town. Cadmus did as he to build massive fortification walls to protect Athens’
was told and followed the cow into the region of BOEO- main harbor, PIRAEUS. Although Themistocles had
TIA (whose name contains the Greek word for “cow,” advised his fellow Athenians well, he had many politi-
bous). The other foundation story connected with cal enemies, and they managed to secure his exile in
Thebes involves the twin sons of ZEUS and ANTIOPE, 471. He first traveled to Argos but then had to flee to
AMPHION and Zethus. Amphion, an excellent musician, what is now western Turkey after he was accused of
and Zethus, a strong fellow, served as corulers of consorting with the Persians. In Themistocles’ absence,
Thebes and built walls for the city by using their skills. the Athenians sentenced him to die, and he is known
Zethus moved stones into place by sheer strength, but to have died in 462. The Greek comic poet Philiscus
Amphion’s music caused stones to roll into place. The wrote a Themistocles, of which only the title survives.
town of Thebes had seven gates, which became strate- [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Knights 84, 812, 813,
gic points of battle in the famous Seven against Thebes 818, 884; Hermippus, fragment 6 Kock; Herodotus,
conflict. Numerous persons with a connection to clas- 7–8; Plutarch, Themistocles; Thucydides, 1.74, 1.93,
sical TRAGEDY lived at Thebes: ANTIGONE, CREON, ETEO- 1.135–38]
CLES, HERACLES, LAIUS, OEDIPUS, PENTHEUS, POLYNEICES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Several classical tragedies have Thebes as their setting: Anderson, C. A. “Themistocles and Cleon in Aristophanes’
AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN AGAINST THEBES, SOPHOCLES’ ANTIGONE Knights, 763ff.,” American Journal of Philology 90 (1989):
and OEDIPUS TYRANNOS, EURIPIDES’ BACCHAE, HERACLES, 10–16.
and PHOENICIAN WOMEN. Frost, F. J. Plutarch’s Themistocles: A Historical Commentary.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980.
THEMIS The daughter of URANUS and Gaia (see Marr, John. Plutarch: Life of Themistocles. Warminster, U.K.:
EARTH), Themis personifies that which is “right” (the Aris & Phillips, 1998.
meaning of her name), customary, ethical, and estab- Podlecki, A. J. The Life of Themistocles: A Critical Survey of the
lished by law. Before the arrival of APOLLO, Themis was Literary and Archaeological Evidence. Montreal: McGill-
the divinity who controlled the oracle at DELPHI. Queen’s University Press, 1975.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.3.1, 4.1;
Hesiod, Theogony 135, 901; Homer, Iliad 15.87, 20.4,
THEOCLYMENUS The son of PROTEUS and the
NEREID Psamathe, Theoclymenus was the brother of
Odyssey 2.68; Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.321, 4.642; Pau-
THEONOE (also called Eido). Theoclymenus became the
sanias, 1.22.1, 5.14.8, 9.22.1, 9.25.4, 10.5.3]
king of Egypt after his father’s death, and in EURIPIDES’
THEMISCYRA A plain near the Thermodon HELEN, he pressures HELEN to marry him. In that play,
River in the Black Sea region. AMAZONS were said to Theoclymenus is characterized as a hater of Greeks,
inhabit Themiscyra. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, but it is his trust of Greeks (Helen and MENELAUS) that
Prometheus Bound 724; Herodotus, 4.86] ultimately leads to his being tricked by them. His fate
after the action of Euripides’ Helen is unknown.
THEMISTO See ATHAMAS.
THEOGNIS A Greek tragedian whose work was
THEMISTOCLES (CA. 528–462 B.C.E.) An considered so “frigid” that his nickname was “Snow.”
important Athenian politician and military leader in Only two words of his work survive (fragment 1 Snell).
the first quarter of the fifth century B.C.E. In the late He may have been the same Theognis who was one of
480s, Themistocles persuaded the Athenians to use the Thirty Tyrants whom the Spartans installed to rule
 THERAMENES 535

ATHENS after their victory in 404 B.C.E. [ANCIENT lia; Plutarch, Pericles 9; Ulpian on Demosthenes, Olyn-
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 11, 140, Thes- thiacs 1.1]
mophoriazusae 170, Wasps 1183; Lysias, 12.6.13;
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Xenophon, Hellenica 2.3.2]
Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995, 287–97.
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. THEORUS An Athenian statesman who sup-
ported CLEON and jurors. In 426 B.C.E., Theorus may
THEOLOGEION (Plural: THEOLOGEIA) have traveled to THRACE on a diplomatic mission to
The theologeion (“place from which a divinity speaks”) King Sitalces, and in ARISTOPHANES’ ACHARNIANS Theo-
was a space on the roof of the SKENE where ACTORS, usu- rus gives a brief report on his mission. In 409, Theorus
ally portraying gods, could appear. [ANCIENT SOURCES: may have died near SAMOS while serving as a naval
Pollux, Onomasticon 4.130] commander. ARISTOPHANES calls him a flatterer,
imposter, and perjurer. The ancient commentators say
THEONOE The daughter of NEREUS, Theonoe that other comic poets labeled him an adulterer and a
(“divine mind”) was a prophetess and the sister of the glutton. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians
Egyptian king Theoclymenus. Theonoe appears in 134, 155, Clouds 400, Knights 608 and the scholia,
EURIPIDES’ HELEN, in which she predicts that HELEN’s Wasps 42 and the scholia, 599, 1220, 1236]
husband, MENELAUS, is still alive. After Menelaus
BIBLIOGRAPHY
arrives on the scene, Theonoe indicates that she will
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
tell her brother, King THEOCLYMENUS, that Menelaus has Press, 1971, 133.
arrived. This will mean death for Menelaus, because Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 4,
Theoclymenus hates Greeks, but Helen pleads with Wasps. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1983, 155.
Theonoe not to tell her brother and wins her over.
After Helen and Menelaus escape from Egypt, Theo- THERAMENES (D. 404/403 B.C.E.) A
clymenus threatens to kill Theonoe, but the gods CAS- prominent Athenian statesman and military figure,
TOR and POLLUX order him not to do this. [ANCIENT Theramenes, son of Hagnon, in the year 411 played an
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae 896; Euripi- important role in the overthrow of Athenian democ-
des, Helen] racy and the establishment of the oligarchy of the Four
BIBLIOGRAPHY Hundred. A few months later, Theramenes helped
Sansone, D. “Theonoe and Theoclymenus,” Symbolae overthrow the Four Hundred and establish the rule of
Osloenses 60 (1985): 17–36. the Five Thousand; within a year he helped remove the
Five Thousand and reestablish democracy. Although
THEORIKON (Plural: THEORIKA) Pub- Theramenes commanded a ship in 405 in the Athenian
lic funds held in the Athenian treasury that was given loss to the Spartans at ARGINUSAE, a battle after which
to Athenian citizens so that all could afford entry to six Athenian naval commanders were executed by
public entertainment events such as plays. Until most their fellow citizens, Theramenes managed to avoid
of the fourth century B.C.E. the theorikon was usually death. Theramenes’ luck ran out a year or so later,
two OBOLS or one DRACHMA, but in the last quarter of when after he had helped negotiate the peace treaty
that century the theorikon increased to five drachmas. that ended the war between ATHENS and SPARTA in 404,
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Demosthenes, On the Crown 28.5; the Spartans appointed him one of the Thirty Tyrants
Dinarchus, Against Demosthenes 56; Harpocration on who would govern Athens. When the Athenians over-
theorika; Hyperides, Against Demosthenes 26; Inscrip- threw the rule of the Thirty, Theramenes was put to
tiones Graecae ii2.1176; Lucian, Timon 49 and the scho- death. The younger Cratinus wrote a Theramenes, of
536 THERMODON

which only the title survives (see Kock 2). [ANCIENT Apollodorus, Library 1.8.6, Epitome 5.1; Homer, Iliad
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 541, 967–68, fragment 2.212ff.]
549 Kock 1; Thucydides, 8.68.4, 8.89.2–94.1;
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Xenophon, Hellenica 1.6.35, 1.7.5–8] Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
BIBLIOGRAPHY Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1993, 262. THESEUM The name of a sacred precinct, per-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: haps on the eastern end of the Athenian ACROPOLIS, in
Teubner, 1880. which the bones of THESEUS were said to have been
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
placed. The Theseum was sometimes used as a place of
Teubner, 1884.
refuge for slaves, who “could demand to be sold to a
Lang, M. L. “Theramenes and Arginousai,” Hermes 120, no.
3 (1992): 267–79. new master” (Sommerstein). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
Pesely, G. E. Theramenes and Athenian Politics: A Study in the phanes, Knights 1312, fragment 567 Kock; Plutarch,
Manipulation of History. Berkeley: University of California Cimon 8.5–7, Theseus 36.2–4]
Press, 1983.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
THERMODON A river in the Black Sea region. Teubner, 1880.
Amazon women were said to live along the Ther- Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
modon, and HERACLES went to this area to obtain the Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 214.
belt of the Amazon queen. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschy-
lus, Prometheus Bound 725; Seneca, Hercules Furens
THESEUS The son of POSEIDON (or AEGEUS) and
246, Hercules Oetaeus 21, Medea 215, Oedipus 481]
AETHRA, Theseus was born in TROEZEN. By the AMAZON
ANTIOPE, Theseus fathered HIPPOLYTUS. By PHAEDRA,
THERSITES The son of Agrius, Thersites was
Theseus was the father of DEMOPHON and Acamas.
the brother of Celeutor, Lycopeus, MELANIPPUS,
When Theseus grew up, his mother, Aethra, led him to
Onchestus, and Prothous. With his brothers, Thersites
helped usurp the kingdom of CALYDON from OENEUS a large rock under which his father, Aegeus, had placed
and transfer it to their father, Agrius. Eventually, how- a sword and a pair of sandals. If Theseus could lift the
ever, DIOMEDES killed most of Thersites’ brothers and rock and retrieve these objects, he was to travel to
drove Agrius from the kingdom. Thersites and ATHENS, Aegeus’ kingdom. Theseus succeeded, put the
Onchestus escaped to the Peloponnese. When Oeneus sandals on his feet, strapped the sword to his side, and
left Calydon and arrived in the Peloponnese, Thersites set out for Athens over land, although the sea route
and Onchestus killed him. Later Thersites went to was faster and much safer.
TROY as part of the mission to rescue HELEN. He was Because travel over land presented six challenges,
universally hated by his fellow Greeks (his name Theseus decided to take this route, so that he could
means “brawler” and he was ugly). Thersites was even- gain a reputation for valor. On the way to Athens, The-
tually killed by ACHILLES after Achilles killed the Ama- seus killed six persons or creatures who were accus-
zon PENTHESILEIA in the 10th year of the war. Thersites tomed to kill passersby: Periphetes, SINIS, the sow of
made fun of Achilles, because he then fell in love with Crommyon, SCIRON, CERCYON, and PROCRUSTES. In each
her. The Greek tragedian Chaeremon wrote an Achilles instance, Theseus killed the person or creature in the
Thersitoktonos (Achilles, the killer of Thersites); among way in which it had killed others.
the brief remains of this play (fragments 1c–3 Snell) is When Theseus arrived in Athens, he found Aegeus
a list of the play’s characters. The presence of PAN and married to the dangerous MEDEA, who with Aegeus had
HERMES on the list suggests that Chaeremon’s treatment a son, MEDUS. Through her magic powers, Medea
of Thersites’ death was not somber. [ANCIENT SOURCES: knew that Theseus was Aegeus’ son. Medea convinced
 THESEUS 537

Aegeus that Theseus was going to try to kill him and from Naxos was not a happy one. When Theseus had
accordingly tried to kill Theseus. First, she challenged left Athens, the ship was flying a dark-colored sail.
Theseus to capture the deadly bull of Marathon. When Aegeus had told Theseus to change the sail to a light-
Theseus subdued the bull, led it to Athens, and sacri- colored one if he had been successful on Crete. On his
ficed it, Medea arranged for Aegeus to poison him at a return to Athens, however, Theseus forgot to change
banquet. Fortunately for Theseus, Aegeus recognized the ship’s sail. When Aegeus, anxiously awaiting The-
Theseus’ sword as the one he had placed under the seus’ return from Crete, saw that the ship was flying a
rock at Troezen and dashed the cup of poisoned wine dark-colored sail, he assumed that Theseus had died
from Theseus’ lips. Medea managed to escape Athens on Crete and threw himself into the sea. Although The-
with her son. seus had freed his fellow Athenians from the tribute
After the departure of Medea, the joyful reunion of they paid to Crete, his forgetfulness had caused his
Theseus and Aegeus was short lived, as the tribute that father’s death.
the Athenians owed to MINOS, the king of CRETE, fell After Aegeus’ death, Theseus became the king of
due. After Minos’ son, Androgeus, was killed in Athens. He soon instituted a democracy, which
Athens, Minos had waged war successfully against allowed him to participate in other adventures. Some
Athens. After the victory, Minos imposed a penalty on say he joined in the hunt for the Calydonian boar, the
the Athenians—every nine years they had to send to quest for the Golden Fleece, and HERACLES’ journey to
Crete seven young men and seven young women. get the Amazon’s girdle. In this latter adventure, The-
When they reached Crete, the young Athenians were seus is said to have abducted the Amazon Antiope (or
imprisoned in a labyrinth beneath Minos’ palace, Hippolyta). After Theseus’ return to Athens, the other
where they either starved to death or were killed by a Amazons traveled to Athens and waged war against
monster called the MINOTAUR. Not long after Theseus’ Theseus and his people. Some say that Antiope was
arrival in Athens, the tribute fell due a third time. The- killed in this battle, others that she fought alongside
seus volunteered to go to Crete as one of the sacrificial Theseus against her former tribe. In either case, The-
victims. Despite Aegeus’ fears for his son, Theseus seus triumphed over the Amazons, and by Antiope he
sailed with the other young people to Crete. Upon his fathered a son, Hippolytus. Some time later, Theseus
arrival in Crete, APHRODITE aided Theseus by causing married Phaedra, the daughter of Minos and sister of
Minos’ daughter, ARIADNE, to fall in love with him. Ari- Ariadne. Some sources say that to do this he divorced
adne gave Theseus a special ball of thread to take with Antiope, and perhaps even killed her when the
him into the labyrinth. This thread, the property of the angered Amazon tried to attack him. Theseus’ marriage
labyrinth’s architect, DAEDALUS, could guide Theseus to Phaedra also ended in disaster, as she fell in love
through this deadly maze. With Ariadne’s thread and with Hippolytus. When an attempt to arrange a union
the favor of the gods, Theseus led his companions with Hippolytus failed, Phaedra committed suicide.
through the labyrinth. Theseus also managed to kill Before her suicide, however, Phaedra wrote a note to
the Minotaur in the process. Before Theseus left Crete, Theseus accusing Hippolytus of trying to assault her
he sabotaged the Cretan ships so that they could not sexually. When Theseus read Phaedra’s note, he used
pursue him. Then, accompanied by Ariadne and his one of three curses his father, Poseidon, had given him
fellow Athenians, Theseus made his escape. to cause Hippolytus’ death.
On the journey back to Athens, the ship stopped on Accounts of Theseus’ life after the deaths of Phaedra
the island of NAXOS. Theseus and his fellow Athenians and Hippolytus vary. It appears, however, that Theseus
left Naxos; Ariadne did not. Sources give different rea- attended his friend, PIRITHOUS the Lapith, at Pirithous’
sons for this: Some say that ARTEMIS killed Ariadne; marriage to HIPPODAMEIA. When CENTAURS tried to
others that DIONYSUS took Ariadne away from Theseus; attack Hippodameia during the wedding festivities, a
others that Theseus simply left Ariadne on the island. battle broke out between the centaurs and the Lapiths.
Whatever the reason, Theseus’ life after his departure With the help of Theseus, Pirithous and the Lapiths
538 THESMOPHORIAZUSAE

defeated the centaurs. Hippodameia, however, was resents the compassionate side of Athens, the Athens
killed accidentally during the battle. Because Pirithous that helps the downtrodden mothers of fallen Argive
and Theseus were both unmarried now, the two set out warriors recover the bodies of their sons for burial or
to find brides for themselves and decided that they who provides a place of refuge for Heracles or OEDIPUS,
would settle for nothing less than daughters of ZEUS. who will be or are cast out of their native lands for hor-
The first woman the two pursued was young HELEN, rific crimes or actions.
the daughter of Zeus and LEDA. When they abducted In addition to those plays, Theseus would have
Helen from SPARTA, they decided that Theseus would appeared in a number of other ancient dramas. Euripi-
eventually marry her. After Theseus left Helen in des wrote a Theseus, and Sophocles may have written
Troezen with his mother, Aethra, Theseus and Pirit- one. Webster thinks that Euripides’ Theseus treated
hous then set out to find another daughter of Zeus for Theseus’ encounter on Crete with the Minotaur. The
Pirithous. After consulting the DELPHIC ORACLE, The- Greek tragedian Achaeus also wrote a Theseus, but the
seus and Pirithous descended to the UNDERWORLD to four words that survive give no firm information about
inquire about PERSEPHONE, who was a daughter of the play’s content (fragments 18–18a Snell). Four
Zeus, but who was also married to HADES himself. Greek comic poets, Aristonymous (fragment 1 Kock
Hades took the two undead heroes into his house and 1), Theopompus (fragments 17–20 Kock 1), Anaxan-
offered them a seat on the Couch of Forgetfulness. drides (fragments 19–20 Kock 2), and DIPHILUS (frag-
When the unsuspecting pair sat on the couch, not only ment 49 Kock 2) also produced plays entitled Theseus,
did they forget why they had gone to the underworld, but the fragments are too brief to give any hint at their
they also became stuck to the couch. Some time later plots. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 142;
Theseus was rescued from the couch by Heracles dur- Euripides, Heracles, Hippolytus, Suppliant Women; Hygi-
ing his labor to fetch CERBERUS. Pirithous, however, nus, Fables 37–38, 40–43, 47–48, 79, 187; Plutarch,
was not so lucky, as an earthquake occurred while Her- Life of Theseus; Seneca, Hercules Furens, Hippolytus;
acles tried to remove him from the couch. Heracles Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus]
took this as an omen that the gods were displeased
BIBLIOGRAPHY
with the rescue, and so Pirithous remained in the
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vols. 1 and 2.
underworld. Leipzig: Teubner, 1880, 1884.
When Theseus returned to Athens, he found that Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
the government had changed hands during his Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
absence. Now, Mnestheus was king and Theseus found Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
himself regarded as an outlaw. Theseus then left Methuen, 1967.
Athens and traveled to SCYROS, where his family had
some land. Unfortunately for Theseus, LYCOMEDES, THESMOPHORIAZUSAE ARISTOPHANES
king of Scyros, was a friend of Mnestheus’, and when (411 B.C.E.) The play was produced (perhaps at the
Theseus arrived on the island Lycomedes killed him by City DIONYSIA) in the same year as LYSISTRATA. How the
pushing him off a cliff into the sea. Thus, Theseus died play finished in the competition is not known. The
in roughly the same manner as his father, Aegeus, had. play is set in ATHENS and the audience has to imagine
Theseus appears as a character in several extant at least two different locations: The play opens at the
plays: EURIPIDES’ HIPPOLYTUS, SUPPLIANT WOMEN, HERA- house of the poet Agathon and later moves to the place
CLES; SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS AT COLONUS; and SENECA’s HER- where the women are celebrating the Thesmophoria.
CULES FURENS and HIPPOLYTUS. In Euripides’ Hippolytus, At the festival of the Thesmophoria, the women
Theseus is portrayed as the unfortunate king who decree that EURIPIDES must be put to death because of
rushes to a judgment that results in the death of a what he says about them in his plays. As the play
loved one. In Euripides’ Suppliant Women and Heracles, opens, Euripides, who would have been close to 70
as well as Sophocles’ Oedipus at Colonus, Theseus rep- years old when Thesmophoriazusae was staged, is
 THESMOPHORIAZUSAE 539

accompanied by one of his kinsman, Mnesilochus, to Mnesilochus plays the role of Helen, and Euripides
the house of Agathon, a tragic poet. Because Agathon pretends to be her shipwrecked husband, MENELAUS.
behaves and dresses in an effeminate manner, Euripi- When Euripides’ tragedies fail to rescue his kinsman,
des hopes that Agathon will be able to infiltrate the all- he (dressed as an old woman) approaches the women
female Thesmophoria and plead his case before the at the Thesmophoria and promises not to slander them
women. When Agathon refuses, Euripides dresses any longer. The women accept Euripides’ proposal but
Mnesilochus as a woman and has his kinsman go to tell him that if he wants to set Mnesilochus free, he
the festival. Mnesilochus pleads Euripides’ case, but himself will have to take care of the Scythian. To do
the women eventually discover his true gender, thanks this, Euripides finally resorts to a trick from the comic
to the information of Cleisthenes, whose womanlike genre: He induces the Scythian to chase a dancing girl.
appearance has gained him entry to the Thesmophoria. With the Scythian out of the way, Euripides rescues
Mnesilochus tries to escape by taking one woman’s Mnesilochus and the play swiftly ends.
baby as a hostage; he soon discovers, however, that
what the woman had wrapped in a blanket was not a COMMENTARY
baby, but a skin of wine. This scene parodies Euripides’ ARISTOPHANES’ Thesmophoriazusae has not received as
Telephus, originally staged 27 years earlier, in which the much critical attention as other Aristophanic plays, but
title character took the infant ORESTES as a hostage. the more often one reads the play, the more one appre-
Mnesilochus, after the failure of this tactic, is taken ciates its cleverness and consistency of theme and
into custody by an Athenian policeman. structure. Moreover, Thesmophoriazusae is one of the
The remainder of the play consists of Euripides’ most unique plays among Aristophanes’ surviving
attempts to free Mnesilochus from captivity. These works. As in Lysistrata and ECCLESIAZUSAE, women play
attempts involve parodies of various Euripidean plays. a central role in Thesmophoriazusae. Unlike those two
First, Mnesilochus takes a page from Palamedes, in plays, however, Thesmophoriazusae does not suggest
which Oeax, the brother of PALAMEDES, threw into the sweeping social or political reform. Furthermore, other
sea oar blades inscribed with news of Palamedes’ than the decree of death against Euripides, the
death. In Palamedes, Oeax hoped news of Palamedes’ women’s role in the play is not as substantial as in
death would reach Palamedes’ father in Greece. In Lysistrata or Ecclesiazusae. Unlike Lysistrata, Thes-
Thesmophoriazusae, Mnesilochus does not have oar mophoriazusae does not focus on how war affects not
blades; instead he throws wooden voting tablets into only women but the whole of society, but on how a
the audience in the hope that news of his capture will particular poet affects a specific group in society.
reach Euripides. When this tactic fails, an attempt to The “concern” that faces Euripides and Mnesilochus
free Mnesilochus is made by using tactics from Euripi- in this play is one of stereotype. Euripides is claimed to
des’ Andromeda, staged not long before Thesmophori- stereotype women as evil, and therefore the women of
azusae. The aged Mnesilochus plays ANDROMEDA, and the Thesmophoria decide to kill him. What the audi-
Euripides pretends to be PERSEUS. The humor of the ence should note about this play, however, is the means
parody is further intensified as Andromeda/Mne- by which Euripides tries to extricate himself from this
silochus’ opening lament is echoed by the goddess situation. To save himself, Euripides relies on his skills
ECHO herself. Aristophanes enhances the effect by as a creator of dramatic plots, especially tragic ones.
making Echo respond to the comments of the Scythian Almost from start to finish, Thesmophoriazusae consists
who is guarding Mnesilochus. Thus, Echo does double of a series of plays within the play. First, Euripides tries
duty by echoing an old man who is pretending to be a to enlist the help of the poet Agathon to plead his case
young woman, as well as echoing a foreigner who with the women. Although the effeminate poet already
speaks imperfect Greek. The attempt to free Mne- has the appropriate costume to address a group of
silochus with scenes from Andromeda fails. Next, Mne- women, unlike Euripides in Aristophanes’ ACHARNIANS
silochus and Euripides turn to Euripides’ HELEN. Again, (who let Dicaeopolis borrow a costume from one of his
540 THESPIADES

plays), Agathon refuses to participate in Euripides’ lures the Scythian into chasing the dancing girl. Thus,
“play.” Because Euripides’ attempt to organize this play each time Mnesilochus or Euripides tries to employ
has failed, he must recast the role for the character who tactics from one of Euripides’ tragedies to escape from
will plead his case and settles on his relative. Unfortu- a threatening situation, his effort fails. Ultimately,
nately for Euripides but fortunately for COMEDY, Euripi- Euripides must turn to a gag from comedy, in the form
des’ relative will need more preparation to become a of a seductive woman, to free Mnesilochus. Thus, it
woman. He does not already dress as a woman or would appear that Aristophanes’ purpose in Thes-
resemble a woman; accordingly, he must be shaved (all mophoriazusae is to demonstrate the triumph of com-
over his body). Eventually, however, this “play” fails. edy over tragedy. Perhaps Aristophanes felt some
The women are outraged by Mnesilochus’ speech, and sympathy for his fellow poet Euripides, however. Just
eventually his male identity is revealed to them by as the internal audiences of Thesmophoriazusae failed to
another man who can pass as a woman. appreciate the Euripidean tragedies that were being
Trapped, Mnesilochus turns to Euripidean drama performed before them, so, too, audiences had not
for escape. Just as in Acharnians Dicaeopolis had appreciated Aristophanes’ plays at times in his career
turned to a parody of Euripides’ Telephus and had (see the PARABASIS of WASPS).
taken charcoal hostage when faced with an assault
BIBLIOGRAPHY
from the Acharnians, likewise in Thesmophoriazusae
Habash, M. “The Odd Thesmophoria of Aristophanes’ Thes-
Mnesilochus takes a skin of wine hostage. Mne- mophoriazusae,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 38,
silochus, however, performs the role of TELEPHUS incor- no. 1 (1997): 19–40.
rectly, and, unlike Telephus, Euripides’ relative “kills” Hall, E. M. “The Archer Scene in Aristophanes’ Thesmophori-
his hostage by pouring out the wine. Thus, Mne- azusae,” Philologus 133 (1989): 38–54.
silochus remains trapped and Euripidean drama has Hansen, H. “Aristophanes’ Thesmophoriazusae: Theme,
failed to extricate him from this situation. Structure, and Production,” Philologus 120 (1976):
Thus, Mnesilochus is trapped and the remainder of 165–85.
the play functions almost as a tetralogy, with the per- Sommerstein, A. H. “Aristophanes and the Events of 411,”
formance of three tragedies and a satyr play. The first Journal of Hellenic Studies 97 (1977): 112–26.
———. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 8, Thesmophori-
TRAGEDY to which Mnesilochus resorts is Euripides’
azusae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1994.
Palamedes. Mnesilochus’ attempt to call for help fails,
however, as no one responds to the messages that he
casts out to the audience. Next, Mnesilochus hopes THESPIADES The 50 daughters of Thespius, a
performing Helen will save him, but again the audience king in central Greece. When HERACLES was a young
onstage (the women of the chorus and the woman, man, he had sexual relations with all of them. This was
Critylla, who guards him) are not taken in by Euripi- arranged by their father, who wanted to have grand-
dean drama. children by the great hero. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Hyginus,
The arrival of a new member for the audience on Fables 162; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 369]
stage, the Scythian, marks the beginning of the third
tragedy in the tetralogy. Once again, however, Euripi- THESPIS (CA. 550–500 B.C.E.) Considered by
dean tragedy fails to achieve its object, as Mnesilochus some the inventor of drama, Thespis is said to have
and Euripides, cast in the roles of Andromeda and won the first competition for TRAGEDY at the City
Perseus, cannot fool the barbarian to whom they are DIONYSIA in ATHENS (from 535 to 533). Thespis is also
playing. credited with the introduction of an ACTOR to accom-
With the failure of these three tragedies (Palamedes, pany the CHORUS and even the invention of the mask,
Helen, and Andromeda), Euripides concludes the tetral- although other ancient sources say that Thespis’ actors
ogy with a comedy. Although no satyrs are present, smeared wine lees on their faces. Modern scholars are
Euripides clearly employs tactics from comedy as he skeptical that Thespis was either the inventor of the
 THETIS 541

mask or introduced the first actor. Four titles of Thes- THETIS The daughter of NEREUS and Doris, Thetis
pis’ plays exist, including a Pentheus, but even the was a beautiful NYMPH who attracted the attention of
ancient sources did not believe Thespis wrote these ZEUS. When Zeus learned through prophecy that
plays (for the dozen lines that survive from Thespis’ Thetis would produce a child who would be mightier
plays, see Snell, fragments 1–5). [ANCIENT SOURCES: than his father, Zeus arranged for her to marry the
Diogenes Laertius, 1.59, 5.92; Horace, Ars Poetica mortal PELEUS. When Thetis and Peleus had a son,
275–77; Plutarch, Solon 29; Suda on “Thespis”] ACHILLES, Thetis tried to make him immortal but was
BIBLIOGRAPHY not completely successful: His body was invulnerable
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen, except for his right heel. She was prevented from com-
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. pleting the process because Peleus discovered what she
was doing. Thetis was so angry with Peleus that she left
THESPROTIA A region along the northwest- him and returned to the sea.
ern coast of Greece. ZEUS’ oracle at DODONA was When the Trojan War began, Thetis tried to pre-
located in Thesprotia. The Greek comic poet Alexis vent Achilles from taking part because she knew that
wrote a play entitled Thesprotians, of which only two he would die if he went to TROY. Thetis’ efforts to hide
lines survive (fragment 89 Kock). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Achilles on the island of SCYROS failed, however, and
Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 831; Euripides, Phoeni- Achilles eventually went to Troy. When Achilles’
cian Women 982] friend, PATROCLUS, was killed while wearing Achilles’
armor and the armor was lost, Thetis arranged for
BIBLIOGRAPHY HEPHAESTUS to create new armor for Achilles. Hep-
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: haestus owed Thetis a favor because she had taken
Teubner, 1884.
care of him after he was thrown off Mount OLYMPUS
by Zeus or HERA.
THESSALY A region between Boeotia and Mace- After Achilles fell in battle, a furious struggle
donia in mainland Greece. In drama and elsewhere, occurred on the battlefield over Achilles’ body and his
Thessaly is described as being a good place to breed armor. The Greeks managed to take Achilles and his
horses, an area where exotic animals such as the lion armor off the battlefield, and Thetis declared that the
and lynx can be found, and a region inhabited by per- armor should be given to the Greek who had done
sons and creatures with unusual powers, especially most to help retrieve Achilles’ body from the battle-
magical ones. Among the extant plays, EURIPIDES’ field. The armor was awarded to ODYSSEUS.
ALCESTIS and ANDROMACHE are both set in Thessaly; Thetis appears as a character in EURIPIDES’ ANDRO-
SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAN WOMEN has a town on the MACHE. She arrives at the conclusion of that play and
southern border of Thessaly as its setting. Many other becomes reconciled with PELEUS. Unlike the other mar-
plays would have had Thessalian settings, particularly riages or unions alluded to in the play, such as those of
those dealing with the arrival of MEDEA in COLCHIS. NEOPTOLEMUS and HERMIONE, PARIS and HELEN, or
MENELAUS and Helen, the reunion of Peleus and Thetis
THESTIUS The son of ARES and Demonice or is a happy one, and Thetis’ return to Peleus is
Demonice’s father, Agenor, and Epicaste. Thestius was described as a reward for Peleus’ virtue. [ANCIENT
a king in the region of AETOLIA and the father of SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.2.2, 3.13.5; Homer,
ALTHAEA, Hypermnestra, LEDA, and at least two sons. Iliad 1.359, 500, 18.395, 434, 24.60, 535, Odyssey
Thestius’ nephew, MELEAGER, killed Thestius’ son in a 11.495; Hyginus, Fables 54; Pausanias, 3.14.4, 3.22.2,
quarrel after the hunt for the Calydonian boar. 8.18.1; Pindar, Isthmian Odes 8.58, Nemean Odes 3.60;
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.7.7, 1.7.10, Plautus, Epidicus 35, Truculentus 731; Seneca, Agamem-
1.8.2–3, 3.10.5; Hyginus, Fables 14; Ovid, Metamor- non 615, Hercules Furens 734, Medea 657, Octavia 707,
phoses 8.434–87; Pausanias, 3.13.8] Trojan Women 346, 880]
542 THOAS

THOAS The son of Dionysus and Ariadne, Thoas rycion cannot be verified. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo-
was the father of Hypsipyle. He was the brother of phanes, Frogs 362, 382]
Oenopion, Peparethus, and Staphylus. Thoas, whose BIBLIOGRAPHY
name means “swift,” lived on the island of LEMNOS Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon
until that island’s women rose up and killed all the Press, 1993, 241.
men except him, because his daughter, Hypsipyle, was
the leader of the uprising. Hypsipyle arranged for her THOUPHANES A crony of CLEON’s,
father’s life to be spared but placed him on a raft on Thouphanes was a public clerk who apparently had
which he left the island. According to one tradition, proposed a free or cheap distribution of grain to the
Thoas arrived at the Cycladic island of Oenoe, where Athenians, but either the distribution had not occurred
he had a child by the island’s namesake, Oenoe, who or it did not live up to expectations. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
was a water NYMPH. Another tradition says that the Aristophanes, Knights 1103 and the scholia]
women from Lemnos found him and killed him.
According to another tradition Thoas reached Tauris. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 2,
In EURIPIDES’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, Thoas is the king of
Knights. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1981, 203.
the Taurians. As Theoclymenus is in Euripides’ HELEN,
Thoas is portrayed as a hater of strangers, someone
who kills all Greeks who enter his land. Another par-
THRACE A region in the extreme northeastern
part of Greece. Thrace is often associated with cold
allel to Theoclymenus is that a Greek female tricks
weather, good land for breeding horses, a region where
Thoas. In Iphigenia in Tauris, IPHIGENIA tricks Thoas to
gold could be found, and wild or savage behavior.
allow her to take to the seashore a sacred statue of
Among the Greeks who lived in ATHENS, the Thracians
ARTEMIS, as well as two Greeks, ORESTES and PYLADES,
were considered barbarians. The DIOMEDES who fed
the former of whom is her brother. Once at the shore,
strangers to his horses was a Thracian king, as was
Iphigenia, Orestes, and Pylades board a ship and sail
LYCURGUS, who opposed DIONYSUS and eventually
away with the statue. Thoas threatens to pursue, but
killed his own son. TEREUS, who raped his wife’s sister
the appearance of the goddess ATHENA puts an end to
and cut out her tongue, was also from Thrace. POLY-
this. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.17,
MESTOR, another barbaric Thracian, appears in EURIPI-
Epitome 1.9; Hyginus, Fables 15, 254]
DES’ HECABE. In lust for gold, Polymestor killed PRIAM’S
son, POLYDORUS. Eventually, Priam’s wife, HECABE, took
THORICUS A DEME on the Greek coast between
revenge on Polymestor, blinding him. AESCHYLUS wrote
ATHENS and SUNIUM. A fortress at Thoricus helped pro-
a Thracian Women (Greek: Threissai), a TRAGEDY set at
tect the Athenians’ silver mines at Laurium. A stone at
TROY, that appears to have treated the same subject as
COLONUS, just north of Athens, was called the Thorician
SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, namely, the suicide of the title charac-
Stone. Because CEPHALUS, who was abducted by EOS,
ter. The chorus presumably would have been com-
was from Thoricus, the people of Colonus may have
posed of Thracian women who were the captives of
called this stone Thorician because they thought of it as
Ajax (see fragments 83–85 Radt).
a place from which one could be carried off to the gods.
OEDIPUS is near this stone at Colonus when he vanishes BIBLIOGRAPHY
from the Earth. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Göttingen,
2.4.7; Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1595] Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985.

THORYCION ARISTOPHANES suggests that Tho- THRASYBULUS (D. 388 B.C.E.) One of
rycion was a tax collector from the island of AEGINA ATHENS’ most important political and military figures
and that he was involved in smuggling material used to from the year 411 B.C.E. until his death, Thrasybulus,
help Athens’ enemies. Aristophanes’ ideas about Tho- the son of Lycus, was from the DEME of Steiria. In 411,
 THREE-DOLLAR DAY 543

Thrasybulus took the lead in suppressing an oligarchic Latin title of Plautus’ play, Three-Dollar Day, refers to a
revolt by the Athenian fleet at SAMOS. Around the same sum of money worth three nummi (singular: nummus).
time, Thrasybulus was also a leading advocate for the Among the Romans, the nummus was a silver coin of
recall of the exiled statesman and military leader ALCIB- relatively low value. The setting of the play is ATHENS,
IADES. After the Athenians’ naval defeat at ARGINUSAE in and the drama’s action occurs before the houses of
405 and during the trial of the Athenian generals that Charmides and Megaronides. The house of Philto is
followed it, Thrasybulus, who had commanded a ship also nearby. Behind Charmides’ house is an additional
in the battle, did much to prevent himself and his fel- space in which Lesbonicus lives. The brief prologue is
low ship commanders from being executed. After delivered by the goddess Luxury (Latin: Luxuria), who
Athens fell to the Spartans in 404, Thrasybulus was is accompanied by her daughter, Poverty (Latin:
exiled from Athens, but a year later he and a band of Inopia). No sooner do the pair of divinities take the
supporters returned, overthrew the puppet govern- stage than Luxury sends Poverty into the house of Les-
ment established by the Spartans, and restored democ- bonicus. As indicated, Luxury tells the audience about
racy in Athens. At this point, Thrasybulus was a major the Greek original for Plautus’ play, but the goddess
hero among the Athenians, but his popularity began to does not reveal any information about the plot other
decrease somewhat in the decade that followed. When than that she has sent Poverty to live with Lesbonicus
hostilities with the Spartans began again, Thrasybulus because he wasted his father Charmides’ fortune.
served again as a military commander around 394 and After the departure of Luxury, Megaronides, an old
was put in charge of the main forces of the Athenian Athenian gentleman, enters and informs the audience
navy in 390. In 388, while camped at Aspendus (near that he is going to chastise his friend, Callicles, another
the southern coast of modern Turkey), Thrasybulus elderly Athenian. After Megaronides complains about
lost his life during a raid on the camp by the local peo- the lax morality of his times, Callicles appears and
ple. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae 203, Megaronides begins to express his disappointment
356, Wealth 550; Diodorus Siculus, 14.94.2–4; with Callicles, whom people around town are criticiz-
Isocrates, 18.23; Lysias, 2.59–66, 16.15; Thucydides, ing for being greedy for profit and uncaring about the
8.73–76, 8.81; Xenophon, Hellenica 2.3.42, 3.5.16, people he harms. Callicles, however, responds that
4.8.25–30] Charmides, when he realized that he was becoming
poor, entrusted his son, Lesbonicus, and his daughter
BIBLIOGRAPHY
to Callicles and left town. Megaronides wonders why
Buck, R. J. Thrasybulus and the Athenian Democracy.
Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 1998. Callicles did not try to reform Lesbonicus, because the
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11, young man had spent so much money on wild living
Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 174–75. and why Callicles paid Lesbonicus a large sum of
money for the house in which Callicles currently lives.
THRATTA A Greek name meaning “Thracian Megaronides complains that Callicles’ giving Lesboni-
woman,” Thratta was a common name for slaves. cus this money made the young man’s behavior worse.
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 273, Peace At this point, Callicles breaks down and tells Mega-
1138, Thesmophoriazusae 280–93, Wasps 828] ronides why he paid such a large sum of money for the
house; as it turns out, Charmides had shown Callicles
THREE-DOLLAR DAY (Latin: TRINUM- a treasure that was hidden in the house: 3,000 gold
MUS) PLAUTUS (BEFORE 192 B.C.E.) As the coins. If Charmides returns, Callicles will give the
audience is informed in the prologue, the Greek origi- money back to him; if he does not return, Callicles will
nal for PLAUTUS’ play was Philemon’s Thesaurus (Trea- use the money to provide a dowry for Charmides’
sure), which has been dated tentatively to the rule of daughter when she is married. Callicles further notes
Demetrius Poliorcetes in Athens (392–287 B.C.E.); that the reason he bought the house was that Lesboni-
Three-Dollar Day was staged before 192 B.C.E. The cus was going to try to sell the house, and that would
544 THREE-DOLLAR DAY

have allowed Charmides’ treasure to fall into someone but still refuses to accept a dowry for Lesbonicus’ sister.
else’s hands. Hearing this changes Megaronides’ atti- Finally, Lesbonicus relents, and Philto and he prepare
tude about Callicles, who also informs him that Les- to plan the wedding date. Before Lesbonicus leaves, he
bonicus is now living in an apartment behind tells Stasimus to arrange for Callicles to meet him.
Charmides’ house and that Callicles is taking good care The third act opens with Stasimus’ informing Calli-
of Charmides’ daughter. After Callicles exits, Mega- cles that Lesbonicus has arranged for his sister to
ronides repents that he had believed the rumors about marry without a dowry. Callicles is astonished by this
Callicles. news and goes off to consult Megaronides. When
The play’s second act opens with the arrival of Stasimus hears this, he thinks that Callicles will try to
Lysiteles, a young Athenian gentleman, who gives a persuade Lesbonicus to sell him the farm. As Stasimus
lengthy and poetic speech about the dangerous powers ponders the difficulty of finding a friend one can trust,
of love. Lysiteles hopes that he can avoid such love and he sees Lesbonicus and Lysiteles’ approaching and
expresses a desire to live a virtuous life. Soon, Lysiteles’ eavesdrops on them. Lysiteles criticizes Lesbonicus for
father, Philto, emerges from their house in search of his his wild living and tells him not to let his judgment
son. Philto urges his son to emulate him and live a vir- become clouded by love. Lesbonicus acknowledges his
tuous life, and Lysiteles tells him that he has tried to wrongdoing but says that marrying his sister without a
live such a life. The young man also asks his father to dowry will add to his shame. Lysiteles thinks that if
allow him to help Lesbonicus, who has wasted his Lesbonicus turns over the farm as a dowry, then he will
father’s fortune. Philto is upset by this proposal, but not have more ties to the community and will leave his
Lysiteles says he wants to marry Lesbonicus’ sister and family and country behind. The argument finally ends
not ask for a dowry. Philto is reluctant to give his per- when Stasimus interrupts. After this, Lysiteles insists
mission, but eventually he accedes to his son’s wishes. that the marriage take place without a dowry and Les-
Lysiteles also requests that Philto himself approach bonicus exits without responding. Lysiteles also exits,
Lesbonicus with this proposal. Again, Philto balks at leaving Stasimus alone on stage. Stasimus expects that
this, but soon he agrees and approaches Lesbonicus’ soon Lesbonicus will leave to become a soldier and he
door. will have to serve him in some foreign land.
Before Philto approaches Lesbonicus, however, he After Stasimus leaves for the FORUM, Megaronides
stops to eavesdrop on a conversation between Lesboni- and Callicles enter and discuss the problem of Lesbon-
cus and Stasimus, a slave of Lesbonicus and Charmides’. icus’ sister’s marrying without a dowry. After rejecting
The pair discuss how Lesbonicus has already spent the various ideas for obtaining a dowry for her, the two old
money that Callicles gave him for the house. Philto, after men decide to hire a con man, dress him as a foreigner
listening to Lesbonicus and Stasimus discuss the squan- from Seleucia, and have him claim to have money from
dered money, finally approaches the two men. When Charmides to give to Lesbonicus as a dowry for his sis-
Philto proposes that Lysiteles marry Lesbonicus’ sister, ter. In actuality, though, the money will be from the
Lesbonicus initially rejects this proposal, as his family treasure that Charmides had hidden in the house. After
and Philto’s family are not of equal social status. agreeing on these matters, Megaronides sends Callicles
Stasimus, however, urges Lesbonicus not to refuse the to dig up Charmides’ treasure. Megaronides himself
proposal. After further discussion between Lesbonicus heads out to the forum to find a con man.
and Philto, Philto adds that he is not requesting a In the play’s fourth act, Charmides returns from his
dowry. Lesbonicus, however, insists that his sister journey abroad and expresses his thanks to Neptune
should not be married without a dowry and offers a (Greek: Poseidon) for a safe return. As Charmides looks
farm that his family owns. At this point, Stasimus takes forward to resting, he sees the con man whom Mega-
Philto aside and advises him not to accept the farm, ronides has hired, who is approaching on the street.
because it suffers from extreme bad luck and is there- Charmides is puzzled by the man’s strange appearance
fore unprofitable. Philto agrees not to accept the farm and decides to eavesdrop on him. The con man tells the
 THREE-DOLLAR DAY 545

audience that he has been paid a trinummus to trick men greet each other warmly and Charmides gives
Lesbonicus. Charmides is troubled when he sees that Lysiteles permission to marry his daughter and offers
the con man is knocking on the door of his house. him a vast dowry. Lysiteles initially rejects the offer of
Before anyone can answer the door, Charmides the dowry, but he agrees when Charmides says he will
approaches the man and asks what he wants. After not allow his daughter to marry without the dowry.
receiving uncooperative answers, Charmides realizes Charmides expresses his displeasure with Lysiteles,
that the fellow is a con man and decides to try a little however, saying that Lysiteles allowed Lesbonicus to
trickery himself. When the con man reveals that he has waste his money. Lysiteles urges Charmides not to be
been sent by the father of Lesbonicus, Charmides, angry with his son and summons Lesbonicus from the
Charmides asks him what the father’s name is. After some house. As soon as Charmides sees Lesbonicus, he for-
prompting by Charmides, the forgetful con man finally gets his anger at his son, who indicates that he is will-
remembers the father’s name and even curses Charmides, ing to behave properly. The play ends with Charmides’
not realizing that he is standing in the man’s presence. announcement that Lesbonicus will marry Callicles’
When Charmides asks the man whether he would recog- daughter—a proposition to which Lesbonicus readily
nize Charmides, the con man lies, saying that he would. agrees.
In another lie, he says that Charmides has entrusted to
him a vast sum of money. Upon hearing this, Charmides COMMENTARY
demands that the man hand over the money then, Three-Dollar Day has attracted less scholarly attention
because he is Charmides. The con man is astounded, and than other Plautine plays. Indeed, the moral tone of
soon Charmides drives him away from the house. As the play seems closer to that of TERENCE than of Plau-
Charmides watches the man leave, he wonders why he tus, and Duckworth classifies Three-Dollar Day as a
had gone to his house and what his claims about the play that focuses on character (see also POT OF GOLD,
money may mean. While Charmides ponders these STICHUS, TRUCULENTUS, and TERENCE’s BROTHERS). Three-
matters, an intoxicated Stasimus approaches and begins Dollar Day contains several passages in which charac-
philosophizing that morality in the past was better than ters (even the slave Stasimus) comment on the way
in the present. Charmides eavesdrops on his slave for people ought to behave and lament the lack of morals
some time before emerging and greeting him. Stasimus of current times.
is delighted to see his master, but when Charmides The absence of a lovesick youth or old man pining
moves toward the house Stasimus informs him that for a PROSTITUTE, as well as the absence of a woman
Lesbonicus sold it to Callicles. Hearing this, Charmides who has had a child as a result of being assaulted sex-
begins to gasp for breath. Callicles, perceiving the com- ually, contribute to the play’s more serious tone. Lysis-
motion outside, arrives from the house and explains teles’ desire to marry Lesbonicus’ sister is not
that he has been digging up Charmides’ treasure to pro- motivated by an all-consuming passion or a desire to
vide a dowry for Charmides’ daughter. An apparently prevent a child from being born out of wedlock. In
relieved Charmides then sends Stasimus to the harbor fact, other than the brief appearance (22 lines) of the
to watch over the unloading of the ship. Charmides female divinities at the first of the play, women are
then goes into the house with Callicles. heard of but not seen for the rest of the performance.
The play’s final act begins with the appearance of Three-Dollar Day also lacks the rollicking fun gener-
Lysiteles, who expresses his delight at the news that ated by the scheming slaves of such plays as PSEUDOLUS
Charmides has returned. Next, Charmides and Callicles or the HAUNTED HOUSE and the delightful confusion
enter. Charmides thanks Callicles for being such a faith- created by twins as in MENAECHMI or AMPHITRUO.
ful friend. When Callicles tells him that his daughter The deception in Three-Dollar Day is not orches-
will marry Lysiteles and explains the trick involving the trated by a wily slave or young man for the purpose of
con man, Lysiteles, who has been eavesdropping on the deceiving an evil PIMP, BRAGGART SOLDIER, or old man for
conversation, steps forward and greets Charmides. The a young woman or money. Instead, in Three-Dollar Day,
546 THREE-DOLLAR DAY

two rather altruistic old men try trick the prodigal that it is disgraceful not to help a friend (347). Philto,
young Lesbonicus accept money. Unlike the stingy, realizing that Lysiteles intends to create a bond of
rich old Euclio (Pot of Gold), who would be more than friendship that will benefit their family (382), agrees to
happy to provide the smallest possible dowry for his his son’s wishes to help Lesbonicus.
daughter, Lesbonicus, a young man who has squan- Unfortunately, Lesbonicus does not want to be
dered his father’s money does not want to accept the helped, despite Stasimus’ advice that he should not
efforts of Lysiteles to enter into a marriage with Les- reject this friend he has found (456). Lesbonicus even
bonicus’ sister. accuses Lysiteles of trying to injure a friend by propos-
Although Three-Dollar Day has a more serious tone ing a union with his sister that requires no dowry
than most of Plautus’ other plays, it is not without its (630). Thus, Lysiteles’ efforts to help his friend are
attractive qualities. The play’s preponderance of moral- actually damaging the friendship. Lysiteles tries to rea-
izing (in comparison to that in other Plautine plays) son with Lesbonicus and urges him to pay attention to
offers instruction, rather than pure entertainment. At his male friends in the FORUM rather than his female
the opening of the second act, Lysiteles’ 50-line speech friends in bed (651). Lysiteles also fears his acceptance
on love and its pitfalls contains some of the most of Lesbonicus’ farm would eventually cause Lesboni-
extensive remarks on love in Plautus. Indeed, the cus to leave town and his friends (702), and that as a
speech is quite enjoyable, even if it does seem trite in result people would consider Lysiteles greedy. Accord-
places. ingly, Lysiteles insists that Lesbonicus accept his pro-
In many ways, Three-Dollar Day is a play about the posed conditions for the marriage because if he does
friendship of men, as it has more occurrences of the not, he declares, he will no longer be his friend (716).
Latin words for friend (amicus) and friendship (amici- After the two young friends exit with their friendship
tia) than any extant Roman COMEDY. The first word on the verge of disintegration, Megaronides and Calli-
from Megaronides’ mouth when he enters is friend cles return and try to concoct a plan that will allow the
(amicum, 23) as he worries about how to confront his various bonds of friendship to remain intact. Mega-
friend, Callicles, rumors about whom are causing him ronides suggests that Callicles, because of his friendship
extreme grief. Once Megaronides learns that Callicles with Charmides (737), might offer a dowry on behalf of
has only been acting in the best interest of another Lesbonicus’ sister. Megaronides rules out the idea, how-
friend (Charmides; cf. lines 106–7), however, the ever, because people would think that Callicles had
friendship of the men is repaired. Megaronides’ con- ulterior motives. Eventually, Megaronides and Callicles
frontation of Callicles is so disturbing to Callicles that settle on the plot involving the con man, who unwit-
he feels compelled to reveal to him the secret of the tingly declares to Charmides that he is Charmides’
treasure, which Charmides entrusted to him in the friend (895). Of course, when Charmides challenges
name of friendship (153). After Callicles exits, Mega- the man to recall Charmides’ name, the con man does
ronides regrets that he allowed rumors to affect their so only after considerable prompting from Charmides.
friendship (216). Amusingly, the con man then unknowingly curses
When Lysiteles enters, part of his speech about love Charmides to his face (923), to which Charmides iron-
comments on the disruption of a person’s friendships ically responds that one should not speak badly of a
that love can cause (262) and declares that he does not friend who is not present (924, 926). After toying with
want love to become a friend (268) of his. Just as the his alleged friend for some time, Charmides finally
friendship between the elder men, Megaronides and reveals his identity to the dumbfounded man.
Callicles, was strained by the financial irresponsibility After driving away this false friend, Charmides
of Lesbonicus, Lysiteles wants to help his friend, Les- approaches his own house and soon has the wrong
bonicus (326), by marrying his sister without a dowry. impression about Callicles, a person whom he consid-
Philto does not want Lysiteles to be the friend of such ered his friend (1095). The confrontation of Callicles
an irresponsible person (337), but Lysiteles suggests by Megaronides earlier in the play is now matched by
 THYESTES 547

Charmides’ confrontation of Callicles, whom Sommerstein. A. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 1, Achar-
Charmides discovers digging up the secret treasure. nians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980, 191–92.
Once Charmides learns the reason for Callicles’
actions, their friendship is repaired and Stasimus THUCYDIDES (2) (CA. 460–CA. 400 B.C.E.)
declares that Callicles was the only person who was a The son of Olorus, Thucydides was an Athenian who
true friend to Charmides. Indeed, just as Charmides wrote a history of the PELOPONNESIAN WAR in eight
had advised the con man that he should not speak books. Although Thucydides’ history is incomplete, it
badly of an absent friend, Charmides discovers that remains our most important source of knowledge for
Callicles has been a friend to him in his absence. Soon, this war. Many ancient historians lived after (some-
Charmides himself declares to Callicles what a faithful times hundreds of years after) the events about which
friend his neighbor has been to him (1126). Thus, they write. Thucydides, however, lived during the
once Charmides and Callicles’ friendship has been Peloponnesian War and served as a military com-
reestablished, the wedding of Charmides’ daughter mander in 424 B.C.E. When Thucydides was unable to
and Lysiteles can go forward. Equally importantly, prevent the Spartan commander, BRASIDAS, from taking
however, the friendship of Lysiteles and Lesbonicus is Amphipolis, he was exiled from ATHENS. After two
repaired (cf. 1177). decades in exile, Thucydides returned to ATHENS after
the city’s fall to SPARTA in 404. Thucydides died soon
BIBLIOGRAPHY afterward.
Anderson, W. S., “Plautus’ Trinummus: The Absurdity of
Officious Morality,” Traditio 35 (1979): 333–45. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fantham, E. “Philemon’s Thesauros as a Dramatisation of Finley, John H. Thucydides. Ann Arbor: University of Michi-
Peripatetic Ethics,” Hermes 105 (1977): 406–21. gan Press, 1963.
Hunter, R. “Philemon, Plautus and the Trinummus,” Museum Gomme, A. W. Essays in Greek History and Literature.
Helveticum 37 (1980): 216–30. Oxford: Blackwell, 1937.
Riemer, P. Das Spiel im Spiel: Studien zum plautinischen Agon Hornblower, S. Thucydides. London: Duckworth, 1987.
im Trinummus und Rudens. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1996. Hunter, V. Past and Process in Herodotus and Thucydides.
Segal, E. “The Purpose of the Trinummus,” American Journal Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982.
of Philology 95 (1974): 252–64. Romilly, Jacqueline de. Thucydides and Athenian Imperialism.
Slater, N. W. “The Dates of Plautus’ Curculio and Trinummus Translated by Philip Thody. Oxford: Blackwell, 1963.
Reconsidered,” American Journal of Philology 108 (1987): Stahl, Hans-Peter. Thukydides: Die Stellung des Menschen im
264–69. geschichtlichen Prozess. Munich: Beck, 1966.

