c2

Chapter 2
Lichens Used in Traditional Medicine
Stuart D. Crawford
Abstract Lichens are used in traditional medicines by cultures across the world,
particularly in temperate and arctic regions. Knowledge of these medicinal uses is
available to us because of the contributions of traditional knowledge holders in
these cultures.
The traditional medicinal uses of 52 lichen genera are summarized in this paper.
Cultures in different regions of the world tend to emphasize different lichen genera
in their traditional medicines, with Usnea being the most widely used genus. The
folk taxonomy of lichens within a given culture is not synonymous with the
scientific taxonomy and reflects the cultural value of those lichens and the tradi-
tional method of their identification. Even within western science the identity and
taxonomy of lichens have not remained constant throughout history.
Lichens in traditional medicine are most commonly used for treating wounds,
skin disorders, respiratory and digestive issues, and obstetric and gynecological
concerns. They have been used for both their secondary metabolites and their
storage carbohydrates. The European uses of lichens have been exported worldwide
and sometimes influence the use of lichens by other cultures. These European uses
started in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and arose from interpretations of
Ancient Greek uses, as well as the application of the doctrine of signatures.
2.1 Introduction
Lichens are important traditional medicines in many different cultures. This infor-
mation has been made available to us from the contributions of hundreds of
traditional knowledge holders in communities across the world. It is our responsi-
bility to respect and value the knowledge that has been given to us. This paper is a
tribute to the wealth of traditional knowledge that exists about lichens.
There have been a few previous reviews on the traditional uses of lichens for
medicine. The traditional uses of lichens in Europe were reviewed by Smith (1921),
S.D. Crawford (*)

Crawford Ecological Consulting, Box 788, Masset, BC, Canada, V0T 1M0
e-mail: stu.crawford@gmail.com
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 27

B. Rankovic (ed.), Lichen Secondary Metabolites,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13374-4_2
28 S.D. Crawford
with later contributions by Llano (1948) and Richardson (1974). Sharnoff (1997)
compiled the first global review lichen uses, which was added to by Crawford
(2007). Upreti and Chatterjee (2007) reviewed the medicinal uses of lichens in
India and republished Sharnoffs (1997) database on medicinal uses elsewhere.
Wang and Qian (2013) recently reviewed the medicinal uses of lichens in China.
The current paper includes all the medicinal uses recorded by these previous
authors, as well as many additional records. It is the most comprehensive review
to date, but it is still far from complete.
2.2 Cultures That Use Lichens
There are records of medicinal uses of lichens in cultures in Africa, Europe, Asia,
Oceania, North America, and South America. The majority of these uses are in
North America, Europe, India, and China, but this is most likely because that is
where the majority of the ethnographic work has been done. Interestingly, no
records have been found for any traditional use of lichens in Australia.
It is difficult to determine the prevalence of lichens in traditional medicine across
the world. Most ethnobotanists and ethnographers have ignored cryptogams, both
historically and currently.
If the ethnographic literature on a culture does not mention lichens, it might be
because that culture does not utilize lichens. However, it might also be because the
ethnographers culture does not value lichens, and the ethnographer therefore did
not notice and record the value of lichens in the culture that they were documenting.
In the cultures for which traditional uses of lichens have been recorded, there are
usually between one and three medicinal lichens. There are more records of lichen
use among cultures in temperate and arctic areas and less in the tropics. This
probably represents the relative dominance of lichens in these zones.
A few ethnobotanists have recognized the cultural value of lichens, and their
work has been invaluable in documenting lichens in traditional medicines. These
workers include, among others, N. J. Turner (Canada), M. R. Gonzalez-Tejero
(Spain), L. S. Wang (China), and D. K. Upreti (India). As a result, there is an
overrepresentation of these geographic areas in this current analysis.
2.3 The Lichens That Are Used in Traditional Medicine
This paper documents a total of 52 different genera of lichens that are used in
traditional medicines. The most commonly used genus of lichen is Usnea, which is
used across the world for medicine, although it is often used synonymously with
other arboreal hair lichens. Despite its worldwide importance, Usnea is not tradi-
tionally one of the dominant medicinal lichens in Europe. Numerous other genera
of lichens have particular importance in certain parts of the world, as is shown in
Table 2.1.
2 Lichens Used in Traditional Medicine 29
Table 2.1 Lichen genera commonly used in traditional medicine

Lichen genus Main area of use
Usnea Worldwide (except Australia)
Evernia and Pseudevernia Europe and North Africa
Letharia North America
Lethariella China
Cetraria Europe
Parmotrema and Everniastrum India
Xanthoparmelia North America and Africa
Cladonia and Cladina N. America, Europe, and Asia
Thamnolia Asia
Ramalina N. America, Europe, and Asia
Lobaria and Peltigera N. America, Europe, and Asia
Umbilicaria North America and Asia
2.3.1 The Folk Taxonomy of Lichens
All cultures develop a folk taxonomy of living organisms that allows people to
make sense of the world around them. Folk taxonomies are unique to a specific
culture and usually reflect its particular environment and values. Some cultures
have a very detailed folk taxonomy for lichens. The traditional taxonomy of the
Saami recognizes lichens as being a distinct life form from mosses and divides
lichens into three different generic taxa and numerous specific taxa (Nissen 1921).
Other cultures placed less value on lichens, which is reflected in a much more
simplistic folk taxonomy for lichens. European botanists in the fifteenth century
lumped all lichens, and many other cryptogams, into a single life form category
of moss.
Folk taxonomies can be very accurate, but they are often different than the
scientific taxonomy. This mismatch between folk and scientific taxonomies is
particularly prevalent in lichens. For instance, the Saami folk genera of jgel
includes Cetraria, Cladina, and Stereocaulon, but excludes Parmelia, which is
placed in the folk genera gadna. The scientific taxonomy would lump Parmelia and
Cetraria together in Parmeliaceae and exclude Cladina and Stereocaulon. Another
example is the common practice within folk taxonomies of classifying lichens
according to their substrate. There is often a folk genera that includes all arboreal
hair lichens (and sometimes mosses), which are then divided into different species
depending on what type of tree they are growing on.
One of the biggest challenges in ethnolichenology is that a folk taxon of lichens
that has cultural significance may not be synonymous with any scientific taxon.
This means that if a culturally important lichen is identified according to the
scientific taxonomy without understanding the folk taxonomy, it may be recorded
as the wrong lichen. For example, a botanist recorded that the Saami used Usnea
plicata for blisters, but maybe the lichen that he saw only happened to be U. plicata,
30 S.D. Crawford
and the Saami actually used any species of Alectoria, Bryoria, or Usnea that was
growing on a birch tree.
Folk taxonomies of lichens are intrinsically linked with the traditional methods
of identifying lichens. It is very common to identify lichens based on where they are
found. Lichens are often thought to imbibe their desirable properties from the
substrate on which they are growing. For example, Nuxalk consider alectoroid
lichens to be better medicine if growing on alder, the Gitgaat consider Lobaria
oregana to be better if on fir, and the Ancient Greeks thought that Evernia was
better if growing on cedar. The medicinal properties of a lichen species may change
depending on where it is growing. However, this may also be a clever aid for
identification. Many lichens have specific microhabitat preferences, and selecting
lichens from only a specific substrate will result in preferentially selecting certain
species.
Another interesting identification method is employed by the Quichua of
Saraguro, Ecuador, who have determined that an effective medicine requires
seven different colors of rock lichens. It is possible that there is a synergistic effect
between the different lichen species. It is also possible that collecting seven
different species makes it much more likely to collect the correct one.
2.3.2 Development of Lichen Taxa in Western Science
The meaning of the word lichen has changed over time, which can make it
complicated to identify culturally important lichens in old documents. Lichen
comes from the Ancient Greek (leikhen), the first record of which is
from Theophrastus in 300 B.E. (Richardson 1974). Theophrastus was probably
referring to thalloid liverworts, but subsequent Ancient Greek authors may have
used that name for a lichen (see Ancient Greek use of Ramalina spp.). Early
European botanists lumped together a variety of cryptogams into the same taxon,
usually including lichens, mosses, liverworts, fungi, seaweed, and sometimes even
coral. de Tournefort (1694) was the first European author to distinguish lichens by
the name lichen, but he also included some thalloid liverworts in his taxon and
excluded some lichens. It was Dillenius (1742) who reorganized the lichen taxon to
make it synonymous with our modern concept.
The taxonomy and names of lichens have changed radically since Dillenius and
are continuing to change in contemporary times. This can make it difficult to
determine what lichen is being discussed in ethnographic literature. To add further
complications, most authors know very little about lichens and thus frequently use
names that are outdated or even just completely wrong.
The genus Usnea was created by Dillenius (1742). Linnaeus (1753) described
five Usnea species, but lumped them all together in his all-encompassing genus
Lichen. They were moved to the Usnea genus by Weber and Wiggers (1780). Four
of the original species are often mentioned in ethnographic literature: Usnea
barbata, U. florida, U. hirta, and U. plicata. The number of Usnea species has
now increased to around 350 species (Thell et al. 2012), so any reference to one of
the original Usnea species in old herbals or ethnographies is suspect. Of the original
five, only Usnea hirta occurs in North America (Esslinger 2014). References to
Usnea barbata are particularly ambiguous, as the taxonomy of this species is still
confusing and still being determined (Articus 2004).
The pendant Bryoria species were originally all lumped together as Lichen
jubatus (Linnaeus 1753), which became Alectoria jubata (Acharius 1810). The
taxonomy of Bryoria was not well understood until Brodo and Hawksworth (1977)
created the genus Bryoria, so references to specific Bryoria species prior to that are
ambiguous.
The Parmeliaceae is a large and diverse family of lichens that includes many
culturally significant lichens. This family currently contains around 80 genera and
over 2,000 species (Thell et al. 2012). Five culturally significant genera of
Parmeliaceae were described before 1810: Usnea, Parmelia, Cetraria, Alectoria,
and Evernia. By 1903, Letharia and Pseudevernia had been split from Evernia, and
Parmotrema and Hypogymnia had been split from Parmelia, although historically
not all authors have recognized these genera. The taxonomy of Parmeliaceae
remained relatively constant until 1965, when the genus Cetraria began to be
split into numerous different genera. The genus Parmelia was also split up starting
in 1974. This splitting was mostly completed by the early 1990s, by which time
there were over 80 genera in the family (Thell et al. 2004). Recent molecular work
has resulted in some genera being lumped and others split, such that Thell
et al. (2012) recognize 79 genera. Currently, the original genus Parmelia is divided
into 32 genera and Cetraria into 22 genera.
For practical reasons, lichenologists sometimes lump the morphologically sim-
ilar genera that were previously included in Parmelia and Cetraria back together
into the categories of parmelioid (Hale and DePriest 1999) and cetrarioid lichens
(Randlane et al. 2013). These morphological groupings are not entirely monophy-
letic (Thell et al. 2012), but they can still be useful. A third morphological grouping
of Parmeliaceae lichens that is often used is the alectorioid lichens, which include
several similar-looking genera of hair lichens that were previously lumped together
in the genus Alectoria. The genus Usnea is sometimes included in this category.
One result of the profusion of genera within Parmeliaceae is that any reference to
an unidentified species of Parmelia or Cetraria in an older ethnographic work is
very ambiguous. The categories of parmelioid, cetrarioid, and alectorioid lichens
are very useful when dealing with folk taxonomies of lichens, so they will be
utilized in the current work.
2.4 The Medicinal Uses of Lichens
Lichens are used for many different medicinal purposes, but there are some general
categories of use that reoccur across the world. Lichens are often used externally for
dressing wounds, either as a disinfectant or to stop bleeding. Other common topical
32 S.D. Crawford
uses are for skin infections and sores, including sores in the mouth. This importance
of this use is apparent in the name lichen (from leikhen, what eats around itself),
which comes from the Ancient Greek practice of using a cryptogam to cure a skin
disease.
Lichens are often drunk as a decoction to treat ailments relating to either the
lungs or the digestive system. This is particularly common in Europe, but is also
found across the world. Many other uses of lichens are related to obstetrics or
treating gynecological issues. This may be related to the common use of lichens for
treating sexually transmitted infections and ailments of the urinary system. Two
other uses of lichens that are less common, but reoccur in several different cultures,
are for treating eye afflictions and for use in smoking mixtures.
Many of the traditional medicinal uses of lichens are probably related to their
secondary metabolites, many of which are known to both be physiologically active
and to act as antibiotics. However, some of the traditional uses of lichens also rely
on the qualities of lichen carbohydrates. In particular, the lichenins [-(1!3)-
(1!4)-linked D-glucans] are common in the Parmeliaceae and have a remarkable
ability to absorb water and form a gel (Crawford 2007). Many of the traditional uses
of lichens involve boiling the lichen to create a mucilage which is drunk for lung or
digestive ailments or applied topically for other issues. Other lichen carbohydrates
which may be important are the isolichenins and galactomannans, which are
taxonomically widespread, and the pustulins that are found in Umbilicariaceae.
2.4.1 Medicinal Lichens of Europe
Lichens are used in traditional medicine across the world, and many cultures
outside of Europe have traditional uses for lichens that are completely unrelated
to Europe. However, European uses of lichens have been exported worldwide, and
there are numerous instances where the European use for a lichen appears to be
associated with its traditional use in a different culture. This dispersal of European
uses of lichens is related to the general dispersal of other aspects of European
culture across the world. One specific source of this bias may be that most
ethnographers that recorded traditional uses of lichens are from a European back-
ground, and their personal cultural bias can affect what they have documented.
Another source is that most literature on lichens is from a European background,
and if it features any uses of lichens, those uses are generally European.
An understanding of the traditional use of lichens in Europe can therefore be
important for understanding traditional uses elsewhere. The origins of the medic-
inal use of lichens in Europe dates back to the fourth and third century B.E., when
medicinal lichens were recorded by the Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and
Theophrastus (Lebail 1853). The use of lichens continued to be recorded by various
scholars throughout the rest of the classical era, including Pedanius Dioscorides and
Pliny the Elder (Rome, first century C.E.), Galen of Pergamon (Greece, second
century C.E.), Paul of Aegina (Greece, seventh century C.E.), and Serapion the
Younger (a twelfth or thirteenth century compilation). These authors discuss at least

