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Challenges in Responsible Production of Aquatic Species
Proceedings of the International Workshop on
Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture
Practices in Southeast Asia 2014 (RESA)
Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia
Fe D. Parado-Estepa
Nerissa D. Salayo
Ma. Junemie Hazel Lebata-Ramos
Editors
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
AQUACULTURE DEPARTMENT
Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines
www.seafdec.org.ph
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Challenges in Responsible Production of Aquatic Species
Proceedings of the International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and
Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014 (RESA)
August 2015
ISBN: 978-971-9931-04-1
Copyright © 2015
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
Aquaculture Department
Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the publisher.
For inquiries
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department
Tigbauan 5021, Iloilo, Philippines
Tel (63-33) 330 7030; Fax (63-33) 330 7031
E-mail: aqdchief@seafdec.org.ph
Website: www.seafdec.org.ph
On the cover
Logo design courtesy of Mr. Demy D. Catedral of SEAFDEC/AQD
International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in
Southeast Asia (2014: Iloilo City, Philippines).
Resource enhancement and sustainable aquaculture practices in Southeast Asia: challenges
in responsible production of aquatic species : proceedings of the international workshop on
resource enhancement and sustainable aquaculture practices in Southeast Asia 2014 (RESA) /
Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia, Fe D. Parado-Estepa, Nerissa D. Salayo, Ma. Junemie Hazel L.
Ramos, editors. -- Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines : Aquaculture Dept., Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center, 2015, ©2015.
xviii, 371 pages : illustrations (chiefly color), maps (some color).
ISBN: 978-971-9931-04-1
1. Sustainable aquaculture -- Southeast Asia -- Congresses. 2. Aquatic resources conservation
-- Southeast Asia -- Congresses. 3. Aquatic resources -- Southeast Asia -- Management -Congresses. 4. Fish stocking -- Southeast Asia -- Congresses. 5. Hatchery releases -- Southeast
Asia -- Congresses. I. Romana-Eguia, Maria Rowena R., editor. II. Parado-Estepa, Fe D., editor.
III. Salayo, Nerissa D., editor. IV. Lebata-Ramos, Ma. Junemie Hazel, editor, V. SEAFDEC
Aquaculture Department.
SH 136 .S88 I58 2014
DLS2015-01
=FI<NFI;
We are all aware of the increasing pressure on our coastal resources to supply food and
income to many people living in the coastal areas in the region. Signs of over-exploitation of
many important marine resources are evident. The fishermen’s daily catch has dwindled and the
sizes of their catch have become smaller; they now have to go farther and spend a longer time at
sea to get some catch. This means that the rate of extracting the natural resources is faster than
their capability to reproduce and replenish themselves. This imbalance of resource extraction
and natural recruitment will ultimately result in the extinction of many of these important
species. Management measures need to be properly implemented to allow the resource to recover
and continue to support future generations. In addition, aquaculture practices that take into
consideration the health of the environment need to be promoted to ensure the sustainability of
the activity and maximize benefits for all in the long term.
With financial support from the Government of Japan Trust Fund, experts and representatives
from SEAFDEC member countries were gathered in a workshop to share experiences and
exchange ideas on resource enhancement and sustainable aquaculture practices. The proceedings
of the workshop are contained in this publication. This will be helpful as a guide and as an
additional source of information to those who are embarking on or engaged in resource
enhancement and aquaculture activities.
Felix G. Ayson, DSc.
Chief, SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department
iii
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It is with pleasure that we launch the proceedings of the “International Workshop on Resource
Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia”, held in Iloilo City from 5
to 7 March 2014.
This international workshop aimed to promote and augment regional initiatives on resource
enhancement and sustainable aquaculture practices, and to contribute to poverty alleviation,
livelihood and food security. A total of 149 participants attended the workshop, composed of
aquaculture and resource enhancement experts, scientists, representatives and observers from 11
Member Countries of SEAFDEC. It also featured 42 oral presentations and 15 poster papers. This
meeting was organized through the funding support of the Government of Japan.
The relationship of resource enhancement, sustainable aquaculture and healthy environment
is vital to the future development and sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture. For sustainable
aquaculture, we have to consider not only fish biomass for feeds, and broodstock for seeds in
natural resources, but also the healthy environment for their habitats. Stock releases in the wild
for enhancing depleted aquatic populations, are one of the effective ways to increase our natural
resources.
I hope that this proceedings will be utilized for the dissemination and promotion of
environment-friendly resource enhancement and sustainable aquaculture in the Southeast Asian
region.
Takuro Shibuno, Ph.D.
Deputy Chief and GOJ Trust Fund Co-Manager
v
D<JJ8><
The Aquaculture Department of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
(SEAFDEC/AQD) implemented regional programs on Resource Enhancement of Internationally
Threatened and Over-exploited Species in Southeast Asia through Stock Release (or Resource
Enhancement) and Promotion of Sustainable and Region-Oriented Aquaculture Practices
(Sustainable Aquaculture), these being important programs under the Fisheries Consultative
Group of the ASEAN-SEAFDEC Strategic Partnership (FCG/ASSP) Mechanism. These R&D
programs along with other two regional programs on Fish Health and Food Safety, were
conducted from 2010 to 2014 with financial support from the Government of Japan (GOJ-Trust
Fund). In March 2014, SEAFDEC/AQD, organized an international workshop on Resource
Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture (RESA) Practices in Southeast Asia at Iloilo City,
Philippines, as the milestone of these aforementioned regional programs. The workshop gathered
several distinguished local and international speakers and about 150 participants from 14
countries comprising of national and local government officers, academicians, as well as industry
stakeholders. It was a great opportunity for the participants to exchange timely information and
discuss research gaps and issues on broad topics under RESA practices in the Southeast Asia to
reduce poverty and secure livelihood in the region through further development of fisheries and
aquaculture.
As the program manager who launched these regional programs in 2010 and the chairperson
of the said international workshop, I am so happy that the invaluable information included
in this proceedings with full papers orally presented at the workshop, have become available
for use as reference by students, fisherfolks, aqua-farmers, practitioners, researchers, policy
makers, etc. Taking this opportunity, please allow me to say thank you very much to the authors
for their respective contribution to this proceedings. I would also like to express my sincerest
acknowledgements to Dr. Ma. Rowena R. Eguia, Dr. Fe Dolores Parado-Estepa, Dr. Nerissa Salayo,
Dr. Junemie Lebata-Ramos and other editorial staff of this proceedings for their hard work to
launch this issue after I left Iloilo as I ended my term in March 2014.
Finally, I hope for the further development of RESA practices in Southeast Asia, and I wish to
believe that this proceedings will make a great contribution to the pursuit of that aim.
Teruo Azuma, Ph. D.
Former Deputy Chief, SEAFDEC/AQD
Director, Fisheries Technology Division, National Research Institute of Fisheries Engineering,
Fisheries Research Agency of Japan
vii
B<PEFK<8;;I<JJ
By Dr. Chumnarn Pongsri, SEAFDEC Secretary-General
At the International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices
in Southeast Asia, 5-7 March 2014, Iloilo City, Philippines
This Workshop is important as it reiterates the critical fisheries scenario faced by the Southeast
Asian region as well as at the global level where the supply of fish and fishery products has been
limited by the deterioration of fishery resources and habitats; however, it should be noted that
the demand side has continued to increase over the years. The situation on deterioration of
fishery resources has called for improved utilization of fishery resources in a more responsible
and sustainable manner. Several initiatives were undertaken by countries in the Southeast Asian
region toward this, both on the aspect of capture fisheries and aquaculture. For aquaculture,
initiatives undertaken in the region cover ranges of R&D to come up with appropriate aquaculture
technologies; aquatic animal health management including disease surveillance and control;
safe use of chemicals and antibiotics in aquaculture; research on alternative protein sources
for aquaculture; and development and application of appropriate quality assurance systems in
order to comply with requirements of importing markets, etc. In addition to direct production
of aquaculture commodities, aquaculture technologies have also been developed and applied to
support resources enhancement.
SEAFDEC has also undertaken activities to support sustainable utilization of aquatic species
under international concerns, including scientific studies on the status of fishery resources in
order to serve as a basis for their conservation and management. SEAFDEC also has programs
and projects that aim to develop practical aquaculture technologies for species under international
concerns, including appropriate releasing strategies for resources enhancement. In addition,
SEAFDEC also takes leading roles in providing discussion forum among countries in the region
to come up with common conservation and management approaches for important species;
and the available scientific information and evidences on initiatives undertaken by the region
are envisaged to provide strong justification during further discussion at relevant international
fora in order to safeguard the fisheries sector of the region. As SEAFDEC Secretary General, let
me therefore encourage active inputs from the Workshop participants in order to come up with
fruitful results.
ix
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The Southeast Asian region has highly diverse marine flora and fauna. Many of these aquatic
species have been utilized for human food and trade, and yet continuously over-exploited for
decades. As a consequence, many species in the region have become threatened or endangered.
Public concern in environmental protection and marine resource conservation has also been
heightened. Immediate action towards replenishment of the over-exploited species is needed to
maintain and secure a wholesome ecosystem, which also supports sustainable fisheries for food
security and livelihood in the region.
Aquaculture is undoubtedly a practical way to reduce fishing pressure on wild aquatic species
and is an effective measure to fulfill man’s demand for food fish without harming wild resources.
Release programs, that actively repopulate local stocks, ascribe to the development of seed
production technologies in aquaculture. Moreover, aquaculture has continuously been addressing
the issues of food security and widespread poverty in the Southeast Asian region. However,
broodstock and fry of not a few aquaculture species, particularly high value species, still depend
on wild resources. Hence, fishing pressure on these species has seriously affected the sustainability
of the coastal resources.
Endeavors toward resource enhancement and sustainable aquaculture practices are
complement efforts in securing livelihood and decreasing poverty in Southeast Asia. With regard
to resource enhancement, stocking through release programs together with appropriate fishing
regulations are recognized as effective means to restore the population of overexploited aquatic
species. Although an array of seed production technologies and hatchery practices have been
developed for numerous species in several countries, thus far, practical information and skills
which could be utilized for stock enhancement are still lacking in most Southeast Asian countries.
Similarly, promotion of sustainable and environment-friendly aquaculture practices must be
pursued through the development of region-oriented technologies and knowledge.
In order to promote and augment regional initiatives on resource enhancement and
sustainable aquaculture practices, and to contribute to poverty alleviation, livelihood and food
security, the SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department held the International Workshop on Resource
Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia in 2014. Papers from
two plenary speakers, reports from SEAFDEC member countries’ representatives as well as
contributed papers on sustainable aquaculture and resource enhancement in the region were
presented and are now compiled in this conference proceedings. Finally, SEAFDEC/AQD
acknowledges the Government of Japan for fully supporting the workshop and this publication.
xi
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The Government of Japan through the Trust Fund Programs of the SEAFDEC Secretariat provided
financial support for the conduct of the International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and
Sustainable Aquaculture practices in Southeast Asia in March 2014 in Iloilo, Philippines, as well as,
the publication of this proceedings.
The editors also acknowledge the efforts of the Publication Review Committee of SEAFDEC/AQD
especially Dr. Relicardo M. Coloso, Dr. Maria Lourdes Cuvin-Aralar, Dr. Evelyn Grace de JesusAyson, Dr. Rolando Pakingking and Dr. Myrna B. Teruel for reviewing the draft of the proceedings
prior to its publication. Thanks are also due Ms. Imee S. Hacla for the copy-editing and layout.
xii
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FOREWORD
Dr. Felix G. Ayson
Chief, SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department
iii
MESSAGES
Dr. Takuro Shibuno
Deputy Chief, SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department
Dr. Teruo Azuma
Former Deputy Chief, SEAFDEC/AQD and Director, Fisheries Technology Division,
National Research Institute of Fisheries Engineering, Fisheries Research Agency of Japan
v
vii
KEYNOTE ADDRESS
Dr. Chumnarn Pongsri
SEAFDEC Secretary-General
ix
PREFACE
xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
xii
PLENARY PAPERS
Is Small-hold Tropical Aquaculture in a Genetic Plunge Towards Extinction?
Roger W. Doyle
Rapid Adaptation to a New Environment: Is it Reversible?
Hitoshi Araki
COUNTRY PAPERS
Cambodia
Current Status of Sustainable Aquaculture in Cambodia
Ouch Lang
Japan
Status of Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in
Japan
Koichi Okuzawa, Takayuki Takebe, Narisato Hirai and Kazumasa Ikuta
1
3
19
25
27
41
xiii
Malaysia
Status of Resource Management and Aquaculture in Malaysia
Aishah Yusoff
Myanmar
Inland Fisheries Resource Enhancement and Conservation Practices in
Myanmar
Htun Thein
Philippines
The Philippine National Aquasilviculture Program
Romeo E. Dieta and Florida C. Dieta
Viet Nam
Good Aquaculture Practices (VietGAP) and Sustainable Aquaculture
Development in Viet Nam
Nguyen Thi Bang Tam
67
77
85
Lao PDR
Country Status on Sustainable Aquaculture in Lao PDR
Thongkhoun Khonglaliane
93
Singapore
Current Status of Aquaculture in Singapore
Neo Chin Heng
95
Indonesia
Sustainable Aquaculture and Resources Enhancement in Indonesia
Setiawan Soetardjo and Irham Adhitya
97
Thailand
Milkfish: New Choice for Aquaculture in Thailand
Prapat Kosawatpat
99
CONTRIBUTED PAPERS
xiv
53
101
Assessment of Humphead Wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), Spawning
Aggregations and Declaration of Marine Protected Area as Strategy for
Enhancement of Wild Stocks
Filemon G. Romero and Akkil S. Injani
103
Stock Assessment of Christian Crabs (Charybdis feriatus, Linnaeus, 1758) in
San Miguel Bay
Plutomeo M. Nieves, Nelson R. Olfindo and Aldrin Mel Macale
121
Abalone Aquaculture for Stock Enhancement and Community Livelihood
Project in Northern Palawan, Philippines
Benjamin J. Gonzales
137
Social Preparations Towards Community-based Approach to Stock
Enhancement in Sagay Marine Reserve, Philippines
Nerissa D. Salayo, Raisa Joy G. Castel, Dianne Hope M. Tormon, Rafael T. Barrido,
Marie Frances J. Nievales and Teruo Azuma
147
Community-based Shrimp Stock Enhancement for Coastal Socio-ecological
Restoration in the Philippines
Jon Altamirano, Hisashi Kurokura, Nerissa Salayo, Didi Baticados, Jee Grace Suyo and
Satoshi Ishikawa
159
BFAR-CHED Philippine National Aquasilviculture Program (PNAP) in Bataan
Rudy C. Flores, Felicisima E. Tungol, Abraham S Antonio, Elizabeth D. Medairos and
Jonathan M. Salas
169
Marine Fish Hatchery: Developments and Future Trends
Clarissa L. Marte and Joebert D. Toledo
189
Hatchery Management Techniques for Tiger-tail Seahorse (Hippocampus
comes)
Shelah Mae B. Ursua and Teruo Azuma
201
Updates on the Seed Production of Mud Crab
Emilia T. Quinitio, Fe D. Parado-Estepa, Joana Joy Huervana and Michael Ray Burlas
207
Marker-aided Genetic Stock Management: Prospects in Philippine Aquatic
Biodiversity Conservation and Aquaculture
Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia, Minoru Ikeda and Akihiro Kijima
213
Feed Formulation for Sustainable Aquaculture
Relicardo M. Coloso
223
Potential of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) Meal as an Alternative Protein
Source in Diets for Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii, de
Man 1879)
Frolan A. Aya, Maria Lourdes Cuvin-Aralar and Relicardo M. Coloso
231
Application of the United States Soybean Export Council Program’s Soyoptimized Floating Feeds and Low Volume, High Density Cage Aquaculture
Technologies
Levy Loreto L. Manalac, Michael Cremer, Hsiang Pin Lan and Lukas Manomaitis
239
Utilization of Sensors and SMS Technology to Remotely Maintain the Level
of Dissolved Oxygen, Salinity and Temperature of Fishponds
Rodrigo C. Munoz, Reynan P. Calderon, Rudy C. Flores, Sisenando C. Masangcap,
Jayson P. Angeles and Mark Colentava
243
Reaching the Poor Through Aquaculture: The Case of Technology Adoption in
Rural Communities at West Central Philippines
Didi B. Baticados
251
xv
Marine Biodiversity at the SEAFDEC/AQD Research Stations in Iloilo and
Guimaras, Philippines
Teodora Uy Bagarinao
261
Targeting Essential Gene Utilizing RNA Interference to Protect the Ailing
Shrimp/Prawn Industry Against WSSV
Jassy Mary S. Lazarte and Mary Beth B. Maningas
283
ABSTRACTS OF ORAL PRESENTATIONS
SEAFDEC/AQD Stock Enhancement Initiatives: Release Strategies
Ma. Junemie Hazel Lebata-Ramos, Ellen Flor Doyola-Solis, Rema Sibonga, Joemel
Sumbing, Jeff Bogart Abroguena, August Santillan and Mark Dimzon
301
Responsible Shrimp Culture Through Ecological Approach
Eleonor A. Tendencia
305
Estimation of Energy Budget of Sea Cucumber, Holothuria scabra, in
Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture
Satoshi Watanabe, Masashi Kodama, Zenith Gaye A. Orozco, Joemel G. Sumbing,
Schedar Rose M. Novilla and Ma. Junemie Hazel Lebata-Ramos
307
Post-larval Rearing Strategies in Sandfish (Holothuria scabra) Culture
Marie Frances Nievales, Rema Sibonga and Harold Figurado
309
Induced Breeding of Giant Trevally, Maliputo (Caranx ignobilis)
Ma. Theresa M. Mutia, Frederick B. Muyot and Myleen L. Magistrado
311
Seed Production of the Blue Swimming Crab (Portunus pelagicus)
Nonita S. Cabacaba and Jimmy E. Salamida
313
Potential Genetic Impacts of Hatchery-Based Resource Enhancement
Zubaida U. Basiao
315
Good Aquaculture Practices (GAqP): Setting Directions for Harmonized
Regional Standards - The Philippine Experience
Mark F. Matubang and Nelson A. Lopez
317
The Importance of Mangroves to Capture and Culture Fisheries
Jurgenne H. Primavera
319
Stock Enhancement? Why Bother
Jose Ingles
321
ABSTRACTS OF POSTER PRESENTATIONS
Resource Assessment of Sea Cucumber in Northern Iloilo, Central
Philippines
Perry A. Alpasan and Romy A. Billones
xvi
299
323
325
Optimization of Feeding and Growth Conditions for Hatchery-bred
Larvae of Indigenous Philippine Silver Perch, Leiopotherapon plumbeus
(Perciformes: Terapontidae)
Julie Andrea Añano, Frolan Aya, Mark Nell Corpuz and Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia
327
Development of a Simple, Rapid, Cost-effective Diagnostic Kit for WSSV
Pocholo Mari T. Arabit, Amalea Dulcene D. Nicolasora, Patrick Ellis Z. Go,
Christopher Marlowe A. Caipang and Mary Beth B. Maningas
329
Larval Rearing of Silver Therapon (Leiopotherapon plumbeus) in Outdoor
Tanks
Frolan A. Aya, Vicar Stella N. Nillasca, Mark Nell C. Corpuz and Luis Maria B. Garcia
331
Preliminary Trials on the Effects of Weaning and Larval Diets on Survival
and Growth of Silver Therapon (Leiopotherapon plumbeus) Larvae
Frolan A. Aya , Vicar Stella N. Nillasca and Luis Maria B. Garcia
333
A Preliminary Study on the Diagnosis of Coral Reef Healthiness and
Establishment of Coral Replenishment Technology
Teruo Azuma, Jemar Jed Roble Tan, Jacques Zarate, Jon Altamirano, Joey Gatus and
Filipina Sotto
335
Preliminary Assessment of the Abundance and Fishery of Snapping Shrimp
(Alpheus sp.) in Calape, Bohol, Philippines
Jomel G. Baobao, Maria Danesa S. Rabia and Ernesto C. Rulida
337
Modelling the Impact of Different Stress Agents on Holothurian Immunity
Liudmila S. Dolmatova
339
Growth and Survival of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Juveniles Fed
Diets with Varying Levels of Irradiated Chitosan
Kristine Gonzales, Mark Nell Corpuz and Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia
341
Perceptions on the Effects of Maritime Activities on the Philippine Aquatic
Ecosystem
Enrique Java, Teresita Cruz and Isidro Yonggue Hernandez
343
Preliminary Trials on the Optimization of Hormone Dosages for Induced
Breeding of Philippine Silver Perch, Leiopotherapon plumbeus
Mark Archei O. Javier, Frolan A. Aya and Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia
345
Distribution and Abundance of Hard Clam Shells Meretrix meretrix Along the
Coastal Areas of Panguil Bay, Lanao del Norte, Philippines
Celestina Q. Jumawan , Rheino B. Palma and Renalyn O. Sia
347
Growth Performance of Brackishwater Enhanced Selected Tilapia (BEST)
Reared in Brackishwater Ponds
Anecito V. Labastida, Celestina Q. Jumawan, Antonio A. Abogado, Rheino B. Palma and
Jerome J. Sabillo
349
xvii
xviii
First Record of Laem-Singh Virus in Black Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon)
in the Philippines
Christian Albert M. Cruz, Precious C. dela Cruz, Paul Christian D. Alcala,
Florenz Giovanni M. Tagle, Erickson S. Santos, Mudjekeewis D. Santos and
Mary Beth B. Maningas
351
Reproductive Biology of Christian Crabs (Charybdis feriatus, Linnaeus,
1758) in San Miguel Bay, Philippines
Plutomeo M. Nieves, Nelson R. Olfindo and Aldrin Mel Macale
353
Shrimp Metabolism: The Roles of Lactate Dehydrogenase (c31), Glycogen
Phosphorylase (c34) and Protein Kinase (PK) as Revealed by RNA
Interference
Maria Violeta R. Tare, Hidehiro Kondo, Ikuo Hirono and Mary Beth B. Maningas
355
SUMMARY OF THE WORKSHOP
357
ANNEXES
363
ANNEX 1. Workshop Committees
365
ANNEX 2. Directory of Participants
367
PLENARY PAPERS
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Is Small-hold Tropical Aquaculture in a Genetic Plunge Towards Extinction?
Roger W. Doyle
Genetic Computation Ltd., 1-4630 Lochside Drive, Victoria, BC, Canada V8Y2T1
rdoyle@genecomp.com
Abstract
Tropical shrimp aquaculture is in a disease-induced crisis of lost production. The response
to this crisis currently focuses on microbiology and pathology, quarantine, and transboundary
transfer of shrimp. The crisis also involves an interaction between shrimp genetics and various
human interests including protection of intellectual property. Breeders of high-quality strains
generally employ (and are encouraged to employ) some form of “breeder lock” that generates
inbreeding when broodstocks are “copied”. Smaller hatcheries sell these copied, inbred shrimp to
farmers, who thereby increase the likelihood of losing their crops to disease. The joint behavior of
breeders, hatcheries and farmers causes inbreeding to accumulate in tropical regions.
The depressive effect of inbreeding on disease resistance is exceptionally strong in shrimp, as
shown in a re-analysis of published field and experimental data. Inbreeding increases the severity
and frequency of disease through a variety of mechanisms. We have relatively few, marker-based
estimates of accumulated inbreeding in any non-pedigreed shrimp aquaculture system. Simulation
shows, however, that locked post larvae (PLs) can be distinguished from copies in broodstocks and
farm ponds, given appropriate analysis of genetic markers.
Culture of stocks certified to be free of specified pathogens (specific pathogen free or SPF
stocks) is strongly recommended and only SPF stocks can now be legally imported into most
jurisdictions. These recommendations are appropriate, beneficial and necessary. But insofar
as they increase the commercial value of proprietary genetic strains, such regulations may
also increase the likelihood of copying, and thus inbreeding at farm level and ever-increasing
susceptibility to disease and climate stress (Doyle, 2014a).
The intellectual property value of disease-resistant strains will be extremely high and
intellectual property rights are fundamental to science-based economic innovation. Breeders will,
and must, continue to protect their genetic improvement programs with genetic locks, especially
in regions where judicial sanctions are ineffective. The regulatory objective should be to encourage
biosecurity and genetic progress while discouraging copying and consequent inbreeding.
The current consensus that inbreeding is unimportant may therefore be out of date.
Inbreeding may be amplifying the severity of diseases (including the major current threats:
white spot syndrome virus or WSSV, infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus
or IHHNV and early mortality syndrome or EMS (acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease or
AHPND). Continuing to ignore the interaction between inbreeding and disease may become a
fatal error for tropical shrimp aquaculture.
Keywords: tropical shrimp aquaculture, inbreeding, disease resistance, biosecurity, genetic progress
*
Plenary Papers
Introduction
Shrimp production in Asian farm
ponds rose continuously from 1992 until
2010, when 2.5 million metric tons were
harvested and 45 million people employed
(FAO, 2013b). In 2011, a sudden increase
in losses from disease caused production
to fall, and in 2012, it fell again (Anderson
and Valderrama, 2013). In 2012, disease
was ranked as the greatest challenge in a
global survey of the aquaculture industry
(Anderson and Valderrama, 2013) and as
much as 40% of tropical shrimp production
was thought to be lost to disease (Stentiford
et al., 2012).
Social and economic fall-out from this
crisis is described in an FAO newsletter
(Reantaso, 2012) as, devastating impacts
including direct production losses, therefore
loss of food availability; direct and indirect
impacts on income and livelihoods/
employment; increased operating costs;
restrictions on trade; impacts on biodiversity;
loss of market share or investment; loss of
consumer confidence, and in some cases,
collapse of the sector.
To date, discussion of the shrimp
diseases has focused on the microbiology
of aquaculture pathogens and the
regulations needed to limit their spread
locally and across national boundaries
(FAO, 2008; Reantaso, 2012; Jones, 2012;
Lightner, 2012). In this essay, I take a
wider perspective, that of a geneticist
and evolutionary biologist. I argue that
the ultimate cause of the crisis is an
agro-economic system that locks shrimp
breeders, hatcheries and farmers into
behavior that induces critical levels of
inbreeding at farm level. The inbreeding
manifests itself as increased susceptibility
to disease and frequency of epidemics
+
over vast areas of Asia, Central and South
America, Africa and the Middle East. This
global disease crisis may therefore continue
to get worse until its roots in human
behavior are addressed.
Agro-economic system that leads to
inbreeding in farm shrimp populations
Interactions between breeders, hatcheries and
farmers
The (aquacultural) agro-economic
system of tropical shrimp farming
comprises a transfer of genetic material,
in the form of adult spawners, juvenile
shrimp and post-larvae (PLs), through a
network of interconnected transactions
between breeders, hatcheries and farmers
(Doyle, 2014b). These relationships must be
described here in some detail because, while
they are central to the proposed mechanism
that links agro-economics, genetics and
an agricultural disease crisis, they may be
unfamiliar to many readers. Figure 1 shows
the relationships in a diagram that describes
the essential aspect of relationships in many
parts of the world.
At the top of the schematic diagram
in Figure 1 is a breeder, either private or
public sector, who maintains a broodstock
with due attention to genetic improvement
and minimization of inbreeding (“family
breeding program” (Gjedrem et al., 2012)).
The breeder provides broodstock animals
as juvenile or adult spawners to a hatchery,
which produces the young animals (nauplii
or post-larvae) sold to farmers for grow-out.
Spawners sent by breeders to hatcheries
generally represent only a fraction of
the total allelic diversity in the breeder’s
own broodstock (Gjedrem et al., 2012;
Rye, 2012). Often, the subset supplied to
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
a hatchery comprises only two full-sib
families of spawners, each containing
thousands of brothers and sisters. The
intention of the breeder is that the hatchery
will produce post-larvae (PLs) by mating
these animals according to instructions that
specify which spawners to mate together to
produce high-quality offspring for sale.
of shrimp, and often use a highly skewed
sex ratio because this enables them to
maintain fewer brood shrimp (FAO, 2008).
The inbreeding level in the copy channel is
expected to range from 0.125 to 0.25 among
PLs in the first generation in copy farms and
as high as 0.375 in the second (Figure 2)
and Doyle (2014b).
The “breeder lock” that generates inbreeding
The primary objective of the legitimate
channel (solid arrows) in Figure 1 is to
provide highly uniform, non-inbred seed.
Aan important secondary objective is to
protect the breeder’s intellectual property
because breeding programs are expensive
Figure 1. Gene flow through the lock-copy
and breeders protect their investment in
interactions among breeders, hatcheries and farms.
various ways, both contractual (Ogden
and Weigel, 2007) and biological. The most
PLs flow onwards from hatcheries to
widely used biological defense against
farmers along two channels, only one of
copiers is the “breeder lock”, a mating
which is optimized by mating instructions
scheme that produces highly inbred
from the breeders. Called here “legitimate”
offspring in the copy channel (Doyle, 2014a,
and shown as solid arrows in Figure 1, PLs
2014b). There are many possible types of
in this distribution channel are intended
breeder lock (Sellars and Preston, 2008;
to have maximal uniformity and minimal
Janhunen et al., 2012) but the simplest is
inbreeding. The flow of genetic material
along the solid arrows in Figure 1 is similar probably the one illustrated in Figure 2,
which has been reproduced with some
to that recommended as good practice by
changes from Doyle et al. (2006). Batches
Ponzoni et al., (2012) in their Figure 3.
of many millions of seed animals are
frequently descended from just two pairs
The “copy” distribution channel shown
of grandparents, or four full-sib families
as dashed arrows in Figure 1 carries PLs
of grandparents, as shown in Figure 2.
or spawners that are diverted from the
PLs from hatcheries that propagate seed
legitimate channel – either by the hatchery
itself or by farmers – and grown to maturity according to instructions provided by
the breeder normally give good results.
as broodstock in “copy hatcheries”. The
However, seed produced by copiers are, as
offspring of these copy spawners will be
the breeders intend them to be, inbred and
inbred to varying degrees depending on
give poor growth and survival (Doyle et al.,
the genetic composition of the legitimate
2006; Sellars and Preston, 2008; Gjedrem et
channel at the point where diversion takes
place. Moreover, hatcheries tend to spawn as al., 2012; Janhunen et al., 2012; Ponzoni et
al., 2012).
few shrimp as possible due to the fecundity
,
Plenary Papers
Figure 2. Increase of inbreeding in copied PLs. At the top of the diagram are two pairs of
grandparents in the source broodstock. Kinship between these pairs (source kinship) is unspecified
but breeders strive to keep it low. The numbers show inbreeding (F), additional to that from source
kinship, at successive generations along lines of descent to hatcheries and then to farmers. F=0.125,
equivalent to offspring of double first cousins; F=0.25, full sibs; F=0.5, self-fertilization. The diagram
is merely a schematic: actual levels obtained by locking a real broodstock will depend on other
operational factors such as the number of offspring in each family, sex ratios etc.
The breeder lock in one form or another
is widely used, defended and recommended
for protecting the intellectual property of
breeders (Doyle et al., 2006; Ponzoni et al.,
2012).
Copy hatcheries disseminate inbred shrimp
In the world of tropical aquaculture,
an improved strain is generally copied
shortly after it appears. Due to the
high reproductive capacity of fish and
crustaceans, unauthorized reproduction
and use of improved stocks tend to be
widespread for many species (Rye, 2012).
Other hatcheries propagate the strain and
sell later generations to farmers. They also
mix inbred, copied animals with animals
in the legitimate distribution channel and
sell the mix to unsuspecting farmers, as
-
illustrated in Figure 1. These activities
have been grouped with poor broodstock
management as “malpractice” (Ponzoni
et al., 2012). When hatcheries copy from
breeders or other hatcheries, there is an
immediate, large decrease in genotypic
diversity and a large increase in inbreeding.
Copying hatcheries receive only a fraction
of the genetic diversity possessed by
breeders even when there is no lock. This
is ultimately due to the high and variable
fecundity of shrimp, which allows very few
females to produce enough offspring to
stock a farm or provide the next generation
of breeders (FAO, 2008). Cumulative loss
of genetic diversity over time and during
transfers is well documented in shrimp
(Benzie, 2009) and other aquacultural
species (Doyle et al., 2001).
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Although hatcheries in the copy
channel may try to circumvent the locks by
mating males and females from different
hatcheries in the legitimate channel (Fig
1), this tactic is mostly futile. There are
generally very few breeder companies –
often only one – supplying the legitimate
channel with non-inbred stock in any one
aquacultural region (Ponzoni et al., 2010;
Ponzoni et al., 2012). The breeder usually
tries to supply all its client hatcheries with
spawners from the same limited group
of broodstock families. Again, this helps
protect intellectual property as well as
supply PLs from top-quality broodstock
families.
Estimates of the global extent of copying
Most production of penaeids now
depends on domesticated stocks (Stentiford
et al., 2012). As Penaeus vannamei is an
exotic species in Asia, Africa and the
Middle East, it is entirely dependent on
domesticated broodstocks in those regions.
Rye (Rye, 2012; Gjedrem et al.,
2012) estimates that production from
uncontrolled breeding programs constitutes
more than 90% of worldwide hatchery
production from all species. There is as
yet no individual estimate for any shrimp
species, but people directly involved
in the tropical shrimp industry believe
copying to be substantial. The following
“guesstimates” have been offered as
personal communications with permission
to cite the source by name: Thailand,
conservatively, 50% copied (Mr. Robins
McIntosh); Ecuador > 90% copied,
Honduras ≈ 50% copied, Mexico > 90%
copied, Nicaragua ≈ 50% copied, Panama <
10% copied, Venezuela > 90% copied (Mr.
José B. Martinez, Panama.) These estimates
are in general agreement with consensus
estimates developed during a recent
international workshop on the possible
connection between inbreeding and shrimp
disease (NACA, 2014).
The designation “copied” in the
preceding paragraph by no means implies
that all copying involves a breeder lock
following the highly non-random gene
flow in Figure 1. It includes any broodstock
that was initiated with restricted genetic
diversity and propagated thereafter without
a pedigreed family structure to limit
inbreeding. A study of genetic erosion in
wild and cultivated populations of Penaeus
monodon here in the Philippines (Xu et
al., 2001) provides an exceptionally clear
demonstration of this process. Preliminary
though it is, the information given above
is all we currently have on the extent of
copying in shrimp broodstocks. It may
be taken as informative to an order of
magnitude – that is to say, when properly
estimated, production from copied
broodstock is likely to be closer to 70%
than 7% of the total.
Estimating degree of inbreeding
The obvious way to estimate inbreeding
is through surveys of microsatellite
diversity in farms receiving PLs through
the legitimate and copy channels. The
difficulty of doing this might surprise those
unfamiliar with the practice of shrimp
aquaculture. In idealized, large populations
where mating is random the relationship
between observed heterozygosity and
various definitions of inbreeding is
predictable from simple combinatorial
rules (Halliburton, 2004). The structure of
aquacultural populations is too complex for
this approach.
.
Plenary Papers
In terrestrial agricultural populations
that are divided into sub-groups (breeds,
farms, herds etc.), estimates of inbreeding
derived from the ratio of observed to
expected heterozygosity are often an artifact
of unrecognized heterogeneity within
samples (Hedrick, 2012; Hedrick, 2013) and
works cited therein. Even within a single
batch, individuals could on average be either
highly inbred or highly outbred, relative
to random-mating expectations based on
neutral marker data from the same batch,
if the batch is part of a breeder locking
protocol, kinship-minimizing protocol
or some other mating scheme other than
haphazard.
Another technical problem is that field
estimates from microsatellite markers are
usually close to zero, and often negative.
Furthermore, low as they are, such estimates
are biased upwards by null alleles and
unrecognized population substructure.
These technical caveats provide another
reason for non-specialists to conclude that
the impact of inbreeding is likely to be small
(Doyle, 2014b).
Although there are notable
exceptions (Bierne et al., 2000), most
microsatellite estimates actually provide
no direct information about inbreeding in
aquacultural broodstocks. There are two
related difficulties with these estimates.
Firstly, the indicators of inbreeding most
often reported are deviation from HardyWeinberg equilibrium and/or the fixation
index, Fis. Secondly, Analysis of Molecular
Variance (AMOVA) and simpler procedures
for estimating H-W and Fis are usually
based on allele frequencies in the same set
of samples for which the estimate is made.
The fixation index, Fis, is an indicator
of non-randomness in the mating system
/
and thus indicates a potential cause of
inbreeding but does not directly measure
inbreeding (Templeton and Read, 1994;
Waples, 2015). Deliberate non-random
mating is rare in aquaculture except in
the lock-copy situation shown in Figure
1. Instead, inbreeding in aquaculture
broodstocks nearly always accumulates
owing to bottlenecks, small population
sizes, unequal fecundity and other
random processes, rather than deliberate
consanguineous mating. “In finite
populations, some individuals mate with
biological relatives just by chance and
inbreeding in the pedigree sense is the
result” (Templeton and Read, 1994). The
resulting inbreeding will not produce
a significantly positive Fis so long as
mating is random. Even the offspring of a
population of full-sib brothers and sisters,
Fped = 0.25, shows neither H-W deviation
nor positive Fis if the siblings mated at
random.
The second difficulty with Fis
and related indicators of inbreeding/
non-random mating arises when allele
frequencies are calculated from the samples
for which estimates are to be made. “Fis
is defined with respect to the populations
that are included in the sample, either
through population-specific estimates or
through the average of those estimates”
(Holsinger and Weir, 2009). The practical
and conceptual difficulty arising from this
is beautifully explained by Wang (2014),
whose paper should be studied by anyone
seeking further information. “Frequently
genotype or allele frequency data are
unavailable from an ancestral population,
and allele frequencies used in calculating
relatedness have to be estimated from
the current sample in which relatedness
between individuals is being calculated.
This practice effectively uses the current
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
population (sample) as reference, and an
estimator conforming to the correlation
concept of relatedness should give an
average estimate of zero. This is true
regardless of the actual relatedness among
individuals in the sample, as shown by
simulation (Doyle, 2014b) and analytical
results in Wang’s 2014 study.”
This may surprise non-specialists
who believe that inbreeding is likely to be
unimportant when in fact we have hardly
any direct evidence concerning inbreeding
in hatcheries that lack pedigree data.
The obvious solution to both difficulties
is to use maximum likelihood estimators
such as Wang’s trioML rather than
Fis, and base inbreeding estimates on
reference allele frequencies from an earlier
generation, as in the trioML(B) estimator
of Figure 2. An appropriate reference is the
generation that would be called the founder
of the pedigree had pedigree records been
kept. A survey of P. vannamei broodstocks
in Mexico (Perez-Enriquez et al., 2009) is
a good example of this approach. For their
study of P. stylirostris in New Caledonia,
Bierne et al., (2000) used published data
from wild populations of other penaeid
species – a daring move.
contribute to subsequent broodstock
generations, and not all the animals in the
reference population, many of which may
not have reproduced (Lacy, 1995).
At levels of population structure higher
than the batch, e.g. farm, hatchery and
geographical region, it is actually more
useful to ignore observed heterozygosity (as
an uninterpretable artifact) and instead pay
attention only to the biogeographically and
temporal structure of allele number (Jost,
2008; Gregorius, 2010). As generations
follow one another there will be a
monotonic, inverse relationship between
allele number and accumulated inbreeding
in an aquacultural region. The correlation
will be mainly due to the passage of
time and the ineluctable, irreversible
loss of genetic material caused by toosmall broodstocks, artificial and natural
selection, variable reproductive success,
serial transfers of subsets of broodstock
from hatchery to hatchery, irrational or
careless breeding and deliberate breeder
locks. The correlation will grow stronger as
time passes, and declining allele diversity
will reflect the cumulative erosion of
the regional genetic environment for
aquaculture.
Microsatellites are not the only
It is also possible to estimate inbreeding markers available. The technology of
high-throughput sequencing is developing
– inaccurately, for many reasons – from
estimates of gene diversity or heterozygosity rapidly and it may soon be possible use
high-density genomic data to routinely
in the reference generation and the
estimate the inbreeding of individuals
harmonic mean of the effective population
number over the intervening generations if with an accuracy close to that obtainable
these quantities happen to be known, e.g. in with pedigree data (Li et al., 2011). With
a sufficient number of genome-wide
Coombs et al., (2009). If data from two or
more generations can be obtained, a variety markers, the relationship of any pair of
individuals can be inferred by estimating
of inbreeding estimators are available e.g.
their kinship coefficient, independent of
in Hoehn et al., (2012), Waples (2015) and
sample composition or hidden population
references therein. The reference should,
structure (Manichaikul et al., 2010).
ideally, include only animals that actually
0
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The most straight-forward – and
immediately available – way to estimate
inbreeding depression (as distinct from
pedigree inbreeding) would probably
be to measure it directly, by hybridizing
samples of hatchery spawners with an
unrelated tester strain or strains. Inbreeding
depression would then be evaluated by
comparing fitness traits of inbreds and
outbreds in standardized stress tests, disease
challenges etc.
Inbreeding increases susceptibility to
disease and other stresses
Inbreeding depression is the decrease in
growth and other traits, most importantly
reproductive success and survival that is
seen in inbred relative to outbred animals
and populations (Lynch and Walsh, 1998).
Inbreeding depression is especially severe
in environments where survival is low,
even in outbred populations, owing to
poor nutrition, extreme temperatures, the
presence of pathogens or a myriad of other
possible stressors alone or in combination
(Frankham et al., 2002; Liao and Reed,
2009; Bijlsma and Loeschcke, 2012;
Cheptou and Donohue, 2011; Cheptou and
Donohue, 2013; Enders and Nunney, 2012;
Reed et al., 2012).
Remarkably, data from many plant and
animal taxa and many different kinds of
natural and artificial stressors can be fitted
to a common regression line of inbreeding
depression against stress (Fox and Reed,
2010). Stress was defined in Fox and Reed’s
(2010) meta-analysis as the proportional
decrease in survival of outbred individuals
in a stressful environment compared to a
benign environment. Shrimp, like other
animals, are affected more strongly by
stress when inbred. Inbred and outbred
experimental populations of the mysid
('
shrimp Americamysis bahia differed
greatly in their survival under low salinity
stress, and genetic load was much higher
in stressful environments for several fitness
indices (Markert et al., 2010). The authors
note that this is actually an underestimate
of the amplification of genetic load by stress
because many of their inbred lines did not
survive long enough to be tested.
The fit of P. vannamei and other shrimp
species to the meta-analysis regression of
Fox et al., (Fox and Reed, 2010) cannot
simply be assumed. Several aquacultural
species, like P. vannamei and oysters,
have exceptionally high fecundities and
“huge” inbreeding loads (Bierne et al.,
2000). Inbreeding depression in oysters,
which have fecundities on the order of
106 offspring per spawn, has been studied
in considerable detail (Bierne et al., 1998;
Launey and Hedgecock, 2001; Plough,
2012) and found to be high. The shrimp P.
vannamei has a fecundity on the order of
105 offspring per spawn.
Inbreeding increases mortality from viral
disease in P. vannamei
Two viruses, white spot syndrome virus
(WSSV) and Taura syndrome virus (TSV),
bore most of the responsibility for the global
economic loss from disease in shrimp as of
2011 (Stentiford et al., 2012). A new disease,
Early Mortality Syndrome disease, EMS/
AHPND, has recently become the most
serious disease problem facing tropical
shrimp aquaculture. EMS appears to be a
septicaemic vibriosis involving at least two
Vibrio species infected by a bacteriophage
(Lightner et al., 2013; FAO, 2013a).
Penaeus vannamei is by far the
dominant shrimp species in aquaculture
(FAO, 2013b; Anderson and Valderrama,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
2013). Mortality induced by exposure to
both of these viruses has been examined at
various levels of inbreeding in a population
of P. vannamei at the Oceanic Institute,
in Hawaii (Moss et al., 2008; Moss et al.,
2007). Re-analysis of the Oceanic Institute
data reveals that the interaction between
inbreeding load in P. vannamei and disease
stress is significantly stronger than the
regression meta-analysis of Fox et al., (Fox
and Reed, 2010). High as it is, P vannamei
inbreeding loads under disease stress are
comparable to loads in oysters (Bierne et
al., 1998; Launey and Hedgecock, 2001;
Plough, 2012).
An important and possibly unique
field study shows the effect of inbreeding
mortality from disease in the farmed shrimp
Penaeus stylirostris in New Caledonia
(Bierne et al., 2000; Goyard et al., 2008).
Both components of yield, mortality and
growth, were depressed by inbreeding that
accumulated slowly over many generations
(not rapidly, as in the lock-copy system
described here). Inbreeding depression
was especially evident in years when the
environment was poor and overall yields
low. This work is particularly relevant at
this time because the disease affecting P.
stylirostris was a septicaemia caused by a
species of Vibrio, the bacterium which has
recently been implicated (Lightner et al.,
2013; FAO, 2013a) in the current EMS (or
AHPND) disease crisis.
Inbred and outbred experimental
populations of the mysid shrimp
Americamysis bahia differed greatly in
their survival under low salinity stress, and
genetic load was much higher in stressful
environments for several fitness indices
(Markert et al., 2010). The authors note
that this is actually an underestimate of
the amplification of genetic load by stress
because many of their inbred lines did not
survive long enough to be tested.
There appears to be no published
experimental data relating inbreeding to
disease or any other stress in aquacultural
shrimp species, other than the data from
Moss et al., (Moss et al., 2008; Moss et al.,
2007) and the P. stylirostris study in New
Caledonia (Bierne et al., 2000; Goyard et
al., 2008). Shrimp are routinely challenged
for a variety of diseases and other stresses
in breeding programs. Usable data must
therefore exist unexamined, or at any rate
unpublished, in the files of many family
breeding program that keep pedigree and
mortality records.
Monoculture and the incidence of epidemics
Epidemiological theory (Lively,
2010; Keesing et al., 2006; Keesing et
al., 2010; King and Lively, 2012) and
observation suggest that the incidence of
epidemics is inversely proportional to the
genotypic diversity of the host population,
a relationship called the dilution effect or
monoculture effect (reviewed by Ostfeld and
Keesing 2012). Increases in the prevalence
of infection in the wild are associated
with genetic bottlenecking and inbreeding
induced by founder effects and/or mating
systems (King and Lively, 2012). Small,
genotypically uniform populations of
endangered species are especially prone to
epidemics, as are populations at the edge of
a recent range expansion (instances cited in
King and Lively, 2012).
The breeder lock illustrated in Figure
2 leads to low levels of genotypic diversity
within farms and farming regions. The
legitimate and copy distribution channels
both contribute to a restriction in genotypic
diversity but it is particularly true in the
((
Plenary Papers
copy distribution channel. Hatcheries
that copy from other hatcheries start with
founder populations that will, in many
cases, have been deliberately locked. In such
cases the low genotypic diversity results
both from random founder effects (small
sample of available allele diversity) and
mating system (founders deliberately related
by descent, e.g. double first cousins).
It appears from modelling exercises
that small increases in genotypic diversity
can cause dramatic reductions in the
likelihood of an epidemic outbreak
(Lively, 2010). The effect is distinct from
increased disease susceptibility through
inbreeding depression, although in practice
inbreeding is usually associated with low
genetic diversity, as explained above. In
Lively`s theoretical model (Lively, 2010)
the incidence of epidemics is inversely
proportional to genotypic diversity in
the host population, and epidemics are
less severe and die out more quickly in
genetically diverse populations. Under
the assumptions of some models, small
increases in allelic diversity dramatically
reduces pathogen load even in very large
host populations (King and Lively, 2012).
The effect is expected to be greater when the
pathogen is not host – specific (Ostfeld and
Keesing, 2012). It is therefore worth noting
that more than 93 species of arthropods
are reported to be hosts of WSSV (Moss et
al., 2012), one of the worst shrimp disease
viruses.
when copied, especially in regions where
judicial sanctions are ineffective. Farmers
are well aware of inbreeding depression,
as previously mentioned, and may have
a good notion of how broodstocks are
managed by copy hatcheries in their local
areas. However, farmers often cannot be
sure the seed animals they purchase are not
inbred even when they buy from supposedly
legitimate hatcheries. Their puzzling
reluctance to pay more for genetically
superior aquaculture stock (Ponzoni et al.,
2009; Gjedrem et al., 2012) could be due in
part to lack of credible information. This
possibility has already been noted (Ponzoni
et al., 2012).
If verifiable information by legitimate
breeders and hatcheries are available, for
example through a national broodstock
information exchange network (Doyle,
2015), farmers could more easily choose to
avoid the copy distribution channel shown
in Figure 1. “Certificates of authenticity”
have been offered by some breeders, but
this strategy fails when the certificates
too are copied. Certificates offered to date
have been missing the essential element of
verifiability. Verification is technically easy
in principle. A certificate from the breeder
attesting that a particular batch is 100%
heterozygous for two particular alleles at
a particular locus (both specified in the
certificate) would be sufficient to verify that
the batch is a first-generation hybrid, i.e.
minimally inbred.
Could breeders be persuaded to
provide verifiable genetic information to
farmers? Some individual breeders might
Intellectual property rights are
see a marketing advantage in doing so.
fundamental to science-based economic
As a group, breeders as well as farmers
innovation. Breeders will continue to
might come to realize the pernicious,
protect their genetic improvement programs cumulative effect of the collective behavior
with breeder locks that generate inbreeding of breeders, hatcheries and farmers on the
Verifiable information might persuade
farmers to avoid the copy channel
()
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
whole aquaculture sector and therefore on
themselves. In disease-ridden environments
even the most modern, isolated and biosecure breeding facilities are at risk.
Unintended consequences of diseasecontrol policies that ignore genetic side
effects
International organizations concerned
with aquaculture, including the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), are responding vigorously to
the disease crisis by developing regulations
and codes of practice for transferring
aquacultural stocks between and within
regions, and also by promoting standard
and guidelines for disease detection,
identification and surveillance (FAO, 2008;
Reantaso, 2012). The culture of stocks that
are certified to be free of specified pathogens
(SPF stocks) is strongly recommended,
and only SPF stocks can now be legally
imported into most jurisdictions. These
recommendations are appropriate and
beneficial from a strictly microbiological
perspective.
It appears that those concerned with
disease control are not yet thinking of
the genetic consequences of their policies
and recommendations. Neither the word
“inbreeding”, nor the phrases “genetic
erosion” or “host diversity” (pertaining to
monoculture effect) appear in any of the
discussions of aquaculture diseases and
disease-related regulations that I found
published in 2012 or in the first half of 2013,
totalling more than 300 pages (Murray,
2013; Stentiford et al., 2012; Lightner,
2012; Moss et al., 2012; FAO, 2013b;
Chamberlain, 2013; Flegel, 2012; Jones,
2012; Kibenge et al., 2012; Reantaso, 2012;
NACA, 2013). Although farmers themselves
often blame inbreeding for poor yields
from their ponds their concerns have been
deprecated and dismissed (FAO, 2008, p.
13).
In this review I suggest that disease
crises in tropical shrimp aquaculture may
be growing more severe and more frequent
owing to an agro-economic system that
generates genetic erosion at farm level.
Genetic erosion results from a pattern of
human behavior in which breeders protect
intellectual property through breeder
locks (expressed only when broodstock is
“copied”), copying hatcheries sell inbred
offspring, and farmers stock their ponds
with seed animals they are unable to
evaluate. The resulting inbreeding and low
genotypic diversity increase susceptibility
to disease, which leads to more infected
individuals and farms and thus, by standard
epidemiological reasoning, increases the
frequency and severity of epidemics.
The hypothesis is not that inbreeding
triggers shrimp diseases – which have
myriad environmental and other immediate
causes – but that inbreeding increases the
prevalence and severity of disease, and that
inbreeding is accumulating on regional
scales. We may be making a dangerous
mistake in treating the torrent of shrimp
diseases of the past decade as isolated
events with independent, microbiological
causes, describable with some (unknown
but invariant) distribution of risk. The
distribution of risk may be shifting
towards higher values in a farming system
experiencing genetic erosion.
Culture of stocks certified to be free
of specified pathogens (SPF stocks) is
strongly recommended and only SPF stocks
can now be legally imported into most
jurisdictions. These recommendations
are appropriate, beneficial and necessary.
(*
Plenary Papers
But insofar as they increase the value of
proprietary, high-quality SPF strains,
such regulations may also increase the
use of breeder locks and the likelihood of
copying, and thus inbreeding at farm level
(Doyle, 2014a, 2014b). Intellectual property
rights are fundamental to science-based
economic innovation. Breeders will, and
should, continue to protect their genetic
improvement programs with breeder
locks that generate inbreeding when
copied, especially in regions where judicial
sanctions are ineffective. The intellectual
property value of disease-resistant strains
will be extremely high.
The current consensus that inbreeding
is unimportant may therefore be out of
date. Inbreeding may be amplifying the
severity of diseases, including the major
current threats: WSSV, IHHNV and EMS
(or AHPND). The regulatory objective
should be to encourage biosecurity and
genetic progress while at the same time
discouraging copying and consequent
inbreeding.
References
Anderson J and Valderrama D. 2013.
Production: Global Shrimp review.
Global Aquaculture Advocate 2013,
12-13.
Benzie JAH. 2009. Use and exchange of
genetic resources of penaeid shrimps
for food and aquaculture. Reviews in
Aquaculture 1: 232-250.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Rapid Adaptation to a New Environment: Is it Reversible?
Hitoshi Araki
Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan
arakih@res.agr.hokudai.ac.jp
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests rapid adaptation of fish populations when they are exposed
to artificial hatchery environments. However, little is known if rapidly-adapted populations can
readapt to their original, natural environment at the same rate. Here, I review recent studies
on salmonid fish that address this issue. They indeed suggest rapid adaptation of hatchery
populations, in which reproductive fitness under a natural environment became much lower
than that in the wild population after only 1-2 generations of captive breeding. However,
the reproductive fitness did not recover after one generation of natural rearing, implying
that rapid adaptation to a new environment was not reversible at the same rate. I discuss
potential consequences of the irreversible fitness reduction in extensively stocked fish species.
Understanding the mechanism behind the irreversible rapid adaptation in fish populations will
help us figure out a better, nature-friendly, and hence sustainable means of hatchery operations for
human welfare.
Keywords: fish stocking, hatchery, rapid adaptation, reproductive fitness, salmonid species
Introduction
While fish has been recognized as our
most important food resource long since
ancient days, we keep in captivity, many
fish species for personal and public viewing
to ultimately enjoy their biodiversity. For
example, fish catches have been around 90
million tons since 1990s, and aquaculture
production has reached 60 million tons in
2011 (FAO, 2012). More than 80% of them
were sold in fish markets and utilized for
human consumption. While aquaculture
has been developing rapidly, there is no
other industry that depends so much
on ‘natural’ resources at the moment. In
addition, we have more than 400 public
aquariums worldwide, and c.a. 500
thousands of people visit them each year in
Japan alone. On the one hand, they make us
very familiar with fish species. On the other
hand, wild fish populations often became
overexploited, vulnerable to environmental
disturbances, and endangered worldwide.
Despite the popularity of the fish species,
however, our knowledge on ecology and
evolution of fish in the wild is very limited.
Efficient means of conservation and
sustainable management of wild fish stock is
yet to be established.
Salmonid species are one of such
species. Although they are recognized
as economically and socially important
(0
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species, ecology of salmonid species in the
wild is largely uncertain. In this review, I
briefly summarize our knowledge on the
ecology and adaptive capability of salmonid
species, followed by an introduction of
related information from my own research
and that of my colleagues. It is hoped that
this review would contribute to broad
discussions on better, sustainable uses of
fish for our future generations.
Ecology of salmonid species
Salmonid species are often characterized
by their nature of large-scale migration
and of homing behavior (Quinn, 2005).
However, their life histories are very diverse
among individuals, populations and species
(Groot and Margolis, 1991). In brief, they
are born in cold freshwater, typically in
4-10°C. After a few months from hatching,
some already start their migration. Majority
of Pacific salmonids, for example, have short
freshwater residence as juvenile, whereas
rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, also
a part of Pacific salmonids) and the other
‘trout’ species can live their whole life
in freshwater. In fact, some species have
multiple life history forms, typically malebiased. O. mykiss is one of them, and its searun form is called steelhead. Brown trout
(Salmo trutta L.), one of the two species in
Atlantic salmonids, also has a sea-run form
called sea trout. Just like other salmonid
species, they grow fast in the ocean
and come back to their natal rivers for
reproduction. The basis of their life history
differentiation is still unclear, although it
is most likely determined through geneticenvironmental interactions.
Ocean migration takes one to a few
years. Pink salmon (O. gorbuscha) is unique
in this context because they have a strict
two-year life cycle. Salmon migration range
)'
covers whole of the North Pacific for Pacific
salmonid species and a northern part of
the Atlantic Ocean for Atlantic salmon (S.
salar). The time for salmon runs to the river
for reproduction varies among species and
among populations in the same species. If
any, resident fish can spawn together with
sea-run fish in the same spawning ground.
Resident males often use ‘sneaking’ behavior
for their reproductive success with sea-run
females. This is part of the reasons why
multiple paternity is common in salmonid
species. Although majority of salmonid fish
die after the first spawning, trout species
and a few sea-run species can repeat the
migration and reproduce multiple times in
their life (e.g., Atlantic salmon).
Rapid adaptation to hatchery
environments and its downside
Due to an increasing demand for
salmonid species as a food resource,
hatchery and domestication programs have
been very popular worldwide. Hatcheries
and programs were first established in the
late 19th century. The rearing technique has
been developed and improved for many
species, most notably for Atlantic salmon.
Together with developments in refrigerated
cargo transportation systems, full-life
cycle aquaculture enabled us to find this
species in fish markets worldwide today.
For majority of sea-run Pacific salmonid
species however, full-life cycle aquaculture
system is either not established yet or
unrealistic due to economic reasons. This is
why we still depend heavily on fish stocking
for salmonid species, which utilizes
hatcheries for juvenile development from
fertilization to parr or fingerling, typically
for <1 year, and releases juveniles into the
wild with a hope for their successful return
as adults.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
One question is whether the hatcheryborn fish can survive well in the wild and
return to the point of release so that fisheries
can gain from the hatchery fish stocking.
Even more profound question is then
whether adults that have returned (but not
caught) can spawn naturally and reproduce
successful progenies. Both questions are
important but the latter one is even more
critical for conservation and self-sustainable
stock management. To answer this question,
we used molecular genetic markers to
identify individuals and the pedigree of
steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss in the
Hood River, Oregon, USA (Araki et al.,
2007a, 2007b). The DNA-based parentage
assignment method, together with highly
polymorphic genetic markers (called
‘microsatellite’), provided a powerful means
of identifying parent(s)-offspring pairs
in the field samples of >15,000 returning
adults. We found that ‘old’ hatchery stock
performed poor in the system, suggesting
only 10-30% of successful natural
reproduction compared with wild-born
fish that spawned in the same river in the
same year (Araki et al., 2007a). The ‘old’
hatchery stock might have suffered, having
come from a non-local origin and from
multi-generation captive rearing with the
surviving stock becoming forcibly adapted
to the artificial rearing environment. The
first generation of ‘new’ hatchery stock,
which was designed for conservation,
performed much better. Nevertheless, they
still showed significantly lower reproductive
success than wild fish in the wild (Araki
et al., 2007a). On average, the relative
reproductive success of the first generation
was 0.848, suggesting that they reproduced
15% less than their wild counterpart in
the river. The most interesting part of the
study was on the second generation of the
‘new’ hatchery stock – those who had a
returning hatchery-born parent and they
themselves were also reared in a hatchery.
Their relative reproductive success to their
wild counterpart was on average 0.379,
which was rather close to that of the ‘old’
stock above (Araki et al., 2007b). Together
with other studies on reproductive fitness
of hatchery-born salmonids, we concluded
that c.a. 38% of natural reproductive fitness
can be lost per captive-reared generation.
This result suggests rapid adaptation of fish
to the new, artificial environment coinciding
with maladaptation to the original, natural
environment once they are released (see
also Christie et al., 2012).
How general is it? Currently, there are a
limited number of comparable studies, and
they are all on salmonid species (Araki et
al., 2008). The reduced reproductive fitness
of hatchery-reared fish was also suggested in
Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha) and coho
salmon (O. kisutch) (Williamson et al., 2010;
Thériault et al., 2011 but see also Hess et al.,
2012). In addition, there is little evidence
for hatchery fish releases helping local wild
stock enhancement, together with a few
exceptions as a hope for better fish stock
management (Araki and Schmid, 2010).
Re-adaptation to the original
environment?
The next question is whether offspring
of the hatchery-born yet naturallyspawned fish can reproduce well in the
wild. Note that the offspring themselves
are born, reared and reproduced in the
wild. Therefore, if they can re-adapt to
their original environment at the same
rate as their adaptation rate to the captive
environment, we can expect a rapid
recovery of reproductive fitness. However,
this was not the case for the Hood River
steelhead, where we found the rapid decline
of reproductive fitness of hatchery-born
)(
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fish in the wild (Araki et al., 2009). Among
wild-born offspring of hatchery-born
parent, fish from two hatchery-born parents
had the lowest reproductive fitness. On
average, they had 63% lower reproductive
success than that of fish from two wild-born
parents. Reproductive success of fish from
a hatchery-born parent and a wild-born
parent was intermediate (on average 13%
lower), but the estimate was not significantly
different from that of two wild-born
parents. These results indicate that even
after stopping the fish stocking, remaining
wild populations can still suffer from the
carry-over effect of past fish stocking (also
known as “genetic pollution”). Indeed, we
estimated that eight percent of the wild
population might have been lost due to the
carry-over effect in the case above (Araki
et al., 2009). This value strongly depends
on the proportion of offspring from two
hatchery-born parents, and hence it is
most likely sensitive to the amount of fish
stocking. If 50% of the mature fish were
hatchery-born fish in the wild, for instance,
loss of the wild population in the next
generation due to the carry-over effect
could be >20% in the case above.
Conclusion: For better stock
management
We have seen that reproductive fitness
of hatchery-born fish reduces very rapidly
and that they are suffering from the reduced
fitness after being stocked in the wild. And
it is likely that this process is not reversible
at the same rate. However, there are many
questions left. Firstly, it is not entirely clear
why reproductive fitness can be reduced so
rapidly in captive environment but not in
natural environment. The most likely reason
is very strong domestication selection
reducing not only the reproductive fitness
but also genetic variations in the loci under
))
selection. Once the genetic variation is lost
from the population, the selection potential
for re-adaptation to natural environment
will also be lost. In fact, reduction of neutral
genetic variation in hatchery stocks has
been reported in many species, suggesting
small selection potential left for these
stocks (Araki and Schmid, 2010). Most
importantly, however, we should identify
the trait under domestication selection first
because neutral genetic variation does not
necessarily reflect the selection potential for
re-adaptation to the original environment.
This is one of the main reasons why
genomic study becomes increasingly
important for fishery science. Secondly,
we do not know the consequences of
coexistence of wild-born and hatchery-born
individuals in the wild very well. Theoretical
predictions suggest that stocking of
hatchery fish with maladapted genetic
background can have serious demographic
consequences when they interbreed with
their wild counterparts (Ford, 2002;
Lorenzen, 2008). Using a modeling
approach, Satake and Araki (2012) also
suggested that intermediate levels of
hatchery fish stocking can cause not only
reduction in population size in the long
term but also local gene pool replacement.
But empirical evidence for linking hatchery
fish stocking and its outcome in the status
of wild stock is scarce at best. Lastly but not
least importantly, social responses to the
fishery activities are not well documented
and predicted. We should bring and keep
politicians, stakeholders and local societies
in the discussions over the better stock
management, so that the risk and potential
advantages of fish stocking can be shared
among them. It is eventually them who
decide what kinds of fish and fisheries
should be accepted in the societies, and we
are responsible for informing them to find
the best solution.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. Felix G. Ayson, Dr. Maria
Rowena R. Romana-Eguia, Dr. Teruo
Azuma and other organizers of the
International Workshop on Resource
Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture
Practices in Southeast Asia in Iloilo,
Philippines, 5-7 March 2014 for the
opportunity to participate in this special
issue.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Current Status of Sustainable Aquaculture in Cambodia
Ouch Lang
Department of Aquaculture Development of Fisheries Administration
#186, PreahNorodom Blvd, P.O Box582, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
langouch@yahoo.com
Abstract
In Cambodia, the extension of technologies in fish aquaculture is a vital activity that
contributes to improving the daily livelihood of the rural poor farmer communities. Technology
extension was introduced since 1994 through a project of the Asian Institute of Technology
(AIT) and other local non-government organizations (NGOs) or international organizations
(IOs) in some fish production deficient provinces. Prior to the introduction of such activities,
wild fish were still abundant. From then to date, aquaculture extension is being done under the
Freshwater Aquaculture Improvement and Extension Project Phase II of Japan International
Cooperation Agency (FAIEXII-JICA), and Department for International Development/Danish
International Development Agency (DFID/DANIDA) Projects.
Recently, aquaculture extension is one of the national policies under the National
Rectangular Strategy Policies of the Government. There are several different freshwater
aquaculture systems including floating cage/pen culture, earthen pond culture and rice-fish
culture, and other fish culture in smallwater bodies or aquaculture-based fisheries in Cambodia as
practiced in over 20 provinces and cities, with less development focused on coastal aquaculture.
Freshwater aquaculture production continued to grow over the past two decades and
increased from 1,610 tons in 1984 to 20,760 tons in 2004, representing 11.9 times increase or
growth of 16.3% per year This further increased to 74,000 tons in 2012, representing 11.9 times
increase or a growth rate of 15% per year. However, aquaculture development in Cambodia is in
its infancy stage compared to other countries in the region. It has encountered some problems
and constraints during its development, which include inadequate and unreliable supply of good
quality seed; lack of capital, fund or credit for aquaculture investment; inadequate knowledge of
aquaculture technology; inadequate manpower for aquaculture extension service; and climate
change, which have adversely impacted aquaculture development in Cambodia.
In order to achieve the goal of supplying the nation’s future fishery requirements through
aquaculture, the Cambodia Fisheries Administration (FiA) published the Strategic Planning
Framework (SPF) for Fisheries (2010-2019). Within this framework, the scenarios for future fish
demand-supply for 2019 suggest that aquaculture production will increase by 15% per year to
185,000 tons by the end of 2019.
Keywords: Cambodia, freshwater fish species, aquaculture extension, constraints, aquaculture
development
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Country Papers
Introduction
Cambodia is located in Southeast
Asia between latitudes 10° and 15°N and
longitudes 102° and 108°E, and has a
mainland area of 181,035 km2 extending
approximately 580 km from east to west
and 450 km from north to south with a total
population estimated at about 14.1 million
people in 2006 and a population growth
rate of 2.4% per annum, reported to be the
highest in Asia. Cambodia’s coastal zone,
which is located in the southwest of the
country, has a total length of approximately
435 km.
Cambodia’s climate is characterized
by two major seasons: a dry season from
mid-November to mid-May and a rainy
season from mid-May to mid-November.
The annual average temperature is 27°C,
and rises to a maximum of 38°C in April
or May and falls to a minimum of 14°C in
December or January.
Agriculture is the major occupation for
about 85% of the population, which can
provide both rice and fish, which are the
basic diet of Cambodian people. Fish is the
most important source of animal protein for
Cambodians, providing around 75% of total
animal protein intake for the population.
Moreover, fish not only plays a major role
in the daily diet, but also in the economy
of the people. Based on the National
Statistics of the country, the average fish
consumption of Cambodian people is 52.4
kg/person/year while an average household
consumes between 60-66 kg/person/
year, and households around Tonle Sap
Lake consume between 67-80 kg/person/
year. In recent years, an annual estimate
of freshwater capture fisheries production
ranges from 405,000 to 445,000 tons in 2010
and 2011. The change in productivity in
)/
freshwater capture fisheries is closely related
to the change in flooding level that occurs
on an annual basis. Meanwhile, marine
capture fisheries production is about 60,000
tons annually.
Since 2000 when Cambodia adopted
reforms in the fisheries sector, inland
fisheries took off rapidly and freshwater
aquaculture production continued to
show growth over the past two decades
and increased from 1,610 in 1984 to
20,760 tons in 2004, representing a 12fold increase or 16.3% increase per year.
Production continued to increase to 74,000
tons in 2012, also representing a 12 times
increase or a growth rate of 15% per year.
Therefore, Cambodian aquaculture has
expanded, diversified and intensified. Its
contribution to aquatic food production has
increased gradually. It is highly diverse and
consists of a broad spectrum of systems,
practices and operations, ranging from
simple backyard small household pond
systems to large-scale, highly intensive,
commercially-oriented practices. However,
aquaculture development in Cambodia is
in its infant stage of development compared
to other countries in the region. It has some
problems and constraints encountered in
development including: (a) inadequate and
unreliable supply of good quality seed; lack
of capital, fund or credit for aquaculture
investment; (b) inadequate knowledge of
aquaculture technology; (c) inadequate
manpower for aquaculture extension
service; and (d) climate change. All of these
have impacted aquaculture development in
Cambodia.
Recently, aquaculture extension is
one of the national policies under the
National Rectangular Strategy Policies of
the government. There are several different
freshwater aquaculture systems including
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
floating cage/pen culture, earthen pond
culture and rice-fish culture, and other
fish culture in small water bodies or
aquaculture-based fisheries which have
been practiced in Cambodia in over 20
provinces and cities, while there is less
development of marine aquaculture.
In order to achieve the goal of
aquaculture fish production and to supply
the nation’s future fish requirements, the
Cambodia Fisheries Administration (FiA)
has already prepared its 10-year Strategic
Planning Framework (SPF) for the Fisheries
Sector (2010-2019). Within this framework,
the scenarios for future fish demand-supply
for year 2019 suggested that aquaculture
production will increase by 15% per year to
185,000 tons by the end of 2019.
The main objectives of this study aims to
review the existing literature and combine
this with primary data to understand the
evolution, current situation and potential
of freshwater and marine aquaculture
development, and to identify problems/
constraints, issues, gaps and opportunities
in aquaculture development in Cambodia.
Methodology
The methodology used by the authors
for this study combined a review of
secondary data with primary research
data with focus on interviews with key
stakeholders.
Results and Discussion
Implementing the SPF for the Aquaculture
Sub-sector
Aquaculture offers enormous longterm potential for Cambodia. However,
the starting level is fairly low (only 50,000
tons was produced in 2009, mostly from
small-scale operations). In order to achieve
immediate growth whilst also maintaining
a pro-poor focus, the main interventions
will be to support small and familyscale development, primarily through
training, the provision of fingerlings, and
establishing risk management systems.
Targets include:
•
•
•
•
At least 85,000 trained fish farmers
actively engaged in aquaculture by
the end of 2019
Fish seed production is increased to
250,000,000 per year by the end of
2019
A surveillance, monitoring and
control system for fish disease
outbreaks is developed and
implemented by the end of 2014
Research and development to
identify commercially viable
production of indigenous species
in cooperation with regional
organizations, i.e. Mekong River
Commission (MRC)
In order to facilitate the general growth
of aquaculture, the FiA will also develop
comprehensive regulations and technical
standards under the Law on Fisheries that
are specifically designed to support the
ability of the aquaculture sector to reach the
targets set out for it.
Current Status of Aquaculture Technology
Aquaculture activities have been
categorized at different types, especially
in terms of scale and intensity. In practice
these various “types” are continually
evolving, and individual farmers and the
sector as a whole operate on a continuous
spectrum of scale and intensity depending
on resources, skills and market/economic
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Country Papers
incentives. Farmers may also shift species
depending on input costs and market
conditions. We have therefore found it
more useful to recognize certain basic
technologies, all of which may be applied at
different scales and levels of intensity, and
for different species (Table 1).
Freshwater Cage Culture
Freshwater aquaculture, especially
of snakehead, has been undertaken in
Cambodia since the 10th century – partly
as a means of storing and fattening fish to
reduce the seasonal surplus noted above,
and partly as a means of converting lowvalue fish into high-value fish. Historically,
both Chinese and Vietnamese have taken
a significant role in this activity. In the
1960s production of fish in cage already
stood at around 4,000-6,000 tons/year and
during the 1980s comprised 80-90% of
total aquaculture production and 70-80%
during the 1990s. Since 2005, however,
cage culture of snakehead has been
banned because of concerns about overexploitation of wild fingerlings – for both
stocking and feeding – and the overall level
of cage culture has declined, though it is
still thought to comprise more than 50% of
all aquaculture production.
Most cage culture takes place in the
Tonle Sap, Mekong and Brassac rivers,
and in the Great Lake. Apart from illegal
rearing of snakehead (mainly Channa
micropeltes), the main species stocked are
Pangasionodon hypopthalmus, Hemibagrus
wyckioides (redtail catfish) and Oreochromis
niloticus (tilapia). Clarias (catfish), Puntius
(silver barb), Oxyeleotris (sand goby),
and Leptobarbus hoevennii (Hovens carp)
may also be fattened or stored over a few
months to exploit seasonal price variations.
Cage culture probably remains the most
*'
important type of aquaculture, at least in
terms of the number of enterprises.
Cage sizes vary from 48 to 540 m3 for
Pangas catfish culture, and 18-180 m3 for
snakehead culture, and are usually made
from bamboo or wood, though net cages
are becoming more common. Sometimes
these are large boat-shaped structures
with accommodation and sometimes pig
sties on board. For Pangas, the average
yield is between 28 and 90 kg/m3; and for
snakehead 75-150 kg/ m3.
Overall trends are unclear other than
the decline in snakehead farming. However,
it seems likely there has been a shift in
favor of Pangas (perhaps related to seed
availability) and redtail catfish.
Freshwater Pond Culture - Smallholder
Pond aquaculture has not been a
traditional activity in Cambodia, probably
because of the abundance of wild fish.
However, since the 1990s there have been
substantial efforts by donors and NGOs
to promote pond based fish culture – on
individual farms, in community ponds
and in rice fields. These initiatives have
been accompanied by introduction of a
range of Chinese and Indian carps, tilapia,
and hybrid catfish for which breeding
technology is well developed. While
initially, care was taken to keep these exotic
introductions away from the Great Lake and
Mekong river system, they have since been
introduced widely across the country, and
there is some evidence that some species,
such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio),
are breeding in the wild. Native species,
including silver barb (B. gonionotus),
walking catfish (Clarias batrachus),
river catfish (Pangasianodon gigas) and
occasionally Leptobarbus hoeveni,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 1: Fish species cultured in Cambodia
No.
Scientific name
Common name /
Khmer name
Culture
method
Source of
seed
Culture area
Indigenous species
1
Pangasianodon
hypophthalmus
Striped catfish/ Trey
Pra Thom
FC, P
HS, WS
Great Lake, Tonle Sap,
Mekong
2
Pangasianodon bocourti
Basa catfish/ Trey
PraKe
FC
WS
Great Lake, Tonle Sap
3
Pangasianodon larnaudii
Spotted-ear catfish/
Trey Po
FC
WS
Great Lake, Tonle Sap,
Mekong
4
Pangasianodon conchophilus
Snail eating catfish/
Trey PraKchao
FC
WS
Great Lake, Tonle Sap,
Mekong
5
Channa micropeltes
Giant snakehead/
Trey Chhdor
FC
WS
Great Lake, Mekong,
Tonle Sap rivers
6
Channa striata
Snakehead/ Trey Ros
FC
WS
Great Lake, Mekong,
Tonle Sap rivers
7
Barbodes gonionotus
Silver barb/
Trey chhpenprak
FC, P, RF
HS, WS
Whole country
8
Leptobarbus hoeveni
Saltan fish/ Trey
praloung
FC, P
HS, WS
Mekong, Tonle Sap,
Great Lake, Takeo,
SvayRieng, Prey Veng
9
Hemibagrus wyckiode
Redtail catfish/ Trey
kyakrahom
FC
WS
Mekong river, Tonle
Sap, Great Lake
10
Oxyeleotris marmorata
Marble goby/ Trey
Domrey
FC, P
WS
Mekong, Tonle Sap,
11
Anabas testudineus
Climbing perch/ Trey
kranh
P
HS
Whole country
12
Barbodes altus
Red tailed tinfoil/
Trey kahekrahom
P, RF
HS, WS
Whole country
13
Epinephelus spp.
Grouper
FC
WS,
Imported
Coastal, Koh Kong,
Sihanoukville
14
Lates calcarifer
Seabass
FC
WS,
Imported
Coastal, Koh Kong,
Sihanoukville
15
Lutjanus malabaricus
Snapper
FC
WS,
Imported
Coastal, Koh Kong,
Sihanoukville
16
Penaeus monodon
Tiger Shrimp
P
WS,
Imported
Coastal, Koh Kong,
Kampot
17
Eucheuma cottonii
Seaweed
Open water Imported
Coastal, Kampot
Exotic species
1
Oreochromis niloticus
Nile tilapia
P, RF, FC
HS
Whole country
2
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
Silver carp
P
HS
Whole country
3
Cyprinus carpio
Common carp
P, RF
HS
Whole country
4
Aristichtys nobilis
Bighead carp
P
HS
Whole country
5
Ctenopharyngodon idella
Grass carp
P
HS
Whole country
6
Cirrhina mrigal
Mrigal
P, RF
HS
Whole country
7
Clarias spp.
Hybrid catfish
P
HS
Whole country
Note: P: pond; FC: floating cage; RF: rice field; WS: wild seed; HS: hatchery seed
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Country Papers
Barbichthys altus and climbing perch
(Anabas testudineus) are also grown.
(962 ha) in 2009-2010, operated by 40,500
farmers.
These systems range from relatively low
input systems using on-farm products (rice
bran, duckweed, termites, morning glory,
pumpkin, etc.) yielding less than 1 kg/m2
(mostly 0.25-0.5 kg/m2) for 6 months of
culture (May to October), to systems using
rice bran mixed with small-sized fish or
fish powder and/or commercial pelleted
feed, giving yields from 1.5 to 20 kg/m2
(15-200 t/ha) with high quality feed. Lower
input systems tend to be dominated by
carps and tilapia; higher input systems are
typically carp-dominated polyculture with
tilapia, pangasius-dominated polyculture,
or pangasius or tilapia monoculture. Ponds
may be as small as 100 m2, although highinput smallholder systems are usually 0.1 to
0.2 hectares.
Freshwater Pond Culture - Small and
Medium-Sized Enterprises
There are currently two significant
projects facilitating development of smallscale freshwater pond aquaculture – the
USAID “Harvest” project and the JICAfunded FAIEX project. JICA is promoting
small-scale hatchery production as a
key element in increasing seed supply,
encouraging farmer networks and
supporting lead farmers. They do not
subsidize inputs. The Harvest project is
concentrating on extension and farm
business development, encouraging
farmers to understand the costs and
returns associated with different levels of
intensification, as well as offering intensive
regular extension advice to focus on
farmers. They also assist farmers with input
purchase on a declining trajectory over six
production cycles. The number of ponds
reportedly used for fish culture increased
from 3,455 (239 ha) in 1993 to 56,234
*)
More recently, intensive Pangas (P.
hypophthalmus and hybrid catfish) farming
in ponds has increased significantly, driven
in part by expatriate Vietnamese farmers
seeking better water quality, biosecurity,
lower wages and cheaper feed ingredients
(especially “trash” fish). Productivity is
very high (several hundred tons/ha/yr)
based on intensive feeding with pellets
(usually at start and end of production
cycle), rice bran, trash fish and a variety of
other ingredients. Most farmers mix and
prepare their own feed mixture, producing
home-made pellets. Low-value fresh fish
may be purchased in bulk and stored with
rice bran as a semi-fermented product for
several months. This type of aquaculture
takes place mainly around Phnom Penh
and Kandal. In addition, there are now
significant areas of nursing ponds –
primarily for imported Pangas seed – for
example to the north of Phnom Penh.
Pond sizes in intensive culture systems
may range from a few hundred square
meters to 10,000 m2 (average 2,400 m2),
with depth of 2 to 3 meters, and permanent
access to a water source. The culture period
is 8-12 months for Pangasius and 2.5-3
month cycle for hybrid catfish culture with
an average of 3 cycles per year. Some of
these Pangas farmers are diversifying to
Clarias catfish, Anabas (climbing perch),
sand goby, and a variety of other species
such as featherback since the price for
pangas is low. Most farmers would like to
be able to rear snakehead.
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Rice-fish Culture
Rice-fish culture is typically based on
stocking rice fields and/or small connecting
ponds and channels mainly with fish species
such as tilapia, or common carp, Pangasius
catfish, and silver barb (Barbonymus
gonionotus). Fish are stocked at a density
of 0.03-0.45 individual/m2 in concurrent
rice-fish systems with an average area of 0.4
ha, harvesting yield between 100 and 300 kg
per hectare. The growth cycle lasts around 4
months.
Development of this type of aquaculture,
while highly desirable from a food security
perspective, is perhaps the most challenging,
since many factors, including intensification
of rice production, chemical use, short
production cycle, losses to theft, flood and
migration may all constrain further growth.
Freshwater Prawn and Shrimp Farming
Traditional extensive shrimp farming
is practiced on a small scale in Kampot
Province. This relies mainly on natural seed
and feed, and productivity is less than 100
kg/ha/year. More intensive shrimp farming
began in the 1990s and its production rose
to a peak of over 700 tons/year in 1995.
Tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon and banana
shrimp Penaeus merguensis were the main
cultured species. Unfortunately, shrimp
farming suffered from serious disease and
collapsed. Production has been less than 100
tons in recent years.
More recently a new medium-scale
enterprise has restarted in Koh Kong
province in ponds previously used for fish
culture.
Technology for the production of
Macrobrachium seed has been developed
at two government hatcheries, and there
is some limited farming of this species in
inland waters, but this has not become a
significant activity as yet.
Marine Cage Culture
Marine finfish culture began in the late
80s, early 90s in both Kompot and Koh
Kong. Unfortunately this collapsed in 1993
due to freshwater runoff after heavy rain.
Marine cage culture restarted in the early
2000s and there is now probably around
1,000 tons production from marine cage
culture production in Sihanouk, Kompot
and Koh Kong. Species cultured are mainly
seabass (60-70%) and grouper. Seeds are
sourced from the wild, from Thailand
(seabass) or from Indonesia and Taiwan
(grouper). Feed is exclusively trash fish
sourced locally. This sub-sector is currently
suffering from chronic disease problems (up
to 50% losses), which seem to be endemic
throughout the region.
Crocodile Farming
The farming of the indigenous species,
Crocodylus siamensis has been undertaken
since the early 20th Century. Crocodile
farming has increased quite rapidly in
recent years, from 4,816 heads in 1993 to
230,000 heads in 2011. This involves mainly
production of 30 cm long juveniles that are
mainly exported.
Seaweed Culture
Eucheuma cottonii was cultured in
Kampot province by a Malaysian company
in the mid 2000s, with production
reaching 18,500 tons in 2005. However, no
production of farmed seaweed has been
reported since 2006.
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Country Papers
Other Potential Species for Aquaculture
In Cambodia, some intensive
production of frog and soft-shelled turtle
has been found. There have been some
initiatives with oysters and green mussels
(Perna viridis), though it appears that these
activities have now ceased due to financial
difficulties.
Fish Seed Supply
There are four primary sources of seed
(fry or fingerlings) for aquaculture:
•
•
•
•
Imports from Viet Nam and
Thailand (freshwater); and from
Indonesia, Taiwan (marine)
Fingerlings caught in the wild
Private sector hatcheries (small and
medium scale)
Government hatcheries
Fish Feed Supply
Cambodia has significant resources
of low-value fish from both marine and
freshwater sources that can be used directly
as fish feed, or converted into fishmeal and
mixed with other ingredients to produce
home-made or commercial compound
feeds. Indeed, the seasonal excess of
low-value freshwater fish underpins the
long history of intensive aquaculture in
Cambodia. While this is strength in many
ways, increasing demand from aquaculture
is putting pressure on both freshwater and
marine resources.
No recent studies of the species
composition of “trash” or low-value fish,
and its allocation and value for different
uses (fresh for human consumption, fresh
for aquaculture, pigs, and ducks, fish paste,
fish sauce, dried fish, fish meal, exports
*+
in all these forms). This is an important
strategic issue for both the aquaculture and
fisheries sector.
At present, Cambodia has one fishmeal
plant that uses a proportion of this excess,
as well as low-value marine species. The
country also produces significant quantities
of other basic feed ingredients including
rice bran, broken rice, corn, cassava, and
some soy. Traditionally, various vegetables
have been used in the absence of higher
quality feeds, including Lemna, Azolla,
morning glory and household waste.
As yet, there is no commercial
manufacturer of dedicated fish feeds. As
a result a large quantity of fish feeds are
imported, mainly from Viet Nam and
Thailand. Discussions with suppliers
suggest this market is currently around
20,000 t/yr, growing at around 10%/year,
and supplied mainly by Proconco (Viet
Nam), CP (Thailand) and several other
smaller producers from Viet Nam.
The lack of Cambodian production
of fish feeds is widely regarded as a
constraint, and there is a lot of complaints
from farmers about feed cost and quality.
However, it should be recognized that
Cambodia is fortunate in being able
to access reasonably priced and wellformulated fish feeds from both Viet Nam
and Thailand. While there may be some
quality issues, this is probably partly related
to unwillingness to pay the necessary
(international) price for high quality feed.
There are some interest in investing in a
feed plant (both foreign and Cambodian),
but demand remains low to justify the
significant investment required. However,
once demand reaches a sufficient level
(probably around 50,000 t/yr) it is highly
likely that such an investment will be made.
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Limited demand for pelleted feeds
relates both to the limited scale of
aquaculture production, and to the wide
availability of trash fish in Cambodia.
Stricter control and management of lowvalue fish fisheries is desirable from the
perspective of biodiversity and fishery
sustainability; it would also lead to
increased demand for pelleted feed which
would ultimately justify investment in feed
plant in Cambodia sooner rather than later.
Fish Diseases
Disease is a significant problem in
aquaculture globally. Epizootic fish disease
has been a periodic problem for freshwater
fish culture and indeed wild fish, and
spread widely across Southeast Asia in the
1980s. Shrimp farming has suffered from
chronic viral and bacterial disease problems
throughout the region, and this was the
primary cause of collapse of the industry in
Cambodia in the 1990s.