THUCYDIDES (1) The son of Melesias, the THULE The mythical island that is farthest away
Athenian statesman Thucydides opposed PERICLES in the from civilization as the Greeks and Romans under-
middle of the fifth century B.C.E. Thucydides was exiled stood it. Some equated it with Iceland; others thought
from ATHENS for 10 years in 443 B.C.E. but returned and it was the largest of the Shetland Islands. [ANCIENT
SOURCES: Seneca, Medea 379]
on his resumption of political life prosecuted Pericles’
friend, the philosopher Anaxagoras, for impiety. When
THYESTES The son of PELOPS and HIPPODAMEIA,
Thucydides was approaching 80 years of age, from 432
Thyestes was the brother of ATREUS. After the brothers
to 426, he was prosecuted by a certain CEPHISODEMUS
quarreled over the kingship and Atreus tricked his
and is said to have been unable to defend himself in
brother by serving him a dish made from Thyestes’
court. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians 703,
own children, Thyestes sought revenge on Atreus.
Wasps 946–48; Diogenes Laertius, 2.12]
After consulting the DELPHIC ORACLE about how to
BIBLIOGRAPHY accomplish this, Thyestes disguised himself and sexu-
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon ally assaulted his own daughter, Pelopea, who was a
Press, 1971, 255. virgin priestess. Pelopea became pregnant and gave
548 THYESTES

birth to AEGISTHUS. Euripides wrote an Oeneus, which To Thyestes’ amazement, the Sun reversed course and
was produced by 426 B.C.E. at the latest. The Greek he was obliged to give up the kingdom.
tragedian Chaeremon wrote a Thyestes; the single line Atreus, determined to take vengeance, asks the min-
(8 Snell) that survives, a reference to roses and lilies, ister for advice about how to punish his brother. Atreus
gives no hint as to the play’s plot. rejects the suggestion of killing him as too lenient for
Thyestes. Finally, Atreus decides to devise a way to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
make Thyestes eat his own children. Atreus decides to
Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971. lure Thyestes to his palace with the pretext of inviting
Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London: him back to Mycenae to share the kingdom. Atreus
Methuen, 1967. sends his sons, AGAMEMNON and MENELAUS, to invite
Thyestes to a banquet. The minister urges Atreus to
THYESTES SENECA (WRITTEN BETWEEN reconsider what he is about to do, but Atreus is deter-
49 AND 65 C.E.?) As SENECA’s AGAMEMNON does, his mined to go through with the plot.
Thyestes begins with the appearance of a ghost from the At this point, Atreus and the minister appear to exit.
UNDERWORLD, as the spirit of THYESTES’ grandfather, The CHORUS, who appear to be unaware of what Atreus
TANTALUS, demands to know who has summoned him is planning, sing a choral ODE in which they speculate
to the upper world. Tantalus’ query is answered by a on why kings use sinful means to acquire kingdoms.
FURY, who urges Tantalus to feast on the blood that will They conclude that the perfect king is not rich; the true
be shed in the house of his descendants. As MADNESS in king is one who fears nothing and wants nothing. The
EURIPIDES’ HERACLES is reluctant to drive HERACLES chorus wish that they themselves might live in peace
insane, Tantalus does not want any part in the blood and obscurity.
that will be shed. The Fury, however, compels him to The third act begins with the arrival of Thyestes,
set the two brothers, ATREUS and Thyestes, at one looking disheveled and dressed in rags, and three of his
another. The Fury and Tantalus’ ghost give way to the young sons (Plisthenes, Tantalus the younger, and
arrival of the chorus of Mycenean citizens, whose ini- another son, who is not named). Thyestes is glad to see
tial song recalls the sins of Tantalus and Myrtilus and Mycenae again but has doubts about whether he should
the respective punishment and fate each suffered trust his brother. His son Tantalus, however, urges his
because of his actions. father to consider the kingdom that he might have.
Atreus opens the second act with a speech in which Thyestes responds that kingship has its difficulties and
he considers how to take vengeance on his brother, that his current life carries few concerns. Tantalus con-
Thyestes, who has stolen the kingdom from him. A tinues to urge his father to the kingship, and eventually
minister who accompanies Atreus questions the moral- Thyestes decides to approach his brother, who has
ity of acting against one’s brother, but Atreus recalls apparently been waiting in silence onstage for some
that Thyestes once cheated him of the throne by steal- time. Before Thyestes speaks, Atreus, in an aside, notes
ing from him a golden lamb, whose ownership the that his brother is falling into his trap. Atreus then greets
people of Mycenae decided would determine who his brother in a friendly manner and proposes that they
became king of their town. Atreus explains that ini- put aside harsh feelings. Thyestes agrees to forget their
tially he had the lamb, but after Thyestes seduced his differences and reluctantly agrees to share the kingship.
wife, she helped Thyestes acquire the lamb. In this After Atreus and Thyestes enter the palace, the chorus
way, Thyestes became king of Mycenae and exiled his sing an ode in which they marvel that Atreus and his
brother, Atreus. Although Atreus does not mention brother have become reconciled. They note that a per-
this, other versions of this myth relate that because the son’s life is cyclical, alternating between good times and
gods did not want Thyestes to be king, they managed bad, and that FATE controls and sets all things in motion.
to persuade Thyestes to turn the kingdom over to The appearance of a distraught MESSENGER opens the
Atreus if the Sun should reverse its course in the sky. fourth act. The messenger explains to the chorus that
 THYESTES 549

Atreus butchered Thyestes’ sons as if they were sacrifi- wife, which plays a prominent role in the strife
cial victims. After Atreus killed the children, he cooked between the two brothers elsewhere in mythology, is
them and fed them to their unwitting father. Upon somewhat downplayed in Thyestes (235, 1099). The
hearing this, the chorus sing an ode in which they atrocities of these two brothers against one another are
wonder why the gods have turned away from them. perpetrated in bed (Thyestes committed adultery with
They wonder whether the universe has fallen into Atreus’ wife) and at the table of hospitality.
chaos; they fear that the world will be destroyed and Given the method of Atreus’ revenge on Thyestes, it
that the stars will fall from the sky. is not surprising that references to hunger and thirst are
In the play’s final act, Atreus arrives from the palace frequent in the play. The perversion of hospitality that
and congratulates himself on taking revenge on his Atreus unleashes against Thyestes has been anticipated
brother. Atreus then anticipates with glee seeing his by their ancestor Tantalus, who tried to feed his son,
brother’s face when he finds out what he has done. Pelops, Atreus and Thyestes’ father, to the gods (149).
Next, Thyestes emerges and happily imagines that he Tantalus’ punishment for his perversion of food was
has good fortune again. At the same time, he wonders torment by the lure of food and drink throughout eter-
whether these happy feelings will last and cannot help nity (2). Despite Tantalus’ reluctance to drive Atreus to
but feel that he will soon face trouble and danger. After commit such a heinous crime, the Fury wants the
Thyestes asks Atreus to see his sons, Atreus displays brothers to thirst for each other’s blood (103). With the
the children’s heads to him. When a horrified Thyestes entry of the chorus, the subject again turns to the hor-
asks what has happened to their bodies, Atreus tells rific banquet at which Tantalus served up his son and
him that he has eaten his children and explains in the eternal hunger and thirst to which Tantalus has
gruesome detail how he killed the children. The play been subjected in the underworld. Tantalus served to
ends with Thyestes’ hoping that the gods will avenge the gods a banquet that was not fit to be touched, and
the evils that Atreus has done. [ANCIENT SOURCES: the gods punish Tantalus by serving to him a delicious
Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1583–1611] banquet that they do not allow him to touch 121–75).
Ultimately, Atreus lures his brother to the feast by using
COMMENTARY as bait the kingdom. Thyestes, however, is not espe-
Seneca’s Thyestes is interesting in that, other than cially interested in the kingship. Thyestes notes the
OCTAVIA, it is the only Senecan TRAGEDY that does not benefits of living a simple life and points out that he
have a corresponding Greek tragedy to which we can does not, as a king would, feed his wicked belly
compare it. Whereas Seneca’s Agamemnon focuses on (460–61) on the tribute of nations. Despite his fears,
fathers and their children, Thyestes, as does Seneca’s Thyestes accepts his brother’s invitation.
PHOENICIAN WOMEN, takes as its the focal point the Intertwined with the themes of hunger and thirst is
struggle of brother against brother for a kingdom. As in the concept of wilderness versus civilization. Hospital-
Phoenician Women, in Thyestes questions about the ity is something shared between civilized persons; in
desirability of kingship are taken up, but in Thyestes Thyestes civilization is turned upside down. By the end
the younger Tantalus does not so much debate his of the play, we are left to wonder whether greater sav-
father as question Thyestes about why he is reluctant agery exists in the wilderness or in the palace of a king.
to be king. Unlike the struggle of ETEOCLES and The contrast between civilization and savagery appears
POLYNEICES, which takes place on the battlefield and when the chorus describe the food that Tantalus served
will result in the death of both brothers, the struggle to the gods as savage (feris, 150). Tantalus perverts the
between Atreus and Thyestes occurs inside the house banquet, a gathering place for civilized beings, by serv-
and both brothers remain alive after the “battle.” ing savage food. As punishment, Tantalus is placed in
Although fault can be found with both brothers in a fruit-filled wood (silva, 168), where he cannot reach
Seneca’s Phoenician Women, the portrait of Thyestes is the food. Thus, the gods punish Tantalus by placing
fairly sympathetic and Thyestes’ seduction of Atreus’ him in a bountiful grove (nemus, 162) that is located in
550 THYIADS

a savage place (the underworld) preventing him from thinks) from his brother. When he tastes the wine,
enjoying the fruits of civilization. Thyestes’ anxiety returns, and his brother soon con-
Tantalus is exiled to a place where savagery and civi- firms his worst fears. Now Thyestes wishes that he were
lization are intermingled. Similarly, Thyestes’ exile has with his grandfather, Tantalus, in the underworld
compelled him to live in a woodland (silvestres, 412) (1011–16). The play concludes with Atreus suggesting
retreat, a place usually inhabited by wild beasts (feris, to his brother that Thyestes would have tried to serve
413). Thyestes returns to Argos, deceived by the him a similar feast (1107) if he had not believed that
prospect of becoming reintegrated into society and par- Atreus’ children were actually his own. Thus, Atreus
taking of a civilized meal with his brother. Instead, avenges Thyestes’ crimes against his marriage bed at the
Thyestes will find savagery beneath the facade of civi- table of hospitality, and in this play Thyestes discovers
lization. Thyestes left a space filled with wild animals that civilization can be more savage than wilderness.
only to be transformed into an animal by his brother.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
When Atreus realizes that Thyestes will accept his invi-
Giancotti, Francesco. Tieste: Seneca. Torino: G. Giappichelli,
tation, he describes his brother as like a wild animal 1989.
caught in a net (491) and himself as like a hound on the Littlewood, C. “Seneca’s Thyestes: The Tragedy with No
trail of wild animals (feras, 497). Not only is Thyestes Women?” Materiali e discussioni per l’analisi dei testi classici
transformed into an animal, Atreus also becomes an ani- 38 (1997): 57–86.
mal. Atreus, when he kills Thyestes’ sons, leaves the Poe, J. P. “An Analysis of Seneca’s Thyestes,” Transactions and
palace and enters a gloomy forest that bears a striking Proceedings of the American Philological Association 100
resemblance to the underworld (see especially 651–82). (1969): 355–76.
Not only has Atreus entered a place like the one occu- Schiesaro, A. “Seneca’s Thyestes and the Morality of Tragic
pied by his grandfather, Tantalus; as Atreus prepares the Furor.” In Reflections of Nero. Edited by J. Elsner and J.
Masters. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
ghastly feast, Seneca dehumanizes him, describing him
1994.
as like a tiger trying to decide which bull to attack first
Tarrant, R. J., ed. Seneca’s Thyestes. Atlanta: Scholars Press,
(707–13) and a lion in the Armenian forest who rages 1985.
on even after he has satisfied his hunger (732–34).
After hearing of Atreus’ perversion of hospitality, the
THYIADS A name given to women who are
chorus express horror and comment at length on the
inspired or possessed, especially by DIONYSUS. [ANCIENT
complete overturning of everything in the universe. In
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes 498, 836,
contrast to the chorus’ knowledge of his horrible ban-
Suppliant Women 564; Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 701;
quet, an unaware Thyestes appears in the costume of
Sophocles, Antigone 1151]
and exhibits the behavior of a civilized man. His
brother welcomes him into the house by placing a
crown on his head (544–55); he has unguent in his hair THYMELE In the classical Greek theater, the
(780); he drinks wine and reclines on a couch decked thymele was an altar or podium in the center of the
ORCHESTRA. Wiles has argued that the thymele would have
with the colors of royalty, gold and purple (909–10); he
even sings a joyous song (918–19). After the banquet, been a focal point for the spectators of Greek TRAGEDY.
Thyestes appears to have reached a state for which Such an altar would have been used by supplicants in
Seneca’s fellow Stoics longed, as Thyestes declares that plays such as AESCHYLUS’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN and EURIPIDES’
he has now put aside his usual cares (curas, 921). Soon, ANDROMACHE, CHILDREN OF HERACLES, and SUPPLIANT
however, Thyestes’ worries return and the marks of civ- WOMEN. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Pollux, Onomasticon 4.123]
ilization begin to recede. The garlands of roses fall from BIBLIOGRAPHY
his head, and his hair, wet with unguent, stands on end Wiles, D. Tragedy in Athens: Performance Space and Theatrical
in horror (947–51). Thyestes recomposes himself, Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997,
however, and happily accepts a cup of wine (or so he 63–86.
 TIRESIAS 551

THYRSUS The thyrsus was a staff carried by wor- Argonautica; Hyginus, Fables 14; Seneca, Medea 3, 318,
shipers of DIONYSUS. In ancient vase paintings, the thyr- 346, 617]
sus is typically taller than a person and is tipped with
something that resembles a pine cone. The thyrsus TIRESIAS (TEIRESIAS) The son of Everes
often has a strand of ivy wrapped around it as well. and the NYMPH Chariclo, Tiresias was the famous blind
Dionysus’ worshipers usually tapped the ground with Theban prophet of APOLLO. Various reasons are given
the thyrsus; it could also be employed as a weapon. for his blindness: Some say that he saw the goddess
ATHENA naked and that when she covered his eyes with
TIMON It is uncertain whether Timon was an her hands, he became blind. Others say the gods
actual person. In ARISTOPHANES, his name is synony- blinded him for revealing their secrets to humans. Still
mous with misanthropy, and if he was a real person, he others, such as Ovid, say that when HERA and ZEUS
died before the production of LYSISTRATA in 411 B.C.E. argued over which gender derived more pleasure from
Six centuries after Aristophanes, Lucian mentions a intercourse, they called on Tiresias to settle their dis-
Timon, son of Echecrates, from the DEME of Collytus, pute, because Tiresias had been transformed into a
and Pausanias knew of a tower in ATHENS named after woman for part of his life. Tiresias, having struck a pair
a misanthropic Timon. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristo- of snakes that he saw mating, was changed into a
phanes, Birds 1549, Lysistrata 808 and the scholia; woman. Some time later, after he had observed the
Lucian, Timon 7; Pausanias, 1.30.4; Plutarch, Antonius same pair of snakes mating, he struck them again and
70] became a man once more. When Tiresias, who had
said that women enjoy intercourse 10 times more than
BIBLIOGRAPHY men, took Zeus’ side in the argument with Hera, Hera
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
blinded him.
Press, 1987, 172.
Tiresias appears as a character in several extant
plays: SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS TYRANNOS AND ANTIGONE,
TIMOTHEUS The son of Cimon, Timotheus, an
EURIPIDES’ PHOENICIAN WOMEN AND BACCHAE, and
Athenian from the DEME of Anaphlystus, was a promi-
SENECA’s OEDIPUS. In Phoenician Women, Tiresias proph-
nent politician and military commander in the first half
esies that CREON must sacrifice his son, MENOECEUS, to
of the fourth century B.C.E. When Timotheus’ father
save Thebes. Menoeceus follows Tiresias’ advice and
died around 392 or 391, Timotheus used some of his
sacrifices himself despite Creon’s desire to the contrary.
inheritance to build a large house that had a tall tower.
In Antigone, Bacchae, and the two Oedipus plays, Tire-
From the early 380s until mid-350s, Timotheus had a
sias’ advice or warnings to various kings are scorned
successful military career, but lack of success in the
initially and later discovered to be true. The kings who
Social War of 357–355 led to Timotheus’ exile. He
hear Tiresias’ advice often accuse him of making his
died not long after. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes,
prophecies for the purpose of financial gain. In Sopho-
Wealth 180; Cornelius Nepos, Timotheus; Diodorus
cles’ Oedipus, Tiresias, after much prodding from OEDI-
Siculus, 15.29.7; Isocrates, 15.101–39; Lysias, 19.40]
PUS, declares that Oedipus killed his father and married
BIBLIOGRAPHY his mother. In Seneca’s Oedipus, Tiresias tries to deter-
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11, mine the killer of LAIUS by consulting the entrails of a
Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001, 149. sacrificial victim. Because of Tiresias’ blindness, his
daughter, MANTO, describes the entrails to him. After a
TIPHYS The son of Hagnias, Tiphys served as the lengthy description, this form of prophecy fails to
helmsman for JASON and the Argonauts. Tiphys died in reveal Laius’ killer. Tiresias then says they must dis-
the land of the Mariandynians, before the Argonauts cover Laius’ killer by raising his spirit from the UNDER-
acquired the Golden Fleece. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apol- WORLD. This method is successful and Oedipus is
lodorus, Library 1.9.16, 1.9.23; Apollonius Rhodius, named as the killer.
552 TIRYNS

Tiresias’ presence in Bacchae differs from that in the DELPHI before the arrival of APOLLO. In SENECA’s plays,
other plays. In this play, he has not been called in to the divinities representing the SUN and MOON are fre-
offer prophecy; he is present to accompany CADMUS in quently referred to as Titans. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
worshiping DIONYSUS. Tiresias’ initial appearance in Aeschylus, Eumenides 6 (see ORESTEIA), Prometheus
this play must have provoked some laughter from the Bound 205, 427, 874; Apollodorus, 1.2.1; Aristo-
audience as the blind and aged Tiresias and the elderly phanes, Birds 469; Euripides, Hecabe 472, Helen 382,
Cadmus are dressed as worshipers of Dionysus and Ion 455, Iphigenia in Tauris 224, Phoenician Women
test some of the gestures used in that god’s worship. 1122; Hesiod, Theogony 617–735; Pausanias, 8.37.3;
When Cadmus’ grandson, King PENTHEUS, arrives, he is Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 56]
repulsed by their behavior and indicates his disap-
proval of Dionysus. Tiresias then goes on to warn TITHONUS The son of Laomedon and Strymo
Pentheus about the dangers of opposing the god’s wor- (or Placia or Leucippe), Tithonus was the brother of
ship and speaks to him of the benefits that Dionysus PRIAM. The goddess of the dawn, EOS, became attracted
has given to humankind. Pentheus ignores Tiresias’ to Tithonus, carried him off, and made him her lover.
advice and is eventually destroyed by the god. [ANCIENT By Tithonus, Eos produced two sons, Emathion and
SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 2.4.8, 3.6.7, 3.7.3–4; MEMNON. Some sources also make Phaethon their son.
Homer, Odyssey 10.488–95, 11.90–151; Hyginus, Eos arranged with ZEUS to make Tithonus immortal,
Fables 75; Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.322–50; Pausanias, but she forgot to request that he remain eternally
7.3.1, 9.11.3, 9.33.1–2] youthful. Accordingly, when Tithonus continued to
age, Eos was no longer attracted to him. According to
TIRYNS A town in southeastern Greek that is near one tradition, Eos imprisoned the aged Tithonus in a
ARGOS and MYCENAE. According to one tradition, its room so she would not have to hear his senile chatter.
walls were built by the CYCLOPES. In EURIPIDES’ ALCES- In another tradition Eos changes Tithonus into a
TIS, EURYSTHEUS is said to be king of Tiryns. grasshopper.

TISIPHONE One of the FURIES. [ANCIENT TITINIUS See FABULA TOGATA.

SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.1.4; Ovid, Metamor-
phoses 4.474, 481; Seneca, Hercules Furens 984, Her- TITYUS The son of EARTH, Tityus was a giant who
cules Oetaeus 1012; Vergil, Aeneid 6.555, 571, 10.761] tried to rape LETO, the mother of APOLLO and ARTEMIS.
The divine twins avenged their mother by killing him.
TITAN The Titans were a group of divinities who In the UNDERWORLD, Tityus was punished by a vulture
existed in the generation before ZEUS and his brothers that pecked out his liver, which regrew every month.
and sisters. Most of the Titans were children of Gaia [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.4.1; Homer,
(EARTH) and URANUS, but Iapetus’ sons, PROMETHEUS Odyssey 7.321–24, 11.576–81; Hyginus, Fables 55;
and ATLAS, are also called Titans. The name Titan is Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.457–58; Pausanias, 10.4.5–6;
derived from the Greek verb titainein, “to strain.” After Pindar, Pythian Odes 4.46; Seneca, Hercules Furens 756,
Gaia gave birth to the children, Uranus, who hated 977, Hercules Oetaeus 1070, Hippolytus 1233, Octavia
them, put them back into Gaia’s womb; thus, Gaia was 622, Thyestes 9, 807]
caused to strain. Eventually the children emerged
when one of the Titans, CRONUS, castrated his father, TLEPOLEMUS (TLEMPOLEMUS) The
Uranus. After this, Cronus ruled the gods until his son son of HERACLES, Tlepolemus killed his grandmother
ZEUS (and Zeus’ brothers and sisters) defeated him and ALCMENA’s half brother, LICYMNIUS. This occurred while
the other Titans in a war known as the Titanomachy. Tlepolemus was participating in an attack on Argos by
PROMETHEUS’ mother, THEMIS, was a Titan, and the Heracles’ descendants. Some traditions said the killing
Titan Phoebe was said to have controlled the ORACLE at was accidental, others that it was deliberate. Tlepole-
 TRACHINIAN WOMEN 553

mus went into exile after killing Licymnius and settled to save some of his blood to use as a love charm on
on the island of Rhodes. Tlepolemus fought on the Heracles. Deianeira followed the centaur’s instructions.
Greek side during the Trojan War and was killed by Initially Heracles and Deianeira resided in Argos,
Sarpedon. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds and Deianeira gave birth to a son, Hyllus. After Hera-
1266; Homer, Iliad 2.658] cles murdered Iphitus, however, Heracles went into
exile and the family moved to Trachis. To atone for his
TMOLUS A mountain ridge in what is now west- crime, Heracles was commanded by the DELPHIC ORA-
ern Turkey. Female followers of DIONYSUS are often CLE to become a servant to the queen Omphale of
associated with the Tmolus. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschy- Lydia. After serving Omphale, Heracles returned to
lus, Persians 49; Euripides, Bacchae 55, 65, 154, 462; Greece and waged war against EURYTUS, king of
Seneca, Phoenician Women 602] Oechalia. Eurytus was the father of Iphitus, whom
Heracles had killed, and Heracles blamed Eurytus for
TORCH RACE A foot race held at night during his exile and servitude to Omphale. When Heracles
several festivals at ATHENS. In some festivals, an indi- sacked Eurytus’ kingdom, he took a number of pris-
vidual runner would carry the torch; in others, one oners, one of whom was Eurytus’ daughter, Iole.
runner would pass a torch to the next in a relay fash- As Sophocles’ play opens, Deianeira recalls how she
ion. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 1087; first became Heracles’ wife, the battle between Heracles
Herodotus, 8.98.3; Pausanias, 1.30.2] and Achelous, Heracles’ killing of Iphitus, and Hera-
BIBLIOGRAPHY cles’ exile to Trachis. Now, however, Deianeira has not
Dover, Kenneth. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon seen Heracles for 15 months and wonders what has
Press, 1993, 206–7. happened to him. Deianeira’s NURSE advises her to send
her son, Hyllus, to find out about Heracles. Mention of
TOXEUS A brother of IOLE. HERACLES killed him Hyllus heralds his arrival, and the young man tells his
when he sacked Iole’s town of OECHALIA. [ANCIENT mother that he knows where his father is. He informs
SOURCES: Seneca, Hercules Oetaeus 214] Deianeira that Heracles had been a servant to Omphale
for a year, had returned to Greece, and had been wag-
TRACHINIAN WOMEN (Greek: TRA- ing war against Eurytus, king of Oechalia on Euboea.
CHINIAI) SOPHOCLES (DATE UNKNOWN) Deianeira tells Hyllus that Heracles had told her an
The play is generally thought to have been staged oracle regarding Euboea—Heracles would find either
between 450 and 425 B.C.E. The drama’s setting is TRA- death or the end of his labors and peace there.
CHIS, a town on the northeast coast of Greece. As the Deianeira asks Hyllus to try to help Heracles, a request
play’s title indicates, women from Trachis make up the that Hyllus says he will honor.
chorus. Whereas the action of the play itself is simple, The departure of Hyllus is followed by the entry of
its background is quite extensive and complex. After the chorus of Trachinian women. They also wonder
the conclusion of HERACLES’ labors, the hero won the where Heracles is, express their pity for Deianeira,
right to marry a Calydonian woman, DEIANEIRA, after lament the pain that all humans face, and wonder
he defeated the river god ACHELOUS in a wrestling whether Zeus cares for his sons. Deianeira reveals to
match. After leaving CALYDON, Heracles and Deianeira the chorus another oracle that Heracles had revealed to
had to cross the river Evenus. Here Heracles enlisted her the last time he had seen her: In 15 months, he
the help of the CENTAUR NESSUS to carry Deianeira would die or have a peaceful life. Deianeira tells the
across the river. When Nessus tried to assault chorus that the 15 months are reaching their comple-
Deianeira sexually, Heracles shot Nessus with an arrow. tion at that moment. Deianeira’s fears, however, are
Because Heracles’ arrows were tinged with lethal temporarily put to rest, when an aged MESSENGER
venom from the LERNEAN HYDRA, Nessus would soon arrives and announces that Heracles is alive and victo-
die. With his dying words, though, he told Deianeira rious. The messenger also tells Deianeira that he has
554 TRACHINIAN WOMEN

heard the news from the herald Lichas. Deianeira is acles’ love for herself. Deianeira then gives the box to
overjoyed by the news and the chorus sing a brief ode Lichas and tells him to take it to Heracles. With the
of praise to Apollo and Artemis. Soon the herald robe sent to Heracles, still at Oechalia, Deianeira sees
Lichas, accompanied by some of Heracles’ female cap- that a piece of wool, tinged with the centaur’s blood,
tives from Euboea, arrives and also informs Deianeira catches on fire when exposed to sunlight. Deianeira
that Heracles is alive and is dedicating an altar at realizes that she will become her husband’s killer. After
Cenaeum on Euboea. Lichas also tells Deianeira that Lichas exits and Deianeira reenters the house, the cho-
Heracles had served Omphale for a year, and that rus sing an ode hoping that Heracles will return and
because Heracles blamed this servitude on Eurytus, he that he will love Deianeira.
had vowed to destroy Eurytus’ kingdom. As ODYSSEUS After the choral ode, an alarmed Deianeira leaves
feels pity for his enemy, AJAX, in SOPHOCLES’ AJAX, the house and informs the chorus that the substance
Deianeira pities the captive women. One young she had put on Heracles’ robe had just caused a piece
woman in particular catches Deianeira’s eye, and she of wool to vanish into nothing when it was exposed to
suspects the woman may be Eurytus’ daughter, Iole. the sun. Deianeira realizes that she will have caused
Lichas, however, is not able to confirm this suspicion. Heracles’ death, and she decides that if he dies, she will
After Lichas and the female captives begin their exit, kill herself. The chorus advise Deianeira against rash
the aged messenger tells Deianeira that Lichas was behavior, but before anything further can happen, Hyl-
lying, and that Heracles attacked Eurytus’ kingdom lus enters to tell Deianeira that she has destroyed Her-
because he was in love with the captive. The aged mes- acles. Hyllus says he himself has witnessed Heracles’
senger claims he heard Lichas himself say so in the mar- sufferings and relates to her that when Heracles put on
ketplace in Trachis. The messenger confirms that the the robe, it stuck to his skin and he began to be tor-
captive Deianeira noticed is Eurytus’ daughter, Iole. mented. In his pain and rage, Heracles killed the mes-
Deianeira is distraught at this news, and the chorus senger, Lichas, who gave the robe to him. Heracles
urge her to question Lichas. In the presence of the aged then begged Hyllus to take him to Trachis. Hyllus then
messenger and Deianeira, Lichas soon emerges from the calls upon Justice and the FURIES to punish Deianeira.
house. The aged messenger challenges Lichas’ account Upon hearing this, Deianeira turns in silence and goes
of the story to Deianeira, and eventually Lichas admits into the house, while Hyllus exits. Next, the chorus
that he lied to Deianeira. Lichas admits that Heracles’ sing an ode that expresses the realization that the
sacking of Eurytus’ kingdom was motivated by Hera- unfortunate side of the prophecies associated with
cles’ passion for Iole. Hearing this, Deianeira enters the Heracles is coming true; they lament Deianeira and the
house with Lichas to prepare gifts and a message for accident she has caused; and they state their belief that
Heracles. During Deianeira’s absence, the chorus sing Aphrodite is behind these events.
an ode to the power of APHRODITE and recall that she The chorus’ song is followed by the appearance of
presided over the match between Heracles and Ache- Deianeira’s nurse, who announces that Deianeira has
lous for Deianeira’s hand in marriage. committed suicide with a sword. Hyllus, who has wit-
After the choral ode, Deianeira emerges from the nessed Deianeira’s suicide, weeps for his mother and
house with a small box, inside of which is a robe that blames himself for his words against her. After the
she will send to Heracles. Deianeira expresses the real- nurse’s announcement, the chorus lament the death of
ization that Heracles will take Iole as a concubine, and Deianeira and the almost certain death of Heracles and
at this point, Deianeira resorts to using the “love wonder what they should do and what will happen to
potion” about which the centaur Nessus had told her. them. Soon an old man, Hyllus, and Heracles, carried
Deineira recalls her encounter with Nessus and now on a litter, enter. In his agony, Heracles longs for death
tells the chorus that she has placed some of the cen- and laments that a woman has destroyed him. Heracles
taur’s blood on a robe that Heracles would wear while wants to see Deianeira so that he can punish her, but
making a sacrifice in the hope that she may secure Her- Hyllus tells him that she has committed suicide. Hera-
 TRACHINIAN WOMEN 555

cles is not displeased to learn of Deianeira’s death but non and Heracles are conquering heroes who return
seems to relent somewhat when Hyllus tells him that home from their conquests with a captive slave. Both
Nessus’ trickery actually caused Heracles’ agony. Hera- Clytemnestra and Deianeira have a chance to observe
cles reveals to Hyllus that he had heard a prophecy that their female rival, who remains silent throughout the
he could be killed only by someone who was already scrutiny of the wife. Rival or no rival, Clytemnestra has
dead. Realizing that Nessus has fulfilled this prophecy, been plotting to kill Agamemnon for some time, and
Heracles makes Hyllus promise to marry Iole and take her stated motivation is Agamemnon’s sacrifice of Iphi-
him to Mount Oeta and there burn his body on a genia. Eventually, Clytemnestra will also kill CASSAN-
funeral pyre. Hyllus is horrified by his father’s DRA, whereas Deianeira has no intention of killing Iole.
demands but agrees to carry them out. As the play con- In fact, Deianeira feels sorry for Iole, whose beauty has
cludes, Hyllus and some attendants exit with the body led to her capture and the destruction of her city. In
of Heracles. expressing her sympathy for the young woman,
Deianeira perhaps parallels ODYSSEUS in Sophocles’
COMMENTARY AJAX, in which Odysseus shows sympathy for AJAX,
Trachinian Women has not received as much critical who had tried to kill him. Although Iole threatens to
acclaim as other Sophoclean plays such as OEDIPUS destroy Deianeira’s marriage with Heracles, Deianeira
TYRANNOS or ANTIGONE. The structure of the play has still shows pity for her.
been considered uneven, and Sophocles’ handling of Euripides’ MEDEA, staged in 431 B.C.E., also bears
Heracles’ character may seem somewhat unorthodox some similarities to Sophocles’ play. As is Heracles,
to a modern reader of the play. Heracles is the most JASON is an exile from his native land and decides that
talked about character in the play, yet the audience do he will take a new bride. Unlike Heracles, who intends
not see him until three-quarters of the drama have to keep both Deianeira and Iole under the same roof,
been completed. This, however, may be in keeping Jason will divorce MEDEA and she will leave town. As
with the drama’s themes of communication and first- Deianeira does, Medea decides to create a magic robe.
hand experience of events. Additionally, such an Deianeira intends that her robe will ensure Heracles’
arrangement is not completely without parallel love; Medea intends that her robe will kill her rival,
because in EURIPIDES’ ANDROMACHE, produced in the Creon’s daughter. Deianeira tells the messenger, Lichas,
420s B.C.E., NEOPTOLEMUS is the most talked about to deliver the robe to her husband; Medea has her chil-
character, but the spectators see only his corpse near dren deliver the robe to her rival, Creon’s daughter.
the end of the play. The robes torment both Heracles and Creon’s daughter
As Euripides’ Andromache is set in the region of physically. Creon’s daughter dies and Heracles is on the
THESSALY, Sophocles’ play is set near the southern bor- verge of death as Sophocles’ play ends.
der of this region. Thessaly was famous for witchcraft, As in Euripides’ Medea, in Sophocles’ play the power
and whereas ANDROMACHE is accused of using witch- of love is mentioned frequently. Medea, however, suf-
craft to destroy the marriage of HERMIONE and NEOP- fers tremendous and destructive anguish as a result of
TOLEMUS, Deianeira actually engages in witchcraft to Jason’s rejection. To be sure, Deianeira does not brush
preserve her marriage with Heracles. As does Neop- aside Heracles’ introduction of another woman into
tolemus, Heracles threatens his marriage with his their house, but she tries to win back Heracles’ devo-
desire to have two women under the same roof, one his tion through magic rather than destroy her rival as
wife, the other a war captive who will be his concu- Medea does. Furthermore, for all of Jason’s faults in
bine. Unlike Neoptolemus and Andromache, however, Euripides’ Medea, Jason does not appear as physically
Heracles will be prevented from having a child with violent as Heracles does. Sophocles’ play describes Her-
Iole by his death. acles as being involved in a series of violent encounters,
Sophocles’ play also shows some similarities to most of them motivated by love or, perhaps more prop-
AESCHYLUS’ Agamemnon (see ORESTEIA). Both Agamem- erly, brutish lust. Heracles’ exile to Trachis was a result
556 TRACHINIAN WOMEN

of his murder of Iphitus, Iole’s brother. Heracles’ mar- (67), “they say” (70) Heracles served Omphale for a
riage to Deianeira was the result of his successful phys- year and informs her that “they say” (74) he is off wag-
ical battle with the shape-shifting river god, Achelous. ing war against Eurytus. Once again, Heracles’ wife
At lines 515–16, the chorus sing that Aphrodite served has, at best, secondhand information about her hus-
as the umpire for their bizarre battle. Although band. She does, however, make Hyllus aware of reli-
Deianeira says she would rather have died than marry able oracles (77) that Heracles had told her before he
such a creature, ultimately a marriage to Achelous left Trachis: After accomplishing this final task, either
probably would have been happier than her marriage to he would meet death or he would live the rest of his
Heracles. life peacefully. Thus, Hyllus, previously unaware of this
Soon after Heracles’ marriage to Deianeira, she is information, leaves his mother and sets out to learn
again associated with violent lust as the centaur Nessus “the whole truth” (91).
tries to rape her. Again, as in his violent defeat of Ache- After Iole is sent to Heracles’ house at Trachis,
lous, Heracles takes the centaur’s life with one of his Deianeira’s knowledge of this woman is based on infor-
arrows. After Heracles has twice secured Deianeira by mation she gains secondhand, through messengers,
violently defeating bizarre creatures, Heracles’ lust for not through direct communication with her husband,
Iole emerges in his assault on Eurytus’ kingdom. As with Heracles. The messenger, Lichas, informs her of Hera-
Achelous and Heracles, at lines 351–55, the messenger cles’ construction of an altar to Zeus near Eurytus’
says Love (Eros) was Heracles’ sole motivation for kingdom and of Heracles’ servitude to Omphale. Fur-
attacking Eurytus’ kingdom; at lines 860–61, again the thermore, Lichas links Heracles’ anger at serving
chorus note Aphrodite as the driving force in this action. Omphale with Heracles’ war against Eurytus. After
Deianeira, won by violence, a victim of violence, hearing Lichas’ report, both the chorus and Deianeira
and now threatened with a rival because of Heracles’ express their joy at Heracles’ return. After Lichas’ exit,
violence, turns to magic to win back Heracles. Her however, a second messenger arrives and declares that
source for her love charm, however, is the beast who Lichas’ report was false. The second messenger claims
tried to rape her. Primed with false information from that he and many others heard Lichas declare that Her-
the centaur and motivated by love, Deianeira uses a acles had captured Iole for no other reason than his
charm that is deadly. When she realizes what she has love for her. Deianeira’s previous joy turns to unhappi-
done, she employs violence against herself. Heracles, ness at this secondhand report, and the chorus urge
now the victim of violence that was motivated by love, her to question Lichas. Accordingly, Lichas returns, is
is carried onstage in agony. Even in the throes of death, interrogated by both Deianeira and the second mes-
Heracles arranges the marriage of Iole and his son, Hyl- senger, and eventually admits his lie, saying that he
lus, a union by which Hyllus is horrified, but into was trying to protect Deianeira from being hurt.
which the dutiful son promises he will enter, although Once Deianeira learns the truth, she decides to
he considers Iole the cause of his mother’s death and apply the love potion to Heracles’ robe. The chorus tell
the cause of his father’s suffering. Paralleling Deianeira’s her that if she has some assurance that the potion will
reaction to marrying Achelous, Hyllus says he would work, then they think she should use it. Deianeira,
rather die than live with his worst enemy (1233–37). however, has not tested the charm and the sources of
Intertwined with the theme of violent love through- her information about this potion is a half-human,
out Trachinian Women is Sophocles’ emphasis on how half-beast who had attempted to rape her. Deceived
knowledge is acquired and how characters, especially earlier by Lichas’ information, Deianeira later discovers
Deianeira, evaluate that knowledge. For example, that the information given to her by the centaur was
when Deianeira tells of Heracles’ wrestling match with also unreliable. Given the dominance of secondhand
Achelous, she notes that she had not witnessed the information in this play, it is no accident that Heracles
bout. Later, when trying to learn where Heracles is, receives the robe not from Deianeira’s hands, but from
Hyllus says that if it is possible to believe the rumors those of the messenger, Lichas. Furthermore, when the
 TRAGEDY 557

deadly poison begins to take effect on Heracles, he kills TRAGEDY The word tragedy is derived from a
the messenger. One should also note that Deianeira Greek word, tragoidia, which literally means “goat
learns that the robe has caused Heracles to suffer from song.” Although we can easily see the connection
Heracles’ son, Hyllus. Typically, persons who are not so between tragedy and song (tragedies contained songs),
intimately connected to the events they are describing the connection of goats to tragedy is not clear. Wiles
deliver “messenger speeches” in Greek TRAGEDY. Finally, notes the suggestion that a goat was originally “the
when Heracles is carried on at the end of the play and prize . . . for which the first tragic choruses competed.”
Hyllus informs him of Deianeira’s love charm that she As for COMEDY, the two main festivals at which Greek
had learned from the centaur, Heracles informs Hyllus tragedies were performed were the LENAEA and the City
of an oracle that he had heard from his father, Zeus, DIONYSIA. Both festivals honored the god DIONYSUS,
that he would be killed by one who lived in the realm who is often associated with goats. Dionysus is often
of the dead (1159–63). Heracles also realizes that this found in the company of SATYRS, who were part human
prophecy was linked to the one Deianeira had men- and part goat, and in one ancient tradition ZEUS
tioned earlier in the play, but that what Heracles con- changed Dionysus into a goat to hide him from HERA.
sidered a happy life was actually death, which is a Just as we do not fully understand the history
release from one’s labors (1164–73). Thus, in Sopho- behind the word tragoidia, we also are on uncertain
cles’ Trachinian Women, both Heracles and Deianeira ground regarding the origins of tragedy. Both the towns
fall victim to information they are given. Deianeira fails of ATHENS and SICYON (northwest of CORINTH) claimed
to see through the centaur’s deception; Heracles is to be the birthplace of Greek tragedy. The Suda, a lexi-
unable to avoid the prophecy regarding the centaur. con compiled in the 10th century C.E., credits a certain
Ultimately, however, it appears that communication Arion of Corinth with inventing the tragic mode (tro-
from the gods, although difficult to interpret, turns out pos), but it may refer to the music later included in
to be true, whereas communication from human tragedy. Although modern scholars do not accept
mouths must be tested before one acts on it. Arion as the inventor of tragedy, most acknowledge the
BIBLIOGRAPHY presence of a Doric (a term connected with those liv-
Bowman, L. M. “Prophecy and Authority in the Trachiniai,” ing in southern Greece) element in Greek tragedy,
American Journal of Philology 120, no. 3 (1999): 335–50. especially in its lyric passages. The most famous
Conacher, D. J., “Sophocles’ Trachiniae: Some Observations,” remarks about the origins of tragedy appear in ARISTO-
American Journal of Philology 118, no. 1 (1997) 21–34. TLE’s Poetics. Intense controversy exists over these
Davies, M. Sophocles: The Trachiniae. Oxford: Clarendon remarks, because Aristotle makes seemingly contradic-
Press, 1991. tory statements. At one point, he says tragedy began
Easterling, P. E., ed. Trachiniae. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- from improvisation; at another, he says tragedy
versity Press, 1982. evolved from DITHYRAMB; at still another, he appears to
Hoey, T. F. “The Date of the Trachiniae,” Phoenix 33 (1979): suggest that tragedy developed from the SATYR PLAY.
210–32.
That tragedy would develop from satyr play seems
Kraus, Christina S., “‘LOGOS MEN EST’ ARCHAIOS: Stories and
highly unlikely, because the earliest satyr plays were
Storytelling in Sophocles’ Trachiniae,” Transactions of the
American Philological Association 121 (1991): 75–98. staged after the emergence of tragedy. In the case of
Segal, C. P. “Sophocles’ Trachiniae: Myth, Poetry, and Heroic dithyramb and satyr play, both employed choruses and
Values.” Yale Classical Studies 25 (1977): 99–158. both honored Dionysus. Perhaps we may safely con-
clude that tragedy evolved from choral singing and
TRACHIS A town near the coast of northeastern dancing in honor of Dionysus.
Greece, Trachis is the setting for SOPHOCLES’ TRACHINIAN Our knowledge of Greek tragedy is primarily based
WOMEN and SENECA’s HERCULES OETAEUS. The town’s on 32 complete plays that are attributed to three play-
name appears to be related to the Greek word trachus, wrights: AESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES, and EURIPIDES. We also
which means “rough” or “rugged.” have hundreds of FRAGMENTS from the plays of these
558 TRAGEDY

three tragedians, as well as hundreds more fragments ing the daytime. Tragedy and comedy also employed
from the works about 80 other tragic playwrights. the same special effects devices, such as the ECCYCLEMA
Compare Greek comedy, in which fragments survive (a rolling platform used to show interior scenes) and
from about 150 playwrights. Some, but not all, of the the MECHANE (a crane used to suspend characters above
discrepancy in these numbers may be attributed to the the ground). Compared with fifth-century comedy,
fact that at the City Dionysia three tragedians staged tragedy used few stage properties (e.g., a scepter,
three tragedies and a satyr play, whereas five comic sword, bow, vessel to carry water, and funeral urn).
poets staged only one play each. Tragedy and comedy also have many of the same
The earliest tragedies were said to have been pro- structural features, such as the PROLOGUE, EPISODE,
ducted by a certain THESPIS between 535 and 532 B.C.E. choral songs, and EXODUS. Tragedy, however, did not
We have little evidence to verify this, however, and have a PARABASIS (in which the chorus addressed the
only a dozen lines of Thespis’ plays are extant. Ancient audience as if the playwright were speaking to them).
sources also credit Thespis with introducing the first Tragedy did employ an AGON (debate), whose structure
ACTOR, and Aeschylus is said to have added a second, was less formalized than in comedy. Unlike fifth-cen-
and Sophocles a third. None of these ancient assertions tury comedy, tragedy, with the exception of the few his-
can be confirmed, however, and a few episodes in torical dramas, did not make explicit reference to real
Aeschylus’ ORESTEIA clearly need three actors. Sopho- people, such as CLEON or SOCRATES. Greek tragedy also
cles’ OEDIPUS AT COLONUS surely needed four actors. did not deal with politics, intellectual trends, or social
Because most Greek tragedies have seven or eight concerns as explicitly as fifth-century comedy, though
speaking roles in addition to the chorus, actors would treatment of contemporary issues certainly lies beneath
play multiple roles. As in Greek comedy, males took the surface of many Greek tragedies. In Aristophanes’
the speaking roles of both genders. FROGS, Dionysus restores Aeschylus from the UNDER-
The tragic chorus consisted of 12 members origi- WORLD so that the playwright can instruct the city on
nally, but Sophocles is credited with increasing the how to deal with its political problems. Whereas com-
number to 15. Why the increase was felt necessary is edy exaggerates, some kernel of truth is present in the
not clear. The chorus both sang and danced. As in com- idea that in some way tragedians attempted to instruct
edy, in tragedy the words the actors and chorus spoke the public about contemporary issues.
or sang followed a fixed patterns of rhythm (see METER) With a few exceptions (such as tragedies based on
rather than rhyme and were accompanied by musical historical events, such as Aeschylus’ Persians), Greek
pipes (see AULOS). As in comedy, the speaking parts of tragedy took its stories from mythology. HOMER’s Iliad
the chorus decreased over time, but, unlike in comedy, and Odyssey were fertile sources of material: The name
the chorus never vanished from tragedy. As in comedy, of the most prominent hero in Iliad, ACHILLES, appears
in tragedy both the chorus and the actors wore MASKS. in the title of at least eight plays by Greek tragedians,
In contrast to fifth-century comedy, in which the cos- and Aeschylus’ Agamemnon and Libation Bearers (see
tumes could be quite elaborate (e.g., choruses dressed ORESTEIA), Sophocles’ AJAX, and Euripides’ ANDROMACHE,
as birds, clouds, goats, wasps), in tragedy costumes for CYCLOPS, HECABE, RHESUS, and TROJAN WOMEN all have
the players were simple. In ACHARNIANS, ARISTOPHANES connections to the Homeric epics. CADMUS and his
stereotyped Euripides as introducing his characters in descendants, who ruled THEBES, were also the subject of
rags. Not all tragic costumes were simple, however: The many Greek tragedies. At least a dozen known plays
text of Aeschylus’ PERSIANS indicates that the Persian have the name of OEDIPUS in their title, and at least four
royalty in that play were elaborately dressed, and the plays entitled Niobe are known. JASON’s barbarian bride,
costumes of the FURIES in Aeschylus’ Eumenides (see MEDEA, was also a popular subject for tragedy, and at
ORESTEIA) must have been quite remarkable. least eight Greek tragedies carry her name in the title.
Tragedy and comedy were staged in the same the- Because the subject matter of Greek tragedy was rel-
ater. The plays were all performed outdoors and dur- atively limited, playwrights often used the same sub-
 TRAGEDY 559

ject previous poets had. In the fifth century, Aeschylus, these three authors are from Roman historical tragedies
Sophocles, and Euripides produced plays entitled (see FABULA PRAETEXTA). After Accius’ death early in the
Philoctetes; all three wrote plays about Orestes’ killing first century B.C.E., tragedy continued to be written,
of his mother. Thus, it is not surprising that during the but few prominent playwrights emerged. Ovid wrote a
last few decades of the fifth century an apparent strug- Medea (no longer extant), and even the emperor
gle for new material begins to emerge. The tragedian AUGUSTUS tried his hand (unsuccessfully) at an Ajax. In
Agathon wrote a tragedy, Antheus (or Athos), in which the first century C.E., Pomponius Secundus gained
the characters were fictional and not based on charac- some fame, but only two titles (Aeneas, Atreus) and
ters from mythology. Euripides’ IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, about a dozen lines survive of his works.
HELEN, and ION, all produced in the 410s, make use of Although understanding of Greek tragedy is ham-
mythological traditions that either were not well pered by the survival of only 32 plays by only three
known (Helen and Ion) or may have been largely poets, knowledge of Roman tragedy is made even more
invented by Euripides himself (Iphigenia in Tauris). limited because only 10 tragedies written in Latin sur-
These three plays all begin on a tragic tragectory but, vive: AGAMEMNON, HERCULES FURENS, HERCULES OETAEUS,
at least on the surface, have “happy” endings. Euripi- HIPPOLYTUS, MEDEA, OEDIPUS REX, PHOENICIAN WOMEN (of
des’ Ion is often cited as anticipating the content of new which only 664 lines survive), THYESTES, TROJAN WOMEN,
comedy. In Ion, CREUSA is raped, she abandons her and OCTAVIA. Furthermore, these surviving plays are
child (Ion), the child is raised by someone else, and attributed to the same author, SENECA, although it is
eventually Creusa and Ion recognize one another unlikely that he wrote both the Octavia and the Hercules
through items left with the infant. Compare MENAN- Oetaeus. Most of the Senecan plays (with the exception
DER’s Arbitration, in which Pamphile is raped, becomes of Thyestes and Octavia) were influenced by the Greek
pregnant, marries Charisius, and exposes the child tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Even
during Charisius’ absence from home. Slaves find the Octavia, which is based on historical events, owes a
child, and items left with the infant reveal that the baby debt to Greek plays written on mythological themes.
is Pamphile’s and that Charisius was the rapist. Senecan tragedy differs from Greek tragedy in that its
In Aristophanes’ FROGS, Dionysus complains that choruses enter and exit much more frequently. The
Athens no longer possesses any “good” tragedians smaller size of the Senecan chorus may have permitted
since the deaths of Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sopho- this, however, and some scholars believe the Senecan
cles. Although Aristophanes’ assessment may have chorus was no more than half the size of its Greek
been accurate, tragedies continued to be written. There counterpart. Senecan tragedy also differs from Greek
are extant fragments from some 20 tragedians of the tragedy in its use of a five-act structure and asides
fourth century; however, there are only fragments from (some are extended monologues). Senecan tragedy is
about that number for the three centuries that fol- not read or performed extensively today; however,
lowed. As the number of tragedians apparently dwin- Seneca’s influence in the Renaissance and during the
dled, the plays of Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles 17th century was considerable, and he was regarded
continued to be performed in the Greek world. more highly than the greatest Greek tragedians.
According to tradition, Greek tragedy was first per- [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians, Frogs,
formed in Rome in 240 B.C.E., when Livius Andronicus Thesmophoriazusae; Aristotle, Poetics, Politics 8.7;
translated a Greek tragedy and comedy into Latin. Athenaeus, Deipnosophists passim; Plato, Republic
After the time of Livius Andronicus, three important 3.394–95, 3.398, 10.605–6; Pollux, Onomasticon
writers of tragedy in Latin emerged: ENNIUS, PACUVIUS, 4.99–154; Horace, Ars Poetica; Lucian, On Dance
and ACCIUS. Although none of their plays survives, sev- 26–30, 65–67, 78–79; Vitruvius, On Architecture 5.6–7]
eral hundred fragments and about 80 titles are known. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Their titles show the influence of Aeschylus, Sopho- Brooks, R. A. Ennius and Roman Tragedy. New York: Arno
cles, and especially Euripides. A handful of titles by Press, 1981.
560 TRAGICOMEDY

Csapo, E., and W. J. Slater. The Context of Ancient Drama. guests whom he had invited to dine (a practice that
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995. would run contrary to that of “civilized” Greeks).
Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy, In ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS, a Triballian god appears in the
2d ed. Revised by T. B. L. Webster. Oxford: Clarendon divine delegation who negotiate with PEISETAERUS.
Press, 1962.
Because the Triballian speaks gibberish, his response to
———. The Dramatic Festivals of Athens, 2d ed. Revised by
the question of whether to allow Basileia to marry Peise-
J. Gould and D. M. Lewis. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1968.
taerus is subject to interpretation. HERACLES votes for the
Rehm, R. Greek Tragic Theatre. London: Routledge, 1992. proposal; POSEIDON votes against it. Peisetaerus then
Wiles, D. Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction. Cam- turns to the Triballian to cast the tie-breaking vote. Peise-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, 34. taerus interprets the Triballian’s response as voting with
Heracles’ position. Although Poseidon interprets Tribal-
TRAGICOMEDY A term used by modern los’ response as agreeing with his view, at this point he
scholars to describe plays that have a mixture of tragic agrees to Peisetaerus’ terms. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Alexis,
and comic elements. Some of EURIPIDES’ plays are often fragment 241 Kock; Aristophanes, Birds 1529–1629;
called tragicomedies: ALCESTIS, IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS, Demosthenes, 54.39; Herodotus, 4.49.2; Isocrates, Pana-
HELEN, and ION. The prologue of PLAUTUS’ AMPHITRUO thenaicus, 227; Thucydides, 2.96.4, 4.101.5]
describes that play as a tragicomedy (lines 59, 63). BIBLIOGRAPHY
Three Greek comic playwrights wrote plays entitled Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford Univer-
Comoidotragoidia, a title that indicates a mixture of sity Press, 1995, 702.
comic and tragic elements. See Alcaeus (fragments Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
19–21 Kock 1), Anaxandrides (fragment 25 Kock 2), Teubner, 1884.
Dinolochus (fragment 3 Kaibel). We know nothing
about the content of these plays. TRICORYTHUS A town on the eastern coast of
Greece not far north of MARATHON. Because Tricorythus
BIBLIOGRAPHY was located in a marshy area, it had a reputation for its
Kaibel, G. Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1.1 [Poet- insects. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata
arum Graecorum Fragmenta, Vol. 6.1]. Berlin: Weidmann,
1032]
1899.
Kitto, H. D. F. Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study. London:
Methuen, 1939, 311–29.
TRILOGY A group of three plays by a tragedian
Knox, B. M. W. Word and Action: Essays on the Ancient The- that were performed at the same dramatic festival.
ater. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986, AESCHYLUS’ ORESTEIA is the only surviving trilogy from
250–74. ancient times, although many others are known. The
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Oresteia is unified in its subject matter (the return of
Teubner, 1880. AGAMEMNON from TROY, his murder by AEGISTHUS and
———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig: CLYTEMNESTRA, the revenge taken by ORESTES against
Teubner, 1884. Aegisthus and Clytemnestra, and the trial of Orestes
for his killing of Clytemnestra), whereas the first three
TRIBALLIAN The Triballians were a fierce and plays of a TETRALOGY were not always unified.
savage tribe of Thracians. They lived “in what is now
W[estern] Bulgaria and the former Yugoslav Macedo- TRINUMMUS See THREE-DOLLAR DAY.
nia” (Dunbar). In 424 B.C.E., the Triballians had killed
their fellow Thracian and Athenian ally Sitacles. The TRIPTOLEMUS The son of CELEUS and
Greek comic poet ALEXIS claimed that the Triballians Metaneira, Triptolemus was a prince from ELEUSIS.
had the unusual custom of feeding sacrificial meat to DEMETER, in mourning after the loss of PERSEPHONE,
those who had no food after showing the meat to was hired to nurse the infant Triptolemus. Demeter
 TROJAN HORSE 561

tried to make him immortal by holding the infant in Libyan lake TRITON. Tritons were sea divinities who
the fire, but a terrified Metaneira interrupted the god- were part human (they had a human nose and hands)
dess. Instead, Demeter honored Triptolemus by teach- and part fish (a scaly body and dolphin’s tail). SENECA
ing him about the cultivation of grain. SOPHOCLES says Tritons sang the chorus at ACHILLES’ wedding.
wrote a Triptolemus, from which several fragments sur- [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Cyclops 263; Pausanias,
vive (fragments 596–617a Radt). Demeter speaks in at 8.2.7, 9.20.4–21.1; Seneca, Trojan Women 202]
least one of the fragments, but little else is known
about the play. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Achar- TRIVIA Another name for ARTEMIS.
nians 48; Seneca, Hippolytus 838]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TROEZEN (TROIZEN; TROZEN) A
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
town on the southeastern coast of mainland Greece,
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: Troezen was situated east of Epidaurus and on the
Harvard University Press, 1996. opposite shore of the Saronic Gulf from ATHENS. In
Matheson, Susan B., “The Mission of Triptolemus and the mythology, Troezen is the home of Pittheus; his daugh-
Politics of Athens,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 35 ter, Aethra; and THESEUS, the son of Aethra. In drama,
(1994) 345–72. Troezen is the setting for EURIPIDES’ HIPPOLYTUS, but not
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, SENECA’s HIPPOLYTUS.
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
Simms, R. M., “The Eleusinia in the Sixth to Fourth Cen- TROILUS The son of PRIAM (or APOLLO) and
turies B.C.,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 16 (1975)
HECABE, Troilus was a Trojan prince. According to an
269–79.
oracle, the Trojans would win their war against the
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America, 1984. Greeks if Troilus reached a certain age. ACHILLES, how-
ever, killed Troilus before that time. SOPHOCLES wrote a
TRITAGONIST Most extant Greek tragedies Troilus, of which a few fragments survive, which seems
and comedies can be performed by only three actors. to have been produced in 418 B.C.E. One of the frag-
The third actor is called the tritagonist and probably ments indicates that a eunuch was a speaking charac-
performed the minor roles in a drama; for example, the ter in the play. The comic poet Strattis also wrote a
character of PYLADES in the extant plays connected with Troilus, from which about 20 words survive; in one
ORESTES would have been performed by the tritagonist. fragment, a child of ZEUS is addressed. [ANCIENT
Several ancient sources credit SOPHOCLES with intro- SOURCES: Apollodorus, Epitome 3.32; Seneca, Agamem-
ducing the third actor, although an ancient biography non 748]
of AESCHYLUS attributes the innovation to him. [ANCIENT BIBLIOGRAPHY
SOURCES: Aristotle, Poetics 1449a15–19; Diogenes Laer- Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
tius, 3.56; Hesychius, t1435; Life of Aeschylus 15; Suda, Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
t1012] Teubner, 1880.
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
TRITON (1) (TRITONIS) A body of water, Harvard University Press, 1996.
both a river and a lake, in Libya, beside which the Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen,
goddess ATHENA was said to have been born. [ANCIENT Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977.
SOURCES: Aeschylus, Eumenides 293 (see ORESTEIA); Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University
Apollodorus, Library 1.3.6; Euripides, Ion 872; Press of America, 1984.
Herodotus, 4.178.1]
TROJAN HORSE In the 10th year of the
TRITON (2) Triton was the son of POSEIDON and famous war fought over HELEN, wife of MENELAUS, the
Amphitrite. Triton’s favorite body of water was the Greeks finally defeated the Trojans by the stratagem of
562 TROJAN WOMEN

the wooden horse, or Trojan horse, as it is called. tragedies was unusual compared with what is known
Epeus built the horse, but ODYSSEUS, inspired by about Euripides’ other productions, and full apprecia-
ATHENA, is usually credited with the idea. The Greeks tion of Trojan Women is hampered by the fragmentary
filled the horse with a group of selected warriors and condition of the two plays that preceded it.
burned their camp to the ground. Those not within the The play’s action occurs after the fall of Troy outside
horse sailed to the western side of the island of Tene- the walls of Troy before AGAMEMNON’s tent (139). The
dos, just off the coast from Troy. When the Trojans play opens with a monologue by POSEIDON, who built
found the horse outside their city walls, they debated the walls of Troy. Poseidon laments the troubles of a city
whether to take it into the city or destroy it. The from which he himself is about to depart. Poseidon
Greeks left a spy, SINON, to persuade the Trojans to take mentions the stratagem of the TROJAN HORSE, the death
in the horse. A Trojan priest, LAOCOON, warned the of Priam, the looting of Troy by the Greeks, and the
Trojans about a possible trick and even hurled his wailing of captive Trojan women who will become the
spear at the horse. Not long afterward, however, when property of Greek masters. Poseidon notes that Helen
Laocoon and his sons were killed by sea serpents, the remains in the tent that the SKENE represents. In front of
Trojans were convinced that destroying the horse the “tent” lies Hecabe, Priam’s wife. Poseidon relates that
would be dangerous. Accordingly, they took the horse Hecabe’s daughter, POLYXENA, will be sacrificed at
into their city. After the Trojans went to sleep that ACHILLES’ tomb and that another daughter, CASSANDRA,
night, the Greeks emerged from their hiding place, will be given to Agamemnon. As Poseidon’s monologue
burned Troy, and began to slaughter their enemies. concludes, ATHENA, to whom Poseidon attributes the
This stratagem resulted in the destruction of Troy and destruction of Troy, enters. Athena proposes that she
the recovery of Helen. Several playwrights mention the and Poseidon put aside their differences and make an
stratagem of the Trojan horse. Naevius wrote a play alliance. Athena expresses her anger at the desecration
entitled Trojan Horse (Latin: Equos Troianus); the single of one of her temples by AJAX, who dragged Cassandra
line that survives tells us nothing about the play’s plot from it when she was seeking refuge there. Because Ajax
other than what is implied by the title. had not been punished by the Greeks, Athena requests
that Poseidon cause the Greek ships to be wrecked at sea
TROJAN WOMEN (Greek/Latin: TRO- so that they will respect the gods in the future. Poseidon
IADES) EURIPIDES (415 B.C.E.) In Aelian’s agrees to Athena’s request and the divinities exit.
Varia Historia (2.8), the author indicates the play’s date Next, Hecabe rises from her prone position and
and remarks that EURIPIDES’ production finished sec- begins a lament for the fate of her town, husband, and
ond to the plays of XENOCLES in that year. Aelian also children. She also laments her fate, as she will be led
writes that Trojan Women was the third play of the away as a captive. After Hecabe’s monologue, the CHO-
TETRALOGY that included Alexander, Palamedes, and the RUS of captive Trojan women, divided into two groups,
SATYR PLAY Sisyphus. Little of Sisyphus survives (frag- enter. The chorus ask Hecabe why she is crying out
ments 673–74 Nauck), but HERACLES appears to have and what is happening. Hecabe tells them that soon
been a character in the play. About a dozen fragments the Greeks will set sail and that their situation is prob-
of Palamedes survive (578–90 Nauck), and ARISTO- ably hopeless. When the first choral group summons
PHANES parodies this play in THESMOPHORIAZUSAE. the other half of the chorus, Hecabe begs that Cassan-
Palamedes treated ODYSSEUS’ destruction of his fellow dra not appear in her bacchantlike state of mind.
warrior, PALAMEDES, during the Trojan War; Alexander, When the second half of the chorus enter from
of which some fairly substantial fragments are extant Agamemnon’s quarters, they ask Hecabe about their
(42–63 Nauck), recalled the events surrounding the fate. The chorus and Hecabe wonder to which Greek
birth and return of the title character (see PARIS) to they will be allotted. The united chorus then lament
TROY and his recognition as PRIAM and HECABE’s son. their departure from Troy and wonder what their
The clearly interconnected subject matter of the three arrival in Greece will present.
 TROJAN WOMEN 563

After the choral ode, the chief herald of the Greek were over and took the horse into Troy amid celebra-
army, TALTHYBIUS, enters to tell Hecabe that Cassandra tion, only to discover that the horse was filled with
has been assigned to Agamemnon; Polyxena will be destruction. The chorus end their song by announcing
sacrificed at Achilles’ tomb; Hector’s wife, ANDRO- the arrival of Hector’s wife, Andromache, and her son,
MACHE, will become the prize of Achilles’ son, NEOP- ASTYANAX. For several lines Andromache and Hecabe
TOLEMUS; and Hecabe herself has been assigned to exchange laments for their loved ones and city. In the
ODYSSEUS, a fate that Hecabe considers the worst of all. course of their grief, Andromache reveals to Hecabe
Talthybius then tells a servant to take Cassandra from that Polyxena has been sacrificed at Achilles’ grave.
Agamemnon’s quarters. Cassandra emerges from the Andromache then makes a speech that, in terms of the
tent carrying burning torches and singing the wedding play’s structure, parallels the earlier speech by Cassan-
hymn in mockery of Greek marriage ritual. At the cho- dra. Just as Cassandra spoke of the blessings Troy
rus’ urging, Hecabe persuades Cassandra to put aside experienced in spite of the war, Andromache claims
the torches. Cassandra does so and then in a lengthy that Polyxena is fortunate to be dead and that she her-
speech tries to demonstrate that Troy is more blessed self was a virtuous wife to Hector. She concludes by
than Greece. The Greeks, Cassandra argues, tracked stating that Polyxena’s fate is more fortunate than her
down Helen and killed thousands of Trojans. Many own—Polyxena is dead; she will be taken as a slave to
Greeks died in a land not their own, while members of Greece. Hecabe tells Andromache to cease mourning
their families died in Greece without anyone to attend Hector and honor her new master and “husband.”
their funeral. The Trojans, on the other hand, died Next, Talthybius enters and informs Andromache
fighting for their country and were buried by their that the Greeks are going to kill her son, Astyanax.
loved ones. Trojans who survived returned from battle Talthybius tells Andromache, to whom the young boy
to their family. Fighting against the Greeks may have is clinging, not to resist or do anything rash, lest they
caused Hector’s death, but it also earned him glory. not allow him to be buried. Andromache mourns for
Paris also would not have become famous had he not her son and curses Helen for the destruction that her
abducted and “married” Helen. Cassandra ends her beauty has caused the Trojans. Talthybius takes
speech by promising that her own “marriage” to Astyanax from his mother and sends him off to be
Agamemnon will cause his destruction. thrown down from the walls of Troy. After the depar-
Talthybius dismisses Cassandra’s words as the rav- ture of Talthybius and Astyanax, Hecabe laments the
ings of a madwoman and orders the Trojan women to fate of Astyanax and Troy. In the choral ode that fol-
follow him to the Greek ships. Cassandra mocks lows, the Trojan women sing of the earlier destruction
Talthybius as a servant to powerful men and goes on to of Troy by Heracles and his allies, among whom was
state that Hecabe is destined to die at Troy. Cassandra Telamon of SALAMIS. They recall the abduction of the
also predicts the wanderings of Odysseus and the trou- Trojan GANYMEDE by ZEUS, and the union of the god-
bles that await him when he finally reaches home. Cas- dess EOS and the Trojan TITHONUS. The divinities loved
sandra then ends her prophetic words, welcomes her these Trojan males; the chorus assert that the gods no
impending fatal marriage, tells her mother good-bye, longer love Troy.
and exits for the Greek ships. Hecabe, in her distress, After the choral ode, MENELAUS enters, utters threats
falls to the ground and recalls the blessings she experi- against HELEN’s life, and then summons his wife from
enced in her life. She notes the irony that whereas once the tent. Hecabe hears these prayers, expresses her
she was a queen, now she will become a slave. She approval of Menelaus’ decision to kill Helen, but urges
then laments the fate of her daughters, Cassandra and Menelaus not to set eyes on her. When Helen walks
Polyxena. out of the tent, she offers a lengthy argument as to why
Hecabe’s lamentation is followed by a choral ode it would be unjust for Menelaus to put her to death.
that recalls the arrival of the fatal wooden horse in their Hecabe persuades Menelaus to allow her to offer a
city. They recall that the Trojans thought their troubles rebuttal. Helen argues that Paris was to blame for the
564 TROJAN WOMEN