three different cryptogams that might be lichens, but the most important for
subsequent pharmacopoeias was an arboreal fruticose lichen called splanchnon
(intestine). According to the original writings of Dioscorides, splanchnon was
not only a powerful medicine, it was also sweet-smelling and used as a perfume
(Lopez Eire et al. 2006).
In the middle ages, various Persian scholars like Rhazes (tenth century) and
Avicenna (eleventh century) wrote about the medicinal properties of splanchon,
and it was adopted into Unani medicine under the name ushna. This lichen is
currently interpreted as being Usnea spp.
At the start of the modern era (~ fifteenth century), herbalism flourished in
Western Europe, with many authors adopting Greek herbal knowledge. These
Europeans lumped together all fruticose arboreal lichens into one taxon, which
they called usnea (borrowing from the Arabic ushna), tree moss, or oak moss
(Dorstenius 1540; LObel 1576; Gerarde 1597; Ray 1686; Quincy 1724; Culpeper
1788). This taxon was considered to be synonymous with the Ancient Greek
splanchon, with all of its medicinal and perfume qualities. Parkinson (1640)
accurately distinguished between numerous genera, but considered them all types
of oak moss and attributed the same medicinal values to all of them.
It was not until the late 1700s that a distinction was made between the different
genera of oak moss, at which time the name Usnea was only applied to our modern
genus. From this time onwards, most authors decided that the medicinal values of
splanchon were referring to Usnea (Lightfoot 1777; Willemet 1787; Adams 1847;
Lebail 1853), although the same medicinal properties were sometimes applied to
Evernia prunastri (Willemet 1787; Lebail 1853).
Oak moss was used to make a popular scented hair powder called Cyprus
powder in Europe in the late 1600s (Bauhin and Cherler 1650; Zwelfer 1672). By
the time European botanists could distinguish different genera, Cyprus powder was
found to contain a variety of lichen genera, including Usnea, Pseudevernia, and
other arboreal lichens (Amoreux 1787). At this time Evernia prunastri was the
preferred lichen to use for perfumes in France (Amoreux 1787). In more recent
times, oak moss refers to only Evernia prunastri and tree moss to Pseudevernia
furfuracea, and these are the two lichen species harvested for perfume (Moxham
1986).
When Europeans first adopted Ancient Greek herbal knowledge, they were
confused as to the identity of splanchon, but eventually decided that it was
Evernia/Pseudevernia when used for perfume and Usnea when used for medicine.
Dioscorides description of splanchon is ambiguous and its identity cannot be
determined with certainty, but Richardson (1974) suggests that it is referring to
Evernia prunastri and Pseudevernia furfuracea. He may be correct, as these lichens
were used medicinally in Europe and North Africa from ancient times to present.
Europeans have added medicinal properties to Usnea that were not originally
associated with splanchon by the Ancient Greeks. Perhaps these medicinal uses
for Usnea existed in Europe independent of the Ancient Greek writings, and this
34 S.D. Crawford
caused Europeans to wrongly associate the Ancient Greek medicinal uses of

Evernia/Pseudevernia with Usnea.
Starting in the 1500s, the doctrine of signatures was an ubiquitous concept in
European medicine. It was thought that plants looked like the organ or ailment
that they cured and various lichens were adopted into the European pharmaco-
poeia as a result. The main medicinal lichens in early modern era Europe were
Cetraria islandica, Cladonia pyxidata, Peltigera canina, Peltigera aphthosa,
Usnea spp., Lobaria pulmonaria, Xanthoria parietina, and Evernia prunastri.
For more details, refer to these lichens in the tables below. The widespread use
of these lichens had been mostly abandoned by 1800, with the exception of
Cetraria islandica, which has persisted as a medicinal lichen in parts of Europe
until today.
2.5 Known Records of Lichens Used in Traditional

Medicine
The following tables document all of the traditional medicinal uses of lichens for
which the author has found records. Tables 2.2 and 2.3 provide a list of the different
genera and an index to the table where they can be found. Tables 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7,
2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22,
2.23, 2.24, 2.25, 2.26, and 2.27 are organized taxonomically by lichen family and
provide the details on each traditional use.
Table 2.2 Lichen genera used in traditional medicine

Alectoria, Alectorioid Lecanora, Lecanoraceae Pseudevernia, Parmeliaceae
Anaptychia, Physciaceae Leptogium, Collemataceae Pseudocyphellaria, Lobariaceae
Anzia, Parmeliaceae Letharia, Parmeliaceae Punctelia, Parmelioid
Aspicilia, Megasporaceae Lethariella, Parmeliaceae Ramalina, Ramalinaceae
Bryoria, Alectorioid Lobaria, Lobariaceae Rhizoplaca, Lecanoraceae
Cetraria, Cetrarioid Masonhalea, Cetrarioid Roccella, Roccellaceae
Cetrelia, Cetrarioid Mycoblastus, Mycoblastaceae Siphula, Icmadophilaceae
Cladina, Cladoniaceae Nephroma, Nephromataceae Stereocaulon, Stereocaulonaceae
Cladonia, Cladoniaceae Nephromopsis, Cetrarioid Sticta, Lobariaceae
Dermatocarpon, Verrucariaceae Niebla, Ramalinaceae Sulcaria, Alectorioid
Dictyonema, Hygrophoraceae Ophioparma, Ophioparmaceae Teloschistes, Teloschistaceae
Evernia, Parmeliaceae Parmelia, Parmelioid Thamnolia, Icmadophilaceae
Everniastrum, Parmelioid Parmotrema, Parmelioid Umbilicaria, Umbilicariaceae
Flavocetraria, Cetrarioid Peltigera, Peltigeraceae Usnea, Alectorioid
Flavoparmelia, Parmelioid Pertusaria, Pertusariaceae Vulpicida, Cetrarioid
Heterodermia, Physciaceae Physcia, Physciaceae Xanthoparmelia, Parmelioid
Hypogymnia, Parmeliaceae Polycauliona, Teloschistaceae Xanthoria, Teloschistaceae
Lasallia, Umbilicariaceae
Table 2.3 Index to tables of lichen families used in traditional medicine

Ascomycota Ascomycota Ascomycota
Lecanorales Peltigerales Pertusariales
Cladoniaceae 35 Collemataceae 58 Icmadophilaceae 66
Lecanoraceae 37 Lobariaceae 58 Megasporaceae 66
Mycoblastaceae 38 Nephromataceae 61 Pertusariaceae 67
Parmeliaceae Peltigeraceae 61 Verrucariales
Alectorioid 38 Teloschistales Verrucariaceae 67
Cetrarioid 46 Teloschistaceae 63 Basidiomycota
Parmelioid 47 Arthoniales Agaricales
Other 53 Roccellaceae 63 Hygrophoraceae 67
Physciaceae 55 Umbilicariales Unidentified lichens 68
Ramalinaceae 56 Ophioparmaceae 64
Stereocaulaceae 57 Umbilicariaceae 64
Table 2.4 Cladoniaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Culture and folk name Traditional use
Cladina spp. Nyl.
Denina (Alaska, USA) Decoction used for diarrhea (Kari 1987)
kudyi
Upper Tanana (AK, USA) A liquor prepared from plant was drunk for colds
(McKennan 1959)
Aleut (Alaska, USA) Drunk as a tea for chest pains. Hunters who are
kinadam aiyukax climbing hills chew the lichen to maintain their wind
(Bank 1953; Smith 1973)
Nganasans (Siberia) Remedy for scurvy
Saami (Scandinavia) Decoction for unspecified medicine (Nissen 1921;
ullo-jgel (wool lichen) Eidlitz 1969)
Cladina arbuscula (Wallr.) Burgaz
China Used for dizziness, hypertension, pulmonary tuber-
culosis, fever, trauma with pus formation, and skin
infections due to external injury (Wang and Qian
2013)
Cladina rangiferina (L.) Nyl.
Ojibwe (MN and WI, USA) Boil and use water to wash a newborn baby (Smith
asa g^
unink 1932)
Whapmagoostui Cree (Quebec, Canada) Used to treat inflammation associated with diabetes
whapskumuk, epshatuk (Fraser 2006)
Finland Remedy for coughs and tuberculosis. Boil in water
and drink (Richardson 1974)
China Used for fever, headaches, cuts, coughing up blood,
jaundice, blurred vision, cloudy cornea, difficulty
urinating, urinary tract infection, irritable depression,
rheumatism, and phlegm due to dry throat. Drink
decoction; or apply decoction or powdered lichen to
affected area (Wang and Qian 2013)
(continued)
36 S.D. Crawford
Table 2.4 (continued)

Monpa (Arunachal Pradesh, India) Remedy for kidney stones. Half teaspoon of
sun-dried, ground lichen added to one cup boiling
water. Drunk in morning on empty stomach for
1 month or until cured (Rout et al. 2005)
Cladina stellaris (Opiz) Brodo [Cladina alpestris]
Nihithawak (SK, Canada) Drink to expel intestinal worms: either decoction or
wapiskastastkamihk or atikomciwin powdered lichen added to water (Leighton 1985)
Inuit (Nunavut, Canada) Broth used for sickness and eye infections (Black
nirait et al. 2008)
Primorsky and Sakhalin (Russian Far Powdered form used to treat wounds and some
East) infections (Moskalenko 1986)
China Used for hypertension, headaches, nosebleeds, eye
(tai-bai-hua) diseases, tuberculosis, menstrual disorders, and vag-
inal discharge. Drink decoction (Hu et al. 1980;
Wang and Qian 2013)
Cladonia subtenuis (Abbayes) Mattick
Cherokee (NC, USA) Used to relieve the pain of insect stings. Lichen
chewed and put on sting, sometimes mixed with
tobacco (Garrett 2003)
Cladonia amaurocraea (Florke) Schaer.
China Used for headaches and dizziness (Wang and Qian
2013)
Cladonia bellidiflora (Ach.) Schaerer
Tlingit (Alaska, USA) Treatment for eye disease when mixed with mothers
milk (Garibaldi 1999)
Haida (BC, Canada) Red ends dipped in mothers milk and applied to sore
eyes (Turner 2004a)
Cladonia cervicornis (Ach.) Flot.
China Used for scalds, cuts, and coughing up blood. Drink
Cladonia chlorophaea (Florke ex Sommerf.) Sprengel
Okanagan (BC, Canada) Decoction used to wash sores which were slow to
penpenemekx sxn heal. Folk name means liver on rock (Turner
et al. 1980)
Britain Used like C. pyxidata for whooping cough, use has
chalice-moss; cup-moss; or Our Ladys continued to contemporary times in Welsh counties
chalice; cwpanau pas (Welsh) of Merionethshire and Denbighshire. In Waterford
(Ireland), used for same purpose boiled in new milk
(Allen and Hatfield 2004)
Cladonia coccifera (L.) Willd.
Europe (early modern era) Decoction used for fever and whooping cough in
cup moss children, like C. pyxidata (Willemet 1787; Luyken
1809; Lindley 1838)
(continued)

Cladonia cornuta (L.) Hoffm.
Europe (early modern era) Used with C. pyxidata against persistent coughs in
horn moss children (Watson 1756)
Cladonia fenestralis Nuno
Tibetans (Sichuan, China) Medicinal tea (Wang and Qian 2013)
Cladonia fruticulosa Kremp.
China Extract used for bacterial infections on skin (Wang
and Qian 2013)
Cladonia gracilis (L.) Willd.
China Used for dizziness, difficult or painful urination, nose
(tai-bai-lu-jiao) bleeding, impetigo, and pink eye. Drink decoction; or
apply decoction or powdered lichen to affected area
(Hu et al. 1980; Wang and Qian 2013)
Cladonia macroceras (Delise) Ahti
China Drunk as decoction to relieve blockage of urination,
bring down swelling, and remove toxic substances
(Wang and Qian 2013)
Cladonia miniata G. Meyer [Cladonia sanguinea]
Brazil Rubbed down with sugar and water, used as remedy
for mouth ulcers (Lindley 1838)
Cladonia pleurota (Florke) Schaer.
China To clear heat, cool liver, dissolve phlegm, and elim-
inate dampness (Wang and Qian 2013)
Cladonia pyxidata (L.) Hoffm.
Europe (early modern era) Widely used for whooping cough in children (Quincy
cup moss 1724; Gedner 1756; Lightfoot 1777; Willemet 1787).
Also for fevers and kidney stones (Luyken 1809;
Lindley 1838; Lebail 1853). In Finland taken with
milk for pulmonary tuberculosis (Vartia 1973)
Cladonia scabriuscula (Delise) Nyl.
Keyagana (Papua New Guinea) Heated and taken orally for vaginal discharge/bleed-
lanefa-kikinofa ing (Jorim et al. 2012)
Table 2.5 Lecanoraceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Culture Traditional use
Lecanora muralis (Schreb.) Rabenh. [Parmelia saxicola]
Nishinam (CA, Made into a tea and used to treat colic (Powers 1877)
USA)
Rhizoplaca chrysoleuca (Sm.) Zopf.
China Used for tuberculosis, intestinal obstruction, trauma with pus formation,
burns and scalds, skin infections, cancer, and pain relief. Used externally or
orally (Wang and Qian 2013)
38 S.D. Crawford
Table 2.6 Mycoblastaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Mycoblastus alpinus (Fr.) Kernst.
China Used for stopping bleeding from external injury, draining pus, burns, and nocturnal
seminal emission. Drink decoction or apply powder to affected area (Wang and Qian
2013)
Table 2.7 Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines

Alectoria Ach. spp.
Scandinavia Decoction for bathing chapped skin on babies or the
feet of adults. Same use for Lobaria pulmonaria,
Usnea sp, and Peltigera aphthosa (Richardson 1974)
Alectoria ochroleuca (Hoffm.) A. Massal.
Chugach (Alaska, USA) Possibly same as Chugach use of Bryoria trichodes
(Wennekens 1985)
Alectoria sarmentosa Ach.
Haida (BC, Canada) Used to strain impurities out of hot pitch when mak-
kaaltsidaa liisga or kaaltsadaa liijaa ing medicine, and for other unspecified medicines.
(crows mountain goat wool) Also used Usnea longissima (Turner 1998, 2004a)
Nuxalk (BC, Canada) Warmed and applied to a broken boil or festering sore
sutswakt or ipts-aak (limb moss) (if growing on red alder). Possibly Usnea spp. (Smith
1929; Turner 1973)
Ditidaht (BC, Canada) Used for wound dressing, baby diapers, and sanitary
pu7up napkins. Also used Usnea spp. (Turner et al. 1983)
Flathead (Montana, USA) Mother drinks tea of sqalo and Matricaria discoidea
sqalo to make her deliver her placenta (Stubbs 1966).
Possibly Usnea spp.
Umatilla, Cayuse (OR, USA) Boiled and applied as compress for open sores,
laxpt or makhl arthritis, and achash-pama [an eye problem]
(Hunn 2005). Possibly Usnea spp.
Pallars (Spain) Drunk as tea for asthma and catarrh (Agelet and
cabellera de pi Valles 2003)
Bryoria spp. Brodo & D. Hawksw.
Atsugewi (California, USA) Applied as poultice to reduce swellings. Either boiled
or used dry (Garth 1953)
Tsilhqotin (BC, Canada) Burn texa with own hair and rub ashes on hair and
texa; taxa scalp to stop hair from going gray (Kay 1995; Turner
2004b)
France (eighteenth century) Used for healing skin abrasions, diarrhea, and vaginal
discharge (Gedner 1756; Willemet 1787)
(continued)

Bryoria asiatica (Du Rietz) Brodo & D. Hawksw.
China Used for kidney deficiency and general weakness,
dizziness, heart palpitation, involuntary ejaculation,
night sweats, difficulty urinating, edema, impetigo,
draining pus, and improving eyesight. Drink decoc-
tion; or apply decoction or powdered lichen to affected
area (Wang and Qian 2013)
Bryoria bicolor (Ehrh.) Brodo & D. Hawksw.
China Same as Chinese use of B. asiatica (Wang and Qian
2013)
Bryoria fremontii (Tuck.) Brodo & D. Hawksw.
Sahaptin (OR and WA, USA) Boiled and used as poultice for arthritis (Hunn 1990)
kun
Nimiipuu (Montana, USA) Good for upset stomach, indigestion, and diarrhea
ho.pop (Hart 1976; Marshall 1977)
Flathead (Montana, USA) Important food when baked with root vegetables;
caumtemkan, sttelu, skol
apkan, skolke when baked alone it is more a tonic for the sick
in, sqatlo, or s
awtmqn than a food. (Turney-High 1937; Stubbs 1966;
Hart 1974)
Okanagan (BC, Canada) Mixed with berry juices and melted into syrup: given
skwelp to newly weaned babies for their health (Gabriel and
White 1954). Dried, powdered, and mixed with
grease: Rubbed on navel of newborn babies to protect
against infection (Turner et al. 1980)
Nlakapamux (BC, Canada) Warts removed by cutting them off and covering the
w7e fresh wound with w7e that had been heated on the
fire (Teit and Boas 1900; Turner et al. 1990)
Bryoria trichodes (Michaux) Brodo & D. Hawksw. [Alectoria americana]
Sugpiaq (Alaska, USA) Piled on sick person in the steam bath to hold the heat
nakuraartum nuyii or napam on his body, also used to staunch blood from wounds.
ungaguai Might also use Alectoria ochrolechia (Wennekens
1985)
Sulcaria sulcata (Lev.) Bystrek
China Used for dizziness, kidney deficiency, general weak-
ness, heart palpitation, involuntary excessive ejacu-
lation, night sweating, edema, impetigo, and sores.
Drink decoction or apply to affected area (Wang and
Qian 2013)
Sulcaria virens (Tayl.) Bystr.
China Used for aching back and legs, traumatic bleeding,
menstrual irregularities, uterus prolapse, vaginal dis-
charge, epilepsy, paralysis, impotence, and dizziness.
Drink decoction or apply to affected area (Wang and
Qian 2013)
(continued)
40 S.D. Crawford

Usnea spp. Dill. ex Adans.
Maasai (Kenya) Used for stomachache, malaria, backache, fever, loss
intanasoito of appetite, and typhoid. Crush, boil in water, and
sieve (Kiringe 2008)
Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) Ingredient in herbal tea to relieve altitude sickness
(Sharnoff 1997)
Unani medicine (India) An important medicine used from ~1000 C.E. to
ushna or shaibat-al-ajooz old present. Used for heart troubles, for reducing inflam-
womens hair mation, for promoting digestion and improving
appetite, as an antidote, as an astringent, and as an
analgesic. Helps wounds heal and lactation in women
if applied as a paste on breast. Parmotrema spp. is
sometimes included as ushna, perhaps resulting from
confusion with shaileya of Ayurvedic medicine
(Rauf et al. 2006; Yavuz and Cobanoglu 2010; Rauf
et al. 2011). See Unani use if U. longissima
Iran, Iraq Taken to correct bad breath. Folk name means old
lihayat-as-shayib mans beard (Hooper 1937)
Taplejung (Nepal) Fired powder of jhyau is mixed with water and taken
jhyau for tonic, fever, and throat pain (Poudel 2008)
New Ireland (Papua New Guinea) Used to induce menstruation (Lee et al. 1977)
Doi Inthanon (Chiang Mai, Thailand) Used in a bath for women following childbirth, to aid
parturition and prevent infection (Sharnoff 1997)
Maori (New Zealand) Steeped in water and placed on affected parts for
angiangi or kohukohu venereal disease (Best 1905). Dried, powdered, and
rubbed on skin for various skin afflictions (Kerry-
Nicholls 1886; Goldie 1904). Crushed with hand and
lightly bandaged onto wound to stop bleeding
(Brooker and Cooper 1962; Macdonald 1974). Along
with moss, used as sanitary napkin, as diaper, and to
keep newborn babies warm (Goldie 1904)
Europe (early modern era) The Ancient Greeks had important medicinal uses for
oak moss, tree moss, usnea a fruticose arboreal lichen called splanchon, which
was likely Evernia prunastri or Pseudevernia
furfuracea (see Ancient Greek use of E. prunastri).
This lichen entered European pharmacopoeias in the
early 1500s and included all fruticose arboreal
lichens. By the late 1700s it was only Usnea spp.
Europeans added to the Ancient Greek uses of
splanchon and used a decoction of Usnea spp. for a
styptic, for drying skin lesions, as an
antiinflammatory, as a skin moisturizer, and for nau-
sea, diarrhea, whooping cough, smallpox, insomnia,
umbilical hernias, and uterine medicine (Lebail
1853). It was also used for diseases of the scalp and to
cure dandruff (Allen and Hatfield 2004) and as usnea
cranii humani (see Parmelia saxatilis)
(continued)

Kartitsch (Austria) Gathered as a medicinal plant (Christanell et al. 2010)
Aragon (Spain) Used for respiratory ailments (Gonzalez-Tejero
et al. 1995)
Valsugana Valley (Italy) Shepherds put it in their shoes to prevent or treat
blisters (Sharnoff 1997)
Scandinavia Decoction for bathing chapped skin on babies and the
feet of adults. Alectoria sp., Lobaria pulmonaria, and
Peltigera aphthosa also used (Richardson 1974)
Saami (Scandinavia) Powdered and sprinkled on external wounds, and on
lappo sores from long journeys. Also used for curing ring-
worm and scabies (Lebail 1853; Nissen 1921)
Finland Put on fresh or infected wound, athletes foot, and
other skin eruptions. Taken orally for sore throat and
toothache. Alectoria spp. also used (Vartia 1973)
Dalarna (Sweden) Used to treat foot blisters (Ahmadjian and Nilsson
1963)
Nuxalk (BC, Canada) Probably same as Nuxalk use of Alectoria
sarmentosa (Turner 1973)
Ditidaht (BC, Canada) Same as Ditidaht use of Alectoria sarmentosa (Turner
et al. 1983)
Makah (WA, USA) Used for boils (Gill 1983)
Nihitahawak (SK, Canada) Fresh lichen inserted into the nostril to stop a nose
mithapakwan bleed (Leighton 1985)
Wabasca (AB, Canada) Decoction used to wash sore or infected eyes. Possi-
miyapakwan bly U. hirta (Siegfried 1994; Marles et al. 2000)
Flathead (Montana, USA) Probably same as Flathead use of Alectoria
sarmentosa (Stubbs 1966)
Umatilla, Cayuse (OR, USA) Probably same as Umatilla and Cayuse use of
Alectoria sarmentosa (Hunn 2005)
Navaho (Utah, USA) An infusion or poultice is used to treat frozen body
cin bidaai parts. Folk name means wood mustache (Wyman
and Harris 1951)
Quichua (Loja, Ecuador) Used for inflated, sore stomach in children. Boiled in
musgo de arbol water with honey and drunk. Must not be collected
from eucalyptus or pine (Abel 2009, pers. comm.)
Usnea sect. Neuropogon spp. (Nees & Flot.) Mont. [syn. Neuropogon spp.]
Mapuche-Tehuelche (Argentina/Chile) Used for coughs. Medicine for unspecified gastroin-
barba de piedra; flor de piedra testinal, respiratory, cardiovascular, obstetric-
gynecological, and genitourinary afflictions, as well
as cultural syndromes (Estomba et al. 2006; Molares
and Ladio 2014)
Usnea aciculifera Vain.
China Used for bladder infection, painful urination, urinary
retention, swelling, and edema in heart and kidneys
(continued)
42 S.D. Crawford

Usnea articulata L. Hoffm. [syn. Usnea flavescens]
Iraqw (Tanzania) Treatment for stomachache. A handful of hewas is
hewas chewed fresh and the juice swallowed, it is bitter but
relieves the pain after a while. U. gigas is also used
(Kokwaro 1976)
Usnea articulata (L.) Hoffm.
Samoa Used for wounds and shin bruises (Brooker
et al. 1987)
Usnea atlantica Vain.
Canary Islands Used as a disinfectant, along with other Usnea spp.
barbas (Darias et al. 1986)
Usnea baileyi (Stirt.) Zahlbr.
Ayurvedic medicine (India) Occasional adulterant in chharila (see Parmotrema
nilgherrense). Mixed with other aromatic herbs, such
as Valeriana jatamansi for favoring and curing
tobacco, along with U. longissima, U. subsordida,
Everniastrum nepalense, E. cirrhatum, and Ramalina
inflata (Shah 1998)
Usnea barbata (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg.
Xhosa (South Africa) Used to treat mammary infections in cattle, udder is
washed several times with decoction of lichen. Used
for indigestion in humans, tincture or decoction taken
orally several times daily (Afolayan et al. 2002)
Nepal Endangered medicinal lichen banned from raw export
(Bhattarai 1999)
Ati (Philippines) Used for wounds, chopped and mixed with coconut
tagahumok puti oil, spread over wound. Used for abdominal pain,
drink decoction (Madulid et al. 1989)
West Malaysia Used for colds and strengthening after confinement
(Foxworthy 1922)
Europe (early modern era) Probably synonymous with Usnea spp. in early
modern era pharmacopoeias, which adopted the
Ancient Greek uses for insomnia, nausea, and the
uterus (see European use of Usnea spp.). Used for
internal and external bleeding, whooping cough,
jaundice, and growing hair (Lightfoot 1777;
Willemet 1787; Luyken 1809)
Abejar (Spain) Used as drying agent and antiseptic for cracks and
irritations of the feet (Bustinza and Caballero 1947)
Mbya-Guarani (Brazil) Liquid made from it is given to women to cure ste-
memby raku ja (master of the rility (Cadogan 1949)
energy of creatures)
Usnea campestris R. Sant.
Mendocina (Argentina) Unspecified medicine (Ruiz Leal 1972; Garcia
barba de piedra et al. 1990)
(continued)

