Lichens used in traditional medicine

Stuart Crawford

Lichens are used in traditional medicine by cultures across the world, particularly in temperate and arctic regions. Knowledge of these medicinal uses is available to us because of the contributions of traditional knowledge holders in these cultures. The traditional medicinal uses of 60 lichen genera are summarized in this paper. Cultures in different regions of the world tend to emphasize different lichen genera in their traditional medicines, with Usnea being the most widely used genus. The folk taxonomy of lichens within a given culture is not synonymous with the scientific taxonomy, and reflects the cultural value of those lichens and the traditional method of their identification. Even within Western science the identity and taxonomy of lichens has not remained constant throughout history. Lichens in traditional medicine are most commonly used for treating wounds, skin disorders, respiratory and digestive issues, and obstetric and gynaecological concerns. They have been used for both their secondary metabolites and their storage carbohydrates. The European uses of lichens have been exported world wide, and sometimes influence the use of lichens by other cultures. These European uses started in the 15 th and 16 th centuries and arose from interpretations of Ancient Greek uses, as well as the application of the Doctrine of Signatures.

Lichens used in traditional medicine Stuart D. Crawford stu.crawford@gmail.com Box 788, Masset, BC, Canada V0T 1M0 Abstract Lichens are used in traditional medicine by cultures across the world, particularly in temperate and arctic regions. Knowledge of these medicinal uses is available to us because of the contributions of traditional knowledge holders in these cultures. The traditional medicinal uses of 60 lichen genera are summarized in this paper. Cultures in different regions of the world tend to emphasize different lichen genera in their traditional medicines, with Usnea being the most widely used genus. The folk taxonomy of lichens within a given culture is not synonymous with the scientific taxonomy, and reflects the cultural value of those lichens and the traditional method of their identification. Even within Western science the identity and taxonomy of lichens has not remained constant throughout history. Lichens in traditional medicine are most commonly used for treating wounds, skin disorders, respiratory and digestive issues, and obstetric and gynaecological concerns. They have been used for both their secondary metabolites and their storage carbohydrates. The European uses of lichens have been exported world wide, and sometimes influence the use of lichens by other cultures. These European uses started in the 15th and 16th centuries and arose from interpretations of Ancient Greek uses, as well as the application of the Doctrine of Signatures. This document is based on the accepted manuscript of the published chapter: Crawford, S. 2019. Lichens used in traditional medicine. In: B. Ranković (ed.), Lichen Secondary Metabolites, 2nd Edition (pp. 31-97). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-030-16814-8_2 Springer International Publishing has a 24 month embargo on public distribution of accepted manuscripts, which expired July 2021 for this document. Additions to this document after it was published in Lichen Secondary Metabolites are in blue text. © 2019. This document is made available under the CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ 1 Table of Contents 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 2 2 Cultures That Use Lichens ................................................................................ 3 3 The Lichens That Are Used in Traditional Medicine ....................................... 3 3.1 The Folk Taxonomy of Lichens........................................................ 3 3.2 Development of Lichen Taxa in Western Science ............................ 4 4 The Medicinal Uses of Lichens ........................................................................ 5 4.1 Medicinal Lichens of Europe ............................................................ 6 5 Known Records of Lichens Used in Traditional Medicine ............................... 7 Cladoniaceae ............................................................................................. 8 Lecanoraceae .......................................................................................... 11 Mycoblastaceae ....................................................................................... 11 Alectorioid (Parmeliaceae) ..................................................................... 11 Cetrarioid (Parmeliaceae) ....................................................................... 19 Parmelioid (Parmeliaceae) ...................................................................... 21 Other Parmeliaceae ................................................................................. 25 Physciaceae ............................................................................................. 27 Ramalinaceae .......................................................................................... 27 Stereocaulaceae ....................................................................................... 28 Collemataceae ......................................................................................... 29 Lobariaceae ............................................................................................. 29 Nephromataceae...................................................................................... 31 Peltigeraceae ........................................................................................... 32 Teloschistaceae ....................................................................................... 33 Roccellaceae ........................................................................................... 34 Ophioparmaceae ..................................................................................... 34 Umbilicariaceae ...................................................................................... 34 Icmadophilaceae ..................................................................................... 35 Megasporaceae........................................................................................ 36 Pertusariaceae ......................................................................................... 36 Verrucariaceae ........................................................................................ 37 Hygrophoraceae ...................................................................................... 37 Unidentified lichens ................................................................................ 37 References ............................................................................................................ 39 1 Introduction Lichens are important traditional medicine in many different cultures. This information has been made available to us from the contributions of hundreds of traditional knowledge holders in communities across the world. It is our responsibility to respect and value the knowledge that has been given to us. This chapter is a tribute to the wealth of traditional knowledge that exists about lichens. There have been a few previous reviews on the traditional uses of lichens for medicine. The traditional uses of lichens in Europe were reviewed by Smith (1921), with later contributions by Llano (1948) and Richardson (1974). Sharnoff (1997) compiled the first global review of lichen uses, which was added to by Crawford (2007). Upreti and Chatterjee (2007) reviewed the medicinal uses of lichens in India and republished Sharnoff’s (1997) database on medicinal uses elsewhere in the world. Wang and Qian (2013) reviewed the medicinal uses of lichens in China. The first edition of this paper (Crawford 2015) compiled all the medicinal uses recorded by these previous authors along with many additional records, and was republished by Upreti et al (2016). The current paper updates and expands the first edition and is the most comprehensive review to date, but it is still far from complete. 2 2 Cultures That Use Lichens There are records of medicinal uses of lichens by cultures in Africa, Europe, Asia, Oceania, North America, and South America. The majority of these uses are in North America, Europe, India, and China, but this is most likely because that is where the majority of the ethnographic work has been done. Interestingly, no records have been found for any traditional use of lichens in Australia. It is difficult to determine the prevalence of lichens in traditional medicine across the world. Most ethnobotanists and ethnographers have ignored cryptogams, both historically and currently. If the ethnographic literature on a culture does not mention lichens, it might be because that culture does not utilize lichens. However, it might also be because the ethnographer’s culture does not value lichens, and the ethnographer therefore did not notice and record the value of lichens in the culture that they were documenting. In the cultures for which traditional uses of lichens have been recorded, there are usually between one and three medicinal lichens. There are more records of lichen use among cultures in temperate and arctic areas and less in the tropics. This probably represents the relative dominance of lichens in these zones. A few ethnobotanists have recognized the cultural value of lichens, and their work has been invaluable in documenting lichens in traditional medicines. These workers include, among others, N. J. Turner (Canada), M. R. González-Tejero (Spain), L. S. Wang (China), and D. K. Upreti (India). As a result, there is an overrepresentation of these geographic areas in this current analysis. 3 The Lichens That Are Used in Traditional Medicine This chapter documents a total of 60 different genera of lichens that are used in traditional medicines. The most commonly used genus of lichen is Usnea, which is used across the world for medicine, although it is often used synonymously with other arboreal hair lichens. Despite its worldwide importance, Usnea is not traditionally one of the dominant medicinal lichens in Europe. Numerous other genera of lichens have particular importance in certain parts of the world, as is shown in Table 1. Table 1. Lichen genera commonly used in traditional medicine. Lichen genus Usnea Evernia and Pseudevernia Letharia Lethariella Cetraria Parmotrema and Hypotrachyna Xanthoparmelia Cladonia and Cladina Thamnolia Ramalina Lobaria and Peltigera Umbilicaria Main area of use Worldwide (except Australia) Europe and North Africa North America China Europe India North America and Africa North America, Europe, and Asia Asia North America, Europe, and Asia North America, Europe, and Asia North America and Asia 3.1 The Folk Taxonomy of Lichens All cultures develop a folk taxonomy of living organisms that allows people to make sense of the world around them. Folk taxonomies are unique to a specific culture and usually reflect its particular environment and values. Some cultures have a very detailed folk taxonomy for lichens. The traditional taxonomy of the Saami recognizes lichens as being a distinct life form from mosses and divides lichens into three different generic taxa and numerous specific taxa (Nissen 1921). Other cultures placed less value on lichens, which is reflected in a much more simplistic folk taxonomy for lichens. European 3 botanists in the 15th century lumped all lichens, and many other cryptogams, into a single life form category of moss. Folk taxonomies can be very accurate, but they are often different than the scientific taxonomy. This mismatch between folk and scientific taxonomies is particularly prevalent in lichens. For instance, the Saami folk taxon jægel includes Cetraria, Cladina, and Stereocaulon, but excludes Parmelia, which is placed in the folk taxon gadna. The scientific taxonomy would lump Parmelia and Cetraria together in Parmeliaceae and exclude Cladina and Stereocaulon. Another example is the common practice within folk taxonomies of classifying lichens according to their substrate. There is often a folk genera that includes all arboreal hair lichens (and sometimes mosses), which are then divided into different species depending on what type of tree they are growing on. One of the biggest challenges in ethnolichenology is that a folk taxon of lichens that has cultural significance may not be synonymous with any scientific taxon. This means that if a culturally important lichen is identified according to the scientific taxonomy without understanding the folk taxonomy, it may be recorded as the wrong lichen. For example, a botanist recorded that the Saami used Usnea plicata for blisters, but maybe the lichen that they saw only happened to be U. plicata, and the Saami actually used any species of Alectoria, Bryoria, or Usnea as long as it is growing on a birch tree. Folk taxonomies of lichens are intrinsically linked with the traditional methods of identifying lichens. It is very common to identify lichens based on where they are found. Lichens are often thought to imbibe their desirable properties from the substrate on which they are growing. For example, Nuxalk consider alectoroid lichens to be better medicine if growing on alder, the Gitga’at consider Lobaria oregana to be better if on fir, and the Ancient Greeks thought that Evernia was better if growing on cedar. The medicinal properties of a lichen species may change depending on where it is growing. However, this may also be a clever aid for identification. Many lichens have specific microhabitat preferences, and selecting lichens from only a specific substrate will result in preferentially selecting certain species. Another interesting identification method is employed by the Quichua of Saraguro, Ecuador, who have determined that an effective medicine requires seven different colours of rock lichens. It is possible that there is a synergistic effect between the different lichen species. It is also possible that collecting seven different species makes it much more likely to collect the correct one. 3.2 Development of Lichen Taxa in Western Science The meaning of the word lichen has changed over time, which can make it complicated to identify culturally important lichens in old documents. Lichen comes from the Ancient Greek Λειχήν (leikhēn), the first record of which is from Theophrastus in 300 BCE (Richardson 1974). Theophrastus was probably referring to thalloid liverworts, but subsequent Ancient Greek authors may have used that name for a lichen (see Ancient Greek use of Ramalina spp.). Early European botanists lumped together a variety of cryptogams into the same taxon, usually including lichens, mosses, liverworts, fungi, seaweed, and sometimes even coral. Tournfort (1694) was the first European author to distinguish lichens by the name lichen, but he also included some thalloid liverworts in his taxon and excluded some lichens. It was Dillenius (1742) who reorganized the lichen taxon to make it synonymous with our modern concept. The taxonomy and names of lichens have changed radically since Dillenius and are continuing to change in contemporary times. This can make it difficult to determine what lichen is being discussed in ethnographic literature. To add further complications, most authors know very little about lichens and thus frequently use names that are outdated or even just completely wrong. The genus Usnea was created by Dillenius (1742). Linnaeus (1753) described five Usnea species, but lumped them all together in his all-encompassing genus Lichen. They were moved to the Usnea genus by Weber and Wiggers (1780). Four of the original species are often mentioned in ethnographic literature: Usnea barbata, U. florida, U. hirta, and U. plicata. The number of Usnea species has now increased to around 350 species (Thell et al 2012), so any reference to one of the original Usnea species in old herbals or ethnographies is suspect. Of the original five, only Usnea hirta occurs in North America (Esslinger 2018). References to Usnea barbata are particularly ambiguous, as the taxonomy of this species is confusing and still being determined (Articus 2004). 