Trojan War, that Priam should have killed him as soon COMMENTARY
as he was born, and that APHRODITE helped Paris to Whereas modern scholars have preferred to analyze
abduct her when he judged Aphrodite as more beauti- dramas such as ALCESTIS, MEDEA, HIPPOLYTUS, and BAC-
ful than Athena or HERA. Hecabe argues that these god- CHAE, those who stage ancient Euripidean dramas seem
desses would never have behaved in such a manner, most inclined to present Trojan Women. Euripides’ Tro-
that Aphrodite never went with Paris to Menelaus’ jan Women may be “one of the greatest tragedies,” as
house, and that Paris’ good looks and wealth per- Shirley Barlow has written, but it is also one of the
suaded Helen to leave Menelaus and Sparta. Hecabe author’s most disturbing and depressing plays. The
says Helen enjoyed her life with Paris at Troy and play’s structure is not balanced, and Francis Dunn has
rejected Hecabe’s offer to help her leave Troy. After made sense of this imbalance by interpreting Trojan
Hecabe’s speech, Menelaus states that he will kill Helen Women as a series of exits. Even when characters enter
when he reaches Greece. Hecabe urges Menelaus not the orchestra, they enter with a view to their departure.
to allow Helen to travel on the same ship as he does, The exit of Poseidon from Troy begins the play; it is fol-
but Menelaus departs with Helen. lowed by the exit of Cassandra; the exit of Andro-
After the departure of Menelaus and Helen, the cho- mache and her child, Astyanax; the exit of Helen; and
rus sing an ode that begins by questioning whether finally the exit of Hecabe and the chorus.
Zeus cares about Troy, a city that had worshiped him In addition to being a play of exits, Trojan Women is
faithfully. The chorus lament the loss of their husbands filled with groaning and lamentation, references to and
and the cries of their children as they are being taken images of slavery, destruction of family and home, and
away and hope that Menelaus will never reach home. brutal death. Such images were familiar to Euripides’
As their song concludes, the chorus see the body of fellow Athenians, and some scholars believe that the
Astyanax, the son of Hector and Andromache, carried Athenian slaughter of the men of MELOS and enslave-
in upon Hector’s shield. Talthybius enters and reports ment of their women (in the year before Trojan Women)
that Neoptolemus’ ship has sailed with Andromache is reflected in the events of Euripides’ play. Even if
and that Astyanax was thrown from the walls of Troy. Euripides did not have the destruction of Melos in
Talthybius says that he cleaned the child’s wounds and mind, the Athenians, as the mythical Greeks had at
that he is going to break ground for the child’s grave. Troy, had violently put down the rebellions of several
Hecabe is appalled that the Greeks would kill a child cities in their empire during the past two decades, and
and recalls that the child had promised to care for her the killing of males and the enslavement of females
when she died. Now, however, the grandmother will were not practices with which Euripides’ Athenian
bury the grandchild. Next, some of Hecabe’s servants audience was unfamiliar. In 427 B.C.E., for example,
arrive with clothing in which to bury Astyanax. the people of MYTILENE revolted against the Athenians,
Hecabe clothes the corpse, she and the chorus sing a the revolt was put down, and initially the Athenians
dirge for the child, and then Astyanax’s body is carried voted to put the entire male population of Mytilene to
out for burial. death. This decision was reversed, however, and only
Next the chorus see Greeks waving torches that will the leaders of the revolt were executed.
burn Troy. Talthybius enters again and announces that Thus, set against a backdrop of the now-ruined hulk
the city will be burned and that Hecabe must go with of the once fabulous city of Troy, Euripides not only
Odysseus as his slave. Hecabe laments her fate, as well represents the death of an entire city, but focuses on
as that of the city. She urges the chorus to accompany the misery and death of the inhabitants of that city
her and throw themselves into the pyre. The suicide is who are least able to defend themselves, women and
prevented, however, by Talthybius, who summons sol- children. Not only does Euripides have his fellow
diers to take Hecabe to Odysseus. As the play ends Greeks watch what mythical Greeks have done and are
Hecabe and the chorus exchange laments as they are doing to this mythical city, but he makes his audience
led away to the ships of the Greeks. witness this largely through Hecabe, a lone old
 TROJAN WOMEN 565

woman, for whom the action that unfolds is of the As for Andromache, Euripides’ audience may have
greatest concern. Those in Euripides’ audience see known that she would survive but that she would
what Hecabe sees and hear what Troy’s once glorious spend the next few years of her life as the concubine of
queen, now Odysseus’ wretched slave, hears. Euripi- Neoptolemus, the son of the man who killed her hus-
des’ audience imagine what the pitiful Hecabe is made band, Hector, another of Hecabe’s sons. Interestingly,
to imagine. the body of Helen, the woman that Dunn calls “the
Whereas Euripides’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN, staged within symbol of this war, and the symbol of the Greek
the decade before Trojan Women, deals with the recov- cause,” will not become a corpse. In earlier plays such
ery of corpses after a war, Trojan Women, in general, as SOPHOCLES’ AJAX and ANTIGONE, kings and their sub-
focuses on those who are about to become corpses. Of ordinates debated whether to bury the corpse of a
course, Trojan Women does mention the deaths of Priam fallen warrior. In Trojan Women, two queens, who have
and Hector, but unlike Suppliant Women, in which now become captives, debate what to do about the
mothers retrieve the corpses of the Argive men who body of a woman. The Trojan queen wants the woman
died in battle, Trojan Women primarily deals with con- to become a corpse; the Greek queen wants the body,
sequential casualties of war. In Trojan Women, various her own, to remain alive. Menelaus tells Hecabe that he
persons will die because of the violence of others or will kill Helen, but the audience know that Helen will
their connection to certain warriors. In the prologue, survive.
the audience hear that the Greeks, conquerors of Troy, Perhaps the lone comfort of which Euripides’ audi-
will have their corpses (84, 91) strewn about the ence knew, but of which Hecabe herself is not made
AEGEAN SEA because of Ajax’s rape of Hecabe’s daughter, aware in the course of the play, is that Hecabe would
Cassandra. Cassandra herself later enters and predicts not survive much longer but would leap from the ship
that she will be cast out as a naked corpse (448) from of her new master, Odysseus, to her death. Death
Agamemnon’s home but also predicts that she will tri- would be a welcome relief to a woman whose entire
umphantly enter Hades, the land of corpses (460), after family had been destroyed. Moreover, as play ends, the
she has ruined those who ruined Troy. Another daugh- Greeks will make a corpse of the last of the Trojan
ter of Hecabe also becomes a corpse: Polyxena dies at Women, Troy herself, as they burn the once proud city.
the grave of Achilles; thus, she must become a corpse In Alexander, the first play of Euripides’ tragic TRILOGY
herself to appease a lifeless corpse (623). Next, Hecabe’s
of 415, Hecabe, before the birth of Paris, had dreamed
daughter-in-law, Andromache, and grandson,
she was giving birth to a burning brand that would
Astyanax, enter. Astyanax will be hurled from the city
destroy the city. Although Paris himself is now a
walls. Talthybius warns Andromache not to do any-
corpse, many burning brands are being applied to Troy
thing that will anger the Greeks, lest they forbid that his
as Euripides’ trilogy ends.
corpse be buried (738). Later, Astyanax’s corpse is car-
ried in on Hector’s shield after it was hurled from Troy’s BIBLIOGRAPHY
walls as a discus (1121). Before this event Andromache Barlow, Shirley A. Euripides: Trojan Women, Warminster,
herself is carried away to the Greek ships and therefore U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1986.
is not allowed to bury her own son. The Greek mes- Conacher, D. J. Euripidean Drama. Toronto: University of
senger Talthybius has bathed the child’s corpse (1152) Toronto Press, 1967, 127–45.
Croally, N. T. Euripidean Polemic: The Trojan Women and the
and will break ground for the grave. The final prepara-
Function of Tragedy. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge
tions for Astyanax’s corpse will be left to his grand-
University Press, 1994.
mother, Hecabe, who complains that he should have Dunn, Francis. Tragedy’s End. Oxford: Oxford University
been the one to bury her. Earlier in the play, Hecabe Press, 1996.
had described herself as being like a corpse (191); now Green, Peter. “War and Morality in Fifth-Century Athens:
she is one of the few Trojans alive and must bury the The Case of Euripides’ Trojan Women,” Ancient History Bul-
corpse of someone whose life was just beginning. letin 13, no. 3 (1999): 97–110.
566 TROJAN WOMEN

Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 1889. Reprint, Calchas’ speech, the Trojan women sing an ode in
Hildesheim, Ger.: Olms, 1964. which they wonder what sort of life remains for them.
Walton, J. M. Living Greek Theatre. New York: Greenwood They also conclude that nothing awaits human beings
Press, 1987, 138–42. after they die.
The third act opens with a lament by ANDROMACHE,
TROJAN WOMEN (Latin: TROADES) who recalls the death of her husband, Hector, and says
SENECA (WRITTEN BETWEEN 49 AND 65 she herself would die if it were not for her responsibil-
C.E.?) As is EURIPIDES’ TROJAN WOMEN, SENECA’s drama ity to her child, ASTYANAX. A Trojan elder, who accom-
is set at TROY and its CHORUS are Trojan women whom panies Andromache, questions her about further
the victorious Greeks have taken captive. Unlike in worries she might have. Andromache relates that in a
Euripides’ play, which begins with POSEIDON’s departure dream Hector appeared and urged her to save
from Troy and his encounter with ATHENA, in Seneca’s Astyanax from danger. Now, however, Andromache
Hecuba (Greek: HECABE) delivers the PROLOGUE. Hecuba wonders what safe place can be found for her son.
begins with a lengthy lament of her fallen city, in which After some deliberation, Andromache sends Astyanax
she recalls the deaths of her many children and to take refuge inside his father’s tomb. Soon Ulysses
describes the death of her husband, PRIAM. Hecuba arrives and demands from Andromache that Astyanax
notes that now the various Greeks are choosing Trojan be handed over to be put to death, because the Greeks
women to be their slaves, but that she herself remains believe that someday Astyanax will become a second
to be chosen. As her monologue concludes, Hecuba Hector and wage war against them. Andromache pre-
invites the CHORUS of Trojan women to join her in tends that Astyanax is already dead, but Ulysses sus-
lamentation. For the next 100 lines, Hecuba and the pects that she is lying and threatens to torture her to
CHORUS take turns lamenting Troy, HECTOR, and PRIAM. learn the truth. Andromache swears that Astyanax is
The play’s second act opens with the arrival of sev- dead; Ulysses is convinced that he is hiding.
eral Greeks: the herald TALTHYBIUS; ACHILLES’ son, When Ulysses’ henchmen find the boy hiding in his
Pyrrhus (see NEOPTOLEMUS); AGAMEMNON; and the father’s tomb, Ulysses declares that Astyanax must be
prophet CALCHAS. Talthybius informs the Trojan dragged from this place, although a grave is sacred
women that Achilles’ ghost demanded that Hecuba’s ground. Andromache wonders whether she should
daughter, POLYXENA, be sacrificed to him by his son, allow the Greek to tear apart her husband’s burial place
Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus then defends his father’s right to such so that they can find Astyanax. Eventually Ulysses’
a sacrifice by listing all that Achilles did for the Greek threats to destroy her husband’s tomb become more
army. In contrast to Euripides’ HECABE, in which the than Andromache can bear, and she begs Ulysses not to
debate about Polyxena’s sacrifice occurs between bury her son with her husband. At Ulysses’ command,
Hecabe and Ulysses (Greek: ODYSSEUS), Seneca’s play Andromache calls Astyanax from the tomb and urges
presents a debate between two Greeks, and Agamem- him to beg Ulysses for mercy. Andromache’s pleas do
non opposes Pyrrhus and the shedding of innocent move Ulysses somewhat, but he states that he is more
blood to appease Achilles’ ghost. Agamemnon sug- concerned about what Astyanax might do someday to
gests, rather, that the finest Trojan animals be sacrificed the sons of Greek mothers and about Calchas’
to Achilles. Pyrrhus, however, declares that he will sac- prophecy. Andromache continues to beg Ulysses for
rifice Polyxena as his father wished. Agamemnon and mercy, and Astyanax tries to cling to his mother, but
Pyrrhus continue to debate this issue and eventually eventually Ulysses orders his henchmen to pull the boy
summon Calchas to settle the argument. Calchas away. After Ulysses departs with Astyanax, the Trojan
declares that Polyxena, dressed in the manner of a women sing an ode in which they wonder what awaits
bride from THESSALY (Achilles’ native land), must be them in Greece and what Hecuba’s fate will be.
sacrificed to Achilles. Calchas also states that Hector’s In the fourth act, HELEN announces that she will tell
son must be hurled from the heights of Troy. After Andromache about her “marriage” to Pyrrhus. Andro-
 TROJAN WOMEN 567

mache, hearing Helen’s statement, laments over this Priam’s eyes (238), father and son will have a happy
news, but Helen herself worries what Menelaus will do reunion in the UNDERWORLD (157–64).
to her. Helen also reveals that Polyxena, who is also With Priam and Hector dead, the Greeks turn to the
onstage, is to be sacrificed to the spirit of Achilles; that destruction of the rest of their family. First, the ghost of
CASSANDRA will become Agamemnon’s slave; and that Achilles has demanded that Priam’s daughter (247) be
Hecuba will become Ulysses’ slave. The act ends with sacrificed at his grave. Achilles’ son argues for the sac-
the approach of Pyrrhus, who has arrived to take rifice, but he is opposed by his commanding officer,
Polyxena for sacrifice, and a choral ode in which the Agammemnon. Ultimately the brutal Pyrrhus wins and
Trojan women lament that they will soon be parted Polyxena will be sacrificed at his father’s grave.
from one another. Next the focus turns to Astyanax, Hector’s son and
The play’s final act begins with the arrival of a MES- Priam’s grandson (369). The appearance of Achilles’
SENGER, who informs Hecuba and Andromache of the ghost to the Greeks is paralleled by the appearance of
deaths of Polyxena and Astyanax. First, the messenger Hector in the dream of his wife, Andromache. Whereas
relates that Ulysses led Astyanax to a high tower and Achilles’ ghost demanded the blood of Hector’s sister,
the boy jumped to his death. Next the messenger Hector’s image will urge his wife to prevent the shed-
describes the mock wedding ritual, led by Helen, in ding of their son’s blood. Andromache prays to her
which Pyrrhus killed Polyxena at the grave of Achilles. dead husband to protect her and their son (501). Even
After the messenger’s report, Hecuba declares an end to in death, Hector becomes a protector of his son as
the war and wonders what fate awaits her. The mes- Andromache hides the child in Hector’s tomb. Soon,
senger ends the play by telling the captive Trojan however, Ulysses arrives for Hector’s son. Ulysses is
women to hurry to the ships, which are waiting to set well aware of the sort of warrior that Hector was and
sail from Troy. fears the sort of man Hector’s son will become (535,
551). Andromache falsely tells Ulysses that Hector’s
COMMENTARY son is dead (597). Eventually Ulysses sees through
As alluded to in the preceding paragraphs, in this play Andromache’s deception and threatens to tear down
Seneca has combined elements of Euripides’ Hecabe Hector’s tomb. Just as Achilles’ son wanted to honor
and Trojan Women. All the same, Seneca has not merely his father’s grave, Andromache does not want her hus-
copied from his Greek predecessor, but has crafted a band’s tomb to be dishonored in this way. Further-
situation in which the dead affect the living. Seneca’s more, Ulysses forces Andromache to choose to protect
play is entitled Trojan Women, but the names of two one of two Hectors—the one buried in the tomb or the
Trojan men, Hector and Priam, appear more frequently one hiding in the tomb, who is the youthful embodi-
than that of any woman in the play. Hector is men- ment of his dead father (658–59). When Ulysses
tioned by name 40 times, twice as often as in Euripi- orders his men to tear down Hector’s tomb, a frantic
des’ Trojan Women, and Priam is mentioned by name Andromache calls upon her dead husband to stop
23 times, compared with 10 times in Euripides’ play. them (682, 684). Ulysses discovers the boy, however,
We note also that in Seneca’s play the name Achilles and Andromache predicts that the walls of Troy will
occurs 23 times. Thus, one approach may be to view now witness a death even sadder than that of Hector
Seneca’s Trojan Women from the perspective of the (784).
influence of these deceased warriors and fathers on the The play concludes with the surviving women of
living. Priam and Hector taken to the ships. Hector’s mother,
In the first part of the play Hecuba and the chorus as Hecuba calls herself (986), will become the property
in more than 60 lines deliver a lament that focuses not of Ulysses. Soon messengers enter to relate in detail the
on their own fate, but that of Hector and Priam deaths of these two young people. Hector’s son leaps
(98–164). For Hecuba, Hector’s death meant the fall of into the midst of his grandfather’s kingdom (1103)
Troy (129), and though Hector’s death occurred before from the same tower on which his grandfather used to
568 TROPHONIUS

hold him in his arms and gaze on the efforts of his phonius, I.” In Gesammelte Aufsätze. I, Hellenismus und
father in battle (1168–1174). As the scene of Urchristentum. Tübingen, Ger.: Mohr, 1990, 184–208.
Astyanax’s death is closely linked with the royal splen- Clark, R. J. “Trophonius: The Manner of His Revelation,”
dor of his dead grandfather and the military prowess of Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological
Association 99 (1968): 63–75.
his dead father, Polyxena’s death is the result of the
Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
dead Achilles’ ability to influence the living. As does
Teubner, 1880.
her nephew, Astyanax, Polyxena bravely faces death. ———. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
After Hecuba hears the report of the deaths of her Teubner, 1884.
grandson and daughter, she marvels that she herself Körte, A., and A. Thierfelder. Menandri Quae Supersunt. Vol.
has not yet died, although she had often stood close to 2, 2d ed. Leipzig: Teubner, 1959.
Priam (1177).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TROY Located in what is today the northwest corner
Ahl, F. Trojan Women. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press,
of Turkey, Troy (also called ILIUM or ILION) was the site of
1986. the famous Trojan War and the home of numerous fig-
ures of classical drama, such as ANDROMACHE, CASSANDRA,
HECABE, HECTOR, HESIONE, PARIS, and PRIAM. Troy is also
TROPHONIUS An ORACLE of Trophonius, a
the setting for five extant dramas—SOPHOCLES’ AJAX,
local Greek hero in the region of BOEOTIA, existed in
EURIPIDES’ HECABE, RHESUS, and TROJAN WOMEN; and
the Lebadeia (near THEBES). In EURIPIDES’ ION, XUTHUS
SENECA’s TROJAN WOMEN—but would have been the set-
consults this oracle on his way to DELPHI. Consulta-
ting for many other dramas that have not survived.
tion of this oracle entailed a descent underground,
and in ARISTOPHANES’ CLOUDS STREPSIADES compares
TRUCULENTUS PLAUTUS (CA. 190–189
his entrance into SOCRATES’ school to the descent.
B.C.E.) The play’s date cannot be established with cer-
Several Greek comic poets wrote plays entitled Tro-
tainty. The author of the Greek original for Truculentus
phonius. The fragments of Cratinus’ Trophonius hint
is not known. The play’s setting is ATHENS, and the
that some consultation of Trophonius’ oracle took
action takes place before two houses: that of Phrone-
place in the play (fragments 218–25 Kock 1). The
sium (“wisdom”), a PROSTITUTE, and that of Strabax’s
fragments from the Trophonius of Aristophanes’
father, who is not named in the play. The 20-line pro-
younger contemporary, Cephisodorus (fragments 3–4
logue is delivered by an unnamed character, who
Kock 1), preserve a conversation between a master
informs the audience that Phronesium has pretended to
and a slave named Xanthias about the anointing of
give birth to the son of a certain soldier, Stratophanes of
the master’s body and three lines about some elegant
Babylon.
sandals. Among the fragments (236–38 Kock 2) of
After the prologue, Diniarchus enters and gives a
Alexis’ Trophonius we find reference to a parasite
long speech about the difficulties of being in love. In
named Moschion and a command to some men to
particular, he focuses on the financial hardships of lov-
remove their clothing. Among the fragments (397–98
ing a prostitute. Diniarchus complains that when
Körte) of Menander’s Trophonius are preserved several
Phronesium found someone (the soldier) from whom
lines of a conversation about the relationship of the
she could gain more wealth, she forgot about him.
dinner menu to the nationality of the guest. [ANCIENT
Diniarchus’ speech is cut short when he sees Phrone-
SOURCES: Aristophanes, Clouds 508; Euripides, Ion
sium’s maidservant, Astaphium. After eavesdropping
300, 393, 405; Pausanias, 8.10.2, 9.11.1, 9.37.4–7,
on her conversation and hearing that she is going to
9.39.1–9.40.2]
take a man to the house, Diniarchus approaches
BIBLIOGRAPHY Astaphium and asks where she is going. She tells him
Betz, H. D. “The Problem of Apocalyptic Genre in Greek that she is going to take a midwife named Archillis to
and Hellenistic Literature: The Case of the Oracle of Tro- the house. Diniarchus says that he heard her mention
 TRUCULENTUS 569

a man and wants to know who it is. Astaphium initially soldier. Soon Stratophanes enters, boasting of his
refuses to tell him but eventually admits that the sol- valor. Astaphium, who attends Phronesium, converses
dier is said to be on his way to the house. Astaphium, with the soldier about the newborn son. Stratophanes
however, does allow Diniarchus to enter and visit gives Phronesium two captive women, a fine purple
Phronesium, who she claims, still cares for him. cloak, and Arabian balsam. When Phronesium pre-
After Diniarchus enters Phronesium’s house, tends the gifts do not please her, Stratophanes is trou-
Astaphium informs the audience that Phronesium really bled and decides to leave. When he sees Diniarchus’
does not care for him any longer, and that he has already slave, Cyamus, who is approaching with all sorts of
lost all his money after promising his fortune to Phrone- gifts and food, Stratophanes decides to watch and find
sium in exchange for her sexual favors. Astaphium also out what is happening. When Cyamus approaches
states that prostitutes must always be on the lookout for Phronesium and offers her the presents, she praises
generous new clients and notes that their young neigh- them and Diniarchus. Phronesium knows that Strato-
bor, Strabax, is such a man, but that the young man’s phanes is watching her and deliberately speaks loudly
slave (Truculentus) always tries to keep anyone from enough for the soldier to hear. Eventually Stratophanes
Phronesium’s house away from their own house. Trucu- charges forward and demands to know what Phrone-
lentus himself then arrives from Strabax’s house and sium is doing. Cyamus advances to intervene and he
encounters Astaphium, who says she wants to speak and the soldier almost come to blows. Soon Cyamus
with the women of the house. Truculentus tells surrenders and exits. Phronesium reenters her house,
Astaphium that no women live at the house and tries to while an angry Stratophanes predicts that after a few
drive her away, because he knows that Strabax has vis- days she will change her mind about him.
ited Phronesium’s house. Astaphium, however, lies, The third act opens with the arrival of Strabax, who
telling him she does not know Strabax. After further has just returned from performing an errand for his
comments criticizing Astaphium and those of Phrone- father. In the course of these activities, Strabax was
sium’s house, Truculentus says he will go to the FORUM approached by a man who owed some money to his
to find Strabax’s father and tell him what is going on. father. Strabax took the money and now states that he
In the next scene Diniarchus enters from Phrone- will give it to Phronesium. When he knocks on her
sium’s house and complains that he has not seen door, Astaphium quickly admits him to the house.
Phronesium because she has not yet returned from her Next Truculentus enters, worried that Strabax has not
bath. Diniarchus realizes that Phronesium is interested returned from the farm. He also worries that Strabax
in the soldier now. His complaints are interrupted by has entered Phronesium’s house. When Truculentus
the arrival of Phronesium, who greets him in a flatter- sees Astaphium emerge from the house, he approaches
ing manner and invites him to dinner. Diniarchus real- her in a friendly fashion and offers her money in
izes that Phronesium is toying with him and slyly exchange for a night with her. A surprised Astaphium
inquires about her new baby. Phronesium admits that invites Truculentus into Phronesium’s house, but Tru-
the baby is fictitious and tells Diniarchus that once she culentus says he wants to stay outside and wait for
has obtained what she wants from the soldier, she will Strabax to return. When Astaphium tells Truculentus
figure out a way to get rid of him so she and Diniarchus that Strabax is inside Phronesium’s house, Truculentus
can be together. Diniarchus is delighted by this idea, is enraged, but Astaphium manages to persuade him to
and when Phronesium asks him for a present, he says enter Phronesium’s house.
he will send over one of his servants with the gift. After In the fourth act Diniarchus enters and expresses
Phronesium exits into her house, Diniarchus sets out delight over the news that Phronesium is pleased with
to arrange for her present. his gifts and rejects those of the soldier. Astaphium
Some time later, Phronesium emerges from her returns outside and sees Diniarchus, who wants to know
house, dressed as if she has recently given birth. She whom Phronesium has in the house. When Astaphium
reclines on a couch and prepares for the arrival of the informs him that Strabax, who is Phronesium’s favorite,
570 TRUCULENTUS

is inside, Diniarchus laments that his presents have can and tries to kiss her. As Stratophanes does this,
gained him nothing in return. Astaphium, however, has Strabax arrives from Phronesium’s house. When
little sympathy for Diniarchus and drives him away Stratophanes demands to know the man’s identity,
from Phronesium’s door. Astaphium departs, but Phronesium claims she cares for Strabax more than she
Diniarchus remains before the house and complains cares for him and starts to embrace Strabax. An infuri-
about Phronesium and her treatment of him. ated Stratophanes draws his sword and threatens Stra-
Diniarchus’ tirade is cut short, however, by the arrival bax, who is not particularly troubled by the soldier’s
of the aged Callicles, an Athenian gentleman who was hostile actions. Finally when Stratophanes hands
to have become Diniarchus’ father-in-law. When Phronesium his entire money belt, she agrees to allow
Diniarchus sees Callicles, he fears his affair with him to enter her house—but she also invites Strabax.
Phronesium has been discovered. Stratophanes is angry, but Phronesium tells him that
As Diniarchus hides in fear, Callicles, accompanied she wants the rest of Strabax’s money. After both men
by two women (one a maidservant, the other a hair- enter the house, Phronesium congratulates herself on
dresser), approaches Phronesium’s house and demands how she has managed the situation and the play ends.
to know what happened to the son to whom his
daughter gave birth. The maidservant claims Callicles’ COMMENTARY
daughter gave the boy to her and that she then gave the Although Cicero, in his treatise On Old Age (section
child to the hairdresser. The hairdresser says that she 50), says that Truculentus was one of Plautus’ favorite
gave the child to her mistress (Phronesium), who pre- plays, Truculentus has not attracted much attention
tended that the child was her own. The maidservant from modern scholars or readers. The creation of
also notes that the child’s father sexually assaulted Cal- humor from a grumpy character was successfully
licles’ daughter. When Callicles demands to know who exploited by Plautus in POT OF GOLD and has remained
the man was, the maidservant points to Diniarchus. successful in modern times. In Truculentus, however,
Hearing this, Diniarchus emerges from his hiding the character of the grumpy slave is not especially well
place, begs for Callicles’ mercy, and asks to marry Cal- integrated into the play. Truculentus’ indication that he
licles’ daughter. Callicles wants to take Diniarchus to will get Strabax’s father remains unfulfilled, and we are
court but decides to subtract the financial penalty from ill-prepared for Truculentus’ change of attitude and
his daughter’s dowry. Before Callicles exits, he desire to enter the house of Phronesium with
demands that Diniarchus retrieve his son from Phrone- Astaphium. Indeed, the role of Truculentus seems an
sium’s house. As Diniarchus approaches Phronesium’s intrusion in the play. Truculentus is onstage for less
house, she emerges because she has heard from her than one-tenth of play and has no effect on its out-
hairdresser that the child was Diniarchus’ son. come. Truculentus’ presence is mainly a comic diver-
Diniarchus goes to meet her and demands his son be sion from the otherwise dominating presence of
handed over. When Phronesium begs to keep the child Phronesium, around whom the play’s action revolves.
for a few more days so that she can continue to trick Duckworth regarded Truculentus as a play that
the soldier, Diniarchus foolishly agrees because her focuses on character and customs and grouped it with
feminine charms have softened his anger. After Plautus’ Pot of Gold, STICHUS, and THREE-DOLLAR DAY
Diniarchus leaves, Phronesium admits that she is fond and TERENCE’s BROTHERS. The character and customs
of the soldier but that she wants to get all the money focused on in Truculentus, however, are not those of the
she can from him. title character, but those of the prostitute, Phronesium,
The play’s final act opens with the arrival of the sol- and her effect on her three suitors (compare a similar
dier, who approaches with money in hand to win over situation in in Plautus’ COMEDY OF ASSES). Duckworth
Phronesium. The prostitute feigns reluctance and com- notes that some critics have found the play a clever,
plains about all the expenses involved in raising a cynical satire of “an unpleasant aspect of ancient soci-
child. The soldier promises he will do everything he ety.” Others consider Truculentus rather depressing, and
 TRUCULENTUS 571

Duckworth writes that the play “is primarily concerned Phronesium displays extreme callousness toward her
with the delineation of characters who are unattractive borrowed child. At one point, Phronesium orders her
and unsympathetic, and presents a serious and rather maidservants to make sure that the borrowed child is
sordid picture of the life of a courtesan and her treat- fed because the child’s death would ruin her scheme
ment of three foolish rivals for her favor.” Even Harsh, against Stratophanes (456). Indeed, Phronesium’s ficti-
who admired the play for its stark realism, noted that tious pregnancy and her use of one lover’s child (even
“few tragedies are so depressing” as Truculentus. Unlike with the knowledge of the child’s father) to manipulate
in other Plautine plays, such as ROPE, in which a prosti- another lover seem extremely distasteful and compara-
tute is eventually discovered to be a freeborn woman ble with Saturio’s sale of his own daughter in Plautus’
and then marries a freeborn nobleman, Phronesium PERSIAN. Although the audience do not know how
remains a prostitute at the end and has no intention of Phronesium will rid herself of this child, one could
marrying anyone. She will remain a prostitute and con- well imagine that after she has what she wants from
tinue to bilk foolish men out of their money. As Kon- Stratophanes she will pretend that the child has died.
stan writes, Phronesium’s “overriding preoccupation is Although Phronesium bears some resemblance to
with cash” (147). As Truculentus concludes, all three of Medea, Harsh compared her to CIRCE, who turned
Phronesium’s lovers remain interested in her affections. ODYSSEUS’ men into pigs. Part of Circe’s power over
Thus, Truculentus is a play about manipulation and men appears to have been predicated on their entering
exchange between men and women. It is worth noting her house. With the exception of Plautus’ Pot of Gold
that the Latin word for “please” (amabo), which liter- and BRAGGART WARRIOR (a much longer play than Trucu-
ally means “I shall love,” occurs more often in Trucu- lentus), Truculentus has more references to going inside
lentus than in any other Roman COMEDY. With one a house than any other Roman comedy. Indeed, the
exception, we find this verb on the lips of either goal of Phronesium’s three suitors is to enter her house,
Astaphium or Phronesium as they try to persuade the while keeping other suitors out. In Truculentus, the
men play to yield to their will. What the leading suitors fail to achieve this aim. Even Truculentus,
women (Phronesium and Astaphium) in Plautus’ Tru- whose mission in life is to keep people from Phrone-
culentus have to exchange are sexual favors, and in sium’s house out of Strabax’s house, leaves his post and
exchange for these favors they want men to give them enters Phronesium’s house. Phronesium and Astaphium’s
items of tangible value. Nouns denoting gift and verbs goal is to keep as many men as possible in their house,
of giving are especially common in Truculentus, as while not allowing the men who are inside to take
Phronesium manipulates her suitors to give her gifts what other men have given (cf. lines 95–111). Although
and they vie with each other to give her presents that Strabax’s house is also visible to the audience, the
will win her. Phronesium’s skills in manipulation recall house seems almost nonexistent and by the end of Tru-
those of MEDEA in EURIPIDES’ play. Just as in Euripides’ culentus Strabax’s house is essentially empty, as Strato-
play Medea manipulates three men, CREON, AEGEUS, phanes, Strabax, and Strabax’s slave, Truculentus, have
and JASON, to grant her various favors so that she can all been lured into Phronesium’s house and are under
accomplish her plan, Plautus’ Phronesium manipulates the control of Phronesium and Astaphium, the two
three men to enhance her wealth. Just as Medea comic Circes. Unlike in the case of Odysseus’ men and
manipulated Euripides’ Aegeus with the lure of a child Circe, those who have entered the house of Phrone-
who has yet to be born, Phronesium manipulates sium do not have an Odysseus to rescue them from her
Stratophanes with a fictitious child and then uses the clutches and restore them to their human state. The
real child of another lover, Diniarchus, to continue her men who enter Phronesium’s house remain in her con-
manipulation of Stratophanes so that she can gain mas- trol when the play concludes. Even Diniarchus, who
tery over “everything he owns” (400). As Medea’s ruth- does not enter Phronesium’s house and is to marry
lessness leads her to use her children to deliver the another, declares with his final words that he will go to
poisoned gifts that destroy her rival for Jason’s love, her when he has the chance (883). Indeed, the total
572 TRYGAEUS

and utter defeat of the men in Truculentus makes this a As does Dicaeopolis’, Trygaeus’ peace causes changes
bleak play. Perhaps if the play is read as either the will- in the Athenian economy: Dicaeopolis’ peace allows
ingness of men to give up everything they have to him to trade with persons formerly banned from
acquire wisdom, the meaning of Phronesium’s name, Athenian markets; Trygaeus’ poses challenges for those
or the triumph of wisdom over ignorance, some who have been profiting from the war. Eventually,
redeeming quality in the play might be found. As it however, as do most Aristophanic heroes, Trygaeus
stands, however, even if one accepts Truculentus as bit- overcomes all the obstacles to his reforms. At the play’s
ing satire and exultant comedy, as Konstan does (164), conclusion, Trygaeus enters into a sacred marriage
the Circe-like Phronesium maintains firm control over with Opôra (compare PEISETAERUS and Basilea in BIRDS),
the men who have fallen into her orbit. They have been who personifies the harvest season.
transformed into her pigs, and rescue does not appear
to be forthcoming. TULLIA The daughter of the Roman king Servius
Tullius, Tullia was married to Aruns Tarquinius. She
BIBLIOGRAPHY
entered into a plot with Aruns’ brother, Lucius, to mur-
Broccia, G. “Appunti sull’ultimo Plauto: Per l’interpretazione
del Truculentus,” Wiener Studien 16 (1982): 149–64. der Lucius’ wife (Tullia’s sister of the same name),
Dessen, C. S. “Plautus’ Satiric Comedy: The Truculentus,” Aruns, and Servius Tullius. After this, Lucius would
Philological Quarterly 56 (1977): 145–68. become king of Rome and Tullia would marry him and
Duckworth, G. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton, become queen. After the murders, Tullia drove a char-
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 145. iot over her father’s corpse. Aruns’ brother became king
Grimal P. “Le Truculentus de Plaute et l’esthétique de la pal- (Rome’s last) and was known by the name Tarquinius
liata,” Dioniso 45 (1971–74): 532–43. Superbus. When Tarquinius Superbus was over-
Harsh, P. W. A Handbook of Classical Drama. Stanford, Calif.: thrown, Tullia escaped from the palace and wherever
Stanford University Press, 1944, 373. she went people cursed her. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Seneca,
Konstan, D. “Truculentus: Satiric Comedy.” In Roman Com-
Octavia 304; Livy, 1.46–48, 59]
edy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983, 142–64.
Kruse K. H. Kommentar zu Plautus Truculentus. Ph.D. disser-
tation, Heidelberg, 1974. TUTOR A character in classical drama who would
Lefèvre, E. “Truculentus oder Der Triumph der Weisheit.” In have overseen a person’s education as a youth and
Plautus Barbarus: Sechs Kapitel zur Originalität des Plautus. would have continued as an adviser to a person who
Edited by E. Lefèvre et al. Tübingen, Ger.: Narr, 1991, had reached maturity. In EURIPIDES’ plays, the tutor of
175–200. JASON and MEDEA’s sons appears in the prologue of
Musso, O. “Sulla Datazione del Truculentus di Plauto,” Studi MEDEA. In Euripides’ ION, the tutor of CREUSA’s father,
Italiani di Filologia Classica 41 (1969): 135–38. ERECHTHEUS, accompanies Creusa to DELPHI and
attempts to carry out Creusa’s plot to poison ION. In
TRYGAEUS The hero of ARISTOPHANES’ PEACE, EURIPIDES’ PHOENICIAN WOMEN, ANTIGONE’s tutor informs
Trygaeus (“harvester of grapes”), when compared with her about the warriors who are approaching THEBES. In
other Aristophanic heroes, is most similar to DICAEOPO- SOPHOCLES’ ELECTRA, ORESTES’ tutor helps him plot
LIS of ACHARNIANS. Both men are from the Athenian against AEGISTHUS and CLYTEMNESTRA. COMEDY had its
countryside and seek peace from the Athenians’ war tutors as well, such as Lydus in PLAUTUS’ BACCHIDES,
with SPARTA. Trygaeus’ plan of flying to heaven on a who warns his young charge about associating with
dung beetle to take the goddess Peace back to Earth is prostitutes.
far more fantastic than the peace treaty that Dicaeopo-
lis makes. Additionally, Trygaeus’ plan creates peace for THE TWO BACCHISES See BACCHIDES.
all Greeks, not for him only as Dicaeopolis’ does. In
this respect Trygaeus anticipates Aristophanes’ heroine, TYCHE A Greek word with a wide range of mean-
LYSISTRATA, who also orchestrates a peace for all Greeks. ings, among which are “fortune,” “chance,” and “fate.”
 TYNDAREUS 573

Of course, a person’s fortune can be good or bad, and against Thebes 377, 380, 407, 571; Apollodorus, Library
tyche is that element in the universe that allows people 1.8.4–5, 3.6.1–8; Euripides, Phoenician Women 134,
to have good fortune or bad fortune. Thus, tyche is 419, 428, 1120, 1144, 1165, Suppliant Women 136,
beyond human control. In SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS TYRAN- 144, 148, 901, 1208; Homer, Iliad 4.376–98; Hyginus,
NOS, line 776, OEDIPUS indicates that tyche caused a Fables 69–71a; Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1316]
drunken person at a party to question whether POLYBUS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
was really Oedipus’ father. In EURIPIDES’ ION, at lines Snell, B. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Göttingen,
1512–15, the title character, whose mother tried to kill Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
him and when he had threatened to kill before he dis-
covered that she was his mother, marvels that tyche can TYMPANUM A small handheld drum that
change the lot of mortals from grievous to joyous. In resembles a tambourine. The tympanum is especially
Euripides’ MEDEA, line 671, AEGEUS says that he and his associated with the worship of DIONYSUS and RHEA.
wife are childless because of the tyche of some god. According to legend, the sounds of the tympanum
Sometimes tyche is personified as a goddess; in MENAN- were used by those who watched over the infant ZEUS
DER’s Shield, Tyche delivers a delayed PROLOGUE. Tyche’s to conceal his wailing. The drum was then passed on
Roman counterpart is Fortuna. to Rhea, who not only used it in her worship, but also
seems to have shared the instrument with Dionysus
TYDEUS The son of OENEUS, Tydeus was the and his worshipers. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Bac-
brother of MELEAGER and DEIANEIRA. After killing one of chae 59, 120–34, Cyclops 65, 205, Heracles 892;
his relatives, Tydeus went into exile from his native Herodotus, 4.76; Plautus, Carthaginian 1317; Seneca,
CALYDON and traveled to ARGOS, where he took asylum Hercules Furens 470]
with King ADRASTUS. When Adrastus wondered to
whom he should marry his daughters, he consulted the TYNDAREUS The son of Oebalus (or Perieres)
DELPHIC ORACLE, who told him to yoke his daughters to and PERSEUS’ daughter, Gorgophone (or the NAIAD
a lion and a boar. When Adrastus returned from Del- Bateia), Tyndareus was the husband of LEDA and the
phi, he saw Tydeus and POLYNEICES quarreling. When king of SPARTA. Tyndareus and Leda raised four chil-
Adrastus noticed Tydeus’ shield bore the image of a dren, CASTOR, POLYDEUCES, HELEN, and CLYTEMNESTRA.
boar and Polyneices’ shield had the image of a lion, he Polydeuces and Helen were the children of Zeus and
married his daughters to them. Not long afterward, Leda; Castor and Clytemnestra were the children of
Tydeus aided Polyneices in his quest to regain the Tyndareus and Leda. When Helen grew up and numer-
throne of THEBES and Tydeus became one of the Seven ous suitors arrived in Sparta asking for her hand in
against Thebes. In the battle the Theban MELANIPPUS marriage, Tyndareus was afraid of offending any of the
wounded Tydeus. When Melanippus was killed, the powerful nobles. Before giving Helen away, Tyndareus
wounded Tydeus was given the chance to have some made Helen’s suitors swear an oath (later known as the
measure of revenge against his enemy by eating Mela- oath of Tyndareus) that they would go to the defense of
nippus’ brain. Just as Tydeus was doing this, the god- Helen and her husband if anything ever happened to
dess ATHENA was on her way to make Tydeus immortal. Helen. After Helen’s suitors took the oath, Tyndareus
When Athena saw Tydeus eating Melanippus’ brain, the married Helen to MENELAUS. When PARIS abducted
disgusted goddess withheld the gift of immortality and Helen, her former suitors led the expedition against
allowed Tydeus to die. By Adrastus’ daughter, Tydeus Troy.
became the father of DIOMEDES, who fought in the Tro- Although Tyndareus is mentioned numerous times in
jan War and in the war against Thebes waged by the extant drama, he appears as a character only in EURIPI-
sons of the Seven. The Greek tragedian Theodectas DES’ ORESTES. In this play he condemns ORESTES’ killing
wrote a Tydeus, of which only the title survives (frag- of Clytemnestra and warns Menelaus not to help
ment 5a Snell). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Seven Orestes. Euripides also portrays Tyndareus as having
574 TYNDARIDAE

little remorse for the death of Clytemnestra. In the Euripides, Heracles 1272; Herodotus, 3.5.2; Hesiod,
assembly in which Orestes and Electra are condemned Theogony 821, 869; Homer, Iliad 2.782; Seneca, Her-
to die, a pawn of Tyndareus’ delivers the speech that cules Oetaeus 1155, 1733, Medea 773, Octavia 238,
persuades the assembly to vote for their condemnation. Thyestes 809]
SOPHOCLES wrote a Tyndareus, whose several surviving
lines provide no information about the play’s plot. The TYPHOEUS See TYPHO.
Greek tragedian Nicomachus also wrote a Tyndareus, of
which only the title survives. TYPHON Another name for TYPHO.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kiso, A. The Lost Sophocles. New York: Vantage Press,
TYRANNOS A word meaning “absolute ruler,”
1984. tyrannos (plural: tyrannoi) appears in the title of
Lloyd-Jones, H. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.: SOPHOCLES’ OEDIPUS TYRANNOS. A tyrannos was someone
Harvard University Press, 1996. whose rule was not limited by a constitution or laws.
Radt, S. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. 4. Göttingen, Whereas our modern understanding of the words
Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977. tyrant and tyranny has a negative connotation, this is
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University not always the case in ancient Greek literature. Some-
Press of America, 1984. times playwrights use tyrannos as a synonym for king.
In EURIPIDES’ HELEN, line 4, the Egyptian king Proteus is
TYNDARIDAE Another name for CASTOR and called a tyrannos, but nothing negative is said about
POLLUX, which means “the sons of TYNDAREUS.” him. In general, however, when the Greek playwrights
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Lysistrata 1301; use the words tyrannos and tyrannis (absolute ruler),
Seneca, Hercules Furens 14, 552] they do so with a negative connotation. The word
tyrannos is negatively applied even to ZEUS many times
TYNDARIS A name that means “the daughter of in AESCHYLUS’ PROMETHEUS BOUND. In writing about
TYNDAREUS,” which some playwrights, especially mortals, Greek dramatists often apply the term tyran-
EURIPIDES, sometimes use to refer to either HELEN or nos to non-Athenian rulers, such as EURYSTHEUS, PRIAM,
occasionally her sister, CLYTEMNESTRA. and the king of Persia. The Athenians themselves had
at times been ruled by tyrants, but the last of these had
TYPHO Also known as Typhon, Typho was the been driven out at the end of the sixth century B.C.E.,
child of Typhoeus, who was the son of HERA or Tar- and in the following century, when most surviving
tarus and Mother EARTH. By Echidna, Typho became Greek plays appear, ATHENS was a democracy. Thus, it
the father of the CERBERUS, the CHIMAERA, the Hydra of is not surprising that to the Athenians of the fifth cen-
LERNA, the dog Orthus, and the SPHINX. Typho, the tury, the word tyrannos had a negative connotation.
embodiment of a hurricane, was a giant creature that
had the wings of an eagle, the head and upper torso of TYRE A Phoenician town on the coast of the east-
a man, and the lower body of a serpent. When Typho ern Mediterranean. The people of Tyre are called Tyri-
attacked the gods, ZEUS blasted him with a lightning ans. CADMUS is often associated with Tyre and its
bolt and threw an island (either SICILY or Inarime) onto neighboring city of SIDON. The CHORUS in EURIPIDES’
him. Some ancient sources do not distinguish between PHOENICIAN WOMEN speak of being from Tyre.
Typho and Typhoeus, but in those who do Typhoeus is
associated with winds, battles with and is defeated by TYRO The daughter of SALMONEUS and Alcidice,
Zeus, and is buried beneath Sicily (Mount AETNA). Tyro married her paternal uncle, CRETHEUS, by whom
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 354, she became the mother of Aeson, Amythaon, and
370, Seven against Thebes 493, 511, 518, Suppliant PHERES. POSEIDON fell in love with Tyro; disguised as
Women 560; Aristophanes, Clouds 336, Knights 511; the Enipeus River, with whom Tyro was in love, the
 TYRRHENIANS 575

god impregnated her. After giving birth to twins, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Neleus and Pelias, she exposed the boys, but a shep- Kiso, A. “Tyro: Sophocles’ Lost Play.” In Studies in Honour of T.
herd rescued and raised them. When Salmoneus dis- B. L. Webster. Edited by J. H. Betts, J. T. Hooker, and J. R.
covered that Tyro had given birth, he considered her at Green. Bristol, U.K.: Bristol Classical Press, 1986. 161–69.
fault. To make matters worse, Tyro’s stepmother, Magistrini, S. “La/e perduta/e Tyro di Sofocle,” Dioniso 56
(1986): 65–86.
Sidero, treated her badly. When Neleus and Pelias grew
Martino, G. “La Tyro e l’Elettra di Sofocle: Due tragedie a
up, they learned the truth about their birth and the
lieto fine?” La parola del passato 51 (1996 51): 198–212.
abuse of Sidero. Therefore, they saved Tyro and took
vengeance on Sidero by killing her. Pelias killed Sidero TYRRHENIANS The Greek name for the Etr-
as she took refuge at HERA’s altar, an act that caused uscans, a race who inhabited Italy. The Greeks associ-
Hera to hate Tyro. ated the Tyrrhenians with the invention of the trumpet.
SOPHOCLES is said to have written two plays entitled DIONYSUS was said to have been abducted by Tyrrhen-
Tyro. Lloyd-Jones (313) thinks that the second Tyro ian pirates. The monster SCYLLA is also called Tyrrhen-
was a revision of the first, and that the second play was ian. The Greek comic poet Antiphanes wrote a
produced before ARISTOPHANES’ BIRDS, in which the play Tyrrhenian, from which two fragments survive (210–11
is quoted. In Poetics, ARISTOTLE appears to refer to Kock). The first deals with virtue; the second with a
Sophocles’ Tyro as an example of a play in which recog- man from the DEME of Halae. Another Greek comic
nition occurs by means of tokens; in the case of Tyro, poet, Axionicus, also wrote a Tyrrhenian, which has
the title character’s children apparently were recog- two surviving fragments (1–2 Kock); the first describes
nized by means of the small boat in which they were a prodigal named Pythodelus; the second, a PARASITE
exposed. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.7; named Gryllion. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Children
Aristotle, Poetics 1454b25; Diodorus Siculus, 4.68; of Heracles 830, Cyclops 11, Medea 1342]
Homer, Odyssey 2.120, 11.235; Hyginus, Fables 60, BIBLIOGRAPHY
239, 254; Lucian, Timon or Misanthrope 2; Propertius, Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 2. Leipzig:
1.13.21; Strabo, 8.3.33; Virgil, Aeneid 6.585] Teubner, 1884.
 C UD
ULYSSES See ODYSSEUS. punishment, one for eternal reward. Various horrible
punishments are known for the most wicked persons.
UNDERWORLD According to most ancient IXION was bound to an ever-spinning wheel throughout
Greeks and Romans, when a human being died, the eternity; SISYPHUS had to push a stone up a hill only to
spirit descended to the underworld, a region below the have it roll back again; TITYUS had his liver pecked out
Earth. In classical drama, the playwrights use seveal by vultures every day; the DANAIDS had to transport ves-
different names to refer to the underworld: HADES (the sels of water that had holes in them. TANTALUS was fixed
same name as the divinity who rules over the under- in a pool whose waters always receded when he tried to
world), the house of Hades, or the house of Pluto drink; nearby was a tree whose fruit was always blown
(another name for the god Hades). Sometimes the out of grasp when he tried to reach for it.
underworld is called Erebus or Tartarus; on occasion As for those who escaped punishment, these spirits
the name ACHERON (also the name of a body of water resided in the Elysian Fields. Some writers mention a
in the underworld) is synonymous with the under- place called the ISLAND OF THE BLESSED as a place inhab-
world. The Romans also called the underworld Orcus. ited by a select few heroes (such as MENELAUS) after
In addition to the Acheron, several bodies of water death. Other sources mention a fabulous White Island
were said to be in the underworld, such as the COCYTUS, (Leuce), where persons such as HELEN and ACHILLES
LETHE, PHLEGETHON, and STYX. When a person’s spirit went after their life had ended. In Odyssey, however,
reached the underworld, it had to be taken across one HOMER places ACHILLES in the underworld with the rest
of these bodies of water. Ancient sources differ on of the spirits and Achilles tells ODYSSEUS that he would
which body this was, but usually the Acheron or Styx rather be the servant of a poor farmer on Earth than
are named. At the banks of this water, a rough-looking the ruler of the underworld.
sailor, CHARON, waited with a small boat to ferry spirits Several ancient heroes traveled to and from the
across. The Greeks and Romans buried people with underworld while they were still alive, such as AENEAS,
coins in the mouth so that they could pay Charon for HERACLES, ODYSSEUS, ORPHEUS, and THESEUS and PIRIT-
his service. In ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS, when DIONYSUS HOUS. Aeneas and Odysseus went to learn about their
enters the underworld, he pays Charon two OBOLS. respective futures; Orpheus tried (unsuccessfully) to
Once across the water, the spirit went to one of three retrieve his deceased wife; Theseus and Pirithous tried
judges, MINOS, RHADAMANTHYS, or AEACUS. After judg- (unsuccessfully) to arrange for Pirithous to marry
ment, the spirit was assigned to a region of the under- Hades’ wife, PERSEPHONE. Heracles, as his final labor for
world. One region was assigned for eternal EURYSTHEUS, went to the underworld to take back CER-
576
 USURER 577

BERUS, the dog that guarded the entrance and exit to the were born he put them back into Gaia’s womb. Gaia
underworld. While in the upper world, Heracles also finally retaliated and enlisted the help of her youngest
wrestled (successfully) THANATOS, the personification son, Cronus, against Uranus. Gaia created a sharp
of death, to prevent him from taking ALCESTIS to the sickle and gave it to Cronus, who then cut off his
underworld. father’s testicles and threw them into the sea. From the
In classical drama, the underworld is the setting for foam that surrounded Uranus’ genitalia, APHRODITE
most of ARISTOPHANES’ FROGS and Charon, Aeacus, and was born. From the blood of Uranus’ wound were
Pluto (Hades) appear as characters. In several born the Meliae (ash tree NYMPHS), some giants, and the
tragedies, beings from the underworld or spirits of the FURIES. After Uranus’ castration, Cronus replaced him
dead appear or are conjured. The FURIES make up the as master of the sky and Uranus seems to have been
chorus of AESCHYLUS’ Eumenides (see ORESTEIA). In exiled to the UNDERWORLD.
AESCHYLUS’ PERSIANS, the spirit of XERXES’ father, DARIUS,
is conjured, and in SENECA’s OEDIPUS, the spirit of OEDI- USURER Someone who loans money to others
PUS’ father, LAIUS, is raised. In Seneca’s AGAMEMNON, the and charges interest, a usurer (Latin: danista) is a stock
ghost of THYESTES appears from the underworld; in his character in New Comedy. As are PIMPS and bankers,
THYESTES, the ghost of Tantalus and a Fury appear. usurers are detested characters. At Mostellaria
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, Alcestis, Heracles; Hesiod, (Haunted house) 657–58, PLAUTUS’ Tranio calls usurers
Theogony; Homer, Odyssey 11; Seneca, Hercules Furens; the most despicable and dishonest race on Earth. The
Vergil, Aeneid 6] term danista does not occur in TERENCE, but Plautus
has two danistae who appear as characters. In Plautus’
URANUS The son of Gaia (EARTH), Uranus, Mostellaria, Misargyrides (“son of bad silver”) hopes to
whose name means “sky,” also fathered numerous chil- collect the money owed to him by Philolaches, who
dren by his mother: Coeus, Crius, CRONUS, Hyperion, used it to purchase Philematium. A similar scenario
Iapetus, OCEANUS, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, RHEA, Thea, occurs in Plautus’ Epidicus, as Stratippocles borrows
THEMIS, Tethys, the CYCLOPES (Arges, Brontes, money from an unnamed danista to purchase a woman
Steropes), and the Hecatoncheires (Briareus, Cottus, who turns out to be his sister.
and Gyes). Uranus hated his children, and when they
 C VD
VENETI Also called the Enetoi, this tribe, who would have been discovered as the owner of the bag,
lived on the northern shore of the Adriatic Sea, were and presumably its contents would have revealed that
famous for their horses. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Euripides, he was the son of Dinia.
Hippolytus 231, 1131; Herodotus, 1.196; Homer, Iliad BIBLIOGRAPHY
2.852; Livy, 1.1, 5.33, 10.2; Polybius, 2.17; Strabo, Dér, Katalin. “Vidularia: Outlines of a Reconstruction,” Clas-
5.212, 12.543] sical Quarterly 37 (1987): 432–43.