Usnea ceratina Ach.
China Used for coughs, inflamed lungs, pulmonary tuber-
culosis, hepatitis, headache due to heat, infection due
to injury, inflamed lymph channels, mastitis, and
snakebites (Wang and Qian 2013)
Usnea densirostra Taylor
Argentina Tea applied externally as astringent, antiseptic, and
yerba de la piedra; barba de piedra antiinflammatory. Also use U. durietzii (Bandoni
et al. 1972; Garcia et al. 1990; Vitto et al. 1997;
Correche et al. 2008)
Uruguay Unspecified medicine (Osorio 1982)
yerba de la piedra
Usnea diffracta Vain.
China In herbals from 500 C.E., picked in 5th lunar month
(lao-jun-xu), Lao Tzus beard, and dried in shade. Used for cough, tuberculosis of
pine gauze, or female gauze neck or lungs, headache, dizziness, sweating, dim
vision, swelling, pus oozing from breasts or sores,
burns and scalds, snakebite, traumatic injuries, bone
fracture, bleeding from external injuries, vomiting
blood, blood in feces, bleeding from uterus, men-
strual disorders, vaginal discharge, swelling of
female genitalia, urinary tract afflictions, and ascarid
or schistosoma parasitic infections. Drink decoction;
or apply decoction or powdered lichen to affected
area (Hu et al. 1980; Sharnoff 1997; Wang and Qian
2013)
Tibet Cures fevers of the lungs, liver, and channels and
gser.skud (gold thread) fever caused by poisoning (Clark 1995)
Korea Used to induce menstruation (Pusan) and treat tuber-
(song-nag) culosis of the neck (Gongju) (Lee 1966; Lee
et al. 1977)
Usnea durietzii Mot. [syn. Neuropogon durietzii]
San Luis (Argentina) Same as Argentine use of U. densirostra (Vitto
et al. 1997)
Usnea filipendula Stirt. [syn. Usnea dasypoga]
Java Unspecified medicinal use (Uphof 1959)
Primorsky and Sakhalin (Russian Far Powdered form used to treat wounds and some
East) infections (Moskalenko 1986)
Usnea florida (L.) F. H. Wigg.
China Used for aching in sinews and bones, stopping
bleeding or infection from external injuries, skin
diseases, painful urination, coughs, tuberculosis of
lungs or neck, heart palpitations, and edema. Drink
Europe (early modern) Decoction used for colds and coughs (Willemet 1787)
Mapuche (Chile) Infusion used for diarrhea (Houghton and Manby
1985)
(continued)
44 S.D. Crawford

Usnea gigas Motyka [syn. Usnea africana]
Iraqw (Tanzania) Same as Iraqw use of U articulata (Kokwaro 1976)
Usnea himalayana C. Bab.
Japan Burned as a lichen cigarette (Ohmura 2003)
nayonayo saruogase
Usnea hirta (L.) F. H. Wigg.
Europe (early modern) Used for heal wounds and to prevent hair loss
(Willemet 1787)
Usnea laevis (Eschw.) Nyl.
Venezuelan Andes Used for infections, dermatosis, fungal infections,
barba de piedra or tusinya tuberculosis, and pneumonia (Marcano 1991;
Marcano et al. 1999)
Usnea longissima Ach.
Unani (India) Used as a simple drug to stimulate menstruation or
ushna induce abortion, taken orally and inserted into the
vagina (Razzack and Fazal 1993). See Unani use of
Usnea spp.
Northern Anatolia (Turkey) For treating cancer, tuberculosis, and ulcers (Yazici
and Aslan 2003; Odabasoglu et al. 2006)
China Same use in China as U. diffracta (Wang and Qian
(song-luo), sun-lo 2013). Also used as a decongestant and for local
treatment of ulcers and tuberculosis (Vartia 1973;
Richardson 1974; Hu et al. 1980)
Mongolia Used medicinally (Laxinamu et al. 2013)
Baiga (Madhya Pradesh, India) Used to treat bone fractures, along with other ingre-
dients (Lal and Upreti 1995)
Indo-Tibetan Himalayas Used to heal bone fractures. Washed, air-dried,
urmil soaked overnight in salted water, and placed over
affected part (Sharma 1997)
Ayurvedic medicine (India) Same as Ayurvedic use of U. baileyi (mixed in
tobacco) and an occasional adulterant in chharila
(see Parmotrema nilgherrense) (Shah 1998)
Haida (BC, Canada) Same as Haida use of Alectoria sarmentosa (Turner
1998, 2004a)
Ditidaht (BC, Canada) All Usnea spp. and Alectoria sarmentosa used for
pu7up or Indian bandage wound dressing, but U. longissima is preferred.
Wrapped around wound and left a while (Turner
et al. 1983)
Usnea nidifica Tayl.
China Unspecified medicine (Wang and Qian 2013)
Raratongan (Cook Is.) Online reference to medicinal usage on Mangiai:
uru n
u (Mangiai), remu n
u (Mauke) thallus chewed and applied to cuts (to stop bleeding)
and stings (McCormack 2007). Whistler (1990)
records remu as a general term for lichens, mosses,
and seaweeds, but records no use
(continued)

Usnea pectinata Tayl.
China Used for stopping bleeding from external injuries,
relieving pain, bloody feces, and swelling (Wang and
Qian 2013)
Usnea plicata (L.) Weber
Tripolitania (Libya) Ingredient in medicinal decoction called scba, along
scba with Pseudevernia furfuracea, Ramalina calicaris,
and R. farinacea (Natale and Pollio 2012)
Saami (Scandinavia) Put on sores on feet after walking long distances
(Linnaeus 1737)
Europe (early modern) An astringent for internal and external use (Lightfoot
1777), for whooping cough (Lindley 1838), jaundice,
strengthening stomach and abdominal cavity, and
restraining abortion (Luyken 1809). Also recommend
U. barbata. See European use of Usnea spp.
Usnea sikkimensis Biswas sp. nov.
Sikkim and Darjeeling (India) Used for lung troubles, hemorrhages, and asthma;
darimataghosa (Bengali) powdered and used to strengthen hair (Biswas 1956)
(may be a European use)
Lepchas (Dzongu, Sikkim, India) Used to bandage surface wounds, skin eruptions, and
boils; inserted into nostril to stop nose bleeds; put in
shoes to prevent or treat blisters (Pradhan and Badola
2008)
Usnea strigosa (Ach.) Eaton
Kimi (Amusa, Papua New Guinea) Concoction taken orally for headaches (Jorim
oleazu et al. 2012)
Usnea subfloridana Stirt.
Leitrim (Ireland) Treatment for sore eyes. Mixed with tobacco and
butter, boiled, cooled, and applied as lotion to eyes
(Allen and Hatfield 2004)
China Used for painful and reddened eyes, bleeding from
external injuries, and swelling (Wang and Qian 2013)
Usnea subsordida Stirt.
Ayurvedic medicine (India) Same as Ayurvedic use of U. baileyi (mixed in
tobacco) and an occasional adulterant in chharila
(see Parmotrema nilgherrense) (Shah 1998)
Usnea trichodeoides Vain.
China Used for coughs; pulmonary tuberculosis; headaches;
blurred vision; inflamed cornea; swellings, sores, and
pus discharge; bleeding from external injuries;
bloody feces; uterine bleeding; menstrual disorders;
and vaginal discharge. Drink decoction; or apply
decoction or powdered lichen to affected area (Wang
and Qian 2013)
46 S.D. Crawford
Table 2.8 Cetrarioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines

Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach.
Europe (1600s to Medicinal lichen in European pharmacopoeias from the 1600s to
present) present. Common throughout Europe and Greenland, mostly for
pulmonary and digestive uses. Used for salves and as a mild muci-
laginous tonic. Used for pulmonary tuberculosis, coughing blood,
asthma, chronic congestion, a laxative, indigestion, and dysentery.
Has also been recommended for uterine cysts, kidney stones, edema,
wounds, and scurvy (Ray 1686; Linnaeus 1737; Scopoli 1760;
Cramer 1780; Willemet 1787; Withering 1801; Lindley 1838;
Anonymous 1845; Rink and Lindorff 1856; Fink 1906; Kartnig 1980)
Estonia Tea taken as anticancer remedy (Sak et al. 2014)
Venezia Giulia (Italy) Used for congestion and for recovery after tuberculosis (Lokar and
Poldini 1988)
Ubaye Valley (France) Decoction used for lung ailments and as an emollient (Novaretti and
Lemordant 1990)
Pallars (Spain) Drunk as tea for congestion, tuberculosis, asthma, inflammation, and
liquen de bosc high blood pressure (Muntane 1991; Gonzalez-Tejero et al. 1995;
Agelet and Valles 2003)
Sweden Used for whooping cough, colds, congestion, asthma, other chest
islandslav ailments, appetite stimulation, diabetes, nephritis, and tuberculosis.
Either decoction or infusion made from dried shredded lichen in
either water or milk and drunk either warm or cold. Honey or
chocolate sometimes added (Ahmadjian and Nilsson 1963)
Ket (Siberia) Decoction for coughs (Eidlitz 1969)
China Decoction drunk to strengthen stomach and improve digestion (Wang
and Qian 2013)
Dehcho (NWT, Canada) Decoction used to treat tuberculosis. Boiled in water 0.51 h, until
liquid is red, and one third cup is taken 3 times daily (Lamont 1977)
Cetrelia pseudolivetorum (Asahina) W.L. Culb. & C.F. Culb.
China Same as Chinese use of Anzia opuntiella (Wang and Qian 2013)
Flavocetraria cucullata (Bellardi) Karnefelt & A. Thell
Pallars (Spain) Drunk as tea to treat symptoms of asthma (Agelet and Valles 2003)
Flavocetraria nivalis (L.) Karnefelt & Thell
Europe Although not as commonly used in Europe as Cetraria islandica,
some practitioners thought it had similar properties (Tychsen 1799;
Lindley 1838)
Kallawaya Prepared in tea for treatment of motion sickness and heart attacks
(Qollahuayas, Bolivia) (Bastien 1983)
Masonhalea richardsonii (Hook.) Karnefelt [syn. Cornicularia richardsonii]
Tlingit (Alaska, BC) Used as a treatment for inflammation of the lungs (Garibaldi 1999)
Nephromopsis pallescens (Schaer.) Park
China Eaten, and has an unspecified medicinal use (Wang and Qian 2013)
Vulpicida canadensis (Rasanen) J.E. Mattsson & M. J. Lai
Ulkatcho (BC, Canada) Medicine for coughs and colds, drink tea made from a couple hand-
dahgha [limb hair] fuls of dagha in 1 L water. Also chewed fresh to help the lungs
(Hebda et al. 1996)
(continued)

Vulpicida juniperinus (L.) J.E. Mattsson & M.J. Lai
Scandinavia Possibly used to poison wolves along with Letharia vulpina (Uphof
1959)
Vulpicida pinastri (Scop.) J.E. Mattsson & M.J. Lai
Scandinavia Possibly used to poison wolves along with Letharia vulpina (Smith
1921)
China Used for pulmonary tuberculosis, wounds oozing pus, skin infections,
cancer, and spasms (Wang and Qian 2013)
Table 2.9 Parmelioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines

Unidentified parmelioid lichens
Unspecified (Cape area, South Africa) Infusion is drunk for syphilis in men, back
klipbolm pain, and kidney trouble; mouthwash for oral
thrush and teething children (Laidler 1928;
Van Wyk et al. 2008; De Beer and Van Wyk
2011). Used for cancer, womens problems,
aiding fertility, and inducing abortion (Aston
Philander 2011).
KhoiSan (Cape area, South Africa) Used as a female medicine for maak
klipblom, klipmos, or klipbuchu baarmoeder skoon (cleaning the womb),
treating general pains (especially back and
kidneys), an ointment for burns and wounds,
colds, and bladder diseases (De Beer and Van
Wyk 2011). Infusion used for cough, sore
throat, fertility, oral thrush in infants, abdom-
inal pain, backache, and kidney and bladder
diseases (van Wyk and Gericke 2000).
Nepal Extract and decoction are applied to treat
jhau moles (Gaire and Subedi 2011)
Lucca (Italy) Decoction for coughs, cleansing liver, and
antiinflammatory (Pieroni 2000)
Piaroa (Amaz., Venezuela) Used to treat gonorrhea or painful urination.
odoche jupacua (iguana toe) Boiled into a tea and drunk 34 times a day for
a week (Azenha et al. 1998)
Guahibo (Amaz., Venezuela) Boiled in water and applied to insect bites or
cuts and wounds (Azenha et al. 1998)
Everniastrum nepalense (Taylor) Hale ex Sipman [syn. Parmelia nepalensis]
Ayurvedic medicine (India) Same as Ayurvedic use of Usnea baileyi
(mixed in tobacco) and an occasional adulter-
ant in chharila (see Parmotrema
nilgherrense) (Shah 1998)
Taplejung (Nepal) Used like Ramalina spp. for antiseptic, burns,
jhyau and wounds. Applied as powder in tincture of
iodine after applying the leaf juice of Artemi-
sia dubia or Eupatorium adenophorum
(Poudel 2008). Banned from raw export
(Bhattarai 1999)
(continued)
48 S.D. Crawford