Marine finfish farming is currently
suffering chronic disease problems across
the region. While these diseases occur
naturally, the severity of outbreak tends
to be exacerbated by intensive culture
conditions and over concentration of
development.
Aquaculture system
In general, the aquaculture system
in Cambodia is commonly known and
categorized into two types: extensive/semiintensive system and intensive system.
The proportion of intensive aquaculture
system contributes about 75% to the total
aquaculture production, whereas 25% from
extensive/semi-intensive system (Figure 2).
The main purpose of extensive aquaculture
system is additionally to support family fish
consumption. The promotion of small fish
culture activities was presented in 1986 by
the UNICEF’s Family Food Programme
and then from 1990s by many NGOs/IOs
and Projects: AIT Aquaculture and Aquatic
Resources Management (AIT-AARM),
MRC, FAO, Partnership for Development
in Kampuchea (PADEK), etc. Recently,
aquaculture activities that have grown
rapidly are those that are supported by
JICA, DFID/DANIDA, USAID-HARVEST,
Ayuda Intercambio y Desarollo (AIDA),
FAO/EU, etc.
Aquaculture Production
Aquaculture in Cambodia has
undoubtedly grown in recent years – from
less than 14,600 tons in 2002 to 74,000 tons
in 2012. The production trends for total
aquaculture production are shown in Figure
3. In the last ten years, the contribution
of aquaculture activities to total fisheries
production has been increasing dramatically.
Aquaculture development has become a
“national moment”, as noted in the speech of
the Cambodian Prime Minister in 2008.
Economic and social value
Pangasius and snakehead species
dominate the aquaculture sector in terms
of gross revenue with more than USD
30 million generated for both species.
Surprisingly, marine cages represent more
than USD 7 million, while its contribution
to the total aquaculture production is only
about 1.2%. In terms of employment, it
has been estimated that there are some
27,000 people involved in aquaculture in
Cambodia.
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Figure 1. Fish seed production (in thousands) in Cambodia in 2002-2012.
Figure 2. Fish production in pond culture systems (Source: Aquaculture
Development Department).
Figure 3. Aquaculture production in Cambodia in 2002-2012.
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Constraints in Aquaculture Development
In general, aquaculture activities in
Cambodia are mainly on small-scale
operations targeting the improvement
of nutrition of local people. During the
process of fish culture, some constraints
were usually reported such as lack of
technical assistance, lack of water supply,
lack of seed and feed supply, and limited
awareness of fish culture technologies
among fish farmers. The following key
issues are commonly noted in Cambodian
aquaculture:
✴ Problems in cage culture
• High mortality rates of fishes during
summer months, particularly
from March-May when the water
temperature is high and the water
flow is reduced
• Large amount of waste being
discharged, causing deterioration of
water quality
• The seed used for cage culture are
collected from the wild and may
have significant impact on wild
stock
• For Pangasids and other species, the
sharp decline of wild seed supply
led to shortage of seed for stocking,
while hatchery-produced seed have
not been available
• There is heavy reliance on catching
or buying low-value fish/trash fish
for feed
✴ Problems in shrimp culture
• Unavailability of hatchery-produced
shrimp post-larvae
• Reliance on imported post-larvae
from neighboring countries
• Diseases
• Lack of special extension programs
focusing on shrimp farming
✴ Problems in pond culture
• Inadequate water supply is a serious
constraint
• Since most pond water is stagnant,
fish kills occur during the summer
season
• Unavailable hatchery-produced
seed of high-value culture species.
• Poor knowledge of farmers about
feeds and feeding technology
• Imported commercial feeds (pellet
feed) are expensive
• There is a heavy reliance on
catching or buying trash fish for
feed
• Aquaculture cooperative or society
does not function well resulting in a
lack of communication to exchange
ideas or techniques
✴ Marine Aquaculture
• Mariculture is less developed as
compared to the neighboring
countries
• Common cultured species: groupers
and snappers (wild seed and
imported)
• In 2011, there were about 800 cages.
• Reliance on wild seed and imports.
• Unavailability of hatchery-produced
seed
• Unavailability of commercial feeds.
• Lack of training and extension
programs focusing on marine
aquaculture
• Investment for marine aquaculture
is quite high (i.e. cage construction,
feed cost)
Opportunity for Aquaculture Development
The main points of opportunities for
aquaculture development in Cambodia are
as follows:
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Country Papers
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
*/
Remarkable genetic resource in the
form of more than 500 freshwater
species and a similar number
in marine species in the MRC
research/breeding programme
Many potential aquaculture species
have high nutritional value
Many indigenous species have
higher price than mainstream
aquaculture species
Region-wide there is an excellent
range of high-quality breeds of
exotic species in public and private
sector
A wide range of species is suitable
for marine and brackishwater
aquaculture: filter-feeding shellfish;
marine finfish, seaweed. There
are also opportunities for the
production of tilapia and catfish in
brackishwater
At least 10 species grow well in rice
fields and are easy to sell
Production and consumption of
even a small quantity of fish can
generate significant benefits and
income to the rural poor people in
society
Small-scale fish farmer can reduce
costs of inputs, increase price of
product, exchange knowledge and
experience, and reduce share risk by
forming cooperatives, associations
and networks
Small-scale hatchery or nursery
production can generate substantial
revenue from modest land/water
resources – far higher than from
rice production
Successful small-scale fish farmer
can expand to medium-scale and
large-scale, and land can also be
rented
•
•
Aquaculture enterprises at all scales
can generate employment for both
men and women
Efficient industrial scale production
of easily grown species typically
results in widely available low-cost
fish, which will benefit the poor,
especially in urban areas, etc.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Aquaculture in Cambodia plays an
important role in contributing to the
improvement of the daily livelihood of
the rural poor farmer community. Fish
is the most important source of animal
protein in Cambodian people’s daily diet.
There is enormous potential in fish culture
production from floating cage culture,
earthen pond culture and rice-fish culture
and other fish culture activities in small
water bodies or aquaculture-based fisheries
in Cambodia. Moreover, fish does not only
play a major role in the daily diet, but also
in the employment, economy of the rural
poor farmer and improvement of women’s
role in aquaculture.
Recognizing the potential role of
aquaculture in subsistence farming, NGOs
and other IOs have been contributing a
significant role towards the development
of aquaculture and in the management
of aquatic resources in Cambodia. The
FiA has been taking a number of steps
to promote aquaculture in all potential
areas in partnership with various NGOs,
IOs and other agencies involved with
rural development projects. The FiA, in
collaboration with diverse NGOs and IOs,
have established public sector hatcheries
in different provinces and also assisted
in establishing private sector hatcheries
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
in many rural areas to produce seed to
supply seeds to family-scale fish farming
operations, as there is a need for good
quality seed available all year round. Aside
from the establishment of hatcheries
and due to shortage of trained human
resource to carry out extension activities,
all collaborating NGOs/IOs have assisted
in capacity building for the fisheries staff
and farmers through short-term training
course, supported in producing aquaculture
extension materials for distribution
to farmers and in some cases research
activities were conducted in the fish seed
production stations and in the fields.
However, there are some constraints facing
the development of aquaculture such as
lack of capital for pond/cage construction,
lack of credit system or access to credit is
poor as no subsidy exists, unavailability
of good quality seed, seasonal nature of
pond, competition for the farm resources
from other agricultural operation, and
lack of aquaculture extension systems and
aquaculture research center. The following
recommendations are therefore proposed.
The Royal Government of Cambodia
through the MAFF, particularly the FiA
and other development partners such
as the NGOs, IOs and other institutions
concerned in aquaculture development
should address and support the following
activities towards aquaculture development:
•
To produce good-quality
broodstock in government
hatcheries or Center for
Aquaculture Research and
Development to be distributed
to farmer-managed hatcheries
or private hatcheries in order to
produce good-quality fish seed for
aquaculture farming;
•
•
•
To establish sub-research center
for aquaculture development and
extension service in all regions
that have a good potential for
aquaculture development in
Cambodia;
To strengthen capacity of existing
fish seed producer farmer
networks and establish more
farmer hatcheries in all provinces
or so-called fish seed production
decentralization in Cambodia; and
To strengthen the existing
guideline for good aquaculture
practice (GAP) and law/ regulation
performance in aquaculture
farming and fish marketing.
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to thank H.E.
Prof. Nao Thuok, PhD (Delegate of the
Royal Government of Cambodia, Director
General of Fisheries Administration),
Dr. Hav Viseth (Director of Aquaculture
Development Department) and Mr.
Pich Sereywath (Former Deputy-Chief
of Aquaculture Division) for providing
useful information and data for this report
preparation. And also I would like to thank
the fish farmers who participated in the
interviews and provided information and
invaluable feedback on their experiences in
fish culture.
Suggested Readings
Ministry of Environment. 2002. Cambodia
Initial National Communication
Under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.
*0
Navy H and Kong H. 2008. Value chains
for promoting sustainable fisheries
development in the Mekong delta.
Rab MA, Navy H, Ahmed M, Seng K and
Viner K. 2005. Socioeconomics and
Values of Resources in Great LakeTonle Sap and Mekong-Bassac Area:
Results from a Sample Survey in
Kampong Chhnang, Siem Reap and
Kandal Provinces.
Thuok N and Viseth H. 2004. The role of
NGOs in aquaculture development in
Cambodia, lessons learned. Department
of Fisheries, MAFF, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia.
Viseth H and Pengbun N. 2005. An
Overview of Aquaculture in Cambodia.
Department of Fisheries, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Status of Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices
in Japan
Koichi Okuzawaa*, Takayuki Takebeb, Narisato Hiraic and Kazumasa Ikutad
National Research Institute of Aquaculture, Fisheries Research Agency, 422-1 Nakatsuhamaura, Minami-ise,
Watarai, Mie 516-0193, Japan
b
Research Center for Subtropical Fisheries, Seikai National Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research
Agency, Ishigaki, Okinawa 907-0451, Japan
c
Shibushi Laboratory, National Research Institute of Aquaculture, Fisheries Research Agency, 205 Natsui,
Shibushi, Kagoshima 899-7101, Japan
d
Counsellor, Resource Enhancement Promotion Department, Japan Fisheries Agency, Ministry of
Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, 1-2-1 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda, Tokyo 100-8907, Japan
* kokuzawa@fra.affrc.go.jp
a
Abstract
Contrary to the rapid increase in the world aquaculture production, fish production in Japan
has been decreasing slightly due to the decreasing trend in seafood consumption of Japanese.
Aquaculture production is approximately 20% in terms of yield, and 30% in terms of market value,
of the country’s total fisheries production. In Japan, about 80 species are targeted for release for sea
ranching and resource enhancement purposes. The local governments (prefectures) are the main
driving force in resource enhancement programs. Chum salmon, Oncorhynchus keta, and scallop
Mizuhopecten yessoensisis are examples of successful resource enhancement in Japan. Japanese
flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, and red seabream, Pagrus major, represent intensely released
fish species in Japan, and around 10% of the total catch of those species are estimated as released
fish. The low price of products and increasing costs of production, such as costs of fuel and fish
meal, are the major pressing issues in coastal fisheries and aquaculture in Japan. For aquaculture,
the guarantee of food safety, minimization of environmental impact, and management of natural
stock populations are highly necessary in order to achieve the sustainability of the industry. For
resource enhancement, budget constraint is the major issue, and possible impact on natural stocks
caused by released fish should also be considered. The Government of Japan (GOJ) is implementing
some measures to rectify unstable business practices of aquaculture and to improve production
techniques in aquaculture. For resource enhancement, the GOJ encourages cooperation among
local governments (prefectures) for seed production and release of certain targeted species in order
to reduce the cost and improve the efficiency of stock enhancement. In Japan, traditionally, the
purpose for release was mainly sea ranching, namely harvesting all released animals. Nowadays,
actual resource enhancement, i.e. the integrated release program including resource management
and development of suitable nursery for released fish, is encouraged by the government. The
evaluation and counter measures for the negative impact of stocked fish on genetic diversity of the
wild population are also implemented. Recently, marked progress was achieved in seed production
technologies of two important tropical fish species, namely coral trout, Plectropomus leopardus,
and humphead wrasse, Cheilinus undulatus. These technologies are expected to contribute to the
advancement of the aquaculture industry in the South East Asian region.
Keywords: resource enhancement, aquaculture practices, Japan, sea ranching, integrated release
program
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Introduction
Fisheries and aquaculture production
in Japan have been decreasing in recent
years (Figures 1 and 2). There are two
major reasons for the decrease, namely the
decreasing trend of the consumption of
seafood by the Japanese and the reduction
of fish price. Figure 3 shows changes in
average daily consumption of seafood and
meat by Japanese; consumption of seafood
has been decreasing continuously, while
meat consumption is increasing. Japanese
who prefer meat to seafood is increasing
because meat is easier to cook and eat,
lasts longer than seafood and the price is
comparable. The decreasing demand for
seafood caused a reduction in price. Figure
4 indicates the changes in the price of
Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus,
and the red seabream, Pagrus major at the
Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale
Market in Japan from 1993 to 2012. Prices
are continuously decreasing. Therefore,
the situation in fisheries and aquaculture
in Japan is very tough these days; Japanese
fishermen and aquaculturists have
encountered difficulties in their business
practices. The low price of products and
increasing costs of production, such as
costs of fuel and fish meal, have been
the major pressing issues in coastal
fisheries and aquaculture. In addition, for
aquaculture, the guarantee of food safety,
minimization of environmental impact, and
management of natural stock populations
are highly necessary in order to achieve the
sustainability of the industry.
Figure 1. Changes in annual production of fisheries and aquaculture in Japan from 1960
to 2011. Aquaculture production in 2011 was influenced temporarily by the earthquake
disaster. Figures are based on Fisheries and Aquaculture Production Statistics (2013),
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
Figure 2. Changes in the annual production of fisheries and aquaculture from 2002 to
2012 in Japan. Marine aquaculture production in 2011 was influenced temporarily by
the earthquake disaster. The figure was based on Fisheries and Aquaculture Production
Statistics (2013), Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
+)
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 3. Changes in the consumption of seafood and meat per day per person in Japan
from 2001 to 2011. Data was obtained from the Investigation for the Nutrition of Japanese
Citizens, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare.
Figure 4. Changes in the annual average price of fresh red seabream (red squares) and
Japanese flounder (blue dots) at Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market in Japan.
Present status
for approximately 20% in terms of yield,
and 30% in terms of market value, of the
country’s total fisheries production.
Contrary to the rapid increase in the
world aquaculture production, Japan’s
aquaculture production has been slightly
decreasing these days. Figures 1 and 2
indicate changes in the production of
fisheries and aquaculture in recent decade;
all productions are decreasing. In Japan
marine aquaculture production is much
bigger than inland aquaculture and marine
aquaculture production is comparable to
coastal fisheries. Aquaculture industry
has contributed to compensate the
decrease in fisheries production in Japan;
the aquaculture production accounts
Figure 5 shows both marine and
inland aquaculture production of each
commodity in Japan in 2012. In marine
fish culture, yellow tail is the most
important commodity. Actually, two
closely related species, namely, yellow
tail, Seriola quinqueradiata and greater
amberjack, S. dumerili, are included in
this amount of production (160,215 t).
The red seabream is the second, followed
by coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutsh
and bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis. In
freshwater, eel, Anguilla japonica, accounts
for half of the production and followed by
Aquaculture in Japan
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Country Papers
ayu, Plecoglossus altivelis, rainbow trout,
Oncorhynchus mykiss, and carp, Cyprinus
carpio, followed.
In shellfish, the scallops, Mizuhopecten
yessoensisis and the oyster, Crassostrea gigas,
are the major commodities, and the laver,
Porphyra yezoensis, dominates the seaweed
aquaculture (Figure 6). The prawn culture
industry is rather small in Japan and
kuruma prawn, Penaeus (Marsupenaeus)
japonicus, production is the highest (1,596 t
in 2012).
Figure 5. Marine (left) and freshwater (right) finfish aquaculture production in Japan in
2012. Figures were made from Fisheries and Aquaculture Production Statistics (2013),
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
Figure 6. Marine shellfish (left) and seaweed (right) aquaculture production in Japan in
2012. Figures were from Fisheries and Aquaculture Production Statistics (2013), Ministry
of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Pressing issues in Japanese aquaculture
Measures to improve production techniques
In Japan, most aquaculture farms are
small in size, and their business practices
are unstable. There are several reasons for
the instability. The prices of aquaculture
products are rather low, because of
overproduction and/or oligopoly on price
determined by the supply chain. High cost
of production due to increases in the cost
of fish meal, mandated environmental
management, dependence of seed on wild
populations and/or the risk of disease
outbreak are also the issues. Increasing
demands by consumers for guaranteed food
safety of the products is another issue to be
tackled.
Measures to improve production
techniques include four aspects: 1) food
safety, 2) conservation of the environment,
3) management of natural resources, and 4)
new technologies for aquaculture.
Possible strategies for aquaculture
Measures to improve unstable business
practices in aquaculture
There are three major policies
implemented by the Government of
Japan (GOJ) or Japan Fisheries Agency
to improve unstable business practices of
aquaculture in Japan. First, the expansion
of mutual-aid systems to support business
practices of fishermen and aquaculture
farmers, including compensation systems
for increases in feed and oil costs. Second,
promotion of planned production in
correlation with supply-demand balance.
Japan Fisheries Agency set the guideline
for aquaculture production every year, for
example the ideal amount of production
for yellow tail + greater amberjack and
red seabream in 2014 were determined as
140,000 and 72,000 tons, respectively. Third,
enhancement of added value to aquaculture
products and promotion of exportation are
recommended.
Food safety
Food safety is an essential issue for
the aquaculture industry. Management
systems for food safety and information
technologies for communication between
producers and consumers are necessary.
R&D for management systems of product
quality assurance, e.g., global Good
Aquaculture Practice (GAP) and traceability
systems, should be further promoted. R&D
for vaccines to prevent infectious diseases
and the dissemination of such vaccines are
strongly required. Risk management is also
important for food safety.
Conservation of the environment
To achieve sustainable aquaculture,
wastes such as uneaten feed and excretions
should be minimized in order to maintain
an appropriate environment and prevent
red tide from occurring around the culture
cages. For feeding-type aquaculture, the
drawing up of plans for conserving the
environment and using low-emission
feeds are strongly recommended. For
non-feeding aquaculture such as that of
seaweeds and bivalves, monitoring of the
coastal environment is necessary in order
to prevent harmful environmental changes
such as red tide, poor oxygen content, and
high temperatures.
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Country Papers
Management of natural resources
Aquaculture activities often impact
natural resources. For example, wild
juveniles of bluefin tuna, eel or yellow tail
are used for aquaculture. Aquaculture feed
also depends on the use of natural stocks
of sardine and anchovy. Therefore, R&D
to produce sufficient quantities of artificial
seeds and the development of breeding
technology is of high importance. Also,
R&D to develop assorted feeds using
alternative sources of protein having high
quality is necessary.
New technologies for aquaculture
To reduce the cost and promote
productivity, R&D for new aquaculture
technologies are implemented. This
includes 1) development of feeds with
low fish meal content or inclusion level
and determination of appropriate feeding
amounts, 2) determination of appropriate
fish density in order to avoid pathogen
infections, 3) development of submersible
net cages for offshore aquaculture to
minimize environmental emissions, 4)
development of breeding technologies
to produce fish strains adaptable to
various aquaculture conditions, and 5)
development of enclosed recirculating
aquaculture systems.
Resource enhancement
Present status of resource enhancement
in Japan
In Japan, about 80 species are targeted
for release for sea ranching and resource
enhancement. Figure 7 shows the top 10
species released for resource enhancement
in Japan. The local governments
(prefectures) are the main driving force in
+-
resource enhancement programs. Chum
salmon, Oncorhynchus keta, is an example
of successful resource enhancement in
Japan; around 1.7 billion fry are released
and 50-70 million salmons return (recovery
rate is 2-3%) every year. Sea ranching of
the scallop is another success story, about
3 billion spats are released and 300,000
t scallops are harvested per year. The
production of chum salmon (129,000 t)
and scallop (302,000 t) accounts for about
40% of the total production from coastal
fisheries (1,129,000 t) in Japan in 2011.
Japanese flounder and red seabream are
the representatives for intensely released
commodities; around 15 and 12 million
juveniles respectively were released in 2011
(Figure 8). Around 10% of total catch of
these species are estimated as released fish.
Pressing issues in resource enhancement
in Japan
There are several pressing issues
in resource enhancement in Japan.
Among them, budget constraint is the
biggest one. Due to the long period of
economic depression in Japan, most local
governments, or prefectures, in Japan have
suffered from severe budget constraint, and
total budget for resources enhancement
programs of all prefectures decreased from
7.5 billion yen in 2002 to 5.1 billion yen
in 2012. In addition, budget from the GOJ
drastically decreased since 2005.
Formerly, the GOJ had intensely
encouraged stock enhancement programs
and utilized sufficient amount of the budget
for the stock enhancement when the
economy was in good condition. However,
the GOJ had changed the policy against
resource enhancement and the roles of
the GOJ in resource enhancement had
decreased since 2005, and prefectures are
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 7. Annual release of top 10 species for resource enhancement in Japan. The
numbers are the averages from 1983 to 2000. The figure was based on data in the
Achievement of Seed Production and Release of Stock Enhancement in Japan.
Figure 8. Changes in total numbers of released representative marine fish species
aimed for resource enhancement from 1983 to 2011in Japan.
designated as the main driving force for
resource enhancement programs. The
GOJ allocated the budget for the resource
enhancement that was formerly used by
GOJ to the prefectures. However, because
of the budget constraints in prefectures,
they did not use all allocated budget for the
resource enhancement activities but divert
it to some other purpose. Taken together,
the total budget for resources enhancement
in Japan had shrunk, and this resulted in
the decrease in the number of released fish,
which is shown in Figure 8.
Another pressing issue is the impact on
natural stocks caused by released fish, in
other words reduction of genetic diversities.
Several studies have been implemented to
clarify the impact (Kitada et al., 2009).
Possible strategies
To overcome the decreased budget
problem, a strategy for the reduction of
the cost for both seed production and
release is being implemented in Japan. The
GOJ encourages prefectural governments
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Country Papers
to cooperate with each other in seed
production and release for migratory
species, such as Japanese flounder and tiger
puffer. For this purpose, the “Regional
Council for the Promotion of Stock
Enhancement” have been established in six
coastal areas (Northern Pacific, Northern
Japan Sea, Southern Pacific, Mid-west
Japan Sea, Seto Inland Sea and Kyusyu) in
Japan, which is composed of prefectural
government, fisheries cooperatives, publicservice corporation for seed production and
other stake folders.
In Japan, traditionally, the purpose
for release was mainly sea ranching,
namely harvesting all released animals.
Nowadays, actual resource enhancement,
i.e. the integrated release program
including resource management and
development of suitable nursery for
released fish, is encouraged by the GOJ. To
mitigate possible negative impact on wild
populations, the evaluation and counter
measures for the impact of stocked fish on
genetic diversity of the wild population
is implemented by the Fisheries Research
Agency of Japan (FRA) and universities and
prefectural research centers. And the GOJ
will set guidelines about this issue in the
near future.
Recent progress in the seed production
technologies of tropical fish species in
Japan
The FRA recently achieved much
progress in the seed production of two
commercially important tropical fish
species, namely coral trout, Plectropomus
leopardus and humphead wrasse, Cheilinus
undulatus.
+/
Success in mass seed production of coral
trout
Recently, the FRA achieved marked
progress in seed production of coral trout
(Takebe et al., 2011). The seed production of
this species was very difficult and unstable.
The key for our success is to provide the
ideal environment for rearing larva. Figure
9 and 10 show a horizontal and a lateral
views of the rearing tank of coral trout that
was developed by Takebe et al. (2011). We
named this system as “new pump method”.
In this method, rearing water is circulating
within a tank powered by an underwater
pump. The pump placed in the center of
the tank sucks water, then the water is
discharged from the bottom of the tank
(Figures 9 and 10). On the other hand,
in the conventional method, water was
supplied only in one side of the tank (Figure
9). With this new pump method, survival
rate until Day 10 has drastically increased
(Figure 11). Also, the survival rate until
juvenile and total production drastically
increased after employing the new pump
method (Figure 12).
Success in seed production of humphead
wrasse
Humphead wrasse, or Napoleon wrasse,
is the largest labrid distributed around the
coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific (Sadovy et al.,
2003). They are known as proterogynous
species: all fish initially mature as females,
and later change sex to be male. The age at
maturity is relatively later than other labrids
(Choat et al., 2006), and this is a reason for
the difficulty in the conservation of this
species.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Humphead wrasse is an important
fishery resource, especially in Hong Kong,
Mainland China, and Southeast Asian
countries. This fish is very popular as
luxury species hence the wild resource
decreased in the last two decades due to the
heavy exploitation (Sadovy et al., 2003). We
also have local fishing in Ryukyu Islands,
Okinawa, Japan with spear fishing, but
this fish is not expensive in Okinawa, and
mostly consumed locally or transferred
to some luxurious Chinese restaurants in
Chinatown in Yokohama.
Efforts to manage this resource has
been made since this species was listed in
CITES Appendix II in 2004. After that,
international trade has been limited,
or some countries in Southeast Asia or
Oceania banned the fishing of this species.
Figure 9. Horizontal view of the conventional (right) and new pump method (left) rearing 60 kL
tanks for coral trout, Plectropomus leopardus, at Research Center for Subtropical Fisheries, Seikai
National Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research Agency of Japan (redrawn after Takebe et
al., 2011). The arrows indicate the directions of the discharged rearing water.
Figure 10. Lateral view of 60 kL rearing tanks with the new pump method for coral trout,
Plectropomus leopardus, at Research Center for Subtropical Fisheries, Seikai National Fisheries
Research Institute, Fisheries Research Agency of Japan (redrawn after Takebe et al., 2011). The
arrows indicate the directions of the discharged rearing water.
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Country Papers
Figure 11. Changes in the survival rate with conventional (until 2008) or new pump
method (from 2009 to 2011) until 10 day post hatching. Black line indicates survival rate
with conventional method, and other colors indicate the result with new pump method.
Figure 12. Change in mean survival rate (red dots and lines) and total number of coral
trout juveniles (blue bars) produced annually in the Research Center for Subtropical
Fisheries, Seikai National Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research Agency of
Japan.
On the other hand, the R&D on broodstock
management and seed production for
sustainable aquaculture of this species has
been tried. However, the artificial seed
production of this species is very difficult,
and there was only one success in seed
production recorded in Indonesia in 2003
(Slamet and Hutapea, 2005).
R&D for induced spawning
We collected wild humphead wrasse
in Yaeyama islands in Okinawa and reared
them in indoor octagonal 60kL tanks
(maximum diagonal 5.8 m, depth 2.5 m) at
,'
the Yaeyama Laboratory, Research Center
for Subtropical Fisheries, Seikai National
Research Institute, FRA. We found that
humphead wrasses spawn spontaneously
in the tanks from June to September when
water temperature exceeds 28°C in Ishigaki
island (Hirai et al., 2012). They spawn
mainly at the onset of the new moon (one
week before and one week after new moon).
However, fertilization rate was less than
25%. Therefore, some intervention to induce
spawning was required. By observing the
behavior of the broodstock, we found that
the male chased females when the water
level was low, and that mating behavior
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
could be induced when the water level is
reduced. After each mating episode, we
always obtained the fertilized eggs. There
has been no failure for fertilization with
this method in the three years of research.
Thus, draining water in the rearing tank to
a low level can induce mating behavior and
fertilization of the humphead wrasse.
(survival rate 10.7%, mean TL: 9.1 mm) in
2011, respectively. The dietary sequence to
raise juveniles was P. similis from 2-11 day
post hatch (DPH), SS-type rotifers from
6-29 DPH, and S-type rotifers from 28-50
DPH. Humphead wrasse juveniles accepted
Artemia nauplii after 50 DPH.
Study for larval rearing
Eggs of the humphead wrasse are rather
small (egg diameter: 620-660 μm) and the
larva hatch out in very short hours (16
hours at 28°C) and they are very small (total
length is 2 mm). Accordingly, the mouth is
also very small: the diameter is 154 μm and
the width is 133 μm at first feeding. Thus,
it was predicted that they could not eat
the rotifers, Brachionus rotundiformis that
are usually used as the first feed for most
fish larva. Therefore, we tried to feed more
minute rotifer Proales similis collected from
Ishigaki island (Figure 13). This rotifer is
smaller than SS type rotifer, the body mass
is only 10% of SS-type rotifer. This proalid
was tested in seven band grouper and larvae
were found to feed on this monogonant
(Wullur et al., 2011). Moreover, in previous
study (Hirai et al., 2012), this proalid can be
enriched by fatty acids, so it was considered
to be a suitable candidate for initial feed for
humphead wrasse larva.
The rearing conditions for humphead
wrasse was studied (Hirai et al., 2012), and
the study revealed that the addition of oil
prevents death on the surface (Figure 14)
and that too much aeration caused the
mortality of this species (Figure 15). After
this study, using the improved rearing
method and P. similis as initial live food,
22 and 537 juveniles of humphead wrasse
were produced in August (survival rate
0.25%, mean TL: 9.0 mm), and September
Figure 13. A photograph showing a Proales similis
collected from Ishigaki island, Okinawa, Japan. Scale
bar = 50 μm.
Figure 14. Effect of addition of oil to the rearing
tank of humphead wrasse on the surface death
observed at 2 and 3 days post hatch (redrawn after
Hirai et al., 2012). Values are means ± standard
deviation. Asterisks indicate statistical differences
(p<0.05) between oil and no oil groups.
,(
Country Papers
Cheilinus undulatus: synopsis of a
threatened and poorly known giant
coral reef. Reviews in Fish Biology and
Fisheries. 13: 327-364.
Slamet B and Hutapea JH. 2005. First
successful hatchery production of
Napoleon wrasse at Gondol Research
Institute for Mariculture, Bali. South
Pacific Commission Live Reef Fish
Information Bulletin 13: 43-44.
Figure 15. Effect of aeration on the survival rate at
4 days post hatch of humphead wrasse (redrawn
after Hirai et al., 2012). Values are means ± standard
deviation. Values are statistically different (p<0.05) if
there is no common.
References
Choat JH, Davies CR, Ackerman JL and
Mapstone BD. 2006. Age structure
and growth in a large teleost, Cheilinus
undulatus, with a review of size
distribution in labrid fishes. Marine
Ecology Progress Series 318: 237-246.
Hirai N, Koiso M, Teruya K, Okuzawa
K, Kobayashi M, Takebe T, Sato T,
Nakamura K, Goto T. and Hagiwara A.
2012. Rearing conditions for humphead
wrasse Cheilinus undulatus larvae,
and introduction of the minute rotifer
Proales similis as an initial live food.
Journal of Fisheries Technology 4: 5764.
Kitada S, Shishidou H, Sugaya T, Kitakado
T, Hamasaki K and Kishino H. 2009.
Genetic effects of long-term stock
enhancement programs. Aquaculture
290: 69-79.
Sadovy Y, Kulbicki M, Labrosse P,
Letourneur Y, Lokani P and Donaldson
TJ. 2003. The humphead wrasse,
,)
Takebe T, Kobayashi M, Asami K, Sato T,
Hirai N, Okuzawa K and Sakakura Y.
2011. Sinking syndrome of larvae of
the leopard coral grouper, Plectropomus
leopardus, and its control for largescale larviculture. Journal of Fisheries
Technology 3: 107-114.
Wullur S, Sakakura Y and Hagiwara
A. 2011. Application of the minute
monogonont rotifer Proales similis
de Beauchamp in larval rearing of
seven-band grouper Epinephelus
septemfasciatus. Aquaculture 315: 355360.
Suggested Readings
Hirai N, Koiso M, Teruya K, Kobayashi
M, Takebe T, Sato T, Okuzawa K and
Hagiwara A. 2013. Success of seed
production of humphead wrasse
Cheilinus undulatus with improvement
of spawning induction, feeding, and
rearing conditions. In: Rust M, Olin
P, Bagwill A and Fujitani M (eds).
Hatchery Technology for High Quality
Juvenile Production: Proceedings of
The 40th U.S.-Japan Aquaculture Panel
Symposium. Honolulu, Hawaii, October
22-23, 2012, U.S. Dept. Commerce,
NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/SPO136.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Status of Resource Management and Aquaculture in Malaysia
Aishah Yusoff
Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry Malaysia, Department of Fisheries
Federal Government Administrative Centre 62628, Putrajaya, Malaysia
aishah@dof.gov.my
Abstract
Malaysia is a maritime nation and its fishing industry is a source of income for 134,000
fishermen. In 2012, the fisheries sector produced 1.7 million tons of fish valued at RM10.8 billion
and generated trade worth RM6 billion. The landings from capture fisheries are expected to
increase from 1.32 million tons in 2010 to 1.76 million tons in 2020 at an annual growth rate of
2.9%. In 2012, 65% of total catch was contributed by the coastal fisheries as compared to 35% from
deep sea fishing. Landing from deep sea fishing is expected to rise from 381,000 tons in 2012 to
620,000 tons in 2020. Deep sea fishing has been identified for its potential to contribute to the
increase in the country’s fish production. With a growing population and an increasing preference
for fish as a healthy source of animal protein, the National Agro-food Policy (2011-2020)
estimated that the annual demand for fish will increase to 1.93 million tons by the year 2020. The
Department of Fisheries (DOF) has developed the Capture Fisheries Strategic Management Plan
(2011-2020) based on three main documents i.e.; National Agro-food Policy (NAP, 2011-2020),
Department of Fisheries Strategic Management Plan (2011-2020), and Malaysia National Plan of
Action on Sustainable Fisheries for Food Security towards 2020.
Aquaculture is now being promoted in Malaysia as an important engine of growth and
eventually to become the mainstay of the nation’s economy. Situated in a region with
abundant supply of land and water, two determinant factors for aquaculture activities, Malaysia
has always strived to ensure that this sector is not sidelined in their development efforts. With a
growing population and an increasing preference for fish as a healthy source of animal protein, it
has been estimated that the annual demand for fish will increase to 1.7 million tons in 2011 and
further to 1.93 million tons by 2020. From the present annual aquaculture production of about
525,000 tons, this output would need to be raised to 790,000 tons to meet the projected demand
by 2020. In a move to develop the aquaculture industry, the DOF, has initiated the Aquaculture
Industrial Zone (AIZ) Program involving the development of 49 zones, located across Malaysia,
which will be used for culture of various types of high value aquatic species. The DOF has
identified several strategic areas that would be developed for downstream activities such as fish
seed production, feed mills, fish processing plants, and other supporting industries. Aquaculture
is also currently listed amongst the 16 Agro-food’s Entry Point Projects (EPP) of the National Key
Economic Area (NKEA). The government aims to double the Agro-food sector’s contribution
to Gross National Income (GNI) from Malaysian Ringgit (RM) 20.2 billion in the year 2010 to
RM49.1 billion by 2020, or an increase of RM28.9 billion.
Keywords : Malaysia, resource, aquaculture
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Country Papers
Country Profile
Malaysia is a federal constitutional
monarchy in Southeast Asia. It consists of
thirteen states and three federal territories
and has a total landmass of 329,847 sq km
separated by the South China Sea into two
similarly sized regions, Peninsular Malaysia
and Malaysian Borneo. Land borders
are shared with Thailand, Indonesia, and
Brunei, and maritime borders exist with
Singapore, Viet Nam, and the Philippines.
From the total land area, 1,200 sq km or
0.37% is made up of water such as lakes,
rivers, or other inland waters. Malaysia
has a total coastline of 4,675 km, whereby
Peninsular Malaysia has 2,068 km, while
East Malaysia has 2,607 km of coastline. The
capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya
is the seat of the federal government. In
2012 the population was 28.6 million, with
22.6 million living in the Peninsula. Since
independence, Malaysia has had one of the
best economic records in Asia, with GDP
growing on average at 6.5% for almost
50 years. The economy has traditionally
been fueled by its natural resources, but is
expanding in the sectors of science, tourism,
commerce and medical tourism.
Figure 1. Map of Malaysia.
Overview of the Fish Industry
Trend in Fish Demand
Malaysia is surrounded by sea and
blessed with rivers and lakes. These
fundamental ecosystems provide natural
sources of fish and other aquatic resources
for its inhabitants. Hence, fish has been
in the daily diet of Malaysians and a
main protein source. Until now the trend
does not indicate much change despite
the availability of many other animal
,+
protein sources at competitive prices.
There is indeed a preference for fish
among Malaysians and it seems it has
no replacement. This is well indicated
in the household spending on fish and
consumption pattern. An average family
spends about 20 percent of their food
expenditure on fish. Fish consumption
index increased from 53.1 kg in 2011 and
is expected to be 61.1 kg in 2020. This has
put Malaysia among the highest consumers
of fish in the world. Given this situation
and along with an increasing population,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
the supply of fish indeed needs to be
outsourced. Current records indicate that
domestic landing supplies only about
85% of the demand for its 28.9 million
population plus another 2 to 4 million
foreign workers in the country.
Fish Resources
Fish landed in Malaysia mainly
comes from the sea. Freshwater fish at
the moment comprises only less than 5
percent of the total landed volume (DoF,
2012) while catch from the sea in 2012
contributed about 1.6 to 1.8 million metric
ton annually. The pattern will not improve
further as most of the catch are from
coastal zone which indicated declining
trend. At this stage, the government
encourages and provides incentives for
deep-sea fishing venture and emphasizes
the need to expand aquaculture activities.
Fish resources in Malaysian waters
do not only provide food supply to its
population but small percentages are
being exported for income and foreign
exchange. The fish species for export
consisted mainly of high-value fish such as
grouper, snapper, shrimp and few species
of molluscs. At present, exports brought
in significant income. In fact, the return
always indicate surplus even after taking
into account the expenditures to import
other fish species to supplement domestic
needs. Fish commodity indeed continues
to cushion Malaysian deficit in agricultural
food product for some time and also
during global economic crisis such as in
1997.
Fisheries Profile
In 2012, the fisheries sector comprised
of food fish and non-food fish contributed
RM11,440 million to the economy. The
food fish sector which is comprised of the
marine capture fisheries, inland fisheries
and aquaculture (excluding seaweed)
produced 1,780,168 tonnes with a value
of RM10,598 million. For the non-food
fish sector, seaweeds, ornamental fish and
aquatic plants contributed RM843 million.
Fish production from the fisheries sector
contributed 1.1% to the GDP in 2012.
The marine capture fisheries sub-sector
which is comprised of inshore and deepsea fisheries is still the major contributor,
producing 1,472,240 tonnes (82.70%),
valued at RM7,982 million (73.98%). On
the other hand, aquaculture sub-sector
produced 302,886 tonnes (17.01%) of fish
valued at RM2,599 million (24.15%). The
total contribution from both sub-sectors
have exceeded the target of 1,356,600
tonnes and RM6,805 million set under the
National Agro-Food Policy for 2012.
In the non-food fish sector, ornamental
fish sub-sector is the major contributor
with a value of RM632 million (74.94%),
followed by seaweed at RM 199 million
(23.61%) and aquatic plants at RM12.3
million (1.45%). The total workforce of
the fisheries sector consisted of 136,514
fishermen working on licensed fishing
vessels and 29,494 fish culturists engaged in
various aquaculture systems.
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Country Papers
Table 1. Production and Value of the Fisheries Sector, Malaysia, 2012.
Fisheries Sector
2012
Quantity Tonnes
Food Fish
Marine Capture Fisheries
1,472,240
7,981.66
Inshore
1,136,182
6,310.05
336,057
1,671.61
Aquaculture
302,886.32
2,559.17
Freshwater
163,756.81
992.39
Brackishwater
139,129.51
1,566.78
5,041.90
56.78
1,780,168.22
10,597.60
331,490.06
198.94
Ornamental Fish
376,679,177
631.51
Aquatic Plants
114,453,668
12.26
na
842.71
na
11,440.31
Deep Sea
Public Water Bodies
Total Food Fish
Non-Food
Fish
Seaweed
Total Non-Food Fish
Grand Total
Aquaculture Production
In 2012, a total of 29,494 fish
farmers and culturists were involved in
the aquaculture industry. The majority
(77.23%) of the 22,779 workforce were
involved in the freshwater aquaculture
sub-sector. The remaining 22.77% or 6,715
fish farmers/culturists were involved in the
brackishwater aquaculture industry.
In 2012, freshwater aquaculture
contributed 163,757 tonnes valued at
RM992 million. The main cultured species
were freshwater catfish (Clarias sp.), black
and red tilapia (Oreochromis spp.), riverine
catfish (Pangasius sp.), and freshwater
giant prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii).
Brackishwater aquaculture production
in 2012 contributed 139,129.51 tonnes
valued at RM1,566.78 million. The main
cultured species were marine prawns
,-
Value (RM Million)
(P. monodon and P. vannamei), cockles
(Anadara granosa), marine finfish, mussels
(Perna viridis), other crustaceans and other
species.
The seaweed (wet weight) production
in 2012 was 331,490 tonnes valued at
RM198.94 million. The total area for
seaweed culture is 12,897 hectares. The
production of ornamental fish in 2012 was
376,679,177 pieces valued at RM550.41
million.
In 2012, a total of 9,658 million
pieces of freshwater and brackishwater
fish hatchlings/fries were produced by
government and private hatcheries.
Meanwhile, the total production of
brackishwater and freshwater prawn
nauplii/fries produced by government
and private hatcheries was 12,518 million
pieces.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 2. Production of food fish in Malaysia in 2012.
Figure 3. Production of freshwater species (tonnes) in Malaysia in 2012.
Figure 4. Production of brackishwater species (tonnes) in Malaysia in 2012.
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Country Papers
from this sector has gained impact mainly
in catfish production.
Status of Aquaculture Development
Production System
The aquaculture production system in
Malaysia has recently undergone moderate
transformation. The industry adapted the
traditional and conventional systems to
meet the requirements of the bio-secure
indoor recirculating aquaculture system
(RAS) to cater to modern needs and for
productivity improvement.
Within the freshwater environment,
there are six common categories of
production systems employed. These
are ponds, used-mining pools, tanks,
cages and pen culture systems (Table 2).
The pond system is traditional and still
the preferred system used to produce
aquaculture commodities in freshwater.
The next preferred system is the floating
cages. The modern polyethylene cages
are getting popular in many aquaculture
operations in lake environment. The other
common production system is tank, mainly
made of cement, followed by canvas and
polyethylene materials. The production
In the brackishwater/marine
environment the production systems
employed are ponds, cages, and raft system
for mussel and oyster, bottom culture for
cockle and long line for seaweed. One good
aspect of pond operation in brackishwater
environment is quick to respond to
innovation and changes. The common
system that is used next to ponds are
floating cages and rafts. Floating cages as
well has undergone kind of transformation.
Poly cages material is now commonly
found in cage farming areas. Fish are
mainly produced in cages. Tank system
is fast getting popular for indoor fish
production. Imported modules and system
from overseas and varieties of modules
introduced by locals are being used
extensively now. Raft is another system
applied in marine aquaculture production.
It is used for mussel and oyster production.
Another system employed is the seaweed
long line intended for propagation and
cultivation.
Table 2. Aquaculture production systems in Malaysia (2012).
Brackishwater
Culturists
(No.)
Freshwater
Area
Culturists
(No.)
Ponds (ha)
7,525.43
1,174 Ponds (ha)
5,642.31
18,875
Cages
(m2 x1000)
2,374.8
1,984 Cages
(m2 x 1000)
404.0
1,357
10,740.2
1,004 Ex-mining
pools
1,794.34
211
Bottom culture
(ha)
,/
Area
Raft culture
(m2 x 1000)
65.4
793 Tanks
430.5
1,485
Long line (ha)
1259
12,896.8 Pen culture
28.36
205
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Current Development in Aquaculture
Production and Technology
Commodity of Interest
Similar with many countries in the
region, aquaculture in Malaysia serves to
provide supplementary fish for national
food security and production of high
value fish for foreign exchange earnings.
For freshwater or inland aquaculture,
the priority species are tilapia, catfish,
clarias and carps. For coastal and marine
aquaculture, the priority species are
giant seabass, grouper, snapper, shrimp/
crustaceans (Penaeus vannamei and P.
monodon), bivalves (cockle, mussel, oyster)
and seaweed.
Aquaculture food production in the
country continues to show an increasing
trend. Again, the trend (Figure 5)
highlighted the freshwater sector as a major
contributor. This is expected following
incentives and encouragement by the
government towards production for export
market, monetary gain and food security.
Based on these production trends and
guided by improved technology and disease
management control, Malaysia will be able
to produce more fish through aquaculture
within the next few years.
Figure 5. Aquaculture targeted production for 20102020 (‘000 mt).
Fisheries Development Policy
In conjunction with the 10th Malaysian
Plan (2011-2015), various policies were
introduced to promote and develop
aquaculture. One of the policies is to create
a pro-business environment with various
specific initiatives such as tax exemption.
This will encourage more investment from
local and foreign companies. Next is to
upgrade the delivery system and support
services of government agencies such as
basic infrastructure, training and capacity
building, marketing and distribution, as well
as research and development institutions
to facilitate in developing a sustainable
aquaculture. The third policy is to identify
and zoning of strategic areas or activities
for aquaculture and deep sea fishing,
downstream processing, halal food hub and
agro-biotechnology. With specified zoning,
planning for developing a project is easier,
faster and more focused. The fourth policy
is to ensure food security in the country.
Under the National Agro-food Policy (NAP
2011-2020), various steps such as enhancing
the production capacity, is taken to reduce
import and increase self-sufficiency level.
The NAP strategic directions are: 1)
ensure adequate food safety and security,
2) increase the contribution of agro-food
industry, 3) empower human capital, 4)
strengthen R&D activities, innovation and
use of technology, 5) create the environment
for private sector-led businesses, and 6)
strengthen the delivery system.
The three-pronged objectives of the
Fisheries Development Policy are: 1) change
the mindset of traditional farmers to adopt
a commercial approach and operate as
business entity that minimize cost and
maximize profits to be more viable and
competitive in the industry; 2) attract
graduates to become modern farmers
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Country Papers
and remove the stigma that associate
agriculture with poverty by highlighting
that agriculture is a business venture like
any other market-driven businesses; and
3) attract local entrepreneurs and investors
to invest and develop the agro-food and
downstream processing commercially.
Meanwhile, the following are the
strategies to promote private investments:
1) macro planning for sectoral development
such as establishment of Aquaculture
Industrial Zones; 2) provide infrastructure
and common facilities for cluster
development projects in rural areas; 3)
research and development support; 4)
training and human resource development;
5) market access including international
promotions by involving and promoting
the product in international arena; 6)
international and domestic market
standards and certification such as the
Malaysian Aquaculture Farm Certification
Scheme (SPLAM) and Good Aquaculture
Practices (GAqP); 7) credit facilities from
local bank for industry players to expand
their business; and 8) technical support
services and good regulatory frameworks
for the industry.
Prospectus of Aquaculture in Malaysia
Aquaculture Master Plan
In 1997, following the Asian economic
turmoil, the Malaysian government saw
the important contribution of fish in the
national economy. The commodity was
never given a focus in any of the country’s
earlier development plans. Following the
outcomes, the commodity was prioritized
and set in place in the Third Agricultural
Development Plan (NAP3) 1998-2010
(MOA, 1999). This is highlighted in Article
32 of NAP3 master plan (NAP3, 2006).
-'
The plan mentions the need to increase
production of fish through deep sea fishing
and aquaculture.
During the implementation of the
ninth Malaysian Plan (RMK9) (20062010), the Ministry of Agriculture came out
with figures and strategies to increase fish
production. In the list, coastal landing is
to be maintained at 900,000 metric tonnes,
deep sea landing was targeted to land
500,000 metric tonnes and aquaculture to
produce 508,000 metric tonnes annually
after the year 2010 (Othman, 2008) (Table
3). Aside from food security, the target is
set out with the aim to create an income
of RM3.4 billion to cushion the deficit in
trading of agricultural food-based products.
The portion from aquaculture is RM0.32
billion. The strategy aims to strengthen
aquaculture production along with the
development of the Aquaculture Industry
Zone (AIZ) and the Corridor Economic
Region Plan.
Corridor Economic Region (CER) Plan
The CER development strategy aims
to expand the economic contribution
from selected economic activities where
the region has the potential to excel.
Accordingly, the key economic sectors
identified for promotion are agriculture,
manufacturing, tourism and logistic
services. The government, through its
link companies (GLC), will initiate and
promote the development of these sectors.
Toward this initiative, GLCs will execute
by providing incentives for private sector
investment, identifying anchor investor and
addressing key enablers that would create a
conducive business environment including
developing the required human capital,
furnishing technologies, and enhancing
infrastructure. In the transformation of
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
the agricultural sector, financial incentives
will be given to encourage corporations
to coordinate the local communities to
achieve the optimum level of scale. CER
has the vision to become a modern food
zone for Malaysia. It will assist the nation
to increase its food production. CER will
encourage commercial scale farming which
finally increase productivity and embark in
downstream agriculture activities.
the production target, DOF has allocated
39 sites under AIZ with selected aquatic
species to be cultured. These are species
which are at present high in demand and
high in market value. The 39 sites and
projects are listed as high impact projects
(HIP). The portion allocated for cultivation
of designated species and income expected
to be generated following the full scale
operation are indicated in Table 4.
The Aquaculture Industrial Zone (AIZ)
The establishment of AIZ and high
impact projects is a long-term production
plan and involves the set-up of approaches
that will finally offer necessary incentives
and support. In the beginning it involves
the roll-out of specific development
strategies on AIZ sites by both the federal
and state governments. Upon approval, the
land or water bodies are then offered on site
to the private sectors.
AIZ or Aquaculture Industrial Zone
is a zoning programme of identified
suitable lands and water bodies to be
developed at commercial scales dedicated
for aquaculture projects with the purpose
of increasing the output of fishes under
the NAP3. The programme is part and
parcel of the government initiative through
the Department of Fisheries Malaysia to
develop aquaculture per se into a massive
industry in line with overall government
vision to transplant agriculture sector
to become the third engine of economic
growth.
The importance of the formation of
AIZ ventures is to address several key
problems or issues encountered by the
aquaculture sector as a whole, namely, the
continuous increasing demand for fish
consumption, reduction in supply of fish
from catches due to ‘overfishing’ and to
drive the economy in achieving positive
balance of trade or surplus of payment of
agricultural food based commodity. All of
these will need the AIZ so that aquaculture
can produce 217,000 metric tonnes valued
at RM2.07 billion to supplement existing
production from traditional areas. In total,
the target set was 508,000 metric tonnes
valued at RM 3.3 billion to be achieved
annually by 2010. In order to come close to
The establishment of AIZ is one aspect
of strategy to realize the government
objective towards food security, balance
of trade surplus, income earnings and
job opportunities (Table 5). Details of the
business prospectus are available now at the
Department of Fisheries.
Table 3. Projected figures for aquaculture production
under the Third Agricultural Development Plan
(NAP3).
Commodity
Production
(mt)
(RM million)
Freshwater
fish/prawn
230,000
863
Marine shrimp
120,000
4,500
Marine finfish
100,000
860
Bivalves
100,000
102
TOTAL
508,000
6,325
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Country Papers
Table 4. Area and figures projected within AIZ, 2009.
Subject
Shrimp
pond
Area (ha)
Grouper
cage
Seabass cage
Snapper
cage
Mussel
ropes
Seaweed raft
5,428
693
693
693
55
5,600
Volume (mt)
52,923
92,252
208,000
183,456
1,833
153,216
RM’ billions
0.95
3.69
2.70
2.75
0.004
0.38
Subject
Tilapia cage
Area (ha)
Patin cage
Keli tank
Arowana
aquarium
Discus
aquarium
Goldfish
aquarium
1561
1561
1561
135
135
135
Volume (mt)
699,179
1,098,709
126,363
23
27
72,720
RM’ billions
3.50
3.85
0.57
0.02
0.00011
0.02
Table 5. Summary of objectives on the development of AIZ and HIP, 2008.
Item
-)
Objective
Description
1.
Contribution to gross
domestic product, GDP
Increase the output of fishes and raw
material used in processing of fish products
2.
Balance of Trade, BOT
Increase exports of fishes and highvalue fish products; and reduce import
of low-value fish for consumption and
raw materials used in processing of fish
products
3.
Private sector involvement
Increase investments from both local and
foreign companies
4.
Increasing the income of
aquaculture farmers and
entrepreneurs
Increase income of aquaculture farmers/
entrepreneurs to a minimum of
RM3,000/month and create new business
opportunities and employment
5.
Innovation and technology
capability
Introduce new technologies suited for the
aquaculture industry
6
Enhancing the value chain
Establish new hatcheries, livestock field,
farm food factory, processing factory and
effective marketing systems to support the
value chain of the aquaculture industry
7
Efficient aquaculture
development
Certification of farms in accordance with
SPLAM / SAAB
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Factors that Promote the Growth of the
Aquaculture Industry in Malaysia
According to survey conducted after
the compilation of the business prospectus
for HIP in AIZ (Anon., 2009), the market
drivers are as tabulated in Table 6. These
drivers likely contribute to the development
of aquaculture business in Malaysia from
the marketing perspective.
factor is the contribution of pollution and
the impact of climate change; wherein close
environments such as lagoons and lakes are
more susceptible.
Population Growth
The demand for food is directly linked
with the increase in population and the
demand further increase due to the growing
affluence in developing countries such as in
the Asia-Pacific region where fish is a food
Continuous Government Support
of choice. These driving factors will end up
The government of Malaysia realized the with growing pressure to step up production
importance of aquaculture as a food security of fish worldwide. Malaysia which still has
sector and for generating income to balance vast resources to develop should capture
this opportunity for future economic gain.
out the deficit in the agro-food sector.
Accordingly, the government mapped
Growing Consumers Health Consciousness
out the development of the aquaculture
industry in its 9MP (2006-2010) and NAP3
The move towards consumption of
(1998-2010) with the target to spur fish
fish for healthier lifestyle is prevalent in
production to 1.93 million tonnes or more
developed countries only, but it has become
than RM9.36 billion in revenue.
a global concern. In Malaysia, the trend is
presented in yearly per capita consumption
Declining Level of Wild Fish Catch
and fish production. With more scientific
findings and consensus that fish is the
The pressure on the global demand
better food for the future, it will likely play
for fish caused mainly by China and
a significant role in driving the growth of
India which are undergoing economic
aquaculture.
improvement has resulted to severe
depletion of landings from wild. Another
Table 6. Market-driven factors that contribute to aquaculture development in Malaysia.
Rank
Market Drivers
Impact (years)
1-2
High
3-4
High
5-7
1.
Continuous government support
High
2.
Declining level of wild fish catch
Medium
High
High
3.
Population growth
Medium
Medium
Medium
4.
Growing intra-regional trade
Medium
Medium
Medium
5.
Growing consumer health consciousness
Medium
Medium
Medium
6.
Cultural significance of consuming seafoodmarine fish
Medium
Medium
Medium
7.
Innovation in seafood products
Medium
Medium
Medium
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Country Papers
Growing Intra-Regional Trade
Aquaculture in the region in the coming
years will not only cater to the traditional
market but also supply the domestic and
intra-regional needs following the improved
standard of living of the population. This
will allow bigger aquaculture production.
Cultural Significance of Consuming Fish
Fish consuming countries and ethnicity
such as China and other countries in the
Asia Pacific region is projected to achieve
better economic development. Hence, these
countries are expected to be a big market for
fish especially for shrimp, grouper and other
high-value seafood. Although fisheries
and aquaculture are highly developed in
these countries, the demand for seafood
consistently outstrip supply.
Conclusion
Various policies and plans are established
for the development of Malaysia’s
aquaculture industry. With strategic
planning, the Department of Fisheries
hopes that the aquaculture industry will
be more competitive in the local and
international market.
References
Anon. 2009. Department of Fisheries
Malaysia. Business Prospectus:
Development of high impact projects
(HIP) in the aquaculture zone (AIZ).
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of
Agricultural and Agro-Based Industry.
139 pp.
DoF. 2012 . Annual Fisheries Statistics. In,
http://www.dof.gov.my .
-+
MOA. 1999. Third National Agricultural
Policy (1998-2010) - A summary.
Ministry of Agriculture, Putrajaya,
Malaysia. 18 pp.
Othman MF. 2008. Recent report on
coastal/marine aquaculture status in
Malaysia. In: Lovatelli A, Phillips MJ,
Arthur JR and Yamamoto K (eds).
FAO/NACA Regional Workshop on
the Future of Mariculture: A regional
approach for responsible development
of marine farming in the Asia pacific
region. Guangzhou, China. 7-11 March
2006. FAO Fisheries Proceedings. pp
207-224. No. 11. Rome, FAO. 2008.
Suggested Readings
Ali HM, Yusoff NHN, Daud AD, Musa
CUC and Othman MF. 2008. Status
and prospects of grouper aquaculture
in Malaysia. In: Liao IC and Leano EM
(eds). The Aquaculture of Groupers.
Asian Fisheries Society, Manila,
Philippines, World Aquaculture Society.
p 155-175.
Anon. 2003a. Malaysian freshwater
Fisheries Research (FFRC) to the
fore. In: FRI Newsletter – Profile.
pp 3-4. Fisheries Research Institute,
Department of Fisheries, Malaysia.
Anon. 2003b. Genetic enhancement of
Nile tilapia through selective breeding
program. In: FRI Newsletter – Feature.
pp 5-6. Fisheries Research Institute,
Department of Fisheries, Malaysia.
Anon. 1999. Fisheries Research in
Malaysia: The past. In: FRI Newsletter.
pp 1013. Fisheries Research Institute,
Department of Fisheries, Malaysia.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
DoF. 2008. Annual Fisheries Statistics.
Department of Fisheries Malaysia.
Ministry of Agricultural and AgroBased Industry, Putrajaya.
DoF. 2007. Annual Fisheries Statistics. In,
http://www.dof.gov.my .
Khoo EW and Zuraidah M. 2009. Industry
Review – Expanding marine fish culture
in Malaysia. pp 12-21. Aquaculture Asia
Pacific. 5 (2) March / April 2009.
LKIM. 2009. Akuakultur – rumpai laut. In,
http://www.ikim.gov.my
Merican Z. 2009a. Industry Review –
Marine shrimp in Asia. pp 26-29. Aqua
Culture Asia Pacific. 5 (1) January /
February 2009.
Merican Z. 2009b. Industry Review –
Working with nature, Malaysia’s first
aquatic biopark. pp 41-43. Aqua Culture
Asia Pacific. 5 (4) July / August 2009.
Merican Z. 2009c. Industry Review –
Tilapia. pp 28-37. Aqua Culture Asia
Pacific. 5 (5) September / October 2009.
Merican Z. 2008. Shrimp culture –
committed to black tiger shrimp. pp
8-10. Aqua Culture Asia Pacific. 4 (3)
May / June 2008.
Ong KS. 1983. Aquaculture Development
in Malaysia in the 80s. Risalah
Perikanan No. 21. Department of
Fisheries. Ministry of Agriculture, Kuala
Lumpur. 40 pp.
-,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Inland Fisheries Resource Enhancement and Conservation Practices in
Myanmar
Htun Thein
Resources Survey & Research Unit, Department of Fisheries, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
irnp.dof@gmail.com
Abstract
Myanmar has impressive freshwater capture fisheries. Inland freshwater bodies cover
8.1 million ha of which 1.3 million ha are permanent while the rest are seasonally inundated
floodplains. There are repeated references to the crucial importance of fish and fish products
in the nutrition of the Myanmar people. Over the past few decades, inland fisheries resources
have increased pressure from overfishing, use of destructive fishing gear/methods, pollution and
environment changes. In order to make a sustainable inland capture fisheries and conservation
of aquatic biodiversity as well as nutritional security and improved rural livelihoods, fisheries
resource enhancement and conservation measures have long been adopted in Myanmar since
1967, initiated through a seed replenishment program in natural waters, such rivers, lake, dams,
even rice fields, etc. However, the institutional, policy, legislative and financial environments
under which enhancement and capture fisheries regimes exist are not conducive to the interests
of the fishers. Strong tools for valuation of ecosystem goods and services, enabling governance
arrangements and estimation of environmental flows are needed. Fishing communities need to be
organized into strong co-management/participatory/community regimes in order to ensure that
all stakeholders take part in decision-making process and the benefits accrued are shared equitably
by all.
Keywords: inland fisheries, seed replenishment program, conservation
Introduction
Myanmar is divided into seven
major topographical regions, namely;
the Northern Hills, Western Hills, Shan
Plateau, Central Belt, Lower Myanmar
Delta, Rakhine Coastal Region and
the Tanintharyi Coastal Strip. Overall,
Myanmar possesses a wide range of inland
water resources, the major resources being
associated with the three river systems,
Ayeyarwaddy (2,170 km long), Chindwin
(960 km) and Sittaung, and their vast flood
plains and deltaic areas. In addition, there
are three large natural lakes: Lake Inle in
Shan Plateau, Indawgyi in Kachin State and
Indaw in Katha with approximate water
areas of 15,500 ha, 12,000 ha and 2,850
ha, respectively. Fish is a very important
component of the diet of the people of
Myanmar, with an estimated consumption
of 43 kg/person/year in 2008-2009, which
is one of the highest in the region. Fish is
consumed fresh and in various processed
forms apart from fermented fish, being a
staple part of the daily diet of most people.
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Country Papers
All inland waters, except reservoirs,
are utilized for inland fish production.
However, most remains artisanal. Stock
enhancement practices of varying forms
were employed since 1967 to increase
inland fish production, which currently
stands at around 899,430 tonnes. The
inland waters of Myanmar also possess
a high biological diversity, particularly
of finfish. For example, the fish fauna of
inland natural lakes exhibits a high degree
of endemicity, and actions have been
launched under the National Fisheries
Development Plan and National Resource
Management Policy to conserve the
biodiversity of inland waters. This review
attempts to address the stock enhancement
practices in inland waters of Myanmar and
the actions taken to conserve biodiversity
in the inland waters.
Current status of inland fisheries in
Myanmar
In 2012-2013, the total fish production
in Myanmar was around 4,716 thousand
metric tonnes of which 1,246 thousand
metric tonnes is from inland fish and
accounting for approximately 26.4% of
the total (Table 1). Over the years, the
contribution of inland fish production
to the total, as in the case of aquaculture,
has gradually increased (Table 1) and
consequently become an important means
of food fish supply to the population.
These increases in fish production have
been achieved through the introduction
of several measures, one of which is stock
enhancement and other measures relevant
to biodiversity conservation. The main
forms of inland fisheries in Myanmar are
open water fisheries and leasable fisheries.
Inland fisheries are all regulated by
provisions in the Freshwater Fisheries Law
(1991).
Leasable fisheries
There are currently 3,717 leasable
fisheries in Myanmar of which 3,409
are still exploitable and the licenses are
issued by Department of Fisheries (DOF),
Myanmar in 2012-2013. Leasable fisheries
are key fishing grounds on floodplains
which are cordoned off by barrage fences
and fished using various methods. The peak
fishing season involves capturing fishes
migrating out of the floodplain as the water
level recedes. This is referred to locally as
the “Inn” fishery in Myanmar language. The
Table 1. Trends in fisheries production (in x 1000 tonnes) from 2003-2004 to 2012-2013 in Myanmar.
Year
Total
Culture
Leasable
Marine
2003-2004
1,986.96
400.36
122.28
331.98
1,132.34
2004-2005
2,217.47
485.22
136.79
366.75
1,228.71
2005-2006
2,581.78
574.99
152.69
478.43
1,375.67
2006-2007
2,859.86
616.35
170.10
548.09
1,525.32
2007-2008
3,193.92
687.67
191.05
625.44
1,689.76
2008-2009
3,542.19
775.25
209.72
689.71
1,867.51
2009-2010
3,921.97
858.76
237.46
764.97
2,060.78
2010-2011
4,163.46
830.48
250.04
913.12
2,169.82
2011-2012
4,478.21
898.96
282.64
963.82
2,332.79
2012-2013
4,716.20
929.36
290.00
1,012.97
2,483.87
Note that leasable and open fisheries are the main forms of inland fisheries.
-/
Open
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
leases are auctioned yearly, but DOF has
extended the lease period up to nine
years to promote improved long-term
management (3 years x 3 lease terms). The
management systems of leasable fisheries
are normally handled by the DOF, mainly
through the auctions which are conducted
in conjunction with townships and regional
authorities.
In this leasable fishery, the lessee has
the obligation and the right to exploit
all the fish resources, using any form of
gear. The lessee is obliged to adopt stock
enhancement practices, often provided by
the DOF. The peak fishing season is August
to October, when the flood waters recede.
The production from leasable fisheries
have increased, albeit gradually, through
the year. Leasable fisheries could vary
in intensity, from the management and
production view point, some being treated
in a manner similar to large fish ponds
or small reservoirs, and taking the form
of culture-based fisheries. For example,
the leasable fishery of Kan Daw Gyi (300
ha; permanent water body in Mandalay
Division) has adopted an exclusive stocking
(2-3 million fingerlings of major carps per
year) and recapture 500 to 600 thousand
full grown fish every year, averaging
approximately 4,200 kg/ha/yr (FAO-NACA,
2003). In contrast, the leasable fishery of
Thaung-Tha-Man (600 ha; in Mandalay
township), 60% of the yield is of the exotic
Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and the
rest being of stocked species such as rohu,
mrigal, etc., with an overall average yield of
2,800 kg/ha/yr (FAO-NACA, 2003).
Open water fisheries
Open water fisheries in Myanmar refer
to all forms of inland fisheries, except the
leasable ones and reservoirs. Almost all
open water fisheries in inland waters are
artisanal, and fishing is often conducted
using non-motorized, traditional wooden
crafts. The permit or right to fish license
is issued by DOF, Myanmar. All fishing
gears require a respective implementation
license. There is a set fee for most licensees.
Some of the larger gears such as “stow
net” set in rivers is allocated by tender
system. Fees are variable between locations
according to the production levels and
capacities. License fees for small gears
are low. All gear licensees are expected to
report the daily catches to DOF. In some
of the lakes, such as in Inle Lake, the gears
that are used are unique to that body of
water; for instance the use of a conical
bamboo device surrounded by a moveable
and maneuverable small-meshed net is
typically used to catch fish by driving it to
the bottom and lifting it gradually while
closing the net.
Social dimensions of inland fisheries in
Myanmar
The great bulk of open water fisheries in
Myanmar are artisanal and subjected to a
licensing system for use of any form of gear.
However, there is an increasing tendency to
auction the fishing rights of selected areas
of lakes and such open waters, in a manner
comparable to that of lease fisheries of
flood plain areas. In general, the leasable
fisheries, though in existence for over five
decades, tend to marginalize the use of the
water bodies by the community, as often
the more productive areas being leased
are held on an almost continuous basis
by the richer more powerful segments of
the society. This situation will be further
exacerbated by the new plans to increase
the lease period up to nine years. On the
other hand, a long-term lease will induce
the leasees to improve the production of the
-0
Country Papers
water bodies, adhere to more productive
measures of stock enhancement, encourage
more people be engaged in day-to-day
management, harvesting, marketing and
other activities.
Biodiversity of inland waters
The biodiversity aspects of inland
waters in Myanmar is best documented
with respect of its three large natural lakes,
Inle, Indawgyi and Indaw. Perhaps, the best
documentation among these being that of
Lake Inle. Early studies (Annandale, 1917)
reported 23 to 42 species are found in Lake
Inle and its inflows and outflows, which
included two endemic cyprinid genera,
Inlecypris and Sawbwa. More recent data
indicated that there are 36 species of which
16 are endemic to the Lake (Table 2), as
well as seven species have been introduced
into it. The most extensive survey of
the fishes to date in Lake Indawgyi is by
Prashad and Mukerji (1929) in which
43 finfish species were recorded. They
considered that three of these, Barbus
sewelli (redescribed as Puntius orphoides),
Burbas myitkyinae (redescribed as
Hypsibarbus myitkyinae and Indostomus
paradoxus were endemic to the lake.
However, all three of these species have also
been found in other localities. A total of 67
species were recorded in the Indawgyi Lake
basin when inflowing streams and marshy
areas were included. The endemic species
found in the lake (after further surveys
and taxonomy changes) was the catfish
Aky prashadi. However, there are several
endemics that Prashad and Mukerjin
recorded from pools and streams in the
Indawgyi lake basin: Gudusia variegata
(Clupeidae) which is mainly found in rivers
in Myanmar, Esomus altus (Cyprinidae)
and Salmostoma sladoni (Cyprinidae).
.'
Stock enhancement practices of inland
waters in Myanmar
Stock enhancement of inland waters
has been conducted since 1967, some of
which are obligatory for certain fisheries.
For example, in leasable fisheries, the
lessees are obliged to stock seeds as
recommended by the government.
However, these are often provided by the
government, consisting of both suitable
indigenous species to augment the natural
recruitment and alien species which are
fast growing and capable of utilizing the
food resources in the leased area. The
latter species primarily consist of Indian
and Chinese major carps, and in specific
instances even tilapia (FAO-NACA, 2003).
Stock enhancement of rivers is regularly
conducted using mainly rohu, Labeo rohita,
fingerlings of 7 to 10 cm in length. Such
enhancement is conducted on an annual
basis, and in certain instances, required
fingerlings are provided at a subsidized
price to private owners of water bodies.
The water bodies where the activities are
mostly implemented are the main rivers
viz: Ayeyarwaddy, Chindwin and some
other river locations. In Kachin State,
stock enhancement is mainly conducted
in reservoirs and lakes. The fingerling
requirements for stock enhancement
purposes are produced in 27 governmentowned hatcheries spread across the country
in different water sheds (Table 3). The fish
release program is also linked to a program
of replenishment of broodstock of the
major cultured species, in particular rohu
and mrigal, Cirrhinus cirrhosus. In addition,
other species are also used for stock
enhancement purposes of open waters in
Myanmar, these being Cyprinus carpio,
Catla catla, Ctenopharyngodon idella,
Hypophthalmicthys molitrix, Tilapia
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 2. Fish species list of Inle Lake, Myanmar.
Non-endemics
Endemics
Introduced or
Status uncertain
Notopterus notoptopterus
Cyprinus carpio intha
Colisa labiosa
Clarias batrathus
Neolissochilus nigrovittatus
Parambassis sp.
Monopterus cuchia
Cirrhinus lu
Parambassis lala
Monopterus albus
Physoschistura brunneana
Labeo rohita
Channa striata
Physoschistura shanensis
Ctenopharyngodon idellus
Ophicephalus butleri
Yunnanilus brevis
Glossogobius sp.
Chaudhuria caudate
Sawbwa resplendens
Trichogaster pectoralis
Lepidocephalichthys berdmorei
Microrasbora rubescens
Clarias garipinus
Acanthocobitis botia
Microrasbora erythromicron
Physoschistura rivulicola
Barilius auropurpureus
Puntius stoliczcanus
Danio erythromicron
Amphipnous cuchia
Inlecypris auropurpurea
Lepidocephalus berdmorei
Poropuntius schanicus
Poropuntius sp.
Percocypris compressiformis
Gerra gravely
Silurus burmanensis
Channa harcourtbutleri
Macrognathus caudiocellatus
Nemachilus brevis
Nemachilus brunncanus
Discognasthus lamta
Cirrhina latia
Barbus sarana caudimarginatus
Barbus scnanicus
Barbus stedmanensis
spp., Puntius spp., Pangasius hypothalamus,
etc. Overall, large numbers of seeds have
been stocked over the years to enhance
fisheries of open inland waters in Myanmar
(Table 4). In areas where seed is released,
such as along the Ayeyarwaddy River
and associated floodplains, there is an
agreement that fishers should in turn
provide to the hatcheries certain number of
potential broodstock candidates of major
stocked species such as rohu, mrigal, etc.,
to partially replace poorly performing
broodstocks with frequency of replacement
ranging from every one to five years
.(
Country Papers
Table 3. Finfish hatcheries in states and divisions in Myanmar and the
production of seed stock used for stock enhancement in 2012-2013.
Location of hatcheries
Production
(Millions)
Yangon division
3
1,487.75
Bago division
3
595.49
Mandalay division
5
2,327.25
Ayeyarwaddy division
5
954.14
Magwe division
2
22.82
Kachin state
2
71.00
Sagaing division
3
187.07
Mon state
1
27.98
Shan state
2
19.40
Kayin state
1
6.04
depending on the hatcheries (Aung et al.,
2010). Often, brood stocks of seven or more
years old become less productive and are
discarded, and the younger broodstocks
are recruited periodically based on this
practice. The practices described above,
however, have been undertaken without
detailed understanding of the genetic
structure of the species and the impacts of
the practices on wild and cultured stocks
remain unknown. This process, a practical
experience and welcome strategy, though
open to science-based improvement,
has avoided inbreeding of stocks and
maintenance of genetic diversity to a very
large degree (Aung et al., 2010).
Other enhancement practices
In addition to stock enhancement
through the release of seed stocks there
are other measures that are adopted for
stock enhancement of inland waters. The
main such measure is the implementation
of closed seasons. All open fisheries
are generally closed during June, July
and August to permit spawning and
recruitment. However, in a specific
.)
Numbers
geographic area, closure could be different
during the above period. This means that
a closed season can be enforced in selected
areas during spawning periods, through
the prohibition of fishing in certain areas.
These closed season provisions are enacted
under the Fisheries Law of 1991. The
Freshwater Fisheries Law also prohibits
some types of destructive fishing and
activities which may have adverse impacts
on fish stocks. Specifically, use of explosives
and poisons are banned all together as
well as some unspecified methods and
equipment. Within a fishing area, it is
prohibited to cut undergrowth or light a
fire, to alter the natural flow of water or to
cause pollution. The Law also states that
“No one shall cultivate agricultural crops
within the boundary of a fisheries creek.”
Impacts of major enhancement and
conservation activities
Impact assessment studies on stock
enhancement have not been undertaken
in Myanmar. However, at least so far, there
was no evidence of negative impacts on the
natural fish populations because of stock
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 4. The number of seeds stocked (in millions) in different inland waters of Myanmar,
2003-2013 (Source: DOF Myanmar).
Years
Numbers of seeds stocked
Dams
Number of
dams
Number
of seeds
stocked
Natural
rivers and
streams
Ponds
Rice-Fish
culture
Total
2003-2004
105
1,100
600
430
33
2,163
2004-2005
164
1,087
633
598
48
2,366
2005-2006
218
1,178
562
255
62
2,057
2006-2007
228
860
444
60
65
1,429
2007-2008
219
906
804
32
70
1,812
2008-2009
228
1,032
917
34
71
2,054
2009-2010
240
1,229
824
25
80
2,158
2010-2011
249
1,880
673
27
81
2,661
2011-2012
236
1,185
1,182
228
89
2,684
2012-2013
197
397
538
204
74
1,213
replenishment programs in the nation. On
the positive side, there are indications of
higher catch rates by artisanal fishers in
the villages near rivers. For instance in Inle
Lake, grass carp are released on a regular
basis to prevent the spread of aquatic
macrophytes, which in turn also serve as
feed for grass carp pond culture in the
surrounding areas.
Biodiversity conservation
Myanmar has been actively engaged
in biodiversity conservation practices
in inland waters. The leasable fisheries
in flood plain areas are productive. In
the same manner, these also are crucial
to biodiversity conservation as these
habitats, being the nursery grounds for
maintaining the viable populations of
indigenous wild stocks. The government
realized the importance of some leasable
fisheries to biodiversity conservation and
has promulgated protective measures for
these fisheries and transformed these areas
to fish sanctuaries. Myanmar remains
one of the few, if not the only country, in
the region that does not have a reservoir
fishery. This decision is based on the fact
that development of reservoir fisheries
will impact the reservoir catchment
biodiversity, the catchments being
under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Irrigation. Myanmar also
has been active regarding introductions
and the movement and use of alien species
in fishery and aquaculture activities. For
example, there is a complete ban on the use
of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus
including its use in aquaculture and even its
sale in popular markets. Areas in selected
waters are being designated as conservation
areas and the habitats thereof are often
improved to provide favorable nursery and
spawning grounds for selected indigenous
species. In addition specific notifications
are enforced for conservation purposes. For
example:
.*
Country Papers
Notification 2/92
This notification prohibits the catching
or keeping in captivity of spawners,
breeders, and fingerlings of freshwater fishes
in the months of May, June, July and August
without permission of the Director General
of DOF.
Notification 2/95 and 3/95
It prohibits the catching, for any
purpose, of spawners and fingerlings of
the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium
rosenbergii, and M. malcolmsonii in the
months of May, June and July, unless
permitted by the Director General of DOF,
Myanmar. If caught accidentally, these
should be released immediately.
Constraints and problems
The main constraints encountered in
stock enhancement programs in Myanmar
are the limitations in seed stock availability,
and particularly for stocking in remote
places which are far from the hatcheries.
These constraints are also associated with
the cost of transportation and materials
needed for effective transportation. In
addition, hatcheries may not be able to
function at full capacity, particularly
when electricity supply is interrupted. The
situation with regard to fry and fingerling
availability is further exacerbated by the
demand of the aquaculture sector, which
perhaps at present is witnessing one of the
fastest growth rates in the region. Although
not a direct constraint, it is important
to improve public perceptions on the
benefits of stock enhancement and the
associated stocking programs, particularly
at the implementation or release sites.
In this regard, there is a need to educate
communities on the long-term advantages
.+
of stock enhancement, and the basis of
implementation of other strategies such as
closed seasons, conservation areas, etc.
Recommendation
Much technological advancement
is needed to place stock enhancement
programs in inland waters in Myanmar
on a firmer footing. For example, a variety
of techniques, ranging from culture to
support capture fisheries, to intensive
aquaculture can be used to compensate for
decline in the productivity of the fisheries
due to overfishing, environmental changes
or inadequacies in the natural ecosystem
(Welcomme and Bartley, 1998) and some
of these have to be adopted in Myanmar.
Introduction of the new species to exploit
underutilized niches of the food chain and
to compensate for loss of species due to
environmental disturbance is needed.
Equally, there is need for engineering
of the environment to improve levels
of reproduction, shelter, food resources
and vital habitats of the major species in
the inland fisheries, as well as eliminate
unwanted species that either compete
with or predate upon target species. So far,
there is no evidence to support that stock
enhancement strategies have brought about
a reduction in genetic diversity of the wild
stocks. There is a need for constant and
regular monitoring of this aspect using
modern molecular genetic tools. However,
it should be noted that the current
practices adopted in Myanmar in respect
of replenishment of broodstocks, though
not conducted strictly on a scientific basis,
has been lauded as a good interim strategy
which could be improved upon relatively
easily with the application of modern
scientific tools and approaches (Aung et al.,
2010).
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
There is an urgent need for
improvement of operation and impact
assessments in relation to stock
enhancement in inland waters of Myanmar,
which has been lagging behind most
countries in the region.
References
Annandale N. 1917. Zoological results of a
tour in the Far East Batrachia. Memoirs
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 6:
119–155.
Aung O, Nguyen Thuy TT, Poompuang S
and Kamonrat W. 2010. Microsatellite
DNA markers revealed genetic
population structure among captive
stocks and wild populations of mrigal,
Cirrhinus cirrhosis in Myanmar.
Aquaculture, 299: 237-243.
FAO-NACA. 2003. Myanmar aquaculture
and inland fisheries. RAP Publication
2003/18, 62 pp.
Prashad B and Mukerji DD. 1929. The fish
of the Indawgyi Lake and the streams of
the Myitkyina District (Upper Burma).
Records of the Indian Museum, 31:
161-223, pls 7-10.
Welcomme RL and Bartley DM. 1998.
Current approaches to the enhancement
of fisheries. Fisheries management and
Ecology, 5: 351-382.
Suggested Readings
Cowx IG, O’Grady KT, Welcomme RL and
Bartley DM. 1998. Current approaches
to the enhancement of fisheries.
Fisheries Management and Ecology, 5:
351-382.
Department of Fisheries, Myanmar.
2014. Fishery Statistics (2012-2013).
Department of Fisheries, Myanmar,
Yangon, 97 pp.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
The Philippine National Aquasilviculture Program
Romeo E. Dieta and Florida C. Dieta*
National Brackishwater Fisheries Technology Center, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources,
Department of Agriculture , Quezon City, Philippines
redcalf2003@yahoo.com
Abstract
The Philippine National Aquasilviculture Program (PNAP) is a banner program of the
Department of Agriculture (DA) being implemented by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources (BFAR). To implement the PNAP, a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) was
executed between BFAR and the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). The program
concept is primarily mangrove resource rehabilitation and livelihood provision to help address
climate change, food security and poverty among municipal/artisanal coastal fisherfolks. To
achieve its goals and objectives, the BFAR identified three strategic interventions, such as: (1)
replanting of destroyed mangrove resources; (2) establishment of community-based multi-species
hatcheries (CBMSH), and (3) provision of aquasilviculture livelihood projects to fisherfolkbeneficiaries throughout the country. As envisioned, the BFAR shall provide support funds for
the establishment, operation and management of the PNAP while CHED shall provide logistical
support during program implementation. The program covers at least 71 state universities and
colleges (SUCs) and 61 provinces throughout the country. Potential areas targeted by the PNAP
are abandoned, undeveloped and underutilized (AUUs) fishpond lease agreements (FLAs) and
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) identified areas (Key Biodiversity
Areas, reforestation areas and co-management agreement areas) from BFAR coastal Regions 1 to 13
and the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). Participating agencies are DA-BFAR
Regional Fisheries Offices (RFOs) and Provincial Fisheries Offices (PFOs), CHED (SUCs), DENR
Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Offices (PENRO) and Community Environment
and Natural Resources Offices (CENRO), and the local government units (LGUs) in the provinces
and municipalities. Target beneficiaries for the aquasilviculture livelihood projects are at least
1,000 coastal fisherfolks and for the community-based multi-species hatcheries are 64 SUCs who
were signatories to the MOA. For mangrove rehabilitation, the PNAP will involve the coastal
fisherfolks in the planting of 100 million propagules for the next 3-4 years. Funding support
from BFAR are PhP 6.00 per surviving propagule, PhP 1.2 million per SUC for the establishment
and operation of CBMSH and PhP 65,000 per aquasilviculture project. As part of the over-all
management strategy, a National Steering Committee (NSC) was formed to formulate policy
guidelines of the PNAP while Regional Steering Committees (RSCs) were created to oversee
policy implementation in the regions. Program Management Offices (PMOs) were formed to
implement and supervise program implementation in the provinces. Community Organizers
(COs) were hired in each province to assist in the implementation of daily activities. The approved
PNAP implementing guideline details the procedures to follow, both relating to the technical and
administrative operations of the program.
Keywords: PNAP, mangrove, rehabilitation, aquasilviculture livelihood projects
..
Country Papers
Introduction
The Philippines is an archipelago of
more than 7,100 islands with a marine
habitat hosting one of the world’s richest
aquatic biodiversity. It has a total land area
of 300,782 square kilometers representing
only one-seventh of its total territorial water
area (including the Philippines Exclusive
Economic Zone, EEZ) of 2.2 million square
kilometers, excluding inland aquatic
resources estimated at 496,000 hectares
(Figure 1). The Philippine coastline
stretches to around 36,000 kilometers
(BFAR, 2011).
Figure 1. Map of the Philippines showing the limits of archipelagic, territorial waters treaty limits
Exclusive Economic Zone (200 N.M. EEZ) and Kalayaan claim.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources (BFAR) of the Department of
Agriculture (DA) is the government agency
mandated to ensure the development,
management and conservation of the
country’s fisheries and aquatic resources.
It is also committed to (a) contribute in
achieving food security for the Filipino
people and improve quality of life of
fisherfolks through rational and equitable
utilization of fisheries and aquatic resources;
(b) empower fisheries stakeholders enabling
them to adapt to changing environmental
conditions and global trade and regional
fisheries management regimes; and (c)
improve productivity of fisheries and
aquaculture within ecological limits.
Therefore, one of the strategies to realize
these missions is the implementation of
the Philippine National Aquasilviculture
Program (PNAP), a fishery livelihood
and conservation program. The PNAP
is a banner program of DA-BFAR jointly
undertaken with the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED) through a
Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) signed
on December 16, 2012. The program covers
the 15 coastal regions of the country. The
participating agencies include the BFAR,
with its Regional and Provincial Fishery
Offices; CHED, and its participating State
Universities and Colleges (SUCs); the
Department of Natural Resources (DENR),
with its Provincial Environment and
Natural Resources Offices (PENRO) and
Community Environment and Natural
Resources Offices (CENRO); and the
Local Government Units (LGU). The
fisherfolks are the primary beneficiaries of
the resource rehabilitation and protection
and aquasilviculture projects while the
participating SUCs are the beneficiaries
of the community-based multi-species
hatcheries.
The Program
The concept of PNAP is to come up with
self-sufficient fisherfolk families who are
advocates of fisheries resource protection
through mangrove habitat rehabilitation,
promotion of aquasilviculture and the
establishment of community-based multispecies hatcheries that will produce fry for
restocking in natural waters.
The PNAP has three (3) components,
namely: (1) mangrove resource rehabilitation
and protection; (2) provision of
aquasilviculture livelihood projects and (3)
establishment of community-based multispecies hatcheries (CBMSH). The projects
are being implemented under the guidance
of the BFAR-National Brackishwater
Fisheries Technology Center (NBFTC) in
Pagbilao, Quezon that serves as the National
Program Secretariat, with assistance from
resource persons and technical consultants
from BFAR, DENR-Forest Management
Bureau (FMB) and Protected Areas and
Wildlife Bureau (PAWB).
1. Mangrove resource rehabilitation and
protection
Mangroves are valuable sources of
forest products and aquatic resources. Both
offshore and inshore fisheries depend on
mangroves as natural habitats. Melana and
Courtney (2000) reported that parallel
with the decline in the mangrove areas of
the Philippines is the significant reduction
of fishery resources. The loss of mangrove
forests in the Philippines is also correlated
with decreasing fisheries production in
municipal waters and the depletion of larval
and juvenile stages of shrimps and milkfish
which are seed sources for pond aquaculture
(Camacho and Malig 1988 as cited in ADB
1990).