VENUS See APHRODITE. VIRGINIA A Roman woman, the daughter of Vir-

ginius. In the middle of the fifth century B.C.E., Vir-
VERSE See METER. ginius killed her to prevent her enslavement by Appius
Claudius. Eventually Appius himself was imprisoned
VICTORY See NIKE. and in prison committed suicide. [ANCIENT SOURCES:
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 11.28–46; Livy, 3.44–58;
VIDULARIA (THE TALE OF A TRAVEL- Seneca, Octavia 296]
ING BAG) PLAUTUS (DATE UNKNOWN)
Little more than 100 lines has survived from this play. VIRGO (1) The daughter of Jove (ZEUS) and
The extant fragments indicate that two fishermen (one THEMIS, Virgo was originally named as Astraea (starry).
named Gorgines, the other Cacistus), two young gen- When the divinities began to leave the earth because of
tlemen (one named Nicodemus), a farmer named the sins of humankind, Astraea was the last to leave.
Dinia (who is Gorgines’ neighbor), an unnamed She became the constellation Virgo (maiden). [ANCIENT
woman, a maiden named Soteris, and a PIMP were in SOURCES: Seneca, Thyestes 857]
the play’s cast. The town in which the play is set is
unknown, but the action probably took place before VIRGO (2) Also called a puella (plural: puellae),
the houses of Gorgines and Dinia. At some point in the the virgo (maiden, young woman; plural: virgines), a
play, Dinia hired Nicodemus, who was living with freeborn unmarried young woman, is a stock character
Gorgines, to work on his farm. In PLAUTUS’ ROPE a in Roman COMEDY. These women do not have extensive
trunk hauled from the sea helped reunite a father and speaking roles, and only 10 such women appear in the
daughter; in Vidularia, Cacistus seems to have found a list of characters in the plays of PLAUTUS (eight) and
certain bag while fishing. Eventually Nicodemus TERENCE (two). Plautus’ CARTHAGINIAN and ROPE have

578
 VULCAN 579

two puellae in each play. In several instances, a virgo is unusual in that her father, Saturio, is a PARASITE (most
present offstage but not listed in the cast of characters. virgines are the daughters of respectable citizens). Fur-
Although the English word virgin is derived from virgo, thermore, she is part of a scheme to trick the pimp,
sometimes a virgo has been sexually violated and is Dordalus, and her father pretends to sell her and has
pregnant (e.g., Euclio’s daughter in POT OF GOLD, Pam- her dress as a Persian woman. Usually in Roman com-
phila in Terence’s BROTHERS and MOTHER-IN-LAW). The edy freeborn young women do not take such active
man who violated the woman eventually marries her. roles in deception.
In some cases, the virgo or puella is the property of a
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PIMP, but then is discovered to be the daughter of a
Duckworth, G. E. The Nature of Roman Comedy. Princeton,
freeborn man and therefore freed (e.g., Planesium in N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, 253–54.
CURCULIO; Hanno’s daughters in CARTHAGINIAN; Palaestra Lowe, J. C. B. “The Virgo Callida of Plautus, Persa,” Classical
in ROPE). In Terence’s ANDRIA and SELF-TORMENTOR, the Quarterly 39 (1989): 390–99.
virgines are discovered to be freeborn and are reunited Packman, Zola M. “Adulescens as Virgo: A Note on Terence’s
with their parents. The discovery of the virgo’s freeborn Eunuch 908,” Akroterion 42, no. 1 (1997): 30–35.
status allows a young freeborn male (see ADULESCENS) to
marry her. The most unusual virgo in surviving com- VULCAN See HEPHAESTUS.
edy is the unnamed maiden in Plautus’ PERSIAN, who is
 C WD
WASPS (Greek: SPHEKES; Latin: VES- chorus urge Philocleon to escape from the house.
PAE) ARISTOPHANES (422 B.C.E.) Wasps Philocleon tries again to escape, but he is blocked by
placed second in the competition for comic poets at his son. The chorus threaten to summon their patron,
the LENAEA. Philonides’ Preview (Proagon) took first CLEON, but Bdelycleon appeals to the feisty jurors to
place and Leucon’s Ambassadors finished third. The listen to his side of the issue.
action of Wasps takes place in ATHENS at the house of After some further scuffling between the chorus and
the elderly PHILOCLEON (“CLEON lover”) and his son, Bdelycleon and his slaves, an AGON between Philocleon
BDELYCLEON (“Cleon hater”). Like do ARISTOPHANES’ and Bdelycleon occurs: Philocleon argues that his life
KNIGHTS and PEACE, the play begins at dawn with the as a juror is a glorious one and gives him power that
conversation of two slaves, whose master, Bdelycleon, rivals that of ZEUS himself; Bdelycleon argues that
has stationed himself on the roof of the house. The two Philocleon and his juror friends are nothing more than
slaves discuss the problems that Bdelycleon has been slaves of politicians such as Cleon. Bdelycleon man-
having with his aged father, Philocleon. Philocleon is ages to convince both Philocleon and the chorus that
overly keen on serving on juries, and Bdelycleon has they are Cleon’s pawns. Furthermore Bdelycleon per-
ordered the servants not to allow Philocleon out of the suades his father to agree to stop going to town to serve
house. From the perspective of staging, Wasps is quite on juries. Bdelycleon proposes that Philocleon instead
unusual in that when the play opens the stage building set up a court at home and judge disputes that occur
has all of its points of entrance and access blocked and there. Philocleon agrees to this arrangement and Bde-
covered with nets. Soon Philocleon, with incredible lycleon quickly takes out things that his father will
energy for an old man, tries various methods to escape need for his new “home court.” The first “case” that
from the house, including trying to climb out the Philocleon hears involves the theft from the kitchen of
chimney (claiming he is “smoke”) and, in the manner Sicilian cheese by a dog named Labes. This case paro-
of ODYSSEUS, trying to escape by clinging to the under- dies the actual trial of an Athenian politician named
belly of a donkey. LACHES for embezzlement while he was a military com-
Eventually the CHORUS, composed of old men who mander in SICILY between 427 and 425 B.C.E. At the
also serve on juries, enter to summon their compan- trial’s conclusion Bdelycleon tricks his father into
ion, Philocleon, to jury duty. The chorus are dressed in acquitting the dog.
costumes that make them resemble wasps, because the After Bdelycleon and his father enter the house, the
“sting” of jurors is formidable. When they find that chorus deliver the PARABASIS. Here the chorus, speaking
Bdelycleon is preventing his father from leaving, the for Aristophanes, complains that the audience has not
580
 WASPS 581

treated the playwright fairly. They complain that which means “crab” in Greek, provides the opportu-
Aristophanes has used his plays to attack such promi- nity not only for crablike dancing but also for several
nent figures as Cleon and SOCRATES (in his CLOUDS), but jokes about crabs. The play ends with Philocleon’s
that Aristophanes did not win the prize for that play dancing wildly in competition with Carcinus’ sons.
despite its clever premise. The chorus then go on to
explain why they are dressed as wasps. They recall that COMMENTARY
they are the men who repelled the Persian invaders Wasps achieved only moderate success when it was
many years earlier and that the same waspish nature produced and has not been especially popular with
that they exhibited then is employed in their service as modern scholars or audiences. At the least, Wasps is an
jurors. They complain that “stingless drones” reap the important source of information on the workings of
financial rewards of jury duty but do nothing to earn the Athenian courts. Although Americans are quite
their pay. familiar with rampant lawsuits, the premise that a per-
After the parabasis Philocleon and Bdelycleon son would be overly keen on jury duty is difficult for
emerge from the house and prepare to leave for a din- Americans to understand because most people do
ner party. Despite his father’s objections, Bdelycleon everything they can to avoid jury duty. The premise
dresses his father in suitable clothing and tries to school that a substantial segment of a population should be
him in ways to engage in sophisticated conversation at loyal to a political leader by whom they are being used
the party. Father and son then leave for the party. After is easier for modern audiences to appreciate. Although
some time passes, the SLAVE, Xanthias, appears and tells the combined humor of both premises is largely lost on
the chorus about Philocleon’s unsophisticated behavior modern audiences, both were tried and true standards
at the party. Next a drunken Philocleon enters, accom- in ancient Athens. Aristophanes had attacked Cleon
panied by the nude flute girl from the party and fol- two years earlier in KNIGHTS and Athenians who con-
lowed by some angry party guests whom Philocleon stantly sat on juries were a staple of humor. In CLOUDS,
has insulted. Bdelycleon also follows his father and STREPSIADES cannot recognize Athens on a map because
accuses him of stealing the flute girl from the party. he does not see any juries in session.
Philocleon denies this and claims that she is actually a In addition to its information about the Athenian
torch (a claim that provides the opportunity for a few court system, Wasps may provide insight about rivalry
sexual jokes about her anatomy). between poets in antiquity. In 425 and 424, Aristo-
These jokes are followed by the arrival of a baking phanes’ ACHARNIANS and Knights had defeated the offer-
woman (accompanied by CHAEREPHON as her witness), ings of his elder rival, Cratinus. In Knights, Aristophanes
who claims Philocleon has assaulted her. After Philo- had described Cratinus as a washed-up drunk
cleon scorns the baking woman and Chaerephon, (526–36). In 423, Cratinus’ Putine (Wine Flask), which
another complainant enters and charges Philocleon parodied Cratinus’ alleged drinking problem, defeated
with outrage against him. Again Philocleon scoffs at Aristophanes’ Clouds. In 422, in the parabasis of Wasps,
the accusations and finally he is dragged inside the Aristophanes complains about his audience’s failure to
house by his son. After their exit, the chorus praise and grasp the fresh COMEDY of Clouds and urges them to
marvel at Philocleon’s transformation. show more appreciation to poets who have something
After the chorus’ remarks, Xanthias emerges from new to say (1043–57). At the same time, Aristophanes
the house and informs them that Philocleon has spends much of the first part of the parabasis of Wasps
become more drunk and has declared that he will out- recalling that his attacks on Cleon made him success-
dance the modern tragedians. Soon a wildly dancing ful (1029–42).
Philocleon emerges from the house and challenges any In 422, Aristophanes hoped to return to his winning
tragedian to a dance competition. This challenge draws ways. To do so, he may have tried to refurbish some
a response from three sons of the tragedian Carcinus old approaches and ideas as well as blend the old and
(the sons are also tragic poets). This poet’s name, the new. Aristophanes’ attacks on Cleon had yielded
582 WEALTH

success in previous years, so in 422 he obviously his father, who, however, remains out of control
decided to return to this technique. To further his among the younger generation. As an old man, Philo-
chances of winning with Wasps, Aristophanes may also cleon abused the law established in the courts. As a
have taken a page from Cratinus’ work in the previous “young man,” Philocleon abuses the customs of sym-
year by transforming Cratinus’ addiction to alcohol posium. Although Bdelycleon shows his father that he
into Philocleon’s undue fondness for jury service. Iron- was a slave to Cleon, the liberating experience of the
ically, perhaps, Philocleon’s keenness for jury service symposium has not proved to be a better solution for
has passed and he now abuses alcohol, just as Cratinus Philocleon. In the first half of the play, Philocleon
was alleged to have. Just as the drunken old Cratinus declared that his “kingdom” as a juror rivaled that of
had defeated the younger Aristophanes in 423, Zeus himself; in the second half the drunken Philo-
drunken old Philocleon uses dance steps from old cleon has embraced the realm of Zeus’ son, Dionysus.
dramatists to defeat the younger dramatists. Cratinus In both realms, Philocleon is out of control. The sick-
had defeated Aristophanes in 423; Aristophanes may ness that Philocleon had in the first half of the play has
have turned to Cratinus to help him win in 422. become a mania at its end.
Aristophanes’ Wasps may reflect the poet’s rivalry
BIBLIOGRAPHY
with Cratinus; however, its structure seems at odds
MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
with itself. In the first half of Wasps, some clear themes Press, 1971.
emerge. The contrast between freedom and slavery Olson, S. Douglas. “Politics and Poetry in Aristophanes’
appears in agon between Philocleon and Bdelycleon, Wasps,” Transactions of the American Philological Association
and the theme of Philocleon’s sickness also stands out. 126 (1996): 129–50.
After the parabasis, however, the play moves into a Reckford, K. J. “Catharsis and Dream-Interpretation in
series of comic routines that seemingly have little rela- Aristophanes’ Wasps,” Transactions of the American Philolog-
tion to the first half. Philocleon has been prevented ical Association 107 (1977): 283–312.
from going to court; his son convinces him that he is a Sidwell, Keith. “Poetic Rivalry and the Caricature of Comic
pawn of Cleon; he has been tricked into acquitting a Poets: Cratinus’ Pytine and Aristophanes’ Wasps.” In Stage
Directions: Essays in Ancient Drama in Honour of E. W. Han-
defendant. So far, matters have gone Bdelycleon’s way.
dley. Edited by A. Griffiths. Bulletin for the Institute of Clas-
After the parabasis, however, Bdelycleon’s efforts to
sical Studies. Supplement 66. London: Institute of
integrate his father into polite society fail. An old man’s Classical Studies 1995, 56–80.
behaving in an unsophisticated way at a dinner party Slater, N. W. “Bringing Up Father: Paideia and Ephebeia in
of arrogant young aristocrats is a classic comic prem- the Wasps.” In Education in Greek Fiction. Edited by A. H.
ise. The same old man’s running off from the party Sommerstein and C. Atherton. Bari, Italy: Levante, 1996,
with a sexy young woman and then scoffing at the 27–52.
efforts of his victims to take him to justice are also great
comic fun. Finally, this old man’s dance contest with WEALTH (Greek: PLOUTOS) ARISTO-
people whose dance steps imitate crabs was also PHANES (388 B.C.E.) Wealth is ARISTOPHANES’ last
undoubtedly hilarious but seems to have little connec- extant play. Both the festival at which the play appeared
tion with the first half of the play. and the play’s success there are unknown. In 408 B.C.E.,
The unity of Wasps may appear in the evolution of Aristophanes also produced a Wealth whose subject
Philocleon’s character as he experiences life in reverse. matter was apparently quite different. The Wealth of
A young Athenian would learn how to become an 388 B.C.E. was produced again later with Aristophanes’
adult citizen who exercises political power in a positive own minor revisions by Aristophanes’ son, Araros.
way. Wasps begins with an old citizen whose political The play’s setting is ATHENS, and the action takes
power has become uncontrolled. Thus, his son tries to place before the house of Chremylus, an elderly Athen-
strip away this unbridled power and integrate him into ian gentleman. The PROLOGUE opens with the appear-
the society of young men. Bdelycleon does rejuvenate ance of Plutus, the blind god of wealth; Chremylus;
 WEALTH 583

and his slave, Cario. Chremylus explains to Cario that she may be driven from the land. Blepsidemus, fearing
he was frustrated that he had lived a virtuous life but he will be struck by Poverty, threatens to leave. Poverty
had no riches, whereas evil people appeared to have argues that they will be doing a great injustice by driv-
plenty of money. Accordingly, Chremylus went to ing her from their country because she claims she actu-
APOLLO’s oracle at DELPHI to ask the god whether his ally helps people. At this point, a debate (see AGON)
(Chremylus’) son should live a virtuous or evil life. The occurs between Chremylus and Poverty. Chremylus
oracle told Chremylus to leave the shrine, take the first argues that if Plutus regains his sight, virtuous people
person he met back home with him, and make that will receive financial rewards. Poverty counters: If
person his constant friend (compare XUTHUS in EURIPI- good people become wealthy, then people will no
DES’ ION). The first person whom Chremylus encoun- longer work or be creative. When Chremylus suggests
tered was the blind and dirty Plutus whose name that slaves will perform work for them, Poverty retorts
Chremylus does not yet know. that slaves and the slave trade will cease to exist when
When Chremylus does learn that the blind man is slave traders have no need of money. Without slaves,
the god of wealth, he is stunned that a god should Poverty responds, Chremylus’ work will be twice as
appear in such a condition. Plutus explains that ZEUS difficult. All the goods and products Chremylus buys
made him blind so that he (Plutus) would not know will not exist, because there will be no one to make
whether he was blessing virtuous or evil people. Chre- them once the good workers all have money. Poverty
mylus asks Plutus whether he would help the virtuous argues that she drives people to struggle and work,
people if he could see. When Plutus says that he would, whereas Plutus allows people to become fat and lazy.
Chremylus decides to find a cure for Plutus’ blindness. Chremylus argues that Zeus himself is wealthy, but
The god fears the punishment of Zeus, but Chremylus Poverty asserts that Zeus is poor because victors at the
argues that Zeus is the ruler of the gods only because he Olympic Games, held in Zeus’ honor, receive only a
is the richest of the gods. If Plutus wills it, he can make crown of olive leaves. If Zeus were rich, winners at his
sure that people do not have money to pay for sacrifices games would receive a crown of gold. Chremylus,
to the gods. Everything in the world revolves around however, argues that Zeus is just hoarding his money
money, Chremylus argues, and Plutus can control the for himself, but Poverty chastises Chremylus for sug-
world and the gods if he acts boldly. gesting that Zeus behaves in such a way. Eventually the
Thus, Chremylus sends out Cario to summon his debate ends with Chremylus’ refusing to accept
fellow poverty-stricken farmers so that they can have a Poverty’s logic and, with the help of Blepsidemus, driv-
share in Plutus. After Cario exits, Chremylus takes Plu- ing her away. After Poverty’s exit, Chremylus and Blep-
tus into his house. Later Cario returns with the CHORUS, sidemus announce that they will take Plutus to
who are poor old Athenian farmers. Cario explains to Asclepius’ temple to try to cure his blindness.
them that Plutus is in Chremylus’ house and that he is In the next scene, the audience is to imagine that a
going to make them all wealthy. The chorus rejoice and night has passed. First, Cario enters and informs the
dance with Cario in anticipation of this blessing. After chorus that Plutus has been cured of his blindness.
Cario’s exit to find his supper, Chremylus enters and Chremylus’ wife, hearing the celebration of the chorus,
welcomes the chorus. Chremylus’ friend, Blepsidemus, emerges from the house and is also informed of the
who has heard the news that Chremylus is rich, soon good news in Cario’s lengthy description of the healing
joins them. Chremylus informs Blepsidemus that he ceremony. Cario also tells Chremylus’ wife that Plutus,
also can share in the wealth, but that the plan is not yet followed by a throng of just people, is now on his way
complete. Chremylus tells Blepsidemus that they must to the house. After Chremylus’ wife returns to the
first take Plutus to the temple of ASCLEPIUS to be cured house to prepare gifts to welcome Plutus, the newly
of his blindness. After Plutus is cured, they will be rich. healed god enters, gives thanks for his sight, and
Before Chremylus can exit, however, Poverty, a wild- promises to give wealth to good people. When Chre-
looking woman, enters and expresses her outrage that mylus’ wife enters to give the god gifts of welcome,
584 WEALTH

Plutus refuses them and states that he should be the COMMENTARY

one to give gifts. As in Ecclesiazusae of 392/391, in Wealth Aristophanes’
After Chremylus, his wife, Cario, and Plutus enter attacks on and caricatures of contemporary political
the house, Cario reemerges and informs the audience figures, which were very common in Aristophanes’
of the riches and abundance that are now enjoyed in early plays, have almost completely disappeared, and
the house. Next a just man enters with a worn old the role of the chorus has been greatly diminished. The
cloak and a similarly worn pair of shoes. The just man play does not contain a PARABASIS. The expanded role of
tells Cario that he is going to offer these articles of the slave, Cario, also shows similarities to the slaves
clothing to Plutus in thanks for granting him wealth. one finds in the comedy of MENANDER. As they have
Their conversation is interrupted by the arrival of an Ecclesiazusae, modern scholars have described Wealth
INFORMANT, who laments his situation now that Plutus as a transitional play between the Old Comedy of plays
has been healed. When the informant threatens to such as ACHARNIANS and KNIGHTS and the New Comedy
make accusations against them, Cario drives him off by of Menander, which would emerge in the last quarter
wrapping him in the just man’s old cloak and then of the fourth century B.C.E. Thus, Wealth is sometimes
tacking his old shoes to his forehead. After the depar- considered an example of Middle Comedy.
ture of the informant, the just man and Cario enter Despite this classification, the play follows the pat-
Chremylus’ house. Chremylus then emerges and is met tern commonly found in Aristophanes’ earlier plays. As
by an old woman, who enters and complains that Plu- in BIRDS of 414, in Wealth the hero has a fantastic plan
tus’ change has caused her to lose the young male lover that will ultimately have an effect on the gods. Just as
she had enjoyed. The young man, who had spent time PEISETAERUS’ plan for a city in the clouds creates a dis-
with the old woman because of her riches, soon enters ruption in relations between human beings and gods,
and, because he himself is now wealthy, scorns her. Chremylus’ plan does. The gods in Birds send repre-
Chremylus has some sympathy for the old woman, sentatives to strike a deal with Peisetaerus; in Wealth
however, and produces some measure of reconciliation hungry Hermes, whom Zeus has sent to negotiate with
between the old woman and the young man. Chremylus, has replaced hungry HERACLES of Birds. As
After Chremylus escorts the pair into his house, in Birds (and Acharnians), an informant is not allowed
Cario reappears and soon encounters HERMES, who to enjoy the benefits of the hero’s fantastic plan.
informs him that Zeus intends to punish the house- As Ecclesiazusae does, Wealth deals with a revolution
hold because the healing of Plutus has resulted in the within the Athenian economy; those who benefit from
end of sacrifices to the gods. Hermes notes that he Plutus will receive the basic comforts of life such as
himself is going hungry and begs Cario for some food. food, clothing, and, to some extent, the promise of sex,
Hermes even begs Cario to allow him to stay in their although this latter reward is emphasized less than it is
house and claims that he could help them in a number in Ecclesiazusae. Both plays, however, use the humor-
of ways. Eventually Cario allows Hermes to enter, ous situation of a relationship between a young man
although he immediately puts him to work at menial and an old woman. In Wealth, the young man is the
labor. After the exit of Cario and Hermes, Chremylus party in control; in Ecclesiazusae the young men seem
returns and encounters a priest of Zeus, who also rather helpless victims of the old women. Unlike Eccle-
complains of hunger because now no one makes sacri- siazusae, which has numerous references to the city
fices, of which the priest would get a share. The priest (polis) and allusions to specific problems of the distri-
suggests that he desires to leave the service of Zeus and bution of wealth among people, Wealth contains few
devote himself to Plutus. Chremylus, however, tells the references to Athens itself and seems more general in
priest that even Zeus himself is now present in the its outlook. At line 461, Chremylus indicates that he is
house. The play ends with Chremylus arranging a pro- trying to do something good for all people. Also in
cession to take Plutus to the Athenian ACROPOLIS to contrast with Ecclesiazusae, in which virtually everyone
establish him as guard of the city’s treasury. will be included in Praxagora’s reforms, in theory only
 WOMEN 585

the just (dikaioi) will enjoy the benefits of Plutus. intention of continuing in the relationship now that
Whereas plays such as ACHARNIANS and CLOUDS fre- Plutus has made him wealthy. The old woman com-
quently refer to what is just, Wealth is more concerned plains that it would only be just for Plutus to compel
with who is just. the young man to treat her well again; otherwise it is
Chremylus complains that he is a man who has unjust for the young man to experience good fortune
revered the gods and who is just (28), but that he suf- (1028–30). Eventually, however, the old woman will
fers and is poor. When Plutus later explains that this is have her way, and as the play ends Chremylus prom-
so because Zeus made him blind so that he could not ises her that the young man will visit her that night
know which people were wise, orderly, and just (89), (1201).
Chremylus responds that good and just people (94) are Finally, because poor, just persons have been made
the only ones who worship the gods. If Chremylus can rich, then the previously rich must become poor. This
restore Plutus’ sight, then Plutus promises he will visit includes the gods and their priests. This premise holds
only the just (97). Chremylus is gladdened by this true, not surprisingly, for the priest of Zeus. Corrupt
response and pledges that he and other just men (219) religious officials were as common in ancient society as
who are like him will work to carry out this plan. The they are in modern society. As a result of Plutus’ new
just men to whom Chremylus refers make up the cho- condition those who formerly called on the priest,
rus. Thus, although the chorus of Wealth are less exotic such as those who had escaped justice (1181), no
than the choruses of Clouds or Wasps, they do fit well longer do so. The suggestion that Hermes, one of the
with the play’s focus on distributing wealth to the just. gods, is unjust, however, seems quite bold, and inter-
Upon learning that Plutus’ sight is to be restored, estingly the servant of the gods is called unjust by the
Poverty arrives and argues against making just men servant of a mortal (1124). Furthermore, this same
(475). Chremylus, of course, argues that it is only just mortal servant determines the grounds on which the
that the good succeed, whereas the wicked should suf- servant of the gods should be allowed to participate in
fer the opposite (490–91). Poverty later counters that the blessings of Plutus.
when the just become wealthy they no longer benefit So, although Aristophanes’ Wealth may not be as
the people or the city (568). Poverty eventually leaves lively or humorous as Aristophanes’ earlier plays, it
amid Chremylus’ curses but has made a number of does raise questions that continue to vex humankind:
valid points and Walton judges that Poverty has won Why do the wicked prosper, while the just struggle to
the argument. survive? Aristophanes creates a scenario that allows the
After Plutus regains his sight, Cario announces that audience to see what might happen if life worked out
Chremylus is returning with a happy crowd of just in the way people often expect that it should. Poverty
men (751), who were previously poor. In contrast, admirably argues against such a system, but during the
those who previously acquired their riches through space of this play Aristophanes does not allow his
unjust means (755) are now unhappy. As proof of the audience to see Chremylus’ plan fail.
success of Chremylus’ plan, a person once poor but
BIBLIOGRAPHY
now wealthy arrives. He is simply called Dikaios (823),
Sfyroeras, P. “What Wealth Has to Do with Dionysus: From
Just Man, and his wealth is manifested by his new suit Economy to Poetics in Aristophanes’ Plutus,” Greek,
of clothing. The Just Man is contrasted in the arrival of Roman, and Byzantine Studies 36, no. 3 (1995): 231–62.
the Informant, whose way of life has been ruined by Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. Vol. 11,
Plutus’ newfound sight. Ironically the Informant states Wealth. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001.
that if justice still exists (859), then Plutus’ blindness Walton, J. M. Living Greek Theatre. New York: Greenwood
will return. Justice does exist, but not for the unjust, Press, 1987, 218.
and the Informant is driven away. The line between
just and unjust becomes somewhat blurred in the case WOMEN Because men played the parts of women
of the old woman and her young lover, who has no in classical drama, any consideration of female roles in
586 WOMEN

classical drama must keep this fact in mind. The activ- and Electra and Chrysothemis, Sophocles likes to con-
ities of women in Greece and Rome were largely cen- trast the attitude of the sisters toward the crisis that
tered around the home. Women had no voting rights they face. Deianeira and Iole are interesting in that the
in political matters, and even appearing alone in pub- former is the wife and the latter is the concubine of the
lic, much less on stage, would not have been consid- same man, HERACLES. Outside those of Sophocles, only
ered appropriate behavior. Not only did women not four plays have two princesses who have speaking
play parts in ancient TRAGEDY or COMEDY, but some roles: AESCHYLUS’ SEVEN AGAINST THEBES (Antigone and
debate exists as to whether women were even allowed Ismene) and EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES (ALCMENA,
to attend theater productions in Greece. Women in MACARIA), TROJAN WOMEN (CASSANDRA, Andromache),
Rome could apparently attend theater productions, but and ORESTES (Electra, HERMIONE). Alcmena, in Children
in some cases their seating was separate from the men’s of Heracles, is difficult to classify, as her age and behav-
and on the fringes of the seating area. In both Greece ior in that play make her seem queenly, but her hus-
and Rome, the exception to these practices would have band, AMPHITRYON, never became king according to
been certain priestesses, who not only were allowed to common tradition, although her father was a king.
attend theater productions, but also given preferential With the exception of the CHORUS, the next common
seating. female speaking role (17 of the 32 complete Greek
Regarding tragedy, with the exception of SOPHOCLES’ tragedies) is that of the queen, who is the wife of a king
PHILOCTETES and SENECA’s THYESTES, all the surviving or former king (e.g., ATOSSA, HECABE, CLYTEMNESTRA).
plays had female characters. A little more than half of As does the princess, the queen suffers from her con-
the speaking roles in the surviving tragedies, both nection with an unfortunate male (her husband and/or
Greek and Roman, are royal women. The most com- son). Sometimes the queen commits suicide (JOCASTA,
mon female speaking role (22 of the 32 complete EURYDICE, PHAEDRA); at other she is enslaved (Hecabe).
Greek tragedies) is the princess, who is the daughter of The most notorious queen in surviving tragedy is
a king or former king (e.g., ANTIGONE, ISMENE, ELECTRA) Clytemnestra, who helps kill her husband and then is
or the wife of a prince (ANDROMACHE). The life of a killed by her son. Surely the most pitiable queen is
princess in Greek tragedy is rarely happy, as she usu- Hecabe, who outlives her husband, sons, daughters,
ally suffers as a result of the dominant male figure (her and grandson only to become a slave. The most noble
father and/or brother) in her life. In the case of queen and the one who experiences the most amazing
Antigone, she commits suicide as a result of her treat- reversal of fortune is ALCESTIS, who dies for her king
ment at the hands of CREON. Some princesses allow and then is rescued from the dead.
themselves to be sacrificed for the sake of their family Regarding the chorus, in 21 of the 32 complete
(MACARIA) or country (IPHIGENIA). The most notable tragedies the chorus are women. Only two of Sopho-
exceptions to the “suffering princess” rule are AETHRA, cles’ seven tragic choruses are female (Trachinian
the mother of THESEUS, who champions the cause of Women, Electra). Most often these choruses represent
the suppliant mothers in EURIPIDES’ SUPPLIANT WOMEN, freeborn females of a particular town (e.g., Sophocles’
and MEDEA, who killed her father (king of COLCHIS) Trachinian Women, the Corinthian women in Euripides’
and brother, married JASON, and then was divorced by MEDEA) or women who are slaves (e.g., Euripides’
Jason. Medea then killed her child and the princess HECABE, Trojan Women). In Aeschylus’ SUPPLIANT
Jason intended to marry and escaped unscathed. WOMEN, the women who make up the chorus are the
Of Sophocles’ surviving plays, five of the seven have central focus of the play. The women of the chorus also
two princesses (the exceptions are AJAX and play a prominent role and are greatly involved in the
PHILOCTETES). In the three Theban plays, Antigone and action of Aeschylus’ Eumenides (see ORESTEIA) and
Ismene are the princesses; Electra and CHRYSOTHEMIS Euripides’ BACCHAE. In contrast to male choruses,
appear in ELECTRA, and DEIANEIRA and IOLE appear in female choruses often serve as confidantes or sympa-
TRACHINIAN WOMEN. In the case of Antigone and Ismene thetic allies of other women onstage (e.g., Euripides’
 WOMEN 587

Ion, IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS). In some Euripidean plays, the his Oedipus, Seneca introduces the role of Tiresias’
female choruses are only loosely connected to the daughter, MANTO. In two plays, Seneca has two female
play’s action. In IPHIGENIA IN AULIS, for example, the choruses (Agamemnon, Hercules Oetaeus), one native to
chorus go to AULIS for the purpose of watching the the town, another consisting of outsiders. OCTAVIA is
Greek army assemble. In two plays, Aeschylus’ unique in that it has two nurses, one for Octavia, the
PROMETHEUS BOUND and Eumenides (see ORESTEIA), the other for POPPAEA. Only one female divinity, Juno
chorus are divinities. (Greek: HERA), appears in Senecan tragedy (Hercules
Two divine choruses are female, and some 14 indi- Furens), and the ghost of AGRIPPINA appears in Octavia.
vidual female divinities have speaking roles in the In the realm of COMEDY, ARISTOPHANES’ surviving
extant Greek tragedies, 11 of these in Euripidean plays. plays have few speaking parts for women until 411
Not surprisingly, ATHENA makes half of these appear- B.C.E. Other than the female chorus of CLOUDS and a
ances, in tragedies written by Athenian playwrights for brief appearance by IRIS in BIRDS, the female characters
Athenian audiences. Most often the divine female who do appear on the Aristophanic stage before this
appears at the play’s conclusion to lead the play to a res- time are usually silent and are the object of sexual
olution. In Euripides’ Heracles, Iris and Madness appear gawking and pawing by the males onstage. Women in
in the middle of the play to cause disaster as Madness the SATYR PLAY seem to have experienced the same sort
will cause Heracles to kill his wife and children. In of treatment (e.g., Cyllene in Sophocles’ SEARCHERS;
Euripides’ HIPPOLYTUS, APHRODITE and ARTEMIS appear at AMYMONE in Aeschylus’ satyr play of that name). In
the beginning and end, respectively, and their presence 411, however, two female-centered plays appeared,
reinforces the play’s conflict between love and chastity. LYSISTRATA and THESMOPHORIAZUSAE. ECCLESIAZUSAE, pro-
RHESUS also has two divine appearances. In the middle duced in 392/391, also has prominent female roles. In
of the play, Athena enters to aid the Greeks and baffle these three plays, we find a female chorus, and in Lysis-
the Trojans; at the play’s conclusion RHESUS’ mother, a trata and Ecclesiazusae, a freeborn female is the archi-
MUSE, arrives to mourn her son’s death and to express tect of the social reform. Ecclesiazusae also marks the
her anger at the Greeks and Athena’s favorite city, first extant appearance of the sex-crazed old woman
ATHENS. PROMETHEUS BOUND has a most unusual divine and her young male love interest. This role is reprised
figure in that IO, the daughter of a river god, arrives in Aristophanes’ WEALTH (388). Also in Wealth, the
after she has been transformed into a cow and while she goddess Poverty vigorously defends the necessity of
is being tormented by a gadfly. She gallops away after her presence in society.
PROMETHEUS tells her about her future. Beginning in the latter half of the fourth century
Other than the chorus, queens, princesses, and B.C.E., the roles of both women and men in comedy
divinities, few other female speaking parts exist in become stereotyped. In the so-called New Comedy of
Greek tragedy. A few NURSES (Libation Bearers [see authors such as MENANDER, PLAUTUS, and TERENCE, the
ORESTEIA], Trachinian Women, Hippolytus, Andromache), chorus is no longer involved in the action and the
priestesses (Eumenides [see ORESTEIA], Ion), female women in such plays are usually either freeborn maid-
prophets (AGAMEMNON, HELEN), and slaves appear. ens (see VIRGO), the wives of citizens (see MATRONA),
Clytemnestra’s ghost has a speaking role in Eumenides SLAVES, and PROSTITUTES or MUSIC GIRLS (who are almost
(see ORESTEIA). synonymous with prostitutes). Occasionally a woman
Because most Senecan tragedies (except Thyestes serves as the PIMP for a prostitute. With the exception
and Octavia) are based on Greek plays for which the of Alcmena in Plautus’ AMPHITRUO, royal women are
original survives, women’s roles in the Latin plays are largely absent from New Comedy. Goddesses rarely
basically the same. Unlike Aeschylus, SENECA does give have speaking roles, and even in those cases they
Electra a speaking role in his Agamemnon. To HERCULES deliver only the PROLOGUE, as in the case of TYCHE
OETAEUS, based on Sophocles’ Trachinian Women, (Chance) in Menander’s SHIELD, Agnoia (Misapprehen-
Seneca adds speaking roles for Iole and ALCMENA. Into sion) in THE GIRL WITH THE SHAVEN HEAD, or Luxury (and
588 WOMEN OF AETNA

her daughter, Poverty) in Plautus’ THREE-DOLLAR DAY. Taaffe, L. K. Aristophanes and Women. London: Routledge,
Although the speaking roles for women do not increase 1993.
markedly for female characters, the freeborn maidens
and prostitutes do provide the catalyst for males in WOMEN OF AETNA See AESCHYLUS; AETNA.
New Comedy. The action of most of the these plays is
set in motion as a result of a man’s love for a maiden or WOMEN OF ARGOS See ADRASTUS; ARGOS.
prostitute, and the remainder of the play usually
focuses on his hope of marrying his beloved or, at the
WOMEN OF BACCHUS See BACCHAE.
least, spending an afternoon or evening of sexual bliss
with her.
WOMEN OF COLCHIS See COLCHIS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bouvrie, S. Des. Women in Greek Tragedy: An Anthropological
WOMEN OF LEMNOS See LEMNOS.
Approach. Oslo: Norwegian University Press; Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1990.
Foley, H. P. Female Acts in Greek Tragedy. Princeton, N.J.: WOMEN OF PERRHAEBIA See PERHAEBIA.
Princeton University Press, 2001.
Loraux, N. Tragic Ways of Killing a Woman. Translated by A. WOMEN OF PHTHIA See PHTHIA.
Forster. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1987.
Rosivach, V. J. When a Young Man Falls in Love: The Sexual
WOMEN OF SALAMIS See SALAMIS.
Exploitation of Women in New Comedy. London: Routledge,
1998. WOODEN HORSE See TROJAN HORSE.
 C XD
XANTHIAS A common name (meaning “golden- defeated EURIPIDES’ offerings (one of which was TROJAN
haired”) of slaves in Aristophanic COMEDY. The most WOMEN). [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Frogs 86,
extensive role for a Xanthias occurs in ARISTOPHANES’ Clouds 1259–66; Thesmophoriazusae 169, 441; Plato
FROGS (405 B.C.E.), in which a wisecracking Xanthias Comicus, fragment 134 Kock]
accompanies DIONYSUS on his journey to the UNDER- BIBLIOGRAPHY
WORLD. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aristophanes, Acharnians, Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
Clouds, Frogs, Wasps] Teubner, 1880.

XENOCLES A son of the elder CARCINUS, Xeno- XENOPHANTES See HIERONYMUS.

cles was a Greek tragedian active in the last quarter of
the fifth century B.C.E. ARISTOPHANES had a poor opin- XUTHUS The husband of CREUSA and the adop-
ion of his work; however, in 415 Xenocles’ plays tive father of ION. See EURIPIDES’ ION.

589
 C ZD
ZEPHYR The son of Astraeus and EOS, Zephyr siblings waged war against Cronus, overthrew him,
personifies the west wind. Zephyr receives frequent and banished him to the UNDERWORLD. After Zeus
mention in SENECA’s plays. [ANCIENT SOURCES: Aeschy- defeated Cronus, he and his brothers cast lots to divide
lus, Agamemnon 692 (see ORESTEIA); Euripides, Iphige- the world. Zeus became master of the sky, Poseidon the
nia in Tauris 434, Phoenecian Women 211; Hesiod, sea, and Hades the underworld. After the overthrow of
Theogony 378–80; Homer, Iliad 16.148–51; Pausanias, Cronus, Zeus faced other challenges as well. Zeus
1.37.2, 3.19.5] blasted TYPHON with a lightning bolt and imprisoned
him under Mount AETNA.
ZETES A son of BOREAS and ORITHYIA, Zetes was the Zeus’ main female companion is HERA, by whom he
brother of Calais. The two brothers had wings and had ARES, HEBE, and EILYTHIA. Zeus had numerous rela-
accompanied JASON on his quest for the Golden Fleece. tionships with other women, both goddesses and mor-
During that voyage, the brothers were instrumental in tals. By his sister, Demeter, he produced PERSEPHONE; by
ridding PHINEUS of the Harpies that plagued him. the goddess LETO he fathered the twins APOLLO and
[ANCIENT SOURCES: Apollodorus, Library 1.9.16, 21, ARTEMIS; by the goddess Maia he fathered HERMES; by
3.15.2; Hyginus, Fables 14, 19; Seneca, Medea 634, 782] SEMELE he became the father of DIONYSUS; by the god-
dess Mnemosyne he produced the nine MUSES. Zeus’
ZETHUS See AMPHION. affair with IO resulted in extreme hardships for her, and
ultimately she had a child, EPAPHUS. Zeus disguised
ZEUS His Roman counterpart is Jupiter (also himself as a swan to impregnate LEDA; he turned into a
known as Jove). Zeus is the son of CRONUS and RHEA. SATYR to impregnate ANTIOPE and become the father of
He is the brother of POSEIDON, HADES, HERA, DEMETER, AMPHION and ZETHUS; he disguised himself as AMPHIT-
and HESTIA. Cronus, warned by an oracle that he RYON to impregnate ALCMENA and become the father of
would be overthrown by one of his children, swal- HERACLES.
lowed them whole as soon as they were born. After Zeus appears as a character in only one surviving
giving birth to Zeus, Rhea tricked her husband by giv- classical play, PLAUTUS’ AMPHITRUO. In this play,
ing him a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, and appearing under his Roman name of Jupiter, the god
Zeus himself was carried off to Crete and hidden in the and his son, Mercury (Greek: Hermes), are in THEBES
Dictaean cave. Eventually Zeus returned and managed at the house of Amphitruo (Greek: Amphitryon).
to rescue his brothers and sisters by giving Cronus a Jupiter is disguised as Amphitruo and Mercury is dis-
potion that made him vomit. After this Zeus and his guised as Amphitruo’s slave, Sosia. Plautus takes up
590
 ZEUS 591

the story after Jupiter has impregnated Alcmena and In TRAGEDY Zeus is a focal point of AESCHYLUS’
is now leaving his unwitting lover. Humor ensues as PROMETHEUS BOUND, as the title character’s punishment
Jupiter is mistaken for the real Amphitruo, who is a result of his opposing Zeus’ wishes and giving fire
arrives after Jupiter’s departure from the house and to mortals. In this play Zeus is portrayed as an oppres-
quarrels with his wife about her alleged infidelity. sive tyrant (see TYRANNOS) over both gods and human
Ultimately Jupiter sets matters right between husband beings. As in Amphitruo, Zeus’ name is often heard in
and wife and makes sure that Alcmena delivers her plays that deal with Heracles, such as SOPHOCLES’ TRA-
children safely. CHINIAN WOMEN, EURIPIDES’ CHILDREN OF HERACLES and
Although Zeus appears only in Plautus’ Amphitruo, HERACLES, and SENECA’s HERCULES FURENS and HERCULES
he is mentioned hundreds of times in classical drama. OETAEUS. When Heracles suffers from tragic circum-
Zeus’ name frequently occurs in A RISTOPHANES’ stances, he often feels abandoned by his divine father.
CLOUDS, in which SOCRATES convinces STREPSIADES that
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Zeus (Dios) has been overthrown and replaced by a Cook, A. B. Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion. New York:
divinity named Vortex (Dinos). In Aristophanes’ Biblo & Tannen, 1964–1965.
BIRDS, PEISETAERUS’ city in the clouds threatens Zeus’ Kerenyi, C. Zeus and Hera: Archetypal Image of Father, Hus-
kingdom, and eventually the king of the gods must band, and Wife. Translated by C. Holme. Princeton, N.J.:
send an embassy to negotiate a settlement with Peise- Princeton University Press, 1975.
taerus and the birds. Similarly in Aristophanes’ Kock, T. Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
WEALTH, the cure of Plutus’ blindness results in a loss Teubner, 1880.
Kovacs, D. “Zeus in Euripides’ Medea,” American Journal of
of power for Zeus and the other gods. The Greek
Philology 114 (1993): 45–70.
comic poet Plato wrote a play entitled Zeus Kak-
Mikalson, J. D. “Zeus the Father and Heracles the Son in
oumenos (Zeus outraged); the surviving fragments Tragedy,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American
(46–54 Kock) reveal that a PIMP and HERACLES were Philological Association 96 (1986): 89–98.
characters and that the drinking game cottabos was Smith, P. M. On the Hymn to Zeus in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon.
played at some point in the action. Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1980.
 APPENDIX I
CD
PLAYS ATTRIBUTED TO Argo
Atalanta
Argô
Atalanta
THE EIGHT CLASSICAL Athamas Athamas
PLAYWRIGHTS WITH Bacchae Bakchai
Bassarids Bassarai
SURVIVING WORKS Bone Gatherers Ostologoi
Plays marked in CAPITAL LETTERS have survived in com- Cabiri (satyr?) Kabeiroi
plete form or substantially complete form. The presence of a Callisto (satyr?) Kallistô
question mark (?) indicates some doubt about the play’s Carians or Europa Kares or Europa
authorship, genre, or title. In some cases, playwrights pro- Cercyon (satyr) Kerkuôn
duced more than one version of a play. Such instances are Children of Heracles Herakleidai
accompanied by a letter of the alphabet (e.g., Hippolytus A, Children of the Sun Hêliades
Hippolytus B). Circe (satyr) Kirkê
Cycnus? Kuknos?
AESCHYLUS OF ATHENS Danaids Danaides
Edonians Êdônoi
(GREEK: TRAGEDY)
Egyptians Aiguptioi
Modern Title Ancient Title Eleusianians Eleusinioi
AGAMEMNON AGAMEMNON Epigoni Epigonoi
EUMENIDES EUMENIDES Glaucus of Potniae Glaukos Potnieus
LIBATION BEARERS CHOÊPHOROI
Glaucus of the Sea (satyr?) Glaukos Pontios
PERSIANS PERSAI
Heralds (satyr) Kêrukes
PROMETHEUS BOUND? PROMÊTHEUS
DESMOTÊS? Hypsipyle Hupsipulê
SEVEN AGAINST THEBES HEPTA EPI THÊBAS Iphigenia Iphigeneia
SUPPLIANT WOMEN HIKETIDES Ixion Ixiôn
Aetnaeans Aitnaiai Judgment of Arms Hoplôn Krisis
Alcmena Alcmênê Laius Laios
Amymone (satyr?) Amumonê Lion (satyr) Leôn
Archers Toxotides Lycurgus (satyr) Lukourgos
Argive Men or Argive Women Argeioi or Argeiai Memnon Memnon

593
594 APPENDIX I

Men of Lemnos or Women Lêmnioi or Lêmniai ELECTRA ÊLEKTRA

of Lemnos OEDIPUS AT COLONUS OIDIPOUS EPI KOLÔNÔI
Myrmidons Murmidones OEDIPUS TYRANNUS OIDIPOUS TYRANNOS
Mysians Musoi PHILOCTETES PHILOKTÊTÊS
Nemea Nemea TRACHINIAN WOMEN TRACHINIAI
Nereids Nêreides Acrisius Akrisios
Net Draggers (satyr) Diktuoulkoi Aegeus Aigeus
Niobe Niobê Ajax the Locrian Aias Lokros
Nurses of Dionysus or Nurses Dionusou Trophoi or Alcmeon Alkmeôn
(satyr) Trophoi Alexander Alexandros
Oedipus Oidipous Amphiaraus (satyr) Amphiareôs
Oreithyia Oreithuia Amphitryon Amphitruôn
Palamedes Palamêdês Amycus (satyr) Amukos
Paraders Propompoi Andromeda Andromeda
Penelope Pênelopê Antigone Antigonê
Pentheus Pentheus Athamas A Athamas A
Perrhaebians Perraibides Athamas B Athamas B
Philoctetes Philoktêtês Atreus or Women of Mycenae Atreus or Mukênaiai
Phineus Phineus Captive Women Aichmalotides
Phorcides (satyr?) Phorkides Cassandra Kassandra
Phrygians Phrugioi Cedalion (satyr) Kedalion
Phrygians or Ransom of Hector Phruges or Hektoros Lutra Cerberus (satyr?) Kerberos
Polydectes Poludektês Chryses Chrusês
Preparers of the Bed Chamber Thalamopoioi Clytemnestra Klutaimestra
Priestesses Hiereiai Colchian Women Kolchides
Prometheus the Fire Bringer Promêtheus Purphoros Creusa Kreousa
Prometheus the Fire Maker Promêtheus Purkaeus Daedalus Daidalos
(satyr) Danae Danaê
Prometheus Unbound Promêtheus Luomenos Demand for Helen’s Return Helenês Apaitesis
Proteus (satyr) Proteus Dolopians Dolopes
Semele or Water Carriers Semelê or Hudrophoroi Drummers Tumpanistai
Sisyphus Runaway (satyr?) Sisuphos Drapetês Electra Êlektra
Sisyphus Stone Pusher (satyr) Sisuphos Petrokulistês Erigone Êrigonê
Soul Attendants Psuchagogoi Eriphyle Eriphulê
Spectators or Spectators of the Theôroi or Isthmiastai Eris (satyr?) Eris
Isthmian Games (satyr) Ethiopians Aithiopes
Sphinx (satyr) Sphinx Eumelus Eumelos
Telephus Têlephos Euryalus Eurualos
Weighing of Lives Psuchostasia Eurypylus Eurupulos
Women of Crete Krêssai Eurysaces Eurusakes
Women of Salamis Salaminiai Foot Washing Niptra
Women of Thrace Thêissai Gathering of Achaeans Achaiôn Sullogos
Xantriai (satyr?) Xantriai Helen’s Marriage (satyr?) Helenês Gamos
Youths Neaniskoi Hipponous Hipponous
Hubris (satyr) Hubris
Inachus (satyr?) Inachos
SOPHOCLES (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Infant Dionysus (satyr) Dionusiskos
Modern Title Ancient Title Infant Heracles (satyr) Herakleiskos
AJAX (WITH THE WHIP) AIAS MASTIGOPHOROS Iobates Iobates
ANTIGONE ANTIGONE Ion Iôn
 APPENDIX I 595

Iphigenia Iphigeneia Thyestes C Thuestês C

Ixion Ixiôn Trackers (satyr) Ichneutai
Judgment (satyr) Krisis Triptolemus Triptolemus
Laocoon Laokoon Tyndareus Tundareôs
Lovers of Achilles (satyr?) Achilleôs Erastai Tyro A Turô A
Meleager Meleagros Tyro B Turô B
Memnon Memnon Water Carriers Hudrophoroi
Men of Camicus Kamikoi Women of Laconia Lakainai
Men of Larissa Larisaioi Women of Lemnos A Lemniai A
Minos Minôs Women of Lemnos B Lemniai B
Momus Mômos Women of Phthia Phthiôtides
Muses Mousai Women of Trachis Trachiniai
Mute Ones (satyr) Kôphoi
Mysians Musoi
Nauplius Sailing In Nauplios Katapleôn EURIPIDES (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Nauplius the Fire Maker Nauplios Purkaeus
Modern Title Ancient Title
Nausicaa or Women Washing Nausikaa or Pluntriai
ALCESTIS ALKESTIS
Clothes (satyr?)
ANDROMACHE ANDROMACHÊ
Niobe Niobê
BACCHAE BAKCHAI
Odysseus Wounded by the Spine Odusseus Akanthoplêx
CHILDREN OF HERACLES HERAKLEIDAI
Odysseus’ Madness Odusseus Mainomenos
CYCLOPS (SATYR) KUKLÔPS
Oedipus at Colonus Oidipous epi Kolônôi
ELECTRA ÊLEKTRA
Oedipus Tyrannus Oidipous Tyrannos
Oeneus (satyr?) Oineus HECABE HÊKABÊ
Oenomaus Oinomaos HELEN HELENÊ
Pandora (satyr?) Pandôra HERACLES HÊRAKLÊS
Phaeacians Phaiakes HIPPOLYTUS B HIPPOLUTOS B
Phaedra Phaidra ION IÔN
Philoctetes Philoktêtês IPHIGENIA AT TAURIS IPHIGENEIA HÊ EN
Philoctetes at Troy Philoktêtês en Troiai TAUROIS
Phineus A Phineus A IPHIGENIA IN AULIS IPHIGENEIA HÊ EN
Phineus B Phineus B AULIDI
Phoenix (or Dolopians) Phoinix (or Dolopians) MEDEA MÊDEIA
Phrixus Phrixos ORESTES ORESTÊS
Phrygians Phruges PHOENICIAN WOMEN PHOINISSAI
Prophets or Polyidus Manteis or Poluidos RHESUS? RHÊSOS?
Salmoneus (satyr) Salmôneus SUPPLIANT WOMEN HIKETIDES
Satyrs at Taenarum (satyr) Epi Tainaroi Saturoi TROJAN WOMEN TRÔIADES
Scythians Skuthai Aegeus Aigeus
Shepherds Poimenes Aeolus Aiolos
Sons of Aleus Aleadai Alcmena Alcmêenê
Sons of Antenor Antenoridai Alcmeon at Psophis Alcmeôn dia Psôphidos
Telephus, Telepheia Têlephos, Têlepheia Alexander Alexandros
Tereus Têreus Alope Alopê
Thamyras Thamuras Andromeda Andromeda
Theseus Thêseus Antigone Antigonê
Those Who Dine Together Sundeipnoi Antiope Antiopê
(satyr?) Archelaus Archelaos
Thyestes A Thuestês A Auge Augê
Thyestes B Thuestês B Autolycus (satyr) Autolukos
596 APPENDIX I

Bellerophon Bellerophontês SENECA [LUCIUS ANNAEUS

Busiris (satyr) Bousiris
Cadmus Kadmos SENECA] (LATIN; TRAGEDY)
Chrysippus Chrusippos Modern Title Ancient Title
Cresphontes Kresphontês AGAMEMNON AGAMEMNON
Cretans Krêtês HERCULES’ MADNESS HERCULES FURENS
Cretan Women Krêssai HERCULES ON OETA? HERCULES OETAEUS?
Danae Danaê HIPPOLYTUS or PHAEDRA HIPPOLYTUS or
Daughters of Pelias Peliades PHAEDRA
Dictys Diktus MEDEA MEDEA
Epeus Epeios OCTAVIA? OCTAVIA?
Erechtheus Erechtheus OEDIPUS OEDIPUS
Eurystheus (satyr) Eurustheus Saturikos THYESTES THYESTES
Hippolytus A Hippolutos A TROJAN WOMEN TROADES
Hypsipyle Hupsipulê Phoenician Women Phoenissae1
Ino Inô
Ixion Ixiôn
Lamia (satyr) Lamia
ARISTOPHANES
Licymnius Likumnios (GREEK; COMEDY)
Melanippe the Prisoner Melanippê Hê Desmotis Modern Title Ancient Title
Melanippe the Wise Melanippê Hê Sophê ACHARNIANS ACHARNÊS
Meleager Meleagros BIRDS ORNITHES
Mysians Musoi CLOUDS B NEPHELAI B
Oedipus Oidipous FROGS BATRACHOI
Oenomaus Oinomaos KNIGHTS HIPPEIS
Palamedes Palamêdês LYSISTRATA LUSISTRATA
Peirithous Peirithous PEACE A EIRÊNÊ A
Peleus Pêleus WASPS SPHÊKES
Phaethon Phaethôn WEALTH B PLOUTOS B
Philoctetes Philoktêtês WOMEN AT THE THESMOPHORIAZUSAI A
Phoenix Phoinix THESMOPHORIA A
Phrixus Phrixos WOMEN IN ASSEMBLY EKKLESIAZUSAI
Pleisthenes Pleisthenês Aeolus as Sicon Aiolosikôn
Polyidus Poluidos Amphiaraus Amphiareôs
Protesilaus Prôtesilaos Anagyrus Anaguros
Reapers (satyr) Theristai Apparel? Skeuai
Rhadamanthys Rhadamanthus Babylonians Babulônioi
Sciron (satyr) Skirôn Banqueters Daitalês
Scylla Skulla Boilers Tagênistai
Scyrians Skurioi Clouds A Nephelai A
Sisyphus (satyr) Sisuphos Cocalus Kôkalos
Stheneboea Stheneboia Daedalus Daidalos
Syleus (satyr) Suleus Saturikos Danaides Danaides
Telephus Têlephos Dramas or Centaur Dramata or Kentauros
Temenos Têmenos Dramas or Niobos Dramata or Niobos
Teminidae Têmenidai Farmers Geôrgoi
Tennes Tennês Gerytades Gêrutadês
Theseus Thêseus Heroes Hêrôes
Thyestes Thuestês About half of this play has survived.
1
 APPENDIX I 597

Islands Nêsoi False Accuser Katapseudomenos

Old Age Gêras Farmer Georgos
Peace B Eirênê B Fishermen Halieis
Phoenician Women Phoinissai Flatterer Kolax
Poetry Poiêsis Flute Girl Aulêtris
Polyidus Poluidos Ghost Phasma
Preview Proagôn Groom Hippokomos
Seasons Hôrai Guardian Spirit Heros
Seat Stealers Skênas Katalambanousai Half Brothers Homopatrioi
Storks Pelargoi Hated Man Misoumenos
Telemessians Telemêssês Headdress Kekruphalos
Traders Olkades Heiress Epiklêros
Triple Phallus Triphalês Hymnis Humnis
Twice Shipwrecked Dis Nauagos Imbrians Imbrioi
Wealth A Ploutos A Ladies at Lunch Sunaristôsai
Women at the Thesmophoriazusai B Lawgiver Nomothetês
Thesmophoria B Lyre Player Kitharistês
Women of Lemnos Lêmniai Man from Sicyon Sikuônios
Man Woman or Cretan Androgunos or Krês
Misogynist Misogunês
MENANDER (GREEK; COMEDY) Mistruster Apistos
Modern Title Ancient Title Necklace Plokion
ARBITRATION EPITREPONTES Noise-Shy Man Psophodeês
BAD-TEMPERED MAN DUSKOLOS Once Married Progamôn or Progamoi
WOMAN OF SAMOS SAMIA Peplos Bearer Arrêphoros
Accuser Proenkalôn Phanion Phanion
Anger Orgê Pilots Kubernêtai
Basket Bearer Kanêphoros Pretend Heracles Pseudêraklês
Beggar Priest Mênagurtês Priestess Hiereia
Boeotian Woman Boiôtia Promiser Epangelomenos
Bridal Manager Dêmiourgos Recruiting Officer Xenologos
Brothers A Adelphoi A Ring Daktulios
Brothers B Adelphoi B Self-Pitier Hauton Penthôn
Brothers in Love Philadelphoi Self-Tormentor Heauton Timôroumenos
Captain Nauklêros Sex Aphrodisia
Carian Wailing Woman Karinê Shield Aspis
Carthaginian Karchêdonios Slapped Woman Rhapizomenê
Charioteer Hêniochos Slave Paidion
Concubine Pallakê Smiths’ Festival Chalkeia
Cousins Anepsioi Soldiers Stratiôtai
Dagger Encheiridion Superstitious Man Deisidaimôn
Dardanus Dardanos Suppositious Baby Hupobolimaios
Deposit Parakatathêkê Thais Thais
Doorman Thurôros Those Offered for Sale Pôloumenoi
Double Deceiver Dis Exapatôn Thrasuleon Thrasuleôn
Drunkenness Methê Treasure Thêsauros
Entrusted Woman Anatithemenê Trophonius Trophônios
Ephesian Ephesios Twin Women Didumai
Eunuch Eunouchos Urn Hudria
598 APPENDIX I

Wet-Nurse Titthê Bagatelle Frivolaria

Widow Chêra Blind Man or Bandits Caecus or Praedones
Woman in Flames Empimpramenê Bondman Addictus
Woman of Andros Andria Bucket Cleaner Sitellitergus
Woman of Chalcis Chalkis Cesistio? Cesistio?
Woman of Cnidus Knidia Charcoal Woman Carbonaria
Woman of Leucas Leukadia Epidicus Epidicus
Woman of Olynthus Olunthia Flatterer Colax
Woman of Perinthus Perinthia Fugitives Fugitivi
Woman of Thessaly Thettalê Glutton Phago
Woman Possessed by a Divinity Theophoroumenê Lazy Parasite Parasitus Piger
Woman Who Was Shorn Perikeiromenê Lipargus Lipargus
Woman with Two Lovers Sunerôsa Little Crow Cornicula
Women Dosed with Hemlock Kôneiazomenai Little Garden Hortulus
Young Comrades Sunephêboi Little Ring Condalium
Male Triplets Trigemini
Pack Saddle Astraba
PLAUTUS (LATIN; COMEDY) Parasite Doctor Parasitus Medicus
Modern Title Ancient Title Plocinus Plocinus
AMPHITRUO AMPHITRUO Rustic Agroecus
BRAGGART WARRIOR MILES GLORIOSUS Saturio Saturio
CAPTIVES CAPTIVI Schematicus (Pertaining to Phrases?) Schematicus
CARTHAGINIAN POENULUS Small Shoe Calceolus
CASINA CASINA Strait Fretum
CASKET COMEDY CISTELLARIA Tale of a Traveling Bag Vidularia
COMEDY OF ASSES ASINARIA Tale of the Cords? Nervolaria
CURCULIO CURCULIO Those Dying Together Commorientes
EPIDICUS EPIDICUS Twin Pimps Lenones Gemini
HAUNTED HOUSE MOSTELLARIA Woman Moneylender Faeneratrix
MERCHANT MERCATOR Woman of Boeotia Boeotia
PERSIAN (WOMAN) PERSA
POT OF GOLD AULULARIA TERENCE [PUBLIUS
PSEUDOLUS PSEUDOLUS
ROPE RUDENS
TERENTIUS AFER]
STICHUS STICHUS (LATIN; COMEDY)
THREE DOLLAR DAY TRINUMMUS Modern Title Ancient Title
TRUCULENTUS TRUCULENTUS BROTHERS ADELPHOE
TWO BACCHISES BACCHIDES EUNUCH EUNUCHUS
TWO MENAECHMUSES MENAECHMI MOTHER-IN-LAW HECYRA
Acharistio Acharistio PHORMIO PHORMIO
Artemo Artemo SELF-TORMENTOR HEAUTON
Bacaria Bacaria TIMOROUMENOS
Bad-Tempered Man Dyscolus WOMAN OF ANDROS ANDRIA
 APPENDIX II
CD
LIST OF CLASSICAL CAPITAL LETTERS. The presence of a question mark (?)
indicates that some doubt exists regarding the author’s name
PLAYWRIGHTS or the time in which he wrote.
Authors who have a play or mime that survives in complete
form or substantially complete form have been marked in

Author Name Language Genre(s) Date

Accius, Lucius Latin Tragedy 170–ca. 86 B.C.E.
Fabulae praetextae
Acestor Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Achaeus of Eretria Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Achaeus of Syracus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Aeantides Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Aelius Amphichares, Greek Tragedy second century C.E.
Publius of Athens
Aelius Lamia? Latin Fabulae togatae first century B.C.E.–first century C.E.?
Aemilius Hymettus, Marcus Greek Tragedy second century C.E.
Aemilius Scaurus, Mamercus Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.–first century C.E.
Aemilius Severianus Latin Mime Uncertain
Tarraconensis
Aeschylus of Alexandria Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.?
AESCHYLUS of Athens Greek Tragedy 525/4–456/5 B.C.E.
Afranius, Lucius Latin Fabulae togatae active 160–120 B.C.E.
Agathon Greek Tragedy ca. 450–400 B.C.E.
Agathenor Greek Comedy first century B.C.E.
Agathocles Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Alcaeus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Alcimenes of Athens Greek Comedy Uncertain
Alcimenes of Megara Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest reference 10th century C.E.)
Alexander Greek Comedy first century B.C.E.
Alexander of Aetolia Greek Tragedy fourth–third century B.C.E.
Alexander of Tanagra Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Alexis Greek Comedy ca. 375–275 B.C.E.
(continues)
599
600 APPENDIX II

(continued)
Author Name Language Genre(s) Date
Aminias Greek Comedy fourth–third century B.C.E.
Amipsias Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Amphichares Greek Comedy second century C.E.
Aminias of Thebes Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Amymon Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Anaxandrides Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Anaxilas Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Anaxion of Mytilene Greek Tragedy Uncertain
Anaxippus Greek Comedy fourth–third century B.C.E.
Annaeus Lucanus, Marcus Latin Tragedy 39–65 C.E.
Antheas Greek Comedy Uncertain (earliest reference second–third
century C.E.)
Antidotus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Antigenes? Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Antiochus Greek Comedy second century C.E.
Antiochus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Antiphanes Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Antiphanes II Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Antiphanes of Carystos Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest reference tenth century C.E.)
Antiphilus? Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Antiphon Greek Tragedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Anubion Greek Comedy second century C.E.
Aphareus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Apollinaris Greek Comedy fourth century C.E.
Apollinaris Greek Tragedy fourth century C.E.
Apollodorus Carystius Greek Comedy fourth–third century B.C.E.
Apollodorus of Gela (perhaps same Greek Comedy fourth–third century B.C.E.
as Apollodorus of Carystos)
Apollodorus of Tarsus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Apollonides Greek Tragedy third–second century B.C.E.
Apollonius Aspendius Greek Tragedy second century C.E.
Apollonius Greek Comedy Uncertain
Apollonius Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Apollophanes Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Aprissius Latin Fabulae atellanae second–first century B.C.E.
Aquilius Latin Fabulae palliatae second century B.C.E.
Araros (son of Aristophanes) Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Arcesilaus Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Archedicus Greek Comedy fourth–third century B.C.E.
Archenomus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Archestratus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Archippus Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Archytas? Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Ariphron Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Aristaenetus? Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Aristagoras Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.?
Aristarchus of Tegea Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Aristias Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Aristides Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Aristius Fuscus Latin Fabulae palliatae first century B.C.E.
Aristocles? Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Aristocrates Greek Comedy third or second century B.C.E.
 APPENDIX II 601

Author Name Language Genre(s) Date

Aristocrates? Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Aristomenes of Athens Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Aristomenes Greek Comedy fifth–fourth B.C.E.
Ariston I Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Ariston II Greek Comedy first century B.C.E.
Ariston III Greek Comedy first century B.C.E.
Ariston (son of Menelaus) Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Aristonymus Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
ARISTOPHANES of Athens Greek Comedy ca. 450–385 B.C.E.
Aristophon Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Artabazes Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Artemon of Athens Greek Tragedy second century C.E.
Asclepiades I Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Asclepiades II Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Asinius Pollio, Gaius Latin/Greek Tragedy 76 B.C.E.–4 C.E.
Astydamas I Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Astydamas II Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Astydamas III Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Athenias of Anthedon Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Athenio Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Athenodorus? or Zenodorus? Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
or Menodorus?
Atilius Latin Tragedy second century B.C.E.?
Fabulae palliatae
Atta, Titus Quinctius Latin Fabulae togatae second century B.C.E.–first century B.C.E.
Atticus Latin Mime first century C.E.?
Augeas of Athens Greek Comedy Uncertain (earliest reference second–third
century C.E.)
Augustus (Caesar Latin Tragedy 63 B.C.E.–14 C.E.
Octavianus Augustus)
Autocrates Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Axionicus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Bassus Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.–first century C.E.?
Baton Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Bion Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest reference third century C.E.)
Biottus Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Biotus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.?
Blaesus of Capri Greek Comedy second or first century B.C.E.?
Caecilius Statius Latin Fabulae palliatae died 168 B.C.E.
Caerius Greek Tragedy fourth B.C.E.
Callias Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Callicrates Greek Comedy Uncertain (earliest reference second–third
century C.E.)
Callippus? of Athens Greek Comedy Uncertain (earliest reference second–third
century C.E.)
Callipus of Thebes Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Callistratus Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Canius Rufus Latin Tragedy first century C.E.–second century C.E.?
Cantharus Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Carcinus (son of Xenotimus) Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Carcinus the Younger Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
(son of Xenocles)
(continues)
602 APPENDIX II