Kathmandu (Nepal) Used for toothache, sore throat, and pain
kalo jhyau (Kumar et al. 1996)
Everniastrum cirrhatum (Fr.) Hale ex Sipman [syn. Parmelia kamtschadalis]
India Same as Ayurvedic use of Usnea baileyi
(mixed in tobacco) and an occasional adulter-
ant in chharila (see Parmotrema
nilgherrense) (Shah 1998). When burnt the
smoke relieves headache and the powder is a
good cephalic snuff (Biswas 1947; Nadkarni
and Nadkarni 1955).
Flavoparmelia caperata (L.) Hale
Tarahumar (Mexico) Dried, crushed, and dusted on burns
rete cajera (Pennington 1963)
China Decoction drunk to clear heat (Wang and Qian
2013)
Parmelia hyporysalea (Vain.) Vain
Ayurvedic medicine (India) Occasional adulterant in chharila (see
Parmotrema nilgherrense) (Chanda and Singh
1971)
Parmelia omphalodes (L.) Ach.
Britain In Scotland, they wore socks dyed with crottle
crottle, crotal, dark crottle, or fiasgag nan if walking long distance; or sprinkled it on
creag (Gaelic: rock lichen) their hose to stop their feet from getting
inflamed (Cameron 1900; MacIntyre 1999).
Used for a soup to strengthen invalids in
Ireland; and for a poultice for cuts, sores, and
burns in Ireland and Scotland (McGlinchey
1986; Allen and Hatfield 2004). Probably used
interchangeably with P. saxatilis
Europe (early modern era) Used to stop bleeding and stop hemorrhage
during surgery. Put into nose to stop nose-
bleeds (Gedner 1756; Willemet 1787)
Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach.
China Used for blurred vision, vomiting blood,
(shi-hua) jaundice, bleeding from uterus, chronic der-
matitis, and oral ulcers in children. Drink
decoction in wine or apply powder to affected
area (Hu et al. 1980; Wang and Qian 2013)
Dalarna (Sweden) Used to remove warts (Ahmadjian and Nilsson
stenlav 1963)
Britain Probably used interchangeably with
crottle or light crottle P. omphalodes as crottle
Foula (Shetland Is, Britain) Mixed with tobacco and smoked in the eigh-
old man teenth century, a practice still remembered in
1966 (Hawksworth 2003)
(continued)

Europe An important medicine as early as the late
usnea cranii humani, muscus cranii humani, 1500s (Gerarde 1597) and throughout the
or muscus ex cranio humano (Latin); 1600s (Parkinson and Marshall 1640; Ray
moss of a dead mans skull (English); usnee 1686), but various authors think it quackery by
humaine (French); muschio del cranio the 1700s (Quincy 1724; Diderot et al. 1765).
(Italian) In early drawings it is distinctly Usnea-like,
but later authors recognize two distinct types:
Usnea-like or crust-like (James 1748). In
modern times, it has been identified as either
Parmelia saxatilis (Smith 1921) or Physcia
sp. (Llano 1948), although it is likely any
lichen or moss found on a skull (Modenesi
2009). When collected off the skull of crimi-
nals (alt. someone who died a violent death), it
was very valuable as a cure for epilepsy, to
stop bleeding, and (if powdered and given in
sweet wine) for whooping cough in children.
Also mixed with mumia (the exudate from a
mummy) to make unguentum armarium, a
salve that was applied to a weapon to heal a
wound that it had caused
Parmelia sulcata Taylor
Mets (Alberta, Canada) Rubbed on gums of teething babies to relieve
discomfort (Marles et al. 2000)
Saanich (BC, Canada) Medicinal properties depend on type of tree it
smexdales is growing on. Possible the lichen traditionally
used for birth control. Not differentiated from
Lobaria pulmonaria (Turner and Hebda 2012)
Parmotrema abessinicum (Nyl. ex Kremp.) Hale
Bellary District (India) Eaten medicinally (Llano 1948)
rathipuvvu (rock flower)
Parmotrema nilgherrense (Nyl.) Hale
Ayurvedic medicine (India) An important drug in many old Ayurvedic
chharila (Hindi), shaileya or shilapushpa texts that is still used today. The first record is
(rock flower) (Sanskrit), shailaja (Bengali), in the Atharvaveda (1500 B.E.). Although in
chadila (Urdu), pathar phool (Gujarati), dagad some areas of India, high-quality chharila is
phool (Gujarati and Marathi), kallu hoovu mostly Parmotrema nilgherrense, the lichen
(Kannada), rati puvvu (Telugu), sheeleyam mixture can also contain Parmotrema
(Malayalam), kapashwe (Tamil) chinense, P. perforatum, P. perlatum,
Everniastrum cirrhatum, and E. nepalense,
with the occasional adulterants Ramalina
farinacea, R. inflata, Usnea baileyi,
U. longissima, U. subsordida, Parmelia
hyporysalea, Anaptychia spp., and Leptogium
spp. It is used for indigestion, loss of appetite,
flatulence, diarrhea, stomach disorders, kidney
stones, painful urination, hemorrhoids, invol-
untary semen emission, lack of menstruation,
painful menstruation, enlarged spleen,
(continued)
50 S.D. Crawford

bronchitis, congestion, shortness of breath,
excessive salivation, fevers, headaches, sore
throats, toothaches, broken bones, musculo-
skeletal pain, rheumatism, reducing swelling,
leprosy, scabies, soothing irritated skin, and
prenatal and postnatal care. Also used as an
aphrodisiac, diuretic, sedative, astringent,
antiseptic, antibiotic, and a demulcent to
reduce inflammation. It is powdered and
applied on wounds to promote healing,
smoked to relieve headaches, used as incense,
used as a cephalic snuff, used in medicated
oils, applied as a poultice to renal and lumbar
regions to induce urination, and applied as a
liniment to the head for headaches. (Dutt
1877; Chanda and Singh 1971; Kumar and
Upreti 2001; Karadi 2010; Prasad 2013) An
ingredient in spemen, which is used for
treating infertility in men (Pardanani
et al. 1976)
Ayurvedic medicine (other countries) Nepal: soup as an aphrodisiac, paste applied
jhoola (Nepal) externally for kidney stones. China: soup for
male infertility, paste applied externally for
kidney stones. Malaysia: soup as an aphrodi-
siac and for seminal weakness. Afghanistan:
used for chest disorders, paste applied to
wounds for healing. Saudi Arabia: cephalic
snuff for headaches and as a pain killer
(Kumar et al. 1996; Karadi 2010)
Kathmandu (Nepal) Used for toothache, sore throat, and pain
kalo jhyau (Kumar et al. 1996)
Parmotrema perforatum (Jacq.) A. Massal.
Ayurvedic medicine (India) Commonly used as chharila (see
P. nilgherrense) (Nadkarni and Nadkarni
1955; Chanda and Singh 1971). Imported for
medicine (Younos et al. 1987) and used for
diuretic treatments (Biswas 1947)
Parmotrema perlatum (Huds.) M. Choisy
Ayurvedic medicine (India) Commonly used as chharila (see
P. nilgherrense) (Nadkarni and Nadkarni
1955; Chanda and Singh 1971)
Parmotrema reticulatum (Taylor) M. Choisy
Tepehuan and mestizos (Chihuahua, Mexico) Tea drunk to relieve discomfort from kidney
odai yoosgai or flor de piedra (rock flower) disorders or venereal disease. The tea is com-
monly prepared in late afternoon and left for
one night before being drunk (Pennington
1969)
(continued)

Parmotrema sancti-angelii (Lynge) Hale
Gond and Oran (Uttar Pradesh, India Salve used to treat skin disease called sem.
jhavila Burn 3050 g of jhavila and mix ash with
mustard or linseed oil (Lal and Upreti 1995)
Parmotrema subtinctorium (Zahlbr.) Hale
China Used for bleeding from external injury, local-
ized swelling and pain (Wang and Qian 2013)
Parmotrema tinctorum (Nyl.) Hale
China Used for blurred vision, bleeding from uterus,
bleeding from external injuries, sores and
swelling, chronic dermatitis, and localized
swelling. Drink decoction or apply powdered
lichen to affected area (Wang and Qian 2013)
Parmotrema zollingeri (Hepp) Hale
Ati (Philippines) Used as medicine for children with high fever
kalas and suffering from convulsions. Burn kalas
and let the child smell the fumes (Madulid
et al. 1989)
Punctelia borreri (Sm.) Krog
swelling, and chronic dermatitis. Drink
decoction or apply powdered lichen to
Xanthoparmelia spp. (Vain.) Hale
Navajo (AZ and NM, USA) New Mexico: Elmore (1943) records
New Mexico: tschetl
aat (rock covering), tschetl
aat as remedy for impetigo. Wyman
ad (earth moss), or ce
niha ad (rock and Harris (1941) record widespread use
moss) of niha ad or ce
ad chewed for canker,
Arizona: owasi (rock flower) or swollen gums, decayed teeth, etc. (may
owahurusuki ("rock manure") include Peltigera sp.). Arizona: Whiting
(1939) records an unidentified rock lichen
called owasi or owahurusuki used for sore
mouth, gums, and toothache. See also Hopi
use of yellow rock lichen; and Tewa use of
rock and ground lichen
Xanthoparmelia conspersa (Ehrh. ex Ach.) Hale
Xhosa (South Africa) To treat syphilis eruptions: powder and apply
ubulembu belitye externally to eruptions (perhaps after they are
scarified); may be also used internally (sources
disagree). To treat both known and suspected
snakebites: drink one tablespoon of lichen in
cold water; also scarify bite and sprinkle
powdered lichen on it to draw out a humour.
See also Xhosa use of unidentified rock
lichen (Smith 1888; Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk 1962)
(continued)
52 S.D. Crawford

Iroquois (Ontario, Canada) Used for inflamed gums and raw throat caused
by fever. Mix in 1 cup cold water with the bark
of the tree it was collected off, Coptis trifolia,
and Fraxinus nigra. Take one teaspoon, leave
in mouth until water is warm, and then swal-
low. Repeat for entire cup (Herrick 1995)
Oodham (Arizona, USA) Traditional use described by Curtin (1949).
jievut hiawsik or jewed hi
osig (earth flower) Lipp (1995) identified the lichen as
X. conspersa, but Hawksworth (2003) dis-
agrees. Carried as good luck charm, but
overuse will make you sick. Mixed with
tobacco and smoked to make young men
crazy. Also ground into a powder and sprin-
kled on sores or cuts, but not bound, as it
would cause blisters. Applied over several
days to heal rattlesnake bite
Xanthoparmelia convoluta (Kremp.) Hale [Xanthomaculina convoluta]
Khoikhoi (Namibia) Infusion taken as remedy for rheumatism and
arthritis. See also Topnaar [a Khoikhoi tribe]
use of X. hottentotta (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk 1962)
Xanthoparmelia hottentotta (Ach.) A. Thell et al. [syn. Xanthomaculina hottentotta]
Unspecified (Namibia) Used to treat inflammation of udder for goats
and sheep. Dried, roasted, and powdered;
mixed with aromatic shrubs, fungal spores,
and very fine quartz dust; then added to tail-fat
to make an ointment for the udder (Epstein
1937)
Topnaar (Kuiseb, Namibia) Decoction drunk to cure coughs and to relieve
| ui || khaob; or uijkhao.b. stomach and chest pains (van Damme
et al. 1992)
Xanthoparmelia scabrosa (Taylor) Hale
New Age herbalism Currently sold as traditional Chinese medi-
cine, as an aphrodisiac, and a cure for male
impotence. No record of this use was found
prior to 2007 (Tshiteya 2007)
Xanthoparmelia tinctina (Maheu & Gillet) Hale
swelling, and chronic dermatitis. Drink
decoction; or apply decoction or powdered
lichen to affected area (Wang and Qian 2013)
Table 2.10 Other Parmeliaceae lichens used in traditional medicines

Evernia divaricata (L.) Ach.
China Used for coughs, pneumonia, hot flashes due to pul-
monary tuberculosis, hepatitis, headaches, infection
due to trauma, inflammation of the breasts, and snake-
bites (Wang and Qian 2013)
Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach.
Ancient Greece An arboreal lichen recorded by Dioscorides in
o (splanchon, intestines) Section 1.21 of De Materia Medica (5070 C.E.) that is
or (bryon, moss) best if sweeter-smelling, whiter, and growing on cedar.
Probably refers to E. prunastri and Pseudevernia
furfuracea, with E. prunastri being preferred (Rich-
ardson 1974). Used in ointments for an astringent;
decoction used either hot or cold for washing the vulva
for diseases of the womb; and used as a remedy against
fatigue (Lopez Eire et al. 2006)
Europe (early modern era) Ancient Greek uses adopted in Europe starting in
oak moss, mousse chene, or 1500s, but originally applied to all fruticose arboreal
eichenmoss lichens. By late 1700s these uses often applied to Usnea
spp., but sometimes to Evernia prunastri. Used for
uterine and anal prolapse and for preventing abortion
(Quincy 1724; Willemet 1787; Luyken 1809). Also
used for intestinal weakness, fevers, and pulmonary
afflictions (Lindley 1838; Uphof 1959). Mixed with
Pseudevernia furfuracea and Hypogymnia physodes as
Lichen quercinus virdes, a popular drug in early mod-
ern Europe (Senft 1911; Llano 1948)
Evernia mesomorpha Nyl.
Chipewyan (SK, Canada) Treatment for snow blindness. Harvest from birch, boil,
ki tsanju (birch lichen) cool, and drop decoction into eyes (Marles 1984)
China Same use in China as E. divaricata (Wang and Qian
2013)
Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf [syn. Evernia furfuracea, Borrera furfuracea]
Ancient Egypt Found in a vase in a tomb dated to the fourteenth to
sixteenth century B.E., along with other medicinal
plants (Muller 1881). Used, along with other botanicals,
to stuff mummies (Baumann 1960). Does not currently
grow in the area, potentially imported from elsewhere
Ancient Greece See Ancient Greek use of Evernia prunastri
Tripolitania (Libya) Ingredient in medicinal decoction called scba from
scba early 1900s, along with Usnea plicata, Ramalina
calicaris, and R. farinacea (Natale and Pollio 2012)
Europe (early modern era) A substitute for quinine (Willemet 1787). Used for
treemoss, mousse darbre (French) fevers and as an astringent (Lindley 1838). Mixed with
Evernia prunastri and Hypogymnia physodes as lichen
quercinus virdes, a popular drug in early modern
Europe (Senft 1911; Llano 1948)
Kutahya (Turkey) Used for wounds, eczema, and hemorrhoids. Put in
healing cream with clay (Guvenc et al. 2012)
(continued)
54 S.D. Crawford