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Country Papers
In 1918, Brown and Fischer estimated
the mangrove forest to be as much as
400,000 – 500,000 ha. However, the
mangrove areas were indiscriminately
alienated for other uses such as conversion
to fishponds during the 1960s and
1970s, reclamation for residential and
industrial development, over-harvesting
of mangrove trees for charcoal or fuel
wood and urbanization. In 1994-1995,
mangrove forest was estimated at 120,000
ha (Primavera and Esteban, 2008). Long
and Giri (2011) conducted the latest study
on the aerial extent and spatial distribution
of Philippines’ mangrove forest. They
estimated that the total area of mangrove
forest of the Philippines was 256,185 ha
circa 2000.
The rapid decline of mangrove forest
is alarming considering the ill effects that
may be brought about by climate change in
archipelagic countries, like the Philippines,
with little mangrove cover. Thus, restoration
of mangrove forest is essential to mitigate
or build the country’s resiliency to climate
change. To achieve this, BFAR has targeted
to plant 100 M mangrove trees in 3-4
years to bring back health to its degraded
coastal cover. Potential areas targeted by
the PNAP are abandoned, undeveloped
and underutilized (AUUs) fishpond
lease agreements (FLAs) and the DENR
identified areas (key biodiversity areas,
reforestation areas and co-management
agreement areas) from BFAR coastal regions
1 to 13 and ARMM. Participating agencies
are DA-BFAR Regional Fisheries Offices
(RFOs) and Provincial Fisheries Offices
(PFOs), CHED (SUCs), DENR Provincial
Environment and Natural Resources Offices
(PENRO) and Community Environment
and Natural Resources Offices (CENRO),
and the Local Government Units (LGUs)
in the provinces and municipalities. The
/'
coastal fisherfolks will be encouraged
to collect, plant and nurture mangrove
propagules. As an incentive, a farmer will
be paid P 1.50 for every propagule collected,
P 2.00 for every propagule planted and
P 2.50 for every fully-grown plant. With
this management scheme more coastal
fisherfolks will participate and will be
motivated to nurture and protect each
propagule planted.
2. Aquasilviculture
Aquasilviculture is a multi-purpose
production system that allows production
of fish in a mangrove reforestation project.
It is a mangrove-friendly aquaculture
technique of producing fish in a watered
area enclosed with net but does not allow
cutting of mangrove trees. A model of
aquasilviculture is showcased at the BFARNBFTC Pagbilao, Quezon. The design for
the project follows a 70:30 ratio of mangrove
to water canal area. This system provides
a source of additional income and at the
same time increases fish production that
is easily adaptable for municipal/artisanal
fisherfolks. The fisherfolk-beneficiary who
participated in the resource rehabilitation
activity shall be the primary beneficiary of
the aquasilviculture project. The BFAR shall
provide P 65,000 for each aquasilviculture
project of fisherfolk beneficiary as input
assistance in the form of fry/fingerlings,
supplemental feed and nets. Target
beneficiaries for aquasilviculture livelihood
projects are at least 1,000 coastal fisherfolk.
3. Establishment of community-based multispecies hatchery
The community-based multi-species
hatchery (CBMSH) is a facility for spawning
gravid fish or crustacean, such as blue crab,
caught in the wild to save its offspring that
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
might otherwise be lost due to misuse.
The hatchery will produce the fry for stock
enhancement and eventually become
source of fingerlings and seed stock for
aquasilviculture and other aquaculture
projects. Moreover, the CBMSH will serve
as a working laboratory of fisheries students
of the participating State Universities and
Colleges. CBMSH may be land-based or
holding cages (“lying-in”) for gravid, ready
to spawn crabs. Funding support from
BFAR is P 1.2 million per SUC for the
establishment and operation of CBMSH.
Target beneficiaries for the CBMSH are 64
SUCs who were signatories to the MOA.
BFAR Director and CHED Commissioner;
and members composed of 3 BFAR
Regional Directors and 3 SUC Presidents
representing Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao;
BFAR-Assistant Director; DENR-FMB
Director and PAWB Director. The activities
of the NSC are being managed and
coordinated by the BFAR-NBFTC-based
National Program Secretariat.
Figure 2. Four-hectare aquasilviculture model at
BFAR-NBFTC Pagbilao, Quezon.
At the regional level, a Regional
Steering Committee (RSC) was created
to supervise policy implementation and
oversee the Program Management Office
(PMO). It is composed of the BFAR
Regional Director and SUC Presidents.
The PMO was also created to oversee
the operations and implementation of
the program in the province. The BFAR
Provincial Fisheries Officer (PFO) heads
the PMO as over-all Project Coordinator.
The members of the PMO are the
authorized representative of the SUC
President, PENRO and the Provincial
Agriculturist. In addition, the PMO
engaged the services of a Community
Organizer (CO) who directly implements
the program in the field.
Strategies
Capacity Building
Implementing Guidelines
BFAR and SUC coordinators, PFOs,
focal persons, COs and fisherfolk
beneficiaries were given technical training
on the three components (mangrove
resource rehabilitation and protection,
aquasilviculture and CBMSH) as well as
constituency building, value formation
and leadership development. Training of
implementers was done at BFAR-NBFTC
while that of the beneficiaries was done
at the BFAR Regional Fisheries Training
Centers (RFTCs). CBMSH training was
done at BFAR Guiuan Station in Guiuan,
Samar. Resource persons from BFAR,
A comprehensive implementing
guideline was prepared and approved by
the National Steering Committee (NSC) to
ensure the success of the implementation
of the PNAP. It defined the organizational
structure and strategies of implementation
of the program.
The NSC was created to provide overall policy directions and guidelines. The
convenors of the NSC are the DA Secretary
and CHED Chairperson; Co-chaired by the
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Country Papers
DENR, the private sector and nongovernment organizations were invited to
discuss specific subjects relating to their
line of expertise.
Participation of other Relevant Government
Agencies
The NSC and RSCs may enter into
agreements and partnerships with other
relevant national, regional and local
government agencies in the implementation
of the program. Such agreements and
partnerships may cover: (a) joint funding
and counter-parting; (b) conduct of
training and technology transfer; (c)
research, development and extension; (d)
market development and credit facilitation;
and (e) other relevant support for the
implementation of the program.
Status of Implementation
The PNAP is in its third year (FY 2014)
of implementation. Technical training
has been completed for all components.
Mangrove rehabilitation has started in
FY 2012 and still continuing (Figure 3).
Report of mangrove propagule planting
as of September 2013 indicated that
around 31,000,000 out of 36,000,000
target for the year has been planted (85%
accomplished) covering more or less
10,000 ha throughout the country. Almost
32,000 fisherfolk participated in the
activity. For aquasilviculture, 76% has been
attained benefitting almost 1,900 fisherfolk
throughout the country (Figure 4). For
CBMSH, almost 20% of participating SUCs
had completed establishment, while still
continuing for the others (Figure 5).
Figure 3. Planted Rhizophora in various sites.
Figure 4. Aquasilviculture pond stocked with mangrove crabs.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 5. Community-based multi-species hatcheries (CBMSH) established by SUCs.
Future Interventions
The government is committed to
achieve food security for the Filipino
people, increase fish production and
improve standard of living of coastal
fisherfolks. Therefore, there should be
continuing rehabilitation of denuded
mangrove areas, particularly AUUs and
make the coastal fisherfolks sustainably
productive through aquasilviculture.
Mangrove areas reported as rehabilitated
should be validated and assessed in
terms of surviving propagules planted, as
well as to the extent of cover. Fisherfolk
communities should be continuously
organized and empowered through
training and information dissemination to
conserve and protect mangrove areas. Stock
assessment studies should be conducted
in areas with established CBMSH to
determine if there is improvement in catch
of fisheries products.
References
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 1990.
Mangrove development project
feasibility study (final report). Vol. 1.
ADB T. A. No. 1225 – PHI: DENR,
Philippines.
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
(BFAR). 2011. Philippine fisheries
profile. Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources, Quezon Ave., Quezon City.
Brown WH and Fischer AF. 1918.
Philippine mangrove swamps, Bureau of
Forestry Bulletin. No. 17. Department
of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
Bureau of Printing, Manila.
Long JB and Giri C. 2011. Mapping the
Philippines’ mangrove forests using
LandSat Imagery. Sensors 11: 29722981.
Melana DM and Courtney CA. 2000.
Mangrove conservation and
rehabilitation in the Philippines. Paper
presented and discussed during the 2nd
session of the JICA 3rd Country Training
Program on Responsible Aquaculture at
the Aquaculture Department, Southeast
Asian Fisheries Development Center,
Tigbauan Iloilo, 05-03 December 2000.
Primavera JH and Esteban JMA. 2008. A
review of mangrove rehabilitation in
the Philippines: Successes, failures and
future prospects. Wetlands Ecology and
Management. 16(3): 173-253.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Good Aquaculture Practices (VietGAP) and Sustainable Aquaculture
Development in Viet Nam
Nguyen Thi Bang Tam
Department of Aquaculture, Directorate of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of
Viet Nam
bangtam291@gmail.com
Abstract
The shrimp (black tiger and white leg shrimp) and catfish industries in Viet Nam continue to
experience increasing growth due to rapid aquaculture development. However, disease outbreaks
become a major issue. Moreover, seafood consumers at present are likely to be more concerned
about how the products are produced and how to control/manage aquatic animal health instead of
treatment. Hence, the main objective of this abstract is to focus on one of the solutions to address
these problems/issues and ensure sustainable aquaculture development in Viet Nam.
Keywords: Viet Nam, disease outbreaks, aquatic animal health, sustainable aquaculture
Current status of aquaculture in Viet
Nam
During the last decade, fisheries
production in Viet Nam has significantly
increased in volume (Figure 1) and export
value. In 2011, total fisheries production
from aquaculture and capture fisheries
combined reached 5.25 million tons and
the export value was at USD 6.18 billion.
In 2012, production from aquaculture
reached 5.8 million MT while and capture
fisheries recorded 6.05 million MT. The
export values were 6.13 and USD 6.8 billion,
respectively, contributing 4% to the gross
domestic product (GDP). Total fisheries
production also accounted for about 40%
of the country’s animal protein production,
and created approximately 4 million jobs.
In 2013, aquaculture accounted for the
majority of the fisheries output (3.34 million
MT), 2% higher compared with 2012. Thus,
the fisheries sector plays an important
role in the national economy and rural
development.
In Viet Nam, the most important
aquaculture species by volume is Pangasius
(Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) (38%),
followed by traditional freshwater fish
species (28%) and brackishwater shrimp
(16%) (Penaeus monodon and P. vannamei).
Freshwater species are cultured for domestic
consumption while shrimp and pangasid
catfish are processed mainly for export.
Figures 2 and 3 show the annual culture
area and production of black tiger shrimp
and white leg shrimp. Table 1 shows the
annual data on the culture areas and
production of Tra catfish.
/,
Country Papers
Figure 1. Development of fisheries sector in Viet Nam.
Figure 2. Culture area for black tiger and white leg shrimp in Viet Nam, 2005-2012
(Source: Directorate of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development).
Figure 3: Production of black tiger shrimp and white leg shrimp in Viet Nam, 2005-2012
(Source: Directorate of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development).
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 1. Culture area of Tra catfish, Viet Nam, 2010-2013 (Source: Directorate of Fisheries,
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development).
Tra/catfish were originally raised in a
family’s pond for daily consumption. When
Viet Nam opened its doors to the world
market, Tra/catfish became a commercial
product and is now exported around the
world. People in the Mekong Delta have
shifted the business of raising Tra from small
to large scale. Many farms and special areas
of hundreds of hectares have been established
for the production of Tra. Scientific and
technological applications in raising Tra have
become popular in each farm.
export turn over. Many fish farmers have
become rich because of farming Tra. The
pictures below depict the key activities
in the culture and processing of Tra for
domestic and export consumption.
Disease
In 2012, a total of 657,523 ha of
brackishwater surface area were used
for aquaculture, but after a maximum of
2 months of culture, around one-sixth
(100,776 ha) of the total area suffered
serious losses due to infectious diseases
In 2001, the Tra output in the Mekong
called early mortality syndrome (EMS). The
Delta was only 100,000 tons. The number
use of veterinary drugs and disinfectant
increased to over 1 million tons in 2009,
yielding a turnover of USD 1.4 billion. Recent in aquaculture for disease prevention, and
data in 2014 note that yield is more than 1.17 the intensification of production led to the
emergence of resistant strains of bacteria.
million tons providing USD 1.8 billion of
Figure 4. Tra catfish are carefully selected before reproduction.
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Country Papers
Figure 5. Tra catfish farming is widely adopted in Cuu Long River
Delta in southern Viet Nam.
Figure 6. Tra catfish being harvested.
Figure 7. Harvesting and packaging of catfish in farms.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 8. Processing catfish for export at IDI Aqua-products
Processing Factory in An Giang Province.
Figure 9. Processing catfish fillets before freezing.
Figure 10. Packing catfish for export.
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Country Papers
Thus, research on the use of probiotics
for aquaculture has increased with the
demand for environment–friendly
sustainable aquaculture. The benefits of
such supplements include improved feed
value, enzymatic contribution to digestion,
inhibition of pathogenic microorganisms,
anti-mutagenic and anti-carcinogenic
activity, and increased immune response.
These probiotics are harmless bacteria that
help the well-being of the host animal and
contribute, directly or indirectly, to protect
the host animal against harmful bacterial
pathogens. Last year, Dr Lightner (Arizona
University) announced the pathogenic
agent for shrimp as the early mortality
syndrome (EMS). Viet Nam successfully
controlled the EMS disease in shrimp.
Areas affected by disease infestation in
shrimp from 2010-2013 are as follows:
Table 2: Shrimp culture areas affected by diseases, Viet Nam, 2010-2013.
For catfish, there are no significant records on disease outbreaks.
and consumption of Pangasius. This draft
decree focused on the regulation of the
whole value chain of production, processing
and export, to avoid the imbalance in supply
Viet Nam has shown a large potential
and demand and to improve production.
for aquaculture. In 1999, production was
The draft decree included clear regulations
480,810 tons while in 2013, it reached
on aquaculture zoning, conditions for seed,
3.34 million and thus higher than capture
feed and grow-out production, as well as
fisheries output. The government gives
for processing plans and export. The lowest
aquaculture development a priority as it
regulated or floor price for pangasius export
has a very positive impact on food security
and development of rural communities. The products, policies for credit and investment
were also mentioned. However, during the
Government of Viet Nam has made many
approval hearing, more emphasis on the
laws, decrees, decisions, circulars as well as
management of production and export
national technical standards which more
has been noted as these have recently been
or less directly support and regulate the
Pangasius industry. In response to the recent shown to be a more relevant issue that needs
crisis of the Pangasius industry, the Ministry to be addressed. A revised version of the
decree is expected to be re-submitted during
of Agriculture and Rural Development
the first quarter of 2014.
(MARD) of Viet Nam drafted in 2013 a
decree on the management of production
Aquaculture legislation and
management
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Aside from the Good Aquaculture
Practice in Viet Nam (called VietGAP) that
created a major recent change in aquaculture
performance and in the coming period, the
Agriculture Restructuring Plan will focus
on sustainable development and value chain
improvement. The details will be presented
in the next section of this paper.
of many international standards causing
confusion and neglecting the small-scale
producers; and (d) sustainability of the
industry. Hence, the concept of VietGAP for
aquaculture emerged and became a national
standard applied in the aquaculture industry
from the grow-out stage to the postharvest
stage.
VietGAP – solution for sustainable
aquaculture development in Viet Nam
Under the Government’s policy on
VietGap development in aquaculture,
the country would foster its application
in breeding key export commodities like
Tra catfish, tiger prawn, and white-leg
shrimp. The VietGAP standard is a single
aquaculture module which complies
with existing legislation and allows the
application of VietGAP standard to different
species.
In order to ensure the sustainable
development of aquaculture in general, and
shrimp and Tra catfish raising in particular,
many solutions have to be considered as
follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Master plan development: local
authorities need to develop a master
plan for the local fisheries industry;
Infrastructure investment: develop
the irrigation canal (separate
inlets and outlets) in congested
aquaculture area;
Aquaculture restructuring plan:
link farmers, suppliers, processing
enterprises;
VietGAP: promote the adoption of
VietGAP in aquaculture
Technology enhancement: prioritize
new, clean and environment-friendly
technologies; create new valueadded products;
Administrative reform
Trade: marketing promotion
VietGAP was introduced for the
following reasons, namely: (a) pollution
issues and disease outbreaks caused by
the fast growing aquaculture sector; (b)
food safety for consumers; (c) introduction
The structure of VietGAP for
Aquaculture is divided into five parts.
These five parts have a total of 68 critical
points that should be met before VietGAP
is achieved. These five parts are: 1) general
requirements, 2) food safety and quality; 3)
animal health and welfare; 4) environmental
integrity; and 5) socioeconomic aspects.
VietGAP for Aquaculture was based
on the Code of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries of the Food and Agriculture
Organization (CCRF of FAO). The
general principle, technical guideline on
aquaculture certification (FAO - Feb, 2011);
general principal, structure and certification
regulation as stipulated in the ASEAN
GAP for shrimp; and structure with 4 main
components. There are other recognized
standards such as GlobalGAP, Aquaculture
Stewardship Council or ASC, Global Food
Safety Initiative or GFSI, ISO and Codex.
0(
Country Papers
VietGAP for aquaculture is supported
by a number of government regulations
including:
laborers or farmers, as well as maintaining
the integrity of the environment.
Source Documents
a) Prime Minister Decision No.
01/2012/QĐ-TTg: Issue the Policies
on encouraging the application
of Good Agricultural Practices
in Agriculture, Forestry and
Aquaculture
b) Minister decision No. 1503/QĐBNN-TCTS: Issue the National
Standard on Good Aquaculture
Practices in Viet Nam (VietGAP)
c) Minister decision No. 1617/QĐBNN-TCTS: Issue Guidelines for the
application of VietGAP standards
for pangasius (P. hypophthalmus),
tiger shrimp (P. monodon) and white
leg shrimp (P. vannamei); and
d) Circular No 48/2012/TT-BNNPTNT
on Regulations on the certification
of aquaculture, crops and livestock
products produced in accordance
with application of good agricultural
practice
1. Prime Minister Decision No. 01/2012/
QĐ-TTg: Issue the Policies on
encouraging the application of Good
Agricultural Practices in Agriculture,
Forestry and Aquaculture.
2. Minister decision No. 1503/QĐ-BNNTCTS: Issue the National Standard on
Good Aquaculture Practices in Vietnam
(VietGAP).
3. Minister decision No. 1617/QĐBNN-TCTS: Issue Guidelines for the
application of VietGAP standards for
pangasius (P. hypophthalmus), tiger
shrimp (P. monodon) and white leg
shrimp (P. vannamei).
4. Circular No 48/2012/TT-BNNPTNT
on Regulations on the certification
of aquaculture, crops and livestock
products produced in accordance with
application of good agricultural practice.
When farmers adopt VietGAP, they
can easily upgrade to other certificates
5. Annual reports on current status of
required by importing countries and gain
brackishwater shrimp culture in 27
wider acceptance in both domestic and
coastal provinces (Directorate of
international markets. Government agencies
Fisheries, MARD).
are mandated to look for more markets that
accept VietGap-certified products.
6. Annual reports on current status of
catfish culture (Directorate of Fisheries,
Conclusions
MARD).
With the principle that states
7. Monthly aquatic animal disease statistic
“prevention is better than cure”, sustainable
report (Department of Animal Health,
aquaculture development connects closely
MARD).
with market-oriented development.
VietGAP is a comprehensive solution for
8. Final version of Decree on the
controlling the quality of input materials
Management of Production, Processing
and water, maintaining good health of
and Consumption of Pangasius.
aquatic animals, ensuring better life for
0)
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Country Status on Sustainable Aquaculture in Lao PDR
Thongkhoun Khonglaliane
Namxuang Aquaculture Development Center
Department of Livestock and Fisheries
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
thongk.kl@gmail.com
Abstract
Capture fisheries and aquaculture in Lao PDR are based on water resource ecosystems which
consist mainly of rivers and streams, hydropower and irrigation reservoirs, diversion weirs, small
water bodies, flood plains and wet-season rice-fields. The total area of water resources for capture
fisheries is believed to be more than 1.2 million ha. The estimated consumption of inland fish in
Lao PDR is approximately 167,922 tonnes per year while consumption of other aquatic animals
is estimated at 40,581 tonnes per year. Most of the consumption is from internal production (i.e.
imports are of minor importance), so these figures represent approximate catches or yield from
fisheries. These estimated yields are conservatively valued at almost US$150 million per year.
The people of Lao PDR, especially in the rural communities that account for more than 75 per
cent of the population, still depend upon the country’s fish and other aquatic animals as their most
reliable sources of animal protein. The estimate of actual fish consumption per capita (kg/capita/
year) of inland fish is 24.5 kg, while other aquatic animals account for about 4.1 kg and marine
products around 0.4 kg, to make a total of 29 kg of fish and aquatic products consumed per capita
per year.
As aquaculture in Lao PDR expands, many forms of production systems are being developed,
for example pond culture, communal ponds, rice-cum-fish culture and cage culture. Most fish
culture systems in Lao PDR are small-scale. Such forms of production systems are divided into
sub-categories depending on the nature and main activity of the producers. According to the
Department of Livestock and Fisheries, aquaculture production in 2007 accounted for 54,750
tonnes in an area of more than 42,000 ha, including cage culture in the Mekong and some
tributaries.
There has been a significant increase in intensive tilapia production in recent years in Lao
PDR (MRC Technical Paper No. 5 April 2002) based on tilapia cage culture in the Mekong river
and irrigation reservoirs. In last two years, an enterprising farmer has established about 360 cages .
Constraints in the large-scale development of tilapia cage culture are the lack of technical
support (e.g. extension services) to the farmers and insufficient supply of advanced fingerlings.
Morever, tilapia cage culture in the Mekong river system is perceived to be difficult to sustain
because of environmental factors such as river flooding and strong currents during the rainy
season and the lack of water during the dry season.
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Country Papers
It can be concluded that sustainable intensification of aquaculture in Lao PDR, still requires
building the capacity of both extension workers and farmers with assistance from other SEAFDEC
member countries. The training should cover the following:
•
•
•
•
Selection of suitable aquaculture systems, and the promotion of appropriate technologies
that can be adopted by farmers in Laos.
Fish seed production, especially local production of sufficient and good quality seeds.
Promotion and development of technologies on the propagation and culture of local fish
species with aquaculture potential.
Adoption of environment friendly feeding practices and production of aquaculture feeds.
Keywords: production systems, local fish species, capacity-building
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Current Status of Aquaculture in Singapore
Neo Chin Heng
Aquaculture Technology Department, Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore
NEO_Chin_Heng@ava.gov.sg
Abstract
Singapore is a small country state with a demographic profile of over 5 million in population.
With limited land for agricultural purposes and sea space available for fish farming, Singapore
depends heavily on importation of fresh seafood. Even so, Singapore has a small but thriving and
increasingly important food fish farming industry which accounts for about 6% of local food fish
consumption.
The main bulk of local food fish production comes from coastal farming in floating netcages
along the northern coast of Singapore. Popular species of marine food fish cultured include
seabass, pompano, groupers, mullets and milkfish. There are also a few land-based fish farms
culturing species like tilapia, marble goby and snakehead.
The ornamental fish farming industry is concentrated mainly in Agrotechnology Parks and
there are about 75 fish farms producing ornamental fishes with an approximate value of $76.7
million that is exported to over 80 countries.
The Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore (AVA) is the national authority for
aquaculture development in Singapore and manages aquaculture farms through the issuance of
fish farming licenses. For marine food fish farms, the farm licensee has to abide by good farm
management guidelines to maintain the farm in good condition and ensure that the farm does not
engage in activities that would impact the farming environment. For land-based farms, there are
also guidelines that address infrastructure layout, farming system and water treatment facilities.
The latter requires that sedimentation ponds, reservoir ponds/tanks, supply/drainage systems and
trade effluent treatment plant are included in the farm set-up.
There are several challenges and issues faced by the aquaculture industry in Singapore. One
of these is the consistent supply of good quality fish fry as farmers have to source for fish fry from
overseas sources that may not be consistent or readily available.
Issues of fish health and farm management are other challenges faced by our fish farms. These
factors affect farm productivity and the sustainability of farming operations.
The AVA has established the Marine Aquaculture Centre (MAC) on St John’s Island
to address the needs of aquaculture development for Singapore through development of fish
reproduction and seed production as well as large-scale fish farming technology. At present, the
fish reproduction technology research work involves closing the reproductive cycles of key marine
food fish species and also fry production at a commercial scale level. Closing the reproductive
cycle will help to reduce the reliance on imported fry. Good quality brooders are selected,
0,
Country Papers
maintained and bred to produce quality fry, which would translate to better growth performance
and shorter culture period. This, together with good farm management practices, will optimize the
usage of fish feeds during the culture cycle.
To fill the gap in production and supply of good quality fish seeds for local fish farms, AVA
shares information on hatchery technology development with local commercial hatcheries.
The AVA collaborates with research institutes and local fish farms in the development of
vaccines to boost the survival rate of fish fry and fingerlings. This will improve survivability, thus
increase the production of the farms and reduce the reliance on prophylactic drugs that may have
negative consequences from prolonged use.
The AVA also renders technical assistance to the farmers to formulate viable production
plans to improve production. By leveraging on the use of technology and good farm practices,
such as implementation of fish health, fish nutrition and feeding protocols, it is possible to reduce
production costs and improve productivity. The introduction of the Good Aquaculture Practice
scheme for food fish farming will help improve the standards of the local aquaculture industry and
sustainability through responsible management practices.
Keywords: Singapore, coastal farming, ornamental fish
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Sustainable Aquaculture and Resources Enhancement in Indonesia
Setiawan Soetardjo* and Irham Adhitya
Directorate General of Aquaculture, Ministry of Marine Affairs of Fisheries, Menara Building 165 15th floor Jl.
TB Simatupang Kav.1, East Cilandak, Jakarta, Indonesia
* setia_wan2003@yahoo.com
Abstract
With a human population of 230 million and a huge potential for marine and fisheries
resources development, Indonesia promotes aquaculture as a major sector to accelerate
economic growth for rural communities. There are recent initiatives to improve the country’s
legal framework to mitigate the adverse impacts of aquaculture and make the aquaculture more
sustainable.
The Directorate General of Aquaculture under the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
(MMAF) has the mandate to develop the aquaculture sector of Indonesia. Aquaculture has
an important role in the development of its national economy and play a key role in rural
development. As aquaculture production expands, there is also a growing concern over the
impacts on sustainability of aquaculture and resource enhancement as well as food quality and
safety requirements of fish products.
For this reason, there is a need to improve aquaculture technology and its management system
in Indonesia to address the need for eco-friendly production process and food safety concerns
while maintaining the sustainability of the country’s aquaculture sector. The Indonesian Fisheries
Act No. 31 (2004) Amendment No. 45 (2009) mentioned that, among others, the Indonesian
fisheries management strategies should include the creation job opportunities, improvement of the
welfare of fishers and their communities, and ensuring the sustainability of the country’s fishery
resources and aquatic environment.
The most critical factors to achieve sustainable aquaculture in Indonesia are the availability
of good quality seed, good practice in grow-out systems, healthy aquaculture environment,
fish health management, good-quality products, strategic marketing, and improving marketing
and stock enhancement. In addition, it is also a concern that the products from aquaculture
should meet the quality standard and product safety. This paper presents a review of Indonesian
aquaculture in relation to sustainable practices and management schemes to preserve the
aquaculture environment, food safety requirements for aquaculture products, food security and
to enhance the biodiversity of fishery resources. A policy that was recently established is the
development of the marine and fisheries sector based on the principles of the Blue Economy
program of the Indonesian government.
Keywords: sustainable aquaculture, food safety traceability, resource enhancement, Blue Economy
0.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Prapat Kosawatpat
Prachuap Khiri Khan Coastal Fisheries Research and Development Center, Coastal Fisheries Research and
Development Bureau, Thailand
prapat1120@gmail.com
Abstract
Milkfish is an economically important fish cultured in many countries in Asia. In Thailand,
milkfish culture has not been given much attention and has not as been developed as in the other
Asian countries because in the past the farmers prefer to grow shrimps and other high value
fishes. Nowadays, environmental changes and degradation can affect water resources as well as
the important aquaculture species that thrive in them hence the Thai Department of Fisheries
recognizes the importance of developing aquaculture that is environment-friendly. This includes
milkfish in particular because milkfish meat tastes good, easy to manage on farm, grows rapidly
and can be grown in sea water, brackish or even freshwater. Milkfish farming is a low cost
operation because milkfish feed mainly on algae and organic matter and these are natural food
produced from other types of aquaculture activities. Milkfish can therefore be co-cultured with
other species and are capable of reducing the amount of organic material from the process of
aquaculture before entering the environment. In 2002, milkfish was first bred successfully through
hormone injection and later broodstock mated naturally in Thailand. At present, production of the
1-inch milkfish has reached 1,000,000 per year. The culture sites are in the southern and eastern
parts of the country, in brackish and salty areas. Culture methods are either monoculture or
polyculture with other species such as shrimp, mussel etc. Milkfish culture in reservoirs last from
6 to 12 months when fish size is about 500 g or two pieces to a kg. and the price is about 50 baht/
kg. On the other hand, milkfish that are 600-1,000 g can sell at 65-90 baht/kg. Apart from culture,
processing as well as marketing promotion of milkfish has also started in Thailand. Milkfish
processing training is being conducted at least 2 times a year. As for the marketing initiatives,
there is a move for the milkfish to be declared the symbol of Prachuap Khiri Khan Province since
it was here that the fish was first found naturally in Thailand. This, apart from the plan to promote
milkfish in the festivals throughout the country. Although found promising, some problems in
the Thai milkfish industry are also recognized. Such issues notwithstanding, the Thai Department
of Fisheries is coming up with guidelines for milkfish aquaculture as it is optimistic that this
commodity shall open the doors to a new alternative industry in Thailand.
Keywords: milkfish, culture, processing, alternative industry
00
CONTRIBUTED PAPERS
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Assessment of Humphead Wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), Spawning
Aggregations and Declaration of Marine Protected Area as Strategy for
Enhancement of Wild Stocks
Filemon G. Romero* and Akkil S. Injani
Mindanao State University, Tawi-Tawi College of Technology and Oceanography, Bongao, Tawi-Tawi,
Philippines
* filemon.romero@yahoo.com
Abstract
Humphead wrasse, known as the Napoleon fish (Cheilinus undulatus), is the largest living
member of the family Labridae. It is slow growing but can grow to a maximum size exceeding 2
m and 190 kg. This species was the first commercially important coral reef food fish to be listed in
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
Appendix II in 2004 because of its vulnerable status and the ongoing threat to its conservation
from international trade. Like many coral reef fishes, the humphead wrasse, Cheilinus undulatus,
aggregate in reef areas when they spawn and this spawning behaviour makes them highly vulnerable
to overfishing. Assessment of the spawning aggregations of this species was conducted in the
municipalities of Sibutu and Sitangkai in the province of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines. Key informant
interviews (KII) with fishermen, mariculturists, and other stakeholders and focus group discussions
(FGD) with local government leaders, Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management (FARMC)
members, mariculturists, and exporters were conducted. Guided by the results of these KII and
FGDs, underwater visual census of mameng (local common name for Napoleon wrasse) populations
(juvenile and mature) were conducted to document spawning aggregation sites. Since there was
no photo-documentation of actual spawning aggregations of mameng in the reef areas, indirect
measures were used. Result of the KII and FGD indicated that the Baligtang Reef in Sipangkot
and Tando Owak are major sources of spawners. Anecdotal accounts of Bajau fishermen showed
that Dungun Dungon, Baligtang reef, Tando Owak and Tugalan are traditional fishing grounds
for mameng spawning aggregations. From the length-frequency analysis of mameng caught by
hook and line and fish pot in the Baligtang Reef in Sipangkot, the estimated length at maturity of
this species was found to be 25-35 cm. There were 134 individuals caught within this size range
so they are considered potential spawners. Another indirect proof used was the underwater
documentation of juvenile humphead wrasse which were regularly observed and photographed in
association with seagrass beds and branching coral reefs in Baligtang Reef in Sipangkot, Sitangkai.
Gonadal study also indicated that the mameng caught in this area had mature and ripe gonads
but the number of mature fish depends on the season. These were the basis of declaring Spawning
Aggregation Sites in Tando Owak and Dungun Dungun in Sibutu and Baligtang Reef, Sipangkot
and Tugalan in Sitangkai. These were declared as marine protected areas by ordinance of the
municipal Sangguniang Bayan of the two municipalities. Management and enforcement plans have
been developed and Bantay Dagat have been trained to protect the spawning aggregations and this
strategy aims to protect the wild stocks of humphead wrasse. Protecting the spawners would ensure
that there would be enough recruits, prevent recruitment overfishing and enhance the wild stocks.
Keywords: humphead wrasse, assessment, spawning aggregations, management
('*
Contributed Papers
Introduction
The Sulu Archipelago Reef complex,
an ecologically important component of
the Coral Triangle, is known to be one of
the main sources of the live food fish trade
particularly groupers (red grouper) and
humphead wrasse or Napoleon wrasse
(Cheilinus undulatus). It constitutes
about 25% of the coral reef cover of the
Philippines. Fisheries and agriculture
contribute 17% to the Gross Domestic
Product and is the primary contributor to
the national diet. Since these also provide
nearly two-thirds of the population’s animal
protein (FAO, 2000) requirement, there is
a need to assess the small-scale fisheries
which produce about 95% of total marine
fisheries production of the country. It
was estimated that more than 80% of the
small-scale fishers and their families have
net incomes below the national threshold
poverty level (FAO, 2000).
Sibutu and Sitangkai in the province
of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines are mariculture
centers in the area. A study of Romero and
Injani (2010) indicated that humphead
wrasse is the primary species cultured
in more than 350 cages of different sizes
and number per cluster of cages surveyed.
This constitutes about 76% of the cultured
species while others hold various species
of groupers, caranx, siganids and lobsters.
From these pens, a total of 31,071
humphead wrasse fingerlings (0.2-0.5g)
were counted. There were 6,914 under
sized (0.6-0.8g) and 4,675 marketable size
(1.0kg-1.4 kg) humphead wrasse. However,
in 2004 the Napoleon fish has been
listed in Appendix II of the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
Appendix II provides that all species,
although not necessarily threatened with
('+
extinction at the present time, may become
so unless trade in specimens of such species
is subject to strict regulation in order to
avoid utilization incompatible with their
survival. Section 97 of RA 8550 otherwise
known as the Fisheries Code declares
it unlawful to fish or take threatened or
endangered species as listed in the CITES.
Likewise, Section 11 of RA 9147, otherwise
known as Wildlife Act also provides for
the implementation of regulations in
international trade of endangered species
of wild fauna and flora. Despite these laws,
mariculture of this Napoleon wrasse is still
being done using juveniles harvested from
the wild.
Francisco et al. (2009) recommended
that “sustaining profitable, yet responsible
mariculture micro-enterprises for poor
fishing communities participating in
fisheries management programs can be a
two-pronged strategy: to increase rural
income and foster broader motivation and
vigilance for the protection of habitats and
resources.” The sheer number of individual
Napoleon wrasse stocked in pens and cages
shows that the fishermen are still able to
catch fingerlings and immature wrasse from
the wild and many believe that this species
is not endangered or threatened.
Reef fish aggregations are groups of
fish gathered for either spawning, feeding
or shelter. By definition, a spawning
aggregation is a group of con-specific
individuals grouped together in densities
three times higher than those found during
non-reproductive periods. Species that
periodically and predictably congregate
on land or in the sea can be extremely
vulnerable to over-exploitation. It is
common practice that fishermen target
these spawning aggregations sometimes
with the use of dynamite. This practice
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
could possibly result in growth overfishing
of this species. Growth overfishing results
in the loss in biomass that is greater than
the biomass gained through growth, and
is usually due to high fishing rate or to
collection of stocks before they have time
to grow. Humphead wrasse, like other reef
fishes, is known to spawn in aggregations
consistently at the same specific period
of the year at a specific area. Unlike the
groupers which have large spawning
aggregations, humphead wrasse has small
aggregations and the sites are usually on
the outer reef slopes, in reef channels, or at
drop-offs. This study is done to determine
the occurrence, history, and management
of spawning aggregations of this species.
A good understanding of the effects of
fishing on reef fish spawning aggregations,
gained through sound scientific study, is
the key to their successful management
and conservation. This is in line with the
2011 Coral Triangle Support Partnership
(CTSP) Program that targets to contribute
to 350 hectares of new MPAs in Tawi-Tawi
and Palawan. However, the assessment
of the fishery and biological parameters
and spawning aggregation sites needs
to be done to increase awareness
among communities of their ecological
significance and vulnerability and to adopt
a policy of protecting these spawning
aggregations as a strategy to enhance the
wild stocks like declaring these spawning
aggregations as marine protected areas.
Objectives of the Study
1. To gather baseline information
about Napoleon wrasse and their
spawning aggregation using KII
with fishermen, mariculturists and
FGD with other stakeholders;
2. To document spawning aggregation
sites in Sibutu and Sitangkai areas
and determine the seasonality of
spawning activity by conducting
underwater visual census;
3. To establish baseline data on
spawning aggregations of Napoleon
wrasse in terms of sizes, places and
time of spawning; and
4. To adopt policies for the protection of
spawning aggregation sites and their
management by recommending
relevant ordinance/s.
Review of Literature
Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus
undulatus) is the largest living member of
the family Labridae, It is slow growing but
can grow to a maximum size exceeding
2 m and 190 kg. Like many coral reef
fishes, humphead wrasse form spawning
aggregations. Spawning is the term used
to describe the reproductive act of some
aquatic animals such as fish, mollusks,
and crustaceans. Spawning occurs when
sperm and eggs are released for fertilization
into the water column or deposited onto
the seabed. According to Mancilla and
Ponce Taylor (http://scuba.about.com/od/
ConservationandDiving/p/Fish-SpawningAggregations.html), the sperm and eggs
must be expelled at around the same time
and at the same place for this form of
external fertilization to work. This species
is a protogynous hermaphrodite (i.e. they
mature first as females and later change to
males), has low productivity and occurs in
naturally low densities in reef-associated
areas throughout its geographical range
in the Indo-Pacific (Sadovy et al., 2003).
In recent years, this species has been very
much in demand in the live fish trade and
has become one of the most vulnerable
(',
Contributed Papers
species to the impacts of fishing in reef fish
assemblages. Substantial declines in local
abundance have been observed in many
locations within the species’ range due
to several factors, but most prominently
because of trade-driven overfishing (Sadovy
et al., 2003).
Species such as giant grouper and
humphead wrasse are particularly
susceptible to overfishing because of
their slow growth and long development
to sexual maturity. Due to over fishing,
humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) is
the first reef fish now listed in Appendix II
of the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species (CITES) and must
now be strictly regulated by importing
and exporting countries. Under CITES
regulations, countries exporting Appendix
II species are required to demonstrate
that export quotas are derived from legal
fisheries and that such exports will not be
detrimental to the survival of the species
or its role in the ecosystem. However,
there is paucity of data for the humphead
wrasse on the levels of exploitation of the
stock from the fisheries. Data limitations
in small-scale capture fisheries pose a
very big constraint in decision-making for
the management of this fisheries. It also
recognizes the development of approaches
for fisheries assessments in data-poor
situations as one of the key areas of action
for improving information on status
and trends of marine capture fisheries
(FAO, 2003). From the point of view of
responsible fisheries management, a nondetrimental finding (NDF) implies defining
and enforcing a catch level that maintains
the abundance of the stock above a state
where it would be considered overfished
or depleted and that would have a negative
impact on the ecosystem. The problem
is that information about the targeted
('-
resources is often so poor for many fisheries
that it is very difficult to make inferences
about their status or about sustainable
catches.
Trade in live reef fish represents an
important commodity in Asia and the
Pacific and includes fish caught, shipped,
and exported live to the consumers like the
live reef food fish trade and ornamental fish
caught for the aquarium hobby industry.
The live reef food fish trade primarily
targets grouper species and other reef
species like the humphead wrasse for the
markets of Hong Kong and southern China.
Southeast Asia and Australia are the major
suppliers of this trade; yet, operators are
increasingly seeking fish in more remote
parts of the Western Pacific including
Papua New Guinea and the Solomon
Islands. The centre for the live reef food fish
trade is located in Hong Kong. According
to a report by TRAFFIC International-East
Asia, a wildlife trade monitoring network
hosted by World Wildlife Fund (WWF)Hong Kong, the total annual value of live
reef food fish imported into Hong Kong is
estimated to be over US $400 million (40%
of the estimated $1billion value of global
trade). Total imports flowing into Hong
Kong included 10,153 metric tons, of which
30% was re-exported to mainland China.
Other major markets include Singapore
and Taiwan.
Reef fishes are significant socially,
nutritionally and economically, yet
biologically they are vulnerable to both
over-exploitation and degradation of their
habitat. Their importance in the tropics
for living conditions, human health, food
security and economic development is
enormous, with millions of people and
hundreds of thousands of communities
directly dependent, and many more
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
indirectly so. Reef fish fisheries are also
critical safety valves in times of economic
or social hardship or disturbance, and are
more efficient, less wasteful and support far
more livelihoods per tonne produced than
industrial scale fisheries.
Spawning aggregations are best
documented with direct evidences observations of actual spawning or
documenting the presence of hydrated
oocytes within gonads of females on the
site (www.scrfa.org). If direct evidence
is not available, indirect evidences
include density increases, spawningspecific color changes and behaviours,
swollen abdomens and increases in the
gonadosomatic index. A combination
of indirect observations increases the
likelihood that the aggregation is actually a
spawning aggregation. Reef fish spawning
aggregations are predictable in space and
time. Two different types of spawning
aggregations have been defined (“resident”
and “transient”) using three criteria, i.e. the
frequency of aggregations, the longevity
of aggregations, and the distance travelled
by fish to the aggregation. Spawning in
resident aggregations is common to most
rabbitfish (siganids), wrasses (labrids) and
angelfish (acanthurids). In this type of
aggregation, spawning is brief (often 1-2
hours), occurs frequently (often daily) and
involves migration over short distances to
the spawning site. Spawning in transient
aggregations, by contrast, is the strategy
used by most grouper (serranids), snapper
(lutjanids), and jacks (carangids), along
with several other families. Accounts of
reproductive activity in the field reveal that,
depending on location, this species spawns
between several and all months of the year,
in small or large groupings, that spawning
coincides with certain phases of the tidal
cycle and that groups of spawning fish can
form daily, at a range of different reef types
(Colin, Choat, Hamilton and Oakley, pers.
comm.).
Figure 1. Location map of Sitangkai and Sibutu.
('.
Contributed Papers
Materials and Methods
Study Sites
Sitangkai is a remote island
municipality located at the southernmost
portion of Tawi-Tawi province. It is one of
the areas covered by the CTSP Program
in the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Eco-region
in Tawi-Tawi assisted by the World Wide
Fund for Nature – Philippines (WWFPhilippines). It is bounded in the east by
Tumindao Channel, in the south by Celebes
Sea and in the north by Sabah, Malaysia. It
is a 5th class municipality composed of 14
barangays.
information about fishing practices and
spawning sites of the humphead wrasse.
The best means of obtaining information
is to compile traditional knowledge from
resource users. Traditional fishers were
particularly valuable source of information
as they provided a temporal perspective
on given spawning aggregation sites. KII
results were validated through FGD with
local government leaders (municipal
and barangay levels), FARMC members,
MPA management board members,
mariculturists and exporters.
Underwater Visual Surveys
Underwater Visual Surveys (UVS) using
SCUBA were conducted by laying a 100
Sibutu is a newly created municipality
meter transect line in each of the stations.
out of the Sitangkai municipality by virtue
of MMAA No. 197, which was subsequently The laying of the transect lines were in the
reef slope parallel to the shoreline and this
ratified in a plebiscite held on October 21,
was repeated five times in each station.
2006. It is a sixth class municipality in the
Observations were conducted 5m to the
province of Tawi-Tawi. It lies about 14 km
right and to the left of the transect line
east of the coast of Sabah, Malaysia. It is
using two SCUBA divers. All these were
comprised of Sibutu Island and four more
small and uninhabited islands 3.4 to 5.9 km recorded on slates. The area covered for
each transect line was 200 m2. The total
south of the main island.
area swathed by the five transect lines was
approximately 1,000 m2. An underwater
Key Informant Interviews (KII) and
photo-documentation was done using an
Focus Group Discussions (FGD)
underwater camera and the depth of the
observation areas varied from 60 to 160
Gathering of information about the
ft. This activity documented the presence
fishery and spawning aggregations of the
fish species included in this study was done of juveniles and mature humphead wrasse
through the conduct of KII with fishermen, species and hoped to encounter a spawning
aggregation. Using GPS, the coordinates
mariculturists, and other stakeholders. An
of the stations for the underwater visual
interview instrument was formulated and
administered by the enumerators in the two surveys, were documented during the first,
municipalities. A total of 40 fishermen and second, third and fourth quarters of the
year. The maximum depth reached was also
50 mariculturists were randomly selected
documented. A total of 24 dive sites were
for the KII. Interview instruments were
designed to get anecdotal accounts or actual surveyed.
('/
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Physical Measurements at Spawning
Sites
landing site, while fishermen are capturing,
cleaning and processing freshly caught fish.
Surface currents
For size frequency analysis, the
following information were recorded on the
data sheet:
• Fork length - length in cm from tip
of snout to middle rays of caudal fin
• Weight - gutted or whole weight in
grams
• Sex - male or female; maturity stage,
i.e. immature, early development,
late development, ripe and running,
or spent
• Hours and/or number of days spent
fishing. This is also defined as “soak
time” or the actual number of hours
fishing. For traps, it is the number
of hours the baited traps are kept
underwater before they are hauled.
For handlines, this is the number of
hours of fishing on site.
The current system in the two study
sites are predominantly influenced by
tidal currents and is observed to be semidiurnal, two high tides and two low tides.
The surface currents were measured
quantitatively with a GPS and a current
drogue. The GPS distance and bearings
functions and the data sheet were used to
plot the speed and direction of the surface
currents.
Tides and Winds
Information on tides used the local
tide charts for 2012 issued by the National
Mapping and Resource Information
Authority (NAMRIA). The wind direction
was assessed by a hand-held compass.
Reproduction and Gonadal Assessment
For the wind patterns, although there are
observed localized winds the monsoon
One indirect way of assessment
winds were used for this study. April and
May (SW monsoon) locally known as Satan, of spawning aggregations is to gather
samples of mature mameng species from
August (Inter-monsoon) and November
the landed catch and get gonad samples
(NE monsoon) locally known as Uttara
of mature species to determine their level
were used as the wind indicators. Winds
and currents are considered to be important of maturity. The fishes were brought
to the MSU laboratory and dissected
factors that affect the fate of eggs and their
and their gonads examined under the
dispersal.
microscope. Depending on the state of the
oocytes, they were classified as inactive,
Effort and Length Frequency Analysis
immature, resting, or developing. Presence
of ovulatory follicles was also noted.
Catch from different kinds of gears
Anecdotal information from fishermen, and
and catch per unit effort (CPUE) were
behavioural observations were also used
monitored as one relative index of the
to provide a preliminary understanding of
status of the fishery. Life history data size
the reproductive biology of the humphead
frequency distribution was used to analyse
wrasse. This is another indirect way to
the size (and potential age) structure of
determine possible areas of spawning
the population, and to gather information
aggregations.
on the size at reproductive maturity. The
best place to collect CPUE data is at fishery
('0
Contributed Papers
Results and Discussion
History of the Fishery and Profile
The results of the KIIs with fishermen,
mariculturists and other stakeholders show
that fishing for humphead wrasse is not
considered a traditional targeted fishery.
It was more of an accidental catch of
other reef fishery according to 85% of the
respondent-fishermen. The 95% of the key
informants said that this became a targeted
fishery in 1987 due to local demand for live
fish from Chinese businessmen in Bongao.
Fishing for this species intensified when
demand for live reef fish, especially for
humphead wrasse, grew among the live fish
restaurants in Sabah, Malaysia. As demand
and the need for ready supply increased,
fishermen started to grow them out in pens
in 2000 on a trial and error basis. Demand
for this species increased in Hong Kong
and Taiwan and because of the success of
their experimental grow-out system, more
fish farmers followed suit.
Humphead wrasse is locally known
as mameng. When it is sexually mature,
the locals call it Pehakan (referring to
sexually mature female). It is considered as
protogynous hermaphrodite meaning the
adults can change sex from female to male.
Large male species are called by the natives
as langkawit and they are characterized
by a prominent bump in the head when it
has reached a very large size. It has a low
productivity.
The grow-out cages are primarily
dependent on fingerlings or immature fish
caught from the wild for stocking. Fishing
for fingerlings is limited to shallow reef
edges or in the mixed seagrass beds with
coralline substratum. The larger mameng
are caught in deeper areas especially in reef
(('
channels, which the natives call takot or
on the edges of the fringing reefs. Other
species which are typically associated with
the live reef food fish trade (LRFT) like
groupers, caranx, and lobsters are also
grown out in these pens.
Fishermen describe the fishing grounds
to be characteristic of fringing reef areas,
reef channels and lagoons where branching,
table and massive corals are located. They
claim that humphead wrasse are found in
areas where there are drop offs at various
depths and varying slope inclinations.
Juvenile mameng are found in mixed
seagrass and coralline substratum but the
larger ones are found in deeper reef areas.
These were validated in the underwater
visual census and the focus group
discussions.
Figure 2 shows the location of the
fishing grounds for humphead wrasse in
Sitangkai and in Sibutu. The areas which
are marked by circles are the major fishing
grounds and include sites e Cebuggal,
Serunga, Ligayan Halo, Tumindao and the
North Lagoon, particularly near Sipangkot
Island.
The fishing crafts used are nonmotorized and motorized boats. The most
dominant non-motorized boats according
to majority of the informants are the dugout boats locally called as the beggong. This
is used to fish near the edge of the reef area
or within the lagoon near the community
and usually catches fingerlings only. This
is also sometimes used to retrieve the
lambunan or fish traps which are set near
the community. The papet/tariret is a small
and slender type of motorized boat with a
more tapered bow and powered by 7.5 hp
to 13 hp engines. This is a faster craft and
is predominantly used for multiple troll
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
line for tuna fishing. The tempel/kurikong
is bigger with a more bulging hull. This is
a motorized boat powered with 10 to 16 hp
engines. Some use double engines. This is
used to fish in far reef areas. The jung-jung/
katigan is an out-triggered boat usually
with 10 to 18 hp engines. This is used to
reach outer reef areas near the Semporna
area.
For the fishing gears, hook and line is
the most common traditional gear used
in catching humphead wrasse and other
live reef fish. Baits of fresh pelagic fish like
big-eyed scad or hermit crab are hooked
to attract the fish. This is the least efficient
among the gears. The lakud is a type of
modified beach seine which uses fine mesh
nets and also utilizes divers with scare lines
to drive the fishes to the net. This gear
can catch 10 to 20 reef fishes and this can
include humphead wrasse depending on
the season and the fishing grounds. This is
used by about 35% of the fishermen. The
linggih lakoran is modified gill net usually
50 m long, 1.3 m wide and mesh size of 2
inches. This is usually hung vertically in the
water column and fish that gets entangled
in the mesh net. This is usually weighted
so that it can catch fish in mid-water or
at the bottom and used by 30% of the
fishermen interviewed. Bungsud or angpas
(fish corral) is a stationary trap designed to
intercept and capture fish. This is usually
set perpendicular to the shoreline. This
fencelike structure consists of rows of
bamboo stakes, plastic nets, and other
materials with a wide entrance leading to
a catching chamber, bag or purse where
the fish are caught or trapped. This is used
by 20% of the fishermen. Lambunan is a
fish trap usually made of bamboo frame
with hard green plastic net wrapped into a
rectangular basket with dimension 6 inches
x 24 inches x 40 inches. The bottom part of
the trap is loosely fastened on one side so
that the trapped fish can be easily removed.
On one side of the trap is a conical opening
usually about 6 inches in diameter to serve
as entry point of the fish and this would not
allow the fish to escape. This is not usually
baited but is covered with coral stones to
simulate a coral formation and catches
1-5 fingerlings depending on the season.
Cyanide with compressor diving is also
used. Although majority of the fishermen
interviewed do not admit directly using
cyanide in catching humphead wrasse, use
of this destructive method is still prevalent.
The mortality of humphead wrasse in
the earlier stage of grow-out in pens is
an indication of shock due to cyanide
exposure.
Eighty-six percent of the fishermen also
claimed that they usually have a good catch
during the southwest monsoon from April
to June and during full moons. However,
nowadays there has been a decreasing trend
in their catch and they associate this to the
sheer number of fishermen fishing for this
species. Some say that there may already
be less mameng that could be caught in the
wild. Majority of the respondents also say
that they spend longer time in the fishing
grounds; have to go farther to catch fish
than in the past; catch has not been stable
and they catch smaller humphead wrasse.
These were validated in the FGDs.
(((
Contributed Papers
Figure 2. Map of the fishing grounds.
Mariculture Practices
As the demand for the humphead wrasse
and groupers grew and considering that the
price of live mameng is 250% more than
that of fresh dead fish, more and more pens
were constructed as grow-out for these
live reef fishes in the eastern coastline of
Sibutu Island. Now the grow-out cages are
found in many areas of the North Lagoon,
in the reef edges of Sitangkai and from
Tandubanak to Tando Owak in Sibutu
within the lagoon extending to about 10
kms along the shoreline. Figure 3 shows
the distribution of the grow-out cages in
Sibutu and Sitangkai and Figure 4 shows
the mariculture cages of mameng.
(()
Spawning Aggregation Sites (from
interviews)
Based on the KII results, the respondents
indicated that spawning aggregation sites
are the reef areas in Dungun Dungun up
to Tong Bakkaan, Ligayan Halo and Tando
Owak, Tando Tokkeh and Tahing in Sibutu.
In Sitangkai the respondents pointed to the
reef areas in Sipangkot and Baligtang Reef,
Cebuggal, Tagayu and Tugalan. From the
anecdotal accounts of Badjao fishermen,
this phenomenon is known to them as
Nabo – a season when this spawning
aggregation occurs.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 3. Location of the mariculture pens and cages.
Figure 4. Mariculture cages in Tandubanak Lagoon, and humphead wrasse species in grow-out cages.
((*
Contributed Papers
Underwater Visual Surveys
Table 1 shows the distribution and
estimated abundance of the juveniles, males
and females in the fifteen (15) study sites
for a total of 45 transect lines. These sites
were identified by local fishermen and
traditional bajau fishermen who served as
guides since they use these sites as their
fishing ground for the C. undulatus species.
Underwater surveys were conducted to
document density and distribution of
humphead wrasse and have an estimate of
the current size of the population. The lunar
phase was also noted and this is associated
with the amount of catch. The fish density,
expressed as the number of individuals
seen in 1,000m2 area, ranges from a low
0.006/1000m2 to a high of 0.027 /1000m2
and an average of 0.016/1,000m2. These
results confirm the behavior of this species
to be solitary and confined to specific areas
in the reef. This also indicates high fishing
pressure.
Table 1. Estimated distribution and abundance of Cheilinus undulatus juveniles, males and females and fish
density/1,000 m2.
Name of Site
((+
Abundance
Juveniles
Mature
Females
Immature
Females
Date
Lunar
phase*
Fish Density
(no./1,000m2)
Tando Owak
6
2
1
3
5/13/2012
NM
0.006
Tando Tukkih
23
21
1
1
7/25/2012
NM
0.023
Langkawet Cave
6
2
2
2
7/25/2012
NM
0.006
Tongehat luuran
27
24
0
3
7/25/2012
NM
0.027
Taoungo Luuran
33
31
0
2
7/25/2012
NM
0.033
Tahing
7
5
1
1
7/25/2012
NM
0.007
Pamilikan
11
8
1
2
7/25/2012
NM
0.011
Dungon-dungon
27
23
1
3
10/10/2012
LQ
0.027
Baligtang
23
21
0
2
10/13/2012
LQ
0.023
Last ball
9
9
0
0
10/14/2012
LQ
0.009
Buton, Sibutu
4
1
0
3
12/10/2012
LQ
0.004
Tong Bakaan,
Sibutu
24
22
0
2
12/10/2012
LQ
0.024
Serunga, Sitangkai
23
23
0
2
3/3/2013
NM
0.023
Sebabbal, Sitangkai
10
9
0
1
3/3/2013
NM
0.01
Sebuggal, Sitangkai
12
12
0
0
3/3/2013
NM
0.012
Suwang maheya,
Sibutu
13
13
0
0
3/3/2013
NM
0.013
Total
258
226
7
27
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
From the Underwater Visual Census,
there were 27 immature and 7 mature
females encountered in the dives, although
they were evenly distributed, very few
males with only 27 individuals were
encountered in the whole stretch of the
dive surveys. However, there were more
juveniles encountered especially in shallow
reef areas or a mix of seagrass beds with
corals in areas near what fishermen say
are spawning aggregation areas. Figure 5
shows the underwater shots of the juvenile
humphead wrasse associated with seagrass
beds and branching corals. Likewise this
shows an underwater shot of the immature
and mature female wrasse.
During the sampling periods, the catch
of the fishermen were monitored. The catch
A
from hook-and-line and lambunan (fish
pots) the tail length (TL) in centimeters and
weight (kg) of every individual catch were
measured. The biomass of the fish caught
was also determined. The catch per unit of
effort (CPUE) was also computed based
on the total catch and the number of hours
spent fishing, which is generally 6 hrs.
Reproduction and Gonadal Assessment
Anecdotal information from
fishermen, behavioural observations and
gonad samples provide a preliminary
understanding of the reproductive biology
of the humphead wrasse. Throughout the
study, a total of 51 fish samples of various
sizes ranging from 20 mm to 105 mm were
collected from the catch of the fishermen.
B
C
Figure 5. Pictures of juvenile (A), immature (B) and mature (C) female humphead wrasse Cheilinus
undulatus taken during the underwater visual census.
((,
Contributed Papers
The gonads were examined
macroscopically, as shown in Figure 6, then
under a stereo microscope in the laboratory.
Inactive females had previtellogenic oocytes
and the classification of gonads included
immature and resting or developing
females; the latter may or may not have
spawned previously. Mature or ripe females
were those with vitellogenic (i.e., yolky) or
hydrated oocytes or with clear indications
of spawning activity, such as post-ovulatory
follicles. The presence of both features
together in some individuals suggests that
individual females spawn on multiple
occasions during a reproductive season.
Based on the Von Bertallanfy growth
curve and the data on length frequency
distribution, along with field observations
that Napoleon fish do not reach maturity
before 35 cm TL, the length at maturity
was determined. Specifically, data on the
proportion of fish larger than 35 cm that
are mature by 5 cm size-class were used
to estimate the parameters related to
fecundity. The 51 female samples taken
from the fishermen were in varying stages
of maturity, from immature to mature
but none had fully developed eggs. Thus,
the egg count as a measure of fecundity
could not be done. The smallest female
(immature) sampled was 24 cm and the
smallest mature, ripe female was 55 cm TL.
The smallest immature male was 29.5 cm
TL, while the smallest mature, ripe male was
55.0 cm TL. Few large fish were sampled,
partly for practical and economic reasons
(i.e., hard to catch or expensive), but also
because they were rarely available; if larger
fish are more likely to be male, then the
apparent heavy female may create bias in
our samples.
Options in the Management and
Protection of Spawning Aggregation
Sites
Some of the management options
for the conservation and protection of
aggregating species include: declaration
of spawning sites as marine protected
area; temporary closure of spawning
site to fishing; seasonal ban on fishing
during spawning season and conventional
management such as quota, and size limits,
etc. throughout the year.
Figure 6. Macroscopic examination of the gonads of humphead wrasse. Mameng 1.05 kg; gonad - 1.5 g.
((-
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Some of the indirect types of evidences
of spawning aggregation sites from the
landing sites include the number of gravid
females, gonadosomatic index (GSI), and
observed color changes in the fish species.
As shown in Figure 7, out of the 299
individual fish species landed in Sitangkai,
134 or 45% were gravid females. These
came mostly from the fishing grounds
of Sipangkot and Tugalan and these
recommended declaration of these areas as
marine protected areas.
Figure 7. Indirect evidence of spawning aggregations
from landed catch (n=299) in Sitangkai.
Similarly, indirect evidences such as the
number of gravid females, gonadosomatic
index (GSI), and observed color changes in
the fish species were used in the selection of
spawning aggregation sites from the landing
sites in Sibutu. As shown in Figure 8, out
of the 312 individual fish species landed in
Sitangkai, 138 or 44% were gravid females
and these came mostly from the fishing
grounds of Dungun Dungon and Tando
Owak. So these two sites as shown in Figure
10 were recommended for selection of
spawning aggregation protected area.
Ripe adults are the capital and spawning
aggregations produce interest (eggs) and
enhance the wild stock. They are the source
of fish for the future spawning aggregations
that naturally generate larvae and juvenile
humphead wrasse that would soon recruit
to the fishery, contributing to food and
Figure 8. Indirect evidence of spawning aggregations
from landed catch (n=312) in Sibutu.
livelihoods and increased income to the
fishermen.
During this study, more of the anecdotal
accounts from the fishermen especially
the Badjao fishermen were relied upon in
the identification of spawning aggregation
sites. The initial sites identified in the KII
were used in the underwater visual surveys
in gathering the length weight frequency
analysis and in the gonadal assessment of
the levels of maturity of the humphead
wrasse species. From the length and weight
analysis of mameng species caught by hook
and line and fish pot in the Sibutu Reef,
there were 134 individuals caught from
which the length at maturity of this species
was estimated at 25 to 35cm. So potentially
they would be spawning soon. In Sitangkai
Reef, data from 243 individuals showed
that TL of mature humphead wrasse were
26 to 35cm. Another indirect proof used
was the underwater documentation of
juvenile/small humphead wrasse which
were regularly observed in association
with seagrass beds and branching coral
reefs in Tongehat Halo in Sibutu, Baligtang
Reef in Sipangkot, Sitangkai. There were
some accounts of juveniles found also in
Tahing and Tando Owak Sibutu. The larval
dispersion pattern was not determined in
the study but concentrations of juveniles
along the reef areas in Tongehat Halo,
Sipangkot island indicate that they were
((.
Contributed Papers
spawned in nearby reef areas of Tando
Owak and Baligtang Reef.
of the Spawning Aggregation Marine
Protected Areas.
A series of stakeholder workshops were
conducted with the communities to give
feedback on the results of the mameng
fishery study to the local government units,
barangay officials, mariculturists, fishermen
and traders. It also aims to discuss with
these stakeholders the recommendations
made in the study. This was also done
to validate with the local government
units, barangay officials, mariculturists,
fishermen, traders the results of the
spawning aggregation study; validate the
identified spawning aggregation sites and
the sites where the juveniles converge in
the shallow coralline areas and seagrass
beds; and to discuss the passage of an
ordinance declaring these spawning
aggregation sites as protected areas. All
these information were presented to the
communities in a series of stakeholder’s
workshops and the municipal council
locally called Sangguniang Bayan,
passed these ordinances. For Sibutu,
the Municipal Ordinance No. 3 Series
of 2013, An Ordinance Establishing
Mameng Spawning Aggregations Marine
Protected Area in Tando Owak, Dungun
Dungon and Tong Bakkaan and Tahing
Ungus Mataha in the Municipal Waters of
Sibutu, Province of Tawi-Tawi, was passed
providing management thereof, and for
other purposes. For the municipality of
Sitangkai, a similar ordinance was passed,
Municipal Ordinance No. 3, Series of
2013, An Ordinance Establishing Mameng
Spawning Aggregations Marine Protected
Area in Sipangkot and Tugalan Reef Area in
the Municipal Waters of Sitangkai, Province
of Tawi-Tawi, providing management
interventions thereof, and for other
purposes. Figure 9 shows the locations
The common provision of these
ordinances defines the boundaries of the
Spawning Aggregation MPA and had the
following regulations:
((/
•
•
•
•
Prohibitions of all kinds and forms
of illegal fishing, such as but not
limited to the use of poisonous
substances/chemicals (e.g. sodium
cyanide and toxic plants), explosives
(e.g. dynamites), and fine mesh
nets, compressor fishing and other
illegal forms of fishing as defined by
the Muslim Mindanao Autonomy
Act 1986 (MMAA86) and other
existing local ordinances;
Catching, gathering, collecting
of berried and spawning fish
specifically during the spawning
period;
Closure to any fishing activities
during the spawning season of the
humphead wrasse which is from
January to April of every year; and
Any other acts or activities that will
destroy or will place/pose imminent
danger or potential harm to the
area are strictly prohibited, and
other illegal activities as defined by
MMAA86.
It also provided for the creation of a
Management Board under the supervision
of the Municipal LGU from among the
representatives from municipal and
barangay LGU, FARMC, academe, youth/
women and religious groups in close
coordination with the Philippine National
Police (PNP) Maritime Group, PNP, DABFAR and other enforcement units.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 9. Spawning aggregation recommended for declaration as protected areas based on indirect
evidences in Sitangkai and Sibutu.
The Council among others is
responsible for management, protection,
conservation, and development as well
as overseeing the operations of the
marine protected area. Within 90 days
from the approval of this ordinance, the
Management Council shall formulate its
internal rules and regulations governing
its operations and management. An MPA
management Plan has been adopted.
Subsequently, the Coastal Law Enforcement
Training, Creation of the Municipal
Coastal Law Enforcement Team, Training
of the Bantay Dagat (Sea Guards), and
the Development of the Mariculture areas
in Sibutu and Sitangkai as CommunityManaged Areas were some of the follow-up
activities.
Summary and Conclusions
Using both anecdotal accounts and
indirect evidences, this assessment has
provided sufficient information for the
communities in Sitangkai and Sibutu in
Tawi-Tawi province. Consequently, these
municipalities were able to decide on the
declaration of the Spawning Aggregation
Sites in Tando Owak, Dungun Dungon and
Tong Bakkaan and Tahing Ungus Mataha
in the Sibutu, Tawi-Tawi, and in Sipangkot
and Tugalan Reef Area in Sitangkai, TawiTawi. This also provided management
interventions and regulations for a Marine
Protected Area, a strategy for enhancement
of wild stocks and for ensuring that the
health of the stock would be sustained,
((0
Contributed Papers
so as to continue to provide source of
sustainable livelihood for the people of
these island communities.
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humphead wrasse Cheilinus undulatus,
and its relationship to international
trade. Journal of Fish Biology 77(3):
706-718.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Stock Assessment of Christian Crabs (Charybdis feriatus, Linnaeus, 1758)
in San Miguel Bay
Plutomeo M. Nievesa*, Nelson R. Olfindob and Aldrin Mel Macalea
Bicol University Tabaco Campus, Tabaco City, Albay
Camarines Norte State University, Marcedes, Camarines Norte
plutz1122@yahoo.com
a
b
Abstract
Assessment of the status of swimming crab fisheries in San Miguel Bay with focus on
Christian or Crucifix crab, Charybdis feriatus, was undertaken from November 2011 to January
2013. An analytical length-based fish stock assessment was employed using the FISAT (version
1.2.2). A total of 7,679 length frequencies (3,612 C. feriatus and 4,067 Portunus pelagicus)
were used in the analysis. About 15 and 14 percent gravid females were harvested monthly for
both species that may contribute to recruitment overfishing. Population parameters showed
exploitation rate (E) for P. pelagicus and C. feriatus exceeded the optimum exploitation (E0.5)
implying excessive fishing effort and heavily exploited stocks. Size at maturity of C. feriatus and
P. pelagicus in San Miguel Bay is 8.3 cm and 8.5 cm, respectively. Doable options for resources
conservation and management strategies are proposed and supported by local government units
(LGUs) including the Integrated Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Council.
Keywords: stock assessment, San Miguel Bay, resource conservation and management, Charybdis
feriatus
Introduction
San Miguel Bay (SMB) is a large fishing
ground in the southeastern part of Luzon
and northeastern part of the Bicol Region
along the Pacific Coast. The bay is bounded
in the west by the coastal municipalities
of Mercedes and Basud of Camarines
Norte province and in the southeast, by
the coastal province of Camarines Sur with
5 municipalities: Calabanga, Cabusao,
Tinambac, Sipocot and Siruma. It is
enclosed in the north by an imaginary line
drawn from Butauanan Island of Siruma,
Camarines Sur to Canimog Island and
Poblacion of Mercedes, Camarines Norte
(Figure 1).
SMB has a total surface area of 1,115 sq.
km. and a coastline length of approximately
240 km. The inner bay and its outer
periphery (Mercedes and Siruma area)
are consistently and heavily utilized by
various fisheries with about 7,033 fishers.
This translates to about 1 fisher per 34 m
of coastline or 1 fisher per 16 ha of water.
About 67 percent of the fishers are from
Mercedes, Calabanga and Siruma, 27
percent from Tinambac and Cabusao and
the rest from Sipocot and Basud. Thus,
fishing is a way of life and human activities
associated with aquatic resources are
basically fishing and fishing-associated
economic activities.
()(
Contributed Papers
Figure 1. Map of San Miguel Bay (Source: Google Earth).
The fishery in the bay is generally multispecies, and fishers utilize multiple gears
predominantly gill-net (32.8%), hook and
lines (31.0%), fish traps (7.8%), seine nets
(7.8%), squid jiggers (6.7%) and the rest are
other gears. Based on post-RSA of SMB
gear inventory, there are 6,712 gear units
distributed to 33 distinct gear types where
66 percent of these gears are distributed
in Siruma, Mercedes and Calabanga, 29
percent in Tinambac and Cabusao and
5 percent in Sipocot and Basud. The 10
most numerous gears include ordinary gill
net, crab gill net, shrimp gill net, minitrawl, fish gill net, hook and line, push net,
long line, spear gun and filter nets which
account to about 80 percent of the total
number of gears in SMB.
Catch composition in SMB consists of
more than 250 aquatic species distributed
in 70 families; the most diverse are the
scads, mackerels, slip mouths, sardines
and herrings, and crabs. There is seasonal
())
variation in catch composition and a
large proportion of the catch using trawl
is jellyfish. In terms of stock status, 14 of
the 17 species caught are exploited below
the size at first sexual maturity and 11
species are exploited at sizes below 10 cm.
Current estimates of the stock density of
demersal fish in the SMB decreased 60
fold since 1947. Similarly, the present stock
density is about 11 times less than it was 9
years ago. In terms of the changes in the
number of fishing gears used over time,
post-RSA result showed an increase by 40
percent between 1980 and 1992 and by 41
percent between 1992 and 2001. The largest
increases were recorded for mini-trawlers
and gill nets.
For the period 1992-1995, the average
municipal production was about 11,103 mt,
with baby trawl contributing 9.2 percent.
Several assessments (BFAR-FSP, REA SMB)
indicate that the Bay is heavily exploited
or, even, overfished with catch rates
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
significantly declining. In Calabanga, the
volumes and sizes of major catch showed
a decreasing trend particularly in gill net,
fish corral and trawl. The main catch
composition includes blue crabs, croakers,
anchovies, and shrimps. Similar decreasing
trend was also noted in Mercedes.
In addition, resource use conflicts
are also impacting the fisheries in the
SMB. These include: (1) access issues in
fisheries and other coastal resource; (2)
enforcement issues in fisheries and other
coastal resources; (3) conflict between the
fishery users (small vs. large scale fishers);
(4) conflict between the fishers and other
resource users (i.e. tourism vs. conservation
vs. industrial development) and (5) conflict
between fishers and non-fishery issues (i.e.
corruption, politics).
Access issues in fisheries and other
coastal resources are clearly defined by
the continuously increasing number of
fishers and gears. This made the entire
bay exploited with an overlap in the use
patterns of multiplicity of gears, hence
the need for resource enhancement.
Destructive fishing methods (i.e. use of fine
mesh net, cyanide fishing, and dynamite
fishing) and capture of endangered
species are among the enforcement issues.
Conflict between the fishery users are
better explained by the intrusion of other
municipal fishers and the incursion of
commercial fishers in municipal fishing
grounds. Entry of some fishers in Marine
Protected Areas (MPA) and the illegal
conversion of mangrove areas into
brackishwater fishponds are examples of
conflicting uses. The rapid development
of tourism along the coastal zones and the
construction of ports also created conflict
of varying degrees. Noteworthy to mention
is the observation that in municipalities
bordering SMB, fishers and other
stakeholders openly blame corruption and
politics as one of the most critical problems
associated with conflicts between fishers
and non-fishery issues.
Today, fishing in SMB still represents
the largest extractive use of aquatic
resources with demand exceeding the
supply. As a matter of fact, during
the “Strengthening Governance and
Sustainability of Small-scale Fisheries
Management in the Philippines: An
Ecosystem-based Fisheries Management
Approach Seminar-workshop” held in the
Agri-Science Village, San Bernardino,
Calabanga, Camarines Sur on February
21-22, 2011 and attended by representatives
from the seven local government units
(LGU’s) bordering SMB, all are in
agreement that the system of resource
extraction is expected to continue as the
population increases in the next ten years
and fisheries and aquaculture will be
crucial sources of income and livelihood
for hundreds of thousands of people in
the SMB. The trading and export of high
value species like live grouper, wrasses and
crustaceans is now considered a lucrative
business among fishers because of the
booming export market for these species.
For instance, Christian crab (Charybdis
feriatus) is exported mostly in East Asia
where it commands a premium price of
US$8 to US$15/kg. As such, the intensity
of fishing for high-value species at all cost
has put immense pressure on the wild
population which when kept unregulated
may lead to over-fishing and resource
depletion. Unfortunately, very little work
has been carried out to manage the wild
stock. Given the unregulated resource
extraction coupled by the alarming impacts
of climate change, the fate of this species is
extremely threatened.
()*
Contributed Papers
Considering its importance and value,
it is imperative that efforts toward the
development of resource enhancement
measures to sustain an appropriate number
of parent stock and/or breeder to maintain
its population, is wanting. The Project
Christian crab is an attempt to provide
solutions or key strategies for resource
enhancement to sustain the future of
natural stocks. The output derived from
the project is expected to provide doable
options to enhance natural stocks for
sustainable resource conservation and
management and possibly the development
of aquaculture technology for the species
in the future. This will likewise assist
decision-makers and planners in the
respective LGU’s in SMB to formulate
management strategies for this highly
valuable resource at sustained levels. This
in turn would mean long-term fishing
livelihood for fishermen. Without proactive
moves to domesticate and propagate this
crustacean species, Christian crabs will
be highly vulnerable and the chance of its
wild population to collapse is not far from
reality. In addition, the impacts of climate
change will put immense pressure, stress
and ecological/environmental modification
that can threaten the resources systems and
their habitat, which in turn might cause
species modifications, biodiversity loss and
eventual extinction. Acting now to save
the species while it is still manageable is an
urgent growing need to focus on because
of the vital contribution of the fishery to
poverty alleviation and food security.
Objectives
The purpose of this project was
primarily to assess the status of swimming
crab fisheries, particularly Charybdis
feriatus, Linnaeus, 1758 in the SMB with
the hope of helping fishers and LGUs
()+
formulate an implementable crab fishery
resource conservation and management
strategy. Specifically, the project sought to:
1. Assess the status of Christian crab
(Charybdis feriatus) fisheries in the
SMB in terms of:
• population structure;
• growth and mortality by species;
• fishing gears used;
• annual production and species
composition;
• catch per unit effort (CPUE)
and exploitation rates by
species; and
• existing market and channels of
distribution.
2. Develop a sustainable and
implementable Christian crab
fishery resource conservation and
management strategy.
Materials and Methods
Monthly measurements of about 300
specimens per species were conducted
using vernier caliper (SE 781BC Stainless
Steel, 0.1 cm) from November 2011 to
October 2012. Carapace width (CW) was
measured as the distance from tip to tip
of the last antero-lateral teeth. Carapace
length (CL) was measured as the distance
from the tip of the frontal teeth to the
posterior end of the carapace. Total body
weight (TW) was measured using digital
weighing scale (Ohauz, Model CL 501T,
capacity 500 g x 0.1 g). Almost all lengthfrequency measures were from landings
and market measurements in Tinambac,
Calabanga, and Cabusao in Camarines Sur
and Mercedes in Camarines Norte.
Descriptive statistics and analysis
of length frequencies such as normality
test and generation of total length
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
frequency distributions (histograms with
constant class interval) were done using
a commercial spreadsheet program.
The analytical length-based fish stock
assessment was employed using the FAO
ICLARM Stock Assessment Tools (version
1.2.2). Several studies were already
reported documenting the usage of the
method on invertebrates (see Soliman
and Dioneda (1998), Ingles and Bkaum
(1989) for blue crab and Dineshbabu
(2011) for Charybdis feriatus). The lengthweight relationship was estimated using the
equation: W = aLb, where W is the weight, a
is the intercept, L is carapace width and b is
the slope (Pauly, 1983). The value of a and
b were computed from the log transformed
values of length and weight. The coefficient of determination (r2) was used
as an indicator of the quality of the linear
regression.
Results and Discussion
Population Structure
Three species of swimming crabs were
identified as: Charybdis feriatus, Portunus
pelagicus, Portunus sanguinolentus. Two
mud crab species, namely, Scylla oceanica
(?), and Scylla serrata were also noted.
Genus Thalamita which are usually
collected by gleaners were also observed in
stocks sold in the local market. However,
the study focused on Charybdis feriatus and
Portunus pelagicus.
A total of 7,679 marine crabs were
collected (Figure 2) comprising of 3,612 C.
feriatus and 4,067 P. pelagicus with mean
CW of (mean±s.d.) 12.50±2.20 cm and
11.20±3.00 cm, respectively. This result
is higher than the maturity size of 8.30 cm
and 10.50 cm. However, the capture of 15
percent gravid C. feriatus and 14 percent P.
pelagicus from the monthly samples could
be a factor contributory to recruitment
overfishing. This means that the adult
population was caught heavily that the
number and size of the spawning biomass
has been reduced to the point that it will not
have the reproductive capacity to replenish
the fishery. On the other hand, the mean
weight (MW) obtained showed 375±207
grams for C. feriatus and 77.6±41.5 grams
for P. pelagicus.
Regression equations for the carapace
width-weight relationship of P. pelagicus
and C. feriatus revealed high correlation
(Table 2). The exponent ‘b’ value estimated
for these species were below 3 indicating the
allometric pattern of growth.
Growth and Mortality
Population parameters of the stock
extracted using the FiSAT (version 3.2)
are presented in Table 3. The ELEFAN-1
(Electronic Length Frequency Analysis)
program estimated asymptotic length (L∞)
and growth co-efficient (K) of the Von
Bertalanffy Growth Formula (VBGF) for C.
feriatus and P. pelagicus were noted at 26.76
cm (0.63 year-1) and 21.36 cm (0.87 year1), respectively. The resulting exploitation
rate (E) for P. pelagicus and C. feriatus show
overexploitation (E>0.50) of the species
(Gulland, 1971). Also, the resulting E
optima from the Y’-PR (Yield-per-Recruit)
indicates that exploitation rate of C. feriatus
(35%) and P. pelagicus (10%) exceeded
beyond the optimum exploitation (E0.5),
implying excess fishing effort. This finding
affirms the assessments result obtained
during the Fishery Sector Program
(FSP) and SMB-Resource and Ecological
Assessment (REA) which indicated that
the fishery resources in the Bay have been
heavily exploited or overfished with catch
(),
Contributed Papers
Figure 2. Main species, Portunus pelagicus (left) and Charybdis feriatus,
exploited in San Miguel Bay.
Table 2. Carapace width-weight relationship of P. pelagicus and C. feriatus in San
Miguel Bay.
Table 3. Population parameters of C. feriatus and P. pelagicus studied.
rates significantly declining. Ingles and
Flores (2000) also reported that fishing effort of swimming crabs has been well above
sustainable levels since 1999.
The LC50 statistics which is the
population length at which 50% of the
population is harvested (the other 50%
remains) when subjected to fisheries
showed a computed LC50 = 9.62 cm for C.
feriatus and 10.53 cm for P. pelagicus. These
values are slightly higher compared to the
size at first maturity of 8.3 cm and 10.50 cm
for C. feriatus and P. pelagicus, respectively.
However, this may also contribute to
recruitment overfishing wherein the adult
population was caught so heavily that the
number and size of the adult population
(spawning biomass) has been reduced to the
()-
point that it will not have the reproductive
capacity to replenish the fishery.
Fishing gears, CPUE, Annual Production and
Species Composition
Crabbing is a multi-gear fishery (Ingles,
2004). In Tinambac, Calabanga, and
Cabusao, Camarines Sur, the majority of the
gears used are crab gillnet or CGN (~220
units). In Mercedes, Camarines Norte,
crab pots (CP= ~59 units) are commonly
used. CGN locally known as “hikot” has an
average length of 1,000 meters (~40 banata,
25 meters/banata) and a mesh size of 5
cm, wherein baits are not needed. Soaking
duration per set is 15-16 hours. Meanwhile,
CP locally known as “bobo” is an enticing
device with a length of 69 centimeters,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
30 centimeters width and a depth of 18
centimeters. The frame is made of 8 mm steel
bar with bamboo attachment to form the pot
and polyethylene webbings of 3 centimeters
mesh size with an opening at both ends. The
steel bar served as sinkers of the pot. An
average of 160 pots connected with a main
line is being deployed per fishing boat. Trash
fish are used as baits. Setting and hauling
of the gear usually last for 16 to 36 hours. It
is mostly recommended as environmental
and social-friendly gear because it allows
the fishermen to return gravid and juvenile
crabs to the sea which encourage sustainable
fishing. In contrast, the CGN is a nonselective fishing method that does not allow
for the return to sea of juvenile crabs that
have not yet reached sexual maturity or
gravid crabs that have not yet spawned.
The average catch for CGN is 7.25±2.41
kg/trip (CPUE=0.48) and 11.09±7.93 kg/
trip (CPUE=0.69) for CP. Highest catch
for CP was observed during December
(CPUE=2.11), whereas in CGN in February
and September (CPUE=0.63) (Figure 4).
Capture of immature crabs was observed
as a factor to growth overfishing (Ingles,
2004). Noticeably, about 1 – 7 percent
(Figure 5) of the C. feriatus are captured
undersized (CW=<8.3 cm.). The catch
composition for CGN consists of 58 - 99
percent P. pelagicus, 1-24 percent C. feriatus,
and 1 - 23 percent by-catch (Table 5). On
the other hand, catch composition for CP is
48 - 92 percent C. feriatus, 21 - 27 percent
P. pelagicus (Figure 6b), and 8 - 25 percent
by-catch. Baby trawl fishing gears were also
noted operating in Cabusao and Mercedes.
An annual production of 524.90 mt of crabs
was estimated in the SMB (Table 4). The
production constitutes 3.11 percent of the
16,879 mt fisheries annual productions in
SMB (Soliman and Dioneda, 1997). Catches
in the Philippines have been around 34,000
mt in recent years and evidence has shown
the abundance of swimming crabs has
declined (www.fao.org).
Table 4. Estimated annual production in San Miguel Bay (metric ton).
Figure 3. Gears used in crab fishing (left: crab gill net; right: crab pot).
().
Contributed Papers
Figure 4. Monthly CPUE (crab gill net and crab pot)
in San Miguel Bay.
Figure 5. Percentage catch of “undersized” (<8.3 cm
CW or CL) C. feriatus in San Miguel Bay.
Figure 6a. Catch compositions caught by crab gillnet
in San Miguel Bay.
Figure 6b. Catch compositions caught by crab pot in
San Miguel Bay.
Table 5. Catch composition of other species (by-catch) using crab gillnets and crab
pot in San Miguel Bay.
()/
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Market and Channel of Distribution
Marketing and distribution in SMB
is characterized by competitive market
structure where there are many sellers and
buyers with free trading of aquatic products.
The most common practice is from crab
fishers to traders (“factorador”) or local crab
meat processors (“beneficiador”). According
to key informants, these are delivered to
Manila or Cebu for domestic market or
exported to China, Hongkong and Taiwan
as live crabs, fresh frozen or processed crab
meat. Another market player is the broker
who sells crab to the trader or street/market
vendor (“regaton”). The “regaton” sells
directly to the consumers in their places
(Figure 7). The number of crab fishers,
factorador, and beneficiador are presented in
Table 6.
Crab pot fishers usually sell 75 percent
of their catch to “factorador”, 15 percent
to “beneficiador” and 10 percent to
“regaton”. On the other hand, crab gill
net fishers sold 90 percent of their catch
to “beneficiador” and the remaining 10
percent to “factorador”/“regaton”. Selling
price of crabs sold to “beneficiador” ranges
from Php100.00 to Php 120.00/kg whereas
rejected crabs (e.g. molting, small sizes, no
longer alive, low weight, pinchers removed,
etc.) are either consumed for food or
brought to “factorador”/“regaton” and sold
at Php 50.00. For live crabs, prices range
from Php 300.00 to as high as Php 2,000.00/
kg depending on the size and species of
crab.
“Suki” system is a prevalent practice
among fishers in SMB. “Suki” is the local
term used to refer to a special relationship
between two individuals wherein one
provides credit for fishing input or family
expenses in exchange to the exclusive
right to purchase their catch at a lower
price. In terms of market structure, aside
from having a competitive market, there
are barriers to fish trading business, which
include legal (i.e. license, permit, taxes,
limited operation of brokers), financial
(i.e. lack of capital, limited credit and high
interest rates) and market information
limited to the middlemen.
Table 6. Number of crab fisher, factorador, and beneficiador in sampling areas.
Figure 7. Marketing channels for swimming crabs in San Miguel Bay.