(continued)
Author Name Language Genre(s) Date
Cassius Parmensis Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Catullus Latin Mime first century C.E.
Cephisodorus Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Chaeremon Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Chaerion Greek Comedy Uncertain
Chariclides Greek Comedy Uncertain (earliest reference second–third
century C.E.)
Chionides Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Choerilus of Athens Greek Tragedy sixth–fifth century B.C.E.
Cleaenetus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Clearchus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Cleophon of Athens Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Clitus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Clodius, Quintipor Latin Fabulae palliatae second century B.C.E.?
Cordus Latin Tragedy first century C.E.–second century C.E.?
Cornelius Balbus, Lucius Latin Fabulae praetextae first century B.C.E.
Cornelius Sulla, Lucius Latin Fabulae atellanae second century B.C.E.–first century B.C.E.
Crates of Athens Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Crates Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Cratinus Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Cratinus Junior Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Critias of Athens Greek Tragedy ca. 460–403 B.C.E.
Crito Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Crobylus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Damoxenus Greek Comedy fourth or third century B.C.E.
Datis Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Demetrius Greek Comedy fifth or fourth century B.C.E.
Demetrius Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.?
Demetrius Junior Greek Comedy fourth or third century B.C.E.
Demetrius of Tarsus Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest reference third century C.E.)
Democrates of Sicyon Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Demonax Greek Tragedy? Uncertain (earliest reference 5th century C.E.)
Demonicus Greek Comedy fifth or fourth century B.C.E.?
Demophilus Greek Comedy third–fourth century B.C.E.
Dexicrates Greek Comedy fourth or third century B.C.E.?
Dicaeogenes Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Dieuches Greek Comedy first century B.C.E.
Dinolochus Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Diocles Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Diodorus of Sinope Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Diogenes of Athens Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Diogenes of Sinope Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Diogenes of Thebes Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Diogenes Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Dionysius of Tarsus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Diognetus Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Diomedes Greek Comedy second or first century B.C.E.
Dionysiades Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Dionysius of Anaphlystus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Dionysius of Athens Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Dionysius of Cyprus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Dionysius of Heraclea Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
 APPENDIX II 603

Author Name Language Genre(s) Date

Dionysius Scymnaeus Greek Tragedy Uncertain
Dionysius of Sicily Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Dionysius of Sinope Greek Comedy fifth or fourth century B.C.E.
Dionysius II Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Dionysius III Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Diophantus Greek Comedy Uncertain
Dioxippus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.?
Diphilus of Sinope Greek Comedy ca. 360–ca. 300 B.C.E.
Dorillus or Dorilaus Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Dorotheus of Chalcis Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Dromo Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Dymas Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Euaretus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Ecphantides Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Emmenides? Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Empedocles Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Ennius, Quintus Latin Tragedy 239–169 B.C.E.
Fabulae praetextae
Fabulae palliatae
Ephippus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Epicharmus of Syracuse Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Epicrates I Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Epicrates II? Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Epigenes Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Epilycus Greek Comedy fifth or fourth century B.C.E.?
Epinicus Greek Comedy third or second century B.C.E.
Eriphus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Euaeon (son of Aeschylus) Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Euages Greek Comedy uncertain
Euandridas Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Euangelus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E. (after)
Euaretus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Eubulides I Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.?
Eubulides Il? Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Eubulus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Eudoxus Greek Comedy fourth–third century B.C.E.?
Euetes Greek Comedy uncertain
Euetes Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Eumedes Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E. (after?)
Eunicus Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Euphanes Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Euphantus Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Euphorion (son of Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Aeschylus)
Euphron Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Euphronius Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Euphonius? Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Eupolis Greek Comedy died. ca. 411 or 410 B.C.E.
Euripides I Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Euripides II Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
EURIPIDES III (son of Mnesarchus) Greek Tragedy ca. 484–406 B.C.E.
Euthias Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
(continues)
604 APPENDIX II

(continued)
Author Name Language Genre(s) Date
Euthycles Greek Comedy fifth or fourth century B.C.E.?
Euthycrates? Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Euxenides Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Ezechiel Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.?
Faustus Latin Tragedy first century C.E.?
Fundanius Latin Fabulae palliatae first century B.C.E.
Gnesippus Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Gorgippus of Chalcis Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Gracchus Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.?
Harmodius of Tarsus Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Hegemon Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Hegesippus Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Heliodorus of Athens Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E. (before)
Heniochus of Athens Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Heraclides of Athens Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Heraclides Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Heraclides? Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Heraclitus? Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Hermippus of Athens Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Hermocrates of Miletus Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Herodas or Herondas Greek Mime third century B.C.E.
Hipparchus Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Hippias Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Hippothoon? or Hippothous? Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest reference fifth century C.E.)
Hieronymus Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Homerus Greek Tragedy third century C.E.
Hostilius Latin Mime first century C.E.?
Iolaus Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Ion Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Ion of Chios Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Iophon Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Isagoras Greek Tragedy second century C.E.
Isidorus Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest reference fifth century C.E.)
Iuventius Latin Fabulae palliatae second century B.C.E.?
Julius Caesar Strabo, Gaius Latin Tragedy second century B.C.E.–first century B.C.E.
Julius Caesar, Gaius Latin Tragedy 100–44 B.C.E.
Julius Caesar, Germanicus Greek Comedy 16 or 15 B.C.E.–19 C.E.
Julius Longianus, Gaius Greek Tragedy second century C.E.
Julius Magnus, Gaius Greek Tragedy first century C.E.
Laberius, Decimus Latin Mime second–first century B.C.E.
Laines Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Lampytus Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Laon Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.?
Lentulus Latin Mime first century C.E.?
Leuco Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Licinius Imbrex Latin Fabulae palliatae second century B.C.E.?
Livius Andronicus, Lucius Latin Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Fabulae palliatae
Lucilius Latin Mime first century C.E.?
Lucius Varius Rufus Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.–first century C.E.?
Luscius Lanuvius Latin Fabulae palliatae second century B.C.E.
Lycis Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
 APPENDIX II 605

Author Name Language Genre(s) Date

Lycophron Greek Tragedy fourth–third century B.C.E.
Lynceus Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.?
Lynceus of Samos Greek Comedy fourth or third century B.C.E.
Lysimachus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Lysippus Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Lysistratus of Chalcis Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Machon Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Maecenas Melissus, Gaius Latin Fabulae trabeatae first century B.C.E.–first century C.E.
Magnes Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Mamercus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Marius Antiochus, Lucius Greek Tragedy second century C.E.
of Corinth
Marullus Latin Mime first century B.C.E.–first century C.E.?
Maternus, Curiatus Latin Tragedy first century C.E.
Fabulae praetextae
Melanthius of Athens Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Melanthius of Rhodes Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Meletus I Greek Tragedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Meletus II Greek Tragedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Meliton Greek Tragedy first century C.E.
Memor, Scaevus Latin Tragedy first century C.E.–second century C.E.
MENANDER of Athens Greek Comedy 344/3–392/1 B.C.E.
Menecrates Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E. (after)
Menelaus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Menippus? Greek Comedy Uncertain
Mesatus Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Metagenes Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Miletus Greek Tragedy first century C.E.
Mimnermus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E. (before?)
Mnesimachus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Morsimus of Athens Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Morychus Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Moschion Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Moschus Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Mummius Latin Fabulae atellanae first century B.C.E.
Myrtilus Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Naevius, Gnaeus Latin Tragedy died 201 B.C.E.
Fabulae praetextae
Fabulae palliatae
Nausicrates Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Neophron Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Nico Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E. (after)
Nicochares Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Nicolaus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.?
Nicolaus of Damascus Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Nicomachus Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Nicomachus of Alexandria Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
(in the Troad)
Nicomachus of Athens Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Nicophon of Athens Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Nicostratus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Nothippus Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Novius Latin Fabulae atellanae first century B.C.E.
(continues)
606 APPENDIX II

(continued)
Author Name Language Genre(s) Date
Oenomaus of Gadaris Greek Tragedy second century C.E.
Ophelio Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) Latin Tragedy 43 B.C.E.–17 C.E.
Paccius Latin Tragedy first century C.E.?
Pacuvius, Marcus Latin Tragedy ca. 220–ca. 130 B.C.E.
Fabulae praetextae
Pamphilus of Athens Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Paramonus Greek Comedy Uncertain
Patrocles of Athens Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Patrocles of Thuria Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Persius Flaccus, Aulus Latin Fabulae praetextae 34–62 C.E.
Phaenippus Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Phanes Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Phanostratus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Pharadas of Athens Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Pherecrates Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Philemon of Syracuse Greek Comedy 368/60–267/63 B.C.E.
Philemon the Younger Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Philetaerus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Philinus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Philippides Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Philippus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Philiscus of Aegina Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Philiscus of Corcyra Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Philiscus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.?
Philocles I Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Philocles II Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Philocles Greek Comedy Uncertain
Philonides Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Philostephanus Greek Comedy Uncertain (earliest reference second–third
century C.E.)
Philostratus of Lemnos Greek Tragedy second century C.E.
Philoxenides Oropius Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Philyllius Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Phoenicides Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Phormis (or Phormus) Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.?
Phrynichus II of Athens Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest reference 10th century C.E.)
Phrynichus of Athens Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Phrynichus of Athens Greek Tragedy sixth–fifth century B.C.E.
Plato Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Plato of Athens Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Plautius Latin Fabulae palliatae second century B.C.E.?
PLAUTUS, Titus Maccius Latin Fabulae palliatae ca. 254–184 B.C.E.
Pliny the Younger Greek Tragedy ca. 61–ca.112 C.E.
Polemaeus of Ephesus Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Polemon Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Poliochus Greek Comedy fifth or third century B.C.E.
Polychares Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Polyidus? of Selymbria Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Polyphrasmon Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Polyzelus Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Pompeius Capito Greek Tragedy first century C.E.
 APPENDIX II 607

Author Name Language Genre(s) Date

Pompeius Macer, Gnaeus Greek Tragedy first century C.E.
Pompilius Latin Tragedy second or first century B.C.E.?
Pomponius Bassulus, Marcus Latin Fabulae palliatae first century C.E.–second century C.E.?
Pomponius Bononiensis, Lucius Latin Fabulae atellanae second century B.C.E.–first
century B.C.E.
Pomponius Secundus, Publius Latin Tragedy first century C.E.
Fabulae praetextae
Posidippus Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Pratinas of Phlius Greek Tragedy sixth–fifth century B.C.E.
Protarchus of Thebes Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Ptolomaeus IV Philopator Greek Tragedy ca. 244–205 B.C.E.
Publius Romanus Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Publilius Syrus Latin Mime first century B.C.E.
Pupius, Publius Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Pythangelus Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Python Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Rhinthon (or Rhinton) of Syracuse Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Rubrenus Lappa Latin Tragedy first century C.E.?
Rufus, Antonius? Latin Fabulae togatae first century B.C.E.–first century C.E.?
Sannyrion Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Santra Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Sciras Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Sclerias? Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest reference fifth century C.E.)
SENECA, Lucius Annaeus Latin Tragedy ca. 4 B.C.E.–65 C.E.
Serapion Greek Tragedy first century C.E.
Silenus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Simylus Greek Comedy fourth or third century B.C.E.
Sogenes Greek Comedy Uncertain
Sopater of Paphos Greek Comedy fourth–third century B.C.E.
Sophilus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.?
SOPHOCLES I Greek Tragedy ca. 496–406 B.C.E.
Sophocles II Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Sophocles III Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Sophron Greek Mime fifth century B.C.E.
Sosicrates Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.?
Sosipater Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.?
Sosiphanes I Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Sosiphanes II Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Sosistratus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Sositheus Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Sostratus of Chalcis Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Sotades Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Spintharus of Heraclea Greek Tragedy fifth or fourth century B.C.E.
Stephanus Greek Comedy fourth–third century B.C.E.
Sthenelus Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Straton Greek Comedy fourth or third century B.C.E.
Strattis of Athens Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Susarion of Megara Greek Comedy sixth or fifth century B.C.E.
Synesius of Cyrene Greek Tragedy fifth century C.E.
Teleclides Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
TERENCE (Publius Terentius Afer) Latin Fabulae palliatae ca. 190–159 B.C.E.
Theaetetus? Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
(continues)
608 APPENDIX II

(continued)
Author Name Language Genre(s) Date
Theodectas of Phaselis Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Theodorides Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Theodorus Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Theognetus Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.?
Theognis Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Theophilus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Theopompus Greek Comedy fifth–fourth century B.C.E.
Thespis of Athens Greek Tragedy ca. 550–500 B.C.E.
Theudotus? Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Thrasycles of Athens Greek Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Thugenides Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Thymoteles? Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
Tiberius Claudius Alexander Greek Tragedy third century C.E.
of Laodicea
Timesitheus Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest citation tenth century C.E.)
Timocles Greek Comedy/tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Timon Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Timon Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Timostratus of Athens Greek Comedy second century B.C.E.
Timostratus Greek Tragedy fourth century B.C.E.
Timotheus of Athens Greek Comedy fourth or third century B.C.E.?
Timotheus of Gaza Greek Tragedy fifth century C.E.
Timoxenus Greek Comedy Uncertain
Titinius Latin Fabulae togatae second century B.C.E.
Titius, Gaius Latin Tragedy second or first century B.C.E.
Trabea Latin Fabulae palliatae third–second century B.C.E.?
Tullius Cicero, Quintus Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.
Turpilius, Sextus Latin Fabulae palliatae second century B.C.E.
Turranius Latin Tragedy first century B.C.E.–first century C.E.?
Valerius Latin Mime first century B.C.E.?
Varro Latin Tragedy first century C.E.?
Vatronius Latin Fabulae palliatae second century B.C.E.?
Vergilius Romanus Latin Fabulae palliatae first–second century C.E.?
Vespasianus, Titus Flavius Greek Tragedy 9–79 C.E.
Volnius Latin Tragedy second century B.C.E.?
Xenarchus Greek Comedy fourth century B.C.E.
Xeno Greek Comedy third century B.C.E.
Xenocles Greek Tragedy fifth century B.C.E.
Xenocrates Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.
Xenophilus Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Xenophon Greek Comedy fifth century B.C.E.
Zenodotus Greek Tragedy Uncertain (earliest reference fifth century C.E.)
Zopyrus Greek Tragedy third century B.C.E.?
Zotion Greek Tragedy second century B.C.E.
 APPENDIX III
CD
LIST OF ALL TITLES Amphitryon
Andromeda
Amphitryon
Andromeda
ATTRIBUTED TO Antigone Antigona
CLASSICAL PLAYWRIGHTS Astyanax
Athamas
Astyanax
Athamas
The following is a list, organized by playwright, of all frag- Atreus Atreus
Bacchae Bacchae
mentary or nonsurviving plays whose titles can be identified.
Battle at the Ships Epinausimache
The presence of a question mark (?) indicates some doubt
Chrysippus Chrysippus
about the spelling of the author’s name, translation of the Clytemnestra Clytemnestra
work’s title, or the name of the work. In some cases, play- Deiphobus Deiphobus
wrights produced more than one version of a play. Such Diomedes Diomedes
instances are accompanied by a letter of the alphabet (e.g., Epigoni Epigoni
Hippolytus A, Hippolytus B). Erigone Erigona
Eriphyle Eriphyla
Eurysaces Eurysaces
ACCIUS, LUCIUS Hecuba Hecuba
(LATIN; FABULA PRAETEXTA) Hellenes Hellenes
Translation Ancient Title Io Io
Aeneadae or Decius Aeneadae or Decius Judgment of Arms Armorum Iudicium
Medea Medea
Brutus Brutus
Melanippus Melanippus
Meleager Meleager
ACCIUS, LUCIUS Minos or Minotaur Minos or Minotaurus
(LATIN; TRAGEDY) Myrmidons Myrmidons
Neoptolemus Neoptolemus
Translation Ancient Title Night Alarm Nyctegresia
Achilles Achilles Oenomaus Oenomaus
Aegisthus Aegisthus Philoctetes Philocteta
Agamemnon’s Children Agamemnonidae Phoenician Women Phoenissae
Alcestis Alcestis Prometheus Prometheus
Alcmaeon Alcimeo Rebels or Trophy of Bacchus Stasiastae or Tropaeum
Alphesiboea Alphesiboea Liberi

609
610 APPENDIX III

Sons of Antenor Antenoridae Crime? Crimen

Sons of Pelops Pelopidae Deposit Depositum
Sons of Perseus Persidae Divorce Divortium
Sons of Phineus Phinidae Divorced Man Repudiatus
Tale of Thebes Thebais Enemies Inimici
Telephus Telephus Filth Purgamentum
Tereus Tereus Fire Incendium
Trojan Women Troades Freedman Libertus
Just Alike Aequales
Letter Epistula
ACHAEUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Maiden Virgo
Translation Ancient Title Man Who Curled Hair Cinerarius
Adrastus Adrastos Man Who Was Emancipated Emancipatus
Aethon (satyr) Aithôn Saturikos Man Who Was Excepted? Exceptus
Alcmeon (satyr) Alkmeôn Saturikos Married Couple Mariti
Alphesiboea Alphesiboia Maternal Aunts Materterae
Attack (of disease) Katapeira Megalensia Megalensia
Cycnus Kuknos Notice of Sale Titulus
Erginus Erginos? Omen Omen
Fates (satyr) Moirai (Saturoi) Pantelius Pantelius
Games (satyr) Athla or Athloi (Saturoi) Pretender Simulans
Hephaestus (satyr) Hêphaistos Saturikos Procession Pompa
Iris (satyr) Iris Saturoi Prodigal Prodigus
Linus (satyr) Linos Saturikos Prosa? Prosa?
Retaliation Talio
Momus Mômos
Seat Sella
Oedipus Oidipous
Sisters Sorores
Omphale (satyr) Omphalê Saturikê
Sisters-in-Law Fratriae
Peirithous Peirithous
Stepson Privignus
People of Zan Azanes
Steward Promus
Philoctetes Philoktêtês
Surrender Deditio
Phrixus Phrixos
Surviving Twin Vopiscus
Theseus Thêseus
Thais Thais
Thoughtless Man Temerarius
AESCHYLUS OF ALEXANDRIA Woman of Brundisium Brundisiae
Woman Who Was Abducted Abducta
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Woman Who Was Suspected Suspecta
Translation Ancient Title
Amphitryon Amphitruôn
AGATHENOR
(GREEK; COMEDY)
AFRANIUS, LUCIUS Translation Ancient Title
(LATIN; FABULA TOGATA) Woman of Miletus Milêsia
Translation Ancient Title
Auction Auctio AGATHOCLES
Augur Augur
Betrayed Man Proditus
(GREEK; COMEDY)
Compitalia Compitalia Translation Ancient Title
Cousins Consobrini Unity Homonoia
 APPENDIX III 611

AGATHON (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Altar Bômos

Anteia Anteia
Translation Ancient Title Archilochus Archilochos
Aerope Aeropê Asclepiocleides Asklêpiokleidês
Alcmeon Alkmeôn Atalanta Atalantê
Flower Anthos or Antheus Attis Atthis
Mysians Musoi Baskets Sôrakoi
Telephus Têlephos Brothers Adelphoi
Thyestes Thuestês Captive Aichmalôtos
Carthaginian Karchêdonios
ALCAEUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Cauldron Lebês
Cithara Player Kitharôidos
Translation Ancient Title Cleobouline Kleoboulinê
Adulterous Sisters Adelphai Concubine Pallakê
Moicheuomenai Crateias or Druggist Krateuas or
Callisto Kallistô Pharmakopôlês
Endymion Endumiôn Cup Maker Ekpômatopoios
Ganymede Ganumêdês Cycnus Kuknos
Pasiphae Pasiphaê Cyprian Kuprios
Sacred Marriage Hieros Gamos Dancing Girl Orchêstris
Seriocomedy Kômôidotragôidia Demetrius or True Friend Dêmêtrios or Philetairos
Wrestling School Palaistra Dominion of Women Gunaikokratia
Dorcis or Woman Who Smacks Dorkis or Poppuzousa
ALCIMENES (GREEK; COMEDY) Dropides Drôpidês
Epidaurian Epidaurios
Translation Ancient Title
Eretrian Eretrikos
Women Diving Kolumbôsai
Fair Measure Isostasion
Female Athletic Trainer Aleiptria
ALEXANDER Female Follower of Pythagoras Puthagorizousa
(GREEK; COMEDY) First Chorus Prôtochoros
Fugitive Phugas
Translation Ancient Title Galatea Galateia
Cicada Titigonion Gamblers Kubeutai
Dionysus Dionusos Garment with Tassels Kalasiris
Drinking Bout Potos Goatherds Aipoloi
Goatherds Aipoloi God-Possessed Theophorêtos
Helen Helenê Guardian Epitropos
Tigonion? Tigonion Hairdresser Kouris
Harvest Season Opôra
ALEXANDER Healing Iasis
Heiress Epiklêros
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Helen Helenê
Translation Ancient Title Helen’s Abduction Helenês Harpagê
Dice Players Astragalistai? Helen’s Suitors Helenês Mnêstêres
Helmsman Kubernêtês
Hesione Hêsionê
ALEXIS (GREEK; COMEDY) Knight Hippeus
Translation Ancient Title Laborers Thêteuontes
Aesop Aisôpos Letter Epistolê
Agonis or Scarf Agônis or Hippiskos Leucadia or Runaway Girls Leukadia or Drapetai
612 APPENDIX III

Leuce Leukê Prophets Manteis

Liar Pseudomenos Raised Together Suntrophoi
Libation Bearer Spondophoros Reapers Erithoi
Linus Linos Rhodian or Woman Who Smacks Rhodion or Poppuzousa
Lock of Hair Bostruchos Ring Daktulios
Locrians Lokroi Running Mates Suntrechontes
Lovelorn Woman Ponêra Scattered (or Scattering) Before? Proskedannumenos
Lover of Athenians Philathênaios Sciron Skeirôn
Lover of Beauty or Nymphs Philokalos or Numphai Seven against Thebes Hepta Epi Thêbais
Lover of Tragedies Philotragôidos Similarity Homoia
Lyciscus Lukiskos Sleep Hupnos
Man Lighting a Fire Puraunos Soldier Stratiôtês
Man of Pontus Pontikos Suitors Mnêsthres
Man of Sicyon Sikuônios Suppositious Baby Hupobolimaios
Man Who Was a Herald? Kêruttomenos Syracusan Surakosios
Man Banished by Proclamation Ekkêruttomenos Tarentines Tarantinoi
Man Who Was Cut Loose Apokoptomenos Thebans Thêbaioi
Man Who Was Falsely Accused Katapseudomenos Those Dying Together Sunapothnêiskontes
Man With a Cataract Apeglaukômenos Thrason Thrasôn
Mandrake-Drugged Woman Mandragorizomenê Thresprotians Thesprôtoi
Meeting at Pylae Pulaia Torch Lampas
Men of Caunus Kaunioi Trick Rider Apobatês
Meropis Meropis Trophonius Trophônios
Midon Midôn True Friend Philetairos
Milcon Milkôn Twice Mourning Dis Penthôn
Miller Mulôthros Twins Didumoi or Didumai
Minos Minôs Tyndareus Tundareôs
Moneylender or Tokistês or Vigil or Reapers Pannuchis or Erithoi
Man Who Was Falsely Accused Katapseudomenos Vine Dresser Ampelourgos
New Tenant Eisoikizomenos Wet-Nurse Titthê
Noose Ankuliôn Woman in Love Philousa
Odysseus Being Washed Odusseus Aponiptomenos Woman in the Well Hê eis to phrear
Odysseus the Weaver Odusseus Huphainôn Woman of Achaea Achaiis
Olympiodorus Olumpiodôros Woman of Bruttia Brettia
Orestes Orestês Woman of Cnidus Knidia
Pail Amphôtis Woman of Hellas Hellênis
Pamphile Pamphilê Woman of Lemnos Lêmnia
Pancratiast Pankratiastês Woman of Miletus Milêsia
Parasite Parasitos Woman of Olynthus Olunthia
Pezonike Pezonikê Woman Who Plays the Pipes Aulêtris
Phaedrus Phaidros Woman Choregus Chorêgis
Phaidon or Phaidrias Phaidôn or Phaidrias Women Sailing Through Diapleousai
Philiscus Philiskos
Wounded Man Traumatias
Phrygian Phrux
Picture Graphê
Plasterer Koniatês
Poetess Poiêtria
AMINIAS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Poets Poiêtai Translation Ancient Title
Polycleia Polukleia Adulterers Moichoi
Profligacy Teacher Asôtodidaskalos Woman Leaving Her Husband Apoleipousa
 APPENDIX III 613

AMIPSIAS (GREEK; COMEDY) Basket Bearer Kanêphoros

Cities Poleis
Translation Ancient Title Dionysus’ Birth Dionusou Gonai
Connus Konnos Drill Sergeant Hoplomachos
Devourer Katesthiôn Drug Prophet Pharmakomantis
Playing at Cottabus Apokottabizontes Erechtheus Erechtheus
Revelers Kômastai Female Cithara Player Kitharistria
Sappho Sapphô Helen Helenê
Sling Sphendonê Heracles Hêraklês
Honey Clover? or Melilot? Melilôtos
AMPHIS (GREEK; COMEDY) Hubris Hubris
Hunters Kunêgetai
Translation Ancient Title Io lô
Alcmeon Alkmeôn Kerkios Kerkios
Amphicrates Amphikrtês Lycurgus Lukourgos
Athamas Athamas Man Driven Mad? Mainomenos?
Bath Balaneion Nereids Nêrêides
Brotherly Love Philadelphoi Nereus Nêreus
Callisto Kallistô Odysseus Odusseus
Deceiver Planos Old Man’s Madness Gerontomania
Dexidemides Dexidêmidês Painters or Geographers Zôgraphoi or Geôgraphoi
Dithyrambus Dithurambos Pandarus Pandaros
Dominion of Women Gunaikokratia Pious Eusebeis
Female Athletic Trainer Aleiptria Protesilaus Prôtesilaos
Gamblers Kubeutai Rustics Agroikoi
Hairdresser Kouris Satyrias Saturias
Harvest Season Opôra Seriocomedy Kômôidotragôidia
Lamentation Ialemos Sosippus Sôsippos
Leucadia or Leucas Leukadia or Leukas Tereus Têreus
Odysseus Odusseus Theseus Thêseus
Pan Pan Thessalians Thettaloi
Plasterer Koniatês Treasure Thêsauros
Reapers Erithoi Twins Didumoi
Ring Daktulios Ugly? Aischra
Sappho Sapphô Urn Carrier Phialêphoros
Seven against Thebes Hepta Epi Thêbais Woman of Samos Samia
Silly Woman Akkô Women of Locria Lokrides
True Friend Philetairos
Uranus Ouranos
Vine Dresser Ampelourgos ANAXILAS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Woman Madness Gunaikomania Translation Ancient Title
Botrulion Botruliôn
ANAXANDRIDES Calypso Kalupsô
Chick Neottis
(GREEK; COMEDY) Circe Kirkê
Translation Ancient Title Cooks Mageiroi
Achilles Achilleus Cyclops Kuklôps
Amprakiôtis Amprakiôtis Exchange? Antidosis?
Anchises Anchisês Glaucus Glaukos
Anteros Anterôn Goldsmith Chrusochoos
614 APPENDIX III

Graces Charites Arcadian Arkas

Hyacinthus Huakinthos Archestrata Archestratê
Io Iô Asclepius Asklêpios
Lyre Maker Luropoios Athamas Athamas
Manliness Euandria Augur Oiônistês
Misanthrope Monotropos Bacchae Bakchai
Nereus Nêreus Bag Kôrukos
Pimp Pornoboskos? Begetting of Men Anthrôpogonia
Player of the Pipes Aulêtês Begging Priest of Cybele Mêtragurtês
Poultry Keepers Ornithokomoi Boutalion Boutaliôn
Rich Plousioi or Plousiai Bumblebee or Gurgling Pitcher Bombulios
Rustic Man Agroikos Bursiris Bousiris
Seasons Hôrai Caeneus Kaineus
Carian Wailing Woman Karinê
ANAXION (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Carians Kares
Charioteer Hêniochos
Translation Ancient Title Chick Neottis
Persians (satyr) Persai Saturoi Cithara Player Kitharistês
Cithara Player Kitharôidos
ANAXIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Cleophanes Kleophanês
Cyclops Kuklôps
Translation Ancient Title Deucalion Deukalôn
Cithara Player Kitharôidos Doctor Iatros
Lightning or Man Who Was Keraunos or Egyptians Aiguptioi
Struck By Lightning Keraunoumenos Elimination of Money Arguriou Aphanismos
Man Who Hid His Face Enkaluptomenos Epidaurian Epidaurios
Man Who Was Sued Epidikazomenos Etruscan Turrênos
Well Phrear Euthydicus Euthudikos
Fair Voyage Euploia
ANTIDOTUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Female Athletic Trainer Aleiptria
Fuller Knapheus
Translation Ancient Title Gamblers Kubeutai
Faultfinder Mempsimoiros Ganymede Ganumêdês
First Chorus Prôtochoros Gardener Kêpouros
Similarity Homoia Glaucus Glaukos
Golden Vessel Chrusis
ANTIPHANES Gorgythus Gorguthos
(GREEK; COMEDY) Grazier Probateus
Hairdresser Kouris
Translation Ancient Title Half Brothers Homopatrioi
Adonis Adônis Hard to Sell Duspratos
Adulterers Moichoi Heiress Epiklêros
Aeolus Aiolos Homonyms Homônumoi
Alcestis Alkêstis Image Maker Koroplathos
Amorous Aphrodisios Jason Iasôn
Andromeda Andromeda Just Alike Homoioi or Homoiai
Antaeus Antaios Knave Hater Misoponêros
Anteia Anteia Knights Hippeis
Aphrodite’s Birth Aphroditês Gonai Lampon Lampôn
 APPENDIX III 615

Leonides Leônidês Rustic Man Agroikos

Little Leptines Leptiniskos Sappho Sapphô
Lover of Boys Paiderastês Scythians or Taurians Skuthai or Tauroi
Lover of Father Philopatôr Seamstress Akestria
Lover of Mother Philomêtôr Sisters Adelphai
Lover of Thebans Philothêbaios Sleep Hupnos
Lycon Lukôn Soft Woman Malthakê
Lydian Ludos Soldier or Tychon Stratiôtês or Tuchôn
Magistrate Archôn Speechless Enea
Man Killing Himself by Abstinence Apokarterôn Stepchildren Progonoi
Man Lighting a Fire? Puraunos? Stutterer Batalos
Man of Byzantium Buzantios Terrible Obrimos
Man of Cnoethe or Belly Knoithideus or Gastrôn Thamyras Thamuras
Man of Leucas Leukadios Theogony Theogonia?
Man of Phrearrus Phrearrios Timon Timôn
Man of Pontus Pontikos Torch Lampas
Man Who Loved Himself Autou Erôn True Friend Philetairos
Marriage Gamos or Gamoi Twice as Much Diplasioi
Matricide Mêtrophôn Twins Didumoi
Medea Mêdeia Unhappy Lovers Duserôtes
Melanion Melaniôn Urn Hudria
Meleager Meleagros Woman Fishing Halieuomenê
Woman Hit by a Javelin Akontizomenê
Melissa Melitta
Woman of Boeotia Boiôtia
Memorials Mnêmata
Woman of Corinth Korinthia
Midon Midôn
Woman of Delos Dêlia
Mill House Mulôn
Woman of Dodona Dôdônis
Minos Minôs
Woman of Ephesus Ephesia
Mystic Mustis
Woman Who Plays the Pipes Aulêtris or
Oenomaus or Pelops Oinomaos or Pelops
or Female Twins Didumai
Omphale Omphalê
Woman Who Was Abducted Harpazomenê
Orpheus Orpheus
Woman Wrongly Wed Parekdidomenê
Painter Zôgraphos
Women of Lemnos Lêmniai
Parasite Parasitos
Women of Tough Town Sklêriai
People of Thoricus or Digger Thorikioi or Dioruttôn Wounded Man Traumatias
Phaon Phaôn Youths Neaniskoi
Philiscus Philiskos Zacynthian Zakunthios
Philoctetes Philoktêtês
Philotis Philôtis
Player of the Pipes Aulêtês ANTIPHON (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Player Who Took the Third Part Tritagônistês Translation Ancient Title
Poetry Poiêsis Andromache Andromachê
Profligates Asôtoi Jason Iasôn
Proverbs Paroimiai Meleager Meleagros
Rescued Men Anasôizomenoi Philoctetes? Philoktôtôs?
Resident Alien Metoikos
Restorer of Runaways Drapetagôgos
Rich Men Plousioi
APHAREUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Riddle Problêma Translation Ancient Title
Rival in Love Anterôsa Auge Augê
616 APPENDIX III

Daughters of Pelias Peliades Uglier? Aischriôn

Orestes Orestês Woman Leaving Her Husband Apoleipousa

APOLLODORUS APOLLODORUS OF
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) CARYSTOS OR GELA
Translation Ancient Title (GREEK; COMEDY)
Child Murderer Teknoktonos
Hellenes Hellênes Translation Ancient Title
Odysseus Odusseus Brothers Adelphoi
Suppliant Women Hiketides Celts Galatai
Thyestes Thuestês Cithara Player Kitharôidos
Wounded by a Spine Akanthoplêx Imposters Paralogizomenoi
Man Going Wrong Diamartanôn
Man Who Disappeared Aphanizomenos
APOLLODORUS OF CARYSTOS Slave Paidion
(GREEK; COMEDY) Woman of Laconia Lakaina
Young Comrades Sunephêboi
Translation Ancient Title
Amphiaraus Amphiareôs
Man Returning a Kindness Anteuergetôn APOLLONIUS
Man Who Was Sued Epidikazomenos
Men Killing Themselves Apokarterountes
(GREEK; COMEDY)
by Abstinence Translation Ancient Title
Mother-in-Law Hecura Free from Blame or Invited Anepiklêtos or Epiklêtos
Priestess Hiereia
Slanderer Diabolos APOLLOPHANES
Speechless Enea
Tablet Maker Grammateidiopolos (GREEK; COMEDY)
Woman Given a Dowry or Proikizomenê or Translation Ancient Title
Female Clothes Dealer Himatiopôlis Bride Dalis
Woman Leaving Her Husband Apoleipousa or Centaurs Kentauroi
Apolipousa Cretans Krêtês
Woman Who Was Slaughtered Sphattomenê Danae Danaê
Iphigeron Iphigerôn

APOLLODORUS OF GELA AQUILIUS (LATIN; COMEDY)

(GREEK; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Misogynist Misogynos
Brotherly Love or Philadelphoi or
Man Killing Himself by Apokarterôn
Abstinence
ARAROS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Brothers Adelphoi Translation Ancient Title
Dyer Deusopoios Adonis Adônis
Priestess Hiereia Caeneus Kaineus
Pseudaias? Pseudaias Hunchback Kampuliôn
Sisyphus Sisuphos Hymenaeus Humenaios
Tablet Maker Grammateidiopoios Pan’s Birth Panos Gonai
 APPENDIX III 617

ARCHEDICUS Cyclops (satyr) Kuklôps Saturoi

Fates Kêres
(GREEK; COMEDY) Orpheus Orpheus
Translation Ancient Title
Man Going Wrong Diamartanôn
Treasure Thêsauros ARISTOMENES
(GREEK; COMEDY)
ARCHESTRATUS Translation Ancient Title
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Admetus Admêtos
Assistants Boêthoi
Translation Ancient Title
Dionysus Artisan Dionusos Askêtês
Antaeus? Antaios?
Witch Goêtes
Wood Carriers Hulophoroi
ARCHICLES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title ARISTONYMUS
Captain or Heiress Nauklêros or Epiklêros
(GREEK; COMEDY)
ARCHIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Shivering Helios Hêlios Rigôn
Translation Ancient Title Theseus Thêseus
Amphitryon Amphitruôn
Ass’s Shadow Onou Skia
Fish Ichthues ARISTOPHON
Heracles’ Marriage Hêraklês Gamôn (GREEK; COMEDY)
Rhinon Rhinôn
Wealth Ploutos Translation Ancient Title
Babias Babias
Callonides Kallônidês
ARISTAGORAS Deposit Parakatathêkê
Doctor Iatros
(GREEK; COMEDY) Follower of Pythagoras Puthagoristês
Translation Ancient Title Peirithous Peirithous
Blockhead Mammakuthos Philonides Philônidês
Plato Platôn
Twins or Man Lighting a Fire Didumoi or Didumai or
ARISTARCHUS Puraunos
(GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
ASTYDAMAS
Achilles Achilleus (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Asclepius Asklêpios Translation Ancient Title
Tantalus Tantalos Achilles Achilleus
Alcmene Alkmênê
Alcmeon Alkmeôn
ARISTIAS (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Antigone Antigonê
Translation Ancient Title Athamas Athamas
Antaeus Antaios Bellerophon Bellerophontês
Atalanta Atalantê Epigoni Epigonoi
618 APPENDIX III

Hector Hektôr Benefactors Euergetai

Heracles (satyr)? Hêraklês Saturikos? Fellow Cheater Sunexapatôn
Hermes (satyr?) Hermês Saturoi? Murderer Androphonos
Lycaon Lukaôn
Madness of Ajax Aias Mainomenos BIOTTUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Nauplius Nauplios
Palamedes Palamêdês Translation Ancient Title
Parthenopaeus Parthenopaios Ignorant Man Agnoôn
Phoenix Phoinix Poet Poiêtês
Tyro Turô
BIOTUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
ATHENIO (GREEK; COMEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Medea Mêdeia
Samothracians Samothraikes
BLAESUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
ATHENODORUS? Translation Ancient Title
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Mesotribas Mesotribas
Saturnus Satournos
Translation Ancient Title
Phoenix Phoinix
CAECILIUS STATIUS
ATILIUS (LATIN; COMEDY) (LATIN; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title Translation Ancient Title
Woman of Boeotia Boeotia Bastard Nicasio Nothus Nicasio
Boxer Pugil
Captain Nauclerus
AUGEAS (GREEK; COMEDY) Carian Wailing Woman Karine
Translation Ancient Title Carrier Portitor
Purple Shell Porphura Chrysion Chrysion
Rustic Agroikos Comrades in Youth Synephebi
Twice Accused Dis Katêgoroumenos Coppersmiths’ Holiday Chalcia
Cratinus Kratinus?
AUTOCRATES Dardanus Dardanus
Davus Davos
(GREEK; COMEDY) Debauchee Asotus
Translation Ancient Title Ephesio Ephesio
Drummers Tumpanistai Ethereal Aethrio or Aetherio
Exile Exul
AXIONICUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Fiancée Philumena
Fraud Fallacia
Translation Ancient Title
Heiress Epicleros
Etruscan Turrênos
Hymnis Hymnis
Lover of Euripides Phileuripidês
Imbrians Imbrii
Man of Chalcis Chalkidikos
Letter Epistula
Philinna Philinna
Makepeace Pausimachus
Man Woman Androgynos
BATO (GREEK; COMEDY) Marriage Gamos
Translation Ancient Title Men for Sale Polumeni
Aetolian Aitôlos Moneylender Obolostates or Falenerator
 APPENDIX III 619

Necklace Plocium CANTHARUS

Prostitute Meretrix
Quartermaster Epistathmos (GREEK; COMEDY)
Suppositious Hypobolimaeus or Translation Ancient Title
Subditivos Alliance Summachia
Suppositious Aeschinus Hypobolimaeus Ants Murmêkes
Aeschinus Medea Mêdeia
Suppositious Chaerestratus Hypobolimaeus Singers Aêdones
Chaerestratus Tereus Têreus
Suppositious, A Tale of the Hoe Hypobolimaeus Rastraria
Syracusans Syracusii
Token Symbolum
CARCINUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Triumph Triumphus Translation Ancient Title
Wards Demandati Mice? Mues?
Wedding Preliminaries Progamos
Wet-Nurse Titthe
Wise in His Own Conceit Ex Hautu Hestos
CARCINUS JUNIOR
Woman of Andros Andrea (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Woman Who Was Abducted Harpazomenê Translation Ancient Title
Women at Lunch Synaristosae Achilles Achilleus
Aerope or Thyestes Aeropê or Thuestês
CALLIAS (GREEK; COMEDY) Ajax Aias
Translation Ancient Title Alope Alopê
Atalanta Atalantê Amphiaraus Amphiareôs
Cyclopes Kuklôpes Medea Mêdeia
Egyptian Aiguptios Oedipus Oidipous
Frogs Batrachoi Orestes Orestês
Guts? or Pestles? of Iron Entera? or Hupera? Sidêra Semele Semelê
Men at Leisure Scholazontes Tyro? Turô?
Prisoners Pedêtai
CATULLUS (LATIN; MIME)
CALLICRATES Translation Ancient Title
(GREEK; COMEDY) Ghost Phasma

Translation Ancient Title

Moschion Moschiôn CATULLUS, QUINTUS
LUTATIUS (LATIN; MIME)
CALLIPPUS? (GREEK; COMEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Laureolus Laureolus
Translation Ancient Title
Vigil? Pannuchis
CEPHISODORUS
(GREEK; COMEDY)
CALLISTRATUS
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Amazons Amazones
Translation Ancient Title Anti-Lais Antilais
Amphilochus Amphilochôi Boar Hus
Ixion? Ixiôn? Trophonius Trophônios
620 APPENDIX III

CHAEREMON Corinthians Korinthioi

Pandrosus Pandrosos
(GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Translation Ancient Title CLEOPHON (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Alphesiboea Alphesiboia
Centaur Kentauros Translation Ancient Title
Dionysus Dionusos Achilles Achilleus
Io Iô Actaeon Aktaiôn
Minyans Minuai Amphiaraus Amphiaraos
Odysseus Odusseus Bacchae Bakchai
Oeneus Oineus Dexamenus Dexamenos
Thersites or Thersitês or Achilleus Erigone Êrigonê
Achilles, Killer of Thersites Thersitoktonos Leucippus Leukippos
Thyestes Thuestês Mandroboulus Mandroboulos
Wounded Man Traumatias Persian Woman Persis
Telephus Têlephos
Thyestes Thuestês
CHAERION (GREEK; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title CRATES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Man Who Falsely Accused Himself Autou Katapseudomenos
Translation Ancient Title
Beasts Thêria
CHARICLIDES Daring Deeds Tolmai
(GREEK; COMEDY) Dionysus Dionusos
Games of Childhood Paidiai
Translation Ancient Title Guardian Spirits Hêrôes
Chain Alusis Holidays Heortai
Lamia Lamia
CHIONIDES (GREEK; COMEDY) Neighbors Geitones
Resident Aliens Metoikoi
Translation Ancient Title Samians Samioi
Beggars Ptôchoi Speakers Rhêtores
Guardian Spirits Hêrôes
Persians or Assyrians Persai or Assurioi
CRATES II (GREEK; COMEDY)
CHOERILUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Birds Ornithes
Translation Ancient Title Misers Philarguros
Alope Alopê Treasure Thêsauros
Woman Who Dreams? Enupniastria?
CLEAENETUS
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) CRATINUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title Translation Ancient Title
Hypsipyle Hupsipulêi Archilochoi Archilochoi
Busiris Bousiris
CLEARCHUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Caught in a Storm Cheimazomenoi
Chirons Cheirônes
Translation Ancient Title Cleobulinas or Tellers of Riddles Kleoboulinai
Cithara Player Kitharôidos Descendants of Euneus Euneidai
 APPENDIX III 621

Dionysalexandros Dionusalexandros Ephesians Ephesioi

Dionysuses Dionusoi Woman of Messenia Messênia
Eumenides Eumenides
Fugitives Drapetides
Herdsmen Boukoloi
CROBYLUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Laconians Lakônes Translation Ancient Title
Laws Nomoi Falsely Suppositious Pseudupobolimaios
Meeting at Pylae Pulaia Strangled Man Apanchomenos
Men in Flames or Idaeans Empimpramenoi or Idaioi Woman Leaving Her Husband Apoleipousa or Apolipousa
Men of Ida Idaioi
Nemesis Nemesis
Odysseus Odusseus
DAMOXENUS
Rehearsals? Didaskaliai (GREEK; COMEDY)
Satyrs Saturoi Translation Ancient Title
Seasons Hôrai Man Who Pitied Himself Auton Penthôn
See Everythings Panoptai Raised Together Suntrophoi
Seriphians Seriphioi
Softies Malthakoi
Trophonius Trophônios DECIMUS LABERIUS
Wealths Ploutoi (LATIN; MIME)
Wine Flask Putinê
Woman of Thrace Thraittai
Translation Ancient Title
Anna Peranna Anna Peranna
Women of Delos Dêliades
Athuae Caldae Athuae Caldae
Augur Augur
CRATINUS JUNIOR Basket Cophinus
(GREEK; COMEDY) Belonistria Belonistria
Translation Ancient Title Birthday Festival Natal
Chiron Cheirôn Braggart? Late Loquens
Falsely Suppositious Pseudupobolimaios Bull Taurus
Female Follower of Pythagoras Puthagorizousa Catularius Catularius
Giants Gigantes Compitalia Compitalia
Omphale Omphalê Crab Cancer
Tarentines Tarantinoi Cretan Cretensis
Titans Titanes Etrurian Tusca
Woman Who Was Hunted Thêrômenê Fisherman Piscator
Flatterer Colax
Forgetful Cacomnemon
CRITIAS (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Fuller Fullo
Translation Ancient Title Gauls Galli
Peirithous Peirithous Image or Ghost? Imago
Rhadamanthys Rhadamanthus Lake Avernus Lacus Avernus
Sisyphus (satyr) Sisuphos Saturikos Little Blind Men? Caeculi
Tennes Tennês Maiden Virgo
Maker of Patchwork Centonarius
Men at the Pales? Parilicii
CRITO (GREEK; COMEDY) Polisher Colorator
Translation Ancient Title Pot of Gold Aulularia
Aetolian Aitôlos Poverty Paupertas
Busybody Philopragmôn Prison Carcer
622 APPENDIX III

Prostitute Hetaera? DICAEOGENES

Ram? Aries
Rope Maker Restio (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Salt Dealer Salinator Translation Ancient Title
Saturnalia Saturnalia Cyprians Kuprioi
Scylax Scylax Medea Mêdeia
Sisters Sorores
Six-Fingered Man Sedigitus
Staminariae Staminariae DINOLOCHUS
Stricturae Stricturae? (GREEK; COMEDY)
Summoning of the Dead Necyomantia
Twins Gemelli
Translation Ancient Title
Wedding Nuptiae Althea Althaia
Woman of Alexandria? Alexandrea Amazons Amazones
Youth Ephebus Medea Mêdeia
Seriocomedy Kômôidotragôidia
Telephus Têlephos
DEMETRIUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Translation Ancient Title DIOCLES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Hesione (satyr) Hêsionê? Saturoi
Translation Ancient Title
Bacchae Bakchai
DEMETRIUS I Bees? Melittai
(GREEK; COMEDY) Cyclopes Kuklôpes
Translation Ancient Title Dreams Oneiroi
Dionysus’ Birth Dionusou Gonai? Sea Thalatta
Woman of Sicily or Men of Sicily Sikelia or Sikelikoi Thyestes B Thuestês B

DEMETRIUS II DIODORUS (GREEK; COMEDY)

(GREEK; COMEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Attenders of the Assembly Panêguristai
Translation Ancient Title Corpse Nekros
Members of the Areopagus Areopagitês Heiress Epiklêros
Madman Mainomenos
DEMONICUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Woman Who Plays the Pipes Aulêtris

Translation Ancient Title

Achelonius or Achelous Achelônios or Achelous DIOGENES OF ATHENS
(GREEK; TRAGEDY)
DEMOPHILUS Translation Ancient Title
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Achilles Achilleus
Atreus Atreus
Translation Ancient Title Chrysippus Chrusippos
Ass Driver Onagos? Helen Helenê
Heracles Hêraklês
Medea Mêdeia
DEXICRATES (GREEK; COMEDY) Oedipus Oidipous
Translation Ancient Title Semele Semelê
Self-Deceivers Huph’ Eautôn Planômenoi Thyestes Thuestês
 APPENDIX III 623

DIONYSIUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Casting Lots Klêroumenoi

Cithara Player Kitharôidos
Translation Ancient Title Concubine Pallakis
Homonyms Homônumoi Danaids Danaides
Hunger Limos Daughters of Pelias Peliades
Lawgiver Thesmophoros Eunuch Eunouchos
Man Hit by a Javelin Akontizomenos Female Athletic Trainer Aleiptria
Woman Savior Sôizousa or Sôteira Goldsmith Chrusochoos
Grandmother Têthê
DIONYSIUS I Greedy Aplêstos
Guardian Epitropeus
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Guardian Spirit Hêrôs
Translation Ancient Title Hecate Hekatê
Adonis Adônis Heiress Epiklêros
Alcmena Alkmênê Helen’s Guardians Elenêphorountes
Hunger (satyr) Limos Saturikos Heracles Hêraklês
Leda Lêda Ignorance Agnoia
Ransom of Hector Hektoros Lutra Leucadia Leukadia
Lovers of Boys Paiderastai
Man Driven Mad Mainomenos
DIOPHANTUS Man Exempt from or Discharged Paraluomenos
(GREEK; COMEDY) from Military Service? or
Translation Ancient Title Paralyzed Man?
Man Who Emigrated Metoikizomenos Man of Boeotia Boiôtios
Man of Sicily Sikelikos
Man Who Was Slaughtered Sphattomenos
DIOXIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Man Who Was Sued Epidikazomenos
Translation Ancient Title Marriage Gamos
Arbitrants Diadikazomenoi Men Dosed with Hellebore Helleborizomenoi
Historian Historiographos Merchant Emporos
Miser Philarguros Olive Orchard or Guardians Ela[i]ôn or
Pimp Opposer Antipornoboskos Phrourountes
Treasure Thêsauros Painter Zôgraphos
Pancratiast Pankratiastês
Parasite Parasitos
DIPHILUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Pouch? Pêra
Translation Ancient Title Pyrrha Purra
Raised Together Suntrophoi
Accusers Enkalountes
Sappho Sapphô
Amastris Amastris
Soldier Stratiôtês
Anagyrus or Penniless Anaguros or Anarguros Souvenir Mnêmation
Ass Driver Onagos Synoris Sunôris
Bath Balaneion Taker of Cities Airêsiteichês
Boat? Schedia Telesias Telesias
Brick Carrier Plinthophoros Theseus Thêseus
Brotherly Love Philadelphoi or Those Dying Together Sunapothnêiskontes
Philadelphos Those Making Offerings to the Enagizontes or
Brothers Adelphoi Dead or Offerings to the Enagismata
Busybody Polupragmôn Dead
624 APPENDIX III

Those Who Were Rescued Anasôizomenoi or Andromeda Andromeda

Anasôizomenai Athamas Athamas
Tithraustes Tithraustês Cresphontes Cresphontes
Treasure Thêsauros Erechtheus Erechtheus
Trick Rider Apobatês Eumenides Eumenides
Well Phrear Hecuba Hecuba
Woman Going Wrong Diamartanousa Iphigenia Iphigenia
Woman of Boeotia Boiôtis Medea Medea
Woman Who Left Her Husband Apoleipousa or Medea the Exile Medea Exul
Apolipousa Melanippe Melanippa
Women of Lemnos Lêmniai Nemea Nemea
Phoenix Phoinix
DROMO (GREEK; COMEDY) Ransom of Hector Hectoris Lutra
Telamon Telamo
Translation Ancient Title Telephus Telephus
Female Harper Psaltria Thyestes Thyestes

ECPHANTIDES EPHIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY)

(GREEK; COMEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Artemis Artemis
Attempts or Trials? Peirai Busiris Bousiris
Satyrs Saturoi Circe Kirkê
Cydon Kudôn
Geryon Gêruonês
ENNIUS, QUINTUS Just Alike or Obeliaphoroi Homoioi or Obeliaphoroi
(LATIN; COMEDY) Merchandise Empolê
Philyra Philura
Translation Ancient Title Sappho Sapphô
Little Hostess Caupuncula Shipwreck Victim Nauagos
Pancratiasts Pancratiastes Targeteer Peltastês
Youths Ephêboi
ENNIUS, QUINTUS (LATIN;
FABULA PRAETEXTA) EPICHARMUS
Translation Ancient Title (GREEK; COMEDY)
Ambracia Ambracia Translation Ancient Title
Sabine Women Sabinae Alcyoneus Alkuoneus
Amycus Amukos
ENNIUS, QUINTUS Atalantas Atalantai
(LATIN; TRAGEDY) Bacchae Bakchai
Busiris Bousiris
Translation Ancient Title Chiron Chirôn
Achilles Achilles Chorus Members Xoreuontes or Xoreutai
Achilles Aristarchi Achilles Aristarchi Citizens Politai
Ajax Aiax Cyclops Kuklôps
Alcmeon Alcumeo Deucalion or Leukarion Deukaliôn or Leukariôn
Alexander Alexander Dionysuses Dionusoi
Andromache the Captive Andromacha Aechmalotis Earth and Sea Ga kai Thalassa
 APPENDIX III 625

Hebe’s Marriage Hêbas Gamos Female Guardian Spirit Hêrôinê

Heracles at the House of Pholus Hêraklês Ho Para Pholôi Man of Pontus Pontikos
Heracles at Zoster Hêraklês Ho Epi ton Souvenir Mnêmation
Zôstêra
Holiday and Islands (see Islands) Heorta kai Nasoi (see EPILYCUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Nasoi)
Hope or Wealth Elpis or Ploutos Translation Ancient Title
Islands Nasoi Coraliscus Kôraliskos
Medea Mêdeia
Months or Moons Mênes EPINICUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Mr. and Mrs. Logos Logos kai Logina
Muses Mousai Translation Ancient Title
Odysseus the Deserter Odusseus Automolos Mnesiptolemus Mnêsiptolemos
Odysseus the Shipwreck Victim Odusseus Nauagos Suppositious Babies Hupoballomenai
Periallus Periallos
Persians Persai ERIPHUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Philoctetes Philoktêtas
Pithon? Pithôn Translation Ancient Title
Plunder? Harpagai Aeolus Aiolos
Pots Chutrai Meliboea Meliboia
Pyrrha and Prometheus Purra kai Promatheus Targeteer Peltastês
Revelers or Hephaestus Kômastai or Haphaistos
Rustic Man Agrôstinos EUANGELUS (GREEK;
Sausage Orua sive Oroua COMEDY)
Sciron Skirôn
Sirens Seirênes Translation Ancient Title
Spectators Thearoi Unveiled Woman Anakaluptomenê
Sphinx Sphinx
The Thirtieth Days of the Month Triakades EUARETUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Trojans Trôes
Victorious? Epinikios Translation Ancient Title
Woman of Megara Megaris Achilles? Achillei?
Alcmeon? Alkmeôn?
Teucer Teukrôi
EPICRATES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title EUBULIDES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Amazons Amazones Translation Ancient Title
Anteros Anterôs Revelers Kômastai
Anti-Lais or Antillis Antilais or Antillis
Chorus Choros
Hard to Sell Duspratos
EUBULUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Merchant Emporos Translation Ancient Title
Trident or Maker of Petty Wares Triodous or Rôpopôiês Amalthea Amaltheia
Anchises Anchisês
Antiope Antiopê
EPIGENES (GREEK; COMEDY) Attachment? or Cycnus Prosousia or Kuknos
Translation Ancient Title Auge Augê
Bacchis Bakchis? Basket Carriers Kalathêphoroi
Elimination of Money Arguriou Aphanismos Bellerophon Bellerophontês
626 APPENDIX III

Cercopes Kerkôpes Woman Dealing in Chaplets Stephanopôlides

Chick Neottis Woman of the Mill Mulôthris
Chrysilla Chrusilla Xuthus Xouthos
Clepsydra Klepsudra
Daedalus Daidalos EUDOXUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Damaleia Damaleia
Danae Danaê Translation Ancient Title
Deucalion Deukaliôn Captain Nauklêros
Dionysian Dionusios Suppositious Baby Hupobolimaios
Dolon Dolôn
Echo Êchô EUETES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Europa Eurôpe
Female Harper Psaltria Translation Ancient Title
Gamblers Kubeutai Heiress Epiklêros
Ganymede Ganumêdês
Glaucus Glaukos EUMEDES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Glued Together Katakollômenos
Graces Charites Translation Ancient Title
Happy Woman Olbia Man Who Was Slaughtered Sphattomenos
Hunchback Kampuliôn
Impotent Men Astutoi EUNICUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Ion Iôn
Ixion Ixiôn Translation Ancient Title
Laconians or Leda Lakônes or Lêda Anteia Anteia
Lark Korudallos Cities Poleis
Leather Worker Skuteus
Little Parmeno Parmeniskos EUPHANES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Medea Mêdeia
Translation Ancient Title
Mysians Musoi
Man Lighting a Fire Puraunos
Nannion Nannion
Muses Mousai
Nausicaa Nausikaa
Noose Agkuliôn
Odysseus or All-Seeing Ones Odusseus or Panoptai EUPHRO (GREEK; COMEDY)
Oedipus Oidipous Translation Ancient Title
Oenomaus or Pelops Oinomaos or Pelops Brothers Adelphoi
Orthanês Orthanês Gods’ Marketplace Theôn Agora
Pamphilus Pamphilos Muses Mousai
Peace Eirênê Spectators Theôroi
Pentathlete Pentathios Twins Didumoi
Phoenix Phoinix Ugly? Aischra
Pimp Pornoboskos Woman Who Gave It Back Apodidousa
Plangon Plangôn Woman Who Was Surrendered Paradidomenê
Procris Prokris Young Comrades Sunephêboi
Rescued Men Anasôizomenoi
Semele or Dionysus Semelê or Dionusos
Sphinx Cario Sphingokariôn
EUPOLIS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Titans Titanes Translation Ancient Title
Vigil? Pannuchis Abusers of Law Hubristodikai
Wet-Nurses or Wet-Nurse Titthai or Titthê Autolycus A Autolukos A
 APPENDIX III 627

Autolycus B Autolukos B HARMODIUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY)

Bathers Baptai
Cities Poleis Translation Ancient Title
Demes Dêmoi Protesilaus (satyr) Prôtesilaos Saturoi
Flatterers Kolakes
Friends Philoi HEGEMON (GREEK; COMEDY)
Goats Aiges
Golden Race Chrusoun Genos Translation Ancient Title
Helots Eilôtes Philinna Philinna
Laconians Lakônes
Maricas Marikas HEGESIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Men of Prospalta Prospaltioi
Translation Ancient Title
New Moons Noumêniai
Brothers Adelphoi
Out of the Army or Astrateutoi or
True Friends Philetairoi
Man Women Androgunai
Taxiarchs Taxiarchoi
Thefts Klopai HELIODORUS
(GREEK; TRAGEDY)
EURIPIDES II Translation Ancient Title
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Protesilaus Prôtesilaos

Translation Ancient Title

Medea Mêdeia
HENIOCHUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Orestes Orestês Busybody Polupragmôn
Polyxena Poluxenê Gorgons Gorgones
Heiress Epiklêros
Polyeuctus Polueuktos
EUTHYCLES (GREEK; COMEDY) Thorikion Thôrukion?
Translation Ancient Title Trochilus Trochilos
Atalanta Atalantê True Friend Philetairos
Twice Deceived Dis Exapatômenos

EUTHYCLES (GREEK; COMEDY) HERACLITUS?