Pallars (Catalonia, Spain) Drunk as tea for asthma, congestion, and high blood
liquen pressure (Agelet and Valles 2003)
Alfacar, Vznar (AN, Spain) Used for respiratory ailments. Washed, boiled for a
musgo considerable time, and then drunk (Gonzalez-Tejero
et al. 1995)
Jaen (AN, Spain) In Villanueva del Arzobispo it is collected and sold for
lquen de pino or muedos very good medicines (Fernandez Ocana 2000)
Letharia vulpina (L.) Hue [syn. Evernia vulpina]
Sweden Used for wolf poison in Sweden. Pulverized, mixed
ulf-mossa with fat and flesh, warmed in pan over fire, and then add
fresh blood and cheese to create odor. Sometimes mix
with powdered glass or strychnine. Put under skin of
carcass, wolf will die within 24 h of ingestion. Older,
drier lichen is more potent (Withering 1801; Schade
1954)
Niitsitapii (Alberta, Canada) Infusion of the lichen and bone marrow for stomach
e-simatch-sis (yellow dye) disorders like ulcers. Lichen was blackened in a fire and
rubbed on a rash, eczema, and wart sores (McClintock
1910; Hellson and Gadd 1974)
Okanagan (BC, Canada) Weak decoction drunk for internal problems and
kwareuk or kwernkw strong decoction used to wash external sores and
wounds (Teit and Boas 1928; Turner et al. 1980)
Umatilla and Cayuse (Oregon, USA) Boiled and then applied as a poultice for open sores,
laxpt or maqahl boils, bruises, swellings, arthritis, and eye problems.
Also used for saddle sores on horses. Liquid also drunk
for hemorrhaging (Hunn 1990, 2005)
Achomawi (California, USA) Used for poison arrows. Tips imbedded in masses of
wet lichen and left for up to a year, rattlesnake venom
sometimes added (Merriam 1966)
Yuki and Wailaki (CA, USA) Medicine for inflammation and to dry up running sores
ol-g
at-i (Chesnut 1902; Mead 1972)
Lethariella cashmeriana Krog
Naxi (nw Yunnan, China) Traditional Tibetan health-promoting tea for reducing
luxingcha or hongxuecha blood pressure, body fat, and inflammation. Boiling
water is added to dry thalli in a cup, and the infusion is
drunk after 35 min. Also drunk non-medicinally
(Wang et al. 2001; Fu et al. 2005)
Lethariella cladonioides (Nyl.) Krog
China and Tibet (nw Yunnan) Used for health-promoting tea to tranquilize the mind
gangge (Tibet), jin shua ba (China), and treat a decrease in vital energy, schizophrenia, and
hongxuecha epilepsy. Also used for reducing inflammation, reliev-
ing pain, and burns and scalds. Drunk as decoction or
tea; or powder applied to affected area (Zhang and Hu
1981; Fu et al. 2005; Wang and Qian 2013; Ju
et al. 2013)
Lethariella sernanderi (Mot.) Obermayer
Naxi (nw Yunnan, China) Same as Naxi use of L. cashmeriana (Wang et al. 2001;
Fu et al. 2005)
(continued)

Lethariella sinensis Wei & Jiang
Naxi (nw Yunnan, China) Same as Naxi use of L. cashmeriana (Wang et al. 2001)
Lethariella zahlbruckneri (Du Rietz) Krog
China Used for aching back and weak legs, paralysis, men-
hongxuecha strual disorders, vaginal discharge, dizziness, impo-
tency, and epilepsy. Drink decoction or make tea or
wine; or apply powder to affected area (Fu et al. 2005;
Wang and Qian 2013)
Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. [syn. Parmelia physodes]
Europe (early modern era) Mixed with Evernia prunastri and Pseudevernia
furfuracea as lichen quercinus virdes, a popular drug in
early modern Europe (Senft 1911; Llano 1948).
Neshnabe (WI, USA) Eaten raw as a cure for constipation (Smith 1933)
wakw^
un^ uk (egg bush)
Hypogymnia hypotrypa (Nyl.) Rass.
China Used for dim vision, bleeding from uterus, bleeding
from external injury, chronic dermatitis, and sores.
Drink decoction with 39 g lichen one time; or apply
decoction or powdered lichen to affected area (Wang
and Qian 2013)
Anzia opuntiella Mull. Arg.
China Used for blurred vision, bleeding from uterus, traumatic
bleeding, sores, and chronic psoriasis. Drink decoction;
or apply decoction or powdered lichen to affected area
Anzia ornata (Zahlbr.) Asahina
China Same as Chinese use of A. opuntiella (Wang and Qian
2013)
Table 2.11 Physciaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Culture and folk
name Traditional use
Anaptychia spp. Korber
Ayurvedic medicine Occasional adulterant in chharila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense)
(India) (Chanda and Singh 1971)
Heterodermia diademata (Taylor) D. D. Awasthi
Nepali (Sikkim, Used for cuts and injuries. Leaves of Ageratina adenophora are made
India) into paste and put on cuts and then plastered with paste of lichen thalli to
dhungo ku seto jhua protect it from water and any other infection (Saklani and Jain 1994)
Physcia spp. (Schreber) Michaux
Europe (early mod- See European use of usnea cranii humani under Parmelia saxatilis
ern era) (Llano 1948)
usnea cranii
humani
56 S.D. Crawford
Table 2.12 Ramalinaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Niebla bourgeana (Mont. ex Nyl.) Rundel & Bowler
Almeria (Spain) Decoction used as diuretic to treat renal lithiasis. One cup taken
flor de piedra (stone daily until patient is better (Gonzalez-Tejero et al. 1995;
flower) Martnez-Lirola et al. 1996)
Niebla flaccescens (Nyl.) Rundel & Bowler
Quechua (Pampallacta: Peru) Drink infusion for coughs. Thallus also chewed with coca leaves
papel-papel for magic rituals (Velasco-Negueruela et al. 1995)
Ramalina spp. Ach.
Ancient Greece A cryptogam growing on wet rocks is recorded by Dioscorides
(leikhen) or o in Section 4.53 of De Materia Medica (5070 C.E.). Could be
(bryon, moss) any saxicolous lichen or bryophyte. Early European herbals
interpret it as a thalloid liverwort (e.g., LObel 1576). Recent
interpretation is as Ramalina sp., as this matches with the
original drawing (Lopez Eire et al. 2006; Yavuz 2012). Applied
as a poultice, it stops bleeding, relieves inflammation, and cures
lichen (the skin disease). Mixed with honey it cures jaundice,
and smeared on the mouth and tongue, it relieves colds and
congestion. Pliny records a similar cryptogam in his Naturalis
Historia (77 C.E.) that is dry, is white, and grows on rocks near
streams. It is put on wounds to stop bleeding and used to cure
jaundice and impetigo. It has been interpreted as a thalloid
liverwort, Peltigera canina, or Ochrolechia parella (Bostock
and Riley 1855; Yavuz 2013)
Taplejung (Nepal) Same as Taplejung use of Everniastrum nepalense (topical
antiseptic) (Poudel 2008)
Kanikkars (Tamil Nadu, Used in combination with dried elephant milk, silt stone, and
India) Cuminum cyminum extract to cure small pox (Nagendra Prasada
kalchadai et al. 1996)
Ramalina calicaris (L.) Fr.
Tripolitania (Libya) Ingredient in medicinal decoction called scba, along with
scba R. farinacea, Usnea plicata, and Pseudevernia furfuracea
(Natale and Pollio 2012)
Ramalina capitata (Ach.) Nyl.
Pallars (Spain) Drunk as tea to relieve symptoms of asthma (Agelet and Valles
liquen 2003)
Ramalina conduplicans Vain.
Yi, Dai, and Han (s. Yunnan, Cold dish served at marriage banquets, couples who eat it will
China) love each other more and never separate. Boiled in water with
shouxu, shikuacai, or soda for 1020 min, soaked in new water for 12 days, and
shuhua served with chili powder, salt, and other seasonings (Wang
et al. 2001). Medicine to reduce inflammation (Wang and Qian
2013)
Ramalina farinacea (L.) Ach.
Ayurvedic medicine (India) Occasional adulterant in chharila (see Parmotrema
Tripolitania (Libya) Ingredient in medicinal decoction called scba, along with
scba R. calicaris, Usnea plicata, and Pseudevernia furfuracea
(Natale and Pollio 2012)
(continued)

Nigeria Aqueous extract for treating mental disorders. Tinctures for
treatment of ringworm tinea (Esimone and Adikwu 1999)
Ramalina inflata Hooker f. & Taylor
Ayurvedic medicine (India) Same as Ayurvedic use of Usnea baileyi (mixed in tobacco) and
an occasional adulterant in chharila (see Parmotrema
Ramalina menziesii Taylor
Pomo (California, USA) Used as baby diapers (Goodrich et al. 1980)
Ramalina roesleri (Hochst.) Hue
China Used for traumatic injuries, bleeding, and swelling (Wang and
Qian 2013)
Ramalina sinensis Jatta
Yunnan (China) Same as Chinese use of R. conduplicans (Wang et al. 2001)
Table 2.13 Stereocaulaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Culture and folk
Stereocaulon exutum Nyl.
China Same as Chinese use of S. paschale (Wang and Qian 2013)
Stereocaulon himalayense Asahina & I.M. Lamb
Lepchas (Darjeeling, Thalli pounded and boiled in water; take 100 ml twice daily after meals
India) for burning sensation when urinating or other urinary trouble; decoction
dhungo-ku-jhau also used for tongue blisters (Saklani and Jain 1994)
Indo-Tibetan Decoction used to treat urinary infections. Entire lichen boiled in water
Himalayas or goats milk (Sharma 1997)
chanchal
Stereocaulon paschale (L.) Hoffm.
Mistissini Cree Used to treat rheumatism/arthritis associated with diabetes (Fraser 2006;
(Quebec) Leduc et al. 2006)
wapskirnok
China Used for spontaneous external bleeding, other bleeding, and dizziness.
(shi-ji- Drink decoction (Hu et al. 1980; Wang and Qian 2013)
sheng)
Stereocaulon vulcani (Bory) Ach.
Reunion Boiled to treat ulcers. Roasted and used to treat cankers. Mixed with
fleur de roche or sulfur, Hubertia ambavilla [endemic shrub], and coconut oil to make an
fleur galet ointment for wounds. Used in a drink to stop vaginal discharges. Boiled
in water with handful of Hylocereus undatus roots [cactus], Tribulus
cistoides, and a piece of Argemone mexicana root [poppy] and drunk to
treat syphilis (Lavergne 1989)
58 S.D. Crawford
Table 2.14 Collemataceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Leptogium spp. (Ach.) Gray
Ayurveda Occasional adulterant in chharila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense) (Chanda and
(India) Singh 1971)
Table 2.15 Lobariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Lobaria spp. (Schreber) Hoffm. [partial syn. Sticta spp.]
Bhutan Pulverized and made into a paste to cure skin
diseases (Schting 1999)
Northwest Yunnan (Tibet) Whole plant used to treat indigestion
qingwapi (Ju et al. 2013)
Gitksan (BC, Canada) Used as arthritis medicine, a tonic, and a spir-
gwilalh ganaaw (frog blankets) itual health-promoting and purification treat-
ment. Aqueous infusion used as tea or a bath
(Johnson 1997)
Haida (BC, Canada) Ingredient in several different medicinal mix-
kayd gyaaad (tree blanket) tures. Also called hlkinxa kwiiawaay (forest
cloud) or xil kwii.awaa (cloud leaves)
(Turner 2004a)
Nuxalk Used for stomach pains, but not diarrhea, con-
stswakt-aak stipation, or vomiting. Only collected from
Cornus stolonifera [dogwood] or Pyrus
diversifolia [crabapple], boiled, and five cups
of hot decoction are drunk daily. Decoction
also used as an eyewash. Also, plant is pul-
verized and applied to skin (Smith 1929;
Turner 1973)
Makah (Washington, USA) When found on rocks it is used for running
dididichia (growing on rocks) sores that are hard to heal, especially sores on
the leg caused by bruises from walking among
rocks (Densmore 1939). The identity of this
lichen is uncertain: most Lobaria and Sticta
species grow on trees
Lobaria isidiosa (Mull. Arg.) Vain.
China Used for indigestion, reducing inflammation,
(lao-long-pi) relieving pain, burns and scalds, edema due to
kidney inflammation, and malnutrition in chil-
dren (Hu et al. 1980; Wang and Qian 2013)
Lobaria kurokawae Yoshim.
China Same as Chinese use of L. pulmonaria, but not
used for severe itching of skin (Wang and Qian
2013)
(continued)