()0
Contributed Papers
Sustainable and Implementable Christian
Crab Fishery Resource Conservation and
Management Strategy
To promote the idea of crab resource
conservation and management using
the recent biological research findings as
basis, the project co-sponsored an action
planning meeting designed to update
SMB-LGU’s Coastal Resource Management
Plans (CRMP) held February 16, 2012
at Regent Hotel, Naga City which was
attended by 42 representatives. Among the
major agreements were the inclusion of
crab fisheries in the CRMP and the total
banning of active fishing gear in SMB to
sustain crab fisheries particularly C. feriatus
and other swimming crabs.
A set of resource management options
based on the biological and fisheries
information generated were also prepared
and presented during the “Stakeholders
Consultation and Presentation of Resource
Enhancement Plan for Marine Crab in
San Miguel Bay” held at BFAR-RFFC,
Bula, Camarines Sur last January 30, 2013
attended by DOST-V, BFAR-V, IFARMC
and LGU’s officials bordering SMB. The
same option was presented and deliberated
during the Integrated Fisheries and Aquatic
Resource Management Council (IFAMRC)
of SMB meeting held at Mercedes School
of Fisheries last January 18, 2013 where all
LGUs in SMB was represented.
From these exercises, it appears that
scientific findings may not necessarily
be the best solution should one consider
the socio-economic implications of such
option to livelihood and food security of
the people. While poverty cannot certainly
be used as an excuse for sound judgment,
at least the sentiments of resource users are
considered prior to decision-making and
(*'
implementation. For instance, considering
the reduction of fishing effort proportional
to excess exploitation level through mesh
size regulation (use of >12 cm stretched
mesh size), catch regulation (minimum of 9
cm for C. feriatus and 11cm for P. pelagicus,
based on size at maturity) and regulating
fishing intensity (e.g. shifting to deeper
ground, reduced fishing time, etc., LGU
representatives and fisherfolks argued that
such option is not realistically acceptable
to fisherfolks since it will affect their only
means of livelihood. In addition, regulating
mesh size will not work because the crabs
are entangled to the net beside that will
entail procurement of another fishing gear
to comply; making it very difficult for
resource-poor fisherfolk. Regulating fishing
intensity by shifting to deeper ground is
also risky and expensive in terms of fuel
cost.
It is interesting to note that LGUs and
fisherfolk groups expressed unanimous
acceptance to the declaration of a closed
season as an option during periods of
peak reproductive activity for C. feriatus
particularly in December and January
where higher percentages of GSI,
mature, and gravid crabs were observed.
Apparently, the underlying reason for
agreement follows that the months of
December and January coincide with
rough sea and occurrence of bad weather
making fishing risky; hence, for the
fisherfolk, closed season does not matter
much since they have nothing to lose. On
the other hand, for the LGUs, there will
be less opposition making it easier to pass
a resolution for a close season but it does
not make sense in as much as the decision
is merely based on convenience instead
of scientific basis most appropriate to the
resource.
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Table 7. List of management options and its implications to science and socio-economics of crab
resource management in San Miguel Bay.
(*(
Contributed Papers
Another accepted option is the holding
of egg-bearing crabs in a spawning tank
to spawn and the larvae released in fishing
ground or MPAs. Unfortunately, no
scientific evidence relative to its success is
available but the practice may eventually
be the basis for future sound management
practice for responsible fisheries.
From the economic perspectives, the
above options can be explained by simply
understanding the fact that catching the
breeders or small crabs is not an efficient
way of using the resource rather it will
just cause its depletion. A case in point
is that female C. feriatus with CW from
8.3 cm-15 cm has a fecundity of about
1,513,660 to 6,357,133 eggs. Assuming that
only 10 percent of these eggs hatched and
survived to juvenile stage, some 151,366
to 635,713 juveniles may be produced.
Assuming further that only 1.0 percent
reach marketable size, 1,513 to 6,357
crabs is expected per female. At 8 pieces
per kg, 189.13kgs to 792.13kgs of crabs
can potentially be harvested. Catching
gravid female crab therefore represents
an economic loss of approximately Php
56.739.00 – Php 237,639.00 at a selling
price of Php 300.00 per kg or Php
226,956.00 to Php 950,556.00 at a live
weight price of Php 1,200 per kg. Moreover,
from the reported annual production of
524.90 MT of crabs in SMB, 5.25- 126 mt
are C. feriatus (1-24 percent), from these,
15 percent are gravid females which mean
some 0.7875- 18.9 mt are not given the
chance to reproduce and replenish natural
population, hence may lead to resource
depletion.
The last identified option is the
diversification of alternative livelihood,
especially those that are non-fisheries
related. This is has been the usual
quick answer to most coastal resource
(*)
management project (CRMP),
unfortunately with stories of few successes
and more failures as experienced in many
CRMP in the country.
Finally, a follow-up collaborative
research implemented with the concerned
LGUs, fisherfolks and IFARMC to translate
the option into realistic action plans and
that outcomes are monitored, evaluated and
scaled-up for replication in other areas.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Population parameters using the FiSAT
(version 3.2) showed exploitation rate (E)
for P. pelagicus and C. feriatus exceeded
the optimum exploitation (E0.5) implying
excessive fishing effort or heavily exploited
fisheries. Harvest data also showed 15
percent and 14 percent of the catch are
gravid C. feriatus and P. pelagicus which
indicates potential recruitment overfishing.
Doable options for resources conservation
and management strategies supported
by LGU’s in SMB including the IFARMC
include (1) declaration of closed seasons
during periods of peak reproductive
activity for C. feriatus particularly in
December and January where higher
percentages of GSI, mature, and gravid
crabs were observed , (2) the collection of
egg-bearing swimming crabs which will
be held in a spawning tank, hatched and
the larvae returned in fishing ground or
in marine protected areas (MPA) and (3)
diversification of alternative livelihood,
especially those non-fisheries related. It is
recommended that a follow-up research
effort be implemented collaboratively with
the concern LGU’s and IFARMC to ensure
that the options identified were translated
into realistic action plans and that outcomes
are monitored and evaluated.
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Acknowledgements
This research project is funded by
Department of Agriculture – Bureau of
Agricultural Research (DA-BAR) with
counterpart funds from Bicol University.
The authors wishes to acknowledge the
support and assistance of DA-BAR, DOST
5, BFAR – 5, IFARMC in SMB, LGU’s
officials in Basud, Mercedes, Sipocot,
Cabusao, Calabanga, Tinambac and
Siruma.
References
Dineshbabu AP. 2011. Biology and
exploitation of crucifix crab
Charybdis feriatus (Linnaeus 1758)
(Brachyura:Portunidae) from
Karnataka coast, India. Indian Journal
of Fisheries 58(1): 25-29.
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and Natural Resources, Cebu City,
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(*,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Abalone Aquaculture for Stock Enhancement and Community Livelihood
Project in Northern Palawan, Philippines
Benjamin J. Gonzales
Department of Research Development and Extension, Western Philippines University, Palawan
bgonzales_crm@yahoo.com.ph
Abstract
One of the interventions to feed the poorest of the poor fisheries sector in the country is the
provision of livelihood in the form of mariculture of high value marine species. In the Philippines,
livelihood in rural areas is largely linked to resource depletion, hence it is wise not only to provide
livelihood to the community but also to encourage them to conserve and enhance the resources.
As part of the revised R&D program, the Western Philippines University partnered with NGO and
existing projects to embark on a community-based environment-concerned livelihood project,
using hatchery bred abalone, although top shell was also considered for stock enhancement. This
is in an on-going project thus, preliminary phases such as abalone production and cage-based
grow-out as well as subsequent project plans will be discussed. The objectives of this study were
to: (a) share the implementing experiences in this project, (b) identify success and failure drivers
of the project, (c) explain the conceptual framework for the MPA-based stock enhancement to be
used in this project, and (d) give recommendations to improve the implementation and ensure the
success of the project.
The following activities have thus far been conducted: (a) development of criteria for cage
micro-site selection; (b) writing of proposal and provision of financial assistance for hatchery
juvenile production through a partnership MOA; (c) presentation of site survey results to
beneficiaries and stake holders; (d) conduct of trainings on abalone grow –out culture to POs; (e)
development and improvement of training module; (f) signing of conservation agreement; (g)
giving of cage materials and juveniles to people’s organizations; (h) on site coaching; and (i) partial
monitoring. The next activities include improvement in juvenile production, conduct of researches
on abalone nutrition, and development of market and value chain flow analysis. The conceptual
framework for community-managed stock enhancement will follow that of the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources-ICRMP, of which the stock enhancement project is anchored
on the management of marine protected areas or MPAs.
The steps in all the activities were documented and while the project was in progress,
performance of the participants in training were measured, the training module was improved,
the training approaches were revised according to needs, and the growth and survival of juvenile
abalone were monitored. The problems identified were low production of juveniles, insufficient
food for grow-out, political squabbles, social preparation, and delay in implementation schedule.
Recommendations to improve or resolve the problems encountered were also presented in this
paper.
Keywords: abalone, community-managed stock enhancement, training
(*.
Contributed Papers
Introduction
It is common knowledge that fishermen
are the poorest in this country, followed by
farmers and children. Thus, aside from the
Western Philippines University’s (WPU)
academic concerns, the University’s R and D
plan (2014-2018), focuses on fishermen and
farmers of Palawan as primary beneficiaries.
One of the interventions to feed the
poorest of the poor among the coastal
fisheries sector in the country is to provide
them livelihood in the form of culture of
high value marine species. Success through
this mode is manifested in the fact that their
engagement in seaweed farming has given
them supplemental incomes. However,
shell fish culture can be more economically
viable and stable. Moreover, apart from
this being a promising mariculture product
for fisherfolk, such commodities are more
resilient to diseases and climate change.
The abalone Haliotis asinina called
locally as “sobra-sobra” or “kapinan” has
become a popular marine commodity both
to fishermen and marine product traders for
the past decades. This is primarily due to its
high market price and demand. It costs 350
pesos per kilogram in the local market of
Palawan, 400 pesos in the Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC)
and as high as 3,000 pesos per serving
at restaurants in Ongpin, Metro Manila.
Abalone meat is known as a delicacy served
in prestigious restaurants and hotels in
Asia. It has a soft delicious taste, while the
shell is used in many decorative items and
ornaments. The demand for this shell has
become so great that it was overextracted
from the wild, resulting to a situation
where the abalone’s natural process of
reproduction could not cope up with the
stock’s decline. Thus, breeding local abalone
(*/
is one of the strategies pursued to conserve
the species and/or population(s).
Abalone is number three in the priority
list of marine stock enhancement species
for the Philippines (Gonzales, 2005). In
Palawan, coral reefs have been devastated by
gleaners and shell collectors turning coral
reefs “upside down” in search for abalones.
The abalone population has remarkably
dropped, in a manner that fishermen have
been pressured not to do massive collections
since 2012. According to traders Palawan’s
production of wild abalone has drastically
decreased from 100 metric tons in 1997
to 2 metric tons in 2011 (Pagliawan, pers.
comm.), (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Production (tons) of wild abalone in
Palawan for 15 years (1997-2011).
The graph suggests that Palawan alone
can produce 100 tons of abalone a year,
while in 2008, only 200 mt was exported
from the country which was less than half
of the average annual production between
1900 and 2005 (Baobao and Roslinda,
2013). Hongkong was said to be the largest
buyer of abalone meat. The decrease in
production was attributed to over harvest
of the wild population of abalone and
destruction of their habitats.
Dwindling wild abalone populations
can be restored through stock enhancement.
The barangay-based stock enhancement
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
has been tested in Honda Bay (Gonzales et
al., 2006). In the Philippines, livelihood in
rural areas is sometimes linked to resource
depletion, it is wise not only to provide
livelihood to the community, but also to
encourage them to conserve and enhance
the resources. Stock enhancement is a
coastal and fisheries management tool to
increase and sustain the biomass of certain
population, especially in cases where the
population is depleted or over exploited.
Stock enhancement is also sometimes
referred to as restocking (Gonzales, 2005). It
is a recommendable follow through project
for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
Why Abalone?
Since abalone has high market demand
both locally and internationally, it has
become a potential source of livelihood for
fish farmers. In addition, the presence of an
abalone hatchery facility and the breeding
technology capability in WPU ensures the
continuous production of abalones. This
shall likewise make the propagation and
survival of the wild species amidst threats
from human activities.
Abalone reared in cages is a viable
livelihood for coastal fishers. The survival
and growth of abalone shells will not require
costly feeding by the farmers since it is fed
with algae from the wild, opening a window
for another source of income for the
fishermen, which is seaweed production.
of algae have greater chances of recovery
since new coral polyps could readily
attach and grow on clean surfaces of the
dead reefs. Additionally, abalone is a good
candidate for stock enhancement since it is
less mobile, and could readily be introduced
to the other island provinces of Region 4B
(MIMAROPA).
Abalone mariculture projects could
readily involve women as well as indigenous
peoples with great potential for project
partnerships with the private sector (Private
Public Partnership).
This paper presents the on-going
experiences in the implementation of the
community-managed abalone project. As
such, the objectives of this study are to:
1. identify problems encountered by the
project,
2. explain the conceptual framework for
the MPA-based stock enhancement,
and
3. give recommendations to improve the
implementation and success of the
project
Materials and Methods
Main Project Activities:
Fund sourcing - WPU entered into
a Memorandum of Agreement on the
implementation of the abalone project with
the Malampaya Foundation Incorporated
(MFI) that funded part of the production
Cage culture of abalones is essentially
expenses, training and grow-out of abalone.
producing organic abalones which could
WPU also partnered with the LGUs and
support the food security apart from the
prospects of presenting this as a delicacy for POs for their cage grow-out culture. Other
MOAs between POs, LGUs, and MFI
tourists.
were forged regarding environmental
Abalones graze on algae attached on the conservation, while pursuing livelihood
projects.
surface of dead corals. Dead corals devoid
(*0
Contributed Papers
Site selection – Since northern Palawan
is a heavily fished area, the situation affects
the income of fishermen, thus northern
Palawan coastal communities were given
priority by the project. The other criteria
for selection of project sites were the
suitability of the site for high abalone
survival, growth and dispersal apart
fromthe successful reproduction of abalone
in the area. Considering the priorities of
the partner agency (MFI) to serve the
communities along the Malampaya gas
project, sites selected were Coron, Culion,
Linapacan, El Nido, and Taytay.. Social
preparations of the beneficiaries were done
by NGOs and LGUs. Orientation of the
project was done during the site survey in
the area. The survey covered interviews
with fishermen/coastal dwellers regarding
species and locations for mariculture, stock
enhancement, and or marine protected
areas (MPAs). A combination of key
focal person and focus group discussion
interviews were conducted on site as the
situation permits.
Presentation of site survey results to
beneficiaries and stakeholders - Results of
the survey were presented in a forum in
Barangay sessions, PAMB, and municipal
SB sessions (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Survey team facilitating mapping and zoning of Brgy. Bulalacao MPA at
Bulalacao Barangay Hall.
Figure 3. Training on construction of floating cage for abalone culture conducted in
Linapacan, Palawan from September 16-21, 2013.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Training on cage construction and growout culture to communities (Figure. 3)
Two SEAFDEC lecturers in abalone
aquaculture were invited by WPU to
conduct enhancement training and
sharetechnologies on abalone cage
culture with WPU faculty members and
technicians from April 12 to13, 2013.
Subsequently, WPU trainors conducted a
series of training for community members
in selected project sites in 2013 (Figure 3).
Training sessions were conducted in three
mariculture sites, two in Taytay; and one in
Linapacan. Around 30 trainees were trained
per site. The main part of the training was
the construction of baskets/cage and a
demonstration on how-to grow the abalone
in cages, to marketable size. Participants
were also taught how to pack, transport, and
market their abalone products. In addition,
participants were trained to manage their
income from the project.
The selection of the trainees was based
on the following criteria:
1. must be an identified beneficiary of
the project,
2. must be a legitimate residence of
target municipality/barangay.
3. MFI coordinators in identified
municipalities,
4. Academic institution on-site (if
qualified)
Figure 4. MOA signing on environment conservation among LGUs, POs, and MFI.
(+(
Contributed Papers
The primary objective of the community
training was to provide the participants
basic knowledge on CRM and how to
carry-out abalone mariculture livelihood. At
the end of the course, the participants will
be able to:
1. describe the objectives, principles,
components, and dynamics of
CRM;
2. demonstrate the construction
operation and maintenance of a
floating cage, and
3. explain the grow-out system of the
abalone culture.
The Course had the following main
modules: Module I -Introduction to CRM;
Module II- Biology, ecology, and hatchery of
abalone; Module III-Grow-out of abalone;
Module IV-Floating cage construction,
Cage buoyancy, Sinker/anchorage; Module
V-Harvest, package, and transport of
products, and Module VI-Marketing and
book keeping.
Results and Discussion
Monitoring of abalone growth and survival
in cages
The monitoring of abalone growth
and survival for the project was erratic.
Some of the fishers were not able to
properly monitor the abalone in cages.
They depended on WPU and its project
staff during monitoring. Hence, although
abalones were raised in cages in August
2013 the first organized monitoring was
done in November 2013.
Breeders from the wild: As of 29
January 2014, a total of 40 breeders were
gathered from the wild. These were placed
in a floating cage in Canique, Taytay,
(+)
Palawan in August 2013. No mortality
among the shells was observed until
January 2014. Shell length ranged from 46
to 90 mm and the weight ranged from 10
to 149 grams. The average shell length of
the abalone was 73 mm, while the average
weight was 87.5 grams. No gonad was
observed in the abalones during the January
2014 sampling.
With their sizes which are over the ideal
spawning size of 50-60 mm shell length,
these individuals may not spawn anymore
or have poor spawning performance. It
is recommended that they be sold and
the proceeds used to buy younger adult
individuals with more spawning vigor.
Juveniles from WPU: The shell length
of juveniles sampled in August 2013
ranged from 18-28 mm. After five months
of rearing in cages, the length ranged from
33 to 46 mm (Figure 5). The average shell
length of WPU juvenile abalones increased
from 23.3 in August 2013 to 39.4 mm in
January 2014. The average shell length of
juveniles had an increment of 16.13 mm
within five months of culture, having a
growth rate of 3.25 mm per month. Among
15 individuals, one male (37.5 mm shell
length) and one female (37.0 mm shell
length) were with ripe gonads. The average
weight of the juveniles was 13.3 grams.
Juveniles in basket number 2 consisted
of 80 three-month old individuals with
shell lengths ranging from 10 to 21 mm.
with an average of 13.9 mm in shell length.
These abalones were deployed for grow-out
in Pamantolon on January 28, 2014.The
average weight of each shell was 1.25 grams.
SEAFDEC juveniles: The shell lengths
of juveniles deployed in November 2013
ranged from 8.5 to 18.5 mm, while after
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
while WPU has relatively more meat. This
may be because SEAFDEC abalones are
still in the process of adjusting with its
environment and food since they came from
Guimaras Island and ate different species of
algae. However, the genetic profile/ pool of
the respective abalone populations should
be investigated.
The next monitoring should be in
March 2014. Since the newly delivered
abalones are the smallest in size, size
grading should be done
Conceptual Framework for MPA-based
Stock Enhancement Initiative
Figure 5. WPU abalone, above and SEAFDEC
abalone, below; showing the original size (white
line) from deployment till January 2014. Note
the meat of abalones above and below.
two months of rearing in cage the length
ranged from 15.9 to 33.5 mm in January
2014. The average shell length of SEAFDEC
juvenile abalones increased from 14.5 mm
in November 2013 to 25.0 mm in January
2014. The average shell length of juveniles
has an increment of 10.54 mm within two
months of culture, having a growth rate of
5.27 mm per month. However, the average
weight of the juveniles was only 3.7 grams,
much lower than WPU abalones. Mortality
was 10 individuals.
General information: SEAFDEC
abalones have faster growth rate (5.27 mm/
month) than WPU abalones (3.25 mm/
month). However, the meat of juvenile
abalones from SEAFDEC was lean/slim
compared to WPU’s. SEAFDEC abalones
have less meat with relatively larger shell,
Stock enhancement is a coastal and
fisheries management tool to increase and
sustain the biomass of certain populations,
especially in cases where the population
is depleted or over exploited. Stock
enhancement is also sometimes referred
to as restocking (Gonzales, 2005). It is a
recommendable follow through project for
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). It answers
the question on what happens after the
establishment of MPA and MPA network.
Most of the coastal management projects
usually conclude with the enforcement of
MPAs and network laws.
Stock enhancement focuses on the
restoration of species and resources in
primary coastal habitats like mangrove
swamps, seagrass beds, coral reef, etc.,
which were overexploited. It is a proactive
conservation effort wherein while waiting
for the spillover effect of MPA core zone,
community members may be given specific
areas for stock enhancement/livelihood
(Figure 6), which they can manage, harvest,
and derive income from. This way, while
protecting and enhancing biodiversity, POs
can have a quicker benefit from MPA.
(+*
Contributed Papers
Figure 6. MPA with zoning, showing potential areas for community
livelihood/stock enhancement (SA) in the multi-use zone.
After MPAs were established and zoned,
the time lag between the establishment
and the spill-over effect of protection
becomes a challenge to MPA managers and
community implementers, particularly in
enforcing MPA rules and regulations. This
concept aims at hastening the enhancement
and restoration of depleted resources in
primary coastal habitats. It is a proactive
conservation effort that keeps MPA
implementers and supporters actively and
continuously involved while waiting for the
spillover effect from the MPA core zone.
Since MPA-based stock enhancement
will restore marine resources faster, it is
more attractive to community members
because they expect it to bring quicker
and more direct benefits to them. This
intervention is relatively unique to ICM
in the sense that it is seldom applied as an
integral part of MPA management.
Considering the importance of
resource conservation project/livelihood
to MPAs, a guide was developed on how
to plan, implement, and manage resource
conservation/stock enhancement/
livelihood projects in MPAs. The document
brings directions on how to proceed
(++
with MPA – based resource conservation
projects/stock enhancement, including
criteria for project proposal evaluation in
selecting and screening proposals from
communities.
Summary of benefits from the MPAbased stock enhancement approach
1. It can be a follow through project for
MPAs and its network;
2. It aims to restore depleted population
of target species in identified coastal
habitat (e.g., coral, reef, seagrass
beds, mangrove swamps), and at
the same time extend livelihood to
communities;
3. It helps in promoting greater impact
to the communities by having
their own area of restocking, while
waiting for the MPA spill-over
effect. Restocking will be done
inside and outside MPAs, as well
as identified areas for restocking to
be managed and owned by POs or
Family Groups.
4. It can respond to issues and problems
indicated in the ICM or MPA plans.
(less income, open access, capability
building, etc.)
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
5. It provides a potential solution to
low income, poaching, open access,
limited management, and technical
capability, identified in many ICM
and MPA initiatives, and
6. It protects the habitat while enhancing
the stock and generate income.
Problems Encountered
1. Limited production of juvenile
abalone;
2. Inconsistent food supply for cage
grow-out;
3. No IEC materials;
4. Weak marketing strategy; and
5. Weak monitoring
Conclusion
Although equipped with hatchery,
technology, manpower, there were
outstanding technological problems
particularly in juvenile production and food
consistency in the grow-out. There were
unexpected problems that have emerged
in the process. With the above concerns,
the project is still hopeful to continue,
by attempting to provide solutions to the
identified problems.
Recommendations to Problems
Encountered
e. Expand and improve the facilities
and human resources.
2. Inconsistent food supply for cage
grow-out
a. Conduct experiments/ studies on
Gracilaria culture;
b. Resource mapping of brood stock
and algal food from the wild;
c. Conduct characterization of host
habitat to potential algal food for
juvenile shells; and
d. Investigate the discrepancies
in growth rate of SEAFDEC
and WPU juveniles. Consult
SEAFDEC.
3. No IEC materials
a. Produce/print IEC materials
(Training Manual and
Livelihood brochure); and
b. Compendium of potential wild
algal food for abalone grow-out
system.
4. Weak packaging/processing
technology identified
a. Identify potential packaging/
processing for the product.
5. Weak marketing strategy
a. Develop value chain analysis for
abalone from Palawan.
6. Weak monitoring
a. Continued skill development to
fish farmers.
References
1. Limited production of juvenile
abalone
a. Improve spawning performance
of abalone breeders;
b. Explore/study spawners from
other areas, especially from
Taytay Bay and Liminangcong;
c. Seek assistance from SEAFDEC;
d. Build capability of technicians.
Training in SEAFDEC (include
on-site trainings); and
Baobao J and Roslinda. 2013. Assessment
of the Philippine Abalone Aquaculture
Industry. Philippine Fisheries
Instituition Network (PhilFIN) Fisheries
Research Forum. 29-30 October 2013,
Sarabia Manor Hotel, Iloilo City.
Gonzales BJ. 2005. A guide to species
selection and principles of stock
enhancement in the Philippines
(+,
Contributed Papers
(Roldan R, Ablaza EC and Muñoz JC
eds.). Fisheries Resource Management
Project, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources. Department of Agriculture,
Quezon City, Philippines. 27 p.
Gonzales BJ, Galon WM and Becira
JG. 2006. Community-based stock
enhancement of topshell in Honda
Bay, Palawan, Philippines. p 49-59. In
Proceedings of the regional Technical
Consultation on Stock Enhancement
for Threatened Species of International
Concern. Aquaculture Department,
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development
Center (SEAFDEC), Tigbauan 5021,
Iloilo, Philippines. 150 pp.
Suggested Readings
Gonzales BJ, Lazola N, Manzares B, and
Maningas R. 2012. Guidelines to MPAbased resource conservation project:
Project appraisal, implementation, and
management. PAWB-CMMO, ICRMPDENR, April 2012. 18 p.
IFAD. 2013. Detailed design report.
Fisheries and Coastal Resource and
Livelihood Project. Main Report. 148 p.
WPU. 2014. Research and Development
Plan (2014-2018). Western Philippines
University, January 2014.33 p.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Social Preparations Towards Community-based Approach to Stock
Enhancement in Sagay Marine Reserve, Philippines
Nerissa D. Salayoa*, Raisa Joy G. Castela, Dianne Hope M. Tormona, Rafael T. Barridoa,
Marie Frances J. Nievalesb and Teruo Azumac
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan,
Iloilo, Philippines
b
University of the Philippines in the Visayas, Iloilo, Philippines
c
National Research Institute of Fisheries Engineering, Fisheries Research Agency, Ibaraki, Japan
* ndsalayo@seafdec.org.ph
a
Abstract
Stock enhancement involves a set of management approaches which include the release
of hatchery-produced aquatic organisms to enhance or restore fisheries. Stock enhancement
of various species has a long history in developed countries and it showed that releases have
the potential to yield substantial benefits for various fishery stakeholders. While the biological
objectives of stock enhancement were often successfully achieved in most of these enhancement
initiatives, some results showed that actual social gains in terms of yields, distribution of benefits
and institutional sustainability are often inconclusive. The high cost of stocking accrues to the
government which means these are supported by public funds. Meanwhile, benefits are dissipated
across various stakeholders, some of them did not at all contribute and participate in the stocking
program. In such government-initiated and publicly-funded stock enhancement programs, the
lack of sense of stewardship among direct fishery stakeholders was observed to have contributed
to a vicious cycle of excessive extraction of fishery resources for individual economic benefits.
Developing countries such as the Philippines would be confronted by budgetary limitations
if it has to adopt the stocking strategies applied in developed countries. Thus, with reference to
the success of co-management approaches for managing fishery resources in the Philippines, a
community-based strategy for enhancement of fishery stocks was explored. SEAFDEC/AQD,
with support from the Government of Japan Trust Fund, initiated a community-based approach
to stock enhancement in Molocaboc, an island barangay or village within the Sagay Marine
Reserve (SMR). The initiative aims to ensure that its goals and strategies are within the social
milieu of local stakeholders, i.e. fisherfolks are without financial assets to contribute or pay for the
enhancement of the fishery and stock enhancement is often not a priority approach to address
fishery resource depletion for most local governments. However, the social assets of fishing
communities could be explored to implement stock enhancement. This paper describes the social
preparation executed from 2007 to 2011 in order to orient a fishing community such as Molocaboc
towards a successful enhancement of overfished species. Initially, the project focused on donkey’s
ear abalone Haliotis asinina to provide an example for other species. Abalone or ‘kapinan’ in the
vernacular is one of the over-extracted fishery resources in Sagay City. It is one of the high-priced
catch among fishers in coastal communities in the Philippines. High buying prices compared with
other fish catch motivated small-scale fishers to target abalones and caused its overfishing.
Keywords: co-management approaches, fishery resources, Philippines, social preparation
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Contributed Papers
Introduction
Stock enhancement and restocking
are potential measures that could either
reduce the time needed to rebuild certain
capture fisheries to a more productive
level, or increase the productivity of
some ‘healthy’ fisheries (Bell et al., 2006).
Stock enhancement primarily involves
the release of cultured juveniles into wild
population to augment the natural supply
of juveniles from wild spawners as well
as mature stocks derived from releases of
hatchery-reared juveniles and optimize
harvests by overcoming recruitment
limitation (Bell et al., 2008). Restocking,
on one hand, is the process of restoring
the spawning biomass of severely depleted
populations of fish and shellfish to a level
where they can once again provide regular,
substantial yields (Bell et al., 2005). Purcell
(2004 as cited by Bell et al., 2006) noted
that restocking could also be achieved
by aggregating and relocating adults of
some species. Sea ranching is also an
alternative way to increase productivity
from fisheries habitats, wherein, animals
are released for harvest at a larger size.
Both stock enhancement and restocking
are likely to be effective for some coastal
invertebrate fisheries because the shallow
inshore distribution and sedentary behavior
of the species involved can create selfreplenishing populations on a relatively
small spatial scale (Bell et al., 2005).
Stock enhancement programs were
initiated as a fisheries management option
in developed countries where governments
prioritize and allocated funds for research
and its actual implementation. The smallscale enhancement trials being done in
the Philippines cannot compare with the
magnitude of the releases in developed
countries. These enhancement initiatives
(+/
in developed countries could provide
fundamental principles, lessons and
motivations for adopting a fishery resource
enhancement strategy for a developing
country like the Philippines. For example,
Japan stocked scallops Patinopecten
yessoensis (Uki, 2006) and flounder
Paralichthys olivaceus (Kitada and Kishino,
2006; Tomiyama et al., 2008); China on
shrimp Penaeus chinensis (Wang et al.,
2006); United States on red drum Sciaenops
ocellatus (Leber, 2004); Australia on
barramundi Lates calcarifer (Loneragan et
al., 2013) and Norway on lobster Homarus
gammarus (Tveite and Grimsen, 1995 cited
in Bell et al., 2005).
Community-based strategies were
applied in some of the abovementioned
large-scale stock enhancement programs. In
the stocking of one million hatchery-reared
Japanese flounder juveniles annually since
1996 in Fukushima Prefecture in Japan
(Tomiyama et al., 2008), fishers pay 5%
of their landings to fund the communitybased enhancement program. Fishers also
consented not to catch flounders <30 cm
total length to sustain the economic gains
from investments in stock enhancement.
However, the economic benefits from
the program declined due to reduced
recapture rates and lower market prices
of fish. In spite of negative net economic
benefits, the stock enhancement program
cannot be easily terminated because it has
effectively demonstrated the importance
of fishery management to fishers. Thus,
it is a concern on how fishery stocking
programs can be made flexible and effective
in order to optimize either economic or
social benefits. More recently, the approach
to marine stock enhancement further
emphasized the need for an integrated
view of the role of enhancement within
fisheries management systems, noting the
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
stakeholder participatory and scientific
approach (Lorenzen et al., 2010).
In the stocking of scallops in Hokkaido,
Japan, the success of stocking was attributed
to the presence of cooperatives tasked to
plan and implement effective use of fishery
resources, aside from the fulfillment of
biophysical factors such as ideal habitat,
effective methods and sedentary attribute
of scallops. Some of the activities developed
by the fisheries cooperatives are: a) fixed
levy-rate on the value of scallops harvested
by each fisherman to generate funds to
support future fishery management efforts;
b) monitoring the attributes of the scallop
population (e.g. density and survival of
juveniles, and growth-rate of sub-adults in
the rotational fishing area); c) production of
a specified number of juveniles for release
by the members of the cooperative; and d)
training courses for new members on the
production and harvesting of scallops must
be completed before new members start
fishing (Masuda and Tsukamoto et al., 1998;
Drummond, 2004, as cited by Bell et al.,
2006).
The stocking of shrimp Penaeus
chinensis in China in 1991 yielded costbenefit ratios up to 1:9 (Wang et al., 2006).
These economic benefits were largely due
to substantial support from the central
government and facilitated by an easy access
to the existing aquaculture infrastructure.
Relevant local governments also required
the beneficiaries of release programs
to contribute to the costs of releasing
hatchery-reared juveniles. However, the
implementation of the user-pay systems
have been difficult in some regions such
as in Bohai Sea because of the large area
covered and the complexity of multiprovincial and multi-level administrations.
In other smaller regions such as in
Haiyangdao and Qinghai, the identification
of the beneficiaries and the collection of
appropriate fees to cover the cost of stock
enhancement were easier. Hence, the study
concluded that rebuilding the wild shrimp
fishery by implementing conventional
management measures supplemented by
stock enhancement may present a more
cost-effective approach to increasing prawn
production than aquaculture because the
yield from farming of shrimp is achieved
with a huge consumption of resources and
at a great cost.
In the Philippines, there were initial
efforts in 1996 to 2001 to re-establish
the spawning populations of sea urchins
in Bolinao in Pangasinan by exploring
complimentary outcomes of private
investments in the grow-out culture of sea
urchins Tripneustes gratilla in sea cages and
restocking of hatchery-produced juveniles
in unprotected seagrass areas (Juinio-Meñez
et al., 2008). As a follow-up activity in 2004
to 2006, higher population densities, higher
incidence of recruits and steady increase in
the catch per unit effort of gatherers showed
that the grow-out culture in cages combined
with sustained efforts of the fishing
community to protect and implement
harvest regulation to ensure steady recovery
of the wild population proved to be a costeffective strategy for re-establishing effective
spawning populations. The cage culture
operators obtained income from sale of
harvested sea urchins, while those without
cages benefitted from gleaning sea urchins
from spill-overs.
In early 2000, stock enhancement of
mollusks was identified to be one of the
priority research areas at SEAFDEC/AQD
to complement emerging coastal resources
management initiatives that will secure food
and livelihoods in fishing communities. In
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Contributed Papers
2005, SEAFDEC/AQD, with funds from
the Government of Japan-Trust Fund
(GOJ-TF), started to collaborate with
the Protected Area Management BoardSagay Marine Reserve (PAMB-SMR) of
the City of Sagay in Negros Occidental to
implement a research program on Resource
enhancement of internationally threatened
and over-exploited species in Southeast Asia
through stock release. These species include
giant clam Tridacna gigas, abalone Haliotis
asinina, sandfish Holuthuria scabra, and
sea horse Hippocampus spp. The program
included a study on the socioeconomic
analysis of stock enhancement of threatened
marine species in SMR, initially with a focus
on abalone because seed production and
nursery techniques are already developed
at SEAFDEC/AQD (Capinpin et al.,
1999), studies on release strategies have
commenced in SMR (Gallardo et al., 2003;
Lebata-Ramos et al., 2013), and economic
benefits for fisherfolks can be attained from
trade of these species.
This paper describes the social
preparations executed from 2007 to 2011 in
order to orient a fishing community such as
the remote island barangay of Molocaboc
towards a successful stock enhancement
of abalones in areas within the SMR. A
community-based approach to stock
enhancement is proposed to be executed
and tested in this project considering the
social milieu of the stakeholders in the stock
enhancement of abalone, i.e. stakeholders
have limited financial resources to
contribute to funds for seed release
programs, reluctance of local governments
to prioritize and allocated public funds
for stock enhancement, and the need to
improve income and access to food among
fisherfolk faced with depleted resources.
(,'
Methods
The Sagay Marine Reserve was selected
to host the study on stock enhancement
of threatened and over-exploited species
since there is abalone fishery in the area,
its catch is dwindling, and the recovery of
enhanced stocks would benefit from and
perform better in protected environment
(Maliao et al., 2004). The key activities
under this study are: 1) reconnaissance and
baseline socioeconomic survey of the SMR
and its fishing communities in cooperation
with the SMR staff; 2) capacity-building
for fisherfolk-stakeholders through
information, education and communication
(IEC); 3) strengthening of fisherfolk
organization through formation of
Barangay Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Management Council (BFARMC); and 4)
establishment of a community-based stock
enhancement demonstration site.
To provide basis for detailed project
planning, the baseline survey of 60 fishers
was implemented in selected six (6) coastal
barangays and two (2) island barangays
in February 2007. The respondents were
chosen through stratified proportionate
random sampling based on number
and distribution of fishers in coastal
barangays in Sagay City. The outcomes
of the survey led to the selection of and
focus on Barangay Molocaboc for the
implementation of subsequent actionoriented activities intended to identify
strategies for managing released stocks. The
IEC activities were conducted in Barangay
Molocaboc and in other relevant areas in
Sagay City mostly in 2008. Networking
with and identifying the roles of various
stakeholders in stock enhancement
such as fishers, traders, LGU officers at
barangay and city levels, local academe
and other relevant people’s organization
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
were consensually determined through a
series of meetings in 2009. Fisherfolks were
organized into BFARMC in November
2010. Capacity building relevant to stock
enhancement were implemented by
training ten (10) fishermen-members of
the BFARMC on abalone and sandfish
seed production and nursery techniques
at SEAFDEC/AQD in Tigbauan, Iloilo
in 2011. Finally, the community-based
stock enhancement demonstration site for
abalone and sandfish was established in the
intertidal flats of Molocaboc Dacu upon
consensus among fisherfolks represented
by BFARMC, Barangay Molocaboc LGU,
PAMB-SMR and SEAFDEC/AQD.
Results and Discussions
Social preparations to introduce,
inform and condition stakeholders towards
active participation in community-based
stock enhancement of abalone and sandfish
as a fishery resource management strategy
were conducted in Barangay Molocaboc
from 2007 to 2011. The social preparation
activities conducted in the study site
are categorized as: 1) reconnaissance
and baseline socioeconomic survey of
fisherfolks; 2) conduct of information,
education and communication activities; 3)
formation and strengthening of fisherfolk
organization; and 4) establishment of the
community-based stock enhancement
demonstration site.
1. Reconnaissance and baseline
socioeconomics survey
The Sagay Marine Reserve 10.90°N,
123.42°E covers 32,000ha of coastal
waters north of Sagay City mainland. It
encompasses protected reef areas not
habited by human population, namely;
Carbin, Panal and Maca Reef. It also
includes the island Barangay of Molocaboc
with a population of 4,189 residing in three
component islands called Molocaboc Dacu,
Diut and Matabas (Figure 1). Of the 25
barangays of Sagay City, a baseline survey
of 80 fishers was conducted in February
2007 in selected coastal barangays, namely
Bulanon, Himoga-an Baybay, Old Sagay,
Taba-ao, Vito and Poblacion; and in the
island barangay of Molocaboc. The survey
respondents reported about the declining
catch of all species, i.e. 1 to 20kg in 1995,
to the present catch at less than 5kg per
1 to 6-hour fishing trip. More so, there
is increasing fishing pressure due to the
worsening economic situation among the
growing number of population in fishing
communities within the SMR.
The survey respondents noted that
fishery resources used to be abundant and
that most fishers noted to have been part
of the irresponsible exploitation of these
resources. They recalled the declaration
of the SMR in 1995 which have changed
their fishing activities and areas because
of the imposition of rules and regulations
to protect the vast area of Sagay’s coastal
waters. There have been changes in target
fishing grounds reported by fishers during
the survey and prior to the declaration of
the SMR. In spite of the protection, fishers
reported continuing decline in catch due
to a combination of fishing pressure. Only
17% of the survey respondents in 2007
were aware of stock enhancement as a
fisheries management option. The fishers
welcomed the concept when explained
during the survey but were oblivious
of the mechanisms on how and who
will implement stock enhancement in
Molocaboc. The survey showed the need to
inform the stakeholders on the principles,
importance, stocking strategies, present
trade-offs and future benefits from stock
(,(
Contributed Papers
Figure 1a. Map of the Philippines showing the location of Negros Occidental province (marked yellow)
in central Philippines; 1b. Aerial view of Sagay Marine Reserve demarcated by blue line in northern part
of Sagay City in Negros Occidental; and 1c. Aerial view of Barangay Molocaboc showing the area of the
community-based stock enhancement demo-site on the coral patch on left side at end of the 2-km footwalk.
enhancement in order to obtain the cooperation and participation of fishers and other
stakeholders towards a successful stock
enhancement initiative.
A multi-stakeholder consultation
activity called Participatory Action Plan
Development (PAPD) was conducted on
(,)
13 May 2008 to complement the baseline
survey in February 2007. The PAPD
enabled 41 stakeholder-participants
categorized as fishers, local government
or barangay officers, women gleaners,
stockers/traders, and fishers to come-up
with a community resource map, priority
list of problems and corresponding
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
solutions relevant to Sagay fisheries and
the proposed collaboration on communitybased stock enhancement. The PAPD
outcomes enabled stakeholders to analyze
their problems that potentially relate to
stock enhancement initiatives in SMR.
The PAPD process identified problems
that were categorized as environmental,
economic and socio-political. The most
recognized environmental problems are:
1) flood and rising sea level experienced
by the island dwellers during calamities,
and 2) destruction and declining catch
in intertidal flats due to mining of shells
for handicrafts. Economic problems
are: 1) low income from fishing due to
declining catch, and 2) lack of market outlet
and capital among handicraft makers.
Meanwhile, the socio-political problems
are about the limitations associated poor
implementation of existing fishing rules
and regulations that prohibit the use of
illegal fishing gears such as compressor,
fine mesh nets, triple nets and cyanide
fishing. The PAPD results showed the
fisherfolks in Molocaboc as confronted by
declining catch and deteriorating economic
incentives for fishing. However, fishers
lack skills and opportunities to shift jobs
away from fishing; and stock enhancement
was perceived to offer solutions to their
problems. Moreover, the local sociopolitical support to implement stock
enhancement is limited and benefits are
often attained after substantial periodic
lags. Therefore, fisherfolks requested
for other livelihoods to be developed to
generate income for fishers affected by
regulations to support stock enhancement.
In view of the potential of ecotourism
as source of alternative livelihood in
fishing communities, the fisherfolks were
introduced to a seminar on ecotourism
initiatives and opportunities in Sagay on
13 May 2008 in coordination with the
Sagay City Tourism Desk. The seminar
introduced ecotourism concepts and
presented the Sagay City webpage to create
awareness among 47 fisherfolk-stakeholders
on non-resource extractive service-oriented
livelihood options that may benefit local
fishers. A tourist survey was also conducted
in 2007 to understand the profile of visitors
that will provide basis for designing and
promoting ecotourism programs involving
fishers. The survey showed that the top
sites to visit are Cabin Reef and local
resorts with preferred recreation activities
such as swimming (27% of respondents),
strolling in the beach (26%) and eating
seafood (15%). The awareness levels of
the tourist-respondents on abalone (13%)
and giant clam (42%) are, however, low
in comparison with corals (91%), star fish
(73%), sea horse (61%) and sea cucumber
(36%). The presence of these species in
the waters of Sagay elicited interest among
tourist, either as species to see in diving
or snorkeling sites or as food in local
restaurants for non-prohibited marketable
species.
2. Information, education and communication (IEC)
In response to the outcomes of
the baseline survey which showed low
levels of awareness and understanding
of stock enhancement of abalone
among stakeholders, IEC activities were
continuously conducted in Barangay
Molocaboc and other relevant areas in
Sagay City. Information seminars with
resource persons from SEAFDEC/AQD
were held in March 2008 on the biology
of abalone and giant clams, which were
prioritized for stock enhancement. The
seminar informed the fisherfolks and SMR
personnel on abalone seed production and
(,*
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grow-out technology, and on the progress
and significance of the giant clam stock
enhancement experiments of SEAFDEC/
AQD. In particular, the seminar informed
the fishers on the life cycle and growth
stages of these species with emphasis on
the various implications of some fishing
practices on recruitment and growth of
fish stocks. The fishers were made aware
of the spawning and larval development of
donkey’s ear abalone based on SEAFDEC/
AQD research results (Capinpin et al.,
1998). Following several stakeholder
consultations, an ordinance that regulates
the harvesting, consumption and trade of
abalones was proposed and promulgated
on June 2010 by the Barangay Council
of Molocaboc. The project stakeholders
adhere that the ordinances, in particular
the abalone catch size regulated to be >6cm
shell length, will allow replenishment and
promote sustainable fisheries. It is also
expected to compliment the forthcoming
project on abalone stock release. IEC
activities also included the preparation of
posters about coastal fisheries management,
compliance to fishing regulations and the
importance on stock enhancement in SMR.
These posters were displayed and explained
in local fairs and exhibits such as the
Sinigayan Festival every March.
3. Strengthening of Fisherfolk Organization
The seminar on the biology of sea
cucumbers and the potential of sandfish and
sea horse for stock enhancement in SMR
was conducted on 25 November 2010. To
develop understanding and skills for stock
enhancement and prepare them for the
community-based demo-site, ten fisherfolks
were sent to SEAFDEC/AQD in Tigbauan,
Iloilo for an introductory hands-on training
in hatchery and nursery techniques. Five
fisherfolks were trained on abalone and
another five on sandfish for five (5) days for
each species.
This stock enhancement project
has been instrumental in forming the
Molocaboc BFARMC on 24 November
2010. The organizational structure and
relationships between BFARMC and other
entities, including SEAFDEC/AQD and this
project have been discussed with the fishers
and other stakeholders. Thus, six groups
of stakeholders agreed to collaborate
to establish, maintain and sustain the
semilyahan (Table 1).
(,+
The role of fishermen’s organization
is critical in community-based stock
enhancement projects. However, at the
start of the project, there is no active
fishermen’s organization in Molocaboc. The
organization of the Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources Management Council (FARMC)
at various levels from the barangay,
municipality or city, provincial and national
levels is promulgated through Fisheries
Administrative Order (FAO) 196 - Series of
2000 of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources (BFAR). This Order promulgates
the rules and regulations for the fisherfolk
empowerment program of the government
and to achieve sustainable development of
fisheries and aquatic resources, attain food
security and eradicate poverty among the
coastal and inland fishing communities.
The provisions of Section 68-79 and
other related provisions of Republic Act
8550 otherwise known as the Philippine
Fisheries Code of 1998 provided the basis
for the formation and functioning of the
Barangay Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Management Council of Barangay
Molocaboc (Molocaboc BFARMC) which
constitute the association of fisherfolks and
similarly interested parties in the locality.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 1. Roles and responsibilities agreed by stakeholders to maintain and secure the stock enhancement
demonstration site in Barangay Molocaboc, Sagay Marine Reserve, 2010.
SMR/ Municipal
LGU
Assist partners:
SEAFDEC,
community,
barangay LGU
Community
organizing
Law enforcement
(security of demo
farms)
Resources
management
planning
Project monitoring
Conduct/ support
IEC
Benchmarking of
resources (abalone
and sea cucumber
population, natural
food, predators) in
demo site
Barangay Molocaboc
LGU/BFARMC/ Youth
Organization
SEAFDEC/AQD
Research,
Assure & provide
manpower to secure demo technical
assistance &
site
training in
Enforcement of barangay biophysical &
socioeconomics
ordinance
aspects of
fisheries resource
Follow-up
enhancement
implementation of IEC
activities
Initial supply of
Assist in monitoring
seeds in demo
site
Coordinate with
municipal LGU, SMR,
Provide scientific
BFARMC
information in
drafting fishery
Enjoin participation of
ordinances,
youth and “purok” leaders resource
management
Provide logistics when
and aquaculture
needed (e.g. food for
livelihood
manpower securing
demo-site)
Academe/
Schools (e.g.
NONESCOST)
Assist in data
gathering
Assist and
complement in
IEC activities
Community
(preferably
through
peoples’
organization)
Traders,
stockers
Revitalize POsMAMFA with
assistance from
LGU/SMR
Support and
encourage
compliance
to ordinance
on catch size
regulation
Actively
cooperate in
community
projects
Practice fair
pricing
Disseminate and Provide market
comply with
information
to SMR and
ordinance
SEAFDEC
as requested
Provide labor
(bayanihan
(price, volume,
quality, etc.)
style)
Contribute in
purchase or
acquisition
of materials
for pen
construction
Provide permit to
SEAFDEC to collect
broodstocks
4. Establishment of Community-based Stock
Enhancement Demonstration Site
In response to the outcomes of the
socioeconomic baseline assessment survey
in February 2007 and a follow-up survey
in 2009 which showed the need to improve
awareness about stock enhancement as
a fisheries management option among
fisherfolks, the community-based
abalone and sandfish stock enhancement
demonstration site was established in
January 2011 in the coralline intertidal
flats, approximately 4,000sq m and located
less than two (2) km from the shoreline of
Molocaboc Dacu (Figure 2). The location
of the demo-site, locally called by fishers
as semilyahan or spawning area, was
nominated and finally selected by the local
fisherfolk members of the BFARMC on the
basis of the following criteria defined by
the stakeholders: 1) biophysical suitability
for stock enhancement of abalone (i.e.
presence of at least few wild abalone and
sufficient branching corals with encrusting
algae as described in Lebata-Ramos et al.,
2013); 2) visibility and accessibility to serve
its purpose as stock enhancement demosite; 3) safety for BFARMC members who
volunteered to be on overnight duty to
guard the demo-site against poachers; and
4) compliant to the multiple use zoning
policy of the PAMB-SMR and Barangay
Molocaboc (i.e. located in prescribed
mariculture area not in navigational area).
(,,
Contributed Papers
An assessment of the nominated
site started in February 2011 by visual
inspection of the corals and search for
wild abalone samples every month from
February to June 2011 during neap
tide. Abalone catch ranged from 0 to 2
individuals per month with fishing effort
comprised of 3 divers simultaneously
searching the nominated demo-site for one
hour. The stakeholders therefore decided
to proceed with the establishment of the
demo-site. Basic preparations include the
installation of floating signage marked with
“Semilyahan, Bawal Manginhas”, meaning
“spawning area, gleaning is prohibited” to
inform about the purpose of the demosite. The demo-site was also demarcated by
buoys and ropes installed by BFARMC.
On June 2011, the first trial release of
514 pieces of tagged hatchery-bred abalone
juveniles in the community-based stock
enhancement demo-site was participated
by stakeholders such as the BFARMC, local
government officials, SMR staff and some
interested men and women residents in
Barangay Molocaboc. The local stakeholders
proposed and agreed to secure the demosite from poachers. Every month or
two weeks depending on the number of
volunteers, BFARMC members sign-in in
pairs to be on overnight duty from 6pm
to 6am. The volunteers established their
guarding protocol which include signing of
guarding log-book, bringing of flashlight,
whistle and food provisions and logging of
incident report in record book kept by the
President of the BFARMC. The volunteers
were informed that they have no police
power, hence, poaching incidents should
only be deterred and reported to authorities
such as the local government official of
Barangay Molocaboc who will in turn
process the incident as appropriate.
(,-
Conclusions and Recommendations
Stock enhancement programs are often
constrained by prohibitive implementation
cost and reluctance of local governments to
prioritize and allocate public funds for such
purposes. This study demonstrated that
small-scale enhancements can be initiated
through community-based strategies. A
network of strategically contiguous small
community-based stock enhancement sites
which can be afforded in the Philippine
setting, may therefore serve some
purposes similar to well-funded large-scale
enhancements in developed countries.
These release sites, called as semilyahan by
fisherfolks in Barangay Molocaboc in Sagay
Marine Reserve in Negros Occidental are
designed to generate spill-overs that will
provide future benefits in terms of “catchfor-subsistence” for many marginalized
gleaners and fishers in small fishing
communities.
The study showed that the decision
and implementation of stock enhancement
and the definition of its objectives and
relevance involves the strong engagement
with stakeholders. The determination
of social preparation activities requires
and involves continuous consultation
with stakeholders through a variety of
methods such as survey interviews, IECs,
formation and strengthening of fisherfolk
organization, and the actual establishment
of stock enhancement demo-site accessible
to the public. The activities tested in
this study showed that the formulation
of social preparation activities for stock
enhancement should be founded on the
following principles: 1) community-specific
strategies, 2) responsive to local social
settings and needs, and 3) consultative and
participatory across various stakeholders.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
References
Bell JD, Bartley DM, Lorenzen K and
Loneragan NR. 2006. Restocking and
stock enhancement of coastal fisheries:
Potential, problems and progress.
Fisheries Research 80: 1-8.
Bell JD, Leber KM, Blankenship HL,
Loneragan NR, Masuda R and Vander
Haegen G (eds.). 2008. A New Era
for Restocking, Stock Enhancement
and Sea Ranching of Coastal Fisheries
Resources. Reviews in Fisheries Science
16(1-3): 402 pp.
Bell JD, Rothlisberg PC, Munro JL,
Loneragan NR, Nash WJ, Ward RD and
Andrew NL (eds.). 2005. Restocking
and Stock Enhancement of Marine
Invertebrate Fisheries. Advances in
Marine Biology, Vol. 49. Elsevier:
Amsterdam, 374 pp.
Capinpin Jr. EC, Encena II VC and Bayona
NC. 1998. Studies of the reproductive
biology of the Donkey’s ear abalone,
Haliotis asinina Linne. Aquaculture
166(1-2): 141-150.
Capinpin Jr. EC, Toledo JD, Encena II VC
and Doi M. 1999. Density-dependent
growth of the tropical abalone Haliotis
asinina in cage culture. Aquaculture
171(3-4): 227-235.
Gallardo WG, Bautista-Teruel MN,
Fermin AC and Marte CL. 2003. Shell
marking by artificial feeding of the
tropical abalone Haliotis asinina for
sea ranching and stock enhancement.
Aquaculture Research 34: 839-842.
Juinio-Meñez MA, Bangi HG, Malay MC
and Pastor D. 2008. Enhancing the
recovery of depleted Tripneustes gratila
stocks through grow-out culture and
restocking. Reviews in Fisheries Science
16(1-3): 35-43(9).
Kitada S and Kishino H. 2006. Lessons
learned from Japanese marine finfish
stock enhancement programs. Fisheries
Research 80(1): 101:112.
Lebata-Ramos MJH, Doyola-Solis MC,
Abrogueña JBR, Ogata H, Sumbing JG
and Sibonga RC. 2013. Evaluation of
post-release behavior, recapture, and
growth rates of hatchery-reared abalone
Haliotis asinina released in Sagay
Marine Reserve, Philippines. Reviews in
Fisheries Science 21(3-4): 433-440.
Leber KM. 2004. Marine stock
enhancement in the USA: Status,
trends and needs. In Leber, KM, Kitada
S, Blankenship HL and Svåsand T.
(eds.). Stock Enhancement and Sea
Ranching: Developments, Pitfalls and
Opportunities. 2nd edition. Blackwell
Publishing, Oxford, 562 pp.
Loneragan NR, Jenkins GI and Taylor
MD. 2013. Marine stock enhancement,
restocking, and sea ranching in
Australia: Future directions and a
synthesis of two decades of research
and development. Reviews in Fisheries
Science 21(3-4): 222-236.
Lorenzen, K, Leber KM and Blankenship
MC. 2010. Responsible approach to
marine stock enhancement: An update.
Reviews in Fisheries Science 18(2): 189210.
(,.
Contributed Papers
Maliao RJ, Webb EL and Jensen KR. 2004.
A survey of the donkey’s ear abalone,
Haliotis asinina L. in the Sagay Marine
Reserve, Philippines: Evaluating the
effectiveness of marine protected area
enforcement. Fisheries Research 66(23): 343-353.
Masuda R and Tsukamoto K. 1998. Stock
enhancement in Japan: Review and
perspective. Bulletin of Marine Science
62(2): 337-358.
Tomiyama T, Watanabe M and Fujita
T. 2008. Community-based stock
enhancement and fisheries management
of the Japanese flounder in Fukushima,
Japan. Reviews in Fisheries Science
16(1-3): 146-153.
Uki N. 2006. Stock Enhancement of the
Japanese Scallop Patinopecten yesseonsis
in Hokkaido. Fisheries Research 80(1):
62-66.
Wang Q, Zhuang Z, Deng J and Ye Y. 2006.
Stock Enhancement and translocation
of the shrimp Penaeus chinensis in
China. Fisheries Research 80: 67-69.
(,/
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Community-based Shrimp Stock Enhancement for Coastal Socio-ecological
Restoration in the Philippines
Jon Altamiranoa*, Hisashi Kurokurab, Nerissa Salayoa, Didi Baticadosa, Jee Grace Suyoa and
Satoshi Ishikawac
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan,
Iloilo, Philippines
b
Department of Global Agricultural Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The
University of Tokyo, Japan
c
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan
* jaltamirano@seafdec.org.ph
a
Abstract
The reality of declining quality of coastal areas has been evident for many developing
countries, especially in Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, rural coastal zones and estuaries are
now being characterized by declining wild fisheries resources and degrading environment. This
paper presents, as an example, the typical rural coastal towns of New Washington and Batan in
Aklan province, Philippines and showcases how the concept of shrimp stock enhancement can
provide incentives to restore the environment and provide sustainable fishing livelihood in the
area.
The New Washington-Batan Estuary in northeast Panay Island, Philippines was a productive
fishing ground that has been in a state of degenerating brackishwater fisheries and estuarine
environment. Average daily catch composed of various species decreased from 24 kg in 1970s
to 0.7 kg at present. Shrimp fisheries, the most important livelihood, declined in quality and
quantity. The highly-priced and once very abundant tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon was replaced
with smaller-sized and lower-priced species like the Metapenaeus ensis. These can be attributed
to the conversion of 76% of mangroves to culture ponds in the past 50 years and more than 400%
increase in fishing gears since the 1990s. The need to reduce fishing structures and rehabilitate
mangroves is evident. However, these drastic changes directly affect fishers’ livelihood. This paper
explores the prospects of P. monodon stock enhancement as “positive reinforcement” for the
estuary’s rehabilitation. Number of gears per fisher may have to be reduced but shrimp catches
will be relatively high-priced. Simulations with additional tiger shrimp caught due to stock
enhancement show that fishers can increase income by more than 4 times from their current
PhP 34 gear-1 day-1. Campaigns on the importance of mangrove especially as shrimp habitat can
encourage local communities to reforest the estuary especially in abandoned ponds. With effective
management, law enforcement, and sustained support from different sectors, shrimp stock
enhancement can be a positive strategy in estuarine rehabilitation and livelihood sustainability in
the New Washington-Batan Estuary.
Keywords: stock enhancement, Penaeus monodon, rehabilitation, estuary, mangroves, livelihoods
(,0
Contributed Papers
Introduction
Methods
Fish stock enhancement programs
have been done since the late 1800s and
continues until now for many countries.
However, crustacean stock enhancement
initiatives, especially for shrimps, are
limited. Only seven programs were reported
in literature involving varied purposes. In
the USA, Kuwait, Sri Lanka, and Taiwan,
the primarily aim is to increase available
shrimps in the wild for commercial capture
fisheries (Bell et al., 2005). On the other
hand, the loss of natural coastal habitats
and nurseries caused by industrialization
in Japan since the 1960s has affected supply
of natural shrimp seeds, hence the need
for artificial stocking of shrimp juveniles
(Hamasaki and Kitada, 2006). In China,
excess shrimp seeds originally produced for
aquaculture were instead used for release in
the wild (Wang et al., 2006). Shrimp stock
enhancement projects in Australia were
done to verify new scientific protocols and
release technology (Loneragan et al., 2006).
However, in developing countries like the
Philippines where poverty is prevalent
especially in rural coastal communities,
improving the lives of artisanal fishers
through better harvest is the major
consideration.
Field surveys were conducted to update
data and monitor the actual daily catch for
the modified fish corral or stake net, locally
known as tigbakol, the most dominant
stationary fishing gear in the area (Figure
2). Twenty tigbakol were monitored twice
monthly from January to December 2013
to establish a trend in annual harvest, catch
composition and catch-per-unit-effort
or CPUE. Parallel socioeconomic survey
which includes questions related to the
present stock enhancement project were
also conducted among 200 respondents.
Review of secondary data and literature
were also done site-specifically, especially
on the environmental and fisheries status of
New Washington and Batan.
In the Philippines, being an archipelago
of 7,107 islands, coastal zones are
considered to be the most important areas
for residence and livelihood, especially for
more than half of the country’s 100 million
people living in the rural areas. This paper
focuses on the New Washington-Batan
Estuary as an example, located in the
province of Aklan, northern Panay Island,
central Philippines (Figure 1).
(-'
Shrimp fishery in the estuary is
considered as the most important livelihood
in the area (Ingles et al., 1992). So, more
focus was given on shrimps as a commodity,
particularly the tiger shrimp Penaeus
monodon or sugpo which commands the
highest market value. Stock enhancement
impact simulations were also based on P.
monodon, using the following assumptions:
(1) 500,000 shrimps released, (2) 330 fixed
fishing gears to potentially capture the
shrimps around the area, (3) conservative
recapture rate of 2% after 2 months of
release, and (4) even lower recapture rate of
0.5% after 3 months of release.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 1. The study site showing the location of New Washington that composes most of the semi-enclosed
estuary; Batan in the middle, and Altavas sharing a small portion in the south.
Figure 2. Photos and schematic diagram of the fixed gear tigbakol or fish corral.
(-(
Contributed Papers
Results
Changes in the New Washington-Batan
Estuary
The New Washington-Batan Estuary
was once considered as a very productive
fishing ground with lush mangrove forests
and abundant aquatic resources but now
suffer from degrading environment and
brackishwater fisheries (Altamirano, 2007).
Mangrove forests were reduced by 76%
in less than half a century, from 4,923
in 1950s to only 406 ha of thin fringing
mangroves in 2008, which is viewed to
have been caused by rapid development
of culture ponds from 513 ha 1988 to
3,747 ha by 2008 (Altamirano et al., 2010).
Nevertheless, some evidences of conversion
of the remaining mangroves or reclaiming
riverbanks to build more ponds can still be
found.
Decline in estuarine fisheries were
similarly striking. Representative CPUE
(gear-1 d-1) in terms of total daily catch of
various species per tigbakol was about 24
kg in 1970s, decreasing by about half every
decade until 1.65 kg in 2006 (Altamirano
and Kurokura, 2010). The most recent
survey in 2013 showed an average daily
catch per gear of tigbakol to be 0.7 kg only.
Shrimp fisheries declined in quality and
quantity where the highly-priced and once
abundant tiger shrimp P. monodon was
replaced in composition with smallersized and lower-priced shrimp species,
like Metapenaeus ensis. In a 1978 data, P.
monodon composed some 60% of daily
shrimp catch from the estuary (Ingles et
al., 1992). However, catch survey in 2006
showed that tiger shrimps only composed
<10% of the catch, while more than 80%
are of the cheaper M. ensis. Most of these
catch (about 70%) belongs to the smaller
size classes of juveniles of less than 20 mm
carapace length (Figure 3). On the average,
with this size composition of shrimps, a
fisher can only earn PhP 34 per day from
sale of catch from one tigbakol. Local
fishers who recalled catching about 6 kg
of tiger shrimps per day in the 70s, were
disappointed to catch literally nothing
of the species at present. From January
to December 2013, the monitoring of 20
tigbakol gears twice in a month (a combined
total of 480 hauls) only caught a total of 19
pcs of P. monodon. This is equivalent to only
one tiger shrimp caught for every 25 hauls
of the gear.
Figure 3. Average daily shrimp catch composition (mainly of M. ensis) from
tigbakol (Altamirano, 2007).
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
In every decade since 1940s, human
population in the area has been increasing
by 15-25%, but slowed to only 10% in
2000. Desperate to increase income to feed
an average family of 8, fishers intensified
fishing effort by multiplying their fishing
gears, reaching 400% more stationary gears
than in 1990 (Altamirano and Kurokura,
2010). In 2006, surveys showed that fixed
gears (fish corral, filter nets, lift nets) in
the area already reached more than 2,300
structures. This does not include active
gears like gill nets, push nets, traps and
others. Surely, the estuary and rivers in New
Washington is overcrowded of fishing gears
where local navigation is even hampered in
some areas because of bamboo structures
spanning the whole width of rivers
(personal observation).
Anecdotal reports showed that
a number of fisheries and resource
management programs have already been
implemented in the estuary. However, most
of these programs were grants and aids
that usually only had short term effects
and no observable long-term sustainability.
The “top-down” nature of these programs
mostly fails to reach down into the base of
problems, which are the local communities.
When funds have been exhausted and
activities slow down, people still tend to
return to what they were used to do. Driven
by poverty and desperation to survive, some
fishers engage in illegal fishing practices like
the use of small meshed nets, and theft of
other people’s fishing gears and catch.
Main concerns in the estuary
Interview surveys revealed that fishers
and communities were well aware of the
threats they are facing in the estuary.
They outlined many problems that were
generalized into (1) small income caused by
poor catch and overcrowded fishing gears;
(2) degraded environment with hardly
any mangroves, shallow water with heavy
siltation; and (3) poor law enforcement.
Table 1 further summarizes the main
problems in the New Washington-Batan
estuary, as well as the direct solutions to
these problems. It is with these ideas that
shrimp stock enhancement is viewed to play
a crucial role.
Table 1. Main problems in the New WashingtonBatan Estuary and their direct solutions.
Problems in the estuary
Direct solutions
1) poverty situation among local
fishers is worsening due to low
quality and quantity of catch,
especially of shrimps
1) increase
fishers’
income
2) intense overfishing in the area
is evident with overcrowded
fishing gears, and the use of
illegal fishing methods
2) reduce
number of
fishing gears
used
3) natural environment is
3) rehabilitate
extremely degraded where 76% mangroves
of mangroves were lost, mostly
to aquaculture ponds
Can shrimp stock enhancement increase
income?
Fishers catch about 700 g of shrimps
for one gear (tigbakol) daily, equivalent to
PhP 34 (Philippine Peso), that were sold
at prices respective of size class (Figure 3).
Assuming that one fisher has 5 gears, the
combined daily total catch for shrimps will
be 3.5 kg or about PhP 170. This is still
below the PhP 235 law-mandated minimum
daily wage in this region on 2008 (National
Wages and Productivity Commission of
the Philippines, 2008). Interestingly, during
heavy rains, some dikes of ponds collapse,
releasing cultured shrimps out to the rivers.
Consequently, fishers noted unusual catch
of tiger shrimps at these times, thereby
boosting their profits temporarily. This
unintentional release of pond stocks
(-*
Contributed Papers
exemplifies the prospects of a programmed
shrimp stock enhancement as a viable
technique, especially for increasing income
of fishers.
Assuming that a successful release of
500,000 tiger shrimps was accomplished in
the estuary, possible hypothetical scenarios
on impacts on catch are presented in
Table 2. With effective fishery rules and
enforcement, Scenario 1 shows that two
months after release and with a conservative
recovery rate of only 4%, each of the
330 tigbakol can possibly catch about 60
pcs (900 g total) of P. monodon (2-3 cm
carapace length, CL; 5-15 g body weight,
BW), which can eventually provide PhP
135 in one day. While in Scenario 2, when
shrimps are allowed to grow until 3 months
after release and even with a much lower
hypothetical recovery rate of 1%, each gear
can potentially catch some 15 pcs (475 g
total) but of larger shrimps (3-4 cm CL,
15-35 g BW). This in turn can also earn
the same amount (PhP 135). Whether
within scenario 1 or 2, a single gear can
sell PhP 135 of tiger shrimps, on top of
the PhP 34 pesos of other shrimp species,
plus earnings from fish and crabs. This is
a huge 400% increase in shrimp sales per
fishing gear. The recovery estimates of
4% after 2 months and 1% after 3 months
are very conservative, which means that
potential higher recovery rates can further
increase income of fishers. In comparison,
common recovery rates for shrimp stock
enhancement activities is around 20%; the
lowest recovery rates for shrimp releases
was about 5% in Japan (Bell et al., 2005;
Hamasaki and Kitada, 2006).
Can shrimp stock enhancement reduce
number of fishing gears?
The hypothetical figures in Table 2
show that a single tigbakol can potentially
provide a conservative estimate sale of PhP
135 daily for tiger shrimps. This means that
with only two tigbakol, a fisher can expect
PhP 270 sales daily which is a little more
than the PhP 235 daily minimum wage in
2008. Earnings from other species caught
by tigbakol along with shrimps like fish and
crabs will add to the PhP 270 obtained from
P. monodon catch. Basically, this means
that the number of gears can be reduced to
allow only 2 gears per household. Assuming
that on the average, one fisher currently
owns 5 gears of tigbakol, a reduction to
only two can mean a huge 60% decrease
in fixed gears distribution in the area, if
implemented well, but with improved
shrimp catch quality and prices received.
Table 2. Hypothetical daily catch of P. monodon per tigbakol after a simulated stock enhancement release.
Note: US$1 = PhP42.50 (2013 annual average)
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Can shrimp stock enhancement promote
mangrove rehabilitation?
It has been pointed out in the interviews
and separate studies that majority of
mangrove forests in the Batan Estuary
have been cleared, mostly for aquaculture.
The importance of mangroves as habitat
especially for shrimps is already established
(Sasekumar et al., 1992; Chong et al.,
1996; Primavera, 1998). This suggests
a very practical need for mangrove
rehabilitation to allow natural revival of
shrimp populations. Therefore, information,
education and communication (EIC)
campaigns on the importance of mangroves
as shrimp habitat can encourage locals
to reforest the estuary, most especially in
abandoned ponds. This is a long term target
which means that it is crucial that properlyguided mangrove rehabilitation be done
soonest.
The role of the community in a stock
enhancement program
The effect of stock enhancement on
the people is clear. This has also been
exemplified in the kuruma prawn Penaeus
japonicas stock enhancement in Hamana
Lake, Shizuoka, Japan (Fushimi, 1999).
The bottom-up approach focusing mainly
on local fishers themselves has enriched
their awareness and encouraged active
participation in the rearing and release
phases of the program. In the case of New
Washington-Batan Estuary, the fisherfolk
community is the most direct beneficiary
and stakeholder in stock enhancement.
Hence, their awareness, participation and
cooperation in the enhancement activities
are critical determinants of success.
The socioeconomic survey in New
Washington in 2012 revealed that 82% of
the respondents preferred P. monodon over
other local species for stock enhancement
project. They considered P. monodon a
high-valued species that could give them
higher income compared with grouper,
snapper, crabs and other shrimp species.
They claimed that P. monodon used to
be abundant in the past, but are now
seldom caught in the estuary. Although
24% of them were not aware of the stock
enhancement project in New Washington,
still almost all of the respondents (97%)
were willing to participate in the project.
However, direct voluntary participation
of fisherfolks in the rearing phase of
the shrimp stocks was dampened by
the limitations that characterize their
organization.
There is also an apparent weak fisheries
governance even when the national
fisheries policy gave mandate to the local
government to manage its own fishery
resources. The local government have not
acted to effectively manage and regulate
fishing activities to accord with and
support the stock enhancement activities.
In particular, active fine-meshed gears that
easily entrap released shrimps persist to
operate in the estuary. On the other hand,
majority of the fishers understand the
problems better than the managers and
officials but they lack the power to prevent
unsustainable fishing operations. Therefore,
it is better to implement a “bottom-up”
approach in the area where local fishers
are to be given main considerations. They
should also be active “participants” in
the planning and implementation of the
stock enhancement activities, with strong
supervision from technical authorities. The
clear-cut incentive of increasing income
through higher sales from P. monodon catch
is a strong motivation for the fishers to join
the stock enhancement activity.
(-,
Contributed Papers
Concluding Remarks
The usual environmental and
fisheries problems are still evident in
New Washington and Batan in spite of
the various fishery ordinances and laws
to guide sustainable fisheries. More
so, there were several developmental
projects implemented to prevent further
degradation of the local fishery. Weak law
enforcement and political will reported
by fishers, together with the ineffective
cooperation among leaders and local
communities, further complicate the
situation. The observations and results
presented in this paper indicate that
the New Washington-Batan Estuary
urgently needs effective measures for
rehabilitation. One alternative fisheries
and environmental management option
is through stock enhancement of the tiger
shrimp P. monodon. Theoretically, by
restoring wild populations of this highlypriced shrimp species, fishers can directly
increase income. With this incentive,
reduction of fishing gears is possible and
mangrove rehabilitation can be promoted.
The prospects of tiger shrimp stock
enhancement in the area are high and the
benefits are clear. However, it is important
that support of sectors like the government,
local universities, people’s organizations,
stakeholders, and local fishers must be
solicited to create unbiased management
plans.
Altamirano JP and Kurokura H. 2010.
Failing inshore fisheries in Batan
Estuary, Aklan, central Philippines.
Journal of Nature Studies 9(1): 13-21.
Altamirano J, Primavera J, Banaticla MR
and Kurokura H. 2010. Practical
techniques for mapping small patches
of mangroves. Wetlands Ecology and
Management 18: 707-715.
Bell JD, Rothlisberg PC, Munro JL,
Loneragan NR, Nash WJ, Ward RD and
Andrew NL. 2005. Restocking and Stock
Enhancement of Marine Invertebrate
Fisheries. In: Southward AJ, Young CM,
Fuiman LA (eds.), Advances in Marine
Biology, Vol 49. Elsevier Academic
Press, San Diego, 372 pp.
Chong V, Sasekumar A and Wolanski E.
1996. The role of mangroves in retaining
penaeid prawn larvae in Klang Straight,
Malaysia. Mangrove and Salt Marshes 1:
11-22.
Fushimi H. 1999. How to detect the effect
in releasing operation of hatchery raised
Kuruma prawn postlarvae? Bulletin of
the Tohoku National Fisheries Research
Institute 62.
Hamasaki K and Kitada S. 2006. A review
of kuruma prawn Penaeus japonicus
stock enhancement in Japan. Fisheries
Research 80: 80-90.
References
Altamirano JP. 2007. Declining mangroves
and fisheries in the Batan Estuary,
Panay Island, central Philippines.
Bulletin of Marine Science 80: 916-917.
(--
Ingles J, Lao R, Babaran R and Armada N.
1992. Studies on the fishery of Batan
Bay, Banga Bay and vicinities. IMFOCollege of Fisheries and Ocean Science,
University of the Philippines in the
Visayas, Iloilo, Philippines.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Loneragan NR, Ye YM, Kenyon RA and
Haywood MDE. 2006. New directions
for research in prawn (shrimp) stock
enhancement and the use of models
in providing directions for research.
Fisheries Research 80: 91-100.
National Wages and Productivity
Commission. 2008. Summary of Daily
Minimum Wage Rates Per Wage Order,
By Region. Retrieved from http://www.
nwpc.dole.gov.ph/pages/ statistics/stat_
current_regional.html.
Primavera JH. 1998. Mangroves as
nurseries: Shrimp populations in
mangrove and nonmangrove habitats.
Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science, 46:
457-464.
Sasekumar A, Chong V, Leh M and D’Cruz
R. 1992. Mangroves as a habitat for fish
and prawns. Hydrobiologia 247: 195207.
Wang QY, Zhuang ZM, Deng JY and Ye
YM. 2006. Stock enhancement and
translocation of the shrimp Penaeus
chinensis in China. Fisheries Research
80: 67-79.
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
BFAR-CHED Philippine National Aquasilviculture Program (PNAP) in
Bataan
Rudy C. Floresa*, Felicisima E. Tungola, Abraham S Antonioa, Elizabeth D. Medairosa and
Jonathan M. Salasb
Bataan Peninsula State University, Orani Campus, Bayan, Orani, Bataan 2112, Philippines
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resource 3, Maimpis, City of San Fernando, Pampanga, Philippines
* rcf_abby121970@yahoo.com
a
b
Abstract
Under the Philippine Aquasilviculture Program, the Bataan Peninsula State University (BSPU)
rehabilitated denuded mangrove resources, established aquasilviculture technology demonstration
projects as a livelihood option for fisherfolks (while caring for the mangroves they had planted)
and established community-based multi-species hatcheries to increase endemic fish species in the
area.
The BPSU was able to (a) plant 183, 300 mangrove seedlings where 85.96% survival was noted
a year after, (b) establish 16 units aquasilviculture projects for the livelihood of the beneficiaries
(planting that earned the beneficiaries P1,338, 731.90); and (c) establish community-based multispecies hatcheries that already produced an estimated 1,030,502,400 eggs of various fish species,
thus increasing the wild fishery resource in the area.
The program is expected to bear potential impacts on our environment and to the lives of the
marginalized people of our community through the collaborative efforts of the Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), BPSU, Local
Government Units (LGUs) and the fisherfolks.
Keywords: aquasilviculture, mangrove propagules, community-based multi-species hatchery
Introduction
The decline in mangrove resources
that serve as habitat for various fishery
species has reached 383, 000 hectares from
1918- 1995 (Melana et al., 2000), which
means that the Philippines lost 76.6% of its
mangrove areas for less than a century with
an estimated national deforestation rate of
4,432ha/year between 1951 and 1988. This
was brought about by overexploitation by
coastal dwellers, conversion to settlements,
agriculture, salt beds and industry
(Baconguis et al., 1993: Primavera, 1995).
Apart from the foregoing, conversion
to aquaculture is recorded as the major
cause since around half of the 279, 000 ha
of mangroves lost from 1951- 1988 were
developed into culture ponds. According
to the Philippine Council for Agriculture,
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Contributed Papers
Forestry and Natural Resources Research
and Development PCAFNRRD in 1991
around 95% of the brackishwater pond in
1952- 1987 were derived from mangroves.
Likewise, according to the DENR 1995
statistics, conversion to fishponds, prawn
farms, salt ponds, reclamation and other
forms of industrial development have
reduced the mangrove area to 117,700 ha
(Melana et al.2000).
This very alarming loss of our
mangrove resources is causing the
deterioration of sea grass and coral reef
ecosystem. About 70% of the Philippine
coral cover has been destroyed, with about
25% still in good condition and only about
5% in excellent condition, which resulted
to decline in the productivity of coastal
fisheries. An estimated 670 kg reduction in
fish catch per hectare of mangrove forest
that is clear cut had been recorded by the
Coastal Resources Management Project
in1998.
In line with its mandate under Republic
Act No. 8550 or the Philippine Fisheries
Code of 1998, BFAR aims to achieve food
security, promote sustainable development
of fisheries resources, and reduce poverty
incidence among fisherfolk and other
disadvantaged groups. The Commission on
Higher Education (CHED), on the other
hand, is mandated, through Section 8 of
Republic Act 7722 (the Higher Education
Act of 1994), to identify, support and
develop potential centers of excellence in
program areas needed for the development
of world-class scholarship, nation building
and national development and direct or
redirect purposive research by institutions
of higher learning to meet the needs of
agro-industrialization and development.
(.'
The Government of the Republic
of the Philippines, through BFAR and
CHED in collaboration with the academe
and local government units concerned,
is implementing the Philippine National
Aquasilviculture Program, (PNAP) which
aims to ensure resource sustainability, to
attain food security and to alleviate poverty.
A Memorandum of Agreement (MOA)
has been entered into by the BFAR and the
CHED to implement the said Program. On
16 December 2011, Bataan Peninsula State
University (BPSU) signed a Memorandum
of Agreement with BFAR3 as one of the
selected State Universities and Colleges to
implement the PNAP in the province of
Bataan.
Objectives
The main objective of this undertaking
is to implement the PNAP in order to
rehabilitate denuded mangrove resources
and to increase survival of mangroves
through the participation of fisherfolk
organizations and the local government
units. This project involves capacity
building seminars and trainings, provision
of livelihood and improvement of capture
fisheries by increasing the fish population
in the area for sustainable fisheries
development, food security and poverty
alleviation.
Specifically, this program aimed to
plant 183,300 mangroves along coastal
areas of Manila bay, establish 16 units
aquasilviculture technology demonstration
projects for the livelihood of the fisherfolks
and to set up community-based multispecies hatcheries.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
PROGRAM CONCEPT
1. Resource/habitat Rehabilitation
1.1. Site Selection/ Validation
1.1.1. Through the Project Management Office (PMO), priority areas for habitat
or resource rehabilitation were pre-identified. These include:
a. Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) in the province as recommended by the
CENRO/PENRO.
b. Abandoned, Underdeveloped and Underutilized Fishpond Lease
Agreement (AUU FLA) areas as identified in accordance with the joint
administrative order on the reversion of AUU FLA areas.
c. Areas identified for reforestation/afforestation or covered by the tenurial
arrangements by the DENR.
d. Areas covered by co-management agreement between the DA, DENR
and LGUs.
The sites identified were validated by the PMO in terms of:
a. Willingness of the community to participate;
b. Technical suitability;
c. Mangrove species thriving in the area; and
d. Accessibility
1.2. Standard Planting Design
Spacing and design
A standard distance of 1.5 m x 2.0 m between mangrove propagules was
observed, and at least 3,000 mangrove propagules needed to be planted in every
hectare and that no more than 30% of the area devoted to aquasilviculture.
1.3. Budgetary Requirement and Payment Scheme
The standard cost for resource/ habitat rehabilitation were as follows:
a. P1.50 per mangrove propagule (ready for planting) gathered by the
beneficiary ;
b. P2.00 per mangrove propagule planted with corresponding support
stake with length of at least 2 feet and 2 inches width; and
c. P2.50 for each fully grown and live mangrove tree after one year from
planting.
(.(
Contributed Papers
Figure 1. Planting design as prescribed in the implementing guidelines.
1.4. Selection of Beneficiaries
The PMO in consultation with the local government units and the FARMCs
identified and maintained a list of qualified project beneficiaries guided by the
following criteria:
a. Bonafide resident fisherfolk in the area/ project site;
b. Willingness to participate in the program and abide by the terms and
conditions therein;
c. Preferably those identified and included in DSWD list of marginalized
sectors
2. Aquasilviculture Projects
2.1. Site Selection/ Validation
Areas identified for aquasilviculture were validated by the PMO as to its
appropriateness and suitability for such purpose.
(.)
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 2. Layout of a 1,000 m2 aquasilviculture technology demonstration project.
2.2. Standard Size and Design
No more than 30% of the area with mangrove was recommended for
aquasilviculture. The suggested area was preferably 1,000 square meters per
unit aquasilviculture on dead creeks, water canals and area with enough water
even during low tides.
2.3. Budgetary Requirements and Payment Scheme
The total amount of P65, 000.00 was allocated as support for the establishment of
the individual aquasilviculture technology demonstration project. The support
will cover the following:
a. Fencing materials (nets, ropes, etc.)
b. Labor support (for excavation)
c. Portion of the farm inputs (seed stocks and feeds)
2.4. Selection of Beneficiaries
Those who participated in the resource rehabilitation activity were identified as the
primary beneficiaries of the aquasilviculture projects.
2.5. The commodity species for aquasilviculture production was determined after the
site suitability evaluation.
3. Community-based Multi-species Hatchery (CBMSH)
The CBMSH is a strategy that was intended to:
a. Conserve, save and protect eggs of various species that are gravid when captured
from the wild;
b. Take advantage of the natural productivity of the environment in the post-larval
rearing and nursery of targeted species;
(.*
Contributed Papers
c. Increase the population of targeted species in the wild through stock
enhancement; and
d. Utilize the abundant seed supply of targeted species for use in aquasilviculture.
3.1. Site Selection/ Validation
The PMO in collaboration with the SUC identified priority hatchery areas based
on the following:
a. Existing/ operational hatcheries- were encouraged to operate utilizing the
project fund to augment the operation giving priority to the multi-species
hatchery project;
b. Existing/Non-operational hatcheries- were put into operation utilizing the
allocated funds with counterpart funding from the SUC as per MOA including
manpower complement;
c. Non-existing hatcheries- were established following the suggested design
utilizing the allotted funds with the counterpart contribution from the SUC as
per MOA and by considering the following criteria:
1. Required area/site was at least 1,000 square meters with at least flat/
plain terrain;
2. Availability of unpolluted marine water;
3. Availability of sea water with stable salinity not lower than 35 ppt;
4. Availability of spawners/ breeders;
5. Near aquasilviculture production areas;
6. With existing electricity;
7. Accessible to land and water transport; and
8. Availability of fresh water for domestic use
3.2. Hatchery/ Nursery Lying-in Concept
This was done through the introduction or development of a system of collecting
gravid target species from fishermen, allowing them to spawn and nurse the
larvae inside a designed structure under controlled conditions, until they
reached the stage where they can be released into the natural habitat.
Figure 3. Recommended layout of lying-in hatchery/nursery concept.
(.+
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
PROJECT ACCOMPLISHMENTS
Right after the orientation regarding
the implementing guidelines of the
program, the project management office
and the BPSU team wasted no time,
hence accomplished the following during
the implementation of the PNAP in the
province of Bataan:
Fisherfolks profile. Table 3 shows the
profile of fisherfolk beneficiaries taken
prior to the start of the project for the
implementors to have an initial data on their
present status. Out of the 637 fisherfolks
oriented about the PNAP, 95.77% were
males and only 4.23% females. As regards to
their civil status, 83.46% were married while
4.42% were separated, 7.5% were single and
4.42% were widows/widowers.
Pre- Implementation Phase
Program Orientation. Representatives
from SUCs and other participating
schools in Region 3 were oriented on the
implementing guidelines of the PNAP at the
BFAR 3 Regional Office in Maimpis, City of
San Fernando, Pampanga. It was followed
by a national orientation on 25 May 2012
in Sariaya, Quezon by the BFAR Director,
Atty. Asis Perez.
Coordination with PENRO and
LGUs. Right after the regional and national
orientation, coordination was made with
the PENRO and LGUs of Bataan through
their Municipal Agriculture Offices to
conduct orientation about the PNAP with
their respective Municipal or City Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources Management
Council (M/CFARMC).
Table 1 presents the current Mangrove
areas in Bataan based on the data provided
by the DENR- PENRO. Out of 177 km
coastline in Bataan, only 121.08 hectares of
mangrove areas have remained or still exist
as fish habitat in the province.
Orientation of Fisherfolks. There
were about 637 fisherfolks coming from
28 organizations in the municipalities of
Orion, Orani and City of Balanga that were
oriented about the implementing guidelines
of the program.