Translation Ancient Title (GREEK; COMEDY)
Profligates or Letter Asôtoi or Epistolê
Translation Ancient Title
Man Who Was a Stranger Xenizôn
EZECHIEL (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Translation Ancient Title HERMIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Exodus Exagôgê Translation Ancient Title
Agamemnon Agamemnôn
Athena’s Birth Athênas Gonai
GRACCHUS (LATIN; TRAGEDY) Bread Women Artopôlides
Translation Ancient Title Cercopes Kerkôpes
Atalanta Atalanta Demesmen Dêmotai
Daughters of Pelias Peliades Europa Eurôpe
Thyestes Thyestes Fates Moirai
628 APPENDIX III

Gods Theoi Tecmessa Tecmesa

Porters Phormophoroi Teuthras Teuthras
Soldiers Stratiôtai or Stratiôtides
LAON (GREEK; COMEDY)
HIPPARCHUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Dispositions? Diathêkai
Painter Zôgraphos
Rescued Men Anasôizomenoi
Thais Thais LENTULUS (LATIN; MIME)
Vigil? Pannuchis
Translation Ancient Title
Inhabitants of Catina Catinenses
ION (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
Agamemnon Agamemnôn LEUCO (GREEK; COMEDY)
Alcmene Alkmênê Translation Ancient Title
Argive Men Argeioi Ambassadors Presbeis
Big Drama Mega Drama Ass Bearing Wineskins Onos Askophoros
Caeneus (see Phoenix) Kaineus (see Phoinix) Clansmen Phrateres
Guards Phrouroi
Laertes Laertês
Oeneus Oineus? LICINIUS IMBREX
Omphale (satyr) Omphalê Saturoi
Phoenix A Phoinix A
(LATIN; COMEDY)
Phoenix B Phoinix B Translation Ancient Title
Sons of Eurytus Eurutidai Neaera Neaera
Teucer Teukros

IOPHON (GREEK; TRAGEDY) LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, LUCIUS

Translation Ancient Title
(LATIN; COMEDY)
Achilles Achilleus Translation Ancient Title
Actaeon Aktaiôn Circumcised Man Verpus
Bacchae (or Pentheus?) Bakchai (or Pentheus?) Man of Lydia Ludius
Dexamenus Dexamenos Small Sword Gladiolus
Sack of Troy Iliou Persis
Satyrs Who Sing to the Pipes Aulôidoi Saturoi
(satyr) LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, LUCIUS
Telephus Têlephos (LATIN; TRAGEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
IUVENTIUS (LATIN; COMEDY) Achilles Achilles
Translation Ancient Title Aegisthus Aegisthus
Woman Who Was Recognized Anagnorizomenê Ajax with the Whip Ajax Mastigophorus
Andromeda Andromeda
JULIUS CAESAR STRABO, Danae Danae
Hermione Hermiona
GAIUS (LATIN; TRAGEDY) Ino Ino
Translation Ancient Title Tereus Tereus
Adrastus Adrastus Trojan horse Equos Troianus
 APPENDIX III 629

LUCIUS VARIUS RUFUS MACHON (GREEK; COMEDY)

(LATIN; TRAGEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Ignorance Agnoia
Thyestes Thyesta Letter Epistolê

LUSCIUS LANUVINUS MAGNES (GREEK; COMEDY)

(LATIN; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Babiton Players Barbitistai
Ghost Phasma Birds Ornithes
Treasure Thensaurus Dionysus A Dionusos A
Dionysus B Dionusos B
LYCOPHRON Frogs Batrachoi
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Gall Insects Psênes
Grass Cutters Poastriai
Translation Ancient Title
Lydians Ludoi
Aeolus Aiolos
Aletes? Alêtês
Allies Summachoi MELANTHIUS
Andromeda Andromeda
Cassandreis Kassandreis (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Chrysippus Chrusippos Translation Ancient Title
Elpenor Elephênôr Medea Mêdeia?
Heracles Hêraklês
Hippolytus Hippolutos
Laius Laios MELETUS JUNIOR
Marathonians Marathônioi (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Menedemus (satyr) Menedêmos Saturoi
Nauplius Nauplios Translation Ancient Title
Oedipus A Oidipous A Oedipus’ Tale Oidipodeia
Oedipus B Oidipous B
Orphan Orphanos MELITO (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Pentheus Pentheus
Sons of Aeolus Aioidês Translation Ancient Title
Sons of Pelops Pelopidai Niobe Niobê
Suppliants Hiketai
Telegonus Têlegonos
MENECRATES
(GREEK; COMEDY)
LYNCEUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Hector the Slave? Manektôr
Centaur Kentauros Hemioneus Hermioneus

LYSIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY) MENIPPUS

Translation Ancient Title
Bacchae Bakchai
(GREEK; COMEDY)
Charms? Katachênai? Translation Ancient Title
Thysus Keeper Thursokomos Cercopes Kerkôpes
630 APPENDIX III

METAGENES (GREEK; COMEDY) NAEVIUS, GNAEUS

Translation Ancient Title (LATIN; COMEDY)
Breezes or Blockhead Aurai or Mammakuthos Translation Ancient Title
Homer or Artisans or Sophists Omêros or Askêtai or Astiologa Astiologa
Sophistai Branded Slave Stigmatias
Lover of Sacrifices Philothutês Cataract Glaucoma
Thurio Persians Thouriopersai Charlatan Technicus
Circumcised Appella
METRODORUS Collier Maid Carbonaria
(GREEK; COMEDY) Commotria Commotria
Concubine Paelex
Translation Ancient Title Demetrius Demetrius
Just Alike Homoioi Driver Agitatoria
Flatterer Colax
MIMNERMUS Fraud Dolus
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Garland Maid Corollaria
Gym Master Gumnasticus
Neoptolemus Neoptolemos Lampadio Lampadio
Leon Leon
MNESIMACHUS Madmen Dementes
(GREEK; COMEDY) Man Hit by a Javelin Acontizomenos
Masked Play Personata
Translation Ancient Title Nagido Nagido
Alcmeon Alkmaiôn or Alkmeôn Nervolaria Nervolaria
Bad-Tempered Man Duskolos Outcast Proiectus
Busiris Bousiris Potter Figulus
Druggist Pharmakopôiês Quadruplets Quadrigemini
Horse Breeder Hippotrophos Sailors? Nautae?
Philippus Philippos
Soothsayer Ariolus
Winners in the Isthmian Games Isthmionikês
Stalagmus Stalagmus
Tale of a Cloak Clamidaria
MORSIMUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Tale of Testicles Testicularia
Translation Ancient Title Tale of the Little Coat Tunicularia
Medea Mêdeia? Tribacelus? Tribacelus
Triple Phallus Triphallus
Wide Awakes Agrypnuntes
MOSCHION (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Woman of Tarentum Tarentilla
Translation Ancient Title
Pheraeans Pheraioi
Telephus Têlephos
Themistocles Themistoklês NAEVIUS, GNAEUS
(LATIN; FABULA PRAETEXTA)
MYRTILUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Clastidium Clastidium
Loves Erôtes Romulus (= Wolf?) Romulus (= Lupus?)
Titanopanes Titanopanes Wolf (= Romulus?) Lupus (= Romulus?)
 APPENDIX III 631

NAEVIUS, GNAEUS Sea fight Naumachia

Women Passing Metekbainousai
(LATIN; TRAGEDY) From One Place to Another
Translation Ancient Title
Andromache Andromacha NICOMACHUS OF ALEXANDRIA
Danae Danae (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Hector’s Departure Hector Proficiscens
Hesione Hesiona Translation Ancient Title
Iphigenia Iphigenia Alcmeon or Tyndareus Alkmaiôn or Tundareôs
Lycurgus Lycurgus Aletides? Aletides?
Trojan Horse Equos Troianus Alexander Alexandros
Eriphyle Eriphulê
Geryon Gêruonês
NAUSICRATES Mysians Musoi
(GREEK; COMEDY) Neoptolemus Neoptolemos
Translation Ancient Title Oedipus Oidipous
Captains Nauklêroi Persian Woman Persis
Persian Woman Persis Polyxena Poluxenê
Teucer Teukros
NEOPHRON (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Trilogy Trilogia

Translation Ancient Title NICOMACHUS OF ATHENS

Medea Mêdeia
(GREEK; TRAGEDY)
NICO (GREEK; COMEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Amymone and Oedipus Amumônê et Oidipous
Translation Ancient Title
Cithara Player Kitharôidos
NICOPHON (GREEK; COMEDY)
NICOCHARES Translation Ancient Title
(GREEK; COMEDY) Adonis Adônis
Aphrodite’s Birth Aphroditês Gonai
Translation Ancient Title Manual Laborers Encheirogastores
Agamemnon Agamemnôn Pandora Pandôra
Amymone or Pelops Amumonê or Pelops Returning from Hades Ex Aidou Aniôn
Centaur Kentauros Sirens Seirênes
Cretans Krêtês
Galatea Galateia
Heracles’ Marriage Hêraklês Gamôn
NICOSTRATUS
Heracles the Chorus Leader Hêraklês Chorêgos (GREEK; COMEDY)
Laconians Lakônes Translation Ancient Title
Poet Poiêtês Antyllus Antullos
Women of Lemnos Lêmniai Banished Man Apelaunomenos
Bird Catcher Ornitheutês
NICOMACHUS Bustard? Hôtis?
Cook Mageiros
(GREEK; COMEDY) Couch Klinê
Translation Ancient Title Falsely Branded Pseudostigmatias
Eileithyia Eileithuia Fellow Countrymen Patriôtai
632 APPENDIX III

Hecate Hekatê Prostitute Hetaera

Hesiod Hêsiodos Slave Paedium
Hierophant Hierophantês Soldier of Pometia Milites Pometinenses
Kings Basileis Tale of a Little Toga Togularia
Moneylender Tokistês Tale of the Hen House Gallinaria
Pandrosus Pandrosos Tale of the Tablets? Tabellaria
Pet Habra Tithe Decuma
Public Speaker Rhêtôr? Twins Gemini
Rival in Love Anterôsa Two Dossennuses Duo Dossenni
Slanderer Diabolos Unoccupied Fullers Fullones Feriati
Syrian Suros Woman Richly Endowed Dotata
Wealth Ploutos Wood Dealer Lignaria
Wine Maker Oinopoios Young Horse Eculeus
Woman Swimming Alongside Parakolumbôsa
OPHELIO (GREEK; COMEDY)
NOVIUS (LATIN; FABULA Translation Ancient Title
ATELLANA) Callaeschrus Kallaischros
Deucalion Deukaliôn
Translation Ancient Title
Lamentation Ialemos
Andromache Andromacha
Putacides? or Titacides? Putakidês or Titakidês
Blockhead Asinus
Bubulcus the Laborer? Bubulcus Cerdo
Bucculus Bucculus PACUVIUS, MARCUS (LATIN;
Buffoons Sanniones
Choice Optio
FABULA PRAETEXTA)
Conclusion Exodium Translation Ancient Title
Deaf Man Surdus Paulus Paulus
Doctor Mania Mania Medica
Enemies Malivoli
Farmer Agricola PACUVIUS, MARCUS
Fate Parcus (LATIN; TRAGEDY)
Fig Planter Ficitor
Translation Ancient Title
Fullers Fullones
Antiope Antiopa
Fuller’s Trade Fullonicum
Atalanta Atalanta
Funeral Funus
Chryses Chryses
Girdle Zona
Foot Washing Niptra
Grand? Dapatici?
Grape Pickers Vindemiatores Hermione Hermiona
Hercules the Money Collector Hercules Coactor Iliona Iliona
In Three Parts Tripertita Judgment of Arms Armorum Iudicium
Inquiry Quaestio Medus Medus
Judgment of Death and Life Mortis et Vitae Iudicium Orestes as a Slave Dulorestes
Maccus Maccus Pentheus Pentheus
Maccus the Exile Maccus Exul Periboea Periboea
Maccus the Tradesman Maccus Copo Teucer Teucer
Pacilius Pacilius
Pappus the Departed Pappus Praeteritus PAMPHILUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Phoenician Women Phoenissae
Picus Picus Translation Ancient Title
Pregnant Maiden Virgo Praegnans Children of Heracles Hêrakleidai
 APPENDIX III 633

PARAMONUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Flatterer

Ghost
Kolax
Phasma
Translation Ancient Title Graces Charites
Chorus Leader Chorêgôn Guard Phulakê
Shipwrecked Nauagos Guardian Spirits Hêrôes
Little Boy Paidarion
Little Wing Pterugion
PHERECRATES Man in Exile? Apollôn
(GREEK; COMEDY) Man Killing Himself by Abstinence Apokarterôn
Man of Sicily Sikelikos
Translation Ancient Title Man Who Was Abducted Harpazomenos or
Ant Men Murmêkanthrôpoi Harpazomenê
Chiron Cheirôn Man Who Was Banished Exoikizomenos
Corianno Koriannô Man Who Was Falsely Accused Katapseudomenos
Deserters Automoloi Man Who Was Sued Epidikazomenos
Forgetful or Thalatta Epilêsmôn or Thalatta Man Whose Hair Was Removed Pittokopoumenos
Good Men Agathoi by Pitch
Heracles the Human Being Anthrôphêraklês Marriage Gamos
Miners Metallês Merchant Emporos
Mullets or Flounders Krapataloi Murderer Adrophonos
Old Women Graes Myrmidons Murmidones
Oven or Vigil Ipnos or Pannuchis Mystic Mustis
Persians Persai Neaera Neaira
Petale Petalê Night Nux
Pseudo-Heracles Pseudêraklês Palamedes Palamêdês
Resident Aliens Metoikoi Pancratiast Pankratiastês
Savages Agrioi Panegyris or Assembly Panêguris
Teacher of Slaves Doulodidaskalos Partners Koinônoi
Triflers Lêroi Philosophers Philosophoi
Tyranny Turannis Player of the Pipes Aulêtês
Priest of Cybele or Eunuch Gallos?
Pursuer or Soupy Metiôn or Zômion
PHILEMON (GREEK; COMEDY) Pyrrhus Purros
Resident Alien Metoikos
Translation Ancient Title
Ring Daktulios
Addicted to Wine Paroinos
Rustic Man Agroikos
Adulterer Moichos
Sardian Sardios
Aetolian Aitôlos
Sculptor Lithogluphos
Babylonian Babulônios Slaves Paides
Bastard Nothos Soldier Stratiôtês
Beggar Woman or Rhodia Ptôchê or Rhodia Suppositious Baby Hupobolimaios
Brothers Adelphoi Thebans Thêbaioi
Butting In Pareisiôn Those Dying Together Sunapothnêiskontes
Dagger Encheiridion Treasure Thêsauros
Distributed? Nemomenoi Unveiled Anakaluptontes
Doctor Iatros Vagabond Agurtês
Doorman Thurôros Widow Chêra
Ephedrismos Players Ephedritai or Woman of Corinth Korinthia
Ephedrizontes Woman Who Renewed Herself Ananeoumenê
Euripus? Euripos Young Comrade Sunephêbos
Fire Bringer Purphoros Youth Ephêbos
634 APPENDIX III

PHILEMON JUNIOR PHILIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY)

(GREEK; COMEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Daedalus Daidalos
Translation Ancient Title
Money Testers? Kôdôniastai
Phocians Phôkeis
Nannion Nannion
Woman of Olynthus Olunthia
PHILEMON III
(GREEK; COMEDY) PHILISCUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title Translation Ancient Title
Adonis Adôonis
Woman of Miletus Miêsia
Birth of Artemis and Apollo Artemidos kai Apollônos
Gonai
PHILETAERUS Birth of Hermes and Aphrodite Hermou kai Aphroditês
(GREEK; COMEDY) Gonai
Birth of Pan Panos Gonai
Translation Ancient Title Birth of Zeus Dios Gonai
Achilles Achilleus Misers Philarguroi
Antullos Antullos Olympus Olumpos
Asclepius Asklêpios Themistocles Themistoklês
Atalanta Atalantê
Cephalus Kephalos PHILOCLES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Huntress Kunagis
Translation Ancient Title
Lover of the Pipes Philaulos
Wounded Man Traumatias
Meleager Meleagros
Months or Moons Mênes PHILOCLES (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Oenopion Oinopiôn
Tereus Têreus Translation Ancient Title
Torch Bearers Lampadêphoroi Erigone êrigonê
Whoremonger Korinthiastês Nauplius Nauplios
Oedipus Oidipous
Oeneus Oineus
PHILIPPIDES (GREEK; COMEDY) Penelope Pênelopê
Translation Ancient Title Philoctetes Philoktêtês
Amphiaraus Amphiareôs Prian Priamos
Brotherly Love Philadelphoi Tereus or Epops Têreus or Epops
Cup Maker Ekpômatopoios Tetralogy of Pandion Pandionis Tetralogia
Elimination of Money Arguriou Aphanismos
Lover of Athenians Philathênaios
PHILONIDES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Lover of Euripides Phileuripidês Translation Ancient Title
Lover of Power Philarchos Buskins Kothornoi
Miser Philarguros Mule Cart Apênê
Pimp Mastropos Preview Proagôn
Pipes Auloi True Friend Philetairos
Renewal Ananeôsis
Renewed Woman Ananeousa PHILOSTEPHANUS
Woman Who Was Tortured Basanizomenê
Women of Laconia? Lakiadai
(GREEK; COMEDY)
Women Sailing Along Sunekpleouosai Translation Ancient Title
Women Worshiping Adonis Adôniazousai Man of Delos Dêlios
 APPENDIX III 635

PHILYLLIUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Antaeus or Libyans Antaios or Libues

Capture of Miletus Milêtou Alôsis
Translation Ancient Title Danaids Danaides
Aegeus Aigeus Egyptians Aiguptioi
Anteia Anteia Just Men or Persians or Partners Dikaioi or Persai or
Atalanta Atalantê Sunthôkoi
Auge Augê Phoenician Women Phoinissai
Cities Poleis Tantalus Tantalos
Helen Helenê Women of Pleuron Pleurôniai
Heracles Hêraklês
Twelfth Dôdekatê
Washerwomen or Nausikaa Pluntriai or Nausikaa PHRYNICHUS II
Well Sinker Phreôruchos (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
PHOENICIDES Andromeda Andromeda
(GREEK; COMEDY) Erigone Êrigonê
Translation Ancient Title
Cavalry Commander Phularchos PLATO (GREEK; COMEDY)
Hated Woman Misoumenê
Poet Poiêtês Translation Ancient Title
Those Who Were Rescued Anasôizomenoi Adonis Adônis
Women Who Play the Pipes Aulêtrides Alliance Summachia
Ambassadors Presbeis
Amphiaraus Amphiareôs
PHORMIS (GREEK; COMEDY) Ants Murmêkes
Translation Ancient Title Apparel? Skeuai
Atalantas Atalantai Blockheads Mammakuthoi
Cleophon Kleophôn
PHRYNICHUS Daedalus Daidalos
Europa Eurôpe
(GREEK; COMEDY) Griffins Grupes
Translation Ancient Title Hellas or Islands Hellas or Nêsoi
Connus Konnos Holidays Heortai
Cronus Kronos Hyperbolus Huperbolos
Ephialtes Ephialtês or Epialtês Io Iô
Grass Cutters Poastriai Laconians Lakônes
Initiates Mustai Laconians or Poets Lakônes or Poiêtai
Misanthrope Monotropos Laius Laios
Muses Mousai Little Boy Paidarion
Revelers Kômastai Long Night Nux Makra
Satyrs Saturoi Menelaus Meneleôs
Tragedians or Freedmen Tragôidoi or Apeleutheroi Mob or Scum of the Earth Surphax
Peisander Peisandros
PHRYNICHUS Person in Extreme Pain Perialgês
Phaon Phaôn
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Poet Poiêtês
Translation Ancient Title Resident Aliens Metoikoi
Actaeon Aktaiôn Sophists Sophistai
Alcestis Alkêstis Staff Bearer Rhabdouchoi
636 APPENDIX III

Victories Nikai Conch Shell Concha

Woman after Festival Hai aph’ Hierôn Doctor Medicus
Xantriai or Cercopes Xantriai or Kerkôpes Earlier Maccus Twins? Macci Gemini Priores?
Zeus Outraged Zeus Kakoumenos Emasculated Man Maialis
Fates Parci
POLEMAEUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Fisherman Piscatores
Fullers Fullones
Translation Ancient Title Gamesters Aleones
Ajax (satyr) Aias Saturoi Guild Collegium
Clytemnestra Klutaimestra Household God Lar Familiaris
Inferior Herald? Praeco Posterior
POLIOCHUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Inferior Ring? Anulus Posterior
Judgment of Arms Armorum ludicium
Translation Ancient Title Kalends of March Kalendae Martiae
Whoremonger Korinthiastês Maccus Maccus
Maccus the Go-Between Maccus Sequester
POLYIDUS? (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Maccus the Maiden Maccus Virgo
Maccus the Soldier Maccus Miles
Translation Ancient Title Maccus’ Twins Macci Gemini
Iphigenia at Tauris Iphigeneia Hê en Taurois? Male Prostitute Prostibulum
Man Bound by Obligation Auctoratus
Marsyas Marsya
POLYPHRASMON Medley Satura
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Mevia Mevia
Lycurgus Tetralogy Lukourgeia Tetralogia Munda Munda
Painters Pictores
Pappus’ Bride Sponsa Pappi
POLYZELUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Pappus’ Jug Hirnea Pappi
Translation Ancient Title Pappus the Departed Pappus Praeteritus
Aphrodite’s Birth Aphroditês Gonai Pappus the Farmer Pappus Agricola
Dionysus’ Birth Dionusou Gonai Paternal Uncle Patruus
Foot Washing Niptra Petitioning Heir Heres Petitor
Muses’ Birth Mousôn Gonai Philosophy Philosophia
Tyndareus of the People Dêmotundareôs Pimp Leno
Player on the Cithara Citharista
Prefect of Morals Praefectus Morum
POMPONIUS BONONIENSIS, Pytho the Gorgon? Pytho Gorgonius
LUCIUS (LATIN; FABULA Quinquatrus Quinquatrus
Ragged Men Pannuceati
ATELLANA) Rich Dives
Translation Ancient Title Rustic Man Rusticus
Agamemnon Suppositious Agamemno Suppositus She Ass Asina
Augur Augur She Goat Capella
Baker Pistor Soothsayer or Pexor the Rustic Aruspex or Pexor
Brothers Adelphi Rusticus
Bucco Adopted Bucco Adoptatus Sow Who has Given Birth Porcetra
Bucco Given as a Pledge Bucco Auctoratus Syrians Syri
Cake Placenta Tale of a Dowry? Dotalis
Campanians Campani Tale of the Light Hoe Sarcularia
 APPENDIX III 637

Temple Caretaker Aeditumus PUBLILIUS SYRUS

Terms of the Agreement Condiciones
Tithe Decuma (LATIN; MIME)
Tithe of the Fuller Decuma Fullonis Translation Ancient Title
Transalpine Gauls Galli Transalpini Murmurco Murmurco
Vaca or Purse Vaca or Marsuppium Tree Pruners Putatores
Verniones? Verniones
Verres Diseased Verres Aegrotus PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO
Verres Healthy Verres Salvos
Wedding Nuptiae (LATIN; TRAGEDY)
White Clay or Petitioner Cretula or Petitor Translation Ancient Title
Woman Richly Endowed Dotata Medea Medea
Workhouse Foreman Ergastilus
Young Comrades Synephebi PUBLIUS POMPONIUS
SECUNDUS (LATIN;
POSIDIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY) FABULA PRAETEXTA)
Translation Ancient Title
Arsinoe Arsinoê Translation Ancient Title
Bell Kôdôn Aeneas Aeneas
Celts Galatês
Changed Men Metapheromenoi PUBLIUS POMPONIUS
Demesmen Dêmotai SECUNDUS (LATIN; TRAGEDY)
Female Chorus Members Choreuousai
Hermaphroditus Hermaphroditos
Translation Ancient Title
Atreus Atreus
Just Alike Homoioi
Lover of Father Philopatôr
Man Who Regained His Sight Anablepôn PYTHON (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Myrmex or Ant Murmêx Translation Ancient Title
Pimp Pornoboskos Agen (satyr) Agên Saturikos
Quartermaster Epistathmos
Raised Together Suntrophoi
Slave Paidion
RHINTHON (GREEK; COMEDY)
Woman of Ephesus Ephesia Translation Ancient Title
Woman Shut Out Apokleiomenê Amphitryon Amphitruôn
Women of Locria Lokrides Eunobatai Eunobatai
Heracles Hêraklês
PRATINAS (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Iphigenia at Tauris Iphigeneia Ha En Taurois
Iphigenia in Aulis Iphigeneia Ha En Aulidi
Translation Ancient Title Medea Mêdeia
Bacchae or Women of Caryae Dusmainiai or Karuatides Meleager the Slave Doulos Meleagros
Perseus Perseus Orestes Orestas
Tantalus Tantalos Telephus Têlephos
Wrestlers (satyr) Palaistai Saturoi
SANNYRION (GREEK; COMEDY)
PTOLEMAEUS IV PHILOPATOR
Translation Ancient Title
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Danae Danaê
Translation Ancient Title Io Iô
Adonis Adônis Laughter Gelôs
638 APPENDIX III

SANTRA (LATIN; TRAGEDY) Bacchis’ Suitors Bakchidos Mnêstêres

Bookworms Silphai
Translation Ancient Title Celts Galatai
Wedding of Bacchus Nuptiae Bacchi Eubulus the Godlike Mortal Euboulotheombrotos
Gates Pulai
SCIRAS (GREEK; COMEDY) Ghost-Summoning Rite Nekuia
Hippolytus Hippolutos
Translation Ancient Title Lentil Soup Phakê
Meleager Meleagros Natural Philosopher Phusiologos
Orestes Orestês
SEXTUS TURPILIUS Slavery of Mystacus Mustakou Thêteion
Woman of Cnidus Knidia
(LATIN; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
Assistants? Boethuntes SOPHILUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Basket Bearer Canephorus Translation Ancient Title
Chief Magistrate Demiurgus Androcles Androklês
Demetrius Demetrius Cavalry Commander or Phularchos or
Heiress Epiclerus Lover of Power Philarchos
Leucadia Leucadia Cithara Player Kitharôidos
Lover of Father Philopatôr Dagger Encheiridion
Paraterusa Paraterusa Deposit Parakatathêkê
Prostitute Hetaera Marriage Gamos
Slave Paedium Running Mates Suntrechontes
Thrasyleon Thrasuleon Tyndareus or Leda Tundareôs or Lêda
Woman of Lindus Lindia Woman of Delos Dêlia
Women of Lemnos Lemniae

SILENUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY) SOPHRON (GREEK; MIME)

Translation Ancient Title Translation Ancient Title
Chryses? Chru[s]— Busy with the Bride Numphoponos
Fisherman versus the Farmer Hôlieus ton agroiôtan
Messenger Angelos
SIMYLUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Moral Prefixed to a Fable Promuthion
Translation Ancient Title Mother-in-Law Penthera
Woman of Ephesus Ephesia Puffing Passion Paidika poiphuxeis
Woman of Megara Megarikê Seamstresses Akestriai
The Women Going to Attend? Tai thamenai ta Isthmia
the Isthmian Games
SOGENES (GREEK; COMEDY) The Women Who Drove Out Tai gunaikes hai tan theon
Translation Ancient Title the Goddess By Speaking? phanti exelan
Lover of Master Philodespotos Tuna Catcher Thunnothêras

SOPATER (GREEK; COMEDY) SOSICRATES (GREEK; COMEDY)

Translation Ancient Title Translation Ancient Title
Bacchis Bakchis Brotherly Love Philadelphoi
Bacchis’ Marriage Bakchidos Gamos Deposit Parakatathêkê
 APPENDIX III 639

SOSIGENES? (GREEK; COMEDY) STRATO (GREEK; COMEDY)

Translation Ancient Title Translation Ancient Title
Ransomed Man Lutroumenos Sons of Phoenix Phoinikidês

SOSIPATER (GREEK; COMEDY) STRATTIS (GREEK; COMEDY)

Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title
Atalanta, Atalantas, or Atalantus Atalantê, Atalantai, or
Man Who Was Falsely Accused Katapseudomenos
Atalantos
Callipides Kallipidês
SOSIPHANES Chrysippus Chrusippos
Cinesias Kinêsias
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Elimination of Money Arguriou Aphanismos
Translation Ancient Title Good Men Agathoi
Meleager Meleagros Iphigeron Iphigerôn
Lemnomeda Lêmnomeda
Macedonians or Pausanias Makedones or Pausanias
SOSIPPUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Man Orestes Anthrôporestês
Translation Ancient Title Medea Mêdeia
Woman Leaving Her Husband Apoleipousa Men of Riverside Potamioi
Myrmidons Murmidones
Philoctetes Philoktêtês
SOSITHEUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Phoenician Women Phoinissai
Translation Ancient Title Putisus? Putisos?
Those Who Cool Themselves Psuchastai
Translation Ancient Title
in the Shade
Aethlius Aethlios
Troilus Trôilos
Daphnis or Lityersas (satyr?) Daphnis or Lituersês
Zopyrus Engulfed in Flame Zôpuros Perikaiomenos
Saturoi

TELECLIDES (GREEK; COMEDY)

SOTADES (GREEK; COMEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Hesiods Hêsiodoi
Man Who Was Ransomed Paralutroumenos Islanders? Nêsiôtai?
Shut-Ins Enkleiomenai or Members of the Amphictyonic Amphiktuones
Enkleiomenoi Council
Prytanes Prutaneis
SPINTHARUS Sicilians or Soldiers Sikeliôtai or Stratiôtai
Stubborn Men Sterroi
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Truthful Apseudeis
Translation Ancient Title
Heracles in Flames Perikaiomenos Hêraklês THEODECTAS
Semele Struck by Lightning Semelê Keraunoumenê
(GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Translation Ancient Title
STEPHANUS (GREEK; COMEDY) Ajax Aias
Translation Ancient Title Alcmeon Alkmeôn
Lover of Laconians Philolakôn Helen Helenê
640 APPENDIX III

Lynceus Lunkeus Aphrodite Aphroditê

Mausolus Mausôlos Callaeschrus Kallaischros
Oedipus Oidipous Hedychares Hêducharês
Orestes Orestês Mede Mêdos
Philoctetes Philoktêtês Nemea Nemea
Tydeus Tudeus Odysseus Odusseus
Pamphile Pamphilê
THEODORIDES Pantaleon Pantaleôn
Peace Eirênê
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Penelope Pênelopê
Translation Ancient Title Phineus Phineus
Medea Mêdeiai She Dwarf Batulê
Phaethon Phaethonti Sirens Seirênes
Slaves Paides
Soldier Women Stratiôtides
THEODORUS Theseus Thêseus
(GREEK; TRAGEDY) Tisamenus Teisamenos
Translation Ancient Title Tisamenus Tisamenos
Hermione Hermionê Women Hucksters Kapêlides
Satyrs as Sacrificers Thutês Saturoi
THESPIS (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
THEOGNETUS Translation Ancient Title
(GREEK; COMEDY) Games for Pelias or Phorbas Athla Peliou or Phorbas
Pentheus Pentheus
Translation Ancient Title
Priests Hiereis
Centaur Kentauros
Unmarried Youth? Êitheoi
Ghost or Miser Phasma or Philarguros
Lover of Master Philodespotês
THEUDOTUS?
THEOPHILUS (GREEK; COMEDY) (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Translation Ancient Title Translation Ancient Title
Abroad Apodêmoi Palamedes (satyr) Palamêdês Saturoi
Cithara Player Kitharôidos
Daughters of Proteus Proitides THUGENIDES
Doctor Iatros (GREEK; COMEDY)
Epidaurian Epidaurios
Lover of the Pipes Philaulos Translation Ancient Title
Neoptolemus Neoptolemos Jurors Dikastai
Pancratiast Pankratiastês
Woman of Boeotia Boiôtia TIMESITHEUS
(GREEK; TRAGEDY)
THEOPOMPUS
Translation Ancient Title
(GREEK; COMEDY) Capaneus Kapaneus
Translation Ancient Title Castor and Polydeuces Kastôr kai Poludeukês
Admetus Admêtos Danaids B Danaides B
Althea Althaia Demand for Helen’s Return Helenês Apaitêsis
 APPENDIX III 641

Heracles Hêraklês Phorcides (satyr) Phorkisi Saturikoi

Ixion Ixiôn Phrixus Phrixôi
Memnon B Memnôn B
Orestes and Pylades Orestês Puladês TIMOSTRATUS
Ransom of Hector Hektoros Lutra
Suitors Mnêsthres (GREEK; COMEDY)
Zeus’ Birth Zênos Gonai Translation Ancient Title
Deposit Parakatathêkê
Lover of Master Philodespotos
TIMOCLES (GREEK; COMEDY) Lover of One’s Relations Philoikeios
Translation Ancient Title Made a Citizen Dêmopoiêtos
Bath Balaneion Pan Pan
Boxer Puktês Profligate Asôtos
Busybody Polupragmôn Ransomed Man Lutroumenos
Centaur or Dexamenus Kentauros or Dexamenos
Consilaus Konisalos TIMOTHEUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Coworkers Sunergoi
Dionysus Dionusos Translation Ancient Title
Dracontium Drakontion Boxer Puktês
Egyptians Aiguptioi Deposit Parakatathêkê
Farmer Geôrgos Man Who Was Changed Metaballomenos or
Forgetfulness Lêthê Metapheromenos
Guardian Spirits Hêrôes Puppy Kunarion
Satyrs of the People Dêmosaturoi
Helpmates Sunerithoi TIMOTHEUS (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
Letters Epistolai
Lover of Being a Judge Philodikastês Translation Ancient Title
Man of Delos Dêlos Alcmeon Alkmeôn
Man of Pontus Pontikos Alphesiboea Alphesiboia
Marathonians Marathônioi
Men of Gaunus Kaunioi TIMOTHEUS II
Neaera Neaira (GREEK; COMEDY)
Orestautocleides Orestautokleidês
Person Who Rejoiced Epichairekakos Translation Ancient Title
Over the Neighbor’s Bad Fortune Man Returning a Kindness Anteuergetôn
Pseudorobbers Pseudolêistai
Purple Shell Porphura TIMOXENUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Ring Daktulios
Translation Ancient Title
Sappho Sapphô Concealing Man Sunkruptôn
Satyrs Saturoi
Women Worshiping Dionysus Dionusiazusai
TITINIUS (LATIN; FABULA
TOGATA)
TIMOCLES (GREEK; TRAGEDY) Translation Ancient Title
Translation Ancient Title Bearded Man? Barbatus
Icarians (satyr) Ikarioi Saturoi Blind Man Caecus
Lycurgus (satyr) Lukourgôi Saturikôi Female Harper or Ferentine Psaltria or Ferentinatis
Oedipus Oidipodi Flute Girl Tibicina
642 APPENDIX III

Fuller’s Trade Fullonia Sisters Adelphai

Hortensius Hortensius Thumoitadai Thumoitadai
Prilia Prilia Widow Chêra
Quintus? Quintus Woman Agreeing or Confessing? Homologousa
Stepdaughter Privigna Woman of Peparethia? Peparêthia
Twin Gemina Women of Salamis Salaminiai
Varus Varus Young Comrades Sunephêboi?
Woman of Insubria? Insubra? Zeuses? Dies
Woman of Setia? Setina
Woman of Velitrae Veliterna UNKNOWN AUTHOR
Woman Skilled in the Law Iurisperita
(GREEK; TRAGEDY)
TITUS QUINCTIUS ATTA Translation Ancient Title
Aegisthus Aigisthos
(LATIN; FABULA TOGATA) Agamemnon? Agamemnôn?
Translation Ancient Title Ajax Aias?
Father-in-Law or Mother-in-Law Socrus Ajax the Locrian Aias Lokros?
Hot Springs Aquae Caldae Aletes? or Sinner? Aleitês
Joy Gratulatio Amphiareôs Amphiareôs?
Matchmaker Conciliatrix Amymone (satyr) Amumônê Saturikê
Maternal Aunts Materterae Andromache Andromachê?
Medley Satura Argo (satyr) Argô Saturikê
Megalensia Megalensia Athamas Athamas
Night Work Lucubratio Atlas (satyr) Atlas Saturikos
Nurse Nurus Bacchae Bakchai?
Supplication Supplicatio Gassandra Kassandra
Tale of an Aedile? Aedilicia Chryses Chrusês
Tiro’s Departure Tiro Proficiscens Chrysippus Chrusippos
Cinyras Kinuras
Croesus Kroisos?
UNKNOWN AUTHOR Disciples (satyr) Mathêtai Saturoi
(GREEK; COMEDY) Epigoni Epigonoi
Erigone Êrigonê?
Translation Ancient Title
Eriphyle or Amphiaraus? Eriphulê or Amphiareôs?
Beggary Ptôcheia
Eurypylus Eurupulos
Braggart Alazôn
Gyges Gugês?
Calling of Mormoluke? Anaklêsis Mormolukês?
Hecabe Hekabê?
Competitors Sunagônistai
Hector Hektôr?
Cousins Anepsioi
Helios (satyr) Hêlios Saturikos?
Dream or Once Married Oneiros or Progamôn Helle Hellê
Erchians? Erchieis Hephaestus (satyr) Hêphaistos Saturikos?
Homonyms Homônumoi Heracles (satyr) Hêraklês Saturikos?
Ignorant Man Agnoôn Heracles Oetaeus Hêraklês (Oitaios)?
Liar Pseudomenos? Hermes (satyr) Hermês Saturikos
Mother of the Gods Mêtêr Theôn Hylas Hulas?
Nemesis Nemesis Iberians Ibêres
Once Married Progamôn Io (satyr) Io Saturikê?
Raised Together Suntrophoi? Iphigenia Iphigeneia?
Ring Daktulios Iris (satyr) Iris Saturikê?
 APPENDIX III 643

Ixion Ixiôn UNKNOWN AUTHOR

Medea Mêdeia
Melanippus or Merops Melanippos or Merops? (LATIN; MIME)
Meleagros Meleagros? Translation Ancient Title
Merops Merops? Bean Faba
Mute Ones Kôphoi Laserpiciarius Laserpiciarius
Mysians Musoi? Tutor Tutor
Neoptolemus Neoptolemos
Niobe Niobê
Odysseus Odusseus
UNKNOWN AUTHOR
Odysseus the False Messenger Odusseus Pseudangelos (LATIN; TRAGEDY)
Oedipus Oidipous
Translation Ancient Title
Oeneus Oineus?
Chorus of Proserpina Chorus Proserpinae
Oenopion Oinopiôn
Laomedon Laomedon
Oresteia Oresteia
Penthesilea Penthesilea
Orestes Orestês?
Song of Neleus Nelei Carmen
Orpheus Orpheus?
Trojan Horse Equus Troianus
Parthenopaeus Parthenopaios?
Peirithous Peirithous?
Persephone (satyr) Persephonê Saturikê? VALERIUS (LATIN; MIME)
Perseus (satyr) Perseus Saturikos?
Translation Ancient Title
Persians Persai
Phormio Phormio
Philoctetes (satyr) Philoktêtês Saturikos?
Philoctetes? Philoktêtês?
Phoenician Women Phoinissai? VATRONIUS (LATIN; COMEDY)
Phorcides (satyr) Phorkides Saturoi
Translation Ancient Title
Prometheus (satyr) Promêtheus Saturikos?
Burra Burra
Rhesus Rhêsos
Scylla Skulla
Scyrians Skurioi XENARCHUS (GREEK; COMEDY)
Seasons Hôrai
Seven against Thebes or Hepta Epi Thêbas or
Translation Ancient Title
Boutalion Boutaliôn
Phoenician Women? Foinissai?
Sons of Phineus Phineidai Pentathlete Pentathlos
Sphinx (satyr) Sphinx Saturikê Priapus Priapos
Telephus (satyr) Têlephos Saturikos Purple Shell Porphura
Triptolemus (satyr) Triptolemos Saturikos? Scythians Skuthai
Tyro Turô Sleep Hupnos
Tyro Turô? Soldier Stratiôtês
Voyage Apoplous Twins Didumoi
Women of Locria Lokrides?
XENOCLES (GREEK; TRAGEDY)
UNKNOWN AUTHOR
Translation Ancient Title
(LATIN; COMEDY) Athamas (satyr) Athamas Sat.
Translation Ancient Title Bacchae Bakchai
Brothers? Adelphoi? Licymnius Likumnios
Farmer Georgos Lycaon Lukaôn
Urn Hydria Mice? Mues?
 APPENDIX IV
CD
CHRONOLOGY 468
Sophocles’ first victory in dramatic competition
753 B.C.E.
467
Traditional date for founding of Rome
Aeschylus’ Seven against Thebes
534–32
463?
First tragedy produced by Thespis
Aeschylus’ Suppliant Women
525
458
Birth of Aeschylus
Aeschylus victorious with Agamemnon, Libation Bearers,
510 Eumenides, (see ORESTEIA), Proteus
Tyrant Hippias driven from Athens
456
496 Death of Aeschylus
Birth of Sophocles
455
490 Euripides’ first play (Peliades)
Athenian victory over Persians at Marathon
ca. 445?
486 Sophocles’ Ajax
First competition in comedy at the City Dionysia
442/441
485–480 Sophocles’ Antigone
Birth of Euripides
441
484 Euripides’ first victory in dramatic competition
Aeschylus’ first victory at Dionysia
438
480 Euripides’ Cretan Women, Alcmeon in Psophis, Telephus,
Greeks defeat Persians at Salamis Alcestis

472 435?
Aeschylus’ Persians Sophocles’ Trachinian Women

469 432
Birth of Socrates Parthenon completed

644
 APPENDIX IV 645

431 412
Outbreak of Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta Euripides’ Andromeda, Helen

431 411
Euripides’ Medea Aristophanes’ Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusae; oligarchic revo-
lution in Athens
ca. 430
Euripides’ Children of Heracles 410
Athenian victory over Spartans at Cyzicus led by Alcibiades
429
Death of Pericles; Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannos? ca. 409
Euripides’ Phoenician Women, Cyclops
428
Euripides’ Hippolytus 409
Sophocles’ Philoctetes
427
Aristophanes’ first play, Banqueters (Daitales); birth of the ca. 408
philosopher Plato Euripides’ Antiope

426 408
Aristophanes’ Babylonians; Euripides’ Andromache? Euripides’ Orestes; Aristophanes’ Wealth (lost version)

425 407
Aristophanes’ Acharnians Euripides’ Archelaus

424 406
Death of Euripides; death of Sophocles; Battle of Arginusae
Aristophanes’ Knights; Euripides’ Hecabe?
405
423
Aristophanes’ Frogs; Euripides’ Bacchae, Iphigenia at Aulis
Aristophanes’ Clouds (first production)
404
422
Defeat of Athens by Sparta in Peloponnesian War
Aristophanes’ Wasps; Euripides’ Suppliant Women?; death of
Athenian Cleon 401
Sophocles’ Oedipus at Colonus
421
Aristophanes’ Peace; Peace of Nicias between Athens and 399
Sparta Socrates put to death

ca. 417 392/391

Euripides’ Electra, Heracles Aristophanes’ Ecclesiazusae

415 388
Euripides’ Alexander, Palamedes, Trojan Women; departure of Aristophanes’ Wealth
Alcibiades from Athens ca. 385
414 Death of Aristophanes
Aristophanes’ Birds 384
413 Birth of Aristotle
Athenian expedition to Sicily destroyed; death of Athenian 347
statesman Nicias Death of the philosopher Plato
414–412 342/341
Euripides’ Ion, Iphigenia in Tauris Birth of Menander
646 APPENDIX IV

336 c. 159
Alexander becomes king of Macedon Death of Terence
ca. 330 55–52
Aristotle’s Poetics First stone theater built in Rome
323 44
Death of Alexander Julius Caesar assassinated
322 31
Death of Aristotle Defeat of Antony at Actium by Octavian (later named
Augustus)
316
Menander’s Dyscolus 20–10
Horace’s Ars Poetica written
ca. 291
Death of Menander ca. 4 B.C.E.
Birth of Seneca
ca. 250
Birth of Plautus 14 C.E.
Death of Augustus; beginning of reign of Tiberius
240
First Greek plays adapted for Roman audiences 37
Death of Tiberius; beginning of reign of Caligula
218
Beginning of Second Punic War (Rome versus Carthage) 41
Assassination of Caligula; beginning of reign of Claudius;
205
Seneca exiled
Plautus’ Braggart Warrior
48
201
Claudius’ wife, Messalina, put to death
Roman defeat of Carthage in Second Punic War
49
200
Seneca returns from exile; becomes Nero’s tutor; begins
Plautus’ Stichus
writing his tragedies (?)
191
53
Plautus’ Pseudolus
Nero’s marriage to Octavia
c. 190
54
Birth of Terence
Death of Claudius; beginning of reign of Nero
166
58
Terence’s Andria
Nero takes Poppaea as mistress
165 59
Terence’s first production of Mother-in-Law
Nero kills his mother, Agrippina
163 62
Terence’s Self-Tormentor Seneca retires from political service; Nero divorces Octavia;
161 Octavia is murdered
Terence’s Eunuch, Phormio 65
Suicide of Seneca; death of Poppaea
160
Terence’s Brothers, second and third productions of Mother- 68 C.E.
in-Law Suicide of Nero
 APPENDIX V
CD
SELECTED BOOKS ON Menander
Balme, M. Menander: The Plays and Fragments. Oxford:
CLASSICAL DRAMA Oxford University Press, 2001.
Miller, N. Menander: Plays and Fragments. London: Penguin,
TRANSLATIONS WITHOUT 1987.
COMMENTARY OR WITH Plautus
LIMITED COMMENTARY Watling, E. R. Plautus: The Pot of Gold, and Other Plays.
General Works Baltimore, Penguin, 1972.
Duckworth, G. E. The Complete Roman Drama. 2 vols. New ———. Plautus: The Rope, and Other Plays. Baltimore,
York: Random House, 1942. Penguin, 1964.
Grene, D., and R. Lattimore, eds. The Complete Greek
Seneca
Tragedies. 4 vols. Centennial ed. Chicago: University of
Watling, E. F. Seneca: Thyestes, Phaedra, The Trojan Women,
Chicago Press, 1992.
Oedipus, with Octavia. Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin,
Aeschylus 1972.
Fagles, R., trans. Aeschylus: The Oresteia. New York: Viking
Penguin, 1979. Sophocles
Fagles, R. Sophocles: The Three Theban Plays. Introductions
Aristophanes and notes by Bernard Knox. Harmondsworth, U.K.:
Barrett, D. Aristophanes: The Birds, The Assemblywomen. Penguin, 1984.
Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1978. Watling, E. F. Sophocles: Electra, and Other Plays. Baltimore:
———. Aristophanes: The Frogs, and Other Plays. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1953.
Penguin, 1964.
Sommerstein, A. H. Aristophanes: The Knights, Peace, Wealth. Terence
Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1978. Radice, B. Terence: The Comedies. Harmondsworth, U.K.:
———. Aristophanes: Lysistrata and Other Plays. Rev. ed. Penguin Books, 1976.
New York: Penguin, 2002.
Euripides ANCIENT TEXT AND
Davie, J. Euripides: Heracles and Other Plays. London: TRANSLATION
Penguin, 2002.
Vellacott, P. The Bacchae, and Other Plays: Ion, The Women of Aeschylus
Troy, Helen, The Bacchae. Harmondsworth, U.K: Penguin, Smyth, H. W. Aeschylus, with an English Translation. 2 vols.
1961. London, W. Heinemann, 1922–1926.

647
648 APPENDIX V

Aristophanes Denniston, D., and D. Page. Aeschylus: Agamemnon. Oxford:

Henderson, J. Aristophanes. 3 vols. Cambridge, Mass.: Clarendon Press, 1957.
Harvard University Press, 1998–2002. Fraenkel, E. Aeschylus: Agamemnon. 3 vols. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1950.
Euripides Garvie, A. F. Aeschylus: Choephoroi. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Kovacs, D. Euripides. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University 1986.
Press, 1994–2002. Hutchinson, G. O. Aeschylus: Seven against Thebes. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1985.
Menander
Sommerstein, A. H. Aeschylus: Eumenides. Cambridge, Mass.:
Arnott, W. G., ed. and trans. Menander. 3 vols. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979.

Plautus Aristophanes
Dover, K. J. Aristophanes: Clouds. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Nixon, P. Plautus, with an English Translation. 5 vols. London:
W. Heinemann, 1916–1938. 1989.
———. Aristophanes: Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993.
Seneca Dunbar, Nan. Aristophanes: Birds. New York: Oxford
Fitch, J. G. Seneca: Tragedies. 2 vols. Cambridge, Mass.: University Press, 1995.
Harvard University Press, 2002. Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon
Herrmann, L. Seneque: Tragedies. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, Press, 1987.
1961. MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes: Wasps. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1971.
Sophocles
Olson, S. D. Aristophanes: Peace. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Lloyd-Jones, H. L. Sophocles: Fragments. Cambridge, Mass.:
1998.
Harvard University Press, 1996.
Ussher, R. G. Aristophanes: Ecclesiazusae. Oxford: Clarendon
Storr, F. Sophocles; with an English translation. 2 vols. London:
Press, 1973.
W. Heinemann, 1928.

Terence Ennius
Jocelyn, H. D. The Tragedies of Ennius. Cambridge:
Barsby, J. Terence. 2 vols. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
Cambridge University Press, 1969.
University Press, 2001.

Fragments Euripides
Page, D. L. Select Papyri. Vol. 3. 1941. Reprint, London: Bond, G. W. Euripides: Heracles. London: Oxford University
Heinemann, 1970. Press, 1981.
Warmington, E. H. Remains of Old Latin: Ennius and ———. Euripides: Hypsipyle. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Caecilius. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University 1963.
Press, 1935. Dale, A. M. Euripides: Alcestis. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1954.
———. Remains of Old Latin: Livius Andronicus, Naevius, ———. Euripides: Helen. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967.
Pacuvius and Accius. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Harvard Denniston, J. D. Euripides: Electra. Oxford: The Clarendon
University Press, 1936. Press, 1954.
Diggle, J. Phaethon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
ANCIENT TEXT AND 1970.
Dodds, E. R. Euripides. Bacchae. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon
COMMENTARY Press, 1960.
Aeschylus Ferguson, J. Euripides: Medea and Electra: A Companion to the
Broadhead, H. D. Aeschylus: Persians. Cambridge: Penguin Translation. Bristol, U.K.: Bristol Classical Press,
Cambridge University Press, 1960. 1987.
Conacher, D. J. Aeschylus Oresteia: A Literary Commentary. Mastronarde, D. J Euripides: Medea. Cambridge: Duckworth,
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989. 2002.
———. Aeschylus’ Prometheus Bound: A Literary Commentary. ———. Euripides: Phoenissae. Cambridge: Cambridge
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980. University Press, 1994.
 APPENDIX V 649

Page, D. L. Euripides: Medea. Oxford: Oxford University Martin, R. H. Terence: Adelphoe. Cambridge: Cambridge
Press, 1938. University Press, 1976.
Seaford, R. Euripides: Cyclops. Oxford: Oxford University Wessner, P., ed. Donatus: Aeli Donati quod Fertur Commentum
Press, 1984. Terenti. 2 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1902, 1905.
Stevens, P. T. Euripides: Andromache. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1971. ANCIENT TEXT, TRANSLATION,
Wilkins, J. Euripides: Heraclidae. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1993. AND COMMENTARY
Willink, C. W. Euripides. Orestes. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Aeschylus
1986. Hall, E. Aeschylus: Persians. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
Phillips, 1996.
Menander
Lloyd-Jones, H. Aeschylus: Agamemnon. Englewood Cliffs,
Gomme, A. W. Menander: A Commentary. London: Oxford
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970.
University Press, 1973.
Podlecki, A. J. Aeschylus: Eumenides. Warminster, U.K.: Aris
Plautus & Phillips, 1992.
Christenson, D. Plautus: Amphitruo. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2000.
Aristophanes
Sommerstein, A. H. The Comedies of Aristophanes. 11 vols.
Gratwick, A. S. Plautus: Menaechmi. Cambridge: Cambridge
Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1980–2001.
University Press, 1993.
Ussing, J. L. Commentarius in Plauti Comoedias: Denuo eden- Euripides
dum curavit indicibus auxit Andreas Thierfelder. Hildesheim: Allan, W. Euripides: The Children of Heracles. Warminster,
G. Olms, 1972. U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 2001.
Barlow, S. A. Euripides: Heracles. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
Seneca
Phillips, 1996.
Costa, C. D. N. Seneca: Medea. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Collard, C. Euripides: Hecuba. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
1973.
Phillips, 1991.
Fitch, J. G. Seneca’s Hercules Furens. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
Collard, C., M. J. Cropp, and K. H. Lee. Euripides: Selected
University Press, 1987.
Fragmentary Plays. Vol. 1. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
Sophocles Phillips, 1995.
Davies, M. Sophocles: Trachiniae. Oxford: Oxford University Conacher, D. J. Euripides: Alcestis. Warminster, U.K: Aris &
Press, 1991. Phillips, 1988.
Easterling, P. E. Trachiniae. Cambridge: Cambridge Craik, E. Euripides: Phoenician Women. Warminster, U.K.:
University Press, 1982. Aris & Phillips, 1988.
Griffith, M. Sophocles: Antigone. Cambridge: Cambridge Cropp, M. J. Euripides: Electra. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
University Press, 1999. Phillips, 1988.
Kells, J. H. Sophocles: Electra. Cambridge: Cambridge ———. Euripides: Iphigenia in Tauris. Warminster, U.K.: Aris
University Press, 1973. & Phillips, 2000.
Pearson, A. C. The Fragments of Sophocles. 3 vols. With addi- Halleran, M. Euripides: Hippolytus. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
tional notes from the papers of Sir R. C. Jebb and W. G. Phillips, 1995.
Headlam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1917. Lee, K. F. Euripides: Ion. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips,
Webster, T. B. L. Philoctetes. Cambridge: Cambridge 1997.
University Press, 1970. Lloyd, M. Euripides: Andromache. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
Wilkins, J., and M. Macleod. Sophocles, Antigone and Oedipus Phillips, 1994.
the King: A Companion to the Penguin Translation of Robert Seaford, R. Euripides: Bacchae. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
Fagles. Bristol, U.K.: Bristol Classical Press, 1987. Phillips, 1996.

Terence Menander
Barsby, J. Terence: Eunuchus. Cambridge: Cambridge Bain, D. M. Menander: Samia. Warminster, U.K.: Aris &
University Press, 1999. Phillips, 1983.
650 APPENDIX V

Ireland, S. Menander: The Bad-Tempered Man Dyskolos. Griffith, M. The Authenticity of Prometheus Bound.
Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1995. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Harrison, T. The Emptiness of Asia: Aeschylus’ Persians and the
Plautus History of the Fifth Century. London: Duckworth, 2000.
Barsby, J. Plautus: Bacchides. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Herington, C. J. Aeschylus. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
Phillips, 1986.
University Press, 1986.
Seneca Ireland, S. “Aeschylus.” In Greece and Rome: New Surveys in
Boyle, A. J. Seneca: Troades. Leeds, U.K.: Cairns, 1994. the Classics 18. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
Hine, H. M. Seneca: Medea. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Konishi, H. The Plot of Aeschylus’ Oresteia: A Literary
Phillips, 2000. Commentary. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1990.
Kuhns, R. The House, The City and The Judge: The Growth of
Sophocles Moral Awareness in the Oresteia. Indianapolis: Bobbs-
Garvie, A. F. Sophocles. Ajax. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Merrill, 1962.
Phillips, 1998. Lebeck, A. The Oresteia: A Study in Language and Structure.
Sutton, D. F. The Lost Sophocles. Lanham, Md.: University Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971.
Press of America, 1984. McCall, M., ed. Aeschylus: A Collection of Critical Essays.
Ussher, R. G., Sophocles: Philoctetes. Warminster, U.K.: Aris Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1972.
& Phillips, 1990. Michelini, A. N. Tradition and Dramatic Form in The Persians
of Aeschylus. Leiden: Brill, 1982.
Terence
Murray, G. Aeschylus: The Creator of Tragedy. 1940. Reprint,
Brothers, A. J. Terence: The Eunuch. Warminster, U.K.: Aris
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978.
& Phillips, 2000.
Otis, Brooks. Cosmos and Tragedy: An Essay on the Meaning of
———. Terence: The Self-Tormentor. Warminster, U.K.: Aris
& Phillips, 1988. Aeschylus. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
Gratwick, A. S. Terence: The Brothers. Warminster, U.K.: Aris 1981.
& Phillips, 1999. Owen, E. T. The Harmony of Aeschylus. Toronto: Clarke,
Ireland, S. Terence: The Mother-in-Law. Warminster, U.K.: Irwin, 1952.
Aris & Phillips, 1990. Podlecki, A. J. The Political Background of Aeschylean Tragedy.
Martin, R. H. Terence: Phormio. London: Methuen, 1959. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966.
Prag, A. J. N. W. The Oresteia: Iconographic and Narrative
Tradition. Chicago: Bolchazy-Carducci, 1985.
SCHOLARLY INTERPRETATION: Roberts, D. H. Apollo and His Oracle in the Oresteia.
AESCHYLUS Gottingen, Ger.: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984.
Bloom, H. Aeschylus: Comprehensive Research and Study Rosenmeyer, T. G. The Art of Aeschylus. Berkeley: University
Guide. New York: Chelsea House Publishing, 2001. of California Press, 1982.
Cameron, H. D. Studies on the Seven against Thebes of Scott, W. C. Musical Design in Aeschylean Theater. Hanover,
Aeschylus. Den Haag: Mouton, 1971. N.H.: University Press of New England, 1984.
Conacher, D. J. Aeschylus: The Earlier Plays and Related Smith, P. M. On the Hymn to Zeus in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon.
Studies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996. Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1980.
Finley, J. H. Pindar and Aeschylus. Martin Classical Lectures Smyth, H. W. Aeschylean Tragedy. 1924. Reprint, Berkeley:
14. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966. University of California Press, 1969.
Gagarin, M. Aeschylean Drama. Berkeley: University of Solmsen, F. Hesiod and Aeschylus. With a new foreword by
California Press, 1976. G. M. Kirkwood. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press,
Golden, L. In Praise of Prometheus: Humanism and 1995.
Rationalism in Aeschylean Thought. Chapel Hill: University Sommerstein, A. H. Aeschylean Tragedy. Bari, Italy: Levante,
of North Carolina Press, 1966. 1996.
Goldhill, S. Aeschylus: The Oresteia. Cambridge: Cambridge Spatz, L. Aeschylus. Boston: Twayne, 1982.
University Press, 1992. Sullivan, S. D. Aeschylus’ Use of Psychological Terminology:
———. Language, Sexuality, Narrative, the Oresteia. Traditional and New. Montreal: McGill-Queens University
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Press, 1997.
 APPENDIX V 651

Taplin, O. The Stagecraft of Aeschylus: The Dramatic Use of ———. Yale Classical Studies. Vol. 26, Aristophanes. New
Exits and Entrances in Greek Tragedy. Oxford: Oxford Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980.
University Press, 1990. Hubbard, T. K. The Mask of Comedy: Aristophanes and the
Thalmann, W. G. Dramatic Art in Aeschylus’ Seven against Intertextual Parabasis. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
Thebes. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1978. Press, 1991.
Thomson, G. D. Aeschylus and Athens: A Study in the Social Lada-Richards, I. Initiating Dionysus: Ritual and Theatre in
Origins of Drama. 1941. Reprint, London: Lawrence & Aristophanes’ Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999.
Wishart, 1969. Lord, L. E. Aristophanes: His Plays and Influence. New York:
Vellacott, P. The Logic of Tragedy. Morals and Integrity in Cooper Square, 1963.
Aeschylus’ Oresteia. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, MacDowell, D. M. Aristophanes and Athens: An Introduction to
1984. the Plays. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Wartelle, A. Bibliographie historique et critique d’Eschyle et de McLeish, K. The Theatre of Aristophanes. London: Thames
la tragedie grecque, 1518–1974. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, and Hudson, 1980.
1978. Moulton, C. Aristophanic Poetry. Göttingen, Ger.:
West, M. L. Studies in Aeschylus. Stuttgart: B. G. Teubner, 1990. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981.
Whallon, W. Problem and Spectacle: Studies in the Oresteia. Murray, G. Aristophanes: A Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1980. 1933.
Winnington-Ingram, R. P. Studies in Aeschylus. Cambridge: Parker, L. P. E., The Songs of Aristophanes. Oxford: Clarendon
Cambridge University Press, 1983. Press, 1996.
Zeitlin, F. I. Under the Sign of the Shield: Semiotics and Quicke, A. C. Aristophanes and Athenian Old Comedy. A
Aeschylus’ Seven against Thebes: Filologia e Critica. Roma: Survey and Bibliography of Twentieth-Century Criticism.
Edizioni dell’ Ateneo, 1982. Thesis: London Library Association, 1982.
Rabinowitz, N. S. Anxiety Veiled: Euripides and the Traffic in
SCHOLARLY INTERPRETATION: Women. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993.
Reckford, K. J. Aristophanes’ Old and New Comedy. Chapel
ARISTOPHANES Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987.
Bowie, A. M. Aristophanes: Myth, Ritual, and Comedy. Rothwell, K. S. Politics and Persuasion in Aristophanes’
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Ecclesiazusae. Leiden: Brill, 1990.
Cartledge, P. Aristophanes and His Theatre of the Absurd. Russo, C. F. Aristophanes, an Author for the Stage. London
London: Bristol Classical Press, 1990. and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Croiset, M. Aristophanes and Political Parties at Athens. Segal, Erich, ed. Oxford Readings in Aristophanes. Oxford:
Translated by J. Loeb. London: Macmillan, 1909. Oxford University Press, 1996.
Dearden, C. W. The Stage of Aristophanes. London: Athlone Silk, M. S. Aristophanes and the Definition of Comedy. Oxford:
Press, 1976. Oxford University Press, 2000.
Dover, K. J. Aristophanic Comedy. Berkeley: University of Spatz, L. Aristophanes. Boston: Twayne, 1978.
California Press, 1972, 49–53. Stone, L. M. Costume in Aristophanic Poetry. New York: Arno
Ehrenberg, V. The People of Aristophanes: A Sociology of Old Press, 1981.
Attic Comedy. 3d rev. ed. New York: Schocken Books, 1962. Strauss, L. Socrates and Aristophanes. Chicago: University of
Harriot, R. M. Aristophanes: Poet and Dramatist. London: Chicago Press, 1980.
Croom Helm, 1986. Sutton, D. F. Self and Society in Aristophanes. Washington,
Harvey, D., and J. Wilkins, eds. The Rivals of Aristophanes: D.C.: University Press of America, 1980.
Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. London: Duckworth and Taaffe, L. K. Aristophanes and Women. New York: Routledge,
the Classical Press of Wales, 2000. 1993.
Heath, M. Political Comedy in Aristophanes. Göttingen, Ger.: Ussher, R. G. Aristophanes. Greece and Rome New Surveys
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987. in the Classics 13. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979.
Henderson, J. Aristophanes: Essays in Interpretation. Van Steen, G. Venom in Verse. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. University Press, 2000.
———. The Maculate Muse. 2d ed. New York: Oxford Vickers, M. Pericles on Stage: Political Comedy in Aristophanes’
University Press, 1991. Early Plays. Austin: University of Texas, 1997.
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Whitman, C. H. Aristophanes and the Comic Hero. ———. Tragic Aporia: A Study of Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964. Berwick, Australia: Aureal, 1988.
McDermott, E. A. Euripides’ Medea: The Incarnation of Disorder.
London: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1989.
SCHOLARLY INTERPRETATION: Michelini, A. N. Euripides and the Tragic Tradition. Madison:
EURIPIDES University of Wisconsin Press, 1987.
Ahl, F. Trojan Women. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, Mossman, J., ed. Oxford Readings in Euripides. Oxford:
1986. Oxford University Press, 2003.
Allan, W. Euripides: Medea. London: Duckworth, 2002. ———. Wild Justice: A Study of Euripides’ Hecuba. Oxford:
Barlow, S. A. The Imagery of Euripides. 2d ed. London: Clarendon Press, 1995.
Methuen, 1986. Murray, G. Euripides and His Age. 2d ed. New York and
Burian, P., ed. Directions in Euripidean Criticism. Durham, London: Oxford University Press 1946.
N.C.: Duke University Press, 1985. Norden, E. Ennius und Vergilius: Kriegsbilder aus Roms grosser
Burnett, A. P. Catastrophe Survived: Euripides’ Plays of Mixed Zeit. Leipzig: Teubner, 1915.
Oranje, H. Euripides’ Bacchae. The Play and Its Audience.
Reversal. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971.
Leiden: Brill, 1984.
Collard, C. Euripides. Greece and Rome New Surveys in the
Porter, J. R. Studies in Euripides’ Orestes. Leiden and New
Classics No. 14. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.
York: Brill, 1994.
Conacher, D. J. Euripidean Drama: Myth, Theme and
Powell, A., ed. Euripides, Women and Sexuality. London:
Structure. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967.
Routledge, 1989.
———. Euripides and the Sophists. London: Duckworth 1998.
Pucci, P. The Violence of Pity in Euripides’ Medea. Ithaca, N.Y.:
Cropp, M., and G. Fick. Resolutions and Chronology in
Cornell University Press, 1980.
Euripides: The Fragmentary Tragedies. London: Institute of
Riemer, P. Die Alkestis des Euripides: Untersuchungen zur tragis-
Classical Studies, University of London, 1985.
chen Form. Frankfurt am Main, Ger.: Athenaum, 1990.
Cropp, M., and K. Lee, eds. Euripides and Tragic Theatre in Ritchie, W. The Authenticity of the Rhesus of Euripides.
the Late Fifth Century. Champaign, Ill.: Stipes, 2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964.
Dunn, F. Tragedy’s End: Closure and Innovation in Euripidean Segal, Charles. Dionysiac Poetics and Euripides’ Bacchae.
Drama. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Expanded ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
Foley, H. P. Ritual Irony: Poetry and Sacrifice in Euripides. 1997.
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985. ———. Euripides and the Poetics of Sorrow: Art, Gender, and
Goff, B. The Noose of Words: Readings of Desire, Violence and Commemoration in Alcestis, Hippolytus, and Hecuba.
Language in Euripides, Hippolytus. Cambridge: Cambridge Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993.
University Press, 1990. Segal, Erich, ed. Twentieth Century Interpretations of
Gregory, J. Euripides and the Instruction of the Athenians. Ann Euripides. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991. Vellacott, P. Ironic Drama: A Study of Euripides’ Method and
Grube, G. M. A. The Drama of Euripides. London: Methuen, Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975.
1941. Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides. London:
Halleran, M. Stagecraft in Euripides. London: Croom Helm, Methuen, 1962.
1985. Whitman, C. H. Euripides and the Full Circle of Myth.
Jong, I. de. Narrative in Drama: The Art of the Euripidean Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974.
Messenger-Speech. Leiden: Brill, 1991. Winnington-Ingram, R. P. Euripides and Dionysus: An
Kirk, G. S. The Bacchae. Cambridge: Cambridge University Interpretation of the Bacchae. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1969.
Press, 1979. Yunis, H. A. New Creed: Fundamental Religious Beliefs in the
Kovacs, D. Euripidea. Leiden: Brill, 1994. Athenian Polis and Euripidean Drama. Göttingen, Ger.:
———. The Heroic Muse: Studies in the Hippolytus and Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988.
Hecuba of Euripides. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1987. SCHOLARLY INTERPRETATION:
Lloyd, M. The Agon in Euripides. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1992.
MENANDER
Luschnig, C. A. E. The Gorgon’s Severed Head: Studies in Blundell, J. Menander and the Monologue. Göttingen, Ger.:
Alcestis, Electra, and Phoenissae. Leiden: Brill, 1995. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1980.
 APPENDIX V 653