Lobaria orientalis (Asahina) Yoshim.
China Same as Chinese use of L. pulmonaria (Wang
and Qian 2013)
Lobaria oregana (Tuck.) Mull. Arg.
Gitgaat (BC, Canada) Boiled with juniper and used as medicine for
nagaganaw (frog dress) sore throats. Best for medicine if collected off
Abies lasiocarpa [fir] (Turner and Thompson
2006)
Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm.
Europe (early modern era) Its use for lung ailments goes back at least as
muscus pulmonarius (Latin); lungwort, lungs far as the 1500s (LObel 1576) and was wide-
of oak, or oak lung (English); hazelraw spread throughout Europe during the 1600s
(Scotland); crotal coille (Ireland) (Parkinson and Marshall 1640; Ray 1686). Its
popularity then waned, only being used in
certain areas like the Scottish Highlands and
New Forest (England), but many authors
remained convinced of its efficacy (Watson
1756; Withering 1801; Wise 1863; Cameron
1900; de Crespigny and Hutchinson 1903). It
was mainly used in lung ailments (e.g., tuber-
culosis, asthma, coughs, spitting blood), but
also for liver diseases, as an appetite stimulant,
for diarrhea, for heavy menstrual flow, and to
stop bleeding. It was usually boiled with water
or milk and drunk or made into an ointment for
external use. It was also used for lung ailments
in livestock in England, Germany, and Sweden
(De Grey 1639; Willemet 1787; Drummond
1861)
Molise (Italy) Applied to cuts as an antiseptic and healing
agent (Guarrera et al. 2008)
India Used for hemorrhages, lung troubles, asthma,
golmataghosa (Bengal) and strengthening hair. The hill men use it for
curing eczema on the head and cleaning hair
(Biswas 1956)
Afghanistan Applied to newborn childs navel to dry and
gul-i-sang (stone flowers) heal wound. Used as contraceptive, 4 different
methods: (1) consume the lichen with water
during menstrual period (Kabul); (2) dry,
grind, and pop the resulting power into the
mouth like snuff for 3 days during menstrual
period (Kunduz); (3) grind and consume 24 h
after giving birth (Kabul); (4) men consume
the lichen (Kabul) (Hunte et al. 1975)
(continued)
60 S.D. Crawford

China Used for indigestion, malnutrition in children,
(ha-ma-qi) abdominal distension, ascarid infestation,
burns and scalds, edema due to kidney inflam-
mation, local swelling, reducing inflammation,
relieving pain, and severe itching of skin.
Drink decoction or apply powder to affected
area (Hu et al. 1980; Wang and Qian 2013)
Nlakapamux (BC, Canada) Previously used medicinally, details forgotten
es-t /k - k e t k /q (Turner et al. 1990)
(yellowish frog moss)
Coast Tsimshian (BC, Canada) Used medicinally (Johnson 2006)
Hesquiat (BC, Canada) Applied to the faces of children when their skin
ac astuphcum is peeling. Also used as medicine for coughing
up blood (Turner and Efrat 1982)
Saanich (BC, Canada) Same as Saanich use of Parmelia sulcata
(possible birth control) (Turner and Hebda
2012)
Lobaria quercizans Michaux [syn. Sticta glomulifera in N.A.]
Menomini (Wisconsin, USA) Eaten as a tonic and as medicine for run-down
wak^
un systems. Only picked off hard maple or hem-
lock trees and cooked in soups (Smith 1923)
Lobaria retigera (Bory) Trevis.
China Same as Chinese use of L. pulmonaria
(lao-long-pi) (Hu et al. 1980; Wang and Qian 2013)
Lobaria sublaevis (Nyl.) Yoshim.
China Used for indigestion, edema, inflammation,
and pain relief (Wang and Qian 2013)
Lobaria yunnanensis Yoshim.
China Same as Chinese use of L. pulmonaria (Wang
and Qian 2013)
Lobaria virens (With.) J.R. Laundon [syn. Lobaria laetevirens]
Europe (early modern era) Occasionally listed in old European pharma-
copoeias (Gioanetto 1993)
Pseudocyphellaria aurata (Ach.) Vain.
Ambavaniasy (Madagascar) Used as tea to treat indigestion (Sharnoff 1997)
Sticta spp. (Schreber) Ach.
Makah (Washington, USA) See Makah use of Lobaria spp. (Densmore
1939)
Nuxalk See Nuxalk use of Lobaria spp. (Smith 1929)
Sticta wrightii Tuck.
China Used for indigestion; and edema from kidney
inflammation (Wang and Qian 2013)
Table 2.16 Nephromataceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Culture and folk
Nephroma arcticum (L.) Torss.
Yupik (Alaska) Infusion with hot water is fed to a person in weak condition to make him
kusskoak strong, a very effective medicine (Oswalt 1957)
Table 2.17 Peltigeraceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Peltigera spp. Willd.
Denaina (Alaska, USA) Decoction drunk for tuberculosis and
kudyikaa prolonged bleeding. Umbilicaria spp. are also
used (Kari 1987)
Haida (BC, Canada) Ingredient in several different medicinal
hlkinxa kwiiawaay (forest cloud) or mixtures (Turner 2004a)
xil kwii.awaa (cloud leaves)
Oweekeno (BC, Canada) Thallus pounded, mixed with spruce pitch, and
xxwpig used to dress wounds (Compton 1993)
Ditidaht (BC, Canada) A gray Peltigera growing on rocks that was
a x aq (flat against the rock) or used to induce urination. Picked, washed,
squashed, and eaten (Turner et al. 1983)
i i dq aqsibakk (resembles baleen
whale)
Navajo (NM, USA) May be chewed like Xanthoparmelia sp. for
ad (earth moss)
niha cankers, swollen gums, and decayed teeth
(Wyman and Harris 1941)
Peltigera aphthosa (L.) Willd.
China Used to improve digestion (Wang and Qian
2013)
Europe (early modern era) As early as the 1700s, it was used as medicine
thrush (mouth ulcers) in children. Make an
infusion in milk and drink. It induces vomiting
in large doses. Also used to expel worms
(Gedner 1756; Strandman 1769; Willemet
1787; Withering 1801; Luyken 1809; Lindley
1838)
Tlingit (Alaska, USA) Dried, powdered, and used to treat burns and
scalds (Emmons 1991)
Ditidaht (BC, Canada) Chewed and eaten for tuberculosis. Also used
titidi (rocks growing on rocks) as poultice for sores on legs (Turner et al. 1983)
(continued)
62 S.D. Crawford

Nlakapamux (BC, Canada) Used to rub on beestings (Turner et al. 1990)
e t k /q (frog moss) or
(frogs rocks)
Peltigera britannica (Gyelnik) Holt.-Hartw. & Tnsberg
Ditidaht (BC, Canada) Possibly same as Ditidaht use of P. aphthosa
(Turner et al. 1983)
Peltigera canina (L.) Willd.
Britain A plant called the star of the earth was used as
lichen cinereus terrestris (Latin); dog lichen a cure of rabies in Britain as early as the 1600s.
or ash-coloured ground liverwort (English); In the oldest record, this is definitely a vascular
lus ghoinnich or gearan (Gaelic, from Cam- plant (De Grey 1639), but later authors decided
eron 1900) that it was P. canina (Gourdon 1687; Dampier
and Sloane 1698). The remedy was popular-
ized in 1720 by Dr. Mead and enjoyed a short
period of renown (Mortimer 1735; Hartley
et al. 1737), before people began to become
suspicious of its efficacy (Steward 1738;
Ranby and Peters 1744; Layard 1757;
Lightfoot 1777). Still being used in some areas
in Wales in early 1800s (Trevelyan 1909;
Allen and Hatfield 2004). Dried lichen and
black pepper were pulverized and mixed into
warm milk. This remedy was called pulvis
antilyssus
India and China Used for rabies and jaundice in India (Biswas
patamataghosa (Bengali) 1956) and China (Wang and Qian 2013)
Himalayas (India) Tonic and medicine for liver complaints
(Subramanian and Ramakrishnan 1964)
Hesquiaht (BC, Canada) Unspecified medicine (Turner and Efrat 1982)
Peltigera membranacea (Ach.) Nyl. [syn. Peltigera canina var. membranacea]
Kwakwakawakw (BC, Canada) Used as a love charm (Boas 1921)
tlextlekwes (seaweed of the ground)
Peltigera polydactylon (Neck.) Hoffm. [syn. Peltigera polydactyla]
Lepchas (Sikkim, India) Used as antiseptic and to stop bleeding. Thalli
jhau made into paste and put on cuts (Saklani and
Jain 1994)
Indo-Tibetan Himalayas Lichen is washed, pounded, and boiled in
sharda goats milk; the resulting mash is soaked in
cows urine to be used as an antiseptic over
cuts and bruises (Sharma 1997)
China Used for traumatic injuries and to strengthen
the constitution (Wang and Qian 2013)
Iroquois (Ontario, Canada) Tea used to induce vomiting and as an anti-
love medicine. Either makes loved one return
or unbewitches you (Herrick 1995)
Table 2.18 Teloschistaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Polycauliona candelaria (L.) Froden, Arup, & Schting [syn. Xanthoria candelaria]
Europe (early modern era) Boiled with milk to treat jaundice, along with Xanthoria
parietina (Tonning 1769).
Teloschistes flavicans (Sw.) Norm.
China Used to clear heat in lung and liver and to remove
toxins (Wang and Qian 2013)
Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr.
Andalucia (Spain) Decoction in wine for menstrual complaints
flor de piedra (stone flower) or (Campohermoso). Decoction in water for kidney dis-
rompepiedra (stone breaker) orders (Barranquete, Cueva de los Medinas, Joya, Pozo
de los Frailes, and Puebloblanco). Decoction in water
for toothaches (Fernan Perez and Joya). An analgesic
for several pains (Fuente del Escribano). Ingredient in a
cough syrup with Ceratonia siliqua, Ficus carica, and
Prunus amygdalus fruits; Olea europaea and Origanum
vulgare leaves and flowers; and lots of sugar or honey
(San Isidro Jimenez) (Gonzalez-Tejero et al. 1995)
Europe (early modern era) Boiled with milk to treat jaundice, along with
Polycauliona candelaria (Tonning 1769). Used for
diarrhea (Luyken 1809), for intermittent fevers (Lindley
1838), for hepatitis (Gioanetto 1993), for diarrhea and
dysentery (Willemet 1787), and as a quinine replace-
ment for malaria (Lebail 1853)
China Used medicinally as an antibacterial (Wang and Qian
2013)
Table 2.19 Roccellaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Roccella sp.
Ancient Greece A cryptogam growing on seashore rocks is
(phykos thalassion, recorded by Dioscorides in Section 4.99 of De
marine phycos), ballaris, irane, or Materia Medica (5070 C.E.). Recommended
gnomeusilum for inflammations and gout in the feet that
needs to be reduced (L
opez Eire et al. 2006).
Possibly a marine algae, but identified by
Richardson (1974b) as Roccella sp.
Sicuani (Peru) Two Roccella sp. sold in indigenous market:
one for coughs and one for fever (Sharnoff
1997)
Roccella babingtonii Mont.
Seri (Sonora, Mexico) Tea: shortness of breath and fever. Ground,
heecoj moistened, and strained: filtrate put on a burn or
sore. Ground with clay and water: fever and
diarrhea. Ground and mixed with water: bathe
child with fever (Felger and Moser 1985)
(continued)
64 S.D. Crawford

Roccella fuciformis (L.) DC.
Pondicherry (India) Used to clean hair and cure eczema on the skull
mathaghasa (to rub on skull) and back or the ear (Biswas 1947)
Roccella phycopsis Ach. [Roccella tinctoria]
France Remedy for tickling in the throat (France).
orseille, orchal Used in Mauritius for a medicinal broth (may
refer to all fruticose lichens) (de Candolle
1816; Lebail 1853)
Madras (India) Unspecified drug (Biswas 1947)
Table 2.20 Ophioparmaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Ophioparma lapponica (Ras.) R. W. Rogers & Hafellner
China Used externally to stop bleeding from external injury, relieve pain (Wang and Qian
2013)
Ophioparma ventosa (L.) Norman
China Same Chinese use as O. lapponica (Wang and Qian 2013)
Table 2.21 Umbilicariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Lasallia papulosa (Ach.) Llano [syn. Umbilicaria papulosa]
Ekuanitshit (Quebec, Tea used for urinary problems (Clement 1990; Uprety
Canada) et al. 2012)
u^
akuan^ apishku
Umbilicaria spp. Hoffm.
Denaina (Alaska, USA) Decoction drunk for tuberculosis and prolonged bleeding. Also
qalnigi jegha (rock ear) used Peltigera spp. (Kari 1987)
Inuit (Quebec, Canada) Used as a tea to treat tuberculosis (Stevens et al. 1984; Sharnoff
1997)
Umbilicaria esculenta (Miyoshi) Minks [syn. Gyrophora esculenta]
Japan An esteemed food that promotes longevity when eaten (Kawa-
iwa-take goe 1925; Sato 1968)
Kyeong Gi Do (Korea) Used to treat dysentery (Lee 1966)
(seog-eui-beo-
seod)
China Used for tuberculosis, spontaneous external bleeding, intestinal
(shi-er, stone ear) bleeding, rectal hernia into the vagina, bloody and cloudy uri-
nation, vaginal discharge, snakebites, and cuts. Drink decoction;
or apply externally to affected area (Hu et al. 1980; Wang and
Qian 2013)
(continued)