4 The Usnea-like lichens (those with a cartilaginous central cord) form a large clade which has been alternately lumped and split by various authors. This chapter follows Truong et al (2013), where Lethariella and Protousnea are considered separate genera, while Dolichousnea, Eumitria, and Neuropogon are considered to be subgenera and lumped within Usnea. The pendant Bryoria species were originally all lumped together as Lichen jubatus (Linnaeus 1753), which became Alectoria jubata (Acharius 1810). The taxonomy of Bryoria was not well understood until Brodo and Hawksworth (1977) created the genus Bryoria, so references to specific Bryoria species prior to that are ambiguous. The Parmeliaceae is a large and diverse family of lichens that includes many culturally significant lichens. This family currently contains around 80 genera and over 2000 species (Thell et al 2012). Five culturally significant genera of Parmeliaceae were described before 1810: Usnea, Parmelia, Cetraria, Alectoria, and Evernia. By 1903, Letharia and Pseudevernia had been split from Evernia, and Parmotrema and Hypogymnia had been split from Parmelia, although historically not all authors have recognized these genera. The taxonomy of Parmeliaceae remained relatively constant until 1965, when the genus Cetraria began to be split into numerous different genera. The genus Parmelia was also split up starting in 1974. This splitting was mostly completed by the early 1990s, by which time there were over 80 genera in the family (Thell et al 2004). Recent molecular work has resulted in some genera being lumped and others split, such that Thell et al (2012) recognize 79 genera. Currently, the original genus Parmelia is divided into 32 genera and Cetraria into 22 genera. For practical reasons, lichenologists sometimes lump the morphologically similar genera that were previously included in Parmelia and Cetraria back together into the categories of parmelioid (Hale and DePriest 1999) and cetrarioid lichens (Randlane et al 2013). These morphological groupings are not entirely monophyletic (Thell et al 2012), but they can still be useful. A third morphological grouping of Parmeliaceae lichens that is often used is the alectorioid lichens, which include several similar-looking genera of hair lichens that were previously lumped together in the genus Alectoria. The genus Usnea is sometimes included in this category. One result of the profusion of genera within Parmeliaceae is that any reference to an unidentified species of Parmelia or Cetraria in an older ethnographic work is very ambiguous. The categories of parmelioid, cetrarioid, and alectorioid lichens are very useful when dealing with folk taxonomies of lichens, so they will be utilized in the current work. 4 The Medicinal Uses of Lichens Lichens are used for many different medicinal purposes, but there are some general categories of use that reoccur across the world. Lichens are often used externally for dressing wounds, either as a disinfectant or to stop bleeding. Other common topical uses are for skin infections and sores, including sores in the mouth. The importance of this use is apparent in the name lichen (from leikhēn, “what eats around itself”), which comes from the Ancient Greek practice of using a cryptogam to cure a skin disease. Lichens are often drunk as a decoction to treat ailments relating to either the lungs or the digestive system. This is particularly common in Europe, but is also found across the world. Many other uses of lichens are related to obstetrics or treating gynaecological issues. This may be related to the common use of lichens for treating sexually transmitted infections and ailments of the urinary system. Three other uses of lichens that are less common, but reoccur in several different cultures, are for treating eye afflictions, treating issues with feet, and for use in smoking mixtures. Many of the traditional medicinal uses of lichens are probably related to their secondary metabolites, many of which are known to both be physiologically active and to act as antibiotics. However, some of the traditional uses of lichens also rely on the qualities of the lichen carbohydrates. In particular, the lichenins [β-(1→3)-(1→4)-linked ᴅ-glucans] are common in the Parmeliaceae and have a remarkable ability to absorb water and form a gel (Crawford 2007). Many of the traditional uses of lichens involve boiling the lichen to create a mucilage which is drunk for lung or digestive ailments or applied topically for other issues. Other lichen carbohydrates which may be important are the isolichenins and 5 galactomannans, which are taxonomically widespread, and the pustulins that are found in Umbilicariaceae. 4.1 Medicinal Lichens of Europe Lichens are used in traditional medicine across the world. As is to be expected, many of these uses of lichens are completely unrelated to how these lichens are used in Europe. However, European uses of lichens have been exported worldwide, and there are numerous instances where the European use for a lichen appears to be associated with its traditional use in a different culture. This dispersal of European uses of lichens is related to the general dispersal of other aspects of European culture across the world. One specific source of this bias may be that most ethnographers who recorded traditional uses of lichens are from a European background, and their personal cultural bias can affect what they have documented. Another source is that most literature on lichens is from a European background, and if it features any uses of lichens, those uses are generally European. An understanding of the traditional use of lichens in Europe can therefore be important for understanding traditional uses elsewhere. The origins of the medicinal use of lichens in Europe date back to the 4th and 3rd century BCE, when medicinal lichens were recorded by the Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and Theophrastus (Lebail 1853). The use of lichens continued to be recorded by various scholars throughout the rest of the classical era, including Pedanius Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder (Rome, 1st century CE), Galen of Pergamon (Greece, 2nd century C. E.), Paul of Aegina (Greece, 7th century CE), and Serapion the Younger (a 12th or 13th century compilation). These authors discuss at least three different cryptogams that might be lichens, but the most important for subsequent pharmacopoeias was an arboreal fruticose lichen called splanchnon (“intestine”). According to the original writings of Dioscorides, splanchnon was not only a powerful medicine, it was also sweet-smelling and used as a perfume (López Eire et al 2006). In the Middle Ages, various Persian scholars like Rhazes (10th century) and Avicenna (11th century) wrote about the medicinal properties of splanchnon, and it was adopted into Unani medicine under the name ushna. This lichen is currently interpretted as being Usnea spp. At the start of the modern era (~15th century), herbalism flourished in Western Europe, with many authors adopting Greek herbal knowledge. These Europeans lumped together all fruticose arboreal lichens into one taxon, which they called usnea (borrowing from the Arabic ushna), tree moss, or oak moss (Dorstenius 1540; L’Obel 1576; Gerarde 1597; Ray 1686; Quincy 1724; Culpeper 1788). This taxon was considered to be synonymous with the Ancient Greek splanchnon, with all of its medicinal and perfume qualities. Parkinson (1640) accurately distinguished between numerous genera, but considered them all types of oak moss, and attributed the same medicinal values to all of them. It was not until the late 1700s that a distinction was made between the different genera of oak moss, at which time the name Usnea was only applied to our modern genus. From this time onward, most authors decided that the medicinal values of splanchnon were referring to Usnea (Lightfoot 1777; Willemet 1787; Adams 1847; Lebail 1853), although the same medicinal properties were sometimes applied to Evernia prunastri (Willemet 1787; Lebail 1853). Oak moss was used to make a popular scented hair powder called Cyprus powder in Europe in the late 1600s (Bauhin and Cherler 1650; Zwelfer 1672). By the time European botanists could distinguish different genera, Cyprus powder was found to contain a variety of lichen genera, including Usnea, Pseudevernia, and other arboreal lichens (Amoreux 1787). At this time Evernia prunastri was the preferred lichen to use for perfumes in France (Amoreux 1787). In more recent times, oak moss refers to only Evernia prunastri and tree moss to Pseudevernia furfuracea, and these are the two lichen species harvested for perfume (Moxham 1986). When Europeans first adopted Ancient Greek herbal knowledge, they were confused as to the identity of splanchnon, but eventually decided that it was Evernia/Pseudevernia when used for perfume and Usnea when used for medicine. Dioscorides’ description of splanchnon is ambiguous and its identity cannot be determined with certainty, but Richardson (1974) suggests that it is referring to Evernia prunastri and Pseudevernia furfuracea. He may be correct, as these lichens were used medicinally in 6 Europe and North Africa from ancient times to present. Europeans have added medicinal properties to Usnea that were not originally associated with splanchnon by the Ancient Greeks. Perhaps these medicinal uses for Usnea existed in Europe independent of the Ancient Greek writings, and this caused Europeans to wrongly associate the Ancient Greek medicinal uses of Evernia/Pseudevernia with Usnea. Starting in the 1500s, the Doctrine of Signatures was a ubiquitous concept in European medicine. It was thought that plants looked like the organ or ailment that they cured and various lichens were adopted into the European pharmacopeia as a result. The main medicinal lichens in early modern era Europe were Cetraria islandica, Cladonia pyxidata, Peltigera canina, Peltigera aphthosa, Usnea spp., Lobaria pulmonaria, Xanthoria parietina, and Evernia prunastri. For more details, refer to these lichens in the tables below. The widespread use of these lichens had been mostly abandoned by 1800, with the exception of Cetraria islandica, which has persisted as a medicinal lichen in parts of Europe until today. For a more detailed description of the rise and fall of the use of lichens for medicine in early modern Europe, see Mitchell (2015). 5 Known Records of Lichens Used in Traditional Medicine The following tables document all of the traditional medicinal uses of lichens for which the author has found records. Table 2 and Table 3 provide a list of the different genera and an index to the table where they can be found. Tables 4 to 27 are organized taxonomically by lichen family and provide the details on each traditional use. Table 2. Lichen genera used in traditional medicine Alectoria, Alectorioid Anaptychia, Physciaceae Anzia, Parmeliaceae Aspicilia, Megasporaceae Bryoria, Alectorioid Canoparmelia, Parmelioid Cetraria, Cetrarioid Cetrelia, Cetrarioid Cladina, Cladoniaceae Cladonia, Cladoniaceae Crocodia, Lobariaceae Dendriscosticta, Lobariaceae Dermatocarpon, Verrucariaceae Dictyonema, Hygrophoraceae Evernia, Parmeliaceae Flavocetraria, Cetrarioid Flavoparmelia, Parmelioid Heterodermia, Physciaceae Hypogymnia, Parmeliaceae Hypotrachyna, Parmelioid Lasallia, Umbilicariaceae Lepra, Pertusariaceae Leptogium, Collemataceae Letharia, Parmeliaceae Lethariella, Alectorioid Lobaria, Lobariaceae Masonhalea, Cetrarioid Mycoblastus, Mycoblastaceae Nephroma, Nephromataceae Nephromopsis, Cetrarioid Ophioparma, Ophioparmaceae Parmelia, Parmelioid Parmelinella, Parmelioid Parmotrema, Parmelioid Peltigera, Peltigeraceae Pertusaria, Pertusariaceae Physcia, Physciaceae Polycauliona, Teloschistaceae Protoparmeliopsis, Lecanoraceae Protousnea, Alectorioid Pseudevernia, Parmeliaceae Punctelia, Parmelioid Ramalina, Ramalinaceae Rhizoplaca, Lecanoraceae Roccella, Roccellaceae Rusavakia, Teloschistaceae Siphula, Icmadophilaceae Stereocaulon, Stereocaulonaceae Sticta, Lobariaceae Sulcaria, Alectorioid Teloschistes, Teloschistaceae Thamnolia, Icmadophilaceae Umbilicaria, Umbilicariaceae Usnea, Alectorioid Varicellaria, Pertusariaceae Vermilacinia, Ramalinaceae Vulpicida, Cetrarioid Xanthoparmelia, Parmelioid Xanthomendoza, Teloschistaceae Xanthoria, Teloschistaceae 7 Table 3. Index to tables of lichen families used in traditional medicine Ascomycota Lecanorales Cladoniaceae Lecanoraceae Mycoblastaceae Parmeliaceae Alectorioid Cetrarioid Parmelioid Other Physciaceae Ramalinaceae Stereocaulaceae 8 11 11 11 19 21 25 27 27 28 Ascomycota Peltigerales Collemataceae Lobariaceae Nephromataceae Peltigeraceae Teloschistales Teloschistaceae Arthoniales Roccellaceae Umbilicariales Ophioparmaceae Umbilicariaceae 29 29 31 32 Ascomycota Pertusariales Icmadophilaceae Megasporaceae Pertusariaceae Verrucariales Verrucariaceae 35 36 36 37 33 34 34 34 Basidiomycota Agaricales Hygrophoraceae 37 Unidentified lichens 37 Table 4. Cladoniaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Cladina spp. Nyl. Den'ina (Alaska, USA) k’udyi Upper Tanana (AK, USA) Aleut (Alaska, USA) kinadam aiyukax Nganasans (Siberia) Saami (Scandinavia) ullo-jægel (‘wool lichen’) Cladina arbuscula (Wallr.) Burgaz China 林石蕊 (lín shí ruǐ, ‘forest stone bud’) Cladina mitis (Sandst.) Mong. Himalayas (Sikkim, India) Cladina laevigata (Vain.) C.W. Dodge Selk’nam (Tierra del Fuego, Argentina) chepl, chispl, shûj Cladina rangiferina (L.) Nyl. Ojibwe (MN & WI, USA) asa’ gûniñk’ Whapmagoostui Cree (Quebec, Canada) whapskumuk; epshatuk Northern Tutchone (Yukon, Canada) Finland Traditional use Decoction used for diarrhoea. (Kari 1987) A ‘liquor’ prepared from plant was drunk for colds. (McKennan 1959) Drunk as a tea for chest pains. Hunters who are climbing hills chew the lichen to maintain their wind. (Bank 1953; Smith 1973) Remedy for scurvy. (Eidlitz 1969) Decoction for unspecified medicine. (Nissen 1921; Eidlitz 1969) Used for dizziness, hypertension, pulmonary tuberculosis, fever, trauma with pus formation, and skin infections due to external injury. (Wang and Qian 2013) Medicine for respiratory health and hepatic health. (O’Neill et al. 2017) Used for personal hygene: Lichen used to wash body before drying with Protousnea magellanica. (Berihuete-Azorín 2013) Boil and use water to wash a newborn baby. (Smith 1932) Used to treat inflammation associated with diabetes. (Fraser 2006). Entire plant is harvested and boiled for medicine. (EDI 2005) Remedy for coughs and tuberculosis. Boil in water and drink. (Richardson 1974) 8 Table 4. Cladoniaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name China 鹿石蕊 (lù shí ruǐ, ‘deer stone bud’), 石蕊 (shí ruǐ, ‘stone bud’), 太白树 (tàibái shù, ‘white tree’), 石湍 (shí tuān), 石芥 (shí jiè), 云茶 (yún chá), 蒙顶茶 (méng dǐng chá), 石蕊花 (shí ruǐhuā, ‘stone flower bud’), 是云茶 (shì yún chá), 云芝茶 (yún zhī chá), 蒙山茶 (méng shān chá), 酶苔 (méi tái), 石花 (shí huā, ‘stone flower’), 刀伤药 (dāo shāng yào, ‘knife wound medicine’), 地花菜 (de huācài, ‘earth cauliflower’) Himalayas (Sikkim, India) Monpa (Arunachal Pradesh, India) Traditional use Used for fever, headaches, cuts, coughing up blood, jaundice, blurred vision, cloudy cornea, difficulty urinating, urinary tract infection, irritable depression, rheumatism, phlegm due to dry throat. Drink decoction; or apply decoction or powdered lichen to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) Medicine for respiratory health (O’Neill et al. 2017) Remedy for kidney stones. Half teaspoon of sun-dried, ground lichen added to one cup boiling water. Drunk in morning on empty stomach for one month or until cured. (Rout et al 2005) Cladina stellaris (Opiz) Brodo [Cladina alpestris] Nihithawak (SK, Canada) Drink to expel intestinal worms: either decoction or powdered wāpiskastastkamihk; or atikōmīciwin lichen added to water. (Leighton 1985) Inuit (Nunavut, Canada) Broth used for sickness and eye infections. (Black et al 2008) nirait Primorsky and Sakhalin (Russian Far East) Powdered form used to treat wounds and some infections. (Moskalenko 1986) China Used for hypertension, headaches, nosebleeds, eye diseases, 雀石蕊 (què shí ruǐ, ‘bird stone bud’), 太白花 tuberculosis, menstrual disorders, and vaginal discharge. Drink (tàibái huā, ‘white flower’), 高山石蕊 decoction. (Hu et al 1980; Wang & Qian 2013) (gāoshān shí ruǐ, ‘high mountain stone bud’), 山岭石蕊 (shānlǐng shí ruǐ, ‘mountain stone bud’), 岭石蕊 (lǐng shí ruǐ, ‘mountain stone bud’), 雀儿石蕊 (qiǎo er shí ruǐ) Cladina subtenuis (Abbayes) Mattick Cherokee (NC, USA) Used to relieve the pain of insect stings. Lichen chewed and put on sting, sometimes mixed