Identification of Project Beneficiaries.
There were 16 fisherfolk organizations
selected as beneficiaries of the program
based on the following criteria:
a. Bonafide resident fisherfolk in the
area/project site;
b. Willing to participate in the Program
and abide by the terms and
conditions therein;
c. Preferably, they were identified and
included in the list of marginal
sector of the DSWD
Conduct of Trainings and Seminars.
Capacity building seminars that include
resource protection and rehabilitation,
constituency building, leadership and value
formation trainings were conducted to
strengthen the capabilities of the project
beneficiaries.
Signing of Memorandum of
Agreement. A formal agreement was
signed between BPSU represented by
the university president, Dr. Delfin O.
Magpantay, and the respective chairs
or leaders of the selected 16 fisherfolk
organizations. Stipulated in the MOA are
the roles and responsibilities of each party
in the implementation of the project.
Area Validation. After the final
identification of the mangrove areas to be
(.,
Contributed Papers
Table 1. Present mangrove areas in Bataan (DENR-PENRO, 2011).
City/
Municipality
Barangay
Area
(has.)
Total per
Barangay
(has.)
Limay
Alangan
1
0.9
0.9
Orion
Daan Pare
1
4.7
4.7
Ormoc
1
0.87
0.87
Sto. Domingo
1
2.51
2.51
Sta. Elena
Pilar
City of Balanga
Abucay
Samal
Orani
(.-
Lot.
No.
1
2.52
2
3.19
5.71
Bantan Malake
1
0.95
0.95
Bantan Munti
1
0.76
0.76
Balut
1
6.4
6.4
Wawa
1
1.06
2
0.3
3
0.4
4
0.34
5
0.45
6
1.73
7
1.64
5.92
Tuyo
1
4.45
4.45
Puerto Rivas
1
5.53
2
0.62
6.15
Tortugas
1
13.93
13.93
Mabatang
1
3.14
2
5.23
Wawa
1
1.74
2
2.17
3.91
Capitangan
1
5.1
5.1
Sta. Lucia
1
1.35
2
0.75
3
0.61
2.71
Sapa
1
2.63
2.63
East Calaguiman
1
2.83
2.83
Kabalutan
1
8.9
8.9
Tapulao
1
0.07
2
2.61
Total per
Municipality
(has.)
0.9
13.79
14.03
24.53
8.37
17.38
8.17
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 2. Number of fisherfolks oriented on PNAP per locality.
Locality/ Barangay/ Municipality/ City
Date of
Orientation
Number of
fisherfolks who
attended
Pantalan Luma, Orani, Bataan
August 22, 2012
43
Tenejero, Orani, Bataan
August 22, 2012
108
Centro I & II, Orani, Bataan
July 31, 2012
46
Wawa, Orani, Bataan
July 30, 2012
27
Kaparangan, Orani, Bataan
July 26, 2012
51
Calero, Orani, Bataan
July 25, 2012
20
Pantalan Bago, Orani, Bataan
July 24, 2012
20
Pantalan Luma, Orani, Bataan
June 27, 2012
35
Pantalan Luma (Iguana), Orani, Bataan
June 20, 2012
74
Pantalan Luma (Iguana), Orani, Bataan
June 19, 2012
51
Pantalan Luma (Dulo), Orani, Bataan
June 18, 2012
39
Pilapil, Orani, Bataan
June 15, 2012
50
Pulo/Kabalutan, Orani, Bataan
June 13, 2012
40
Balanga City FARMC
June 14, 2012
15
Orion, Bataan
June 8, 2012
18
TOTAL
637
Table 3. Profile of fisherfolks showing the average sex, civil status, highest
educational attainment, average number of years in fishing, fishing equipment
used and their average monthly income.
Sex:
Male
Female
95.77%
4.23%
Civil status:
Married
Separated
Single
Widow/widower
83.46%
4.42%
7.5%
4.42%
Highest educational attainment:
Elementary
Secondary
Vocational
College
56.04%
36.46%
4.17%
3.33%
Average number of years in fishing
Kind/ Type of fishing equipment used:
Gill net
Boat
Lift net
Hook
Fishing rod
Fish trap
Average monthly income
21-25 years
79.63%
13.49%
4.76%
1.06%
0.79%
0.27%
P2,000-P4,000
(..
Contributed Papers
Table 4. Fisherfolk organizations selected as project beneficiaries.
Name of Organization
Number of
Members
1. Samahan ng mga Mangingisdang Nagkakaisa (SAMANA), Pantalan Luma, Orani,
Bataan
42
2. Samahan ng mga Mangingisda sa Dulo (SAMADU), Pantalan Luma, Orani,
Bataan
27
3. Samahan ng mga Mangingisda sa Kaparangan (SAMAKA), Kaparangan, Orani,
Bataan
48
4. Samahan ng mga Mangingisda sa Wawa (SMW), Wawa, Orani, Bataan
31
5. Samahang Mangingisda ng Pantalan Luma (S.M.P.L.), Pantalan Luma, Orani,
Bataan
49
6. Kapatirang Mangingisda at Makakaikasan ng Centro I & II (KAMMANCE),
Centro I at Centro II, Orani, Bataan
52
7. Makakalikasan at Mangingisdang Kinikilala sa Iguana (MMAKISIG), Pantalan
Luma, Orani, Bataan
27
8. Gabay Mangingisda ng Calero (GAMACA), Calero, Orani, Bataan
22
9. Samahan ng Magdaragat ng Pulo (S.M.P.), Sitio Pulo, Kabalutan, Orani, Bataan
21
10. Pulo Fisheries Development Cooperative (PuFiDeCo), Sitio Pulo, Kabalutan,
Orani, Bataan
16
11. Kaisahan sa Kaunlaran ng mga Mangingisda ng Pilapil (KAKAMPI), Palihan,
Orani, Bataan
50
12. Samahang Mangingisda ng Tenejero (SaMaTe), Tenejero, Orani, Bataan
108
13. Samahang Mangingisda ng Pantalan Bago (SMPB), Pantalan Bago, Orani, Bataan
15
14. Municipal Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Council (MFARMC),
Orani, Bataan
15
15. BPSU Aquamarine Research & Development Center, Kabalutan, Orani, Bataan
8
16. BALANGA CITY Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Council
(CFARMC), Puerto Rivas, City of Balanga
10
TOTAL
541
Table 5. Mangrove areas identified, validated and qualified for resource rehabilitation.
Location
Area
Identified
Area
Validated
Qualified
Balanga City:
Puerto Rivas
Tortugas
Sibacan
10
15
30
10
15
30
0
0
20
Mangrove already established
Use for bird sanctuary
Abandoned fishponds
Orani:
Kaparangan
Pantalan Luma
10
15
10
15
5
10
10
30
10
30
10
20
With existing mangroves
Only pagatpat/palapat mangrove
spp. are present
Denuded mangrove area
Denuded mangrove area
3
3
2
123
123
67
Kabalutan
Pulo
BPSU ARC
TOTAL
(./
Remarks
To use as a model site for the
project
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
rehabilitated, the project management team
together with the fisherfolk representatives
and the municipal agriculturist of their respective municipalities conducted an actual
site validation to evaluate each area based
on the willingness of its community to participate; technical suitability; mangrove species thriving in the area; and accessibility.
Out of 123 hectares identified and
validated, there were only 67 hectares
that met the criteria as stipulated in the
implementing guidelines of the program,
forty seven from Orani, Bataan and 20
hectares in Sibacan and Puerto Rivas in
Balanga City.
Identification of Mangrove
Rehabilitation Sites. Priority areas for
habitat or resource rehabilitation were
pre-identified after each orientation
with considerations such as: a) identified
priority key biodiversity areas (KBAs)
in the province to be recommended by
the CENRO/PENRO, b) abandoned,
undeveloped and underutilized FLA areas
as identified in accordance with the Joint
Administrative Order on the reversion
of AUU FLA areas, c) areas identified for
reforestation/aforestation or covered by the
tenurial arrangements by the DENR, and d)
areas covered by co-management agreement
between DA, DENR, and LGUs.
IMPLEMENTATION PHASE
Project I. Mangrove Resources Rehabilitation
Project
A. Collection of Mangrove Propagules.
Fisherfolks including their family
members collected mature mangrove
propagules of “Bakawang Lalaki” or
“Bakawang Babae” as specified in the
guidelines.
B. Inventory/ Counting of Collected Planting
Materials. In order to insure the validity
of the actual number of collected
mangrove propagules, fisherfolks were
instructed to tie their propagules in
bundles of 100 pc per bundle during
actual counting.
C. Payment of Mangrove Propagules.
Right after the actual counting of the
mangrove propagules collected by the
fisherfolks, the necessary papers were
prepared for the immediate release of
payment done 5-10 days after.
D. Planting and Staking. The suggested
standard planting design and procedure
indicated in the implementing
guidelines were followed by the
fisherfolks during planting. A bamboo
stake measuring 2.5 feet by 2 inches was
tied for each propagules during planting
to serve as protection from water
current. A planting distance of 1.5 m x
2 m was followed in open areas while
patch planting was made in areas where
there were existing mangroves.
E. Resource Protection and Maintenance.
Fencing and putting up of billboards
were done to ensure that the reforested
areas will not be damaged by intruders.
The billboards showed the provisions
of Republic Act 8550 penalizing those
causing damage or destruction of
mangrove forest/resources.
Project II. Aquasilviculture Techno Demo/
Livelihood Projects
A. Identification and organizing of
beneficiaries
As stipulated in the guidelines,
beneficiaries for the livelihood projects
(.0
Contributed Papers
were from those who participated in
the Mangrove Resources Rehabilitation
activity. Instead of awarding the livelihood
projects (Aquasilviculture) to individual
fisherfolks, the Project Management Office
decided to give the project to 16 fisherfolk
organizations, so that even their members
will benefit from the income that would be
derived from their aquasilviculture techno
demos.
B. Site Identification, Validation and
Establishment
The project team together with the
beneficiaries identified and validated
24 possible sites for the aquasilviculture
projects that included one in Puerto Rivas,
Balanga City, 22 in Orani, Bataan and
one at the BPSU Aquamarine Research
Center. There were sixteen (16) sites for
aquasilviculture that qualified based on
the criteria set forth in the implementing
guidelines of the program.
C. Training of Project Beneficiaries
Prior to the establishment of the
livelihood component of the program,
which is the Aquasilviculture techno
demos, the following fisherfolks attended
a ten day training at the National
Brackishwater Aquaculture Technology
Research Center in Pagbilao, Quezon from
October 15- 24, 2012:
1. Mr. Avelino V. Capuli- Chairman,
MFARMC Orani
2. Mr. Reynaldo Lalican- KAKAMPI
3. Mr. Florencio Cruz- SAMATE
4. Mr. Conrado Mallari- S.M.P.L.
5. Mr. Jimmy de Jesus- SAMANA
6. Mr. Cipriano Adena- SMW
7. Mr. Hector Catahan- SMPB
8. Mr. Rodolfo Tala- SAMADU
(/'
9. Mr. Jose Sally Raymundo- PuFiDeCo
10. Mr. Rodrigo Libanan- S.M.P.
11. Mr. Rolando Benavente- GAMACA
12. Mr. Rico Alfonso- SAMAKA
13. Mr. Mario Cubacub- MMAKISIG
14. Mr. Roman Roque- KAMMANCE
15. Mr. Armando Tolentino- CFARMC
Balanga City
16. Mr. Richard Deldoc- BPSU AMRC
D. Establishment of Livelihood Projects
(Aquasilviculture Techno demos)
Each of the identified fisherfolk
organization was provided with the
materials needed for the establishment
of their Aquasilviculture technology
demonstration project to raise mud crabs
and other fish species as their source
of livelihood while taking care of the
mangroves they planted.
A standard 20 m x 50 m design was
followed to cover an area of 1,000 square
meters within the rehabilitated mangrove
area. Each unit was provided with 500
tilapia fingerlings, 300 crablets and 300
milkfish fingerlings for their initial stock
and a corresponding amount for feeds.
Project III. Community-based Multi-Species
Hatchery (CBMSH)
A. Site Identification and Validation
The project team initially identified the
possible sites for the CBMSH; the in-land
base was situated at BPSU Orani Campus
or at the BPSU Aquamarine Research
Center, the other two, which adopted the
Lying- in concept was in barangay Salaman,
Bagac, Bataan along the West Philippine
Sea and in Orani, Bataan along Manila
bay. Upon validation, the In-land based
hatchery which is supposed to be situated
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 6. Total number of mangrove propagules collected and planted, including the estimated area covered
and percent that survived one year after planting.
Location
Number
collected &
planted
Estimated
area covered
(has.)
No. survived
after a year
Percent
survival
Balanga City:
Sibacan
Puerto Rivas
25,950
30,000
6.67
11.98
15,570
27,000
60.00
90.00
Orani:
Kaparangan
Pantalan Luma
Kabalutan
Pulo
31,467
20,000
49,300
26,583
10.49
6.67
16.28
8.86
29,264
18,600
44,000
23,127
93.00
93.00
89.25
87.00
183,300
61.10
157,561
85.96
TOTAL
Amount paid
P641,550.00
Remarks
P393,902.50
Table 7. Fisherfolk organizations identified as project beneficiaries for the livelihood (Aquasilviculture)
component of the program.
Name of Organization
Number of
Members
1. Samahan ng mga Mangingisdang Nagkakaisa (SAMANA), Pantalan Luma, Orani,
Bataan
16
2. Samahan ng mga Mangingisda sa Dulo (SAMADU), Pantalan Luma, Orani, Bataan
10
3. Samahan ng mga Mangingisda sa Kaparangan (SAMAKA), Kaparangan, Orani, Bataan
9
4. Samahan ng mga Mangingisda sa Wawa (SMW), Wawa, Orani, Bataan
16
5. Samahang Mangingisda ng Pantalan Luma (S.M.P.L.), Pantalan Luma, Orani, Bataan
11
6. Kapatirang Mangingisda at Makakaikasan ng Centro I & II (KAMMANCE), Centro I
at Centro II, Orani, Bataan
15
7. Makakalikasan at Mangingisdang Kinikilala sa Iguana (MMAKISIG), Pantalan Luma,
Orani, Bataan
15
8. Gabay Mangingisda ng Calero (GAMACA), Calero, Orani, Bataan
16
9. Samahan ng Magdaragat ng Pulo (S.M.P.), Sitio Pulo, Kabalutan, Orani, Bataan
15
10. Pulo Fisheries Development Cooperative (PuFiDeCo), Sitio Pulo, Kabalutan, Orani,
Bataan
13
11. Kaisahan sa Kaunlaran ng mga Mangingisda ng Pilapil (KAKAMPI), Palihan, Orani,
Bataan
16
12. Samahang Mangingisda ng Tenejero (SaMaTe), Tenejero, Orani, Bataan
15
13. Samahang Mangingisda ng Pantalan Bago (SMPB), Pantalan Bago, Orani, Bataan
15
14. Municipal Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Council (MFARMC), Orani,
Bataan
16
15. BPSU Aquamarine Research & Development Center, Kabalutan, Orani, Bataan
8
16. BALANGA CITY Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Council (CFARMC),
Puerto Rivas, City of Balanga
10
TOTAL
216
(/(
Contributed Papers
at BPSU Aquamarine Research Center
did not pass the criteria stipulated in
the implementing guidelines of the
program. Hence, the project monitoring
team suggested that the CBMSH could
be constructed in BPSU Orani Campus
where there are already 5 units of existing
concrete tanks. However, hauling of sea
water for use in the hatchery was required.
B. Project Coordination
After the sites were validated and found
suitable, the project team identified the
fisherfolks in barangay Salaman, Bagac,
Bataan who will be the project partners/
beneficiaries in the hatchery. Hence,
coordination with the municipal mayor of
Bagac, Bataan, Hon. Rommel del Rosario
thru the Municipal Agriculture Officer, Mr.
Baltazar T. Manducdoc was needed.
C. Orientation of Project Partners/
Beneficiaries
and these were allowed to spawn in the
hatchery.
E. Construction of an Inland-based
Hatchery
An inland-based multi-species
hatchery was constructed in BPSU Orani
Campus where the existing 5- units
concrete fish tanks were situated. These
were used as part of the breeding/ rearing
tanks for holding different fish species
for seed production. As such, stocks were
produced for the aquasilviculture projects
and for the enhancement of fish population
in mangrove forests being established by
the project beneficiaries of the PNAP.
Table 9 shows the list of procured gravid/
berried mud crabs and blue crabs that
spawned in the lying- in hatchery
together with the estimated number of
eggs produced from January 17, 2013 to
December 31, 2013.
Monitoring and Evaluation
An orientation regarding the concept
of the hatchery was conducted by the
project team to fisherfolk beneficiaries or
partners for them to know the concept of
allowing gravid or mature fish species to
spawn and hatch their eggs in the open, the
strategy adopted in order to increase fish
population in the area.
D. Construction of Lying-in Hatchery
The fisherfolks started the construction
of lying- in hatcheries one week after the
orientation. They were provided with a
project plan together with the necessary
supplies and materials for the project.
The project team started buying
the gravid female mud crabs and blue
crabs collected by fisherfolks in the area
(/)
Regular weekly monitoring of the
conditions of the newly planted mangroves
as well as the whole mangrove area was
done to insure higher survival.
Monthly reports of the major
accomplishments of the project including
disbursement of funds were regularly
submitted to the regional office of the
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
in Region 3.
Promotion and Information
Dissemination of the Program
The strategies and accomplishments
of BPSU regarding the implementation of
the Philippine National Aquasilviculture
Program (PNAP) were promoted through
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
the conduct of forums in the Municipal
Hall of Orani, Bataan attended by ViceMayor Godofredo Galicia and the
Municipal Council members, including
the barangay chairmen of the coastal
barangays of the municipalities involved.
Other activities during its implementation
were uploaded in the Orani MFARMC
Facebook page. These were also presented
in the following conferences / symposia to
showcase the achievement of BPSU in the
implementation of the PNAP in Bataan:
1. 1st International Organic Agriculture
Conference of the International
Society for Southeast Asian
Agricultural Sciences (ISSAAS) in
Pampanga Agricultural College
2. 3rd National Biennial Conference
of the Philippine Association of
Extension Program Implementers,
Inc. (PAEPI) in the Lyceum
University of the Philippines
3. 9th BPSU Abucay Campus R & D
In-house Review at BPSU Abucay
Campus on October 18, 2013awarded as the BEST PAPER for
Development Category
4. 24th CLARRDEC Regional R & D
Symposium at Philippine Carabao
Center, Science City of Munoz,
Nueva Ecija - awarded as the 2nd
BEST PAPER for Development
Category
The project was also visited by the
following:
1. Nineteen (19) representatives from
the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng
Maynila Center for University
Extension Services on February 19,
2013
2. Ten (10) Chairpersons of the
Municipal Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources Management Council of
Bataan on March 19, 2013
3. Seven (7) Media Team of Cong.
Albert Garcia
4. Six (6) Master of Science in
Agriculture students of BPSU on
March 23, 2013
5. Forty (40) Faculty and employees of
BPSU Orani and Abucay campuses
6. Seven (7) MFARC officers from
Limay, Bataan
7. Twelve (12) BS Agriculture
Engineering students and faculty of
BPSU Abucay campus
8. Thirteen (13) Fisherfolk including
two Municipal Councilors and the
Municipal Agriculture Officer from
Samal, Bataan for a cross-visit
SUPPORT DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITY
TO ENHANCE PNAP IN BATAAN
Training on fish processing
A “Kaalamang Pangkabuhayan
para sa mga ginang ng tahanan ng mga
Mangingisda sa Bataan” was approved
and funded by the BPSU Gender and
Development (GAD). A training on fish
processing such as boneless “tinapa”
making, fish drying, sardines making, fish
fillet, gourmet and the likes scheduled
once a month for the selected housewife
of fisherfolk beneficiaries was conducted
by food processing experts from Orani
campus in support of the PNAP. Right after
each batch of 5 finished their training,
the processing materials including a small
amount of capital were awarded to them to
enable them to start their business. A total
of 35 beneficiaries were trained by BPSU
experts and awarded P2, 500.00 each for
their starting capital.
(/*
Contributed Papers
Table 8. Reported income from the beneficiaries’ aquasilviculture projects during the first cycle of operation.
Beneficiary
Organization of
Fisherfolks
Stocks No.
Harvest
(pc)
Milk
fish
Mud
crab
Mud
crab
Tilapia
Kg Harvested
Milk
fish
Shrimp
Amount
(P)
Blue
crab
1. KAMMANCE
300
300
500
85
58
13.3
12.7
26,052.00
2. MFARMC
300
300
500
178
40
17
13
11,913.00
3. SAMAKA
300
300
500
296
41
11
22.5
19,670.00
4. SMT
300
300
500
42
22.5
24.5
27
24,200.00
5. SMW
300
300
500
258
12.9
16
20
21,250.00
6. SAMADU
300
300
500
212
46
21
27
23,550.00
7. SMPL
300
300
500
198
38
26.2
19
16,260.00
8. SAMANA
300
300
500
324
54
19.5
28
30,050.00
9. MMAKISIG
300
300
500
170
39
18
24
24,590.00
10. GAMACA
300
300
500
232
51
25
16.5
27,180.00
11. SMPB
300
300
500
123
11.2
9.3
16
15,047.00
12. BPSUAMRC
300
300
500
13. KAKAMPI
300
300
500
234
66
24
34
28,180.00
14. PUFIDECO
300
300
500
102
8.8
11.1
8.6
11,787.40
15. SMP
300
300
500
265
17.5
4.3
25
23,550.00
16. SAMAKA**
550
INCOME FROM AQUASILVICULTURE
303,279.40
INCOME FROM MANGROVE RESOURCES REHABILITATION
1,623,139.00
INCOME FROM GRAVID MUD CRABS & BLUE CRABS
98,195.00
TOTAL INCOME DERIVED FROM THE PROGRAM
2,024,613.40
* Stocks were raised in the BPSU fishpond
**Stocks had escaped when nets were damaged by poachers
Table 9. Total number of collected and procured gravid/berried females for spawning.
Species
Number of
pieces
Cost (P)
Total number of fry/
fingerlings/ crablets produced
Mud crabs*
124
12,400.00
248,000,000
Blue crabs**
1,557
38,925.00
778,500,000
4,000,000
Native mud crabs
2
200.00
1,100
4,670.00
10
1,100.00
Milkfish
4
20,000.00
Sea bass
4
20,000.00
Red tilapia
25
500.00
1,800
Nile tilapia
25
500.00
600
Fresh water eel
10
Fresh water crabs
60
98,195.00
1,030,502,400
Crablets (Giant crab)
Giant mud crabs
TOTAL
*Estimated for an average of 2M eggs/ gravid mud crab (Pelan and Grubert, 2007)
**Estimated for an average of 0.5M eggs/ gravid blue crab (Kamrani et al., 2010)
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PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 10. List of trained beneficiaries for the livelihood on Fish Processing funded by BPSU GAD.
Date of
Training
No.
7/23/2013
1
8/29/2013
10/7/2013
11/7/2013
Trained Beneficiary
Angelina Agustin
Address
Palihan, Orani, Bataan
Loan
Granted
P2,500.00
2
Adelina Brioso
Palihan, Orani, Bataan
P2,500.00
3
Josie Baltazar
Palihan, Orani, Bataan
P2,500.00
4
Teresita Lacap
Palihan, Orani, Bataan
P2,500.00
5
Ailina Suspene
Pulo, Orani, Bataan
P2,500.00
6
Cecilia Guevarra
Pulo, Orani, Bataan
P2,500.00
7
Angela Guevarra
Pulo, Orani, Bataan
P2,500.00
8
Alicia Raymundo
Pulo, Orani, Bataan
P2,500.00
9
Marilyn Lalican
Pulo, Orani, Bataan
P2,500.00
10
Jennifer Pago
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
11
Mylene Yere
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
12
Joanne del Rosario
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
13
Jesusa Lajara
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
14
Alpay Flores
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
15
Bonifacia Mendenilla
Almasen, Hermosa, Bataan
P2,500.00
16
Emelita Nuqui
Almasen, Hermosa, Bataan
P2,500.00
17
Caroline Salas
Almasen, Hermosa, Bataan
P2,500.00
18
Leonor Mintal
Almasen, Hermosa, Bataan
P2,500.00
19
Remedios Cruz
Almasen, Hermosa, Bataan
P2,500.00
20
Benny Aguilar
Almasen, Hermosa, Bataan
P2,500.00
21
Rosalinda Villaruel
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
22
Vivian del Rosario
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
23
Rosette Sanchez
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
24
Rosalie del Rosario
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
25
Marilyn Luega
Sitio Salaman, Pag-asa, Bagac, Bataan
P2,500.00
26
Ma. Victoria Cordova
Limay, Bataan
P2,500.00
27
Marissa Nuquera
Limay, Bataan
P2,500.00
28
Editha Esma
Limay, Bataan
P2,500.00
29
Matilde Fernando
Limay, Bataan
P2,500.00
30
Rose C. Santos
Limay, Bataan
P2,500.00
31
Antonia P. Bueno
Limay, Bataan
P2,500.00
32
Leticia Salandanan
Limay, Bataan
P2,500.00
33
Veronica Cauayan
Limay, Bataan
P2,500.00
34
Erlinda Pare
Limay, Bataan
P2,500.00
35
Joanne Guache
Limay, Bataan
35
Remarks
P2,500.00
P87,500.00
(/,
Contributed Papers
PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
I. Mangrove Rehabilitation Project
1. High mortality of mangroves planted
in Kaparangan, Orani, Bataan
mostly due to monsoon flood.
A and, according to our project
beneficiaries, mangrove mortalities
may have been caused by other
fisherfolks .
Solutions made: Replanting was done
by the project beneficiaries and
frequent visitation and patrolling
were conducted.
Signages were also placed to inform
other fisherfolks.
mayor, councilor Rome Sicat,
Barangay Captains of Palihan,
Pantalan Luma, Pantalan Bago,
Kabalutan and Kaparangan,
MFARMC Officers, Representatives
from BFAR 3 and the project team.
3. Nets of 10 units aquasilviculture
techno demo structures were
intentionally destroyed by an
unidentified individual causing the
stocks to escape to the other unit.
Solution made. The incident was
reported to the Orani PNP and to
the concerned officials of BPSU and
BFAR 3. BFAR 3 replaced the stocks
in the damaged aquasilviculture
projects to help the fisherfolks
recover their losses.
II. Aquasilviculture Techno Demo Project
Summary
1. Limited amount allotted for the
materials for fencing of the
aquasilviculture techno demo.
Solution made: Aquasilviculture techno
demos were established in cluster
of twos(2), threes (3) and fours(4)
within mangrove rehabilitated sites.
2. One fisherman (a former MFARMC
Officer) complained about the
techno demo to the Barangay
Captain of Kaparangan, Orani,
Bataan; the complaints were
elevated to Mayor Benjamin
Serrano resulting to the temporary
suspension of the establishment of
the techno demo.
Solution made: An orientation
was made at the SB Hall of the
Municipality of Orani, Bataan
together with the Municipal Vice(/-
The Philippine National
Aquasilviculture Program, a BFAR-CHED
collaborative project, aimed to rehabilitate
our mangrove forests and at the same time
improve the welfare of the marginalized
sector, specifically the fisherfolks through
resource rehabilitation & livelihood
provisions.
Bataan Peninsula State University, after
having been given the chance to implement
the PNAP oriented 637 fisherfolks from
28 accredited fisherfolk organizations
in Bataan. After a thorough selection of
beneficiaries following the criteria set
therein 16 fisherfolk organizations signed
a Memorandum of Agreement with their
respective Chair or Leader.
The said project beneficiaries had
accomplished their targets within a period
of nine (9) months only. They collected
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
and planted a total of 183, 300 mangrove
propagules covering approximately 61.10
hectares with 85.96% survival along the
coastal areas of Orani and City of Balanga,
Bataan where the fisherfolks earned
P1,035,452.50 additional income.
They also established 16 units
aquasilviculture technology demonstration
projects and raised mud crabs, milkfish,
blue crabs and shrimps while caring for
the mangroves they planted. They reported
a total of P 303,279.40 sales from their
aquasilviculture projects.
An Inland Based Multi-species hatchery
as one of the components of the program,
has produced fingerlings of fish species
local to the area. When the fingerlings
reached the recommended sizes these will
be released along the mangrove forest to
grow. Two hatcheries were also established
to allow gravid fish species being caught by
the fisherfolks to lay their eggs and grow
in the open, a strategy of increasing fish
population and improving fish catch of the
fisherfolks.
An estimated 778.5 million blue crabs
and 248 million mud crab eggs were
spawned through the hatchery and 4,002,
400 fingerlings produced in the Inland
based hatchery, were allowed to grow in the
open sea to increase their population in the
area.
Conclusion
The decline of mangrove resources in
our country has significantly reduced the
productivity of coastal fisheries due to a
continuous decrease in fish capture by the
fisherfolks. This is an alarming scenario
that could be prevented through the
collaborative efforts of the government, the
academe and the most affected sectors of
our society, the marginalized fisherfolks.
The strategies used in the
implementation of the PNAP in Bataan
were found effective due to very high
survival of planted mangroves. The
presence of aquasilviculture technology
demonstration projects along rehabilitated
mangrove areas significantly helped
increase survival of mangroves since
fisherfolk beneficiaries were always in
their aquasilviculture projects. Fish catch
according to some interviewed fisherfolks is
also increasing due to continuous spawning
of fish in the hatchery.
If the 61.10 hectares of mangrove areas
rehabilitated during the first phase of the
PNAP will reach its full potential as fish
habitat, an estimated 40,937 kg of fish per
year will added to the fish catch of the
fisherfolks.
Even if only 1% of the 1,030,502,400
spawned or laid eggs of the mud crabs and
blue crabs survived, that means around
10.3M of these species will be growing
in the wild and may be harvested by the
fisherfolks.
If all fisherfolks in our country will
be as organized and as eager as those in
Bataan, there will be no reason why this
government program will not succeed.
They are now very much aware that if
mangrove areas will be rehabilitated
and properly protected, fish capture will
definitely increase.
Recommendation
Various sectors of our society should do
their part in improving and protecting our
coastal resources. Efforts should be exerted
to hasten rehabilitation of more mangrove
(/.
Contributed Papers
areas to increase fish habitats coupled with
the establishment of Community-based
Multi-species hatcheries such as the lyingin concept hatchery in every fish farming
community of the country.
Guidebook on the Mangroves of Puerto
Galera. Ecosystems Research and
Development Bureau, Department of
Environment and Natural Resources,
College, Laguna, Philippines.
Research should also be conducted to
determine the rate of survival of each fish
species being allowed to hatch in the open
and/or in mangrove areas.
Kamrani E, Sabili A and Yahyavi M. 2010.
Stock Assessment and Reproductive
Biology of the Blue swimming crab,
Portunus pelagicus in Bandar Abbas
Coastal Waters, Northern Persian
Gulf. 201 Journal of the Persian Gulf
(Marine Science)/Vol.1/No.2/December
2010/11/11-22.
Acknowledgements
Bataan Peninsula State University
wishes to convey its gratitude to the Bureau
of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR
3) for the rare opportunity to be one of
the implementing SUCs of the Philippine
National Aquasilviculture Program (PNAP)
and for the funding.
Special thanks is also due to the
DENR-PENRO in Bataan for the data on
the present status of mangroves in the
province, to the Local Governments of
Orani and City of Balanga, Bataan through
their corresponding Municipal Agriculture
Offices and their Municipal/City Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources management
Councils (MFARMCs). Likewise to the
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development
Center (SEAFDEC) for allowing this paper
to be presented during the International
Workshop on Resource Enhancement and
Sustainable Aquaculture (RESA) on March
5-7, 2014, at Punta Villa Resort, Iloilo City,
Philippines.
Melana DM, Atchue III J, Yao CE, Edwards
R, Melana EE and Gonzales HI. 2000.
Mangrove Management Handbook.
Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, Quezon City,
Philippines, through the Coastal
Resource Management Project.
Pelan M and Grubert M. 2007. The Life
Cycle of Mud crab.
Primavera JH. 1995. Mangroves and
brackishwater pond culture in the
Philippines. Hydrobiologia 295: 303309.
Suggested Readings
Baconguis SR, Cabahug Jr DM and AlonzoPasicolan SN. 1990. Identification
and inventory of Philippine forestedwetlands resource. Forest Ecology
Management 33/34: 21-44.
References
Baconguis SR, Ociones FT, Panot IA,
Lavega RM, Siapno FE, Carino CR,
Holgado DY and Reyes FM. 1993. A
(//
BFAR-CHED. 2011. Implementing
Guidelines for the Implementation
of the Philippine National
Aquasilviculture Program (PNAP).
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Marine Fish Hatchery: Developments and Future Trends
Clarissa L. Martea and Joebert D. Toledob*
Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries (ISDA)
Marine Finfish Seed Production Specialist, Feedmix Specialists Inc II
* jdtoledo52@gmail.com
a
b
Abstract
The basic procedures for producing marine fish fry in hatcheries developed for milkfish fry
production nearly 3 decades ago are the basis of fry production systems for all other marine fish
species that are now reared in hatcheries in the Philippines and other Southeast Asian countries.
These include large-scale microalgae production in outdoor tanks, feeding of appropriate sized
rotifer grown on microalgae such as Nannochlorum during the first feeding phase, and shifting to
larger prey such as Artemia towards the latter stages of production.
In recent years, the increasing demand for high-value species such as groupers, sea bass, red
snapper, and pompano in both local and export markets has encouraged a number of hatcheries
to produce fry to supply the requirements of fish cage farmers. Techniques are modified using
information from research institutions and multi-national firms active in developing products
and equipment to improve commercial production of these species. Larval feeds of appropriate
sizes, forms and presentation for various larval stages incorporating essential nutrients,
micronutrients, and feed stimulants are now available in the market. Diseases in marine fish
hatcheries have become common occurrences such that various chemotherapeutants, vaccines,
and immunostimulants are now available and increasingly being applied in fish hatcheries.
Technological developments in hatchery systems, such as the use of recirculating systems, water
pretreatment protocols (ozonation, mircrofiltration, UV light treatment) are also increasingly
being adopted by commercial establishments.
A critical link between fry production and production of marketable fish is fingerling/
juvenile production in nurseries. Fry are commonly grown in brackishwater fishponds to
appropriate size for stocking in fish cages. Methods to improve growth through proper feeding and
nutrition, eliminate or reduce disease occurrence and parasite infestation, reduce cannibalism in
cannibalistic species such as sea bass, grouper and snappers are active areas of research. Nursery
production is integrated with fry production in large commercial facilities but is also done by
small-scale fish farmers who have access to fry either from the wild or hatcheries. Commercial
hatcheries adopt fingerling production from well-studied species in developed countries. Smallscale farmers however still rely on zooplanktons collected from the wild such as copepods,
Moina, mysids, and trash fish as feed. Production is dependent on availability of feed sources and
susceptibility to pathogens and parasites that come with the feed. It can also be erratic since smallscale farms are vulnerable to changes in climate and weather conditions.
Further technological advancement in marine fish hatcheries will increasingly be led by
commercial establishments and industries developing equipment like photobioreactor for
microalgae to produce algal paste, or methods to develop intensive systems for rotifer culture.
Research institutions will however need to support the needs of the small-scale farmers and
(/0
Contributed Papers
hatchery operators who may not be able to apply costly products from these companies by
developing innovative simple techniques that can improve culture systems such as producing fry
and fingerlings in mesocosm pond system, appropriate use of probiotics as water stabilizer, and
production of zooplankton in ponds.
Keywords: marine fish, hatchery, larval rearing, nursery, broodstock
Introduction
Fish farming has been practiced for
centuries in Southeast Asia with production
coming mainly from freshwater culture.
Brackishwater culture of milkfish however
was a major activity in the Philippines,
Indonesia and Taiwan, with milkfish
contributing a sizable percentage of the
food fish consumed by the population.
Milkfish culture has been and continues to
be the main aquaculture enterprise in the
Philippines with fry traditionally sourced
from the sea. Milkfish is the staple food
fish in the Philippines, and contributes
the largest share in fish produced from
aquaculture in the Philippines and
Indonesia. However, since more than
three decades ago, fry supply had been
difficult to procure for some months of the
year because of seasonal changes, adverse
climatic conditions and actual decrease
in volume caught by fry gatherers even
during peak months. To assure continuous
and reliable fry supply, milkfish breeding
research was initiated at the Southeast
Asian Fisheries Development Center
Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC
AQD)in the 1970s. In collaboration with
other international research institutions,
the research effort led to the development
of broodstock management technologies
including induced spawning (Liao et
al., 1979), spontaneous maturation
and spawning in floating cages (Marte
and Lacanilao, 1986) and tanks (Emata
and Marte, 1994), and larval rearing
(0'
technologies (Juario et al., 1984; Gapasin
and Marte, 1990). Through the years, these
technologies were continuously improved
and refined with research on nutrition,
physiology, behaviour, disease prevention
and management. The broodstock and
hatchery technology developed for milkfish
was subsequently modified and applied
in developing breeding andlarval rearing
methods for other marine fish that have
high commercial value such as sea bass,
grouper, snapper, pompano and rabbitfish
(Marte, 2003).
Fry production is the first stage in
the fish farming cycle that ends in the
production of marketable fish. A necessary
and crucial stage however is the production
of fingerlings to supply the requirements
of fishponds and marine and freshwater
cages. While pond culture of fingerlings for
stocking in grow-out farms is traditionally
practiced by milkfish farmers as part of
the farming cycle, recent innovations in
nursery rearing has improved production.
The nursery subsector of the milkfish
industry is now emerging as a lucrative
business enterprise.
The basic techniques in larval rearing
developed for milkfish, modifications
adopted for carnivorous species and
those with long larval gestation phases,
technologies developed by multinational
companies and the private sector to
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
improve production in the hatchery, and
recent innovations in nursery production
are described in the following sections.
Broodstock Development and
Management
Aquaculture had been dependent on
wild-caught fry and juveniles for stocking
in fishponds or cages. The practice was
unsustainable particularly for species such
as groupers that are often caught using
destructive methods such as the use of
cyanide. Even for species such as milkfish
whose fry is traditionally caught along
the shoreline using fine-meshed nets, the
numerous other fry species caught together
with milkfish that are discarded contribute
to the depletion of important species that
are part of the marine food chain making
the capture method ecologically unsound.
The development of marine fish broodstock
and establishment of commercial hatcheries
has long been recognized as a primary
means of reducing pressure on wild
juvenile stocks and supply the demand for
seedstock of fish farmers.
Source of breeders: farmed or wild
Fish broodstock may be caught as
adults from the wild and brought to the
broodstock/hatchery facility for spawning
if these are reproductively ripe. Spawning
techniques developed in research facilities
such as injection of human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG) or luteinizing
hormone releasing hormone (LHRHa) is
applied at the appropriate dose and the
fish are either strip-spawned or allowed
to spawn naturally. Young adults are
reared for several years and acclimated
to captive conditions of the facility until
they show signs of reproductive readiness.
As with ripe adults, breeders are checked
for spawning readiness and induced
to spawn with hormones or allowed to
spawn naturally. Facilities for rearing
and maintaining marine fish broodstock
are either cages located in clean, safe
environments such as marine coves, or in
land-based canvas or concrete tanks. For
practical and economic considerations,
young adults are first reared in cages or
ponds to reduce maintenance cost and later
transferred to land-based facilities when
the fish are ready for spawning. Milkfish
farmers often leave juveniles and young
adults in brackish or marine ponds for 2-4
years before these are transferred to either
cages or tanks.
For many marine fish, most of
the nutritional requirements of the
broodstock have been determined or are
currently being refined by nutritionists
in research institutions. Commercial
feed companies or broodstock operators
use the information in formulating
appropriate broodstock feeds. Nutritionists
determine basic protein, lipid and energy
requirements of broodstock and focus on
some of the essential nutrients such as
highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) and
vitamins that directly affect egg production
and quality.
Marine fish broodstock spawn during
their natural breeding season although
they may be induced to spawn at other
times of the year using hormonal and/
or environmental triggers. Sea bass for
instance may spawn outside their natural
breeding season when maintained at 30-35
ppt, 29-30°C and day light regime of 13
hours. Temperature is reduced to 23-24°C
for 8-10 weeks a year to simulate cold
months and to allow gamete development
(Fielder, pers. comm.). Changes in climate
patterns appear to have an effect on
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Contributed Papers
spawning and egg production as observed
recently for milkfish that have been
spawning almost year round.
Marine fish Larval Rearing- then and
now
The specifications and requirements
for a small-scale marine fish hatchery are
detailed in Sim, et. al (2005). Figure 1
illustrates the basic design of a hatchery
suitable for rearing various marine
fish such as milkfish, sea bass, grouper,
rabbitfish, pompano and others. Various
modifications are made by hatchery
operators, depending on their projected
production targets, availability of
construction materials, financing, market,
etc. Site requirements and availability of
support services will be the same for smallscale and large commercial hatcheries.
Hatchery production technologies for
marine fish in the Philippines started with
the development of breeding methods for
milkfish in the 1980s. With the successful
hatchery production of milkfish fry,
research efforts to develop technologies
for other marine fish such as sea bass,
rabbitfish (Ayson et al., 2014), snapper
(Duray et al., 1996), grouper (Sugama et
al., 2012) and pompano (Reyes et al., 2014)
were done resulting in the production of
fry in commercial hatcheries.
The basic milkfish larval rearing
scheme is shown in Figure 2. Newly
hatched larvae are stocked at 10-20 larvae
per liter in concrete or canvas tanks filled
with seawater that has been seeded with
the microalgae Nannochlorum. Rotifers are
added on the second or third day, initially
at 2-3 rotifers per ml, and then gradually
(0)
increased to 10-20 individuals per ml
as the larvae grow. Water management
involves replacing 10-20% of the rearing
water with fresh seawater during the first
week of larval rearing and increasing the
volume to about 50% towards the later
phase of rearing. Microalgae density is
maintained at 1-3 x 105 cells per ml during
the entire rearing period. With information
on nutritional requirements of larvae,
microparticulate diets have been developed
and these are given at 0.5-2g/ton/day as
supplemental feed for larvae as early as the
8th day of rearing until harvest. Milkfish
larvae have a short gestation period and fry
are harvested on the 18th to 20th day (Figure
2).
Modifications based on the larval
rearing scheme developed for milkfish
were adopted for the rearing of seabass,
rabbitfish, grouper, snapper and pompano
larvae. Larval rearing of these species takes
from 50 to 60 days that may be divided
into two phases: 1) an early rearing phase
lasting 20 days and following the procedure
used for milkfish larval rearing; and 2) an
extended second phase lasting until the
60th day of rearing where larger plankton
prey such as Artemia nauplii, on-grown
Artemia, copepods, or mysids are added as
live food for the increasingly cannibalistic
larvae (Toledo et al., 1999). Artificial diets
are also provided, at increasing amounts
of up to 3-5g/ton/day. Similar water
management methods, such as siphoning
of tank bottom to remove debris and excess
feeds from the 5th day onwards and water
change from 20-30% until the 20th day,
increasing to 50-70% until the 35-40th day,
are employed. Continuous flow-through
water exchange is done from the 40th day
until harvest (Figure 3).
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 1. Layout of a typical small-scale milkfish hatchery (Gapasin and Marte, 1990).
Figure 2. Larval rearing scheme for milkfish.
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Contributed Papers
Figure 3. Larval rearing scheme for high value fish (sea bass, grouper, rabbitfish, snapper and
pompano).
Recent Developments in Fish Hatchery
and Nursery Technologies
Microalgae and rotifers are essential
first food for marine fish larvae and culture
techniques continue to be improved. Since
microalgae and rotifer production requires
more than half of the tank facilities of a
hatchery, ways to increase cell densities,
and methods to produce and to preserve
concentrated microalgal paste or slurry
are active areas of research although some
products from commercial companies are
already available to big hatchery operators.
Aside from the conventional method of
rotifer culture in outdoor tanks using
microalgae as sole food, rotifers may now
be grown using a combination of Baker’s
yeast, commercially available Nannochlorum
or Chlorella paste, and live microalgae.
These innovations led to the development
of super intensive rotifer system with a
production efficiency of more than 50 times
(0+
the conventional system. Because intensive
rotifer systems may reach a density as
high as 10,000 ind/ml, a system is used to
remove solid wastes, neutralize ammonia
levels and maintain dissolved oxygen levels
higher than 4ppm (for review, see Dhert
et al., 2001). A high-density continuous
recirculating system using sodium
hydroxymethanesulfonate to neutralize
ammonia was recently reported to produce
large quantities of rotifers on a daily basis
without the use of a biofilter and with a
lower production cost than a batch culture
system (Bentley et al., 2008).
Rotifers and Artemia are deficient in
highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) that
are essential for normal growth and survival
of marine fish fry (Ogata et al., 2006).
Methods to enrich rotifers and Artemia have
been developed and products for boosting
fatty acid levels are now available. Various
formulations containing docosahexaenoic
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
arachidonic acid (ARA) and Vitamin C
can be used to enrich rotifers and Artemia.
Enriched rotifers and Artemia fed to
milkfish and other marine fish larvae result
in improved fry survival rates and reduced
morphological deformities (Gapasin
and Duray, 2001). Microorganisms that
produce high levels of HUFA such as
Thraustocrytrids have been shown to
improve survival rate of milkfish fry and
was comparable to commercial products
when used to supplement larval food
(Estudillo-del Castillo et al., 2009). To
date, there are a number of commercial
enrichment products available but these are
costly.
Growing microalgae and rotifers
to feed to marine fish larvae is laborintensive. Natural food production is also
unpredictable and affected by changing
weather patterns especially for small-scale
hatcheries that have little or no effective
protection against unfavorable weather.
With the development of larval diets based
on the known nutritional requirements
of larval and juvenile stages, microbound,
and microencapsulated feeds are fed to the
larvae midway during the rotifer feeding
period and in most cases may completely
replace live food during the latter phases
of rearing. Artificial diets should be of
appropriate size for the stage of the larvae,
attractive to the larvae, digestible and
contain nutrients needed by the larvae.
In addition, the physical properties of the
larval diet is critical in ensuring efficient
utilization of the nutrients it contains.
Hatchery facilities range from low-cost
canvas tanks of backyard hatcheries to large
industrial type integrated broodstock and
hatcheries. Support facilities for backyard
hatcheries consist mainly of at least two
seawater pumps, an aeration system, and a
power generator as a back-up. Integrated
broodstock and hatchery support facilities
may, in addition, include systems to filter
incoming water, UV facilities, or other
water sterilization equipment such as
ozonators to disinfect seawater. These
additional equipment are usually included
in recirculating systems to control entry of
predators, and pathogens.
Mesocosm Systems
These are culture systems for fish larvae
with water volume ranging from 1 to 10,000
m3 where a pelagic ecosystem is developed
consisting of multi-species, natural food
chain of phytoplankton and zooplankton
for fish larvae. Most common systems used
are the pond and tank mesocosm. Cement
50-100 m3 tanks or 300-1000 m2 earthen
ponds are cleaned and sun dried for 3-4
days and filled with filtered seawater rich
in phyto- and zooplankton. The tanks are
then fertilized with commercial sources
of nitrogen and phosphorus. Fish larvae,
just before complete yolk absorption,
are introduced into the system when the
abundance of the plankton is enough to
support the population. It is important
to have proper timing of the availability
of larvae for stocking and the available
quantity and quality of zooplankton
population. Stocking densities vary
from 0.1 to 1.0 larva per liter. In a pond
mesocosm system in Taiwan, a 500 m2
pond is stocked with 500,000 larvae of
the giant grouper Epinephelus lanceolatus.
The pond is provided with moderate
aeration during the first 2 weeks using a
single propulsion-type aerator from the
3rd week until harvest. Harvest is done
by seine between days 30-35 when total
length (TL) is about 1.8-2.5 cm. Additional
zooplankton (rotifer, copepod, or mysids)
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Contributed Papers
are supplied when needed. Separate ponds
may also be prepared to culture these food
organisms. Formulated feeds are given in
increasing amounts from third week after
stocking. Probiotics are widely used to
maintain the desired water quality. About
50,000 giant grouper fry may be harvested
from this system depending on the quality
of the larvae stocked, abundance of natural
food and weather conditions (Toledo,
personal observation).
for nursery of metamorphosed snapper
and seabass fry. The fry at this stage are
weaned to formulated feeds from live food
such as copepods, mysids or on-grown
Artemia. There is an increasing trend
in using probiotics in nursery tanks to
improve the water quality and reduce water
consumption for flow-through system.
Size grading is done at least once a week
to control cannibalism and to check for
parasite and bacterial infection.
Nursery Phase
A major disease problem encountered
in marine fish hatcheries and nurseries
is infestations from the dinoflagellate
Amyloodinium that occur during certain
months. Small-scale hatchery operators are
mainly affected by the infestation because
of lack of filtration facilities, improperly
located hatchery (close to rivers and other
polluting establishments) and perhaps poor
water management. If uncontrolled, this
can cause large mortalities in larvae and
considerable loss in harvestable fry (CruzLacierda et al., 2004). Amyloodinium affects
milkfish, seabass, grouper and pompano
larvae as early as a week after hatching
and may cause massive mortalities if not
controlled. Overnight bath at the larval
stage in 0.50 ppm copper sulphate may
eliminate the free swimming dinospore
stage of the parasite but may not eradicate
the trophonts attached to larvae nor the
reproductive cysts (Toledo, personal
observation). The parasite can be controlled
at the fry stage by application of low
concentration of formalin or hydrogen
peroxide and freshwater bath.
Larval rearing ends after the larvae
achieve full metamorphosis. Fry harvested
from larval tanks or mesocosm system
are often not large nor strong enough
for stocking directly in grow-out farms.
Milkfish fry are usually stocked in nursery
ponds until they reach a size of about
2-3cm. Nursery ponds are prepared by
complete drying to eliminate predators and
application of appropriate fertilization to
promote growth of natural food. Once the
natural food are depleted, the “hatirin” are
harvested and transferred to a prepared
pond to grow further to 10-15 cm for
stocking in grow-out farms. Formulated
feed is introduced when the natural food in
the pond is almost consumed.
Other high value marine species
achieve complete metamorphosis at
various age and size. Seabass and snubnose pompano metamorphose between
days 21-25 at a size of 1.6 to 2.2 cm TL.
Mangrove snapper and tiger and green
groupers metamorphose into juveniles
from 2.0-2.5 cm TL at days 35-45. Newlymetamorphosed groupers and pompano
are usually reared in cement tanks of
about 2-5 tons in a flow-through system.
Net cages in brackishwater ponds or
coastal waters may alternately be used
(0-
Fish with long gestation periods such as
seabass, grouper, rabbitfish, pompano and
snapper are susceptible to Viral Nervous
Necrosis (IVNN), a viral disease that is
transmitted from broodstock, plankton, or
infected food organisms. The disease was
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
first reported in 2002 in 35 day-old orange
spotted grouper (Maeno et al., 2002) and
in 14 day-old seabass larvae (Maeno et
al., 2004). VNN is now a major disease
problem occurring in most fish reared in
the hatchery, nursery and grow-out culture.
Ways to prevent and control the disease
has been a continuing research effort. Since
VNN is transmitted from broodstock to
eggs and larvae, steps to prevent VNN
infection in the hatchery starts with
screening broodstock using molecular tools
(RT-PCR) and selection of VNN negative
fish as spawners. Further screening of
eggs, feeding of broodstock with artificial
diets, and periodic sampling of larvae for
the presence of the virus, need to be done
to ensure prevention of the disease (de la
Peña, 2010). Husbandry procedures such
as thorough cleaning and disinfection
of tanks and hatchery paraphernalia,
discarding dead fish and reducing stressors
to broodstock and larvae also need to be
followed. A promising method to prevent
viral infection in hatcheries is by enhancing
the immune response of broodstock
resulting in virus-resistant breeders that
produce VNN-free eggs (Pakingking et
al., 2010). An annual vaccination regimen
using a formalin inactivated virus applied
to seabass enhanced neutralizing antibody
titers against VNN in broodstock and
antibodies transmitted to spawned eggs
(Pakingking et al., 2012). Development and
maintenance of VNN-free broodstock as
source of spawned eggs will be an essential
step to ensure disease free larvae in the
hatchery. Commercial vaccines currently
being developed and tested by a number of
pharmaceutical companies (e.g. AquaVac)
are expensive and only large-scale hatchery
and farm operators may be able to afford
these once these become available in the
market.
Future directions
Farming of marine fish will increasingly
rely on hatchery-produced seeds with
new species added to the roster of
available species that are being cultured.
Research institutions and commercial
establishments will actively pursue various
avenues to improve production of marine
fish fry. These will include improvement
of the design of hatchery facilities by
developing more cost-efficient filtration
and sterilization facilities, improved
biosecurity measures, and nutritionally
superior broodstock, larval and nursery
feeds. For species that are currently being
produced in hatcheries, future directions
will include undertaking breeding
programs to improve growth rates, improve
feed quality for breeders to increase
egg production and adopt broodstock
management procedures that will promote
extension of the spawning season of
seasonal breeders. Many carnivorous fish
are still fed fish by-catch, hence, good
quality artificial diets that are attractive to
mature breeders still need to be developed.
Studies to enhance resistance to diseases,
identify new disease agents, and prevent
vertical transmission of disease agents
from breeders to fry are active research
areas. However, cost-effective vaccines and
vaccination procedures especially for fry
and fingerlings still need to be developed
to make these available to small-scale
hatchery operators. There are numerous
feed supplements currently available but
these are costly and may not be affordable
to small-scale operators. Natural food
candidates that are nutritionally superior
to the currently available food items, and
natural sources of feed additives can reduce
production cost. Efforts to identify, isolate,
and develop culture techniques for these
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Contributed Papers
organisms need to be pursued. There are
already available concentrated preserved
microalgal products that are mainly used
for the production of biofuels or food
supplements for animals but there are very
few microalgal species used in marine
fish larval rearing that are amenable to
preservation. Methods to concentrate,
preserve and extend the shelf life of these
preserved microalgae for hatcheries will
need to be developed. These technologies
will considerably reduce requirement for
tank facilities, increase fry production
potential by utilizing tanks intended for
microalgae production but these need to
be cost-effective and made available to
commercial and small-scale operators.
References
Ayson FG, Reyes OS and de JesusAyson EG. 2014. Seed production of
rabbitfish Siganus guttatus. Aquaculture
Extension Manual No. 59. SEAFDEC
Aquaculture Department. Tigbauan,
Iloilo, Philippines. 18 pp.
Bentley CD, Carroll PM, Watanabe WO
and Riedel AM. 2008. Intensive rotifer
production in a pilot scale continuous
culture recirculating system using
nonviable microalgae and an ammonia
neutralizer. Journal of the World
Aquaculture Society 39: 625-635.
Cruz-Lacierda E, Maeno Y, Pineda AJT
and Matey VE. 2004. Mass mortality
of hatchery-reared milkfish (Chanos
chanos) and mangrove red snapper
(Lutjanus argentimaculatus) caused
by Amyloodinium nocellatum
(Dinoflagellida). Aquaculture 236: 8594.
(0/
de la Peña L. 2010. Prevention and control
measures against viral nervous necrosis
(VNN) in marine fish hatcheries.
Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 44.
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department,
Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines 26 pp.
Dhert P, Rombaut G, Suantika G and
Sorgeloos P. 2001. Advancement of
rotifer culture and manipulation
techniques in Europe. Aquaculture 200:
129–146.
Duray MN, Alpasan LG and Estudillo
CB. 1996. Improved hatchery rearing
of mangrove red snapper, Lutjanus
argentimaculatus, in large tanks with
small rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis) and
Artemia. Israeli Journal Of Aquaculture
- Bamidgeh 48: 123-132.
Emata AC and Marte CL. 1994. Natural
spawning, egg and fry production of
milkfish Chanos chanos (Forsskal),
broodstock reared in concrete tanks.
Journal of Applied Ichthyology 10(1):
10-16.
Estudillo-Del Castillo C, Gapasin RSJ
and Leaño EM. 2009. Enrichment
potential of HUFA-rich thraustochytrid
Schizochytrium mangrovei for the rotifer
Brachionus plicatilis. Aquaculture 293:
57-61.
Gapasin RSJ and Marte CL. 1990. Milkfish
Hatchery Operations. Aquaculture
Extension Manual No.17. SEAFDEC
Aquaculture Department. Tigbauan,
Iloilo, Philippines. 24 pp.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Gapasin RSJ and Duray MN. 2001. Effects
of DHA-enriched live food on growth,
survival and incidence of opercular
deformities in milkfish (Chanos
chanos). Aquaculture 193: 49-63.
Juario JV, Duray MN, Nacario JF and
Almendras JM. 1984. Induced breeding
and larval rearing experiments with
milkfish Chanos chanos (Forsskal) in
the Philippines. Aquaculture 36: 61-70.
Liao IC, Juario JV, Kumagai S, Nakajima H,
Natividad M and Buri P. 1979. On the
induced spawning and larval rearing
of milkfish, Chanos chanos (Forsskal).
Aquaculture 18: 75-93.
Ogata HY, Chavez DR, Garibay ES, Furuita
H and Suloma A. 2006. Hatcheryproduced milkfish (Chanos chanos)
fry should be fed docosahexaenoic
acid-enriched live food: A case
of the difficulty in the transfer of
improved aquaculture technology in
the Philippines. Japan Agricultural
Research Quarterly 40(4): 393-402.
Pakingking Jr. R, Bautista NB, de JesusAyson EG and Reyes O. 2010.
Protective immunity against viral
nervous necrosis (VNN) in brownmarbled grouper (Epinephelus
fuscoguttatus) following vaccination
with inactivated betanodavirus. Fish
and Shellfish Immunology 28: 525-533.
Maeno Y, de la Peña LD and Cruz-Lacierda
Pakingking Jr. R, Reyes O and de JesusER. 2002. Nodavirus infection in
Ayson EG. 2012. Establishment of
hatchery-reared orange-spotted grouper
an immunization regimen for the
Epinephelus coiodes: First record of viral
prevention of viral nervous necrosis
nervous necrosis in the Philippines.
(VNN) in high value marine broodfish.
Fish Pathology 37: 87-89.
Annual Report Government of
Japan Trust Fund Projects SEAFDEC
Maeno Y, de la Peña LD and Cruz-Lacierda
Aquaculture Department, Tigbauan,
ER. 2004. Mass mortalities associated
Iloilo 5021, Philippines.
with viral nervous necrosis in hatcheryreared sea bass Lates calcarifer in
Reyes OS, de Jesus-Ayson EG, Pedroso
the Philippines. Japan Agricultural
F and Cabanilla MI. 2014. Hatchery
Research Quarterly 38(1): 69-73.
production of snubnose pompano
Trachinotus blochii Lacepede.
Marte CL. 2003. Larviculture of marine
Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 56.
species in Southeast Asia: current
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department,
research and industry prospects.
Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines. 25 pp.
Aquaculture 227(1-4): 293-304.
Marte CL and Lacanilao FJ. 1986.
Spontaneous maturation and spawning
of milkfish in floating net cages.
Aquaculture 53: 115-132.
Sim SY, Rimmer MA, Toledo JD, Sugama
K, Rumengan I, Williams K and Phillips
M. 2005. A Guide to Small-scale
Finfish Hatchery Technology. NACA,
Bangkok Thailand 17 pp.
(00
Contributed Papers
Sugama K, Rimmer MA, Ismi S,
Koesharyani I, Suwirya K, Giri NA and
Alava VR. 2012. Hatchery management
of tiger grouper (Epinephelus
fuscoguttatus): A best-practice manual.
Monograph No. 149. Australian Centre
for International Agricultural Research:
Canberra. 66 pp.
Toledo JD, Golez MS, Doi M and Ohno
A. 1999. Use of copepod nauplii
during early feeding stage of grouper
Epinephelus coiodes. Fisheries Science
65: 390-397.
Suggested Readings
Gapasin RSJ, Bombeo R, Lavens RP,
Sorgeloos P and Nelis H. 1998.
Enrichment of live food with essential
fatty acids and vitamin C: Effects
on milkfish (Chanos chanos) larval
performance. Aquaculture 162: 269286.
)''
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Hatchery Management Techniques for Tiger-tail Seahorse (Hippocampus
comes)
Shelah Mae B. Ursuaa* and Teruo Azumab
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
b
National Reasearch Institute of Fisheries Engineering, Fisheries Research Agency, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan
* smbuen@seafdec.org.ph
a
Abstract
Seahorse culture has been practiced throughout the world to meet the demand for global
trade and reduce the pressure on wild stocks through overexploitation. Development of culture
techniques for seed production of seahorses is one of the most effective measures to avoid such
anthropological repercussions on the wild stocks, and is currently being conducted at SEAFDEC/
AQD with the aim to produce seed for stock release to protect these internationally threatened
and overexploited species in Southeast Asia. This paper describes the breakthroughs in seahorse
breeding and nursery rearing. So far, we have developed water and feeding management schemes
that resulted in improved reproductive performance of broodstock and higher survival and
growth rates in newborn and juvenile seahorses.
We highlight the concern of providing desirable food organisms and maintenance of suitable
water quality in order to maintain maximum efficiency in the management of the seahorse
hatchery. Newborn seahorses fed with formalin-treated food organisms and reared in UV-treated
seawater had significantly higher survival and daily growth rate based on stretched height and
body weight than those fed with untreated food organisms and reared in both chlorinated and
sand-filtered seawater. Broodstocks fed with mysid shrimps showed higher brood size and shorter
parturition interval. Thus, improved reproductive performance as well as survival and growth of
newborn seahorses were largely influenced by refinement of hatchery management techniques.
Keywords: Hippocampus comes, seahorse, breeding, nursery, hatchery management
Introduction
All seahorses are listed on Appendix II
of the Convention on International Trade
of Endangered Species Flora and Fauna
(CITES) as of May 2004 with 160 signatory
nations, where ‘sustainable’ trade was
allowed, meaning, trade must be controlled
in order to ensure that their use is
compatible with their survival. An estimated
20 million seahorses were consumed every
year for Traditional Chinese Medicine
(TCM). In the Philippines, the Philippine
Fisheries Code of 1998 or Republic Act
(RA No. 8550) Section 97 completely bans
seahorse trade. However, unmanaged
fishing of seahorses still persists. Interest in
seahorse aquaculture reflects concern over
exploitation in the wild with consequent
declines in populations, and in recognition
that seahorses command high prices and
thus may be highly marketable (Vincent,
1996; Lourie et al., 1999).
)'(
Contributed Papers
Stock enhancement is the stocking of
cultured organisms to replenish or increase
abundance of wild stocks. Simply said,
stock enhancement involves developing
successful enhancement by producing and
releasing hatchery animals that survive
(Leber et al., 2004). Two components
of a hatchery-release program are the
availability of the cultured organism
and the release of these organisms to the
natural environment. Breeding and seed
production techniques must be developed
in the hatchery, while release strategies
such as selection of release sites, assessment
of the release micro habitat, collection
of baseline data on wild populations,
magnitude of stocking and development
of tagging techniques essential to evaluate
survival and efficiency of stocking strategies
must also be investigated.
Currently, culture techniques in the
seed production of seahorses is being
developed at SEAFDEC/AQD with the
aim to produce seed for stock release to
protect internationally threatened and
overexploited species in Southeast Asia.
The present study addresses the main
breakthroughs in seahorse breeding and
nursery rearing. So far, we have tested water
and feeding management schemes (Figure
1) that resulted in improved reproductive
performance and higher survival and
growth rates in new-born and juvenile
seahorse.
Broodstock management
The selection of pairs of seahorses
for broodstock is done after a few days
observation of adult seahorses (average
size of 85±2 mm stretched height (SH),
2.3±0.3 g body weight (BW)) that exhibit
some distinct swimming behavior and
intertwining of tails. Sexual maturity in
)')
males can be recognized by the presence
of brood pouch. Female seahorses
transfer eggs to the pouch of males via
the ovipositor tube. Eggs are fertilized in
the male’s pouch. Pregnancy lasts for two
weeks, after which the males give birth to
live seahorses.
The broodstock seahorses are
maintained in 250 L circular fiberglass
tanks (Figure 2) at a sex ratio of 1 female:1
male and a stocking density of 1 seahorse
5 L-1 seawater. Temperature of the rearing
water is kept at 27-28°C, salinity at 30-33
ppt, and dissolved oxygen at 5.0-7.5 ppm
under a LD12:12 photoperiod. Excess feeds
and feces are siphoned out from the tank
bottom and 30-50% of the rearing water
is replaced daily at 0800 h. Sand-filtered
seawater and mild aeration are provided
in the rearing tanks. Nylon twines tied to
lead sinkers serve as holdfasts where the
seahorses can coil their tail around.
At the present time, formulated
artificial diet for seahorses are not
commercially available, thus, seahorses
are solely fed with live or frozen food.
Seahorses are ambush predators that feed
on a variety of mobile preys consisting
mostly of planktonic crustaceans such as
mysid shrimps, amphipods, copepods,
or any tiny larvae that fits into their
elongated snouts (Woods, 2002; Kendrick
and Hyndes, 2005; Kitsos et al., 2008).
One factor to consider in prey selectivity
would be the simple digestive physiology
of seahorses, which enable them to prefer
mysid to Artemia. When feeding within the
water column, seahorses wait until preys
come close to the mouth, whereupon, the
preys are drawn up into the long snout with
a rapid intake of water (Foster and Vincent,
2004). Thus the snout opening would limit
the size of the prey that the seahorse can
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 1. Feeding and water management scheme for seahorse.
Figure 2. Layout of seahorse hatchery at SEAFDEC/AQD Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines.
)'*
Contributed Papers
ingest. Mysid shrimps (18-20 mm) may be
longer in length compared to Artemia (7.8
mm), but the whole body is slender and the
pleopods and pereiopods are found only
on the ventral part, while the swimming
appendages of Artemia are spread on both
sides of the body.
The reproductive performance
markedly improved when seahorses
were fed with mysid shrimp alone
or in combination with Artemia and
Acetes (Buen-Ursua et al., 2015). A food
preference study where adult seahorses
were offered a combination of mysid,
Artemia and Acetes twice daily (0800h
and 1400h) showed that mysid was the
preferred food as a single diet or combined
with Artemia and Acetes. Significantly
higher brood sizes (223-292 newborn
seahorses) were obtained from seahorses
fed with mysid shrimps as a single diet
or combined with the other natural food
than diet treatments comprised of Artemia
only, Acetes only and Artemia+Acetes
which resulted in 107-152 broods. Longer
parturition interval was observed in
seahorses fed with single diet of Artemia
(60 days) than those fed solely with mysid,
or mysid in combination with other natural
food (13-26 days). Parturition occurrence
was highest when seahorses were fed mysid
alone (13.3±1.5). Thus, better reproductive
performance was obtained when seahorses
were fed mysids alone or in combination
with other natural food.
Larval rearing of newborn seahorses
(0-30 days)
Parturition events or giving birth of
male seahorses usually occur at night time
or in the early morning. The male seahorse
goes into labor, pumping and thrusting to
release his brood. The young are miniature
)'+
seahorses, also called infants, with average
size of 9 mm SH and 0.004 g BW. The
newborn seahorses immediately swim up
to the water surface to gulp air to inflate
their swim bladders. They are collected
from the broodstock tanks using a scoop
net and transferred to the larval rearing
tank (Figure 2).
Newborn seahorses are reared in 250L
tanks at a stocking density of 3 seahorses
L-1 seawater. Newborn seahorses are fed a
mixture of newly-hatched Artemia nauplii
at 3 ml-1 and copepod Pseudodiaptomous
sp. at 10 ml-1 per (Figure 1). The copepods
are collected using 40 μm plankton net
from ponds in Trapiche, Oton, Iloilo,
Philippines. Due to high infestation with
the parasitic protozoans Zoothamnium sp.
and Vorticella sp., in preliminary studies,
copepods were washed several times with
UV-treated seawater, subjected to 30 ppm
formalin bath for 1 h and rinsed again
in UV-treated seawater before feeding to
seahorse. Feeding is done twice daily at
0800h and 1300h. The tank bottom water is
siphoned out daily to remove uneaten feed
and fecal matter. Around 30% of total water
volume is replaced with fresh seawater.
Mild aeration is continuously provided. On
Day 15, nylon twines tied to a lead sinker
are provided inside the tanks to serve as
holdfasts for the seahorses.
Buen-Ursua et al., (2011) showed that
on Day 30, seahorses reared in UV-treated
seawater had significantly higher growth in
SH and BW (41.4 ± 0.5 mm and 0.23 ± 0.00
g) than those reared in both chlorinated
(33.8 ± 1.4 mm, 0.16 ± 0.00 g) and sandfiltered seawater (32.8 ± 0.1 mm, 0.16 ±
0.00 g). Survival was higher in UV-treated
seawater (65.6 ± 1.1%) and chlorinated
seawater (62.2 ± 4.0%) than in sandfiltered seawater (41.1 ± 1.9%). Survival of
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
seahorses fed with 30 ppm formalin-treated
copepod and untreated copepod on Day
8 were 95 ± 2% and 79 ± 6%, respectively.
On Day 15, survival was 79 ± 10% in
seahorse fed formalin-treated copepod
and none (0%) survived among those fed
untreated copepod. Survival of seahorse
with formalin-treated copepod was 65 ±
10% on Day 30.
Larval rearing of seahorses (1-6
months)
After 30 days of feeding with copepods,
the juvenile seahorses are collected from
the 250L tanks and transferred to the 60L
tank (Figure 2) for nursery rearing at a
stocking density of 1 seahorse L-1 seawater.
A mixture of Artemia (up to 6 days old) at
3 ml-1 and copepod Pseudodiaptomous sp.
at 10 ml-1 per day are fed to the juvenile
seahorses until they are 2 months old.
Methods of feeding and maintenance
of seawater are the same as previously
described for newborn seahorse. Nylon
twines tied to a lead sinker are provided
inside the tanks to serve as holdfasts for the
seahorses.
Seahorse juveniles at 2 to 6 months old
are maintained in sand-filtered seawater.
They are fed with a mixture of mysids (50/
individual), Artemia (50/individual) and
frozen Acetes (5-10% BW). Juveniles that
are less than 2 months old are sensitive
to fluctuation in water temperature and
availability of copepods. At this stage, the
juveniles can be weaned to mysid. However,
they are not able to feed on frozen Acetes.
Survival of 2-6 months old juveniles is
more stable mainly due to their ability
to feed on mysid shrimps and Acetes. It
was observed that mortalities of juvenile
seahorses occur when seawater temperature
decreases to 24 or 25°C.
Conclusions
UV sterilization of water and formalin
treatment of natural feed resulted to higher
survival of the newborn seahorses, which
is crucial for stable mass production of
seahorse juveniles. Timely and sufficient
supply of the necessary food organisms
is another key factor to ensure success of
seahorse seed production. The development
of techniques for the mass production of
mysids and copepods as natural food to
support seahorse seed production needs
to be further pursued to ensure available
supply for seahorse hatchery maintenance.
Furthermore, an efficient and reliable water
supply system is important in maintaining
maximum efficiency in the management of
the seahorse hatchery.
References
Buen-Ursua SMA, Azuma T, Arai K
and Coloso RM. 2015. Improved
reproductive performance of tiger tail
seahorse, Hippocampus comes, by mysid
shrimp fed singly or in combination
with other natural food. Aquaculture
International 23: 29-43.
Buen-Ursua SMA, Azuma T, Recente
CP and Batatin RE. 2011. Effects of
UV-treated sea water, chlorinated sea
water, and formalin-treated copepods
on survival and growth of newborn
seahorses, Hippocampus comes. Israeli
Journal Of Aquaculture - Bamidgeh
IIC: 63.2011.629, 7 pp.
Foster SJ and Vincent ACJ. 2004. Life
history and ecology of seahorses:
implications for conservation and
management. Journal of Fish Biology
65: 1-61.
)',
Contributed Papers
Kendrick AJ and Hyndes GA. 2005.
Variations in the dietary compositions
of morphologically diverse syngnathid
fishes. Environmental Biology of Fishes
72: 415-427.
Kitsos MS, Tzomos TH, Anagnostopoulou
L and Koukouras A. 2008. Diet
composition of the seahorses,
Hippocampus guttulatus (Cuvier, 1829)
and Hippocampus hippocampus (L.,
1758) (Teleostei, Sygnathidae) in the
Aegean Sea. Journal of Fish Biology 72:
1259-1267.
Leber KM, Kitada S, Blankenship HL and
Svasand T. 2004. Stock enhancement
and sea ranching. Developments,
pitfalls and opportunities. Second
edition. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Oxford, UK. 562 pp.
Lourie SA, Vincent ACJ and Hall HJ.
1999. Seahorses: An identification
guide to the world’s species and
their conservation. Project Seahorse,
London, UK, 214 pp.
Vincent ACJ. 1996. The International Trade
in Seahorses. TRAFFIC International.
Cambridge, UK, 163 pp.
Woods CMC. 2002. Natural diet of the
seahorse Hippocampus abdominalis.
New Zealand Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research 36: 655-660.
)'-
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Updates on the Seed Production of Mud Crab
Emilia T. Quinitio*, Fe D. Parado-Estepa, Joana Joy Huervana and Michael Ray Burlas
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
* etquinit@seafdec.org.ph
Abstract
Widespread interest in mud crab species is increasing because these are highly prized both
in domestic and export markets. Among the three mud crab species commonly found in the
Philippines, Scylla serrata, S. olivacea, and S. tranquebarica, S. serrata is preferred by farmers
because it is larger and less aggressive than the other species. Likewise, S. serrata is the most
widely distributed species in the Indo-west Pacific region.
Hatchery-produced seedstock are presently used by some crab farmers in their grow-out
operations. In the hatchery phase, feeding mud crab larvae with shrimp formulated diets and
natural food was found to reduce the occurrence of molt death syndrome, one of the major
problems in seed production. Larvae given 25% formulated diet (FD) + 75% natural food (NF;
rotifers and Artemia) and 50% FD + 50% NF showed better performance than those larvae fed
100% FD, 100% NF and 75% FD + 25% NF indicating that usage of natural food, especially the
expensive Artemia, can be reduced. Since the early crab instar (C) produced in the hatchery need
to be grown further before stocking in grow-out ponds, two phases of nursery culture have been
developed. C1-2 are grown to 1.5-2.0 cm carapace width (CW) size in the first phase and further
grown to 3.0-4.0 cm CW in the second phase. Nursery rearing is done in net cages installed in
ponds for easy retrieval. A combination of mussel or trash fish and formulated diet is used as feed.
Domestication of the mud crab S. serrata as a prerequisite to selective breeding has been done
at SEAFDEC/AQD. Likewise, defining criteria for the determination of quality of newly hatched
zoeae for stocking in the hatchery was initiated. Newly hatched zoeae were subjected to starvation
and stress test using formalin. Starvation failed to elicit responses that were significantly different
between the good and poor quality larvae hence it is not suitable for larval quality evaluation.
Based on three-year data, the formalin stress test gave mean cumulative mortalities of 2.38±0.32,
8.24±0.88, 20±1.58 in good quality larvae, and 43.74±2.39 while 22.93±4.19, 63.68±7.17,
84.29±3.88 and 97.65±1.06 for poor quality larvae at 0 (control), 20, 30 and 40 ppm formalin,
respectively. As formalin level increased, cumulative larval mortality also increased regardless of
the quality of the larvae. Formalin stress test proved to be a reliable method to determine whether
a batch of newly hatched zoeae was of good or poor quality.
Keywords: Scylla spp., mud crab, quality seed stocks, domestication
)'.
Contributed Papers
Introduction
Mud crab is highly prized in both
domestic and export markets, thus
widespread interest in its culture is
increasing. Among the three mud
crab species commonly found in the
Philippines, Scylla serrata, S. olivacea, and
S. tranquebarica, S. serrata is the most
widely distributed in the western and
central Indo-Pacific regions. This species
is preferred for farming because it is larger
and less aggressive than S. olivacea, and S.
tranquebarica.
on the seed production is on S. serrata.
Domestication of the S. serrata as a
prerequisite to selective breeding has been
initially done at SEAFDEC/AQD (Quinitio
et al., 2011). The criteria for the evaluation
of the quality of various stages were first
established for selective breeding. Stress
and challenge tests were used to evaluate
the quality of the zoeae and juveniles,
respectively. The stress test for the zoeae is
now being employed in the larval quality
assessment in the hatchery (see section on
Hatchery phase, this paper).
The bacteria Vibrio harveyi was used for
the challenge tests to evaluate the disease
Total mud crab production in the
resistance of each batch belonging to the
Philippines was 14,438 t in 2010 (valued at
US$86,521,000) and increased to 16,360 t in base population (Po) and first generation
2012 (valued at US$114,236,000) (FAO ISS, (F1). Juvenile crabs from various families
2014). At present, the Philippines is one of were injected with V. harveyi at 106, 107 and
108 cfu/ml, and saline solution as control.
the leading producers of market size mud
Juveniles from batch Sam2A (F1). (3 x
crab from aquaculture. The major source
of seedstock for farming in many countries 105.6 cfu/crab) had the highest resistance
to V. harveyi followed by batch Sam2C
is from the wild. The overexploitation of
(Po) (2 x 105.5 cfu/crab), Sam2D (Po) (3 x
mud crabs and habitat losses have resulted
in both reduced landings and mean capture 105.4 cfu/crab) and batch CamB (F1) (3
size. The depletion of wild stocks highlights x105.5). Juveniles from batch CamA (Po )
(2 x 104.4 cfu/crab) and Sam2B (Po) (2 x
the need to develop alternative sources of
104.5 cfu/crab) had high mortality even at
seedstock like hatcheries. In Viet Nam and
low levels of V. harveyi. The same pattern
the Philippines, crablets are also sourced
was observed in terms of duration to 100%
from the hatchery. In the Philippines, to
cumulative mortality. The median lethal
stem the wild harvest, the provincial and
dose for V. harveyi was estimated as 105.696.
municipal government along with the
The stress tests in hatchery-reared juveniles,
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
using the white spot syndrome virus, are
have introduced ordinances that prohibit
currently being done by another colleague.
the gathering and selling of crablets (≤ 3
cm) outside the municipality of origin.
The batches that passed as good quality
This resulted to increased acceptability of
larvae
and juveniles were further reared
hatchery-reared crabs by crab growers.
to broodstock size in ponds and subjected
to another evaluation (e.g. growth and
Domestication
reproductive performance), including
screening for viruses, prior to selection.
The life cycle of the three mud crab
species, S serrata, S. tranquebarica and S.
olivacea has been completed but the focus
)'/
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Hatchery phase
The inconsistent survival from later
zoea to megalopa stage due to molt death
syndrome (MDS) remains the major
problem in mud crab hatchery. It has been
suggested that poor nutrition, low water
temperature and prophylaxis application
in the zoeal stage are some of the causes of
MDS.
Rotifer and Artemia are the most
commonly utilized natural food for crab
larvae. Later megalopa stage and crab instar
are fed with minced fish and mussel. At
present, there are several commercially
available shrimp formulated diets with
various levels of HUFA and other essential
nutrients that can also be fed to mud crab
larvae hence, reducing the use of rotifers
and Artemia. Feeding of mud crab larvae
with shrimp formulated diets and natural
food was found to lessen the occurrence of
MDS. Mud crab larvae given 25% shrimp
formulated diet (FD) + 75% natural food
(NF, rotifers and Artemia) and 50% FD +
50% NF showed better performance than
those larvae fed 100% FD, 100% NF and
75% FD + 25% NF indicating that use
of natural food, especially the expensive
Artemia, can be reduced (Burlas, 2014)
(Figure 1).
Likewise, defining criteria for the
determination of quality of newly hatched
zoeae for stocking in the hatchery was
initiated. Newly hatched zoeae were
subjected to starvation and stress test
using formalin. Starvation failed to elicit
responses that were significantly different
between the good and poor quality larvae
hence it is not suitable for larval quality
evaluation. Based on three-year data, the
formalin stress test gave mean cumulative
mortalities of 2.38±0.32, 8.24±0.88,
20±1.58 in good quality larvae, and
43.74±2.39 while 22.93±4.19, 63.68±7.17,
84.29±3.88 and 97.65±1.06 for poor quality
larvae at 0 (control), 20, 30 and 40 ppm
formalin, respectively. As formalin level
increased, cumulative larval mortality also
increased regardless of the quality of the
larvae. Formalin stress test proved to be
a reliable method to determine whether a
batch of newly hatched zoeae was of good
or poor quality.
Figure 1. Survival of mud crab larvae fed various combinations of natural food and
formulated diet.
)'0
Contributed Papers
To date, the success of mud crab and
majority of shrimp hatcheries is still
dependent on the use of antibiotics for
the treatment against Vibrio spp., which is
one of the major causes of diseases in the
crustacean larvae. The use of antibiotics
as treatment for Vibrio spp. has proven to
improve larval survival (Baticados et al.,
1990; Diggles et al., 2000). However,
misuse of antibiotics may cause mortalities,
incomplete molting (Baticados and
Paclibare, 1992), morphological deformities
(Baticados and Paclibare, 1992; Pakingking
et al., 2002; Lye et al., 2005), and slow
growth (Ferreira et al., 2007) in animals.
It has been observed that frequency of
antibiotic application can be reduced to
every 5 days in good quality mud crab
larvae. Upon reaching the benthic stage of
megalopae, any prophylactic treatment is
stopped.
Nursery phase
Nursery is the intermediate phase
between hatchery and grow-out. Since the
megalopa or early crab instar (C) produced
in the hatchery need to be grown further
before stocking in the grow-out ponds,
two phases of the nursery culture were
developed. C1-2 are grown to 1.5 – 2.0 cm
carapace width size in the first phase and
further grown to 3.0-4.0 cm CW in the
second phase (SEAFDEC et al., 2010). The
second nursery phase was developed to
address the growout farmers’ preference
for bigger-sized juveniles (Rodriguez et al.,
2007b).
Nursery rearing is done in net cages
installed in ponds (Figure 2) for easy
retrieval of stocks. For Phase 1, this
previously involved megalopae for stocking
(Rodriguez et al., 2007a). However, C1 is
now used for stocking (Quinitio et al., 2009;
SEAFDEC/AQD et al., 2010) in the nursery
and this may be due to ease in transport at
this stage. Phase 1 and 2 may be done one
after the other separately or continuously
using the same pond compartment. The
culture period is 3-4 weeks in each phase
depending on the desired size at harvest.
Figure 2. Net cages installed in ponds used for nursery rearing of Scylla serrata.
)('
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Phase 2 of the nursery may also be
done in net lined ponds or in pens inside
mangroves (SEAFDEC/AQD, 2010). The
net enclosures, as in cages in ponds, prevent
the escape of cultured stocks and the entry
of other crab species. Stocking directly in
ponds was tried but resulted in lower yields
than those stocked in net cages (Rodriguez
et al., 2007b).
Several strategies have been tested
to reduce cannibalism, one of the major
problems in the nursery, and improve yield.
Various shelter materials and designs are
being tested in actual nursery culture. Crab
instars use these shelters for hiding when
they molt as they are most vulnerable to
cannibalism immediately after molting.
Trimming of claws has been shown to
be an effective means to reduce cannibalism
(Quinitio and Estepa, 2011) and improve
percentage survival of intermolt juveniles.
This strategy was applied in the second
phase of nursery rearing. Initial results
revealed that, although trimming could be
done easily with the use of nail clippers,
this method did not significantly increase
survival and was labor intensive.
Feed for the nursery usually consists of
trashfish, mussel, or boiled chicken lungs
(SEAFDEC/AQD et al., 2010; Quinitio
and Parado-Estepa, 2008) or commercially
available formulated diets for shrimps
(Shelley and Lovatelli, 2011). Several
tests have recently shown that feeding a
combination of minced mussel or low
value fish and pelleted diet formulated
for mud crab gives better survival in the
nursery. Tryptophan has been shown to
lessen the aggressive behavior in mud crab
juveniles in the laboratory (Laranja et al.,
2010). Incorporation of tryptophan in the
formulated diet is currently being tested in
the nursery cage culture to determine if this
will significantly augment profitability of
nursery culture through increased survival
or growth.
References
Baticados MCL, Lavilla-Pitogo CR, CruzLacierda ER, de la Peña LD and Suñaz,
NA. 1990. Studies on the chemical
control of luminous bacteria Vibrio
harveyi and V. splendidus isolated from
diseased Penaeus monodon larvae and
rearing water. Diseases of Aquatic
Organisms 9: 133-139.
Baticados MCL and Paclibare JO. 1992.
The use of chemotherapeutic agents
in aquaculture in the Philippines. In:
Shariff M, Subasinghe RP, Arthur JR
(eds). Diseases in Asian Aquaculture I.
pp 531-546. Fish Health Section, Asian
Fisheries Society, Manila.
Burlas M. 2014. Evaluation of commercial
shrimp larval diet as replacement of live
feeds in mud crab larval rearing. M.Sc.
thesis. University of the Philippines
Visayas, Iloilo.
Diggles BK, Moss GA, Carson J and
Anderson CD. 2000. Luminous
vibriosis in rock lobster Jasu verreauxi
(Decapoda: Palinuridae) phyllosoma
larvae associated with infection by
Vibrio harveyi. Diseases of Aquatic
Organisms 43: 127-137.
Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and
Statistics Service (FAO ISS) 03/03/2014.
www.fao.org/figis/serviet/SQServiet.
)((
Contributed Papers
Ferreira CSG, Nunes BA, HenriquesAlmeida JMM and Guilhermino L.
2007. Acute toxicity of oxytetracycline
and florfenicol to the microalgae
Tetraselmis chuii and to the
crustacean Artemia parthenogenetica.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental
Safety 67(3): 452-458.
Laranja Jr. JL, Quinitio ET, Catacutan MR
and Coloso RM. 2010. Effects of dietary
L-tryptophan on the agonistic behavior,
growth and survival of juvenile mud
crab Scylla serrata. Aquaculture 310:
84-90.