Umbilicaria hypococcinae (Jatta) Llano
China Used for indigestion, distention and pain in stomach duct and
abdomen, dysentery, and malnutrition in children. Drink decoc-
tion (Wang and Qian 2013)
Umbilicaria mammulata (Ach.) Tuck.
Attikamekw (Quebec, During difficult childbirth the lichen is boiled and placed on
Canada) womans stomach (Raymond 1945)
asine-wakunik
Nihitahawak Cree (Sas- Made into soup as nourishment for sick person, as it will not
katchewan, Canada) upset the stomach. Lichen cleaned, broken into small pieces, and
asinwakon very hot water poured over it and water discarded. Lichen then
added to fish broth and cooked 510 min, soup thickened as it
cooled (Leighton 1985)
Umbilicaria muhlenbergii (Ach.) Tuck. [syn. Actinogyra muhlenbergii]
Chipewyan (Saskatchewan, Used to expel tapeworms. Lichen is burned slightly in a frying
Canada) pan, mashed well, and then boiled to make a syrup which is
thetsn drunk. It can be chewed for the same purpose (Marles 1984;
Marles et al. 2000)
Cree (Manitoba, Canada) Decoction given to someone with a stomachache to clean out
asinwahkona, wakoonak, the stomach. (Marles et al. 2000)
or asinwakon
T ch (NWT, Canada) Soup eaten as a tonic and for breathing problems (Rebesca
kwechi et al. 1994; Uprety et al. 2012)
Umbilicaria nanella Frey and Poelt
China Used for indigestion, stomachache, dysentery, malnutrition in
children, expelling ascarid parasites, vaginal discharges, glomus
tumors, and reducing swelling. Drink decoction (Wang and Qian
2013)
Umbilicaria vellea (L.) Ach.
China Used for eye infections, bloody feces, and rectal hernia into the
vagina (Wang and Qian 2013)
66 S.D. Crawford
Table 2.22 Icmadophilaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Siphula sp. Fr.
Northern Peru Unspecified medicine. Oral aqueous application (Bussmann
pelo de piedra 2006)
Thamnolia subuliformis (Ehrh.) W. Culb.
Naxi (nw Yunnan, China) Used for inflammation. Boiling water added to dry thalli in
xuecha, baixuecha, or snow tea cup and infusion is drunk after 35 min. May be same as
Naxi use of T. vermicularis (Wang et al. 2001; Fu
et al. 2005)
Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Ach. ex Schaerer [syn. Cladonia vermicularis]
Naxi (nw Yunnan, China) Used for sunstroke, eye irritation, coughs, sore throat,
xuecha, baixuecha, or snow tea inflammation, high blood pressure, fevers, epilepsia, and a
decrease in vital energy. Boiling water added to dry thalli in
cup and infusion is drunk after 35 min (Wang et al. 2001;
Jiang et al. 2002; Fu et al. 2005; Wang and Qian 2013)
Northwest Yunnan (Tibet) A widely recognized medicinal plant, tea used to tranquilize
xiare the mind and clear heat (Byg et al. 2010; Ju et al. 2013)
Ayurvedic (Uttarakhand and Germicide to preserve milk and other dairy products.
Himachal Pradesh, India) Lichen is dried and burned, and milk is exposed to the
swarn smoke (Sharma 1997)
Bhotia (Uttarakhand, India) Used to preserve butter milk. A handful of lichen is put in a
chhai dhoop wide cup containing burning coal and the smoke directed
into the milk. It kills the 12 mm long white worms that
grow in milk (Upreti and Negi 1996)
South America Used to stimulate the stomach (Lindley 1838)
contrayerba blanca
Table 2.23 Megasporaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Aspicilia esculenta (Pall.) Flagey
Tehran (Iran) Ingredient in wine and medicinal compounds in ninth to thir-
( shr-zada); chir zadi; teenth centuries Arabic writings (Crum 1993). Used to increase
or agalactie the flow of human milk (Hooper 1937)
Table 2.24 Pertusariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Pertusaria albescens (Hudson) M. Choisy and Werner [syn. Variolaria discoidea]
Europe (early mod- Used to treat intermittent fevers, along with P. amara (Lindley 1838)
ern era)
Pertusaria amara (Ach.) Nyl. [syn. Variolaria faginea]
Europe (early mod- Used to treat intermittent fevers, along with P. albescens (Lindley 1838)
ern era)
Pertusaria pertusa (Weigel) Tuck. [syn. Pertusaria communis]
Europe (early mod- Cure for intermittent fever, more effective for men. Also used for inter-
ern era) mittent toothache, and powdered and used to kill worms (Lebail 1853)
Pertusaria velata (Turner) Nyl.
China Used to stop bleeding and relieve pain. External use only (Wang and Qian
2013)
Table 2.25 Verrucariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Dermatocarpon miniatum (L.) W. Mann
China Used for high blood pressure, as a diuretic, for expelling parasites, for malnutrition in
children, for dysentery, for improving digestion, and for abdominal distention. Drink
decoction or eat as soup (Wang and Qian 2013)
Table 2.26 Hygrophoraceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Culture and folk
Dictyonema huaorani Dal-Forno, Schmull, Lucking & Lawrey
Huaorani (Amazon, Mixed with other bryophytes, made into an infusion, and drunk by
Ecuador) shaman to cause hallucinations and call on malevolent spirits to curse
people. Also causes sterility (Davis and Yost 1983; Schmull et al. 2014)
68 S.D. Crawford
Table 2.27 Unidentified lichens used in traditional medicines around the world
Xhosa (South Africa) An unidentified rock lichen is used to treat gonorrhea. Fresh
mthafathafa lichen is crushed and mixed with water, and infusion is drunk.
Lichen also dried over fire and crushed, and powder is applied
to wounds infected area (Matsiliza and Barker 2001). See
also Cape area use of unidentified parmelioid lichen
Trentepohlia jolithus A non-lichenized algae considered a lichen in early literature.
[Lepraria iolithus] Used for small pox and measles (Luyken 1809)
New Forest (England) An unidentified lichen is recommended for weak eyes (Wise
brighten 1863)
Slieve Aughty (Ireland) An unidentified lichen is good for heart trouble (Allen and
dub-cosac Hatfield 2004)
Brahuis (Balochistan, Pakistan) An unidentified rock lichen that is extremely bitter is used
medicinally in diseases of languor and oppression of the life
force. The lichen is dried and crushed. They swallow the
powder, and then drink water (Masson 1842; Hooper 1937)
Rotuma (Fiji) A gray lichen found on coconut tree trunks is used to make
rimi medicine used in treating high fevers and/or convulsions
(McClatchey 1993)
Denaina (Alaska, USA) A large foliose lichen is used for coughs, tuberculosis, and
sheh tsadn nde general sickness. Boil and drink decoction. Also used for
bleeding that wont stop (Garibaldi 1999)
Tlingit (Alaska, USA) Lichens from the ground in the woods are used for sores.
Crushed and then heated on rocks with seal oil and mountain
goat tallow (de Laguna 1972)
Chipewyan (Alberta, Canada) White crustose lichens on aspen bark, along with the dead tree
periderm, are scraped off and put on cuts and deep wounds to
stop bleeding (Marles et al. 2000)
Niitsitapii (Alberta, Canada) Mixed with kinnikinnick leaves and shredded willow bark to
make a smoking mixture (Russell 1973). Cited by Siegel
(1989) who added the claim that it was narcotic (Siegel 2013
pers. comm.) and was then cited by Pollan (2001) who added
the claim that it was hallucinogenic
Nihitahawak Cree (Saskatche- White crustose lichens on aspen bark, along with the dead tree
wan, Canada) periderm, are scraped off and used to stop bleeding and to
treat venereal disease (Leighton 1985)
Algonquin (Quebec, Canada) White crustose lichens on birch bark used for diaper rash and
other skin rashes (Black 1980)
Tewa (California, USA) kuk ow is pulverized and applied to lips for cold sores,
kuk ow (rock skin); na rubbed on sores about a childs mouth, and put into the cavity
(earth clothing) of a decayed tooth to stop pain. na is applied to teeth and
gums to cure toothache (Robbins et al. 1916). See also Hopi
use of Xanthoparmelia sp.
N. Paiute (Nevada, USA) Black, orange, and yellow lichens on rocks are used as
tuh-botza-yo-caw-son or lizard important antibiotics and fungicides. Powdered material is
semen applied as a healing agent to sores, especially mouth sores of
children (Train et al. 1941; Sharnoff 1997)
(continued)

Western Shoshone (Nevada, Black, orange, and green lichens on rocks. Diarrhea medicine:
USA) soak overnight in water and drink the solution. Smallpox
timbe-boon-goo medicine: powder and boil with Purshia leaves and dried
mountain rat urine; drink half cup of solution morning and
night (Train et al. 1941)
Hopi (Arizona, USA) Yellow lichens on rocks are applied to cheeks to reduce
swelling and relieve toothache (Beaglehole and Beaglehole
1935). See also Hopi use of Xanthoparmelia sp.
Kewa Pueblo and Hispanics Gray lichens are boiled until green and given to one who talks
(New Mexico, USA) and laughs to himself. Also good for headaches (Kewa). Also
yerba de la piedra (Spanish) rubbed on gums as cure for inflamed gums or powdered and
applied on any kind of sore or injury (Hispanics) (Curtin
1965)
Kaigwu (Oklahoma, USA) Lichens on north side of tree trunk are dried, powdered, and
applied to sore gums for abscesses and teething infants. Also
mixed with smoking tobacco for a mildly soporific effect
(Vestal and Schultes 1939)
Seri (Sonora, Mexico) Gray foliose and orange crustose lichens on rocks are taken as
hast yamasa (rock lichen) a tea to induce vomiting (Felger and Moser 1985)
Huastec (Mexico) An unidentified arboreal lichen is used as an unspecified
tsakam kuthay obstetrical-gynecological medicine and for bleeding. Its name
means little Tillandsia usneoides (Alcorn 1984)
Lacadone (Chiapas, Mexico) Unidentified lichens are invoked in magical healing of skin
eruptions (Sharnoff 1997)
Quichua (Loja, Ecuador) There are 7 different colors of lichens on rocks. If all 7 colors
musgo de piedra are boiled in a drink, it will cure a person with a chronic
illness who is about to die (Abel 2009 pers. comm.)
Loja (Ecuador) An unidentified lichen is used for an unspecified medicine
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006)
Dens and Kinja (Amazonas, An unidentified pyrenocarpous lichen on trees is used as a
Brazil) snuff. Yellow powder is collected off the surface of lichen for
baduhu-tsina (deer snuff) snuff. Used frequently and induces sneezing (Prance 1972;
Milliken et al. 1992)
White crustose lichen An unidentified white crustose lichen growing on Rinorea
Witoto/Bora (Loreto, Peru) racemosa is sometimes used (along with other botanicals and
ash) to add to the resin of Virola sebifera or V. elongata to
make oo-koey, a hallucinogenic orally ingested paste
(Mckenna et al. 1984; UBC 2014)
Chacobo (Beni, Bolivia) Five unidentified lichens are used to treat chest and appendix
pain, headache, liver problems, and rheumatism (Boom 1987)
Aymara (Titicaca, Bolivia) An unidentified lichen is given to babies as an infusion if they
pampa untu (wild llama fat) are constipated (La Barre 1948)
70 S.D. Crawford
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Chapter 2

Lichens Used in Traditional Medicine

S.D. Crawford (*)

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 27

2.2 Cultures That Use Lichens

2.3 The Lichens That Are Used in Traditional Medicine

Table 2.1 Lichen genera commonly used in traditional medicine

2.3.1 The Folk Taxonomy of Lichens

2.3.2 Development of Lichen Taxa in Western Science

2.4 The Medicinal Uses of Lichens

2.4.1 Medicinal Lichens of Europe

Younger (a twelfth or thirteenth century compilation). These authors discuss at least

caused Europeans to wrongly associate the Ancient Greek medicinal uses of

2.5 Known Records of Lichens Used in Traditional

Table 2.2 Lichen genera used in traditional medicine

Table 2.3 Index to tables of lichen families used in traditional medicine

Table 2.4 Cladoniaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.4 (continued)

Table 2.4 (continued)

Table 2.5 Lecanoraceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.6 Mycoblastaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.7 Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines

Table 2.7 (continued)

Table 2.7 (continued)

Table 2.7 (continued)

Table 2.7 (continued)

Table 2.7 (continued)

Table 2.7 (continued)

Table 2.7 (continued)

Table 2.8 Cetrarioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines

Table 2.8 (continued)

Table 2.9 Parmelioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines

Table 2.9 (continued)

Table 2.9 (continued)

Table 2.9 (continued)

Table 2.9 (continued)

Table 2.9 (continued)

Table 2.10 Other Parmeliaceae lichens used in traditional medicines

Table 2.10 (continued)

Table 2.10 (continued)

Table 2.11 Physciaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.12 Ramalinaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.12 (continued)

Table 2.13 Stereocaulaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.14 Collemataceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.15 Lobariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.15 (continued)

Table 2.15 (continued)

Table 2.16 Nephromataceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.17 Peltigeraceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.17 (continued)

Table 2.18 Teloschistaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.19 Roccellaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.19 (continued)

Table 2.20 Ophioparmaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.21 Umbilicariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.21 (continued)

Table 2.22 Icmadophilaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.23 Megasporaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.24 Pertusariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.25 Verrucariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.26 Hygrophoraceae used in traditional medicines around the world

Table 2.27 (continued)