with tobacco. (Garrett 2003) Cladonia sp. P. Brown Santiago Camotlán (Oaxaca, Mexico) Used to treat ‘culture-bound syndromes’ (Pérez-Nicolás et al esponjita 2017) Cladonia amaurocraea (Flörke) Schaer. China Used for headaches and dizziness. (Wang and Qian 2013) 黑穗石蕊 (hēi suì shí ruǐ), 太白树 (tàibái shù) Cladonia bellidiflora (Ach.) Schaerer Tlingit (Alaska, USA) Treatment for eye disease when mixed with mother's milk. (Garibaldi 1999) Haida (BC, Canada) Red ends dipped in mother’s milk and applied to sore eyes. (Turner 2004a) Cladonia cervicornis (Ach.) Flot. China Used for scalds, cuts, and coughing up blood. Drink decoction; 千层石蕊 (qiān céng shí ruǐ, ‘thousand levels or apply decoction or powdered lichen to the affected area. stone bud’), 小喇叭 (xiǎo lǎbā), 树格达 (shù (Wang and Qian 2013) gé dá), 地喇叭 (de lǎbā), 小叶下层石蕊 (xiǎoyè xiàcéng shí ruǐ), 干层石蕊 (gàn céng shí ruǐ), 小叶亚种 (xiǎoyè yà zhǒng) Cladonia chlorophaea (Flörke ex Sommerf.) Sprengel Syilx (BC, Canada) Decoction used to wash sores which were slow to heal. (Turner pen̓pen̓emekxísxn̓ (‘liver on rock’) et al 1980) 9 Table 4. Cladoniaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Britain chalice-moss; cup-moss; or Our Lady’s chalice; cwpanau pas (Welsh) Traditional use Used like C. pyxidata for whooping cough, use has continued to contemporary times in Welsh counties of Merionethshire and Denbighshire. In Waterford (Ireland), used for the same purpose boiled in new milk. (Allen and Hatfield 2004) Cladonia coccifera (L.) Willd. [syn. Scyphophorus cocciferus] Europe (early modern era) Decoction used for fever and whooping cough in children, like cup moss C. pyxidata. (Willemet 1787; Luyken 1809; Lindley 1838; Pereira 1850) Cladonia cornuta (L.) Hoffm. Europe (early modern era) Used with C. pyxidata against persistent coughs in children. horn moss (Watson 1756) Cladonia fenestralis Nuno Tibetans (Sichuan, China) Medicinal tea. (Wang and Qian 2013) 繁鳞石蕊 (fán lín shí ruǐ) Cladonia fimbriata (L.) Fr. [syn. Scyphophorus fimbriatus] Europe (early modern era) Used with C. pyxidata to treat whooping cough. (Pereira 1850) cup moss Cladonia fruticulosa Kremp. China Extract used for bacterial infections on skin. (Wang and Qian 亚麸石蕊 (yà fū shí ruǐ) 2013) Cladonia gracilis (L.) Willd. China Used for dizziness, difficult or painful urination, nose bleeding, 细石蕊 (xì shí ruǐ, ‘slender stone bud’), 太白鹿 impetigo, and pink eye. Drink decoction; or apply decoction or 角 (tàibái lùjiǎo, ‘white antlers’), 匙石蕊 (shi powdered lichen to the affected area. (Hu et al 1980; Wang and shí ruǐ), 地蓬草 (de péng cǎo), 太白针 (tàibái Qian 2013) zhēn, ‘white pins’), 细石蕊 (xì shí ruǐ) Cladonia macroceras (Delise) Ahti China Drunk as decoction to relieve blockage of urination, bring down 硬柄石蕊 (yìng bǐng shí ruǐ), 太白树 (tàibái swelling, and remove toxic substances. (Wang and Qian 2013) shù, ‘white tree), 石蕊 (shí ruǐ, ‘stone bud’), 太白鹿角 (tàibái lùjiǎo, ‘white antlers’), 长柄石蕊 (cháng bǐng shí ruǐ) Cladonia miniata G. Meyer [Cladonia sanguinea] Brazil Rubbed down with sugar and water, used as remedy for mouth ulcers. (Lindley 1838) Cladonia pleurota (Flörke) Schaer. China To clear heat, cool liver, dissolve phlegm, and eliminate 粉杯红石蕊 (fěn bēi hóng shí ruǐ) dampness. (Wang & Qian 2013) Cladonia pyxidata (L.) Hoffm. [syn. Scyphophorus pyxidata] Europe (early modern era) Widely used for whooping cough in children as a powder, cup moss decoction, or syrup (Quincy 1724; Gedner 1756; Lightfoot 1777; Willemet 1787; Pereira 1850). Also for fevers and kidney stones (Luyken 1809; Lindley 1838; Lebail 1853). In Finland taken with milk for pulmonary tuberculosis (Vartia 1973). Cladonia scabriuscula (Delise) Nyl. Keyagana (Paupa New Guinea) Heated and taken orally for vaginal discharge/bleeding. (Jorim et lanefa-kikinofa al 2012) 10 Table 5. Lecanoraceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture Traditional use Protoparmeliopsis muralis (Schreb.) M. Choisy [Parmelia saxicola] Nishinam (CA, USA) Made into a tea and used to treat colic. (Powers 1877) Rhizoplaca chrysoleuca (Sm.) Zopf. China Used for tuberculosis, intestinal obstruction, trauma with pus formation, burns 红脐鳞 (hóng qí lín) and scalds, skin infections, cancer, and pain relief. Used externally or orally. (Wang and Qian 2013) Table 6. Mycoblastaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture Traditional use Mycoblastus alpinus (Fr.) Kernst. China Used for stopping bleeding from external injury, draining pus, burns, and 石霜 (shí shuāng, ‘stone frost’) nocturnal seminal emission. Drink decoction; or apply powder to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) Table 7. Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Alectoria Ach. spp. Scandinavia Traditional use Decoction for bathing chapped skin on babies or the feet of adults. Same use for Lobaria pulmonaria, Usnea sp., and Peltigera aphthosa. (Richardson 1974) Alectoria ochroleuca (Hoffm.) A. Massal. Chugach (Alaska, USA) Possibly same as Chugach use of Bryoria trichodes. (Wennekens 1985) Alectoria sarmentosa Ach. Haida (BC, Canada) Used to strain impurities out of hot pitch when making medicine, and for other k’aalts’idaa liisɢ̲ a or unspecified medicines. Also used Usnea longissima. (Turner 1998; Turner k’aalts’adaa liijaa (‘crow 2004a) whiskers/wool’) Nuxalk (BC, Canada) Warmed and applied to a broken boil or festering sore (if growing on red alder). suts’wakt or ipts-aak (‘limb Possibly Usnea spp. (Smith 1929; Turner 1973) moss’) Ditidaht (BC, Canada) Used for wound dressing, baby diapers, and sanitary napkins. Also used Usnea p’u7up spp. (Turner et al 1983) Flathead (Montana, USA) Mother drinks tea of sqalīō and Matricaria discoidea to make her deliver her sqalīō placenta (Stubbs 1966). Possibly Usnea spp. Umatilla, Cayuse (OR, USA) Boiled and applied as compress for open sores, arthritis, and achash-pama (an laxpt or mak'hl eye problem) (Hunn 2005). Possibly Usnea spp. Pallars (Spain) Drunk as tea for asthma and catarrh. (Agelet and Vallès 2003) cabellera de pi Bryoria spp. Brodo & D. Hawksw. Atsugewi (Califoria, USA) Applied as poultice to reduce swellings. Either boiled or used dry. (Garth 1953) Tsilhqot'in (BC, Canada) Burn texa with own hair and rub ashes on hair and scalp to stop hair from going texa; taxa grey. (Kay 1995; Turner 2004b) France (18th century) Used for healing skin abrasions, diarrhoea, and vaginal discharge. (Gedner 1756; Willemet 1787) 11 Table 7. Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Traditional use Bryoria asiatica (Du Rietz) Brodo & D. Hawksw. China Used for kidney deficiency and general weakness, dizziness, heart palpitation, 亚洲小孢发 (Yàzhōu xiǎo bāo involuntary ejaculation, night sweats, difficulty urinating, edema, impetigo, fā), 头发七 (tóufǎ qī, ‘seven draining pus, and improving eyesight. Drink decoction; or apply decoction or hair’), 亚洲树发 (Yàzhōu shù powdered lichen to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) fā, ‘Asian tree hair’), 黑丝草 (hēi sī cǎo), 人头七 (réntóu qī), 黑丝弗 (hēi sī fú) Bryoria bicolor (Ehrh.) Brodo & D. Hawksw. China Same as Chinese use of B. asiatica. (Wang and Qian 2013) 双色小孢发 (shuāngsè xiǎo bāo fā) Bryoria fremontii (Tuck.) Brodo & D. Hawksw. Sahaptin (OR & WA, USA) Boiled and used as poultice for arthritis. (Hunn 1990) k̓unč Nimi’ipuu (Montana, USA) Good for upset stomach, indigestion, and diarrhoea. (Hart 1976; Marshall 1977) ho.póp Flathead (Montana, USA) Important food when baked with root vegetables; when baked alone it is more a caúmtemkan, st’telu; skolápkan; tonic for the sick than a food. (Turney-High 1937; Stubbs 1966; Hart 1974) skolkéin; sqatlo; or šáwtəmqən Syilx (BC, Canada) Mixed with berry juices and melted into syrup: given to newly weaned babies sk̲welíp for their health (Gabriel and White 1954). Dried, powdered, and mixed with grease: rubbed on the navel of newborn babies to protect against infection (Turner et al 1980). Nlaka'pamux (BC, Canada) Warts removed by cutting them off and covering the fresh wound with wí7e that wí7e had been heated on the fire. (Teit and Boas 1900; Turner et al 1990) Bryoria trichodes (Michaux) Brodo & D. Hawksw. [Alectoria americana] Sugpiaq (Alaska, USA) Piled on sick person in the steam bath to hold the heat on his body, also used to nakuraartum nuyii; or napam staunch blood from wounds. Might also use Alectoria ochroleuca. (Wennekens ungagua'i 1985) Lethariella cladonioides (Nyl.) Krog [syn. Usnea cladonioides, Lethariella cashmeriana, and Lethariella sernanderi] Tibet and Nakhi (nw Yunnan, Used for health-promoting tea to tranquilize the mind and treat a decrease in China) vital energy, schizophrenia and epilepsy; to reduce blood pressure, body fat, and gangge (Tibet); 金丝刷 (jīn sī inflammation; and also drunk non-medicinally. Boiling water is added to dry shuā, ‘gold thread brush’), 金刷 thalli in a cup, and the infusion is drunk after 3–5 minutes. Also drunk as an 把 (jīn shuā bǎ, ‘golden brush’), infusion or decoction, or used as a powder applied to the affected area, for 鹿心茶 (lù xīn chá, ‘deer heart relieving pain and treating burns and scalds. (Zhang and Hu 1981; Wang et al tea’), 红雪茶 (hóng xuě chá, 2001; Fu et al 2005; Wang and Qian 2013; Ju et al 2013) ‘red snow tea’), 松石蕊 (sōng shí ruǐ, ‘bushy stone bud’) (China) Lethariella sinensis Wei & Jiang Nakhi (nw Yunnan, China) Same as Nakhi use of L. cladonioides. (Wang et al 2001) Lethariella zahlbruckneri (Du Rietz) Krog [syn. Usnea zahlbruckneri] China Used for aching back and weak legs, paralysis, menstrual disorders, vaginal 金丝带 (jīn sīdài, ‘gold discharge, dizziness, impotency, and epilepsy. Drink decoction or make tea or ribbon’), 红雪茶 (hóng xuě wine; or apply powder to the affected area. (Fu et al 2005; Wang and Qian chá, ‘red snow tea’), 绿树发 (lǜ 2013) shù fā, ‘green tree hair’), 金腰带 (jīn yāodài, ‘gold belt’) 12 Table 7. Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Traditional use Protousnea magellanica (Mont.) Krog [syn. Usnea magellanica] Selk’nam (Tierra del Fuego, Used for personal hygene: Lichen used to dry body after washing with Cladina Argentina) laevigata. (Berihuete-Azorín 2013) ánhuel, anhól, ánjôl Protousnea poeppigii (Nees & Flot) Krog [syn. Usnea campestris, Usnea malacea] Mendocina (Argentina) Unspecified medicine. (Garcia et al 1990) barba de piedra Sulcaria sulcata (Lév.) Bystrek ex Brodo & D. Hawksw. China Used for dizziness, kidney deficiency, general weakness, heart palpitation, 槽枝衣 (cáo zhī yī), 头发七 involuntary excessive ejaculation, night sweating, edema, impetigo, and sores. (tóufǎ qī, ‘hair seven’), 沟树发 Drink decoction or apply to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) (gōu shù fā) Sulcaria virens (Tayl.) Bystr. China Used for aching back and legs, traumatic bleeding, menstrual irregularities, 绿丝槽枝衣 (lǜ sī cáo zhī yī), uterine prolapse, vaginal discharge, epilepsy, paralysis, impotence, and 金丝带 (jīn sīdài, ‘gold silk dizziness. Drink decoction or apply to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) ribbon’), 绿树发 (lǜ shù fā, ‘green tree hair’), 金腰带 (jīn yāodài, ‘gold belt’) Usnea spp. Dill. ex Adans. [includes Dolichousnea, Eumitria, and Neuropogon] Maasai (Kenya) Used for stomachache, heartburn, malaria, backache, fever, loss of appetite, and intanasoito or ntana oosoito typhoid. Crush, boil in water, and sieve. (Kiringe 2008; Muthee et al 2011) Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) Ingredient in herbal tea to relieve altitude sickness. (Sharnoff 1997) Iran, Iraq Taken to correct bad breath. (Hooper 1937) lihayat-as-shāyib (‘old man’s beard’) Unani medicine (Muslim culture An important medicine used from ~1000 CE to the present. Used for heart in India and south-central Asia) troubles, for reducing inflammation, for promoting digestion, and for improving ushna; shaibat-al-ajooz (‘old appetite, as an antidote, as an astringent, and as an analgesic. Helps wounds women’s hair’, Arabic) heal, and helps lactation in women if applied as a paste on breast. Taken orally and inserted into vagina to stimulate mensturation or induce abortion. Parmotrema spp. is sometimes included as ushna, perhaps resulting from confusion with shaileya of Ayurvedic medicine. (Razzack and Fazal 1993; Rauf et al 2006; Yavuz and Çobanoğlu 2010; Rauf et al 2011) Sometimes identified as U. longissima. Bhutan Used in Sowa Rigpa traditional medicine to heal lung, liver, nerve, and poisondngul-skud related diseases. (Wangchuk et al 2016) Taplejung (Nepal) Fired powder of jhyau is mixed with water and taken for tonic, fever, and throat jhyau pain. (Poudel 2008) Tibet Soaked in water, used to wash feet for treating beriberi and ulcers (Lhoba). Used bi ba beng suo (Lhoba) for ulcers, toxic fever, pneumonia, tracheitis, and mastitis (Tibetan medicine). (Li et al 2015) Ancient China Recorded in the oldest Chinese herbals (200-250 CE). Treats indignation and 松萝 (sōng luó), 女萝 (nǚ luó, anger, xie qi (‘evil energy’), and relieves vacuity sweating and head feng ‘female vine’), ‘Lao-Tzu's beard’ (‘wind’). In females it relieves genital ban (‘cold’), swelling, and pain. Picked in the 5th lunar month and dried in shade. (Shou-Zhong 1998; Sharnoff 1997). See also Chinese use of U. diffracta, U. longissima, and other Usnea species. Muslims, Yuan Dynasty, China Listed in Hui Hui Yao Fang, the official list of Islamic medicines for the Yuan us̲ h̲nat (Arabic) Dynasty (1250-1350 CE). (Kong and Chen 1996) New Ireland (Papua New Used to induce menstration. (Lee et al 1977) Guinea) 13 Table 7. Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Doi Inthanon (Chiang Mai, Thailand) Maori (New Zealand) angiangi or kohukohu Europe (early modern era) oak moss; tree moss; usnea Jewish Community, 11th to 14th century, in Cairo Kartitsch (Austria) Aragon (Spain) Valsugana Valley (Italy) Scandinavia Saami (Scandinavia) lappo Finland Dalarna (Sweden) Nuxalk (BC, Canada) Ditidaht (BC, Canada) Makah (WA, USA) Nihitahawak (SK, Canada) mithāpākwan Wabasca (AB, Canada) miyapakwan Flathead (Montana, USA) Umatilla, Cayuse (OR, USA) Navaho (Utah, USA) cin bidaγai (‘wood mustache’) Quichua (Loja, Ecuador) musgo de arbol Quechua (Ancash, Peru) barba de piedra, puma champa Traditional use Used in a bath for women following childbirth, to aid parturition and prevent infection. (Sharnoff 1997) Steeped in water and placed on affected parts for venereal disease (Best 1905). Dried, powdered, and rubbed on skin for various skin afflictions (Kerry-Nicholls 1886; Goldie 1904). Crushed with hand and lightly bandaged onto wound to stop bleeding (Brooker and Cooper 1962; Macdonald 1974). Along with moss, used as sanitary napkin, as a diaper, and to keep newborn babies warm (Goldie 1904). The Ancient Greeks had important medicinal uses for a fruticose arboreal lichen called splanchnon, which was likely Evernia prunastri or Pseudevernia furfuracea (see Ancient Greek use of E. prunastri). This lichen entered European pharmacopoeias in the early 1500s and included all fruticose arboreal lichens. By the late 1700s it was only Usnea spp. Europeans added to the Ancient Greek uses of splanchnon and used a decoction of Usnea spp. for a styptic, for drying skin lesions, as an antiinflammatory, as a skin moisturizer, and for nausea, diarrhoea, whooping cough, smallpox, insomnia, umbilical hernias, and uterine medicine (Lebail 1853). It was also used for diseases of the scalp and to cure dandruff (Allen and Hatfield 2004) and as usnea cranii humani (see Parmelia saxatilis). Used to treat cold, coughs, heart diseases, and eye diseases. Also used as an anesthetic and to improve eyesight. (Lev 2007) Gathered as a medicinal plant. (Christanell et al 2010) Used for respiratory ailments. (González-Tejero et al 1995) Shepherds put it in their shoes to prevent or treat blisters. (Sharnoff 1997) Decoction for bathing chapped skin on babies and the feet of adults. Alectoria sp., Lobaria pulmonaria, and Peltigera aphthosa also used (Richardson 1974). Powdered and sprinkled on external wounds, and on sores from long journeys. Also used for curing ringworm and scabies. (Lebail 1853; Nissen 1921) Put fresh lichen on infected wounds, athlete’s foot, and other skin eruptions. Taken orally for sore throat and toothache. Alectoria spp. also used. (Vartia 1973) Used to treat foot blisters. (Ahmadjian and Nilsson 1963) Probably same as Nuxalk use of Alectoria sarmentosa. (Turner 1973) Same as Ditidaht use of Alectoria sarmentosa. (Turner et al 1983) Used for boils. (Gill 1983) Fresh lichen inserted into the nostril to stop a nose bleed. (Leighton 1985) Decoction used to wash sore or infected eyes. Possibly U. hirta. (Siegfried 1994; Marles et al 2000) Probably same as Flathead use of Alectoria sarmentosa. (Stubbs 1966) Probably same as Umatilla & Cayuse use of Alectoria sarmentosa. (Hunn 2005) An infusion or poultice is used for frozen body parts. (Wyman and Harris 1951) Used for inflated, sore stomach in children. Boiled in water with honey and drunk. Must not be collected from eucalyptus or pine. (Abel 2009 pers. comm.) Bath against cold: In the form of a steam bath, mixed up with other plants. Treatment for nervios (a psychological condition) and susto (when someone’s anima dissociates from their body): cover a handful of this plant with some water and put to boil, then drink small glasses until feeling better. To treat susto, it is necessary to perform a choq’ma ritual first. (Gonzales de la Cruz et al 2014) 14 Table 7. Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) Traditional use Used for genitourinary diseases. Mixed with yerba mate (Camellia sinensis) and drunk as an infusion. A saxicolous Usnea sp. is used, if it is more yellow it is more effective. (Londoño-Castañeda et al. 2017) Usnea sect. Neuropogon spp. (Nees & Flot.) Mont. [syn. Neuropogon spp.] Mapuche-Tehuelche Used for coughs. Medicine for unspecified gastrointestinal, respiratory, (Argentina/Chile) cardiovascular, obstetric-gynaecological, and genitourinary afflictions, as well barba de piedra; flor de piedra as cultural syndromes. (Estomba et al 2006; Molares and Ladio 2014) Usnea aciculifera Vain. China Used for bladder infection, painful urination, urinary retention, swelling, and 尖刺松萝 (jiān cì sōng luó) edema in heart and kidneys. (Wang and Qian 2013) Usnea angulata Ach. [syn. Usnea sulcata] Chorote (Dry Chaco, Argentina) Decoction is drunk for pertussis, common cough, and stomach ache. Lichen put sá’ti-wálisa in footwear to prevent sweating and treat foot fungus. (Scarpa 2009) Criollos (Dry Chaco, Argentina) Anti-inflammatory: poultice prepared of lichen mixed with goat fat and held sajasta over inflamation until cured. Treatment for infection: decoction of lichen in 2 L water is drunk once a day for 3 consecutive days. Treatment of pasmo (possibly tetanus) and asoleadura (‘exposure to sun’): lichen placed both in shoe underneath foot, and between head and hat until symptoms disappear. (Scarpa 2004) Usnea articulata L. Hoffm. [syn. Usnea flavescens, Usnea atlantica] Iraqw (Tanzania) Treatment for stomachache. A handful of hewas is chewed fresh and the juice hewas swallowed, it is bitter but relieves the pain after a while. U. himantodes is also used. (Kokwaro 1976) Samoa Used for wounds and shin bruises. (Brooker et al 1987) Canary Islands Used as a disinfectant, along with other Usnea spp. (Darias et al 1986) barbas Usnea baileyi (Stirt.) Zahlbr. Ayurvedic medicine (India) Occasional adulterant in charila (SEE Parmotrema nilgherrense). Mixed with other aromatic herbs, such as Valeriana jatamansi for favoring and curing tobacco, along with U. longissima, U. subsordida, Hypotrachyna nepalensis, H. cirrhata, and Ramalina inflata. (Shah 1998) Himalayas (Sikkim, India) Medicine for respiratory health (O’Neill et al. 2017) Usnea barbata (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg. Xhosa (South Africa) Used to treat mammary infections in cattle: udder is washed several times with decoction of lichen. Used to treat wounds in humans: decoction. Used for indigestion in humans: tincture or decoction taken orally several times daily. (Afolayan et al 2002; Madamombe and Afolayan 2003) Nepal Endangered medicinal lichen banned from raw export. (Bhattarai 1999) Ati (Philippines) Used for wounds: chopped and mixed with coconut oil, spread over wound. tagahumok puti Used for abdominal pain: drink decoction. (Madulid et al 1989) West Malaysia Used for colds and strengthening after childbirth. (Foxworthy 1922) Karo (Indonesia) Used as an aphrodisiac, oukup (sauna to restore health of mothers postpartum), tai angin rheumatism, and syphilis. (Silalahi et al 2015) Europe (early modern era) Probably synonymous with Usnea spp. in early modern era pharmacopoeias, which adopted the Ancient Greek uses for insomnia, nausea, and uterine afflictions (see European use of Usnea spp.). Used for internal and external bleeding, whooping cough, jaundice, and promoting hair growth. (Lightfoot 1777; Willemet 1787; Luyken 1809) Abejar (Spain) Used as drying agent and antiseptic for cracks and irritations of the feet. (Bustinza and Caballero 1947) 15 Table 7. Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Traditional use Mbayá (Brazil) Liquid made from it is given to women to cure sterility. (Cadogan 1949) memby rakú í ja (‘master of the energy of creatures’) Usnea ceratina Ach. China Used for coughs, inflamed lungs, pulmonary tuberculosis, hepatitis, headache 角松萝 (jiǎo sōng luó), 红髓松 due to heat, infection due to injury, inflamed lymph channels, mastitis, and 萝 (hóng suǐ sōng luó) snakebites. (Wang and Qian 2013) Usnea dasopoga (Ach.) Nyl. [syn. Usnea dasypoga, Usnea filipendula] Java Unspecified medicinal use. (Uphof 1959) Lhasa (Tibet) Used in traditional Tibetan medicine. (Salick et al 2006) Primorsky and Sakhalin (Russian Powdered form used to treat wounds and some infections. (Moskalenko 1986) Far East) Usnea densirostra Taylor Argentina Tea applied externally as astringent, antiseptic, and antiinflammatory. Also use yerba de la piedra, barba de U. durietzii. (Bandoni et al 1972; Garcia et al 1990; Vitto et al 1997; Correche et piedra al 2008) Uruguay Unspecified medicine. (Osorio 1982) yerba de la piedra Usnea diffracta Vain. [syn. Dolichousnea diffracta] Used for phlegm-heat, warm malaria, cough, tuberculosis of the neck or lungs, China headache, dim vision, swelling, pus oozing from breasts or sores, burns and 环裂松萝 (huán liè sōng luó), scalds, snakebite, wind-damp impediment, traumatic injuries, bone fracture, 云雾草 (yúnwù cǎo, ‘cloud herb’), 老君须 (lǎo jūn xū, ‘old bleeding from external injuries, vomiting blood, blood in feces, bleeding from uterus, menstrual disorders, vaginal discharge, swelling of female genitalia, man beard’), 关公须 urinary tract afflictions, and ascarid or schistosoma parasitic infections. Collect (guāngōng xū), 龙须草 (lóng xū cǎo, ‘dragon beard herb’), 白 throughout the year, then dry. Drink decoction; or apply decoction or powdered lichen to the affected area. Other names include: 破茎松萝 (pò jīng sōng luó), 龙须 (bái lóng xū, ‘white 节松萝 (jié sōng luó), 节茎松萝 (jié jīng sōng luó), 女萝 (nǚ luó), 接筋草 dragon beard’), 仙人头发 (xiānrén tóufǎ, ‘fairy hair’), 石 (jiē jīn cǎo), 天蓬草 (tiān péng cǎo), 天速草 (tiān sù cǎo), 金钱草 (jīnqián 丝线 (shí sīxiàn, ‘stone thread’), cǎo), 海风藤 (hǎifēng téng), 金丝藤 (jīn sī téng), 飞仙翅 (fēi xiān chì), 松上寄生 (sōng shàng jìshēng), 树挂 (shùguà), 雪风藤 (xuě fēng téng). (Hu et 山挂面 (shān guàmiàn, al 1980; Wang and Qian 2013) ‘mountain noodles’) Jianghua (China) Herbal tea, food, medicinal bath for treating rheumatism, from Uygar medicine. 松金藤 (sōng jīn téng), 松萝 (Jin et al. 2018; Luo et al 2018) (sōng luó) Tibet Cures fevers of the lungs, liver, and channels, as well as fever caused by gser.skud (‘gold thread’) poisoning. (Clark 1995) Korea Used to induce menstration (Pusan) and treat tuberculosis of the neck (Gongju). 송낙 (song-nag) (Lee 1966; Lee et al 1977) Usnea durietzii Mot. [syn. Neuropogon durietzii] Argentina In San Luis same as Argentine use of U. densirostra (Vitto et al 1997). In barba de la piedra Mendocina recorded as an abortative and toxin (Ruíz Leal 1972). Usnea florida (L.) F. H. Wigg. China Used for aching in sinews and bones, stopping bleeding or infection from 松萝 (sōng luó), 花松萝 (huā external injuries, skin diseases, painful urination, coughs, tuberculosis of the sōng luó) lungs or neck, heart palpitations, and edema. Drink decoction; or apply decoction or powdered lichen to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) Europe (early modern) Decoction used for colds and coughs. (Willemet 1787) Kallaway (Bolivia) Unspecified medicinal use. (Abdel-Malek et al 1996) qaqa sunkha Mapuche (Chile) Infusion used for diarrhoea. (Houghton and Manby 1985) 16 Table 7. Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Traditional use Usnea himalayana C. Bab. Japan Burned as a ‘lichen cigarette’. (Ohmura 2003) nayonayo saruogase Usnea himantodes Stirt. [syn. Eumitria himantodes, Usnea gigas, Usnea africana] Iraqw (Tanzania) Same as Iraqw use of U articulata. (Kokwaro 1976) Usnea hirta (L.) F. H. Wigg. Europe (early modern) Used to heal wounds and to prevent hair loss. (Willemet 1787) Usnea laevis (Eschw.) Nyl. Sierra Nevada del Cocuy The entire lichen is milled, and the powder is applied in the armpits, feet, etc. (Colombia) (Rodríguez et al 2018) barba de piedra or barbepiedra Venezuelan Andes Used for infections, dermatosis, fungal infections, tuberculosis and pneumonia. barba de piedra or tusinya (Marcano 1991; Marcano et al 1999) Usnea longissima Ach. [syn. Dolichousnea longissima] Northern Anatolia (Turkey) For treating cancer, tuberculosis, and ulcers. (Yazici and Aslan 2003; Odabasoglu et al 2006) Unani medicine (India) Sometimes used as ushna in Unani medicine. (Razzack and Fazal 1993; Rauf et ushna al 2011). See Unani use of Usnea spp. Ayurvedic medicine (India) Same as Ayurvedic use of U. baileyi (mixed in tobacco) and an occasional adulterant in charila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense). (Shah 1998) Madhya & Himachal Pradesh Used to heal bone fractures, mixed with other ingredients (Baiga, Madhya). (India) Washed, air-dried, soaked overnight in salted water, and placed over the urmil (Himachal) affected part (Himachal). (Brij Lal and Upreti 1995; Sharma 1997) Medicinal properties are kha (bitter) and ka (astringent), potency is sil (cool). Dolpo (Nepal) Used to treat wounds, lungs, liver, channel fever, and fever from poisoning. shingbal, shing bel, or ser kue (Amchi); thangbu balto (Kham); Also used as incense. (Lama et al 2001) jhyau (Nepali) Used for injuries of legs and back, bone fractures, diseases of women, clearing Mongolia heat, removing toxins, headache, stomach and intestine issues, diarrhoea, sore 色日古德 (sè rì gǔ dé) muscles and tendons, and lung issues. (Bai et al 2014; La et al 2015) Same use in China as U. diffracta (Hu et al 1980; Wang and Qian 2013). Other China 长松萝 (zhǎng sōng luó), 天蓬 names include: 松萝 (sōng luó), 女萝 (nǚ luó), 金钱草 (jīnqián cǎo), 关公须 (guāngōng xū), 石须 (shí xū, ‘stone beard’), 海风藤 (hǎi fēng téng), 雪风草 (tiānpéng cǎo, ‘canopy 藤 (xuě fēng téng), 金丝藤 (jīn sī téng), 松毛 (sōng máo), 仙人头发 herb’), 云雾草 (yúnwù cǎo, ‘cloud herb’), 老君须 (lǎo jūn (xiānrén tóufǎ, ‘fairy hair’), 石丝线 (shí sīxiàn, ‘stone thread’), 松上寄生 (sōng shàng jìshēng), 树挂 (shùguà), 山挂面 (shān guàmiàn), 树发七 (shù xū, ‘old man beard’), 胡须草 (húxū cǎo, ‘beard herb’), 龙须 fā qī), 过山龙 (guò shān lóng), 飞天蜈蚣 (fēitiān wúgōng), 尼山翅 (ní shān 草 (lóng xū cǎo, ‘dragon beard chì) herb’), 茶须 (chá xū, ‘tea beard’), 树毛 (shù máo, ‘tree hair’) Nahki (nw Yunnan, China) Soaked in boiling water, for moistening the lungs and relieving cough. Whole 松萝 (sōng luó), 长松萝 lichen eaten as healthcare food. (Salick et al 2006; Zhang et al 2015, 2016) (zhǎng sōng luó) Shuhi (nw Yunnan) Decoction for abdominal pain in women. (Wecherle et al 2006) ʃupu’nu Lisu (nw Yunnan) Decoction drunk for inflamed lymph nodes and rheumatism. Crushed and jianmingyan applied as poultice for injuries from falls and infected hair follicles. (Ji et al 2004) Haida (BC, Canada) Same as Haida use of Alectoria sarmentosa. (Turner 1998; Turner 2004a) Ditidaht (BC, Canada) All Usnea spp. and Alectoria sarmentosa used for wound dressing, but U. p’u7up; or Indian bandage longissima is preferred. Wrapped around wound and left for a while. (Turner et al 1983) 17 Table 7. Alectorioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Traditional use Usnea nidifica Tayl. China Unspecified medicine. (Wang and Qian 2013) Rarotonga (Cook Is.) Online reference to medicinal usage on Mangiai: thallus chewed and applied to ‘uru nū (Mangiai); remu nū cuts (to stop bleeding) and stings (McCormack 2007). Whistler (1990) records (Mauke) remu as a general term for lichens, mosses, and seaweeds, but records no use. Usnea orientalis Motyka. Eastern Nepal Whole plant ground and applied to cuts and wounds. (Shrestha et al 2016) Usnea pectinata Tayl. [syn. Eumitria pectinata] China Used for stopping bleeding from external injuries, relieving pain, bloody feces, 拟长松萝 (nǐ zhǎng sōng luó), and swelling. (Wang and Qian 2013) 大蓬草 (dà péng cǎo), 箆齿松萝 (bìchǐ sōng luó) Usnea plicata (L.) Weber Tripolitania (Libya) Ingredient in medicinal decoction called scíba, along with Pseudevernia scíba furfuracea, Ramalina calicaris, and R. farinacea. (Natale and Pollio 2012) Saami (Scandinavia) Put on sores on feet after walking long distances. (Linnaeus 1737) Europe (early modern) An astringent for internal and external use (Lightfoot 1777), for whooping cough (Lindley 1838), jaundice, strengthening stomach and abdominal cavity, and restraining abortion (Luyken 1809). Also recommend U. barbata. See European use of Usnea spp. Usnea sikkimensis Biswas sp. nov. Sikkim & Darjeeling (India) Used for lung troubles, haemorrhages, and asthma; powdered and used to darimataghosa (Bengali) strengthen hair (Biswas 1956). (May be a European use) Himalayas (Sikkim, India) Used to bandage surface wounds, skin eruptions, and boils; inserted into nostril to stop nose bleeds; put in shoes to prevent or treat blisters (Lepchas). Medicine for respiratory health. (Pradhan and Badola 2008; O’Neill et al. 2017) Usnea strigosa (Ach.) Eaton Kimi (Amusa, Papua New Concoction taken orally for headaches. (Jorim et al 2012) Guinea) oleazu Usnea subfloridana Stirt. Leitrim (Ireland) Treatment for sore eyes. Mixed with tobacco and butter, boiled, cooled, and applied as lotion to eyes. (Allen and Hatfield 2004) China Used for painful and reddened eyes, bleeding from external injuries, and 亚花松萝 (yà huā sōng luó) swelling. (Wang and Qian 2013) Usnea subsordida Stirt. Ayurvedic medicine (India) Same as Ayurvedic use of U. baileyi (mixed in tobacco) and an occasional adulterant in charila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense). (Shah 1998) Usnea trichodeoides Vain. [syn. Dolichousnea trichodeoides] China Used for coughs; pulmonary tuberculosis; headaches; blurred vision; inflamed 粗皮松萝 (cūpí sōng luó), 天蓬 cornea; swellings, sores, and pus discharge; bleeding from external injuries; 草 (tiānpéng cǎo, ‘canopy bloody feces; uterine bleeding; menstrual disorders; and vaginal discharge. herb’), 变红长松萝 (biàn hóng Drink decoction; or apply decoction or powdered lichen to the affected area. zhǎng sōng luó), 树发七 (shù (Wang and Qian 2013) fā qī, ‘tree hair seven’) 18 Table 8. Cetrarioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. Europe (1500s to present) Traditional use Medicinal lichen in European pharmacopoeias from the 1500s to the present. Common throughout Europe and Greenland, mostly for pulmonary and digestive uses. Bitterness may be removed with weak alkaline solution or by heating in water once or twice. Prepared as decoction or infusion in water or milk, ingested as a drink or a jelly. Sometimes mixed with sugar, lemon, or other flavouring. Also taken as a powder, or used for salves. Used as a strengthening tonic and to treatr pulmonary tuberculosis, coughing blood, whooping cough, asthma, chronic congestion, indigestion, chronic diarhoea, dysentery, uterine cysts, kidney stones, edema, wounds, and scurvy. Also used as a laxative, a sedative, and as an aphrodisiac. (Matthiolus 1586; Ray 1686; Linnaeus 1737; Scopoli 1760; Cramer 1780; Willemet 1787; Withering 1801; Regnault 1802; Lindley 1838; Anonymous 1845; Pereira 1850; Rink and Lindorff 1856) Pallars (Spain) Drunk as tea for congestion, tuberculosis, asthma, inflammation, and high blood liquen de bosc pressure. (Muntané 1991; González-Tejero et al 1995; Agelet and Vallès 2003) Ubaye Valley (France) Decoction used for lung ailments and as an emollient. (Novaretti and Lemordant 1990) Northern Italy Drunk as tea for a cough suppressant (Occitans). Decoction for cough, lic (Kyé, Roccaforte Mondovì); bronchitis, and intestinal problems; may be served with milk; may weaken body èrbo d’la vélho, licchia, lichene, if excessively consumed (Kyé). Decoction or syrup applied externally for cough pan d’chabbre (Waldensian); and bronchitis, decoction for stomach disorders in cattle, and decoction as a lica, lichen, erba sechia, erba digestive and expectorant (Waldensian). Decoction drunk as digestive and for bronchite (Sondrio) coughs and bronchitis, and decoction fed to livestock for bronchitis and pneumonia (Sondrio). Used for congestion and for recovery after tuberculosis (Venezia Giulia). Similar use in Trentino. (Lokar and Poldini 1988; Mattalia et al 2013; Pieroni and Giusti 2009; Vitalini et al. 2013; Bellia and Pieroni 2015) Großwalsertal (Austria) A medicinal drink mixed with the syrup of Plantago lanceolata. (Grasser et al isländisch moos 2012) Eastern Tyrol (Austria) A medicinal fodder for cattle, sheep, horses, and pigs used as an immune system goasstraube or isländisch moos booster to maintain good health; as a restorer after sickness, weight loss, or delivery; as a performance enhancer to promote weight gain and milk production; to improve skin, udder health, hoof quality, and coat gloss; and for pregnant animals to facilitate delivery, prevent complications with birth, and avoid milk fever. (Vogl et al 2016) Bosnia and Herzegovina Decoction is drunk for pulmonary ailments and improving blood. Decoction islandski lišaj, islandska with Pimpinella anisum is taken as syrup for cough and croakiness. Powdered mahovina; mašina (Lukomir) lichen soaked in cold water for urinary tract inflammation, cold and cough, and anemia. Taken for heart or chest pain (Lukomir). (Redžić 2007; Šarić-Kundalić et al 2010; Ferrier et al 2014; Ferrier et al. 2015) Albanians in Upper Reka Unspecified medicinal use. (Pieroni et al 2013) (Macedonia) mishk Bulgaria Used for coughs. (Nedelcheva and Draganov 2014) Tripoli (Lebanon) Lichen is soaked in alcohol and rubbed externally to treat rheumatism and neuralgia. (Marc et al 2008) Hryniawa (Ukraine) Soaked in milk and taken internally for cough. (Kuwjawska et al 2015) hrań Lithuania Tea, extract with alcohol, or decoction is drunk for respiratory tract disorders. Decoction applied externally for skin diseases and burns. (Pranskuniene et al 2018) Estonia Tea taken as remedy for cancer (Sak et al 2014), cough, colds, bronchitis, lung diseases, respiratory problems, and fever (Sõukand and Kalle 2013). 