Lye CM, Bently MG, Clare AS and Sefton
EM. 2005. Endocrine disruption
in the shore crab Carcinus maenas
– a biomarker for benthic marine
invertebrates? Marine Ecology Progress
Series 288: 221-232.
Pakingking Jr. RV, Cruz-Lacierda ER and
Torres JL. 2002. Studies on the efficacy
of sarafin (sarafloxacin hydrochloride)
on vibrios in black tiger shrimp
(Penaeus monodon). In: Lavilla-Pitogo
CR and Cruz-Lacierda ER (eds).
Diseases in Asian Aquaculture IV. pp
125-134. Fish Health Section, Asian
Fisheries Society, Manila.
Quinitio ET, de la Cruz JJ, Eguia MRR,
Parado-Estepa FD, Pates G and LavillaPitogo CR. 2011. Domestication of the
mud crab Scylla serrata. Aquaculture
International 19: 237-250.
Quinitio ET and Estepa FDP. 2011. Survival
and growth of mud crab, Scylla serrata,
juveniles subjected to removal or
trimming of chelipeds. Aquaculture 318:
229-234.
)()
Quinitio ET and Parado-Estepa FD.
2008. Biology and hatchery of mud
crab Scylla spp. 2nd ed. Aquaculture
Extension Manual No. 34. SEAFDEC
Aquaculture Department, Iloilo,
Philippines. 44 pp.
Quinitio ET, Rodriguez EM and ParadoEstepa FD. 2009. Chapter 4.4. Nursery
and grow-out of mud crab. In: Rural
Aquaculture- A Handbook for Human
Resource Development, SEAFDEC
Aquaculture Department, Tigbauan,
Iloilo. P. 87-95.
Rodriguez EM, Quinitio ET, Parado-Estepa
FD and Millamena OM. 2007a. Culture
of megalopae in brackishwater ponds.
Asian Fisheries Science 14: 185-190.
Rodriguez EM, Parado-Estepa FD and
Quinitio ET. 2007b. Extension of
nursery culture of Scylla serrata
juveniles in net cages and ponds.
Aquaculture Research 38: 1588-1592.
SEAFDEC/AQD, ACE, MODE/SPPI,
BVFMC, ACELT, BFAR and ACIAR/
CATP. 2010. Mud crab nursery in
ponds. Aquaculture Extension Manual
No. 47, SEAFDEC Aquaculture
Department, Iloilo, Philippines. 27 pp.
Shelley C and Lovatelli A. 2011.Mud crab
aquaculture – A practical manual. FAO
Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical
Paper. No. 567. Rome, FAO. 78 pp.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Marker-aided Genetic Stock Management: Prospects in Philippine Aquatic
Biodiversity Conservation and Aquaculture
Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguiaa*, Minoru Ikedab and Akihiro Kijimab
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Binangonan
Freshwater Station, Binangonan, 1940 Rizal
b
Department of Integrative Aquatic Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University,
Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
* mreguia@seafdec.org.ph
a
Abstract
With the advent of DNA marker-based technologies and applications, genetic stock
assessment incorporating molecular marker information has become an important tool in
managing resources both for aquaculture and stock enhancement. Local initiatives toward this end
have been undertaken by several research and academic agencies particularly those with access
to advanced molecular genetic laboratory facilities both in the Philippines and in collaborating
foreign institutions. Funds coming from the Philippine Department of Science and Technology
and/or international research grants have supported work on commercially valuable species
such as tilapia, shrimp, mud crabs, abalone, milkfish and some high value marine fishes with
a view of utilizing and in the process, demonstrating the significance of more scientific microlevel assessment of stocks. Information drawn from marker-aided genetic stock evaluation can
contribute to a better understanding of the impact of how proper stock management can be more
effectively achieved and how this method can gradually translate to improved yields both from
culture and fisheries. This paper covers a review of the status of this technology as applied to ongoing fish conservation and aquaculture production efforts in the Philippines.
Keywords: DNA markers, genetic stock assessment
Introduction
Being an archipelagic country, the
Philippines has vast water resources
found inland as well as along an expansive
36,389 km. coastline. Marine areas cover
territorial waters, shelf areas, coral reef
areas to coastal waters while inland waters
consist of swamplands, fishponds, lakes,
rivers and reservoirs (Table 1). Hence,
aquatic organisms abound which are for
the most part, directly extracted and/or
produced for human consumption. Current
fish production estimates can attest to the
richness of such resources. Production from
capture fisheries is very diverse, ranging
from aquatic plants or seaweeds at 458
metric tons (MT), and fishes at 2,363,221
MT which consist of tuna species (frigate,
yellowfin, Eastern little tuna, skipjack), bigeye scad, roundscad, mackerel, anchovies,
sardines, squid and slipmouth etc.
Meanwhile, farmed species is estimated at
1,840,833 MT for aquatic plants or seaweeds
and 767,287 MT for tilapias, carps, prawns,
mud crabs, abalone, grouper, seabass,
)(*
Contributed Papers
siganids, pompano, oysters, mussels,
penaeid shrimps, sea cucumbers, the native
catfishes and indigenous species such as
the giant trevally, climbing perch, silver
therapon, etc.
destruction cause irreversible damage to
natural biodiversity of which the Philippines is known for.
In 2011, the Philippines ranked
seventh among the major fish producers
in the world, contributing 2.79% of fish,
crustaceans, mollusks and aquatic plants,
to global fisheries production (Table 2).
Increasing fish production holds a lot of
potential in aquaculture since fish breeding
and farming technologies are now well
established, if not, advanced. As for capture
fisheries, the challenge is in protecting
the habitats (which serve as breeding
grounds), from degradation brought about
by anthropogenic activities apart from them
being exposed to climatic changes resulting
from global warming. Aquatic habitat
The Philippines is one of several
countries in Southeast Asia that has an
abundance of diverse terrestrial and aquatic
biological organisms. Reference to the
Philippines being the center of the center of
marine biodiversity is an understatement to
say the least. There are aquatic organisms
that are successfully bred and farmed in
captivity apart from those that thrive in
natural waters. Due to overexploitation,
illegal extraction and simply an inexcusable
disregard for the aquatic environment and
its fauna, some species are now considered
vulnerable and/or threatened while many
are ironically, yet to be discovered and
named. Some of the known threatened/
vulnerable species are the seahorses
(Hippocampus spp), sea turtles, abalone,
Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus),
sea cucumber (Holothuria spp), clams,
among others. High value marine species
that are often illegally extracted from the
wild include the orange-spotted grouper,
Napoleon wrasse (which incidentally is
also vulnerable), sharks, corals, etc. On the
other hand, the Philippines has indigenous
species that are known to have commercial
aquaculture potential, these are the giant
trevally (Caranx ignobilis), silver therapon
(Leiopotherapon plumbeus), climbing perch
(Anabas testudinaeus), freshwater sardines
(Sardinella tawilis), to name a few.
Table 1. Aquatic Resources in the Philippines
(BFAR, 2012).
MARINE RESOURCES
1. Total territorial water
area (including EEZ)
a. Coastal
b. Oceanic
2. Shelf area (depth 200m)
3. Coral reef area
4. Coastline (length)
Area
2,200,000 sq km
266,000 sq km
1,934,000 sq km
184,600 sq km
27,000 sq km (within
the 10-20 fathoms where
reef fisheries occur)
36,289 km
INLAND RESOURCES
1. Swamplands
a. Freshwater
106,328 ha
b. Brackishwater
139,735 ha
2. Existing fishpond
a. Freshwater
b. Brackishwater
3. Other Inland Resources
)(+
246,063 ha
253,854 ha
14,531 ha
239,323 ha
250,000 ha
a. Lakes
200,000 ha
b. Rivers
31,000 ha
c. Reservoirs
19,000 ha
Philippine Aquatic Biodiversity
Apart from the commercially caught
and/or farmed species, several expeditions
conducted by foreign scientists in
collaboration with local researchers have
enabled the collection and subsequent
identification of new species. Attempts
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
to document aquatic biodiversity in the
Philippines began as early as 1907 when a
research vessel, the USS Albatross did a two
and a half year survey of aquatic resources
in the Philippines. The survey encompassed
rocky shores, coral reefs, mangroves,
estuaries, deep ocean basins as well as
freshwater lakes and rivers (Smithsonian
National Museum of Natural History,
http://vertebrates.si.edu/ fishes/ albatross/
philippines_exp.html).
Another expedition, under the
Panglao Marine Biodiversity Project
(PANGLAO 2004), was conducted from
May to July 2004 in selected coastal areas
in Bohol, Central Philippines to measure
aquatic species richness. This involved
70 participants (from 16 countries) who
worked on the molluscs and crustaceans
collected in 150 km2 of municipal waters
covering Panglao, Dauis, Cortes, Tagbilaran
and Baclayon. The samples were taken
through different methods (intertidal
collection, SCUBA collection, traps,
tangle netting, dredging and trawling).
An estimated 1200 species of decapod
crustaceans and 5000-6000 mollusc species
were obtained by the investigators (Bouchet
et al., 2009).
The most recent expedition conducted
in 2011 by researchers from the California
Academy of Sciences (CAS) resulted to
about 300 new species being identified
and several more yet to be taxonomically
described and named. It is said to be the
largest CAS expedition that was tasked to
implement a 1 1/2 month comprehensive
survey of terrestrial and marine diversity
found in shallow water reefs, deep sea
and terrestrial freshwater areas in the
Philippines, mainly to look for new species
(http://www.calacademy.org./science/
hearst/).
Biodiversity conservation
Food production especially from
fisheries and aquaculture, is generally
confronted with numerous challenges,
from climate change, habitat destruction,
overexploitation, inappropriate fishing
practices, indiscriminate stock movement
Table 2. 2011 World Fisheries Production of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants (including
seaweeds), by the top ten producers (BFAR, 2012).
Major
countries
Total
Fish, Crustaceans, and Molluscs
MT
%
share
Capture
1. China
66,216,938
37.15
15,772,054
2. Indonesia
13,601,785
7.63
5,707,684
8,879,499
4.98
4,301,534
3. India
Aquaculture
Aquatic Plants (includes seaweeds)
Total
Capture
Aquaculture
54,393,323
274,060
11,549,555
11,823,615
2,718,421
8,426,105
5,479
5,170,201
5,175,680
4,573,465
8,874,999
-
4,500
4,500
38,621,269
Total
4. Peru
8,346,483
4.68
8,248,482
92,200
8,340,682
5,801
5,801
5. USA
5,559,907
3.12
5,153,452
396,841
5,550,293
9,614
9,614
6. Vietnam
5,555,000
3.12
2,502,500
2,845,600
5,348,100
-
206,900
206,900
7. Philippines
4,971,799
2.79
2,363,221
767,287
3,130,508
458
1,840,833
1,841,291
8. Japan
4,755,453
2.67
3,761,176
556,761
4,317,937
87,779
349,737
437,516
9. Chile
4,436,484
2.49
3,063,449
954,845
4,018,294
403,496
14,694
418,190
10. Russian
Fed
4,391,154
2.46
4,254,864
128,830
4,383,694
6,639
821
7,460
)(,
Contributed Papers
and poor management, alien species
introductions, diseases, pollution, etc.
(Table 3). Establishing schemes in
maintaining and/or conserving biodiversity
is a means of securing these resources in
the light of such pressing concerns. Hence
proper management of aquatic stocks
should be a major consideration.
Managing stocks for biodiversity
conservation and aquaculture
Aquatic stock management is a method
of dealing with aquatic organisms that are
propagated, maintained and utilized for
food or other purposes. Any scheme that
is adopted to properly manage stocks is
done to minimize their depletion in natural
waters and in captivity. Management of
aquatic stocks may also be done with an
understanding and consideration of the
Table 3. Current challenges in fish production.
Fisheries
Aquaculture
Depletion of fishery
resources due to
overexploitation; illegal
fishing practices
Declining production
due to poor quality seed
stock
Genetic contamination
of threatened stocks if
stock enhancement is
not done properly
Low yield due to
diseases, improper
nutrition caused by
poor management
practices
Poor catches due to
Poor harvests due to
displacement/predation displacement/predation
by exotic species
by exotic species
Habitat degradation
due to anthropogenic
causes
Environmental
degradation due to
anthropogenic causes
Climate change,
vulnerability to
disasters
Climate change,
vulnerability to
disasters
Reduction of value of
Reduction of value of
catches due to improper yield due to improper
post harvest protocols
post harvest protocols
Food safety issues
)(-
Food safety issues
genetic structure of individuals, stocks
and/or populations. In this context, proper
management is done to reduce not only
the depletion of these stocks in terms of
numbers but also to minimize their genetic
deterioration.
Stock management can be through
conventional means and/or genetic (DNA
marker based) methods. Traditional
stock management can be done through
(a) restocking and monitoring of tagged
organisms, (b) regulating fishing intensity/
practices through the use of appropriate
fishing gears, declaring seasonal fishing
ban, etc. and (c) adoption of proper
breeding/farming schemes. On the other
hand, genetic stock management is
implemented with the use of DNA marker
methods as supportive tools in planning
and managing breeding and farming
operations in aquaculture and/or in stock
enhancement.
DNA markers as tools for stock
management
In managing stocks used in aquaculture
and biodiversity conservation, individual
tagging/marking is done to enable ease
in determining stock characteristics and
monitoring stock quality, movement
etc. There are several tags/markers, the
most common types that describe or
define individual aquatic organisms
in a stock or in a population are the
following: (a) phenotypic description,
and (b) physical tags. A third type, which
requires knowledge in molecular genetics
methods, is referred to as genetic markers.
Phenotypic description of individual
aquatic organisms can be useful for
describing animals at any age. However,
as such, these are not permanent for
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
the observable traits (e.g. size, color,
metric parameters etc.) are unstable for
these descriptions change in response to
environmental changes. Physical tags on
the other hand, are physical identifiers
that can help monitor/trace individual
organisms. These can be anywhere from
coded microwire tags, numbered physical
implant tags, diet tags, fin clips, etc. The
main drawback is that these may be
invasive and the retention rate is not 100%.
Meanwhile, genetic markers or biochemical
traits that are detectable as protein variants
are considered useful at any age, less
invasive (except for protein analyses using
allozyme markers), stable and heritable
hence may provide the best alternative
to the other tags, given the resource, skill
and knowledge of molecular marker
analysis procedures, and marker variation
assessment. Table 4 shows a summary of
the characteristics of all three tag/marker
types.
Genetic markers such as DNA-based
markers allow us to know the genetic makeup of individuals and genetic structure as
well as phylogenetic relationships of stocks/
populations. In aquaculture, examining
stock performance would be relevant in
planning how farmed fish stocks are to be
managed to increase yield or production
for improved fishfood sufficiency.
Stock performance is assessed through
economically important traits (phenotypes)
that are essentially the physical expression
of genes (genotypes) possessed by
individual aquatic organisms. It is observed
that the higher the genetic variability or
the more genetically diverse stocks are, the
more fit and better these are in terms of
production or performance traits (growth,
disease resistance, survival, etc.).
DNA markers can either be simple
protein markers known as allozymes or
either of two other types, namely: (a)
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers (e.g
mtDNA sequence data, mtDNA restriction
fragment length polymorphism or mtDNARFLP) that are maternally inherited or, (b)
nuclear DNA markers (randomly amplified
DNA or RAPD, amplified fragment length
polymorphism or AFLP, and microsatellite
DNA markers or msDNA) which are
biparentally inherited. MtDNA and nuclear
DNA markers have often been used
recently in view of the numerous advances
in DNA marker analysis using polymerase
chain reaction (PCR), automated
sequencing equipment and web-based
analysis software (Romana-Eguia, 2006).
Table 4. Characteristics of the different tag/marker types.
Phenotype/observable traits
(size, color, etc)
Physical tags
(diet tags, coded microwire tags, fin
clips)
Genetic markers
(biochemical traits detectable
as protein or DNA variants)
Useful for identifying/ describing Tags could not be used for younger
animals at any age
animals
Useful at any age/size
Plastic/ unstable
May be lost as the animal grows (tag
retention 85%-90%)
Intrinsic, stable
Heritable but expression of the
traits are influenced by external
factors
--
Heritable
--
Invasive for some tags
Less invasive especially for
PCR-based DNA markers;
small tissue can be used
)(.
Contributed Papers
Several studies on marker-assisted
selective breeding and/or stock
enhancement have utilized mtDNA
sequencing data and microsatellite DNA
marker information as tools in stock
management programs. Both methods
require knowledge and skills in DNA
extraction; primer development; PCR
amplification of target gene marker regions;
purification of DNA samples; automated
sequencing; sequence data analysis and/or
fragment analysis, to process microsatellite
marker data; and should next generation
sequencing (NGS) is done, bioinformatics
or genetic data management (this is mainly
for primer development and genomics
work).
DNA markers: Uses and Applications
DNA-based markers are used to:
1. Discover genes, study their structure
and function. This is referred to as
genomics or genome technology
research where gene maps and
linkage maps are developed. Such
maps are used as reference in:
a. Marker-assisted selection for
genetic improvement based on
quantitative trait loci;
b. Development of effective
fish vaccines and delivery
technologies;
c. Monitoring antibiotic resistance;
d. Diagnosis of aquatic animal
diseases;
e. Understanding the mechanisms
and the genes involved in
viral disease development and
management e.g. determining
genes involved in viral infection
in shrimps (Alenton et al., Tare
et al., this proceedings);
f. Evaluating success in the
)(/
development of transgenic fish;
and
g. Discovery of genes useful
for biotechnology and
pharmaceutical purposes.
2. Confirm and/or validate the taxonomic
identity of individual organisms.
Examples of such researches
are current efforts on barcoding
Philippine lake fauna (Aquilino et
al., 2011, Aquino et al., 2011) as
well as to determine traceability and
mislabeling in commercial fishery
products (Maralit et al., 2013)
3. Elucidate/reveal cryptic biodiversity
in marine and freshwater areas in
support to the description of historical
studies for marine and freshwater
biodiversity. This is of utmost
importance in countries like the
Philippines which is known as to
be the center of aquatic (especially)
marine biodiversity.
4. Identify and discriminate populations,
stocks. This is a common application
of genetic markers particularly if
marker-based genetic variation
between and within stocks is
notably high and significant.
There have been several studies
conducted for this purpose, mainly
to generate genetic databases for
aquaculture purposes. Locally,
genetic differences in the population
structure of farmed tilapias
(Macaranas et al., 1986, Macaranas
et al., 1995, Romana-Eguia et al.,
2004, 2005), wild milkfish stocks
(Ravago et al., 2002; RavagoGotangco and Juinio-Menez, 2004),
farmed and natural tiger shrimp
populations (Xu et al., 2001),
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
among others, have been studied
by Philippine scientists under
internationally-funded projects. At
present, there are several recently
completed and on-going DNA
marker-based stock assessment/
discrimination studies in the
Philippines. Among these are on
newly developed tilapia strains
(Quilang and Basiao, pers. comm.),
tiger shrimp wild stocks which have
not been previously characterized,
mud crab Scylla sp, abalone Haliotis
asinina stocks and milkfish, albeit
using microsatellite markers and
mtDNA sequence data information.
Unless otherwise stated, these ongoing studies are spearheaded by
SEAFDEC/AQD, funded by DOST
PCAARRD under their National
R&D Programs, in collaboration
with the Tohoku University. Apart
from applications in aquaculture,
genetic markers can also be used to
discriminate species produced from
capture fisheries. An example is a
study on distinguishing between
juvenile yellowfin and big-eye tunas,
both being commercially important
fishery products (Pedrosa-Gerasmio
et al., 2012).
5. Monitor changes within and between
stocks and determine inbreeding.
Changes in individual organisms
comprising stocks which are
either simply domesticated or
bred selectively to promote genetic
improvement, can be detected
not only phenotypically but
also at the molecular level using
genetic markers. A study on the
use of microsatellite markers in
determining genetic variability
changes in selected and unselected
tilapia stocks, have demonstrated
this application (Romana-Eguia et
al., 2005). In the aforementioned
study, the difference in the specific
growth rate of a mass-selected and
a control line of tilapia showed a
reduction from 0.034% /day to
0.016% /day after four generations.
Meanwhile, a higher increase in the
inbreeding coefficient was noted
in the mass-selected line (108%)
as compared to the increase in the
inbreeding coefficient of the control
line (64.2%) based on genetic
variability in four generations of
the stocks using five microsatellite
marker loci.
6. Compare between wild and hatchery
stocks. An example of this is an
on-going study on several wild
and hatchery stocks of milkfish
collected from local sources as well
as from countries (Indonesia and
hopefully Taiwan) where most of
the commercially imported milkfish
seed stock are obtained. This current
undertaking has to date identified
nine working microsatellite markers
that will be used for genetic
characterization. The ultimate aim
is to enable the identification of
sources of good quality milkfish
broodstock and genetically improve
the Philippine milkfish using
marker-aided methods.
7. Identify specific markers or quantitative
trait loci (QTLs) correlated with
fitness and/or quantitative traits
for use in marker-assisted selective
breeding. This is possible if linkage
map information is available to
allow the determination of QTLs.
Marker-assisted selection has been
)(0
Contributed Papers
Table 5. QTL research conducted in different farmed species (Liu, 2007).
Common name
Species Name
Traits
References
Salmonids
Atlantic salmon
Salmo salar
Body weight, condition
Reid et al., 2005; Moen et al.,
factor, disease resistance, sex 2004; 2004c; Grimholt et al.,
2003; Artieri et al.,, 2006
Rainbow trout
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Albinism, condition factor,
disease resistance, growth
rate, killer cell-like activity,
meristic traits, pyloric
caecae number, precocious
maturation, spawning date,
upper thermal tolerance
Coho salmon
Oncorhynchus kisutch Flesh color
Artic char
Salvelinus alpinus
Temperature tolerance,
growth rate, condition
factor
Somoraj et al., 2003; Tao and
Boulding 2003; Reid et al.,
2005
Oreochromis spp.
Body and peritoneum
coloration, cold tolerance,
disease resistance, growth
rate, immune response
prolactin expression level,
survival, sex determination,
sex ratio, stress response
Shirak et al., 2000; 2002;
2006; Streelman and Kocher
2002; Palti 2002; Cnaani
et al., 2003; 2004a, 2004b,
2004c; Lee et al., 2003; 2004;
2005; Moen et al., 2004a
Cyprinus carpio
Cold tolerance
Sun and Liang 2004
Crassostrea virginica
Disease resistance
Yu et al., 2006
Penaeus japonicas
Body weight, total length
and carapace length
Li et al., 2006
Danio rerio
Behavioral and
morphological
differentiation
Wright et al., 2006
Danzmann et al., 1999;
Palti et al., 1999; 2001;
Ozaki et al., 2001; Perry
et al., 2001; 2005; Robison
et al., 2001; Martyniuk et
al., 2003; Nichols et al.,
2003a; O’Malley et al., 2003;
Somorjai et al.,, 2003; Khoo
et al., 2004; Nichols et al.,
2004; Zimmerman et al.,
2004; 2005; Moen et al.,
2004b; Reid et al., 2005;
Rodriguez et al., 2005
Arenada et al., 2005
Tilapia
Tilapias
Carp
Common carp
Molluscs
Eastern oyster
Shrimp
Kuruma prawn
Others
Zebrafish
))'
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
done on several commercial aquaculture
species (refer to Table 5). It has yet
to be done on local species.
8. Assess success of genetic manipulation
methods such as polyploidy induction,
gynogenesis and transgenesis.
DNA markers can be used to
distinguish the genetic make-up of
manipulated stocks against normal,
non-manipulated or genetically
unmodified stocks. There are no
local initiatives towards this end for
development of genetically modified
aquatic organisms is not encouraged
in the Philippines.
9. Monitor the fate of stocks after
deliberate or accidental release
in the wild. This is important
in conservation and stock
management research. DNA
markers can be utilized to trace
the impact of stock introductions/
enhancements in sites where natural
populations are noted as depleted.
Recently, a study co-funded by the
Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science with SEAFDEC/AQD on
the genetic impact of reseeding on
natural abalone stocks in the Sagay
Marine Reserve, Philippines using
molecular marker profiles, was
completed in collaboration with the
Tohoku University.
Conclusion
Several research initiatives that show
the application of DNA marker technology
in the Philippines was presented. In most
instances, micro-level stock analysis
through DNA marker applications were
undertaken to provide an effective means
of monitoring and managing stocks both
for conservation and production purposes.
Local scientific undertakings are now
possible with trained human resources
using laboratory facilities established in
national and international research and
academic institutions, through research
linkages.
References
Alenton RRR, Lazarte JMS, Kondo H,
Hirono I and Maningas MBB. 2014.
The battle against WSSV: Targeting
essential genes for RNA interference to
revive the ailing shrimp industry. Book
of Abstracts. International Workshop
on Resource Enhancement and
Sustainable Aquaculture. March 5-7,
2014, Iloilo, Philippines.
Aquilino SVL, Tango JM, Fontanilla
IKC, Pagulayan RC, Basiao ZU,
Ong PS and Quilang JO. 2011. DNA
barcoding of the ichthyofauna of Taal
Lake, Philippines. Molecular Ecology
Resources 11(4): 612-619.
Aquino LMG, Tango JM, Canoy RJC,
Fontanilla IKC, Basiao ZU, Ong PS and
Quilang JP. 2011. DNA barcoding of
fishes of Laguna de Bay, Philippines.
Mitochondrial DNA 22(4): 143-153.
BFAR (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources). 2012. Philippine Fisheries
Profile 2012. 72 pp.
Bouchet P, Ng PKL, Largo D and Tan SH.
2009. PANGLAO 2004: Investigations
of the marine species richness in the
Philippines. The Raffles Bulletin of
Zoology (01) 20: 1-19.
))(
Contributed Papers
Liu Z. 2007. Fish genomics and analytical
genetic technologies, with examples of
potential applications in management
of fish genetic resources. In: Bartley
DM, Harvey BJ and Pullin RSV (eds).
Workshop on Status and Trends in
Aquatic Genetic Resources. A basis for
international policy. 8-10 May 2006,
Victoria British Columbia, Canada.
FAO Fisheries Proceedings 5. pp 145179.
Macaranas JM, Agustin LQ, Ablan MCA,
Pante MJR, Eknath AA and Pullin RSV.
1995. Genetic improvement of farmed
tilapias: Biochemical characterization
of strain differences in Nile tilapia.
Aquaculture International 3: 43-54.
Macaranas JM, Taniguchi N, Pante MJR,
Capili JB and Pullin RSV. 1986.
Electrophoretic evidence for extensive
hybrid gene introgression into
commercial Oreochromis niloticus (L.)
stocks in the Philippines. Aquaculture
Research 17(4): 249-258.
Maralit BA, Aguila RD, Ventolero MFH,
Perez SK, Willette DA and Santos
MD. 2013. Detection of mislabeled
commercial fishery by-products in the
Philippines using DNA barcodes and
its implications to food traceability and
safety. Food Control 33(1): 119-125.
Pedrosa-Gerasmio IR, Babaran RP and
Santos MD. 2012. Discrimination of
juvenile yellowfin (Thunnus albacares)
and bigeye (T. obesus) tunas using
mitochondrial DNA control region
and liver morphology. PLoS ONE
7(4): e35604. doi1:10.1371/journal.
pone.0035604.
)))
Ravago RG, Monje VD and Juinio-Menez
MA. 2002. Length and sequence
variability in mitochondrial control
region of the milkfish, Chanos chanos.
Marine Biotechnology 4: 40-50.
Ravago-Gotangco RG and Juinio MA. 2004.
Population genetic structure of the
milkfish Chanos chanos, based on PCRRFLP analysis of the mitochondrial
control region. Marine Biology 145:
789-801.
Romana-Eguia MRR, Ikeda M, Basiao
ZU and Taniguchi N. 2004. Genetic
diversity in farmed Asian Nile and red
hybrid tilapia stocks evaluated from
microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA
analysis. Aquaculture 236(1-4):131-150.
Romana-Eguia MRR, Ikeda M, Basiao ZU
and Taniguchi N. 2005. Genetic changes
during mass selection for growth in
Nile tilapia assessed by microsatellites.
Aquaculture Research 36: 69-78.
Tare MVR, Kondo H, Hirono I and
Maningas MB. 2014. Shrimp
metabolism: The roles of lactate
dehydrogenase (c31), glycogen
phosphorylase (c34) and protein kinase
(PK) as revealed by RNA interference.
Book of Abstracts. International
Workshop on Resource Enhancement
and Sustainable Aquaculture. March
5-7, 2014, Iloilo, Philippines.
Xu Z, Primavera JH, de la Pena LD, Pettit
P, Belak J and Alcivar-Warren A. 2001.
Genetic diversity of wild and cultured
black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon)
in the Philippines using microsatellites.
Aquaculture 199(1-2): 13-40.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Feed Formulation for Sustainable Aquaculture
Relicardo M. Coloso
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
colosor@seafdec.org.ph
Abstract
As aquaculture production of tropical fish and crustacean species becomes more intensified,
practical diets need to be formulated to be cost effective and environment-friendly. Ingredients
should be included to satisfy the nutrient requirements of the animal, promote optimal fish
growth, and boost the income of small-scale farmers and commercial producers with minimal
impacts to the surrounding environment. Feed formulation for sustainable aquaculture should
aim at increasing aquaculture system performance and profitability, enhancing the animals’
disease resistance, increasing attractability, palatability, and digestibility of practical diets, and
maintaining environmental quality through sound feeding management and good aquaculture
practices. More vigorous research and development efforts need to be supported to generate feed
technologies that will ensure a steady and reliable supply of safe and high quality aquaculture
products to the public while preserving the environment.
Keywords: practical diets, feed formulation, sustainable aquaculture
Healthy and wholesome aquaculture
One of the most important thematic
programs of SEAFDEC/AQD is Healthy
and Wholesome Aquaculture which is
an important strategy towards increasing
the productivity of aquaculture systems.
Ultimately, by improving performance of
the aquaculture system and by maintaining
environmental quality, aquaculture will be
sustainable for generations to come.
Over the last few decades, increases
in aquaculture production have been
based on the application of aquaculture
feed. Considering that about 60-70% of
investment in aquaculture is due to feeds
and feeding management and with an
annual growth rate of roughly 5% and
75% of production being due to feed
taking species, the feed demand exceeds
20 M metric tons annually. At the average
percentage of crude protein for the aquafeed
of about 30%, the protein requirement
exceeds 6M metric tons per year. At this
rate, the aquafeed industry cannot continue
its dependence on fish meal and will have to
find alternative sources of protein.
Feed formulation is the process of
combining different feed ingredients in
proportions necessary to provide the fish
with proper amounts of nutrients needed
at a particular stage of production at a
reasonable cost. It requires knowledge
about nutrients and feedstuffs, nutrient
requirements, palatability, acceptability,
digestibility, toxicity, as well as costs.
))*
Contributed Papers
Proper and correct feed formulation
as well as good aquaculture practices
and feeding management will ensure
sustainable aquaculture, aquaculture that
is (a) environmentally acceptable to all
stakeholders; (b) economically viable
depending on the level of economic
development of the particular locale or
country where the operations take place;
and (c) socially equitable, a concept that
varies according to the differences in social
parameters of a particular society.
To deliver proper nutrition and feeds
to aquaculture species, several aspects
need to be considered such as nutrient
requirements of aquaculture species,
sustainability of aquafeed ingredients
(sources of raw materials that are
environmentally acceptable), improved feed
management by improving feed quality,
farming of low-trophic level species and
integration with other agricultural farming
activities.
Feeds for sustainable aquaculture
The aims in formulating feeds for
sustainable aquaculture are improved
production, higher disease resistance, better
attractability and palatability of aquafeeds,
and stronger environmental protection.
build tissues, and are able to regulate
metabolism in fish and shrimps. These
nutrients are carbohydrates, fats or lipids
and fatty acids, proteins and amino acids,
vitamins, minerals. Nutrient standards for
complete feeds have been recommended
in the recently published Philippine
National Standards for aquaculture feeds.
This is the output of the technical working
group composed of resource persons from
the academe, research and development
institutions and the Philippine feed
industry upon consultation with major
stakeholders in the aquaculture industry
in the Philippines (BAFS/PNS 84 Aquaculture Feeds, 2010).
Carbohydrates include simple sugars,
starches, celluloses, gums and related
substances that are inexpensive sources
of energy giving 4 kilocalories of energy
per gram of carbohydrate. Thus, as much
carbohydrate as the fish or shrimp can
use is usually included in aquaculture
diets. They are also used as feed binders
(for example, bread flour, carrageenan,
agar, and alginates) to make the feed stable
in water. Table sugar (sucrose), glucose,
lactose, bread flour, wheat flour, corn starch
and cassava starch are good carbohydrates
and bread flour, wheat flour, and starches
are used as carbohydrate sources in fish or
shrimp diets.
Improved production and profit
Improved feed composition and better
feed conversion efficiency increase fish
production, lower feed cost, and minimize
the production of wastes from fish farms.
A balanced diet for fish is important
in ensuring fast growing, healthy, and
disease-free fish and shrimps. Giving food
that supplies all the components of good
nutrition is essential in good aquaculture
practices. Nutrients provide energy sources,
))+
The ability of fish or shrimps to make
use of carbohydrates in their diet varies
considerably. Most carnivorous species
have limited ability to use carbohydrates
compared with omnivorous or herbivorous
species. The carbohydrate levels in growout diets for various tropical aquaculture
species are 25-30% of the diet, 29%,
45%, and 55% for grouper, Tiger shrimp,
milkfish, and tilapia, respectively.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Fats or lipids are organic compounds
that are important components of
biomembranes of animals, plants, and
microbes. They are nutrients that are not
soluble in water, but are soluble in organic
solvents like ether and alcohol. Lipid in
the diet of aquatic animals has two main
functions – as a source of energy and as a
source of essential fatty acids that cannot
be made in the body of the animal. In
addition, lipids are also important sources
of fat-soluble vitamins. Lipids provide
a secondary storage of heat and energy
in that one gram of fat or lipid gives 9
kilocalories of energy. Fish and shrimps
require w3 and w6 -fatty acids in their
diets because they cannot make them. The
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) namely:
linoleic acid (18:2w6) and linolenic acid
(18:3w3), and the highly unsaturated fatty
acids (HUFA) such as eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA, 20:5w3), docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA, 22:6w3) and arachidonic acid
(ARA, 20:4w6), are needed by fish and
shrimps. Failure to provide these essential
fatty acids in the diet can slow growth and
consequently, a prolonged lack of these
fatty acids in the diet can lead to death.
Animal sources of fats or lipids in fish diets
are cod liver oil (CLO), squid liver oil, and
beef tallow while the plant sources are
soy bean oil (SBO), corn oil, coconut oil,
and sunflower seed oil. CLO is rich in w3
HUFAs and SBO is rich in w6 and also w3
PUFAs.
The crude fat levels in grow-out diets
for tropical aquaculture species can vary
considerably. Diets for marine fish like
grouper and milkfish can contain higher
levels (11-12%) of fat compared with those
of shrimps or freshwater fish like tilapia
(4-9%). A 1:1 combination of CLO: SBO is
usually used to provide a source for both w3
and w6 fatty acids.
The essential fatty acid requirements
of tropical aquaculture species also differ
for warmwater tropical fishes or shrimps.
Marine carnivores like grouper requires 1%
of w3 HUFA from fish oil while a marine
planktivore such as milkfish requires
1-1.5% w3 PUFA from fish oil and/or
SBO. In contrast, a freshwater herbivore
like tilapia needs w6 PUFA from SBO.
Tiger shrimp needs 0.5% w3 PUFA and
less than 0.5% w6 PUFA from fish oil and/
or SBO. The differences are due to the
varying adaptations to the combination
of the predominant PUFA in the marine
environment and the carnivorous preference
of marine species. The unsaturated fatty
acids in the marine food web are dominated
by w3 HUFA originating from marine algae
and carnivores consume smaller fish that
depend on phytoplankton and zooplankton.
The essential fatty acid requirements of
freshwater fish can generally be met by
w3 PUFA because freshwater microalgae
generally have w3 PUFA rather than the
w3 HUFA. In addition, w6 PUFA, and not
w3 PUFA, can be abundant in freshwater
microalgae.
Lastly, increased fish oil in finisher
diets leads to increased levels of w3HUFAs
in the tissues of fish. This observation has
important implications for fish husbandry
in ensuring the health, growth and survival
of farmed fish as well as in maintaining
the quality of fish products because of
the benefit of consumption of fish and its
content of w3 fatty acids to human health.
Proteins are needed by fish and
shrimps for making new tissues (growth
and reproduction), and replacing wornout tissues (maintenance and repair).
Proteins function in two ways: They
provide the ten essential amino acids
(histidine, methionine, arginine, threonine,
)),
Contributed Papers
tryptophan, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
valine, and phenylalanine) which cannot
be made in the body of the animal and thus
must be obtained from the diet. Proteins
are also a tertiary source of energy in that
one gram of protein can give 4 kilocalories
of energy. Inadequate dietary protein will
slow growth and severe lack of protein
in the diet can eventually lead to death.
Common protein sources in fish or shrimp
diets are classified into two – animal sources
such as fish meal, shrimp meal, squid meal,
and meat and bone meal; and plant sources
such as soy bean meal, pea seed meal,
cowpea meal, and various leaf meals.
The nutritive value of dietary protein
depends on the ability of the protein
source to fulfill the essential amino acid
requirements of fish or shrimps. The closer
the profile of amino acids in the protein
source to the requirement level, the higher is
the nutritive value of the protein. Thus, the
essential amino acids coming from the diet
must satisfy the amino acid requirements of
the animal to be of any nutritive value.
Complete protein sources are those that
contain all the essential amino acids needed
by fish or shrimps. Animal protein sources
are usually complete proteins. Some protein
sources especially plant protein sources lack
certain essential amino acids. For example,
soy beans lack methionine and are said to
be limiting in methionine. Corn lacks lysine
and tryptophan and is said to be limiting
in these amino acids. It is therefore ideal to
have a mixture of protein sources to provide
a good amino acid balance needed by the
animal.
The essential amino acid requirements
for tropical aquaculture species such as
milkfish, tiger shrimp and Asian sea bass
have been determined (Borlongan and
))-
Coloso, 1993; Millamena et al., 1996-1999;
Coloso et al., 1999, Murillo-Gurrea et al.,
2001, Coloso et al., 2004). Aquaculture
diets for these species should be formulated
with amino acid levels that conform to the
requirement levels for these amino acids for
optimum protein efficiency.
The crude protein levels in fish or
shrimp diets also vary. Grow-out diets for
carnivorous species like grouper contain
more protein (44% or higher) and tiger
shrimp contain 42% while grow-out diets
for omnivorous or herbivorous species such
as milkfish or tilapia can contain much less
protein (28-32%).
In addition, the crude protein levels
in diets for other life stages of tropical
aquaculture species are not static and can
also vary. Diets for the larval stages contain
higher levels of protein (38-50%) to support
rapid growth as well as for broodstock
stages (44-48%) to support ovarian
maturation and production of good quality
eggs and larvae.
Vitamins are organic substances that
are present in small amounts and are
vital for the health and well-being of fish
and shrimps. There are two classes of
vitamins depending on their solubility
characteristics. The water-soluble vitamins
are vitamin C, vitamin B complex, folic
acid, inositol, choline, and pantothenic
acid. The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins
A, D, E, and K. Fish meal, organ meats,
leaf meals, yeast and other microorganisms
are good sources of vitamins. The vitamin
requirements for tropical species have
been determined in some species but not
in others (Halver, 2002). It is difficult to
determine the vitamin requirements of
fishes and shrimps because these are in
minute amounts, the basal diet must contain
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
purified ingredients free of vitamins, and
the water medium must also be vitaminfree. Minerals help to build and maintain
the tissues of fish and shrimps and regulate
metabolism. There are four major classes:
macrominerals – sodium, potassium,
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur,
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
chloride; microminerals or trace elements
–iron, zinc, iodine, manganese, fluoride,
copper, selenium, molybdenum, chromium,
and cobalt; ultratrace elements- silicon,
vanadium, nickel, tin, aluminum, and
boron; and the toxic elements- cadmium,
arsenic, mercury and lead. Good sources
of minerals are fish meal, soybean meal,
various leaf meals, seed meals, flour, and
rice bran. Aquaculture diets can contain
up to 2-4% each of vitamin and mineral
premixes. The stable form of vitamin C,
magnesium ascorbyl phosphate is used
because ascorbic acid is rapidly destroyed
upon contact with water. Oftentimes,
additional vitamin A and E are also added
especially for broodstock feeds.
production of waste from the farming
activity. Balanced nutrition leads to good
growth, low feed conversion ratios, lower
production costs, higher profit, and more
sustainable production.
Higher disease resistance
All of the essential nutrients discussed
in the preceding section should be provided
in the diet in adequate amounts to ensure
the health of aquatic animals. Several of
these nutrients and other components of the
diet as well as feeding practices influence
the susceptibility of fish and shrimps
to various infectious and noninfectious
diseases. Diseases of fish can be caused by
bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites as well as
environmental and genetic factors. Fish
exhibit different tolerances to different
environmental conditions and disease
agents.
In terms of the dietary components,
nutrient deficiencies can adversely affect
fish health making them more susceptible
The two most important factors
to various disease agents. However, dietary
to consider in formulating a feed for
supplementation of certain nutrients at
any aquaculture species for improved
levels above the minimum requirements
production are nutrient requirements and
has shown enhancement of some immune
feeding behavior of the fish or shrimp.
responses and resistance to various disease
Adequate nutrients must be given to fish or agents. Of the various vitamins that are
shrimps for faster growth and survival and
essential for fish and shrimps, vitamin
feeds that are suited to the feeding behavior C and vitamin E have several distinct
of animals should be offered. The culturist
metabolic effects but they both have
must know what feed to give to a fish that
antioxidant functions. Higher vitamin
swallow food whole or shrimp that nibble
C and E levels leads to increased disease
slowly on their food. Some fish feed on
resistance perhaps because high tissue levels
the surface, some on water column, and
of these vitamins provide a readily available
still others are bottom feeders. Nutrient
reservoir for use by the animal to defend
requirements also vary with various life
itself from disease causing agents. The high
stages. The culturist must know the nutrient levels of these vitamins have shown lower
requirements of these life stages to provide
mortalities of fish challenged by bacteria or
good nutrition and ensure rapid growth
a stimulation of the nonspecific immune
of the cultured species and minimize the
response (Gatlin, 2002).
)).
Contributed Papers
Nonnutritive dietary components
such as the immunostimulant b glucan
may also potentially aid in disease control
of fish or shrimps. These compounds
are polysaccharide derivatives from
yeast and fungi and act to stimulate the
specific or nonspecific immune response
of fish and increase survival (Gatlin,
2002). Other dietary components such
as nucleotides have also been shown to
enhance antibody production, increase the
nonspecific immune response, increase
disease resistance and survival. Nucleotides
function as building blocks for DNA/RNA
synthesis and cell growth, enhance stress
tolerance, and enhance disease resistance.
Better attractability and palatability
The overall profitability of aquaculture
depends on preventing mortality during
the early life stages and maximizing feed
utilization during the entire duration of
culture. This depends on the physical and
chemical properties of the feed to ensure
maximum utilization of the nutrients
in the feed. It important that fish can
efficiently utilize the feed and also that
the nutrient components must be stable
during manufacture, storage, transport, and
feeding. Feeds must have the proper density,
odor, size, taste, appearance and must have
good binders to make it stable in the water
so that nutrients do not leach out in the
water before the fish can eat the feed (Pigott
and Tucker, 2002). Factors that make diets
attractive to fish and palatable include high
quality of ingredients, use of fresh oils, fish
meals with low biogenic amine content,
absence of mold and low tannin content.
Use of chemical attractants in the feed for
fish and crustaceans is desirable. Attractants
include marine based extracts and/or meals,
fish meal, fish solubles, squid meal, squid
liver meal, squid oil, shrimp meal, shrimp
))/
head meal, short necked clams; free amino
acids- glutamate, glycine, taurine, arginine,
lysine; and others such as glucose, starch,
gelatin, casein, pheromones, betaine,
putrescine, and cadaverine.
Stronger environmental protection
Better feeding management is
required for environment protection and
sustainability of aquaculture systems.
Excess, uneaten feeds and feces sink to
the bottom sediment. Dissolved nutrients
and decomposing bottom sediment
increase nutrient loading, change the algal
composition and production, and changes
the nature of the benthic community. These
conditions deplete the dissolved oxygen, and
increase the production of harmful gases
such as H2S by anaerobic conditions having
deleterious effects on aquatic organisms. If
unabated, the poor environment will cause
the gradual deterioration of the ecosystem
leading to fish kills and can eventually lead
to the eutrophication of inland bodies of
water. Eutrophication is the unnatural
enrichment of the water with two plant
nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus.
The phosphorus (P) requirements (0.290.85%) of several fish species are known.
In rainbow trout, low dietary P and high
vitamin D levels, decrease the soluble and
fecal P levels. Low dietary P levels increase
P deposition (as % of P intake) in the tissues
(Coloso et al., 2001, 2003). However, the
use of low P diets are costly thus needs to
be regulated. In rainbow trout fed 1.0 or
1.4% dietary P, growth is similar in both
diets, but the low dietary P, decrease soluble
and fecal P excretions. However, cost of
production is higher using low P diets, thus
needs regulatory measure (Sugiura et al.,
2005). Increased P availability from the diet
can also be achieved with supplementation
of phytase, an enzyme that liberates
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
the phosphate group from phytic acid
content of plant sources making it more
available to the animal. Thus, to protect the
environment we need to include enough
non-protein energy to decrease nitrogen
excretion to the environment, reduce feed
conversion ratio to minimize impact to the
environment, use low P diets to reduce the
amount of P excreted to the environment,
and use phytase to increase P availability.
Summary and conclusion
The concept of healthy and wholesome
aquaculture is an integral component in
improving and sustaining aquaculture
production to provide fish protein and other
beneficial nutrients. Our understanding of
the principles of aquaculture nutrition and
feed formulation for tropical aquaculture
species has vastly improved over the years
resulting in better feed formulations and
better feeding practices. However, more
vigorous R & D efforts in nutrition and
fish health management involving various
sectors of the aquaculture industry need
to continue to ensure a steady, sustainable,
and reliable supply of safe and quality fish
beneficial to public health while preserving
the environment.
References
Borlongan IG and Coloso RM. 1993.
Requirements of milkfish (Chanos
chanos Forsskal) juveniles for essential
amino acids. Journal of Nutrition 123:
125-132.
Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries
Product Standards (BAFS). 2010.
Philippine National Standards 84Aquaculture Feeds. Department of
Agriculture, Quezon City, Philippines.
17 pp.
Coloso RM, Basantes SP, King K, Hendrix
MA, Fletcher JW, Weis P and Ferraris
RP. 2001. Effect of dietary phosphorus
and vitamin D3 on phosphorus level
in effluent from the experimental
culture of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss). Aquaculture 202: 145-161.
Coloso RM, King K, Fletcher JW, Hendrix
MA, Subramanyam M, Weis P
and Ferraris RP. 2003. Phosphorus
utilization in rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed practical
diets and its consequences on effluent
phosphorus levels. Aquaculture 220:
801-820.
Coloso RM, Murillo-Gurrea DP, Borlongan
IG and Catacutan MR. 1999. Sulphur
amino acid requirement of juvenile
Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer. Journal
of Applied Ichthyology 15: 54-58.
Coloso RM, Murillo-Gurrea DP, Borlongan
IG and Catacutan MR. 2004.
Tryptophan requirement of juvenile
Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer. ournal of
Applied Ichthyology 20: 43-47.
Gatlin III DM. 2002. Nutrition and fish
health. In: Halver JE and Hardy RW
(eds). Fish Nutrition 3rd edition,
Academic Press, San Diego, CA, U.S.A.
pp 671-702.
Halver J. 2002. The vitamins. In: Halver JE
and Hardy RW (eds). Fish Nutrition
3rd edition, Academic Press, San Diego,
CA, U.S.A. pp 61-141.
Millamena OM, Bautista-Teruel MN
and Kanazawa A. 1996. Methionine
requirement of juvenile tiger shrimp
Penaeus monodon (Fabricius).
Aquaculture 143: 430-410.
))0
Contributed Papers
Millamena OM, Bautista-Teruel MN and
Kanazawa A. 1996. Valine requirement
of juvenile tiger shrimp Penaeus
monodon (Fabricius). Aquaculture
Nutrition 2: 129-132.
Murillo-Gurrea DP, Coloso RM, Borlongan
IG, Serrano Jr. AE. 2001. Lysine and
arginine requirements of juvenile Asian
sea bass Lates calcarifer. Journal of
Applied Ichthyology 17: 49-53.
Millamena OM, Bautista MN, Reyes OS
and Kanazawa A. 1997. Threonine
requirement of juvenile marine
shrimp Penaeus monodon (Fabricius).
Aquaculture 151: 9-14.
Pigott GM and Tucker BW. 2002. Special
feeds. In Halver JE and Hardy RW (eds).
Fish Nutrition 3rd edition, Academic
Press, San Diego, CA, U.S.A. pp 651-669.
Millamena OM, Bautista MN, Reyes OS
and Kanazawa A. 1998. Requirements
of juvenile marine shrimp Penaeus
monodon (Fabricius) for lysine and
arginine. Aquaculture 164: 95-104.
Sugiura S, Marchant DD, Kelsey K, Wiggins
T, Ferraris RP. 2005. Effluent profile of
commercial used low-phosphorus fish
feeds. Environmental Pollution 140: 95101.
Suggested Readings
Millamena OM, Teruel MB, Kanazawa
A and Teshima S. 1999. Quantitative
dietary requirements of post-larval tiger
shrimp, Penaeus monodon for histidine,
isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, and
tryptophan. Aquaculture 179: 169-179.
)*'
Millamena OM, Coloso RM and Pascual
FP (eds). 2002. Nutrition in Tropical
Aquaculture. Essentials of fish nutrition,
feeds, and feeding of tropical aquatic
species. SEAFDEC Aquaculture
Department, 244 pp.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Potential of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) Meal as an Alternative Protein
Source in Diets for Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii,
de Man 1879)
Frolan A. Ayaa*, Maria Lourdes Cuvin-Aralara and Relicardo M. Colosob
Binangonan Freshwater Station, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department,
Binangonan, Rizal 1940 Philippines
b
Tigbauan Main Station, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department,
Tigbauan 5021, Iloilo, Philippines
* faya@seafdec.org.ph
a
Abstract
Growth trials were conducted to evaluate cowpea Vigna unguiculata (L.) meal as a potential
protein source in diets for giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man 1879),
reared in tank and lake-based cages. Five isonitrogenous (approximately 37% crude protein) and
isocaloric diets were formulated where fish meal (FM) protein was replaced with 0%, 15%, 30%,
45% and 60% cowpea meal protein (or CP0, CP15, CP30, CP45, and CP60, respectively). Results
of an 8-week tank trial showed that the final body weight (FBW), percent weight gain, specific
growth rate (SGR) and survival of prawns were not significantly influenced by dietary treatments
(P > 0.05), although the highest values, except for survival, were observed with CP45. In a lakebased cage trial that lasted for 16 weeks, prawns fed CP30 and CP45 had significantly higher FBW
(13.1 and 14.4 g, respectively) compared to other treatment groups (P < 0.05). SGR (4.52–5.00%/
day), survival rates (53-77%), yield (98.5-116.5 g m-2) and feed conversion ratio (FCR; 2.0-2.7)
were not affected by increasing levels of cowpea meal in the diets. Based on these results, cowpea
meal can be considered as an alternative protein source in diets for M. rosenbergii.
Keywords: Vigna unguiculata, giant freshwater prawn, growth, Laguna de Bay
Introduction
The giant freshwater prawn
(Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man) is
an economically important species for
aquaculture in Asian countries such as
China, India, Thailand and Malaysia. It is a
promising alternative to black tiger shrimp
(Penaeus monodon) due to its high market
value and relatively low susceptibility to
diseases. Presently, in the Philippines,
farming of M. rosenbergii in natural inland
water bodies such as lakes and reservoirs
could be a sustainable option for the
growth of aquaculture in lake-shore fish
farming communities (Cuvin-Aralar et al.,
2007), similar to other well-known species
such as bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis,
milkfish Chanos chanos and Nile tilapia
Oreochromis niloticus. Farming of this
species requires a nutritionally-balanced
diet for optimal growth and survival.
However, the rising cost of feed hinders
profitability of production due to the use of
)*(
Contributed Papers
expensive protein sources such as fishmeal
(McCoy, 1990; Tacon and Metian, 2015).
Feed constitutes 40-60% of the operational
costs for M. rosenbergii culture (Mitra et
al., 2005). Therefore, assessment of locally
available sources such as plant proteins for
use in feed formulations needs to be tapped
and explored.
Among the alternative protein sources
for fishmeal, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata
(L.)) meal has been used to replace
fishmeal in crustacean diets because of
its high nutritional value and digestibility
(Eusebio, 1991; Eusebio and Coloso, 1998;
Rivas-Vega et al., 2006). An important
legume crop in the Philippines and in other
Southeast Asian countries, cowpea seeds
are known for their crude protein content
of 23–26%, high levels of essential amino
acids such as lysine and tryptophan and
digestible energy. Likewise, the successful
use of V. unguiculata has been reported
for tilapia feeding (Keembiyehetty and de
Silva, 1993; Olvera-Novoa et al., 1997). The
present study evaluated the response of M.
rosenbergii to diets containing cowpea meal
(Vigna unguiculata).
Materials and Methods
Experimental Diets
The chemical composition of Vigna
unguiculata is shown in Table 1. Five
experimental diets were formulated by
replacing 0%, 15%, 30%, 45% and 60% of
the FM protein with cowpea meal (CP0,
CP15, CP30, CP45 and CP60). All diets
were formulated to be isonitrogenous
(approximately 37% dietary protein) and
isocaloric. The experimental diets were
tested in both tank and lake-based feeding
trials.
Feeding trials
Tank trial
Fifteen day-old postlarvae (0.029 ±
0.008 g mean weight) were stocked in 60-l
polyethylene tanks at 15 prawns per tank
and acclimatized for one week prior to
actual feeding trial. Tanks were half-filled
with freshwater which was maintained
throughout the experiment. Tanks were
provided with nets as substrates where PL
Table 1. Proximate composition (% dry matter) of cowpea meal Vigna unguiculata.
*Nitrogen Free Extract
)*)
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
adhered after feeding. Experimental diets
were fed at 20–30% of estimated biomass
three times daily at 0800, 1300, and 1600
h for an eight-week period. Each diet
treatment was replicated thrice. Water
temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO) and
pH ranged from 26.3–28.4°C, 5.62–8.88
mg L-1 and 8.6–9.4, respectively during the
rearing period.
using one-way ANOVA followed by
Tukey’s post hoc test when significant
differences were detected. Survival data
were arcsine transformed prior to statistical
analysis. All statistical tests were performed
using the Number Cruncher Statistical
System (NCSS 07.1.4 version) 2007
Software (Hintze, 2007).
Results
Lake-based cage trial
Tank trial
Postlarvae (PL20) were stocked in hapa
net cages (L × W × H: 2 × 2 × 1.5 m) in
Laguna de Bay with 15 shrimps m-2 (0.04
± 0.01 g body weight) and three replicate
cages per treatment. Each cage was provided
with two used A-nets (mesh size: 2 mm2;
dimension: 0.5 × 2.0 m) as shelters and
suspended horizontally inside each cage.
The prawns were fed experimental diets
once daily (0900h) at 10, 8, 6 and 4% of
estimated biomass for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th
month of culture (Millamena and Trińo,
1997). Total length, individual weight,
weight gain and survival were monitored
monthly. Production parameters such as
final weight, percent weight gain, specific
growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio
(FCR) and survival were used to evaluate
the acceptability of cowpea meal in diets for
M. rosenbergii.
Water quality was monitored inside
the cages between 0800 and 0900 hours
for the duration of the experiment. DO
levels ranged from 3.47–6.95 mg L-1 and
temperature was noted between 25.8–
28.4°C. pH readings varied from 7.5–8.4
during the trial period.
Data analysis
The results for survival and growth after
an eight-week tank trial are shown in Table
2. The experimental diet CP45 gave the
highest mean weight, percent weight gain
and SGR, but there were no differences
among treatments (P > 0.05). However, a
gradual decrease in growth performance
was observed at CP60. Survival rates
ranged from 83 (CP45) to 93% (CP15)
and no significant difference was detected
among treatments.
Lake-based Trial
FBW ranged from 10.1 to 14.4 g
with significantly higher FBW at CP30
and CP45 compared to other treatments
(P < 0.05). SGR (4.52–5.00%/day) and
survival rates (53.4–77.2%) did not
differ significantly among treatments.
The experimental diet CP60 gave the
best survival rates but the poorest FBW
and SGR among the experimental diets.
Production ranged from 98.5 g m-2 (CP0)
to 116.2 g m-2 (CP60) and feed conversion
ratio (FCR) between 2.00 (CP30) and 2.72
(CP60). No significant differences were
found among treatment means for yield
and FCR (Table 3).
The results for growth, feed conversion
ratio (FCR) and survival were analyzed
)**
Contributed Papers
Table 2. Growth and survival parameters monitored in Macrobrachium rosenbergii postlarvae fed
diets with varying levels of cowpea Vigna unguiculata meal for 8 weeks during the tank trial.
FBW = final body weight, SGR = specific growth rate
Initial prawn weight, 0.029 ± 0.008 g; 1SGR = (ln wtfinal – ln wtinitial)/days of culture × 100
Survival = actual count at harvest/initial stock × 100
Column means followed by different letter superscripts are significantly different at P < 0.05
Table 3. Production parameters for Macrobrachium rosenbergii fed diets with varying levels of
cowpea Vigna uinguiculata meal for 16 weeks during the lake-based cage trial.
Column means followed by different letter superscripts are significantly different at P < 0.05
Discussion
The present study was conducted
to evaluate the potential use of Vigna
unguiculata as an alternative protein
source in diets for M. rosenbergii. Based on
chemical composition, cowpea meal has a
high nutritional value (23% crude protein).
Likewise, the nitrogen free-extract (NFE) or
the carbohydrate content of V. unguiculata
showed that it can be an excellent source of
energy in crustacean diets.
)*+
In terms of biological performance,
results of the tank study indicated that
the growth performance of M. rosenbergii
PL fed the control diet was inferior to
prawn fed cowpea meal-based diets. SGR,
in particular, was comparable to or even
higher than the findings of Du and Niu
(2003) who achieved an SGR of 2.5% day-1
when soybean meal was used to replace
FM in diets for the same species. Growth
performance improved with increasing
levels of cowpea meal protein, but the
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
best results were obtained at 30 to 45%
substitution. However, the inclusion above
45% resulted in diminished performance in
terms of mean FBW, suggesting that mixing
of cowpea meal with low levels of FM
protein may have contributed to the slower
growth of M. rosenbergii PL. Cowpea meal
contains several inherent anti-nutritional
factors such as trypsin inhibitor which
may interfere with feed utilization. This
however, may not be the case as the trypsin
inhibitor activity (TIA) in the cowpea meal
ranged from 23.7–31.6 TIU/mg protein as
reported by Ologhobo and Fetuga (1984)
and Rivas-Vega et al., (2006) and even
lower than those reported for soybean
meal (106 TIU/mg of sample) (Kakade et
al., 1974), suggesting minimal impacts of
any trypsin inhibition. On the other hand,
while analysis of essential amino acids
(EAAs) of experimental diets have not been
determined, high inclusion level of cowpea
meal at 60% is likely to be limiting in EAAs
such as methionine and has resulted in
poor growth . Survival rates (83–93%) of
M. rosenbergii PL in the present tank study
were comparable to or slightly lower than
those reported by Roy et al., (2009).
Similar trends in growth were also
observed in the lake-based feeding trial
with cowpea meal-based diets performing
better than the control diet (CP0), which
has FM and shrimp meal (Acetes sp.) as
protein sources. M. rosenbergii are omnivore
species which can efficiently digest both
plants and animal protein sources (Ashmore
et al., 1985). This explains the best growth
performance at CP45 experimental diet in
this study. However, the mean weights of the
prawns fed the best performing diet (CP45;
14.4 g) after 120 days are considerably lower
than those obtained by Cuvin-Aralar et
al., (2007) for similar stocking density (15
prawns m-2; the mean weight after 150 days
is 26.3 g), but comparable with the mean
sizes at higher stocking density (90 prawns
m-2; the mean weight at harvest is 14.3 g).
Differences in the final size or weight at
harvest were attributed to the initial size
of PLs used at the start of the experiment
(0.04 g, this study vs. 0.40 g in Cuvin-Aralar
et al., (2007). Nevertheless, SGRs obtained
in the present study (4.52–5.00% d-1) were
considerably higher than those obtained by
Cuvin-Aralar et al., (2007) (2.68–3.02% d-1)
and Ghosh et al., (2010) (3.55–3.75% d-1).
The better survival of prawns in
cages at CP60 (77.2%) followed by CP15
(62.8%) and CP0 (62.2%) has resulted to
smaller size of prawns at harvest (10.1,
10.65 and 11.1 g for CP60, CP0 and CP15,
respectively). Conversely, the relatively
lower survival at CP30 (55.0%) and CP45
(53.4%) produced larger prawns (13.1–14.4
g), which were comparable to or even
higher than those obtained by CuvinAralar et al., (2007), who reported survival
rates ranging from 36.9–55.3%. Lower
survival rates achieved in these diets maybe
attributed to heterogeneous individual
growth (HIG), possible entry of predators
and competitors inside the experimental
cages, and cannibalism (Ranjeet and Kurup,
2002; FAO, 2002; Cuvin-Aralar et al., 2007).
Nonetheless, FCRs obtained in the present
study were comparable to those reported
in other studies (FAO, 2002; Cuvin-Aralar
et al., 2007). Shrimp production varied
from 98.5 to 116.2 g m-2, which is generally
higher than those reported in pond culture
in Asian countries such as India (12–45 g
m-2) (Ghosh et al., 2010).
In summary, the present study shows
the potential of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)
meal as an alternative protein source in diets
for M. rosenbergii. Cowpea meal can replace
FM at 30–45% inclusion level with no
)*,
Contributed Papers
adverse effects on growth and production
of this species reared under laboratory and
lake-based conditions.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the
Government of Japan Trust Fund under
study code FD-08-C2010B. The authors
are grateful to MN Santos, MN Corpuz,
VS Nillasca and NB Olorvida for their
assistance in the conduct of this study.
Eusebio PS and Coloso RM. 1998.
Evaluation of leguminous seed
meals and leaf meals as plant protein
sources in diets for juvenile Penaeus
indicus. Israeli Journal of AquacultureBamidgeh 50: 47-54.
FAO. 2002. Farming of Freshwater
Prawns: A Manual for the culture of
the giant river prawn (Macrobrachium
rosenbergii). FAO Fisheries Technical
Paper 428. Food and Agriculture
Oragnization, Rome, Italy.
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Ashmore SB, Standby RW, Moore LB and
Malecha SR. 1985. Effect on growth and
apparent digestibility of diets varying
in gram source and protein level in
Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Journal of
the World Mariculture Society 16: 205216.
Cuvin-Aralar MLA, Aralar EV, Laron
MA and Rosario W. 2007. Culture
of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De
Man 1879) in experimental cages in a
freshwater eutrophic lake at different
stocking densities. Aquaculture
Research 38: 288-294.
Du L and Niu CJ. 2003. Effects of dietary
substitution of soya bean meal for fish
meal on consumption, growth, and
metabolism of juvenile giant freshwater
prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
Aquaculture Nutrition 9: 139-143.
Eusebio PS. 1991. Effect of dehulling on
the nutritive value of some leguminous
seeds as protein sources for tiger
prawn, Penaeus monodon, juveniles.
Aquaculture 99: 297-308.
)*-
Ghosh R, Banerjee K, Homechaudhuri S
and Mitra A. 2010. Effect of formulated
feeds on the growth and water quality
of freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium
rosenbergii) farming: A case study from
Gangetic Delta. Livestock Research
for Rural Development, Volume 22,
Article #222. Retrieved March 13, 2011,
from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd22/12/
ghos22222.htm.
Hintze J. 2007. NCSS and GESS. NCSS,
LLC. Kaysville, Utah. http://www.ncss.
com.
Kakade ML, Rackis JJ, McGhee JE and
Poski G. 1974. Determination of trypsin
inhibitor activity in soy products: A
collaborative analysis of improved
procedure. Cereal Chemistry 51: 376.
Keembiyehetty CN and de Silva SS. 1993.
Performance of juvenile Oreochromis
niloticus (L.) reared on diets containing
cowpea, Vigna catiang, and black gram,
Phaseolus mungo, seeds. Aquaculture
112: 207-215.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
McCoy HD. 1990. Fishmeal-The critical
ingredient in aquaculture feeds.
Aquaculture Magazine 16: 43-50.
Millamena O and Trińo AT. 1997. Lowcost feed for Penaeus monodon reared
in tanks and under semi-intensive and
intensive conditions in brackishwater
ponds. Aquaculture 154: 69-78.
Mitra G, Mukhopadhyay PK and
Chattopadhyay DN. 2005. Nutrition
and feeding of in freshwater prawn
(Macrobrachium rosenbergii) farming.
Aqua Feeds: Formulation and Beyond 2:
17-19.
Ologhobo AD and Fetuga BL. 1984. Effect
of processing on the trypsin inhibitor,
haemaglutinin, tannins acid and phytic
acid contents of seeds of ten cowpea
varieties. Tropical Agriculture 61: 261264.
Olvera-Novoa MA, Pereira-Pacheco F,
Olivera-Castillo L, Pérez-Flores V,
Navarro L and Sámano J. 1997. Cowpea
(Vigna unguiculata) protein concentrate
as replacement for fish meal in diets
for tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fry.
Aquaculture 158: 107-116.
Ranjeet M and Kurup BM. 2002.
Heterogenous individual growth
of Macrobrachium rosenbergii male
morphotypes. Naga, The ICLARM
Quarterly 25: 13-18.
Rivas-Vega ME, Goytortúa-Bores E,
Ezquerra-Brauer JM, Salazar-García
MG, Cruz-Suárez LE, Nolasco H and
Civera-Cerecedo R. 2006. Nutritional
value of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata
L. Walp) meals as ingredients in diets
for Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus
vannamei Boone). Food Chemistry 97:
41-49.
Roy LA, Bordinhon A, Sookying D, Davis
DA, Brown TW and Whitis GN. 2009.
Demonstration of alternative feeds for
the Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei, reared in low salinity waters.
Aquaculture Research 40: 496-503.
Tacon AGJ and Metian M. 2015. Feed
matters: Satisfying the feed demand
of aquaculture. Reviews in Fisheries
Science and Aquaculture 23: 1-10.
)*.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Application of the United States Soybean Export Council Program’s Soyoptimized Floating Feeds and Low Volume, High Density Cage Aquaculture
Technologies
Levy Loreto L. Manalacª*, Michael Cremerb, Hsiang Pin Lanc and Lukas Manomaitisa
United States Soybean Export Council (USSEC), Singapore Representative Office, 541 Orchard Road, #1103 Liat Towers, Singapore 238881, Singapore
b
United States Soybean Export Council (USSEC), 16305 Swingley Ridge Road, Suite 200, Chesterfield, MO
63017-USA
c
United States Soybean Export Council (USSEC), China World Office 1, No.1, Jianguomenwai Ave., Beijing,
100004, P.R. China
* lmanalac@ct.ussec.org
a
Abstract
The United States Soybean Export Council’s (USSEC) Soy-In-Aquaculture (SIA) project
in the Philippines introduced the Low Volume High Density (LVHD) cage culture production
methodology in 2003. The aim of this technology is to maximize farmers profit, improve
productivity, reduce feed conversion ratios (FCR) and limit environmental degradation. The
Philippine fish farmers were very conservative and hesitant about adopting the USSEC SIA Low
Volume High Density (LVHD) cage culture technology, particularly the new feeding techniques
using extruded floating feeds. This conservative attitude was highlighted with different projects
using Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), milkfish (Chanos chanos) and snubnose pompano
(Trachinotus blochii) in USSEC SIA LVHD cage feeding demonstrations conducted in different
commercial farms in the Philippines.
Keywords: low volume high density, extruded floating feeds, target biomass, cage positioning,
feeding management
Introduction
The United States Soybean Export
Council (USSEC) program under the SoyIn-Aquaculture (SIA) Project conducted
different feeding demonstrations using
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus),
milkfish (Chanos chanos) and snubnose
pompano (Trachinotus blochii) at different
commercial cage farms in the Philippines.
The objective of the USSEC Low Volume
High Density cage production technology
demonstration was to show the correct
application of the following: (a) USSECdeveloped satiation feeding technique,
(b) least-cost formulated soy-optimized
aquafeeds, (c) feed enclosures in the cages
to prevent floating feeds from exiting the
cages, and (d) cage positioning for better
water exchange in the cages, which is
critical for good results in a high density
system.
)*0
Contributed Papers
Materials and Methods
For the Nile tilapia feeding
demonstrations, five units of 3 x 3 x 2.5
m or 22.5 m3 bamboo floating cages were
used in a commercial farm in Taal Lake,
Batangas, Philippines. Tilapia fingerlings
of about 7.5 g were stocked in the 22.5 m3
cages at a density of 8,700 fish per cage.
Fish in all five cages were of uniform size
and age at stocking. Tilapia production
targets were 300 g per fish and 2,250 kg per
cage, or 100 kg m-3 of cage volume. Tilapia
were fed thrice daily with USSEC 36/7 soyoptimized extruded floating feed for tilapia
weighing 7.5 g to 50 g, and fed twice daily
with USSEC 32/6 extruded floating feed
for tilapia 50 g to harvest. These feeds
were formulated by USSEC and produced
domestically in the Philippines. The five
cages were treated as replicates of a single
feed treatment, with fish in all cages fed to
satiation twice to thrice daily every seven
days, using the USSEC satiation feeding
technique.
For the milkfish feeding
demonstrations, four units of 5 x 5 x 4
m or 100 m3 bamboo floating cages were
used in Panabo City, Davao del Norte,
Philippines. Milkfish fingerlings of about
32.0 g were stocked in the 100 m3 cages at
a density of 7,800 fish per cage. Fish in all
four cages were of uniform size and age at
stocking. Milkfish production targets were
500g per fish and 3,750 kg per cage, or
37.5 kg m-3 of cage volume. Milkfish were
fed five times daily with USSEC 34.7/9.8
soy-optimized extruded floating feed
for milkfish 25 g to harvest. These feeds
were formulated by USSEC and produced
domestically in the Philippines. The four
cages were treated as replicates of a single
feed treatment, with fish in all cages fed
to satiation five times daily every seven
)+'
days, using the USSEC satiation feeding
technique.
For the pompano feeding
demonstration, three units of 3x3x3 m
or 27 m³ floating steel cages were used in
Cebu, Philippines. Pompano fingerlings
of about 19.0 g were stocked in the 27 m3
cages at a density of 2,150 fish per cage.
Fish in all four cages were of uniform size
and age at stocking. Pompano production
targets were 500 g per fish and 1,075 kg
per cage, or 39.8 kg m-3 of cage volume.
Pompano were fed twice daily with USSEC
43/12 soy-optimized extruded floating feed
for fish from 19 g to harvest. These feeds
were formulated by USSEC and produced
domestically in the Philippines. The three
cages were treated as replicates of a single
feed treatment, with fish in all cages fed to
satiation twice daily every ten days, using
the USSEC satiation feeding technique.
In all the demonstration cages, the
nets were made from a rectangular nylon
mesh cage net which were suspended and
weighted down to maintain the cage shape
against water currents. As the fish grew, the
mesh sizes of cage nets were increased to
maximize water exchange. Each cage was
equipped with an internal feed enclosure
and a light blocking cover as specified in
the ASA-IM LVHD Manual “Principles and
Practices of High Density Fish Culture in
Low Volume Cages”.
Cage management was based on the
USSEC cage production model. Fish in all
cages were sampled once per month on
about the same date each month. At the
conclusion of the project, all cages were
completely harvested and all fish weighed.
All of the harvested fish were enumerated
when weighed to obtain an average fish
size and fish survival. Results were used to
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
determine fish survival, average fish weight,
gross fish production and feed conversion
ratio (FCR).
feeding management technique could have
been one factor why the target weight of
some fish was not attained.
Results
Despite the problems encountered in
implementing these new technologies, at
the end of each project, the fish farmers
were able to appreciate the positive
aspects of the USSEC LVHD cage culture
technology. The farms that have adopted
the use of maximum cage volumes,
target biomass densities, proper cage
positioning, use of high quality extruded
floating feeds and USSEC satiation feed
management have recognized its benefits
compared to their traditional commercial
culture methods and have improved their
production.
Tilapia was fed for 132 days between 29
July and 08 December 2011. Tilapia grew
from an average of 7.5 g to 300 g in this
period and yielded an average production
of 1,572 kg cage-1 or 70 kg m-3. Mean
survival rate was 60% and average FCR was
1.47:1.
Milkfish were fed for 133 days between
31 May 2012 and 11 October 2012. Milkfish
fed with 34.7/9.8 grew from an average of
32 g to 379 g, with a mean FCR of 1.92:1.
Average production was 2,776 kg cage-1 or
27.8 kg m-3 with a mean survival rate of
99%.
On the other hand, pompano were
cultured for a total of 142 days between 29
July and 17 December 2008. Pompano fed
USSEC 43/12 diet grew from an average of
19 g to 338 g, with a mean FCR of 2.38:1.
Average production was 763 kg /cage or
28.2 kg m-3 with a mean survival rate of
99.1%.
Discussion
This is the first time for most of the
cooperators to try the USSEC feed-based
LVHD cage culture technologies. The
feed manager and technicians required
some time to learn the satiation feeding
technique during the first months of
culture. This unfamiliarity with the USSEC
Acknowledgements
The USSEC SIA Program gratefully
acknowledges the support of the local
aquaculture farms and feedmills,
USSEC SEA TD-Aquaculture Mr.
Lukas Manomaitis, USSEC Asia Marine
Aquaculture Specialist Mr. Hsiang Pin Lan,
USSEC International Aquaculture Senior
Program Advisor Dr. Michael Cremer, and
the USSEC Offices and staff in Philippines,
Singapore and the United States for
their help and support of these feeding
demonstrations.
Suggested Readings
Schmittou HR. 1997. Principles and
Practices of High Density Fish Culture
in Low Volume Cages. American
Soybean Association.
)+(
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Utilization of Sensors and SMS Technology to Remotely Maintain the Level
of Dissolved Oxygen, Salinity and Temperature of Fishponds
Rodrigo C. Munoza*, Reynan P. Calderona, Rudy C. Floresb, Sisenando C. Masangcapc,
Jayson P. Angelesb and Mark Colentavaa
College of Engineering and Architecture, Bataan Peninsula State University (BPSU), Main Campus, Bataan
BPSU Orani Campus, Bataan
c
College of Business and Accountancy, BPSU Balanga Campus, Bataan
* rodmunoz@gmail.com
a
b
Abstract
Due to the occurrence of fish kills in various fish producing areas in our country, millions of
pesos and opportunities for the Filipino people had been put into waste. Bataan Peninsula State
University (BPSU) collaborated with the Central Luzon Association of Small-scale Aquaculture to
devise strategies to address the said problem and prevent further losses.
More often than not, a fish kill can be attributed to the low level of dissolved oxygen (DO)
in the water, decrease or increase in salinity and sudden increase in temperature, which usually
occur after heavy rainfall, flooding or high tide, or high levels of ammonia due to decomposing
organic matter and high temperature during summer.
For these reasons, BPSU researchers tested the use of radio frequencies and installed sensors
in different areas of the fishpond at various depths to remotely monitor the levels of DO, salinity
and temperature of the water. Once these reach critical levels, the installed system which comes
with a specific program, will send an alarm through radio frequencies via Short Messaging
Services (SMS) technology on the cellular/mobile phone of the caretaker or the fishpond operator.
Upon receiving the alarm, caretakers were able to adjust the levels of dissolved oxygen, salinity
and temperature of the water by remotely switching on the air compressor or the electric water
pump using their cellular/ mobile phone, thus preventing losses due to fish kills.
Keywords: fish kill, dissolved-oxygen (DO), salinity, radio frequency, sensors
Introduction
The increasing activity of people
affects the environment. Changes in the
environment can be seen as part of climate
change, from massive rainfall, floods,
high tide, high temperature, etc. and these
have brought about unstable production
of food and food scarcity. The traditional
way of maintaining the environmental
conditions suitable for food production has
not provided solutions to these present-day
concerns which otherwise can be solved
through precise and quick responses.
In 27 May 2011, the World Mind
Network and the Batangas Fish kill
Research Group reported a massive fish
)+*
Contributed Papers
die-off in Taal Lake, Batangas. Over 800
metric tons of bangus and tilapia died in
the areas of Laurel, Talisay, Tanauan City,
and San Nicolas. In mid-June, more fish
died, this time near Cuenca and Lipa City.
More fish kills occurred until the month of
July. In Taal Lake alone, the Department
of Environmental and Natural Resources
(DENR) reported that from 27 May until
8 June, 2,056 metric tons of bangus were
counted as losses from 239 fish cages in 9
municipalities, and this amounted to P144
million. Fish kill losses in Taal Lake and
Pangasinan have reached P190 million.
There were several theories to explain
the die-off. The predominant one is that the
beginning of the rainy season resulted in
low oxygen levels in the lake. The problem
with this is that the rainy season happens
at almost about the same time every year,
and yet fish kills like this one are very
rare. A major factor is that there are still
14,000 fish cages in the Lake, even though
the government in 2009 has put forth a
regulation to reduce this to a maximum of
only 6,000 cages.
Some believe that overfeeding of
fish in commercial cages caused the dieoff. Others hypothesized that increased
emissions of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur
from Taal volcano may be a factor. These
were noticed during earlier fish kills.
Advanced technologies such as sensors
and mobile phones lessen the need for
people to be physically present in some
activities so that they can spend more time
in doing more productive things, and yet
be assured that his/her job, company or
business will still be managed efficiently
through special monitoring and controlling
facilities.
)++
Objectives of the Study
The study aimed to develop an
automated monitoring system with
controlling facility using sensors and a
database management system to remotely
monitor the dissolved oxygen (DO),
salinity and temperature of water in fish
culture enclosures, particularly in ponds,
thus preventing fish kills.
Specifically, it aimed to: 1) use wireless
technology in maintaining the required
level of DO, temperature and salinity in
the fish production system; 2) prevent or
at least lessen damages brought about by
fish kills for sustainable food production;
3) create a program in the microprocessor
that would give a preset environment
condition in an automated aquaculture
system as a solution to problems with
regards to DO, salinity and temperature;
4) remotely monitor and maintain the DO,
salinity and temperature for the species
being raised in the fish ponds; and 5) assess
its contribution to the aquaculture industry
and fish pond operators.
Materials and Methods
The following were the factors
considered in designing the project:
Installation – the server, the heart of
the system, must be located in a
safe and suitable facility near the
location of the fish pond.
Flexibility – the system must be able to
read, store, send, alter, manipulate
and process the data from the
program through the database.
Storage capacity – the server must have a
high powered memory capacity.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Availability – the programming
language used must be accessible
in order to build a better database
system.
Usability – it must be easy to use,
understand, access and control.
Competitiveness – it must be able
to help the various sectors in
the fishery industry specifically,
aquaculture by remotely monitoring
and maintaining favorable
environmental conditions.
A schematic diagram of the operational
design for the automated monitoring system
is presented in Figure 1. Meanwhile, the
actual experimental setup layout is shown in
Figure 2.
Figure 1. The operational design of the water monitoring and alarm system and how each component
interfaces with each other.
Figure 2. The layout of the experiment.
)+,
Contributed Papers
Results
Data on the levels of dissolved oxygen,
salinity and temperature of the water in
the experimental pond were successfully
collected through the use of sensors and
recorded in the micro controller unit
(MCU) for analysis and interpretation, and
transmitted via SMS to the mobile phone
of the owner whenever a critical level
had been reached. The compressor and
electric water pump were also successfully
switched on and off through the mobile
phone of the owner even if he was not
near his pond to adjust the DO, salinity
and temperature of the water to desired
levels. This means that the system could be
a tool to remotely monitor and maintain a
suitable environmental condition for the
fish species being raised in the fishpond.
temperature increases (Figure 4). Finally,
Figure 5 shows that when the value of
salinity increases by 0.5, the dissolved
oxygen decreases by approximately 0.02.
Discussion
The study proved that sensors and
wireless communication systems can be
used to remotely monitor the dissolved
oxygen, salinity and temperature levels
of water in the fishpond. It also proved
that through the use of these advanced
technologies we could also remotely
manipulate and control devices and
equipment such as air compressors and
electric water pumps used in the fishpond,
thus preventing fish kill.
Conclusion
For temperature vs salinity, the
data collected show that an increase in
temperature will also cause an increase
in salinity level making the relationship
of the two parameters linear (please refer
to Figure 3). The temperature versus DO,
graph shows that DO content decreases as
Fish kill could be prevented if the levels
of dissolved oxygen, temperature and
salinity will not be beyond critical levels.
This could be remotely monitored and
manipulated through the use of sensors and
wireless communication systems.
Table 1. Oxygen saturation at different temperature and salinity levels.
Oxygen Saturation Based on Temperature and Salinity
)+-
Temperature
(dec C)
Salinity (ppt)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
0
13.11
13.06
13.02
12.97
12.93
12.88
12.84
12.79
12.75
12.70
5
11.49.
11.45
11.42
11.38
11.34
11.30
11.26
11.23
11.19
11.15
10
10.19
10.16
10.13
10.10
10.07
10.03
10.00
9.97
9.94
9.91
15
9.14
9.11
9.08
9.05
9.03
9.00
8.97
8.94
8.92
8.89
20
8.27
8.24
8.22
8.19
8.17
8.15
8.12
8.10
8.07
8.05
25
7.54
7.52
7.49
7.47
7.45
7.43
7.41
7.39
7.37
7.35
30
6.92
6.90
6.88
6.86
6.84
6.82
6.80
6.78
6.76
6.75
35
6.38
6.36
6.34
6.33
6.31
6.29
6.28
6.26
6.24
6.23
40
5.90
5.89
5.87
5.85
5.84
5.82
5.81
5.79
5.78
5.76
45
5.47
5.46
5.45
5.43
5.42
5.40
5.39
5.38
5.36
5.35
50
5.08
5.07
5.06
5.04
5.03
5.02
5.01
5.00
4.98
4.97
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 3. Changes in temperature and corresponding salinity levels in the
experimental pond.
Figure 4. Dissolved oxygen and corresponding temperature levels in the
experimental pond.
Figure 5. Dissolved oxygen at different salinity levels in the pond.
)+.
Contributed Papers
Recommendation
Fishpond operators could adopt this
system to remotely monitor and control the
condition of water in their fishponds, thus
preventing losses due to fish kill. Similar
studies could be made with other fish
production systems such as those in Laguna
and Taal Lakes, Pangasinan and other parts
of the country affected by massive fish kills.
Suggested Readings
Fielding R, Irvine UC, Gettys J, Mogul J,
Frystyk H, Masinter L, Leach P and
Berners-Lee T. 1999. Internet RFC
2616. p 12.
Greenspun P. 2003. Database Management
Systems. In: Philip and Alex’s Guide to
Web Publishing.
Hall EA. 2000. Internet Core Protocols:
The Definitive Guide. O’Reilly and
Associates, Inc. Sebastopol, California.
p 9.
http://www.octiva.net/projects/ppm/.
http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/
CJFDTOTAL-ZNTB201016080.htm
(Schedule of Download- March 04,
2012).
http://users.tkk.fi/virranko/greenhouse_
mesa08.pdf (Schedule of DownloadMarch 04, 2012).
http://www.campbellsci.com/ (Schedule of
Download- March 04, 2012).
http://www.devarticles.com/c/a/MySQL/
Introductory-Database-TheorySystems-And-Design/.
http://www.ehow.com/facts_7834383_
stranded-copper-wire-specifications.
html.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/
concrete/pubs/07019/chapt2.cfm
(Schedule of Download- Nov. 15, 2011).
http://www.iaeng.org/publication/
IMECS2010/IMECS2010_pp1046-1050.
pdf (Schedule of Download- March 04,
2012).
http://www.oppapers.com/essays/
Wireless-Monitoring-Of-Water-LevelUsing/268573 (Schedule of DownloadMarch 04, 2012).
http://www.projectsof8051.com/
projects/24-monitor-and-controlof-greenhouseenvironment.html
(Schedule of Download- March 04,
2012).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic.
http://jwhiteassoc.com/BuoyAd.htm
(Schedule of Download- March 04,
2012).
http://searchenterpriselinux.techtarget.
com/definition/MySQL.
)+/
http://www.sensorex.com/support/more/
dissolved_oxygen_technical_education.
http://www.wseas.us/e-library/transactions/
control/2010/89-349.pdf (Schedule of
Download- March 04, 2012).
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
ISRD Group. 2007. Chapter 11. Data
Communication and Computer
Network. pp 145-147.
Noah SA and Lloyd-Williams M. 1995.
A selective review of knowledgebased approaches to database design.
Information Research, 1(2).
Ramakrishnan R and Gehrke J. Database
Management Systems, 2nd Edition.
Rosana M. 2008. Bureau of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources Inland Fisheries
Research Station.
Tanembaum AS. 2003. Computer
Networks. 4th edition. Prentice Hall,
New Jersey. pp 421-427.
Williams HE and Lane D. 2004. Web
database Applications with PHP and
MySQL. O’Reilly & Associates, Inc.
Sebastopol, California. p 748.
)+0
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Reaching the Poor Through Aquaculture: The Case of Technology Adoption
in Rural Communities at West Central Philippines
Didi B. Baticados
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
didib@seafdec.org.ph
Abstract
Aquaculture is promoted for food security and poverty alleviation in developing countries.