Frost, K. B. Exits and Entrances in Menander. Oxford: Oxford Langen, P. Beiträge zur Kritik und Erklärung des Plautus.
University Press, 1988. 1880. Reprint, Hildesheim, Ger.: G. Olms, 1973.
Goldberg, S. M. The Making of Menander’s Comedy. Berkeley: Lefèvre, Eckard. Plautus und Philemon. Tübingen, Ger.: G.
University of California Press, 1980. Narr, 1995.
Handley, E. and A. Hurst, eds. Relire Ménandre. Geneva: Lefèvre, E., E. Stärk, and G. Vogt-Spira. Plautus barbarus:
Droz, 1990. Sechs Kapitel zur Originalität des Plautus. ScriptOralia 25.
Henry, M. M. Menander’s Courtesans and the Greek Comic Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1991.
Tradition. Frankfurt: P. Lang, 1985. Leo, F. Plautinische Forschungen zur Kritik und Geschichte der
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 INDEX
CD
Note: Page numbers in boldface Acestor 2 Acraea 8 Aegeus 14–15
indicate main entries. Achaeans 2 Acrisius 8, 421 in Medea (Euripides) 329,
Achaeus 2–3, 248 acropolis 8–9, 414 331
Acharnae 3 Acroteleutium 96–97, 98 Medea and 328
A Acharnians (Aristophanes) 3–5 Actaeon 9 Theseus and 536–537
Abae 1 agora in 24 Acte 9 Aegina (character) 13
Absyrtus (Apsyrtus) 1 Amphitheus in 3, 38 acting styles 9 Aegina (island) 13, 15
Aeetes and 14 braggart warrior in 94 Actor (character) 9, 501 Aegiplanctus 15
Jason and 297 Cephisophon in 126 actors 9–10 aegis 15, 74
Acamas 1, 131 Dicaeopolis in 3–5, Aeschylus and 18 Aegisthus 15–16
Acanthio 344 171–172, 317, 572 Sophocles use of third actor Clytemnestra and 145
Acastus (Akastos) 1–2 Euripides in 214 513 in Electra (Euripides)
Jason and 298 informants in 278 technites (technitai) 528–529 189–192
Peleus and 415 Lysistrata comparison in tragedy 558 in Electra (Sophocles)
acceptance and rejection, in 320–321 adamant 10 193–195
Menaechmi (Plautus) 340 Peace comparison 412 Adeimantus 10 Electra and 188–189
Accius 2 Acheloan cities 5 Adelphasium 114–115 in Oresteia (Aeschylus)
Aegisthus 16 Achelous (Acheloos) 5–6, 553, Adelphoi. See The Brothers 390–391, 393–394
Andromeda 51 556 Adeues 10
Aegocerus 16
Antigone 53 Acheron 6 aditus maximus 10
Aegospotami, battle of 10
Astyanax 71 Achilles 6–8 Admetus 10–11
Aegyptus 16, 167
Atreus 76 Agamemnon and 7, 20 in Alcestis (Euripides)
Aegyptus, sons of 16, 167,
Bacchae 80–81 in The Award of Arms 79 30–31
521–523
Chrysippus 137 Briseis and 99 Alcestis and 30
Aello 233
Clytemnestra 146 Calchas and 108 Jason and the Argonauts and
Deiphobus 168 Chiron and 133 296 Aeneas 16, 477
Didascalica 2 Cycnus (2) and 163 Pheres and 430 Aenianes 16
Epigoni 202 Hector and 7, 242 Adonia 11 Aeolus 16, 335
Eurysaces 216 in Iphigenia at Aulis Adonis 11–12 Aerope 16–17
Io 279 (Euripides) 7, 287, 288, Adrasteia 12 Aeschinades 17
The Judgment of Arms 79 289 Adrastus 12–13 Aeschines 17
Medea 328 Lycomedes and 315 Eriphyle and 205 Aeschinus 100–102, 103
Meleager 336 Odysseus and 6, 373 in Suppliant Women Aeschylus (Aischylos) 17–19
Myrmidons 56 Patroclus and 6, 409 (Euripides) 12, 523–526 Agamemnon. See Agamemnon
Pelop’s Sons 418 Polyxena and 458 Tydeus and 12, 573 on Artaphrenes 69
Philoctetes 434 Priam and 462 Adria 13 Bacchae 80, 82
Pragmatica 2 Telephus and 6, 529 adulescens (adulescentes) 13, 454 and Bacchae (Euripides)
Prometheus 465 Thetis and 6–7, 541 Aeacus 13, 222 82–83
Sons of Aeneas 16 in Trojan Women (Seneca) Aeaea 138 Bassarides 89
The Sons of Antenor 52 566, 567, 568 aedile 13, 134 Dictyulci 172
Sotadica 2 Achilles Thersitoktonos Aeetes 1, 14, 297 Eumenides. See Eumenides
tragedy and 559 (Chaeremon) 536 Aegean Sea 14 in Frogs (Aristophanes)
acclamatio (acclamationes) 2 Acis 226 Aegeira 14 222–223, 224, 225

661
662 INDEX

Aeschylus (continued) justice in 299–300, 393 Alcides 33 in Hercules Furens (Seneca)

The Judgment of Arms 79 Trachinian Women (Sophocles) Alcippe 232 42, 255–257
Libation Bearers. See Libation comparison 555 Alcmena (Alcmene, Alcumena) Pterelas and 473
Bearers Agamemnon (Seneca) 21–23, 122 33–34 Amyclae 42
Myrmidons 56 Agatharchus 509 in Amphitruo (Plautus) 39, Amymone 42–43
Nemea 363 Agathon 23, 538–539, 540 40, 41 Amynias (1) 43
Nereids 364 Agave 23, 82, 83 Amphitryon (Amphitruo) Amynias (2) 43
Niobe 367 Agbatana See Ecbatana and 33–34, 41 Amynon 43
Oresteia (Aeschylus) 129, Agdistis 77 in Children of Heracles Amyntor 443
389–395 Agenor 23 (Euripides) 131, 132 Anacreon 43
Palamedes 403 Aglaia 231 Electryon and 196 anagnorisis 43
Perseus trilogy 421 Aglaope 507 Heracles and 33, 34, 249 Anagyrous 43
Persians 76, 424–427 Aglauros 23 in Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca) analemma (analemmata) 43
Philoctetes 433, 436–437 agon 23, 580 258, 259, 260 anandria 425
Phineus 438 agonothetes 23 Alcmeon (Alcmeo) 34–35 anandros 425
Prometheus Bound. See agora 23–24 Achelous and 5 Anaphlystus 43–44
Prometheus Bound Agoracritus 24 Alphesiboea and 36 anapiesma 44
Prometheus Unbound 465 Agorastocles 113–115 Epigoni and 34–35, 202 Anaxandrides 469
Seven Against Thebes 94, 130, Agrippa 78 and Harmonia’s necklace and Anaxilas 110
207, 500–503 Agrippina the Elder 24, 370, robe 233 Ancaeus 44
Sisyphus plays 508 371, 372 Alcmeon in Corinth (Euripides) 35 Andria (The Girl from Andros;
Suppliant Women 279, Agrippina the Younger 24–25 Alcyone 128 Terence) 44–47
521–523, 525 Agrius 173, 536 Aletes (Aleites) 35 Androcles 47
themes 18–19 Agyieus. See Apollo Aleus 35–36 Androgeus 352
on war 18 Agyrrhius 25 Alexander. See Paris Andromache 47–48
Women of Aetna 19 Ajax (1) (Aias) 25–26 Alexander (Euripides) 562 in Andromache (Euripides)
Women of Aetna (Aeschylus) in Ajax (Sophocles) 25–26, Alexandra. See Cassandra 48–51
19 26–29 Alexandria 36
in Trojan Women (Euripides)
The Women of Salamis 486 in The Award of Arms or The Alexicacus 36
563, 565
works 17, 593–594 Judgment of Arms 79 Alexis 149, 568
in Trojan Women (Seneca)
Aesculapius. See Asclepius Hector and 242 Alis. See Elis
566–567
Aesimus 19 Teucer and 532 Alope 36
Andromache (Euripides) 48–51
Aeson 296 Ajax (2) 22, 26 Alphesiboea 36–37
Hermione in 48–51, 261
Aesop 19 Ajax (Sophocles) 25–26, 26–29 Althaea 37, 336
revealing character in 129
Aethra 523–526, 536 Antigone comparison 55–56 Amalthea 387
Trachinian Women (Sophocles)
Aetna (Etna) 19 Athena (Minerva) in 26, 27, Amazons 37, 57
comparison 555
Aetolia/Aetolians 19 29, 74 Ameipsias 37, 153
Andromeda 51–52, 421
Afranius 19–20 Calchas in 108 amicitia 546
Agamemnon 20–21 Heracles (Euripides) compari- amicus 546 Andromeda (Accius) 51
Achilles and 7, 20 son 251 Ammon 37–38 Andromeda (Ennius) 51
Aegisthus and 15–16 akosmos 425 Amor See Eros Andronicus, Livius 559
in Agamemnon (Aeschylus) Alcaeus (1) 29 Amphiaraus 38 Andros 52
389–390, 393–394 Alcaeus (2) 30 Eriphyle and 205 angelos 347
in Agamemnon (Seneca) Alcesimarchus 119–121 in Seven Against Thebes anger
21–22 Alcesimus 116–118 (Aeschylus) 501, 502–503 in Samia (Menander) 489
in Ajax (Sophocles) 26, 27, Alcestis 30 Seven against Thebes and in Medea (Seneca) 332
28 Admetus and 10–11, 30 38, 468 angiportum 52
Briseis and 99 in Alcestis (Euripides) 30–31 Amphion 176, 534 Aniteia 267
Cassandra and 122 Pheres and 430 amphitheater 38 anodos drama 291–292
Chryses and 20, 136 Alcestis (Euripides) 30–32 Amphitheus 3, 38 Anphion 57–58
Clytemnestra and 145 Admetus in 11, 30–31 Amphitruo (Plautus) 38–41 Antaeus 52
Eurybates and 215 antilabe in 56 Amphitryon (Amphitruo) in antagonist 52
in Hecabe (Euripides) 238, Apollo in 30, 60 38–41, 42 Antamonides 114, 115
239, 240–241 as anodos drama 291–292 irony in 294 Antenor 52
in Iphigenia at Aulis Heracles in 30–31, 250, 251 twins, complications of 86 Anterastilis 114–115
(Euripides) 286–289 hypotheses in 274 Zeus in 590–591 Anthesteria 137, 452
Menelaus and 343 Orestes comparison 398–399 Amphitryon (Amphitruo) 41–42 Antheus (Agathon) 23
Orestes and 395 Pheres in 31, 430 Alcmena and 33, 34, 41 antidosis 52–53
Telephus and 529 revealing character in 129 in Amphitruo (Plautus) Antigone 53
Agamemnon (Oresteia; Aeschylus) sacrificial maiden in 133 38–41, 42 in Antigone (Sophocles)
389–390, 392–394 Alcibiades 32–33 Cephalus (3) and 126 53–56
Cassandra in 121, 122, Androcles and 47 Electryon and 41, 196 Haemon and 232
389–390 Peisetaerus comparison 93 in Heracles (Euripides) in Oedipus at Colonus
Clytemnestra in 145, Peloponnesian War 417 41–42, 251–254 (Sophocles) 378, 379,
389–390 Philoctetes comparison 436 Heracles and 41–42, 249 380, 381
 INDEX 663

in Oedipus Tyrannos in Oedipus (Seneca) 375, 376 Diomedes (2), prince of 173 Aristophontes 111
(Sophocles) 384 in Oresteia (Aeschylus) Pelasgus (king) 414 Aristotle 68
in Phoenician Women 391–392 in Seven Against Thebes on catharsis 123
(Euripides) 439, 440–441, in Orestes (Euripides) 398, (Aeschylus) 500–503 on chorus 135
442, 443 399 in Suppliant Women on Crates 154
in Seven Against Thebes paeans 402 (Aeschylus) 521–523 on hamartia 233
(Aeschylus) 501–502 Python and 475 in Suppliant Women on mimesis 351
Antigone (Sophocles) 53–56 in Searchers (Sophocles) 493 (Euripides) 523–526 on Oedipus Tyrannos
Ajax comparison 28, 29, Tiresias and 551 Argus (1) 65, 296 (Sophocles) 384–385
55–56 Apology (Plato) 67, 144, 511 Argus (2) 65 on prologues 464
Creon (1) in 53–56, 155 appearance v. reality Argyrippus 150–151, 152 on Sophocles 513
Haemon in 54, 55, 56, 232 in Helen (Euripides) 246–247 Ariadne 65–66, 166, 537 on tragedy 384–385, 490,
imagery in 277 in Oedipus Tyrannos Arian 66 557
Ismene in 53–56, 294 (Sophocles) 385–386 Arignotus 66 Aristyllus 68
antilabe 56 Arabes 60 Arimaspians 66, 231 Artaphrenes (1) (Artaphernes)
Antilochus 56–57, 365 Arabia 60 Ariphrades 66 69
Antimachus 57 Arachnaeus 60 Aristaeus 66 Artaphrenes (2) (Artaphernes)
Antiope (1) (Hippolyta) 57, 176 Arai See curses Aristarchus 66 69
Antiope (2) 57 Araros 107 Aristides 66 Artemis (Diana) 69
Antiope (Euripides) 57–58, 261 The Arbitration (Epitrepontes; Aristocrates 491 Actaeon and 9
Antiphanes 533, 575 Menander) 60–62 Aristodemus 156 Agamemnon and 20
Antiphila 494 Arcadia 62 Aristogeiton 233 Brauron and 99
Antipho 445–448, 516–518 Arcadian boar 62 Aristophanes 66–68 Callisto and 109
Antiphon 58, 336 Arcady See Arcadia Acharnians. See Acharnians Erigone and 205
Antisthenes 58 Arcas 109 on Aeschylus 17, 18 in Hippolytus (Euripides) 69,
antistrophe 58 Archedemus 62 agon, use of 23 265, 266
Antonius (Marcus Antonius, Marc Archegetis 62 on Ariphrades 66 Hippolytus and 265
Antony) 58–59, 77–78 Archelaus 62 Babylonians 80
in Iphigenia at Aulis
Ant-People (Pherecrates) 430 Archenomus 62 Birds. See Birds
(Euripides) 286, 287
anxiety. See fear and anxiety Archeptolemus 62–63 Carthaginian 94
in Iphigenia in Tauris
Apaturia 59 Archillis 568–569 chorus, use of 135
(Euripides) 289–293
Aphrodite (Venus) 59 architekton 63 on Cinesias 138
Leto and 313
Adonis and 11–12 archmime 63, 350 Cleisthenes and 140
Meleager and 336
Ares (Mars) and 64 archons 63 Cleon and 140–141
Orion and 69, 400
Cloacina, epithet 142 Arctophylax 63 on Cleonymus 141
Tauropolia (festival) 528
Colias (title) 147 Arctos 63 Clouds. See Clouds
titles and epithets 147, 528,
Eos and 197 Arcturus 63, 480, 483 compared to Menander
561
Eris and 206 Areopagus 63–64 342
Glaucus (2) and 230 Ares (Mars) 64 and Cratinus 155 Artemisia 69–70
in Hippolytus (Euripides) 59, Areopagus and 63 on dithyrambs 177 Artemisium 70
265, 266, 268 Cadmus and 106 Ecclesiazusae (Women in Artemon 70
Hippolytus and 265 Cycnus (3) and 164 Assembly). See Artemona 150, 151–152
in Rope (Plautus) 483–484 Eris and 206 Ecclesiazusae Artists of Dionysus 9–10
in Trojan Women (Euripides) Halirrhothius and 232 eccyclema, use of 187 Asclepius (Aesculapius) 70
564 Arges 161 on Euripides 214 Ascondas 70
Apia 59 Argia 12 Frogs. See Frogs Asia 70
Apis 59 Arginusae 64 heroes 5, 24, 67, 68, 92–93, Asinaria. See Comedy of Asses
Apoecides 199–200, 201 Arginusae, naval battle at 64, 171–172, 317, 572 Asopus 70–71
Apollo 60 110, 203, 224, 543 impact of Peloponnesian War Aspasia 71
Admetus and 10–11 Argives. See Argos/Argives on 417 Aspis. See The Shield
in Alcestis (Euripides) 30 Argo 64 Knights 24, 62–63, 301–304 Assemblywomen. See Ecclesiazusae
Artemis (Diana) and 69 Argonauts 296–298. See also on Lamachus 308 Astacus 71
Asclepius (Aesculapius) and Jason Lysistrata See Lysistrata Astaphium 568–570, 571
70 Acastus 1 Niobe 367 Astraea 71
and Cassandra 121 Clashing Rocks and 139 parabases, use of 405 Astyanax 71
Creusa (1) and 157 Hylas (1) and 273 parody, use of 408 in Trojan Women (Euripides)
Delphic oracle and 169 Ismon 277 Peace 90, 92, 320–321, 563–564, 565
Helenus and 247 on Lemnos 311 410–413, 572 in Trojan Women (Seneca)
and Hermes (Mercury) Lynceus 316 prologues 464 566–568
260–261 Mopsus 354 Thesmophoriazusae See Astydameia 1–2, 415
Hyporcheme and 274 Peleus and 415 Thesmophoriazusae Atalanta (Atalante) 71–72, 336
in Ion (Euripides) 281–284 Phineus and 438 Wasps. See Wasps Atalanta (Pacuvius) 72
Ion (2) and 280 Argos/Argives 65 Wealth 171, 455, 582–585 Atê 72
Laomedon and 310 Acrisius and 8 Women of Lemnos 311 Atellana. See Fabula Atellana
Leto and 313 Adrastus (king) 12 works 66–67, 596–597 Athamas 72–74, 448–449
664 INDEX

Athena (Minerva) 74–75 Lenaea festival 311–312 Aves. See Birds Birds (Ornithes, Aves;
aegis and 15, 74 Marathon, battle of 325 The Award of Arms or The Aristophanes) 90–94
in Ajax (Sophocles) 26, 27, Miltiades 350 Judgment of Arms (Hoplon Krisis; Euelpides in 90–91, 93, 209
29, 74 Nicias 365 Armorum Iudicium) 79 informants in 278
Ajax (1) (Aias) and 25–26 obol 369 Axionicus 575 Iris in 293
Cadmus and 106 Odeum 373 Axius 79 Lysicrates in 317
Cecrops and 124 oligarchic revolution 417, Peisetaerus in 90–93, 209,
daughters of Aglauros and 450, 535 B 414
23 ostracism 274 Babylon 80 Peisias, son of, in 414
Erichthonius and 204–205 Panaetius 403–404 Babylonians (Aristophanes) 80 Triballian god in 560
Furies and 225 Panathenaea festival 404 Bacchae 80–81 The Birth of Tragedy (Nietzsche)
Gorgon and 230 Pandion (king) 404 Bacchae (Accius) 80–81 366
in Ion (Euripides) 74, Peisander 413 Bacchae (Aeschylus) 80, 82 Blepsidemus 583
282–283 Peloponnesian War. See Bacchae (Euripides) 81–84 Blepyros 183, 184, 185
in Iphigenia in Tauris Peloponnesian War Actaeon in 9 Blundell, M. W. 195
(Euripides) 74–75, 291 Pericleidas 419 Agave in 23, 82, 83 Boeotia 94
Medusa and 333–334 Phaeax 427 Cadmus in 81, 82, 83, 84, Athamas (king) 72, 73
in Oresteis (Aeschylus) 391 Phidias 430–431 106–107 Helicon 247
Panathenaea festival 404 Prytanaeum 470 Dionysus in 81–82, 83–84, Ismenias 294
in Rhesus (Euripides) 75, Prytany 470 175 Boeotus 335
477–478 Scirophoria festival 492 Ino in 278 Boötes 63, 94
in Suppliant Women serpent imagery and Tiresias in 81, 552 Boreas 94
(Euripides) 74, 525 283–284 Bacchae (Iophon) 80, 83 Borrhaean Gate 94
titles of 62, 388, 403 Sicilian Expedition 32, 116, Bacchae (Xenocles) 80, 83 Bosporus 94
in Trojan Women (Euripides) 246, 505, 519 Bacchides (The Two Bacchises; boundaries/borders, in Hippolytus
562 Solon 512 Plautus) 84–88 (Euripides) 267
Athens/Athenians 75 Sophocles 513 Bacchis Bouphonia 176
Aegeus (king) 14 superiority of, in drama and in Bacchides (Plautus) 84–88 Braggart Warrior (Mile Gloriosus;
Agyrrhius 25 myth 132–133 in The Brothers (Terence) Plautus) 86, 94–99, 115
Alcibiades and 32–33, 224 Tauropolia festival 528 100–102 braggart warriors 94
archons 63 Themistocles 534 in The Mother-in-Law Brasidas 99, 410, 412
Aristides 66 theorikon (theorika) 535 (Terence) 354, 356 Brauron 99
Athena (Minerva) and 74 Theorus 535 in The Self-Tormentor Briareus 99
in Birds (Aristophanes) 93 Theramenes 535–536 (Terence) 494, 495, 496, Briseis 99
Carystian allies 116 Theseus (king) 537 497 Britannicus 371
Cecrops (king) 124 Thrasybulus 542–543 Bacchus See Dionysus Britomartis See Artemis
Cerameicus 127 Thucydides (1) 547 Bacis 88 Brittanicus 99–100
Charminus 130 Timotheus 551 Bactra 88 Bromius. See Dionysus (Bacchus)
in Children of Heracles Torch race 553 Bactria 88 bronteion 100
(Euripides) 133 Trojan War See Trojan War Ballio 470–473 Brontes 161
Cimon 137–138 Athmonia 75 bankers 88 brotherhood
Cleon 140–141 Athos 75 barbarians 88 in The Brothers (Terence)
Cleonymus 141 Atlas 75 in Iphigenia at Aulis 103
Cleophon 142 Atossa 76, 424–426 (Euripides) 288 in Seven Against Thebes
Cranaus (king) 154 Atreus 76 in Iphigenia in Tauris (Aeschylus) 502–503
Deigma 168 Aegisthus and 15 (Euripides) 292–293 in Thyestes (Seneca) 549
demes 169 Aerope and 17 Barca 88–89 The Brothers (Terence) 100–104,
Demophon (king) 170 in Thyestes (Seneca) Barcaean. See Barca 120–121, 496
demos 170 548–550 Bassarai 89 Brothers, A. J. 496
Demos as Athens, in Knights Atropos 220 Bassarides (Aeschylus) 89 Brown, P. G. M. 505
(Aristophanes) 301–304 attendants 76–77 Batchelder, A. G. 195 Bruttium 104
Dipolia 176 Attica (Attic) 77 Batrachoi. See Frogs Brutus 104
in Ecclesiazusae Attis 77 Battus 89 Bupalus 104
(Aristophanes) 185–186 Auge 35, 77 Bdelycleon 89, 580–582 Burnett, A. P. 479
Epicrates 198 Augean stables 77 Belias 89 Busiris 104–105
Erechtheus (king) 203–204 Augustus 77–78 Bellerophon 89–90 Busiris (Euripides) 104
in Frogs (Aristophanes) aulaeum (aulaea) 78 Amazons and 37 buskins 105
222–223, 224, 225 Aulis 78, 286 and Anteia and Proetus 89, Bybline Mountains 105
gullibility and manipulation aulos (auloi) 78, 177 267 Byrsine 105
of, in Knights Aulularia. See The Pot of Gold Iobates and 89, 279 Byzantium 105
(Aristophanes) 303–304 autochthony 283 Bellerophon (Euripides) 90
Harmodius 233 Autolycus 78–79, 293 Bellona 90 C
Heliaea 247 Automenes 79 bia 90 Cabeiri 106
Hippias (ruler) 263–264 Autonoe 79 Big Love (Mees) 522 Cacistus 578
Ion (king) 283 Auxilium 79 Birds (Crates) 154–155 Cadmeides 106
 INDEX 665

Cadmus (Kadmos) 106–107 Castalia 122 in The Pot of Gold (Plautus) Chiron 133
in Bacchae (Euripides) 81, Castor and Pollux (Polydeuces) 460 chitons 134
82, 83, 84, 106–107 122–123 in Three-Dollar Day (Plautus) chlamus 134
Echion and 187 in Electra (Euripides) 191 545 Chloe 134
founding of Thebes 534 Catalogue of Women 262 in Truculentus (Plautus) Choae See Pitcher Feast
Harmonia and 106–107, 233 Catameitus. See Ganymede 570–571 Choephorois. See Libation Bearers
Caecias 107 catharsis 123 characters choregia 134
Caecilius 107 Caucasus 123 adulescens 13 choregus (choragus) 134, 159
Caeneus 107 cavea (caveae) 123–124 agon 23, 580 chorodidaskalia. See didaskalia
Caesar, Gaius Julius 77, 104, cavea ima 322 antagonists 52 chorodidaskalos. See didaskalos
107–108 Caystrian Plains 124 Atellan stock characters 219 chorus 134–136
Calais 108, 590 Cebrione (Cebriones) 124 attendants 76–77 Aeschylus and 18, 135
Calchas 108, 468 Cecropia 124 bankers 88 coryphaeus 154
Agamemnon and 20 Cecrops 124, 284 barbarians 88 didaskalia and 172
in Iphigenia at Aulis Cedalion 124 in comedy 149 didaskalos and 172
(Euripides) 286, 287 Celaeno 233 cooks 153 dithyrambs and 177
in Trojan Women (Seneca) 566 Celeus 124 deuteragonists 171 epode 203
Calidorus 470–471 Cenaeum 124 doctor (medicus) 177 exarchon 217
Callias 108–109 Centaur (Chaeremon) 125 extras 217–218 female 586–587
Callicles 543–547, 570 centaurs 125. See also Nessus hetaira 263 odes 372–373
Callidamates 234, 235, 236 Cephale 125 informants 278 parabasis 405
Callimachus 109 Cephallenia 125 lena 311 parodos 407
Callipho 471–472 Cephalus (1) 125–126 matrona 326–327 Sophocles use of 514
Callirrhoe 35, 233 Cephalus (2) 126, 197 messengers 347–348 stasimon (stasima) 516
Callisto 109 Cephalus (3) 126, 463 midwives 349 strophe 520
Calpe 109 Cepheus 51 music girls 358 in tragedy 558
Calydon/Calydonians 109, 336 Cephisodemus 126 nurses 368 Chremes
Calydonian boar 44, 71, 336, 415 Cephisodorus 568 pimps 450–451 in Andria (Terence) 44–47
Calypso 109–110 Cephisophon 126 prostitutes 468–469 in Ecclesiazusae
Camarina 110 Cephisus 126 protagonists 469 (Aristophanes) 184–185
Canace 16 Cerameicus 127 senex (senes) 499–500 in The Eunuch (Terence)
Cancer 110 Cerberus 127 synagonists 526 210–211
Cannonus 110 Cerchnia 127 tritagonists 561 in Phormio (Terence)
Canopus (Canobus) 110 Cercopes 127 tutors 572 445–447, 448
Canthara 100 Cercyon 36, 127 usurers 577 in The Self-Tormentor
Cantharus 110 Ceres. See Demeter women 587–588 (Terence) 493–498
Capaneus 110, 501, 502, 524 Ceyx 127–128 Chares 130 Chremylus 582–585
Caphereus 110–111 Chaerea 210–213 Charinades 130 Christenson, David 34
Capitoline 111 Chaereas 128 Charinus Chrysalus 84–86, 87–88
Cappadox 158–159 Chaeremon in Andria (Terence) 44–47 Chryse (1) 136
Captives (Plautus) 111–113 Achilles Thersitoktonos 536 in The Merchant (Plautus) Chryse (2) 136
Carchedon. See Carthage Centaur 125 343–347 Chryseis 20, 136
Carcinus (1) 113 Oeneus 386 in Pseudolus (Plautus) 471, Chryses 20, 136
Carcinus (2) 113, 581 Chaerephon 128, 511, 581 472 Chrysippus 136–137
Carcinus Junior 498 Chaeretades 128 Charisius 60–62 Chrysis 487, 488
Carcinus the younger 26 Chaeribulus 199–200 Charites. See Graces Chrysothemis 137, 193
Cardopion 113 Chaeris 128 Charixene 130 Chytroi 137
Caria 113 Chaireas 179–180 Charmides Cicynna 137
Cario 583 Chairestratus in The Rope (Plautus) 480, Cilicia 137
Carthage (Carchedon; Carthago) in The Arbitration (Menander) 481 Cilissa 137, 391
113 60–62 in Three-Dollar Day (Plautus) Cillicon 137
Carthaginian (Aristophanes) 94 in The Shield (Menander) 543–547 Cimmeria 137
The Carthaginian (Poenulus; 503–505 Charminus 130 Cimolus 137
Plautus) 113–116 Chalcidians 128 Charon 130, 221 Cimon 137–138
Carthago. See Carthage Chalcis 128–129 Charonian steps 130–131 Cinesias (1) 91, 138
Carystian allies 116 Chalcodon 129 Charybdis 131 Cinesias (2) 138, 319, 320
Casina (Plautus) 116–119 Chalinus 116–118 Cherronesus 131 Cinyras 359
The Casket Comedy (Cistellaria; Chalybes 129 Children of Heracles (Heracleidai) Circe 138, 229
Plautus) 119–121 Chance. See Tyche (Euripides) 131–133 circus 138
Cassandra (Alexandra) 121–122 Chaonia 129 Amphitryon/Iolaus compari- Cirrha 138
Ajax (2) and 26 chaos 129 son 41–42 Cistellaria. See The Casket Comedy
in Oresteia (Aeschylus) 21, character 129–120 Demophon in 170 Cisthene 138–139
22, 121, 389–390, 394 in The Brothers (Terence) Iolaus in 279 Cithaeron 139
in Trojan Women (Euripides) 102 Chimaera 89, 133 city, in Oedipus at Colonus
122, 562–563, 565 in Dyscolus (Menander) 181 Chios 133 (Sophocles) 381
666 INDEX

City Dionysia 173–174 in Iphigenia at Aulis costumes 18 Cyclops (Cyclopes) 160–161

civilization v. wilderness, in (Euripides) 286–289 Cothocidae 154 in Cyclops (Euripides)
Thyestes (Seneca) 549–550 in Oresteia (Aeschylus) 179, cothurnus. See buskins 161–163
Clashing Rocks 139 389–395 courtesans. See prostitutes Polymestor comparison 241
Claudius 139 Clytemnestra (Accius) 146 Cranaan City 154 Polyphemus 457–458
Agrippina the Younger and Cocalus 146, 166 Cranaus 154 Cyclops (Euripides) 161–163,
24 cocus 153 Crates 154–155 490, 491
Messalina and 347 Cocytus 146 Crathis 155 Alcibiades, comparison 33
in Octavia 370 Coesyra 146–147 Cratinus 155, 581, 582 Odyssey (Homer) comparison
Cleaenetus 139 Colaenis 147 Creon (1) (king of Thebes) 457
Cleareta 150–152, 451 Colchian bulls 147 155–156 Silenus in 506
Cleidemides 139 Colchides (Sophocles) 147 in Antigone (Sophocles) Cycnus (1) 163
Cleigenes 139 Colchis 14, 147 53–56, 155 Cycnus (2) 7, 163–164
Cleinarete 139 Colias 147 Antigone and 53 Cycnus (3) 164
Cleinias 139, 324–325 Collybiscus 114–115 Haemon and 232 Cylindrus 338
Cleisthenes 140, 539 Colonae 163 Jocasta and 298 Cyllene (1) 164
Cleocritus 140 Colosseum 147 in Oedipus (Seneca) 376, Cyllene (2) 164
Cleomachus 84–86, 87 Comaetho 473 377 Cyllene (3) 164
Cleomenes 140 comedy 147–150 in Oedipus Tyrannos (Sopho-
adulescens in 13 Cynalopex 164
Cleon 140–141 cles) 382–383, 384 Cynna 164
Aristophanes and 67, agora in 24 in Phoenician Women
angiportum in 52 Cynthia 164
140–141 (Euripides) 155–156, Cypris 164
in Frogs (Aristophanes) 222 Aristophanes and 66–67 439–441, 442
chorus in 134, 135–136 Cyprus 59, 164
in Knights (Aristophanes) in Suppliant Women Cyrene 164
301–304 cordax in 153 (Euripides) 523–526
episodes 203 Cyrus 164
Nicias and 365 Creon (2) (king of Corinth) 156 Cythera 165
in Peace (Aristophanes) 410, evolution of 147–148 Jason and 298
extras in 218 Cyzicus 165, 297
412 in Medea (Euripides)
Peloponnesian War 416 female characters in 587 328–330
justice in 299 D
in Wasps (Aristophanes) 580, Medea and 327–328
masks in 326 Daedalus 166, 352, 482
581–582 in Phoenecian Women
mimesis and 351 Daemones 480–482, 483, 484
Cleonae 141 (Euripides) 155–156
mothers in 152 Danaans 166
Cleonymus 141 Cresphontes (Kresphontes) 156
phalluses in 429 Danae 8, 167
Cleopatra (deity) 141–142 Cretans (Euripides) 352, 409
skene and 509 Danaids (daughters of Danaus)
Cleopatra (queen of Egypt) 59 Cretan Women (Euripides) 17,
Comedy of Asses (Asinaria; 167
Cleophon 142 157
Plautus) 118, 150–152 Aegyptus and 16
Cleostrata 116–118 Crete 156–157
comitium 152 in Suppliant Women
Cleostratus 503–505 Ariadne and 65
Conisalus 152 (Aeschylus) 521–523
Clepsydra 142 Daedalus and 166
Connus 152–153 Danaus 167, 521–522, 523
Clinia 494–496, 497 contaminatio 153 Minos (king) 351–352
Clitipho 494, 495, 497 Creusa (1) 157, 280, 281–283 danista 577
contrasts Daos
Cloacina 142 in Persians (Aeschylus) 426 Creusa (2) 157
clothing, altered, in Eunuch Creusa (Sophocles) 157 in The Arbitration
in Suppliant Women (Epitrepontes) 61
(Terence) 212–213 (Aeschylus) 522 Crioa 157
Clotho 142, 220 Crisa 157 in Dyscolus 180, 181
cooks (cocus) 153 in The Girls with the Shaven
Clouds (Aristophanes) 142–145 Copais 153 Crito 45, 46
Chaerephon in 128 Crocotium 517 Head (Menander) 228
Copreus 131, 153
Frogs comparison 224 Cronus (Saturn) 157 in The Shield (Menander)
cordax 153
Pasias in 408 Earth and 183 503–505
Corinth 153–154
Pheidippides in 142–143, Zeus and 590 Dardanus 167
Creon (2) (king) 156
144, 429 Ctesias 158 Darius 424–426
Isthmus and 294
Socrates in 142–143, 224, Peloponnesian War 416 Ctesipho 100, 101, 103 Datis 167
511 Polybus (king) 455 cuneus (cunei) 158 Daughters of Helios (Heliades)
Strepsiades in 142–143, Corinthus 154 Cupid See Eros 167, 428
144, 519–520 corporate world, in Prometheus Curculio 158–160, 451 Daughters of Temenus (Euripides)
Clymene 428 Bound (Aeschylus) 467 Curculio (Plautus) 134, 158–160 530
Clymenus 204 Corybantes 154 Curetes 160 Daulis 167
Clytemnestra 145–146 Corycia 154 curses 160 Davus
in Agamemnon (Seneca) 21, Corycian 154 customs, violation of 191. See in Andria (Terence) 44–47
22 coryphaeus 154 also hospitality, violations of; in Phormio (Terence) 445,
in Electra (Euripides) cosmos, vertical axis of ritual, violation of 448
189–192 in Hercules Furens (Seneca) Cyamus 569 Dawn. See Eos
in Electra (Sophocles) 256–257 Cyaneae (Clashing Rocks) 139 death, cycle of, in Orestes
193–195 in Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca) Cybele (Cybebe). See Rhea (Euripides) 398–399
Electra and 188–189 259–260 Cycloborus 160 Degani, E. 66
 INDEX 667

Deianeira 168 Dicaeopolis 3–5, 171–172, 317 Dorio 445 in Electra (Sophocles) 188,
Althaea and 37 Dicea 95 Dorippa 345, 346–347 193–195
Heracles and 250 Dictynna. See Artemis Doris 229 Freud’s Electra complex 221
in Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca) Dictys 172, 420 Dorus 178 Iphigenia and 189, 285
168, 257–260 Dictys (Euripides) 172 double plots 86, 212, 447–448, in Oresteia (Aeschylus)
Nessus and 168, 365 Dictyulci (Aeschylus) 172 531 189–191, 390, 394
in Trachinian Women Didascalica (Accius) 2 drachma 178 in Orestes (Euripides)
(Sophocles) 168, 553–557 didaskalia 172 Dracontides 178 396–400
Deigma 168 didaskalos 134, 172 Dracyllus 178 Electra (Euripides) 189–192
Deiphobus 168, 247 Dieitrephes 172 drama competitions Ares (Mars) in 64
Deiphyle 12 dike 299 City Dionysia 173–174 Castor and Pollux in 123,
Delia. See Artemis Dinia 578 Lenaea 311–312 191
Delian League 168 Diniarchus 568, 570 dramatic foil 178 Clytemnestra in 145–146,
Delos (Ortygia) 168–169 Dino 444 dramatic irony. See irony 189–192
Delphi Diocles 173 dreams 178–179, 425 Electra (Sophocles) compari-
Castalia spring at 122 Diomea 173 Dromon 323–324 son 195
Delphus (king) 169 Diomedes (1) 173 Drusus 179, 314 Electra in 188, 189
Ion (2) and 280, 283–284 Diomedes (2) 173, 477–478 dryads 368 Libation Bearers (Aeschylus)
Leto at 313 Dionysia 173–174 Dryas 179, 316 comparison 189–191,
Delphic oracle 169 Dionysian energy 366 Duckworth, G. 423, 447, 451, 392–393
Heracles and 249, 250 Dionysius I 174–175 460, 468–469, 472, 518, Electra (Sophocles) 193–196
Iphigenia and 285 Dionysus (Bacchus) 175–176 570–571 antilabe in 56
Oedipus and 375 Ariadne and 65 Dulorestes (Pacuvius) 474 Chrysothemis in 137, 193
Delphium 234 Athamas and 73 Dunbar, Nan 217 Clytemnestra in 145–146,
Delphus 169 in Bacchae (Euripides) Dyscolus (Old Cantankerous, The 193–195
Demaenetus 150–152 81–84, 175 Bad-Tempered Man, or The Electra in 193–195
Demea Bacchae and 80 Misanthrope; Menander) Libation Bearers comparison
in The Brothers (Terence) Bassarai and 89 392–393
179–182
100–102, 102, 103 comedy and 148 Electran Gate 196
in The Eunuch (Terence) 209 Corybantes and 154 Electryon 196
E
Demeas 324, 487–489 Dionysia 173–174 Alcmena and 33–34
Earth (Gaia) 183
demes 169 dithyrambs and 177 Amphitryon (Amphitruo)
chaos and 129
Demes (Eupolis) 223 in Frogs (Aristophanes) 175, and 41
Erichthonius and 204–205
Demeter (Ceres) 169–170, 420 221–225 eleos 196
Titans and 552
Cabeiri and 106 Lenaea festival 311 Eleusinian Mysteries 196, 276,
Uranus and 577
Chloe 134 Lycurgus (2) and 175, 360
Ecbatana 183
in The Man From Sicyon 315–316 Eleusinos 323–324
Ecclesiazusae (Women in Assembly;
(Menander) 323–324 Maenads and 322 Eleusis 196
Aristophanes) 183–186
Stenia 516 Midas (2) and 349 Celeus, (king) 124
Agyrrhius in 25
Triptolemus and 560–561 Nyctelius and 368 Cercyon (mythical king) 127
Demipho Nysa and 368 Callimachus in 109 Elis 196, 487
in The Casket Comedy Semele and 498 Chaeretades in 128 Elpenor 138
(Plautus) 119, 120 tympanum and 573 Euaeon in 208 Elymnium 196
in The Merchant (Plautus) Diopeithes 176 Geron in 227 Elysium See Underworld
343–345 Diphilus 176 Lysistrata comparison emmeleia 196
in Phormio (Terence) Dipolia 176 185–186, 320 Empusa 197, 222
445–447 Dirce 57–58, 176 Praxagora in 183–186, 462 Enceladus 197
Demophon 131–132, 133, 170 Dis See Hades Wealth comparison 584–585 Endeis 13
Demos 170, 301–304 Discord 176 584 enemies and friends. See friends
demos 170 Discordia. See Eris eccyclema (ekkuklemia) 186–187 and enemies
Demosthenes 301, 302, 303 Dis Exapaton (Menander) 86–87 Echinus 187 Enetoi. See Veneti
Demostratus 170 distegia 177 Echion 187 Ennius 51, 156, 197, 559
denouement 170 dithyrambs 134, 177 Echo 187, 539 Ennosis. See Poseidon
Deo. See Demeter diviners (prophets) 468 Edonians 187, 315–316 Enyalius 197
Deucalion 170–171, 475 doctors (medicus) 177 Egypt 104, 187–188 Enyo 197, 444
deus ex machina. See mechane Dodds, E. R. 385 Eileithyia 188 Eos 126, 197
deuteragonist 171 Dodona 177 Eioneus 295 Epaphus 197–198
Dexinicus 171 Dolon 177, 477, 478 Eirene. See Peace Epeus 198
Dexitheus 171 Dolopians 177–178 eisodos (parados) 408 Ephippus 69
Diabolis 150, 151 Dolopians (Sophocles) 177–178 ekkuklemia. See eccyclema Ephudion 198
dialect, in Acharnians Domitius 178 Electra 188–189 Epicasta. See Jocasta
(Aristophanes) 4 Dordalus 421–423, 424 in Agamemnon (Seneca) 21, Epicharmus 198
Diana. See Artemis Dorians 178 22 Epicrates 198
Diasia 171 Dorias 210–211 in Electra (Euripides) 188, Epicurus 198
diazoma 461 Doric chiton 134 189–192 Epidamnus 198
668 INDEX

Epidaurus 198–199 Eretria 204 on Eleusis 196 Eurystheus 216–217

Epidicus (Plautus) 199–202 Eurytus (king) 217 Erechtheus 203–204 Alcmena and 34
Epignomus 516–518 Geraestus 227 in Frogs (Aristophanes) in Children of Heracles
Epigoni (Epigonoi) 34–35, Oechalia 374 144–145, 214, 221, (Euripides) 131–132
202–203 Euboule 208 222–223, 224, 225 Heracles and 216–217, 249
Epigoni (Accius) 202 Eubulus Hecabe 179, 237–238, Eurytus 217, 250, 293
Epigonoi (Sophocles) 12, 202 Antiope 58 238–241 Euthymenes 217
Epigonus 203 Cercopes 127 Helen. See Helen Eutychus 344, 345, 346–347
Epirus 203 Echo 187 Heracles. See Heracles Evadne 524, 525
episkenion 203 Ion 280 Hippolytus. See Hippolytus exangelos 347
episodes 203 Leda 306 Hypsiphyle 38 exarchon 217
Epitrepontes. See The Arbitration Nausicaa 362 impact of Peloponnesian War Execestides 217
epode 203 Eucharides 208 on 417 exodus 217
Equites. See Knights Euchlous. See Demeter influence of Oresteia exostra 186–187
Erasinades 62, 203 Euclio 459–461 (Aeschylus) on 391 extras 217–218
Erebus 203 Eucrates 208–209 Ion. See Ion
Erechtheus (Erectheus) 203–204 Eudamus (Eudemus) 209 Iphigenia at Aulis 7, 88, 285, F
Eretria 204 Euelpides 90–91, 93, 209 286–289 Fabula Atellana 149–150, 219
Ergasilus 111, 112, 406 Eumelus 209 Iphigenia in Tauris. See fabula palliata 149–150, 219
Ergasion 204 Eumenides 378, 379 Iphigenia in Tauris fabula praetexta 220, 371
Erginus 204, 249 Eumenides (Oresteia; Aeschylus) Ixion 295 fabula riciniata 350
Erichthonius 204–205 391–392, 392–394 Medea. See Medea fabula togata 149, 220
Eridanus 205 Apollo in 60, 391–392 Meleager 336 failure, in Orestes (Euripides)
Erigone (Erigona) 205 Athena (Minerva) in 74, Orestes 60, 242, 243, 399–400
Erinyes. See Furies 391–392 396–400, 573–574 Fates 220
Eriphyle (Eriphyla) 34–35, Furies in 225, 391–392, 394 Palamedes 403, 539, 562 fathers and sons
205–206 Orestes (Euripides) compari- Peleus 415 in The Brothers (Terence) 102
Eris 206 son 396, 398 Phaethon 428 in Captives (Plautus) 112
Eros (Cupid, Amor) 206 Orestes in 391–392, 395 Philoctetes 433, 436–437 in comedy 149
Erotes 206 Eumolpidae 209 Phoenician Women 155–156, in Comedy of Asses (Plautus)
Erotica (Parthenius) 215 Eunomia 459–460 207, 439–443, 457 151–152
Erotium 338–341 Eunuch (Terence) 94, 209–213 Phoenix 443–444 in Samia (Menander) 488
Erycina. See Aphrodite Euphemius 213 Phrixus 449 in Heracles (Euripides)
Erymanthean boar 62 Euphorides 213 Pirithous 13, 452 253–254
Erythrae 206 Euphrosyne 231 prologues 464 in The Merchant (Plautus)
Eryx (1) 206–207 Eupolis 213, 223 Protesilaus 469 345
Eryx (2) 207 Euripides 213–215 sacrificial maidens in works in The Self-Tormentor
Eryxis 207 and Agathon 23 of 133 (Terence) 496
Eteocles 207–208 Alcestis. See Alcestis Sisyphus 508, 562 fear and anxiety
Antigone and 53 Alcmeon in Corinth 35 Suppliant Women 12, 74, in Andria (Terence) 46–47
in Oedipus at Colonus Alexander 562 523–526 in The Brothers (Terence) 448
(Sophocles) 207–208, Andromache 48–51, 129, Telephus 529–530 in Oedipus (Seneca) 377–378
378–380, 381–382 261, 555 Temenus 530 Stoicism and 519
in Phoenician Women Antiope 57–58, 261 Theseus 538 Fescennine verses 220
(Euripides) 207, 439–441, Archelaus 62 in Thesmophoriazusae fides
442, 443 Aristophanes and 67, 214 (Aristophanes) 23, 214, in Bacchides (Plautus) 87–88
Polyneices and 207, Astyanax 71 538–540 in The Pot of Gold (Plautus)
456–457 aulos (auloi), use of 78 Trojan Women 71, 237–238, 460–461
in Seven Against Thebes Autolycus 79 240, 243, 562–566 Fides (deity) 459, 461
(Aeschylus) 500–503 Bacchae. See Bacchae works 214, 594–595 fidicina (music girl) 358
in Suppliant Women Bellerophon 90 Euripus 215 flute. See aulos
(Euripides) 526 Busiris 104 Europa 106, 215 Foley, Helene 291–292
Eteoclus 208 Cephisophon and 126 Eurotas 215 foreshadowing, in Suppliant
Ethiopia 208, 338 Children of Heracles 41–42, Euryale 230 Women (Aeschylus) 523
Etna. See Aetna 131–133, 170, 279 Euryalus (1) 215 Fortune 220
Etruscans 575 Chrysippus 137 Euryalus (2) 215 forum 220
Euaeon 208 Cresphontes 156 Eurybates 215–216 fragments 220–221
Euathlus 208 Cretans 352, 405 Eurycles 216 Frangoulidis, S. A. 447
Euboea 208 Cretan Women 17, 157 Eurydice (1) 216 freedom v. slavery
Artemisium and 70 Cyclops 33, 161–163, 457, Eurydice (2) 38, 216, 401 in Captives (Plautus) 112
Caphereus 110–111 490, 491, 506 Eurydice (3) 216 in Hecabe (Euripides) 240
Cenaeum 124 Daughters of Temenus 530 Eurypylus 216 in Iphigenia at Aulis
Chalcis 128–129 Dictys 172 Eurysaces 27, 216 (Euripides) 288
Chalcodon, king on 129 Electra. See Electra Eurysaces (Accius) 216 in Wasps (Aristophanes) 582
 INDEX 669

Freud, Sigmund 179, 221, 385 The Girl from Andros. See Andria Harmonia 106–107, 233 Helle 247–248
friends and enemies, role reversal The Girl from Samos. See Samia Harpax 471, 472 Hellen 171
of The Girl with the Shaven Head Harpies 233–234, 438 Hellenes 248
in Ajax (Sophocles) 29 (Perikeiromene; Menander) Harsh, P. W. 115, 447, 518, 571 Helles 247
in Philoctetes (Sophocles) 201, 228–229 The Haunted House (Mostellaria; hemikuklion 248
436 Glauce. See Creusa (2) Plautus) 40, 234–237, 577 Hemithea 163
friendship, concept of Glaucetes 229 Heauton Timorumenos. See The Henderson, J. 318
in Heracles (Euripides) 253 Glaucus (1) (Glaukos) 229 Self-Tormentor Hephaestus (Vulcan, Mulciber)
in Orestes (Euripides) 399 Glaucus (2) (Glaukos) 230 Hebe 237 248
in Three-Dollar Day (Plautus) Glaucus (son of Polydus) Hebrus 237 Athena (Minerva) and 74
546–547 455–456 Hecabe (Hecuba) 237–238 Erichthonius and 204–205
Frogs (Batrachoi, Ranae; Glyce 230 in Hecabe (Euripides) in Prometheus Bound
Aristophanes) 221–225 Glycera 228–229 237–238, 238–241 (Aeschylus) 465, 467
Aeacus in 13, 222 Glycerium 44–47 Polymestor and 456 Hephaestus (Achaeus) 248
Dionysus in 175, 221–225 Gnaeus, Matius 350 in Trojan Women (Euripides) Hepta Epi Thebas. See Seven
Empusa in 197, 222 Gnatho 210, 211–212 237, 562–565 Against Thebes
Euripides in 144–145, 214, goats/goat song 557 in Trojan Women (Seneca) Hera (Juno) 248
221, 222–223, 224, 225 Godschild. See Amphitheus 237, 566–568 Acraea 8
Iacchus in 276 Golden Age 230 Hecabe (Euripides) 179, Alcmena and 34
A Funny Thing Happened on the Golden Fleece 237–238, 238–241 Athamas and 73
Way to the Forum 97, 472 Aeetes and 14 Hecate 197, 241, 241 in Casina (Plautus) 118
Furies 225 Jason and 147, 296–297 Hecatea 241 Eurystheus and 217
Discord 176 Medea and 327 Hector 241–242 Hephaestus and 248
in Oresteis (Aeschylus) Gorgia 179–181 Achilles and 7, 242 in Heracles (Euripides) 252
391–392, 394 Gorgias 230, 431 Ajax (1) (Aias) and 25, 26 Heracles and 249
in Orestes (Euripides) 396, Gorgines 578 in Rhesus (Euripides) 242, in Hercules Furens (Seneca)
397, 398 Gorgons 230–231, 421. See also 477–478 255, 256, 259
Orestes and 395, 396 Medusa Lamia and 309
in Trojan Women (Seneca)
in Thyestes (Seneca) 548, Gracchi 231 Leto and 313
566, 567
549 Graces 231 Semele and 498
Hecuba. See Hecabe
Gradivus. See Ares Zeus and 590
Hecyra. See The Mother-in-Law
G grand style 9 Heracleidai. See Children of
Hegelochus 242
Gaia. See Earth Gray Ones 444 Heracles
Hegio 101, 111–112
Galatea 226 Great Dionysia 173 Heracles (Hercules) 248–251
Helen 242–243
gamos 226 Great Goddesses. See Demeter Achelous (Acheloos) and 5
Deiphobus and 168
Ganymede (Catameitus) (Ceres); Persephone in Alcestis (Euripides) 30–31,
Electra and 189
226–227 griffins 66, 231 250, 251
in Helen (Euripides)
Gargettus 227 Gripus 482, 484 Alcmena and 33, 34,
Ge See Earth Groton, A. 489 243–247 248–249
Gela 227 Grumio 234 Helenus and 247 Amazons and 37
Gelasimus 517 Gryttus (Grypus) 231 Odysseus and 373 in Amphitruo (Plautus) 38,
Gemanicus 24 Gyas 231 in Orestes (Euripides) 40
Genetyllis 227 Gymnasium 119 396–397, 399, 400 Amphitryon (Amphitruo)
Geraestus 227 Paris and 406–407 and 41–42, 248–249
geranos 227 H Theonoe and 535 Antaeus and 52
Geres 227 Habrotonon 61 in Trojan Women (Seneca) Atlas and 75
Geron 227 Hades (Pluto) 232 566–567 Augean stables and 77
Geryon (Geryones) 227–228 Cabeiri and 106 Helen (Euripides) 243–247 in Birds (Aristophanes) 92
Geta in Frogs (Aristophanes) Castor and Pollux in 123 Busiris and 104
in The Brothers (Terence) 222–223 Hecate in 241 and centaurs 125
101, 102 Persephone and 420 Helen in 243–247 Cerberus and 127
in Phormio (Terence) Haemon 54, 55, 56, 232 Iphigenia at Aulis comparison Cercopes and 127
445–446, 448 Haemus 232 285 Ceyx and 127–128
Getas Halimus 232 Iphigenia in Tauris comparison Cycnus (3) and 164
in Dyscolus (Menander) Halirrhothius 232–233 245, 291–292 Deianeira and 168
180–181 Halisca 120 as anodos drama 291–292 Diomea and 173
in The Man She Hated hamadryads 368 Rope comparison 483 Diomedes (1) and 173
(Menander) 324–325 hamartia 233, 385 Helenus 48, 247 Erginus and 204, 249
The Ghost. See The Haunted House hands, concept of touch in Heliades (Daughters of Helios) Eurystheus and 216–217
Giants 228 Suppliant Women (Aeschylus) 167, 428 Eurytus and 217
Enceladus 197 522–523 Heliaea 247 in Frogs (Aristophanes) 221,
Mimas (1) 350 hanger-on. See parasites Helice 280 222
Porphyrion 458 Hanno 114, 115 Helicon 247 Geryon and 227
Tityus 552 Harmodius 233 Helios. See Sun Giants and 228
670 INDEX