19 Table 8. Cetrarioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Sweden islandslav Iceland Ket (Siberia) Lhasa (Tibet) China 岛衣 (dǎo yī), 太白树 (tàibái shù, ‘white tree’) Muslims, Yuan Dynasty, China k̲h̲azâz (Arabic) Dehcho (NWT, Canada) Traditional use Used for whooping cough, colds, congestion, asthma, other chest ailments, appetite stimulation, diabetes, nephritis, and tuberculosis. Either decoction or infusion made from dried shredded lichen in either water or milk and drunk either warm or cold. Honey or chocolate sometimes added. (Ahmadjian and Nilsson 1963) Listed as important medicinal plant. (Whitney et al 2012) Decoction for coughs. (Eidlitz 1969) Used in traditional Tibetan medicine. (Salick et al 2006) Decoction drunk to strengthen stomach and improve digestion. (Wang and Qian 2013) Listed in Hui Hui Yao Fang, the official list of Islamic medicines for the Yuan Dynasty (1250-1350 CE). (Kong and Chen 1996) Decoction used to treat tuberculosis. Boiled in water 0.5 to 1 hours, until liquid is red, and one third cup is taken 3 times daily. (Lamont 1977) Cetrelia pseudolivetorum (Asahina) W.L. Culb. & C.F. Culb. China Used for blurred vision, bleeding from uterus, traumatic bleeding, sores, and 拟橄揽斑叶梅 (nǐ gǎn lǎn bān chronic psoriasis. Drink decoction; or apply decoction or powdered lichen to the yè méi), 假漂红梅衣 (jiǎ piào affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) hóng méi yī), 裂缘梅衣 (liè yuán méi yī) Flavocetraria cucullata (Bellardi) Kärnefelt & A. Thell Pallars (Spain) Drunk as tea to treat symptoms of asthma. (Agelet and Vallès 2003) Flavocetraria nivalis (L.) Kärnefelt & Thell Europe Although not as commonly used in Eurpoe as Cetraria islandica, some practitioners thought it had similar properties. (Tychsen 1799; Lindley 1838) Kallawaya (Qollahuayas, Prepared in tea for treatment of motion sickness and heart attacks. (Bastien Bolivia) 1983) Masonhalea richardsonii (Hook.) Kärnefelt [syn. Cornicularia richardsonii] Tlingit (Alaska, USA) Used as a treatment for inflammation of the lungs. (Garibaldi 1999) Tutchone (Yukon, Canada) Extensively used medicinally for a number of various ailments. (EDI 2005; hudzi ni, caribou horn lichen Kwanlin Dün First Nation 2017; Na-Cho Nyak Dun First Nation 2015) Nephromopsis pallescens (Schaer.) Park [syn. Cetrariopsis pallescens] China Eaten, and has an unspecified medicinal use. (Wang and Qian 2013) 皮革肾岛衣 (pígé shèn dǎo yī), 树衣 (shù yī, ‘tree clothes’) Vulpicida canadensis (Räsänen) J.E. Mattsson & M.J. Lai Ulkatcho (BC, Canada) Medicine for coughs and colds, drink tea made from a couple handfuls of dahgha (‘limb-hair’) dahgha in 1 L water. Also chewed fresh to help the lungs. (Hebda et al 1996) Vulpicida juniperinus (L.) J.E. Mattsson & M.J. Lai Early modern Europe Used to treat jaundice. (Regnault 1802) Scandinavia Possibly used to poison wolves along with Letharia vulpina. (Uphof 1959) Vulpicida pinastri (Scop.) J.E. Mattsson & M.J. Lai Scandinavia Possibly used to poison wolves along with Letharia vulpina. (Smith 1921) China Used for pulmonary tuberculosis, wounds oozing pus, skin infections, cancer, 黄花岛衣 (huánghuā dǎo yī) and spasms. (Wang and Qian 2013) 20 Table 9. Parmelioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Traditional use Unidentified parmelioid lichens Rastafari (Cape area, South Used for cancer, women's problems, aiding fertility, and inducing abortion (Aston Africa) Philander 2011). See also KhoiSan use of Xanthoparmelia hottentotta. klipbolm Nepal Extract and decoction are applied to treat moles. (Gaire and Subedi 2011) jhau Bhutan Unidentified parmelioid lichen on rock used in Sowa Rigpa traditional medicine to rdo dreg, brag gi me tog, treat poisoning, fever, diarrhoea, vomit reflex, impaired vision, and lymphatic khrag gi ut pal, dbugs med disorders. Also used to restore appetite and promote healthy skin. (Yeshi et al pags pa, pha vang dreg pa, 2018) See also Bhutan use of Parmelia saxatilis. brtan po’i dreg pa Lëpushë (Albania) Ground, mixed with sugar, then applied externally to heal eye inflammations, urth especially in veterinary practice. (Pieroni et al 2005) Lucca (Italy) Decoction for coughs, cleansing liver, and antiinflammatory. (Pieroni 2000) Piaroa (Amaz., Venezuela) Used to treat gonorrhoea or painful urination. Boiled into a tea and drunk 3 to 4 odoche jupacua (iguana toe) times a day for a week. (Azenha et al 1998) Guahibo (Amaz., Venezuela) Boiled in water and applied to insect bites or cuts and wounds. (Azenha et al 1998) Canoparmelia ecaperata (Mull. Arg.) Elix & Hale India Used to treat colds and coughs. (Singh et al 2012) jhulla or charila (Kumaon) Flavoparmelia caperata (L.) Hale Rarámuri (Mexico) Dried, crushed, and dusted on burns. (Pennington 1963) ŕeté cajéra China Decoction drunk to clear heat. (Wang and Qian 2013) 皱梅衣 (zhòu méi yī), 地花 (de huā, ‘ground flower’) Hypotrachyna cirrhata (Fr.) Divakar, A. Crespo, Sipman, Elix & Lumbsch [syn. Everniastrum cirrhatum, Parmelia kamtschadalis, Evernia cirrhata] India Ayurvedic use is the same as Usnea baileyi (mixed in tobacco) and an occasional jhulla or chadilla (Kumaon) adulterant in charila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense) (Shah 1998). When burnt the smoke relieves headache and the powder is a good cephalic snuff (Biswas 1947; Nadkarni and Nadkarni 1955). Used to treat colds and fever (Kumaon) (Singh et al 2012) Rasuwa (Nepal) Paste of whole plant applied to cuts and wounds. Unidentified parmelioid lichen jhyau also used. (Uprety et al 2010) Mbowamb (New Guinea) ‘Evernia sp.’ is chewed and then applied to skin eruptions. (Stopp 1963) ugl Hypotrachyna nepalensis (Taylor) Divakar, A. Crespo, Sipman, Elix, and Lumbsch [syn. Everniastrum nepalense, Parmelia nepalensis] Ayurvedic medicine (India) Same as Ayurvedic use of Usnea baileyi (mixed in tobacco) and an occasional adulterant in charila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense). (Shah 1998) Himalayas (Sikkim, India) Medicine for respiratory health. (O’Neill et al. 2017) Taplejung (Nepal) Used like Ramalina spp. for antiseptic, burns, and wounds. Applied as powder in jhyau tincture of iodine after applying the leaf juice of Artemisia dubia or Eupatorium adenophorum (Poudel 2008). Banned from raw export (Bhattarai 1999) Kathmandu (Nepal) Used for toothache, sore throat, and pain. (Kumar et al 1996) kalo jhyau Parmelia omphalodes (L.) Ach. Britain In Scotland, they wore socks dyed with crottle if walking long distance or crottle, crotal, dark crottle, or sprinkled it on their hose to stop their feet from getting inflamed (Cameron 1900; fiasgag nan creag (Gaelic: MacIntyre 1999). Used for a soup to strengthen invalids in Ireland; and for a ‘rock lichen’) poultice for cuts, sores, and burns in Ireland and Scotland (McGlinchey 1986; 21 Table 9. Parmelioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Europe (early modern era) Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach. Bhutan sbrul-pag China 石梅表 (shí méi biǎo), 石花 (shí huā, ‘stone flower’), 乳花 (rǔ huā, ‘milk flower’), 梅衣 (méi yī, ‘plum clothes’), 石衣 (shí yī, ‘stone clothes’), 石濡 (shí rú), 梅藓 (méi xiǎn, ‘plum moss’), 梅花衣 (méihuā yī, ‘plum blossom clothes’), 藻纹梅花衣 (zǎo wén méihuā yī), 地衣 (dì yī, ‘ground clothes’) Dalarna (Sweden) stenlav Britain crottle; or light crottle Foula (Shetland Is, Britain) old man Europe usnea cranii humani, muscus cranii humani, or muscus ex cranio humano (Latin); moss of a dead man’s skull (English); usnée humaine (French); muschio del cranio (Italian) Traditional use Allen and Hatfield 2004). Probably used interchangeably with P. saxatilis. Used to stop bleeding and stop haemorrhaging during surgery. Put into nose to stop nosebleeds. (Gedner 1756; Willemet 1787) Used in Sowa Rigpa traditional medicine to heal white leprosy, sore foot and skin diseases. (Wangchuk et al 2016) Used for blurred vision, vomiting blood, jaundice, bleeding from uterus, chronic dermatitis, and oral ulcers in children. Drink decoction in wine; or apply powder to the affected area. (Hu et al 1980; Wang and Qian 2013) Used to remove warts. (Ahmadjian and Nilsson 1963) Probably used interchangeably with P. omphalodes as crottle. Mixed with tobacco and smoked in the 18th century, a practice still remembered in 1966. (Hawksworth 2003) An important medicine as early as the late 1500s (Gerarde 1597) and throughout the 1600s (Parkinson and Marshall 1640; Ray 1686), but various authors think it quackery by the 1700s (Quincy 1724; Diderot et al 1765). In early drawings it is distinctly Usnea-like, but later authors recognize two distinct types: Usnea-like or crust-like (James 1748). In modern times, it has been identified as either Parmelia saxatilis (Smith 1921) or Physcia sp. (Llano 1948), although it is likely any lichen or moss found on a skull (Modenesi 2009). When collected off the skull of criminals (alt. someone who died a violent death), it was very valuable as cure for epilepsy, to stop bleeding, and (if powdered and given in sweet wine) for whooping cough in children. Also mixed with mumia (the exudate from a mummy) to make unguentum armarium, a salve that was applied to a weapon to heal a wound that it had caused. Parmelia sulcata Taylor Metís (Alberta, Canada) Saanich (BC, Canada) smexdáles Rubbed on gums of teething babies to relieve discomfort. (Marles et al 2000) Medicinal properties depend on the type of tree it is growing on. Possibly the lichen traditionally used for birth control. Not differentiated from Lobaria pulmonaria. (Turner and Hebda 2012) Parmelinella salacinifera (Hale) Marcelli & Benatti Pankararu (Brazil) Part of a medicinal mixture of flor de pedra (see Parmotrema wrightii) (Londoñoflor de pedra Castañeda et al 2017) Parmotrema abessinicum (Nyl. ex Kremp.) Hale [syn. Parmelia abessinica] Bellary District (India) Eaten medicinally. (Llano 1948) rathipuvvu (‘rock flower’) Parmotrema andinum (Müll. Ar.) Hale [syn. Parmelia hyporysalea] Ayurvedic medicine (India) Occasional adulterant in charila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense). (Chanda and Singh 1971) Parmotrema nilgherrense (Nyl.) Hale [syn. Parmelia nilgherrensis] Ayurvedic medicine (India) An important drug in many old Ayurvedic texts that is still used today. The first 22 Table 9. Parmelioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name charila (Hindi); shaileya or shilapushpa (‘rock flower’, Sanskrit); hazaz-al sakhr (‘rock scab’, Arabic); shailaja (Bengali); chadila (Urdu); pathar phool (Gujarati); dagad phool (Gujarati & Marathi); kallu hoovu (Kannada); rati puvvu (Telugu); sheeleyam (Malayalam); kapashwe (Tamil) Ayurvedic medicine (other countries) jhoola (Nepal) Traditional use record is in the Atharvaveda (1500 BCE). Although in some areas of India, highquality charila is mostly Parmotrema nilgherrense, the lichen mixture can also contain Parmotrema chinense, P. perforatum, P. perlatum, Hypotrachyna cirrhata, and H. nepalensis, with the occasional adulterants Ramalina farinacea, R. inflata, Usnea baileyi, U. longissima, U. subsordida, Parmelia hyporysalea, Anaptychia spp., and Leptogium spp. It is used for indigestion, loss of appetite, flatulence, diarrhoea, stomach disorders, kidney stones, painful urination, haemorrhoids, involuntary semen emission, lack of menstruation, painful menstruation, enlarged spleen, bronchitis, congestion, shortness of breath, excessive salivation, fevers, headaches, sore throats, toothaches, broken bones, musculoskeletal pain, rheumatism, reducing swelling, leprosy, scabies, soothing irritated skin, and prenatal and postnatal care. Also used as an aphrodisiac, diuretic, sedative, astringent, antiseptic, antibiotic, and a demulcent to reduce inflammation. It is powdered and applied on wounds to promote healing, smoked to relieve headaches, used as incense, used as a cephalic snuff, used in medicated oils, applied as a poultice to renal and lumbar regions to induce urination, and applied as a liniment to the head for headaches. (Dutt 1877; Chanda and Singh 1971; Kumar and Upreti 2001; Karadi 2010; Prasad 2013; Rauf et al 2006) An ingredient in spemen, which is used for treating infertility in men (Pardanani et al 1976). Nepal: soup as an aphrodisiac, paste applied externally for kidney stones. China: soup for male infertility, paste applied externally for kidney stones. Malaysia: soup as an aphrodisiac and for seminal weakness. Afghanistan: used for chest disorders, paste applied to wounds for healing. Saudi Arabia: cephalic snuff for headaches and as a pain killer. (Kumar et al 1996; Karadi 2010) Used to treat coughs and throat problems (Kumaon) and unspecified respiratory problems (Sikkim). (Singh et al 2012; O’Neill et al 2017) Used for toothache, sore throat, and pain. (Kumar et al 1996) Himalayas (India) Jhulla (Kumaon) Kathmandu (Nepal) kalo jhyau Parmotrema perforatum (Jacq.) A. Massal. [syn. Parmelia perforata] Ayurvedic medicine (India) Commonly used as charila (see P. nilgherrense) (Nadkarni and Nadkarni 1955; Chanda and Singh 1971). Imported for medicine (Younos et al 1987) and used for diuretic treatments (Biswas 1947). Parmotrema perlatum (Huds.) M. Choisy [syn. Parmelia perlata] Ayurvedic medicine (India) Commonly used as charila (see P. nilgherrense) (Nadkarni and Nadkarni 1955; Chanda and Singh 1971; Rauf et al 2006) Parmotrema reticulatum (Taylor) M. Choisy [syn. Parmelia reticulata] Himalayas (India) Used to treat coughs and throat problems (Kumaon) and unspecified respiratory jhulla or chadilla (Kumaon) problems (Sikkim). (Singh et al 2012; O’Neill et al 2017) Tepehuan & mestizos Tea drunk to relieve discomfort from kidney disorders or venereal disease. The tea (Chihuahua, Mexico) is commonly prepared in the late afternoon and left for one night before being ódai yoošígai or flor de piedra drunk. (Pennington 1969) (‘rock flower’) Parmotrema saccatilobum (Taylor) Hale Milne Bay (Papua New Vegetable oil extract of fresh or dried lichen is used for superficial joint and Guinea) muscle pain or inflammation. (Bugni et al 2009) Parmotrema sancti-angelii (Lynge) Hale [syn. Parmelia sancti-angelii] Gond & Oran (Uttar Pradesh, Salve used to treat skin disease called sem. Burn 30-50g of jhavila and mix ash India with mustard or linseed oil. (Brij Lal and Upreti 1995) jhavila Parmotrema subtinctorium (Zahlbr.) Hale [syn. Parmelia subtinctoria] China Used for bleeding from external injury, localized swelling, and pain. (Wang