This study examines the socio-economic impact of aquaculture technologies extended to calamitystricken rural communities in Nueva Valencia, Guimaras, representing the marine water fishery
and in Dumarao, Capiz, representing the inland freshwater fishery at west central Philippines. The
adoption pathway employed in both sites was community-based and participatory. The survey was
conducted among cooperators and non-cooperators, randomly selected in equal numbers in two
sites with 60 respondents each per site using a pre-tested interview schedule.
Results showed that aquaculture is an acceptable technology both for cooperators and noncooperators. The venture is a profitable business either done individually or collectively through
an association, if managed properly. Milkfish cage culture, however, needs big capital that
technology adoption among local fisherfolk (Guimaras) is limited. In contrast, tilapia cage culture
enables small farmers/fishers in Dumarao to venture on their own. Dumarao growers were able
to innovate using local materials like bamboo poles to make their cages afloat instead of drums or
plastic containers as buoys. There were, however, environmental, technological and institutional
issues deterring technology adoption in both sites. Climate change and institutional issues were
the more prevalent concerns of Dumarao growers. The technological issues like fluctuating
market price, cost of feeds, and fry supply were more enunciated in Guimaras.
Keywords: aquaculture, technology adoption, rural communities, marine waters, freshwater
Introduction
The human population dependent
on fish as their primary source of animal
protein is expected to grow by 2 billion to
8 billion in the next 25 years (van der Zijpp
et al., 2007). Meanwhile, world production
of capture fisheries has leveled out (FAO,
2007). Reliance on aquaculture for food
supply has become even greater with
production from 31 to 59 million metric
tons since 1995, accounting for almost half
(45%) of the world’s food fish (Subasinghe
et al., 2009; FAO, 2006). Aquaculture does
not only bridge the supply and demand
gap of aquatic food, but also generates
employment, and alleviates poverty (Irz et
al., 2007; Subasinghe et al., 2009; Srinivasan
et al., 2010; Soto-Zarazúa et al., 2011).
),(
Contributed Papers
In the Philippines, the aquaculture
sector showed increasing production
trend and has posted the highest growth
(18%) compared with municipal (2.4%)
and commercial (1.7%) sectors in 2005
(BFAR, 2006). NSCB (2012) reported in
2009 that among the nine basic sectors in
the country, those engage in fishing had the
highest (41.4%) poverty incidence, while
those in farming come in second (36.7%).
Poverty in fishing communities is further
exacerbated by the declining catches of
municipal fisheries for over the past 20
years (Irz et al., 2007).
Through the Institutional Capacity
Development for Sustainable Aquaculture
(ICDSA)1 project of the Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center Aquaculture
Department (SEAFDEC/AQD)
aquaculture technologies are taught to rural
communities as supplemental livelihood.
ICDSA uses multidisciplinary, communitybased and participatory approaches in
the transfer of technology (Agbayani
and Toledo, 2008). The introduction and
adoption of technologies, however, affect
the different spheres of society- be it social,
economic, political, cultural or ethical – in
different modes and paces (Daňo, 2007).
Conversely, there are also constraints
that hinder or retard the uptake of the
technology in rural communities. There is a
need to examine the socioeconomic impact
of the aquaculture interventions in ICDSA
sites, particularly in marine and freshwater
fishery. Positive outcomes of technology
adoption may pave the way not only for
livelihood improvement and poverty
alleviation in rural communities, but it
will also become an essential component of
integrated rural development.
This study aims to analyze the socioeconomic impact of the transfer and
adoption of aquaculture technology among
coastal dwellers and farmers in rural
communities. Specifically, it aims 1) to
document changes over time, resource use
and socioeconomic conditions in study
sites with the adoption of aquaculture
technology; 2) to examine the factors that
contribute or impede the acceptability and
adoption of technology; and 3) to determine
whether there are differences in knowledge
of and attitudes among community
members (growers & non-growers) and
between locations (marine vs. freshwater)
towards aquaculture technology adoption.
Material and Methods
Study Sites
The study was conducted in four
villages (barangays) in Western Visayas,
central Philippines where aquaculture
was introduced to calamity stricken
rural communities with differing culture
environments under the ICDSA project.
The sites were in Nueva Valencia, Guimaras,
representing a marine water area and in
Dumarao, Capiz, representing a freshwater
area (Figure 1). Each study site is composed
of two villages (Sto. Domingo and Magamay
in Guimaras; Codingle and Tamulalod in
Dumarao). The villages in Guimaras were
selected based on its location (adjacent
villages) and size of the community.
____________________________
1
ICDSA protocol is discussed extensively in Agbayani, RF and Toledo, JD. 2008. Institutional capacity development for
sustainable aquaculture and fisheries: strategic partnership with local institutions. In K. Tsukamoto, T. Kawamura, T.
Takeuchi, T. D. Beard, Jr. and M. J. Kaiser, eds. Fisheries for Global Welfare and Environment, 5th World Fisheries Congress
2008, pp. 435–448.
),)
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Nueva Valencia is a third class coastal
municipality of Guimaras province. It is
considered a tourism capital and major
fishing ground of the province. It has the
highest number of fishers among the five
municipalities of Guimaras. In 2006, an oil
spill2 stretching over 15 miles and reaching
50-75 in width affected the rich fishing
ground, the mangroves, and other marine
life of Nueva Valencia. As a consequence,
about 5594 families were directly or
indirectly affected and the total losses of
the municipality were estimated at PhP
237 million (Provincial Government of
Guimaras and PEMSEA, 2012).
Dumarao is an inland 2nd class
municipality of Capiz province. It is the 4th
leading rice-producing municipality of the
province. About 23.7 ha of agricultural lands
spanning four villages were submerged with
water due to unfinished dam construction
in 2006. The river expanded approximately
from 2-4 m to 50-100 m in width and
became deeper from 2 m to 5-8 m in depth.
The submerged land cost PhP 526,844
and most (72%) of the 36 affected farmers
were from Barangay Tamulalod3. One of
the affected villages was excluded from the
assessment and validation for concerned
parties did not file claims on time.
Figure 1. Study sites.
____________________________
2
MT Solar 1 tanker carrying 2.7 million liters of bunker fuel sunk in marine waters a few km from Nueva Valencia.
3
Source: Result of Survey and Validation of CIP claimants - Oct 2-13, 2006.
),*
Contributed Papers
Technology Transfer
The adoption pathway used in both sites
was community-based and participatory
although the aquaculture interventions
vary in each site. The community is
represented by an organized group or
Peoples Organizations that chose among
themselves the members that would
undergo the training. Table 1 shows the
profile of the peoples’ organizations (POs)
whose members were the major participants
and beneficiaries of the project.
Thirty trainees or six trainees each
from five small-scale fishers’ association4 of
Nueva Valencia’s four villages were trained
at SEAFDEC’s Mariculture Park at Igang
Marine Station. The trainees cultured
milkfish in three 10 m x 10 m x 6 m net
cage with a stocking density of 24,000 fry
per cage for six months. After the successful
runs, each association operated their own
milkfish cage culture in their respective
villages. Harvest and post-harvest handling
were part of the training including valueadding activities, e.g. deboning of milkfish,
for members. Petron5 funded the project
as part of its support to rehabilitation and
ecological recovery program of Guimaras.
Included in the fund support was the
social preparation of POs to which a nongovernment organization with expertise
in entrepreneurial development and
institutional capability building was hired
for the purpose.
Table 1. Profile of peoples organizations involved in ICDSA1 projects in study sites.
People Organization
Location
Number of members
Male
Female
Total
Sto.
Domingo,
Guimaras
27
19
46
• Milkfish
cage culture
• Gasoline
trading
2005;
DOLE2
Magamay Small Fisherfolk
Association
Magamay,
Guimaras
79
50
129
• Milkfish
cage culture
2009;
DOLE
Dumarao Fishfarmers
Multi-purpose Cooperative3
Dumarao,
Capiz
24
6
30
• Tilapia cage
culture
2008;
CDA4
1
Institutional capacity development for sustainable aquaculture; 2Department of Labor and Employment;
Not all members are residents of Barangay Tamulalod and Codingle; 4Cooperative Development Agency
____________________________
Only Sto. Domingo and Magamay associations were included in this study.
5
Petron Corporation chartered the tanker.
),+
Year
registered
Sto. Domingo Fisherfolk
Association
3
4
Existing
livelihood
projects
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
The Provincial Government of Capiz
funded the ICDSA project in Dumarao.
About 25 participants from different
villages attended the season-long training
in 2007. Eight net cages (4 m × 4 m × 1.5
m) were installed and stocked with tilapia,
catfish and freshwater prawn (ulang) in a
demonstration farm in Badbaran River.
The Acting Officer of the Municipal
Agriculture Office formed the participating
community-members into Dumarao
Fish Farmers Multi-Purpose Cooperative
(DFFMPC). The demonstration farm was
turned over to DFFMPC and the proceeds
of their harvest were re-invested and
rolled-over for operations. The members
opted to focus on tilapia for they found it
more viable in their area compared to other
species. It was noted that technical support
from the local government office was
minimal in the absence of trained staff on
fisheries and aquaculture.
Methods
Field surveys were conducted in 20102012 among 30 non-cooperators and 30
co-operators/adopters each per site using a
pre-tested interview schedule. Cooperators/
adopters refer to members of an organized
group or individuals who benefited or
adopted the technology after the seasonlong training. The non-cooperators are
those who compete with the use of water
resources in the area. The respondents
were randomly chosen from a list of fishing
households provided by local officials for
non-cooperators and from the associations,
in the case of cooperators. Secondary data
such as ICDSA reports on Dumarao and
Nueva Valencia season-long training and
results of ICDSA mini-workshop, among
others, were gathered and reviewed.
Key informants were the Village Heads
and officials, Association/Cooperative
Heads, Municipal Agriculture Office staff,
technicians, and a family of fishers.
Production data were gathered among
adopters of technology in project sites.
Cost-benefit analysis was used to determine
the viability of the enterprise. MannWhitney U Test was used to determine
the differences between Guimaras and
Dumarao co-operators on the constraints
and benefits gained from technology
adoption. Focus group discussion was used
to validate gathered data.
Results
Most (27%) respondents were in the age
bracket of 48-58; the youngest, 18 and the
oldest, 73. All had formal education and
77% of them were married. Most (40%)
Dumarao co-operators reached college
level while majority (57%) of Guimaras
co-ooperators only attained elementary
level. Likewise, majority (43%) of Dumarao
co-operators were farmers, mostly (60%)
from Barangay Codingle. In Guimaras, the
co-operators were mostly (50%) fishers and
the majority (67%) were from Barangay
Magamay.
Adopters and Dispersal of Technology
Tilapia cage culture in Dumarao was
small-scale. Most growers owned one cage
with size ranging from 4 x4 m to 4 x 10 m
(Table 2). All had positive income since
they had pre-agreed price and harvest
arrangements to avoid competition.
Harvest was sold locally, along the road.
Adopters claimed that the technology
provided opportunity for them to use their
submerged farmlands for aquaculture
venture. They ranked tilapia cage culture
second (33%) to farming (55%) as the most
important household occupational activity
),,
Contributed Papers
that contributes to their household income,
particularly those in Brgy. Tamulalod. They
maintained that farm goods can be used
as collateral for loan, but not fish harvest.
However, 44% of them conceded that
fish farming is not laborious compared to
farming. They also ranked fish farming
second (34%) to fishing (50%) as a source of
food.
It was noted that initial adopters of
tilapia cage culture were Dumarao’s better
off residents. These were not sustained
when operations were relegated to hired
labor. Similarly, the PO‘s aquaculture
venture was not sustained. The water
depth in culture area became shallow
during 2010 long dry spell. The PO also
had organizational problems leading to
its demise as a group. Nonetheless, the
adopters, who were also members of
the cooperative, increased to fifteen (5
in Tamulalod; 10 in Codingle), but the
number reversed in the latter part of the
survey. Some adopters innovate using
excess surface water for backyard pond.
Two cooperators became hatchery operators
(one for commercial scale and the other, for
personal use). Informants claimed that the
technology spread to six other villages with
some adopters serving as resource persons.
Two fertilizer dealers of the municipality
addressed the growers’ feed needs. Others
developed interest on other species that an
on-site demonstration on induced spawning
of catfish was facilitated. Most (83%) of
Dumarao respondents claimed that the
tilapia production volume was not enough
to meet community fish requirements.
Milkfish cage culture in Guimaras
showed varied results (Table 3). Only Sto.
Domingo fisherfolk association gained
profits in its two production runs. The
harvest was sold in Iloilo fishing port where
),-
it competed with other fish species for
higher price. The Sto. Domingo PO retained
small portion of their harvest for retail to
members. Some members deboned the
milkfish, gaining higher profit. The PO’s
share of the production income was 20%
while the 80% went to the four technicians
(caretakers) who divided it equally among
themselves Compared with Dumarao, most
(56%) of them claimed that aquaculture
is better than farming. Only two private
investors aside from the PO’s own venture
were adopters of the technology in the area.
Private investors hired trained PO members
as technicians. Nonetheless, Village Heads
(Brgy. Magamay and Sto. Domingo) were
not inclined to grant permit for new
entrants on cage culture claiming that water
bodies within their control were small.
Culture operations of POs were on hold for
lack of funds.
There was a heightened interest on
aquaculture as a source of added income
among members of Sto. Domingo PO.
They were awaiting for the approval of
their proposed sea cucumber grow-out
culture which they submitted to a nongovernment organization for funding. Some
of its members also showed interest for
the seeding of their coastal waters with sea
cucumber to enhance its productivity. They
claimed that it is easy for them to monitor
the growth of sea cucumber and oversee the
area for their coastal area is just small.
Factors Affecting Adoption
The aquaculture issues in two
sites are generally classified into: 1)
environmental issues, 2) technical issues,
and 3) institutional issues. The freshwater
culture operation in Dumarao was most
affected by climate change. The growers
experienced high water temperature; low
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
water level, and profuse growth of giant
water lettuce during long dry spell in
2010. But during rainy season, they had
to live through flooding, and the siltation,
thereafter. Dumarao growers were also
in quandary whom to deal with regarding
their problems on the unfinished dam
construction for it is affecting their culture
operations. The local government unit
could not address their problems claiming
the project was not turned-over to them.
Both sites had similar technical issues such
as cost of feeds, market, and fry supply,
among others, but these were significantly
(p<0.001) pronounced in Guimaras than
in Dumarao (Table 4). In terms of benefits,
the technology as a source of cash income
was highly significant (p<0.01) among
Dumarao growers. Resource utilization on
the other hand is significant in Guimaras
co-operators.
Attitude Towards the Technology
The respondents showed positive
attitude towards aquaculture. Majority
of them claimed that existing culture
operations did not affect their own activities
(59%) or the water quality (75%) of their
marine/freshwater resource base. Most of
them (81%) believed that their resource
base is an open access, but only 41%
respondents liked to limit the number of
cages to avoid congestion and pollution.
This sentiment, however, was not shared by
72% Dumarao respondents.
Table 2. Cost-benefit analyses of tilapia cage culture of sample respondents in Dumarao, Capiz.
Technical Assumption
A
B
C
D
E
Size of cage
4x4x4m
4x5x4m
4x10x4m
4x5x4m
4x6x4m
No. of cages
1
1
2
8
2
1,000
2,000
2,000
7,000
2,000
4.68
5.5
1.0
1.66
2.29
Net income
3,382
3,649
5,302
3,143
3,372
Total operating cost
4,118
7,531
4,298
28,657
9,798
Total investment cost
757
1,160
2,000
11,950
3,372
ROI (%-depreciation excluded)
447
315
265
26
64.85
Total stock
2
Production/m (kg)
Table 3. Cost-benefit analyses of milkfish cage culture of fisherfolk associations in Nueva Valencia, Guimaras.
Technical assumption
Brgy Sto. Domingo PO
st
1 run
Brgy. Magamay PO
nd
st
1 run
2nd run
2 run
Size of cage
10x10x6m
10x10x6m
10x10x6m
10x10x6m
No. of cages
1
1
1
1
Total stock
20
20
20
20
42.05
44.25
27.97
33.67
31,945
20,736
-84,527
-105,165
Total operating cost
417,803
458,584
381,502
418,308
Total investment cost
134,509
134,509
134,509
134,509
47.50
30.83
-125.38
-78.18
Production/m2 (kg)
Net income
ROI (%-depreciation excluded)
),.
Contributed Papers
Table 4. Cooperators’ difficulties and benefits in adopting the technology by location (n=60).
Variables
Guimaras
Dumarao
Mann-Whitney U
Z
1.Difficulties
Supply of fry
33.71
25.57
302*
-1.976
Credit
41.92
17.67
77.5***
-5.606
Feeds
38.69
21.60
183***
-3.996
Harvesting
37.24
23.00
225***
-4.301
Market
37.83
22.43
208***
-4.123
Source of cash
income
24.22
35.58
267.5**
-2.759
Utilization of
resource
34.81
21.65
184.5*
-3.159
2. Benefits
***= p<0.001; **=p<0.01; *= p<0.05
Discussion and Conclusion
The findings showed that adoption
of aquaculture technology is acceptable
to both farmers and fishers and even
for non-growers as long as it does not
impinge on their own activities in the same
resource base. This implies that zoning
and corresponding enforcement are two
important factors that will avert future
conflicts on resource use and help ensure
sustainability of the venture. This also
necessitates pro-active local legislation on
resource allocation especially in Dumarao
where fishery management is still wanting,
more so in aquaculture.
The venture showed positive income
either operated as an individual or
cooperative undertaking. In the latter,
the organization must be stable and wellmanaged. The size of membership may
have affected members’ participation in
culture operation. Group size proved to be
unwieldy, and the lack of social preparation
affected PO’s success (Baticados et al.,
1998). Unless income from culture
operation is substantial, fishers will remain
fishing. The milkfish cage operation in
Guimaras is a cooperative venture, thus, the
),/
sharing of benefits is spread to all members.
Failure on their cage operation might
cause disintegration of PO membership.
Thus, there is a need for their organization
to diversify operation that requires less
capital, e.g. sandfish culture or valueadding activities. This is to cushion the
impact of the venture’s poor performance
on members. Interchangeably, other modes
of partnership must be explored that would
pay for opportunity loss of the adopters.
The spread of technology is faster
among fishers/farmers requiring low capital
investment. Thus, it should be given as an
option to rural folks if viable in the area.
The effect of climate change is more
felt in freshwater culture operation than in
marine culture operation affirming ADB’s
disclosure (ADB, 2005). The involvement
of LGUs is important both in legislation
and in facilitating solutions to articulated
concerns of adopters.
Aquaculture indeed provides food
security and income to rural communities.
However, the transfer of technology
requires an adoption pathway that is
easily and effectively understood by the
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
beneficiaries. In the transfer of technology,
the experts must be able to anticipate,
identify, and make a follow-through on
the transferred technology. If feasible,
he/she should facilitate in addressing
issues or concerns of adopters. Because of
climate change, small-scale growers should
be informed of an array of aquaculture
livelihood options feasible to the locality
to enable them to make wise decision on
the technology appropriate for their skills,
interest, and affordability.
Acknowledgements
Petron Corporation and the Provincial
Government of Capiz funded the ICDSA
projects in Nueva Valencia, Guimaras and
Dumarao, Capiz, respectively. This study is
funded by SEAFDEC/AQD in collaboration
with the Government of Japan under study
code GOJ-TF5/5208-T-RD-SE0310. The
author is also grateful to the respondents,
the People’s Organizations, the municipal
and barangay officials in the study sites,
DENR and colleagues for the support.
References
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Institutional capacity development
for sustainable aquaculture and
fisheries: strategic partnership with
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TD and Kaiser MJ (eds). Fisheries for
Global Welfare and Environment, 5th
World Fisheries Congress, pp 435-448.
Tokyo: TERRAPUB.
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2005.
An evaluation of small-scale freshwater
rural aquaculture development for
poverty reduction. Publication stock
no. 091704. http://www.adb.org/
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Baticados DB, Agbayani RF and Gentoral
FE. 1998. Fishing cooperatives in Capiz,
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Aquatic Resources, Quezon City,
Philippines, 71 pp.
Daňo EC. 2007. Potential Socio-economic,
Cultural and Ethical Impacts of GMOs:
Prospects for Socio-Economic Impact
Assessment. TWN, Penang, Malaysia,
24 pp.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization).
2006. FAO Yearbook. Fishery Statistics.
Aquaculture Production 2004. Vol.
98/2. FAO, Rome. 199 pp.
FAO. 2007. The State of World Fisheries
and Aquaculture 2006. FAO Fisheries
and Aquatic Department, FAO, Rome.
64 pp.
Irz X, Stevenson JR, Tanoy A, Villarante P
and Morissens P. 2007. The equity and
poverty impacts of aquaculture: insights
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Board). 2012. http://www.nscb.gov.ph/
pressreleases/2012/PR-201206-SS2-01_
pov2009.asp. Accessed Jan 23, 2013.
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Contributed Papers
Provincial Government of Guimaras,
Philippines and PEMSEA. 2012. State
of the Coasts of Guimaras Province.
Partnerships in Environmental
Management for the Seas of East Asia
(PEMSEA), Quezon City, Philippines.
Soto-Zarazúa GM, Peniche-Vera R, RicoGarcía E, Toledano-Ayala M, OcampoVelázquez R and Herrera-Ruiz G. 2011.
An automated recirculation aquaculture
system based on fuzzy logic control
for aquaculture production of tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture
International 19: 797–808. DOI
10.1007/s10499-010-9397-5.
Bioeconomics. DOI: 10.1007/s10818010-9090-9.
Subasinghe R, Soto D and Jia J. 2009.
Global aquaculture and its role in
sustainable development. Reviews
in Aquaculture 1: 2-9. DOI:
10.1111/j.1753-5131.2008.01002.x.
van der Zijpp AJ, Verreth JAJ, Quang Tri L,
van Mensvoort MEF, Bosma RH and
Beveridge MCM (eds). 2007. Fishponds
in farming systems. Wageningen
Academic Publishers, The Netherlands,
311 pp.
Suggested Readings
Srinivasan UT, Cheung WL, Watson R
and Sumaila UR. 2010. Food security
implications of global marine catch
losses due to overfishing. Journal of
)-'
NSCB. 2000. http://www.nscb.gov.ph/
poverty/2000/44_poorestprov.asp.
Accessed Jan 23, 2013.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Marine Biodiversity at the SEAFDEC/AQD Research Stations in Iloilo and
Guimaras, Philippines
Teodora Uy Bagarinao
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
dorisb@seafdec.org.ph
Abstract
Species inventories were recently made in and around the research stations of the SEAFDEC
Aquaculture Department to facilitate subsequent monitoring. AQD’s Tigbauan Main Station
(TMS, since 1973) faces the deep open waters of the Panay Gulf and Sulu Sea and is flanked by
densely populated fishing villages operating nearshore fish corrals, gillnets, longlines, and beach
seines. In 2013–2014, sampling at the sand-gravel intertidal and monitoring of the catch of the
various gears showed at least 579 species from 213 families, including 252 species of fishes, 228
mollusks, 48 crustaceans, 12 cnidarians, 9 echinoderms, 16 seaweeds, sea turtles, and sea snakes
inhabiting the nearshore areas off TMS. Any adverse effect of the TMS hatcheries and laboratories
is difficult to discern on top of the continuous intense fishing and habitat disturbance. AQD’s
Igang Marine Station (IMS, since 1980) is in a cove under the rocky cliffs of southern Guimaras,
behind several islands facing the Panay Gulf and Sulu Sea. IMS includes 40 ha of seagrass beds
and sandflats around five rocky islets and two 6–12 m deep basins where broodstock and growout cages are moored. IMS is flanked by many fish corrals operated by fishers who live in villages
in nearby coves. Fishers on outrigger boats also use gillnets and spears, and others glean for
mollusks and echinoderms inside IMS. In 2011–2012, some 786 species in 261 families were
collected or photographed at IMS, including 74 species of fishes, 40 crustaceans, 391 mollusks,
44 echinoderms, 87 cnidarians, 47 poriferans, 24 ascidians, and 12 bryozoans, and sea snakes
living among 48 seaweeds and 4 seagrasses. Biodiversity at IMS seems high despite 35 years of
operation of the fish cages and the continuous fishing, gleaning, and boating by the locals. Several
species of filter-feeding invertebrates grew on the cage nets and platforms but were not found in
the natural habitats. The cages provide additional attachment surfaces for many species; these
biofoulants presumably reduce water flow into the cages but they also remove nutrients and
particulate wastes and help maintain good water quality. Nevertheless, siltation is evident under
the cliffs inside the cove, and the sandflats may be expanding over the seagrass beds. AQD’s 16ha Dumangas Brackishwater Station (DBS, since 1998) is flanked by freshwater Talaugis River,
by hundreds of hectares of mangrove-derived fish ponds, and by Pulao Creek and an extensive
mudflat with fringing mangroves at the northeastern end of Iloilo Strait. In 2009–2010, 16 ponds
with water areas from 0.5 to 0.9 ha were sampled during harvest of the experimental crops. At
least 90 species of non-crop fishes lived in the DBS ponds, along with 35 crustaceans, 60 mollusks,
three echinoderms, two cnidarians, and a water snake. The snails Cerithideopsilla spp., Cerithium
coralium, and Batillaria spp. were very abundant in the ponds. Almost all the same species in the
ponds, plus many others, were found in the adjoining fringing mangroves with ~10 species of
trees. The ponds serve as proxy for mangrove lagoons that harbor the young of migratory fishes as
well as all life stages of resident species. Several non-crop species inside the IMS cages and the DBS
)-(
Contributed Papers
ponds are harvested by the pond workers and contribute to nutrition and income. Aquaculture
farms should be managed for high biodiversity to ensure sustainability. Ways are suggested for
SEAFDEC/AQD to do so at its aquaculture research stations.
Keywords: species inventories, biodiversity, sustainability
Introduction
Marine resources and ecosystems must
be adequately studied and known to be
sustainably used. Such knowledge has been
generally taken for granted or overlooked
by aquaculture practitioners and even
research institutions. Partly as a result
of such historical oversight, aquaculture
has been chastised both in the scientific
literature and by the media for a wide
range of environmental and social impacts,
including (i) pollution (uneaten feeds,
excreta, silt, pathogens, debris, nitrogen
and phosphorus); (ii) the fish meal trap;
(iii) loss of biodiversity; and (iv) poor
people becoming poorer (Primavera, 1993;
Phillips, 1995; Naylor et al., 1998, 2000;
Holmer et al., 2002).
Loss of biodiversity due to aquaculture
has been widely assumed but not much
documented in the Philippines, except
the reduction of the mangrove area from
418,000 ha to 117,000 ha as pond area
increased from 73,000 ha to 261,000 ha
between 1950 and 1995 (Bagarinao, 1998,
1999). Indeed, that species have been and
are lost due to aquaculture? For many
aquaculture areas, the baseline species
composition in nearby natural aquatic
habitats has not been studied, and the
later (current) species composition has
yet to be studied. To address such neglect
)-)
even belatedly, species inventories were
conducted at the three research stations of
the SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department
in Tigbauan and Dumangas, Iloilo, and in
Igang, Guimaras.
Materials and Methods
Species inventory at Tigbauan Main Station
SEAFDEC/AQD’s Tigbauan Main
Station (TMS, since 1973) in Buyuan,
Tigbauan, Iloilo, faces the deep open
waters of the Panay Gulf and further to
the west and south, the Sulu Sea (Figure
1) and is flanked by densely populated
fishing villages. The TMS beach front is
~540 m long, with black sand and gravel,
the high tide debris line ~5–10 m from
the water line at lowest low tide, the beach
slope ~30–40° (Figure 2). In 2013, the
sand-gravel intertidal fronting TMS and
eastward to Buyuan Creek was surveyed
several times during daytime negative low
tides and all attached species (e.g. seaweeds,
sea anemones) and stranded species (e.g.,
seaweeds, opisthobranchs, jellyfish) were
photographed and recorded, and the
unfamiliar specimens preserved in formalin.
Buried species were not included (not
dug out). Empty but intact mollusk shells
and echinoderm testa found at the beach
were included and considered as those of
Tigbauan resident species.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Figure 1. Google Earth view of the three
aquaculture research stations of the
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department in
Panay and Guimaras Islands in Central
Philippines: TMS, Tigbauan Main
Station; DBS, Dumangas Brackishwater
Station; IMS, Igang Marine Station. Panay
Gulf opens into the Sulu Sea to the west
and south.
Figure 2. SEAFDEC/AQD’s Tigbauan Main Station. A. Aerial view circa 1996, showing the seawall
jetties traversing the beach and the effluent pipes emptying onto the beach as creeks and puddles;
B. Some of the hatcheries and two seawater reservoirs, circa 1996; C. View of the TMS beach
and nearshore area in 2014. Visible in all three photos are the nearshore fish corrals, the current
versions of which were sampled in 2013-2014.
)-*
Contributed Papers
In March–April 2013 and February–
March 2014, the catch of two fish corrals
(locally known as ‘punot’ and ‘tangkop’),
3–4 gill nets (‘pukot’), 2–3 beach seines
(‘sahid’), 1–2 longlines (‘labay’), and a big
fish basket (‘bubo’) operated nearshore
off Buyuan village were monitored in
the early morning and sometimes in
the late afternoon when the catch was
landed. All species landed were examined
and photographed and specimens of
the unwanted species were preserved in
formalin. The species caught by fishing
gears were wide-ranging but entered
Tigbauan and TMS waters presumably in
the course of foraging and migration.
Species inventory at Igang Marine Station
SEAFDEC/AQD’s Igang Marine Station
(IMS, since 1980) is in a cove surrounded
by the rocky cliffs of southern Guimaras,
behind several islands facing the Panay Gulf
and the northern Sulu Sea (Figure 1). Cages
for milkfish were set up at a marine cove in
Igang about 1980 and a 50 ha marine cove
with islets was reserved for SEAFDEC about
1986. IMS includes 40 ha of seagrass beds
and sandflats around five rocky islets and
two 6–12 m deep basins where broodstock
and grow-out cages are moored (Figure 3).
In 2003, the Igang Mariculture Park (IMP)
was established to anchor commercial
marine cages of private operators. IMS is
flanked by many fish corrals operated by
fishers who live in villages in nearby coves.
Fishers on outrigger boats also use gill nets
and spears inside IMS, and gleaners walk
around the seagrass beds exposed during
negative low tides. Motorized outrigger
boats carrying IMS personnel and goods,
and now also tourists, traverse the IMS
habitats every day.
Figure.3. SEAFDEC/AQD’s Igang
Marine Station. A. Google Earth view
taken in February 2015, showing the
five rocky islets, the seagrass bed, the
sandflat, coral bed, and the 6–12 m deep
basins for broodstock cages near Islet 9,
and growout cages near Islet 6; B. Aerial
view looking south, circa 2000, showing
the different habitats and the cage basins
looking much the same as today. Both
photos show some of the 50 or so fish
corrals that local fishers operate within
200 m of IMS.
)-+
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Several visits were made to IMS during
the northeast monsoon months between
September and June in 2010–2012 when
the calm weather and the daytime negative
low tides allowed field work around the
station, particularly the intertidal around
the five rocky islets and the connecting
seagrass beds, sand flats, and silty coves. All
attached marine plants and invertebrates
and all species living among them were
examined closely and photographed.
Buried species were not dug out. All empty
but intact mollusk shells and echinoderm
testa found inside IMS were considered as
those of resident species. The aquaculture
platforms and nets were examined for
attached species, and the fishes inside and
outside the fish cages were recorded and
photographed during harvest of farmed
milkfish and seabass under AQD-approved
projects. Whenever gillnetters, spear
fishers, and gleaners were found operating
inside IMS, their catch was also recorded
and photographed.
Species inventory at Dumangas
Brackishwater Station
SEAFDEC/AQD’s 16-ha Dumangas
Brackishwater Station (DBS, since 1998)
is flanked west by the freshwater Talaugis
River, north and south by hundreds of
hectares of mangrove-derived fish ponds,
and east by Pulao Creek and an extensive
mudflat with fringing mangroves at the
northern end of Iloilo Strait (Figure 1,
Figure 4). The 16 DBS ponds (with water
areas from 0.5 to 0.9 ha) are used in
technology verification experiments and
production runs (Baliao et al., 1998; Coniza
et al., 2010; Jamerlan and Coloso, 2010;
Madrones-Ladja et al., 2012; Jamerlan et
al., 2014). In 2009–2010, all ponds were
sampled during harvest of the experimental
crops when the ponds were totally drained.
Bycatch species were collected, identified,
and enumerated fully.
Figure 4. SEAFDEC/AQD’s Dumangas
Brackishwater Station, Google Earth
views taken 2014. A. DBS (in the white
rectangle) lies in the midst of large tracts
of fishponds derived from mangrove
land, with Talauguis River at the west
end and Pulao Creek to the northeast;
B. The 16 experimental ponds (several
subdivided for replicates), with the
mangrove greenbelt at the east end.
)-,
Contributed Papers
DBS has a mangrove greenbelt (30 m
wide x 180 m long) fronting, but separated
by a high concrete dike from Pulao Creek,
and subdivided into one large and six small
compartments by concrete fences for a past
experiment. The mangroves and mollusks
in the DBS greenbelt were documented in
October 2009. In addition, a local fisher was
hired to set a tidal enclosure net (‘pahubas’)
outside the DBS greenbelt in October 2010,
and all the fishes and crustaceans that were
caught were photographed and identified.
Results and Discussion
Biodiversity nearshore off Tigbauan Main
Station
The TMS shore and the adjoining
Buyuan shore (about 1 km long) is
depauperate in intertidal flora and fauna,
compared to Igang Marine Station
and Dumangas Brackishwater Station.
No seagrasses, no corals, no attached
invertebrates, but seasonal seaweeds, and
seasonal strandings of sea hares, jellyfishes,
Identification of species
salps, and other pelagic invertebrates.
This is mainly because the seabed off
For identification of the commercially
TMS is unconsolidated gravel and
important fishes, crustaceans, and mollusks, sand and provides limited and unstable
the main reference was the six-volume FAO habitat surfaces and crevices for flora and
Species Identification Guide for Fishery
fauna. Also, the rough weather during
Purposes, West Central Pacific (Carpenter
the southwest monsoon overturns the
and Niem, 1998a, 1998b; 1999a, 1999b;
seabed and disrupts life cycles. However,
2001a, 2001b). Other taxonomic references the intensive fishing during the northeast
include Masuda et al. (1984), Kuiter (1992), monsoon brings to shore so many species
Rainboth (1996), Kimura and Matsuura
of fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans.
(2003), Matsuura and Kimura (2005),
In 2013–2014, some 579 species from
Yoshida et al. (2013) for fishes; Springsteen
213 families in major marine taxa were
and Leobrera (1986), Okutani (2004),
collected, photographed, and inventoried,
and Poppe (2008a, 2008b; 2010, 2011) for
including 252 species of fishes, 228 species
mollusks; Schoppe (2000) for echinoderms; of mollusks, and 48 species of crustaceans
Colin and Arneson (1995), Richmond
(Table 1). More species could be expected
(1997) for invertebrates; Trono (1997),
with continued sampling at other times of
Calumpong and Menez (1997) for seaweeds; the year; if the infauna were included; if the
and Primavera et al. (2004) for mangroves.
microscopic species were sampled; and if
Also useful were pictorial accounts of
the subtidal was surveyed underwater.
marine biodiversity in the Philippines and
the South China Sea (Chou and Alino, 1996;
This study is the first documentation
Allen, 1998, 2000; White, 2001). Many
of the marine biodiversity off Tigbauan,
species of sponges, bryozoans, and tunicates Iloilo in southern Panay, Philippines. This
could not be identified to scientific names.
southern coast has had many notable
Marine botanist Lawrence Liao identified
megafauna visitors, many of which have
the unfamiliar seaweeds, carcinologist
been documented by SEAFDEC FishWorld
Jose Christopher Mendoza identified the
since 2000: five species of sea turtles
unfamiliar crabs, and ichthyologist Helen
(Bagarinao et al., 2010; Bagarinao, 2011),
Larson provided advice with the unfamiliar the sunfish Mola mola, the whale shark
gobies.
)--
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 1. Biodiversity in the nearshore areas fronting the Tigbauan Main Station, Iloilo, Philippines, 2013–2014.
Phylum
Chordata
Crustaceans
Mollusks
Cnidarians
Annelids
Families
Species
Selachei
Class/Order
3
3
Rhincodon typus, Odontaspis ferox
Batoidei
2
3
Mobula kuhli, Pteroplatytrygon violacea
Osteichthyes
80
246
Reptilia
2
7
Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata,
Lepidochelys olivacea, Hydrophis spp.
Urochordata
2
3
Thalia, Doliolum, Tethys
Ascidiacea
1
1
Pyrosoma
Penaeidea
2
7
Acetes spp., Penaeus spp.
Brachyura
13
28
Portunus spp., Calappa spp.
Anomura
3
3
Coenobita violascens
Palinura
1
3
Panulirus versicolor, P. ornatus
Stomatopoda
1
1
Harpiosquilla harpax
Thalassinidea
1
1
Thalassina anomala
Cirripedia
4
4
Balanus amphitrite, Tetraclita squamosal
Isopoda
1
1
Ligia exotica
Gastropoda
38
122
Harpa major, Aplysia spp., Cypraea spp.
Bivalvia
23
96
Placuna placenta, Alectryonella plicatula
Cephalopoda
6
10
Octopus spp., Sepia spp., Photololigo spp.
Anthozoa
4
6
Stichodactyla haddoni, Aiptasia diaphana
Scyphozoa
5
5
Aurelia aurita, Cassiopea medusa
Hydrozoa
1
1
Plumaria sp.
Polychaeta
2
2
Marphysa sp., Eunice sp.
1
1
Chloeosiphon aspergillus
Asteroidea
3
3
Astropecten monacanthus
Echinoidea
3
3
Astropyga radiate
Holothuroidea
1
1
Opheodesoma serpentine
Ophiuroidea
2
2
Ophionereis sp., Ophiactis sp.
Chlorophyceae
3
10
Ulva=Enteromorpha spp., Acetabularia sp.
Phaeophyceae
4
5
Dictyota ceylanica, Rosenvingea intricate
Rhodophyceae
1
1
Hypnea spinella
213
579
Sipuncula
Echinoderms
Plantae
All
Representative species
Carangoides spp., Lutjanus spp., Nemipterus
spp., Upeneus spp., Arothron spp., Mola
mola
)-.
Contributed Papers
Rhincodon typus, the tiger shark Galeocerdo
cuvier, and the dwarf sperm whale Kogia
sima (Bagarinao, unpublished data). The
fishing gears also brought in small deepsea fishes: the lanternfish Benthosema
pterotum, the barracudina Lestidium, and
the snaggletooth Astronesthes lucifer. The
lionfishes Pterois spp., the puffers Arothron
spp., and the sea anemone Stichodactyla
haddoni and its commensal Amphiprion
polymnus were quite common nearshore off
TMS.
Above all, the commercial fishes
were very diverse in species, sizes, and
value—sharks, rays, eels, sardines, mullets,
needlefishes, groupers, snappers, threadfins,
slipmouths, jacks, round scads, goatfishes,
barracudas, mackerels, and the occasional
sailfish Istiophorus platypterus and milkfish
Chanos chanos. Cephalopods, crabs,
and large shrimps made up a small part
of the catch, but included many species.
Moreover, the TMS and Buyuan beaches
had a high complement of gastropod and
bivalve shells, many of them intact and
indicative of live animals nearshore.
The TMS tanks discharge large volumes
of seawater laden with uneaten plankton,
wasted feeds, as well as feces and other
metabolites of the hatchery species (and
rarely, bacteria and viruses from diseased
stocks). This polluted sea water goes
through a maze of drain pipes and canals
onto the TMS beach. The AQD laboratories,
restrooms, and housing complex also
discharge large volumes of fresh water
laden with various chemicals and sewage
into drain canals that mostly open onto
the beach as well. Seasonal blooms of
the green seaweeds Ulva=Enteromorpha
and Chaetomorpha occur at the TMS and
Buyuan beaches during the calm water
months, but these have been rapidly
)-/
consumed by corresponding swarms of
sea hares (Aplysia spp., Bursatella leachii,
etc., collectively called by the local term
‘kalamputay’) that leave behind a huge
volume of egg masses. Biological pollution
by TMS is undeniable, but the current level
of enrichment seems to be within carrying
capacity, and adds to the food supply
without diminishing the oxygen supply.
It is fortunate that TMS is located on an
open coast with relatively steep slope and
strong tidal currents from the Panay Gulf
and the Sulu Sea. The pollutants from TMS
apparently are quickly diluted and broken
down.
TMS broodstock tanks, plankton
tanks, and hatcheries have increased over
the years and have multiplied in seawater
requirements. All this sea water passes
through sand filters and is stripped of
particulates including the larvae and
juveniles of countless marine species. The
sand filters are effective (except during
the stormy months) and very few marine
species (sea anemone Aiptasia diaphana,
green seaweeds Ulva spp.) can be found in
the drain canals inside TMS. Many species
(barnacles, sponges, crabs, hydrozoans, even
the black coral Antipathes sp., etc.) grow on
the screens of the seawater intake pipes and
have to be regularly removed.
Any adverse effect of the TMS
hatcheries and laboratories is difficult to
discern on top of the continuous intense
fishing and habitat disturbance. So many
nearshore species are harvested every
day from the water column and from the
bottom by various and numerous fishing
gears. It is estimated that the resident
fishers in Buyuan harvest from the 1 km
coast an average of ~500 kg of fishery
products every day during the northeast
monsoon period (October–May), but a lot
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
less during the southwest monsoon when
the fish corrals can not operate. Such
high level of extraction of fishes, shrimps,
and cephalopods is detrimental to the
marine ecosystem. Nearshore fishing
gears use fine-mesh nets to catch the small
sergested shrimps Acetes spp. (‘hipon’ or
‘alamang’) and anchovy Stolephorus spp.
larvae (‘lobolobo’), but they also catch
large amounts of other small animals of no
commercial value but of great ecological
importance (e.g., as prey for complex
food webs). Several species of small crabs
as well as swarming sea hares were not
eaten but thrown out of the water to
prevent entanglement in fishing nets and
interference in seining. Yet, the fisheries
sector has not been sufficiently criticized
or regulated for this wanton waste of
biodiversity.
Biodiversity in the seagrass beds, rocky islets,
and sandflat at Igang Marine Station
In 2011–2012, some 786 species in 261
families were collected or photographed
at IMS, including 74 species of fishes, 40
crustaceans, 391 mollusks, 44 echinoderms,
87 cnidarians, 47 poriferans, and 24
ascidians (Table 2). Different species
combinations were found in the varied
habitats — seagrass beds, rocky bases of
the islets, sand flats, silty-muddy inner
cove, cage netting, and cage platforms
(plastic drums floats, bamboo frames).
Most invertebrates and seaweeds growing
on the net cages and platforms were also
found in the natural habitats, but some
were not. IMS has a very different species
composition than TMS although some
species occurred in both stations. More
benthic species occurred at IMS because
of the protected cove environment, varied
habitat types, and the stable substrates.
Among the attached seaweeds, seagrasses,
corals, sponges, sea squirts, and oysters lived
a variety of mobile echinoderms, snails,
jellyfish, small fishes, and sea snakes—in
a colorful albeit often turbid aquatic forest
only a few meters deep. Larger fishes come
in with the high tides, and the sunfish Mola
mola, the sea turtles Chelonia mydas and
Eretmochelys imbricata, and the dugong
Dugong dugon occasionally strayed into the
IMS cove. Artificially reseeded giant clams
Tridacna gigas have grown large in the IMS
sandflat.
Table 2 includes only those that were
readily seen when walking around the
station during daytime low tides, and none
of the microscopic species, nor the infauna,
nor the subtidal coral terrace. Presumably
missing in the inventory were the species
that came into the station only during high
tides, or at night, or during the southwest
monsoon months between June and
September. Certainly more species could be
found at IMS if sampling is continued. The
IMS species inventory adds information on
the marine biodiversity in Guimaras, which
has been studied in part by the University of
the Philippines-Visayas. IMS has many of
the same species photographed in the wild
by Kuiter (1992), Colin and Arneson (1995),
Allen (1998, 2000), and White (2001), but
the IMS specimens did not look as clean
and healthy.
Biological pollution by IMS —from
fish excreta, uneaten feeds, and occasional
diseases— is undeniable. The fish cages
also probably impede water flow around
the seagrass beds and sandflat and into the
inner cove from Islet 5. The seagrass beds
are heavily silted and turbid, the sandflat
may have expanded, and the inner cove and
cliff sides are deep in mud. Still, the IMS
species count (Table 2) seems high despite
35 years of operation of the aquaculture
)-0
Contributed Papers
Table 2. Biodiversity in the seagrass beds, sandflats, and rocky islets at Igang Marine Station, Guimaras,
Philippines, 2011–2012.
Phylum
Chordata
Class
Families
Species
Osteichthyes
37
74
Pterois spp., Canthigaster spp., Siganus spp., Apogon
spp., Aeoliscus strigatus, Mola mola
Reptilia
2
3
Chelonibia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata, Hydrophis
cyanocinctus
Mammalia
1
1
Dugong dugon
Ascidiacea
7
24
Oxycorynia fascicularis, Didemnum spp.
Porifera
Demospongiae
25
47
Spheciospongia vagabundus, Xestospongia exigua, Adocia
viola, Theonella, Haliclona
Cnidarians
Anthozoa
27
75
Dendronephthya spp., Sarcophyton spp., Cerianthus
spp., Heteractis crispa, Acropora spp., Goniopora spp.,
Fungia spp.
Scyphozoa
4
5
Versuriga anadyomene; Cassiopea andromeda
Hydrozoa
5
7
Millepora spp., Plumularia sp.
Polychaeta
6
7
Sabella spp., Reteterrebella sp.
Annelida
Platyhelminthes
Turbellaria
1
2
Pseudoceros sp., Pseudobiceros sp.
Crustaceans
Penaeidea
1
2
Penaeus semisulcatus
Stenopodidea
1
1
Stenopus hispidus
Caridea
2
6
Lysmata amboinensis, Alphaeus spp.
Brachyura
9
16
Pilumnus vespertilio, Lissocarcinus orbicularis
Anomura
1
8
Diogenes megistos, Calcinus laevimanus
Mollusca
Echinodermata
Palinura
1
1
Panulirus ornatus
Stomatopoda
1
1
Nanosquilla sp.
Cirripedia
5
5
Balanus amphitrite, Tetraclita squamosa
Bivalvia
27
140
Tridacna gigas, Malleus malleus, Atrina vexillum,
Trachycardium rugosum
Gastropoda
50
244
Conus spp., Cypraea spp., Cymatium spp., Nassarius
spp., Cerithium spp., Morula spp.
Cephalopoda
2
5
Octopus spp., Sepioteuthis lessoniana
Polyplacophora
1
2
Acanthopleura spinosa, A. gemmata
Asteroidea
5
10
Protoreaster nodosus, Culcita novaeguineae
Echinoidea
7
16
Toxopneustes pileolus, Diadema setosum
Holothuroidea
2
10
Pearsonothuria graeffei
Crinoidea
1
6
Comanthus alternans
Ophiuroidea
Bryozoa
1
2
Ophiocoma scolopendrina
8
12
Schizoporella serialis, Stylopoma, Zoobotryon
Hemichordata
Enteropneusta
1
1
Balanoglossus sp.
Plantae
Chlorophyceae
8
23
Caulerpa spp., Halimeda spp., Codium spp.,
Ulva=Enteromorpha spp., Neomeris vanbossae
Phaeophyceae
3
9
Padina spp., Dictyota spp., Turbinaria spp., Sargassum
spp., Colpomenia sinuosa
Rhodophyceae
6
16
Gracilaria spp., Halymenia spp., Acanthophora spp.,
Amphiroa spp., Sporolithon spp.
Angiospermae
3
5
Thalassia hemprichii, Enhalus acoroides, Halophila
ovalis, Rhizophora mucronata
261
786
All
).'
Representative species
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
cages, and despite continuous fishing and
gleaning by the local villagers since long
before IMS. But most species occurred in
low densities, and many were found singly
or just once. Some species occasionally
or seasonally became abundant—e.g., the
horned sea star Protoreaster nodosus, the
black sea urchin Diadema setosum, and the
edible sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla (which
was avidly harvested). Such population
explosions may have been responses to seagrass and seaweed blooms due to nutrient
enrichment from the cages, or just natural
fluctuations.
Several species of sponges, barnacles,
bryozoans, ascidians, and oysters not
found in the natural habitats were found
growing on the net cages and platforms
as biofoulants. Cage structures evidently
provided additional surfaces for settlement
of seaweed spores and planktonic larvae of
many invertebrates that otherwise could
not find space or food in the adjoining
natural habitats. Cage aquaculture adds
structural substrate, food items, and refuge
for a variety of species, and can enhance
biodiversity in the marine habitats it
occupies. Eggs and larvae of all sorts of
organisms are always in the water ready
to get into the cages and attach to the nets
and supporting structures. Over time, these
extraneous organisms grow, go through
community succession, and interact with
the farmed species in various ways. The
seaweeds that grow on the cages absorb
nitrogen and phosphorus from the fish
feeds and wastes, and provide food for
grazing snails and crabs. The biofoulant
filter-feeding invertebrates remove the
particulates (feeds, feces, plankton) from
the cage. The older the cages, greater
fouling is noted. The greater the biodiversity
there is and the more effective the biological
recycling, the less outward pollution is
observed. The biofoulants impede water
flow into the cages but they also help
maintain good water quality. Before the
nets are fouled, small fishes continually go
in and out of the cages and partake of the
feeds given to the crop species. Some of
these fish stay and grow in the cages with
the farm crop.
Cages that are kept in the water
long enough often yield a wide variety
of extraneous species, most of them
small, many of them edible, many others
ornamental, and all of them contributors to
farm sustainability and ecosystem balance.
Some of the extraneous fishes are harvested
with the farmed fishes, and are in effect
cage bycatch. Some bycatch are eaten by
the cage workers, but many are too small
or toxic and just left to die when nets are
removed from the water. In addition, all
attached species die when cages, floats, and
associated structures are taken out of the
water as part of farm management. This
practice can be changed. For cage farms
to contribute to biodiversity, extraneous
species (if not big enough for eating)
should not be left high and dry to die.
Instead they can be thrown alive overboard
or scraped off fresh and deposited onto
denuded sandflats, seagrass beds, rocky
shores, or mudflats, where they may
reattach and survive.
On top of the biological pollution and
siltation, gross carelessness by fishers,
gleaners, and boatmen has seriously
damaged the IMS habitats. Local fishers
including IMS personnel walk on the
seagrass beds during negative low tide to
harvest edible bivalves, gastropods, and
sea urchins. Seagrasses and seaweeds are
trampled, corals and sponges are broken,
sediment is dug up, rocks are turned over,
and the resident flora and fauna displaced
).(
Contributed Papers
and driven to a marginal existence in turbid
water. Every day, the IMS service boat
and several tourist boats traverse the IMS
seagrass beds, sandflat, and coral beds,
causing further damage. Thirty-five years
on, it is time for the IMS habitats to be
rehabilitated or protected in some way.
Biodiversity in the ponds and mangroves at
Dumangas Brackishwater Station
At least 312 species in 117 families were
found at DBS, 210 species in the ponds plus
102 more in the mangrove greenbelt (Table
3). Some 90 species of fishes and 35 species
of crustaceans lived in the ponds along with
60 mollusks, only 10 of these crop species
and the others naturally seeded by the tides.
Sixteen species of mangrove gobies and
sleepers resided in the ponds. Three gobies
often became very abundant: Acentrogobius
viganensis, Pseudogobius javanicus, and
Mugilogobius cavifrons, collectively called
in the local dialect as ‘dalodalo’. Two others
were common: Acentrogobius janthinopterus
and the almost transparent Gobiopterus
panayensis. The ‘bagtis’ or Glossogobius
aureus was not abundant but grew larger
and was prized as food by the pond workers.
Another mangrove resident, the larva-like
priapiumfish Neostethus amaricola was
found in some fish ponds in small schools.
The pond bycatch also included juveniles of
several species of commercial fishes (Elops
hawaiiensis, Eleutheronema tetradactylum,
mullets, jacks, slipmouths, mojarras), forage
species (Ambassis spp.), and the large eels
Muraenesox cinereus and Pisodonophis
cancrivorus. The tilapia Oreochromis
mossambicus and the mosquitofish
Gambusia affinis were found in the ponds
but not in the mangroves outside.
).)
The DBS ponds also harbored 6 species
of penaeid shrimps, 4 palaemonids, 6
portunid crabs, and 4 grapsids (Table 3).
Only the smaller Macrobrachium species
were found at DBS, and no M. rosenbergii.
Some volume of Varuna litterata was
obtained as bycatch from nearly all ponds,
and a surprising crop of naturally seeded
Portunus pelagicus was harvested from one
pond. The small shrimp Acetes erythraeus
and the mysid Prosopodopsis orientalis were
sometimes very abundant in some ponds.
Burrowing crabs like Neosarmatium spp.
weaken earthen dikes. Many other small
crabs (Episesarma spp., Uca spp., etc.)
were common in the main canals and the
mangrove greenbelt, but rare inside the
ponds.
Mollusks in the DBS ponds included
38 species of bivalves and 22 species
of gastropods (Table 3). The oysters
Saccostrea spp. and Crassostrea spp. were
a voluminous edible bycatch, and the
snails Cerithidea cingulata, Cerithium
coralium, and Batillaria multiformis were
very abundant and considered pests. In the
mangrove greenbelt were found several
mollusks not found in the ponds. On
both tree trunks and concrete walls clung
the holed oyster Enigmonia aenigmatica,
the coffee murex Chicoreus capucinus,
the delicate Cerithidea quadrata, the
black-blotched Nerita planospira, and
the pulmonates Cassidula mustelina,
Onchidium sp., and Peronia sp. On
the leaves were glued the periwinkles
Littoraria spp., and in the mud and on
the roots crawled the orange bead snail
Sphaerassiminea minuta.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Table 3. Biodiversity in the ponds and mangroves at Dumangas Brackishwater Station, Iloilo,
Philippines, 2009–2010.
Phylum
Families
Species
43+7
90+34
Reptilia
1
1
Cerberus rhynchops
Penaeidea
2
7
Penaeus spp., Metapeneus spp., Acetes
erythraeus
Caridea
2
6
Macrobrachium spp., Nematopalaemon
tenuipes
Brachyura
3+1
10+16
Thalamita crenata, Varuna litterata, Uca
spp.
Anomura
1
3
Clibanarius spp.
Stomatopoda
1
3
Chloridopsis scorpio, Oratosquilla
gravieri
Thalassinidea
1
1
Thalassina anomala
Mysida
1
1
Mesopodopsis orientalis
Cirripedia
3
4
Balanus Amphitrite
Bivalvia
14+5
38+31
Crassostrea belcheri, Saccostrea
cucculata, Enigmonia aenigmatica,
Isognomon spp.
Gastropoda
7+6
22+21
Cerithidea spp., Cerithium coralium,
Telescopium telescopium, Littoraria spp.,
Chicoreus capucinus, Sphaerassiminea
minuta, Nerita planospira
Cnidaria
Scyphozoa
2
2
Cassiopea medusa
Annelidae
Polychaeta
2
3
Capitella capitata
1
1
Lingula ungguis
Holothuroidea
1
1
Holothuria coluber
Echinoidea
2
2
Diadema setosum
Angiospermae
8
10
Avicennia marina, Sonneratia alba,
Rhizophora spp.
Chlorophyceae
1
3
Enteromorpha=Ulva, Chaetomorpha
Rhodophyceae
2
2
Gracilaria spp., Catenella caespitosa
97+20
210+102
Chordata
Crustacea
Mollusca
Class/Order
Osteichthyes
Brachiopoda
Echinodermata
Plantae
All
Representative species
Elops hawaiiensis, Acentrogobius spp.,
Gobiopterus panayensis, Neostethus
amaricola
).*
Contributed Papers
Thus, the DBS ponds and mangroves
are still biodiverse systems, despite
intended monoculture for many years and
in contrast to the general perception that
aquaculture causes loss of biodiversity.
Herre and Mendoza (1929) recorded
40 species of fishes, 20 crustaceans, and
several snakes and birds in milkfish
ponds in the Philippines in the 1920s.
Brackishwater ponds are evidently leaky,
even the better ones like those at DBS,
and the young of many mangrove animals
find their way into ponds, survive,
and grow despite net screens, liming,
ammonium sulfate or teaseed treatment,
and chlorination. Despite the absence of
mangrove trees, and as long as tidal water
flow is maintained, ponds act as proxy
mangrove lagoons that harbor the young of
migratory fishes as well as all life stages of
resident species.
stations cum aquaculture farms full of life,
non-destructive, and sustainable.
Several bycatch species were eaten
or sold by the pond workers, but the
small and abundant gobies were often
used to feed crabs and carnivorous fishes
stocked in the ponds. Indeed, ways should
be developed to manage gate screens,
water supply, soil preparation, and crop
species to maintain a biologically diverse,
balanced, healthy pond environment,
produce an extra crop of bycatch species,
and improve farm economics.
1. Voucher specimens of the species from
TMS, IMS, and DBS should be properly
documented and deposited in the AQD
Museum of Aquatic Biodiversity. If
physical specimens can not be obtained,
then at least good photographs.
Conclusion and recommendations
As part of the implementation of the
SEAFDEC-sponsored Regional Code
of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries,
greater conscious effort must be applied
towards managing aquaculture farms for
high biodiversity and low pollution. This
study provides some of the biodiversity
information needed to formulate strategies
to keep the SEAFDEC/AQD research
).+
SEAFDEC/AQD does not know
what biodiversity has been lost due to its
aquaculture operations because there had
been no species inventories done at its
research stations before 2009. Now we have
a good idea of the present biodiversity, and
we have baseline species inventories as of
2008–2014 on which future monitoring
can be compared. The main difficulty
with biodiversity monitoring is the fact
that TMS, IMS, and DBS, as well as other
aquaculture farms, are sited in multi-use
water bodies and the effect of aquaculture
on biodiversity is difficult to discern over
the effects of fisheries, boating, settlements,
and other uses.
Next steps
2. A permanent exhibit of the marine
biodiversity at TMS, IMS, and
DBS should be set up at SEAFDEC
FishWorld for the science and
environment education of the Filipino
(Sambayanang Pilipino)
3. The TMS, IMS, and DBS species
inventories and photographs should be
published as hardcopy books, digital
books, and online databases. These
books will serve three purposes:
•
For SEAFDEC/AQD to use in
monitoring biodiversity at its
aquaculture stations in the future;
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
•
•
For farmers and government
regulators (Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources) to use as
species identification guides to
baseline-survey and monitor other
aquaculture sites in the Philippines
(and Southeast Asia); and
To add to the marine biodiversity
literature for students, teachers,
and researchers to use as general
taxonomic guide for marine habitats
in the Philippines (and Southeast
Asia).
4. A training-workshop on biodiversity
survey and species identification should
be offered to BFAR and Department of
Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR) technicians assigned to
environmental monitoring. The
training should be done on site at TMS,
IMS, and DBS.
5. Monitoring of biodiversity at TMS,
IMS, and DBS should be continued
as a regular program or standard
operating procedure of AQD, with the
Stations Heads as Head Monitors. The
monitoring program should eventually
include subtidal surveys, infaunal
sampling, quantitative analysis, and
other protocols not carried out in
2009–2014.
TMS comes from the intensive collective
fisheries off Buyuan. SEAFDEC/AQD
cannot regulate fishing, but it can protect
the nearshore habitats right in front of TMS,
to prevent the operation of the beach seine,
and allow seaweeds and benthic animals
to settle and stabilize (before and after the
monsoon waves and storms). Beach seines
stir up the subtidal and intertidal sediment;
overturn gravel where seaweeds grow and
animals hide and feed; and catch the small
animals and larvae concentrated by the
waves and currents at the surf zone. Many
of these small animals are left to die on the
beach, and even when eaten are really a
waste of marine life.
Although the effect of TMS on
nearshore biodiversity is not noticeably
adverse, AQD now has good opportunity
to protect the habitat and possibly maintain
or increase biodiversity. AQD can do the
following:
•
•
6. Institute strategic interventions to protect
biodiversity at TMS, IMS, and DBS
over the long term. Some strategic
interventions are described below.
Protect the nearshore habitats off TMS:
declare an MPA
•
More than the biological pollution
caused by AQD effluents, the serious threat
to nearshore habitats and biodiversity off
Request the Tigbauan local
government unit (LGU) to designate
the TMS intertidal and subtidal area
(~500 m long, 20 m seaward of
the jetties, within 10 m deep) as a
marine protected area (MPA), not
because it is high in biodiversity but
so that it can be so;
Construct and install large heavy
rocks or concrete multi-faceted
modules in this MPA to add
topographic relief and stable habitat
surfaces for shore animals and
plants. The species that recruit and
mature inside the MPA can serve
as broodstock to seed the adjacent
nearshore waters; and
Monitor the biodiversity in the MPA
over the years.
).,
Contributed Papers
Rest and rehabilitate the IMS habitats: Build
a road and bridge and discontinue boats
More than the biological pollution
and siltation due to the IMS fish cages,
gross carelessness by fishers, gleaners, and
boatmen has seriously damaged the IMS
habitats. In particular, every day over the
last 35 years, the IMS service boat has
traversed the seagrass beds, sandflat, and
coral beds around the station. During low
tides, the outriggers, hull, and propellers
hit and break coral heads and sponges,
entangle seaweeds and seagrasses, churn
up the sediment, the damage obvious but
undocumented. In recent years, several
tourist boats a day traverse IMS to visit
the fish broodstocks in cages. IMS guards
have not been able to keep local boatmen,
fishers, and gleaners off IMS, but AQD can
otherwise manage the resources at IMS.
AQD can discontinue the use of the IMS
service boat and disallow the use of tourist
boats in order to rehabilitate the damaged
seagrass beds, sandflat, and coral terrace.
After 35 years, it is time to build a
road and bridge to IMS from the main
road going to Barangay Dolores. At the
nearest road junction, the distance from
the town road to Humaraon Cove is about
600 m (shorter than the feeder road going
to Landasan Cove), and the bridge over
Humaraon Cove to IMS would be about 500
m long. From Igang bridge, it is about 3 km
to this proposed junction. Dolores is served
by many public jeepneys to and from Jordan
pier. Guimaras is now in a road-building
mania and the provincial government might
fund and build a feeder road leading to IMS.
AQD can do the following:
•
).-
Lobby the Guimaras LGU to build
a feeder road to Humaraon Cove
(directly opposite IMS Islet 5) from
•
•
•
•
the town road leading to Barangay
Dolores. Make the case that this
feeder road brings goods and
services to the people in Humaraon;
eliminates the dangers of boat travel
and increases tourist visits to IMS
and tourism income to Guimaras;
eases the transport of harvested fish
from the mariculture park to the
Guimaras markets; and facilitates
the transport of personnel and
materials to and from IMS;
Construct a wooden bridge from the
feeder road over Humaraon Cove
to the IMS house on Islet 5. This
bridge can be like the one between
Islets 6, 7, 8, and 9, and can use
wooden planks from the mahogany
trees in Tigbauan. Another bridge
could be built over the sandflat from
Islet 5 to Islet 9 where the lab and
growout cages are located;
Discontinue the use of the IMS
service boat for routine transport
(but standby for emergencies or
urgencies). Arrange for a Dolores
jeep to shuttle IMS personnel to and
from Humaraon Cove;
Disallow tourist boats from IMS
but let tourists visit via the road and
bridge. Manage the tourists and
disallow food, drinks, and wastes at
IMS; and
Monitor the status of the IMS
habitats over the years.
Green up DBS: Integrate BMP into SOP
SEAFDEC/AQD advocates
responsible aquaculture and has done
several experiments to develop various
best management practices (BMP) for
brackishwater ponds. However, these
BMPs are hardly in evidence at DBS
now. There is no trace of the much-
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
touted aquasilviculture, and none of the
recommended effluent treatment through
arrays of oysters, mussels, and seaweeds.
To maintain credibility, as well as get good
results, DBS should integrate BMPs into
SOP in the ponds, and not just do them as
a project. Since brackishwater ponds serve
as proxy mangrove lagoons and nursery
habitats for a variety of species, BMPs
should be developed to allow ponds to be’
leaky’, maintain a biodiverse and healthy
pond environment, and produce an extra
crop of bycatch species.
AQD can institutionalize BMP-SOP for
a greener DBS. The BMP-SOP can include
the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Use hatchery-reared postlarvae or
juveniles or ‘fry’ (better nourished,
no predators and competitors);
Rear fry to a larger size in a nursery
pond or tank before stocking in
large ponds with tidal water supply
(so the stocks have a head start over
the extraneous species);
Reconfigure the ponds such that
influent water comes through the
main canal from Pulao Creek, but
the effluent water leaves through
another main canal into Talauguis
River (to minimize self-pollution);
Plant and grow stands of Avicennia
mangroves (with readily available
seedlings), or arrays of oysters,
mussels, and seaweeds in the main
canals to remove particulates and
nutrients from both the incoming
tidal water and the effluents;
Manage 1–2 large ponds at the
east end for aquasilviculture with a
clump of Avicennia mangroves at the
center;
Extend the mangrove greenbelt
by planting Avicennia outside
•
•
•
the concrete dike facing Pulao
Creek and the mudflat to remove
particulates from the influent water
before it enters the main gate;
Monitor, measure, and record the
pond bycatch from all experiments
and production runs. Such data
should be analyzed for trends and
economic value;
Collect the bycatch and feed it
to carnivorous farmed species to
reduce feed costs and pollution.
Bycatch may also be given away to
pond workers; and
The small gobies that are not to be
collected should be released alive
from ponds back into the mangroves
and mudflats during draining and
harvest (as a simple restocking
scheme).
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)/(
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Targeting Essential Gene Utilizing RNA Interference to Protect the Ailing
Shrimp/Prawn Industry Against WSSV
Jassy Mary S. Lazartea and Mary Beth B. Maningasabc*
The Graduate School, b Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, c Molecular Biology and
Biotechnology Laboratory, Research Center for Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas,
España, 1015, Manila, Philippines
* mbmaningas@mnl.ust.edu.ph /marybethmaningas@yahoo.com
a
Abstract
The white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) remains to be the most widespread and devastating
infectious agent that has hit particularly the marine shrimp aquaculture industry worldwide. To
date, there are no known effective strategies that can combat WSSV infection. This study aimed
to elucidate host-pathogen interaction through the functional study of host - gene. Utilizing
RNA Interference, the function of contig23 (c23) in the shrimp genome, identified to have high
homology with WSSVORF-325, was determined. Three set-ups were prepared for treatment of
c23-, GFP-dsRNA, and PBS using Macrobrachium rosenbergii freshwater prawns. Each treatment
group was challenged with WSSV and survival rate was recorded. C23-, and GFP-dsRNA injected
prawns showed a significant survival rate of 100%, in contrast to 20% of the PBS injected prawns
at 10 days post-infection (dpi). Results showed that injection of c23- and GFP-dsRNA prior to
challenge with WSSV, delayed and reduced mortality in contrast to PBS-treated prawns, which
showed high mortality. Gene expression analysis showed silencing of both WSSV and c23 at day
3 post-WSSV challenge. This study proved that c23-dsRNA has a protective effect on WSSVchallenged prawns and highlights its involvement in the infectivity of WSSV in M. rosenbergii.
Keywords: WSSV, host-pathogen interaction, shrimp genome, gene expression analysis
Introduction
The inflicting diseases on today’s
aquaculture have wreaked havoc on the
sustainable growth of the shrimp culture
industry worldwide. In the Asia-Pacific
countries, the industry reported annual
losses of about 4 billion US dollars yearly.
Shrimp is an indispensable source of
revenue, as this commodity accounts for
almost 20% of aquaculture commodities
in trade worldwide. A large fraction of the
damage to the industry is undoubtedly
caused by viruses, which already accounted
to have over 20 strains that of which affected
both penaeid shrimp wild stocks and
commercial production.
The white spot syndrome virus (WSSV)
is one of the most potent and widespread
pathogen (Flegel, 2006) affecting the
shrimp culture industry. This virus can
spread the disease rapidly in a span of
2-10 days post-infection and can bring
100% cumulative mortality (Flegel, 2006).
The insufficient modes of sanitation and
the growing number of shrimp cultures,
coupled with uncontrolled trade movement
)/*
Contributed Papers
among countries, account for the optimum
conditions for the virus to spread to almost
all farming areas (de la Peña et al., 2007).
Although there are already some methods
which displayed efficacy against the virus
under experimental conditions, no effective
treatments have been available to address
WSSV problem in the field (Dang et al.,
2010).
Understanding the underlying
molecular interaction between the host
and pathogen is very critical in creating
strategies to prevent diseases. A novel
approach to understand host-pathogen
interaction is the utilization of RNA
interference (RNAi) technology. RNAi is a
post-transcriptional gene silencing process
in which double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)
triggers the silencing of a cognate gene.
Insurmountable evidences have pointed
out the efficiency of RNAi in studying gene
function and its implication in mounting
antiviral responses in eukaryotes. In the
shrimp system, a number of studies have
demonstrated the effectiveness of RNAi
in studying shrimp-pathogen interaction.
Injection of WSSV gene-specific dsRNA
efficiently suppressed viral replication in
penaeid shrimp (Kim et al., 2007; Robalino
et al., 2007) and suppression of yellow head
virus (YHV) replication by cognate-dsRNA,
significantly reduced mortality in the black
tiger shrimp.
On the other hand, in the shrimp
genome, several genes that can be
potentially linked to anti-WSSV responses
in shrimp had been identified (He et
al., 2005; Wang et al., 2006; Zhao et al.,
2007). A bacterial artificial chromosome
(BAC) library of the kuruma shrimp
Penaeus (Marsupenaeus japonicus) genome
revealed 27 open reading frames (ORFs)
that are surprisingly homologous to the
)/+
predicted proteins that code for WSSV.
Two of the homologs found in kuruma
shrimp (MjORF16 and MjORF18) and
their WSSV homologs (WSSVORF-332
and WSSVORF-285, respectively) were
utilized to demonstrate the involvement
of both WSSV and shrimp homologs
in the infectivity of WSSV in Penaeus
(Marsupenaeus) japonicus (Dang et al.,
2010). One of the 27 ORFs identified in
the genome of kuruma shrimp is contig
23 (c23), which has high homology to
WSSVORF325 and codes for MjORF158 in
the kuruma shrimp genome.
Here, we elucidated the function of
contig 23 gene in vivo by utilizing RNAinterference technology.
Materials and Methods
Laboratory Set-up and Shrimp
Acclimatization
Freshwater prawn Macrobrachium
rosenbergii weighing 3-5 grams were
purchased from Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center (SEAFDEC)
Binangonan, Rizal, Philippines. One
hundred (100) juveniles were reared in
filtered recirculating de-chlorinated tap
water tanks maintained at 25-28°C and 0
ppt salinity. Feeding was ad libitum on a
daily basis.
Preparation of Virus Stock Inocula and
Median Lethal Dosage (LD50)
WSSV stock was isolated from WSSVinfected Penaeus monodon obtained
from SEAFDEC, Iloilo, Philippines.
WSSV infection was confirmed through
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) using
WSSV-specific primers (Table 1). Viral
isolation was done following the procedure
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
in the study of Rout et al., (2007). One
hundred (100) μL of the viral isolate
was injected to 5 healthy M. rosenbergii
juveniles, from which a new viral stock was
isolated and used for the challenge test,
following the same procedure mentioned
above. The WSSV viral stock was then
stored at -80°C until the commencement of
the challenge test. The virus concentration
used in the challenge test was determined
based on the median lethal dose (LD50).
dsRNA synthesis
For the production of double-stranded
RNA (dsRNA), optimization of the
conditions was based on the methods
developed by Maningas (2008). dsRNAs
were generated in vitro using the T7
RiboMAX Express Scale RNA Production
System (Promega, USA) following the
protocols provided by the manufacturer.
Briefly, T7 promoter sequence was
incorporated to gene specific primers
for c23 (Table 1) to produce sense and
antisense strands separately. Two separate
PCR reactions with a single T7 promoter
were set up for each dsRNA to generate two
separate single promoter PCR templates
for in vitro transcription. The primers
used to amplify the region are shown in
Table 1. The resulting PCR products (with
T7 promoter) were quantified through
the use of Perkin Elmer Lambda 40 UVVIS Spectrophotometer and normalized
to attain similar concentration for the
transcription experiment.
Transcription was performed by
utilizing Promega Transcription T7
polymerase kit to yield single-stranded
RNAs (ssRNAs). Two μL of PCR products
were utilized for transcription and the
reaction yielded 20 μL of ssRNA. Equal
amounts of ssRNAs were mixed together to
anneal the RNA strands and were incubated
at 70°C for 10 minutes and allowed to cool
at room temperature for about 20 minutes.
After cooling to room temperature, the
resulting dsRNAs were further purified
following the protocol provided by T7
Ribomax Express Large Scale RNA
Production System and were quantified
again using the same spectrophotometer.
The synthesized dsRNAs were quantified
to make sure all samples were of equal
concentration for the in vivo RNAi
experiment (1 mg/mldsRNA).
Amplification, Sequencing and Analysis of c23
The target sequence, c23, was amplified
through PCR and the primers used are
in Table 1. The PCR mix contained the
following: 1x buffer, 2 mMdNTPs, 0.6mM
Primer (Forward and Reverse), 1 unit Taq,
5.7 ml ddH2O and 1 mg DNA template.
The following thermocycler conditions were
utilized: initial denaturation at 95ºC for 5
min followed by 30 cycles of 95ºC for 30
s, 55ºC for 30 s, 72 ºC for 1 min and final
extension at 72ºC for 10 min. The PCR
products were viewed in 1% agarose gel
stained with ethidium bromide to check for
the presence of amplified DNA.
The following reaction was prepared
for capillary sequencing: 1 mLBigDye
terminator reaction mix, 3.5 mL 5x BigDye
sequencing buffer, 1 mL template DNA, 1
ml primer and 13.5 mL distilled water. The
thermal profile used is as follows: one cycle
hold at 95ºC, 25 cycles 95 ºC for 10 sec, 50
ºC for 5 sec, 60 ºC for 4 min. and final hold
at 4 ºC. The resulting product was purified
then sequencing was carried out in Applied
Biosystem 31301 Analyzer. The DNA
sequence acquired was utilized for the Basic
Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST)
search in order to establish its phylogenetic
)/,
Contributed Papers
Table 1. List of primer sequences for RT-PCR.
Primer name
Nucleotide Sequence
Contig-23
F 5’ ACCGCTACTGACGACAACG3’
R 5’ CACTCGCTCCGTTAACAAGG3’
T7 Contig-23
F 5’ TAATACGACTCACTATAGGACCGCTACTGACGACAACG3’
R5’TAATACGACTCACTATAGGCACTCGCTCCGTTAACAAGG3’
GFP
F 5’ATGGTGAGCAAGGGCGAGGA3’
(Maningas, et al., 2008) R 5’TTACTTGTACAGCTCGTCCA3’
T7GFP
F5’TAATACGACTCACTATAGGATGGTGAGCAAGGGCGAGGA3’
(Maningas, et al., 2008) R 5’TAATACGACTCACTATAGGTTACTTGTACA GCTCGTCCA3’
WSSV
(Flegel, 2006)
F 5’GTACGGCAATACTGGAGGAGGT3’
R5’GGAGATGTGTAAGATGGACAAG3’
EF-1α
(Maningas, 2006)
F 5’ATGGTTGTCAACTTTGCCCC3’
R 5’TTGACCTCCTTGATCACACC3’
β-actin
(Liu, et al. , 2006)
F 5’AACTCCCATGACATGGAGAACATC3’
R 5’TCTTCTCACGGTTGGCCTTG3’
relationship with other genes available in
GENBANK. The evolutionary history of
the query sequence was inferred by using
the Maximum Likelihood method based on
the Tamura-Nei model in MEGA5.
In vivo gene silencing of c23-dsRNA
Three set-ups were prepared in the
Wet Laboratory and each contained 12 M.
rosenbergii as test animals. The set-ups
corresponded to experimental (c23-dsRNA
treated), treated control (GFP-dsRNA)
and untreated control (PBS). One group
was injected with 5mg of c23-dsRNA
(suspended in 100 uL PBS) and another
with 5 mg of GFP-dsRNA (suspended in
100 uL PBS). The negative control group
was injected with 100μL of PBS. After
dsRNA/PBS injection, the animals were
left untouched for 24 hours to recuperate,
then injection with WSSV followed. Two
hours after WSSV infection corresponded
to Day 0 post infection (p.i.). All the
animals were injected intramuscularly at
the 3rd abdominal segment. The tanks were
maintained at 22-25°C and 0 ppt salinity.
There were four sampling days for the
)/-
gene expression analysis: day 0, 1, 3, and 7.
Tissues (hemocytes and gills) were collected
from three randomly sampled shrimps
for RNA extraction. Total RNAs were
reverse transcribed to cDNA using M-MLV
reverse transcriptase following the protocol
provided by the manufacturer (Invitrogen,
USA). The inhibitory effect and specificity
of the c23-dsRNA were determined by
RT-PCR using equal amounts of cDNA as
templates.
PCR and RT-PCR analysis
PCR was carried out to confirm the
WSSV-free status of experimental animals
and detect the presence of WSSV particles
at the persistent infection stage.
Time-course RT-PCR was utilized to
evaluate the interaction of homologous
shrimp, c23, with WSSV infections
and to elucidate the sequence-specific
gene silencing by c23-dsRNA. Gills and
hemocytes were dissected out from three
individual samples for each set-up and
sampling day (Day 0, 1, 3, 7 p.i). Total RNAs
were isolated using Trizol (Invitrogen, USA)
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
and quantified by UV Spectrophotometer
to ensure that all samples were of equal
concentration when used for RT-PCR
analysis. One microgram of each sample
was reverse transcribed to produce singlestrand cDNA with the use of SuperScript™
First-Strand Synthesis System following
the protocols recommended by the
manufacturer. Transcripts were visualized
in 1.5% agarose gel stained with ethidium
bromide.
The following thermocycler conditions
were followed for all PCR and RT-PCR
set-ups: initial denaturation, 95°C for
5 minutes, followed by 30 cycles of (1)
denaturation at 95°C for 30 seconds, (2)
annealing at 55°C for 30 seconds and (3)
extension 72°C for 1 minute then final
DNA extension at 72°C for 5 minutes. The
transcripts were visualized and analyzed in
a gel electrophoresis using 1.5% agarose.
The expression of EF served as the
reference gene.
Challenge Test
Three set-ups, each with ten (10) M.
rosenbergii, were prepared for the challenge
test and were housed in the Wet Laboratory
of TARC. A total of six plastic aquaria (72.3
cm x 52 cm x 44 cm) equipped with recirculating water tank system were utilized
for the set-up. The aquaria were maintained
at about 22–25°C and 0 ppt salinity prior
to the experiment. Protective efficiencies
of c23-dsRNAs against WSSV infection
were determined by intramuscular
injection at the 3rd abdominal segment.
The juveniles were injected with either 100
mL of PBS or 5μg of c23-dsRNA or GFPdsRNA suspended in 100 mL PBS prior to
challenge with the viral inoculum (100μL
of 10-2 diluted WSSV stock). The injection
of GFP-dsRNA served as the unrelated
dsRNA control group. Cumulative
mortality rate was recorded daily up to 10
days after infection.
Statistical Analysis
The survival data were analyzed
through the use of Kaplan-Meier survival
with a chi-square test using GraphPad
Prism Software and differences were
considered significant at p<0.05.
Results
Phylogenetic analysis
The query sequence (c23) consisted
of 597 base pairs and was compared with
other sequences from NCBI (Figure 1).
In addition to the other homologous
sequences from the database, c23 sequence
obtained from Penaeus (Marsupenaeus)
japonicus was also included in the analysis.
Sequencing results showed that c23 is
part of the Macrobrachium rosenbergii
genomic DNA and the sequence has 27%
identity (having an E value of 1e-5) with
WSSVORF-325. The sequence was aligned
with other sequences obtained from BLAST
and a Phylogenetic tree was constructed.
Figure 1 shows related sequences with c23,
and WSSVORF-325 was one of those which
branched out from the c23 sequences
obtained from M. japonicus and M.
rosenbergii. WSSVORF-325, homologous
to vp25, is an envelope protein responsible
for the systemic infection of its host by the
virus. In constructing the phylogenetic
tree, the Maximum Likelihood (ML)
method was utilized for the analysis of
the sequences. In addition to this, the test
of phylogeny made use of the Bootstrap
method using 1000 Bootstrap replicates
and gaps were not included in the analysis.
)/.
Contributed Papers
Figure 1. Molecular Phylogenetic analysis by Maximum Likelihood method of c23. The
evolutionary history was inferred by using the Maximum Likelihood method based on the
Tamura-Nei model. The tree with the highest log likelihood (-3282.2441) is shown.
Expression of c23 in different tissues
Utilizing cDNAs obtained from mRNAs
of a normal/healthy M. rosenbergii, the
expression pattern of c23 in different tissues
was examined through RT-PCR analysis.
As shown in Figure 2, c23 is expressed in all
tissues examined and were highly expressed
in the gills, heart, hepatopancreas, intestine
and hemocyte. Elongation Factor (EF-1α)
was used as the internal reference control
and was positively amplified, with similar
levels, from all tissues of normal shrimp.
the reference gene. WSSV specific primers
from other regions with a target size of
200bp, were utilized to indicate expression
of WSSV. In addition, the expression of
other WSSV gene confirmed that the high
mortality observed in PBS-treated shrimps
was indeed due to the WSSV infection
(Figure 3A).
Figure 3B shows the expression of
WSSV in the GFP-dsRNA treated prawns.
This further shows that the animals were
still infected with WSSV despite their
survival during the experiment period.
Interaction of c23 with WSSV infection
Sequence-specific silencing by c23
To elucidate the expression pattern of
c23 in WSSV-infected prawns, RNA was
isolated from the hemocytes and gills of
three PBS-treated samples at four time
intervals (Day 0, 1, 3, and 7 p.i.). cDNAs
were derived from isolated RNA and were
analyzed through RT-PCR. Only hemocyte
and gill cDNAs were utilized as templates
for the gene expression analysis because
these two important tissues were essential in
the progression of viral diseases and these
templates showed consistent expression
using normal tissues. EF-1α was used as
)//
To further explain the reason behind the
high survival rate observed in c23-dsRNA
treated shrimps, the expression of c23 was
also determined through RT-PCR. Using
cDNAs derived from gills and hemocytes
as templates, the expression level of c23
and WSSV was completely silenced starting
Day 3 p.i. as shown in Figure 4. This result
indicates that c23-dsRNA has a specific,
inhibitory effect on the expression of the
target gene, c23.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Effect of c23 on WSSV infection
To assess the effect of the WSSV
homolog c23 in WSSV infection, the
mortality of c23-dsRNA-injected M.
rosenbergii after challenge against WSSV
was monitored. In PBS-treated prawns,
mortality was observed starting on day 6
p.i. although 30% of the stock survived on
the last day of sampling. In those treated
with c23-dsRNA, no mortality was observed
through the sampling days (Day 0 till10
p.i.). High survival rate was also observed
in GFP-dsRNA treated stocks. The dsRNAtreated stocks showed 100% survival while
those that were PBS-treated showed 30%
survival after Day 7 p.i. (Figure 5). Delayed
onset of mortality was also observed
in other species of shrimps Penaeus
(Marsupenaeus) japonicus and Penaeus
Figure 2. Expression of c23 in different tissues of healthy Macrobrachium
rosenbergii. First lane corresponds to expression of EF-1α (reference gene)
while the second lane corresponds to expression of c23. G: gills; Ht: heart; Hp:
hepatopancreas; M: Muscle; In: intestine; Ly: lymphoid organ; and Hm: hemocyte.
A.
B.
Figure 3. Expression of WSSV and c23 in gills (1) and hemocytes (2) at 0-7
dpi. A. PBS treatment; B. GFP treatment. EF- elongation factor was used as a
reference gene. M-marker, B- blank (master mix without the DNA template).
)/0
Contributed Papers
Figure 4. RT-PCR analysis. Sequence-specific gene silencing by c23-dsRNA in
gills (1) and hemocytes (2) of infected Macrobrachium rosenbergii juveniles.
EF- elongation factor was used as a reference gene for successful DNA
amplification. M-marker, B- blank (master mix without the DNA template).
A.
B.
C.
Figure 5. Survival of dsRNA-injected and WSSV-infected shrimps and prawns after WSSV challenge. A.
Macrobrachium rosenbergii B. Penaeus monodon; and C. Penaeus (Marsupenaeus) japonicus. The animals
were injected with either PBS (control) or c23-dsRNA, VP9-dsRNA, and GFP-dsRNA) and immediately
challenged with WSSV (10-2 dilution from stock).The difference between the control and experimental
set-ups (PBS vs GFP-dsRNA, PBS vs c23-dsRNA, PBS vs VP9-dsRNA) is statistically significant while no
significant difference was observed between GFP-dsRNA vs. c23-dsRNA, based on paired t-test, (p< 0.05).
)0'
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
monodon) after c23-dsRNA treatment,
highlighting the role of c23-dsRNA as
a ‘protective gene’ for WSSV-infected
shrimps. Silencing c23 significantly reduced
and delayed mortality in all three species
of crustaceans. Thus, the high survival
rate observed in dsRNA-treated shrimps
suggests that treatment of dsRNA be it
specific (c23-dsRNA) or non-specific (GFPdsRNA) in the WSSV-infected shrimp has a
protective effect.
Results of the PCR assays, through the
use of WSSV primers that had a 200 bp
target size, confirmed that the mortality in
all WSSV-challenged M. rosenbergii was due
to WSSV infection.
Discussion
The importance of the shrimp industry
in the country mandates shrimp farmers to
focus on issues of high density production
as well as specific pathogen-free rearing.