Heracles (continued) Andromache and 48 househole gods 272 inheritance law, in The Shield
in Heracles (Euripides) in Orestes (Euripides) house imagery, in The Haunted (Menander) 505
250–254 396–397 House (Mostellaria; Plautus) Ino 72–73, 278
in Hercules Furens (Seneca) Hermippus 127, 261–262 236–237 The Interpretation of Dreams
255, 256 Herodas 350 hubris 272–273 (Freud) 221, 385
in Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca) heroes hunger and thirst, in Thyestes Io 65, 278–279, 466
257–260 Aristophanic 5, 24, 67, 68, (Seneca) 549 Io (Accius) 279
Hesione (2) and 262 92–93, 171–172, 317, 572 Hupnos (Sleep) 510 Iobates 89, 279
Hylas (1) and 273 Sophoclean 29 Hyades 273 Iocasta See Jocasta
Hyllus and 273 Hesiod 225, 262, 262 Hybristes 273 Iolaus 41, 131–132, 279
Iolaus and 279 Hesione (1) 262 Hydra of Lerna 279, 312 Iolcus 279–280, 296
Iole and 280 Hesione (2) 262, 310 Hyginus 36 Iole 280
Iphitus and 293 Hesione (Naevius) 262 Hylas (1) 273, 297 Eurytus and 217
Jason and the Argonauts and Hesperides 262–263 Hylas (2) 273 Heracles and 250
296, 297 Hesperus 263 Hyllus 273 in Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca)
Laomedon and 310 Hestia (Vesta) 263 in Children of Heracles 257
Lernaean Hydra and 279 hetaira 263, 468–469 (Euripides) 132 Hyllus and 273
Lichas and 313 Heurippides 263 in Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca) Iphitus and 293
Linus and 314 Hiero 263 258, 259
Hierocles 411 in Trachinian Women
Megara and 335 in Trachinian Women (Sophocles) 553, 555, 556
Omphale and 387 Hieronymus (1) 263 (Sophocles) 553, 554,
Hieronymus (2) 263 Ion (1) 280
in Philoctetes (Sophocles) 556, 557 Ion (2) 280–281, 281–284
434, 436 Hipparchus 263 Hymen (Hymenaeus) 273–274
Hippeis. See Knights Ion (Eubulus) 280
Philoctetes and 250, 433 hymns 274 Ion (Euripides) 281–284
10 labors of 249–250 Hippias 263–264 Hyperbius 274, 501
Hippocrates (1) 264 aegis in 15
in Trachinian Women Hyperbolus 222, 274 Apollo in 60, 282
(Sophocles) 251, Hippocrates (2) 264 Hypermestra. See Danaids
Hippodameia 264 Athena and 74, 282–283
553–557 Hypnos. See sleep
Chrysippus and 136 Creusa (1) in 157
Heracles (Euripides) 251–254 Hypocrites. See actors
Myrtlilus and 359 Gorgons in 230
Amphitryon in 41, 251–254 hyporcheme 274
Oenomaus and 386 Ion (Sophocles) 157
Andromache comparison 50 hypothesis 274
Pelops and 264, 417–418 Ionians 284–285
Cycnus (3) in 164 Hypsipyle 275, 542
Theseus and 537–538 Ionian Sea 284
fatherhood theme in Hypsipyle (Euripides) 38
Hippodamus 264 Ionic chiton 134
253–254 Hysiae 275
Hippolyta. See Antiope (1) Iophon 285
friendship theme in 253
Hippolytus 264–265, 265–266, Iphianassa 285
Heracles in 250–254
268–271
I
Iacchus 276 Iphicles 34, 249
Iris in 293 Hippolytus (Euripides) 265–268
iambic rhythms 348 Iphigenia 285–286
Medea comparison 330 Alcibiades, comparison 33
Megara in 251–252, 335 Iapetus 276 Achilles and 6–7
Aphrodite in 59, 265, 266 Agamemnon and 20
revealing character in 130 Artemis (Diana) in 69, 265, Iaso 276
seen vs. unseen theme in Iasus 71–72 Chryses and 136
266 Electra and 189, 285
253 Hippolytus (Seneca) compari- Iberia 276
Hercules See Heracles Ibycus 276 in Iphigenia at Aulis
son 268 (Euripides) 286–289
Hercules Furens (Seneca) 42, 158, Hippolytus (Seneca) 268–271, Icarus 166
254–257, 335 Ichneutai. See Searchers in Iphigenia in Tauris
427 (Euripides) 289–293
Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca) 168, Hippomedon 271, 501 Ida (1) 276
257–260, 280 Ida (2) 276 Iphigenia (Naevius) 285–286
Hipponax 104, 271
Hermes (Mercury; deity) Idaea 438 Iphigenia at Aulis (Euripides) 7,
Hipponicus 271
260–261 Idas 122–123 88, 285, 286–289
Hipponous 271
in Amphitruo (Plautus) Idmon 277 Iphigenia in Tauris (Euripides)
Hippotes 530
38–40 Iliad (Homer) 25, 271, 436 289–293
Hippothoon 36
Argus (2) and 65 Hister 271 Ilion. See Troy/Trojans Athena (Minerva) and
Cabeiri and 106 histrio. See actors Iliona 277 74–75
Chytroi and 137 Homer 271–272 Iliona (Pacuvius) 277 Clashing Rocks in 139
Cyllene (1) and (2) and 164 Iliad 25, 271, 436 Ilium. See Troy/Trojans Electra in 189
in Ion (Euripides) 281 Odyssey 138, 161–163, Illyria 233 Helen (Euripides) comparison
lyre, invention of 316 271–272, 457 imagery 277 245, 246
in Peace (Aristophanes) Homeric Hymns 274 Imbros 277 Orestes in 396
410–411 Homoloean Gate 272 imitation. See mimesis Pylades in 474
in Prometheus Bound Horace 272 Inachus 277–278 Iphis 524
(Aeschylus) 466, 467 hospitality, violations of Inachus (Sophocles) 277 Iphitus 250, 293
in Wealth (Aristophanes) 584 in Cyclops (Euripides) 162, India 278 Iris 252, 293–294
Hermione 261 163 informants 278 irony 112, 294
in Andromache (Euripides) in Thyestes (Seneca) information. See knowledge and Isagoras 140
48–51 549–550 information Island of the Blessed 294
 INDEX 671

Ismene 294 knowledge and information Lesbonicus 543–547 Lycia 315

in Antigone (Sophocles) 53, in Andria (Terence) 46–47 Lesbos 312 Chimaera and 133
54, 56 in The Merchant (Plautus) Alcaeus (1) from 29 Iobates (king) 279
Antigone and 53 346 Mitylene revolt on 239–240, Lycis 315
in Oedipus at Colonus in The Mother-in-Law 353 Lyco 159
(Sophocles) 378, 379, 381 (Terence) 357 Lethe 312 Lycomedes 315, 492
in Oedipus Tyrannos in Trachinian Women Leto (Latona) 313, 367 Lycon 315
(Sophocles) 384 (Sophocles) 556–557 Leucolophus (Leucolophides) Lyconides 459–460, 461
in Seven Against Thebes kolax. See parasites 313 Lycurgus (1) 315
(Aeschylus) 501–502 kommos 304–305 Libanus 150–151 Lycurgus (2) 315–316
Ismenias 294 Konstan, D. 447 Libation Bearers (Oresteia; Dionysus and 175
Ismenus 294 Kore 305 Aeschylus) 390–391, Pentheus comparison 82–83
Ister 294 kosmos 425 392–394 Lycus (1) 316
Isthmus 294 krade 327 Clytemnestra in 179 Amphitryon (Amphitruo)
Ithaca 294, 307 Krateia 324–325 dreams in 179 and 42
Itys. See Tereus Kresphontes. See Cresphontes Electra (Euripides) compari- Antiope (2) and 57–58
Ixion 125, 295, 364 son 189–191 in The Carthaginian (Plautus)
Ixion (Euripides) 295 L Electra (Sophocles) compari- 113–115, 116
Laberius, Decimus 350 son 193 in Heracles (Euripides)
J Labrax 480–482, 483, 484 Electra in 188 251–252, 254
Jason 296–298 Lacedaemon. See Sparta/Spartans Orestes in 395 in Hercules Furens (Seneca)
Absyrtus and 1, 297 Laches (1) 306, 354–357, 357 libations 313 255, 256
Acastus and 1 Laches (2) 306 Libra 313 Lycus (2) 316
Charybdis and 131 Lachesis 220 Libya 52, 313 Lydia 316
Clashing Rocks and 139 Laconia 306 Lichas 313 Lydias 316
in Colchides (Sophocles) 147 Lacrateides 306 in Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca) Lydus 85
Hypsipyle and 275 Laertes 307 258, 313 Lynceus 316
Idmon and 277 Lais 307, 374, 375 in Trachinian Women Castor and Pollux and 122
on Lemnos 296–297, 311 Laispodias 307 (Sophocles) 313, 553, 556 Jason and the Argonauts and
in Medea (Euripides) Laius 307–308 Licymnius (Likymnios) 314 296
328–331 Chrysippus and 136 Life of Aeschylus (Vita Aeschyli) 17 lyre 316–317
in Medea (Seneca) 331–333 in Oedipus (Seneca) 376 Liguria 314 Lysicles 317
Medea and 327–328 in Oedipus Tyrannos Limnae 314 Lysicrates 317
Jocasta (Iocasta) 298–299 (Sophocles) 382–383 Linus 249, 314 Lysidamus 116–118
Laius and 307 Lamachus 4, 94, 308 liturgy 52–53 Lysimache 317
in Oedipus (Seneca) lamentations 308 Livia (Livilla) 314 Lysimachus 344–347
375–378 Lamia 104, 309 Livius. See Drusus Lysistrata 317–318, 318–321
Oedipus and 374, 375 Lamius 309 Lloyd-Jones, H. 353, 575 Lysistrata (Aristophanes)
in Oedipus Tyrannos Lampadio 120 logeion 314 318–321
(Sophocles) 179, 382–386 Lampon 309 logos Cinesias (2) in 138
in Phoenician Women Laocoon 309 in Clouds (Aristophanes) 144 Clepsydra in 142
(Euripides) 439, 440, 443 Laodameia 2, 32, 309–310 in Oedipus at Colonus Ecclesiazusae comparison
Jove. See Zeus Laomedon 310 (Sophocles) 381 185–186
The Judgment of Arms (Accius) 79 Lapiths 310 loneliness, in Dyscolus Peace comparison 412
The Judgment of Arms (Aeschylus) Lar 310 (Menander) 181 Praxagora comparison 462
79 Larisa 310 lotus 314 Lysiteles 544–547
The Judgment of Arms (Pacuvius) Lasthenes 309, 501 Lotus Eaters 314 Lyssa. See Madness
79 Lasus 309 love
Judgment of Paris 276, 299, 406 Latona See Leto Eros (Cupid, Amor) 206 M
Juno. See Hera Leda 309–310 in Three-Dollar Day (Plautus) Macareus 16
Jupiter. See Zeus leimoniades 368 546 Macaria 132, 133, 322
jury duty 580–582 Leipsydrium 311 in Trachinian Women MacDowell, D. M. 66, 217, 505
Justice 299–300, 585 Lemniselenis 422–423 (Sophocles) 555–556 Macistus 322
justice 299–300, 393 Lemnos 296–297, 311, 542 Loves. See Erotes Madness (Lyssa) 322
Just Man 584, 585 lena 311 Loxias. See Apollo in Heracles (Euripides) 252
Lenaea 311–312 Lucina. See Eileithyia Iris and 293
K leno (lenones) 450–451 Lucretia 315 madness, in Hippolytus (Seneca)
Karnezis, J. E. 505 Leo 312 Lucrio 96 270–271
Katharsis. See catharsis Leogoras 312 Luna. See Moon Maeander 322
keraunoskopeion 301 Leonida 150–151 Lusian 78 Maenads 322
kerkis (cuneus) 158 Leonidas 312 Luxury 543 Maenalus 322
Knemon 179–182 Leotrophides 312 Lycabettus 315 maenianum 322
Knights (Hippeis, Equites; Lepreus (Lepreon) 312 Lycaean Precinct 315 Maeonia 322
Aristophanes) 24, 62–63, Lerna 312 Lycaeus. See Apollo Maeotis 322–323
301–304 Lernaean Hydra 279, 312 Lycaon 315 Magnes 323
672 INDEX

Magnesia 323 Megabazus 334 in Andromache (Euripides) Minos 351–352

Maia 323 Megacles 334 48, 49 Cocalus and 146
Malian Gulf 323 Megadorus 459–460 Antenor and 52 Daedalus and 166
Malians 433–434 Megaenetus 334 in Helen (Euripides) Nisus and 367
Malis 323 Megaera 334 243–247 Pasiphae and 351–352, 409
Manes 323 Megalensian Games 334 Helen and 242–243 Polydus and 455–456
The Man from Sicyon (Sikyonios; Megara (character) 335 in Iphigenia at Aulis Theseus and 537
Menander) 323–324 in Heracles (Euripides) (Euripides) 286–289 Minotaur 352, 537
Mania 324 251–252, 335 in Orestes (Euripides) 397, Minyans 204, 352–353
The Man She Hated (Misoumenos; in Hercules Furens (Seneca) 398, 399, 400 The Misanthrope. See Dyscolus
Menander) 324–325 255–256, 335 Proteus and 469–470 Misapprehension 228
Manto 325, 376, 377 Megara/Megarians (town) Theonoe and 535 Misargyrides 234, 236, 577
Marathon 131, 325 334–335 in Trojan Women (Euripides) Misoumenos. See The Man She
Mardians 325 in Acharnians (Aristophanes) 563–564 Hated
Mardus 325 3, 4 Menoeceus (1) 343 Mitylene 353
Marilades 325 Nisus (king) 367 Menoeceus (2) 343, 440, 442 Mnesilochus 84–85, 87, 539,
Marpsias 325–326 Megareus 335, 501 The Men of Scyros (Sophocles) 540
marriage Megarian Decree 3, 416, 419 492 Moerae. See Fates
in Andria (Terence) 46–47 Megaronides 543–547 The Merchant (Mercator) (Plautus) Moirai. See Fates
in Andromache (Euripides) Melaenis 119–120 118, 343–347 Molon 353
50 Melanion 72, 335 Mercury. See Hermes Molossia 353
in Electra (Euripides) Melanippe 335 meretrix 468–469 Molossus 48, 49, 50, 353
191–192 Melanippus 336, 501, 573 Merope 347 Momus 353
gamos 226 Meleager 37, 336–337 Cresphotes and 156 monodies (monody) 353
in Iphigenia at Aulis Meletus 337 in Oedipus (Seneca) 376 Moon 241, 353–354
(Euripides) 288 meliae 368 Mopsus 354
in Oedipus Tyrannos
in Medea (Euripides) 331 Melistiche 337 Morsimus 354
(Sophocles) 383, 384
in Octavia 371–372 Melite 337 Morychus 354
Merops 428
in Suppliant Women Melitides 337 Moschion
Messalina 347
(Aeschylus) 522 Melos 337 in Samia (Menander)
Messapium 347
Mars See Ares Memnon 338 487–489
Messene 347
masks 148, 326 Memorabilia (Xenophon) 128 in The Girl with the Shaven
messengers 347–348
Maternus 371 Menaechmi (The Brothers Head (Menander)
Messenia 156
Matrona 338, 339 Menaechmus or The Two 228–229
Messenio 338, 339–340
matrona (matronae) 326–327 Menaechmuses; Plautus) 43, 86, in The Man from Sicyon
Metamorphoses (Ovid) 460
Mavors. See Ares 338–341 (Menander) 323–324
mechane (machina) 327, 412 Metapontus 335
Menaechmus 338–341 Moschus 354
Medea 327–328 metatheater 348. See also play
Menander 341–343 Mossman, Judith 240
Absyrtus and 1 Afranius and 20 within a play
Mostellaria See The Haunted
Aeetes and 14 The Arbitration (Epitrepontes) meter 348–349 House
Aegeus and 14–15, 328 60–62 Metis (1) 349 The Mother-in-Law (Hecyra)
Jason 297–298, 327–328 Caecilius and 107 Metis (2) 349 (Terence) 354–358
in Medea (Euripides) chorus, use of 135 Meton 91, 349 mothers, in Comedy of Asses
328–331 Dis Exapaton 86–87 Micia 100, 101, 102 (Plautus) 152
in Medea (Seneca) 331–333 Dyscolus (Old Cantankerous, Micio 103 Mothon 358
Medus and 333 The Bad-Tempered Man, Micon 349 Mulciber. See Hephaestus
Theseus and 328, 536–537 or The Misanthrope) Midas (1) 349 Munichus 358
Medea (Euripides) 328–331 179–182 Midas (2) 349 Munychion 358
Aegeus in 14, 320, 331 The Girl with the Shaven Head Middle Comedy 148, 149, 584 Muses 358, 533
Creon (2) in 156, 328–330 (Perikeiromene) 201, midwives 349 music girls 358
Jason in 298, 328–331 228–229 Might 465, 467 Mycale 358
Medea (Seneca) comparison The Man from Sicyon Miletus 349–350 Mycenae 358, 548
331, 332 (Sikyonios) 323–324 military imagery, in Pseudolus Myconos 358
Trachinian Women (Sophocles) The Man She Hated (Plautus) 473 Myrmex 358
comparison 555–556 (Misoumenos) 324–325 Milphidippa 96–97, 98 Myrmidons 358–359
Truculentus (Plautus) compar- Samia (The Girl from Samos) Milphio 114–115, 116 Myronides 359
ison 571 487–489 Miltiades 350 Myrrha 11, 359
Medea (Seneca) 156, 270, 298, The Shield (Aspis) 503–505 Mimas (1) 350 Myrrhina 116–117
331–333 Trophonius 568 Mimas (2) 350 Myrrhine
Medes 333 works 342, 597–598 mimes 63, 350 in Dyscoulus (Menander)
Media 333 Menarchus 112 mimesis 351 179, 180
Medicus 339 Menedemus 493–498 mimesis 351 The Girl with the Shaven Head
Medus 333 Menelaus 343 mimos 350 (Menander) 228, 229
Medusa 230, 333–334, 421 in Ajax (Sophocles) 26, 27, mina 351 in Lysistrata (Aristophanes)
Mees, Charles L. 522 28 Minerva. See Athena 319, 320
 INDEX 673

Myrrina 354, 355, 356 Niceratus 487–489 Autolycus and 78–79 Oeneus 386
Myrsine. See Byrsine Nicias (1) 365–366 in The Award of Arms or The Diomedes (2) and 173
Myrtilus 151–152, 359, Cleon and 141, 365 Judgment of Arms 79 Meleager and 336
417–418 in Knights (Aristophanes) Calypso and 109–110 Thersites and 536
Mysians 359–360 301, 302, 303 Charybdis and 131 Oenomaus 386–387
Mysis 44 in Melos 337 Chrysalus comparison 87 Myrtlilus and 359
mysteries 360 and Sicilian Expedition 505 Circe and 138 Pelops and 417–418
Mytilene/Mytileneans 140, Nicias (2) 366 in Cyclops (Euripides) Oenops 387
239–240 Nicobulus 84, 85–86, 87–88 161–163 Oeonichus 387
Nicochares 311 Diomedes (2) and 173 Oeta 387
N Nicodemus 578 Euryalus (2) and 215 offerings 485–486
Naevius 361 Nicomachus 366 in Hecabe (Euripides) 238, Ogygian 387
Danae 167 Nicostratus 366 240 Oileus 387
fabula praetexta 220 Nietasche, Friedrich Wilhelm in Iphigenia at Aulis Okeanos See Oceanus
Hesione 262 366 (Euripides) 286–289 Old Comedy 148–149
Iphigenia 285–286 Night (nux, nox) 366 Laertes and 307 Olenian goat 387
Lycurgus 316 Nike (Victoria) 366–367 lotus and 314 Olenus 271, 387
Naiads 361 Nile 367 Nausicaa and 362 oligarchic revolution 417, 450,
Nais. See Lais Niobe 367 Palamedes and 402–403 535
Naucrates 39 Nireus 367 Penelope and 418 Olympia 387
Naupactus 361 Nisus 367 in Philoctetes (Sophocles) Olympio 116–118
Nauplia 361 nobility, in Electra (Euripides) 434–437 Olympus (1) 387
Nauplius 362 192 Philoctetes and 433 Olympus (2) 387
Aerope and 16, 17 Nocturnus 368 Polyphemus and 161 omens 387
Aleus and 35–36 nomos 144 Pseudolus comparison 473 Omphale 250, 387–388
Nausicaa 362 Novius 219 in Rhesus (Euripides) Onca 388
Nausicydes 362 nummi (nummus) 543 477–478, 479 Onesimus 61
Nausistrata 446, 447 nurses 368 Silenus and 506
Opheltes 38, 388
Naxos 362 nutrix 368 Sirens and 507–508
Ophion 388
Necessity 12 Nyctelius 368 in Trojan Women (Seneca)
Ophiuchus 388
Neistan Gate 363 Nycteus 57 566–567
Opôra 410, 412
Neleus 363, 575 nymphs 368 Odyssey (Homer) 138, 161–163,
Ops See Rhea
Nemea 315 Cyllene (2) 164 271–272, 457
Opuntius 388
Nemean lion 363 Echo 187, 539 Oea 374
oracles 303, 304, 388. See also
Nemesis 12, 363 Galatea 226 Oeagrus 374
Delphic oracle
Neocleides 363 Hyades 273 Oeax 374
orchestra 10, 388–389
Neophron 329–330 Nysa 368 Oechalia 374
Orcus. See Hades
Neoptolemus 363–364 nyx 368 Oecles (Ocleus) 374
in Andromache (Euripides) Oedipus 374–375 order and disorder, in The
48, 50–51 O anagnorisis and 43 Persians (Aeschylus) 425
Andromache and 47–48 obol 369 Antigone and 53 oreads 368
Hermione and 261 Ocean 349 Freud and 221 Oreithyia 94
Lycomedes and 315 Oceanids (Oceanus’ daughters) and Jocasta 298, 374, 375 Oresteia (Aeschylus) 129,
in Philoctetes (Sophocles) 368, 369, 465–466 Laius and 307, 374, 375 389–395. See also Agamemnon;
363, 434–437 Oceanus (Okeanos) 369, 466 in Oedipus (Seneca) 375–378 Eumenides; Libation Bearers
Nephele 364, 448–449 Ocleus. See Oecles in Oedipus at Colonus Orestes (1) 395
Neptune. See Poseidon Octavia 369 (Sophocles) 378–382 Orestes (2) 395–396
Nereids 364, 368 Nero and 364 in Oedipus Tyrannos in Agamemnon (Seneca) 21,
Nereus 364 in Octavia 370–372 (Sophocles) 179, 382–386 22
Neriene 364 Octavia 369–372 in Phoenician Women in Andromache (Euripides)
Nero 364 barbarians in 88 (Euripides) 440–442, 443 49–50, 50–51
Acte and 9 Nero in 364, 370–372 in Seven Against Thebes Chryses and 136
Agrippina the Younger and Poppaea in 458 (Aeschylus) 502 Clytemnestra and 145
24 Octavian 58–59 Oedipus (Seneca) 375–378 in Electra (Euripides)
in Octavia 370–372 odes 372–373 Oedipus at Colonus (Sophocles) 189–192
Poppaea and 458 Odeum 373 207, 378–382, 457 in Electra (Sophocles)
Nessus 365 Odomanti 373 Oedipus Tyrannos (Sophocles) 193–195
Deianeira and 168 Odrysae 508 382–386 Electra and 188–189
Heracles and 250 Odrysia 373 catharsis in 123 Erigone and 205
in Trachinian Women Odysseus (Ulysses) 373–374 Creon (1) in 155, 383, 384 Furies and 225
(Sophocles) 553–557 Achilles and 6, 373 dreams in 179 Hermione and 261
Nestor 365 in Ajax (Sophocles) 26, 28, Freud’s Oedipus complex and Iphigenia and 285
New Comedy 148, 149, 326, 29 221 in Iphigenia in Tauris
587–588 Ajax (1) (Aias) and 25, 26 irony in 294 (Euripides) 289–293
Nicarchus 365 Antenor and 52 revealing character in 129 justice and 299–300
674 INDEX

Orestes (2) (continued) Pamphilus (politician) 403 Pasias 408–409 Medea (Euripides) and 328,
in Oresteia (Aeschylus) Pan 179, 403 Pasicompsa 344–346 331
389–395, 395–396 Panacea 403 Pasiphae 409 Megara (1) and 334–335
in Orestes (Euripides) Panaetius 403–404 Daedalus and 166 Megarian Decree 3, 416, 419
396–400 Panathenaea 404 Minos and 351–352 Melos/Melians in 337
Pylades and 112, 474 Pandataria 404 Pataikos 228–229 Nicias 365
Orestes (Euripides) 396–400 Pandeletus 404 Patrocleides 409 in Peace (Aristophanes)
Apollo in 60, 398, 399 Pandion 404 Patrocles 409 410–413
Hegelochus in 242 Pandora 404–405 Patroclus 6, 7, 409 Peace of Nicias 413
Helen in 243, 396–397, Panegyris 516–518 Pausanias 146 Pericleidas and 419
399, 400 Panhellenes 405 Pauson 409–410 Thucydides and 547
Orestes in 395, 396–400 Panoptes 405 Pax. See Peace Pelops 417–418
Tyndareus in 397, 399, pantomime 405 Peace (Eirene, Pax; Aristophanes) Chrysippus and 136
573–574 Paphlagon 410–413 Hippodameia and 264,
Orestes as Slave (Pacuvius) 112 Agoracritus and 24 Bellerophon parody in 90 417–418
Oreus 400 in Knights (Aristophanes) Birds comparison 92 Myrtilus and 151–152,
Orion 400 301–304 417–418
Dicaeopolis-Trygaeus com-
Artemis (Diana) and 69 Paphos 405 Tantalus and 527
parison 572
Cedalion and 124 parabasis (parabases) 405 Penelope 215, 418
Lysistrata comparison
Orneae 401 in Birds (Aristophanes) 91 Peniculus 338–341
320–321, 412–412
Ornithes See Birds in comedy 149 Pentheus 418
Peace of Nicias 413
Orpheus 401 in Frogs (Aristophanes) 222 in Bacchae (Euripides) 81–84
Bassarai and 89 Pegasus 89, 413
in Knights (Aristophanes) Peiraeus 413 Dionysus and 175
Eurydice (2) and 216, 401 302 Pephredo 444
Jason and the Argonauts and Peirene 413
in Peace (Aristophanes) 411 Peirithous (Euripides) 13, 452 Pergasae 418
296 in Wasps (Aristophanes) periaktos (periaktoi) 418–419
Orthian Nome 401 Peisander 413–414
580–581 Peisetaerus 414 Periboea 271
Ortygia See Delos Paralus (1) 406 Pericleidas 419
Ossa 401 in Birds (Aristophanes)
Paralus (2) 406 Pericles 71, 419
ostracism 274 90–93, 209
parasites (kolax, parasito, Perikeiromene. See The Girl with
Ouranos. See Uranus Iris and 293
parasitus) 406 the Shaven Head
Peisias, son of 414
paraskenion 406 peripeteia 419–420
P Pelargicon 414
Parcae 406 Periphanes 199–202
Pactolus 402 Pelasgus (Pelasgia) 414–415,
Pardalisca 117 Periplectomenus 94–96, 97
Pacuvius 402, 559 521–522
Paris (Alexander) 406–407 Perrhaebia 420
Antiope 58 Peleus 415
and Cassandra 121 Persephassa 420
Atalanta 72 Acastus and 1–2, 415
Eris and 206 Persephone (Proserpina) 420
Dulorestes 474 Achilles and 6–7
Hecabe (Hecuba) and 237 Adonis and 11
Iliona 277 in Andromache (Euripides)
in Helen (Euripides) Antigone comparison 55
The Judgement of Arms 79 49, 50–51
243–247 Cabeiri and 106
Medus 333 Chiron and 133
Helen and 242–243, 406 Demeter (Ceres) and
Orestes as Slave 112 Jason and the Argonauts and
on Ida (1) 276 169–170, 420
paean 402 296, 415
Judgment of Paris 276, 299 in Frogs (Aristophanes) 222
Paegnium 422 Phoenix and 443
in Rhesus (Euripides) Hades (Pluto) and 232
Palaemon 402 Pelias 298, 575
477–478 in The Man from Sicyon
Palaestra 480–482, 483, 484 Alcestis and 30
Parmeno (Menander) 324
Palaestrio 95–99 Jason and 296, 298
in The Brothers (Terence) 100 Perseus 420–421
Palamedes 402–403 Medea and 327
in Eunuch (Terence) Acrisius and 8
Palamedes (Euripides) 403, 539, Pelion 416
562 209–210, 211 Dictys and 172
in The Mother-in-Law Pellene 416 Gorgon and 230, 421
Palinurus 158–159 Pelopea 15, 547–548
Pallantids 403 (Terence) 354–355, 356, Medusa and 334
357 Peloponnesian War 416–417 Phorcides and 444
Pallas 403 in Acharnians (Aristophanes)
Pamphila Parmenon 487, 488 The Persian (Persa; Plautus)
Parnassus 407 3 421–424, 579
in The Brothers (Terence)
Parnes 407 in Andromache (Euripides) Persians (Aeschylus) 76,
100–101, 103
parodos (1) 407–408 50 424–427
in The Eunuch (Terence)
parodos (2) 408 Arginusae, naval battle at 64, Persia/Persians
209–213
parody 4, 408 110, 203, 224, 543 in Birds (Aristophanes) 93
in Phormio (Terence) 445,
446 Paros 408 Aristophanes and 67 Cyrus (king) 164
Pamphile 60–62 Parrhasia 408 Brasidas and 99 Epicrates and 198
Pamphillipus 516–518 Parthenius 215 Ecclesiazusae (Aristophanes) Marathon, battle of 325
Pamphilus (character) Parthenopaeus 408 and 185 Medes 333
in Andria (Terence) 44–47 Atalanta (Atalante) and 72 in Lysistrata (Aristophanes) Megabazus 334
in Mother-in-Law (Terence) in Seven Against Thebes 318–321 in The Persians (Aeschylus)
354–357 (Aeschylus) 501, 502 Lysistrata and 317 424–426
 INDEX 675

Phaeacia/Phaeacians 362, 427 Philoctetes 433–434 pimps 450–451 prostitutes, in plays of 468
Phaeax 427 Chryse (2) and 136 Pinacium Pseudolus 201, 202,
Phaedra 427–428 Heracles and 250 in The Haunted House 423–424, 470–473
in Hippolytus (Euripides) in Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca) (Plautus) 235, 236–237 The Rope (Rudens) 480–484
265–266, 267, 268 258, 259, 260 in Stichus (Plautus) 517 Stichus 516–519
in Hippolytus (Seneca) in Philoctetes (Sophocles) pinakes (pinax) 451 Three-Dollar Day (Trinummus)
268–271, 427 434–437 Pindar 451–452 102, 460, 543–547
Hippolytus and 265 Philoctetes (Sophocles) 363, Pindus 452 Truculentus 102, 568–572
Theseus and 537 380–381, 434–437 Pine Bender (Sinis) 507 twins, complications of 86
Phaedra (Seneca) 268, 427–428 Philodoretus 437 Pirithous 452, 537–538 Vidularia (The tale of a travel-
Phaedria philoi 399 Pisastratus 263 ing bag) 578
in Eunuch (Terence) Philolaches 234–237 Pisinoe 507 and weapons (use of) 121
209–212 Philomela 531–532 Pistoclerus 84–88 works 598
in Phormio (Terence) Philonides 437–438 Pitallus 452 play within a play 348
445–446, 448 Philonome 163 Pitcher Feast 452 in Epidicus (Plautus)
in The Pot of Gold (Plautus) Philopolemus 111 Pittheus 14 201–202
459 Philostratus (Cyanoplex) 164 Planesium 158–160 in Helen (Euripides) 246
Phaedromus 158–160 Philotis 354 Plangon 487 in The Persian (Aeschylus)
Phaethon 428 Philoumene 323–324 Planktai 139 424
Phaethon (Euripides) 428 Philoxenus 84–85 Plataea 452–453 in Philoctetes (Sophocles)
Phales 429 Philto 543, 544 Plato 453 437
phalluses 429 Philumena on Acheron river 6 in The Self-Tormentor
Phanicus 235, 236–237 in Andria (Terence) 44, 45 Apology (Plato) 67, 144, 511 (Terence) 496–497
Phanium 445–447 in The Mother-in-Law The Republic (Plato) 351, 453 in Thesmophoriazusae
Phanostrata 119–120 (Terence) 354–357 Symposium 67 (Aristophanes) 539–540
Phanus 429 Phineus 438 Plato (Greek comic poet) 306, Plebeian Games 455
Pharsalus 429 Cleopatra and 141 591 Pleisthenes 455
Harpies and 234, 438
Phasis 429 Plautus 453–455 Plesidippus 480–482
Phlegethon 438
Phayllus 429 adulescens (adulescentes) in Pleusicles 95, 96–97, 99
Phlegra 438
Phegeus plays of 13 Plocium (Caecilius) 107
Phocis 1, 438
Alcmeon (Alcmeo) and Amphitruo 38–41, 42, 86, Ploutos. See Wealth
Phocus 415
34–35 294, 590–591 Plutarch 308
Phoebe 353. See also Artemis
and Harmonia’s necklace and Bacchides (The Two Bacchises) Pluto. See Hades
(Diana)
robe 233 84–88 Plutus 455, 582–585
Phoebus. See Apollo
Pheidippides 142–143, 144, Braggart Warrior (Mile Pnyx 455
Phoenician Women (Euripides)
429–430 Gloriosus) 86, 94–99, 115 Podarge 233
439–443
Pherae 10, 30, 430 Creon (1) in 155–156, Captives 111–113 Poeas 455
Pherecrates 430 439–442 The Carthaginian (Poenulus) Poenulus. See The Carthaginian
Pheres 430 Eteocles in 207, 439–442 113–116 Poetics (Aristotle) 68
Admetus and 11, 430 Polyneices in 439–442, 457 Casina 116–119 on catharsis 123
in Alcestis (Euripides) Phoenician Women (Seneca) 207, The Casket Comedy on chorus 135
30–31 443, 457 (Cistellaria) 119–121 hamartia 233
Phersephatta 430 Phoenicium 470–473 chorus, use of 135 mimesis 351
Phidias 430–431 Phoenix 177, 443–444 Comedy of Asses (Asinaria) on Oedipus Tyrannos
Phidippus 354–356 Phorcides 444 118, 150–152 (Sophocles) 384–385
Philaenete 431 Phorcys’ daughters 421 compared to Terence 531 on prologues 464
Philaenium 150–151, 152 Phormio (1) 444 contaminatio in 153 on Sophocles 513
Philbalis 431 Phormio (2) 444, 445–446, Curculio 134, 158–160 on tragedy 384–385, 490,
Philematium 234, 235 447–448 double love plot, use of 86 557
Philemon (1) 431 Phormio (Terence) 444–448 Epidicus 199–202 Polemon 228–229
Philemon (2) 431 Phormisius 448 fabula palliata and 219 Polias 455
Philepsias 431 phratry 448 The Haunted House Pollux
philia 399 Phrixus 72, 73, 247, 448–449 (Mostellaria) 40, 234–237, on bronteion 100
Philip (1) (Philippus) 431 Phronesium 568–572 577 on distegia 177
Philip (2) (king) 431–432 Phrygians 449 Menaechmi (The Brothers on periaktos 419
Philipics 432 Phrynichus (1) 30, 449 Menaechmus or The Two Pollux (deity). See Castor and
Philippa 200 Phrynichus (2) 449–450 Menaechmuses) 43, 86, Pollux (Polydeuces)
Philippi 432 Phrynichus (3) 450 338–341 Polybus 376, 383–384, 455
Philocleon 432 Phrynondas 450 Menander’s influence on 342 Polydectes 420–421
Bdelycleon and 89 Phthia 415, 450 The Merchant (Mercator) 118, Polydeuces. See Castor and Pollux
in Wasps (Aristophanes) phusis 144 343–347 Polydorus
580–582 Phyle 450 The Persian (Persa) 421–424, in Hecabe (Euripides)
Philocles 432 Phyllis 170 579 238–241
Philocomasium 95–99 Phyromachus 450 The Pot of Gold (Aulularia) Iliona and 277
Philocrates 111–112, 432–433 Pickard-Cambridge, A. W. 312 102, 459–461 Polymestor and 456
676 INDEX

Polydus 455–456 Pramnian wine 461–462 in Electra (Sophocles) Roman games 479
Polymede (Alcimede) 296 Prasiae 462 193–195 Rome/Romans 479–480
Polymestor 456 Pratinas of Phleius 490 Electra and 189 aedile 13
in Hecabe (Euripides) Praxagora 183–186, 462 Iphigenia and 285 Antonius (Marcus Antonius)
238–241, 240, 241 Praxithea 203, 204 in Iphigenia in Tauris 58–59
Iliona and 277 Prepis 462–463 (Euripides) 290–292, 474 Augustus 77–78
Polymnestus 456 Priam 462–463, 566, 567 in Oresteia (Aeschylus) Brittanicus 99–100
Polyneices 456–457 princesses, female characters 586 390–391 Caesar, Gaius Julius
Adrastus and 12 Prinides 463 in Orestes (Euripides) 397, 107–108
in Antigone (Sophocles) proagon 463 398, 399, 400 Claudius 139
53–56 Procne 531–532 Orestes and 112, 474 Colosseum 147
Antigone and 53 Procris 126, 463 Pylos 474 comitium 152
Eriphyle and 205 Procrustes 463 Pyrgopolynices 94–97 forum 220
Eteocles and 207, 456–457 Prodicus 463–464 Pyrilampes 474–475 Gracchi 231
and Harmonia’s necklace and Proetus 89, 267 Pyrrha 170–171, 475 in Hercules Furens (Seneca)
robe 233 prohedria 464 Pyrrhander 475 256
in Helen (Euripides) 245 prologues 464 Pyrrhias 179–180, 323 household gods 272
Lynceus and 316 Aeschylus and 18 Pyrrhus 566–567 Lucretia 315
in Oedipus at Colonus Terence and 531 Pythangelus 475 Nero 364–365
(Sophocles) 378–382, 457 Prometheus 92, 133, 464–465, Pythia 169, 475 Octavia 369
in Phoenician Women 465–467 Pythias 210–211 Plebeian Games 455
(Euripides) 439–441, 442, Prometheus Bound (Aeschylus) Pytho 475 Roman games 479
443, 457 465–467 Python 475 The Rope (Rudens; Plautus)
in Phoenician Women (Seneca) adamant in 10 480–484
443 bia in 90 Q Rudens. See The Rope
in Seven Against Thebes Hephaestus in 248, 465, 467 queens (female characters) 586
(Aeschylus) 500–503 Inachus in 277–278 S
Tydeus and 573 Io in 278–279, 466, 467 R Sabazius 485
Polyphemus 161–163, 226, Oceanus in 369, 466 Ranae. See Frogs Sacas 485
457–458 Zeus in 465–466, 591 realistic style 9 sacrifice 22, 485–486
Polyphontes 156, 501 Pronomus 467–468 Red Sea 476 sacrificial maidens, in works of
Polyxena 458 prophets 468 The Republic (Plato) 351, 453 Euripides 133, 285, 288, 441,
in Hecabe (Euripides) Propylaea 468 reversal (peripeteia) 419–420. 486
238–239, 240 Proserpina See Persephone See also role reversal Sagaristio 421–423
in Trojan Women (Seneca) proskenion 468 Rhadamanthys 476 Salabaccho 486
566–568 prostitutes 468–469 Rhea (Cybele) 476 Salaminia 486
Pompey 107–108 protagonists 469 Attis and 77 Salamis 216, 424, 486
Pomponeius, Lucius 219 Protesilaus 469 Corybantes and 154 Salmoneus 486–487, 575
Pontus (1) 458 Acastus and 2 Rhesus 476–477, 477–479 Salmydessus 487
Pontus (2) 458 Laodameia and 309–310 Rhesus (Euripides) 477–479 salvation, in Iphigenia in Tauris
Poppaea 370–372, 458 Proteus (1) 469–470 Aeneas in 16, 477 (Euripides) 292
pornoboskos (pornoboskoi) Proteus (2) 470 Athena (Minerva) in 75, Samia (The girl from Samos;
450–451 Proxenides 470 477–478 Menander) 487–489
Porphyrion 458 Prytanaeum 470 Dolon in 177, 477, 478 Samos 130, 489
Poseidon (Neptune) 458–459 Prytany 470 Hector in 242, 477–478 Samothrace 489
Amymone and 42 Psamathe 415 Rhesus in 477–479 Sangarinus 517
in Birds (Aristophanes) 92 Pseudolus 470–473 Rhipae 479 sanity and insanity 341. See also
Caeneus and 107 Pseudolus (Plautus) 470–473 Rhodope 479 madness
Cecrops and 124 Epidicus comparison 201, Ringer, Mark 195 Sannio 100, 451
Erechtheus and 204 202 Riot 410 Sardanapalus 489
Laomedon and 310 The Persian (Aeschylus) com- ritual, violation of. See also cus- Sardis 489
Melanippe and 335 parison 423–424 toms, violation of Sardo 490
Minos and 351–352 Psophis 473 in Electra (Euripides) 191 Saronic Gulf 490
in The Rope (Plautus) 483 Pterelas (Pterelaus) 473 in Iphigenia at Aulis Saturio 422–423
in Trojan Women (Euripides) Ptolemocratia 481 (Euripides) 288 Saturn. See Cronus
562 puella (puellae) 468–469, role reversal satyr plays 490–491
postscaenium 459 578–579 in Ajax (Sophocles) 29 Achaeus 2–3
Pot Feast (Chytroi) 137 pulpitum (pulpita) 314, 473 in Bacchae (Euripides) 83–84 chorus in 135
Potidaea 416 purification and cleansing, in in Captives (Plautus) 112 Cyclops (Euripides) 161, 163
Potidaia 459 Iphigenia in Tauris (Euripides) in Casina (Plautus) 118 phalluses in 429
The Pot of Gold (Aulularia; 292 in Comedy of Asses (Plautus) Searchers (Sophocles) 493
Plautus) 102, 459–461 Pylades 474 152 siccinus (siccinistes) 505
Poverty 543, 583, 585 Chryses and 136 in Frogs (Aristophanes) 223 Silenus character in 506
praecinctio 461 in Electra (Euripides) in Philoctetes (Sophocles) satyrs 490, 493, 506
Pragmatica (Accius) 2 189–192 436 Sausage Seller 301–304
 INDEX 677

scaena. See skene servus callidus 510 Simois 506 Sophocles 513–514
Scales 491 servus dolosus 510 Simon (1) 506 Acristus 8
Scamander 491 Seven against Thebes Simon (2) 506 Ajax 25–26, 26–29, 55–56,
Scapha 234 Adrastus and 12 Simonides 506–507 74, 108, 251
Sceledrus 95–96, 97, 98 Amphiaraus and 38 Sinis 507 Antigone. See Antigone
Scellias’ son 491 Borrhaean Gate 94 Sinon 507 Athamas 73
Sceparnio 480, 481 Capaneus and 110 Sinope 507 Colchides 147
scholia (scholion) 491 Electran Gate 196 siparium (siparia) 507 Creusa 157
Scione 140, 491 Epigoni and 202 Sipylus 507 Dolopians 177–178
Sciron 491–492 Eteoclus and 208 Electra 56, 137, 145–146,
Sirens 507–508
Scironian Rocks 491 Homoloean Gate 272 193–196, 392–393
Sisyphus 508
Scirophoria 492 Melanippus 336 Epigonoi 12, 202
Sisyphus (Euripides) 562
Scitaloi 492 Neistan Gate 363 impact of Peloponnesian War
Parthenopaeus 408 Sitalces 508
Scorpion 492 on 417
in Suppliant Women skanotheka 509
Scylla 229, 367, 492 Inachus 277
(Euripides) 523–526 skene (skaena) 508–509
Scyros 492 Ion 157
Tydeus 573 skenogrphia 509
Scythia 492–493 Iophon and 285
Seven against Thebes (Hepta Epi skenotheke (skanotheka) 509
Scythian, the 539, 540 Laocoon 309
Thebas, Septem Contra Thebas; slave characters 356, 423–424,
Scythians (Sophocles) 493 The Men of Scyros 492
Searchers (Ichneutai; Sophocles) Aeschylus) 94, 130, 207, 509–510
Momus 353
164, 493 500–503 slavery 509–510 Nauplius plays 362
seen v. unseen 253. See also sexual strike, in Lysistrata in Captives (Plautus) 112 Nausikaa 362
sight/eyes (Aristophanes) 318–321 in Hecabe (Euripides) 240 Oedipus at Colonus 207,
seers (prophets) 468 Shame 71 in Iphigenia at Aulis 378–382, 457
Segal, Charles 55, 123 Shepherds (Sophocles) 163 (Euripides) 288 Oedipus Tyrannos. See
Segal, Erich 451 The Shield (Aspis) (Menander) in Wasps (Aristophanes) 582 Oedipus Tyrannos
Selene. See Moon 503–505 Sleep (Hupnos, Somnus) 510 Pandora 404–405
Shield of Heracles 164, 262 Smerdis (Mardus) 325
Selenium 119–120, 121 Phaedra 427–428
siccinus (siccinistes) 505 Smicrines
Seleucia 493 Philoctetes 363, 380–381,
Sicilian Expedition 246, 505 in The Arbitration (Menander)
The Self-Tormentor (Heauton 433, 434–437
Alcibiades and 32 61
Timoroumenos; Terence) Philoctetes at Troy 433
Carystian allies and 116
102–103, 493–498 in The Shield (Menander) Phineus 438
Stilbides and 519
Selinus 280 503–505 Phrixus 449
Sicily 505
Semele 498 Smicythion 510 Polyxena 458
Aeschylus in 17
Semele (Carcinus) 498 Smicythus (Smicythes) 511 Scythians 493
Aetna (Etna) 19
Semnae. See Furies Sminthe 136 Searchers (Ichneutai) 164,
Dionysius I 174–175
Semnai Theai 498–499 Eryx (2) 207 Smintheus 511 493
Senate 499 Gela 227 Smoius 511 Shepherds 163
Seneca 499, 559 Sicinnis 505 soccus (socci) 511 Tereus 532
Agamemnon 21–23, 122 Sicyon 506 social reform Thamyris 533
Hercules Furens 42, 158, Sidero 486–487 in Ecclesiazusae (Aristophanes) Trachiniae 177
254–257, 335 sidon 506 185–186 Trachinian Women (Trachiniai)
Hercules Oetaeus 168, Sigeum 506 female characters and 587 168, 251, 257–259, 313,
257–260, 280 sight/eyes theme of The Braggart in Wealth (Aristophanes) 553–557
Hippolytus 268–271, 427 Warrior (Plautus) 97–99 See 584–585 Troilus 561
Medea 156, 270, 298, also seen v. unseen Tyro 575
social status
331–333 Sikon 180–181 Women of Phthiz 450
in Dyscolus (Menander) 181
Octavia and 369–370, 371, Sikyonios. See The Man from works 594–595
in Electra (Euripides) 192
372 Sicyon Sophoclidisca 422
Socrates 511–512
Oedipus 375–378 Silanus, L. Junius 506 Sophrona 211, 446
Aristophanes and 67
Phaedra 268, 427–428 Silenus (Silen) 506 Sophron of Syracuse 350
Phoenician Women 207, 443, Chaerephon and 128
in Cyclops (Euripides) sophrosune 267–268
457 in Clouds (Aristophanes) Sosia 39
161–163
Thyestes 225, 528, 548–550 142–143, 144, 511 Sosias 228
in Searchers (Sophocles) 493
Trojan Women (Troades) Lycon and 315 Sosicles 338–341
Silvanus 506
237–238, 243, 566–568 Simaetha 506 Sol See Sun Sosiphanes 336
works 596 Simia 471 Solon 512 Sostrata
Senex 339 Simiche 180, 181 somation 512 in The Brothers (Terence)
senex (senes) 454, 499–500 Simo Sommerstein, A. H. 58, 128, 100–101, 103
Septem Contra Thebas. See Seven in Adria (Terence) 44–47 130, 401, 463, 467–468 in The Mother-in-Law
against Thebes in The Haunted House Somnus (Sleep) 510 (Terence) 355–357
Serians 500 (Plautus) 234, 235, 236, Sons of Aeneas (Accius) 16 in The Self-Tormentor
Seriphus 172, 500 237 The Sons of Antenor (Antenoridae; (Terence) 494, 495
serpent imagery, in Ion in Pseudolus (Plautus) Accius) 52 Sostrate 514
(Euripides) 283–284 471–473 Sophists 512–513 Sostratus 179–181
678 INDEX

Sotadica (Accius) 2 Suppliant Women (Aeschylus) Tellus See Earth geranos 227
Soteris 578 279, 521–523, 525 Temenus 156, 530 hemikuklion 248
Sparta/Spartans 515. See also Suppliant Women (Euripides) 12, Tenes 7, 163 keraunoskopeion 301
Peloponnesian War 74, 523–526 Terence 531 logeion 314
Alcibiades and 32–33 supplication 525, 526 adulescens (adulescentes) in maenianum 322
in Andromache (Euripides) Susa 526 plays of 13 mechane 327
50 Susarion 147 Andria (The Girl from Andros) orchestra 388–389
Aristophanes and 67 Sybaris 526 44–47 paraskenion 406
Brasidas 99 sycophants. See informants The Brothers 100–104, parodos 408
Cleomenes (king) 140 Symplegades (Clashing Rocks) 120–121, 496 periaktos (periaktoi) 418–419
Menelaus (king) 343 139 chorus, use of 135 pinakes 451
speech Symposium (Plato) 67 contaminatio in 153 postscaenium 459
in Clouds (Aristophanes) 144 synagonists 526 double plots, use of 86, 212, praecinctio 461
in Hippolytus (Euripides) 267 Syncerastus 114–115 447–448, 531 prohedria 464
in Oedipus at Colonus synchoregia (synchoregiai) 526 Eunuch 94, 209–213 proskenion 468
(Sophocles) 381 Syra 119, 324, 345, 354, 526 fabula palliata and 219 pulpitum (pulpita) 473
in Orestes (Euripides) 400 Syracuse 174–175, 526 Menander’s influence on 342 siparium (siparia) 507
Sphacteria 141 Syria 526 The Mother-in-Law (Hecyra) skene (skaena) 508–509
Sphekes. See Wasps Syrus 354–358 skenogrphia 509
Sphinx 375, 515 in The Arbitration Phormio 444–448 stages 515–516
Spintharus 515 (Epitrepontes) 61 prologues 464 stropheion 520
spongers. See parasites in The Brothers (Terence) 103 prostitutes, in plays of 468 subsellia (subsellium)
Sporgilus 515 in The Self-Tormentor The Self-Tormentor (Heauton 520–521
stage directions 516 (Terence) 494–498 Timoroumenos) 102–103, theatron 533
stages 515–516 Syrus, Publilius 350 493–498 theologeion (theologeia) 535
Stalagmus 111–112 works 598 thymele 550
stasimon (stasima) 516 T Tereus 90–91, 531–532 theatron (theatra, cavea) 533
Stasimus 544–545, 546 Taenarus (Taenarum) 527 Terra. See Earth Thebes/Thebans 534 See also
Stenia 516 Tagus 527 Tethys 532 Seven against Thebes
Stephanium 517 Talaus 527 tetralogies 9, 532 Antigone and 53, 54
stereotypes 539, 587–588 Talthybius 527 Teucer 532–533 Cadmus and founding of
Steropes 161 in Hecabe (Euripides) in Ajax (Sophocles) 27–28 106
Stheneboea (Anteia) 89 238–239 in Helen (Euripides) 243, Creon (1) and 155
Stheno 230 in Trojan Women (Euripides) 246 Erginus and 204
stichomythia 516 563, 564 Teucrian 533 Heracles and 249
Stichus (Plautus) 516–519 in Trojan Women (Seneca) Teumessus 533 Laius (king) 307
Stilbides 519 566 Thais 209–210 Megareus 335
Stoicism 332, 377, 519 Tanaus 527 Thalaia 231 Niobe 367
Strabax 568, 569, 571 Tantalus (1) 527–528, 548, Thales 533 in Oedipus at Colonus
Stranton (Strato) 519 549–550 Thamyris (Thamyras) 533 (Sophocles) 379–380
Stratippocles 199–202 Tantalus (2) 528 Thanatos 533 in Oedipus Tyrannos
Strato (Stranton) 519 Tantalus (3) 528 Theagenes 533 (Sophocles) 382
Stratophanes Taphians. See Teleboans Theano 335 Pentheus (king) 418
in The Man from Sicyon Tarquinius Superbus 315 theaters. See also actors in Phoenician Women
(Menander) 323–324 Tartarus 528 acclamatio 2 (Euripides) 439–443
in Truculentus (Plautus) 568, Tartesian lamprey 528 aditus maximus 10 Polyneices and Eteocles 207,
569, 570 Tauris 289, 292–293, 528 amphitheater 38 456–457
Strepsiades 142–143, 144, Tauropolia 528 analemma 43 in Seven Against Thebes
519–520 Tauropolos 528 anapiesma 44 (Aeschylus) 500–503
Strobilus 459–460, 461 Taurus 528 angiportum 52 Sphinx and 515
Stronger Logic 142 Taygetus 528 architekton 63 Thelxiepia 507
strophe 58, 520 technites (technitai) 528–529 aulaeum 78 Themis 534
stropheion 520 Tecmessa 27, 529 bronteion 100 Themiscyra 534
Strophius 520 Tegea 35 cavea 123–124 Themisto 72–73
Strymodorus 520 Teiresias. See Tiresias Charonian steps 130–131 Themistocles 534
Stygian 520 Telamon 262, 529 choregus (choragus) 134 Theoclymenus 243–247, 534
Stymphalia 520 Teleas 529 chorus See chorus Theognis 534–535
Stymphalian birds 520 Teleboans 473, 529 circus 138 Theogony (Hesiod) 225, 262
Styx 6, 520 Telemachus 373 and comedy 148 theologeion (theologeia) 535
subsellia (subsellium) 520–521 Telephus 529–530 cuneus (cunei) 158 Theonoe 243–245, 535
Suda 17, 557 in Acharnians (Aristophanes) distegia 177 Theopompus
Sun (Helios, Sol) 521 3–4, 5 eccyclema (ekkuklemia) Nemea 363
Daughters of Helios 167 Achilles and 6 186–187 Phineus 438
Phaethon and 428 Telephus (Euripides) 529–530 eleos 196 Theopropides 234–237
Sunium 521 Telestis 200–201 episkenion 203 Theoria 410
 INDEX 679

theorikon (theorika) 535 Thouphanes 542 tragedy 557–560 Paris and 407
Theorus 535 Thrace/Thracians 542 Aeschylus and 17 Patroclus and 409
Theramenes 535–536 Haemus 232 Aristotle and 68 in Philoctetes (Sophocles)
Therapontigonus 159 Hebrus 237 catharsis in 123 434
Thermodon 536 Odomanti 373 choruses in 134, 135 Philoctetes and 433
Theron 323–324 Philippi 432 curses in 160 Polymestor 456
Thersites 536 Thraso 209–212 emmeleia in 196 Priam 462
Theseum 536 Thrasonides 324–325 episodes 203 Protesilaus 469
Theseus 536–538 Thrasybulus 542–543 Euripides and 214–215 in Rhesus (Euripides)
Adrastus and 12 Thratta 543 female characters in 587 477–479
Aegeus and 14–15 Three-Dollar Day (Trinummus; in Frogs (Aristophanes), dis- Rhesus and 476
Amazons and 37 Plautus) 543–547 cussion of 222 in Trojan Women (Euripides)
Ariadne and 65, 537 The Brothers (Terence) com- hamartia 233 562–565
Cercyon and 127 parison 102 hubris in 272–273 in Trojan Women (Seneca)
Daedalus and 166 The Pot of Gold comparison justice in 299–300 566–568
Helen and 242–243 460 masks in 326 Trojan Women (Troades) (Seneca)
in Heracles (Euripides) 252 Thucydides (1) 547 messenger speeches in 347 237–238, 243, 566–568
in Hercules Furens (Seneca) Thucydides (2) 308, 547 mimesis and 351 Trojan Women (Troiades)
255, 256, 257 Thule 547 Seneca 499 (Euripides) 562–566
in Hippolytus (Euripides) Thyestes 547–548 skene and 509 Astyanax in 71
266–267, 268 Aegisthus and 15 Sophocles 513–514 Hecabe comparison 240
in Hippolytus (Seneca) Atreus and 76 trilogies 560 Hecabe in 237–238,
269–270 Thyestes (Seneca) 225, 528, tragicomedy 560 562–565
Medea and 328, 336–337 548–550 tragic parody, in Acharnians 4 Helen in 243
Medus and 333 Thyiads 550 Tranio 234–237 Trophonius 568
Minos and 337, 352 thymele 550 Triballians 92, 560 trophos 368
in Oedipus at Colonus Thyrsus 551 Tricorythus 560 Troy/Trojans 568. See also Trojan
(Sophocles) 378, 379, tibicena (music girl) 358 trilogies 560
horse; Trojan War
381, 382 Timon 551 Trinummus. See Three-Dollar Day
Achilles and 6–7
Pallantids and 403 Timotheus 551 Triptolemus 560–561
Aeneas and 16
Pirithous and 452, 537–538 Tiphys 551 tritagonists 561
Antenor 52
Sinis and 507 Tiresias (Teiresias) 468, Triton (1) 561
Dardanus (king) 167
in Suppliant Women 551–552 Triton (2) 561
Laomedon (king) 310
(Euripides) 523–526 in Antigone (Sophocles) 55 Trivia 561
Nauplius 362
Theseus (Euripides) 538 in Bacchae (Euripides) 81 Troades. See Trojan Women
Priam (king) 462
Thesmophoriazusae (Aristophanes) Manto and 325 (Seneca)
in Rhesus (Euripides)
538–540 in Oedipus (Seneca) 376, 377 Troezen (Troizen, Trozen) 561
478–479
Agathon in 23, 538–540 in Oedipus Tyrannos Troiades. See Trojan Women
Cleisthenes in 140 (Sophocles) 383 (Euripides) Truculentus 569–571
Echo in 187 in Phoenician Women Troilus 561 Truculentus (Plautus) 102,
Euripides in 23, 214, (Euripides) 440, 442 Trojan horse 561–562 568–572
538–540 Tiryns 552 Epeus and 198 Trygaeus 317, 410–413, 561,
Lysistrata comparison 320 Tisiphone 552 Laocoon and 309 572
Palamedes (Euripides) and Titans 552 Sinon and 507 Tullia 572
403 Tithonus 197, 552 Trojan War 246 tutors 572
Thespiades 540 Titinius 220 Achilles and 541 twins 40, 86, 95, 340
Thespis 540–541, 558 Tityus 552 Agamemnon and 20 The Two Bacchises. See Bacchides
Thesprio 199 Tlepolemus (Tlempolemus) in Andromache (Euripides) tyche 572–573
Thesprotia 541 552–553 50 Tyche (Chance) 504–505
Thessaly 295, 420, 541 Tmolus 553 Calchas and 108 Tydeus 12, 271, 501, 573
Thestius 541 Torch race 553 Dolon and 177 tympanum 573
Thetis 541 touch, concept of, in Suppliant Eris and 206 Tyndareus 573–574
Achilles and 6–7, 541 Women (Aeschylus) 522–523 Eurybates and 215 Leda and 309–310
in Andromache (Euripides) Toxeus 553 Eurypylus and 216 Menelaus and 343
49–50 Toxilus 421–423, 424 in Hecabe (Euripides) Odysseus and 373
Hephaestus and 248 Trachalio 481–482, 484 239–240 in Orestes (Euripides) 397,
Peleus and 415 Trachiniae (Sophocles) 177 Hecabe (Hecuba) and 399, 573–574
Thoas 542 Trachinian Women (Trachiniai; 237–238 Tyndaridae 574
Chryses and 136 Sophocles) 553–557 Hector and 241–242 Tyndaris 574
Hypsipyle and 275, 542 Deianeira in 168, 553–557 in Helen (Euripides) Tyndarus 111–112
in Iphigenia in Tauris Heracles in 251, 555–557 243–247 Typho (Typhon, Typhoeus) 574
(Euripides) 289, 290–291, Hercules Oetaeus (Seneca) Helen and 243 tyrannos 574
292 comparison 257–259 Island of the Blessed 294 Tyre 574
Thoricus 542 Lichas in 313, 554, 556 Odysseus and 373–374 Tyro 486–487, 574–575
Thorycion 542 Trachis 127–128, 557 Palamedes and 402 Tyrrhenians 575
680 INDEX

U Violence 465 Women of Aetna (Aeschylus) 19 Atê and 72

Ulysses. See Odysseus Virginia 578 The Women of Salamis (Aeschylus) Athena (Minerva) and 74
Underworld 576–577 Virgo (1) 578 486 Atlas and 75
Acheron river in 6 virgo (2) 578–579 Woodard, T. 195 in Birds (Aristophanes) 91,
Cerberus and 127 virtus 519 Works and Days (Hesiod) 262 92
chaos and 129 Vitruvius 419, 509 Callisto and 109
Charon in 130 Vulcan. See Hephaestus X in Casina (Plautus) 118
Cocytus and 146 Xanthias 589 Castor and Pollux and 122,
Erebus 203 W in Frogs (Aristophanes) 123
Hades and 232 Walton, J. Michael 83, 413 221–224 Cronus (Saturn) and
Lethe and 312 war in Wasps (Aristophanes) 581 157–158
Orpheus in 401 in Andromache (Euripides) Xenocles 589 Curetes and 160
Phlegethon 438 50 Xenophantes See Hieronymus Cyclops and 161
Sisyphus and 508 in Hecabe (Euripides) 240 Xenophon 128 Deucalion and 170–171
Styx 520 in Lysistrata (Aristophanes) Xerxes Diasia and 171
Taenarus (Taenarum) 527 318–321 at Abae 1 Dodona and 177
Tantalus (1) and 527–528 in Suppliant Women Artemisia and 69–70 Earth and 183
Theseus and 537–538 (Euripides) 525 Atossa and 76 Eris and 206
Uranus 577 in Trojan Women (Euripides) in The Persians (Aeschylus) Europa and 215
Earth and 183 564–565 424–426 Hephaestus and 248
Furies and 225 Wasps (Sphekes, Vespae; Xuthus 589 Heracles and 248–249
Rhea (Cybele) and 476 Aristophanes) 580–582 Creusa (1) and 157 Io and 278–279
Titans and 552 Antiphon in 58 in Ion (Euripides) 281–283 Ixion and 295
usurers 577 Automenes in 79 Ion (2) and 280 Leda and 310
Bdelycleon in 89 Metis (2) and 349
V Carcinus (1) in 113 Z Pandora and 404
Veneti 578 Chaereas in 128 Zeno of Citeum 519 Plebeian Games 455
vengeance Chaerephon in 128 Zephyr 590 in Prometheus Bound
in Agamemnon (Seneca) 22, Cleon in 141, 580, 581–582 Zetes 590 (Aeschylus) 465–466
122 Dracontides in 178 Zethrus 176 Roman games 479
in Oresteia (Aeschylus) Philocleon in 432 Zethus 57–58, 534 Semele and 498
393–394 Weaker Logic 142 Zeus (Jupiter, Jove) 590–591 Theseus and 537–538
Venus. See Aphrodite Wealth (Ploutos; Aristophanes) Adonis and 11 in Wealth (Aristophanes)
Verse. See meter 171, 455, 582–585 aegis and 15 583, 584
Vespae. See Wasps Webster, T. B. L. 278 Alcmena and 34 Zeus Kakoumenos (Plato) 591
Vesta. See Hestia Wild Animals (Crates) 154–155 in Amphitruo (Plautus)
Vichers, M. 33 Winnington-Ingram, R. P. 195 39–40
Victoria. See Nike women 585–588 Amphitryon (Amphitruo)
Vidularia (The Tale of a Traveling Women in Assembly. See and 41, 42
Bag) (Plautus) 578 Ecclesiazusae Antiope (2) and 57