and 23 Table 9. Parmelioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Traditional use 亚大叶梅 (yà dà yè méi), 亚 Qian 2013) 燃料梅衣 (yà ránliào méi yī) Parmotrema tinctorum (Nyl.) Hale [syn. Parmelia tinctoria] China Used for blurred vision, bleeding from uterus, bleeding from external injuries, 大叶梅 (dà yè méi, ‘big plum sores and swelling, chronic dermatitis, and localized swelling. Drink decoction; or leaf’), 白石花 (bái shí huā, apply powdered lichen to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) ‘white stone flower’), 石花 (shí huā, ‘stone flower’), 梅衣 (méi yī, ‘plum clothes’), 石衣 (shí yī, ‘stone clothes’), 虾蟆皮 (há má pí, ‘toad skin’) Parmotrema wrightii L. I. Ferraro & Elix Pankararu (Brazil) Part of a medicinal mixture with Parmelinella salacinifera and Heterodermia flor de pedra galactophylla. Neither P. salacinifera nor H. galactophylla are added when used for pregnant women, and H. galactophylla is not added when used for children. Aqueous extract to treat digestive problems like diarrhoea and vomiting. Used in a smoker to treat epilepsy and cultural diseases. (Londoño-Castañeda et al 2017) Parmotrema zollingeri (Hepp) Hale [syn. Parmelia zollingeri] Ati (Philippines) Used as medicine for children with high fever and suffering from convulsions. kalas Burn kalas and let the child smell the fumes. (Madulid et al 1989) Punctelia borreri (Sm.) Krog China Used for blurred vision, bleeding from uterus, bleeding from external injuries, 粉斑星点梅 (fěn bān xīng sores and swelling, and chronic dermatitis. Drink decoction; or apply powdered diǎn méi, ‘pink spotted plum’), lichen to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) 粉斑梅衣 (fěn bān méi yī, ‘spotted plum clothes’) Xanthoparmelia spp. (Vain.) Hale Navajo (AZ & NM, USA) New Mexico: Elmore (1943) records tschétláat as remedy for impetigo. Wyman New Mexico: tschétláat (‘rock and Harris (1941) record widespread use of nihaλá∙d or céλá∙d chewed for canker, covering’), nihaλá∙d (‘earth swollen gums, decayed teeth, etc. (May include Peltigera sp.). Arizona: Whiting moss’) or céλá∙d (‘rock (1939) records an unidentified rock lichen called owa’si or owa’huru’suki used for moss’); sore mouth, gums, and toothache. See also: Hopi use of yellow rock lichen; Tewa Arizona: owa'si (‘rock use of rock and ground lichen. flower’) or owa'huru'suki (‘rock manure’) Xanthoparmelia conspersa (Ehrh. ex Ach.) Hale Xhosa (South Africa) To treat syphilis eruptions: powder and apply externally to eruptions (perhaps after ubulembu belitye they are scarified); may be also used internally (sources disagree). To treat both known and suspected snakebites: drink one tablespoon of lichen in cold water; also scarify bite and sprinkle powdered lichen on it to draw out a humour. (Smith 1888; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962) See also Xhosa use of ‘unidentified rock lichen’. Iroquois (Ontario, Canada) Used for inflamed gums and raw throat caused by fever. Mix in 1 cup cold water with the bark of the tree it was collected off, Coptis trifolia, and Fraxinus nigra. Take one teaspoon, leave in mouth until water is warm, and then swallow. Repeat for entire cup. (Herrick 1995) O’odham (Arizona, USA) Traditional use described by Curtin (1949). Lipp (1995) identified the lichen as X. jievut hiawsik or jewed hiósig conspersa, but Hawksworth (2003) disagrees. Carried as good luck charm, but (‘earth flower’) overuse will make you sick. Mixed with tobacco and smoked to ‘make young men crazy’. Also ground into a powder and sprinkled on sores or cuts, but not bound, as it would cause blisters. Applied over several days to heal rattlesnake bite. Xanthoparmelia convoluta (Kremp.) Hale [Xanthomaculina convoluta] Khoikhoi (Namibia) Infusion taken as remedy for rheumatism and arthritis (Watt and Breyer- 24 Table 9. Parmelioid lichens (Parmeliaceae) used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Traditional use Brandwijk 1962). See also Topnaar [a Khoikhoi tribe] use of X. hottentotta. Xanthoparmelia hottentotta (Ach.) A. Thell et al [syn. Xanthomaculina hottentotta] Unspecified (Namibia) Used to treat inflammation of udder for goats and sheep. Dried, roasted, and powdered; mixed with aromatic shrubs, fungal spores, and very fine quartz dust; then added to tail-fat to make an ointment for the udder. (Epstein 1937) Topnaar (Kuiseb, Namibia) Decoction drunk to cure coughs and to relieve stomach and chest pains. (van ǀ ui ǁ khaob; or uijkhao.b. Damme et al 1992) KhoiSan (Cape area, South Infusion is drunk for cough, sore throat, colds, fertility, syphilis in men, back pain, Africa) abdominal pain, and kidney and bladder diseases. Infusion used as mouthwash for klipblom, klipmos, or oral thrush and teething in children. Also used as a female medicine for maak klipbuchu baarmoeder skoon (‘cleaning the womb’), treating general pains, and as an ointment for burns and wounds. (Laidler 1928; van Wyk et al 2008; de Beer and van Wyk 2011; van Wyk and Gorelik 2017). Xanthoparmelia scabrosa (Taylor) Hale New Age herbalism Currently sold as ‘traditional Chinese medicine’, as an aphrodisiac and a cure for male impotence. No record of this use was found prior to 2007. (Tshiteya 2007) Xanthoparmelia tinctina (Maheu & Gillet) Hale China Used for blurred vision, bleeding from uterus, bleeding from external injuries, 暗腹黄梅 (àn fù huáng méi, sores and swelling, and chronic dermatitis. Drink decoction; or apply decoction or ‘dark belly yellow plum’), 暗 powdered lichen to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) 腹梅衣 (àn fù méi yī, ‘dark belly plum clothes’) Table 10. Other Parmeliaceae lichens used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Traditional use Anzia opuntiella Müll. Arg. China Used for blurred vision, bleeding from uterus, traumatic bleeding, sores, and chronic 仙人掌绵腹衣 psoriasis. Drink decoction; or apply decoction or powdered lichen to the affected (xiānrénzhǎng mián fù yī, area. (Wang and Qian 2013) ‘cactus cotton belly’) Anzia ornata (Zahlbr.) Asahina China Same as Chinese use of A. opuntiella. (Wang and Qian 2013) 瘤绵腹衣 (liú mián fù yī, ‘lumpy cotton belly’) Evernia divaricata (L.) Ach. China Same use in China as E. mesomorpha. (Wang and Qian 2013) 柔扁枝衣 (róu biǎn zhī yī, ‘soft flat twig clothes’) Evernia mesomorpha Nyl. Chipewyan (SK, Canada) Treatment for snowblindness. Harvest from birch, boil, cool, and drop decoction into k'i tsaⁿjú (‘birch lichen’) eyes. (Marles 1984) China Used for coughs, pneumonia, hot flashes due to pulmonary tuberculosis, hepatitis, 扁枝衣 (biǎn zhī yī, ‘flat headaches, infection due to trauma, inflammation of the breasts, and snakebites. twig clothes’) (Wang and Qian 2013) Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach. Ancient Greece An arboreal lichen recorded by Dioscorides in Section 1.21 of De Materia Medica σπλάγχνον (splanchnon, (50 to 70 CE) that is best if sweeter-smelling, whiter, and growing on cedar. ‘intestines’); or βρῦον Probably refers to E. prunastri and Pseudevernia furfuracea, with E. prunastri being (brýon, ‘moss’) preferred (Richardson 1974). Used in ointments for an astringent; decoction used either hot or cold for washing the vulva for diseases of the womb; and used as a remedy against fatigue. (López Eire et al 2006) 25 Table 10. Other Parmeliaceae lichens used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Europe (early modern era) oak moss; mousse chêne; or eichenmoss Traditional use Ancient Greek uses adopted in Europe starting in 1500s, but originally applied to all fruticose arboreal lichens. By late 1700s these uses often applied to Usnea spp., but sometimes to Evernia prunastri. Used for uterine and anal prolapse, and for preventing abortion (Quincy 1724; Willemet 1787; Luyken 1809). Also used for intestinal weakness, fevers, and pulmonary afflictions (Lindley 1838; Uphof 1959). Mixed with Pseudevernia furfuracea and Hypogymnia physodes as lichen quercinus virdes, a popular drug in early modern Europe (Senft 1911; Llano 1948). Unspecified medicinal use. (Doukkali et al 2015) Morocco ‫( لحية الشيخ‬lahiat alshaykh, ‘sheikh’s beard’: Arabic); mousse de chêne (French) Guezoul (Tiaret, Algeria) Used to treat coughs and to stimulate the appetite. (Mira et al 2013) lahiate chibani; mousse du chêne (French) Hypogymnia hypotrypa (Nyl.) Rass. China Used for dim vision, bleeding from uterus, bleeding from external injury, chronic 黄袋衣 (huáng dài yī), 粉 dermatitis, and sores. Drink decoction with 3 to 9 g lichen one time; or apply 黄袋梅衣 (fěn huáng dài decoction or powdered lichen to the affected area. (Wang and Qian 2013) méi yī) Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. [syn. Parmelia physodes] Europe (early modern era) Mixed with Evernia prunastri and Pseudevernia furfuracea as lichen quercinus virdes, a popular drug in early modern Europe (Senft 1911; Llano 1948). Neshnabé (WI, USA) Eaten raw as a cure for constipation. (Smith 1933) wa’kwûnûk (‘egg bush’) Letharia vulpina (L.) Hue [syn. Evernia vulpina] Sweden Used for wolf poison in Sweden. Pulverized, mixed with fat and flesh, warmed in ulf-mossa pan over fire, and fresh blood and cheese added to create an odor. Sometimes mixed with powdered glass or strychnine. Put under skin of carcass, wolf dies within 24 h of ingestion. Older, drier lichen is more potent. (Withering 1801; Schade 1954) Niitsitapii (Alberta, Canada) Infusion of the lichen and bone marrow for stomach disorders like ulcers. Lichen e-simatch-sis (‘yellow dye’) was blackened in a fire and rubbed on a rash, eczema, and wart sores. (McClintock 1910; Hellson and Gadd 1974) Syilx (BC, Canada) Weak decoction drunk for internal problems and strong decoction used to wash kwarē’uk; or kwerníkw external sores and wounds. (Teit and Boas 1928; Turner et al 1980) Umatilla & Cayuse (Oregon, Boiled and then applied as a poultice for open sores, boils, bruises, swellings, USA) arthritis, and eye problems. Also used for saddle sores on horses. Liquid also drunk laxpt; or maqa’hl for haemorrhaging. (Hunn 1990; Hunn 2005) Achomawi (California, Used for poison arrows. Tips imbedded in masses of wet lichen and left for up to a USA) year, rattlesnake venom sometimes added. (Merriam 1966) Yuki & Wailaki (CA, USA) Medicine for inflammation and to dry up running sores. (Chesnut 1902; Mead 1972) ōl-gät'-i Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf [syn. Evernia furfuracea, Borrera furfuracea] Ancient Egypt Found in a vase in a tomb dated to the 14 th to 16th century BCE, along with other medicinal plants (Müller 1881). Used, along with other botanicals, to stuff mummies (Baumann 1960). Does not currently grow in the area, potentially imported from elsewhere. Ancient Greece See Ancient Greek use of Evernia prunastri. Tripolitania (Libya) Ingredient in medicinal decoction called scíba from the early 1900s, along with scíba Usnea plicata, Ramalina calicaris, and R. farinacea. (Natale and Pollio 2012) Europe (early modern era) A substitute for quinine (Willemet 1787). Used for fevers and as an astringent treemoss; mousse d’arbre (Lindley 1838). Mixed with Evernia prunastri and Hypogymnia physodes as lichen (French) quercinus virdes, a popular drug in early modern Europe (Senft 1911; Llano 1948). 26 Table 10. Other Parmeliaceae lichens used in traditional medicines Culture and folk name Kutahya (Turkey) Traditional use Used for wounds, eczema, and haemorrhoids. Put in healing cream with clay. (Güvenç et al 2012) Pallars (Catalonia, Spain) Drunk as tea for asthma, congestion, and high blood pressure. (Agelet and Vallès liquen 2003) Alfacar, Víznar (AN, Spain) Used for respiratory ailments. Washed, boiled for a considerable time, then drunk. musgo (González-Tejero et al 1995) Jaén (AN, Spain) In Villanueva del Arzobispo it is collected and sold for very good medicines. líquen de pino, or muedos (Fernández Ocaña 2000) Table 11. Physciaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Anaptychia spp. Körber Ayurvedic medicine (India) Traditional use Occasional adulterant in charila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense). (Chanda and Singh 1971) Anaptychia ciliaris (L.) Körb. ex A. Massal. ( Erkowit (Sudan) Mixed with other plants and burned to clean air and repel insects. (Khalid et al bakour 2012; Adam et al 2018) Heterodermia diademata (Taylor) D. D. Awasthi Nepali (Sikkim, India) Used for cuts and injuries. Leaves of Ageratina adenophora are made into dhungo ku seto jhua paste and put on cuts and then plastered with paste of lichen thalli to protect it from water and any other infection. (Saklani and Jain 1994). Taplejung, Solukhumbu, and To treat fresh wounds and to stop bleeding: the lichen is mixed with extracts or Gorkha (Nepal) juices of Artemisia vulgaris or Eupatorium odoratum. As an antiseptic and jhyauu or jhulo (Nepali); yangben healing agent for cattle: the lichen is powedered and applied externally on fresh (Limbu, Rai); lunhokva (Bantawa cuts and wounds (only in Gorkha). (Devkota et al 2017) Rai); myann (Sherpa); shingdrak (Himali Bhotia) Heterodermia galactophylla (Tuck.) W.L. Culb. Pankararu (Brazil) Part of a medicinal mixture of flor de pedra (see Parmotrema wrightii) flor de pedra (Londoño-Castañeda et al 2017) Physcia spp. (Schreber) Michaux Europe (early modern era) See European use of usnea cranii humani under Parmelia saxatilis. (Llano usnea cranii humani 1948) Table 12. Ramalinaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Ramalina spp. Ach. Ancient Greece Λειχήν (leikhēn) or βρύον (brýon, ‘moss’) Traditional use A cryptogam growing on wet rocks is recorded by Dioscorides in section 4.53 of De Materia Medica (50 to 70 CE). Could be any saxicolous lichen or bryophyte. Early European herbals interpret it as a thalloid liverwort (eg., L’Obel 1576). Recent interpretation is as Ramalina sp., as this matches with the original drawing (López Eire et al 2006; Yavuz 2012). Applied as a poultice, it stops bleeding, relieves inflammation, and cures lichen (the skin disease). Mixed with honey it cures jaundice, and smeared on the mouth and tongue it relieves colds and congestion. Pliny records a similar cryptogam in his Naturalis Historia (77 CE) that is dry, is white, and grows on rocks near streams. It is put on wounds to stop bleeding and used to cure jaundice and impetigo. It has been interpreted as a thalloid liverwort, Peltigera canina, or Ochrolechia parella (Bostock and Riley 1855; Yavuz 2013). 27 Table 12. Ramalinaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Taplejung (Nepal) Traditional use Same as Taplejung use of Hypotrachyna nepalensis (topical antiseptic). (Poudel 2008; Devkota et al 2017) Kanikkars (Tamil Nadu, India) Used in combination with dried elephant milk, silt stone, and Cuminum cyminum kalchadai extract to cure small pox. (Nagendra Prasada et al 1996) Ramalina bourgeana Mont. ex Nyl. [syn. Niebla bourgeana] Almeria (Spain) Decoction used as diuretic to treat renal lithiasis. One cup taken daily until flor de piedra (‘stoneflower’) patient is better. (González-Tejero et al 1995; Martínez-Lirola et al 1996) Ramalina calicaris (L.) Fr. Tripolitania (Libya) Ingredient in medicinal decoction called scíba, along with R. farinacea, Usnea scíba plicata, and Pseudevernia furfuracea. (Natale and Pollio 2012) Ramalina capitata (Ach.) Nyl. Pallars (Spain) Drunk as tea to relieve symptoms of asthma. (Agelet and Vallès 2003) liquen Ramalina conduplicans Vain. Yi, Dai, and Han (s. Yunnan, Cold dish served at marriage banquets, couples who eat it will love each other China) more and never separate. Boiled in water with soda for 10–20 minutes, soaked in 硬枝树花 (yìng zhī shù huā), new water for 1–2 days, and served with chili powder, salt, and other seasonings 树花 (shù huā, ‘tree flower’), (Wang et al 2001). Medicine to reduce inflammation (Wang and Qian 2013). 