However, like any other organisms that
are reared in great numbers and produced
in high densities, these cultured shrimps
are easy targets of microbial and viral
pathogens. In this case, one of the effective
approaches is to better understand the
animal’s immune system (Hirono et al.,
2010) in order to devise successful schemes
in preventing infection. This study worked
on c23, a WSSV homolog previously found
in Kuruma shrimp and elucidated its
possible role in the infectivity of WSSV in
M. rosenbergii.
Phylogenetic relationship of the
contig 23 with other genes from other
organisms showed its high homology
with WSSVORF-325. Based on the tree
generated, it was shown that the contig
23 from two species of crustaceans,
Penaeus (Marsupenaeus) japonicus and
Macrobrachium rosenbergii clustered
together showing high similarity, while
WSSVORF-325 branched out from them.
This result is intriguing and intensifies the
speculation of “viral mimicry” in WSSV.
The high homology WSSVORF-325 might
be one of the virus’ ways of ‘adapting’ to its
host. Thus the supposition that the virus is
mimicking some genes of its host to evade
immune response, as observed in other
vertebrate viruses (Koyama et al., 2010), is
also a possibility in WSSV.
In understanding the pathogenesis
of viral diseases, it is essential to have
knowledge on the complex interactions
between the virus and its host (Dang et al.,
2010). A study conducted on M. japonicus,
revealed the presence of multiple WSSV-like
genes in its genome that strongly suggests
that similar mimicking mechanisms or
horizontal gene transfers can also be seen in
this virus group. Such information provides
a good starting point for understanding
unknown WSSV-host interactions since the
current database does not have information
on homologous proteins (Alcami and
Koszinowski, 2000). The attempt to
elucidate the complexity of WSSV-shrimp
interaction led to the study of mechanisms
mediated by RNAi in the shrimp antiviral
response. RNAi has been utilized to
study specific pathogens, immune related
genes and antiviral mechanism in shrimp
immunity (Maningas et al., 2008). It
comprises of a cascade of related cellular
processes wherein the introduction of
dsRNA suppresses the expression of the
gene based on sequence homology between
the dsRNA trigger and the target gene
(Robalino et al., 2005).
In this study, gene expression analysis
was done using hemocyte and gill cDNAs,
since these two important tissues were
)0(
Contributed Papers
essential in the progression of viral diseases.
The gills are usually the organ that is highly
affected by the virus after infection while
the hemocyte is an essential organ in
mediating the first line of defense and plays
an integral role in the overall invertebrate
immune system. In invertebrates, the most
important role of the circulating hemocyte
is the protection of the animal against
invading microorganisms by participating
in recognition, phagocytosis, melanization
and cytotoxicity (Hirai et al., 2004).
Here, we elucidated the role of c23
earlier found in Kuruma shrimp, as a
WSSV-homolog, in the infectivity of
WSSV in Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
RNAi was induced through in vivo
experiment by injecting synthesized
dsRNAs intramuscularly in the 3rd
abdominal segment of WSSV-challenged
prawns. Results showed that day 3 after
introduction of c23-dsRNA, expression
of c23 was silenced. In previous studies,
the introduction of gene-specific dsRNA
can cause systemic silencing in shrimps.
Extracellular dsRNAs were internalized
by shrimp cells in vivo, as evidenced by
the induction of gene silencing which is
known to be an intracellular phenomenon
(Robalino et al., 2009). This reasoning
implies the presence of cell surface
receptors in shrimp that mediates the
uptake of dsRNA; in a previous study, it
was speculated that perhaps the dsRNA is
being taken up by shrimp cells (Maningas
et al., 2008) either by using an endocytic
pathway similar to those reported for the
scavenger receptor-mediated endocytosis
in Drosophila S2 cell (Ulvila et al., 2006)
or the endocytic pathway mediated cell
entry of dsRNA in Caenorhabditis elegans
(Saleh et al., 2006). In C. elegans, the RNA
interference deficient-1 (sid-1) locus
involved in transmitting the silencing signal
)0)
between cells has been identified. SID1
encodes a protein of 11 transmembrane
domains and has a structure suggestive of
an import–export channel that probably
functions as a receptor. In shrimp, the
presence of Sid-1 homolog (Lv-Sid-)1 has
been reported,. It was revealed that LvSid-1 plays a potential role as a channel
for dsRNA. In addition, knockdown
experiments on Lv-Sid-1 gene with
sequence-specific dsRNA caused mortality
of up to 80% death within two days post
infection (Labreuche et al., 2010).
In the shrimp system, researchers were
able to show the effectiveness of RNAi
technology in elucidating the functions of
the genes, Transglutaminase (TGase) and
clotting protein (CP), in the shrimp system
(Maningas et al., 2008). Systemic gene
silencing across different tissues tested (gills,
heart, hemocyte, hepatopancreas, intestine
and lymphoid organ) demonstrated the
efficiency of injecting naked dsRNAs into
the shrimp’s system. This kind of uptake was
similarly observed in previous RNAi studies
on different species of shrimps (Dang et al.,
2010; Robalino et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2007).
This study showed that injection of
c23-dsRNA delayed and reduced the
mortality due to WSSV infection; hence, it
denotes the suppression of the freshwater
prawn’s ORF (c23) homologous to WSSV
proteins specifically vp25/vp28 which are
major viral envelope proteins, such further
justifies the role of c23 in the infectivity in
M. rosenbergii (also in M. japonicus and in
P. monodon) to WSSV. The high % identity
(100%) posed by WSSV325 with vp25/
vp28 gave some definite answers on the
role of this contig in the infectivity of the
virus in its host. Vp28 has a signal function
for transport and also responsible for the
membranous structures associated with
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
WSSV infection in vivo (Durand et al.,
1997). In addition to this, it is noteworthy
to mention that vp28 plays a crucial role
in systemic WSSV infection in shrimp in
that it binds to the shrimp cells in a lowpH environment and aid viral entry into
the cytoplasm (Yi et al., 2004). With this
information at hand, it is then safe to say
that c23 might be working the same way
as vp28, thus explains the findings of this
study. The silencing of both WSSV and c23
observed in Figure 4, demonstrated the
interaction of the WSSV-homolog with
WSSV, therefore suggesting that c23 is
involved in the infectivity of WSSV in this
species. In the study on kuruma shrimp,
it was found that injecting shrimp with
MjORF16-dsRNA and MjORF18-dsRNA
(both ORFs are known to be homologous
to WssvORF-332 and WssvORF-285,
respectively) followed by WSSV challenge
test delayed and reduced mortality (Dang
et al., 2010). These findings suggest that
suppression of host ORFs homologous with
predicted WSSV proteins combat spread of
the virus thereby denoting that homologous
MjORFs may function in the infectivity of
WSSV to its host.
While no mortality was observed in
GFP-dsRNA treated prawns, silencing
of the WSSV gene did not transpire.
This raises the question: what causes
the prawns to survive despite WSSV
infection? In the moth system, injection
of dsRNA representing GFP, a sequence
foreign to the moth, was shown to reduce
melanization induced by baculovirus
infection (Angthong et al., 2010). This
implies that other than sequence-specific
dsRNA-mediated gene silencing, injection
of foreign dsRNA (GFP-dsRNA) may
induce another type of antiviral response
which helped the WSSV-infected prawns to
survive. In a previous study performed in
2004, the findings suggested that exposure
of marine shrimps to dsRNA triggered
innate antiviral immunity in a sequenceindependent manner (Robalino et al.,
2004). Nevertheless, the mechanisms
underlying the said phenomenon as well
as its occurrence in other invertebrate taxa
remains unknown, but it is clearly shown
that recognition of dsRNA by another
pathway, RNAi, is widely distributed among
invertebrates and likely an important
component of the invertebrate antiviral
response.
As stated above that the injection
of dsRNA can induce innate antiviral
immunity among shrimps in a sequenceindependent manner, succeeding studies
on shrimp antiviral immunity showed that
same antiviral response was also observed
among shrimps after the introduction
of sequence-specific dsRNA. In another
experiment conducted, the data collectively
demonstrated that strong dsRNA-mediated
antiviral immunity is dependent upon the
sequence homology between the dsRNA
trigger and the viral targets. The study thus
proposed that partial protection induced
by dsRNA of diverse length, sequence, and
base composition can be observed from
virus-infected shrimps (Maningas et al.,
2008).
In line with what were previously done
on elucidating the effect of introduction
of sequence-specific dsRNA, this study
demonstrated that injection of c23-dsRNA
was able to induce specific down-regulation
of the expression of endogenous genes
homologous to WSSV ORFs. Furthermore,
it strengthened the fact that administration
of dsRNA homologous to viral genes can
induce a potent and virus-specific antiviral
response that may result in a highly effective
control of viral diseases, specifically WSSV.
)0*
Contributed Papers
The complexity of generating homologs
by viruses is still a labyrinth; one hypothesis
that can be derived from it is that the
presence of this WSSV homolog actually
helps the virus to evade its host’s immune
response through ‘mimicking’. Since it is
present in the host’s genome, the entry
of viral DNA will be ‘masked’ and will
be considered as a ‘self ’ instead of an
antigen thus making the host susceptible
to infection while it strengthens the virus’
infectivity. The possibility of an enhanced
viral infection is at a high stake in the
presence of these homologs, since they are
not considered as ‘nonself ’ by the host,
the immune response genes will not be
readily released therefore giving the virus
the bigger chance to continue replicating.
In another perspective, the presence of
these homologs in the genome of WSSV
might be one of the mechanisms of WSSV
infection. Mutation in the genome of
viruses is very rampant and occurs rapidly.
These homologs may be mutations that
make the virus ‘adaptable’ to its host’s
environment, especially to the immune
response machinery. In this way, entry
of viral DNA will be a lot easier and viral
replication will be at full speed because
there will be no interference by the immune
response genes of the host. As shown in this
study, the silencing of c23after injection
of c23-dsRNA to shrimps challenged with
WSSV reduced and delayed mortality. This
further supports the speculation that c23
is probably involved in the infectivity of
WSSV and that the absence of this contig
builds up a ‘protective wall’ in the host’s
immune system that resists the initiation of
virus replication and triggers the release of
immune response genes.
The biological interaction between
viruses and their hosts is a delicate balance
of actions and counteractions between
)0+
host immune system and virus escape
mechanisms. Having shown that viral
immune evasion, possibly through viral
mimicry by production of homologs,
is observed in vertebrate viruses, this
study is also directed towards the path of
explaining the reason behind the presence
of WSSV-homologs in the shrimp genome.
It is more like a question of which is
mimicking between the two organisms: is
it the host mimicking the WSSV genes to
evade infection or the WSSV duplicating
these specific genes to escape the immune
response of its host? The observed gene
silencing of WSSV-homolog demonstrated
in this study tends to answer the latter
question: that the production of homologs
by WSSV is one mechanism of the virus to
be able to escape the antiviral response of
its host and continue replicating as shown
in Figure 1 where c23 is clearly a part of
the shrimp genome. The expression of c23
in three different species (Macrobrachium
rosenbergii, Penaeus (Marsupenaeus)
japonicus and Penaeus monodon) further
strengthens the hypothesis that the WSSV
homologs are involved in the virus’
mechanism by mimicking the host’s gene
to evade the immune response of its host
during infection.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported in part
by “Biotechnology for Shrimp: Utilization
of Molecular Technologies to Elucidate
Shrimp Immunity and Develop Disease
Diagnostics” funded by the Philippine
Council for Agriculture, Aquatic,
and Natural Resources Research and
Development -Department of Science
and Technology (PCAARRD-DOST). The
authors would like to thank the Laboratory
of Genome Science, of TUMSAT Japan,
for providing the initial Contig Sequence
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
for this research and Dr. Edgar Amar of
SEAFDEC, Tigbauan, Iloilo for providing
us with WSSV stocks.
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ABSTRACTS OF ORAL PRESENTATIONS
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
SEAFDEC/AQD Stock Enhancement Initiatives: Release Strategies
Ma. Junemie Hazel Lebata-Ramosa*, Ellen Flor Doyola-Solisa, Rema Sibongaa,
Joemel Sumbinga, Jeff Bogart Abroguenab, August Santillanc and Mark Dimzond
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
b
Center for Environment and Water - Marine Studies Section, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
c
AECOM Arabia, Bin Sulaiman Center, Al Rawdah Street, Jeddah 2149, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
d
Waikiki Aquarium, University of Hawaii, 2777 Kalakaua Avenue, Honolulu, Hawaii 96815-4027, USA
* jlebata@seafdec.org.ph
a
Abstract
The Aquaculture Department of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
(SEAFDEC/AQD) started its Stock Enhancement Program more than a decade ago with the first
stock enhancement initiative on the mud crab Scylla spp. funded by the European Commission.
This was followed by another stock enhancement program in 2005 supported by the Government
of Japan Trust Fund. In preparation for its implementation, a Regional Technical Consultation
on Stock Enhancement of Species Under International Concern was convened in Iloilo City,
Philippines in July 2005 to identify species for stock enhancement. During the meeting, seahorses
Hippocampus spp., giant clam Tridacna gigas, abalone Haliotis asinina, and sea cucumbers
Holothuria spp. were among the priority species for stock enhancement work.
Stock enhancement, restocking and ranching are management approaches involving the release
of wild or hatchery-bred organisms to enhance, conserve or restore fisheries. This paper reports
SEAFDEC/AQD release activities and some of the release strategies that have been established for
mud crabs, giant clams and abalone.
Mud crab, Scylla spp. – Studies on the mud crab, conducted from April 2002 to November
2005, evaluated the effectiveness of releasing wild and hatchery-reared (HR) crabs in the
mangroves of Ibajay, Aklan, Philippines where preliminary studies demonstrated declining fishery
yields, abundance and size of crabs (Lebata et al., 2007). Comparison of survival and growth of
wild-released and HR Scylla olivacea and HR Scylla serrata demonstrated the effect of nursery
conditioning, size-at-release and species differences. Overall yield and catch per unit effort (CPUE)
increased by 46% after stock enhancement trials. Recapture rates of released crabs were highest in
wild-released S. olivacea and in crabs measuring 65.0–69.9mm carapace width (CW) and lowest
in non-conditioned HR S. serrata. Growth rates were highest for conditioned HR S. olivacea and
lowest for conditioned HR S. serrata (11.7 and 3.7 mm month-1, respectively). Fishing mortality was
highest for S. olivacea, whereas natural mortality was greater for S. serrata. Conditioning hatcherybred animals before release is also important in obtaining higher survival. S. olivacea was the more
appropriate of the two species for release in mangrove habitats inundated with low-salinity water.
However, there is a need for site-specific studies to evaluate the effectiveness of releases (Lebata et
al., 2009). It is important to consider the following factors when releasing mud crabs: 1) hatchery-
*'(
Abstracts of Oral Presentations
reared mud crabs should be conditioned in ponds prior to release to increase chances of surviving
in the wild; and 2) bigger crabs have better chances of survival in the wild compared with smaller
ones; in this case, crabs measuring 4.5 cm CW or bigger during release had the highest recapture
rates.
Giant clam, Tridacna gigas – To restore the diminishing population of the giant clams
Tridacna gigas in Sagay Marine Reserve (SMR), Negros Occidental, central Philippines, two
size classes [8- and 10-cm shell length (SL)] of hatchery-bred T. gigas were reared in an adjacent
ocean nursery for subsequent restocking to Carbin Reef upon reaching escape size of ≥20 cm
SL. Average growth rates of 0.67 cm month-1 did not significantly differ for both sizes. However,
survival after 382 days of rearing T. gigas was significantly higher in the 10-cm SL clams than the
8-cm SL clams (96 and 83%, respectively). For future restocking projects, the use of 8-cm SL clams
is recommended because the lower survival of this size class is compensated by its cheaper price.
While rearing the clams to attain grow-out size, the population of wild clams (Family Tridacnidae)
in Carbin Reef was assessed using ten 50 x 2-m belt transects. Four species of tridacnid clams
have been recorded: Hippopus hippopus, Tridacna crocea, T. maxima, and T. squamosa. T. crocea
comprised 12.5–93.9% of all the clams observed in all ten transects. There was a significant
difference in clam density between species (ANOVA, F = 6.94, P<0.001), with T. crocea having
the highest density. Living T. gigas were absent, but presence of dead shells was indicative of its
presence in the reef in the past. It can be expected that the release of hatchery-bred T. gigas juveniles
in Carbin Reef could provide future breeders that will repopulate this reef and the adjacent reef
communities (Lebata-Ramos et al., 2010). For the giant clam restocking activity, among the lessons
learned were to: 1) first rear giant clams in ocean nurseries until escape size of 20 cm SL because
they are less vulnerable to predators when they have attained this size; and 2) rear them in shallow
reefs with 0.5-1.5 m deep water during low tide because better growth was observed in giant clams
reared in shallow waters with warmer temperatures (mean±SE 29.5±0.24°C, range 26-31°C).
Abalone, Haliotis asinina – The lucrative returns brought by abalone fisheries caused
overexploitation and decline of the wild population. In the Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD has
successfully produced Haliotis asinina seeds in the hatchery. Aside from utilizing these seeds
in aquaculture, they are also being considered for future stock enhancement endeavors of the
department. This study aimed to evaluate post release behavior, recapture and growth rates of
hatchery-reared abalone juveniles released in the Sagay Marine Reserve. From the two release trials
conducted, results showed that abalone of shell length >3.0 cm had lower mortality during onsite
acclimation and utilized transport modules as temporary shelter for a shorter period after release.
Both wild and hatchery-reared abalone preferred dead branching corals with encrusting algae
as their habitat. Recapture rates were comparable between the wild (7.97%) and hatchery-reared
(HR2) abalone (6.47%). Monthly growth rates were almost the same between wild (0.25 cm, 4.0 g)
and hatchery-reared (HR1: 0.27 cm, 4.6 g; HR2: 0.35 cm, 3.8 g) abalone. Moreover, hatchery-reared
abalones were recaptured up to 513 days post-release, indicating viability of released stocks in the
wild. Results of releases revealed that hatchery-reared abalone can grow and survive with their wild
conspecifics (Lebata-Ramos et al., 2013). Through this study, it was noted that: 1) abalone should
be released at a minimum size of 3 cm SL; 2) they should be transported from the hatchery in PVC
transport modules; 3) they should be acclimated on site prior to release to eliminate mortalities
caused by transport stress; and 4) transport modules should be placed on the release site, letting the
abalone move freely out of the modules into their natural habitat.
In all releases, it is important to tag the released stocks to separate them from their wild
conspecifics. Numbered dymotapes were used for giant clams, diet tagging for the abalone, and
*')
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
coded microwire tags in mud crabs. In stock enhancement, it is also important to consider security
of the release area. Releases should be done in more secured habitats such as marine protected areas
rather than in open access areas where fishing is uncontrolled.
Keywords: stock enhancement program, seahorse, giant clam, abalone, sea cucumber
References
Lebata MJHL, Le Vay L, Primavera JH, Walton ME and Binas JB, 2007. Baseline assessment
of fisheries for three species of mud crabs (Scylla spp.) in the mangroves of Ibajay, Aklan,
Philippines. Bulletin of Marine Science 80: 891-904.
Lebata MJHL, Le Vay L, Walton ME, Biñas JB, Quinitio ET, Rodriguez EM and Primavera JH.
2009. Evaluation of hatchery-based enhancement of the mud crab, Scylla spp., fisheries in
mangroves: comparison of species and release strategies. Marine and Freshwater Research 60:
58-69.
Lebata-Ramos MJHL, Okuzawa K, Maliao RJ, Abroguena JBR, Doyola-Solis EFC, Dimzon MDN
and Dacles TU. 2010. Growth and survival of hatchery-bred giant clams (Tridacna gigas) in an
ocean nursery in Sagay Marine Reserve, Philippines. Aquaculture International 18: 19-33.
Lebata-Ramos MJH, Doyola-Solis EFC, Abrogueña JBR, Ogata H, Sumbing JG and Sibonga RC.
2013. Evaluation of post-release behavior, recapture, and growth rates of hatchery-reared
abalone Haliotis asinina released in Sagay Marine Reserve, Philippines. Reviews in Fisheries
Science 21: 433-440.
*'*
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Responsible Shrimp Culture Through Ecological Approach
Eleonor A. Tendencia
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department, (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
* gigi@seafdec.org.ph
Abstract
Aquaculture is the fastest food-producing sector. It is the farming of aquatic organisms,
like crustaceans, fish, molluscs and plants. Culture of aquatic organisms, particularly shrimps,
is usually done in earthen ponds with some intervention in the rearing process to enhance
production. Some of these processes to increase production are pond preparation, regular
stocking, feeding, and the use of probiotics and other chemicals to improve soil, water quality,
shrimp growth and immunity against diseases. The long range effect of the use of probiotics and
other chemicals on the environment and on shrimps is unknown. Despite the various inputs,
diseases continue to plague the industry, which could be due to the deteriorating environmental
conditions that cause stress in shrimps thus making them susceptible to infection. Furthermore,
chemicals and nutrients from aquaculture may affect biodiversity of the receiving environment.
Responsible aquaculture is a sustainable development approach that meets the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. There should be a good balance between satisfying human needs while maintaining or
enhancing the quality of the environment and conserving natural resources. Human health
or food safety as well as economic efficiency and/or livelihood opportunities should be taken
into consideration. Responsible shrimp culture through ecological approaches to improve
environmental conditions is herewith described.
Ecological approaches recognize the interactions between an aquaculture farm and the
external environment, including environmental resources and local communities. Ecological
approaches to improve environmental conditions identified from cross sectional, longitudinal
and tank studies may be classified into culture systems and phases of pond production: pond
preparation and rearing. Two culture systems are identified to improve water quality: 1) the use
of the greenwater system, and 2) the presence of mangrove in the receiving environment. Among
the pond preparation practices, sludge removal, crack drying of pond, and liming were identified.
Toxic substances as well as organic matter, which provide nutrients necessary for the growth of
microorganisms, are removed during sludge removal and crack drying of the pond sediment.
Liming to pH 11 kills most harmful microorganisms including the white spot syndrome virus;
it also kills unwanted species in the shrimp pond like fish and crabs. During the rearing phase,
abundant supply of natural food, low stocking density, less input, addition of fermented Avicennia
alba leaves, use of molasses and rest periods are some of the important farming practices that
reduce risk of disease occurrence. Other reported practices are crop rotation, biofloc technology,
aquaponics, and integrated multi trophic aquaculture.
Keywords: shrimp culture, responsible aquaculture, ecological approaches
*',
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Estimation of Energy Budget of Sea Cucumber, Holothuria scabra, in
Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture
Satoshi Watanabea*, Masashi Kodamab, Zenith Gaye A. Orozcoc, Joemel G. Sumbingd,
Schedar Rose M. Novillad and Ma. Junemie Hazel Lebata-Ramosd
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS), Tsukuba, Japan
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fisheries Research Agency Japan (NRIFS/FRA),
Yokohama, Japan
c
Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
d
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
* swat@affrc.go.jp
a
b
Abstract
Continuous intensification of aquaculture production has brought about environmental
issues associated with eutrophication worldwide. Environmental deterioration such as hypoxia
and sulfide production due to water and sediment eutrophication originating from aquaculture
effluents have been problematic, resulting to sporadic disease outbreaks and fish kills in the
Philippines.
Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) is one of the promising methods for sustainable
aquaculture as it also provides a supplementary source of income to the fish farmers. IMTA is
a polyculture system that integrates culturing of fed species (e.g. finfish) the main commodity,
organic extractive species (e.g. deposit and filter feeding benthos) and inorganic extractive species
(e.g. seaweed). In this study, IMTA techniques were established for small-scale coastal fish farmers
in the Philippines, with sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra, commonly known as sandfish), as the
key species. Sandfish commands the highest price in tropical sea cucumber species.
Nitrogen (N) budget of sandfish in polyculture with milkfish (Chanos chanos) and Elkhorn
sea moss (Kappaphycus alvarezii), both of which are commonly cultured in the Philippines, was
estimated using a simple closed box model.
Information on stocking density, stocking size, mortality, growth, feed ration, feed
assimilation, NH4-N production and NH4-N absorption of these species was obtained from a
series of experiments and existing literature. Culture conditions were as follows: 26 g milkfish
were cultured in a 5 x 5 x 4 m cage at an average stocking density of 36.7 ind/m3 (i.e. usual practice
in the Philippines) with an initial feeding ration of 10% of body weight which was gradually
decreased to 4% over time; 10 g sandfish were cultured in a 5 x 5 x 0.3 m cage hung under the
milkfish cage to trap particulate N waste (i.e. feces and leftover feed) from milkfish culture at a
stocking density of 35 ind/m2; the stocking weight of Elkhorn sea moss line culture was 10 kg. The
culture period was 200 days.
It was estimated that milkfish culture under the above-mentioned schemes cumulatively
produced 145 kg of particulate N, and milkfish and sandfish together excreted 60 kg of NH4-N
in 200 days of culture. Daily assimilation rate of the particulate N by sandfish ranged from 3.4 to
*'.
Abstracts of Oral Presentations
12.4%, and 6.4% of the particulate N was estimated to be removed by sandfish during the entire
200 days of culture. Daily absorption rate of NH4-N by Elkhorn sea moss increased exponentially
with time and reached 100% at 125 days of culture. Cumulative NH4-N from milkfish and sandfish
excretion was estimated to be depleted by 162 days of culture.
For complete utilization of particulate N by sandfish by the end of milkfish culture period (i.e.
zero emission), sandfish stocking density should be 805 ind/m2, which is 200 times as high as that
in existing sandfish aquaculture operations in countries such as Viet Nam and New Caledonia. The
purpose of sandfish culture in IMTA should be emphasized in terms of its economic advantages
and not very much on environmental integrity. Cages for sandfish culture should be designed
in such a way where only a small fraction of organic matter from milkfish culture (i.e. about 6%
in this culture scheme) enters it to avoid sediment quality deterioration and possible death of
sandfish. Elkhorn sea moss on the other hand seems very efficient in bioremediation capability.
Keywords: IMTA, sandfish, milkfish, nitrogen, box model, excretion, eutrophication
*'/
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
! ! "Holothuria scabra) Culture
Marie Frances Nievalesa*, Rema Sibongaab and Harold Figuradob
Division of Biological Science, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines in the Visayas
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
* frances_36@yahoo.com
a
b
Abstract
Various post-larval rearing methods were compared to determine which scheme would give
the most yield of newly settled (visible) juvenile stage (> 1mm body length). Five types of postlarval rearing methods were tested: T1- planktonic diatom only (Chaetoceros calcitrans, Cc),
T2-benthic diatom Navicula (Nsp) as biofilm and concentrate, T3- Navicula as biofilm + Cc, T4Spirulina as paste on settling plate + Cc, and T5- Spirulina (Sp) as paste on settling plates + Nsp
concentrate. An experiment was conducted in small (3-li) aquaria using a cohort of Day 14 (postfertilization) sandfish larvae. Simultaneously, three of the 5 post-larval rearing methods (i.e. T2,
T3 and T4) were done in medium scale (30-li) aquaria to determine how a conventional method
(T2) employed in a pilot sea cucumber hatchery in Central Philippines compared with method
observed in Viet Nam (T3) or with a hybrid method (T4). Visible post-settled juveniles were
counted weekly for the next three weeks and expressed as percentage yield. After three days of
rearing, transparent but visible early settled juveniles were observed. Mean percentage (%) juvenile
yield in week 1 was highest in T1 (Cc only)(17% + 1.3) followed by T3 (Sp + Cc) (14% + 1.6) in a 3
li scale. Yield increased and peaked in week 2 especially for rearing methods with Nsp while those
without (e.g T1 and T2) declined dramatically by week 3. In the 30-li scale, the highest mean yield
was consistent with T5 (Nsp + Cc) until Week 3 (12% + 11.2). The mean juvenile yield on the 2nd
and 3rd week were better than the 2% average for this stage or the 2.5% “benchmark” based on
experiences in the Philippines and Viet Nam as indicated in published references.
Keywords: post-larval rearing methods, sea cucumber
*'0
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Induced Breeding of Giant Trevally, Maliputo (Caranx ignobilis)
Ma. Theresa M. Mutia, Frederick B. Muyot* and Myleen L. Magistrado
National Fisheries Research and Development Institute-National Fisheries Biological Center, Brgy. Butong,
Taal, Batangas
* fredbmuyot@yahoo.com
Abstract
The giant trevally, maliputo (Caranx ignobilis), a highly prized and most popular indigenous
migratory fish in Taal Lake, Batangas, Philippines, was induced to spawn using various hormones
(to assess hormone efficacy on spawning performance). Different feeding regimes used in the larval
rearing of this species were also evaluated. Sexually mature breeders, 5 to 7 years old with at least
0.5 mm oocyte diameter and 60% of ova at GVM stage were injected intramuscularly, in two doses,
with: (a) 1,000 IU/kg BW human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG); (b) 100 μg/kg BW luteinizing
hormone releasing hormone analogue (LHRHa); and (c) 5 mg/kg BW carp pituitary extract (CPE),
at five breeders per hormone treatment. Uninjected fish served as the control. Treated fish were
released and allowed to spawn spontaneously in 40-ton (5m diameter) circular tanks.
Successful spawning was achieved during the months of March to July (28-30 ppt salinity;
27.6-29.25°C). Maliputo eggs are pelagic, clear and spherical, with a single oil globule and mean
diameter of 0.8 mm. Ovulation period was 24-36.5 hours after 2nd injection in HCG-treated fish
and 25-52 hours for LHRHa-injected fish. Only one of the CPE-treated fish spawned after 27 hours
but eggs were not fertilized. Uninjected control fish did not spawn. Eggs were hatched in 11-13
hours in HCG treatment and 11-17 hours in LHRHa. Mean number of spawned eggs (3,500-4,000
eggs•gram-1) was higher in HCG treatment (223,068 eggs•kg-1 breeder at 58.27g•kg-1 breeder)
than LHRHa (176,524 eggs•kg-1 breeder at 50.44 g•kg-1 breeder). Fertilization and hatching rates
were both higher in LHRHa (60.88% and 71.07%, respectively), than HCG treatment (30.53% and
43.06%). Mean number of produced larvae was higher in LHRHa treatment (56,040 larvae•kg-1
breeder) compared to HCG-treated fish (41,547 larvae•kg-1 breeder).
Hatched larvae (1.6 mm mean length) reared for 30 days in 3m x 3m concrete tanks using the
standard protocol for marine finfish hatchery attained a maximum survival of 4.47%. Complete
metamorphosis was observed after 26-28 days (8.1 mm mean length). Successful larval rearing
was attained using greenwater (Nannochloropsis sp.) technology fed with live food (Brachionus sp.
and Artemia salina). Critical periods were days 1-7 and days 19-22 when heavy mortalities were
observed.
Being the first recorded spawning in captivity of Caranx ignobilis in the Philippines, the results
of this study provides an important baseline data and is a major step towards the development of
a hatchery technology for maliputo in the country as well as for seed enhancement of its natural
habitat. The project has provided 400,000 maliputo larvae to private hatcheries for larval rearing
trials while 100,000 larvae were seeded in Balayan Bay and 5,000 fingerlings released in Taal Lake.
Keywords: induced breeding, giant trevally, Caranx ignobilis, Philippines, hatchery technology
*((
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Seed Production of the Blue Swimming Crab (Portunus pelagicus)
Nonita S. Cabacabaab* and Jimmy E. Salamidaa
National Fisheries Research and Development Institute, Guiuan Mariculture Research and Development
Center (NFRDI-GMRDC), Guiuan, Eastern Samar
b
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Regional Office VIII, Guiuan
Marine Fisheries Development Center (GMFDC), Guiuan, Eastern Samar
* nitz_sur@yahoo.com
a
Abstract
The blue swimming crab, Portunus pelagicus, is becoming a commercially important species
in the Philippines. The expanding export market for crabs has led to intensified collection and
has threatened the wild stocks. This decline has prompted the need for proper management of the
remaining resources, and interest in the establishment of hatchery facilities to produce crablets for
reseeding and aquaculture.
This paper presents the production method for P. pelagicus seedstock at the Guiuan Marine
Fisheries Development Center. Experiments to improve larval rearing were conducted as well. For
seed production, larvae at the zoeal stage were taken from wild-caught berried crabs hatched in
100-L circular drums filled with sand-filtered seawater (32-34 ppt, 28-30°C). Zoeae were stocked
at 100 zoea L-1 in rectangular tanks and fed rotifers at 30 ind ml-1 for the first 4 days. Newlyhatched Artemia were given at 1-2 ind ml-1 at zoea 3, and increased to 5 ind ml-1 at zoea 4 to the
megalopa stage. Chlorella sp. was maintained in the rearing tanks at 50,000 cells ml-1 as food for
rotifers and for water conditioning. Water exchange was done daily at 30-50%, except for the
first 5 days of rearing. The development from zoea 1 to megalopa and megalopa to the first crab
instar took 10-12 and 4-6 days, respectively. Longer larval development was observed at lower
temperature (<26°C). Cannibalism and deteriorating water quality were identified as major causes
of mortality. Survival of zoea 1 to megalopa was higher in chlorinated seawater (7.5+2.58%)
compared to UV-treated (6.5+1.73%) and sand-filtered (4.0+2.58%) seawater. Trials involving the
use of different tank background colors showed that the survival of larvae was highest in black
tanks (9.0+1.00%) as compared to those white tanks (1.5+0.58%).
In nursery rearing, megalopae were stocked at 1-2 ind ml-1 in wide tanks or concrete pond.
Strategies to reduce cannibalism were done by providing shelters and sand substrate (>10 cm). As
soon as the megalopa molted to crab instars, they were given minced fish, shell meat, Acetes and
formulated crab feeds twice daily, ad libitum. After 21 days, crablets were collected manually after
partially draining the water in concrete pond. The crablets produced were released in identified
fish sanctuaries and marine protected areas region-wide for resource enhancement and for
aquaculture research purposes.
Keywords: blue swimming crab, Portunus pelagicus, larval rearing, nursery
*(*
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Potential Genetic Impacts of Hatchery-Based Resource Enhancement
Zubaida U. Basiao
Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
zbasiao08@gmail.com
Abstract
The global population according to the United States Census Bureau has reached 7 billion as
of October 2013. The continuous growth in human population will continue to put tremendous
pressure on food production. The demand for fish as source of good protein is no exception. In
2011 total capture fisheries supplied 90.4 million tons of food and total aquaculture provided 63.6
million tons. While aquaculture production has increased dramatically, more than 50% of fishery
production still depends on capture fisheries. Overexploitation of wild fish stocks has become
one of the biggest problems in global fisheries. Stock enhancement has become a potential viable
strategy for marine fisheries in danger of collapse. With the tremendous progress made in the
breeding and larval rearing techniques of marine species, hatchery-based stock enhancement is
now operated in many stock enhancement programs. However, many questions are raised in the
use of hatchery-reared fish in stock enhancement. This paper will discuss genetic considerations
in stock enhancement in developing countries.
Keywords: stock enhancement, hatchery-reared fish, genetic considerations
*(,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Good Aquaculture Practices (GAqP): Setting Directions for Harmonized
Regional Standards - The Philippine Experience
Mark F. Matubanga and Nelson A. Lopezb*
Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Products Standards, Department of Agriculture, BPI Compound,
Visayas Ave., Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
b
Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Division, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, 2/F PCA Bldg.,
Elliptical Rd., Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
* nlopez_8550@yahoo.com
a
Abstract
A milestone process on how Good Aquaculture Practices (GAqP) emanates in Philippine
aquaculture and its integration to the ASEAN harmonized standardization efforts is discussed
in the paper. The management model, value chain and draft Philippine National Standard of the
GAqP code are presented and evaluated as to its impact to trade and marketing, socioeconomic
considerations, food safety and technology.
Keywords: Good Aquaculture Practices, Philippine National Standard
*(.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
The Importance of Mangroves to Capture and Culture Fisheries
Jurgenne H. Primavera
Pew Fellow in Marine Conservation; Co-Chair, IUCN Mangrove Specialist Group; Chief Mangrove
Scientific Advisor, Zoological Society of London, 48 Burgos St., La Paz, Iloilo City
* georginehp@yahoo.com
Abstract /Outline
A. Mangrove background
- area: 14 to 16 M ha in tropics/subtropics
- threats: conversion to settlements, agri/aquaculture, ports, etc.
B. Mangrove valuation
- various goods and services, e.g., coastal protection, fisheries, etc.
- total valuation:
- fisheries valuation: relative (to other services) vs absolute (food security)
% protein in diet of low-income groups
C. Mangrove-associated fisheries
- by taxa
permanent residents: fish, mollusks, crustaceans, other invertebrates
transients (nursery function): crustaceans, fish
- by fisheries
artisanal/small-scale, including gleaners (= food security of coastal poor)
commercial
- by food group: mainly protein (vs carbohydrates, nutrients)
D. Nursery function of mangroves
- availability of food
- shelter from predation
- complex physical structure (aerial roots, canopy shade, high turbidity, fine sediments)
E. Global food production
terrestrial vs aquatic
wild
marine/b’water
culture
freshwater
(depend on wild seed, fishmeal/oil)
mangroves
seagrass beds
coral reefs
deep-sea
F. Brackishwater Pond Aquaculture
- ecological footprint
- 4:1 mangrove-pond ratio
- Mangrove-Friendly Aquaculture models
G. Mangrove Rehabilitation
- seafront planting vs (abandoned) pond-mangrove reversion
- tenurial status of abandoned ponds
- FLA system
Keywords: mangrove, mangrove-associated fisheries, rehabilitation
*(0
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Stock Enhancement? Why Bother
Jose Ingles
WWF Coral Triangle Program, 64 Mindanao Avenue, Quezon City 1123
* ingles.jose@gmail.com
Abstract
There are two approaches to resource enhancement of depleted wild fish stocks: through stock
enhancement where aquaculture science plays a central role, or through improved management
of fish stocks. This paper presents an argument that despite major advances in stock enhancement
technologies (tagging, genetic mapping, numerical modeling techniques), major hurdles in policy
framework, science and information gaps, risk mitigation protocols and capacity gap remain.
These factors are associated with high and recurring cost that requires medium to long-term
solutions that ultimately, improving management and governance to recover depleted stocks will
still be the best option available.
Keywords: resource enhancement, policy framework, management, governance
*)(
ABSTRACTS OF POSTER
PRESENTATIONS
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Resource Assessment of Sea Cucumber in Northern Iloilo, Central
Philippines
Perry A. Alpasan* and Romy A. Billones
Northern Iloilo Polytechnic State College, Estancia 5017, Iloilo
* rdsnipsc@yahoo.com
A resource assessment of sea cucumber was conducted in six out of eight coastal
towns in northern Iloilo, a fisheries rich area facing the Visayan Sea in the central
Philippines. A yearlong assessment was conducted in 2012. Fishery dependent survey
was done with the use of survey questionnaire translated into dialect. Six trained
enumerators administered the questionnaires to 114 gatherers and 18 local traders.
Fishery independent survey involving Belt Transect Method (BTM) for intertidal areas
and Timed-Search Method (TSM) for subtidal areas were conducted in 21 GPS (Global
Positioning System)-referenced sampling stations. Sample specimens were also collected
and prepared for taxonomic identification. External morphology, internal structures
(dissected samples) and spicule analysis were used in the identification.
Fishery dependent survey showed that gleaning (40%) is the most dominant
extraction method used. Various methods were also employed including the dangerous
compressor diving and the destructive karas, a method using a rake-like device to scrape
the sea bed. In terms of volume, the most heavily exploited sea cucumber belongs to
the Stichopus groups. The trade of sea cucumber is dominated by island-based traders.
Almost half of the traders are women, signifying that trading is a woman’s domain as
well. Derived monthly income from sea cucumber trade ranges from PhP 2,000–3,000 for
gatherers and PhP 2,000–5,000 for the traders.
Fishery independent survey resulted in the identification of six sea cucumber genera
(Bohadschia, Holothuria, Paracaudina, Pseudocholochirus and Stichopus). Of the 32
species found belonging to the six genera, only 16 were identified up to the species level.
Samples of unidentified specimen were sent to the University of the Philippines – Marine
Science Institute (UP MSI) laboratory for molecular taxonomic identification. In terms of
species count, the most dominant genera is the Holothuria with nine identified and seven
unidentified species. H. impatiens is also the most dominant sea cucumber found in the
area. Further, the recorded catch per unit effort (CPUE) for fishery-independent survey is
3–4 pcs/diver/hr.
The resource assessment showed that the trade of sea cucumber is dictated by
economic value rather than by ecological abundance. While the scale and extent of sea
cucumber fishery in northern Iloilo is small-scale and island based, the study highlights
the need for trade regulation and stock enhancement of heavily exploited species as
extraction affects the ecological distribution of sea cucumber stocks in the area.
Keywords: sea cucumber, northern Iloilo, resource assessment, trade regulation
*),
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Optimization of Feeding and Growth Conditions for Hatchery-bred
Larvae of Indigenous Philippine Silver Perch, Leiopotherapon plumbeus
(Perciformes: Terapontidae)
Julie Andrea Añanoa, Frolan Ayab, Mark Nell Corpuzb and Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguiaab*
Department of Biology, De La Salle University, Taft Avenue, Manila
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Binangonan
Freshwater Station, Binangonan, Rizal
* julie_anano@dlsu.ph
a
b
The Philippine silver perch, locally known as ayungin, is an endemic fish species and is
considered as a potential candidate for aquaculture and for stock enhancement. However,
high mortality associated with early larval stages presents a significant bottleneck to
its latent commercialization. Culture experiments considered interactions among prey
proportions, growth conditions and their consequences on fish growth performance and
survival. Two phases of the experiment were conducted: (1) a short duration feeding
trial utilizing different prey proportions of Brachionus calyciflorus and Moina macrocopa
and (2) an indoor larval rearing technique that ensured optimum growth and survival of
juveniles. Findings of this research will be used to propose an efficient rearing strategy
addressing the aquaculture of this indigenous species.
Keywords: Philippine silver perch, larval stages, rearing strategy, indigenous
*).
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Development of a Simple, Rapid, Cost-effective Diagnostic Kit for WSSV
Pocholo Mari T. Arabita*, Amalea Dulcene D. Nicolasoraab, Patrick Ellis Z. God,
Christopher Marlowe A. Caipange and Mary Beth B. Maningasabc
The Graduate School, b Research Center for the Natural Sciences, c Department of Biological Science,
College of Science, d College of Engineering, University of Santo Tomas, España, Manila, Philippines
e
Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
*choloarabit@yahoo.com
a
Shrimp aquaculture is one of the most important sources of income and livelihood
in the Philippines. For the past two decades, the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) has
adversely affected the production of the Philippine shrimp industry resulting to losses
in revenue. Shrimps infected by the virus experience up to 100% mortality, 3 to 10 days
post-infection. One way of controlling the disease is early detection, which remains to
be too complicated and inaccessible to shrimp farmers. Being a DNA virus, the first step
to WSSV diagnosis is the isolation of high-quality DNA suitable for polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) or loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). Using readily available
and affordable reagents, a DNA extraction protocol has been especially developed for rapid
WSSV-detection; DNA has been successfully extracted from the pleopods of shrimps and
the results were comparable with that of commercially available kits from Promega and
Zymoresearch. LAMP has been optimized for WSSV detection in the temperature range of
55°C to 68°C and was shown to be faster and ten times more sensitive than conventional
PCR. This study together with a locally fabricated machine, offers a more convenient,
practical and efficient way of detecting WSSV, with the advantage of using non-invasive
means of obtaining shrimp tissue therefore not losing any shrimp meat in the process.
Keywords: shrimp aquaculture, WSSV diagnosis, LAMP
*)0
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Larval Rearing of Silver Therapon (Leiopotherapon plumbeus) in Outdoor
Tanks
Frolan A. Ayaa*, Vicar Stella N. Nillascaa, Mark Nell C. Corpuza and Luis Maria B. Garciaab
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Binangonan
Freshwater Station, Binangonan, Rizal 1940 Philippines
b
Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101
Philippines
* faya@seafdec.org.ph
a
Silver therapon (Leiopotherapon plumbeus, Kner 1864), locally known as ayungin, is
an important freshwater food fish species found in Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the
Philippines. Its market price is twice that of other most sought after freshwater fishes such
as tilapia and milkfish. However, intense fishing pressure on the species has significantly
reduced the wild stock in Laguna de Bay. Studies to develop hatchery techniques for this
indigenous freshwater fish species are therefore needed to produce seedstock for possible
culture and wild stock rehabilitation.
This study highlights the successful larval rearing of silver therapon in outdoor concrete
tanks. Larvae reared in outdoor tanks with natural food (grown two weeks beforehand)
reached the juvenile stage (40 days after hatching (DAH)), suggesting the presence of some
suitable live food organisms in pre-conditioned rearing water. However, larval survival
rates were low (11.58 ± 6.56% at stocking density of 0.9 larvae l-1), which is probably
linked to the density of food items, particularly during the onset of exogenous feeding or
due to high stocking density of larvae. To improve the availability of natural food for the
larvae, fertilization of the rearing water in the outdoor tanks stocked with larvae at two
densities (0.4 and 0.6 larvae l-1) was performed. Larval growth and survival were improved
at stocking density of 0.4 larvae l-1 than at 0.6 larvae l-1. Diet composition of first-feeding
silver therapon larvae in outdoor tanks inoculated with cultured microalgae (Chorella
sorokiniana) and zooplankton was also determined. Larvae were able to consume rotifers
and some phytoplankton beginning at 2 DAH and larger preys such as cladocerans and
insect larvae starting at 12 DAH.
The efficacy of raising silver therapon larvae in outdoor tanks using ambient lake
water was also evaluated. Larvae reared in ambient lake water grew well but survival
(48.44 ± 7.85%) was significantly improved in treatments where tropical almond or talisay
Terminalia catappa leaves were added during the first two weeks of larval rearing.
Keywords: silver therapon, larval rearing, outdoor tanks
**(
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Preliminary Trials on the Effects of Weaning and Larval Diets on Survival
and Growth of Silver Therapon (Leiopotherapon plumbeus) Larvae
Frolan A. Ayaa*, Vicar Stella N. Nillascaa and Luis Maria B. Garciaab
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Binangonan
Freshwater Station, Binangonan, Rizal 1940 Philippines
b
Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101
Philippines
* faya@seafdec.org.ph
a
Success in larval rearing of silver therapon can be achieved through early weaning of
fish larvae from live food to artificial diet. Two experiments were carried out to investigate
the effects of (a) weaning age (abrupt and gradual) and (b) larval diets (artificial and live
foods) on survival and growth of silver therapon (Leiopotherapon plumbeus). In the first
experiment, larvae were randomly stocked in round 4-l plastic basins at 15 larvae per basin
to provide triplicates of four weaning age treatments (8, 14, 20 and 26 days after hatching
or DAH, respectively). Larvae were fed thrice daily for 21 days with commercial feed (CF)
and with copepods (COP) which served as the control. Larvae weaned at 26 DAH had the
highest survival, body weight and total length among the treatment groups, which were
comparable with that of the control. In the co-feeding protocol, larvae were fed Artemia
nauplii (ART) as the control group and co-fed with either zooplankton i.e. 50% COP + 50%
CF or 50% ART + 50% CF for 8 (8-15 DAH), 6 (14-19 DAH) and 4 (20-23 DAH) days, and
suddenly weaned to FM until 21 days. Survival ranged from 22.2 ± 16.8 to 40.0 ± 24.0%
between treatments, but was still lower than the control (88.9 ± 3.8%). Body weight and
total length were significantly higher in larvae with co-feeding for 4 days (70.1 ± 2.8 mg;
18.1 ± 0.8 mm), but were still lower than that of the control (142.8 ± 7.6 mg; 22.3 ± 0.3
mm).
In the second experiment, 26-day old larvae were stocked in 20-l glass aquaria at
4 larvae l-1. Larval diets ((I) commercial prawn feed (38% crude protein); (II) Artemia
nauplii; (III) copepods; and (IV) free-living nematode Panagrellus redivivus) were given
twice daily for 28 days. Survival was highest in larvae fed Artemia nauplii and poor in
copepod fed larvae. Final total length (TL) of larvae fed prawn diet was higher than those
fed copepod or nematodes. However, best growth was noted in larvae fed Artemia nauplii
(TL= 24.30 ± 0.81 mm; BW = 156 ± 8 mg; specific growth rate or SGR = 5.33 ± 0.19%/d).
Keywords: silver therapon, weaning age, larval diets
***
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
A Preliminary Study on the Diagnosis of Coral Reef Healthiness and
Establishment of Coral Replenishment Technology
Teruo Azumaa*, Jemar Jed Roble Tanb, Jacques Zaratea, Jon Altamiranoa, Joey Gatusb and
Filipina Sottob
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD), Tigbauan
5021, Iloilo, Philippines
b
University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines
* azuma@affrc.go.jp
a
Field surveys for coral reef through line-intercept-transect (LIT) and temperature
profiling using data-loggers were done at three layers of 5, 10, and 15 m depths in coral
reef areas, Nogas Island, Anini-y, Antique, Philippines. Preliminary data based on
the LIT survey showed that both coverages of substrates by any type of organism and
by Scleractinia decreased in the deeper layers. For Scleractinia, Porites sp. occurred
predominantly in all the depth layers with the occurrence decreasing with depth.
Temperature fluctuation was largest in the 5 m depth layer, where effects of tidal level
were also confirmed. While the average temperature decreased with depth, this did not
differ beyond 1°C between 5 and 15 m layers during November 2012 to March 2013.
Fragments of the Porites sp. and Acropora sp. were sampled and transferred to aquaria at
the Tigbauan Main Station of SEAFDEC/AQD. Acropora sp. sampled from the deepest
layer alone showed bleaching and thereafter, a part of the fragments regained the color.
Experimental trials to clarify the effects of ocean acidification and warming on the health
of the coral using the live fragments of Porites sp. showed decreasing trends in both
photosynthetic rates and daily growth rates in acidic condition (pH = 7.6), while decrease
of zooxanthellae density was observed under warmer conditions (31°C ) for one month. A
new methodology for the determination of density of zooxanthellae was established using
the fragments of Porites sp. In this study, the need for studies on several coral communities
as well as further basic research on coral biology, particularly, responses to the changing
environments are discussed for diagnosis of coral reef healthiness and establishment of
effective coral replenishment technology.
Keywords: Porites sp., Acropora sp., coral reef healthiness, coral replenishment
**,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Preliminary Assessment of the Abundance and Fishery of Snapping Shrimp
(Alpheus sp.) in Calape, Bohol, Philippines
Jomel G. Baobao*, Maria Danesa S. Rabia and Ernesto C. Rulida
Bohol Island State University, Calape, Bohol
* jogbaobao@gmail.com
Snapping shrimp Alpheus sp. is abundant in Calape, Bohol, particularly in coastal
areas with a wide intertidal zone, mangroves and rich mud banks. Locally known as
“takla”, it is considered as one of the major seafood delicacies in the municipality. An initial
assessment of the natural population and fishery of the snapping shrimp was conducted.
Using quadrat sampling, mean density was noted at 7 individuals m-2, body weight ranging
from 3.87-12.86 g and total length at 4.78-7.44 cm. The largest individual was identified
as male having larger claws, the size being two times larger than that found in females.
Apart from actual field sampling, a total of 80 shrimp gatherers were surveyed to obtain
relevant fishery information for the snapping shrimp. The snapping shrimp is sold in the
local public market and traded in hotels and seafood restaurants at PhP50.00 bundle-1 (a
bundle averaging 20 pieces) and PhP180.00 a kilo. The current average catch per gatherer is
at 75 pieces on a daily basis which is relatively lower compared to the average catch in the
1980s and 1990s ranging from 150-300 pieces day-1. Destruction of mangrove swamps due
to fishpond conversion, unabated mangrove cutting for commercial firewood production
and unrestricted gathering of snapping shrimps were identified as possible causes for the
decline. These baseline data are essential for the local government and the community
to come up with appropriate protection and conservation measures. An intensive and
comprehensive study on the snapping shrimps ecology and biology also need to be
conducted to provide basis for sound and holistic management of this valuable resource.
Keywords: snapping shrimp, Bohol, initial assessment, management
**.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Modelling the Impact of Different Stress Agents on Holothurian Immunity
Liudmila S. Dolmatova
V.I. Il’ichev Pacific Oceanological Institute, Far-Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences 43
Baltiyskaya Str., Vladivostok, 690041, Russia
dolmatova@poi.dvo.ru
Due to dietetic and pharmacological values of many species of sea cucumbers
(Holothuroidea, Echinodermata), and depletion of their natural resources, the species of
little or no commercial value attract attention as new raw material resource, and methods
of their aquaculture are developed. Both monitoring and supporting the health of animals
in natural and artificial conditions demand the approaches providing reliable markers.
This study compared the influence of two stress agents, namely lead and bacterial toxin
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (ТсТYp), on some of the markers of immune response of the
Far Eastern holothurian Eupentacta fraudatrix. Phagocytes (P2 type) were isolated after
48h treatment of holothurians E. fraudatrix with Pb(NO3)2 (2 and 4 mg/L). In another
experiment, coelomocyte were incubated with ТсТYp (0.2 and 0.5 μg/g) for 18h. Аpoptosis
level and FITC-conjugated concanavalin A (con A) and binding of lectins from Glycin Max
and Dolichos biflorus to P2 surface receptors, and activity of antioxidant enzymes were
measured.
Lead induced an increase in catalase and decreases in superoxide dismutase and
glutathione-S-transferase and glutathione reductase activities at dose of 2 but not 4 mg/L.
2 mg/L lead also increased apoptosis level. Noteworthy, receptors to lectins from G. Max
and D. biflorus were poorly expressed in the control, and significantly expressed under lead
treatment at a dose of 2 but not 4 mg/L (D. biflorus) or decreased at a dose of 2 but not 4
mg/L (G. Max). Binding con A was significant in the control and additionally increased
under treatment with 2, but not 4 mg/L. Meanwhile, ТсТYp also induced reversed
concentration-dependent effect on apoptosis: 48h incubation with 0.5 μg/g decreased
apoptosis, and 0.2 μg/g-increased it. Additionally, 0.2 μg/g ТсТYp decreased binding con
A and D. biflorus lectin. Commercially available catalase restored % lectin binding to the
control level.
Data obtained indicate that lead and ТсТYp differently influenced phagocyte activity,
and complex definition of apoptosis level and activity of antioxidant enzymes. Finally,
variations in expression of cell surface receptors may be useful for estimation of the level of
stress damage to holothurians.
Keywords: sea cucumber, stress agents, immune response
**0
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Growth and Survival of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Juveniles Fed
Diets with Varying Levels of Irradiated Chitosan
Kristine Gonzalesa, Mark Nell Corpuzb and Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguiaab*
Department of Biology, De La Salle University, Taft Avenue, Manila
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department, Binangonan, Rizal, Philippines
* kristinebgonzales@gmail.com
a
b
Chitin is a natural biopolymer and the second most abundant after cellulose.
Chitosan, a derivative of chitin which is soluble in acidic aqueous media, is used in many
applications like food, cosmetics, biomedical and pharmaceutical products. It is used in
agriculture for enhancing growth in crops while in aquaculture, chitosan is believed to
improve the immune response of fish to stress-inducing agents, thus enhancing survival
and possibly growth. This preliminary study was conducted to investigate the effects of
various concentrations of irradiated chitosan on the growth performance of Nile tilapia, O.
niloticus. Fish was fed with a control diet and three formulated diets containing increasing
levels of irradiated chitosan (10g, 20g and 50g kg-1). Juvenile O. niloticus was fed once daily
for 21 days. The ration was based on 5% of the fish biomass. Tilapia fingerlings (n=30 per
tank) of uniform size were randomly distributed in four experimental groups each with
three replicates following a completely randomized design. Growth and food utilization
parameters were measured. Specific growth rate (SGR), mean weight gain (MWG), mean
length increment (MLI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were computed and analyzed
using ANCOVA. Results from the feeding trials showed no significant difference (P>0.05)
in the different performance parameters under the different fish feed treatments. MWG,
MLG, SGR and FCR varied in the stocks fed different fish feed treatments but with no
significant differences. The results also showed 45-62% survival ratio. These suggest that
although there is no significant difference between treatments and control, irradiated
chitosan-supplemented diets do not retard the growth of O. niloticus. Chitosan should be
studied further to determine how it can improve the growth performance, feed utilization
and immune response of Nile tilapia.
Keywords: irradiated chitosan, Nile tilapia, growth performance
*+(
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Perceptions on the Effects of Maritime Activities on the Philippine Aquatic
Ecosystem
Enrique Java*, Teresita Cruz and Isidro Yonggue Hernandez
College of Maritime Education, Research Development and Innovation Center, Our Lady of Fatima
University
* hyper_yke@yahoo.com
Throughout history, humans create an impact on marine ecosystems. May it be
positive or negative, such impact is long-term and shapes the overall image of the system.
As humanity increases its number, so does the impact it creates. Humanity has relied
on the oceans for food, recreation and for various economic opportunities. Overfishing
and pollution affects the life in the seas. Advancements in fishing technology, such as
tracking technologies and better transportation have reduced fish stocks significantly
when matched with non-sustainable practices, such as dredging and trawling. Intentional
dumping from sewages, industrial run-off and chemicals has brought about pollution
in the seas. Though some pollution may be accidental, like oil spills, it still causes
adverse effects to the sea. Excess nutrients coming from fertilizers and intensive farming
practices have resulted to what is known as eutrophications. Lastly, changes in the marine
environment have led to the introduction of invasive alien species and marine organisms,
which are oftentimes difficult to eradicate. Such effects have made researchers rethink of
various ways to maintain marine activities while sustaining its ecosystem.
Through this study, the researchers determined the effects of maritime activities
on the population of aquatic creatures directly from the seafarers, and found out their
perspectives on how to remedy such effects and sustain the marine ecosystem.
This research is descriptive in nature, conducted with 100 purposively selected
seafarers from Manila. The participants were given a questionnaire that asked for
demographics and their perceptions on the effects of maritime activities on the marine
ecosystem and ways to provide solutions to minimize or avoid its negative impacts.
Findings show equal distribution on gender, with majority at the low socioeconomic
level (47%) and are Tagalog in ethnicity (56%). The seafarers believe that the maritime
activities cause harm on aquatic creatures (43%), limits propagation of aquatic species
(36%), makes them prone to mortality (11%) and cause pollution to the atmosphere
(10%). Likewise, their perception of minimizing the consequences lies within the proper
conditioning of ships and running them in good condition (57%), maintaining a clean
place for the marine inhabitants (28%) and creating a good waste-renewal system (15%).
The results of the paper is directed towards proper handling and maintenance of the
shipping industry and strict supervision for waste management.
Keywords: marine ecosystems, maritime activities, waste management
*+*
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Preliminary Trials on the Optimization of Hormone Dosages for Induced
Breeding of Philippine Silver Perch, Leiopotherapon plumbeus
Mark Archei O. Javiera*, Frolan A. Ayab and Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguiaab*
Department of Biology, De La Salle University, Taft Avenue, Manila
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Binangonan, Rizal
* markarcheijavier@gmail.com
a
b
The silver perch Leiopotherapon plumbeus, locally known as ayungin, is an endemic
freshwater fish that is commercially valuable as it commands a high price in the local
market. Due to excessive fishing and other potential causes such as predation by invasive
alien species, the local L. plumbeus stocks are observed to be depleting hence there is
a need for an induced breeding protocol to propagate silver perch and conserve what
remains of the resource. In this study, 30 females (total length or TL: 109.4 ± 12.2 mm;
total body weight or TBW: 20.3 ± 6.1 g) and 60 males (TL: 97.1 ± 11.6 mm; TBW: 13.4
± 5.5 g) were injected once intra-muscularly with different doses of hormones. Various
dosages of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), luteinizing hormone releasing hormone
analog (LHRHa) and salmon gonadotropin releasing hormone (sGnRH) were evaluated to
identify the most effective dosage and hormone that resulted to high ovulation, fertilization
and hatching rate. For the hormone sGnRH, 20, 30 and 40 μg/kg body weight (BW) and
1, 2 and 3 μg/kg BW for LHRHa were the dosages used in the experiment. The dosage
used for HCG is 50 IU/g BW and served as the control. The findings of the experiment
determined that the use of 20 μg/kg body weight of sGnRH resulted to high ovulation,
fertilization and hatching rates. The result of the experiment would provide an efficient
protocol for the local fishermen so they can produce, on demand, a large supply of this high
quality fish species.
Keywords: silver perch, induced breeding protocol
*+,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Distribution and Abundance of Hard Clam Shells Meretrix meretrix Along
the Coastal Areas of Panguil Bay, Lanao del Norte, Philippines
Celestina Q. Jumawan*, Rheino B. Palma and Renalyn O. Sia
National Fisheries Research and Development Institute, Center for Brackishwater Aquaculture Research and
Development, Lala, Lanao del Norte Mindanao, Philippines
* nday2jum@yahoo.com
Meretrix meretrix is believed to be abundant in Panguil Bay and in the absence of
relevant fishery statistics, it is useful to quantify their biomass with a view to determining
their fishery potential. This study aims to monitor the gonadal development, identify the
associated macrofauna and determine the distribution and abundance of hard clam shells
M. meretrix along the coastline of four municipalities of Lanao del Norte at Panguil Bay.
Four sampling sites were selected and established to achieve and relate some generalities
using the transect-quadrat method. Clams were counted, measured and identified. Physicochemical parameters were also noted every sampling. M. meretrix was found to be most
abundant in Raw-an Pt. Baroy (28-542 pcs./m2) followed by Mayao, Lala (0.3-26 pcs/m2).
M. meretrix at Aloha Tubod occurred in low densities (0.1-4 pcs/m2). No hard clam shell
was found in Taguitic, Kapatagan. Mean length differed significantly at the three locations.
The coastal area of Mayao, Lala, had the highest diversity (H’ = 4.236737) in terms of shell
species identified and recorded during the twelve months sampling period. Most of the
shells dissected were sexually immature with male shellfishes being more predominant
than females. Differences in distribution, density and length size of hard clam shells were
compared in this study at four locations. Anthropogenic causes e.g. exploitation as well
as environmental parameters such as salinity levels and sediment quality are suggested to
be the main cause of the variation. These results will be used as baseline information to
properly manage hard clam shell resources in Panguil Bay.
Keywords: abundance, hard clam shell, Panguil Bay, distribution
*+.
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Growth Performance of Brackishwater Enhanced Selected Tilapia (BEST)
Reared in Brackishwater Ponds
Anecito V. Labastida, Celestina Q. Jumawan*, Antonio A. Abogado, Rheino B. Palma and
Jerome J. Sabillo
National Fisheries Research and Development Institute, Center For Brackishwater Aquaculture Research
and Development, Lala, Lanao del Norte, Philippines
* nday2jum@yahoo.com
Tilapia culture contributes greatly to world aquaculture production. Several tilapia
strains have been developed locally and one of these has been developed for brackishwater
aquaculture. BEST or the Brackishwater Enhanced Selected Tilapia was developed by
the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources with the aim of promoting brackishwater
culture of this commodity to further improve tilapia production in the Philippines. This
study will determine the growth performance of BEST reared in organically fertilized
brackishwater ponds at three different stocking densities.
The study was conducted in nine (9) units of 200m2 ponds. Pond preparation was
done following standard procedures that include drying, liming, teaseed application and
fertilization. Stocking was done after twenty days when primary productivity in the ponds
was noted. Three culture systems were used, namely: extensive (Treatment 1 or T1), semiintensive (Treatment 2 or T2) and intensive (Treatment 3 or T3) systems. The study was
conducted for 120 days. Results showed that fish in ponds in treatment T1 had an average
body weight (ABW) of 52.1g, T2 stocks with ABW of 223.1 g and T3 stocks with an ABW
of 214.5 g. Meanwhile, T1 stocks had a survival rate of 91.9% while stocks under T2 and
T3 had survival rates of 80 % and 84% respectively. T1 results showed losses amounting
to P382 since total revenue of P958 is smaller than total cost of P1,340. T2 harvest on the
other hand registered a total revenue of P 10,368 and total cost of P 4,375 hence net return
of P 5,634. T3 also had total revenue of P 21,419 with a total cost of over P 8,498 giving a
net return of P12, 471. T2 showed a return on investment (ROI) of 128% and a payback
period of 0.77 year. T3 had an ROI of 139% and payback period of 0.71 year. Average feed
conversion ratio (FCR) in two runs for two treatments are the same at 1.1 Water parameters
like DO, salinity, temperature; water level and pH were also taken. Water level in the
ponds ranged from 70 to 74 cm, salinity at 6.3-6.9 ppt, DO at 1.5-1.7ppm, temperature at a
constant 29°C, monthly pH ranges were from 7.1 to 8.0 and transparency of 34-47 cm.
Keywords: Brackishwater Enhanced Selected Tilapia, brackishwater ponds, stocking densities
*+0
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
First Record of Laem-Singh Virus in Black Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus
monodon) in the Philippines
Christian Albert M. Cruza, Precious C. dela Cruzb, Paul Christian D. Alcalaa,
Florenz Giovanni M. Taglea, Erickson S. Santosa, Mudjekeewis D. Santosd and
Mary Beth B. Maningasabc*
Department of Biological Sciences College of Science, b The Graduate School, c Molecular Biology and
Biotechnology Laboratory, Research Cluster for Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santos Tomas,
España, 1015, Manila, Philippines
d
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources – National Fisheries Research and Development Institute
* mbmaningas@mnl.ust.edu.ph /marybethmaningas@yahoo.com
a
Laem-Singh Virus (LSNV), a single-stranded RNA virus that causes growth retardation
in Penaeus monodon, is also known as Monodon Slow-Growth Syndrome (MSGS) virus.
Black Tiger shrimps afflicted with this virus exhibit unusual dark color, a weight gain of
less than 0.1 g in 1 to 2 weeks, unusual yellow markings, “bamboo-shaped” abdominal
markings and brittle antennae. It was first detected in Thailand and the virus quickly spread
to neighboring Asian countries such as Malaysia and Singapore. The shrimp economy of
countries where infections have occurred experienced losses in the export of live shrimps
and broodstocks. An earlier study in 2009 reported that LSNV was not present in the
Philippines. However, since no follow-up researches were done in the succeeding years,
this study was conducted to detect the presence of virus in selected sites of Luzon. Results
based on biased sampling method and RT-PCR data indicated that LSNV is indeed present
in the country. This is further supported by DNA sequence data, showing 100% identity
with LSNV India isolate. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the Philippine isolate clustered
closely with other LSNV isolates. The outcome of this study might have implications in the
current practices in the Philippine shrimp aquaculture industry
Keywords: Laem-Singh Virus, growth retardation, tiger shrimp
*,(
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Reproductive Biology of Christian Crabs (Charybdis feriatus, Linnaeus,
1758) in San Miguel Bay, Philippines
Plutomeo M. Nievesa*, Nelson R. Olfindob and Aldrin Mel Macalea
Bicol University Tabaco Campus, Tabaco City, Albay, Philippines
Camarines Norte State University, Marcedes, Camarines Norte, Philippines
* plutz1122@yahoo.com
a
b
The reproductive biology of Charybdis feriatus was investigated from April 2012
to March 2013 to determine gonad maturity, gonado-somatic index (GSI), fecundity,
breeding cycle and size at first maturity. Every month, samples of 30 specimens were
randomly collected. Gravimetric and volumetric methods were used to estimate
fecundity. Results showed that Charybdis feriatus breeds continuously with a distinct
period of reproductive activity during the northeast monsoon. Spawning peaks in January
where higher values of GSI, mature, and berried female crabs were observed. Female
gonad (ovary) weights range from 0.5 to 18.1 grams while mean GSI of female and male
were 7.35% and 6.27%, respectively. Berried females were present year round, the highest
occurring in December (50%). Fecundity ranged from 1,513,660 to 6,357,133 eggs. The
smallest reproductively active female was 8.3 cm. Fecundity was highly correlated with
size (r2=0.92).
In view of these observations, the following options are recommended for crab fishery
resource management: (1) to set a closed season for crab fisheries, (2) to regulate catches
by not taking egg-bearing swimming crabs, and (3) to allow egg-bearing crabs to release
its eggs and the larvae in fishing grounds and/or marine protected areas.
Keywords: reproductive biology, Charybdis feriatus, resource management
*,*
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Shrimp Metabolism: The Roles of Lactate Dehydrogenase (c31), Glycogen
Phosphorylase (c34) and Protein Kinase (PK) as Revealed by RNA
Interference
Maria Violeta R. Tarea*, Hidehiro Kondod, Ikuo Hironod and Mary Beth B. Maningasabc
Graduate School, b Research Center for the Natural Sciences, c Department of Biological Science, College of
Science, University of Santo Tomas, España, Manila, Philippines
d
Laboratory of Genome Science, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Konan 4-5-7, Tokyo
108-8477, Japan
* malet_rieza@yahoo.com
a
Energy metabolism is well-studied in vertebrate systems, providing insights on the
genes and mechanisms involved in different pathways necessary for the survival of an
organism. Yet, such studies are still lacking in invertebrate systems much more in shrimp.
An earlier study has showed several contigs from the black tiger shrimp to be homologous
to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), a devastating pathogen in shrimp, including contig
31-WSSVORF82 (c31) and contig 34-WSSVORF21 (c34). This study aims to unveil the
roles of three genes: c31, c34 and protein kinase (PK) in the shrimp system and its possible
role in WSSV-infection. Rapid amplification of cDNA ends-polymerase chain reaction or
RACE-PCR was used to obtain the full-length sequence of c31 and c34, followed by in vivo
gene silencing using RNAi technology, and intramuscularly injecting dsRNA to WSSVchallenged Macrobrachium rosenbergii and Penaeus (Marsupenaeus) japonicus. Gene
expression followed for healthy shrimps and dsRNA-treated shrimps.
Mrc31 was revealed to be the enzyme lactase dehydrogenase (LDH), commonly
released during tissue damage and is a marker for disease. The most parsimonious tree
pictured Mrc31 to be sister clades to LDH of other shrimp species, Penaeus monodon
and P. vannamei, supported with 100% and 72% bootstrap values, respectively. Mrc34
was highly homologous to the glycogen phosphorylase (GP) enzymes of other organisms
including that of another shrimp, M. japonicus, bearing a bootstrap value of 99%. For
PK, phylogenetic analysis revealed that the three open reading frames (ORFs) from P.
monodon, M. rosenbergii and P. japonicus have 30% homology to WSSV-PK supported by
a 98% bootstrap value. Mortality data from dsRNA-treated and WSSV-infected shrimps
showed that treatment with dsRNA-LDH, GP and PK had significantly higher survival
rates compared to that of the controls, Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) and Green
Fluorescent Protein (GFP). Silencing the three genes in the shrimp has rendered some
protective effect against the virus. Gene expression showed that all three genes are present
in immune-related organs such as the gills, hepatopancreas and hemocyte. This study is
the first to report the possible identities and functions of contigs 31, 34 and PK providing
valuable data on the shrimp’s genome.
Keywords: WSSV, contig 31, contig 34, protein kinase, gene expression
*,,
SUMMARY OF THE WORKSHOP
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
SUMMARY OF THE WORKSHOP
Workshops on the two focal topics: sustainable aquaculture and resource enhancement,
were conducted on the final day of the meeting. Working groups were formed to identify
issues and recommend strategies to address such challenges. Tabulated are summaries of
the discussion outputs from each group:
Aquaculture
Issue
Decreased price of aquaculture
commodities/ increased cost of
production
Recommendation
Shift to high value species
Value adding to low-priced aquaculture commodities
(e.g. adding omega-3 fatty acid)
Identify and prioritize top five high value species to
focus on in the next 5 years
Identify value chain analysis for different species
Enhance quality control
Apply competitive enhancement for aquaculture
products (i.e. quality of products from ASEAN for
export should be competitive with products from
other regions)
Immediately translate/package available
technologies which are ready for application and
commercialization
Use alternative feed ingredients (i.e. alternative to fish
meal and highly digestible ingredients) to reduce
cost of inputs
Apply efficient feeding management
Accumulation of inbreeding in
domesticated stocks; loss of genetic
ability to adapt to climate change
Low technology/lack of technology
Lack of public support/established links
between academe/research institutions/
private sector
Need for more community-based
aquaculture; lack of extension program
and capacity building programs for
small scale fish farmers
Harmonize standards in line with ASEAN integration
Collect relevant existing data; monitor pedigree of
aquaculture stocks; bring in more geneticists
Identify specific technologies that need to be
addressed
Increase public awareness on the importance of
aquaculture
Empower small-scale/small holder farmers to enable
them to apply GAqP
*,0
Summary of the Workshop
Issue
Poor seed quality
Recommendation
Apply genetic traceability of aquaculture stocks
and verifiable certification of seed stocks for
aquaculture
Use molecular markers for genetic tracing and
certification of seeds
Adopt a system in providing certification for genetic
tracing and for stock certification
Establish a system for genetic tracing and data bank for
information on various stocks
Global gene bank for valuable species (international
collaboration)
Regulatory policies to address inbreeding
Provide verifiable information to allow people the
option to choose which stocks to use
Proliferation of invasive species in
inland waters; introduction of exotic
species in relation to disease transfer
Aquaculture competes with from other
alternative uses of land and water
resources; e.g. conversion of areas for
aquaculture converted to other uses
Aquaculture waste management
Dependence on the use of antibiotics
ISO certification to address poor seed quality
Come up with concrete policies/guidelines/regulations
on farming of exotics; strictly enforce/implement
existing policies; also strictly report escapees from
farms
Apply zoning for marine aquaculture areas
Apply polyculture systems
Develop appropriate vaccines; develop disease resistant
strains
Discontinue use of prohibited antibiotics.
Strictly implement GAqP
Use immunostimulants and natural antimicrobials; use
probiotics
*-'
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Stock Enhancement
Issue
No clear understanding of resource
enhancement
Lack or limited technical knowledge of
local government units (LGUs); lack
of consultations with stakeholders or
academe
No comprehensive planning and project
design; project implementation is too
fast
Recommendation
Create core group to establish a common definition/
description of resource enhancement; review the
existing guidelines; establish protocols
Enhance information, education and communication
in local government units through the League of
Municipalities in the Philippines
Identify all groups doing similar work (resource
enhancement) and seek assistance from them
(NGOs, University, Research Institution, National
Agency)
Conduct community consultation before
implementation
Provide emphasis in community/ participatory
research
Careful step by step process of implementation (not
skipping crucial steps)
Project duration is not enough; donorProject transition must be smooth; implementation
driven deadlines; unclear exit strategy of
must be continuous and evolving; Longer project
projects
needed? (e.g. Indonesia coral project with 3 phases,
15 years total)
Political term-dependent projects
Enhance coordination with established institutions
(NGOs, stakeholders, academe, etc.)
Involve other government agencies (BFAR, Coast
Guard, DENR, etc.)
Incomplete baseline assessment; lack of
monitoring mechanisms
Lack of impact assessment
Data collection problem
Include project in Municipal Economic Development
Plan
At least one year of baseline information gathering
before any intervention; scientific information
and indigenous knowledge (experience); social
preparation
More collaboration with agencies in collection of
information
Conduct a follow-up on the same sources of
information (from baseline: scientific and
traditional)
Empower local community to gather reliable
information; wiki-type information entry; logbook
entry
*-(
Summary of the Workshop
Issue
Recommendation
Stock enhancement being done as
Advanced information to LGU/agencies about benefits
political “stunt act” rather than “scienceof projects before implementation
based” fishery management option
Location of projects: use of MPA as
release site
Alternative livelihood and difficulty of
coastal fishers to adapt
Lack of sustainable supply of seed
Seeds (particularly the hatchery-bred
stocks and their potential genetic
impacts when released in the wild)
Seeds (as potential carrier of disease
causing agents)
*-)
Careful selection: carrying capacity evaluation:
complete baseline information
No sudden change from existing norm (i.e. type of
livelihood)
Release bigger juveniles instead of larvae; establish seed
production technology
Use of native/endemic wild broodstocks compared
with bred broodstock
Screening tests; use disease-free stocks; quarantine;
vaccination; regular monitoring
ANNEXES
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Annex 1. WORKSHOP COMMITTEES
Organizing Committee
Chairperson
Vice-Chairperson
: Dr. Teruo Azuma, GOJ-TF Co-Manager
: Dr. Ma. Junemie Hazel Lebata-Ramos, RD Head
Scientific Program Sub-committee
Chairperson
Members
:
:
:
:
Dr. Ma. Junemie Hazel Lebata-Ramos
Dr. Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia, MO Head
Dr. Fe D. Parado-Estepa
Dr. Nerissa D. Salayo
:
:
:
:
Dr. Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia
Dr. Ma. Junemie Hazel Lebata-Ramos
Dr. Fe D. Parado-Estepa
Dr. Shelah Mae Buen-Ursua
Secretariat
Chairperson
Co-Chairperson
Members
Information, Documentation, and Publication Sub-committee
Chairperson
Co-Chairperson
Members
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Dr. Eleonor Tendencia
Dr. Nerissa D. Salayo
Ms. Milagros Castaños
Dr. Fiona Pedroso
Dr. Frolan Aya
Dr. Marie Frances Nievales
Dr. Jacques Zarate
Administration and Finance Sub-committee
Chairperson
Vice-Chairperson
: Ms. Kaylin Corre, AFD Head
: Ms. Jiji Rillo
Food, Accommodation, and Travel Sub-committee
Chairperson
Members
: Dr. Evelyn Grace Ayson, TID Head
: Ms. Richelle Bautista
: Mr. Caryl Vincent Genzola
Physical Arrangement, Security, Tour and Transport Sub-committee
Chairperson
Vice-Chairperson
: Mr. Stephen Alayon
: Mr. Norwell Brian Bautista
*-,
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Annex 2. DIRECTORY OF PARTICIPANTS
SEAFDEC SECRETARIAT
Mr. Hajime Kawamura
Deputy Secretary General
CANADA
Dr. Roger Doyle
Genetic Computation Ltd.
JAPAN
Dr. Hitoshi Araki
LAO PDR
Mr. Thongkhoune Khonglaliane
Aquaculture Development Center
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
Department of Livestock and Fisheries
Mr. Xiapasong Meuansittida
Aquaculture Development Center
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
Department of Livestock and Fisheries
MALAYSIA
Mrs. Aishah Yusoff
Research Faculty of Agriculture
Hokkaido University
Department of Fisheries
Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based
Industry Malaysia
Dr. Koichi Okuzawa
Dr. Maripaz Perez
National Research Institute of Aquaculture
Fisheries Research Agency
Dr. Tsuyoshi Sugita
Japan International Research Center for
Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)
Dr. Satoshi Watanabe
Japan International Research Center for
Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)
CAMBODIA
Mr. Ouch Lang
Department of Aquaculture Development of
Fisheries Administration
INDONESIA
Mr. Setiawan Soetardjo
Directorate General of Aquaculture - MMAF of
Indonesia
Mr. Dian Sukmawan
Directorate General of Aquaculture - MMAF of
Indonesia
WorldFish
MYANMAR
Mr. Sone Mine
Department of Fisheries
Dr. Htun Thein
Department of Fisheries
RUSSIA
Dr. Liudmila Dolmatova
Pacific Oceanological Institute
SINGAPORE
Levy Loreto Manalac
United States Soybean Export Council (USSEC)
Singapore Representative Office
Dr. Chin Heng Neo
Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore
SUDAN
Dr. Asaad Mohamed
Sudan University of Science and Technology
*-.
Directory of Participants
THAILAND
Dr. Prapat Kosawatpat
PrachuapKhiri Khan Coastal Fisheries Research
and Development Bureau
Mr. Guntaphat Pokasasipun
PrachuapKhiri Khan Coastal Fisheries Research
and Development Bureau
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Dr. Raul Suarez
University of California
VIET NAM
Mrs. Nguyen Thi Bang Tam
Department of Aquaculture
Directorate of Fisheries
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
of Viet Nam
PHILIPPINES
Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries
Standards (BAFS)
Matubang, Mark
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources (BFAR)
Ame, Evelyn BFAR 2
Bartolome, Virginia BFAR 4A
Bugadan, Belmor BFAR RFO1
Coma, Ma. Charito BFAR RO3
Dieta, Florida BFAR National
Brackishwater Aquaculture
Technology Center
Galang, Amanda BFAR RFO 1
Genito, Michael BFAR Negros
Occidental
Hablo, Roed Shane BFAR 6
Lachica, Remely BFAR 1
Lopez, Nelson BFAR Chief, Marine
Aquaculture Division
*-/
Nillo, Gloria BFAR Regional Fishermen’s
Training Center
Pascua, Quirino BFAR Regional
Fishermen’s Training Center
Rica, Jenete BFAR RO3
Rueca, Lilian BFAR RO3
Sajo, Marian Jill BFAR 6
Salas, Jonathan BFAR 3
Signey, Lilibeth BFAR CAR
Yamoyam, Honorio BFAR CAR
Coastal and Marine Resources
Management in the Coral Triangle
Southeast Asia Primex
Morales, Guillermo
Coastguard Auxiliary – San Joaquin,
Iloilo
Hyens, Gert
DENR-PENRO, Guimaras
Doyola, Tommy
Feedmix Specialist, Inc.
Dagarat, John Ervin
Pascual, Ernesto, Jr.
Ramos, Evangeline Guillerma
Toledo, Joebert
Finfish Hatcheries, Inc.
Bocaya, Rene
National Fisheries Research and
Development Institute (NFRDI)
Jumawan, Celestina
Labastida, Anecito
Muyot, Frederick
Salamida, Jimmy
Santos, Francisco
Philippine Association of Crab
Processors, Inc.
Batatin, Felma
Montoya, Haydee Ann
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
PRIMEX, ADB-RETA 7813
Roldan, Raul
RDEX Foods International Phils., Inc.
Dechoson, Ma. Monette
Rivera, Roger
Salvador, Joe Evan
Suganob, Francis
San Miguel Foods, Inc.
Vallesteros, Mike
SANTEH Feeds Corporation
Cabrera, Danial
Chua, Gundelina
Rico, Ma. Patricia
Tinambunan, Lovela
SANTEH FOUNDATION
Yap, Wilfredo
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department,
(SEAFDEC/AQD)
Acosta, Belen
Agbayani, Renato
Alava, Veronica
Alayon, Stephen
Altamirano, Jon
Amar, Edgar
Antolino, Edgar Vincent
Aralar, Maria Lourdes
Aya, Frolan
Ayson, Evelyn Grace
Ayson, Felix
Azuma, Teruo
Bagarinao, Teodora
Bantillo, Nanette
Baticados, Didi
Bautista, Norwell Brian
Bautista, Richelle
Bejemino, Churchill
Bilbao, Angela Denise
Biñas, Joseph
Buen-Ursua, Shelah Mae
Cabanilla, Irene
Castaños, Milagros
Castel, Raisa Joy
Catacutan, Mae
Catedral, Demy
Cedeles, Remaylyn
Coloso, Relicardo
Coniza, Eliseo
Corpuz, Mar Nell
Corre, Kaylin G.
De Pili, Julius Manuel
Dela Cruz, Joesyl Marie
De la Peña, Leobert
Dumaran, Haydee Rose
Estepa, Fe Dolores P.
Faisan, Joseph
Garibay, Janelli
Genzola, Caryl Vincent M.
Huervana, Joana Joy
Ladja, Jocelyn
Lebata-Ramos, Ma. Junemie
Ledesma, Rossea
Ludevese-Pascual, Gladys
Mamauag, Roger
Nillasca, Vicar Stella
Noran, Roselyn
Novilla, Schedar Rose
Pakingking, Rolando Jr.
Palma, Peter
Quinitio, Emilia
Rillo, Jiji J.
Romana-Eguia, Ma. Rowena
Salayo, Nerissa D.
Santander-Avanceña, Sheryll
Silvestre, Jenalyn
Subaldo, Ronilo
Suyo, Jee Grace
Tendencia, Eleonor
Tendencia, Isidro
Teruel, Myrna
Valera, Jessebel
Zarate, Jacques
*-0
Directory of Participants
Universities and Colleges
Aklan State University (ASU-CFMS)
Dela Cruz, Elaine
Martinez, Jake
Bataan Peninsula State University
Flores, Rudy
Guinto, Dennis
Bicol University Tabaco Campus
Macare, Aldrin Mel
Nieves, Plutomeo
Bohol Island State University – Calape
Baobao, Jomel
Davao Del Norte State College
Andam, Michael
Saligan, Rosario
De La Salle University (DLSU)
Añano, Julie Andrea
Gonzales, Kristine
Javier, Mark Archei
Iloilo State College of Fisheries (ISCOF)
Garcia, Melanie
Palla, Suzette
Marinduque State College
Dela Cruz, Paloma
Mandia, Evangeline
Mindanao State University (MSU)
Castillo, Tersa
Romero, Filemon
Northern Iloilo Polytechnic State College
(NIPC)
Alaban, Leovigildo Rey
Our Lady of Fatima University
Bordaje, Eliza
Cruz, Teresita
*.'
Palawan State University
Dangan-Galon, Floredel
Southern Philippines Agri-Business
and Marine and Aquatic School of
Technology
Llameg, Marlyn
University of Eastern Philippines
Gabona, Saula
Vista, Evelyn
University of San Carlos
Hermosilla, Joeppette
University of Santo Tomas
Arabit, Pocholo Mari
Arizo, Mary Ann
Maningas, Mary Beth
Tare, Maria Violeta
University of the Philippines, Diliman
(UPD)
Basiao, Zubaida
University of the Philippines, Los Baños
Garcia, Yolanda
University of the Philippines in the
Visayas (UPV)
Amar, Mary Jane
Nievales, Marie Frances
Western Philippines University
Gonzales, Benjamin
WWF Coral Triangle Program
Ingles, Jose
Zoological Society of London
Primavera, Jurgenne
PROCEEDINGS | International Workshop on Resource Enhancement and Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014
Local Government Units
General Santos City – City Agriculturist
Office
Damalerio-Cequiña, Diosdado
Exhibitors
Nanu, Miven Equip, Inc.
Vallesteros, Mike San Miguel Foods, Inc.
Venturina, Mary Ann Equip Inc.
Roxas City - Office of the Provincial
Agriculturist
Dela Cruz, Joey
*.(