树须 (shù xū, ‘tree beard’), 石花菜 (shí huācài, ‘stone cauliflower’) Ramalina farinacea (L.) Ach. Ayurvedic medicine (India) Occasional adulterant in charila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense). (Shah 1998) Tripolitania (Libya) Ingredient in medicinal decoction called scíba, along with R. calicaris, Usnea scíba plicata, and Pseudevernia furfuracea. (Natale and Pollio 2012) Nigeria Aqueous extract for treating mental disorders. Tinctures for treatment of ringworm tinea. (Esimone and Adikwu 1999) Ramalina inflata Hooker f. & Taylor Ayurvedic medicine (India) Same as Ayurvedic use of Usnea baileyi (mixed in tobacco) and an occasional adulterant in charila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense). (Shah 1998) Ramalina menziesii Taylor Pomo (California, USA) Used as baby diapers. (Goodrich et al 1980) Ramalina roesleri (Hochst.) Hue China Used for for traumatic injuries, bleeding, and swelling. (Wang and Qian 2013) 肉刺树花 (ròucì shù huā) Ramalina sinensis Jatta Kumaon (India) Used to treat colds and coughs (Singh et al 2012) jhulla Yunnan (China) Same as Chinese use of R. conduplicans. (Wang et al 2001) 中国树花 (Zhōngguó shù huā) Vermilacinia flaccescens (Nyl.) Spjut & Hale [syn. Niebla flaccescens] Quechua (Pampallacta,: Peru) Drink infusion for coughs. Thallus also chewed with coca leaves for magic papel-papel rituals. (Velasco-Negueruela et al 1995) Table 13. Stereocaulaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Stereocaulon exutum Nyl. China 裸珊瑚枝 (luǒ shānhú zhī, ‘bare coral branch’), 石寄生 Traditional use Same as Chinese use of S. paschale. (Wang and Qian 2013) 28 Table 13. Stereocaulaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use (shí jìshēng, ‘stone parasite’) Stereocaulon himalayense Asahina & I.M. Lamb Lepchas (Darjeeling, India) Thalli pounded and boiled in water; take 100mL twice daily after meals for dhungo-ku-jhau burning sensation when urinating or other urinary trouble; decoction also used for tongue blisters. (Saklani and Jain 1994) Himachal (India) Decoction used to treat urinary infections. Entire lichen boiled in water or goat's chanchal milk. (Sharma 1997) Stereocaulon paschale (L.) Hoffm. Mistissini Cree (Quebec) Used to treat rheumatism/arthritis associated with diabetes. (Fraser 2006; Leduc wapskirnok et al 2006) Used for spontaneous external bleeding, other bleeding, and dizziness. Drink China decoction. Other names include: 指状珊瑚衣 (zhǐ zhuàng shānhú yī), 东方珊瑚东方珊瑚枝 (Dōngfāng 衣 (Dōngfāng shānhú yī), 东方衣 (Dōngfāng yī) (Hu et al 1980; Wang and shānhú zhī, ‘Oriental coral branch’), 石寄生 (shí jìshēng, Qian 2013) ‘stone parasite’) Stereocaulon vulcani (Bory) Ach. Réunion Boiled to treat ulcers. Roasted and used to treat cankers. Mixed with sulfur, fleur de roche; or fleur galet Hubertia ambavilla [endemic shrub], and coconut oil to make an ointment for wounds. Used in a drink to stop vaginal discharges. Boiled in water with a handful of Hylocereus undatus roots [cactus], Tribulus cistoides, and a piece of Argemone mexicana root [poppy] and drunk to treat syphilis. (Lavergne 1989) Table 14. Collemataceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture Leptogium spp. (Ach.) Gray Ayurveda (India) Traditional use Occasional adulterant in charila (see Parmotrema nilgherrense). (Chanda and Singh 1971) Table 15. Lobariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Crocodia aurata Link (Galloway & Elix) [syn. Pseudocyphellaria aurata] Ambavaniasy (Madagascar) Used as tea to treat indigestion. (Sharnoff 1997) Dendriscosticta wrightii (Tuck.) B. Moncada & Lücking [syn. Sticta wrightii] China Used for indigestion, and edema from kidney inflammation. (Wang and 深杯牛皮叶 (shēn bēi niúpí yè), 老 Qian 2013) 龙皮 (lǎo lóng pí, ‘old dragon skin’), 宽叶牛皮叶 (kuān yè niúpí yè) Lobaria spp. (Schreber) Hoffm. [partial syn. Sticta spp.] Bhutan Pulverized and made into a paste to cure skin diseases. (Søchting 1999) Northwest Yunnan (China) Whole plant used to treat indigestion. (Ju et al 2013) qingwapi Gitksan (BC, Canada) Used as arthritis medicine, a tonic, and a spiritual health-promoting and gwilalh ganaaw (‘frog blankets’) purification treatment. Aqueous infusion used as tea or a bath. (Johnson 1997) Haida (BC, Canada) Ingredient in several different medicinal mixtures. Also called hlk’inx̲a k̲ayd gyaa’ad (‘tree blanket’) k̲wii’awaay (‘forest cloud’); or xil k̲wii.awaa (‘cloud leaves’). (Turner 2004a) 29 Table 15. Lobariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Nuxalk sts’wakt-aak Makah (Washington, USA) didi’dichia (‘growing on rocks’) Lobaria isidiosa (Müll. Arg.) Vain. China 裂芽肺衣 (liè yá fèi yī), 老龙皮 (lǎo lóng pí, ‘old dragon skin’), 珊瑚芽肺衣 (shānhú yá fèi yī) Lobaria kurokawae Yoshim. China 光肺衣 (guāng fèi yī), 老龙皮 (lǎo lóng pí, ‘old dragon skin’), 石龙衣 (shí lóng yī, ‘stone dragon clothes’), 老龙七 (lǎo lóng qī, ‘old dragon seven’) Lobaria orientalis (Asahina) Yoshim. China 东方肺衣 (Dōngfāng fèi yī), 青蛙皮 (qīngwā pí, ‘frog skin’) Lobaria oregana (Tuck.) Müll. Arg. Gitga’at (BC, Canada) nagaganaw (‘frog dress’) Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm. Europe (early modern era) muscus pulmonarius (Latin); lungwort, lungs of oak, oak lung (English); hazelraw (Scotland); crotal coille (Ireland); lungenkraut (German) Molise (Italy) Turkey India golmataghosa (Bengal) Traditional use Used for stomach pains, but not diarrhoea, constipation, or vomiting. Only collected from Cornus stolonifera [dogwood] or Pyrus diversifolia [crabapple], boiled, and five cups of hot decoction are drunk daily. Decoction also used as an eyewash. Also, plant pulverized and applied to skin. (Smith 1929; Turner 1973) When found on rocks it is used for running sores that are hard to heal, especially sores on the leg caused by bruises from walking among rocks (Densmore 1939). The identity of this lichen is uncertain: most Lobaria and Sticta species grow on trees. Used for indigestion, reducing inflammation, relieving pain, burns and scalds, edema due to kidney inflammation, and malnutrition in children. (Hu et al 1980; Wang and Qian 2013) Same as Chinese use of L. pulmonaria, but not used for severe itching of skin. (Wang and Qian 2013) Same as Chinese use of L. pulmonaria. (Wang and Qian 2013) Boiled with juniper and used as medicine for sore throats. Best for medicine if collected off Abies lasiocarpa [fir]. (Turner and Thompson 2006) Its use for lung ailments goes back at least as far as the late 1400s (von Kaub 1485) and was widespread throughout Europe through to the 1600s (L’Obel 1576; Parkinson and Marshall 1640; Ray 1686). Its popularity then waned, only being used in certain areas like the Scottish Highlands and New Forest (England), but many authors remained convinced of its efficacy (Watson 1756; Withering 1801; Pereira 1850; Wise 1863; Cameron 1900; de Crespigny and Hutchinson 1903). It was mainly used in lung ailments (eg., tuberculosis, asthma, coughs, spitting blood), but also for liver diseases, as an appetite stimulant, for diarrhoea, for heavy menstrual flow, to stop bleeding, and for jaundice. It was usually boiled with water or milk and drunk, or made into an ointment for external use. It was also used for lung ailments in livestock in England, Germany, and Sweden (De Grey 1639; Willemet 1787; Drummond 1861). Applied to cuts as an antiseptic and healing agent. (Guarrera et al 2008) Used as a laxative cream and for treatment of respiratory disorders. (Atalay et al 2014) Used for haemorrhages, lung troubles, asthma, and strengthening hair. The hill men use it for curing eczema on the head and cleaning hair. (Biswas 1956) 30 Table 15. Lobariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Afghanistan gul-i-sang (‘stone flowers’) Traditional use Applied to newborn child’s navel to dry and heal wound. Used as contraceptive, 4 different methods: (1) consume the lichen with water during menstrual period (Kabul); (2) dry, grind, and pop the resulting power into the mouth like snuff for 3 days during menstrual period (Kunduz); (3) grind and consume 24 hours after giving birth (Kabul); (4) men consume the lichen (Kabul). (Hunte et al 1975) China Used for indigestion, malnutrition in children, abdominal distention, 肺衣 (fèi yī), 兜衣 (dōu yī), 蛤蚂七 ascarid infestation, burns and scalds, edema due to kidney inflammation, (há mǎ qī), 石龙皮 (shí lóng pí, local swelling, reducing inflammation, relieving pain, and severe itching ‘stone dragon skin’), 石龙衣 (shí of skin. Drink decoction or apply powder to the affected area. (Hu et al lóng yī, ‘stone dragon clothes’), 牛皮 1980; Wang and Qian 2013) 叶 (niúpí yè, ‘leather leaf’) Manila (Philippines) Added to jelly made from a red algae (possibly Hydropuntia edulis or Betaphycus gelatinus) and sugar and used to treat chest ailments. (Martens 1866) Nlaka’pamux (BC, Canada) Previously used medicinally, details forgotten. (Turner et al 1990) ʔes-tə/kᵂl’-ít tək p’ə·/p’éy’ɬe tək /qᵂzém (‘yellowish frog moss’) Coast Tsimshian (BC, Canada) Used medicinally. (Johnson 2006) Hesquiat (BC, Canada) Applied to the faces of children when their skin is peeling. Also used as ƛ̓acƛ̓astuphc̓um medicine for coughing up blood. (Turner and Efrat 1982) Saanich (BC, Canada) Same as Saanich use of Parmelia sulcata (possible birth control). (Turner and Hebda 2012) Cuijingo (Puebla, Mexico) Medicine for lung ailments (Hersch-Martínez 1997) Lobaria quercizans Michaux [syn. Sticta glomulifera in N.A.] Menominee (Wisconsin, USA) Eaten as a tonic and as medicine for run-down systems. Only picked off wakûn hard maple or hemlock trees. Cooked in soups. (Smith 1923) Lobaria retigera (Bory) Trevis. Same as Chinese use of L. pulmonaria. Other names include: 石龙皮 (shí China lóng pí, ‘stone dragon skin’), 石龙衣 (shí lóng yī, ‘stone dragon clothes’), 网肺衣 (wǎng fèi yī), 老龙皮 (lǎo 癞肚皮 (lài dùpí), 石花 (shí huā, ‘stone flower’) (Hu et al 1980; Wang lóng pí, ‘old dragon skin’), 蛇皮苔 and Qian 2013) (shé pí tái, ‘snake skin moss’), Lobaria sublaevis (Nyl.) Yoshim. China Used for indigestion, edema, inflammation, and pain relief. (Wang and 亚平肺衣 (yà píng fèi yī), 老龙皮 Qian 2013) (lǎo lóng pí, ‘old dragon skin’) Lobaria yunnanensis Yoshim. China Same as Chinese use of L. pulmonaria. (Wang and Qian 2013) 云南肺衣 (Yúnnán fèi yī); 青蛙皮 (qīngwā pí, ‘frog skin’: nw Yunnan) Lobaria virens (With.) J.R. Laundon [syn. Lobaria laetevirens] Europe (early modern era) Occasionally listed in old European pharmacopoeias. (Gioanetto 1993) Sticta spp. (Schreber) Ach. Makah (Washington, USA) See Makah use of Lobaria spp. (Densmore 1939) Nuxalk See Nuxalk use of Lobaria spp. (Smith 1929) Table 16. Nephromataceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Nephroma arcticum (L.) Torss. Yup’ik (Alaska) kusskoak Traditional use Infusion with hot water is fed to a person in weak condition to make him strong, a very effective medicine. (Oswalt 1957) 31 Table 17. Peltigeraceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Peltigera spp. Willd. Dena'ina (Alaska, USA) k’udyika’a Haida (BC, Canada) hlk’inx̲a k̲wii’awaay (‘forest cloud’) or xil k̲wii.awaa (‘cloud leaves’) Oweekeno (BC, Canada) x̌xwp̓igà Ditidaht (BC, Canada) ƛ̓aƛ̓x̣ʔa·ʔaq (‘flat against the rock’) or ƛ̓i·ƛ̓i·dqᵂaqsibak̓kᵂ (‘resembles whale baleen’) Navajo (NM, USA) nihaλá∙d (‘earth moss’) Peltigera aphthosa (L.) Willd. China 绿皮地卷 (lǜ pí de juǎn), 老龙皮 (lǎo lóng pí, ‘old dragon skin’) Europe (early modern era) Traditional use Decoction drunk for tuberculosis and prolonged bleeding. Umbiliaria spp. are also used (Kari 1987) Ingredient in several different medicinal mixtures. (Turner 2004a) Thallus pounded, mixed with spruce pitch, and used to dress wounds. (Compton 1993) A grey Peltigera growing on rocks that was used to induce urination. Picked, washed, squashed, and eaten. (Turner et al 1983) May be chewed like Xanthoparmelia sp. for cankers, swollen gums, and decayed teeth. (Wyman and Harris 1941) Used to improve digestion. (Wang and Qian 2013) As early as the 1700s, it was used as medicine to treat thrush (mouth ulcers) in children. Make an infusion in milk and drink. It induces vomiting in large doses. Also used to expel worms. (Gedner 1756; Strandman 1769; Willemet 1787; Withering 1801; Luyken 1809; Lindley 1838) Tlingit (Alaska, USA) Dried, powdered, and used to treat burns and scalds. (Emmons 1991) Ditidaht (BC, Canada) Chewed and eaten for tuberculosis. Also used as poultice for sores on the t̓it̓idiččʔa· (‘rocks growing on rocks’) legs. (Turner et al 1983) Nlaka’pamux (BC, Canada) Used to rub on beestings. (Turner et al 1990) p’ə∙/p’éy’ɬe tək /qᵂzém (‘frog moss’) or p’ə∙/p’éy’ɬeh=éy’st (‘frog’s rocks’) Peltigera britannica (Gyelnik) Holt.-Hartw. and Tønsberg Ditidaht (BC, Canada) Possibly same as Ditidaht use of P. aphthosa. (Turner et al 1983) Peltigera canina (L.) Willd. Britain A plant called the star of the earth was used as a cure for rabies in Britain lichen cinereus terrestris (Latin); dog as early as the 1600s. In the oldest record, this is definitely a vascular plant lichen or ash coloured ground (De Grey 1639), but later authors decided that it was P. canina (Gourdon liverwort (English); lus ghoinnich or 1687; Dampier and Sloane 1698). The remedy was popularized in 1720 by gearan (Gaelic, from Cameron 1900) Dr. Mead and in the London Pharmacopoeia for 1721. It enjoyed a short period of renown (Mortimer 1735; Hartley et al 1737), before people began to become suspicious of its efficacy (Steward 1738; Ranby and Peters 1744; Layard 1757; Lightfoot 1777). It was still being used in some areas in Wales in the early 1800s (Trevelyan 1909; Allen and Hatfield 2004). Dried lichen and black pepper were pulverized and mixed into warm milk. This remedy was called pulvis antilyssus. Lithuania Name means ‘dog’s medicine bear paw’. (Kolosova et al 2017) meškapėdė šunvaistė China Used for rabies and jaundice (Wang and Qian 2013) 犬地卷 (quǎn de juǎn) India Used for rabies and jaundice in India (Biswas 1956); Tonic and medicine ghosa (Bengali) for liver complaints in the Himalayas (Subramanian and Ramakrishnan 1964). Hesquiaht (BC, Canada) Unspecified medicine. (Turner and Efrat 1982) 32 Table 17. Peltigeraceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Peltigera membranacea (Ach.) Nyl. [syn. Peltigera canina var. membranacea] Kwakwaka’wakw (BC, Canada) Used as a love charm. (Boas 1921) tl’extl’ekw’és (‘seaweed of the ground’) Peltigera polydactylon (Neck.) Hoffm. [syn. Peltigera polydactyla] Himalayas (Sikkim, India) Used as antiseptic and to stop bleeding, thalli made into paste and put on Jhau (Lepchas) cuts (Lepchas). Used to treat unspecified respiratory problems. (Saklani and Jain 1994; O’Neill et al 2017) Himachal Pradesh (India) Lichen is washed, pounded, and boiled in goat's milk; the resulting mash is sharda soaked in cow's urine to be used as an antiseptic over cuts and bruises. (Sharma 1997) China Used for traumatic injuries and to strengthen the constitution. (Wang and 多指地卷 (duō zhǐ de juǎn), 多指地 Qian 2013) 卷 (duō zhǐ de juǎn), 牛皮叶 (niúpí yè, ‘leather leaf’), 地卷草 (de juǎn cǎo) Iroquois (Ontario, Canada) Tea used to induce vomiting and as an anti-love medicine. Either makes loved one return or unbewitches you. (Herrick 1995) Table 18. Teloschistaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Polycauliona candelaria (L.) Frödén, Arup, & Søchting [syn. Xanthoria candelaria] Europe (early modern era) Boiled with milk to treat jaundice, along with Xanthoria parietina (Tonning 1769). Rusavskia elegans (Link) S. Y. Kondr. & Kärnefelt [syn. Xanthoria elegans] Afghanistan Ground and applied to infected wounds for humans and livestock (Wakhi). Ground rabooch (ɾa’bɔtʃ, ‘stone dirt’) and applied to wounds on livestock; or ground, mixed in butter, and fed to livestock (Wakhi); engelchek (especially yak calves) with diarrhoea (Kyrgyz). Other lichen species may also be (энгелчек) (Kyrgyz) used. (Soelberg and Jäger 2016) Teloschistes flavicans (Sw.) Norm. China Used to clear heat in the lungs and liver, and to remove toxins. (Wang and Qian 黄枝衣 (huáng zhī yī, 2013) ‘yellow branch clothes’), 赛桂 (sài guì, in Tibet) Xanthomendoza fallax (Hepp ex Arnold) Søchting, Kärnefelt, and S. Y. Kondr [syn. Xanthoria fallax] China Used in traditional Tibetan medicine. (Salick et al 2006) Lhasa (Tibet) Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. Andalucia (Spain) Decoction in wine for menstrual complaints (Campohermoso). Decoction in water flor de piedra (‘stone for kidney disorders (Barranquete, Cueva de los Medinas, Joya, Pozo de los Frailes, flower’) or rompepiedra and Puebloblanco). Decoction in water for toothaches (Fernan Pérez and Joya). An (‘stone breaker’) analgesic for several pains (Fuente del Escribano). Ingredient in a cough syrup with Ceratonia siliqua, Ficus carica, and Prunus amygdalus fruits; Olea europaea and Origanum vulgare leaves and flowers; and lots of sugar or honey (San Isidro Jiménez). (González-Tejero et al 1995) Europe (early modern era) Boiled with milk to treat jaundice, along with Polycauliona candelaria (Tonning common yellow wall moss 1769). Used for diarrhoea and dysentery, to stop bleeding, and as a quinine replacement for malaria (Willemet 1787; Luyken 1809; Lindley 1838; Pereira 1850; Lebail 1853). Also used for hepatitis (Gioanetto 1993). China Used medicinally as an antibacterial. (Wang and Qian 2013) 石黄衣 (shí huáng yī, ‘stone yellow clothes’) 33 Table 19. Roccellaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Roccella sp. Ancient Greece φῦκος θαλάσσιον (phŷkos thalássion, ‘marine phycos’), ballaris, irane, or gnomeusilum Sicuani (Peru) Traditional use A cryptogam growing on seashore rocks is recorded by Dioscorides in section 4.99 of De Materia Medica (50 to 70 CE). Recommended for inflammations and gout in the feet that needs to be reduced (López Eire et al 2006). Possibly a marine algae, but identified by Richardson (1974b) as Roccella sp. Two Roccella sp. sold in indigenous market: one for coughs and one for fever. (Sharnoff 1997) Roccella decipiens Darb. [syn. Roccella babingtonii] Seri (Sonora, Mexico) Tea: shortness of breath and fever. Ground, moistened, and strained: filtrate put heecoj or ?èekkiix on a burn or sore. Ground with clay and water: fever and diarrhoea. Ground and mixed with water: bathe child with fever. (Felger and Moser 1985) Roccella fuciformis (L.) DC. Pondicherry (India) Used to clean hair and cure eczema on the skull and back or the ear. (Biswas mathaghasa (‘to rub on skull’) 1947) Roccella phycopsis Ach. [Roccella tinctoria] France Remedy for tickling in the throat (France). Used in Mauritius for a medicinal orseille or orchal broth (may refer to all fruticose lichens). (de Candolle 1816; Lebail 1853) Madras (India) Unspecified drug. (Biswas 1947) Table 20. Ophioparmaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Ophioparma lapponica (Räs.) R. W. Rogers & Hafellner China Same Chinese use as O. ventosa. (Wang and Qian 2013) 拉普兰红盘衣 (Lāpǔlán hóng pán yī), 岩石赤星衣 (yánshí chì xīng yī) Ophioparma ventosa (L.) Norman China Used externally to stop bleeding from external injury, relieve pain. 红盘衣 (hóng pán yī), 石霜 (shí (Wang and Qian 2013) shuāng, ‘stone frost’), 赤星衣 (chì xīng yī) Table 21. Umbilicariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Lasallia papulosa (Ach.) Llano [syn. Umbilicaria papulosa] Ekuanitshit (Quebec, Canada) Tea used for urinary problems. (Clément 1990; Uprety et al uâkuanâpishku 2012) Umbilicaria spp. Hoffm. Dena'ina (Alaska, USA) Decoction drunk for tuberculosis and prolonged bleeding. qalnigi jegha (‘rock ear’) Also used Peltigera spp. (Kari 1987) Inuit (Quebec, Canada) Used as a tea to treat tuberculosis. (Stevens et al 1984; Sharnoff 1997) Umbilicaria esculenta (Miyoshi) Minks [syn. Gyrophora esculenta] Japan An esteemed food that promotes longevity when eaten. 石耳 (iwatake) (Kawagoe 1925; Sato 1968) Korea Used to treat dysentery, anal fistula, stomachache, fever, 석이버섯(seogi-beoseot, ‘stone ear mushroom’), night-blindness, and cancer. (Lee 1966; Kim et al 2006) 석이(seogi, ‘stone ear’) 34 Table 21. Umbilicariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name China 美味石耳 (měiwèi shí ěr, ‘delicious stone ear’), 石耳 (shí ěr, ‘stone ear’), 石壁花 (shíbì huā, ‘stone wall flower’), 地耳 (de ěr, ‘earth ear’), 石木耳 (shí mù'ěr, ‘stone black fungus’), 岩萌 (yán méng, ‘cliff bud’), 灵芝 (língzhī), 胳衣 (gē yī) Umbilicaria hypococcinae (Jatta) Llano China 红腹石耳 (hóng fù shí ěr, ‘red-bellied stone ear’), 红石耳 (hóng shí ěr, ‘red stone ear’), 石耳子 (shí ěr zi, ‘stone ear’s child’), 茁底石耳 (zhuó dǐ shí ěr), 红腹脐衣 (hóng fù qí yī) Umbilicaria mammulata (Ach.) Tuck. Attikamekw (Quebec, Canada) asine-wakunik Nihitahawak Cree (Saskatchewan, Canada) asinīwākon Traditional use Used for tuberculosis, spontaneous external bleeding, intestinal bleeding, rectal hernia into the vagina, bloody and cloudy urination, vaginal discharge, snakebites, and cuts. Drink decoction; or apply externally to the affected area. (Hu et al 1980; Wang and Qian 2013) Used for indigestion, distention, pain in stomach duct and abdomen, dysentery, and malnutrition in children. Drink decoction. (Wang and Qian 2013) During difficult childbirth the lichen is boiled and placed on a woman’s stomach. (Raymond 1945) Made into soup as nourishment for sick person, as it will not upset the stomach. Lichen cleaned, broken into small pieces, and very hot water poured over it and water discarded. Lichen then added to fish broth and cooked 5–10 minutes, soup thickened as it cooled. (Leighton 1985) Umbilicaria muhlenbergii (Ach.) Tuck. [syn. Actinogyra muhlenbergii] Chipewyan (Saskatchewan, Canada) Used to expel tapeworms. Lichen is burned slightly in a frying thetsín pan, mashed well, and then boiled to make a syrup which is drunk. It can be chewed for the same purpose. (Marles 1984; Marles et al 2000) Cree (Manitoba, Canada) Decoction given to someone with a stomachache to ‘clean out asinīwāhkona, wakoonak, or asinīwākon the stomach’. (Marles et al 2000) Tłı̨ chǫ (NWT, Canada) Soup eaten as a tonic and for breathing problems. (Rebesca et kwechi al 1994; Uprety et al 2012) Umbilicaria nanella Frey et Poelt China Used for indigestion, stomachache, dysentery, malnutrition in 小黑腹石耳 (xiǎo hēi fù shí ěr), 黑石耳 (hēi shí children, expelling ascarid parasites, vaginal discharges, ěr, ‘black stone ear’), 黑脐衣 (hēi qí yī), 黑石耳 glomus tumors, and reducing swelling. Drink decoction. 子 (hēi shí ěr zi), 裂叶石耳 (liè yè shí ěr), 盘形 (Wang and Qian 2013) 石耳 (pán xíng shí ěr) Umbilicaria vellea (L.) Ach. China Used for eye infections, bloody feces, and rectal hernia into 绒毛石耳 (róngmáo shí ěr, ‘fluffy stone ear’) the vagina. (Wang and Qian 2013) Table 22. Icmadophilaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Siphula sp. Fr. Northern Peru pelo de piedra Traditional use Unspecified medicine. Oral aqueous application. (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a) 35 Table 22. Icmadophilaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Thamnolia subuliformis (Ehrh.) W. Culb. Nakhi (nw Yunnan, China) Used for inflammation. Boiling water added to dry thalli in cup and 雪地茶 (xuě dì chá, ‘snow ground tea’), infusion is drunk after 3–5 minutes. May be same as Nakhi use of T. 太白茶 (tàibái chá, ‘white tea’), 石白 vermicularis. (Wang et al 2001; Fu et al 2005) 茶 (shí bái chá, ‘stone white tea’), 太白针 (tàibái zhēn, ‘white needle’),雪茶 (xuě chá, ‘snow tea’), 白雪茶 (bái xuě chá, ‘white snow tea’) Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Ach. ex Schaerer [syn. Cladonia vermicularis] Nakhi (nw Yunnan, China) A widely recognized medicinal plant, tea used to tranquilize the mind xiare, 地茶 (de chá, ‘earth tea’), 雪茶 and clear heat. Also used for sunstroke, eye irritation, coughs, sore (xuě chá, ‘snow tea’), 太白茶 (tàibái throat, inflammation, high blood pressure, fevers, epilepsy, and a chá, ‘white tea’), 石白茶 (shí bái chá, decrease in vital energy. Boiling water added to dry thalli in cup and ‘stone white tea’), 太白针 (tàibái zhēn, infusion is drunk after 3–5 minutes. (Wang et al 2001; Jiang et al 2002; ‘white needle’), 太白菜 (tàibái cài, Fu et al 2005; Salick et al 2006; Byg et al 2010; Ju et al 2013; Wang and ‘white vegetable’), 蛔样地衣 (huí yàng Qian 2013) dìyī), (bái xuě chá, ‘white snow tea’) Ayurvedic (Uttarakhand & Himachal Germicide to preserve milk and other dairy products. Lichen is dried and Pradesh, India) burned, and milk is exposed to the smoke. (Sharma 1997) swarn Bhotia (Uttarakhand, India) Used to preserve buttermilk. A handful of lichen is put in a wide cup chhai dhoop containing burning coal and the smoke directed into the milk. It kills the 1-2 mm long white worms that grow in milk. (Upreti and Negi 1996) South America Used to stimulate the stomach. (Lindley 1838) contrayerba blanca Sierra Nevada del Cocuy (Colombia) Taken as infusion or chewed for toothache and asthma. Consumed fresh neblilla or neblina when walking in mountains to obtain energy for physically demanding activities, alleviate thirst, and cleanse the chest. (Rodríguez et al) Aymara (Bolivia) Infusion drunk for cough and hoarseness. (Macía et al 2005) wari kunka Table 23. Megasporaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Aspicilia spp. Tehran (Iran) ‫( شير زاد‬sher ziad), chir zadi, or agalactie Traditional use Ingredient in wine and medicinal compounds in 9th to 13th century Arabic writings (Crum 1993). Used to increase the flow of human milk (Hooper 1937). Likely includes numerous vagrant species, including: Aspicilia esculenta, A. jussuffii, A. fruticulosa, and A. hispida (Sohrabi and Ahti 2010). Table 24. Pertusariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Lepra albescens (Hudson) Hafellner [syn. Pertusaria albescens, Variolaria discoidea] Europe (early modern era) Used to treat malaria, along with P. amara. (Lindley 1838) Lepra amara (Ach.) Hafellner [syn. Pertusaria amara, Variolaria faginea] Europe (early modern era) Used to treat malaria, along with P. albescens. (Lindley 1838) Pertusaria pertusa (Weigel) Tuck. [syn. Pertusaria communis] Europe (early modern era) Cure for malaria, more effective for men. Also used for intermittent toothache, and powdered and used to kill worms. (Lebail 1853) 36 Table 24. Pertusariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Varicellaria velata (Turner) Schmitt & Lumbsch [syn. Pertusaria velata] China Used to stop bleeding and relieve pain. External use only. (Wang and Qian 包被鸡皮衣 (bāo bèi jī píyī), 石 2013) 箱 (shí xiāng, ‘stone box’) Table 25. Verrucariaceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Dermatocarpon miniatum (L.) W. Mann China Used for high blood pressure, as a diuretic, for expelling parasites, for 皮果衣 (pí guǒ yī), 白石耳 (bái malnutrition in children, for dysentery, for improving digestion, and for shí ěr, ‘white stone ear’), 黑石耳 abdominal distention. Drink decoction or eat as soup. (Wang and Qian 2013) (hēi shí ěr, ‘black stone ear’), 石耳子 (shí ěr zi, ‘young stone ear’), 岩菇 (yán gū, ‘rock mushroom’) Table 26. Hygrophoraceae used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Traditional use Dictyonema huaorani Dal-Forno, Schmull, Lücking, and Lawrey Huaorani (Amazon, Ecuador) Mixed with several species of bryophyte, made into an infusion, and drunk by nɇnɇndapɇ shaman to cause hallucinations and call on wenae (malevolent spirits) to curse people. Also causes sterility. (Davis and Yost 1983; Schmull et al. 2014) Table 27. Unidentified lichens used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Xhosa (South Africa) mthafathafa Vhasenzi & Vhalemba (Venda, South Africa) Tommo So (Dogonland, Mali) nyengegi Trentepohlia jolithus [Lepraria iolithus] New Forest (England) brighten Slieve Aughty (Ireland) dub-cosac Saami (Sweden) Ogliastra (Sardina, Italy) lana d’arbore Brahuis (Balochistan, Pakistan) Traditional use An unidentified rock lichen is used to treat gonorrhoea. Fresh lichen is crushed and mixed with water, and infusion is drunk. Lichen also dried over fire and crushed, and powder is applied to wound's infected area (Matsiliza and Barker 2001). See also KhoiSan use of Xanthoparmelia hottentotta. Unidentified lichen growing on Englerophytum magalismontanum tree is an ingredient in medicine. Also prepared and burnt to invoke ancestral spirits during malombo (Vhasenzi) or mbila (Vhalemba) dances. (Mabogo 1990) Unidentified epiphytic lichen/moss growing on Adansonia digitata trees is powdered, mixed with Lannea microcarpa seed oil, and then applied to deep boils. (Inngjerdingen et al 2004) A non-lichenized algae considered a lichen in early literature. Used for small pox and measles. (Luyken 1809) An unidentified lichen is recommended for weak eyes. (Wise 1863) An unidentified lichen is good for heart trouble. (Allen and Hatfield 2004) Unidentified ground lichens. A piece of sod probably containing lichens is rubbed on affected area with an accompanying incantation to treat psoriasis, small pox, chicken pox, and eczema. (DuBois and Lang 2013) Unidentified arboreal lichen is applied externally as an antiseptic and to relieve foot perspiration and irritation. (Loi et al 2004) An unidentified rock lichen that is extremely bitter is used medicinally in diseases of languor and oppression of the life force. The lichen is dried and crushed. They swallow the powder, and then drink water. (Masson 1842; Hooper 1937) 37 Table 27. Unidentified lichens used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Rotuma (Fiji) rimi Dena’ina (Alaska, USA) sheh tsadn nde Tlingit (Alaska, USA) Traditional use A grey lichen found on coconut tree trunks is used to make medicine used in treating high fevers and/or convulsions. (McClatchey 1993) A large foliose lichen is used for coughs, tuberculosis, and general sickness. Boil and drink decoction. Also used for bleeding that won’t stop. (Garibaldi 1999) Lichens from the ground in the woods are used for sores. Crushed and then heated on rocks with seal oil and mountain goat tallow. (de Laguna 1972) Chipewyan (Alberta, Canada) White crustose lichens on aspen bark, along with the dead tree periderm, are scraped off and put on cuts and deep wounds to stop bleeding. (Marles et al 2000) Niitsitapii (Alberta, Canada) Mixed with kinnikinnick leaves and shredded willow bark to make a smoking mixture (Russell 1973). Cited by Siegel (1989) who added the claim that it was narcotic (Siegel 2013 pers. comm.) and was then cited by Pollan (2001) who added the claim that it was hallucinogenic. Nihitahawak Cree White crustose lichens on aspen bark, along with the dead tree periderm, are (Saskatchewan, Canada) scraped off and used to stop bleeding and to treat venereal disease. (Leighton 1985) Algonquin (Quebec, Canada) White crustose lichens on birch bark used for diaper rash and other skin rashes. (Black 1980) Tewa (California, USA) k̑ukʽowà is pulverized and applied to lips for cold sores, rubbed on sores about a k̑ukʽowà (‘rock skin’); nǎŋ’a child’s mouth, and put into the cavity of a decayed tooth to stop pain. nǎŋ’a is (‘earth clothing’) applied to teeth and gums to cure toothache (Robbins et al 1916). See also Hopi use of Xanthoparmelia sp. Northern Paiute (Nevada, USA) Black, orange, and yellow lichens on rocks are used as important antibiotics and tuh-b̲ot̲ z̲ ̲a-̲ yo-caw-son; or lizard fungicides. Powdered material is applied as a healing agent to sores, especially semen mouth sores of children. (Train et al 1941; Sharnoff 1997) Western Shoshone (Nevada, Black, orange, and green lichens on rocks. Diarrhoea medicine: soak overnight USA) in water and drink the solution. Smallpox medicine: powder and boil with t̲im ̲ ̲b̲e-̲ boon-goo Purshia leaves and dried mountain rat urine; drink half cup of solution morning and night. (Train et al 1941) Southern Paiute (Nevada, USA) Unidentified lichen is ground up, mixed with water, and used as poultice for timpapsuchicu sores on mouth and elsewhere. (Stoffle et al 1989, 1994) Northern Paiute and Western Same use for unidentified lichen as Southern Paiute. (Stoffle et al 1989) Shoshone Hopi (Arizona, USA) Yellow lichens on rocks are applied to cheeks to reduce swelling and relieve toothache (Beaglehole and Beaglehole 1935). See also Hopi use of Xanthoparmelia sp. Kewa Pueblo and Hispanics Grey lichens are boiled until green and given to one who talks and laughs to (New Mexico, USA) himself. Also good for headaches (Kewa). Also rubbed on gums as cure for yerba de la piedra (Spanish) inflamed gums or powdered and applied on any kind of sore or injury (Hispanics). (Curtin 1965) Ka'igwu (Oklahoma, USA) Lichens on the north side of tree trunk are dried, powdered, and applied to sore gums for abscesses and teething infants. Also mixed with smoking tobacco for a mildly soporific effect. (Vestal and Schultes 1939) Seri (Sonora, Mexico) Grey foliose and orange crustose lichens on rocks are taken as a tea to induce hast yamása (‘rock lichen’) vomiting. (Felger and Moser 1985) Huastec (Mexico) An unidentified arboreal lichen is used as an unspecified obstetricaltsakam k’uthay (‘little Tillandsia gynecological medicine and for bleeding. (Alcorn 1984) usneoides’) Lacadone (Chiapas, Mexico) Unidentified lichens are invoked in magical healing of skin eruptions. (Sharnoff 1997) Quichua (Loja, Ecuador) There are 7 different colours of lichens on rocks. If all 7 colours are boiled in a musgo de piedra drink, it will cure a person with a chronic illness who is about to die. (Abel 2009 pers. comm.) 38 Table 27. Unidentified lichens used in traditional medicines around the world Culture and folk name Loja (Ecuador) Denís & Kinja (Amazonas, Brazil) baduhu-tsinã (‘deer snuff’) White crustose lichen Witoto/Bora (Loreto, Peru) Chácobo (Beni, Bolivia) Aymara (Titicaca, Bolivia) pampa untu (‘wild llama fat’) Traditional use An unidentified lichen is used for an unspecified medicine. 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